{"1": {"fulltext": "9~S5\\nS/\\nW 4^\\nQ\\nB56", "height": "3026", "width": "2221", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\nChap. Copyright No.\\nShelf.\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.\\n_IL", "height": "2913", "width": "2270", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\\nin 2011 with funding from\\nThe Library of Congress\\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/naturalsystemoftOObead", "height": "2905", "width": "2213", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2977", "width": "2229", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2949", "width": "2227", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2903", "width": "2301", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "THE\\nNATURAL SYSTEM\\nOF TEACHING\\nGEOGRAPHY\\nW. H. H. BEADLE, A.M.,\\nPres. Madison State Normal School of South Dakota\\nAND\\nA. F. BARTLETT, A.M.\\nt\\nCHICAGO:\\nA. FLANAGAN, Publisher.\\no", "height": "2945", "width": "2240", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "itO\\nro\\nSECOND COPY,\\n46592\\nCopyright 1899\\nBY\\nA. FLANAGAN.\\nTWO COPIES RECEIVED.\\ndc^.\\nb\\nt)", "height": "2977", "width": "2245", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "TO THE TEACHER.\\nThe central idea and aim of the system taught in this book is to impress upon the pupil s\\nmind -A picture of the icorld, defiiiitc and clear. This is accomplished through the learning of maps,\\nnot by looking at them and finding answers to printed questions, but by the repeated drawing of\\nthem; first the easier continental forms, but mainly by repeatedly drawing a// of them z\u00c2\u00ab the hemis-\\nphere, and successively adding mountains, rivers, gulfs, bays, lakes, islands, cities, boundary lines\\nof countries and smaller details. The work is continued until the pupil is able readily to draw\\nfrom memory the map of either hemisphere, on a7ty scale, and to locate correctly all facts and\\nplaces of importance, and to enter in place the names of the products, the character of the people s\\ncivilization and the names of the persons especially distinguished in each country. In addition\\nthe pupil is to be trained to take any particular country or state, his own especially, and magnify\\nits map by a larger scale and fill it with greater detail. He is also to be trained to draw cross\\nsections of continents and countries and give with each the principal elevations and indicate the\\ngreat valleys, plains, slopes and plateaus, also the lakes with their surface elevations and depths,\\nusing the sea level as the datum line for all.\\nWhen the astronomer photographs a section of the starry sky and his instrument is directed\\nsteadily by clock-work upon it, the sensitive plate will first show the brightest stars, then\\nthose of lower and lower magnitude, until finally it will picture remote stars and nebulae which\\nare hardly visible to the eye through the best telescope. Whether the brightest or the smallest,\\nall these will be printed in the right relation to one another. So the child begins with the simpler\\nand easier continental forms, as separate objects to be drawn (perhaps by the aid of card-forms\\nmade for him, as a part of his form work or drawing). Then with the hemisphere maps he\\nadds steadily the facts and places, with their names, until he has a mental picture of the earth s\\nsurface with all the features before mentioned, and all in approximately correct relations of area,\\ndirection and distance. He will thus learn geography more fully and correctly and in briefer time\\nthan is otherwise possible. Then correlation of history and other subjects with geographj becomes\\neasy. As he studies the relations of man and nature, about history and literature, campaigns and\\ndiscoveries, or reads the current events of the world, his mental picture, always rising for his use,\\nlocates the facts instantly, correctly and naturally. His interest is quickened in all other subjects.\\nHe has a basis for sound general intelligence; for history, literature and all the developments and\\nchanges, politically and socially, that make the progress of the world of such increasing interest.\\nThe system and the book are planned primarily for the successive grades and classes of our\\npublic schools, but the skilled teacher easily adapts them to the needs of normal school and\\nacademy classes when the whole subject of geography is taken up anew and completed in a half\\nyear. After the introductory work upon mathematical geography the hemisphere is drawn with\\nthe simpler continental forms. Then daily, upon paper and the black-board, the work goes on in\\nmapping along with the subject matter .study. As all the time saved from memorizing map\\nquestions is given to the hemisphere map drawing the whole work is accomplished much more\\nthoroughly and completely in the same time as has been shown every half year since the introduc-\\ntion of the system. Where the metliod is first introduced a like course is u.seful with the higher\\nclasses or grades in the public schools. It is practical and time-saving under every reasonable\\ncondition.\\nW. H. H. B.", "height": "3002", "width": "2214", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "4. The economy of time and energy: The pupil not only acquires more in much shorter\\ntime and easier, but retains most of what he learns, instead of forgetting most of it, as is usually\\nthe case.\\n5. The increasing interest which the pupil takes in the study. The constant develop-\\nment and growth of the world-picture in his hand fascinate him, and geography becomes the\\nmost popular study.\\nThis method is not to be confounded with map drawing as usually understood. The aim\\nhere is to secure a ivorld-picture, and not that of an isolated continent or country.\\nIn introducing any new method it has been found generally that explanations and directions\\nto the teacher alone, however full and explicit, will not insure success. It is especially true of\\nthis system. The work must be definitely mapped out and graded/or the pupil, as well as for the\\nteacher, and the pupil must have before him correct models from which to copy his maps.\\nIt has, therefore, been the aim of the authors and the publishers to put this book in substan-\\ntial and economical form, so that it maj be placed in the hands of pupils as well as teachers, and\\nbe used in conjunction with and not in place, of the regular text-book in geography.\\nThe teacher is often tempted when presenting or using this method for the first time, to try\\nshort cuts and better ways than those suggested, with the great risk of wasting valuable\\ntime, and not unlikely ending in confusion and partial failure. Let us, therefore, caution all to\\nfollow the instructions exactly as given. When the system has been mastered, excellent results\\nwill be secured certainly and quickly. Only then, if at all, may it be safe to experiment.\\nThe outline of work for each grade has been given in full, and is, in the main, quite in har-\\nmony with the most advanced thought and best methods of today. In addition to this, and to\\nguard against every possibility of failure, instructions to teachers have been inserted throughout\\nthe book, where there seemed to be any need of it, even at the risk of being charged with much\\nrepetition.\\nSome supplementary matter, treating subjects of interest, and usually more fully than is\\ndone in the common texts, is appended, without much reference to logical sequence or complete-\\nness in number of topics, which may serve as supplementary reading for the pupils as well as\\nlessons for studj The articles, A Trip to Greenland, by the eminent scientist and author.\\nProfessor G. F. Wright, and A View of Europe, by Fanny E. Coe, the author of those admir-\\nable readers, Our American Neighbors and Modern Europe, were written especially for\\nthis book, and well illustrate the authors idea of one of the best methods of giving children\\nvivid impressions of other lands, climates, products, people, etc. The teacher should try to give\\nclear, living pictures of other regions and countries by similar means. Pupils may be encour-\\naged to read articles of like character found in books and magazines on The Hot Regions,\\nThe Islands of the Sea, stories about the United States, South America, Asia, Africa, etc.\\nA list of books suitable for such supplementary reading and adapted to the different grades, also\\na list of books for reference and instruction of teachers are given. These are not exhaustive, as\\nexcellent works of this character are constantly appearing.\\nThe chapter on Commerce- will prove useful to advanced pupils for reference and study, as it\\ncontains much valuable and interesting information in regard to important products not readily\\nfound elsewhere.\\nOur grateful acknowledgments are due the many teachers who have aided in the work by\\ntheir suggestions and criticisms, and especially to Sanford Niles and Professor G. F. Wright for\\nvaluable assistance.\\nW. H. H. B.\\nA. F. B.", "height": "2977", "width": "2270", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "PREFACE.\\nThis book is intended as a supplement to the regular text-book in geographj and not in any\\nsense as a substitute for it.\\nThe system of teaching geography here presented is not a theory merely, but a practical\\nmethod, every detail of which has been carefully worked out and tested in the school room. The\\nidea was first suggested to the authors by the generally unsatisfactory results secured from teach-\\ning the subject in the usual way, and which were only partially remedied by the many improved\\ntexts that were issued. The time and energy expended by both teacher and pupil seemed to\\nthem to be out of reasonable proportion to the results secured. Of the great mass of matter\\nstudied but little was retained, and there was always more or less confusion in the mind of the\\npupil in regard to those prime essentials of geographical knowledge, form, comparative size,\\ndrainage, relative position, climate, products, etc.\\nIn the words of that experienced and able critic, Sanford Niles, who fully investigated the\\nsystem in the school room:\\nIt [the system], is based upon the truth of the following propositions:\\n1 The foundation essentials of geographical knowledge, as form, position, comparative\\nsize, relation, are best acquired from a map, and, however learned, are always remembered by\\nmeans of a mental map-picture.\\n2. This mental picture is rendered more definite and permanent by use of the hand in\\nforming it.\\n3. Bj^ copying a picture until it can be reproduced readily in absence of the original, a\\nmass of details as to form, size, and relation of parts is mechanically acquired that would be abso-\\nlutely beyond the power of the memory to retain, or even gra.sp from description alone. The\\nmemory is thus actually reUeved of burden.\\n4. Correct notions of the parts in relation to themselves and the whole can only be\\nobtained from a view of the whole. The picture should be drawn as a whole, to give correct\\nnotions of relations of parts.\\nThe fact that the first primary child, soon after entering school, writes sentences in script\\nwithout knowing a letter, suggested that drawing simple outHne maps is not beyond the capabil-\\nity of children of the lower grades. The chief object of the method is to get a picture of the world, as\\nshozvn by the hemisphere maps, indelibly impressed on the mind of the pupil. This is accomplished\\nby requiring him to draw outline maps of the hemispheres, adding details gradually and in order\\nof importance. Care is taken to draw all maps of separate countries on the same projection, so\\nthey will fit in the hemisphere, and on the same scale where two or more maps are drawn at the\\nsame time. Thus, correct notions of form, size, etc., are always kept before the mind of the pupil.\\nAll this is done according to a natural order of sequence. Each step is fully developed and\\nmade clear to the pupil as taken up. The simple outline maps gradually grow in excellence -and\\ncompleteness under his hand, while his imagination, guided by definite knowledge, builds them\\ninto a great and beautiful world, teeming with animal and vegetable life all contributing to the\\nwelfare of man.\\nX- it -X-\\nSome of the points which especially commend it are:\\n1. The definite mental picture it gives of the world as a whole, and its parfs in their true\\nrelations an end we strive in vain to reach by usual methods.\\n2. The saving to the. memory which this picture gives, and the opportunity it furnishes for\\nexercising the powers of reason and imagination. The world-picture springs into the mind with-\\nout efifort. The child sees the picture, and thinks the relatio?is. It enables him to journey about\\nthe world with ease and delight.\\n3. The superior results, both in quality and quantity, as may be inferred from the preceding.\\n*In N. Y. School Juurnal of June 11, IS9S.)", "height": "2977", "width": "2270", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nInstruction to Teachers and Outline of Work\\nStory of the Earth\\nSome Things to Learn and Remember\\nMaps and Map Drawing of the Continents and Hemispheres\\nDirections for Drawing the Continents and Hemispheres by Diagram\\nHighlands and Lowlands of the Earth\\nRelief Maps\\nHow to Draw Parallels of Latitude and Meridians of Longitude for every\\nten Degrees\\nHow TO Draw a Map of the United States by Diagram\\nMethods of Finding Distances between Places on Maps\\nHow TO Find the Scale of any Map\\nLongitude and Time\\nHow to Find the Latitude and Longitude of a\\nStandard Time\\nMercator Charts and how to Draw them\\nLife and Products of the Earth\\nThe Seasons, Solstices and Equinoxes\\nThe Zones with their Products\\nClimate\\nThe Races of Men\\nThe Tropic and Polar Circles\\nHow to Learn about the Sun s Journey\\nThe Atmosphere, Trade Winds, etc.\\nVapor, Dew, Rain and Snow\\nGlaciers and Icebergs\\nThe Ocean the Great Storehouse of Water\\nThe Effect of the Ocean on Climate\\nThe Gulf Stream and Japan Current\\nClimatic Zones\\nAltitude and Latitude Compared\\nThe Mariner s Compass and Magnetic Poles\\nThe International Date Line\\nForests\\nA Trip to Greenland\\nA View of Europe\\nCommerce, Great Articles of Commerce, etc.\\nPlace on\\nTHE\\nEarth\\nPAGB.\\n5\\n22\\n24\\n26-44\\n44-51\\n56\\n59\\n60\\n61\\n63\\n65\\n65\\n65\\n66\\n66\\n69\\n70\\n71\\n73\\n74\\n74\\n77\\n78\\n82\\n83\\n83\\n84\\n84\\n85\\n86\\n86\\n87\\n88\\n89\\n97\\n107", "height": "2968", "width": "2270", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "INSTRUCTIONS TO TEACHERS,\\nAND OUTLINE OF WORK.\\nBefore attempting to give instruction in geography according to this method,\\neven in the lowest grades, the teacher should make herself familiar with the whole\\nsystem, and especially by practice with the map drawing. She should read care-\\nfully and understandingly the outline of work so as to get a clear notion of the\\nphilosophy and plan. Much study outside of the text-book is necessary for the best\\nwork, especially in thfe higher grades. Geography is the broadest study taught in\\nour schools, and is one of the most useful. It should be the most interesting to\\npupils. In order to make it so the teacher must be thoroughly interested in it her-\\nself and full of the subject. She should read as many books bearing on geography\\nas possible, so as to have a stock of stories and interesting and useful matter to\\ndraw from as occasion requires. The black-board and crayon should be freely used\\nin illustrating things talked about. Every lesson should be carefully planned and\\nprepared by the teacher in advance.\\nNo other branch offers such an opportunity for Nature Study and Language\\nWork. Much should be made of it.\\nThis book is intended to give a method of teaching geography and supplement\\nthe regular text-book in geography not to take the place of it.\\nFor the guide of the teacher, the work for the first few years is mapped out\\nsomewhat in detail.\\nFIRST AND SECOND YEARS.\\nRelative Position as Expressed by the Terms, Over, Under, Above, Be-\\nlow, In, On, Upon, Before, Between, Behind, Front, Back,\\nUp, Down, Rigkt, Left, Center, Corner,\\nMiddle, Etc.\\nPlace objects and have pupils imitate; place, and have pupils describe position;\\ndictate, and have pupils place; place several objects, remove, and have pupils\\nreplace from memory.\\nDirection of Places from Self and from One Another.\\nBegin with directions in the school room; then, at convenient times, walk with\\nthe class on the school grounds, asking questions like the following:\\n(5)", "height": "2977", "width": "2233", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "6 NATURAIv SYSTEM OF\\nWhat direction are we from the school house What direction is the school\\nhouse from us? What direction is the bird flying? Which way are we going\\nWhicli way does the weather vane point? Is this an east-and-west, or a north-and-\\nsouth. road? From which way does the wind come? In what direction does the\\nbrook flow?\\nPlants and Animals Language Work.\\nTeach the pupils to distinguish the colors of flowers, fruit, foliage, etc.; to\\nname plants that grow in the house, in the garden, in cultivated fields; to name\\ntrees and shrubs that grow in yards and orchards; and a few of the common trees\\nof the forest. Talk with pupils about the homes of ants, of bees, of hornets, of\\nwasps and of other insects; creatures that burrow in the earth, such as the mole,\\nthe woodchuck and the gopher; of the partridge and the way he drums. Have the\\npupils tell where the common birds build their nests; how they feed their young;\\nwhat food they eat; etc. Talk about the squirrels that live in the trees, the dog,\\nthe cow, the sheep, and other domestic animals, how they serve man, and above all,\\ntell or read stories of animals, breathing a spirit of kindness toward all our friends\\nin feathers and furs. Encourage pupils to talk about these things, and language\\nwill be made to go hand in hand with geography.\\nStories About People in Far-Off Lands.\\nTell or read stories of the people of other lands the Eskimo, the Arab of the\\ndesert, the Negroes of Africa, the Nomads of Central Asia; the homes they live in;\\ntheir clothes; their food; what they do; the animals they use.\\nThe friends of many of the children once lived in lands beyond the sea. Have\\nchildren tell what they have heard about these lands and about journeys across\\nthe sea.\\nDifferent Modes of Traveling.\\nRelate stories about caravans crossing the great deserts; of reindeer and sledges\\nspeeding over the snow; of dogs drawing their masters on fields of ice; of mule\\ntrains slowly climbing the narrow mountain paths; of trappers and hunters pad-\\ndling along lonely streams. Use pictures at every step.\\nThe Air or Atmosphere.\\nTell pupils that air is all around, over land and water; that plants and auimals\\nand people would die without it; that the tiny drops of water in the clothes hung\\nout to dry, in the moist earth, in puddles, etc., are all the time being taken up into\\nthe air; that clouds are but moisture or tiny water drops, gathered and floating\\nhigh in the air. The air rushes into the stove and it roars. We say the stove\\ndraws. The air is rushing and roaring out of doors. We sa}^ the wind is blowing.\\nThe air is in motion.", "height": "2905", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 7\\nThe Sun, Moon and Stars\\nAre all far, far away from the earth. The sun gives us light and heat. We\\ncould not live without it. There could be neither plants nor animals without light\\nand warmth from the sun.\\nDays ok the Week, Months of the Year, Seasons.\\nDistance as Expressed by the Indefinite Terms, Near, F.\\\\r, Nearer, Farther, etc.; .and by the\\nDefinite Terms, Inch, Foot, Yard, Rod, and Mile.\\nHave pupils point out objects that are near, nearer, farther, etc. Provide a\\nfoot rule, a yard stick, a pole or string one rod long, and show pupils how to use\\nthem, by measuring the length, the width and the height of a few prominent\\nobjects. Have pupils hold their hands one foot apart; stand one yard apart; stand\\none rod apart; etc. Point out objects one mile away. Tell how far it is to the\\nchurch, the mill.\\nMap and Form Work.\\nThe last part of second year, pupils ma^ profitably trace, as part of busy work,\\nfrom cardboard forms, outlines of South America, North America, and, later, of\\nAfrica and Australia. These cardboard forms should be on the same scale, accu-\\nate, and taken up in the order named. Correct names should always be given.\\nPupils should be finally encouraged to draw the outlines by just looking at the\\nforms and occasionally from memory.\\nTHIRD YEAR.\\nOccupations of People All About Us and Far Away.\\nPupils should be encouraged to visit farms, market-gardens, shops, mills, quar-\\nries, mines, foundries and factories in company with parents or older brothers or\\nsisters, in order to gain clear ideas, of the different occupations by which men live.\\nTalk about these occupations and the things we buy at the store, the grocery, the\\nlumber yard, etc., and lead children to tell what people in the other parts of the\\nworld must be doing.\\nCommerce or Tr.\\\\de.\\nAsk pupils to name the things their parents raise or make to send abroad.\\nWhat things do we receive from people far away What things do we send to\\npeople over the sea What things come to us from over the sea? How do we\\nsend what we have to sell? How are things brought to us (Transportation.)", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "8 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nForms of Land and Water.\\nMost pupils have seen and are already familiar with the common forms of\\nland and water, and they also know their names. They should now learn the\\nparts of the hill and mountain base, slopes, summit, peak; the parts of the\\nstream source, channel, right bank, left bank, mouth; the parts of the shore or\\ncoast cape, promontory, peninsula, isthmus, etc.; and other geographical terms.\\nThe streams formed by melting snow or summer showers form opportunities\\nfor many valuable lessons. The rill itself is a river in miniature; the tinier\\nstreams flowing into it are its tributaries; the pools from which some of the stream-\\nlets flow, are lakes, with inlets, outlets, bays, or gulfs. There are rapids and cata-\\nracts, with stretches of still, navigable water for the boy s little boat, and there is\\nan estuary opening into a large pool which will do fairly well for a sea. The rill\\nwith its tributaries represents a river system.\\nThe slope down which the rill flows, is a watershed; the land drained by the\\nrill is its valley. Islands are seen here and there. In places where the ground is\\nhard and the slope steep, the rill has cut deep into the soil, forming narrow valleys,\\ngorges or canons; and where the ground is soft or sandy and the slope gentle, it\\nhas formed a wide valley. There are shoals, bars, and alluvial plains formed of\\nblack earth, sand and gravel brought down by the rushing waters. The shores of\\nthe tiny lakes have their capes, their promontories and their peninsulas. Notice\\nhow the rapid little stream carries down straws, sticks, and even pebbles, under-\\nmines the homes of the beetle and other small animals, and sweeps them along\\nwith it, just as the larger floods carry great logs, roll large boulders, and destroy\\nthe homes of men.\\nThe streams formed by the summer showers also show in a striking manner\\nhow the surface of the earth is being changed by the action of running water.\\nRight before our eyes hills are being worn down, valleys furrowed out, plains\\nextended, islands formed, coast lines changed, and deltas built up. In places, lay-\\ners of soil, of clay, of sand, of gravel or hard-pan are exposed, and we get a glimpse\\nof the structure of the earth near its surface.\\nIn our rambles with the children by the banks of these tiny brooks, we observe\\nthat the seeds of the trees, of plants sown in the fields or gardens, of grasses and\\nnoxious weeds, are swept along by the flood and left here and there on the lands\\nbelow. Later in the season we see miniature groves, patches of grain, grass or\\nweeds, as the result of this sowing a wonderful lesson of wide application on the\\ndistribution of plants.\\nMaps and Map Reading.\\nPupils should be now given a clear idea of a map and how to read it. Begin\\nwith a plan or map of the school room, indicating the position of the desks, etc.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 9\\nNext represent the school yard; a country road with farmhouses, groves, gardens,\\nand fields on either side. Teach pupils to draw to a scale to different scales, com-\\nmencing with the school room. Locate prominent objects in the neighborhood of\\nthe school house, give their direction and approximate distances from the school\\nand from one another. Then draw a map of the neighborhood and require pupils\\nlo state direction, position, etc., from that. Finally draw a map of the count}-,\\nwhen of convenient form. This map should be quite complete, representing\\nstreams, bodies of water, hills or mountains, and some of the principal common\\nroads, railroads and towns. In their own language, pupils should state where\\nobjects are- situated (relative position), direction, approximate distances, etc.; slopes,\\nas determined by hills and streams.\\nThe Earth as a Ball or Sphere.\\nAs an introduction The Story of the Earth may be read to pupils by the\\nteacher, first as a whole and then taken up in sections from day to day and each\\npoint explained and made clear. After this the pupils should be required to read\\nthe story themselves in class and tell about it in their own language, and write\\nabout it.\\nGive children an idea of the earth as a ball, like the moon, only very much\\nlarger; or like Venus, which is another earth, but so far away that it appears very\\nsmall. Speak of the surface of the earth as composed of land and water. Using a\\nglobe, point out and name the great bodies of land and water; show pupils where\\nthey live.\\nTo give an idea of the great size of the earth, imagine a railroad track to be\\nlaid around it over the land and over the water. The earth is so large, it would\\ntake a train fifty days, or more than seven weeks, to run around it at the rate of\\nfive hundred miles a day. The earth appears flat to us because we see so small a\\npart of it at once. A fly on an open umbrella would see so little of its surface that\\nthe umbrella might seem to it as flat as the top of a table.\\nTake journeys around the globe, and have pupils tell whether they are cross-\\ning land or water. Show that one comes back to the place of starting by going\\nalways in the same direction. With a string have pupils measure the distance\\naround the globe (circumference). Have them think of the distance from surface\\nto surface through the center of the globe (diameter). Rotate the globe and give\\nidea of axis, and of the poles or ends of the axis. Locate the equator midway\\nbetween the poles.\\nKeep in mind the idea that the artificial globe represents the form of the\\nearth; that the map on its surface represents the real land and water of the earth\\non which we live, just as the maps they have drawn represent things all about us.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "10 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nHold the globe in the sunlight and lead pupils to see that one-half of its sur-\\nface is always touched by the sun s rays; that the opposite half is in the shade.\\nTell them that the lighted side of the globe has day, and the shaded side night.\\nThen have them state whether it is day or night where they live. Slowly rotate\\nthe globe from west over to the east, and have them tell when North America has\\nday, Avhen night, leading them to see that the succession of day and night is caused\\nby the rotation of the earth about its axis.\\nOne pupil may represent the sun while another pupil carries the globe round\\nhim, rotating it all the time. The time of one rotation of the globe will represent\\nthe length of the day; the time of one journey around the sun (revolution) will\\nrepresent the length of the year.\\nUsing the globe, show where the hot, cold, temperate regions of the earth are,\\nand require pupils to find out the names of some of the animals and plants found\\nin them. Talk of the different people and races of the earth, and how they live.\\nLater have the pupils indicate the homes of the different races on their maps.\\nHave pupils learn the names of the capital of their own state and two or three\\nother important towns, as well as two or three of the leading occupations of the\\npeople.\\nThe simplest language of the text book, the plainest speech of the teacher,,\\ncannot be understood unless the types of the things spoken of are already in the\\nmind of the child.\\nFor this reason we begin with local geography. One s own neighborhood is a\\npart of the earth s surface. The hill near the school is the type of the unseen\\nmountain; the brook where the children play, a type of the river; the pond, a type\\nof the great lakes or of the sea; the little plain or the prairie near at hand, a type\\nof the vast llanos, pampas, or steppes in far-off lands, and so on through the whole\\nlist of natural features and of other things right about us.\\nTo be really successful the teacher herself must have clear mental pictures\\nmust see what she desires her class to see. She must make frequent appeals to\\nthe imagination, always active in childhood, aiding its flight by the use of pictures\\nand familiar types of things. To give pupils an idea of a mountain she must make\\nthe hill many times larger- broaden its base, make its summit pierce the low\\nclouds, place on it a cap of snow, clothe its rocky slopes with trees growing smaller\\nand smaller and changing in kind with the elevation.\\nA sand pit or a dusty road, extended farther than one can see in all directions,,\\nmay serve as a desert; put in the desert a spring with a few palm trees, and 3^ou\\nhave an oasis.\\nThe pond is a small lake; if spread out to the right, to the left and in front\\nto the horizon, it will resemble a large lake or the ocean itself.", "height": "2904", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 11\\nThe brook is a miniature river; make it wide and deep and long, and pupils\\nwill have an idea of a river.\\nA little ravine between the hills, magnified greatly, becomes a valley between\\nmountain ranges.\\nThe warm weather, vegetation and fruit of summer suggest the tropics, and\\nthe snow and ice of winter with the long nights and absence of vegetable life repre-\\nsent well the regions of cold. When teaching geography to beginners bring the\\nhuge trees of the Pacific states right before the class. Have a circle drawn to rep-\\nresent their diameter. Think of a tree as lying on the ground and extending\\nacross the school lot and far into the neighboring field; of the prone trunk as being\\nhigher than two school rooms, one above the other; of a plank cut from it as being\\nwider than the school room.\\nThink of the Niagara river above the falls as being as broad as the distance\\nfrom the school house to a certain object; of the mass of water as leaping over a\\nprecipice four times as high as the tall tree in the yard, or three times as high as\\nthe spire of the church.\\nThus assist the imagination of the pupil to get vivid conceptions of things\\nunseen.\\nMap Drawing.\\nThe pupil should be required from the beginning of this year to draw a map\\neach day, first copying it from the cardboard form, then from the outline maps\\ngiven in this book, and in the order given, and finally from memory. The mem-\\nory map should be corrected immediately by comparison with the original. The\\npurpose is to get the fonn fixed in the mind as early as possible. South America\\nis simplest to draw and is therefore taken up first, then North America. After\\nfair proficiency has been acquired in drawing these they should be put in a circle\\nor hemisphere, and afterwards always drawn in that wa}-.\\nIt is neither necessary nor desirable that special proficiency be attained in\\ndrawing one map before another is taken up. A single map may be drawn on any\\nscale, but when maps of two or .more grand divisions are drawn at the same time,\\nas of North America and South America, care should be taken to have them on\\nthe same scale. Europe-Asia, or Burasia, is very complicated in form, and, there-\\nfore, a map of it is best drawn in the hemisphere, though it may be traced from\\nthe card form first with profit.\\nA few of the principal mountains, rivers and cities should be represented on\\nthese maps as indicated. Some useful and interesting facts (given to pupils in this\\ngrade by the teacher) should be associated with each of these features as they are\\nput on the map.\\nThe pupil should not put North America and South America in a circle, or", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "12 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\ndraw a map of the Western Hemisptiere, until after lie lias taken up the globe as a\\nwhole and has a clear idea of what hemisphere means, the Western Hemisphere of\\nthe earth, and a map of the Western Hemisphere (all of which will be made plain\\nby reference to illustrations and maps in this book.)\\nThe Eastern Hemisphere should be next taken up in the same way. The\\nEquator and Central Meridian should be put in all circles before map is drawn.\\nFOURTH YEAR.\\nThe work indicated for the third year may be profitably continued and ex-\\npanded in the fourth year.\\nThe child should be brought into contact with nature as much as possible.\\nThis is of great importance.\\nForms of land and water, such as hills, valleys, plains, islands, lakes, ponds,\\nbrooks and brook basins, springs, bays, etc., should be studied carefully from nature\\nwhere practicable. Next to this, or in connection with it, pictures of these features\\nshould be freely used. The sand moulding board may be used with profit to rep-\\nresent the comparative size and relation of physical features, not to give original\\nconcepts of them. It should not be used to represent large sections of country.\\nExcursion to the Hills.\\nSingly, or in groups, pupils may visit the neighboring hills for a definite pur-\\npose, accompanied by the teacher when possible. The following may prove sug-\\ngestive: Things to be found out. Do the hills form chains, or ranges, or are they\\nscattered irregularl}^? Are there table lands or plateaus Do any of the hills\\nhave peaks? Are there streams flowing from opposite sides of the hills? Why\\ndo the streams flow in different directions? Which are the warmer slopes? Which\\nare the dryer? Which slopes, if any, are wooded? Are there varieties of trees and\\nshrubs growing on the hills that are not found in the valleys? Do the hills con-\\ntain stone suitable for quarrying? Is there clay for brick-making, or sand for\\nplastering? Are there metals of value? Is the land on slopes best suited to stock-\\nraising, or grain growing Are there farm houses sheltered by the hills\\nOther excursions may be planned for the purpose of studying physical features,\\nplant or animal life. Visits to waterfalls, or to wild gorges, to grand forests, to\\nmuseums, may be made profitable.\\nThe work of out-door observation may be carried forward in ways which will\\nsuggest themselves to the teacher who knows all the circumstances. The follow-\\ning plan may prove suggestive:", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 1^\\n1. Once a month (or oftener) after school, or on Saturday, the teacher may go\\nwith her classes for field work, alwaj^s having a definite purpose in mind.\\n2. The older pupils may be sent out in small groups with chosen leaders,\\neach group having work unlike that of other groups.\\n3. Individuals may be selected to make special observations, each member of\\nthe class having something to do.\\nOut-door observations should be followed by in-door conversations about things\\nobserved. Observations of pupils should be compared and corrected, interesting\\nadditional facts presented, the results of lessons given in definite form and made a\\npart of geographical knowledge. The older pupils should give oral or written re-\\nports of what they have observed.\\nPictures from papers and magazines, and from other sources, will be found\\nmost valuable in giving true conceptions of mountains and other natural scenery,\\nand should be used liberally. Things learned in the lower grades should be made\\nthe basis of all future work constantly added to, but never lost sight of. Indeed,\\nthis is the valuable feature of this system, constantly progressive.\\nMinerals.\\nSoils. Claj^, loam, sand and gravel.\\nRocks. Limestone, sandstone, granite, quartz, flint.\\nMetals. Iron, lead, copper, tin, gold, silver.\\nCoal. What it is, uses of different varieties.\\nPupils may be asked to join in making a collection of minerals, including specimens of clays,\\nsands, gravel, rocks, metals, etc. The best specimens from the large number sure to be brought\\nin, should be labeled and arranged on shelves in the schoolroom. The soils may be placed in glass\\nbottles or in small open boxes. The uses to which the different minerals are put should be a\\nmatter of observation and report.\\nCall the attention of pupils to the crumbling sandstone, to the slowly wasting\\nlimestone, to the loosened crystals on the boulders, to the washing of banks of claj^,\\nto the drifting of sand, showing the agency of frost, of water and wind in forming\\nsoils or wastes and in changing the aspect of the earth s surface.\\nPL.A.NTS.\\nCommon trees and their nses.\\nCommon plants nsed/or/ood, clothing., medicine., etc.\\nThe plants ctiltivated for their food, fiber, oil; the wild plants valued for their\\nfruit, their flowers or medicinal qualities; the plants which beautify our homes,\\nand the chief forest trees and shrubs should be known by their common names if\\nby no other.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "14 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nTalk about and make lists of plants that grow in the house, in the garden, in\\nthe field; of plants that are grown for their roots, their tops, their seeds, their fruit,\\ntheir fragrance; that grow in the forest, in the open land, in the water; that creep,\\nthat climb, that come from other parts of the earth; talk of evergreen trees; of\\ndeciduous trees.\\nPupils will take pleasure in forming a cabinet of woods. Let them bring a specimen of wood\\nfrom every kind of tree and shrub growing in the vicinity, cut in sections of uniform length;\\nvarnish, label and arrange on shelves. Besides the names of the wood write on each section what\\nthe wood is used for chiefly.\\nWith little labor the seeds of many varieties of plants may be gathered, put in small glass\\nbottles, labeled and arranged on shelves.\\nWatch the opening of buds in spring, the season of blooming; and the changing\\nfoliage of autumn.\\nThe distribution of seeds over the earth by natural means may be made the\\nsubject of profitable conversation, the dandelion, the soft maple, the cottonwood,\\nthe burdock, the famed Russian thistle and other plants in their season, furnishing\\nseeds worth talking about.\\nTalk about the things found in a grocery store. Where and how they were\\nproduced and how they came to us. Where convenient have objects brought be-\\nfore the class when discussed.\\nSome Wild Animals.\\nThe especially useful animals beasts, birds, fish, insects should be made the\\nsubject of out-door study. Learn their habits, how they serve us, our duty towards\\nthem.\\nFind out the following: animals that live on land, in the water, in the air;\\nthat make their homes in the earth, build their nests on the ground, in trees; that\\nlive in the woods, in open land, that live on seeds, on insects or flesh; that fly, that\\nswim, that leap, that hop, that run; that live here all the year, that go away in\\nautumn and return in spring; that live in warm lands, in cold lands.\\nStudy the language of the hen, the dog, the cat, the horse, the cow. Have\\npupils tell the meaning of some of the sounds made by animals. Notice the dif-\\nferent kinds of feet and teeth animals have and how they use them. Observe\\ntheir means of defense and of escape from danger; how they are protected from the\\ncold.\\nThe Weather A Simple Weather Record.\\nIs the weather cold moderate? warm? damp? dry? calm?\\nMap Drawing, Etc.\\nAll map drawing up to the last of the fourth or first of the fifth year should\\nbe free hand. After that, pupil should learn to use diagrams or construction lines.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 15\\nThe thought is not to confine or limit the pupil to just the things indicated in\\nthe text-book or on the map, but that he shall make note of and locate on his map\\nevery place that may be brought to his attention, through reading, language work\\nor conversation, and that these places become thereafter a part of his geographical\\nvocabulary, to be added to his list of things known. Teachers and pupils should\\nmake such supplementary lists to be passed on to the upper grades with the class.\\nAs soon as the map of the Western Hemisphere is drawn by pupils, they\\nshould be required to locate especially prominent places in the United States (which\\nshould be marked off early). Such places should be far more numerous than those\\nin other countries. Something of the products of one s own state, a few of the\\nprincipal towns, bodies of water, etc., should be learned from a state map, and the\\nposition of this state should be indicated (not drawn) on the hemisphere map. No\\nstate map should be drawn at this stage, as it is very necessary to keep thoroughly\\nin mind the comparative size of all countries.\\nSome idea of the size or extent of any countr) such as North America or the\\nUnited States, may be given in the following manner: Take two places (one\\nof which is the home of the pupil) on the hemisphere map whose distance apart is\\nabout one hundred miles, and which is known to many of the pupils from experi-\\nence in riding over it. Point these places out on the map. Determine by ques-\\ntions how long a time is required to go from one place to the other on the cars, on\\nfoot; and then, how much longer it would take to go the greater distance, across\\nthe country in different directions, using the first distance as a basis of com-\\nparison.\\nIn this connection, it maj be said that lengths, widths, depths and areas are of such para-\\nmount importance to the student of geography that we should have both boys and girls determine\\ndistances by careful measurements. Find the length, width and height of the school-room. On\\nthe floor draw a circle eight or ten feet in diameter. In the yard set stakes fifty feet apart; one\\nhundred feet apart. Measure to some tree, post, rock or other object just one hundred feet from\\nthe school building; set a stake one thousand feet away. Find the height of the tree in the yard;\\nthe height of the school-house; the width of the road or street. Fix on two objects, houses for\\ninstance, that are a mile apart; ou a grove, a village or a dwelling that is four or five miles from\\nthe school (if in sight, all the better). Select a tract of land (one or more farms) containing one\\nsquare mile; call attention to the fact that a Congressional township contains thirtj -six square\\nmiles is six miles square.\\nThese measurements are always before the pupils, and should be used at every step to aid\\nthe imagination. When not so used, the tall trees, the broad streams, the deep canons, the tower-\\ning peaks, the grand cataracts told of in the text-book are but little things, and geography a dull\\nand meaningless study. Lay these measurements across the rivers, rear them beside the cliffs,\\nlet them down into the sea; take imaginary journeys up the mountain steeps on the backs of\\nmules, cross deserts with the caravan, the ocean in steamships, the continent on trains, and geog-\\nraphy will have a meaning, an interest it never had before.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "16 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nMaps should be drawn on black-boards as well as at seats. Careless work\\nshould not be accepted.\\nBy constant comparison and allusions lead pupils to understand that their\\nflat maps represent a country diversified by hills, plains, mountains, valleys, lakes\\nand rivers, such as they saw on their trip over the country.\\nThere should be no attempt at this stage to make relief or sand maps of any\\ncountry or section of country. The relief of such maps must of necessity be\\ngrossly exaggerated and misleading. This work will come in due time and as a\\nnatural consequence after the great fact of contour, mountain, plateau, river, low\\nplain and desert have been located and learned. There should be much oral drill\\nin giving the directions of places from homes of pupils and from other places. The\\npupils should, of course, first have a mental picture of the position of all these\\nplaces on the map. Position and direction of places must not be learned in any\\nother way. The pupil needs practice, however, in oral expression of all that he\\nknows and expresses in other ways.\\nA variety of devices may be used to secure attention and interest. Pupils can\\nmake journeys to distant points, giving the direction they would take and naming\\nall the lands or waters they would pass or go over on the way. Or they might\\nsuffer an imaginary shipwreck and be cast upon some island or cape, and be required\\nto name two routes home, with directions, land and water passed over, as before.\\nQuestions should be brought before the school for consideration. The follow-\\ning might be written on the board to be answered on a Friday afternoon, others\\nfollowing from time to time:\\n1. Have the rain clouds any connection with the springs?\\n2. Why is the soil of the valleys usually richer than the soil of the hills?\\n3. Where the soil of the valley is very sandy, what kind of rock may often\\nbe found along the borders of the valley\\n4. Were the valleys always as wide and deep as we now see them?\\n5. How were the pebbles in the knolls and along the beach rounded and so\\nsmoothly polished?\\nSuch questions awaken thought, especially when ample time is given to find\\nout. The teacher herself should be able to give clear answers whenever her pupils\\nfail. The interest will then be great.\\nPupils should be encouraged for well-doing in map drawing, and judiciousl}\\ncorrected for faults. Only one or two corrections should be made at a time, the\\nmost important. But these should be insisted upon. Aim to secure greater and\\ngreater accuracy each day. The purpose in map drawing is to fix in the mind the\\nform and size of all continents, islands, bodies of water, etc., with their relations.\\nIf diagrams or such devices are resorted to too early, the main thing, the form", "height": "2877", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 17\\nitself; will be lost sight of in the effort to remember how the map should be drawn.\\nThe devices will be remembered for a time, but at the sacrifice of form. Devices\\nare used to secure greater accuracy of form, and to give the mind a definite basis\\nfor criticism after the form has become fairly well fixed, and should alwa3 s be sub-\\nordinate to the form itself\\nMap drawing is not an end^ but a means, a?td should be so used. Great accuracy\\nis not essential to the end sought general form, comparative size, relation still\\nit has value and gives satisfaction to the teacher and pupil, and is worth all the\\nextra pains required to secure it. Map drawing shonld be freehand up to about\\nthe fifth grade, as already stated.\\nThe coast line is first drawn in even and continuous outline, and la.ter broken\\nas represented.\\nPupils should cop3 from the model maps frequently, sometimes tracing them\\n(for a change) on thin paper, and drawing them from memory as tests. An excel-\\nlent exercise is to have pupils cut out paper forms of continents and the large\\nislands and place them on a cardboard disk in proper position.\\nXoTE. The diagrams given in this book are the result of much study, and they have been care-\\nfully tested in the school room. They are both simple and logical. Only natural relations have\\nbeen sought. All diagram lines are derived from a common unit, the distance across South\\nAmericaon the equator. As few lines as possible are given. Coast lines should be learned from\\nmaps. The diagrams should be used as given, without modification. Pupils who have little idea\\nof form will find diagrams a great help, and all pupils will draw maps more quickly and accurately\\nI v means of them.\\nFIFTH YEAR.\\nDuring this year the plants and animals of the different zones should be\\ntaken up more thoroughly and in greater detail than heretofore, and especially the\\nprincipal food and clothing plants. The pupil should be encouraged to look for\\nthis fuller information in his geography and other books to which he maj^ have\\naccess.\\nHave the ptipil take frequent imaginary journeys to different parts of the\\nearth, describing the climate, lands and waters, scenery, people and products along\\nthe route.\\nPupils shoitld now learn to draw their maps hy diagrams or construction lines\\nand discuss proportions.\\nPhysical or relief maps should be drawn and cross sections of any cotmtry\\nmade; the separate countries marked off and the lines of latitude and longitude iu-\\ndirated.", "height": "2877", "width": "2156", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "18 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nSIXTH AND SEVENTH YEARS.\\nIn the Sixth and Seventh years the work should be enlarged. Enter into\\ngreater detail of elevation, slope, climate and other physical conditions, and pro-\\nducts and peoples of the different countries of the earth.\\nMaps of the separate countries should be enlarged from the hemisphere maps\\nand such details as desired put in and studied. Drawing the United States in de-\\ntail (marking off the separate states) should be left till about the 6th year, though\\nit may be studied from a text-book quite fully before this.\\nGENERAL REMARKS.\\nThis scheme or limit of work is given simply to suggest what may be accom-\\nplished in a given time. Those schools having more time to give to the study\\ncan readily and profitably expand and enrich the work. It should be remembered\\nthat the text-book contains the essentials only of the study. There is a broad field\\noutside, simply hinted at, which the progressive teacher will draw from continually\\nand encourage her pupils to do likewise. All should become investigators.\\nAll facts as to products, people, or country that may incidentally and legiti-\\nmately come before the pupil, should be associated with their particular region on\\nhis map in addition to all that the book contains.\\nAfter pupils have become proficient in map drawing by using diagrams, these\\nshould be gradually disused, carrying them in the mind only for comparison and\\ncriticism. The fortn should be dominant.\\nPictures, of which there is an abundant supply, should be made use of in\\nillustrating diiTerent features of the work, such as scenery, cities, people, occupa-\\ntions, modes of living and conveyance, etc. These and striking facts should be\\nused to fix characteristic and great historical events at the same time with location.\\nBooks of reference, travel, exploration, biography, of information on important\\narticles and of customs of people, and descriptions of countries should be used.\\nPupils can do much of this reading outside of school and make reports of it to the\\nclass. Copies of such books should be kept on the teacher s desk, where the pupils\\ncan have free access to them.\\nPractice in map drawing should not be neglected.\\nAfter the hemisphere maps are once drawn, the\\\\^ should be drawn as often as\\ntwice a week, and in the fifth and sixth years as often as once in two weeks as re-\\nview, indicating all features learned. By using initial letter of geographical\\nfeatures, much time and space can be saved. This work should be repeated", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 19\\noccasionally during the remainder of the grammar and high school course. It will\\nprove a highl}- useful adjunct to the study of history, physical geograph}- and\\nliterature.\\nCompasses should be used in the upper grades for describing circles; in the lower\\ngrades disks of cardboard may be used.\\nCare should be exercised to have hemisphere circles of same size when drawn\\ntogether, whether on blackboard or on slates or paper.\\nThe maps used as models to copy from should be as perfect as possible and\\nconstructed on the same pro] rctioji.\\nA map of any grand division or country should be modeled after the forms\\nused in the hemisphere, though it may exaggerate some of the features. This\\nexaggeration cannot be overcome entirely by any gystem of map drawing on flat\\nsurfaces. All countries are on the surface of a spliere, and can only be truthfully\\nrepresented on a sphere, but this is impracticable for common purposes. The mar-\\ngin of the map is especially exaggerated, but to attempt to modify or change this\\nin tlie child s mind, will onl}^ lead to confusion, and the loss of the great end sought,\\nnamely: position, comparative size, relation, which far outweight in value all these\\ndefects.\\nNo two maps of the same country though drawn on the same scale will agree\\nunless drawn on the same projection. The distance between any two places on a\\nfiat map cannot be exactly found in miles though the latitude and longitude may\\nbe. The central portions of the hemisphere map are nearly correct but constantly\\nexaggerate from center to margin, where the exaggeration amounts to more than\\none half.\\n(The exact amount oi exaggeration can be determined by comparing the cen-\\ntral meridian with half the circumference of the hemisphere. The central meridian,\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094half the circumference and all intermediate meridians of the flat map, repre-\\nsent corresponding meridians of the half globe or sphere, on which all these lines\\nare equal. On the flat hemisphere map the central meridian becomes the diameter\\nof a circle, of which the outer meridian is half the circumference. This is about\\nfifty-seven-one-hundredths longer than the central meridian, and is the amount of\\nexaggeration at margin.)\\nThe latitude and longitude of all places are correct.\\nIn estimating distances between places in miles, allowance can be made for\\nthis exaggeration near edge of map.\\nWhenever a country or section of country is to be treated in detail, and a large\\nview of it is desirable, the grand division containing the country (properly marked\\noft j should be represented first and then the country itself should be drawn on large\\nscale, or magnified, from that.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "20\\nNATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nLater, in tiie advance work in geography, the pupil should be required to con-\\nstruct a map on the Mercator projection, and to give other views of the earth on the\\nprojection he has used in his hemisphere maps. This latter can be accomplished\\nby first drawing hemisphere maps in customary way, indicating the latitude and\\nlongitude of all points. Then, with any other meridian desired as a central mer-\\nidian of the new hemisphere to be drawn, construct the parallels and meridians,\\ncarefully marking the latitude and longitude of each point the same as in the other\\nmap. Connect these points by proper coast lines. This work must of necessity\\nbe slow. It tends to confuse the picture already in the pupil s mind and for this\\nreason should not be employed except as an exercise and towards the last work in\\ngeography, when forms have been firmly fixed.\\nThe following lists of books for teachers and pupils contain a few of the many\\ngood books which should be read in connection with the study of geography.\\nBOOKS FOR TEACHERS.\\nEssay on Humboldt Aggassiz.\\nEife of Ritter Gage.\\nComparative Geography Ritter.\\nGeographical Studies Ritter.\\nEarth and Man Guyot.\\nThe Earth Reclus.\\nThe Oceans Reclus.\\nThe History of a Mountain Reclus.\\nLessons in the New Geography Trotter.\\nTeaching of Geography Geikie.\\nMethods and Aids in Geography King.\\nPhysiography Huxley.\\nPhysical Geography of the Sea Maury.\\nFirst Book of Geology Shaler.\\nThe Story of our Country Shaler.\\nGeography of the Oceans Williams.\\nThe Earth as Modified by Human\\nAction Marsh.\\nThe Ocean World Figuier.\\nElementary Lessons in Physical\\nGeography. Geikie.\\nMathematical Geography Jackson.\\nAstronomical Geography Jackson.\\nFormation of Vegetable Mould. Darwin.\\nBOOKS OF REFERENCE.\\nAll of the Cyclopaedias.\\nStanford s Compendium of Geography and\\nTravel. (6 vols.)\\nBrown s Countries of the World. (6 vols.)\\nBrown s Peoples of the World. (6 vols.)\\nPhysical, Historical and Descrip-\\ntive Geography Johnson.\\nCosmos. Humboldt.\\nThe Earth and its Inhabitants. Reclus.\\nThe Natural History of Man. .Pritchard.\\nThe Dawn of History KearJ^\\nPhysical Geographies of Guyot, Maury, Apple-\\nton, Warren, Houston, Hinman.\\nForms of Water Tyndall.\\nDepths of the Sea Thompson.\\nThe Ice Age in North America. Wright.\\nSketches of Creation Winchell.\\nLe Conte s Geology\\nGeography of River Systems. .Lawson.\\nPopular Astronomy Newcomb.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\n21\\nBOOKS FOR PUPILS.\\nThird and Fourth Grades.\\nSeven Little Sisters Andrews.\\nEach and All Andrews.\\nLittle Lucy s Wonderful Globe. Yonge.\\nLittle Folks of Other Lands.\\nChildren of all Nations.\\nAunt Martha s Corner Cupboard Kirby.\\nSea and Sky Blackinton.\\nChildren s Fairy Geography. .Winslow.\\nThe Rollo Books Abbott.\\nMadam How and Lady Why. Kingsley.\\nWorld at the Fireside Kirby.\\nLittle Folks in Feather and Fur. Miller.\\nLife and Her Children Buckley.\\nTen Boys of Long Ago Andrews.\\nNatural History Readers Wood.\\nGeorgie s Menagerie.\\nMy Feathered Friends Wood.\\nHans Brinker Dodge.\\nHome Geography Long.\\nFifth and Sixth Grades.\\nOur American Neighbors Coe.\\nModern Europe Coe.\\nZigzag Journeys Butterworth.\\nOur Boys in India French.\\nOur Boys in China French.\\nBoy Traveller Series Knox.\\nLittle People of Asia Miller.\\nYoung Folks Abroad McCabe.\\nYoung Folks in Africa McCabe.\\nLife in the North Schwatka.\\nOrient Boys Keene.\\nUp the Tapajos Ellis.\\nLost in the Wilds Ellis.\\nTwo Years Before the Mast Dana.\\nScribner s Geographical Reader.\\nKnockabout Club in the Tropics Stephens.\\nAt Last Kingsley.\\nAlaska s Great River Schwatka.\\nThe Bodleys Abroad Scudder.\\nHomes Without Hands Wood.\\nStories of Australia, India, China, Northern\\nEurope and England.\\nStories of Industry Vols. 1, 2.\\nArticles in Readers and Magazines.\\nSixth ai^d Seventh Grades.\\nThe preceding list with the following additions:\\nHumboldt s Travels.\\nWhat Darwin Saw.\\nThe Pampas and the Andes Bishop.\\nThe Wanderers in Trinidad and\\nup the Orinoco. Kingston.\\nFlorence Stories Abbott.\\nHolland and its Peoples De Amicis.\\nSunny Spain Patch.\\nThe Land of the Midnight Sun.Du Chaillu.\\nThe Abode of Snow .Wilson.\\nThe Roof of the World Gordon.\\nLand of the White Elephant Vincent.\\nTent Life in Siberia Kennan.\\nSailing on the Nile Laporte.\\nAmong the Huts in Egypt Whately.\\nIn the Wilds of Africa Livingston.\\nLost in the Jungle Du Chaillu.\\nCentral and South Africa Taylor.\\nHow I Found Livingston Stanley.\\nJourney Across Australia Mortimer.\\nOcean Wonders Damon.\\nOpen Polar Sea Hayes.\\nThe World of Ice Ballantyne.\\nThe Last Days of Pompeii. Bulwer.\\nAcross Asia on a Bicycle.\\nGeneral History.\\nLiterature.\\nMagazine Articles.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "THE STORY OF THE EARTH.\\nI.\\nIn olden times people believed that the earth was flat, and, if one traveled far\\nenough in any direction, he would finally come to its end or edge; but, as time\\nwent on and men made longer and longer journeys from home without seeming to\\ncome any nearer to the end, some began to think that the earth could not be flat\\nafter all, but round like a globe or ball.\\nAmong those who held this view was a sailor named Columbus. He felt\\nso sure about it that he was quite willing to sail out on the great ocean far away\\nfrom land, and by going wcsi^ try to reach the Indies a country so rich in precious\\nstones, spices and fine fabrics that the chief nations of Europe at that time sought\\nits trade.\\nThe journey to that country was a very long one, requiring many months. It\\nwas made partly by water and partly by land. The land part of the journey was\\nby caravans, and, as all goods had to be carried on the backs of animals, it was\\nvery slow, tedious and costly; besides, the people along the way finally became very\\nhostile and gave much trouble.\\nAll believed it would be much better if the whole journey could be made by\\nwater, and articles of trade carried in ships, even if the distance were much greater.\\nSo, many efforts were made to find a water route to the Indies.\\nThe Indies lay far to the east^ and no one thought of reaching that country by\\ngoing in the opposite direction, or laest^ as Columbus proposed to do.\\nColumbus reasoned that, if the earth was round, any place on its surface which\\ncould be reached in one direction could also be reached by going in the opposite\\ndirection. Take an apple, or ball or a globe and see if this is true.\\nIn those days many people believed the ocean was full of frightful monsters\\nthat would devour men and ships if they ventured too far, and no one dared sail\\nmuch out sight of land.\\nIt seemed to them that Columbus was foolish to attempt such things, and they\\ncalled him crazy. They said if the earth was really round, as he claimed, he could\\nnot get back up the great hill of water when he had once sailed over it, and so he\\nwould never be seen again.\\nColumbus persisted in his undertaking, however, as you all know, and made a\\nfamous voyage. He sailed farther from home than any one had ever done before,\\nand came to a country which he thought was the Indies, and, as he had gone west\\nto find it, called it the West Indies.\\n(22)", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 23\\nIt was afterward found that he had not reached the Indies, but had discovered\\nan entirely new country, and it was called the NEW or WESTERN WORLD.\\nAfter this, most people believed that the earth was round, and one brave navi-\\ngator, Magellan, thought he would sail around it, and started out to do so. He died\\non the way, but his crew and ships made the great journey after sailing in the same\\ngeneral direction for three long years.\\nII.\\nSince the time of Columbus people have visited nearly all parts of the earth\\nfor purposes of trade or discovery, and have told of the many interesting things\\nthey have seen and found on sea and land. Some people have written books telling\\nof their journeys and discoveries. From them we learn that a vast ocean covers\\nmost of the earth and surrounds all the land.\\nWere we standing on the wharf of a great seaport like New York, we could see\\ncoming in and going out ships from all parts of the world, with different flags, and\\nwith crews speaking different languages.\\nSome of the sailors on these ships have visited countries where it is always\\nsummer, and they could tell us of the beautiful birds and flowers and of many\\nfine fruits, such as oranges, bananas, and dates, which grow there, as well as of\\nsome very strange plants, such as the bread-fruit tree and the cow tree, from which\\npeople get bread and milk.\\nOthers have visited regions where it is always winter, with the ground covered\\nwith snow and ice, so that no tree or any green thing, save moss and a few other\\nsmall plants, can grow; where the people dress in furs and live in houses made of\\nice, and where the nights are sometimes many months long.\\nOthers still could tell of places where rain falls most of the time, and all vege-\\ntation grows in the greatest luxuriance; of forests covering vast regions, and so\\ndense that one could not walk through them; and then again of other places where\\nrain never falls, barren wastes of sand and dust which one may journey over for\\ndays without finding water, or seeing a blade of grass or anything green.\\nOthers could tell of tracts of land without mountains or hills, great plains ex-\\ntending in all directions, some just barren wastes, others covered with grass, and\\nstill others with dense forests; of mountains so lofty they appear to reach the skies,\\nwith tops snow-covered all the year round and often wrapped in clouds; and of other\\nmountains which throw out fire and vapor in such quantities as in some cases to\\ndestroy and bury whole villages; of islands in the ocean which have been made by\\nthese fire mountains, or volcanoes; and of other islands, beautiful with trees and\\nflowers, built by little animals of the sea, called coral-polyp.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "24 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nThey could tell of many strange and interesting animals of sea and land; of\\npeople of the cold north, and of the warm and sunny south; of men who live in\\ncaves and huts and fight with bows and arrov/s; and of men who build beautiful\\ncities and send ships to trade with all the world.\\nThey could show us that most of our choicest fruits, nuts, spices, and fine\\nfabrics for clothing come from lands far away over the sea. Indeed, the sailors un-\\nload these very products from their ships as we wait and they take on the products\\nof our own country in exchange.\\nWe shall be interested to know more of all these things, of this wonderful\\nearth, our home; of its surface of land and water; of its animals and plants; and of\\nits people, where and how they live, and all about them.\\nThe study that tells us about these things is called Geography.\\nSome Things to Learn and Remember.\\nMany people now go around the earth every year. There are other reasons\\nbesides this for believing the earth is round. Among them is one that can readily\\nbe understood by all.\\nIf you should stand on the shore looking at a ship as it goes out to sea, you\\nwotild notice that its lower part or hull disappears first, and the top-sails last. If\\nthe ship were coming in, the sails would appear first and the hull last. Now this\\ncould not be unless the earth is round.\\nWe know that the sun does not rise or set at all as it appears to do, and as\\npeople used to think. The earth turns, or rotates., on a line running through its\\ncenter called its axis., something as a top does, so the sun shines on different por-\\ntions of it each day, thus giving us day and night. This axis always points to-\\nwards the North Star. Its ends are called the poles. The end next the North Star\\nis called the North Pole., and the opposite end, the South Pole. A line supposed to\\nbe drawn around the earth midway between the poles is called the Equator.\\nWe stay on the surface of the earth somewhat as iron clings to a magnet.\\nDown is ahvays toivards the center of the earth., or towards our feet as we stand\\nerect and up is in the opposite directiojt.\\nMen have measured the earth and found that its distance around, or circum-\\nference, is nearly 25,000 miles. From this they know that the distance through it,\\nor its diameter, must be about 8,000 miles. It is so large the small portion seen at\\none time looks flat, and we can well understand how it was that the ancients\\nthought the earth was a great plain.\\nNames have been given to the five parts of the great ocean or Sea, as it is often\\ncalled. They are the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic, Indian, Antarctic and Arctic.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 25\\nThe lesser bodies of water are called, in order of size, seas, lakes, ponds.\\nThe waters of the Sea and of some lakes are salt and unpleasant to the taste.\\nMost other waters are fresh.\\nThe larger bodies of land are called Continents. They are North America and\\nSouth America in the western half of the world, or Western Hemisphere, and\\nEurasia (Europe-Asia), Africa and Australia in the Eastern Hemisphere. North\\nAmerica, South America, Europe, Asia and Africa are sometimes called Grand\\nDivisions and Australia, an island.\\nAll the smaller bodies of land surrounded by water are called islands.\\nOceania is the name given to a portion of the Pacific Ocean containing many\\nislands.\\nA Coast Line is the border of all land where it meets the water. It usually\\nmeans the land which borders the ocean and its arms.\\nIt is found that the bottom of the sea is very much like the surface of the land.\\nIt is composed of plains, plateaus (high plains), hills, valleys and mountains.\\nIslands are just the tops of ocean mountains or plateaus.\\nMany plants grow in the sea, and are called ma^ ine plants. The most common\\nis seaweed. It sometimes covers large areas and is so thick vessels pass through\\nit with difficulty. The Spaniards called these places Sargasso (grassjO Seas.\\nA i??// \u00c2\u00ab5\u00c2\u00ab/\u00c2\u00ab is a body of land almost surrounded by water. The narrow neck-\\nof land which connects a peninsula to another body of land is called an IstJimiis.\\nA narrow passage of water connecting two larger bodies of water is called a\\nStrait; if wide, a Chauticl.\\nA point of land extending into the water is called a Cape; if high, a Promontory.\\nParts of bodies of water extending into the land Arms of the Sea j are\\ncalled Seas, Bays or Gulfs.\\nA Mo2intain is the highest elevation of land.\\nA River is a large stream of water flowing through the land.\\nSee if you can find these forms of land and water on a small scale near your\\nhome. Find them on a globe and the Hemisphere maps.\\nThe Hot Regions are about the Equator all around the earth, the Cold Regions,\\naround the Poles, and the Moderate or Temperate Regions are between the Hot\\nand Cold Regions one on the north of the Hot Region and one on the south of it.\\nA large town is called a City.\\nThe Capital of a country or state is the place where the laws are made and the\\nchief officers live. Washington is the capital of our country. A Seaport is a town\\nor city on or near the sea, having a harbor that can accommodate vessels.\\nThe largest city of a countrj is called the Metropolis.\\nThe common road which goes by the school house connects with every other\\nroad and leads to ever}^ town and home on the main land of America. The rail-", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "26\\nNATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nroad track, wherever we see it, connects with all others in the country, and on it\\nwe may ride to Boston, San Francisco, New Orleans and to every other important\\ntown in the land.\\nThese two kinds of roads are the great highways of travel and traffic on land.\\nRivers, canals, lakes, seas and oceans are the great waterways of commerce.\\nMaps.\\nIn order to study the earth as a whole, or to learn of the form, size and posi-\\ntion of the different parts, we must have it represented on a much smaller scale,\\nj ust as it is necessary for a builder to have the plan of a house drawn on a sheet of\\npaper. The best representations of the earth are artificial Globes, on which are\\ndrawn the outlines of land and water.\\nGenerally, it is most convenient to represent the earth, or portions of it, on a\\nflat surface, something as the plans of buildings and grounds are shown. Such\\nrepresentations are called Maps.\\nOnly half of a sphere or globe can be seen at a time. A half sphere is called a\\nHemisphere. The earth is usually represented as a whole by two hemisphere\\nmaps Eastern Hemisphere and Western Hemisphere; also sometimes by Northern\\nand Southern Hemisphere maps.\\nOn most globes of the earth, and hemisphere maps, are drawn lines extending\\nfrom pole to pole, called Meridians. There are also other lines drawn parallel to\\nthe Equator which are called Parallels, or Parallels of Latitude. Places\\nare located by means of these lines, as we shall learn later, and the direction of one\\nplace from another on the maps is shown by them.\\nNOfiTH POLE\\n\u00c2\u00a30U7H pQi.\u00c2\u00a3\\n^007/f Pot-\u00c2\u00a3", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\nWe have here:\\n1. A picture of the world as a whole.\\n2. A picture of the halves of the world, or hemispheres.\\n3. Flat maps of these halves of the world, or heinisphcre maps.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "28\\nNATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nSufi/riaGO\\nSOUTH AMERICA.\\nTo the Teacher: The outline of South America here given should be copied\\neach day by pupils at beginning of third year. When fair proficiency has been\\nobtained the features indicated on the next map may gradually be put in and in\\nthe following order: mountains --Andes, Brazilian; rivers Amazon, La Plata,\\nOrinoco, San Francisco; cities Rio Janerio, Buenos Ayers, Santiago, Cape Horn.\\nNext the map of North America should be taken up in the same way. Features\\nshould be represented in the following order: mountains ^Rocky, Appalachian\\nrivers Mississippi, Missouri, St. Lawrence, Columbia, Yukon, Mackenzie, Rio\\nGrande, Ohio, Colorado; cities New York, Chicago, New Orleans, Washington,\\nSt. Louis, San Francisco, Montreal, Sitka; Hudson Bay, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of\\nSt. Lawrence, Cape San Lucas. As the features are represented on the map by\\nthe pupils the teacher should state what they are noted for, or briefly describe them.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\n29\\nNORTH AMERICA.\\nTo Teacher: See instructions to teacher on page 28.\\ny^roney\\nAUSTRALIA.\\nTo Teacher: See instructions on page 32. This map is to be copied after one on page 32.", "height": "2848", "width": "2255", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "30\\nNATURAI, SYSTEM OF\\nWESTERN HEMISPHERE.\\nTo Teacher: Pupils should copy this map, using it as a model,\\nThe Equator and Central Meridian should always be put in the circle before\\nattempting to draw hemisphere maps.", "height": "2794", "width": "2202", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\n31\\nWESTERN HEMISPHERE.\\nTo the Teacher:\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Vw^Ws should copy this map, graduallj putting in all the\\nfeatures as indicated, with their names. They should be required to give oral ex-\\npression to the mental pictures they have of places, by telling where they are\\nlocated, the direction of any place from home and from any other place; also the", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "32 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nroute by water from one place to another, where possible. In no case should any-\\nthing connected with the map be required in recitation that has not first been\\nlocated on the map.\\nCAPEfOWH\\nsooo\\nMOPS\\nAFRICA.\\nTo the Teacher: After the pupils have gained fair proficiency in drawing the\\npreceeding maps they should draw the maps indicated here, following the general\\ndirections given on page 28. For Africa the order should be; mountains Atlas,\\nSnow; rivers\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Nile, Niger, Congo, Zambesi, Orange; cities Cairo, Capetown,\\nTimbuctoo Desert of Sahara, Cape of Good Hope.\\nFor Australia the order should be: mountains :Australian Alps, Blue Moun-\\ntains, Victorian Mountains rivers Darling, Murray cities Melbourne, Sidney\\nGulf of Carpentaria, Cape York. See page 29 for model map.", "height": "2837", "width": "2290", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\n33\\nEastern Hemisphere.\\nTo the Teacher: This map should be used as a model for pupils to copy. Slates or small sheets of paper\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0will serve for this practice at first. In all grades above the third, where more details are required, a larger size\\nmap is necessary. Practice paper for these grades should be a foot square \u00e2\u0096\u00a0where a single hemisphere is to be\\ndrawn, and 1x2 feet where both hemispheres are to be drawn side by side. Circles should be drawn full size of\\npaper. Heavy newspaper stock, properly cut, will answer quite well.", "height": "2869", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "34\\nNATURAIy SYSTEM OF\\nEASTERN HEMISPHERE.\\nTo the Teacher: The directions given on page 31 for mastering the map of the Western Hemisphere will\\napply here, and should be carefully observed. Pupils should take up the features not already learned in about\\nthe following order: After the continents and islands have been drawn, the larger bodies of water should be\\nlocated and named, then .the mountains, rivers, cities, capes, bays and gulfs, straits and channels. All features\\nnamed on the map should be located by the pupil on his map before proceeding to advance work. By the end of\\nthe third year the zones should be definitely marked off by proper circles. The zones should be explained, their\\nclimate and products. The names of the typical plants and animals of each zone should be learned by the pupil.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\n35\\nHow TO Draw the Tropics and Polar Circles.\\nDivide each of the parts of the circumference and Central Meridian between\\nthe Equator and the Poles, north and south, into four equal parts. Connect with\\nthe circle called the Tropic of Cancer, the first points in circumference and Central\\nMeridian on the north of the Equator, and similarly those on the south with the\\nTropic of Capricorn.\\nIn the same way connect the points nearest the North Pole for the Arctic\\nCircle, and the points nearest the South Pole for the Antarctic Circle. For instance,\\nin the accompanying figure divide E A, A B, A D, D C, C B, and C E, each into\\nfour equal parts. Then connect F, N and R with curved line Tropic of Cancer,\\nalso H, ]M and K in same way Arctic Circle, etc.\\nThese Circles should really be drawn a little beyond the points named, as 23i\\ndegrees is a little over one-fourth of ninety degrees (the distance from the Equator\\nto the Poles).\\n(71? tlie Teacher: Pupils should have some practice in drawing these Circles,\\nand hereafter should use them in all Hemisphere map drawing. They will be of\\nassistance in getting more perfect maps, and what is of more importance, fix the\\nzones. Later, pupils should be able to name orally the different lands and waters\\nin each of the zones. This can be learned quickly by requiring pupils to draw the\\nhemisphere maps on slate or blackboard, and then erase all but the zone or zones\\nto be considered.)", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "36\\nNATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nTo the Teacher: The hemispheres are brought together here for comparison. These maps of the two hemis-\\npheres, the world, should be kept before the pupil s mind until they become fixed as a whole, and all of their\\nparts their relation, comparative size, form, etc. In order to accomplish this, the pupil should be encouraged to\\ncopy these maps as soon as possible, and on the same sheet of paper, side by side. It is desirable that he use these\\nmaps for outlines and the following two maps for details, instead of the single maps which come before. The de-\\ntails of one map need not be worked out before taking up those of the second. Indeed, it is better to carry the\\ndetails of both maps along together, some in one and some in the other at the same time.\\nThe nature and eifect on climate of latitude, large bodies of water, ocean currents (especially the Gulf Stream\\nand the Japan Current), winds (Trade and Return Trade) and altitude (mountains) should be explained in a sim-\\nple way, and these features indicated on the maps.", "height": "2827", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\n37\\nPupils should learn here what is said in their primary geographies about their own countrj the United States.\\nPupils may be readily taught to estimate distances in miles between places on their hemisphere maps. The\\ndistance around the earth is about 25,000 miles. One-half this, or the distance across their hemisphere maps in\\nany direction through the centre would be about 12,400 miles; and one half this distance, or from the centre to\\ncircumference of the hemisphere would be a little over b,000 miles. One third of this last distance, or the distance\\nacross South America on the Equator, would be about 2,000 miles, etc. These distances may be used as bases of\\ncomparison, or units of measure.", "height": "2837", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "38\\nNATURAL, SYSTEM OF\\nTo the Teacher: See that the pupil draws his map and represents on it all of the features named in following\\nlists, so that he can give their location orally from the mental picture he has of them. By questions and other\\ntests satisfy yourself that the pupil is depending on this mental picture, and is getting the picture more and more\\naccurate each day.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\n39\\nThe work should be taken up as indicated. All of one part should be thoroughly mastered before proceeding\\nto the next, and when once leatned in this way, the impression should be kept fresh and intensified by constant\\nreview. At any point in the work all that has been taken should be at ready command. To secure accuracy of\\nform pupils may practice drawing Grand Divisions outside of circle and on enlarged scale.\\nAll features from the beginning are given in the following list for convenience of review and reference.\\nI upil should search lor them in his own geography and locate them on his map as he forms it.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "40 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nThe Continents.\\nEurasia, Africa, Australia in Eastern Hemisphere and North America and\\nSouth America in Western Hemisphere.\\nThese are sometimes called Grand Divisions (in which case Europe and Asia\\nform separate Grand Divisions).\\nOceans. Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Antarctic, Arctic.\\nIsthmuses. Panama, Suez.\\nDesert of Sahara^ Suez Canal.\\nSeas. Caribbean, Bering, Mediterranean, Red (famous in Sacred History),\\nArabian, Black, Caspian, Yellow (so called from its color), East China, South\\nChina, Japan, Okhotsk, Adriatic, Java, Celebes, Sargasso Seas.\\nStraits and Channels. Bering, Davis, Hudson, Magellan, Florida, Gibral-\\ntar, Mozambique, Belle Isle, Yucatan Ch., Bab-el-Mandeb, Malacca, Ormus, Sunda.\\nCapes. Horn, St. Roque, San Lucas, Parina, Blanco, Sable (2), Hatteras,\\nPt. Barrow (most northern point of Alaska), Race, Farewell, Gallinas, Mendocino,\\nGood Hope, Guardafui, Verd, York, Comorin, Rock of Gibraltar (strongest fortress\\nin the world belongs to the British), North Cape (most northern cape of Europe),\\nFinisterre, Lands End, Spartel, Lisburne, St. Vincent, Brual.\\nGulfs and Bays. Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, Gulf of California, Bay of\\nBengal, Baffin Bay, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Gulf of Carpentaria, Persian Gulf, James\\nBay, Bay of Biscay, Gulf of Guinea, Gulf of Siam, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Bothnia,\\nGulf of Campeachy, Bay of Honduras, Tampa Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay,\\nGulf of Darien, Bay of Panama.\\nMost of the islands of the world are owned or controlled by the following\\nnations Great Britian, United States, Germany, Netherlands, France, Spain, Port-\\nugal, Italy, Denmark. (See map of Europe.)\\nIndicate ownership of islands on your maps as you learn them.\\nIslands.\\nGreenland (Denmark). Largest island in the world.\\nr Cuba (Republic.)\\n-J. 1 Hayti or San Domingo. (Two Republics Hayti and San\\n_ A Ml i Domingo.)\\nGreater Antilles. Jamaica. (Br.)\\nSugar, Tobacco. Porto Rico. (U. S.)\\nLesser Antilles. (To various nations.)\\nBorneo. (Br. and Neth.)\\nPapau or New Guinea. (Br., Neth. and Ger.)\\nEast Indies. Celebes. (Neth.)\\nr Sumatra. (Neth.) Pepper.\\nSunda Islands. Java. (Neth.) Coffee.\\nSpices. [Timor. (Neth. and Port.)", "height": "2877", "width": "2204", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 41\\nPhilippine. (U. S.) Tobacco, sugar, coffee, rice.\\nMadagascar. (Fr.) Cattle, India-rubber,sugar, vanilla.\\nBritish Isles. Great Britain ^Ireland. Most powerful and famous in the\\nworld.\\nJapan. Hondo Yezzo. Rice, tea, silk, curios.\\nNew Zealand. (Gr. Britain.) North\u00e2\u0080\u0094 South\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Stewart.\\nSandwich Islands. (U. S.) Has a tine climate sugar.\\nTasmania. (Gr. Britain.)\\nNew Foundland. (Gr. Britain.) Near great fishing grounds.\\nIceland. (Denmark.) Eider duck, geysers.\\nCeylon. (Gr. Britain.) Coffee, cinnamon, tea, cocoanut.\\nNova Zembla. (Russia.)\\nBermuda Islands. (Gr. Britain.) Early vegetables fine climate.\\nBahama Islands. (Br.) First land seen by Columbus in the New World.\\nAleutian Islands. (United States.)\\nPribiloff Islands. (United States.) Home of American fur seal.\\nKomandorski. (Russia.) Home of Russian fur seal.\\nTerra del Fuego. Land of Fire.\\nVancouver. (Gr. Britain.)\\nBaffin Land. (Gr. Britain.)\\nSouthampton. (Gr. Britain.)\\nFalkland Island. (Gr. Britain.)\\nMaraj OS or Joannes. (Brazil.)\\nSt. Helena. (Gr. Britain.) Place of Exile of Napoleon\\nSicily. (Italy.) Fertile soil, sulphur, wines, fruits.\\nSardinia. (Italy.) Sardines named from this.\\nCorsica. (France.)\\nMountains.\\nRange. Highe.st Peak.\\nRocky (1 1 ,000 ft.) Mt. Logan (19,500 ft.)\\nAppalachian (3,000 ft.) Mt. Mitchell or Black Dome (6,700 ft.)\\nAndes (12,000 ft.) Aconcagua (23,300 ft.)\\nSierra de Espinhaco or Brazilian Mts. .Itacolumi (5,700 ft.)\\nHimalaya (19,000 ft.) Mt. Everest (29,002 ft.). Highest range\\nand peak in the world.\\nAlps (8,500 ft.) Mt. Blanc (15,800 ft.)\\nCaucasus Elburz (18,500 ft.). Highest in Europe.\\nPyrenees (8,000 ft.) Maladetta (1 1,000 ft.)\\nUral (3,000 ft.) Teplos (5,500 ft.)", "height": "2869", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "42 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nMountains of East Coast of Africa Kilimanjaro (19,600 ft.)\\nScandinavian Mts Ymesfield (8,500 ft.)\\nApennines (4,000 ft.) Corno (9,500 ft.)\\nStanovoi.\\nElbruz (In northern Persia) .Demavend (21,000 ft.). Volcanic.\\nAustralian Alps (5,000 ft.) Mt. Kosciusko (7,200 ft.)\\nAtlas Mts.\\nKong Mts.\\nThian-Shan (18,000 ft.)\\nAltai (b,300 ft.)\\nYablonoi\\nSuliman\\nMt. Vesuvius (4,200 ft.). Famous volcano which buried Pompeii and another city\\nin one of its eruptions, A. D. 79,\\nMt. ^tna. Volcano (10,700 ft.)\\nMt. Ararat (17,100 ft.). Famous in sacred history.\\nBlue Mt. (4,000 ft.)\\nVictoria Range. (The mountains of x ^ustralia are all low).\\nMt. Cook (Vol. 12,300 ft.)\\nMt. Fusiyama (Vol. 14,200 ft.)\\nMt. St. Elias (18,000 ft.)\\nMt. Sinai (9,300 ft.). Famous in sacred history.\\nMt. Olympus (Turkey, 9,700 ft.)\\nMt. Olympus (United States, 8,200 ft.)\\nMt. Ophir (13,800 ft.)\\nMt. Hecla (Vol. 5,100 ft.)\\nManua Loa (13,700 ft.) and\\nManua Kea (13,900 ft.). Two remarkable volcanoes on Hawaii, the largest of the\\nSandwich Islands.\\nRivers.\\nAmazon. Largest river in the world. Niger.\\nLa Plata. Zambesi.\\nOrinoco. Orange.\\nSan Francisco. Volga. Longest river in Europe.\\nMississippi. Longest river in North Yenisei.\\nAmerica. Ural. This with Ural Mts. forms part\\nMissouri. of boundary of Europe.", "height": "2877", "width": "2204", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 43\\nSt. Lawrence. In volume of water lar- Obi.\\neest in North America. Noted for Lena.\\nits rapids and fine scener3\\\\ Amoor.\\nColumbia. Famed for its beautiful Yang-tse-Kiang.\\nscenery. Hoang Ho.\\nYukon. Ganges.\\nMackenzie. Indus.\\nRio Grande. Euphrates. The oldest nations lived\\nColorado. Has cut a long channel a in its valley.\\nmile deep through solid rock. Tigris.\\nNile. Overflows its valley at same Danube. Largest river in Europe.\\ntime each 3^ear making it very fertile. Murray. Chief river of Australia.\\nCongo. Largest river in Africa. Darling. Chief tributary of Murray.\\nCities.\\nNew York. Metropolis and greatest sea-port of America. Next to London\\nthe largest city in the world, population over 3,000,000.\\nChicago. Greatest railroad center and largest grain, beef and pork market\\nin the world.\\nWashington. Capital of the United States.\\nSan Francisco. Metropolis of the Pacific coast.\\nSt. Louis. Metropolis of Mississippi valley.\\nRio Janeiro. Greatest coffee market in the world. IMetropolis of South America.\\nBuenos Ayres. Second largest city in South America.\\nSantiago. (S. A.)\\nValparaiso. Important seaport.\\nLondon. Largest city in the world, population over 4,000,000.\\nParis. Called the most beautiful city in the world, is next to New York in\\nsize population nearly 2,500,000.\\nBerlin. Capital and metropolis of Germany one of the great cities of the\\nworld.\\nRome. One of the oldest and most famous cities in the world home of the\\nPope.\\nVienna. Beautiful city metropolis of Austria.\\nSt. Petersburg. Built by Peter the Great Capital of the Russian Empire.\\nMoscow. Formerly capital of Russia.\\nLisbon. Capital of Portugal destroyed by an earthquake (1 755).\\nMadrid. Capital and metropolis of Spain.\\nConstantinople. Famous city capital of Turkey.", "height": "2853", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "44\\nNATURAIv SYSTEM OF\\nPekin. Capital of Chinese Empire.\\nCanton. Great seaport.\\nTokio. Capital and metropolis of Japan.\\nCalcutta. Metropolis of India.\\nBombay. Next to Calcutta the most important city of India.\\nCairo. Metropolis of Africa.\\nCape Town. Most important town of southern Africa.\\nAlexandria. Built by Alexander the great.\\nTimbuktu. Important French trading post.\\nMelbourne. Capital and metropolis of Australia.\\nSidney. Next to Melbourne in size.\\nMarseilles. Great Seaport.\\nDirections in Full for Drawing Maps by Diagrams.\\nWestern Hemisphere.\\nThe unit of measure used in the diagrams of the Western Hemisphere is the\\ndistance across South America along the Equator. This equals (very nearly) one-\\nthird of the distance from the center of the map to the margin, or one-third of the\\nline C D (or one-twelfth of the distance around the earth).\\nThe diagrams are given alone and also with the continents drawn in the hemi-\\nspheres (both being lettered alike); but each continent should first be drawn\\nseparately, and outside of the circle until some skill has been acquired. For this\\nreason, the directions are given as though the continents were not in the circles.\\nThe diagram of South America, which should be taken first, is constructed as\\nfollows", "height": "2877", "width": "2212", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\n45\\nHOf^TH POL\u00c2\u00a3\\nso^rn POLE.\\nKey to Diagrams. A B C A =B D) equals middle third of C D, and is unit of measure for \\\\V. Hemi-\\nsphere (S. American Unit). M N (I-3 A B) is drawn at an angle of 45 with Central Meridian (diagonal of square\\nprolonged). P. is middle point of M N.\\nTo find O describe intersecting arcs with M and N as centers, and the line M N as radius.\\nTo find S use M and N as centers and radii equal to 1. A B and I73 A B, respectively. (M is at Cape\\nSan Liicas, F at Cape St. Roque, and O T is boundary of Alaska.)", "height": "2845", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "46 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nTake a horizontal line A B of any convenient length and at its middle point, I,\\nerect the perpendicular J I, equal to one-half of A B. Also draw the line I H,\\ntwice the length of A B, and so that the point H is a little to the left of a perpen-\\ndicular A X, let fall from the extremity of A B (as shown in the figure).\\nDraw the perpendicular line B G, equal to one-fourth A B, and the horizontal\\nline G F, equal to one-half of A B.\\nF represents Cape St. Roque, the most eastern point of South America. The\\noutline of the map should now be sketched without other lines or points than\\nthose given. Observe that the northern coast of South America does not extend\\nquite as high as I J, or half of A B.\\nWhen the map of South America is drawn in a circle observe that A B is the\\nmiddle third of C D. The large bend in the western coast is some distance above\\nthe Tropic of Capricorn, while the bend in the eastern coast begins near that circle.\\nCape Horn is situated midway between the Central Meridian and the boundary\\ncircle.\\nDiagram of North America.\\nFirst take a line which may represent the distance across South America along\\nthe Equator as the unit of measure. Fromapoint, as M, which represents Cape San\\nLucas, draw both a perpendicular and horizontal line the latter extending to the\\nright; as M Z and M W. From the point M and just half way between these lines,\\nor at an angle of 45 degrees, draw another line and extend it until it shall equal\\n1 -/i, the unit of measure, as the line M N. (This line can be easily drawn by first\\nconstructing a square, using equal parts of the perpendicular and horizontal lines\\nas two sides of the square, as shown in the figure by dotted lines. Then draw the\\ndiagonal of this square from the point M and extend it as far as desired.)\\nThe line M N is one side of an equilateral triangle. Using M and N as centers\\nand the line M N as a radius, describe arcs cutting each other at O. Connect\\nO with M and N. The point O is on the boundary between Alaska and British\\nAmerica. At the middle point of M N drawn the line P R at right angles to it and\\nequal to J^ of M N.\\nR is just off the coast above Florida. Connect R with M and N. R M and\\nR N are equal and only a little less that the unit of measure.\\nO T, the eastern boundry of Alaska, makes an angle with O N a little greater\\nthan a right angle. O T and O K (an extension of O N) are each equal to about\\none third of the unit of measure.\\nM S is equal to 1 of the unit of measure. N S is equal to M N and is\\nused to locate the point S which is a little way on the mainland of South America.\\nTo find S use AI as a center and with a radius equal to 1 times the unit of", "height": "2877", "width": "2212", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 47\\nmeasure describe an arc; and with N as a center and M N as a radius describe all-\\not lier arc cutting the first at S. The map can no^y be drawn.\\nWhen the map is drawn in the hemishere it should be observed (1), that the\\nsouthern point of lower California, or M, is at the junction of the cejitral Meridian\\nand Tropic of Cancer^ (2) that the Tropic of Cancer passes between Cuba and\\nFlorida; and (3) that A B, or distance across South America at equator, becomes\\nthe unit of measure.\\nHow TO Describe Circles about South America and North America when\\nDrawn Separately and without Circles.\\nIn South America extend A B both ways, so that the extensions, or A C and\\nB D, shall each be equal to A B. With C as a center and C D as a raduis describe\\nthe circle required.\\nIn North America extend the perpendicular first drawn (which is really a\\npart of the central Meridian) below M a distance equal to of the unit of measure,\\nortoC. With C as a center and three times the unit of measure as a radius describe\\nthe circle. (The unit of measure can always be determined, if not known, by divid-\\ning the distance M N, or M O, into five equal parts and taking a line equal to three\\nof these parts. This is evident from the fact that M N is equal to I73 or I times\\nthe unit of measure. Three of these five parts would then be equal to the unit of\\nmeasure.)\\nThe numbers on the lines of the diagrams indicate their lengths as compared with\\nthat 6f the South American unit, unless otherwise noted.\\nEastern Hemisphere.\\nIn the diagrams for the Eastern Hemisphere the distance across Africa on the\\nEquator, or X Z, is the unit of measure. This distance equals times the South\\nAmerican Unit and nzay be called the African Unit.\\nDiagram of Africa. Take a horizontal line X Z of any convenient length, and from its\\nmiddle point let fall the perpendicular line H K, equal to xy^ times X Z. K represents the Cape\\nof Good Hope. From Z draw Z f at an angle of 45 degrees and equal to a little less than half\\nXZ.\\nThe five lines X Z, Z B. B F, F A, and A X are all equal.\\nB represents the south eastern point of the Mediterranean; F, Cape Spartel just opposite\\nthe Rock of Gibraltar; and A, Cape Verd.\\nIn order to draw this figure, it is first necessary to find the point F. Divide X Z info eight\\nequal parts and take the point g at a distance to the left of X equal to one of these parts. At the\\npoint g erect a perpendicular g F equal to eleven of these parts, or y of X Z. The sum of the\\ntwo lines X g and g F is thus equal to V or 1 Y-z times X Z.\\nTo find the points A and B use F, X and Z as centers, and X Z as a radius and draw\\nnrcs intersecting at A and B.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "48\\nNATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nffOJiTMPOie\\nSout/iPole\\nKey to Diagram.-V, X=S. American Unit=K D C. X Z=African Utiit=li S. American Unit.\\nTo find B and A describe intersecting arcs from F, X and Z as centers, with radius equal to X Z.\\nTo find N use O and W as centers and 3 times X Z and l}i times X Z as radii, respectively.\\nJ I is parallel to O N.", "height": "2828", "width": "2207", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\n49", "height": "2853", "width": "2155", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "50 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nThe outline of the map may now be drawn.\\nWhen the map of Africa is to be drawn in a circle observe that D X is ys of D C, or equal\\nto the South American Unit; and that X Z is equal to li of this distance.\\nThe African Unit may be changed to the South American Unit by taking away of it-\\nself. The African Unit is derived from the South American unit by adding i of the South\\nAmerican Unit to itself.\\n(To divide a line into eight equal parts first divide it into two equal parts, and each of these\\nhalves into two equal parts, and then each of the quarters into two equal parts. To get the\\nseventh of a line take a trifle more than an eighth of it.)\\nTo describe a circle about Africa extend the line Z X to D, making X D equal to a South\\nAmerican Unit. Then draw D C, equal to three times this unit. From C as a center, with\\nC D as a radius, describe the circle required.\\nDiagram of Azistralia. From any ppint, P as a center and with a radius equal to the\\nAfricaji Unit, describe the arc Q V. The line P U should fall below the horizontal as indicated\\nin the figure. The distance Q U is equal to J^ the African Unit, and the distance Q V is equal\\nto H K, or the distance that Africa extends below the Equator e K is a little less than half of\\nthe African Unit. Draw P O. The outline of the map may now be drawn.\\nTo draw r:iap of Australia in a circle it will be necessary to remember that the line P U lies\\nalong the Tropic of Capricorn, and that P marks the half way point between the Central Meridian\\nand boundary circle.\\nDiagram of Eurasia. Draw a horizontal line of indefinite length, and from the extremity\\nO (representing a place just south of Cape St. Vincent) measure off a distance equal to 3^ times\\nthe African Unif, or the line O W.\\nR is a point on the north west coast of the Black Sea, as indicated; and \\\\V represents Cape\\nBrual.\\nTo find the point N use O as a center with a radius equal to three times the the African\\nUnit, and W as a center with a radius equal to 1^8 this unit and describe arcs. N will be the\\npoint where these arcs intersect. Draw O N and N W, and also the line I J parallel to O N and\\nat a distance from it equal to of the African Unit.\\nFrom the points R, G, M and W let fall perpendiculars to the distance of one African Unit,\\nand draw the line b L. Also at the middle point of R G draw the perpendicular d c, and note\\nthat this line extended determines the position of the Persian Gulf, Caspian Sea and north eastern\\nextremity of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Corsica and Sardinia come at the middle of O R.\\nG a determines the position of India. The outline of the map may now be drawn. The numbers\\non the lines of the diagrams indicate their lengths as compared with the African Ujiit.\\nTo draw Eurasia m a circle, first obtain the point F, and then place the point O a little to\\nleft and above it when the line O W and rest of diagram may be drawn as before. Or, take C t\\nequal to the South American Unit and at the point t erect a perpendicular t R equal to a little less\\nthan 1 J^ times the African Unit. The point R being found, the diagram can be readily drawn.\\nHow to describe a circle about the map of Eurasia: From T, the second division of O N,\\nlet fall a line perpendicular to the horizontal line O W, and extend it to C, or until the whole\\nline T C equals lyi times the African Unit. As the point T is on the Central Meridian, the line\\nT C coincides with it and the point C is the center of the circle desired. The radius of this\\ncircle is the line C N, or a line equal to three times the South American Unit.\\nThe larger islands may be drawn more accurately by comparing their lengths with the South\\nAmerican and African Units.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\n51\\nTo the Teacher: Pupils should have much practice in drawing these bodies of land, putting\\nthem in circles and drawing them on any scale, deriving one scale of measure from another.\\nAfter a time the diagrams should be gradually left off and the maps drawn free haiid the diagrams\\nbeing retained in Ike memory as a basis for criticism and test of accuracy. Only excellent work should\\nbe accepted.\\nLocate the following on yotir maps:\\nMountains.\\nSierra Nevada (U. S.).\\nSierra Nevada (Spain).\\nCoast Range.\\nCascade Range.\\nAlleghany.\\nHighest\\nMt. Whitney (14,900 ft.).\\npeak in U. S.\\nAcary.\\nParime.\\nCotapaxi (16,300 ft.). Most active and\\nviolent volcano in the world.\\nRivers.\\nCambodia or Mekong.\\nBrahmaputra.\\nIrrawaddy.\\nWhite Nile.\\nBlue Nile.\\nParana.\\nUruguay.\\nMaderia.\\nTapajos.\\nNegro, (2).\\nTocantins.\\nXingu.\\nNelson.\\nSacramento.\\nOhio.\\nFraser.\\nSaskatchewan.\\nRhine (Famous for its beautiful scenery).\\nCassiquiare (Forms jttnction between\\nOrinoco and Amazon so a boat can\\npass from one to the other in the\\nrainy season.)\\nJordan and Dead Sea (Famous in sacred\\nhistory. The Jordan flows into the\\nDead Sea which is more than 1300\\nfeet below the sea level the grreatest\\ndepression of land in the world. The\\nwater of this sea is very salt and\\nbitter. Why? The lake can have no\\notitlet. Why\\nThames (London).\\nSeine (Paris).\\nNeva (St. Petersburg).\\nTiber (Rome.)\\nLoire.\\nTagus.\\nEbro.\\nCities.\\nBoston (Great seaport, also leather and Hammerfest (Most northern town of\\nwool market). Europe)", "height": "2845", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "52\\nNATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nCincinnati (Metropolis of Ohio valley).\\nKansas City (Railroad center and stock\\nmarket).\\nPortland (2). Important seaports.\\nPittsburg (Iron, coal and glass).\\nOmaha (Railroad and trade center).\\nGalveston (Next to New Orleans most\\nimportant Gulf port).\\nDenver (Metropolis of Rocky Mountain\\nregion).\\nBuffalo (Important lake port).\\nSitka (Principal town of Alaska).\\nMinneapolis (Has greatest flour mills\\nin the world)\\nSt. Paul (Important railroad center).\\nLos Angeles (Metropolis of Southern\\nCalifornia).\\nMontreal (Built on an island in the St.\\nLawrence River metropolis of Can-\\nada. The great Victoria Railroad\\nBridge, one and a half miles long and\\nsixty feet high, crosses the river).\\nPara (Greatest rubber market iu the\\nworld).\\nNizhni Novgorod (Famous for its annual\\nfairs for sale and exchange of mer-\\nchandise amounting to millions of\\ndollars).\\nJerusalem (Famous in sacred history as\\nthe great city of the Jews).\\nShanghai (Important seaport).\\nYokohama (Important seaport).\\nGenoa (Home of Columbus).\\nNaples (Metropolis of Italy has a\\nbeautiful bay).\\nBangkok (Called the Floating City\\non account of the large number of\\nhouses built on boats and piles).\\nSmyrna (Ancient seaport).\\nMecca (Sacred city of Mohammed and\\nto which all his followers are ex-\\npected to make a pilgrimage some-\\ntime during their lifetime.)\\nHangchow.\\nWinnipeg.\\nMilwaukee.\\nVera Cruz.\\nOttawa (Capital of Canada).\\nQuebec.\\nHalifax.\\nSt. Johns.\\nHavana (Metropolis of Cuba great\\ntobacco and sugar market).\\nVictoria.\\nBahia (Beautifully situated on bay of\\nemerald water).\\nHavre (Important seaport).\\nOporto (Port wine).\\nMalaga (Grapes and wine).\\nMuscat.\\nZanzibar.\\nVenice (A beautiful city whose streets\\nare canals).\\nOdessa (Great grain market).\\nFlorence (Famous for its art galleries).\\nVladivostock (Proposed terminus of the\\ngreat railway across Siberia).\\nTobolsk.\\nIrkutsk (Largest city in Siberia great\\ncenter of fur trade).\\nGlasgow (Ship building).\\nMexico (Capital and metropolis of\\nMexico).\\nDublin (Largest city in Ireland).\\nEdinburg (Has a great university and\\nlibraries).\\nPalermo.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\n53\\nHonolulu (Situated on Oahu island. It\\nis tlie capital of the Sandwich Islands).\\nHamburg (Next to London and Liver-\\npool the most important seaport in\\nEurope).\\nAthens (The ancient center of Art,\\nPoetry and Eloquence).\\nAukland (Important seaport).\\nDamascus (Largest city of Turkey-in-\\nAsia over 4000 years old Damask\\nsilk made there famous Damascus\\nblades of ancient times made in this\\ncity).\\nLakes.\\nWinnipeg.\\n]\\\\Ianitoba.\\nWinnepegosis.\\nGreat Slave Lake.\\nLesser Slave Lake.\\nThe Great Lakes (Superior, Michigan,\\nHuron, Erie, Ontario.)\\nItasca (Source of Mississippi).\\nMaracaibo.\\nTiticaca (Highest large lake in America,\\n12,600 feet above sea).\\nVictoria and Albert (Source of the\\nWhite Nile).\\nTanganyika (Head of a branch of\\nCongo).\\nNyassa (Head of a branch of Zambezi).\\nBaikal.\\nBalkash.\\nAral Sea.\\nPeninsulas.\\nSouth America.\\nAlaska.\\nAfrica.\\nAlaskan Peninsula.\\nEurope.\\nLabrador.\\nIberian (Spain and\\nPortugal).\\nFlorida.\\nScandinavian (Norw\\nay and Sweden).\\nJutland.\\nIndo-China (Or Farther India).\\nNova Scotia.\\nHindustan.\\nLower California.\\nArabia.\\nYucatan.\\nGreece.\\nKamchatka.\\nBalkan (All country south of line con-\\nMalay.\\nnecting northern\\npart of Black Sea\\nCorea.\\nwith Adriatic).\\nCrimea.\\nItaly.\\nStraits and\\nChannels.\\nMacassar.\\nLa Perouse.\\nYucatan Channel\\nTorres.\\nCorea.\\nSangar.\\nFox Channel.\\nMolucca Passage.\\nCook.\\nFormosa Channel.\\nWindward Passage.\\nBass.\\nTartary Channel or\\nGulf Mona Passage.\\nPalk.", "height": "2845", "width": "2154", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "54\\nNATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nCapes.\\nEast Cape.\\nPrince of Wales.\\nCod.\\nMatapan.\\nRomania.\\nCambodia.\\nBon.\\nPalmas.\\nBlanco.\\nRace.\\nSable.\\nNorth.\\nNorth West Cape.\\nYork.\\nHowe.\\nCorrientes.\\nOrange.\\nFrio.\\nClear.\\nSpartivento.\\nOrtegal.\\nLapatka.\\nAgulhas.\\nIndicate on your maps boundaries of\\nAustralasia.\\nMalaysia.\\nOceania i tv/t i\\nMelanesia.\\n1^ Polynesia.\\nDistinguish volcanic islands from coral islands by proper marks.\\nIslands.\\nOrkney (Br.)\\nSouth Shetland.\\nSouth Orkney.\\nFaroe (Denmark).\\nBalearic (Sp.)\\nElba (Italy). Residence of Napoleon\\nfor part of a year after his abdica-\\ntion.\\nIonian (Greece).\\nQueen Charlotte (Br.)\\nAndaman (Br.)\\nLaccadive (Br.)\\nMaldive (Br.)\\nBanca and Billiton (Neth.) Contain\\nrichest tin mines in the world.\\nBanca supplies the purest tin.\\nJuan Fernandes (Chile). On which\\nAlexander Selkirk was wrecked and\\nlTve3Tor~y^ars^ suggesting the story\\nof Robinson Crusoe.\\nLiu Kiu (Japan).\\nKurile (Japan).\\nSaghalen (Rus.)\\nSamoa or Navigator.\\nFiji (Br.)\\nNew Caledonia (Fr.)\\nMoluccas or Spice (Neth.)\\nLoyalty (Fr.)\\nNew Hebrides (Fr.)\\nSolomon (Ger.)\\nCook (Br.)\\nAdmiralty (Ger.)", "height": "2877", "width": "2204", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 55\\nFormosa (Ceded to Japan by China in Fanning (Br.)\\n1895. Produces finest tea). Society or Tahiti (Fr.)\\nCandia or Crete (Turkey). Austral or Tubuai (Fr.)\\nCyprus (Br.) Marshall (Ger.)\\nCanar} (Sp.) Touched by Columbus Marquesas (Fr.)\\non his voyage to America. Gambler (Fr.)\\nFerro of Canary group (Most western Bismark Arch. (Ger.)\\nland known to the ancients). Socotra (Br.)\\nCape Verd (Port.) Fernando Po (Sp.)\\nMalta (English stronghold). Great Barrier Reef.\\nMaderia (Port.) Kangaroo (Br.)\\nHebrides (Br.) Caroline (Sp.)\\nIsle of Man (Br.) Ladrone (Sp.)\\nShetland (Br.) Source of Shetland Barbadoes (Br.)\\nponies. Victoria Land.\\nSpitzbergen (Neth.) Wilkes Land.\\nAzores (Port.) Franz Josef Laud.\\nMark off on your maps the countries of North America and South America,\\nand, later, those of Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia.\\nRefer to the maps in your geographies for things not found in this book.\\nSome Things To Remember.\\nObserve and remember that the large mountain ranges are generally near the\\nedge of the continents, with their most abrupt slope on the side nearest the ocean\\n2 that most of the land is in the northern hemisphere 3 that most of the con-\\ntinents are triangles in form, with the small end or apex pointing south; 4 that\\nthe most civilized and progressive nations live in the North Temperate Zone.\\n{To the Teacher: Pupils should be required to take imaginary journeys fre-\\nquently to different parts of the earth around any continent or the earth itself\\n(in anj^ direction) and tell about the waters and lands on or near the route, the\\nclimate^ products and people. They, should be required to stop at any point on\\nthe journey and tell the direction they are going and the direction of an}^ other\\npoint from them, the land or water to the north, south, east or west. They should\\nbe able to coast along any shore and name the principal bays and gulfs and rivers\\nthey would come to in order.\\nThey may take up their abode in faraway lands and write letters home telling\\nof their journey and describing the country, products and people. The reasoning\\npowers, imagination and expression (oral and written) should be constantly culti-\\nvated. No study offers a better field for this work than geograph}-.", "height": "2869", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "56 NATURAIv SYSTEM OF\\nPupils should use their regular text-book in geography constantly for refer-\\nence, and should recite from it, taking it in regular order, except where it conflicts\\nwith the plan here indicated. In such case, the text-book must be subordinate to\\nthis system, if both are used, or confusion and failure will follow.)\\nIndicate on your maps the Trade Winds, Return Trade Winds, Calm Belts\\nand Monsoons.\\nIndicate on your maps the boundaries of the following:\\nHighlands and Plateaus.\\nPlateau of Tibet (10,000 to 18,000 ft.). Has small rainfall and but little vegetation\\ninhabited by scattering tribes of rude people.\\nPamir Plateau (over 12,000 ft.). Called the Roof of the World. Mountain\\nranges diverge from it in all directions.\\nAndes Plateau (8,000 to 13,000 ft.). In contrast to that of Tibet, it has frequent\\nrains; grain and other vegetation grow well; and it is settled by an active and\\nprogressive people.\\nRocky Mt Plateau (6,000 ft.)\\nGreat Basin (5,000 ft.). A vast basin-like valley\\ncrossed by many mountain ranges. Has little\\nrainfall and its streams have no outlet to the sea.\\nIt is generally arid and parts of it are very barren.\\nj^ r ^J! i Within this basin is Death s Valley. Many\\npeople have perished from thirst in attempting to\\ncross it.\\nMexican Plateau (over 7,000 ft.). Northwest portion\\nreceives but little rainfall. Some other portions are\\ndry and barren part of the year.\\nPlateau of Labrador (2,000 ft.). This plateau is bleak and barren for the most part,\\ndue to the cold winds from the interior of the continent and nearness to the Arc-\\ntic current.\\nAtlantic Highlands (2,000 ft.). The Appalachian Mountains are much older than\\nthe Rocky Mountains and were originally higher, but have been worn down to\\npresent altitude by action of water and other causes in ages past. They are\\nmostly covered with forests. The foot hills and lower levels are very productive.\\nRainfall is abundant.\\nHight of Land (2,000 ft.). This is believed to be the oldest land in the world, or\\nfirst to rise above the water. It is the divide between the Mississippi system and\\nArctic system of rivers. The incline of land is very gentle each way.\\nPacific Highlands. Receives\\nvery little rainfall except\\non mountains\\nhills.", "height": "2877", "width": "2203", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 57\\nBrazilian Plateau (2,500 ft.). Receives sufficient rainfall for growth, of vegetation.\\nHighlands of Guiana (1,500 ft.). Receives abundant rainfall.\\nPlateau of Ab3-ssinia (6,000 ft.). Rainfall is light in the northern or highest part\\nof plateau, but more abundant in the southern part, where large crops are raised.\\nCanons 3,000 to 4,000 feet deep have been cut in this plateau by rivers.\\nCentral Table-Land of Africa (1,500 to 2,500 ft.). Across the central portion or\\nalong the Equator the rainfall is very copious and all vegetation is luxuriant.\\nThe rainfall diminishes toward the north to the Sahara Desert, and also on the\\nsouth to the Desert of Kalahari.\\nMongolian Plateau (2,000 to 4,000 ft.). This region has very little rainfall and\\nvegetation. The Desert of Gobi, included in this plateau, has sufficient rainfall,\\nespecially in the eastern part, to support scanty grass and shrubs, which serve\\nas forage to the caravans of camels which pass over it. The high mountains on\\nall sides of this plateau deprive the atmosphere of its moisture before passing\\nover it.\\nPlateau of Deccan (2,000 ft.). The southern part of this plateau is well supplied\\nwith rain. There is little rain in the northern part, however, and droughts are\\ncommon. Irrigation is necessary to the raising of crops here as well as in many\\nother parts.\\nPlateau of Asia Minor and Iran (5,000 ft.). The rainfall is light and part of this\\nsection is a desert.\\nArabian Plateau (5,000 ft.). Nearly all of the central portion is barren. The pro-\\nductive portions are along the coast and in the valley of the Euphrates and\\nTigris, where irrigated.\\nScandinavian Plateau (2,000 to 5,000 ft.) and\\nHighlands of Central and Southern Europe (800 to 2,000 ft.). Rainfall is abun-\\ndant on these two plateaus.\\nSpanish Plateau (2,500 ft.). The rainfall is so slight on large portions of this\\nplateau few trees and little vegetation grow.\\nLowlands.\\nAs a rule all plains on the coast receive abundant rainfall, but there are some\\nnotable exceptions. Name two.\\nLow Plains of Europe. Most of the northern portion of Europe, except Norway and\\nSweden, is a low plain, well watered and very productive. The valley of the Po\\nis made up of alluvial soil and is very fertile, but requires irrigation to produce\\ncrops.\\nSiberia, Steppes. The Steppes where rainfall is sufficient produce abundant crops\\nof wheat and other grain. The central plain of Siberia is dry and produces but\\nlittle vegetation. It is settled chiefly by nomadic people.", "height": "2861", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "58. NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nIndia. The plains of the Indus and Ganges are extensive and very fertile. The\\nupper portion receives an immense rainfall from the summer Monsoons, but the\\nlower valleys require irrigation. The costal plains are fertile and well watered,\\nbut unhealthy.\\nTurkistan. The plains of Turkistan and those about the Caspian and Aral Seas\\nare almost barren on account of the little rainfall. This region is inhabited by\\nnomadic people.\\nChina. The great plain of China is made up of the alluvial soil brought down by\\nthe Yellow and Yang-tse rivers, principally by the former and is exceedingly\\nfertile and well watered. This plain supports more than a hundred million\\npeople. The Yellow River gets its name from the yellow soil which it brings\\ndown from the upper regions. It colors the sea for some distance. The Yellow\\nRiver is shallow and is hardly navigable, while the Yang-tse is navigable for over\\na thousand miles.\\nBabylonia or Valley of the Euphrates and Tigris. The soil of this valley is very\\nfertile but crops can be raised only by irrigation.\\nAfrica. Africa is almost wholly a plateau. It has a narrow costal plain and low\\nplains near Tchad and in the lower Nile valley. The Niger has the largest delta\\nand the Congo the largest volume of water.\\nAustralia. Central Australia is a dry arid plain for most of the year. Rains are\\nuncertain.\\nNorth America. The principal plains of North America are the Gulf plain, At-\\nlantic coast, valleys of the Mississippi, St. Lawrence and Mackenzie. The Gulf\\nPlain, Atlantic Coast and Mississippi valley are well watered and very productive.\\nThe Pacific coast is bold and hilly for the most part. It is well watered from\\nnorthern California to Bering Sea. Lower California has little rainfall and re-\\nquires irrigation to grow crops.\\nSouth America. The Llanos of the Orinoco, Selvas of the Amazon, Pampas of La\\nPlata and Coastal Plain. The Llanos and Pampas are very similar, in that\\nthey are both deserts a portion of the year and at another part of the year have\\nabundance of rain and are covered with nutritious grasses on which large herds\\nof cattle fatten. The grass of the Pampas is very tall and called Pampas Grass.\\nLarge herds of wild cattle and horses graze on the Pampas and are caught by the\\nlasso. The Selvas, the vast forest plains of the Amazon, have large rainfall.\\nSwamps. Everglades of Florida. Dismal Swamp.\\nMarshes of Pinsk. Mississippi Delta.\\nTundras of Siberia, Europe and North America. The Tundras are low level plains\\non the northern border of these countries. They are frozen many feet deep most\\nof the year, but during the short summer the surface thaws to a shallow depth", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 59\\nwhen lichens and moss, the food of the reindeer, flourish. In the spring the\\nMackenzie, Obi, Lena, Yenisei and other Arctic rivers, being blocked at the north\\nwith ice, overflow and cover vast tracts with water. The Tundras which are\\nalmost impassable in summer are readily traversed in winter. Large herds of\\nAmerican reindeer, called Caribou, feed on the plains west and north of Hudson\\nBay. The Tundras are the home of the reindeer. They are sparsely inhabited.\\nSouth of the Tundras are the forest plains.\\nDraw on your maps lines representing limits of Wheat, Snow, Trees and Icebergs.\\nThe Climatic Zones of the northern hemisphere differ somewhat from those of the\\nsouthern hemisphere. Why\\nDraw the Isotherms for every 20 degrees Fahrenheit upon your maps. Account\\nfor the abrupt changes in direction of the Isotherms as far as you can.\\nRelief Maps.\\nFrom your knowledge of the continents their rivers, mountains, highlands\\nand lowlands you will be able to make relief maps of them.\\nWe know that the Amazon river flows east. What does this tell us of the\\nslope of the country through which it flows We know first that the whole of the\\nbasin of the Amazon must slope east. This is the principal slope. Tributaries\\ncome to the Amazon from the north and south. This tells us that the land on the\\nnorth slopes south, and that on the south slopes north; or as the great slope is\\neast, these slopes are southeast and northeast. Then each of these rivers have other\\nrivers running into them from each side, so we have other slopes. Learn and\\nremember the comparative hights of the principal mountains and plateaus.\\nRepresent the relief forms in light and shade, or in colors, as follows:\\nIndicate the lowlands by green; the tops of high mountains by white to repre-\\nsent snow; deserts by yellow; and high plateaus and* plains by some dull color.\\nRemember to analyze the slopes of each river basin, as we have that of the Amazon\\nand indicate these slopes on the map. Show the abrupt mountain slope on the side\\nnext the ocean and the gentler slopes on the side next to the main body of land.\\nShow the divides on your maps.\\nD\\nThe above figure represents a cross section of South America on the Equator. Its length, A E,\\ntherefore, represents a distance of about 2,000 miles. The distance C D (equal to A C), representing\\nthe altitude of cross section, is about j4 of A B, or 250 miles. As the Andes Mountains at this\\npoint are only about 4 miles high the section is exaggerated about 60 times (250^-4).", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "60 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nMake cross sections of the different countries in all directions. Estimate\\namount of exaggeration in these cross sections, by comparing indicated heights\\nwith length of sections. Amount of exaggeration should be estimated and marked\\non each cross section. (See figure on previous page.)\\nIndicate on your maps the amount of rainfall of the different parts of the earth.\\nHow TO Draw the Parallels for Every Ten Degrees.\\nFrom each end of the Equator as a center, and with one-half of the Equator as\\na radius, describe arcs cutting the boundary circles of the Hemispere in four places,\\ntwo north of the Equator and two south of it. These points will be just thirty de-\\ngrees from the Poles, or one-third of the distance from the Poles to the Equator.\\nNow divide one of these parts (of thirty degrees) into three equal parts of ten\\ndegrees each and use one of them as the unit of measure with which to divide up\\nthe boundary circle.\\nDivide half the central Meridian into three equal parts, and one of these parts\\ninto three equal parts again. Use one of these smaller divisions as the unit of\\nmeasure with which to divide up the whole of the central Meridian.\\nPass curved lines through the points in the central Meridian and the corres-\\nponding points of the boundary circle. Mark these parallels with the proper num-\\nber of degrees from the Equator.\\nRemember that all places on the Equator have no latitude, or their latitude is\\nzero, and all other places are either in north latitude or south latitude.\\nAll places except the poles have a latitude of less than ninety degrees.\\nPractice in drawing and reading these circles.\\nHow TO Draw Meridians of Longitude for Every Ten Degrees.\\nDivide the Equator into the same number of parts and in the same manner as\\nthe central Meridian was divided for parallels, and connect the poles and each of\\nthese divisions with lines of uniform curvature. Mark these meridians with the\\ndegrees belonging to them.\\nRemember that the margins of the maps of the Eastern and Western Hemis-\\npheres are identical (the Eastern margin of the Western Hemisphere and the\\nWestern margin of the Eastern Hemisphere, being each 20 degrees, and the other\\nmargins being each 160 degrees). Why? Remember the number of degrees of\\nthe central meridians of both Hemispheres.\\nAfter some practice in drawing and reading meridians of longitude, draw a\\ncircle using both parallels and meridians at the same time.", "height": "2877", "width": "2203", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 61\\nNext draw the parallels and meridians on a hemisphere map which has already\\nbeen completed, and test the accuracy of your drawing by comparing latitude and\\nlongitude of places on your map with those in the book.\\nUnder no circumstances should the parallels and meridians be drawn before\\nthe map is fully completed. No changes or corrections should be made after these\\nlines have been put in. These lines must not be used as guides in map drawing.\\nThey are to be used as tests of accuracy of work and for drill in finding latitude\\nand longitude of places.\\nIf required to find the latitude and longitude of places, a hemisphere map\\nshould first be carefully drawn, showing these places and then the meridians and\\nparallels drawn on this map.\\nTo tJie Teacher: The pupil should now mark off the different countries of\\nthe world, as far as possible, on the heinisphere maps, in order to fix their compara-\\ntive size in the mind. To make this work of still greater value, a few of the states,\\nsuch as Florida, Texas, California, New York, should be marked off at same time.\\nIt will be necessary at first for the pupil to practice marking off the countries\\non enlarged maps of the separate Grand Divisions, especially Eurasia, outside\\nof the hemisphere.\\nThe Grand Divisions and Countries may now be taken up separately and\\nstudied in detail.\\nFor this work, the country or Grand Division to be studied should be enlarged or\\nmagnified from the hemisphere map, and all details, as rivers, mountains, bays,\\ncities, etc., added as desired. The pupil can find these details represented on the\\nmaps in his geography, and should take them from these. The work may thus be\\ncarried on as far as the teacher desires.\\nThe pupil should be able to sketch off any Grand Division quickly and accu-\\nrately, and on any scale.\\nThe countries and all larger divisions of land should be considered by the\\npupil (in study and recitation) in reference to, first, location; second, size (compara-\\ntive); \\\\h\\\\rdi, form; fourth, coast line (amount and value); fifth, surface; sixth, drain-\\nage; seventh, latitude; eighth, climate {temperature, rainfall, etc.); ninth, forests\\nand other natural resources; tenth, products (animal, vegetable and mineral);\\neleventh, (occupations, government, religion, customs, etc.).\\nDiagram for Drawing Map of the United States.\\nFor closer study and detail work the map of the United States may be enlarged from that of\\nNorth America, as is done with other countries. However, on account of the greater importance\\nof our own country to us and the desirability of having as accurate a map of it as possible, it may\\nbe found of advantage to construct the map first from a diagram.", "height": "2861", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "62\\nNATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nTake for the unit of measure a Hue about one-third the length desired for the map east and\\nwest, usually some multiple of the scale used when it forms a part of North America. This line\\nshould be equal to about f of the South American Unit, of same scale.\\nDraw the perpendicular line A B equal to this unit of measure. (B is a point near Chicago and\\nA, a point on the coast of the Mississippi delta below New Orleans.) Extend A B to C, making\\nB C equal to J^ of A B. (C represents a point on the northern bend of Lake Superior.) Draw\\nhorizontal lines through C, B and A. On the horizontal line through C take C D, C M and\\nM N, each equal to A B. (D represents a point in Maine north of Schoodic Lake, the source of\\nthe St. Croix River a portion of the boundary of Maine.)\\nOn the horizontal line through A take the line A H (equal to of A B), and A J and J K,\\neach equal to A B. (The point H is on the western coast of Florida, and J is a point on the Rio\\nGrande the boundary river between Texas and Mexico.)\\nConnect D and H. From the point F, where the horizontal line through B meets D H,\\nmeasure off F E, E G and G I, each equal to A B. (F represents New York, and E the bend in\\nthe Mississippi west of Chicago.).\\nDraw the perpendicular line S L through I. At the middle point of A J let fall the perpen-\\ndicular line O P, equal to 4 of A B. Also draw H R, in the direction of a line passing through\\nE and H, and equal to yi of A B. (P represents, approximately, the southern point of Texas; and\\nR, of Florida.)\\nThe outline of the map may now be drawn.\\nConsiderable practice should be given in drawing the Atlantic coast before marking off the\\nstates. The Atlantic States should be drawn first, and then the states bordering on them, etc.\\nEach \u00c2\u00a3tate should be marked off, and may be drawn separately on enlarged scale. Practice in", "height": "2877", "width": "2204", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 63\\ngiving distances from one point to another, also in estimating the size of maps of South America\\nand North America drawn on this scale. Relief maps of whole, and sections of United States\\nshould be drawn.\\nThe fractious connected with the lines in the diagram represent the length of these lines as\\ncompared with the South American Unit of the same scale.\\nTo llie Teacher: Mucli attention should be given to drawing cross-sections of\\ncountries, and especially of the United States, using the sea level as the base line.\\nOf course, the altitudes of mountains, plateaus, plains and lakes. must be learned in\\norder to do this. Cross-sections of the United States running east and west at\\nabotit 40^ and 30\u00c2\u00b0 north latitude would be profitable exercises. Pupils should be\\nreqtiired to represent the cross-sections well and also to discuss them.\\nThere should also be considerable time given to map-reading from north to\\nsouth and from east to west. For instance, begin with Wisconsin and tell about\\nclimate, products, etc., and then of Illinois and Kentucky, and so on. Begin with\\nWashington and read down the Pacific coast. Begin with New York and read\\nwestward. This brings the cross-sections into intelligible comprehension and puts\\ninto effects or results the facts of elevation and latitude upon climate, rainfall, pro-\\nductions, etc.)\\nHow TO Find Distances in Miles Between Places on the Hemisphere Map.\\nThe hemisphere map, representing one-half of the earth s surface, is about\\n12,400 miles across (one-half of the circumference, or one-half of 25,000 miles),\\neither along the Equator from Pole to Pole or in any other direction through the\\ncenter of the map. Half of the distance across is something over 6,000 miles (about\\n6,200 miles). Estimating in this way, we find the distance across South America\\non the Equator to be about 2,000 miles (one-sixth of the Equator of the hemi-\\nsphere map, or one-third of half of it).\\nUsing this distance across America (as well as 2My portion of the Equator) as\\na unit of measure, practice in finding distances between other places until j ou\\ncan estimate (not measure) distances quite readily and accurately. Distances may\\nalso be estimated quite accurately by comparing construction lines. Practice both\\nmethods.\\nAnother Method for Finding Distances Between Places on Hemisphere\\nMaps in Miles.\\nAs the distance around the earth is about 25,000 miles, one degree of latitude\\nwould equal 25,000 miles divided by 360, or a little over 69 miles; and a minute of\\nlatitude, about I7 miles.\\nAs all the parallels are nearl}- the same distance apart, a degree of latitude\\nis of about the same length everywhere.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "64 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nA degree of longitude at the Equator is of the same length as a degree of lati-\\ntude, but it constantly diminishes as the meridians approach each other, until, at\\nthe poles, it is nothing.\\nFrom this we se? that the distance between places can easily be determined\\nin miles. If they are situated on the same meridian, and the difference in latitude\\nis known, we simply multiply the number of degrees by 69. The result will give\\nthe distance in miles between the places. From this data, and considering the\\nlength of a degree of longitude as compared with that of a degree of latitude at the\\nsame point, we can also estimate what the difference in longitude between places\\nwould equal in miles.\\nPractice much in finding approximate distances between places by all\\nmethods. The first method is best for rapid work and is of great value in giving\\ncomparative size, relative distance, etc.\\nAll distances measured on direct lines towards center of hemisphere map are\\ncorrect, but only approximate when measured in other directions, and especially as\\nthe margin of the map is approached. The amount of exaggeration at the margin\\nis over one-half in the direction of the boundary circle.\\nThis can be readily understood from the following illustration. Cut the rind\\nof half an orange into equal parts radiating from (and attached to) the common\\ncenter. Spread the rind thus cut on some plane surface and observe that the\\nboundary is a circle whose diameter, in any direction, is just equal to one-half of\\nthe circumference of the orange; that the central portion represents well the orig-\\ninal surface, and that the radiating pieces spread farther and farther apart until, at\\nthe end, the space between any two is more than half the distance across one of the\\nparts.\\nThe exact relation is determined by comparing the diameter with half of the\\nouter boundary circle. (These were equal before the orange was cut.)\\nThis relation is as one to one and fifty-seven-hundredths-\\nFrom this we learn that distances between all places in direct line to the center\\nof our hemisphere map are correctly represented; that the greatest exaggeration is\\nnear the margin and in the direction of the outer boundary circle, where it is over\\none-half; that in a direction j ust half way between these two the exaggeration is\\none-half of one-half, or one-fourth; that all exaggeration constantly diminishes\\nfrom margin towards the center, where it is nothing.\\nNote. In order to restore a thing which has been increased one-half of itself (as hemisphere\\nmap at margin) to its original or proper size, one-third oi it (in line of exaggeration if a map)\\nshould be deducted; and where exaggerated one-fourth of itself, one-fifth should be deducted. A\\nsimple way to illustrate the principle is this: Divide a line into two equal parts. Now, increase\\nthis by one of these parts (one-half of original line). There will now be three parts. One-third\\nof this line (or one part) must be deducted to obtain the original line.", "height": "2877", "width": "2204", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 65\\nA little study and drill in this work will enable one to make all necessary allowances for ex-\\naggeration at margin of map, and to give distances between all places with promptness and reason-\\nable accurac}\\nHow TO Find the Scale of any Map.\\n1. Multiply the number of degrees tliat an inch of the map covers in latitude\\n(or equivalent) by 69. 2. Find the distance in inches between two places on the\\ngiven map and compare this distance with the known distance between the same\\nplaces on the hcuiispkcre map.\\nLongitude and Time.\\nAs the earth rotates on its axis, the sun appears to pass around the earth in a\\nday, or to pass through 360 degrees in twenty-four hours. Therefore, 360 divided\\nby 24 equals the number of degrees passed over by the sun each hour, or 15 de-\\ngrees. We see from this that we can change longitude into time by dividing by\\n15; and time into longitude by multipl^ang by 15.\\nThe longitude between two places is 45 degrees; what is the difference in\\ntime? The difference in time between two places is 2i hours; what is the differ-\\nence in longitude\\nA certain place is 20 degrees west longitude and another place is 40 degrees\\neast longitude; what is the difference in time?\\nWhen it is 9:00 o clock A. m. in New York, what is the time 30 degrees farther\\neast? 22 i degrees farther west?\\n-to\\nHow to Find the Latitude and Longitude of a Place on the Earth.\\nLatitude. The North Star alwa3rs appears to remain stationary, neither rising\\nnor setting as most other stars do. The stars near the North Star appear to circle\\nabout it, while those farther away rise and set every night.\\nThe reason for this is that the axis of the earth points to the North vStar and\\nmakes all things appear as they would if the axis really rested upon it while the\\nearth rotated.\\nNotice the position of The Dipper in relation to this star at different hours\\nof the night.\\nWere we at the Equator, the North Star would appear as just on the horizon.\\nAs we proceeded north, it would appear to rise until we had reached the North\\nPole, n-hen it would be directly overhead. That is, while we have been going\\nninety degrees on the earth, the star appeared to rise ninety degrees, or to rise a\\ndegree for every degree we went north from the Equator. From this we see that\\nthe altitude of the North Star, or number of degrees it is above the horizon at any\\nplace, represents the latitude of that place.", "height": "2877", "width": "2154", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "66 NATURAI, SYSTEM OF\\nThe Noith Star is not visible in the Southern Hemisphere. Why\\nAnother star visible in that hemisphere is, therefore, selected as a guide.\\nLatitude is also determined by noting the position of the sun and other heav-\\nenly bodies at certain hours.\\nLongitude. -If one carried a watch that kept accurate time, he could find the\\nlongitude of any place exactly. He need only set his watch at Greenwich time\\nand carry it to the place whose longitude is wanted. The difference of the time of\\nthe place and his watch is the difference of time between that place and Greenwich.\\nHe has simply to multiply this time by 15 to get the longitude of the place. If the\\nwatch was faster than the time of the place, the longitude would be west of Green-\\nwich; if slower., it would be east of it.\\nSailors carry very accurate clocks called chronometers., which keep Greenwich\\ntime usually. This time is compared with the local time of the place where the\\nship is each day. The local time of a place may be determined by the rising and\\nsetting of the sun or other heavenly bodies.\\nStandard Time.\\nThe fact that all places not on the same meridian have different times formerly\\nled to much difficulty and danger in running railway trains, as well as to the an-\\nnoyance and confusion of passengers. Frequently the different trains of the rail-\\nroads entering a city would be run on different times. To obviate these difficulties,\\nthe great railway lines of the United States and Canada, in 1883, established time\\ndivisions of the country, each division extending over 15 degrees of longitude, and\\nknown as Eastern Time, Central Time, Mountain Time and Pacific Time.\\nThe meridians of j^ degrees^ go degrees., lo^ degrees and 120 degrees., respec-\\ntively, were determined upon as the central lines of these time divisions. It was also\\ndetermined that the local time of each of these meridians should be the standard\\ntime of all railroad clocks and watches in this time division. In this way, the dif-\\nference in time between any two adjacent divisions would be just one hour, and no\\nclock or watch keeping standard time would vary more than half an hour from\\ncorrect local time.\\nPassengers traveling from one time division to another set their watches one\\nhour back or forward, according as they go West or East.\\nThough standard time was originally devised for the convenience of the rail-\\nroads, it is now in very general use by all classes.\\nSee a Standard Time chart of United States.\\nThe Mercator Maps or Charts.\\nMost of our maps thus far have been drawn on a globular projection. That\\nis, as though they formed a part of the surface of a globe.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY.\\n67\\nMany maps are drawn on what is called Mercator s Projection. These maps\\nare drawn as though the earth was a cylinder. The meridians and parallels are\\nstraight lines. The meridians are everywhere the same distance apart and the\\nparallels get farther and farther apart as they recede from the Equator. This\\ntends to greatly exaggerate the polar region. Indeed, the poles are not points to-\\nward which the meridians converge as in the hemisphere maps, but are circles just\\nas large as the Equator.\\nThe special value of this form of map is for use of sailors, and to show the\\nwhole earth at one view. As the direction of one place from that of another is al-\\nways correctly shown, sailors prefer to use these maps as guides.\\nKaufifman is the name of the man who first employed this method of map\\nmaking. Kauifman is also the German word for merchant. The Latin word for\\nmerchant, or iMercaior, is the name now generally used for this kind of map.\\nMaps of this character are usually called charts.\\nH\\njeOl/ATORT", "height": "2869", "width": "2144", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "68 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nHow To Draw a Map on the Mercatoe Projection.\\n(see figure on previous page.)\\nDraw a circle such that its diameter, as A B iu the figure, is equal to about one third of the\\nwidth of the proposed map. Extend A B to D, making A D equal to 3i times A B. This line,\\nA B, is the Equator. At one extremity. A, of the diameter, draw a line F E, tangent to the cir-\\ncle, or perpendicular to this diameter. At D, draw the line H G perpendicular to A D. Divide\\nthe half circumference next to the line F E into parts of 10 degrees each, or as small as desired\\n90 degrees on each side of the Equator, same as on hemisphere map. Through centre of circle\\nand these divisions, up to 70 degrees, draw lines to this tangent line. Through the points in the\\ntangent line, thus made, draw lines parallel to the diameter, and extend them to H G. These\\nare the parallels of latitude and should be numbered in degrees the same as on the circle from\\nwhich they are derived. Divide up the line A D, or the Equator, into 36 equal parts of 10 de-\\ngrees each, or into any other desired number of equal parts. Through these points draw lines\\nperpendicular to the parallels meridians~of longitude and number them both ways from any\\nline or meridian taken as the Prime Meridian. The sum of the degrees should be equal to 360.\\nH G and F E being identical meridians, should be numbered alike.\\nIndicate on this map the exact latitude and longitude of the principal points of the con-\\ntinents and islands as shown on the hemisphere maps. The map is then drawn by connecting\\nthese points with the proper outline.\\nThe view may be changed by taking any other line as the Prime Meridian.\\nLatitude of over 70 degrees cannot be represented on this map without greatly lengthening\\nthe map. In most maps on this projection, the distances between the parallels of higher latitude\\nare arbitrarily shortened to accommodate the page on which the map is drawn, or size of map re-\\nquired.\\nNote. The principle of the Mercator Projection may be shown as follows: Enclose a globe\\nrepresenting the earth in a paper cylinder. Now, if lines be drawn from the center of the globe\\nthrough the different parallels to this enclosing cylinder, the ends of these lines will form circles\\naround the cylinder. The meridians are projected on to the cylinder in straight lines, and the\\nsame distance apart as at the Equator. The distance around the cylinder would equal the cir-\\ncumference of the globe, or about 3^ times its diameter. Now, if this cylinder was unrolled, the\\nmeridians and parallels would be straight lines perpendicular to each other and would be a dupli-\\ncate of the drawing already made providing the diameters of the globe and circle were equal.", "height": "2837", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "LIFE AND PRODUCTS OF THE EARTH.\\nMan cannot live upon atmosphere and water, or on rocks and soils. Life\\nevermore is fed b}? life, and the earth was not fitted for man s happy dwelling-\\nplace till clothed with plants, and the waters and land were filled with animal life.\\nThose living objects about us that grow from the soil, remain fixed by their\\nroots in one place and send forth their stems and branches, their leaves, flowers\\nand fruits, are plants^ and all of them comprise the vegetable kingdotn.\\nThose other living objects that breathe the air or live in water, move about by\\ntheir own effort and take the food of their choice, are animals, and all of them com-\\nprise the animal kingdom.\\nMan uses many of these for food, or builds homes, mills, factories, railways\\nand ships from them. Whatever he gets from minerals, plants or animals for his\\nuse and trade he emails producls, whether it be gold or iron, lumber, food or clothing.\\nTo know geography as we should we must learn where and how many of these\\nproducts are obtained and of their value to man.\\nEvery part of the earth furnishes some of these and is connected by highways\\nof land and sea with every other part. Every one of us depends greatly on what\\nsome other land and people furnish to us and what we can trade to them.\\nIf you were asked what plant is of most use to man, many of you in the north\\nwould say wheat or corn; while boys and girls in the south would name cotton.\\nThose in Brazil would surely mention coffee, and those in Germany and France\\nmight properly say the sugar beet. The Arab children would all at once name\\nthe date palm, the Chinese and Japanese and many others, rice or tea, and in the\\nSouth Sea Islands, bread fruit would claim their votes.\\nIf all the people of the world were asked at once, the most would answer that\\nrice and cotton were above all others in value. To the largest number rice is the\\nchief food and cotton clothes more people than any other thing. So by study we\\nmight learn which animal is the most valuable to man, and which mineral. But\\nman is enabled to enjoy the blessings of all these products by trade and exchange.\\nThe plants you daily see are not alike, but have different sizes, forms, flowers\\nand fruits. You can find many that are similar in their nature and qualities.\\nThe science that treats of plants, how they grow, how they are related to one an-\\nother in natural qualities, which tells where they are distributed in the earth, and\\nthat describes and classifies them is called botany. The science, or study, which\\nsimilarly describes and classifies animals is called zoology.\\n(69)", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "70 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nWe can study but little of these now, but we can learn much that is useful.\\nThey may be studied easily at home where there is a will to do it. It makes life\\nfar more enjoyable to learn the secrets of nature; and it is profitable to all to do so.\\nPlants and Animals Necessary to Bach Other.\\nWithout plants animals could not exist. The ground contains all the ele-\\nments which compose the bodies of animals, but these cannot be obtained directly.\\nPlants must first take them out of the soil and fit them for food. Not all animals,\\nhowever, get their sustenance entirely from plants. Some animals seem necessary\\nto change plant life into food suited to other animals. The cow, for instance, eats\\ngrass (a substance on which man and many animals would starve) and converts it\\ninto milk, butter, and flesh\u00e2\u0080\u0094 most valuable foods.\\nIn another way plants are very useful to animals. In the sunlight their\\nleaves, which serve as lungs, absorb the poisonous carbonic acid which animals\\nbreathe out, and give back the life-sustaining oxygen.\\nEven marine plants absorb carbonic acid from the water and give off oxygen,\\nwhich helps the fish to live and also purifies the water by destroying the decaying\\nanimal and vegetable matter.\\nIndeed, in this respect, plants and animals are very useful to each other.\\nPlants need for life the carbonic acid which animals exhale, and animals need the\\noxygen given off by the plants.\\nThe Seasons.\\nThe Earth makes a great journey around the Sun, called 2.revolution^ in 36554^\\ndays, or oxl^ year.\\nWhile this journey is being made, the rays of the sun fall at times more di-\\nrectly upon some portions of the earth than upon others, and thus bring about the\\nchange from spring to summer, autumn and winter, or the Change of Seasons.\\nYou can readily understand this if you will observe the position the sun occu-\\npies at different times of the day and year, and the effects on the temperature.\\nWhen the sun is low in the sky of a morning or evening of a summer day, the\\nair feels much cooler than at noon when the sun is high. That is, the sun will\\ngive more heat when its rays fall vertically or nearly so, than when they fall slant-\\ningly. This is because a number of vertical rays covers less space on the surface\\nof the earth than the same number of slanting rays.\\n(The instrument which measures the heat or tells how hot or cold it is at any\\nplace is called a Thermometer. It consists of a sealed glass tube with a bulb at one\\nend, which is filled with mercury. The air has first been taken out of the tube.\\nWhen the weather is warm, the mercury expands aud, rises in the tube. The", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 71\\nwarmer it is, the more the mercury expands and rises. A scale at the back of the\\ntube, marked off in degrees, tells how much it rises, and therefore, how warm it is.)\\nNow, if you will notice in winter time, the sun seems to pass across the sky\\nvery low down in the south, and the rays are very slanting; then, as there is but\\nlittle of the sky to pass over, the sun does it quickly and so we get but little heat,\\nwith a short day and long night.\\nIn summer the sun passes across the heavens higher up, nearly over-head, so\\nwe get much more heat and light, and the days become longer and the nights\\nshorter.\\nAs fall and winter come on, the sun passes across the sky lower and lower\\ndown each day, until finally its lowest point is reached, and it is Winter. Then it\\ngradually makes the journej back again. On the journey down, the days get\\nshorter and shorter and the nights longer, until, when the sun is half way down,\\nthe days and nights are of the same length everywhere on the earth, and it is our\\nFall. From this point the days are shorter than the nights and keep growing\\nshorter, until the sun reaches its lowest point. On the return the days grow\\nlonger and the nights shorter, until, at the half way point, they are again of equal\\nlength and it is our Spring. The days continue to grow longer until the sun has\\nreached its highest point north, and it is our Summer once more.\\nThe Solstices and Equinoxes.\\nThe sun seems to stand still for a time at its highest point and lowest point,\\nbefore going back on its journey, and for this reason these places are called\\nSolstices (sun standing.)\\nThe highest point is called the Siiiiiiner Solstice; and the lowest, the Winter\\nSolstice. The point just half-way between these, on the upward or downward\\njourney, is called the ^\u00c2\u00abz\u00c2\u00ab(9,r (equal nights), as the nights and days are then\\nof equal length everywhere. The half-way point on the downward journey is\\ncalled the Autumnal Equinox, and the half-way point on the upward journey is\\ncalled the Vernal Equinox, for these occur in the early part of the Fall and Spring.\\nWe must remember that the sun does not really move at all as it appears to do.\\nIts apparent motion north and south is due to the earth s axis being inclined and\\nalways pointing in the same direction, so that on its great journey around the sun,\\nmore of the northern side is presented to the sun and then more of the southern\\nside at different seasons of the year.\\nThe Zones.\\nNow on this apparent journey north and south, back and forth, the sun is di-\\nrectly over a belt around the earth, on which it shines full and strong all the year,\\nmaking it always summer. This belt extends on each side of the Equator, and is", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "72 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\ncalled the Torrid (burning) Zone. Here plants are ever green and flowers in\\nbloom, and many kinds of delicious fruits and rare spices grow. Here live the\\nlargest and fiercest of wild animals. Man gets his food withotit much effort. It is\\nso warm he needs little clothing or shelter and he becomes languid and indolent.\\nOn each side of the Torrid Zone is a belt where the sun s rays strike slant-\\ningly all the time, and at some portions of the year much more so than at others,\\nthus producing the change of seasons, as we have learned.\\nThese belts are called the Temperate Zones. The one on the North is called\\nthe North Temperate Zone^ and the one on the South, the South Temperate Zone.\\nIn these Zones grow most of the corn, wheat and common fruits, and here are\\nfound the sheep, horse and cow.\\nHere live the most civilized people in the world, and here are seen the grand-\\nest works of man the great cities, churches and schools, libraries, factories and\\nrailways.\\nThe Frozen Regions are around the Poles. The one around the North Pole\\nis called the North Frigid Zone^ and the one around the South Pole, the South\\nFrigid Zone. In the Frigid Zones the sun is entirely out of sight a portion of every\\nyear, and when it does shine its rays are more slanting than they are in the Temper-\\nate Zones, so that there is little light and heat compared with what we receive.\\nThe people of these regions receive much light during their long nights from\\nthe Aurora brilliant lights which shoot high in the heavens and often cover the\\nwhole sky. The name given to these lights in the northern regions is Aurora\\nBorealis^ or Northern Lights\\\\ and in the southern regions, Atirora Australis, or\\nSouthern Lights.\\nThe vegetation of these regions is very scanty, and consists mostly of lichens\\nand mosses, and a few other hardy plants.\\nThe sea is full of life, but there are few land animals, except birds, which are\\nnumerous in summer.\\nAnimals which furnish the most valuable furs, such as the Seal, Ermine,\\nSable, and Polar Fox, are found here; also the Eider Duck, which is covered with\\nthe soft, warm down so highly prized.\\nThe inhabitants are stunted in growth and look like dwarfs. They dress in\\nthick furs and live in houses made of rocks, and often of snow and ice. Their food\\nconsists offish, the flesh of the White Bear, the Reindeer, and the Seal. They are\\ndrawn from place to place over the ice by means of Dogs or Reindeer hitched to\\nsledges.\\nSome of the Principal Plants and Animals of the Zones.\\nThe principal animals of the Frigid Zones are the Whale, Walrus, Seal\\nWhite Bear, Reindeer, Wolf, Ermine, Sable, Polar Fox, Eider Duck and Penguin.", "height": "2877", "width": "2204", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 73\\nOF THE TORRID ZONE.\\nPlants Palms (date, cocoanut, sago,) Pineapple, Banana, Bread-fruit, Fig,\\nOrange, Tree-fern, Banyan Tree, Mahogany, Rosewood, India Rubber Tree, Bam-\\nboo, Ebonj Coffee, Spices, Sugar-cane, Cotton, Rice. The Banana, Cocoanut,\\nBread-fruit and Rice are the great foods of the tropics and grow almost everywhere\\nin those regions.\\nAnimals Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Hyena, Giraffe, Camel,\\nMonkey, Crocodile, Ostrich, Condor, Flamingo, and many birds of beautiful plum-\\nage. The animals are mostl}^ wild and ferociousj\\nOF THE TEMPERATE/ ZONES.\\nPlants Walnut, Oak, Pine, Hemlock, Spruce and other trees; Wheat, Oats,\\nCorn, Rye, and other grains; Cotton, Sugar-cane, Tea, Rice, Tobacco, Grapes,\\nApples, Pears, Peaches, Plums, Berries, etc.\\nAnimals Bear, Panther, Wolf, Buffalo, Bison, Deer, Fox, Kangaroo, Duck-\\nBill, Zebra, Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Swine, Mules, Dogs, Eagles, Turkeys, Hens,\\nDucks, Swans, Geese. The domestic animals are the most common.\\nLearn all you can about these plants and animals, how they live and what\\nthey are good for.\\nClimate.\\nThe kind of weather that prevails in a country, whether hot or cold, wet or\\ndry, is called its Climate.\\nThe Torrid Zone has a hot climate, the Temperate Zones a temperate climate,\\nand the Frigid Zones a cold climate.\\nFrom what we have learned about zones, we know the greater the latitude\\n(distance from the Equator) of a place, the colder must be its climate.\\nLatitude, however, is not the only thing that affects temperature, for there are\\nplaces in the Torrid Zone which are covered with snow all the year around.\\nIf you should climb a high mountain you would see how this is.\\nThough it might be very warm at the foot, you would notice that the air grew\\ncooler and cooler as you ascended, until, if you mounted high enough about three\\nmiles in the Torrid Zone you would find the climate very cold, even freezing, and\\nthe ground covered with snow and ice.\\nIn that short journey you would pass through all climates from the Torrid\\nZone to that of the Frigid Zone, and you would notice the different kinds of vege.\\ntation growing on the mountain side of about the same character and in the same\\norder as though you passed from the Equator to the Poles. Near the top of the\\nmountain, or at the Snow Line, you would see the dwarf shrubs and trees, and", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "74 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nfinally mosses and licliens somewhat similar to those you would find in the Frigid\\nZone.\\nFrom this we learn that Altitude^ or height above the sea, also affects climate.\\nWhen a great deal of rain falls in a country, it has a Wet or Moist Climate; and\\nwhen little, if any, rain falls, as in a desert region, the country has a Dry Climate.\\nA Temperate Climate is best for man. A hot climate makes people indolent,,\\nand a very cold climate makes them stupid.\\nThe Races of Men.\\nThere are many different kinds of people in the world.\\nYou have all seen White People and Black People, and perhaps many of you\\nhave seen Red People, or Indians. In countries over the sea are Brown People and\\nYellow People.\\nThese five different kinds of People are called Races of Men, and include all\\nthe people in the world.\\nThe other names for these races are Caucasian (White People), Negroes (Black\\nPeople), Indians (Red People), Malays (Brown People), Mongolians (Yellow People).\\nThe White People inhabit most of the Western Continent and Europe, and\\nare scattered here and there over the whole world. They are the most enlightened\\nof all the Races of Men and have made the greatest progress in learning.\\nAfrica is the native country of the Black Race. From there Black People were\\nbrought to this country. At home they live in rude huts and gain their living by\\nhunting, fishing or cultivating the soil.\\nThe Indians, or Red Race, inhabit America. They live in huts or tents, and\\nobtain their food very much as the Black Race does.\\nThe Brown Race live in the South Eastern part of Asia, near the Coast and\\non neighboring islands, and are great boatmen.\\nThe Yellow Race is composed mostly of the Chinese and Japanese. These\\npeople, next to the White Race, are the most highly civilized.\\nLocate on your maps the different races of men.\\nTropics and Polar Circles.\\nWe have learned about the different Zones, the Torrid, the Temperate and the\\nFrigid, and yet, were we to pass from the Equator to the Poles, we should notice\\nnothing on the earth or in the temperature to tell us just where one Zone ends and\\nthe other commences. The temperature would continually grow cooler, but the\\nchange is so gradual it would be impossible to tell in this way alone, just when we\\nhad passed out of the Torrid into the Temperate Zone, or from the Temperate\\ninto the Frigid Zone.", "height": "2877", "width": "2204", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 75\\nThere is a way, however, by which we can tell this very accurately. Observe\\nthe sun at mid-day or noon, and you will notice that it is not quite overhead or in\\nthe zenith, at any time of the year, and that the shadow which you cast always falls\\ntowards the north. In summer this shadow is very short, but it grows longer each\\nday until winter has come and the sun has reached its lowest point in its south-\\nward journey.\\nNow, if the sun should go a little higher in the sky in summer, until it reached\\nthe zenith, 3 ou would cast no shadow at all. If it passed beyond the zenith, toward\\nthe north, your shadow at noon-day would fall toward the south. Or, if, instead of\\nthe sun s going north, you should go south, the same result would follow.\\nYou might travel south far enough, so that when the sun had reached its\\nfarthest point north, you would be directly under it, or so that the sun would be in\\nthe zenith, and you would cast no shadow. You would then stand on the dividing\\nline between the Torrid Zone and the North Temperate Zone. Now could you go\\nwest as fast as the sun, so as to pass around the earth in one day, keeping the sun\\nconstantly overhead, you would go all the way round on this dividing line.\\nOr,if you can imagine a very long straight rod as passing through the sun and\\nextending to the earth at your feet, its point would make a mark clear round the\\nearth in a day, as the earth rotates on its axis, which would represent this dividing line.\\nRemember then, whenever you are so situated that the sun is directlj^ over\\nyour head on the day that it has reached its farthest point north you will be on the\\nTropic of Cancer-.\\nThe Tropic of Cancer is the boundary between the Torrid Zone and the North\\nTemperate Zone; or, the imaginary circle around the earth on which the rays of\\nthe sun fall vertically when it has reached its farthest point north Summer Sol-\\nstice. This circle is found to be about 233/2 degrees north of the Equator, or a\\nlittle over one-fourth of the distance from the Equator to the North Pole.\\nAgain, if you should go south far enough so that the sun would appear directly\\noverhead when it had reached its farthest point south (Winter Solstice) you would\\nstand on the boundary between the Torrid and South Temperate Zones, called the\\nTropic of Capricorn. This is situated 2? l4 degrees south of the Equator.\\nWe have already learned that the sun lights up one-half of the earth s surface\\nat a time; so, if the sun were directly over the Equator, its farthest raj s would just\\nreach the poles, and the days and nights would be of equal length everywhere.\\nLet us imagine two very long, straight rods fixed to the sun, so as to move\\njust as it does, and extending, one north and the other south, along these farthest\\nrays of light until they reach the poles.\\nNow if the sun should begin to move north the ends of these rods would also\\nmove, the north one going beyond the North Pule and the south one coming this", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "76 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nway from the Soutli Pole. When the sun reached 23% degrees north of the\\nEquator, so as to stand over the Tropic of Cancer, the end of the north rod would\\nextend just as far, or 23^ degrees beyond the North Pole, and the end of the south\\nrod, 233^ degrees this side of the South Pole. Now while they are in this position,\\nand the earth rotates once on its axis, the ends of the rods will describe circles 23^\\ndesfrees from the Poles.\\nThe sun is at the Summer Solstice, or highest point north, and therefore, as\\nthe rods represent the farthest rays of the sun, we know that at this time, the light\\nof the sun extends just 23^^ degrees beyond the North Pole, and within 23^\\ndegrees of the South Pole. These circles represent the boundaries between the\\nTemperate and Frigid Zones. The one on the north is called the Arctic Circle;\\nand the one on the south is called the Antarctic Circle.\\nNow if the sun should move south again, until it stood over the Equator, or at\\nthe Equinox, the ends of the rods would again be at the poles, and the days and\\nnights everywhere of equal length.\\nThen, if the sun should move 23^^ degrees south of the Equator or to the\\nWinter Solstice, the end of the north rod would move 23)^ degrees this side of the\\nNorth Pole, and the end of the other rod 23^^ degrees beyond the South Pole the\\nlimits of the sun s rays at the Winter Solstice. By the rotation of the earth, the\\nsame circles would be described as before.\\nWe can learn from this something of the length of the day and night at the\\nPoles. When the sun was on the Equator, the rods extended just to the Poles.\\nNow it requires just three months to pass from the Equinox to the Summer Sol-\\nstice and three months to go back to the Equator, or Equinox again, or six months\\nin all. Thus, the sun would shine on the North Pole all the time for six months,\\nand there would be six months night, while the sun goes to the Winter Solstice.\\nThe seasons in the Northern Hemisphere are just the opposite of those in the\\nSouthern Hemisphere at the same time. When it is Avinter with us it will be\\nsummer with the people in South America.\\nRemember that the Equator, Tropic of Cancer, and the Tropic of Capricorn\\nare imaginary lines on the earthy and the Equinox, Summer Solstice and Winter\\nSolstice are the positions in the heavetis which the sun appears to occupy when it is\\ndirectly over each of these circles, respectively.\\nThe days get longer and longer in summer time as we go towards the Poles\\nwhere they are six months long. When, if we should go south at the same time,\\nthe nights would keep getting longer, until at the South Pole we should find the\\nnight six months long.\\nThe days of the summer are often hotter in St. Paul and other northern towns\\nthan at places much farther south. Let us see how this is. We know that the", "height": "2877", "width": "2204", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 77\\nfarther we go north in the summer the longer the days get. When the day is\\nfifteen hours long at one place, it will be eighteen hours long at another, farther\\nnorth; twenty hours at a place still farther north; two days long at another; a week\\nlong at another, and so on, until finally, at the Pole it is six months long. Now\\nthe slanting rays of the sun at the north do not give as much heat in the same\\nlength of time as the more direct rays at the south, but the sun shines many more\\nhours a day and in this way more than makes up the difference, except in high\\nlatitudes, where the very slanting rays can give but little heat, though they con-\\ntinue for months.\\nHow TO Learn About the Sun s Journey.\\nThere is a simple way to learn about the sun s journeys each year. Drive a\\nstraight stick two or three feet long perpendicularly into the ground, in some\\nplace where it will not be disturbed, and in full view of the southern sky, so that\\nthe sun can always shine on it at mid-day. Determine a line running north from\\nthe foot of this stick to serve as a noon-mark. When the shadow of the stick\\nfalls exactly north, or upon this line, it will be mid-day, or noon. Now note at\\nnoon, daily or weekly, the length of the shadow v/hich the sun casts and carefully\\nmark it by a peg, or in some other way. If you should commence this in the sum-\\nmer, you would notice that the shadow would grow longer each day, until about\\nDecember 21st (the Winter Solstice), when it would seem to stand still for awhile,\\nand then begin to grow shorter until about the 21st of June (the vSummer Solstice).\\nThese are the limits which should be marked as the Solstices. At the half-way\\npoint mark Equinox{vera r^ ^t this point the si:n crosses the Equator first on\\nits journey south, about September 22ud, and then on its return journey north.\\nMarch 21st, when the days and nights are of equal length.\\nThis experiment might be performed on the floor of the school room, if the\\nroom faces south, so that the rays of the sun can come in at the windows at noon\\nall the year round.\\nAs you see the shadows lengthening from day to da} remember that the rays\\nof the sun are gradually leaving the Arctic regions and their long night is at hand,\\nwhile the day is just breaking in the Antarctic regions.\\nIn all we have said, we have spoken of the sun as moving, as it appears to do.\\nIt would really make no difference in the results whether the sun moved north or\\nsouth, whether the earth s axis inclined towards the north part of the year, and\\ntowards the south the other part, or whether the earth made a yearly journey\\naround the sun, its axis inclining in the same direction all the time, as it really\\ndoes. In any of these cases, the sun would appear to move.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "78\\nNATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nFrom the diagram given below you can learn about this yearly journey of the\\nearth, and see just how its axis is inclined so as to make the sun appear to move\\nnorth and south.\\nObserve that the rays of the sun strike the earth vertically at the Equator\\ntwice during the year, in the spring and fall; once at the Tropic of Cancer, in our\\nsummer, when the rays reach beyond the North Pole; and once at the Tropic of\\nCapricorn in our winter, when the rays reach beyond the South Pole. The axis of the\\nearth is inclined about 23 j4 degrees to the plane of its orbzi, or path around the sun.\\nJur.E .21.\\nMflRCM 2.1\\nym^\\nDEC. 2.2\\nSEJi.ZZ\\nPut a stick through an apple or orange for an axis to represent the earth. Re-\\nvolve this about some other object representing the sun, and, remembering to keep the\\naxis always pointing in the same direction, showhow the change of seasons takes place.\\nThe Atmosphere.\\nThere is a part of the earth which we think little about, and yet it is just as\\nimportant as the land or water, indeed, without it we could not live, nor could any\\nanimal or plant long survive. This part is called the Ai r or Atmosphere\\nIn going up high mountains, or in balloons, people find that the air grows thin-\\nner and thinner as they ascend, and, when three or four miles up, it becomes so\\nrare, or thin, that breathing it is difi cult. From this it is believed that the air\\ncannot extend very many miles above the earth and that it does not fill all space,\\nso that the earth floats in it, as people used to think. It is rather a gaseous body\\nwhich envelopes all the land and water of the earth, and goes everywhere with it.\\nThe earth then, is made up of land, a great ocean of water, and a greater\\nocean of air.-", "height": "2877", "width": "2207", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 79\\nAt the bottom of this ocean man lives and moves about, while above and around\\nhiui flit and sport the varioi:s winged forms of insects and birds, the fish of this\\nvast aerial sea.\\nAt about three and one-half miles above the earth, the air is one-half as dense\\nas at the surface. That is, the lower half of the air, in weight, is three and one-half\\nmiles thick; while the other half extends upward many miles more perhaps hun-\\ndreds nobody knows,\\nf Although it is cold on top of high mountains, the rays of the sun beat down\\nso strong and hot that the hands and face, where exposed, are blistered. Then^\\nalmost as soon as the sun is set, whatever heat there is, all seems to escape at once,\\nand the air becomes very much colder than before. This shows that the air at the\\nsurface of the earth where it is denser, serves as a shield to protect us from the\\nfierce rays of the sun; and also as a blanket, to keep the warmth which has come to\\nus from the sun from escaping again. Indeed, if it were not for this, every nighty\\neven in mid-summer, would be as cold as in winter. Were it not for the air, our\\nlakes would boil under the noon-day sun in summer and freeze at night.\\nAir has weight and is much heavier than some gases, such as hydrogen or\\ncommon gas, which is used in cities to light the streets and homes and with which\\nballoons are sometimes filled. Still, it is very light when compared with other\\nsubstances. A column one inch square extending to the very top of the atmos-\\nphere would weigh fifteen pounds. This means that the air presses fifteen pounds\\non every square inch of the earth s surface at sea level; fifteen pounds on every\\nsquare inch of our bodies. As the air presses on all parts of us equally, and we\\nhave always been used to it, we do not notice the pressure. We should remember\\nthat the air presses in all directions equally, upward and downward. The great\\npressure on the open palm of our hand downward would be more than we could\\nsupport if it were not for the equal upward pressure under the hand. The air\\nbuoys us up and actually makes us lighter, something as the water does when we\\ngo in bathing.\\nThe air presses down harder at some times than at others. When the air is\\nmoist, or just before a rain, the pressure is less than when dry. Watery vapor is\\nlighter than dry air. The instrument which measures this air pressure is called a\\nbarometer. It consists of a glass tube, with one end closed, and from which all air\\nhas been taken. This is inverted over a cup of mercury, so that its open end rests\\nin the mercur} The pressure of air on the mercury in the cup makes it rise in\\nthe tube. The mercury rises or falls in the tube according to the pressure of the\\nair. By means of a little scale at the back of the tube, one can read how much it\\nfalls or rises at any time. By this instrument people can tell when storms are\\ncoming. A low barometer indicates stormy weather. People also use this in-\\nstrument to tell the height of mountains. Explain.", "height": "2877", "width": "2145", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "80\\nNATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nWhen air is heated even slightly it expands and becomes lighter than the air\\nall around it; so the warmer air is displaced, forced up, by the pressure of the\\ncooler and heavier air. For this reason the warm air of the room rises, the cooler\\nair from without forcing it to do so, and rushing in to take its place at the floor.\\nThus, when large areas of land or water become heated, the air over it be-\\ncomes heated and rises, being displaced by the cooler and heavier air around it.\\nSo great currents of air, called IViiid, are started. The wind is simply air in\\nmotion. Cyclones are violent winds having a whirling motion. They are some-\\ntimes called Hurricanes, Tornadoes and Typhoons.\\nNote A cubic foot of cool air might be so expanded by heat that it would fill a large room.\\nWhen so expanded it would be very rare and very light compared with the same bulk of cool air.\\nThe room full would weigh no more than the^single cubic foot of air before it was heated. The\\nrare, light air rises, is displaced by cooler, heavier air, for the same reason that oil is displaced\\nwhen water is poured into a vessel containhig oil. The air is forced through the register a hot\\nwind on a small scale through the stove and up the chimney by the pressure of cooler and\\nheavier air all about it.\\nWhen smoke from the chimney falls to the ground it is because the air is light, and not as\\nwe often hear people say, because the air is heavy. When the smoke rises above the chimney,\\nforming a tall column, the air is still and heavy.\\nfi. Pole\\nS./^ole\\nTrade Winds.\\nIn Equatorial regions, the air is always warmer, hence lighter, than it is\\ntowards the poles, so that it is constantly displaced or forced up by the air from the\\ncooler zones, forming ascending currents where the heat is greatest, and upper\\nover-flow currents of warm air moving towards the poles.", "height": "2877", "width": "2212", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 81\\nWere the earth at rest there would always be two lower currents or winds\\nmoving from the poles towards the regions of greatest heat, an ascending current\\nunder the sun and two upper currents from the Equatorial regions towards the\\npoles, thus completing the great circuit.\\nBut the motion of a place at the Equator is much greater than of one near the\\npoles. During one rotation of the earth, or in 24 hours, a place at the Equator\\nmoves 25,000 miles, or at a velocity of about 1,000 miles an hour; but this velocity\\nconstantly diminishes as the poles are approached, where it is nothing.\\nNow, the wind, starting from the poles where the velocity is slow, gradually\\nfalls behind the meridian on which it starts and, as it nears the Equator where the\\nvelocity is so much greater, blows from the north-east in the northern hemisphere\\nand from the south-east in the southern hemisphere, causing what are called Trade\\nWinds. They blow steadily in the same direction and are confined mostlj to the\\nTorrid Zone. These winds are very useful in driving trading vessels from place\\nto place. Columbus made use of them in his voyage to America. (The prevailing\\nwind at the Equator is from the east.)\\nThe Anti-Trade Winds. ~~J\\nPart of these warm upper currents, or winds, from the Tropics fall to the earth\\nin the Temperate regions and go on toward the poles as lower, or surface currents.\\nAs they started out with the velocity of the Tropics, they travel faster than the\\nparts of the earth they pass over nearer the poles, and, therefore, blow from the\\nsouth west in the northern hemisphere and from the north west in the southern\\nhemisphere. These are called the Aitti-Trade IVinds, or Return Trade IVitids.\\nThey are the prevailing winds of the Temperate regions, especially where not\\naffected by mountains or other physical agencies.\\nCalm Belts.\\nThere is little movement of the wind in places in the Equatorial regions where\\nthe air rises, and in the Temperate regions, where the upper currents fall. So\\nthese are called The Calm Belts or Zones. The Calm Belts are not always in the\\nsame place. The}^ move north and south with the sun so that there are Equator-\\nial calms, calms of Capricorn and calms of Cancer, according to the place of the\\nsun in the heavens. Thus periodical rains are produced in tropical and sub tropi-\\ncal countries.\\nMonsoons.\\nThere are portions of the earth that become hot from the direct rays of the\\nsun at one season of the year, while other portions are very cold at the same time.\\nThis causes the air to go from the cold to the warm portions. Then, at another", "height": "2877", "width": "2138", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "82 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nseason of the year this hot region becomes cold, and the cold region becomes hot\\nand so causes the wind to blow in the opposite direction. Winds that blow in one\\ndirection a portion of the year and in the opposite direction another portion of the\\nyear are called Monsoons.\\nIndicate the Trade and Return Trade Winds and Monsoons on your maps.\\nVapor, Dew, Rain and Snow.\\nWater spilled on the floor soon disappears, or dries up. It is not destroyed,\\nbut simply changed in form. It has become vapor, is mingled with the air and is\\ninvisible. Should it come in contact with some cold body, as a window pane, it\\nwould be condensed into visible moisture again, and might, perhaps, run down the\\npane in drops of water. The moisture which you notice on the window pane in\\ncool weather, the frost in freezing weather, and the drops that gather on the out-\\nside of a pitcher of ice water in summer, are nothing but this vapor condensed.\\nSalt compels ice to melt and reduces the temperature below the freezing point.\\nFill a tin pail with ice broken in small pieces and mixed with salt. Notice in a\\nshort time the frost gathering on the outside of the pail, though it be in a very\\nwarm room and on a summer day. Why?\\nAlthougli water itself is heavier than air, the vapor of water is lighter than air\\nand rises in it. The warmer the air, the more vapor it will take up. When the\\nair has taken up all the moisture it will hold, it is said to be saturated. As it be-\\ncomes cooler it gives up this moisture again in the form of dew, rain, frost, hail or\\nsnow. This vapor of water floating in the air, partially condensed so as to become\\nvisible, is called Fog^ if near the earth; and Clouds, if high up in the air.\\nAt night some of the heat escapes from the air and so it becomes cooler and\\ngives up part of its moisture in the form of Dew. (On cloudy nights dew does\\nnot fall, as the clouds serve as a blanket to keep in the heat.)\\nWhen this moisture falls in quantities in the form of drops, it is called Rain.\\nRain is produced by the air becoming suddenly cooled. Rain drops are formed by\\nthe uniting of many small particles of vapor.\\nFrost is frozen dew.\\nHail is frozen rain drops.\\nSnow is frozen vapor crystallized.\\nThe air may be cooled by winds coming from mountains and other cold parts\\nof the earth, and thus be compelled to give up its moisture. Mountains are of\\ngreat value, as without them we should have but little rain fall, and our country\\nu^ould become almost a desert.\\nOftentimes air loaded with moisture blows against or over mountains. In\\nsuch cases it gives tip its moisture in the form of rain or snow. If the mountains", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 83\\nare very high most of the moisture is taken out of the air, so that the country just\\nbej^oud, over which this air passes, is a desert. Rain falls more abundantly and\\nregularly in the regions about the Equator. This is because the air is so warm,\\nevaporation goes on rapidly, keeping the air so near the point of saturation that\\nthe slightest reduction in temperature causes a downpour of rain.\\nGlaciers and Icebergs.\\nIn the Arctic regions, and on the tops of high mountains this moisture falls in\\nthe form of snow, and, as it cannot melt on account of the continued cold, the snow\\ngets deeper and deeper. Finally, by its weight from above, the lower portions\\nare pressed into solid ice and the great weight of the mass gradually forces it\\ndown the side of the mountain, or incline of land, and through valleys a huge\\nriver of ice. This ice stream is called a Glacier. It moves very slowly, sometimes\\nonly a few feet a year. A Glacier is constantly wearing down the mountain sides\\nand scouring the valleys, carrying fragments of earth and rock along with it to the\\nlower levels. Most of the soil about us containing boulders, has been brought\\ndown from regions farther north and left by glaciers, which, in ages past, covered\\nmuch of the northern part of our country.\\nIn the warm latitudes the lower part of the glacier melts almost as fast as it\\nmoves and forms a great stream of water, often the beginning of a river; but in the\\nArctic regions these glaciers push out into the sea where great pieces are broken\\noff and float away as Icebergs.\\nIce is just a little lighter than water, so it floats. It is fortunate for us that\\nthis is so, otherwise ice, as it formed in winter, would sink to the bottom and be-\\ncome so thick that it would not thaw out in the longest summer.\\nAs the icebergs float about they are often surrounded with fog. Why?\\nAbout seven parts of the iceberg are under water and one part out.\\nThe Ocean, the Great Storehouse of Water.\\nYou have noticed perhaps, how, soon after a heavy shower or rain storm, the\\nroads get dry again, and all the pools and ponds of water disappear in the warm\\nsun. Some of the water soaks into the earth, but much of it is taken back into the\\nair, as we have already learned.\\nNow, the great store-house of the water is the Ocean. The air heated by the\\nsun, receives vast quantities of water in the form of vapor from all over its broad\\nsurface, and, wafting it over the land, gives it up in grateful showers.\\nThe water enables the plants and animals to live and grow. Some of it soaks\\ninto the soil and bubbles out again in Springs, which gather into ponds and lakes,\\nor into brooks and rivers, and is carried back into the sea again. Of course, this\\nvapor rises from all water, whether of sea or land.", "height": "2877", "width": "2146", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "84 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nAll that vast quantity of water which flows into the sea from the Amazon, the\\nMississippi, and all the other rivers of the earth and indeed, much beside, is what\\nhas first been taken up from the ocean as vapor by the heat of the sun.\\nThis great round\u00e2\u0080\u0094 from ocean to land in vapor, from land to ocean in river\\ngoes on without end.\\nThe air and the water are all the while at work wearing away the rocks and\\nmountains and higher portions of the earth and carrying them down to fill up the\\nlower places. Thus the soil of the river valley is made, and even the coast of the\\nsea extended.\\n(Water, getting into crevices of rocks, freezes and by its expansion breaks off\\ngreat pieces. In this way, rocks in regions where there is frost are slowly broken\\nup.)\\nThe Effect of the Ocean on Climate.\\nThe climate of a place is affected not only by latitude and altitude but also by\\nits nearness to large bodies of water.\\nIn summer, the ocean and other large bodies of water receive a great deal of\\nheat from the sun, which is given out slowly when the cold weather comes on. The\\nair then passing over its surface is warmed, and so greatly modifies the temperature\\nof all places touched by it. Large and deep bodies of water are warmed or cooled\\nmore slowly than the land, so water in winter is warmer and in summer cooler than\\nthe land. In the warm season the air from the ocean or other large bodies of water\\nlowers the land temperature. In winter, when the land is covered with ice and\\nsnow, the breezes from the ocean make the temperature warmer than it would be\\notherwise.\\nThus we see that the ocean, which never gets cold enough to freeze, except\\naround the Poles, tends to keep the temperature of places near the shore more mod-\\nerate all the year. The same is true of all large bodies of water, up to the time of\\nfreezing over.\\nLand and Sea Breezes.\\nFrom what we have just learned we can understand how land and sea breezes-\\nare caused. In the day time the land soon becomes warmed by the sun and heats\\nthe air over it making it lighter, so that the cooler and heavier air from the ocean\\ndisplaces it, causing a sea breeze. At night, the land soon looses its hea,t and\\nbecomes cooler than the sea, so the wind blows from the land towards the sea, caus-\\ning a land breeze.\\nThe Gulf Stream and Japan Current.\\nBut there is something else that affects climate, more wonderful perhaps, than\\nanything that we have learned yet. We all know about streams of water running", "height": "2877", "width": "2204", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 85\\nthrough the land, but who would think that streams of water like great rivers yes,\\nfar deeper and wider than any rivers on land could flow through the ocean Yet\\nit is so.\\nIn the Torrid Zone where the rays of the sun always beat down with full force,\\nthe surface of the ocean becomes very warm. Heat makes water expand and become\\nlighter than cool water, bulk for bulk. So that the great body of heated water\\nwithin the tropics is displaced by the cooler water on either side in the Temperate\\nZones, and is forced to rise, to overflow, as it were, and it goes constantly toward the\\nPolar region, while the cooler water presses in to take its place, causing both warm\\nand cool currents. The winds and motion of the earth on its axis also help to\\ncause these currents.\\nThere are various streams or currents in the ocean, the most important of\\nwhich is the Gulf Stream. This stream begins near the Gulf of Mexico and travels\\nnorth-east, spreading out as it goes, until it washes the western shores of Europe\\nand reaches the northern limits of Norway and even Iceland. The cold stream\\nwhich goes south to take its place, is called the Arctic Current and flows along the\\ncoast of Labrador and the United States.\\nThe warm breeze from the Gulf Stream makes the climate of Iceland and all\\nthat portion of Europe which it touches, much warmer than it would be otherwise;\\nwhile the cold Arctic Current chills the air above it and unites with the westerly\\ncontinental winds to make Labrador a bleak and frozen waste. What would be the\\ncondition of Western Europe if the prevailing winds blew in the opposite direction\\nThe cold stream usually flows below the surface, for the reason that warm\\nwater, as we have learned, is lighter than cold.\\nAt some distance off the shore of Newfoundland the waters of the Gulf Stream\\nand Arctic Current meet, and, as the icebergs carried along in the cold current are\\nnumerous, all that section is covered with fog a large portion of the time. Why\\nA branch of this current goes round by Africa and back to the tropics of America\\nagain.\\nThere is another very warm current in the Pacific Ocean named the Japan\\nCurrent, or Kuro Slow (Black Current), as the Japanese call it. This rises in the\\nPacific, south of the Japan islands, and flows north-east to Alaska, and then south\\nalong the coast of North America, making the climate of all the coast mild, and the\\nlower portion of California almost tropical. The Arctic Current flows south\\nthrough Bering Strait. Indicate these currents on j^our maps.\\nThe Climatic Zones.\\nThe slope of the land and prevailing winds also aff ect climate.\\nIn the northern hemisphere, where the land slopes toward the south it receives", "height": "2877", "width": "2151", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "86 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nmore of fhe sun s lieat than where it slopes toward the north, as the rays of the sun\\nfall on it more directly.\\nWhat is the case in the southern hemisphere\\nWhere the prevailing winds are from the mountains or cold regions the climate\\nis cooler than when they come from warm regions.\\nSo we see there are many things which affect climate beside latitude. For this\\nreason CLIMATIC ZONES differ somewhat from the zones which are marked off\\nby the Tropics and Polar Circles, their boundaries being more irregular.\\nIsotherms.\\nIsotherms (equal heat) are lines drawn on a map connecting all places having\\nthe same average annual temperature.\\nThe Climatic Zones are marked off by isotherms.\\nAltitude and Latitude Compared.\\nFrom the Equator to the Poles is 90 degrees. One degree therefore equals\\nsix thousand miles divided by ninety, or nearly seventy miles.\\nNow it is found that in climbing mountains, every 300 feet of height makes\\nabout as much difference in climate, or temperature, as a degree in latitude. In\\nother words, a person would experience the same difference of temperature in going\\nto a height of 300 feet as in traveling one degree, or seventy miles, in latitude.\\nFor our purposes we may consider 1,000 feet in altitude equal to three degrees\\nin latitude, or about two hundred miles.\\nTo how many degrees and miles, in latitude, as regards climate, is a mountain\\ntop 15,000 feet high equal?\\nRemember that the same products would grow on the mountain sides as in the\\nlower levels where the temperature is the same.\\nWhenever you come to mountains hereafter, determine what crops could be\\nraised on them at different elevations.\\nWhich Grand Division has the most coast line in proportion to area and what\\neffect has it on its settlement, climate and commerce\\nMariner s Compass and the Magnetic Poles.\\nAlmost all countries border on the sea, in part at least, and have seaports from\\nwhich ships go in trade. Some nations, like Great Britain, have a great number\\nof vessels, plying between all seaports of the earth.\\nIt is easy to find our way on land by means of land-marks, and especially to go\\nover again a path or road once traveled, but on the ocean there is no road or path\\nnothing but the ever changing water everywhere.", "height": "2877", "width": "2211", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 87\\nSo seamen make use of tlie sun, moon and stars to guide them. But some-\\ntimes the clouds or fogs hang thick and heavy for days together and no part of the\\nheavens is visible. Ships would soon drift far out of their way and be lost if it\\nwere not for a wonderful little instrument called the Mariner s Compass, which\\ntells the direction the ship is going. This instrument was known at the time of\\nColumbus and was used by him. Indeed, had it not been for this, he would not\\nhave undertaken his great voj^age of discover}-.\\nWe shall be interested to know more about it.\\nIf you suspend a bar magnet at the center by a string, so it will swing hori-\\nzontally, you will notice, when it has come to rest, that it points nearly north and\\nsouth.\\nNow mark on a disk of cardboard, all the points of the compass, and fasten it\\nto this magnet so the north point of the disk lies on the north end of the magnet.\\nWhen the magnet again comes to rest you will be able to read on the disk the di-\\nrection of all places from you. This is a simple form of the Mariner s Compass.\\nThe Magnetic Poles.\\nIron attracts either end of a bar-magnet equally well, but bring near the north\\nend of it the north end of another magnet and the first will swing away, while if\\nyou present the south end, it will be attracted to it. That is, the like ends or\\npoles of magnets repel each other and the unlike poles attract.\\nPeople noticing this thought that the earth must be a great magnet also, as it\\nseemed to act in the same way as a magnet does. So they sought to find its Poles.\\nThe north end, or Pole of the Earth-magnet, was found to be just north-west of\\nHudson Bay, and the south Pole, in the Antarctic Ocean.\\nThe Earth-magnet is what affects the Mariner s Compass. Indicate the mag-\\nnetic Poles on your maps.\\nThe International Date Line.\\nThe International Date Line is the line separating the discoveries of the Port-\\nugese going eastward around the Cape of Good Hope and those of the Spanish and\\nothers going westward. (This line runs south through Bering Sea, having the\\nPhilippine Islands to the east of it, and Japan, Formosa, Borneo, Celebes, Papua,\\nAustralia, New Zealan.d, etc., just to the west of it.)\\nThere is a difference of one day in the time of places on each side of this line.\\nIf a person should go around the earth in an easterly direction, or in the same direction as\\nthe earth rotates, he would lose a day; and if he should go around in the opposite direction, he\\nwould gain a day.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "88 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nIf he should start at noon and go westward as fast as the sun appears to go, it would always\\nbe noon with him, however long he traveled. Yet his watch (not the sun) would mark off the\\ntime, one hour for every 15\u00c2\u00b0 traveled. At the end of 24 hours he would arrive at the starting\\npoint, where a whole day, with its evening, night and morning, has passed; while, with him, the\\nsame day yet remains. And so it would be, however slowly he traveled round the earth in a\\nwesterly direction. He would lose one day.\\nShould he travel round the earth in the opposite direction he would gain a day. If he\\nshould go round in 24 hours he would meet the noon-day sun just half way round and so he\\nwould have two days (with two evenings, nights and mornings) in this time, or the days would\\nbe 12 hours long. He would thus gain a day.\\nThe common or civil day lasts from midnight to midnight 24 hours and travels around\\nthe earth with the sun, or from east to west. The new day begins at the International Date Line,\\nand, in its circuit of the earth, reaches places jater and later until it comes to the Date Line again\\n24 hours, or one day, after leaving it.\\nA new day now begins at the Line, while the old day will yet continue 24 hours just east of\\nit. If the new day was Monday on the west side of the Line, the day on the east side of it would\\nbe Sunday.\\nThus, sailors in crossing the Line add a day in going west, and drop a day in going east.\\nThe 180th meridian from Greenwich is quite generally regarded by sailors as the International\\nDate Line.\\nForests.\\nForests are of great value to man, not only for fuel and lumber, but for pro-\\ntection against violent winds and storms and for equalizing tbe temperature of tbe\\nair, and the distribution of moisture.\\nForest trees store up rainfall in the spongy soil of their roots, and by their\\nshade, keep it from evaporating, and so are able to return it to the air or distribute\\nit gradually and evenl}^ in the natural river channels. In regions where the for-\\nests have been cut down less rain falls, streams dry up and drought often occurs.\\nWhen the rain does fall it runs quickly into the valleys and swells the streams in-\\nto dangerous torrents.\\nForests on mountain sides keep the soil from being washed away and, when\\nthe mountains are very steep, as in the Alpine regions, form barriers against ava-\\nlanches.\\nThe falling leaves of trees decay and enrich the soil.\\nIn many regions of the earth where there is sufficient rainfall and favorable\\nclimate, extensive forests grow.\\nMost civilized nations appreciate the value of forests and take great pains to\\npreserve them. Many of the states of our own country set apart a day each year,\\ncalled Arbor Day, for the planting of trees.\\nIndicate on your maps the principal forest regions of the world, and the pre-\\nvailing kinds of trees in each.", "height": "2877", "width": "2209", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 89\\nA TRIP TO GREENLAND.\\n(By Prof. G. F. Wright, author of The Ice Age in North America, etc.)\\nIf one is in America, the natural place from which to set out for Greenland is\\nSt. John s, Newfoundland. This is a quaint city of about twenty thousand people,\\nmostly engaged in fisheries of one kind or another. The harbor is completely sur-\\nrounded by rocky hills four or five hundred feet high, except at the narrow en-\\ntrance through which vessels pass from the stormy ocean to the placid waters\\nwithin. Here one finds ships from all parts of the world, and of all kinds. Owing\\nto the interest of France in some of the islands near the coast, a French man-of-war\\nis a frequent visitor to the harbor, and there is iisually an English man-of-war not\\nfar behind to see that no mischief is done.\\nClose to the water s edge, a fine system of docks furnishes every facility for\\nunloading and loading the products of the fisheries. Small ships are constantly\\ncoming in with freshly caught fish, to be reloaded upon larger ships, which are to\\ncarry them to the markets of the world.\\nIcebergs.\\nGreat care is exercised in constructing vessels to sail in these waters on\\naccount of the numerous icebergs. These icebergs are most beautiful and impos-\\ning objects and as mysterious as they are beautiful. Their size is often enormous.\\nOne which we measured was estimated to be 750 feet high, or nearly 300 feet\\nhigher than the highest pyramid of Egypt, while it probably covered several acres\\nof space. It rose from the waters in two vast towers, which, as they glistened in\\nthe sunshine, seemed like the remnants of a fairy castle. The color of the ice was\\nfor the most part an intense blue, but in the upper portions where the sun had\\npartially hone3--combcd it, the color was that of newly fallen snow, while near the\\nwater s edge, where the waves dashed up against it and rolled over the submerged\\nportion between the two towers, the blue color was changed into a delicate green.\\nLarge flocks of birds lighted upon it and gave it the appearane of a permanent\\nisland of ice.\\nAs the larger part of an iceberg is beneath the water, this iceberg probably ex-\\ntended two or three thousand feet below the water. The great depth to which the\\nice extends below the water, gives remarkable stability to icebergs so that they are\\nnot affected by the winds and surface waves. In the lee of an iceberg, a ship is as\\nwell protected from the \\\\vind as it would be in the lee of an island.\\nThe motion of an iceberg is determined by the deep under currents of water,\\nand is therefore slow, being, in favorable circumstances, at the rate of about ten\\nmiles a day. The icebergs which we see off the coast of Newfoundland and Labra-", "height": "2877", "width": "2142", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "90 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\ndor have been a long time on their journey; for they were formed from the glaciers\\nof Northern Greenland, two or three thousand miles away, and hence, many of\\nthem have doubtless been a year or more on their way to warmer climes.\\nCollision with an Iceberg.\\nThere is no danger that an iceberg will run down a ship, but there is danger\\nthat a ship will run into an iceberg and be wrecked in the process. On the morn-\\ning of July 17th, 1894, the steamer on which our party was going to Greenland\\nhad this unfortunate experience. We were in the Strait of Belle Isle, having just\\npassed the most northern lighthouse on the Atlantic coast. Before the fog settled\\ndown upon us more than fifty icebergs were visible from the deck of the steamer.\\nYet they seemed so far apart that the captain thought it safe to keep the vessel\\nmoving at half speed. But suddenly the ice-pilot noticed a light spot in the mist\\nahead of us which he too well knew to be ice blink, or reflection from the ice-\\nberg. The wheel was reversed and the rudder turned one side, just as the vast\\nmass of the berg loomed into view ahead of us. Out of the mist like a huge mon-\\nster it seemed to come, reaching above us hundreds of feet, and streching out on\\neither side into the mist beyond the extent of our vision. It was too late to avoid a\\ncollision. The safest plan was to take it straight ahead; and so we did. The ship\\ntrembled and reeled, and the massive plates of iron crumpled under the blow like\\ncardboard, while numerous small pieces of ice fell down upon the deck below.\\nFortunately, the force of the collision was felt above the v/ater s edge; other-\\nwise we would have gone to the bottom in a few moments. As it was, we were\\nable to make a neighboring harbor in Labrador, where we patched up the breach\\nsufficiently to render it safe to venture back to St. John s and make permanent re-\\npairs. These having been completed, we set ot:t for Greenland again, going al-\\nmost directly north for a thousand miles, and keeping farther east than before so\\nas to be clear of the ice, that at almost all seasons of the year, cumbers the coast\\nof Labrador.\\nFloe-ice and Seals.\\nThe icebergs which are brought Southward by the Labrador current are ac-\\ncompanied during the larger part of their course with a vast stream of floe-ice,\\ni. e., of broad, flat cakes of ice which rise from fifteen to twenty feet above the\\nwater, and are often so closely packed in together as to form one compact mass.\\nThe floe-ice usually melts and disappears before getting so far south as Newfound-\\nland; but it furnishes a most important hunting ground for the inhabitants of St.\\nJohn s. Hundreds of thousand of seal get upon the ice in the far north and float\\ndown with it. Indeed, it is the favorite breeding place of the seal. Early in the", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 91\\nSpring, tlie ships from St. John s and other ports, with sixty or seventy men on\\nboard of each, venture up into this ice during the breeding season of the seal. On\\nreaching it, the men go out upon the ice and slaughter the animals in great num-\\nbers, saving only the skins and the fat or blubber, from which a valuable oil is\\nmade.\\nIt should be said, however, that these are not the fur seal of which we hear so\\nmuch in portions of Alaska; but the skin of these seals is covered with a coarse\\nhair and is valuable chiefly for making some kinds of leather. In Greenland the\\nskins are used for water tight clothing and for covering the boats of the natives.\\nThe indiscriminate slaughter of these seals, in which the young are killed with the\\nold, is already diminishing the supply, and rendering it more and more difficult for\\nthe people of Newfoundland to gain a livelihood. It was painful to see in the\\nshops of St. Johns the innumerable stuffed specimens of baby seals that w^ere on\\nsale as curiosities.\\nA Thrilling Experience on Floe-ice.\\nSeveral years ago a party of Greenland explorers had a thrilling experience\\nupon one of these ice-floes, which came along the coast of Labrador. The United\\nStates government had sent an expedition under the command of Mr. C. F. Hall\\nto explore the northern part of Greenland and the coast of North America beyond\\nSmith s Sound. After reaching a point considerably beyond the 80th parallel of\\nlatitude, Mr. Hall died and the expedition endeavored to return. In October, 1871,\\nwhen they were encompassed with ice-floes, in about latitude 78, a storm arose and,\\nthinking that the ship was likely to be crushed, the crew began to unload the pro-\\nvisions and stores upon the ice. When this w^as about half accomplished, and\\nabout tw^enty of the crew (including two families of Eskimo, one of them having a\\nbabe about two wrecks old) were on the ice, a change in the wind separated them\\nfrom the ship and in the darkness and confusion which followed, they were left to\\ndrift awa}^.\\nCaptain Tyson, who was with them, assumed charge of the party. Fortunate-\\nly, they had some provision and fuel, a tent and one or two boats. Through the\\ningenuity of the Eskimo the} constructed snow houses and added to their stock of\\nprovision by capturing an occasional polar bear and numerous seal, and by catch-\\ning a few fish, so that they were able to prolong their existence for 196 days, during\\nwhich they floated southward fifteen hundred miles. About the first of May they\\nwere rescued by one of the sealing ships which had come up from Newfoundland.\\nNone of the party had died, and the Eskimo baby has now grown to be a man and\\nis living in Greenland.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "92 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nSpitzbergen Ice.\\nFour days of steam from St. John s brought us on the third of August within\\nsight of the mountains along the coast near Frederickshaab, but, though only\\nthirty miles away, we were unable to reach land by reason of a belt of floe-ice and\\nicebergs that stretched along near the southwest shore for three or four hundred\\nmiles. This is called the Spitzbergen ice because it comes from the vicinity of that\\nisland, and is borne by a slow oceanic current southward between Iceland and\\nGreenland to Cape Farewell, where it is turned northward by a branch of the Gulf\\nStream, to encumber the western coast as far as the Arctic Circle.\\nWith this ice come large numbers of seal to supply the people upon the coast\\nwith necessary food and raiment. A considerable amount of driftwood also accom-\\npanies the Spitzbergen ice. This consists of trees which have grown on the banks\\nof the Siberian rivers and have been washed away and borne into the Arctic Ocean\\nto join the slow procession of Spitzbergen ice-floes of which we have spoken. As\\nthere are no trees in Greenland, the Eskimo are wholly dependent on this means of\\nsupply for the wood with which to make rafters for their houses, frames for their\\nboats and handles for their spears and harpoons.\\nSUKKERTOPPEN.\\nAfter beating about for some days amid the calms and fog banks which habit-\\nually accompany the ice-floes, we at last succeeded in reaching the coast of Green-\\nland at Sukkertoppen, where a new world dawned upon us. This is the largest\\nsettlement upon that coast, and is situated a little south of the Arctic Circle. On\\nthe 21st day of June, the sun would barely touch the northern horizon at midnight.\\nIn the early part of August when we were there, the twilight of evening merged\\ninto that of morning, making the midnight glow upon the mountains most bril-\\nliant and beautiful. There are about 400 people in Sukkertoppen, of whom all but\\nseven are Bskimo. These seven consist of the two Danish officials and their fam-\\nilies, all of whom are very upright, intelligent and cultivated persons. Though\\nhearing from their home in Denmark only during the summer season, they seem\\nto enjoy their life very much. In their well stocked, comfortable houses, with\\ntheir library and piano, they pass the winter in perfect comfort, while the attention\\nto the various wants of the natives gives them sufficient occupation to prevent the\\ntime from hanging heavily upon their hands, even when, in winter, midnight\\ndarkness and deep snows envelope them in two-fold gloom.\\nThough the Eskimos have long been converted to Christianity, and can all\\nread and write, they continue, for the most part, to live in their primitive condition.\\nAs there is no land to be cultivated, the people live wholly on flesh and fish. The\\nword Eskimo means flesh-eater. It was given to them by outsiders, and is not", "height": "2877", "width": "2202", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 93\\nthe name which they like. They call themselves Innuit which means the\\npeople. In their views, they are the people, and we the barbarians.\\nAs we steamed into the harbor at Sukkertoppen, the whole settlement was out\\nupon a promontory to welcome us. The women with their young children slung\\nover their shoulders were the most interesting portion of the group. They seemed\\nto us to be dressed just like the men, but we soon saw that this was a mistake\\nthough it is a fact that they do all wear trousers.\\nDress of the Eskimo.\\nThe dress of the women consists of a long pair of ornamented, watertight, seal\\nskin boots, reaching above the knees. Above these is a short pair of trousers\\nreaching from the boots to the waist. These, also, are of seal skin and more or less\\nornamented. Above the trousers there is a loosely fitting sacque with a pouch,\\nback of the neck, large enough to hold a three year old child, whose bright eyes\\nare very sure to shine out with great contentment from close beside those of its\\nmother or older sister. Underneath this sacque there is, in cold weather, a gar-\\nment made of birdskins to secure warmth. On dress occasions a brilliant necklace\\nof beads adorn the breast of the wearer, and all together really make an attractive\\nattire.\\nThe dress of the men differs from that of the women chiefly in the length of\\nthe trousers, which come down to the feet, and in the substitution for the baby s\\npouch in the woman s sacque of an extension which can be brought up over the\\nhead to make a close fitting cap, which, when tied under the chin and fastened se-\\ncurely about the wrist to seal skin mittens, makes the upper part of their clothing\\nperfectly water tight.\\nApparently the men never cut or comb their hair. The women, however, take\\ngreat pains with theirs, though it is doubtful if they often comb it. Their mode of\\ndoing up the hair resembles closely a fashion which has recently been appearing in\\ncivilized countries. They pull it up to the top of the head and twist it into a roll,\\nwhich they keep in shape by binding it closely with ribbons of various colors, leav-\\ning the hair to project a little above the ribbon and to stand up as straight as pos-\\nsible upon the top of the head. The unmarried women use red ribbon, the mar-\\nried women blue, and the widows black; but when the widows are willing to be\\nmarried again some red is mingled with the black and a narrow band of white is\\nput around their foreheads.\\nEskimo Houses.\\nThe houses of the Eskimos of southern Greenland, called igloos, are made\\nof a wall three or four feet high, built on flat stones and turf, and covered with a\\ndome shaped roof with a covering of turf. One small window ordinarily faces the", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "94 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nsouth, admitting tlie only light which comes in from the outside. The entrance is\\nby a low, long, narrow, crooked doorway through which one has to crawl on his\\nhands and knees to get in. In the interior, there is a narrow passageway along\\none side of the room in front of the windows, and along side of it, a broad shelf\\niibout a foot from the ground, wide enough for a man to stretch himself out with\\nhis feet to the wall. Here, closely packed, the inmates sleep by night and lounge\\nby day, several families usually occupying one room, being separated only by low\\npartitions across the shelf which serves for their feet.\\nOf furniture there is scarcely any. The most important article is the stone\\nlamp stationed at the head of each family partition. This is the special care of the\\nwomen. The lamp is a piece of soapstone with a shallow depression in the top\\nwhich they fill with seal blubber. The wick used is made from a species of moss\\nwhich is dried and placed around the edge of the lamp and after being saturated\\nwith oil is lighted, when the heat melts the blubber and continues the supply, as\\nthe burning wick does in the tallow candle. Much skill is shown by these women\\nin taking care of their lamps, which are kept continually burning and usually fur-\\nnish the only artificial heat provided for their houses.\\nStill, the people do not suffer from the cold in these igloos even during the\\nmost inclement winter weather, for not only are the walls at the outset impervious\\nto Avinds, but during the winter, deep snows completely bury the houses and give\\nthem double protection from the cold; while warm clothing, quilt and sleeping bags\\nmade from the skins of reindeers, bears, and birds are sufficient to give comfort\\neven when out of doors. Additional warmth is furnished by the blubber which\\nthey all eat in great quantities, it being cheaper to obtain the heat by digesting it\\nin the stomach than by burning it in a stove. The demands upon their system\\ngive the Eskimos a hankering for all kinds of fat, so that the Eskimo children eat\\ncandles as civilized children eat candy.\\nMeans of Travel, and Food of Natives.\\nIn southern Greenland the only means of travel is by water. The interior of\\nthe country is deeply covered with ice, upon which only an occasional traveler\\ndares to venture. For ages more snow has fallen on the land than could melt,\\nhence it has piled up to a depth of many thousand feet and formed a mighty\\nmer de glace (sea of ice) from which numerous glaciers pour down to the water s\\nedge through the depressions called fiords. Thus, there is only a narrow strip of\\nland along the coast which is free from snow and ice even in the summer. The\\npeople all live on the coast near the mouths of the fiords.\\nThe boats used by the men are called kayaks. These consist of a light frame\\nwork of wood or bone, about twenty feet long and sharply pointed at both ends.\\nOver this is tightly drawn a covering made of seal skins sewed together. The", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 95\\nonly opening in this cover is a round hole in the top just large enough for a man\\nto insert his body. Buttoning his sealskin coat to the rim surrounding this hole,\\nthe kayaker is safe in his water tight compartment. With a single paddle flaring\\nat both ends he sits bolt upright and propels himself with great ease and safety\\nthrough the water, no matter how rough it may be.\\nSkillful kayakers can paddle eighty miles a day without great effort. If\\noccasion demands, they can turn a summersault in their kayak. This they often\\ndo for the amusement of visitors, but still more often, when during storms, great\\nwaves with threatening white caps roll over them. When other boats would be\\nfilled with water and sink, the kayaker simply turns over and comes out right side\\nup upon the other side of the wave. This however can only be done by skillful\\nmen. So easily is the kayak capsized that a European who ventures into one, even\\nin smooth water, is pretty sure to turn over the first thing he does, and unless help\\nis near, to be drowned; for it is not easy to pull oneself out of the kayak, even if he\\nis not buttoned in.\\nThe natives depend almost entirely upon their kayaks to reach the places\\nwhere fish and seal and birds are to be caught. With their bone pointed spears and\\nharpoons they noiselessly approach the game and succeed without firearms in cap-\\nturing as many as they can carry home, and as they need. The danger is, how-\\never, so great, that about one-tenth of the deaths in Greenland are from accidents to\\nkayakers. A great deal of heroism is required to get a living amid those inhos-\\npitable conditions. As is proper, when the men come in from their exhausting\\nexcursions to catch the game on which all depend for their food and clothing, the\\nwomen take charge of it and prepare it for use. They dress the fish and skin the\\nseal, and prepare the skins for being made into coats, and boots and boat covers.\\nIt is a merry time for the whole settlement when a good fat seal is towed into har-\\nbor. Slices of the blubber are freely given to the children, and every one goes\\naway with his mouth crammed full of it, and a small piece in his hand.\\nThe skins are freed from their oil and made pliable by chewing. This is done\\nby the women, who bend the skin up in a fold inside out and munch it with their\\nteeth until it is soft. When their boots become stiff and hard the women also chew\\nthem until they are pliable and then mend any holes that may have been worn\\nin them. This work is so exhausting to the jaws that it is done only every other\\nday. Naturally also it satisfies any craving they may have for gum, so that there\\nis no demand for that article among the Eskimos.\\nPopulation and Government.\\nThere are about ten thousand Eskimos in Greenland, five hundred of whom,\\non the east coast, are still living in entire separation from contact with Europeans.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "96 NATURAI. SYSTEM OF\\nThe rest, scattered in small settlements along the west coast from Cape Farewell\\nto Upernivik, a distance of about a thousand miles, are under the control of the\\nDanish government, and all have been converted to Christianity. Though, for the\\nmost part, living in the primitive conditions we have described, they are a con-\\ntended and lighthearted people, and strictly honest and kind in their dealings with\\none another and with strangers. They can all read and write, and under the care\\nof native chatechists they maintain Christian services upon the sabbath in their\\nown languages, singing native hyms to good old German tunes. A few Danish\\nmissionaries make regular tours among them to perform marriages and to oversee\\nthe work of the teachers and the catechists. The doctor goes with the missionary,\\nand if any are so fortunate as to be sick at the time of his visitation, they can have\\nmedical attendance free.\\nIn the northern part of Greenland, during the winter, ice forms in the fiords\\nand along the shore, so that the natives can travel freely over it. This they do\\nwith sledges drawn bydogs. There, for three or four months in the summer, the sun\\nshines all the time, and during an equally long period in winter does not shine at\\nall. But, in the absence of the sun, the moon makes her monthly visit and the\\naurora borealis lights up the sky so brilliantly that the season is by no means as\\ncheerless as one would suppose. Here the houses are made of snow.\\nExplorers of Greenland.\\nOnly a few persons have ventured far upon the inland ice of Greenland. In\\n1860 Dr. Hayes went in about sevent}?- miles from Smith s Sound, seeing nothing\\nbut snow and ice the entire distance. In 1883, Nordenskiold went in about two\\nhundred miles from Disco Bay and brought back the same report of boundless\\nwastes of snow and ice, unrelieved by a single mountain peak. In 1888, Nansen\\ncrossed the southern part, and in 1892 Lieutenant Peary crossed the northern part,\\nfor a distance of five hundred miles, finding upon the north-eastern side a fringe of\\ncoast free from ice, on which was an abundance of grass and flowers.\\nHere he killed musk-oxen to supply himself with food for the return trip, and\\nhis eyes were delighted with beautiful flowers and butterflies flitting about among\\nthem, while his ears were greeted with the ominous hum of the mosquito. But all\\nthese travelers agree in saying that the interior of Greenland, over an area extend-\\ning fifteen hundred miles in length and from three hundred to five hundred miles\\nin breadth, is completely covered with glacial ice, rising to a height of over eight\\nthousand feet.\\nThus, Greenland is the best object lesson now accessible to illustrate the con-\\nditions which prevailed over British America and the northern part of the United\\nStates during the glacial period. A few thousand years ago, the traveler would", "height": "2877", "width": "2202", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 97\\nhave fouud the border of this vast ice sheet as far south as New York City on the\\nAtlantic coast, and as Cincinnati and St. Louis in the Mississippi valley. After\\nseeing the glaciers of Greenland and the EskiiUos who delight in its ice-bound\\ncoast, it is easy to believe what is told us about the glacial period, and about the\\nhardy people whose flint implements assure us that man was in the world in those\\nearly and forbidding times.\\nA VIEW OF EUROPE.\\nBy Fannie 1\\\\. Coe.\\nLet us take a glimpse of Europe as it is to-day.\\nFirst we will look at Switzerland from its highest mountain peak, Mt. Blanc.\\nThough in mid-summer, the air on this mountain top is cold and biting. The\\nday is clear and the sky almost cloudless. A wonderful view is before us. To the\\neast and west extend ranges of mountains which look like great furrows thrown\\nup by some mighty plow. We see rising from these ranges many peaks, often of\\ncurious shape. Some are broad and irregular; others are wedge-shaped and still\\nothers are slender as horns. The snow lies white upon the mountain heights, and\\nthe daily changes of the light are exceedingly lovely. Whether glittering in the\\nnoontide sun, crossed by blue shadows in the afternoon, flushing in the sunset\\nglow, paling in the twilight, gleaming in the moonlight, at all hours, the Alps are\\nglorious.\\nThe mountain tops and sides appear smooth from a distance. A nearer view,\\nhowever, would show them to be rough and broken by deep crevasses and danger-\\nous gorges. Slowly down from their sides creep glaciers, melting and freezing\\na ternately, and apparently trying in vain to hide themselves beneath a strange\\nmedley of rocks and earth scattered over their icy surfaces.\\nBelow the snow line, on the lower slopes of the range, are green pastures.\\nDotted here and there on these breezy uplands, are sheep grazing near tiny chalets\\nwhere the dairy farming is carried on during the summer.\\nBelow the pastures come the forests, which appear like two belts. The blue-\\ngreen belt of the evergreens riins above the yellow-green belt of the birches and\\nchestnuts. At the base of the mountains lie the farms and vineyards.\\nFar to the north extends another principal range of the Alps, known as the\\nBernese Oberland, whose peaks we can faintly discern, while between these two\\nAlpine ranges is the moiintain valley of the Rhone River. Lake Geneva, like a\\nblue turquoise, ornaments the western end of the valley.\\nIn this valley and along the lake are quaint old towns. Here we find large\\nhotels and the many small shops and trades that arise when swarms of tourists", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "98 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\ninvade a region. Outside the towns are upland farms where people in rough home-\\nspun, with hats of coarse straw shading their brown faces, are harvesting and tend-\\ning sheep. In their scanty leisure they carve toys and canes for the shops in the\\nnearest town.\\nIt seems a wide prospect that we have viewed today, though it hardly equals\\nin extent the small country of Switzerland. The sky comes down on all sides and\\nappears to cut off further view. Though we were on top of Mt. Everest we could\\nsee but little of the surface of this great sphere on which we live. The land all the\\nwhile falls away from a perfect plain, and below the line of vision. In order to\\nlook upon such a stretch of country as Europe at one time, we would have to be\\nmany times higher than Mt. Blanc rnore than a hundred times as high.\\nLet us in imagination suppose that we are raised to such a hight, and that our\\neyes are endowed with a power of vision more keen and far reaching even, than\\nthat of the greatest telescope on earth. As we rise, our circle of vision widens.\\nFrom all sides come into view farms and dwellings, vineyards, fields, forests, vil-\\nlages and great cities. Here and there the rivers winding their way to the sea,\\nand the net work of canals look like threads of silver. All are alive with boats.\\nRailroad trains fly across the country in every direction. Life and activity are\\neverywhere.\\nAnd so our field of vision grows until it reaches the limits of Europe. To the\\nnorth is the pale blue Arctic Ocean, bordered and spangled with snow and ice. On\\nthe east are the pine covered Ural Mountains with their rich stores of yellow gold\\nand green malachite. On the south rolls the peaceful Mediterranean, while on the\\nVv^est our view is stopped by the rising mists of the wide Atlantic.\\nFrom the Alps the land slopes away on every side. A vast plain stretches\\nnorthward and eastward with a very gradual decline toward the ocean. The\\nsouthern slope toward the Mediterranean is more abrupt.\\nNow for a closer and more careful view.\\nLooking toward the north west, we behold the glorious River Rhine rushing,\\nsauntering, creeping to the sea. Germany, Holland and Belgium are the countries\\nour eyes rest upon.\\nThe shores of the central course of the river are bordered by the nearly\\nperpendicular vineyards. The purple and white grapes are hanging in luscious\\nclusters from the poles. Peasants in coarse homespun, with faces changed by the\\nsunshine to a rich brown, are toiling up the almost vertical paths. Sometimes they\\nare obliged to creep on their hands and knees, the paths are so steep. They carry\\nstraw baskets and are gathering the grapes and taking them to the village at the\\nfoot of the hill. There all the people are out doors, pouring the grapes into huge\\ntubs and treading upon them in order to press out the rich juices. They seem", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 99\\nhappy ill their toil, with the afternoon light flooding the land and the lapping of\\ntheir home river in their ears.\\nThe heiofhts along the Rhine are crowned with ruined castles and towers.\\no o\\nHere and there a fortress frowns down upon the river or upon the peaceful fishing-\\ntown nestled at its base.\\nThe course of the Rhine is broken occasionally by waterfalls or whirlpools.\\nFishing boats of very quaint pattern with picturesque dark sails plod slowly up\\nand down the river. They move faster than the log rafts, but not so swiftly as the\\nbrightly painted steamers. Frequently the river passes a large town above which\\ntower the lofty spires of some world-renowned cathedral. These towns are graced\\nby statues of the famous poets, musicians and statesmen of Germany.\\nIn this country lived the great writers Goethe, Richter and Schiller, and many\\nof the most noted musicians, philosphers, mathematicians and scientists of the\\nworld. Germany was the home of Humboldt and Ritter, the founders of the science\\nof physical geograph}^\\nThat gay patch of land west of Germany is the small country of Holland.\\nIts coast is bordered by huge grass-grown dykes against which the restless ocean\\nbeats, eager to reclaim the lowland within. The land is velvety green, laced with\\nsilver canals. The houses are bright red, blue and yellow, and have curious\\npeaked roofs, set with flashing weathervanes. On the doorsteps every morning\\nmay be seen women scrubbing the flag stones with energy.\\nCleanliness and liberty awaken the Dutch to enthusiastic action. The men\\nof broad backs and broad faces, whether working in their rich warehouses, or on\\ntheir fine docks, or discussing matters of trade in their ancient guild halls, are\\nalways smoking.\\nThe neighboring country of Belgium is much like Holland. It also has\\ncanals bordered by willows and poplars, sand-dunes overgrown with coarse grass,\\nand red and yellow windmills thatched with straw.\\nOccasionally the shore is strengthened by sea-walls and break-waters. Here\\nthere is apt to be a watering place. People recline in beach chairs beneath great\\nstraw hoods that protect them from the sun, or bathe in curious bathing machines\\nwhich are dragged by attendants out into the sea.\\nWe now look due north and our eyes first rest upon the sombre pines of the\\nBlack Forest, trees that sigh and moan with every passing breeze. Beyond, rise\\nthe ancient towers of Nuremburg, and still farther north are the Hartz Mountains.\\nThese low German Mountains are pierced with many a deep mine; and smoke\\nfrom the fires of the charcoal burners rises from their slopes. The dwellers here\\nare rude peasants, but like those in the Black Forest they believe and tell legends\\nconcerning their hills and woods that are both fantastic and beautiful.", "height": "2877", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "100 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nIn the lowlands nortli of the Hartz Mountains are several commercial cities.\\nThe chief of these is Hamburg, which is washed by the river Elbe. In this river\\nships and steamers that have weathered the storms of the five oceans lie at anchor,\\nunder the protecting shadow of the tall, tall spire of St. Nicholas.\\nBeyond Hamburg the land, always growing lower and flatter, runs out into\\nthe peninsula of Jutland. Next to Holland, Denmark has the lowest land iu\\nEurope. Dreary bogs and sand wastes cover much of the surface of Jutland. Still\\nthere is a fair amount of fields of grass and heather, where remarkably fine cattle\\nand horses find pasturage.\\nEast of Jutland is a confused jumble of large and small islands and of blue\\nstraits and channels. The greener grass and the luxuriant forests of birches and\\nbeeches show us that this is the more fertile part of Denmark. The clouds of\\nsmoke rising in several places prove the islands to be the more thickly settled\\nregion. Copenhagen, the capital, was the home of Hans Andersen, the gifted\\nwriter of fairy stories, and of Thorwaldsen, the great sculptor. It is made up of so\\nmany bits of islands and seas that it has been called the Venice of the North. In\\nits many canals, curious tall houses, and masts rising in the midst of chimneys,\\nCopenhagen resembles the cities of Holland. It is distinguished from other cities\\nby its fine Thorwaldsen Museum and Rosenborg Castle.\\nIn the far north is Scandinavia, the peninsula of fiord and forest. The west\\ncoast is broken by numerous baj^s, or fiords, running far inland. The Avater in\\nthese fiords is perfectly smooth, so that they reflect, as in a mirror, the lofty clifis,\\nclothed with evergreen trees that border their shores. Down the hillsides dash\\ncascades and mountain brooks. The shores of the fiords are quite lonely. On\\nsome of them the birds are the only signs of life. On the shores of others, how-\\never, there are small villages, or perhaps an inn, where travellers may stop for the\\nnight. Rains are very frequent along this coast.\\nThe fiords and the channels among the Lofoden Islands abound with fish.\\nMany of the towns send out their fleet to the cod and herring fisheries. When\\nthe short, wide boats return heavily laden, the village fish markets are the scenes\\nof brisk trade.\\nNorth Cape is a great rock a thousand feet high, rising out of the cold Arctic\\nOcean. Sea gulls soar and scream around and above it; and for the greater part of\\nthe year they are the only signs of life. In the short summer, however, steamers\\nbring tourists to the North Cape to witness the wonderful midnight sun. It is a\\nmemorable day when one sees, for the first time, the bright sun trace out the circle of\\na day of twenty-fqur hours on the sky, never once disappearing below the horizon.\\nThe scenery of Scandinavia is so picturesque and wild, and the air on the\\nbreezy uplands so invigorating, that tourists are now seeking Norway and Sweden", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 101\\nas they would Switzerland. So as we look we see vessels steaming toward North\\nCape or rocking in its shadow, and rows of little carriages drawn by donkeys,\\nhurrying along the good country roads from one quaint Norwegian village to an-\\nother.\\nLooking at Sweden, we see that the northern half of that country is thickly\\nclothed with forests. The cities are massed in the southern part. That silver\\ngleam extending from Stockholm to Gothemburg is the Gotha Canal. This is\\nquite a triumph of engineering skill. A sail through it gives one an idea of the\\nquiet, peaceful scenery of Sv/eden, as contrasted v.dth the wilder and more rugged\\naspect of Norway.\\nIf now we turn our attention to the north-east and east, we behold the enor-\\nmous country of Russia. The larger half of Russia we do not see, for it is in the\\nneighboring grand division of Asia, but European Russia is larger than all the\\nother countries of Europe combined.\\nMuch of the interior of Russia is covered with forests. For miles and miles\\nthe pines and furs stretch away their close ranks. Not a road, a farm, a rude clear-\\ning breaks their compact lines. The trees are so tall and straight that the woods\\nseem to have been growing for centuries.\\nWhen the forests give way, their place is taken by the wheat fields. The\\nwind, leaving the Black Sea, ripples wheat fields in its progress until it reaches the\\nslopes of the Ural Mountains. The wheat heads appear largest and fullest in the\\nrolling plains of southeastern Russia. These plains are known as the steppes, and\\ntheir rich soil is most favorable for the growth of grain.\\nSoutheast of the grain region, along the shoi es of the Caspian Sea, are dreary\\ndeserts of salt and sand. Over the Caspian Sea are plying steamers that are en-\\ngaged in the oil trade.\\nThe people living on these vast plains nearly all belong to two classes. They\\nare either poor peasants or the owners of wheat or sheep farms. In the latter case\\nwe see their large, rambling establishments consisting of houses, barns, stables,\\ngreenhouses and mills, standing in the midst of a farm of thirty thousand acres.\\nThe farms, like the whole country, .are built on a generous plan.\\nThe plot of land owned by the average peasant is but an acre. It is rarely\\nwell cultivated, and the cottage has a slovenly appearance. The peasant is a dull,\\nhelpless, hopeless person, because he sees almost no opportunity for bettering his\\ncondition.\\nIn the west is St. Petersburg, the citv of the Czar. The churches with golden\\ndomes and spires and fine blocks of stately palaces border the Neva River. That\\ngreat oblong building of brown and yellow stucco-work is the Winter Palace, oue\\nof the residences of the Czar.", "height": "2877", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "102 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nThe life of the Russian capital seems to center at the Neva River. In the\\nwinter there is much skating, coasting, and a great deal of sleighing upon the icy\\nsurface of the Neva. The queer Russian sleighs, or droskies, have oddly dressed\\ndrivers seated on high boxes, and are drawn by one, two or three horses. These\\nhorses have a very light harness. The only heavy-looking article of harness is a\\nwooden bow arching over the neck, to which the traces are fastened. You can\\nhardly imagine how fast these horses go.\\nIt would be delightful, some starry winter night, to wrap one s self in the piles\\nof fur rugs in a drosky and go flying down one of the fine boulevards that run\\nparallel to the river. The horses dart ahead like arrows. The driver keeps cheer-\\ning them on, although they need no urging. The frosty air is so sharp that now\\nand then one is forced to hide his facfe in the furs. On the shore of the river the\\nbrilliantly lighted palaces show that many balls and dinner parties are taking\\nplace. All seems to be happiness, within and without. The Russians never tire\\nof these winter amusements.\\nThe severe Russian winter presents its gayest side to St. Petersburg. It is to\\nthe peasant on the lonely inland plain that it turns its grim and most savage\\naspect. For months the deep snow cuts off the family from intercourse with their\\nneighbors. They husband their small stock of provisions with care, and spend\\nmany hours by the huge, flat Russian stove. Perhaps they are dreaming of the\\ndistant summer. It almost seems to them to be at hand, when the howl of the\\nwolf recalls them to realities again.\\nSouth-east of St. Petersburg we see green and gold Moscow. With its oddly\\ncolored Kremlin towers, with its walls and its gateways, it appears more like an\\nAsiatic than a European city.\\nFarther east is Nijni Novgorod, the place of the annual Russian fair. The\\nRiver Volga and its tributaries form the water highways on which buyers and\\nsellers from all countries of Europe and Asia flock to the fair. The strip of land\\noutside the town which serves as the fair grounds, is very carefully laid out into\\nstraight streets and crossways, along which are ranged the white-walled shops.\\nEverything imaginable may be bought here, from diamonds and brass samovars,\\nto leather, and salt fish. The costumes, complexions and tongues that are seen\\nand heard here suggest the possibility that the builders of the original tower of\\nBabel have been collected again.\\nNow let us turn our faces due east, toward Austria and the Danube provinces.\\nNearest us is the Tyrol, with its peaks of dolmite rock and its lower alps, where\\ncattle wander, and where the delicate alpenroses and edelweiss bloom. On the\\nAlps may be seen the dairy chalets where overhanging roofs are held in place by\\nlarge rocks. Much of central Austria consists of level plains where herds of cattle", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 103\\npasture. To the south are fine wheat regions. The beautiful blue Danube\\nRiver intersects Austria and Hungary. It can only be called blue in its upper\\ncourse, for below Buda Pesth its water is yellow, owing to the quantit}- of mud it\\ncarries along.\\nVienna gleams in the sunshine on the shore of the Danube. It is a city of\\ngreat beauty, and the scene of much joyous life. The drives, the parks, the beer-\\ngardens, the opera houses and theaters, the gay throngs of people, the bursts of\\nmusic from the band, make Vienna seem only less gay than Paris itself. This\\nstately city, with its broad streets and handsome buildings, is a great medical\\nand musical center. It is also extensively engaged in the grain trade.\\nBuda Pesth, the capital of Hungary, is a beautiful city with fine wharves and\\narching bridges. But many of the towns and villages of Hungary are not attrac-\\ntive because they are not clean.\\nIf now we turn and face southern Europe, we behold three peninsulas extend-\\ning into the crisp blue waves of the Mediterranean Sea. The most eastern of these\\npeninsulas contains the countries of Turkey and Greece.\\nThere are very few railroads in this peninsula, and the roads are exceedingly\\nrough and poor. The whole territory seems inacessible and remote from the rest\\nof Europe. It seems strange that the Turks, people who reall}? belong to Asia,\\nshould have and hold the city of Constantinople, a city that occupies a situation\\nfiner than that of any other large town in Europe. Half in Europe, and half in\\nAsia, separated into three sections by the narrow Bosphorns and the lovely Golden\\nHorn, built on seven hills, crowned by the domes and minai ets of Mohammedan\\nmosques, Constantinople from a distance is enchanting.\\nA nearer view of the city destroys the illusion. Narrow, badly paved streets,\\nthronged with beggars in tattered garments, and ravenous, wolfish looking dogs,\\nwind up the hillside. The mosques are imposing, but far from clean. They cast\\na grateful shade across the squares, thronged by Turks in turban or fez, kilted\\nGreeks and Persians in tall astrachan caps.\\nGreece is a country of beautiful mountains, loveh plains, groves of cypress\\nand olive trees, ancient forests, sunny corn-fields and ruins shrouded in roses. Not\\nall the ruins, however, are so kindly treated.\\nThe brown marble columns of the Temple of the Wingless Victory, the\\nErectheum, aud the Parthenon on the breezy platform of the Acropolis at Athens\\nare free from the mantling roses and ivy. The sea breeze lifts the dust from the\\nplain and whirls it against the carved shafts aud bas reliefs, perfect even in decay.\\nItaly, the central of the three southern peninsulas, is well-nigh the most inter-\\nesting country of Europe. The natural attractions are great. The climate is mild,\\nthe skies are bright, and the whole land is steeped in almost constant sunshine.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "104 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nThe Italian cities are very old and famous. The streets are usually narrow and\\npaved with blocks of lava. They are also dark, because they are shaded with stone\\nbuildings seven or eight stories high. These buildings are so packed with people\\nthat much of the life overflows upon the streets, v/here grown folks and children\\neat, cook, gossip, doze, spin and knit.\\nWe can merely glance at a few of the cities of Italy, as we tell their glorious\\nnames. Here is Milan with its exquisite cathedral of dazzling white marble, with\\nwindows of stained glass in which seem to be stored all the sunbeams of past ages.\\nOn the west coast stands Venice, the city of islands and lagoons. Here grace-\\nful, dark gondolas glide through narrow waterways bordered by crumbling marble\\npalaces, or shoot into the bright waters of the grand Canal with beautiful St.\\nMark s in full sight.\\nFurther south is Florence on the Arno River. It has pictures and statues of\\npriceless value that are stored in the Pitti and Uffizi palaces. These palaces stand\\nin the midst of lovely gardens where lilies and roses border the velvet lawns on\\nwhich, here and there, fountains are playing.\\nRome, the most celebrated city of Europe, is situated on the Campagna. This\\nis a wide desolate plain, crossed by the old Roman roads and an occasional aque-\\nduct. The Campagna is quite unhealthy, owing to the malarious gases which rise\\nfrom it, and strangers avoid it, particularly at night.\\nThe yellow Tiber divides the city into two parts. We see St. Peter s and the\\nVatican, the residence of the Pope of Rome, on one shore, and the Coliseum and\\nother ruins of ancient Rome on the opposite shore. St. Peter s, with its vast spaces,\\nmammoth pillars, and tremendous dome, might be called the eighth wonder of the\\nworld. It is the largest cathedral in Europe.\\nThe Coliseum is a huge building where the gladiator and wild beast contests\\nonce took place before the emperor of Rome. It is now a vast gray ruin, the\\ngreatest ruin in Europe.\\nNaples is a paradise upon earth so far as climate and scenery are concerned.\\nIt is built on the crescent shaped shore of the beautiful Bay of Naples. The dark\\ncone of Mt. Vesuvius frowns down upon the white roads overhung with grape\\nvines and bordered by richly laden orange, lemon and fig trees. The light hearted\\nNeapolitans bask in the sunshine, play on their mandolins, or stroll along the\\nshore with dreamy faces fixed upon their exquisite bay.\\nIf Turkey is Asia in Europe, Spain is Africa in Europe. The dry and barren\\nplains, the cacti and prickly pears growing on the slopes of the hills, the clouds of\\ndust that whirl through the air, all remind one of the desert plains of North Africa.\\nThe lofty mountains are covered with snow, and from them, by means of aqueducts,\\nthe city fountains are supplied with water.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 105\\nThe houses in Spain are square and solid. They have flat roofs and are built\\naround a courtyard. This courtyard is shaded by an awning, and has a fountain\\nor deep well of cold, pure water in the center. A few orange aud lemon trees grow\\nin the garden and help to form a delightfully cool and shady retreat, where one\\nmay while away the noontide. The heat then is so great that everyone takes a\\nnap, and walks and drives in the cool of the da}-. On nearly every summer even-\\ning one sees the fashionable men and women promenading in the park or along\\nthe river shore. The men wear broadcloth cloaks lined with velvet, and tall silk\\nhats. The women have rich dresses of black with elegant lace scarfs thrown over\\ntheir heads. They carry fans and wear dark red roses in their hair.\\nBull fights are the chief recreation of the Spaniards. Men, women and child-\\nren of all ranks of society gather in the amphitheater to see bulls tortured by men,\\neither on foot or on horseback, armed with spears, darts and swords.\\nThe Alhambra, near the city of Grenada, once the palace of a Moorish king,\\nis one of the most exquisite buildings in Europe. Its stately corridors and halls,\\nits shady courtyards, and its sunny gardens are a source of constant interest and\\ndelight to the travellers. The palace walls are covered with stucco-work, so fine\\nthat it resembles carved marble. Portions of this stucco-work are colored and gilded\\nso brightly that they present an oriental appearance. The windows and balconies\\nof the palace command the Vega, or plain of Grenada. The view is wide and un-\\nusually beautiful.\\nPortugal, the sister country of Spain, resembles it in climate, productions, and\\ncustoms of its people.\\nNorth of the P3 renees mountains is France, the gayest country in Europe.\\nIt is not that the people are better than any other people of Europe, or that they\\nenjoy more advantages. It is that they are of a more radiant and demonstrative\\ntemperament.\\nThey have a beautiful, mild climate and much of their life is spent out of\\ndoors. This is true, not only in the country, but also in the city.\\nIn Paris, everything encourages this out-door life. There are wide boulevards\\ncircling through the city, bordered by shaded sidewalks and decorated with occa-\\nsional statues, fountains and flower-beds. Here people drive and walk, here they\\nexamine goods in the richly stu\u00c2\u00a3[ed shops along the way, or sip coffee outside the\\nlittle cafes and gaze at the passers-by.\\nThere are public parks both inside and outside the city. The Tuileries Gar-\\ndens with their straight walks and set flowerbeds and clusters of trees are the resort\\nof children and their nurses at certain hours of the day. The Bois de Boulogne,\\noutside the city, is the destination of much of the fashionable riding and driving\\nfrom Paris.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "106 NATURAI. SYSTEM OF\\nThe landmarks of Paris from a distance are the tall, elegantly carved towers\\nof Notre Dame and the gilded dome of the Hotel des Invalids. Below that gilded\\ndome is the tomb of the great Napolean Bonaparte, whose remains were brought\\nfrom St. Helena in 1840 and deposited there amid great display.\\nThe French coasts are interesting and picturesque because they are dotted by\\nmany fishing villages. The low, sandy shores are thronged by women and girls\\nin short skirts and bare feet. They carry nets and baskets which they fill with\\nmussels or shrimps.\\nCentral France has many vineyards, and is crossed by white roads bordered\\nwith poplars and leading to gray old stone cities. In these cities splendid palaces\\nmay be seen rising beside grimy cottages.\\nThe marshy and sand}/- tract just south of the Gironde River is known as the\\nLandes. The people of this region are shepherds and usually go about on long\\nstilts.\\nFrance is also noted for its many eminent writers and scholars.\\nAcross the narrow seas to the north of France are the British Isles. Ireland\\nis the land of peat-bog and lonely lake, of mouldering tower and thatched\\nhovel. The mists of the Atlantic keep the vegetation a rich green. The tree\\ntrunks are covered with ivy, ferns crown the walls, and fox-gloves, bog-myrtles and\\nshamrocks border the roadside. The women in their picturesque cloaks or shawls\\nstand outside their white washed stone houses and bare footed children patter\\nthrough the narrow flagged streets. Dublin is a fine city.\\nIn this country was born the poet Moore, and the famous orator, Edmund Burke.\\nScotland is a wilder country than Ireland. The soil is poorer and the vegeta-\\ntion is far from being as luxuriant. Scotland has moors of yellow broom and hill-\\nsides where the purple and brown heather and silvery green bracken wave in the\\nbreeze. These rocky hills, under the varying lights and shadows of the passing\\nclouds, are unspeakably lovely. Remote mountain lakes, lovely glens, dashing\\ntorrents, wooded or rocky islands, quaint villages and historical cities checker\\nScotland.\\nThe masts of ships that are being built in the ship yards on the Clyde River\\nrise amongst the tall chimneys of Glasgow. To the east are the crags of Edin-\\nburgh, one of them crowned with the famous historic castle, which overlooks\\nPrinces St. Gardens and fair Holyrood Palace.\\nScotland was the home of Robert Burns and Walter Scott. Who were they?\\nEngland, though less wild and picturesque than Scotland, is very beautiful in\\nits quiet way. The hedge rows where sweet wild flowers grow, the curling streams,\\nfair country residences, peaceful towns and stately cathedrals with bells chiming\\nthe hour, are very attractive.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 107\\nThe black belt or region of north-ceutral England where furnaces glow and\\ntall chimneys cast clouds of smoke into the air, proves her to be a great manufactur-\\ning country. As for the commercial cities, behold Liverpool and London! London\\nwith its art galleries, museums, libraries, statues, St. Paul s and Westminster\\nAbbey, is of supreme interest to an American.\\nEngland has produced a long list of great mathematicians, philosophers and\\nscientists. No other modem nation can present such a galaxy of writers Chaucer,\\nSpencer, IMilton, Byron, Dr3-den, Pope, Addison, Johnson, Wordsworth and\\nShakespeare the greatest creative genius that ever lived would reflect glory on\\nany age.\\nIt is on England, our old home, that our eyes last rest before taking leave of\\nthis wide and interesting prospect.\\nOur Own Country.\\nAs we contemplate what Europe was and is, it will be pleasant to consider that\\nour own country has been its direct and most favored heir in all things that have\\nproved useful and uplifting in its civilization, and valuable in its arts, while many\\nof the old customs and usages which only hamper and retard are discarded; that no\\nnation of the earth is more prosperous, progressive, or powerful than our own; and\\nthat in no other country is there such comfort and independence among the masses,\\nsuch perfect political and social equality, and such an opportunity for all to rise\\nfrom the humblest station to the very highest in every calling.\\nCOMMERCE.\\nIn the savage state men desire little more than food, drink and ease. But as\\nthey grow in civilization, their tastes become refined and tlieir wants increase. They\\nthink more about the comforts and pleasures of life and the means necessary to\\nsecure them. The savage needs but few things, the bow and arrow, the spear, a\\nfew rude implements, all of which he can make himself; while the civilized man\\nwants many things, good tools, clothing, furniture, pictures, books, etc., things\\nwhich he has neither the time nor ability to produce alone. So, instead of making\\nevery article one needs in a civilized community, it has been found necessary for\\nsome to make tools, others clothing, others furniture, etc., and then for each to\\nexchange the things he makes for the things he needs. In this way only can all\\nbe well provided for. Thus variety of industry^ and commerce itself began.\\nMoney. As men cannot always exchange their products for what they want\\nin their own community, or directly, it has been found convenient to zcse sojne sub-\\nstance as a medium of exchange, measure of value. Such a substance is called Money.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "108 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nArticles Used as Money. Various articles have served as money at differ-\\nent times.\\nOpium is so used now in many parts of China. Furs were used as money by\\nthe Hudson Bay Company, and wampum (ornamental beadwork) by the early\\nIndian tribes.\\nGold and silver are used as money among all civilized nations, and they are\\nfound to be more suitable and convenient for such purpose than any other sub-\\nstances known.\\nBank notes and drafts, or checks, represent money but are 7iot money. People\\ntake them in exchange for articles on account of their convenience, and because\\nthey have coniidence that the makers of these notes and checks will pay coin for\\nthem whenever asked to do so.\\nIn large exchanges of goods between cities of the same country, or of different\\ncountries, money is seldom used except to pay balances.\\nExport-Import. People export only such things as they produce most\\neasily and in excess of their needs, and import the things they can buy cheaper\\nthan they can produce, or such things as they cannot produce at all.\\nFormerly goods were transported in sailing vessels and on backs of animals,\\nas is done at the present time in deserts and in some mountain regions. Now,\\nsteamboats and railways are the chief means of transportation. Persons or corpor-\\nations engaged in the transporation of goods for the public are said to be common\\ncarriers.^\\nTo Aid Commerce. Men have built common roads and railways everywhere\\non land, constructing great bridges and viaducts, even passing over lofty mountains\\nor running through them; they have filled the sea with ships of wood and of steel,\\nenlarged rivers and harbors, built massive piers, marked out safe channels by\\nbeacons and buoys, stationed light houses at dangerous points along every coast,\\nplanted scores of life saving stations, published charts of navigation, indicating the\\nroutes of travel and points of. danger, and established weather bureaus which give\\nwarning of approaching storms; they have dug canals, built large factories and\\nwarehouses, produced many and valuable labor saving inventions, held great inter-\\nnational fairs in various parts of the world, located consuls at every important com-\\nmercial city in other lands, established post-offices and newspapers everywhere, cov-\\nered the land with telephone and telegraph wires, and bound continents and islands\\ntogether by ocean cables.\\nTo protect commerce, as well as to preserve peace and enforce the laws, nations\\nmaintain large navies and standing armies.\\nThe Atlantic, The Great Thoroughfare of Commerce. The principal\\ncommercial countries border on the Atlantic Ocean and its arms, thus making it", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 109\\nthe greatest thorougWare of travel and traffic in the world. Its waters are con-\\nstantly plowed by myriads of vessels plying between marts of trade on either shore.\\nThe commerce of a country depends on its Natural Resources, (its fields, for-\\nests, mines and fisheries), on the extent and activity of its industries, and on its\\nmeans of transportation.\\nRaw Material. Raw material is the ore in the mine, the timber in tlie for-\\nest, the grain in the field. Tho: finished product is this raw material changed by\\nlabor into articles useful to man.\\nFinished Product. The finished product of one class may be the raw\\nmaterial of another. Wool is the finished product of the farmer, but the raw\\nmaterial of the weaver. Again, cloth is the finished product of the weaver, while\\nit is the raw material of the tailor.\\nSome products, such as fuel, require but little labor to fit them for use, while\\nothers demand much labor and a long series of processes. Articles of the latter\\nclass are all the while going from the fields of production to the places of manufac-\\nture, and then are distributed to various parts of the country or world, for con-\\nsumption.\\nMuch of the trade of a nation is composed of small sales of the necessary\\narticles of food, such as garden vegetables, dairy products, etc., in the immediate\\nneighborhood of their production, and of which no account can be taken.\\nTariff or Duty. The commerce and industries of a country may be affected\\nby its laws. A country maj^ impose a tax on imported goods, called a duty or\\ntarijf, either to raise money with which to carry on the government, or to encourage\\nthe home production of these articles. The first is called a Revenue Tariff, and\\nthe second, a Protective Tariff.\\nSometimes, instead of imposing a tariff on the competing articles, a nation\\nencourages its industries by a direct payment of money, called a bounty. Govern-\\nment aid to a steam-ship line and railroads is called a subsidy.\\nInterstate Commerce Act. The United States enacted a law in 1887\\nwhich especially affects domestic commerce the Interstate Commerce Act. The\\nInterstate Commerce Act requires all railroads which operate lines in more than one\\nstate to make uniform and just rates for carrying goods charging a higher pro-\\nportional rate to one town or individual than to another being unlawful. A com-\\nmission of three persons hears and tries all complaints of offenses against this law.\\n(The Commercial Reciprocity Act of 1890 is a recognition of the principle\\nthat the United States may make treaties with other nations allowing certain\\narticles, usually raw materials, to be admitted free of duty, or for a small duty, on\\ncondition that specified articles shall be admitted into those countries on similiar\\nterms.)", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "110 natural system of\\nProducts Most Useful to Man.\\nThe products most useful to man include all the great articles of commerce\\nand many besides, and may be classified as Food Products^ Clothing Products^\\nMino al Products^ and Miscellaneous Products.\\nI. Food Products Vegetable.\\nWheat is the great food-grain of civilized nations, and the most widely diffused\\nof all the cereals. Like other cereals, it is a grass plant, and originally grew wild,\\nthough its cultivation as a food plant antedates all history. Wheat was used by\\nthe Chinese and by many people of Asia and Europe long before the Christian\\nera. The original home of this grain was probably in Asia some believe in the\\nvalley of the Euphrates River. From there it spread to other parts of Asia, to\\nEurope, and later to America.\\nWheat grows in the highlands of the tropics, but thrives best in the Temperate\\nZones. The finest quality of wheat and the most famous wheat fields in the world\\nare in the valley of the Red River of the North, in Dakota, Minnesota and Mani-\\ntoba. The rich soil of this region furnishes the proper nourishment, and the long\\nsummer days the needful light and heat for its complete development, especially\\nof that variety know as No. 1 Hard.\\nThe grain is sown in the spring spring wheat or early fall winter wheat\\nand ripens the following summer. In the United States the most improved\\nmachinery is used in preparing the ground, in seeding and in harvesting the\\ngrain.\\nSeventy-five years ago all grain was sown by hand, cut with sickles, and\\nthreshed with flails, or trodden out by animals.\\nIn the United States, after the grain is harvested and threshed, it is carried in sacks to mills\\nto be ground into flour and then distributed for local use; or transported by cars or steamers.\\nSometimes the grain is taken to the large trade centers and stored for a time in immense warehouses\\ncalled grain elevators, and then shipped abroad.\\nMost of the wheat exported from the Pacific States to Europe is carried around Cape Horn in\\nsailing vessels.\\nThe United vStates, Russia, Germany, Austria, India, Argentine Republic and\\nChile are the great wheat exporting countries.\\nIn 1890, the United States exported wheat and wheat flour to the amount of\\nover $100,000,000.\\nMaize, or \u00e2\u0096\u00a0Indian Corn is the grain, or seeds, of a large grass plant native to\\nAmerica. It was the only grain cultivated by the early Indians, hence the name,\\nIndian corn.\\nCorn yields about twice as much per acre as wheat does, but requires a warmer\\nclimate. The southern and central states produce corn in greatest abundance.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Ill\\nIt has spread over large portions of the world and, next to rice and wheat, is the\\nmost important food plant grown. For fattening cattle and swine it is superior to\\nall other foods. Much of the corn produced in the United States is consumed in\\nthis way on the ground where it is raised.\\nLarge quantities of starch, glucose and spirits are made from corn.\\nMost of the corn of commerce comes from the United States, the exports in\\n1890 amounting to $50,000,000.\\nCorn is usually planted in hills from three to four feet apart and carefully\\ncultivated. It ripens in the fall, when the ears are husked and cribbed. It is\\nthen shelled and ground into meal or fed on the ear to horses, cattle and hogs.\\ny^/ f^ is the most important grain plant of the tropices and sub-tropics. It is\\nthe cheaf food of the Chinese, Japanese, and natives of India, southeastern Asia\\nand the adjoining islands, and grows best in the countries of these people.\\nRice grew in China and India in remote antiquity, and spread from thence to\\nother parts of the world. Lowland rice needs, for successful cultivation, a warm\\nclimate and a low, rich soil which can be readily flooded with water; but upland\\nrice grows on dry land the same as other grain. After the lowland rice is sown,\\nthe ground is usually flooded until the seeds sprout. The water is then drawn off,\\nbut the ground is again flooded when the stalk forms a joint, and is kept flooded\\nuntil the grain ripens. The rice is then cut, threshed, winnowed and put in sacks\\nfor the mill or market. Special machines are necessary to get rid of the inner\\ncovering of the rice grain, which adheres very closely to it. Sometimes the rice\\nplants are transplanted after they are sprouted, and the ground flooded an extra\\ntime to kill the weeds.\\nThe finest quality of rice is grown in the southern coast states, especially in\\nNorth and South Carolina and Louisiana, but not enough for home consumption.\\nThe United States imports rice largely from China and Japan. Most of the rice\\nis consumed in the countries where grown.\\nOats^ Barley and Rye are other important cereals. They are more hardy than\\nwheat, but produced in about the same manner. They all probably originated in Asia.\\nOats are grown in great abundance in Russia, Canada, and the United States,\\nand furnish the most valuable food for horses.\\nOat-meal is a staple article of food in the United States, Canada, and European\\ncountries.\\nBarley, the hardiest of cereals, is raised in the United States, Canada, Russia,\\nGermany and Austria, mostly for brewing purposes, though it was formerly used\\nentirely for food.\\nRye is grown in Germany and other countries of northern Europe, and in the\\nnorthern portion of the United States as a bread plant.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "112 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nMillet is a small grain, native of Asia, which is grown in large quantities in\\nIndia, Siberia and other parts of Asia for food. A special variety of this plant is\\ngrown in the United States for forage.\\nThe Potato is a tuber, or an enlarged portion of the underground stem of the\\npotato plant, and is composed mostly of starch. It is a native of South America\\nand was carried to Europe by early Spanish explorers. It is now one of the prin-\\ncipal food plants of most civilized countries, and especially of Ireland, where it was\\nearly cultivated, and whence the name Irish potato. It thrives best in the mid-\\ndle temperate zone.\\nThe Sweet Potato is in no way related to the Irish potato. It is a climbing\\nvine of the morning glory family. The sweet potato is the enlarged root or tuber\\nof the plant, and serves as a store house of starch and sugar. It is a native of the\\nwarmer regions of both hemispheres, and has been cultivated from the earliest\\ntimes.\\nYams are vegetables much like the sweet potato, but larger and coarser, some\\nweighing thirty pounds or more, each. There are many varieties growing in most\\nof the countries of the tropics, and they furnish food for a large number of people.\\nManioc^ or Cassava^ is a plant whose large, starch-filled roots are used as a\\nchief article of food by the natives of tropical America and Africa. The plant\\ngrows wild in Brazil, and is believed to have originated in tropical America.\\nThe root is pounded or grated, and then carefully washed in water to take out\\na poison in the sap. It is then heated until the grains swell up, forming the\\ntapioca of commerce.\\nSugar, though found, in many plants, is obtained mostly, and in about equal\\nquantities, from the sugar-cane and the sugar-beet. Five hundred years ago sugar\\nwas unknown in Europe, or used only as a medicine, or in place of honey to prepare\\nit. Now it is almost a universal food.\\nSugar-cane, a grass plant, somewhat resembling corn, is a native of southern\\nAsia. From thence it was carried to America, the West Indies and the Sandwich\\nIslands.\\nIn tropical regions a sugar-cane plantation sometimes lasts ten years, but in\\nthe United States, and like cool countries, the cane must be planted as often as\\nonce every two or three years. It is not grown from the seed, but from pieces of\\nthe cane which are planted.\\nWhen ripe the stalks are crushed between rollers to extract the juice, or they\\nare sliced or shreded and treated with hot water. In either case the liquid is evap-\\norated in pans over a fire. The syrup thus formed is allowed to crystalize. The\\nuncrystalized portion is drawn off as molasses. The crystalized part is the\\nbrown or raw sugar of commerce.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 113\\nSugar refining is a complicated process. The raw sugar is first dissolved in\\nhot water, filtered through cotton and animal charcoal, and then evaporated. The\\nvacuum-pan and centrifugal filter are important inventions used in refining sugar.\\nThe vacuum-pan enables the syrnp to boil at a low temperature, as the air is\\npartially removed from over it. The centrifugal filter is a perforated cylinder from\\nwhich the water and molasses are expelled by its rapid motion, leaving only the\\ngranualated sugar behind.\\nThe great refineries are located (for the most part) in the sea port cities\\nBrooklyn, Boston and Philadelphia have large refineries. Beet sugar is made in\\nabout the same way as cane sugar.\\nIn 1890 the United States imported nearly $10U,000,000 worth of raw sugar\\none-half of which came from the West Indies. The Sandwich Islands and East\\nIndies also furnish large quantities. The sugar cane thrives best in tropical and sub-\\ntropical countries. It is grown with success in Louisiana and other southern states.\\nThe sugar-beet grows in the temperate zone and is an important production of\\ncentral Europe. Beet sugar was discovered in Germany in 1747. Napoleon first\\ngave it great prominence in France by bounties, and its culture extended into other\\nEuropean countries. Germany, France, Belgium, Austria, Russia, Holland, in\\norder named, are the leading beet sugar producing countries. California and\\nNebraska have made a beginning of the industry in this country. An acre of\\nbeets produces about 4,000 pounds of sugar, while an acre of cane yields about\\n7,000 pounds. The quality of the sugar is about the same in each.\\nMaple Sugar, made by evaporating the sap of the maple tree, is produced in\\nlimited quantities in New England and other northern states and Canada.\\nThis sugar is especially prized on account of its pleasant flavor.\\nSorghum is a sugar plant resembling the sugar cane but not as valuable. Its\\nproduct in the United States is mainly in syrup. One kind of sorghum is the\\nbroom corn, from which brooms are made.\\nA kind of sugar called ^^/\u00c2\u00ab^o.y^, is extensively made from the starch .of the\\npotato in Germany and of corn in the United States. Germany leads in this\\nproduction. The common syrups are largely composed of this material. The\\ntotal sugar product of the world is over five million tons.\\n7 is the dried leaves of the tea plant, an evergreen shrub which grows in\\nChina, Japan, portions of India, southeastern Asia, and neighboring islands.\\nIn the wild state the plant reaches the height of 25 to 30 feet, but when culti-\\nvated It IS kept pruned and is seldom over five feet high. The plant is raised from\\nthe seed and begins to bear when three years old. It reaches maturity in about\\nnine years, after which it bears less and less, and a new plant is set out in its place.\\nIt produces from 100 pounds to 200 pounds per acre.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "114 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nThe plant needs a warm, moist and equable climate, and a ricli soil for the\\nbest growth of leaves.\\nThere are four gatherings of leaves each year in April, May, July and\\nAugust. The first crop makes the best tea; the second crop is the largest; and the\\nlast crop the poorest, on account of the coarse quality of its leaves.\\nWhen picked the leaves are dried and roasted, a different method of prepara-\\ntion producing the two varieties known as green tea, and black tea. Green\\ntea is made by drying the leaves quickly; while in making black tea the leaves are\\nallowed to dry more slowly and ferment a little, thus causing them to turn black.\\nIn the process of preparing the tea for the market the leaves are rolled by hand\\ninto the shape we see them.\\nBrick tea, formed by compressing the leaves into blocks, is used as a food\\nby many of the people of central Asia. Siberia imports large quantities of it from\\nChina.\\nIt is estimated that more than one-half of the human race use tea as a beverage.\\nThe Chinese drink the tea clear, and never with milk or sugar.\\nIn China the tea is generally cultivated on small farms, and the leaves are\\npicked by the family. During the harvest season family groups may be seen on\\nall the hillsides gathering the leaves in small bamboo baskets which are slung by\\na cord around the neck. For foreign trade, teas are packed in boxes or chests,\\nlined with thin sheet lead to make them impervious to air and water, in order that\\nthe aroma and freshness of the tea may be preserved. As the tea is put into the\\nbox a man stamps it down with his feet until the box is completely filled, when the\\nlead is soldered over it and the cover fastened on.\\nThe tea plant is a native of Asia, and has been cultivated in China farther\\nback than history goes. It was first brought into Europe by the Portuguese,\\nin 1517.\\nThe island of Formosa is said to produce the best tea.\\nChina consumes four-fifths of the 2,400 millions pounds it produces. Great\\nBritian 165,000,000 pounds and the United States 55,000,000 pounds.\\nThe United States imported $12,000,000 worth of tea in 1890, mostly from\\nChina and Japan. Canton is the great Chinese tea port.\\nThe Coffee plant is a tropical evergreen tree which grows wild in Abyssinia,\\nand on the Guinea and Mozambique coasts of Africa.\\nCoffee is believed to have been first cultivated in Persia. The Abyssinian variety\\nhas been acclimated in many other countries, and most of the coffee of the world\\nnow comes from regions where the plant is not indigenous.\\nSome of the South American countries, especially Brazil, are well adapted to\\nits cultivation.", "height": "2871", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 115\\nThe plant needs a warm, moist climate, and careful cultivation. It sometimes\\ngrows to the height of 25 to 30 feet, but is usually pruned down to about five feet,\\nin order to make it more convenient to pick the fruit. The tree is grown from the\\nseed. It commences to bear at three years old and keeps on bearing almost con-\\ntinuously for more than twenty years. The flower and the ripe fruit may be seen\\non the tree at the same time. The fruit is usually gathered two or three times a year.\\nThe coffee of commerce is the seed, or beans, of this fruit, which is an edible\\nberry, much resembling the cherry in size and general appearance. Bach berry\\ncontains two seeds, the coffee beans, lying with their flat sides toward each other,\\nand covered with a tough membrane, or husk.\\nIn preparing the coffee for market the pulp is removed and, after drying, the\\nhusk also. The coffee seeds are then assorted and put into bags for shipment.\\nThe finest coffee in the world, called Mocha from the port of shipment, is\\nraised in Arabia. The Java coffee ranks next. Brazil furnishes half the coffee\\nused in the world and nearly all used in the United States. In 1890, the United\\nStates imported nearly $80,000,000 worth.\\nCoffee grows well in both West Indies and East Indies, and is an important\\nproduction of these and other tropical countries.\\nCocoa comes from the cocoa-tree of the West Indies and tropical America.\\nThe tree grows about 15 or 20 feet high, and bears long pods, containing thirty or forty\\nseeds each, from which the cocoa is made. These seeds are ground to powder between\\nheated stones and the oil afterward pressed out. This powder made into a paste is\\ncalled chocolate.\\nThe finest cocoa is produced in Venezuela. The largest crop comes from the\\nisland of Trinidad.\\nSpices (pepper, cinnamon, nutmegs, cloves, etc.) are tropical products, and\\nwere the most important articles of trade of the East Indies in earl 3^ times.\\nBlack Pepper is the dried fruit of a climbing shrub, originally a native of\\nIndia, but later introduced into the islands of the East and West Indies.\\nThe high price of pepper during the middle ages led to the discovery of the\\nCape of Good Hope in the endeavor of the Portuguese to reach the Indies by sea.\\nCimiainon is the bark of a small tree, native of Ceylon. It has been introduced\\ninto most of the tropical countries of the world, though it has been under cultiva-\\ntion for only about one hundred years.\\nNutmeg is the seed of a small tree originally growing wild in the Moluccas.\\nIt is now cultivated in the West Indies, Madagascar and other tropical regions.\\nCloves are the dried flower buds of a beautiful evergreen tree of the myrtle\\nvariety, native to the Moluccas, but now naturalized in the West Indies and other\\ntropical lands.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "116 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nThe Banana plant is found in most tropical countries, though it is believed to\\nhave originated in the East Indies. It is one of the most nutritious and valuable\\nfoods of the Torrid Zone. Humbolt estimated that one acre of bananas would yield\\nas much nutritive material as 44 acres of potatoes, or 133 acres of wheat. The plant\\nrequires little if any cultivation.\\nThe United States receives its bananas from Mexico, Central America and the\\nWest Indies.\\nThe Plantain belongs to the same family as the banana but is a coarser\\nvariety. Its fruit is used mostly for cooking, while the banana is generally eaten\\nraw. The plantain and banana furnish a large part of the food of the people of\\nmany hot countries.\\nThe Date^ the fruit of the date palm, has been for ages the chief food of the\\npeople of North Africa, Arabia and Persia, the home of this plant.\\nThe stem of the tree runs up 30 to 60 feet, clear of leaves or branches, and\\nis crowned with forty to eighty leaves, eight to ten feet long. The fruit grows\\namong these leaves in bunches. The dates are eaten both fresh and dried. The\\ndried dates are prepared for market by pounding and pressing them together in a\\nsolid mass. In this form they serve as the chief food of caravans in their journeys\\nover the deserts.\\nThe date palm is one of the most useful trees in the world. From it man not\\nonly gets food, but material from its wood and leaves for fuel, shelter, and many\\nuseful articles.\\nAt the top of the stem is a soft pith, which, with the young, unfolded leaves\\nabout it, forms the Palm Cabbage, highly prized as a food.\\nThe Cocoanut is the fruit of the cocoanut palm, a tree common to the islands\\nof the Indian Ocean, and the tropical regions of the Pacific. The fruit is an im-\\nportant article of food of the inhabitants of these regions, and the tree serves almost\\nas many purposes as the date palm. It is taller than the date palm, sometimes\\ngrowing to the height of 100 feet, but has fewer leaves in its crown. A tree in full\\nbearing will ripen from 80 to 100 cocoanuts in a year. The nut will float in the\\nwater a long time without injury, and hence the cocoanut palm is one of the first\\ntrees to appear on a newly formed island.\\nSago is a food obtained from the pith of several species of palm growing in the\\nEast Indies, China and Japan. The tree is cut down just before it flowers, when\\nabout 15 years old, and the inside, which is soft, is taken out and beaten in water,\\nwhen the starch settles to the bottom. This when dried becomes the Sago of com-\\nmerce. It is an important food of the natives.\\nThe Bread-fruit is the product of the bread-fruit tree which grows on many of\\nthe islands of the tropics and furnishes food to millions of people. The bread-fruit", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 117\\nis large, and when baked is said to resemble wheaten bread. The tree grows to\\nthe height of about forty feet and bears fruit eight or nine months of the year.\\nThe Fig is the fruit of the fig tree, of which there are more than 100 species.\\nThe common fig trees are cultivated about every village in India and abound even\\nto the Northern Himalayas. Its home was probably Persia. It has spread exten-\\nsively, and now grows in every sub-tropical country.\\nIt was one of man s earliest foods, probably before wheat and barley, and has\\nbeen an important element in supporting human life. It is frequently mentioned\\nin both the Old and New Testaments. In the Levant it is still an important article\\nof food and the commercial supply of the world comes from that region, Egypt and\\nSpain. England takes about 20,000,000 pounds of figs annually and the United\\nStates about 8,000,000 pounds. The best comes from Smyrna.\\nThe Grape is of very ancient cultivation. It is believed to have originated in\\nAsia and from thence spread over the temperate portions of both hemispheres.\\nIt is cultivated extensively in the countries of central and southern Europe,\\nprincipally for wine and raisins; also in California, Missouri, New York, Ohio and\\nother states of the Union.\\nOranges and Lemons^ natives of Asia, are now cultivated in the subtropical\\nregions of both hemispheres. Thej^ are grown extensively in the countries of\\nsouthern Europe especially in Italy and Spain and in Florida and California.\\nThe trees live to a great age and are very productive. The best oranges come\\nfrom Florida.\\nThe Pineapple is a tropical fruit, native of South America. It is now culti-\\nvated in the warm regions of many parts of the earth.\\nApples^ Pcars^ Peaches., Plums., Cherries, Strawberries and Raspberries are the\\nmost common fruits of the Temperate Zion^, and they surpass in amount and value\\nall other fruits. These probably originated in the Eastern Hemisphere, though\\nwild varieties of some of them are found in America.\\nThe Prune, a kind of plum, is largely cultivated in southern Europe and in\\nthe Pacific coast states.\\nApricots, fruit resembling the peach, are grown in southern Asia, countries\\nbordering on the Mediterranean, and in California and Arizona.\\nThe perishable nature of most of these fruits prevents their shipment in\\ncommerce except when dried, canned or preserved. The apple is the favorite fruit\\nof the temperate zones, aind is dried in large amounts by modern methods, and\\nshipped to all parts of the world. All these fruits except the peach and apricot\\nhave a wide geographical distribution. The raspberry goes to 50 degrees north,\\nthe plum to 60 degrees north and the strawberry is abundant in Alaska and\\nKamchatka.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "118 NATURAI. SYSTEM OF\\nOlives, the fruit of the olive tree, thrive in all countries bordering on the Medi-\\nterranean, and in California. The fruit, and especially the olive oil derived from\\nthe fruit, are highly prized and form important articles of commerce.\\nFood Products.\\nANIMAL.\\nCattle^ Swine and Fish supply the principal animal food used in the civilized\\ncountries. Of these, cattle are the most useful to man for their dairy products,\\nservices as draft animals, and for their flesh when fattened.\\nIn the thickly populated regions, cattle are raised chiefly for dairy purposes;\\nwhile in the thinly settled districts, they are raised for beef. Some of the great\\ngrazing districts of the world are in North and South America the Pasture Lands\\nof the Rocky Mountain regions, the Llanos of the Orinoco, and the Pampas of the\\nLa Plata.\\nMuch of the beef of the United States comes from the Pasture Lands.\\nThe cattle when ready for market are transported to the great meat-packing\\ncities, where the beef is dressed for market, and the hides disposed of to make\\nleather. The dressed beef is sent to various parts of the country in refrigerator\\ncars, and is shipped abroad in iced chambers. Most of the export beef is composed\\nof live cattle.\\nIn 1890, the United States exported live cattle to the value of $31,000,000 and\\ndressed beef to the value of $25,000,000.\\nCattle, as well as horses, originated in Europe and Asia, where they have been\\nused as domestic animals from the earliest times. From these regions they have\\nspread to all parts of the world. The wild cattle and horses of South America are\\nfrom the stock of the domestic breeds brought over by the early Spanish and\\nPortugese settlers.\\nPork is a more common food than beef, and is most used by the laboring\\nclasses, especially of Europe. Swine are easily and quickly raised, and furnish a\\ngreater amount of flesh in proportion to their size and the quantity of food\\nconsumed than any other domestic animals. They thrive well on com, and are\\nraised chiefly in states noted for this product.\\nSwine, like cattle, originated in Europe and Asia, where they were early\\ndomesticated.\\nIn 1890, the United States exported pork to the value of $85,000,000, mostly\\nto Great Britain and Germany, Live hogs are not exported for food.\\nSwine are dressed and prepared for the market in great pork-packing establish-\\nments, located at important points. Some of the great pork-packing cities of the\\nUnion are Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati and Kansas City.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 119\\nFowls. The various breeds of chicken, or barn-yard /t w/^, are believed to have\\noriginated in India. Their domestication began in every early times. The Duck\\nand Goose came from wild species.\\nFish are found in great abundance in both fresh and salt water. The most\\nimportant food-fish are the cod, mackeral, salmon, herring and oyster (shell fish).\\nOysters, salmon, and the young herring, called sardines., are extensively canned.\\nHalibut and Haddock, salt-water fish, and the White Fish of the Great Lakes,\\nare also important.\\nSome of the most noted fishing grounds of the world are the Banks of New-\\nfoundland, located at some distance from the coast. Here the debris brought down\\nby ice-bergs and the Arctic Current is deposited, making the waters shallow, and\\nfavoring the growth of various marine plants, on which the cod, halibut and other\\nfish feed. More than 5,000 fishing vessels from the United States and other\\ncountries visit these grounds every year.\\nThe next important fishing grounds are those of the North Sea and waters of\\nNorway, famed for cod and herring.\\nAlong the coast of Washington and Vancouver Island are valuable fishing\\ngrounds for cod and halibut.\\nMackeral are caught along the Shores of New England and in other waters.\\nShad and Sahnon, though salt-water fish, are usually caught in fresh water,\\nwhere they go to spawn. Shad fishing in the streams of the Atlantic coast, and\\nsalmon fishing in the streams of the Northern Pacific Coast, are industries of con-\\nsiderable importance.\\nThe most extensive natural shell-fish beds in the world are in the Chesapeake\\nBay. Artificial beds have been planted on the coast of New England, Long Island,\\nNew Jersey and North Carolina, which have grown into great importance and rank\\nnext to those of Chesapeake Bay.\\nIt is estimated that more than 150,000 men are employed in fishing in the\\nUnited States; that the product of the fisheries amounts to over $50,000,000 annually.\\nFish culture is carried on systematically by the United States and other\\nnations. Important food fish have been transported to various parts of the world\\nand propagated in new or exhausted waters. Shad have been successfully intro-\\nduced into the Rivers of the Pacific coast, and the Great Lakes have been restocked\\nwith white fish.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a22. Clothing Products.\\nvegetable.\\nCotton, Flax, Wool and Silk are the great cloth-making fibers. The first two\\nare of vegetable, and the last two of animal origin. All are produced in the tem-\\nperate zones, though cotton is a tropical plant.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "120 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nThe Cotton plant is a native of most countries of the tropics. The cotton of\\ncommerce is of the old world variety, having been brought to the New World by\\nthe early settlers, and is mostly grown in subtropical regions.\\nThe cotton plant bears many seed vessels, called bolls. Each boll contains\\na number of seeds, each about the size of a pea. As the seed ripens the boll bursts\\nopen, and a soft,wooly substance growing from the seed puffs out. This is the\\ncotton wool, or raw cotton of commerce.\\nThere are two principal varieties of cotton, the upland or short staple, with\\nfibers from an inch to an inch and a half in length, and the long staple, or sea-\\nisland variety, with fibers two inches or more in length. The fibers of the latter\\nvariety are very fine and lustrous, and especially adapted for making the finest\\nlaces.\\nThe crop of this variety is small but very valuable. It comes mostly from the\\nSouth Atlantic States and from Egypt. Cotton clothes most people of the world,\\nbeing supplemented by wool in colder seasons, and by furs in high northern\\nclimes.\\nThe United States furnishes about two-thirds of the market supply of cotton,\\nand India ranks next. China raises a large amount of cotton for home use and\\nimports much besides.\\nIn 1890, the United States exported cotton fiber to the value of over\\n$250,000,000 mostly to England. In the manufacture of cotton, Great Britain\\nranks first. Then follow in order the United States, Germany and France.\\nThere are about three pounds of seeds to one of fiber. The oil pressed out of\\nthe seeds is used for various purposes, such as making soap, substitute for lard,\\netc. The mass that remains after the oil is pressed out, is called oil cake^ and is an\\nexcellent food for cattle. It is also a very useful fertilizer, as it contains most of\\nthe elements that the cotton plant takes from the soil.\\nOil and oil-meal were exported to England and Germany to the value of\\n$8,000,000 in 1890.\\nThe seed of the cotton plant (short staple) is sown about the first of April of\\neach year, and the ground is cultivated until the middle or last of June. The seed\\nis generally sown in rows or drills and the plants are afterwards thinned out so as\\nto stand about half a yard apart. The plant grows rapidly, and attains a height of\\nfour to six feet, branching out like a shrub, which it resembles in its woody fiber\\nand general appearance. The bolls commence to mature, as indicated by their\\nopening, about the middle of September, first along the lower branches and then\\nhigher up. The harvesting begins at the first opening of the bolls in September,\\nand continues often until January, when the shrubs are themselves pulled up and\\nburnt and the ground prepared for another crop. The cotton is picked into bags", "height": "2871", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 121\\nor baskets and carried to the cotton-gin, where the fiber is separated from the seeds.\\nIt is then packed into large bundles, called bales, containing about 400 to 500\\npounds each. These bales are shipped to the manufacturing centers, where the\\nfiber is made into cloth.\\nThe cotton-gin has been the means of increasing the production of cotton and\\ncheapening it to a wonderful extent. Originally only a small quantity was raised\\nbecause much time and labor were required to separate even a small amount of\\nfiber from the seeds one pound of clean fiber being a da3 s work for a man.\\nAfter the cotton-gin was invented a man could clean a thousand pounds in a day.\\nThis machine has since been improved and its capacity greatly increased.\\nThe Flax Plant was cultivated in the earliest times, and probably originated\\nin western Asia. Mummy-cloth, found in ancient tombs, was made of flax-fiber.\\nThis plant thrives in most countries of the Temperate Zone. It grows to a\\nheight of from two to four feet, and has a small blue flower. The small seed\\nvessels contain the flax seed, or linseed^ from which is extracted the linseed oil of\\ncommerce, used largely in mixing paints and varnishes. The linseed cake, or part\\nleft after the oil has been extracted, is a very nutritious food for cattle.\\nTo obtain the fiber, or lint, the flax is pulled up b} the hand or cut close to the ground by\\nmachines, the same as are used for cutting wheat or oats. It is then placed in shallow ponds or\\npools of soft water or spread upon the grass for retting (rotting.) When the rotting has con-\\ntinued long enough so that the fibrous covering is easily separated from the woody stem, the flax\\nis thoroughly dried, and then put through a machine which breaks it so fine that the shives, or\\nbroken bits of stalk, may be removed by scutching or swingeing, an operation performed by\\nsimple hand appliances or by complicated machinerj\\\\ After the scutching comes heckeling or\\ncombing, which subdivides the fibers into their finest filaments, removes the short fibers (tow),\\nand leaves the long glossy fibers, the real lint, untangled and ready for spinning. This is the\\nraw material from which the linen cloth is manufactured.\\nRussia produces more flax than any other country. It is also largely raised\\nby German3% France, Austria, Belgium, Ireland and Italy. Considerable quantities\\nof flax are now raised in the United States and Canada, mostly for the oil and seed.\\nIn the manufacture of linen, Russia leads the world. Italy, France, Ireland,\\nScotland and Germany are also noted for the manufacture of this article.\\nIn 18Q0, the United States imported over $16,000,000 of linen goods from Ger-\\nmany, and over $5,000,000 worth of raw flax and linseed oil from other countries.\\nFlax is an important crop in several states, especially in Minnesota and Iowa.\\nClothing Products.\\nANIMAL.\\nWool, next to cotton, is the most important clothing product. It is the soft,\\ncrispy hair which grows on the llama, alpaca, camel, goat and sheep. Most of the\\nwool of commerce comes from the sheep.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "122 NATURAI. SYSTEM OF\\nIn the wild species the wool is long and hairlike. The fine, closely matted\\nfleece has been developed by domestication and carefirl breeding. One valuable\\nquality of the fibers of wool is that their sides are serrated or toothed, thus enabling\\nthem to unite with each other to make a strong fabric.\\nThe sheep originated in Europe and Asia, where it has been domesticated from\\nthe earliest times. The merino sheep was introduced into Spain by the Romans.\\nThe great wool producing countries, in order of amount of product, are Aus-\\ntralia, New Zealand, Russia, United States and Argentine Republic; in order of\\nmanufacture are Great Britain, France, United States, Germany and Austria.\\nThe very fine white wool of the Angora goat of Asia Minor, sometimes called\\nmohair, is made into Persian shawl^ and other fine fabrics. The Cashmere goat\\nfurnishes a fine grade of wool, from which the costly Indian shawls are made.\\nThe alpaca and the llama have a long and glossy wool, suited for making a\\nfine quality of dress goods, which is obtained mostly from Peru.\\nThe United States imported wool and woolen goods to the value of over $70,.\\n000,000 in 1890.\\nSilk is a fine glossy thread made by the silk worm in spinning its cocoon.\\nThe worm is hatched from the of a moth called the bombix mori^ and feeds\\nupon the leaves of the mulberry tree. When about a month old it spins a cocoon\\nabout itself.\\nIf left undisturbed after spinning its cocoon the worm would first change into\\na pupa, or chrysalis, and finally into a moth, when it would eat through the cocoon\\nand spoil it. To prevent this, the cocoon when made, is put into hot water or\\nbaked, to kill the worm. The next process is to twist the fibers of several cocoons\\ntogether into a single thread. The threads are then made into skeins, cleaned, and\\npacked into bales of about 100 pounds each. This is the raw silk of commerce.\\nSilk culture was first known in China. From there it has been introduced\\ninto other countries. Most of the rav/ silk comes from China, Japan and Italy. In\\nsilk manufacture France ranks first; Germany, second; and the United States, third.\\nThe mulberry tree, from which the silk worm gets its food, thrives best in sub-\\ntropical climates. These countries are, therefore, the home of the silk worm.\\nThe cultivation of silk in China is from the remotest antiquity began,\\naccording to Chinese records, 2600 B. C. It was introduced into Europe 530 A. D.\\nIn 1890, the United States imported raw silk to the value of $23,000,000, and\\nsilk goods to the value of nearly $40,000,000.\\nLeather^ made from the skins of various animals, is the raw material for the\\nmanufacture of boots and shoes, gloves, harnesses, etc. Leather is made from\\nhides by tanning. That is, by treating them with tannic acid found in the bark of\\nthe hemlock, oak and some other trees.", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 123\\nFurs are worn in winter by the people of Europe and America for warmth and\\nadornment. Among the most prized furs are those of the sea otter, sable, ermine,\\nsilver gray fox, and fur seal; all of which are found in America. Siberia is a great\\nsource of supply for valuable furs. The fur seal is found in Alaskan waters. In\\norder to preserve the seals from extermination, the government allows only a cer-\\ntain number to be taken each year. The skins of the seals require special treat-\\nment to fix them for the market. The long coarse hairs are plucked out and the\\nfurs dyed.\\nThe world s chief fur markets are London, Leipsic and Nijni Novgorod.\\nThe seal visit the Pribilof Islands in May and June of each year to the number\\nof several millions. They leave there in October and November for milder waters\\nduring the winter, some going to Japanese waters, and others to the coast of\\nWashington and British Columbia.\\nMineral Products.\\nIron is the most useful as well as the most common of all metals. It is verj^\\nstrong, and when heated can be hammered into almost any shape, drawn into wire,\\nor welded. It is fashioned into a variety of useful things, small and large, such\\nas cutlery, machinery of all kinds, bridges, railways, ships and buildings.\\nIron is never found in the pure state, but mixed with other minerals, and is\\nthen called Iron Ore. It is easily rusted, or oxidized, and is generally found in\\nthis form. It also occurs mixed with sulphur, carbon, and phosphorus. To\\nseparate the iron from the ore, fuel and ore are put into a blast furnace with some\\nlimestone. In the great heat the iron melts and collects at the bottom of the fur-\\nnace, while the impure parts, called slag, being lighter, rise to the top. This\\nprocess is called smelting. The most common fuel used for smelting iron ore is\\ncoal, or coke; charcoal, petroleum and natural gas are also used. The limestone,\\nusually called the flux, is put in to take out the earthy impurities, with which it\\nunites. The finest iron is produced by smelting the ore with charcoal.\\nWhen the iron is melted it is usually drawn from the furnace and cast into\\nbars of about one hundred pounds each, called pigs, \\\\.h. pzg iron of commerce.\\nIron expands slightly when cooling, and this property makes it especially\\nvaluable for castings as it will fill the molds evenly and smoothly.\\nBy a refining process, called puddling, pig iron is freed from certain impuri-\\nties, such as carbon and phosphorus, and becomes tougher and more malleable.\\nIt is then called malleable, or wrought iron.\\nWhen iron is refined so as to contain a very small amount of carbon, it is\\ncalled Steel. The process most commonly iised for making steel is the Bessemer.\\nSteel is lighter and more flexible than cast iron or wrought iron and can be tem-\\npered by heat to almost any degree of hardness, or elasticity.", "height": "2876", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "124 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nAs the smelting and manufacture of iron requires mucli fuel the ore is usually-\\ncarried to the coal fields, or near them, for working up.\\nThe United States leads all nations in the manufacture of Steel. Most of the\\nrails of railroads, ships, engines, machinery, cutlery, etc., are made of steel. The\\nprincipal iron ore mines of the United States are located on the northern lake shore\\nof Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota; along the Appalachian ranges of moun-\\ntains; and in Missouri. Iron is found in greater or less abundance in many of the\\nstates, and in most countries of the world.\\nSweden is noted for its fine quality of iron, and Germany for its heavy iron\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0ware. England manufactures more iron than any other country.\\nCopper^ next to iron, is the most useful metal, and is found in all parts of the\\nworld. It is very malleable and ductile, and one of the best conductors of electricity\\nknown.\\nCopper readily combines with other metals to form alloys, and is much used\\nin this way. Combined with zinc it forms brass; and with tin, it forms bronze and\\nbell-metal. It is also alloyed with gold and silver in making money.\\nCopper is found both in the pure state and as an ore. The richest mines in\\nthe world are in Montana and Northern Michigan. Chile ranks next to the United\\nStates in the output of copper. Next in order come Spain, Germany and Australia.\\nThe United States exported about $8,000,000 worth of copper in 1890.\\nTin is a flexible and malleable metal, and not very ductile. It does not tar-\\nnish or rust easil}^, and is much used in coating sheets of iron for manufacture of\\n/z;z ware, etc. Alloyed with lead, tin forms solder, pewter, and type-metal\\nalloyed with copper, antimony and bismuth, it forms britannia zvareP\\nCornwall, England, formerly furnished most of the tin used in the world.\\nNow most of the tin comes from the miues of Banca and Billiton, islands of the\\nDutch East Indies. These are the richest tin mines known. The Banca tin is\\nthe purest found anywhere. Tin is also found in Bolivia, Peru, Australia, and in\\nthe Black Hills of South Dakota.\\nThe United States imported from England and the East Indies about $7,000,\\n000 worth of tin in 1890. The manufacture of tin in the United States is rapidly\\nincreasing.\\nLead is a heavy metal, but very malleable and soft, being easily cut with a\\nknife. In nature it is usually found in combination with sulphur, forming the ore\\ncalled galena. It is also mixed with silver ores. Lead is found in many parts of\\nthe world. The most important lead mines of the United States are in the section\\nwhere Iowa, Wisconsin and Illinois meet.\\nLead is used in making pipe, tubes and shot. Heated in the air, lead oxidizes\\nand becomes an orange colored powder, called litharge, much used in the manufac-", "height": "2853", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 125\\nture of paint, cement and flint glass. White lead, used in mixing paints, is also\\nmade from this metal.\\nThe United States produces more lead than any other country. Spain ranks\\nnext.\\nZinc is a much tougher and harder metal than lead. It is usually found in\\ncombination with lead and sulphur. It does not easily rust, and for this reason is\\nmuch used as lining for water tanks and bath tubs. Sheet iron is sometimes\\ncoated with it, producing galvanized iron. Zinc is also used in electric batteries.\\nThis metal is found most abundantly in Germany. Belgium ranks next, and\\nthe United States third. The most valuable mines in the United States are in\\nMissouri and New Jersey.\\nGold and Silver are called the precious metals. They are used in making\\njewelry and plated ware, but principally as money. For the latter purpose they\\nare slightly alloyed to make them more durable.\\nThese metals are comparatively rare, do not tarnish, and are especially adapted\\nfor coinage purposes.\\nThe United States Government has located mints for coining these metals into\\nmoney at Philadelphia, Denver, San Francisco, and other cities.\\nGold is found in many parts of the world, but most abundantly in the Rocky\\nMountain region and Pacific States, in Alaska, in Eastern Australia, and in the\\nUral Mountains. The United States furnishes the largest amount of gold and\\nAustralia the next largest.\\nGold generally occurs in the pure state as viens in quartz rocks, and in soils\\nwhich have been made by the washing awa}^ of these rocks. In order to separate\\nthe metal from the quartz the rock is crushed to powder by powerful machinery and\\nthen agitated with water and quicksilver. The quicksilver combines with the\\nparticles of gold, forming an amalgam., from which it is afterward separated by dis-\\ntillation. The quicksilver may thus be used over and over again.\\nWhen gold occurs in the soil it is generally obtained by hydraulic mining.\\nWater is brought in ditches, often many miles, to an elevation above the deposits\\nand carried down from them in iron pipes and directed in streams of great force\\nagainst the bank to be excavated. The soil is washed away and carried through\\nlong sluice-boxes, in which the gold, being heavier than the other material, falls to\\nthe bottom and is caught, while the rest passes off.\\nSilver is seldom found in the pure state, but generally in combination with\\nother substances, especially lead.\\nThe United States leads all other countries of the world in the production of\\nsilver Colorado, Montana and Nevada being the most important silver states, and\\nthen follow in order, Mexico, Peru and Bolivia.", "height": "2877", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "126 NATURAI. SYSTEM OF\\nQuicksilver., or Mercury., is usually found combined with sulphur in the ore\\ncalled cinnabar. It is used largely in the production of gold, and in the manufac-\\nture of mirrors, thermometers and barometers.\\nQuicksilver is found in Almaden, Spain; in Australia; but most abundantly in\\nNew Almaden, California.\\nPlatinum is one of the most ductile of metals and the most infusible. It can-\\nnot be melted by any ordinary heat. It is heavier than gold and is quite rare\\nfound chiefly in the Ural Mountains. It is used principally for making crucibles\\nand other articles which are subject to great heat.\\nNickel is a grayish-white glistening metal, capable of receiving a high polish,\\nquite hard and not easily tarnished or oxidized. On account of these qualities it\\nis largely used in plating various articles made of iron and brass. It is used as an\\nalloy with copper in many small coins. German silver is an alloy of nickel with\\nbrass. Nickel mixed with steel greatly toughens and hardens it and is used now\\nin making steel armor plate. Nickel is found in Germany, Sweden, New Caledonia,\\nand United States.\\nCoal is the product of a wonderful vegetable growth in ages past, which fell\\ndown and accumulated in great masses, was covered by water and so kept from\\nutter decay. In some places floods carried down similar material, piling it up in\\nhuge masses. The surface sank and rose many times, and each time the process\\nwas repeated, forming successive beds with strata of some material between them.\\nIt was thus that the weight of strata above the vegetable matter pressed it into\\nsolid form and with heat changed it into coal.\\nThe coal which was most recently formed and lies nearly level is called the\\nbituminous. This is the ordinary condition of coal. In the furnace it slacks or\\nbreaks up and burns with a flame and black smoke. When the mountains were\\nformed by the wrinkling and upheaval of the earth s crust, the coal beds in them\\nwere exposed to greater heat and chemical change, which drove out the elements\\nwhich caused most of the smoke and flame, and left hard or anthracite coal.\\nSome coal was formed in all subsequent eras, and is slowly forming now in\\nthe peat bogs of Ireland; the Dismal Swamp region of Virginia and North Caro-\\nlina; near the mouths of the Mississippi, and elsewhere. The process of change to\\ncoal is slow, and we come from the oldest and best anthracite through the bitumi-\\nnous up to the later brown coal called lignite; then to peat, the last.\\nIn the very old folded and twisted rocks in Rhode Island and New York, the\\ncoal has been so greatly changed as to h covsi graphite, known also as plumbago\\nand black lead., from which pencils are made.\\nOther products closely associated with coal in origin are naphtha, petroleum,\\nnatural gas, mineral tar and asphaltum. Out of certain kinds of coal, illuminating", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 127\\ngas and coal tar are made; and out of coal tar, aniline dyes, even some medicines\\nand other things.\\nCoal, now the principal fuel of civilized man, was scarcely known, even to our\\nfathers. Wood and charcoal were the fuel used before men had learned that\\nstone coal, as it was called, could be burned, and vast forests were consumed in\\nthe furnaces, even of our own country.\\nPetroleum (rock oil) is found in many parts of the world. Sometimes it rises\\nto the surface of the ground but it is generally obtained by sinking wells, often\\nmore than a thousand feet deep. In some of these wells the oil rises and flows\\nover the top, being forced out by a gas which is usually found with it; but in most\\ncases the oil has to be pumped out. It is not known just how petroleum is formed\\nin the earth, but it is now generally believed that the oil has been made chiefly by\\nthe decay of sea plants and animals under great pressure.\\nThe crude petroleum, as it slowly oozes from the earth, absorbs oxygen from\\nthe air, and in this way is changed into mineral tar. If this operation is long\\ncontinued, the substance takes the more solid form of aspJialt. Asphalt is used\\nlargely for paving purposes, and is found in California, Venezuela, Peru, and other\\nparts of the world, but most abundantly on the island of Trinidad.\\nPetroleum was known to exist in Europe and Asia centuries ago, and was used\\nin Greece and Italy to burn in lamps, and as a medicine. Its great value as a\\nluminant, however, was not dreamed of until about forty years ago, when the\\nPennsylvania oil wells were developed.\\nThere are two qualities of American petroleum. The poorer quality, found in\\nCalifornia and Ohio, is used as fuel; while the purer qualit}?^, found in a narrow\\nstrip of country extending two hundred miles along the western slope of the Alle-\\ngheny Mountains, is used for illuminating purposes. Most of the crude petro-\\nleum is transported in tank cars or pipe lines to Cleveland, Pittsburg, Bufialo,\\nBrooklyn, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Chicago, where it is refined for use.\\nAs the petroleum comes from the earth it is a thick, oily liquid of a yellowish,\\nbrownish or greenish color, and unpleasant odor.\\nIn its crude state petroleum is used for fuel. For other purposes it is refilled^\\nor distilled. The first and largest product of this distillation is gasoline; the next,\\nnaptlia; the third, benzine; and the fourth, kerose7ie or ^^coal oil Kerosene is the\\ngreat luminating fluid, and is exported in large quantities to other countries. The\\nnext product after kerosene is paraffine oil. This also yields several burning and\\nlubricating oils, as wellas paraffine \u00e2\u0096\u00a0wax, and vaseline.\\nThe principal places where petroleum is found are the north part of Italy; on\\nthe shores of the Caspian Sea, near Baku; at Rangoon, Burmah; in the Caucasus\\nMountains; in Galicia, Austria; and in the United States and Canada. In the", "height": "2936", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "128 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nUnited States the chief places are in western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio,\\nKentucky and Tennessee; but some is also found in other states.\\nThe richest petroleum fields in the world are found along the western shore of\\nthe Caspian Sea, but they are not as thoroughly worked as those of the United\\nStates. Petroleum is used as a fuel by steamships on the Caspian Sea, and by\\nmany locomotives in Russia.\\nThe exports of petroleum products from the United States in 1890 amounted\\nto over $50,000,000.\\nNatural Gas is found in and near the great oil fields, and is obtained by sink-\\ning pipes into the ground. It is chiefly used for heating purposes, making a cheap\\nfuel for homes and factories.\\nGlass is made from powdered quartz, (flint or sand), lime, potash, salts of soda,\\nlead and bleaching material, all melted together at a high temperture. The\\nglass metal thus produced, is made to assume various shapes by blowing, casting,\\nor pressing into molds.\\nGlass manufacture is carried on in many Buropean countries, and in Massa-\\nchusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and other states. The best\\nplate glass comes from England, France and Belgium. Bohemia is noted for its fine\\ncut glass. Bottles, vials, etc., are made largely in Germany, England and France.\\nClay is one of the most common of mineral substances. The very important\\nmetal aluminum, is obtained from it. Brick and terra-cotta are made from common\\nclay. From the finer quality of clay are made stone ware, earthen ware and crockery.\\nFrom the finest clay, called Kaolin, or China clay, is made the Chinaware or\\nporcelai?z. In the manufacture of claj^s they are first worked, or kneaded, then put\\nin molds and baked. The common kinds of glazed ware are called stone ware and\\nearthen ware. Chinaware was so named because it was first made in China. The\\nbest chinaware is now made in Germany, France and England, where kaolin is\\nabundant. A large amount of crockery is made in New York, Pennsylvania, New\\nJersey, Illinois and Ohio.\\nClay, suitable for making brick, is found in abundance almost everywhere.\\nThe red color of brick is due to the iron which is common to most clays. Some\\nbrick clay has so little iron in it that the color becomes a sort of cream when the\\nclay is burnt, like the Milwaukee brick.\\nBuilding Stone of various kinds is found in most sections of the United States\\nand of the world.\\nSome of the most important kinds are limestone, granite, sandstone and slate.\\nMarble, a dense form of limestone, is the most valuable of all building stones.\\nMost of the marble quarried in the United States comes from Vermont. Tennessee,\\nNew York and Georgia also furnish large quantities. The finest comes from Italy.", "height": "2877", "width": "2116", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 129\\nCommon limestone is quarried in many parts of the United States, but most abun-\\ndantly in Pennsylvania and Illinois. Much of it is burned to make lime for plaster.\\nGranite is a very hard and durable stone quarried largely in New England.\\nSandsfone comes mostly from Ohio, Pennsylvania and Colorado, though a fine\\nquality of it is found in New England. A fine grade of sandstone suitable for\\nmaking grindstones comes from Ohio and Nova Scotia.\\nMost of the slate used in this country for roofing, flagging and black boards,\\ncomes from Pennsylvania and Vermont.\\nSali, a most important article of food, is obtained from salt wells and sea water\\nby evaporation, in most countries. Rock salt is dug out of salt mines in Austria,\\nSpain and the United States. The salt mines of Austria are the most extensive in\\nthe world.\\nSulpJmr exists in various combinations, but the sulphur of commerce is found\\nin almost a pure state near volcanoes.\\nIt is most important in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol,\\ngun powder, matches, for vulcanizing rubber, and for bleaching. Most of the\\nsulphur of commerce comes from Sicily.\\nPrecious Stones are rare mineral substances possessing such beauty of color,\\nbrilliancy and durability, as to especially fit them for use in je\\\\yelr37, or for orna-\\nmental purposes. The diamond, ruby and emerald are the most valuable.\\nThe diamond is the hardest, most brilliant, and, next to the ruby, the most\\nvaluable of precious stones. Diamonds are found principally in Kimberly, South\\nAfrica, the richest mines in the world, and in Brazil. The true oriental ruby\\noften brings a price from five to ten times that of the diamond. Rubies are found\\nin Burmah, Ceylon and India. The emerald, a stone of a rich green color, and\\nnext to the diamond in value, is found in Columbia, Siberia and India.\\nSome of the other precious stones are the ainct/ivst, topaz, opal and turquoise.\\nThe value of precious stones is greatly enhanced by the cutting. Most of them\\nare sent to Amsterdam, Antwerp and London to be cut and set.\\nThe United States imported precious stones and imitation precious stones,\\nto the value of $12,000,000 in 1890.\\nMiscellaneous Products.\\nTrees furnish shade, give variety and beauty to the landscape, and exert an\\nimportant influence on climate, especially on rainfall. They supply the fuel most\\nwidely used, as well as gums, resins, tanning bark, dyewoods, drugs and fruits.\\nTheir timber is used in the building of all kinds of structures and in the manufac-\\nture of furniture and a great variety of useful articles.\\nPines is the name given to numerous kinds of conebearing evergreens which\\nflourish mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. The most important of these are", "height": "2875", "width": "2093", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "130 NATURAL SYSTEM OF\\nthe white pine, the Oregon pine, the Norway pine, and the California red wood, as\\nwell as cedars, spruces, hemlocks and firs. The lumber from these trees is most\\nextensively used in building, and in manufacturing.\\nHardwoods, such as the oak, walnut, chestnut, maple and cherry are found in\\nthe temperate zone. Oak furnishes the strongest lumber, and is largely employed\\nin the manufacture of furniture and wagons, and in ship building. The oak and\\nhemlock furnish bark for tanning, Cork is obtained from the bark of the cork-\\noak tree, which grows abundantly in Spain and other countries bordering on the\\nMediterranean Sea. The black zvabnii is much used for cabinet work and gun\\nstocks. The wood is of a dark brown color, and admits of a high polish. Chestnut\\nis much valued for railroad ties. From the dense hardwood of the a.pple tree are\\nmade stock for planes, shoemakers lasts and small articles of furniture. Boxwood,\\nfound in India, is a very hard, close-grained wood, and principally used in making\\nwood engravers blocks and fine rules. Mahogany and rosewood, of Central and\\nSouth America, are among the most highly prized woods for fine cabinet work.\\nEbony, a hard, durable wood, used in ornamental furniture, mostly as veneer,\\ngrows in Ceylon, Madagascar and Central America. Teak, a strong, tough wood,\\nfound in farther India, is employed in ship building.\\nLignum, Vitae is a heavy, hard, close-grained and tough wood growing in\\nCentral America and the West Indies. It is used for making rules, pulleys,\\npestles, balls for bowling alleys, etc.\\nThe Bamboo, one of nature s most valuable gifts to uncivilized man, is a tree-\\nlike grass, reaching a height of 50 to 70 feet and from 5 to 15 inches in diameter.\\nIts stem is divided into joints, and attains its full height in a few months, some-\\ntimes growing over two feet in a day. Its seeds and tender shoots are used for\\nfood, and its stem for constructing bridges, houses, and for making a variety of\\nutensils such as cloth, paper, ropes, baskets, drinking cups and bottles. In China,\\nJapan and the East Indies, whole houses and their furniture have been made out of\\nit. The bamboo grows in the tropical and subtropical regions of both hemispheres.\\nHemp a.nA. Jute are vegetable fibers used mainly in making cordage and coarse\\ntextile fabrics, such as sacking, etc.\\nHemp is made from the fiber of the hemp plant, which grows extensively in\\nChina, Japan, Southern Asia, Egypt and to a less extent in the United States and\\nmost countries of Europe. Manila hemp, the fiber of the wild banana, is exported\\nin large quantities from the Philippine Islands.\\nJute, a plant with a longer fiber than that of the hemp, is largely cultivated\\nin the delta of the Ganges. The principal manufactures of jute are carried on in\\nScotland; at Glasgow, Aberdeen and Dundee.\\nThe Ttf plant is a native of America, but has been acclimated in other", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 131\\ncountries. It was smoked by the natives of the West Indies when Columbus first\\nlanded there. The best tobacco is raised in Cuba and Turkey. The United\\nStates raises about one-fourth of the world s supply. Tobacco was the first profit-\\nable article of commerce from the Virginia colony.\\nCinchona^ or Peruvian bark, is the bark of a tree native to South America,\\nfrom which is obtained quinine a valuable medicine in the treatment of fevers.\\nThis tree has been introduced into Java, Southern India, Ceylon and British\\nBurmah with success; so part of the supply now comes from those countries. The\\nCinchona trees vary from 40 to 100 feet in height, and those raised in plantations\\nyield better than those growing wild.\\nC////;;/ is the dried juice of the opium poppy, raised chiefly in India, China,\\nPersia and Turkey. It is of great value as a medicine.\\nWhen the poppy heads are nearly grown and begin to ripen, shallow incisions\\nare made in the evening through the skin, from which a milky juice flows and is\\ngathered in the morning. This is drained of its watery parts, and slowly dried into\\na brown, sticky gum. This is then worked into a mass, dried and packed in tin\\nlined cans. It is then opium gum^ one of the most important medicines in the world.\\nA proverb says: A physician without opium is like a soldier without a weapon.\\nIt reaches every country in the world, but the Chinese use more than any\\nother people, either eating it or smoking it when mixed with hasheesh and spices.\\nAs China produces four-fifths of its supply and imports fourteen million pounds a\\nyear from India and large quanties from Persia and Asia Minor, it consumes near\\n75,000,000 pounds annually at a cost of $280,000,000.\\nCelebrated as India has ever been for its riches, opium has the highest value\\namong its exports. The United States is supplied mainly from Asia Minor.\\nIndia Rubber is so called because it was first obtained from India and on\\naccount of its first known use, to rub out pencil marks. Caoutchouc is the native\\nSouth American name. It is the coagulated juice of trees growing in Central\\nAm,erica, and the tropical regions of South America, Africa, India and adjacent\\nislands. There are several different species of rubber producing plants. Fi^om\\nIndia rubber are manufactured a variety of useful articles, such as water-proof\\ncloth, foot wear, water bags, air cushions, tubing and medical and surgical articles.\\nWhen mixed with sulphur and heated under pressure Vulcanized rubber, Vul-\\ncanite, or Ebonite is produced. This form of rubber is very hard, durable and\\nelastic, and will take a high polish. Combs, buttons, etc., are made from it.\\nThe juice of the rubber tree is obtained by making incisions in the bark of the\\ntree and catching the sap as it runs out. This sap, which at first has a milky\\nappearance, is slowly heated and smoked until it coagulates into a dark mass, the\\nraw rubber of trade. The rubber tree is now cultivated in large groves of 30,000", "height": "2905", "width": "2180", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "132 NATURAI. SYSTEM OF\\ntrees or more. The best rubber is the Pari rubber of South America and that from\\nMozamoique. The United States imports $15,000,000 worth each year from Brazil.\\nGz{ilaPercka is the hardened juice of trees which grow in the East Indies.\\nIt is somewhat similar to vulcanized rubber in appearance and uses. Both are\\nemployed in making electrical insulators.\\nSponges. The sponge of commerce is the skeleton of the sponge animal, which\\ngrows at some depth in the sea,fixed to rock or ground. Sponges are found on the\\nsouthern coast of Florida and Bahama Islands, but most abundantly in the Mediter-\\nranean and Red Seas. The finest are from the Aegean Sea. The best sponges grow\\nin clear, quiet water from 150 to 200 feet deep. Mo St sponges are obtained by means\\nof long spears; but where the depth is over 40 feet divers are employed or dredges used.\\nLiquors comprise spirits, wines and malt liquors. Spirits are distilled from\\nwine, grain, corn and sugar.\\nWine, fermented grape juice, is the chief product of most grape raising coun-\\ntries, such as France, Italy and Germany.\\nMalt liquors, comprising beer, ale, porter, etc., are made from barley and hops.\\nThey are manufactured in all countries where barley and hops are raised.\\nPaper for writing and printing is made from linen and cotton rags, and from\\nwood pulp (of the poplar, Cottonwood and spruce.) The finest paper is made from\\nlinen rags. Wrapping paper is made from straw, jute and hemp.\\nThe United States leads all other nations in the production of paper. Great\\nBritain ranks second, and Germany third.\\nThe principal countries producing:\\nRice. China, Japan, India, East Indies, United States.\\nWheat. United States, Russia, Argentine Republic, India, Austro-Hungary,,\\nFrance, Italy.\\nCorn. United States, Canada, Mexico.\\nTea. China, Japan, India.\\nCoffee. Brazil, Java, Arabia, Central America, West Indies.\\nSpices. East Indies, West Indies.\\nCotton. United States, India, Egypt.\\nWool. Australia, New Zealand, Russia, United States, Argentine Republic,\\nSilk. China, Japan, Italy, France, Spain.\\nCoal. Great Britain, United States, Germany, France, Belgium, Australia.\\nPetroleum. United States, Russia.\\nIron. Great Britain, United States, Belgium, Russia, Sweden.\\nCopper. United States, Chile, Spain, Germany, Australia.\\nGold. United States, Australia, Russia.\\nSilver. United States, Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Austria.", "height": "2869", "width": "2068", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2765", "width": "2094", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "OCT 25 I8S9", "height": "2877", "width": "2173", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2877", "width": "2055", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2961", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "naturalsystemoft00bead_0144.jp2"}}