{"1": {"fulltext": "HANDBOOKS 1", "height": "3811", "width": "2640", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "How to Run\\nEngines and Boilers\\nWITH A NEW SECTION ON\\nWater-Tube Boilers\\nPRACTICAL INSTRUCTION\\nFOR YOUNG ENGINEERS\\nAND STEAM USERS\\nBY\\nEGBERT POMEROY WATSON\\nAuthor of: Modern Practice of\\nAmerican Machinists and Engineers-\\nManual OF THE Hand Lathe\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Pro-\\nFOURTH EDITION\\nNEW YORK LONDON\\nSpon Chamberlain, E. F. N. Spon, ltd,\\n12 cortlandt street 125 strand\\n1899", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "TWO COPIES RECEIVED,\\nL (bra ry of Congre\u00c2\u00ab3|\\nOffice f the\\nR\u00c2\u00abgUt*r of CopyrlghtSi\\nI 7^^-i\\n48665\\nENTERED ACCORDING TO ACT\\nOF CONGRESS IN THE YEAR l8o2, V.V\\nE. P. WATSON SON 1899 SPON CHAMBERLAIN\\nIN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF\\nCONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C\\nb-\\nSECOND COPY,\\nTHE BURR PRINTING HOUSE, NEW YORK.", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION.\\nThe author has carefully gone through this\\nlittle work, and at the suggestion of the pub-\\nlishers has added twenty-eight pages of new\\nmatter treating upon the subject of Water-\\nTube Boilers, their management, maintenance,\\nand efficiency for marine and land service.\\nEight cuts, illustrating the principal types of\\nWater-Tube Boilers, have also been included.\\nWhile the space given to the treatment of this\\nsubject is necessarily limited, still the pub-\\nlishers believe it will add additional value to\\nthe work and prove of considerable interest\\nand use to the engineer.\\nThe Publishers.\\nNew York, October 8, 1899.", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nCHAPTER I. PAGE\\nThe First Thing to be Done i\\nCleaning the Boiler 3\\nRemoving Scale 5\\nCaution in Handling Caustic Potash 6\\nCHAPTER n.\\nUsing Scale Preventers 7\\nOil in Boilers 9\\nBraces and Stays 9\\nCHAPTER HI.\\nMud Drums and Feed Pipe 11\\nBoiler Fittings 12\\nCHAPTER IV.\\nGrate Bars and Tubes 15\\nBridge Walls 17\\nThe Slide Valve Throttling Engine 18\\nCHAPTER V.\\nThe Piston 22\\nThe Slide Valve 24\\nCHAPTER VI.\\nTesting the Valve with Relation to the Ports 2^\\nDefects of the Slide Valve 30", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "Vlll CONTENTS.\\nCHAPTER VII. PAGE\\nLap and Lead ^3\\nThe Pressure on a Slide Valve 34\\nStem Connections to the Valve 36\\nCHAPTER VIII.\\nValves off their Seats 40\\nValve Stem Guides 41\\nGovernors 42\\nRunning with the Sun 44\\nCHAPTER IX.\\nEccentrics and Connections 46\\nThe Crank Pin 48\\nBrass Boxes 51\\nBearing on Pins 53\\nFitting Brasses to Bearings 55\\nCHAPTER X.\\nAdjustment of Bearings 57\\nThe Valve and Gearing 58\\nCHAPTER XL\\nSetting Eccentrics 65\\nThe Actual Operation 67\\nCHAPTER XII.\\nReturn Crank Motion 74\\nPounding 75\\nThe Connections 77\\nLining Up Engines 82", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS. ix\\nCHAPTER XIII. PAGE\\nMaking Joints 88\\nCHAPTER XIV.\\nCondensing Engines 93\\nCHAPTER XV.\\nTorricelli s Vacuum 100\\nProof of Atmospheric Pressure loi\\nNo Power in a Vacuum loi\\nPumps 105\\nCHAPTER XVI.\\nSupporting a Water Column by the Atmosphere 107\\nCHAPTER XVII.\\nStarting a New Plant 114\\nCHAPTER XVIII.\\nWater-tube Boilers 122\\nBoiler Explosions 122\\nEconomy of Maintenance 123\\nEvaporative Efficiency 124\\nWhy Water-tube Boilers Steam Rapidly 140\\nTorpedo-boat Boilers 141\\nManagement of Water-tube Boilers 146\\nCHAPTER XIX.\\nThe Highest Qualities Demanded 150\\nThe Man Himself the Factor 151\\nLastly 152\\nIndex 155", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION.\\nPrefaces have gone out of fashion. They\\nare usually excuses, or explanations, or apolo-\\ngies, or something akin, for having written\\nwhat follows them. This little book needs no\\npreface, but here is one and a dedication as\\nwell, for in this work I have endeavored to\\nserve young American Engineers who have\\ntaken to the business seriously by mentioning\\na few troubles they are likely to encounter but\\nit is only mention, for the one thing which can\\nnot be imparted is experience. Time, study,\\nand practice alone can give it. No man was\\never made an engineer by a book or by rules,\\nbut every engineer must know the first prin-", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "IV INTRODUCTION.\\nciples and traditions of his business. The in-\\nexperienced will find a few of them herein.\\nThis little book is dedicated to American\\nEngineers, the men who have always helped\\nme on my way and who have always kept faith\\nwith me; who have always held out the right\\nhand of fellowship to me as man and boy, by\\ntheir sincere friend and well wisher.\\nEgbert Pomeroy Watson.", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "HOW TO RM EEIMS AND BOILERS.\\nCHAPTER I.\\nThe first thing to be done upon taking\\ncharge of an engine and boiler, new or old,\\nis to examine the boiler thoroughly. No\\nmatter whether it has just come from the\\nshop, or has been run for years, take off the\\nman-hole plate and go inside yourself with\\na hand-lamp after you are in look at all the\\nwater spaces, and see if they are clean, that\\nis, without rubbish or dirt of any kind. Even\\nnew boilers are not free from this. There\\nare various irresponsible persons about\\nboiler shops who are not as careful as they\\nshould be, and it will be the exception rather\\nthan otherwise if you do not find a lot of\\nthings which are better out of the boiler than\\nin it. In large boilers rivet kegs are often\\ntaken in to sit upon, and are not always taken\\nout again the staves are thrown down in the\\nwater space, from whence they will float out\\nand get in the steam pipes by some mysterious\\nhappening. The water line is not so high as\\nthe steam pipe, by any means, but the staves\\nget there somehow so do bunches of waste,\\netc. Everything of any kind should be\\ncleaned out of the boiler before w^ater is run", "height": "3818", "width": "2609", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "into it. To do this it will be necessary to take\\noff the lower hand-hole plates, and with a\\nsmall hooked rod dislodge everything that is\\nloose in the boiler.\\nSpare no pains in this work, for it will be\\nlabor and money saved in future. When\\nthe boiler is thoroughly clean you can put the\\nplates in again, but before doing this rub the\\ngaskets thoroughly with plumbago, and they\\nwill not adhere to the plate where exposed to\\nheat. This is a saving of time and gaskets in\\nbreaking joints in future. The old way of\\nmaking joints upon hand-hole plates, with\\nhemp gaskets slushed with white lead, has\\ngone out of use, having been superseded by\\nrubber gaskets made for the purpose. If you\\nare remote from a city, however, and cannot\\nget a rubber gasket, you can make a hemp\\ngasket which will answer all purposes. Jute\\nIS the best material for this job if it can be had,\\nbut you are quite as likely to be out of jute as\\nout of rubber gaskets, and if you have neither\\nyou can get a clothesline most anywhere.\\nUnlay this and take the twist out of it; beat it\\nwith a fiat stick so as to reduce it to its original\\nfiber then braid it up again of the proper size\\nfor the job in hand. Find the right length for\\nthe gasket, and join the ends so as to form a\\nring of the proper size that will fit the plate ac-", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "3\\ncurately it should go on so tight that you\\nhave to force it over the flange of the plate.\\nCover this gasket thoroughly with white lead,\\nand then put it in its place. It will be abso-\\nlutely tight if the v/orkhas been properly done.\\nCleaning the Boiler.\\nWe have been assuming that the boiler you\\nhave taken charge of is a new one, without\\nscale, but it it is an old one there is likely to be\\na quantity of scale and dirt, which must be\\ntaken out at once. The way to do this is to\\nus the best tools you can get hold of, or con-\\ntrive for the purpose. The place to look for\\ndirt and deposits from the feed water is in the\\nbottom of the boiler furthest from the entrance\\nof the feed water, and in the parts that are the\\ncoolest, if there are any, when the steam is on.\\nIn a return tubular boiler this is generally in\\nthe smoke-box end, which is not so hot as the\\nfire-box end; the quantity of rubbish which ac-\\ncumulates in a neglected boiler is astonishing,\\nand you must not be surprised if you have to\\nremove wheelbarrow loads. This dirt comes\\nfrom the solid matter in the water, both that\\nwhich is carried in mechanically from turbid\\nsupplies, and that which is held in suspension\\nuntil set free by heat. Every gallon has a cer-\\ntain amount, and as many gallons are evapor-\\nated daily, unless removed weekly it soon", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "makes a wheelbarrow load. This dirt, by\\nbacking up against the flue sheet, deprives the\\nends of the tubes of water, which not only\\nsteals part of the heating surface, but destroys\\nthe ends of the tubes and flue-sheet by corro-\\nsion and over heating, so that it is only a ques-\\ntion of time when the boiler will be practically\\nuseless. If the lower course of the tube-ends\\nin the smokebox leak, be sure that they have\\nbeen abused in the manner stated. You will\\nprobably find that they will leak after dirt has\\nbeen cleaned out. In that case the tubes must\\nbe re-expanded, and to do this a boiler maker\\nmust be called in. Do not, upon any con-\\nsideration, try to tinker them up with a ham-\\nmer yourself. You will only make a bad mat-\\nter worse, and set other tubes to leaking which\\nwere tight. Having taken out what may be\\ncalled the loose dirt, though some of it is\\nvery far from being loose, you will find\\nanother job in front of you, and that is to get\\nout the dirt which is fast. In other words, the\\nscale. This is actual stone, artificially formed\\nwithin the boiler from the working of it. It\\ndiffers in character with the kind of water\\nused. If it is hard water, so-called, it will be\\nlimestone scale if soft water, it will be sul-\\nphate of magnesia and soda scale either one\\nof them is bad enough, so far as the boiler is", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "5\\nconcerned, and must be removed absolutely if\\nthere is to be any economy.\\nRemoving Scale.\\nThere is a way to do this which we have\\npracticed with success, and that is to run the\\nboiler full of water up to the third gauge and\\nthen put in a quantity of a scale preventive.\\nOf these there are numbers in market, but we\\ndo not name any one as the best. Doubtless\\nnone of them are wholly useless, though some\\nof them are inert or do not act. You will have\\nto find out by experience which one serves\\nyour purpose. Sometimes caustic potash\\nanswers a very good purpose. This when the\\nscale is chiefly mud with sulphate of soda and\\nmagnesia combined. Caustic potash is the\\nconcentrated lye sold in grocery stores, but if\\nwanted in large quantities should be purchased\\nof wholesale druggists. To use it, dissolve it\\nin a barrel of water, say 40 pounds to the bar-\\nrel, and pour it into the boiler. This is about\\none-sixth of a pound of potash to the pound of\\nwater, and is strong enough for the purpose.\\nAfter the purger is in the boiler build a light\\nfire and heat the water to boiling point, and\\nthen haul the fire and let the contents stand.\\nIt is better to do this on Saturday night, if pos-\\nsible, leaving the water in the boiler until Mon-\\nday morning you should then get up steam", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "to, say, five or ten pounds pressure on the\\nsame water, haul the fire all out, and blow the\\nboiler down. You will, in the majority of\\ncases, find the boiler thoroughly clean, except\\nfor chunks of scale which cannot go through\\nthe blow-cock, and which must be taken out\\nthrough the hand-holes.\\nCautiojst.\\nIn handling caustic potash the utmost care\\nmust be used. It is truly caustic, or burning,\\nand if a portion gets in the eyes it will cause\\nserious trouble. The same is true of sores on\\nthe hands. Handle it with gloves; treat it\\nvery respectfully.\\nt", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II.\\nUsing Scale Preventers.\\nIf caustic potash cannot be had, a substitute\\nmay be found, in rural districts, in slippery-\\nelm bark. This is not at all caustic, but quite\\nthe reverse, being demulcent in character.\\nHow it acts we do not know but that it has a\\ncertain efficiency we do know, because we\\nhave cleaned boilers thoroughly with it. It\\nmakes little difference how much is used, put\\nit in the boiler and let it stay there for a week,\\nand there will be a benefit from its use.\\nThese purgers just named are only of service\\nwhere the scale is soft for hard scale a differ-\\nent one must be used, and to attack lime scale\\nit should be of an acid character, for lime is\\nalkaline, and its antidote is an acid. But just\\nhere trouble is likely to ensue in the hands of\\nan inexperienced person. A good many will\\nexclaim loudly against using an acid purger in\\na boiler, arguing that it will destroy the boiler\\nas well, and that very soon. Some have shown\\nus pieces of iron, that they immersed in certain\\nboiler purgers, that were badly corroded. This\\nis very likely, but it so happens that no boiler\\npurger is used in that way. The purger is\\nlargely diluted wuth water, and acts very slowly\\nupon the iron. It attacks the scale first, be-", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "8\\ncause it has the greatest affinity, or liking, for\\nit; after that it goes for the boiler plates; but\\nthere are no after effects ot this character from\\na boiler purger, because it is no longer in the\\nboiler when the scale is removed, and if a\\nboiler is thoroughly washed out there is no\\ndanger to it from the use of a strong purge.\\nThere is very great danger from the presence\\nof heavy lime stone scale, and since nothing\\nbut a purger with an acid reaction will remove\\nit, w^e do not fear to use it ourselves. Some\\nengineers have shown us boilers from which\\nthe scale was removed w^hich had the plates\\nbadly corroded. This action was attributed to\\nthe use of the purge, when it was, in fact,\\ncaused by the scale itself. The corrosion was\\ngoing on all the time underneath the scale, and\\nwhen it was removed the injury it caused was\\nmanifest. Ot two evils we are taught to choose\\nthe least, and in this case the use of a strong\\nboiler purger is less than the injury and loss of\\nfuel caused by scale. Get that out first,\\nthoroughly clean the boiler after of all traces\\nof the purge, and there will be no trouble aris-\\ning from its use. It is understood, of course,\\nthat after the use of any boiler purge that the\\nhand-hole plates must be taken off and the\\nboiler cleaned out by hand, washed with a\\nhose, and then filled up and blown out again", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "9\\nbefore steam is raised. There is no middle\\ng-round or half-way measures possible in deal-\\ning with a dirty steam boiler. Get down to\\nthe naked iron and keep it so, inside and out,\\nand the boiler twenty years old will steam as\\nfreely as one just out of the shop.\\nOil in Boilers.\\nDo not upon any account put crude oil or\\nany other kind of grease in a steam boiler. It\\ng-enerally gets in fast enough through the\\nfeed water where open heaters are used,\\nwithout putting it in. The effect of putting\\noil in is, in a great many cases, to cause the\\ncrown sheet to come down, or the lower\\nsheets to bag. When first put in the oil floats,\\nbut it gradually picks up scum from the sur-\\nface, in which scum there is always more or\\nless actual mud thrown up from the bottom by\\nthe boiling water; the oil then becomes like tar,\\nand being heavy settles on the plates and\\nsticks fast. Since the water cannot get under-\\nneath it the plates are overheated and come\\ndown, notwithstanding the fact that there is\\nplenty of water in the boiler. Keep every kind\\nof grease out of a steam boiler, if you have\\nto filter the feed water to do it.\\nBraces and Stays.\\nWe have now a clean boiler to deal with\\nlet us see in what condition it is as regards", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "lO\\nstrength. The braces are the first to be con-\\nsidered. Perhaps some of them are carried\\naway entirely; such a state of things is by no\\nmeans unknown. They must be replaced at\\nonce by boiler makers, who should also go\\nover every other part of the boiler and test it\\nfor condition; but if there are no boiler makers\\nhandy the engineer must do it himself. The\\nboiler most generally used is the return\\ntubular, which is a plain cylinder with an ex-\\nternal fire-box, from which the heat traverses\\nthe bottom and enters the tubes at the back,\\npassing through them to the breeching and\\nsmoke-stack in front. The weak point in the\\nreturn tubular boiler is directly over the bridge-\\nwall, where the heat deflected from the wall\\nstrikes upon the shell. This spot needs to be\\ncarefully examined, for unless the boiler has\\nbeen well taken care of it wll be found weak\\nand unsafe. If any doubt exists, a half inch\\nhole should be drilled in the bottom to ascer-\\ntain the exact thickness of the plate, when, if\\nthinner than the shell elsewhere, it should be\\nremovesd, and a new plate put in. The sides\\nof the boiler should also be examined near the\\nwall, or where the boiler meets the brick^work,\\nfor here there is often trouble from corrosion\\nalso at the junction of the blow-pipe in the\\nbottom or at the end of the boiler.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III.\\nMud Drums and Feed-Pipe.\\nIf there is a mud-drum attached to the boil-\\ner examine it very thoroughly, for explosions\\nof mud-drums are very common. If the mud-\\ndrum is buried, as it often is, it is probably\\ncorroded greatly. The proper place for a\\nmud-drum is outside of the boiler, in plain\\nsight, where it can be got at and cleaned out\\nweekly. The object of it is to catch all the free\\nmud, so to call it, which is thrown down at\\nnight when the boiler is not running. With\\nsome water used for steam making, as on\\nWestern rivers, the quantity of mud so de-\\nposited is very large, and if not removed it\\nwill be driven back into the boiler. This is\\nparticularly true where the feed pipe enters\\nthrough one end of the mud-drum. It does\\nnot require much thought to see that this\\nwholly defeats the object of the mud-drum, for\\nthe sediment which collects over night is\\nforced through the boiler again at the first\\nstroke of the pump in the morning.\\nAs to the best place for the feed pipe to enter\\nthe boiler there is a difference of opinion\\namong engineers, but there is no doubt but that\\nthe worst place is through the mud-drum, for the\\nreason given. Some think that the feed should", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "12\\nenter the coolest part; some put it in the steam\\nspace, and some enter it at the front end\\nalongside the fire. An objection to this is the\\nbad effect of water cooler than the water in\\nthe boiler upon hot plates; an advantage is\\nthe propulsion of any sediment that may lie\\nupon the bottom of the boiler to the back end\\nof it, where there is no trouble in removing it;\\nanother benefit is that the mechanical action\\nof the entering jet assists the circulation by\\nforcibly driving the heated water from the\\nfront to the back, and replacing it with cooler\\nwater, but to effect these objects the feed pipe\\nmust project within the boiler for a few inches\\nso as to give what we shall call a straight\\nshot from it.\\nBoiler Fittings.\\nIn these are included every sort of attach-\\nment to a boiler, the water gauge, gauge cocks,\\nsafety valve, checks of all kinds, and the blow-\\noff valve or cock for blowing the water out of\\nthe boiler. This last is a much more important\\ndetail than it is generally supposed to be, and\\nmany accidents nave happened from careless-\\nness with it. These accidents occurred from\\nsticking any sort of a bent pipe (we have\\nactually seen an old leader pipe from a house\\nused) over the end of the nipple or elbow on\\nthe blow-pipe. The blow-pipe connection", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "13\\nshould be made as firmly and as securely as\\nany other attachment to a boiler. If one re-\\nflects for a moment, it is easy to see that there\\nis a tremendous strain on a pipe which is dis-\\ncharging a two inch stream of water under 60\\nor 70 pounds pressure. A boiler never should\\nbe blown off at this pressure, but it sometimes\\nhas to be, and preparation should be made for\\nit. No elbows should be used where it is pos-\\nsible to avoid them the pipe should run as\\nstraight as it can from the boiler to the outer\\nair, and if a cock is used care should be taken\\nthat it is always in perfect order. It should not\\nleak a drop the bolt at bottom which keeps\\nthe plug in the cock should be accurately fitted,\\nof full length, entering the plug not less than\\ni^ inches, and have a good head on it. It\\nmust never be meddled with or touched, except\\nto open or close it, when under pressure.\\nDon t hit it with a hammer, either on the under\\nside to start the plug up if it sticks, or on the\\ntop for any purpose. Remember that it is\\nunder pressure, and if it gives way it is almost\\ncertain death to any one near it. Defer all tin-\\nkering and investigation until the boiler is cold;\\nor, in other words, make everything secure be-\\nfore steam is on; then there will be no trouble.\\nForethought, care, and caution, are absolutely\\nindispensable qualifications in an engineer, and", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "14\\nit is useless to expect success or ordinary\\neconomy without them. No man can be an\\nengineer worthy of the name who is careless\\nor has not his wits about him at all times.\\nMr. I-Didn t-Think has no business with a\\nsteam boiler.\\nWhat has been said of the blow-cock is true\\nof all the other fittings. Every one of them\\nmust be in perfect order to be safe and efficient;\\nan engineer must bear in mind that he is deal-\\ning with a tremendous agent, which is safe\\nonly when in its place and under control, and\\nevery gauge or fitting of every kind must be\\nsecurely in place and tight of itself, that is,\\ntight without makeshifts of any kind.\\nThe safety valve in particular must be tight,\\nfor a great deal of coal can be lost by a leaky\\nvalve. It should be free and clear in the hoist,\\nor where the lever is to be raised if it is of the\\nlever type and entirely free from rust in all\\nparts. A safety valve is for use, not for emer-\\ngency, and if it is not in order it will not act\\nwhen the emergency comes, if it ever does.\\nIt is not every engineer that can do the work\\nwhich we have mentioned with his own hands,\\nfor not all persons in charge of engines are\\nmachinists; these instructions convey a knowl-\\nedge of what is needed, and the work can be\\nsupplied by those competent to perform it.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV.\\nGrate Bars and Tubes.\\nOne of the most important parts of a boiler\\nis the ^rate. Curiously enough but few give\\nthis matter sufficient thought, but it is plain\\nupon reflection that the air which is needed to\\nsupport combustion must be supplied through\\nit. If the bars are warped and broken, too\\nmuch air goes through them, with the effect of\\nwasting fuel or checking the free steaming of\\nthe boiler. Moreover, a broken grate bar pre-\\nvents proper firing, or attention to the fire all\\nthe bars should be, in good order, with no open\\nspaces at the ends (front or back) or sides. As\\nthis bears directly upon the subject of combus-\\ntion, it will be more explicitly alluded to fur-\\nther along in this work.\\nThe tubes or flues particularly demand at-\\ntention, and must be absolutely clean inside\\nand out. In a former article we have given\\ndirections how to clean them outside that is,\\non the water side, but they must be clean on\\nthe fire side too. With anthracite coal this is\\nnot a matter of difficulty, but with soft coal it\\nis not so much through the soot which accu-\\nmulates in them as with the gurry, for want\\nof a better name, which is burned on. This\\nlast IS the tarry distillates of the coal, or heavier", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "i6\\nproducts of combustion, which are condensed\\non the inside of the tubes when the boiler is\\ncomparatively cold, or in getting up steam\\nevery morning, and is by no means easy to\\nremove. It not only checks steam making by\\nobstructing the heat from passing through the\\ntubes, but it hinders the draught by the ad-\\nherence of soot and roughening the surface of\\nthe tubes. It would seem that the fire should\\nburn this deposit off, but it requires a much\\nhigher temperature to do this than that in the\\ntubes, and the only way to remove it when it\\nhas accumulated in quantity is to thoroughly\\nslush the tubes with crude petroleum oil, ap-\\nplied with a swab and allowed to remain for a\\nday or so, when it should be sw^abbed out\\nagain. This is a job which but few persons\\ncare to undertake, particularly if the boiler is\\nlarge, but in some cases it becomes neccessary.\\nCrude petroleum is a solvent for tar, and will\\nclean the tubes thoroughly.\\nOf course it has to be undertaken in holiday\\ntime, when the boiler is idle for a day or two,\\nfor to be of any service the oil must remain in\\nthe tubes at least 24 hours. It is of no use to\\ntry to rasp this gurry out with steel brushes\\nor scrapers. It is as tough as India-rubber and\\na scraper slides over it.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "17\\nBridge Walls.\\nThe bridge wall in a boiler is intended to\\ndelay the products of combustion in the fire-\\nbox as long as possible, and to confine the\\nheat from the fire within the area of the grate.\\nTo do this it is manifest that the throat, or\\nopening over the bridge wall, between the top\\nof it and the boiler, should be as small as it\\ncan be, and leave room enough for a good\\ndraught, so-called. There is, however, a\\ndanger in this, and this danger is that if the\\nthroat is too narrow, the heat, and sometimes\\nthe flame, is sharply deflected and concentrated\\ndirectly upon one spot over the v/all. The\\nresult of this is that the sheet for a foot or so is\\nfire-eaten, or thinned and weakened it is\\nburned, as boiler makers would say, notwith-\\nstanding there may have been plenty of water\\nin the boiler. The opening over the bridge\\nwall should never exceed ten inches, nor be\\nless than eight inches, and it should follow\\nthe curve of the boiler. There are a great\\nmany patents on bridge walls which are in-\\ntended to improve the combustion by admit-\\nting air over them, or through them, but never\\nhaving had any experience with them we can-\\nnot say anything about them.\\nAssuming that the boiler has been put in\\ngood condition, we will look at the engine.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "i8\\nThe hints given in the previous chapters\\nshould enable any intelligent man who is fit\\nto be about a steam plant, to have a boiler\\nv^hich will steam freely and as economically\\nas its construction will allow. A treatise\\ncould be written upon boilers alone, and many\\nsuch works are in existence. The contents,\\nhowever, relate more particularly to the con*\\nstruction, a matter which does not enter into\\nan engineers duties.\\nThe Sode- Valve Throttling Engine.\\nThe commonest form of steam engine in use\\nto-day is the slide-valve throttling engine,\\nwhich is regulated by governors of various\\nkinds. It is the simplest of machines, easily\\nmanaged by any one after a little instruction,\\nand frequently is found in charge of men and\\nboys who have had no experience whatever,\\nthey merely knowing that a certain valve has\\nto be opened, and that the engine must be at\\nhalf-stroke to start. Such persons are not en-\\ngineers in any sense of the word, for they do\\nnot intend to follow the business any longer\\nthan they can help. Our instructions are not\\ndirected to them, but to intelligent young men\\nwho have started with the intention of learning\\nall that they can. The first thing to do then in\\ntaking charge of an engine is to see in what\\ncondition it has been handed over, in order that", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "19\\nyou may not be blamed for the sins of those\\nwho preceded you. The cylinder is the seat of\\npower, and we want to examine it as soon as\\nwe can get a chance. If we have been under\\nsteam the day before, we leave the eng^ine on\\nthe back center at night (Saturday night foi\\ninstance), and take off the cylinder head. The\\npiston is then at the end of its stroke, and we\\nhave an opportunity to see what the clearance\\nis between the piston and the cylinder head.\\nThe latter detail will leave its mark on the\\ncylinder after it is taken out, so it will be easy\\nto measure directly from the piston to the said\\nmark. Some clearance is necssary for safe\\nworking, but it should be just as little as pos-\\nsible clearance is waste room that has to be\\nfilled with live steam at every stroke before\\nany work is done on the piston.\\nAs a rule excessive clearance is given in\\nsmall engines, for no reason whatever, except\\nthat some builders appear to think that there is\\nless danger of breaking down. Suppose that\\nthe cylinder is 12 inches diameter: then the\\npiston should run within one-quarter of an\\ninch of the head. If the piston is of that class\\nwhere the follower bolts stick out the depths of\\ntheir heads, it canuot run so close as this, and\\nprobably there is an inch or more clearance\\nin such a cylinder, but it is easy to reduce the", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "20\\nclearance in such cases to the lowest point,\\npnd this is easily done by taking* the follower\\nto a machine shop and having the bolt holes\\ncounterbored, so as to let the heads in as far as\\npossible; having done this, fill up on the head\\nitself by bolting on a cast-iron plate of the re-\\nquired thickness, cutting out where it covers\\nthe steam port. The reduction of clearance\\noften makes a boiler much larger; or, in plainer\\nterms, since less waste occurs it is easier to\\nkeep steam on a boiler than when the clear-\\nance is excessive. Having found what the\\nclearance is on the back end then, we discon-\\nnect the piston from the cross-head, and (run-\\nning the crank on the forward center), we\\nfind what it is on the front end. This we do\\nby shoving the piston clear up against the for-\\nward head. Having done this w^e measure\\nfrom the follower back to the end of the stroke,\\nas shown by the wear on the guides, and the\\nwear on the cylinder itself. If this measure-\\nment is half an inch longer than the working\\nstroke of the piston, there is half an inch\\nclearance on the front end, and as there are no\\nfollower bolts on that end it is all waste, ex-\\ncept so much as is actually needed for the safe\\nwording of the engine. We should, if the en-\\ngine was ours, reduce this clearance also, to\\nthe same degree that we did the back end, but", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "21\\nas it entails more or less work for the shop, it\\nwill be as well to leave the clearance half an\\ninch on the front end; if the clearance is one\\ninch, however, no consideration of trouble or\\nexpense should be spared to reduce it in the\\nsame way that we fixed the back head, by-\\nadding to the head itself. The clearance in\\nany engine must be reduced to its lowest\\nterms, for by doing this, if the engine is yours,\\nyou put money in your pocket; if it b elongs to\\nsome one else and you are in charge of it, you\\nget the credit of making a saving, and this will\\nbe a feather in your cap worth working for.\\n^fe\\n-m^", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V.\\nThe Piston.\\nNow that we have the clearance matter at-\\ntended to, let us see what kind of a looking-\\nthing we have for a piston. This detail of a\\nsteam engine is of all conceivable forms\u00e2\u0080\u0094 and\\nsome inconceivable forms, to any one who\\nthinks what a piston has to do. They are\\nmade as heavy as hydraulic plungers, and with\\nas many attachments as possible, in the shape\\nof rings, with springs to keep the rings out to\\nthe cylinder, and screws in the springs to keep\\nthe springs out to the rings. The reason that\\nsome firms make them in this way is because\\ntheir grandfathers made them so, and that is\\nreason enough in their eyes. If the piston\\nyou have taken out is of this class it is your\\nand the owner s misfortune, but as we are not\\ngiving instructions upon how to build engines,\\nwe will merely state how this old-fashioned\\npiston is to be put in as good condition as pos-\\nsible. Pistons are liable to become leaky in\\nthe following places between their flanges\\nwhere the rings bear; between the rings and\\nthe cylinder itself; through the follower into\\nthe body of the piston. Wherever there is a\\njoint look for a leak, for joints become imper-\\nfect through use and time. If the rings move", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "23\\nback and forth between the flang^es of the\\npiston they leak, and must be made tight by\\nskinning off the follower. This is of course a\\nshop job, wath which the engineer has nothing\\nto do, but before the piston is sent to the shop\\nfor repairs the engineer should be sure that the\\npiston needs it. Very often it will be found\\nby examination that dirt or burrs have got\\nin betw^een the follower and the spider, or else\\nthe thread on the bolt-holes in the spider has\\nbeen raised around the edges, so that the fol-\\nlow^er will not go dowm, iron and iron. An\\nexperienced engineer will soon find out\\nwhether these things have happened by taking\\na smooth file and going carefully over the fol-\\nlow^er-seat on the spider, or main casting of\\nthe piston. In this way he will find all the\\nburrs or bruises that have raised the surface,\\nand dress them off level then w^hen he puts\\nthe follower on again and screws it up solid\\nwithout the rmgs in, he should take a hammer\\nand strike on the outside of the follower\\nopposite solid iron. If the follower is tight on\\nits seat it will sound like striking on an anvil\\nif it is leaky the sound given out will be like\\nstriking a piece of iron lying on an anvil.\\nLeaks can also be told by the appearance of\\nthe parts, but as this is not easily conveyed in\\nprint we shall not attempt it. The best way", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "24\\nin all cases is to send the piston to a ^ood\\nmachine shop and have it put in perfect order,\\nand this is why it was taken out the first thin^,\\nso that it mig;ht be going forward while we are\\ndismantling other parts of the engine.\\nThe Slide Valve.\\nThe next thing we do to ascertain the condi-\\ntion of our engine is to take the bonnet off the\\nsteam chest and see in what shape the valve\\nand its seat are. An inexperienced man is very\\nlikely to get into trouble here, and do damage\\nto the engine. Bolts and nuts which have been\\nlong undisturbed are very hard to start, and in\\nvery many cases they either break short off in\\nthe casting, or else, in the case of stud bolts,\\ncome away at the bottom, and unscrew from\\nthe casting. Either of these misfortunes is\\nbad, because it is not an easy task to get out a\\nbroken stud bolt, or to make one tight in its\\nseat after it has been forcibly removed there-\\nfore, if the nuts do not yield to moderate force\\nexerted on a wrench, pour a little kerosene on\\nthem and let them stand half an hour. Kero-\\nsene is the most pervasive fluid known to the\\ntrade, and it will seep into the most minute\\ncrevices; if after its application the nuts will\\nnot then start, get an iron ring, or a big nut\\nwith some body of metal in it and heat it red\\nhot. Put this over the stubborn nut until it has", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "25\\nbecome very warm and it will come away\\nwithout any trouble.\\nIf we digress here for a moment it is because\\nthe occasion seems to demand it. This digres-\\nsion is to again insist upon the necessity of\\ncare and caution in dealing with a steam en-\\ngine. It is no evidence of skill for a man to\\ngo at a steam engine with a hammer and\\nwrench and slaughter right and left, for by pur-\\nsuing this course he can do more damage in a\\nmoment than he can repair in a day, and he\\ncan save both time and money by going at\\nevery job in a workmanlike manner.\\nThe slide valve is really the heart of the\\nsteam engine, for upon its perfect condition\\nand perfect action everything depends if it is\\noff its seat or badly set there can be no econ-\\nomy. When we take up a slide valve in an\\nold engine we shall, in nine cases out of ten,\\nfind it in very bad condition. This is owing,\\nin a great measure, to the way in which it is\\nconnected to the mechanism that operates it,\\nand to the way in which it is constructed.\\nMost slide valves are extremely faulty in this\\nrespect. In order to keep the steam chest as\\nshort as possible, the valve seat is made short,\\nand very often the valve overruns the seat, so\\nas not to wear a shoulder on it. The valve\\nstem, acting on the stuffing-box as a fulcrum,", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "26\\ntends to pry the valve off its seat, notwith-\\nstanding the pressure upon it, with the result\\nthat the face of the valve is worn rounding in\\nthe direction of its stroke. Where this is the\\ncase it must necessarily leak, for a slide valve\\nseat is like the slide valve itself if one is\\nrounding the other must be hollow, in some de-\\ngree, unless it is very much harder than the\\nvalve itself. The time to test a valve for leaks\\nis when the engine is running, and it can be\\ntold very quickly by watching the exhaust\\nwhere it can be seen. If this is sharp and\\nclear at every stroke the valve is tight, but if it\\nis followed by a secondary jet that scarcely\\nclears the exhaust pipe, the valve or the pis-\\nton leaks, and quite likely both any leak\\nthrough the piston would also show on the ex-\\nhaust, but in this case, unless the piston leaks\\nvery badly indeed, it is likely to be a leak of\\nthe valve which shows on the exhaust. To\\ntest it for condition, obtain a straight edge and\\nlaj it across. Hold the straight edge absolute-\\nly vertical, not tipped to one side, and it will\\nsoon show in what condition the valve and the\\nseat are. The remedy for a leaky slide valve\\nis in the machine shop.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI.\\nTesting the Valve with Relation to the Ports.\\nTo find out whether the valve is properly\\nmade in the first instance, or whether it has\\nbeen tampered with by some engineer in\\ncharge before you, proceed as follows Take\\na sheet of paper large enough to entirely cover\\nthe valve seat and lay it on it. Rub all over\\nthe edges of the ports so as to obtain a fac\\nFig. 1.\\nsimile of them. Then get a piece of pine half\\nan inch thick and three inches wide, and put\\nthe edge of it on the diagram, transferring the\\nports to the stick, thus: Do the same to the\\nvalve, and you will have a fac simile of the\\nvalve and its ports, which can be more readily\\nhandled than by taking the valve itself, which\\nis heavy and hard to see distinctly when in\\nthe chest. Now these directions sound very\\nsimple, and are very easy to understand by", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "28\\none who knows all about the matter before-\\nhand, and who knows what he expects to see,\\nbut they are not so simple to a young man\\nwho reads them for the first time, or who is\\nunacquainted with the action of a slide valve,\\nand it is mainly to readers of this class that\\nthis work is addressed. But we will try to\\nmake it as simple as possible, and so that any-\\none without previous knowledge of a slide\\nvalve can see at a glance whether it is properly\\nFig. 2.\\nmade or not. Actual comparison of the valve\\nand valve seat templets will appear further on.\\nLet us say, however, that there are slide\\nvalves of many kinds, flat faced, round faced\\n(as in the case of a piston slide-valve), V faced,\\netc.: but in this article, when we say slide\\nvalve we refer especially to the common cast-\\niron box without a bottom, which is generally\\nused in engines, as shown in the engraving,\\nfig. 2. This covers both ports and extends\\nsome distance over them on each side. That", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "29\\nIS to say, the end of the valve laps over the\\nports, and the part projecting* is jailed the lap\\nof the valve. The cavity inside the valve is\\nthe exhaust port of the valve, and this also laps\\nover the exhaust edge of the steam port some-\\ntimes; the outside lap is called steam lap, or\\nlap on the steam side, and the inside lap is\\ncalled exhaust lap when there is any. Usually\\nthe exhaust port in the valve coincides with\\nthe inside edges of the steam ports as shown in\\nsteam lap\\nFig. 3.\\nfig. 3, and when in this condition it is said to\\nhave line and line exhaust. Sometimes the\\nexhaust is given clearance that is to say, the\\nsteam port on the exhaust side is open slightly,\\nand when in this condition it is said to have\\nexhaust lead, or lead on the exhaust side. A\\nslide valve then, works normally, that is to\\nsay naturally, under these conditions It is a\\ncast-iron box covering both ports all round, so\\nthat no steam can get into the cylinder unless", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "30\\nthe valve is moved so as to expose one of the\\nports. To recapitulate the part which projects\\nover the ports is called steam lap; the inside\\ncavity of the valve is the exhaust port the\\ninside edge of the steam port is the exhaust\\nside the outside end of the valve is the steam\\nside; and the same on both sides of course.\\nThese details are, naturally, familiar enough to\\nexperienced engineers, but we must not forget\\nthat there are young men coming into the trade\\ncontinually w^ho have all their trade before\\nthem, and who have it to learn as we had to,\\nand it is for them that these explanations are\\ngiven. Let us now look at the action of the\\nvalve.\\nDefects of the Slide Valve.\\nWere it not for one inherent, and we may say,\\nhereditary defec^, the slide valve would be the\\nideal one for its purpose, for all the functions\\nare performed by one valve. This defect is\\nthat it is limited in its application to working\\nsteam expansively. As will be readily seen\\nby anyone who uses the templet, fig. i, where\\nthe valve face is shown in section, when it is\\napplied to the valve and moved to the various\\npositions of opening and closing the valve, the\\nexhaust is more or less throttled or choked its\\narea is greatly reduced, so that escape of the\\nexhaust is delayed. The resnl.t of this is that", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "31\\nthe exhaust steam presses back on the piston\\n(back pressure so-called), and takes away just\\nso much from the power of the live steam on\\nthe other side which is driving the piston for-\\nward. This back pressure varies in amount\\nwith the position of the valve and the point of\\nthe piston stroke at which the valve closes.\\nFor instance, in plain words, when a slide\\nvalve cuts off at three-quarters of the piston\\nstroke there should be little or no back pressure\\nin a properly constructed valve, for the exhaust\\nis open long enough to allow all the dead steam\\nto escape, but at points of the piston stroke\\nunder three-quarters the exhaust is not free,\\nand a cut-off obtained with a common slide\\nvalve under five-eighths of the piston stroke has\\nto be paid for by loss of live steam pressure.\\nNotwithstanding this fact there are many slide\\nvalves cutting off to-day at one-half of the\\nstroke, and under that at times, and the de-\\nsigners of them are satisfied that is to say,\\nthey have to be satisfied for the common slide\\nvalve will always create undue back pressure\\nat points under ^Ieven- sixteenths of the piston\\nstroke. This is shown very plainly by indi-\\ncator cards, where the last part of the exhaust\\nis caught in the cylinder by the piston and\\npushed uphill, if we may so express it, until\\n(when nearly on the center) there is a pressure", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "32\\nopposed to the piston closely approximating\\nboiler pressure. Whether this is economy or\\nnot every one must judge for themselves. To\\nexpend live steam pressure and power stored\\nin the flywheel in trying to make dead steam\\nalive, by squeezing it between the piston and\\ncylinder head, always seemed to us unwise,\\nfor the reason that we do not get back as much\\nwork from the imprisoned steam as we spent\\nto catch it, but as it is no part of our intention\\nto discuss moot points or theories in this series,\\nwe go no further in this direction.\\nC5^ rx\u00c2\u00aeT^_^ ^J\\n:^^t3", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII.\\nLap and Lead.\\nThe object of putting- lap on a slide valve is to\\ncut off the steam early in the stroke of the\\npiston. Suppose the steam end of the valve\\nhad no lap at all, but barely covered the steam\\nport: then so soon as the piston moved the\\nvalve would open and continue opening-, clos-\\ning barely in time to open again for the return\\nstroke of the piston. Now suppose we add\\none-quarter of an inch lap to the valve then\\nthe valve would open just as soon as it did be-\\nfore, because we have advanced the eccentric\\nto permit it to open, but it would close sooner\\nby the amount of the lap, because we have\\nstolen, so to speak, a quarter of an inch from\\nthe travel of the valve by advancing the eccen-\\ntric therefore, if it closes sooner it cuts off the\\nlive steam earlier in the stroke; but, as ex-\\nplained previously, it cuts off the exhaust also.\\nWe introduce this as an illustration of the\\nuses of lap. Laps on slide valves vary all the\\nway from half an inch upon a twenty-five\\nhorse-power engine to one inch and upward\\non high power engines on very large marine\\nengines the lap amounts to 3 sometimes on\\nlocomotives it is usually one inch. If you\\nhave an engine which takes steam all the", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "34\\nway, that is, works full stroke, you can\\nmaterially increase its economy, and to some\\nextent its power, by adding* lap to the valve\\nupon the steam side the amount of it cannot\\nbe stated definitely, but must be governed by\\nthe size of the engine. Lead on a slide valve\\nis the amount that the port is open to admit\\nsteam when the engine is on the dead center.\\nThe object of lead is two-fold: to have the\\nports and cylinder full of live steam the instant\\nthat the return stroke begins, and to check the\\nmomentum of the parts as they turn the center,\\nor change the direction of motion. Now both\\nthe lap and the lead of a valve have an intimate\\nrelation to setting the valve for the distribution\\nof steam, and as this will be alluded to further on\\nin this series, we will say no more under these\\nheads, because we shall be obliged to traverse\\nthe same ground, and this involves tiresome\\nrepetitions.\\nThe Pressure on a Slide Valve.\\nAnother defect or objection to a slide valve is\\nthe pressure upon it and the power required to\\ndrive it. This is great, though it. is not so\\nlarge as it is generally supposed to be. Spe-\\ncifically, in the case of small steam engines,\\nMr. C. Giddings, of Massillon, Ohio, made a\\ndynamometer for the purpose of ascertaining\\nthe power required to move the valve on a", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "35\\n6 )4 X lo horizontal engine. The surfaces\\nwere not given nor the pressures, but when\\nexerting 13.5 horse-power at 200 revs, per\\nminute, the power expended in working the\\nvalve was one-fifth of one horse-power. In an\\nengine of 9 cyl. X 12 stroke, with a three-\\nported flat slide valve, at 100 revs, of engine\\nper minute, the power required to drive the\\nvalve was 7.3 per cent, of the power developed\\nby the engine, which last was 11. i h. p. With\\na balanced slide valve on the same engine, at\\n100 revs., developing 15.6 h. p., the percentage\\nof load on the valve stem was only i per cent,\\n{Mechanical Engineer, page 62, voL 12, 1886).\\nThis adduces an argument in favor of balanced\\nvalves vs. plain vah es that is to say, the one\\nis 6. 1 per cent, lighter than the other to drive,\\nbut the fact remains that without any balanc-\\ning but 7 per cent, of the power of the engine\\nwas required to drive it in a small engine. We\\ndo not say that this is not serious, nor do we\\nthink it unworthy of notice, but the fact re-\\nmains that some valves require less pressure\\nto work than others, owing to the manner m\\nwhich they are lubricated and the condition of\\nthe seats. This last is the point we wish to\\nmake, for if the seat is cut the power required\\nwill be much greater than if it was in good\\norder. Moreover, if the metal of the valve and", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "36\\nseat are of the same degree of hardness, the\\nvalve will not work so well as when one is\\nharder than the other. Of course the valve\\nshould be the softest, for it is easy to replace\\nor re-face, while the seat is difficult to get at.\\nThe pressure on top of a shde valve is the steam\\nin the chest bearing it down. When the en-\\ngine is at wx)rk there is a pressure beneath the\\nvalve, reacting on the under side of its face,\\nfor the area of the port and through it. There\\nis also a back pressure from the exhaust steam\\npassing through the exhaust port of the valve\\nboth of these pressures tend to reduce the\\ndirect pressure on the back of the valve, but to\\nwhat extent can only be told by recording the\\nfacts in some particular case. The mean effec-\\ntive pressure shown by cards, as existing in\\nthe cylinder, is the pressure acting on the port-\\narea face of the slide valve.\\nStem Connections to the Valve.\\nWe have said previously that one defect of\\nthe slide valve was its liability to wear untrue.\\nOne great cause of this is the manner in which\\nthe stem is connected to the valve itself. In\\nlocomotives the yoke is used exclusively. We\\nbelieve there is not a single modern locomo-\\ntive built without it, the reason being that there\\nare no nuts or other details to work loose in-\\nside the chest.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "37\\nThis is of the greatest importance in an en-\\ngine which is worked hard under high pressure\\nconstantly, but the yoke has its defects as well\\nas all other mechanical devices. It frequently\\nbreaks, and at times cramps the valve so that\\nit does n:)t seat squarely it cannot be got out\\nFig. 4.\\nwithout lifting the steam chest, and it is also\\nvery heavy, and unless supported by the valve\\nitself, wears away the gland very rapidly.\\nOther common connections to valves are the\\nnut in a pocket on the back, four nuts on a\\nstraight stem, the latter being run through a\\nhole in the back of the valve, as shown in fig.\\n5 T heads on the stem are also common, the\\nT fitting in a cross in the back of the valve.\\nThe nut in a pocket connection is one which is\\nvery liable to give trouble to engineers, for it\\nis easy to see, unless the nut is exactly at right", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "38\\nangles to the travel of the valve, that it is apt\\nto cramp the valve and keep it off its seat As\\nthe stem is constantly wearing down the\\ntrouble is of frequent occurrence, and it is diffi-\\ncult to detect when the engine is cold, for the\\nreason that ttie valve appears to be solid on its\\nI^\\nNut\\n\u00c2\u00bb.\u00c2\u00bbi\\\\_\\\\ J. A*_^\\nFigs 5 and 6.\\nseat. We have seen engines which refused\\nwork simply from this connection to the valve.\\nUpon opening the throttle the engine would get\\nsteam under the valve and through both ports,\\nand nothing but easing the nut in the pocket\\nwould let the valve down solid. Fig. 5 is the", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "39\\nnut and pocket connection, an.d the nut should\\nin all cases be faced rounding on the working\\nfaces. A far better and simpler modification\\nof this plan, and one we have used with suc-\\ncess, is shown in fig. 6; it never fouls, and the\\nnut allows the valve system to be lengthened\\nor shortened without the use of jam nuts. It is\\neasily put in or taken out, and fills all the re-\\nquirements.\\nThe solid nut arrangement shown is, to our\\nway of thinking, the best. Ii holds firmly if\\nproperly fitted up, and it is also cheap to make,\\nbeing all lathe work. It never cocks the valve\\nor binds it any way take it all in all, it is hard\\nto find one better. These connections are the\\nones that are most commonly met with, and it\\nis well to know what to expect of them.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII.\\nValves Off Their Seats.\\nNow suppose we start or try to start our en-\\ngine for the first time, and on opening the\\nthrottle find that the engine will not mov^e, or\\nwill move as well one way as the other and\\nwithout power in any direction. We know that\\nsteam is in the chest by the heat of it, and if\\neverything was all right the engine should do\\nits work; since it does not, there is plainly\\nsomething wrong with the slide valve, and in\\nnine cases out of ten it is off its seat. If it was\\nsimply wrongly set, the piston would go one\\nway but not the other it would make a great\\nplunge forward or backward and stop there,\\nbut it would not drive the crank over the cen-\\nter. A slide valve does not require much to lift\\n^i from its seat, and it may occur at any time\\na scale blown in from the steam pipe may ^ei\\nunder one end and lift it enough to float the\\nvalve, then the steam will blow through the\\nexhaust. When this is observed blowing\\nthrough the remedy to be adopted is, in the\\nsmall engines, to r^p the valve stem smartly\\nwith a billet of wood, when, if the connection\\nis in fault, it will frequently release the valve\\nand allow it to seat itself. If something has", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "41\\ngot under the edge of the valve, move the stem\\nas rapidly as possible back and forth, and it\\nwill work the obstruction off. If all these fail\\nthe only remedy is to open the chest and get\\nat the valve itself. If water gets into the cylin-\\nder in any quantity it is very apt to jam the\\nvalve stem connection by bearing up on the\\nunder side of the valve through the steam port;\\nit may even bend the stem in small engines.\\nIf this happens do not undertake any hammer\\nand tongs remedies, but disconnect the stem,\\nheat it black hot and straighten it with a mallet\\non a block of wood. Cold iron or steel breaks\\neasily.\\nValve Stem Guides.\\nIn most modern slide valve engines the\\nsteam chest is on the side\u00e2\u0080\u0094 right or left as oc-\\ncasion demands (usually the right), and the\\nstem is directly connected to the eccentric rod\\nwithout the intervention of a rock-shaft. The\\nend of the stem is flattened, or squared, and is\\ncarried in a guide which may or may not be of\\nservice; if it is in line with the direct travel of\\nthe valve it is, but experience teaches that\\nthese apparently harmless guides can make a\\ngreat deal of trouble for inexperienced persons,\\nwho fancy that the stem must move tightly in\\nthem. This is not so; the outer end of the\\nvalve stem must not be tied up in any way,", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "42\\nbut must be at perfect liberty, in order to allow\\nthe valve to lie flat on its seat. The only use\\nof a guide on a valve stem is to prevent the\\nweight ot the eccentric rod from springing it\\ndownward, and to carry the weight of the\\nvalve stem itself; beyond this the v^lve re-\\nquires no guiding, for the stem will attend to\\nthat. Do not, then, screw up the guide on the\\nvalve stem so tightly as to bind it in any way; it\\nshould work freely with a slight play in all\\ndirections.\\nGovernors.\\nLet us leave the valve and all its connec-\\ntions, including the eccentric, until we get\\nfurther in our investigations, and look at the\\ngovernor or throttle valve. In early days en-\\ngine builders made their own governors; these\\nwere always the common two-ball governors\\nwhich regulated the engine (or pretended to) by\\nmeans of a butterfly valve, so-called, in the\\nsteam pipe. This valve was merely a flat piece\\nof brass with a shaft through it, hung in the\\nsteam pipe just as a damper is hung in a stove\\npipe, and usually one of these devices fitted\\nabout as well as the other. That is to say, the\\nthrottle was so badly fitted that it did not\\nanswer its purpose at all, and, added to this,\\nits position in the steam pipe was such that it\\ndefeated its own object. The valve was so far", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "43\\nfrom the steam chest that there was always a\\nsupply of steam between it and the main slide\\nvalve sufficient to run the engine at full power;\\nconsequently, when the load on the engine\\nwas reduced and the engine ran faster, the\\nspeed was not checked until the supply ran\\nout, even though the governor had partly\\nclosed the throttle; then when the supply was\\nworked off the engine slowed down, only to\\nrepeat the irregular motion at every change of\\nload. Moreover, the old-fashioned two-ball\\ngovernor was sluggish in its motions. The\\nballs had to move through considerable arcs\\nbefore the throttle acted at all; it had too many\\njoints, which bound themselves tight by their\\nmotion, and it was so defective that it was\\ncast aside for better devices. There are a\\ngood many descendants of the same family,\\nhowever, still in the market, and they have the\\nsame inherent defects. The butterfly valve has\\nwholly disappeared; at the present time no one\\nmakes them. Neither do engine builders\\nmake their own governors. Many patented\\ngovernors for steam engines are manufactured\\nby parties who make a specialty of them, and\\nthese makers use a simple cylindrical shell\\nmoving in a cylinder as a throttle valve. This\\nworks easily and tightly, and is a vast im-\\nprovement on the old gear. Its faults are", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "44\\nchiefly those of adjustment, and arise from\\nneglect or carelessness on the part of those\\nwho run the engine. The parts are apt to\\nwear, or else the stem gets lengthened by un-\\nscrewing, so that the valve drops from its\\nnatural position and blinds the ports. In\\ncaring for and repairing a governor all that is\\nnecessary is to see that the joints, when there\\nare any (in some there are none, as in the\\nPickering), are free, the pins perfectly round\\nand true, and free from burnt oil or gum; that\\nthe stem is straight, works freely and has no\\nshoulders on it from working in one place\\nconstantly, and that the valve is in its proper\\nplace when the governor is geared up.\\nRunning with the Sun.\\nThere are a great many persons in existence\\nyet who put faith in traditions, and who will\\ngravely assure one that such or such a ma-\\nchine does not work properly because it does\\nnot **run with the sun. This is a notion\\nthat is firmly beHeved in by many who have\\n(aith, but no reasoning power. The sun has\\nno influence upon, or any connection with\\nmachines made by man, with the sole excep-\\ntion of sun dials, and any machine which is in\\norder will just run as well against the sun\\nas with the sun. Therefore, let no person\\nimpose upon you by telling you that the rea^", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "45\\nson a bewitched o^overnor does not work is be-\\ncause it runs against the sun. Suppose the\\nengine stands east and west, how can it run\\nagainst or with the sun We used the ex-\\npression bewitched governor in a figura-\\ntive sense only, but let no engineer ever give up\\nthe search for a cause of bad working in a de\\nfail. It may be hidden, but it can be found\\nby searching. There is always a cause for ir-\\nregular action in all machines.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX.\\nEccentrics and Connections,\\nThe office performed by an eccentric is to\\nmove the valve to admit steam at alternate\\nends of the cylinder. The eccentric is simply\\na wheel hun^ out of its own center. Its own\\ncenter is a point equi-distant from the circum-\\nference. If hung on a shaft in this way it\\nwould have no other motion than a true rotary\\nor concentric motion around the shaft, the\\nsame as a flywheel has on its shaft. Being\\nhung out of its center, it has an untrue motion\\nan eccentric one from which it takes its\\nname. This explanation may sound somewhat\\npuerile to experts, but there is an idea in the\\nminds of many that an eccentric has some\\nmysterious action which makes it especially\\nfit for driving steam valves. We have been\\ntold by some that the eccentric ran fast and\\nslow without reference to the speed of rotation\\nof the engine, and it h^d, for that reason, a\\ndwell, so to call it, at each end of the stroke,\\nthat permitted the steam to enter quickly and\\nto escape freely. The dwell exists, but it\\nis is not by reason of any peculiarity of the\\neccentric itself, but on account of changing the\\nmotion of the valve frt m forward to back. At", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "47\\nthis period in the stroke the eccentric and all\\nits connections are in line, see fig. 7, and for a\\nportion of the stroke, from a to b, the eccentric\\nexerts little or no effect upon its rod and the\\nconnections to it; in itself, however, it is mov-\\ning at the same speed it always moves at,\\nFig. 7.\\nwhich speed is that of the engine. The idea\\nthat an eccentric has a variable speed doubt-\\nless arose from some one looking at the long\\nside of it passing over the shaft rapidly, and\\ncomparing it with the short side, which does\\nmove slower than the long side, because it is\\nnearer the center of the shaft. Now, an ec-\\ncentric is hung out of its own center just half\\nthe stroke of the valve, because in a complete\\nrevolution it will double this throw, as it is\\ncalled. The throw of an eccentric, then, is the\\namount it is out of truth (fig. 7), or the distance", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "48\\nfrom the center of the shaft to the center of the\\neccentric. Suppose this to be ij^ inches,\\nthen the eccentric is said to have i% inches\\nthrow, and the travel of the valve is three\\ninches.\\nConnections from the valve stem to the ec-\\ncentric are of various kinds. Where the steam\\nchest is on the side the eccentric rod is con-\\nnected directly to the valve stem by a pin on\\nthe side of the stem, or by a spade handle, as\\nit is called, worked on the stem itself, Some-\\ntimes, however, as when the steam chest is\\nnot on the side, there is a rock shaft between\\nthe eccentric and valve stem. This makes no\\ndifference in the action of the eccentric, but\\nmakes some difference in the position of it on\\nthe shaft, as will appear later on in this series.\\nSometimes there is an idler shaft, which also\\nrocks, but makes no difference in the position\\nof the eccentric on the shaft from that which it\\noccupies when directly connected. The con-\\nnections are in all cases merely carriers or dis-\\ntributers of motion between the eccentric and\\nthe valve itself, and need not be considered as\\naffecting- the motion, except as hereafter ap-\\npears.\\nThe Crank Pin.\\nThere is no more important adjunct of an\\nengine than the crank pin, for through it all the", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "49\\npower of the steam is transmitted. This state-\\nment does not refer to its office wholly, but to\\nils condition and its construction. In most\\ncases engineers are powerless to alter this with-\\nout going to a great deal of expense, but they\\ncan at all times keep it in good order, and in\\nsuch condition that the friction of it is reduced\\nas much as possible. Engineers worthy of the\\nname take the greatest pride in having this de-\\ntail free from every scratch or flaw on its\\nw^orking face, and, above all, never allow it to\\nget more than hand-warm that is, about the\\nheat of the human hand. It should not heat at\\nall if properly attended to and when properly\\nproportioned in the first instance, but there are\\nmany proprietors who run engines much be-\\nyond the power they were intended for, and\\nwhen this is the case the crank pin is liable to\\nsuffer first. Crank pins heat from several\\ncauses. When they have always run cool\\nwith the normal load on the engine, and de-\\nvelop a tendency to heat when the load is in-\\ncreased, the cause is too much pressure per\\nsquare inch of surface this forces out the oil\\nand brings the boxes into forcible contact with\\nthe pin, so that heat is engendered. A remedy\\nin cases like this is to use a heavy oil, or a\\ngrease composed of equal parts of plumbago\\nand tallow or lard. This finds its way into", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "so\\nthe most minute ridges or imperfections in the\\nbearing:, and keeps the surfaces apart it is a\\nvery excellent lubricant to use upon an over-\\nloaded engine. More generally, however,\\ncrank pins heat from constant tinkering with\\n.the connecting rod end. An engineer hears a\\npound, and arguing at once that the crank pin\\nbrass must he slack, drives the key down, with\\nthe result of heating the pin. Now this matter\\nof adjusting brasses on crank pins and on other\\nbearings is an important one, not so well un-\\nderstood as it should be. In a great many\\ncases the brasses are not properly fitted when\\nthey leave the shop, and are liable to cause\\ntrouble from that fact. High speed engines of\\nthe best class are properly made, for the build-\\ners of them are men of experience, but there\\nare some persons who, as soon as they get\\ncharge of such engines, proceed to relieve\\nthe brasses in the wrong place, so that they can\\nkey them up. Now what is good for a high\\nspeed engine is good for a slow speed engine,\\nand every bearing, no matter what its office,\\nshould bear brass and brass, as the term is,\\nand shown in the diagram at a not as shown\\nat d. The brasses should butt solidly and fairly\\ntogether, and the pin should work easily inside\\nof them. Then it will have merely the friction\\nof work, and not the friction due to the work,", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "51\\nwith that due to the pressure of the key added.\\nMany persons hold that no more pressure can\\nbe put upon a crank pin than that due to the\\nwork, and unless the pressure of the key or\\nbolts exceeds that of the work, it adds nothing\\nto the labor of the bearing-. Those who hold\\nthis view are requested to try the experiment\\nof driving in the key a little on a bearing which\\nshows signs of heating. They will speedily\\n-A\\nFig. 8.\\nrelinquish their theory. Another cause of heat-\\ning of crank pins and other bearings is faulty\\nworkmanship. The brasses do not bear fairly or\\nseat squarely and while they appear all right to\\nthe eye they are not all right to the bearing,\\nwhich speedily gets warm over the matter. A\\ncrank pin brass must seat squarely on the end\\nof the connecting rod, and the rod end itself\\nmust be square. If the key, when driven,", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "52\\nforces thfe brass to one side or the other, and\\ntwists the strap on the rod so that its sharp\\nedges can be felt on the side, it will draw Itie\\nbrass a-cock-bill on the pin, and make it bear\\nthe hardest on one side of it, reducing the area\\nfor working by the amount it is out of truth.\\nThe same condition of things is true of the\\nmain bearing. If the brasses do not bed fairly\\non the bottom of the pillow block casting, and\\ndo not go down evenly, without springing in\\nany way, they will not run as they should. It\\nmatters not whether an engineer is a workman\\nor not, in regard to his seeing these things.\\nWhen they are pointed out to him, he can, and\\nthat is our reason for directing attention to\\nthem. If he knows where the fault is he can\\nfind men to remedy it.\\nAnother cause of heating in bearings is too\\nmuch surface in contact that is merely friction-\\nal. This is best explained by fig. 9, where all\\nthe work of transferring the power of the steam\\nis done upon the surface of the pin, which is\\nshown in section. All the bearing beyond\\nthis is of no service, but is a positive injury if\\nif touches the pin, for it merely rubs and wears,\\nwithout doing any good. Engineers then\\nclear the brass on its sides as shown in fig.\\n9, for all bearings, whether those of the main\\nshaft or elsewhere. We say clear the brass", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "53\\nwhich means that it is to be just free, or so that\\nit does not touch; not as shown in the diagram,\\nwhere it has to be exaggerated to be seen at\\nall. This clearance has another value, that of\\npermitting the oil to stay on the pin, and to\\ncover it at all times. This end is also furthered\\nby cutting X grooves in the brasses, but this\\npractice we have never been greatly in favor\\nof, except in solid brasses which oscillate, or\\nFior. 9.\\ndo not completely traverse the pin. For these\\nlast oil grooves are essential, inasmuch as\\nwhen they are hard worked the oil is not dis-\\ntributed as it is in a complete revolution, and\\nthey are very liable to cut from want of access\\nof the oil to all parts. Oil grooves, however,\\nhave the disadvantage of retaining dirt which\\nmay find its way in, they invite fracture, and\\nthey reduce the bearing surface. They are not\\nto be used indiscriminately.\\nNo greater annoyance can happen to an en-", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "54\\ngineerthan to have bearings heat beyond a cer-\\ntain degree. When shafts run hand warm it is\\nno great matter, but it is better to have them\\nquite cold, for then they do not give any anxi-\\nety lest they should become hot. Heat of any\\ndegree about a bearing is certain evidence of\\nfriction; what causes it is for an engineer to find\\nout. If all bearings about an engine were ab-\\nsolutely parallel to each other, perfectly round,\\nsmooth, and true, of ample area and properly\\nlubricated, they certainly w^ould not give any\\ntrouble, but it is because some of the qualities\\nabove mentioned are lacking that they do give\\ntrouble. Want of proper materials in contact\\nis also a cause of heating; dirty lubricating oil,\\nor that which is too light in body for the work\\nto be done, will also work badly for an en-\\ngineer. Badly designed engine frames cause\\nheating of main bearings by springing; settling\\nof foundations, and badly fitted bearings do the\\nsame. For example, if on taking up a bearing\\nthat heats, the brass is found to bear as shown\\nby the shaded lines in figure lo, the remedy\\nis to scrape away the shaded portions so as to\\nhave a fair bearing, but before doing this an\\nengineer should be sure that the fault is in the\\nbrass and not in some part of the pillow block,\\nor other detail that holds the brass in its place.\\nBrasses are usually made as light as possible to", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "55\\nsave material, and it is a very easy matter to\\nspring them in fitting up. If they are so sprung\\nit is of no use to refit the bearing itself, because\\nthat does not cure the trouble. It will continue\\nto bear badly until worn out if the cause which\\nsprings it is in existence. Get the spring out\\nfirst, and then refit the bearing, and there will\\nbe no trouble. Chronic heating in brasses is\\nalmost always caused by this defect badly\\n71\\nfitting brasses. Another cause is, as stated,\\ndirt, pure and simple. This need not be like\\nsand or gravel to give trouble. Sometimes\\ndirt gets in with the oil. All oil should be\\nstrained through a cloth, no matter how clear\\nit looks. There is a great deal of dirt in lubri-\\ncating oil of the average quality, as engineers\\nfind who strain it. Dirt also gets in through", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "56\\ncarelessness. Any work done on a floor over an\\nengine shakes dirt down upon it at some time\\nor other, and all floors over engines should be\\nceiled absolutely dust proof by laying paper\\nbetween the planks. Imperfect lubrication is\\nalso a source of difficulty with bearings,\\nthough, as a rule, there is oftener too much oil\\nused than too little.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X.\\nAdjustment of Bearings.\\nAnother, and perhaps a by far too common\\ncause of trouble with bearings, is improper ad-\\njustment of them; that is to say, to the friction\\nof the load proper is added the friction caused\\nby excessive tightening- of the bolts and nuts,\\nor gibs and keys. It is easy to see, we think,\\nthat the office of a bearing is simply to hold the\\ndetail in its place while it is at work. A gib\\nand key will not only do this, but it will also\\npermit an engineer to take up a bearing as it\\nwears, in other words, make it larger or smaller.\\nNow, this is not a virtue, by any means, but a\\ndefect, for it gives an opportunity for careless\\nmen to do mischief through want of judgment.\\nMen who do not think, so soon as they hear a\\npound or a noise about an engine, immediately\\naccuse some bearing and go at it with a ham-\\nmer or a wrench, and tighten it up. Bearings\\non an engine which is in line and in good or-\\nder seldom require any attention of this kind.\\nIt is really surprising how long they will run\\nwithout being touched in any way. We know\\nof stationary engines doing heavy duty which\\nhave not had the crank-pin bearing touched in\\nthree years, and from which not a sound", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "58\\ncomes. It IS the same with the main bearings;\\nwhere everything is in good order they do not\\nwant any tinkering, and the best evidence an\\nengine can give that it is not in order is noisy\\naction. We know of some stationary engines\\nthat run at high speeds (240 revs, per minute\\nconstantly), yet no one would know they were\\nrunning if they turned their back upon them.\\nThey are actually and absolutely noiseless.\\nNot one penny has been spent upon them for\\nrepairs in over two years, and no tinkering of\\nany kind has been done upon them. Facts\\nlike these prove our assertion that perfectly ad-\\njusted bearings and good workmanship com-\\nbined will run satisfactorily for long periods.\\nUnfortunately, not every engine is the best of\\nits kind, and engineers can not always control\\nthe conditions. In other words they can not\\nrebuild the engines, and we are willing to ad-\\nmit that there are some engines which it is\\nvery hard to *^get the pound out of. Let it be\\nborne in mind just what the office of a bearing\\nis, however, and much can be done to lessen\\nthe annoyance of pounding. Reference will be\\nmade to this further on in this work, as some\\nof it is due to faulty valve setting.\\nThe Valve and Gearing.\\nHaving now gone from the cylinder head\\nto the main shaft of our engine, and briefly re-", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "59\\nviewed the principal details, let us go back to\\nthe steam chest again and look at the slide\\nvalve and the valve seat, as shown in fig i.\\nLet us compare them and see what relation\\nthey bear to one another. The office of the\\nvalve is to open and close the ports alternately,\\nas we all know, and if it is rightly made, it will\\ndo this unfailingly, but it too often happens\\nthat it is not rightly made, but is simply a cast-\\niron box stuck in the steam chest anyhow, as\\nwe may say. Sometimes, in small shops (and\\nin large ones for that matter), foremen get\\nnotions in their heads that a slide valve was\\nnever made until they got one up, and the man\\nwho is afflicted with an engine of this kind has\\na big bill for fuel. At other times engineers\\nthem*selves get notions as to exhaust lap and\\nexhaust lead, and cut away or add to slide\\nvalves that were in perfect order before they\\nmeddled with them. We have no theories of\\nany kind to propound, and no hobbies to ride,\\nand shall illustrate, therefore, only the usual\\ndefects and the methods of curing them, leav-\\ning every one to adopt or reject them as they\\nsee fit.\\nFigs. II, 12, 13, show the slide valve in\\nvarious positions: the first one at mid-stroke,\\nwhere it covers both ports; the second with\\nlead, or just opening the port; and the third", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "6o\\nwith the port full open. This valve is shown\\nas having line and line exhaust, that is to say,\\nwithout lap on the exhaust side. The result is\\nshown by looking at a, fig. 12, where the steam\\nis passing out, as shown by the arrow; it has a\\nfree exit, to the extent of half the steam port\\nnearly, when the crank is nearly on the center,\\nbut the exhaust began to open before the piston\\narrived at the end of its stroke. This is just\\nthe point where, it is claimed by those who are", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "I\\nI", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "62\\nin favor of inside lap on a slide valve, that an\\nerror is made, because it lets the steam escape\\nbefore it has done all the work that it can. In\\nsome measure this is true, because every inch\\nthat a piston travels under pressure gives\\npower, but the diagram, fig. 14, shows, to our\\nmind, that the steam, on the last quarter of the\\npiston stroke does very little work indeed. It\\nis at a comparatively low pressure, having\\nbeen expanded through the cylinder, and the\\nforce exerted by it is spent upon a crank whose\\nradius is shown at a, fig. 14, and not in a direct\\nline, or at right angles with the line of motion,\\nbut at a very obtuse angle, as shown by the\\ndotted lines, so that the effort to turn the crank\\nis absorbed to a great extent before it reaches\\nthe shaft itself. Suppose we do add inside lap,\\nas shown by the dotted lines at 3, figs. 12, 13,\\nto the extent of half the steam lap, then we re-\\ntain the steam in the cylinder until the piston\\nhas completed its stroke; we follow it up\\nwith spent steam until it begins the re-\\nturn stroke; we get a full exhaust of\\nthe spent steam through the steam port, but\\nwe lose nearly half the area of the exhaust port\\nin the valve seat, so that, as shown at^, fig. 13,\\nwhich ever plan we adopt, whether line and\\nline exhaust, or lap on the exhaust side of the\\nvalve, we have to sacrifice something, and the", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "63\\ngeneral sentiment of experienced engineers is\\nin favor of a line and line exhaust. The first\\nthing an old engineer does who finds a valve\\nwith inside lap on it, is to chip the lap off, and\\nswear some at the man who put it on.\\nIn saying this, however, we must qualify it\\nto this extent: that there may be cases where\\nline and line exhaust is inadmissible or unde-\\nsirable by reason of the proportions of valve\\nface and steam ports. Our diagram shows the\\nusual proportion of good practice. This is,\\nthat the bridge or metal between the two ports\\n(steam and exhaust) is equal to the width of\\nthe steam port, and the exhaust is twice the\\nWMdth of the steam port. Not all valve faces\\nand steam ports are so made, and the change\\ninvolves some changes in valve construction\\nand operation of the engine; but it is manifest\\nthat we can not treat upon this exhaustively in\\nthis work. The best arrangement for the ex-\\nhaust must be determined for each engine by\\nan indicator, which is the only friend an en-\\ngineer has to tell him w^hat is going on where\\nhe can not see directly.\\nThese examples, it is understood, all exhibit\\nthe action of a slide valve when working at full\\nstroke, or without cut-off, and from them it is\\neasy to see that the evils of choking the ex-\\nhaust and wiredrawing the live steam (that is,", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "64\\nadmitting it through a very narrow opening in\\nthe valve face), are increased when steam is\\nused expansively, hence the unfitness of a slide\\nvalve for an automatic cut-off is readily under-\\nstood. It is especially seen in locomotives,\\nwhere, with a short cut-off, used at high speeds,\\nthe exhaust is actually punched out by the pis-\\nton, for it begins to be compressed at half\\nstroke, as shown by this card, fig. 15, which\\nwas taken from a locomotive on a fast run.\\n7^\\n%W", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XI.\\nSetting Eccentrics.\\nThis detail is one of the simplest duties an\\nengineer has to perform, but it is sometimes\\nmade a very mysterious matter. Elaborate\\npreparations are made much peering into the\\nsteam chest takes place, and the chief perform-\\ner looks very wise. There is no occasion for\\nperformances of this character, for the whole\\noperation from first to last should not consume\\nten minutes, and a man of experience can set\\nan eccentric at the first turn over, generally,\\nafter the valve is squared. This last means\\nthat the valve shall open both ports alike.\\nSquaring the valve also makes the eccentric rod\\nof the proper length, and until the valve is\\nsquared no setting of the eccentric can be done.\\nTake notice that it is the eccentric which is to\\nbe set, not the valve. The valve occupies\\nvarious positions on the valve seat, but the ec-\\ncentric has a fixed position on the shaft for\\neach particular valve. In one work on the\\nslide valve the operation of setting an eccen-\\ntric occupies two pages of directions, and end-\\nless a b Sy c d s, xys, and other letters of refer-\\nence which are wholly useless. We never\\nfound any italics on valve stems, or on eccen-\\ntrics ourselves. Moreover, much time is spent", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "66\\nwith trams, etc., in getting the exact mathe-\\nmatical center, or putting the crank pin exact-\\nly midway in its orbit, all of which is useless\\nwork. An eccentric can be set without any\\nheavy flywheel to turn, or connections to drag\\nhither and yon. Every part of the working\\ngear not actually connected with the eccentric\\nand valve should be taken off, for it only cre-\\nates friction for nothing.\\nThe Actual Operation.\\nTake out the crank pin (unless it is riveted\\nin) and run a line through the cylinder.\\nPut on the eccentric strap and connect it to\\nthe valve stem, just as if it was under steam.\\nNow turn the crank shaft the way the engine\\nis to run by any means that will turn it. If\\nthe flywheel is on use that for a lever.\\nLook in the steam chest and see if the valve\\nopens both ports equally.\\nIf it does not, shorten or lengthen the stem\\nhalf the difference, until the eccentric moves\\nthe valve properly.\\nNow put the crank on its center by the line,\\nand move the eccentric around on the shaft\\nuntil it opens the port slightly, and stands as\\nshown in the diagram, figure i6, at i.\\nTurn crank i on the other center, and the\\nvalve will show more or less off of the position\\nit had when on the other center. Divide the", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "67\\ndifference by leng-thening or shortening the\\nvalve stem half the amount of error (for what\\nii\\nis taken off one end is put on the other in one\\nrevolution), and the work is done.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "6S\\nThere is no occasion to have the connectnigf\\nrod or the piston in they have nothing what-\\never to do with setting the eccentric. This\\nshould be done the first thing after the shaft is\\nin place, not when the details are all in. Once\\nset, the eccentric is always set, unless it is\\nshifted by chance. When it is once in place,\\nit should be marked with a chisel, so that it can\\nbe put back if accidentally slipped\\nThere are a good many who will object to\\nthis method of setting an eccentric, because it\\nis out of the usual way; but it is as exact in re-\\nsult as any other way. There is no use in\\nfussing w^ith trams ^o ^et the exact mathemati-\\ncal center of the flywheel, because (unless the\\nvalve has no lap) no engine takes steam on the\\nexact center. It always has more or less lead,\\nthe amount of which must be finally adjusted\\nby an indicator for the work to be perfect. It\\nwill be seen by figure i6 that the eccentric is\\nslightly in advance of the crank; that is to say,\\nthat its center line is not the crank s center\\nline. The angle so formed is called the angle\\nof advance, and the advance is m^ade to take\\nup the lap and to give lead, as shown in fig. i6.\\nWe must here say that in all cases the valve\\nwill be late, as it is called, on the back end\\nsteam port, and this port will not open so fully\\nas the front end port. As the explanation of", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "69\\nthis involves a diagram, which, owing to the\\nlimits of the page in the work, would be very in-\\ntricate, and not at all clear to inexperienced\\npersons, we shall not attempt one, but say that\\nthe error is due to the fact that a fixed point on\\nthe eccentric rod in one revolution, and a fixed\\npoint on the connecting rod in one revolution,\\nforms cycloids of diverse areas and outlines,\\nand a fixed point in one is not and never will\\nbe coincident with a fixed point in the other\\nthe eccentric rod is always behind, varying in\\ndegree with the length of the connecting rod.\\nIf the latter was of infinite length, there would\\nbe no difference in the action of a slide valve\\non both ends of the cylinder, but the shorter\\nthe connecting rod is the greater its angle of\\ndivergence with the path of the eccentric rod,\\nand the greater the error in the valve motion.\\nSuppose we could drive a nail through the\\nside of a connecting rod, and could hold a\\nboard up to it while the engine was running:\\nthen the figure described would be a cycloid, or\\negg-shaped. Now drive a nail through the ec-\\ncentric rod, and the figure described by it\\nwould be a cycloid also, but different in out-\\nline and area, and the shorter the connecting\\nrod the greater would be the discrepancies.\\nThis is, in brief, the cause of the difference in\\nport opening for both ends of the cylinder, but", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "70\\nit affects the action not at all. There are many\\nvalve motions which seek to overcome this so-\\ncalled evil, and such motions are called radial\\nvalve gears, for they operate the valve by levers\\ninstead of eccentrics some of them have ec-\\ncentrics also one only for both motions, for-\\nward and back. These are used chiefly on lo-\\ncomotives and screw propellers, and the cy-\\ncloid described by the valve stem connection\\nis a very close approximation to that of the\\nconnecting rod, so that the port openings are\\npractically equal, and the cut-off is equal for\\nall points of the stroke. This makes a better\\ndistribution of steam, and raises the efficiency\\nof the whole machine to some extent but the\\nactual values of these gears is very slight when\\ncompared to the cost of keeping them up, and\\ntheir inaccessibility when in motion. The ob-\\nject of putting lead on a valve is to fill the\\nports with live steam, for one thing, and to\\ncheck the motion of the piston gradually so\\nthat it will cushion on live steam. The amount\\nof lead varies with the character of the work.\\nEngines which run slow, say 50 to 60 revs, per\\nminute, require very little, but high speed en-\\ngines should have more. Say that our piston\\n5s 12 diameter and the engine makes 60 revs.\\nper minute; then i-32d of an inch is ample lead\\nfor the valve. A great deal of steam can get\\n/T", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "71\\nthrough an opening of this dimension, but if\\nthe same engine makes 400 revs, per minute,\\nthen the valve should have 3-3 2ds lead, and may\\neven require more. Now, the link motion, as\\nmost persons know, increases the lead on the\\nvalve as the steam is cut off. It is useful to\\nbear this in mind, but we shall not attempt an\\nexplanation of the cause.\\nThis work, as its title indicates, gives ele-\\nmentary instruction upon the operation of en-\\ngines and boilers, and we do not mean to go\\noutside of that and make it a medley of several\\ndifferent branches of an engineer s profession.\\nMoreover, if we attempted this line of instruc-\\ntion, we should only repeat the researches of\\nothers. Those who want a treatise upon the\\nlink motion and its operation should purchase\\nLink and Valve Motions, by Auchincloss, which\\nis a standard work, explained in the clearest\\nmanner, and fully illustrated.\\nSetting the eccentrics of a link motion is\\nprecisely the same operation as that of any\\nother, with this difference only that both\\nrods, back and go-ahead, must be adjusted for\\nlength before the eccentrics are set, for a\\nchange in one affects the action of the other.\\nSuppose, for example, that we undertake to set\\nthe go-ahead side before the backing side is\\ncorrected for length. We get the go-ahead", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "73\\nwheel on all right, but when we throw the\\nbackittig side in gear and set it, then we find,\\non trying the go-ahead side, that it is out.\\nThis is caused by the backing eccentric rod\\nbeing of the wrong length. Now, if we have\\nsquared the valve for both motions, we set the\\neccentrics as shown in this diagram, fig. 17.\\nThis position answers only where the link is\\ndirectly attached to the valve stem. Where a\\nrock shaft is used the dotted lines show the po-\\nsition of the eccentrics.\\nSetting the cut-off valves of an engine is a\\nvery short job. Usually these valves are so\\nfitted that they operate from no admission at\\nall zero, so called to full stroke. Sometimes,\\nhowever, they are not connected to the\\ngovernor, but are set to cut off at some fixed\\npoint, say one-half of the stroke. To do this,\\nor to cut off at any point of the stroke, it is\\nonly necessary to square the valves in their\\ntravel over the main valve, run the crosshead\\nto the point at which it is desired to cut off the\\nsteam, set the valves so that they just close the\\nmain steam valve port, and then turn the eccen-\\ntric around on the shaft until it will connect\\nwith the cut-off valve gear. Or, connect the\\ncut-off valve gear with the eccentric and then\\nturn the same on the shaft until it just closes\\nthe ports at the desired point.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII.\\nReturn Crank Motion.\\nThe return crank motion is the same as an\\neccentric, and is set in the same way. It has,\\nhowever, the disadvantage that the lead can\\nnot be changed unless there is a slot for the pin\\na to move in, for, as will be seen in fig. i8,\\nmoving the return crank in or out from the\\ncenter of the main shaft merely increases the\\ntravel of the valve, the lead being very slightly\\naffected.\\nIt must be borne in mind that setting the ec-\\ncentrics of an engine is at best a haphazard\\noperation when it is done while the engine is\\ncold. Many changes lake place in the valves\\nand valve motion when the engine has been\\nrun a while and after it has been heated\\nup. Cast-iron expands materially by heat, and\\nthe valve gearing itself stretches, if we may so\\nterm it. That is to say, the strain imposed\\nupon the several joints and connections make\\nthe actual relation of the valve and eccentric\\ndifferent from what it appeared to the naked\\neye when the steam chest was open and the\\nengine was cold.\\nThis is one reason why it is unnecessary to\\nwaste time in finding absolute centers of en-", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "75\\ngines with a tram. All have to be corrected\\nby the indicator at last, for that is the only in-\\nstrument we have for detecting the actual se-\\nquences of the valve and valve gearing gener-\\nally. We venture to say that a good steam\\ndistribution, as shown by the evidence of a\\ncard, will bear very little relation to the ab-\\nsolute centers, or point of no motion of the\\ncrank and piston.\\nFig. 18,\\nSo far as setting eccentrics is concerned,\\nmany of them, in radial valve gears particu-\\nlarly, are forged solid on the shaft. They are set\\nin the drawing room, and the relative lengths\\nof the several rods are plotted out on the draw-\\ning board. It must be borne in mind also that\\nthis method of setting an eccentric, as to its\\nrelative position with the crank pin, refers only\\nto the valves which slide on their seats, piston\\nvalves included; not to puppet valves, or to all\\nforms of radial gears. The great majority,\\nhowever, stand as shown in the preceding dia-", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "76\\ngrams. The influence the valve has on the\\naction of an engine is very great. As we have\\nsaid in previous lines, the principal object of it\\nis to distribute the steam properly in the cyl-\\ninder at each stroke, and incidentally, to cor-\\nrect or check the motion of the several parts\\nat the end of the stroke. This is done by cush-\\nioning the piston on a bed of live or dead\\nsteam, as the fancy, or the teaching, or the ex-\\nperience, of the engineer directs. If all steam\\nengines were perfectly built this would not be\\nnecessary, but there are many defects of con-\\nstruction and erection which have to be com-\\npensated for, and this is generally done by\\ncompressing the dead steam, or admitting live\\nsteam in the form of lead. The crank itself is\\none of the most perfect details ever devised by\\nman for gradually absorbing or taking up the\\nmomentum of the parts, and many first-class\\nengines are at work turning their centers with\\nneither lead nor compression, and are also\\nnoiseless in action, but this can not be done\\nwith the average engine, or with very high\\nspeed engines, so lead and cushioning, or com-\\npression, is resorted to.\\nPounding.\\nOne of the commonest defects of steam en-\\ngines, and one that is the most annoying to\\nhear, is pounding, so called. That is to say", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "77\\nihni in passing the centers a noise is heard,\\nwhich may proceed from several causes, and\\nis distinctive in character for each one. These\\ncan not be described so that an inexperienced\\nperson can tell the cause of it from the noise.\\nDetecting or locating natural noises, so to call\\nthem, or the sound caused by the natural work-\\ning of an engine, and separating them from\\nnoise caused by defective action, is a part of\\nan engineer s duties which can only be gained\\nby experience; so w^e shall not attempt it, but\\nproceed to point out some which are common.\\nThe first we shall mention is when an engine\\nis out of line.\\nTake a chalk line and stretch it taut, so that\\nit is absolutely straight, without sag. This rep-\\nresents the center line of an engine. Now, if\\nevery detail is exactly in harmony with this,\\nthere can not be any sound from an engine. If\\nthe main shaft is exactly (mind what exactly\\nmeans!) at right angles with the center line,\\nand the path of the crank is exactly true also,\\nif the crank pin is absolutely square with the\\ncenter line of the shaft and revolves mathemat-\\nically exact with it, then the engine is in line,\\nand the fault is not there.\\nThe Connections.\\nNow^ look at the connections. Suppose the\\nconnecting rod is not properly fitted up or", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "79\\nkeyed up, and stands off from the crank pin\\nwhen cast loose from it, as shown in the dia-\\ngram, then a noise will be heard which is\\ncaused by the chugging of the crosshead\\nagainst the inside of the guides at each stroke;\\nthe crank pin springing the crosshead from side\\nto side at each revolution. This noise is hard\\nto locate when the engine is at work, particu-\\nlarly if the guides stand vertically and are\\nV-shaped, as in Corliss engines. If it is sus-\\npected as a cause of pounding, disconnect the\\ncrank pin end of the connecting rod and key\\nup the crosshead end tightly; then the rod will\\nshow for itself whether it hangs square or not.\\nIf it does not point fair for the exact center of\\nthe crank pin, between the collars, ease off on\\nthe back of the crosshead brass slightly, so as to\\nthrow the rod in the center of the collars. Try\\nthe crank on both centers, and if the rod shows\\noff on each side, right and left alternately, then\\nthe main shaft is out of line and must be brought\\ntrue. Where there is a heavy belt dragging on\\nthe outboard end of a main shaft it is very apt\\nto haul it around materially, even canting the\\nwhole outboard foundation sometimes, if the\\nlatter is high and narrow, as it usually is.\\nWe have stated before that it is seldom that\\nbearings are so slack as to cause a pound. The\\nnoise of a slack bearing is a chuck, so to", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "8o\\nCall it, and not a pound proper, and it is of no\\nuse to endeavor to silence a noisy engine by\\nscrewing or keying up that only makes a bad\\nmatter worse. Very often pounding- is caused\\nby improperly set valves, and sometimes a lit-\\ntle more lead or less compression will cause it\\nto work better.\\nThis, it must be borne in mind, is only a\\nrough and ready method of finding whether\\nthe crank shaft is true or not. The proper way\\nto do this is to take the engine apart, run cen-\\nter lines through the cylinder and the guides, and\\nsee whether they are in line with each other. A\\nplumb line should be dropped over the exact\\ncenter of the crank shaft, in the crank pit, so\\nthat the vertical line barely touches the cylin-\\nder line. The crank pin should then be tried by\\nthis line, so as to ascertain whether it is equal-\\nly distant from it on top and bottom centers.\\nSometimes it will be seen, where the engine\\nhas run a long time, that the shaft needs to be\\nraised at the crank end in order to bring it\\nsquare. This is shown by the center in the\\nshaft itself, by putting a square on the end of\\nthe shaft and allowing the blade to come gent-\\nly down to the horizontal center line through\\nthe cyhnder. These directions are very easily\\nunderstood by persons who have had experi-\\nence, but those who have not, need to exercise", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "8i\\ncare in using the square, for if the end of the\\nshaft itself is not true the indications of the\\nsquare are of no vakie. Do not undertake to\\ntrue any horizontal shaft by a spirit level.\\nShafts are not the same size all the way that\\nis to say, they are not true themselves, not-\\nwithstanding that they may have been turned\\nand are apparently true.\\nAnother and very common source of pounds\\ning in an engine is changing the valve motion,\\nor re-setting it, and overhauling the engine for\\nrepairs. If the valve time is changed so that\\nit takes steam at a different point from where\\nit formerly did, earlier or later, the pressure\\ncomes in a different place on the crank pin and\\nshaft, which are worn to the old valve motion.\\nThe engine will not work then smoothly until\\nthe brasses are refitted. All bearings upon en-\\ngines that have been overhauled are liable to\\nthis trouble, and it is an exceedingly difficult\\none to detect. The best way to avoid it is tore-\\nbore all brasses and re-turn all bearings that\\ncan be so treated. The main shaft can not be,\\nbut the crank pin may be skinned over, as\\nit is called, to its great improvement. These\\nthings properly belong to refitting an engine\\nin a machine shop, but as it is part of an en-\\ngineer s duties to know them, we have said a\\nfew words in that direction.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "82\\nA few lines back we made a brief reference\\nto lining up an engine in order to avoid pound-\\ning, but perhaps a diagram and more explicit\\ndirections as to putting all parts in line will be\\nacceptable. An engine out of line never will\\nwork as it should, and as it is a very simple\\nmatter to have it square we shall give plain\\ndirections how to make it so.\\nThe diagram, fig. 20, shows a side elevation\\nof a Corliss engine. In the crank-pit is a\\nsquare frame made of boards, stiff enough to\\nhold a line firmly without jar or tremor. This\\nframe is not necessary if there are timbers\\noverhead or at the end of the frame to fasten a\\nline to the frame is only put in the diagram\\nto show the process. The piston, crosshead\\nand connecting rod are taken off and out of the\\nengine, and a line, a, is stretched through the\\ncylinder. One end of it is fastened to the cross,\\nb^ shown in diagram C This cross is made\\nof wood firmly fastened together and having a\\nhole in the exact center of it about of an\\ninch in diameter, or larger than the line which\\ngoes through it, and the line is held by a piece\\nof wire run through a loop in the end of the\\nline, so that by moving the wire one way or\\nthe other, the line can be centered in the cylin-\\nder independent of the cross. This cylinder\\nline must be as fine as possible, hard-twisted", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "84\\nand very strong, so that it can be stretched very\\ntight and have no sag whatever. Run this line\\nthrough the cylinder, draw it up tightly, and\\nthen center it absolutely in the cylinder, by\\ncutting sticks half the diameter of the cylinder,\\nmoving the crank end of the line until it is ab-\\nsolutely centered in the cylinder at both ends\\nof it. Pay no attention to where the crank end\\nof the line is let it go where it will with refer-\\nence to the shaft itself. Now make a tem-\\nplate, B, which just fits the guides accurately,\\nand draw lines through it, as at c and d. Where\\nthese lines cross each other is the exact center\\nof the guides, and we want to know if they are\\ncentered with the bore of the cylinder. If the\\nguides are worn much, it will be in the center\\nof them, where the greatest stress comes, and\\nthis cannot of course be changed except at\\ngreat expense but it often happens that the\\ncylinder shifts, and this can be remedied by a\\ngood machinist. We cannot give directions\\nwhat should be done in such a case, but must\\nleave the matter to be dealt with by every one\\nto suit emergencies. The guides and cylinders\\nof Corliss engines are supposed to be abso-\\nlutely in line when new, and the method here\\nillustrated is the one used to find out whether\\nthey are or not. Now suppose that we have\\nour line centered exactly in the cylinder, the", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "85\\nnext thing we want to know is whether the\\nshaft is exactly in the center of it. There are\\ntwo ways to do this, and one of them is\\ntroublesome and expensive the other is not.\\nWe show the easiest way. This is to drop the\\nplumb hne, e, at the exact center of the shaft,\\nso that it just clears the cylinder line, using a\\ntry square on the end of the shaft with a blade\\nlong enough to reach the intersection of the\\ntwo lines, so as to verify them try the square\\non both sides of the line, front and back, and\\nthe centre of the shaft will be accurately lo-\\ncated. If the front end is low, the remedy is\\nto raise it, of course, but before moving the\\nshaft forward or back by the quarter brasses,\\nthe crank must be tried on the four quarters of\\nits circle of rev^olution. This will show at\\nonce where the shaft stands with reference to\\nthe horizontal line, a, and the vertical line, e.\\nTurn the crank over until it comes up to the\\ncylinder lines, as in figs. 21 and 22, If the\\ncrank-pin is exactly midway of the collars with\\nthe line, it is right on that center. Now try it\\non the other center, and it will perhaps stand\\noff; if it does, the remedy is very plain. Now\\nspring the cylinder Hne on one side so that the\\npin will pass it, and try the crank-pin on the\\nvertical line, e (fig. 22)\\\\ if it stands in toward\\nthe cylinder line, the center of the shaft is low", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "86\\nand must be raised. Try it on the bottom half\\ncenter also, and rectify it according to what the\\nline says. This method of lining up an engine\\nwill cause the crank to revolve in a truly verti-\\ncal plane, at exact right angles with the bore\\nof the cylinder. It makes no difference what\\nCYLINDER LINE\\nI n\\nFigr. 21 22\\nkind of an engine it is, the method is the same\\nfor all, and any man of ordinary intelligence\\ncan put his engine in exact line if he follows\\nthese directions.\\nThis is not to say, however, that all pound-", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "87\\ning will cease so soon as he has done so. We\\nhave fully adverted, in former chapters, to the\\ncauses of this, and need not repeat it. For the\\nrest, time and experience can alone make an\\nexperienced engineer. No man can learn from\\na book exactly what to do with an engine to\\nmake i^ perform to the best advantage.\\nWe have said nothing in this work as to the\\nlubrication of an engine, but this is an impor-\\ntant mi tter, and should be performed automat-\\nically. No one should use a squirt-can about\\nan engine except for temporary use. There\\nare various devices in market for feeding oil or\\ngrease to engines, and most of them are good.\\nSight feed lubricators are essential; no one now\\nuses tallov/ or other animal fats. These last\\ndestroy casMron most rapidly. We leave this\\nmatter to the discretion of those in charge.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER Xril.\\nMaking Joints.\\nJoints about engines are, in the best prac-\\ntice, scraped or ground iron and iron, but in\\nmost machines they are made by interposing\\ns .ieet-rubber, or patented compositions of it,\\nwhich answer the purpose fully. There are a\\nnumber of very good materials for this pur^\\npose on the market some engineers use one,\\nsome another while for metallic joints under\\nhigh pressure the corrugated copper disks\\nused are unsurpassed. These last can be used\\nover and over again, and will not blow out or\\nleak under any pressure. Where it is not pos-\\nsible to obtain these goods, a very good joint\\ncan be made with the wire-cloth used for mos-\\nquito-net frames. Cut this to the size required,\\nand make a very thick paint with red lead and\\nboiled oil daub this over the surface of the\\ncloth and screw it up tight; it will never leak\\nor blow out, but it will be hard work to break\\nthe joint if it is suffered to remain for a length\\nof time. If no cloth is handy, a single copper\\nwire, say a scant eighth of an inch in diameter,\\nwill make a tight joint. Cut the wire the right\\nlength, stick it in a fire and heat it red-hot and\\nplunge it into cold water. This will make it\\nas soft as lead, so that it will flatten under the", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "89\\nbolt pressure and fill all inequalities of surface.\\nFor face joints, like steam chest bonnets, hot\\nor cold water pipes, heavy packing- or drawing-\\npaper makes an excellent joint. Soak it in\\nboiled oil and put it right on the heat will\\nharden it into a parchment-like substance which\\nis very serviceable. For permanent joints, like\\nthose in water-pipes under ground, or where\\nthey never have to be broken, a rust joint, so\\ncalled, is the best. This can be made only\\nwhere the castings are fitted for it in the de-\\nsign that is, with a wide channel all around\\nto receive the joint. A rust joint is made of\\nfresh, clean cast-iron chips or borings which\\nhave no grease upon them. They are mixed\\nwith sal-ammoniac water and driven tightly\\ninto the space between the pipes, where the\\nboring-s soon rust into a solid mass. Putty\\njoints, so called, are used chiefly on cold-water\\npipes, about the feed pump, and may be used\\non hot-water pipes as well, if suffered to get\\nhard before being put under heat and pressure.\\nThe putty is made of dry red lead and white\\nlead mixed with oil, kneaded together to a\\nstiff dough. It must be beaten with a mallet,\\nand the stiffer it is the quicker it sets. It hard-\\nens into a mass as solid as a brick in time.\\nAll these materials are only for exceptional\\nuse that is, where the usual rubber or other", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "90\\ngaskets can not be had, for these last are far\\nmore convenient than any just mentioned. In\\nall cases where rubber joints are used they\\nmust be chalked or rubbed with a good black\\nlead; this prevents them from sticking to the\\nsurfaces in contact. Joints should, in all cases,\\nbe made as long before their use as possible,\\nso as to give them a chance to set before\\npressure is put upon them.\\nPacking the rods of steam engines is a sim-\\nple matter, but simple as it is it requires judg-\\nment and good sense. Like every other duty\\nabout a steam engine, it needs to be properly\\ndone In order to work satisfactorily. Very\\nmany have an idea that the packing in a stuff-\\ning box must be jammed in as hard as it will\\ngo to prevent steam from leaking out, or what\\nis just as bad, air leaking in when condensmg\\nengines are used. The reverse of this is true.\\nThere is no occasion to break studs and strip\\nnuts on stuffing boxes to make a piston rod\\nsteam tight, but this very thing has been done\\nby inexperienced persons. When a piston rod\\nof any size can not be kept steam tight by\\nmoderate pressure on the packing, there is some-\\nthing wrong with the stuffing box itself, and this\\ntrouble in old engines, and in some new ones,\\ntoo, will generally be found in the bottom of\\nthe stuffing box where the rod passes through", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "91\\nthe head. Too often this opening is made too\\nlarge; in the case of old engines the piston rod\\nhas worn it oval by bearing on it. The remedy-\\nis to make a brass collar, or even of lead, which\\nfits the piston rod nicely, and is one-eighth of\\none inch smaller than the stuffing box itself, or\\nso that it is a loose fit. Put this in the bottom\\nof the box, and a few turns of packing on top,\\nmoderately compressed, will keep the rods\\ntight. As to the packing itself, use metaUic\\npacking where it is possible. There is no com-\\nparison between it and ordinary hemp pack-\\ning used before there vras any metallic pack-\\ning. This last is always tight on good rods\\nand runs with very moderate friction. It never\\nneeds screwing up or any other attention than\\nto keep it in good working order. When metal-\\nlic packing can not be had, an excellent sub-\\nstitute for it can be found in hemp gaskets\\nbraided firmly into a square, and thoroughly\\nsaturated with plumbago; that is blacklead.\\nDo not make the mistake of using stove polish\\non gaskets because there happens to be plum-\\nbago in it. This quality is full of grit from the\\nclay in it, and will badly score any rod to which\\nit is applied. Some engineers use one thing\\nand some another. There are various kinds of\\npacking in market made from woven material,\\nindia-rubber, etc., etc., and engineers in large", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "92\\ntowns can have a variety to select from. The\\nprincipal thing is, as has been said, to havethe\\nstuffing box itself in good order; then very-\\nlittle compression is needed. It would sur-\\nprise many who have never given the matter a\\nthought to see what resistance to motion a rod\\ntwo inches in diameter only, can offer when\\npacked tightly.\\nf", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIV.\\nCondensing Engines.\\nThus far we have given attention wholly to\\nengines which exhaust into the air, high pres-\\nsure engines so called, or those which do not\\ncondense the exhaust. Condensing engines are\\nsometimes called low pressure yet, but this\\nis a term which is no longer applicable. It was\\nused in the early days of the steam engine,\\nwhen pressures were low, five and six pounds\\nabove the atmosphere. As a knowledge of\\nboiler making increased, and higher pressures\\nwere available, the condensing apparatus was\\ndiscarded as costly and cumbrous, and engines\\nwere made to exhaust into the air at higher\\npressures. To distinguish them from condens-\\ning engines^ the terms high pressure and low\\npressure were used, but there is no longer any\\nfitness in the appellation, for condensing en-\\ngines will work at any pressure. The chief\\nfeature, then, of a condensing engine is that it\\nexhausts into a vacuum instead of against the\\npressure of the atmosphere. Every one knows\\nthat this last plugs up the exhaust pipe with a\\npressure of 14.7 pounds upon every square inch\\nof its area. All that the condensing engine\\ndoes is to remove the plug and give a free exit\\nto the exhaust. This is done by creating a", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "94\\nvacuum in a closed chamber called a con-^\\ndenser. Every one, even those with h ltle or\\nno experience, knows this, but not all know\\nwhat a vacuum really is, or why and how such\\na state of things is possible. We can not say a\\nvacuum exists, for it is not a thing. It is, in\\nfact, nothing; it has no existence. A vacuum\\nis simply absolute space, devoid of any fluid,\\nsolid or gas. It can be obtained in two ways:\\nby mechanically pumping the air out of any\\ntight vessel, or by admitting steam to it and\\nthrowing cold water in upon the steam. With\\nsteam engines this is the usual way to obtain a\\nvacuum, and the philosophy of it is very easily\\nunderstood by what follows: Suppose we have\\na cubic inch of water; that is a block of water\\none inch square every way. Now, if we change\\nthis into boiling water (212\u00c2\u00b0), and let the steam\\nfrom it into a tight chamber one foot every\\nway, t^e steam will fill the chamber and be at\\natmospheric pressure in it. Now, if we have a\\npipe to this chamber, and run cold water in so\\nthat it strikes the steam in a spray, the steam\\nwill be condensed and fail to the bottom in the\\nform of water again, the air and condensed\\nsteam falling together. Above this water\\nthere is a vacuum more or less perfect; but to\\nmake it an absolute vacuum we must remove\\nthe water of condensation and whatever air", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "95\\nthere is remaining-. To do this a pump is\\nnecessary, and it is always present in con-\\ndensing engines. It is called an air pump, and\\nin action it removes the air and water of con-\\ndensation from the condenser, leaving a more\\nor less perfect vacuum, into which the engine\\nexhausts. This operation goes on continually;\\nthe engine is always exhausting into the con-\\ndenser, the cold water is always condensing\\nthe steam, and the air pump is constantly re-\\nmoving the water and mist held in suspension.\\nTo some this operation is a very complicated\\none, and many engineers say they can readily\\nmanage a high pressure engine, but do not\\nknow anything about a condensing engine..\\nThere is no reason why they should not un-\\nderstand the one as well as the other, for there\\nis nothing in a condensing engine beyond the\\ncapacity of every intelligent man. The two\\nevils to be guarded against in a condensing en-\\ngine are air leaks and heat in the condenser.\\nLook out for these, and there will be no trouble\\nin maintaining a vacuum.\\nSince we have seen that a vacuum is abso-\\nlute space, it is plain that if air leaks are pres-\\nent the vacuum will be impaired to just the\\namount that the air leaks in beyond the capa-\\ncity of the air pump to remove it. If the con-\\ndenser is not cold the steam will not be con-", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a76\\ndensed quickly, and if the water of condensa-\\ntion and the vapor are not also removed, there\\nwill only be a partial vacuum, for the water of\\ncondensation is not absolutely cold, but at 120\\nto 140 degrees, and gives off vapor which also\\ninjures the vacuum. This is, in as few words\\nas possible, the detail of a condensing engine,\\nand it does not seem a formidable affair.\\nThere are two kinds of condensers in general\\nuse the jet or absolute contact condenser,\\nand the surface or indirect acting condenser.\\nThe first is simply a cast-iron vessel, usually\\nround, as best adapted to resist the pressure of\\nthe atmosphere, for it must be remembered\\nthat the pressure on a condenser outside is\\nmany tons in the aggregate. (A condenser\\nonly 40 diameter and 72 long, under a perfect\\nvacuum, has over 37^ tons total pressure on\\nthe outside, tending to crush it.) Into this\\nvessel cold water is run through a perforated\\nnozzle; when the water strikes the steam the\\nlatter is condensed and both the injected water\\nand the condensed steam fall to the bottom of\\nthe vessel. The surface condenser is exactly\\nthe same as a common tubular boiler. The\\nsteam enters outside of the pipes (or flues) and\\nthe condensing water goes through them. The\\nexhaust steam, therefore, does not strike the\\nwater directly, but is merely received upon a cold", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "97\\nsurface, and the water of condensation, only,\\nfalls to the bottom of the condenser; the con-\\ndensing water passes away constantly through\\nthe pipes, or flues, and does not mingle with\\nthe condensing steam. This method gives ab-\\nsolutely pure water for the boiler feed, except-\\ning only the foreign matters which may enter\\nwith the steam. Surface condensers are used\\nchiefly upon ocean steamers, where they are\\nindispensable, as they furnish fresh water for\\nthe boilers. In long voyages they are a neces-\\nsity, and the greatest care is taken to avoid\\nsteam leaks, for this means a reduced supply\\nto the boilers, Surface condensers also supply\\nan immediate vacuum at the first exhaust of\\nthe engine. A circulating pump keeps cold\\nwater going through the tubes constantly, so\\nthat as soon as the exhaust steam strikes it it is\\ncondensed, and the main engines take hold,\\nas it is called. This is not always the cage\\nWMth a jet condenser, in which the vacuum is\\nnot very good for two or three revolutions. A\\nvacuum is a vacuum, however obtained, and so\\nlong as one is produced that is the main thing.\\nA loss of it is a loss of power, for the resistance\\nof the atmosphere being removed from the ex-\\nhaust side, the weight of it is added to the pres-\\nsure on the piston. Thus, if the steam gauge\\nshows seventy-five pounds, the actual or abso-", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "98\\nlate pressure is 75x15, or 90 pounds. From\\nthis aspect we can readily see why engineers\\nare sensitive about the condition of the vac-\\nuum, w^hether it is full or only partial.\\nThe first mechanically made vacuum of\\nwhich we have any authentic record is that of\\nTorricelli, an Italian experimenter, and of Otto\\nGuericke, a German experimenter. Which of\\nthese was the pioneer vacuum maker history\\nsaith not. Otto Guericke, of Magdeburg\\nGermany, invented the common air pump, used\\nin philosophical experiments, in 1654. He first\\ntried, by filling a barrel full of water and pump-\\ning out the contents from the bottom, to obtain\\na vacuum above the water, but the barrel was\\nnot air tight and the experiment failed. He\\nthen made an ordinary metallic pump and ob-\\ntained a vacuum. To show that air was a fac-\\ntor in the work of the world, and that w^e are\\nsurrounded by an atmosphere under pressure,\\nhe made a pair of brass hemispheres, which\\nhad a ground joint in the center and a cock in\\nthe stand at the bottom of them. He connect-\\ned his air pump to these, and exhausted the\\nair from the globe, and then hitched fifteen\\nhorses to an eyebolt in the upper hemisphere,\\nbut they were unable to pull the upper half off\\nof the lower. This demonstrated conclusively\\nthat the atmosphere had pressure, for upon", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "99\\nopenings the cock and letting air into the hem-\\nispheres again, the balance was restored and\\nthe hemispheres fell apart. The first actual\\nmeasure of the weight of the atmosphere is due\\nto Torricelli, also about the middle of the seven-\\nteenth century.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XV.\\nToRRicELLi s Vacuum.\\nThis was by reason of a suggestion from the\\nDuke of Tuscany, who, having dug a very deep\\nv^ell, proceeded to pump it out. He found,\\nhowever, that he could not raise water over 32\\nfeet, and he must have had a pretty good pump\\nto do that. Not succeeding in getting water\\nthe Duke consulted Galileo, the famous philos-\\nopher who discovered the motion of the earth.\\nThis water problem was too much for him, and\\nhe gave it up. Shortly before Galileo died he\\ngave the puzzle to Torricelli, who began to\\nwork with mercury as a basis of comparison of\\nthe relative weights of the pressure of the at-\\nmosphere. Now mercury is fourteen times\\nthe weight of water, and Torricelli argued that\\nif the atmosphere would support a column of\\nwater 32 feet high (as it was proven it would\\nin the case of the pump before referred to), it\\nwould also support a column of mercury one-\\nfourteenth the height of the water, or 28 inches.\\nTo test this he took a glass tube, sealed at one\\nend, and filled it full of mercury, displacing all\\nthe air therein. He then closed the open end\\nwith his finger and inverted the tube in a basin\\nof mercury, when the mercury in the tube fell\\nand settled, as he supposed it would, at 28", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "lOI\\ninches, leaving a vacuum in the upper part.\\nTorricelli did not live long enough to do much\\nwith his discovery, but another philosopher, a\\nFrenchman, Pascal by name, took it up and\\ncarried the experiments further. It occurred to\\nhim that if at the surface of the earth the at-\\nmosphere supported a column of water 32\\nfeet high, at great elevations from the surface\\nit would not support so much, because the at-\\nmosphere is rarer, or less dense so he took\\nthe mercury column up on a high mountain.\\nProof of Atmospheric Pressure.\\nAt the top it registered only 25 inches, while\\nat the bottom it was 2S inches. At other levels\\nbetween the bottom of the mountain and its\\ntop he found varying registers on the mercury\\ncolumn, so it is established by inductive rea-\\nsoning, supported by experiments, that at the\\nsurface of the earth water will rise in a perfect\\nvacuum 32 feet, supported of course by the\\npressure of the atmosphere, for the vacuum it-\\nself has no powei whatever; it is as stated pre-\\nviously, merely a space which offers no resist-\\nance, therefore, water or air rushes in to fill it.\\nNo Power in a Vacuum.\\nIt is important for engineers to know these\\nfacts because there are still a great many who\\nare not aware of them, and suppose that a vac-", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "102\\nuum has some power in itself or that it has an\\nexistence as a force because it is measured on\\na gauge. This last is an error. Vacuum is not\\nmeasured on a gauge., but atmospheric press-\\nure is. We can not measure a nonentity and\\nwe must insist that engineers bear in mind that\\na vacuum is just that it is nothing but space.\\nSpace has neither weight, dimension, nor\\nboundary; it is infinity.\\nSuppose the vacuum gauge shows 26 inches,\\nw^hat does that mean It does not mean that\\nthere is a space of 26 inches in the condenser\\nwhich has no air in it, or that there are 26\\ninches of space in the cylinder w^hich is a vacu-\\num; it means that there is nearly an absence of\\nair in the condenser, since the pressure of the\\natmosphere has forced the gauge index around\\nto the 26 inch mark. Now, 26 inches repre-\\nsent 13 pounds air pressure, so we might just\\nas w^ell (perhaps better) mark vacuum gauges\\nby pounds as by inches. The first vacuum\\ngauges, however, were mercurial tubes on the\\nTorricellian principle, and were marked in in-\\nches, so this system is still kept up. Suppose the\\nvacuum gauge shows only 20 inches; then\\nthere is a partial vacuum only, for 20 inches are\\nequal to 10 pounds only, and with the vacuum\\ngauge at 20 inches there are foar pounds press-\\nure in the condenser, a dead loss to us, for we", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "103\\nare working against so much back pressure\\nwhen there should not be any.\\nNow, the best vacuum we can get with\\nmodern appliances and at the speed we run\\nengines in these days is 26 to 27 inches, rarely\\nthe latter. This loss of one pound is due to the\\nwant of time to remove the last vestige of air\\nand vapor, to the mechanical imperfections of\\nour appliances, and to the fog or mist of con-\\ndensation, which to a greater or less extent\\npervades all condensers, whether surface or\\njet. It is creditable that we are able to do so\\nmuch as this, but the greatest enemy engineers\\nhave to contend with in maintaining a vacuum\\nis air leaks, pure and simple. The joints about\\na condensing engine are almost innumerable,\\nand each pinhole, even, contributes its quota\\nof mischief. Leaks occur through bolt holes,\\nthrough gaskets, through castings themselves.\\nThe chaplets used in foundries to support cores\\nare very liable to be leaky. Look out for them,\\nand daub them over thickly with red lead paint.\\nPaint every part of the injection pipes thickly;\\nkeep all stuffing boxes of injection valves well\\npacked and use every means you can think of\\nto guard against loss of atmospheric pressure\\nby leakage of air into the condenser. Go round\\nto every joint you can reach with a lamp and\\nhold the flame against it. If there are air leaks you", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "104\\ncan sometimes hear them, but when too small\\nto be heard they can be seen, for the flame\\nwill be forced in toward the leak. Keep the\\nfoot valves in perfect order, and the air-pump\\nbucket as well, both must be as near air tight\\nas possible. Remember the adage ^Nature\\nabhors a vacuum and will fill it in an incredibly-\\nshort time if she is not prevented.\\nIf, when the engine is working well other-\\nwise, the vacuum begins to fall, so to call it,\\ngive more injection water. Sometimes steam\\nfrom the boiler is hotter than at others, the\\nwater in the boiler falls and the steam is super-\\nheated that calls for more injection. If the\\nvacuum is still poor try the condenser by hand\\nand if it is warm and getting warmer, and no\\namount of injection water w?U keep cool, see\\nif the foot-valves seat properly. If they are\\ncocked ever so little the water of condensation\\ncan not get out, and by lying in the bottom of\\nthe condenser kills the vacuum with its vapor.\\nThe injection pipes may also be stopped. In\\nfresh water, eels often get drawn into the pipes\\nand stop them, when the water is drawn from\\nponds in rivers and streams, weeds, and also\\nfish, get drawn across the strainer and prevent\\nthe water from entering. Every injection pipe,\\nwhether on sea or on shore, should have a\\nsteam pipe let into it for use in emergencies,", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "I05\\nwith a nozzle pointing toward the source of\\nsupply. It may save a long stop for cleaning\\nthe water pipe.\\nA good vacuum is worth 13 pounds of steam\\nin the boiler, and the feed water is heated to\\n20 degrees without charge for the same. All\\nit costs is the extra machinery needed to obtain\\nit, an air pump, injection valve, and pipes and\\ndetails. This once paid for is a small expense\\nto maintain, so that for a term of years the\\noutlay for a condensing engine is soon made\\nup in the decreased cost per horse power per\\nhour. That condensing engines are not more\\nfrequently employed is due to the belief on the\\npart of the steam users that they are complicat-\\ned, costly to maintain and hard to manage.\\nThe exact reverse of this statement is the cor-\\nrect onCn\\nPumps.\\nThe popular idea is that a pump has some-\\nthing to do with raising water or oil, or mo-\\nlasses, or any other fluid it may happen to De\\nat work upon, but this is a gross error, first\\npointed out in the pages of The Engineer.\\nBy reason of this view, persons who run pumps\\nare very often troubled about the water which\\ncomes to the pump, and, in case of failure of\\nthe pump to act, they examine into the con-\\ndition or connections to the water, as if these", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "io6\\nhad something to do with the difficulty. The\\nonly thing which can prevent a pump from\\nworking is air, and air leaks on the suction\\nside and force side, so-called. Actually there\\nis no suction side, neither is there any sucji\\nforce exerted as suction. It is a term invented\\nand applied long before we knew what atmos-\\npheric pressure was, or recognized its great in-\\nfluence in the work of a steam engine. The\\nsole office and function of a lifting pump so-\\ncalled IS to remove the air from the pipe\\nwhich conveys the water to the pump. When\\nthis is done water flows to the pump by the\\npressure of the atmosphere outside upon it,\\nforcing it up to the pump chambers. If the air\\nis completely exhausted the water enters freely\\nand the pump is said to work well. If it is\\nonly partly exhausted the water flows slug-\\ngishly, and the pump works badly. If we need\\nproof that a pump has no direct effect on the\\nwater itself, we can attach one to a pipe 36 feet\\nlong. The water will then rise in the pipe for\\n32 feet, but after this occurs we may work the\\npump for all time and not get a particle of water\\nthrough it. The reason of this is that the at-\\nmosphere will not support a column of water\\nover 32 feet in height, and therefore the pump\\nhas no effect upon it.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVI.\\nSupporting a Water Column by the Atmosphere.\\nNow there are many who do not understand\\nclearly what is meant by the atmosphere sup-\\nporting a column of water. They see a pipe\\nFig. 23\\nfull of water a stand-pipe, for instance which\\nis merely a long tank upon end; or they see a\\ntank at a railway station, and understand that\\nthese are not supported by the atmosphere, but\\n^re merely reservoirs which have been filled", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "io8\\nup. Where, then, is the difference? The dia-\\ngram appended will make this plain. This is\\naU pipe, 34 feet long from its base at^ to its\\ntop B. Now, suppose we fill this pipe up to\\nthe mark C, or any other mark eqaal to half\\nthe capacity of the pipe, and attach a pump at\\nB, keeping it air-tight. When we exhaust the\\nair from the arm D the pressure of the atmos-\\nphere in the arm jFwill drive the water up in\\nD say 33 feet, if there is a perfect vacuum, and\\nthe water will stand there just so long as the\\nvacuum is maintained, no longer, unless there\\nis a valve at the bottom to prevent its return.\\nIf the pump is stopped the water will fall\\nto its level again, because air gets in through\\nthe pump and restores the balance. If there\\nwas no vacuum the water would stand at the\\nsame height in both arms, because there is\\njust as much atmospheric pressure on one\\nside of it as on the other side, and water be-\\ning heavier than air, finds its level. This is\\nall the mystery there is in the operation of\\na pump of any kind whatever, and aside\\nfrom the mechanism which drives it if a well\\npump will not perform as it should, the reason\\ncan be generally found on the suction side so-\\ncalled the plunger or bucket does not remove\\nthe air so that the water can get in. It is easy\\nto see, then, that a pump demands the very", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "109\\nbest workmanship in all its interior working\\nparts. The barrel should be smooth and true\\nif i, bucket works in it, and the packing of the\\nsame should be tight. If it is a plunger-pump,\\nwhere the plunger is clear of the barrel, the\\nstuffing box should be long, well packed, and\\nthe plunger itself should be true and work true\\nin its path. Suspect every joint on the suction\\nside of leaking, and if there are screw bolts\\nwhich go through castings on the suction side\\nsuspect them also a good deal of air can get\\nin through a very small opening. If there are\\nmany of these the net result detracts from the\\nwork of the pump. Friction of water is an-\\nother element against a pump. This in the ag-\\ngregate is very great in long pipes and in tor-\\ntuous passages. Elbows and rough castings\\ncan take off much from the efficiency of a pump\\nwhere the water has to be forced to it for long\\ndistances by the atmosphere, and this must be\\nconsidered in the erection of any plant. There\\nare only 14.7 pounds pressure on ihe water\\noutside to get it where we want it, and this\\nonly when we have a perfect vacuum in the\\npipes with an imperfect one we have much\\nless pressure. All this relates to what is known\\nas the suction side of a pump, but, on the forc-\\ning side it is just as bad if the pipes run in-\\ndirectly. All feed pipes should go as straight", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "no\\nas they can be run to the boiler, but sometimes\\nit is not possible to do this, and loops and ver-\\ntical bends are made in them. Air collects in\\nthe tops of these bends and stops the water\\nquite as effectually as a block of wood could.\\nIt lies on top of the water as wood floats on it,\\nbecause it is very much lighter, and is com-\\npressed so much by the action of the plunger\\nthat it resists the main flow of the current, and\\nthe water surges back and forth in the cham-\\nbers. This is fully shown in an air chamber,\\nwhich is a well known adjunct to pumps, both\\nsingle and double-acting. If metal valves are\\nused for the lift or force sides, they should be\\ncarefully examined, from time to time, to see\\nthat they are tight on their seats, and lift\\nsquarely, and seat fairly. An unsuspected\\nsource of trouble is often found in the seats of\\nvalves. These last are brass bushes driven into\\ncast-iron chambers. Sometimes these cham-\\nbers are bored out for the valve seats, and very\\noften they are not, but taken as they come from\\nthe foundry. In work of this character it is not\\nuncommon to find leaks. The seats also work\\nloose in the castings, and leak from that cause.\\nAnother difficulty with pumps is found in the\\nlift or rise given the valves. Quick working\\npumps require very little lift to the valves on\\neither side, but the most should be given on", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "Ill\\nthe force side. Divide the diameter of the\\nvalve by four; this will give a lift equal to the\\narea of the opening in the valve seat, which is\\nall that can be delivered to the pump barrel.\\nA two inch valve, then, should lift only half\\nan inch, and even this will be found too much\\nin some cases. Plunger pumps that run at high\\nspeed, or over lOO feet per minute, are very apt\\nto pound violently and make a great deal of\\nnoise. This can be overcome wholly by sim-\\nply coning the end of the plunger to an angle\\nof 30 or 40 degrees. Pat the plunger in a lathe\\nand bevel the end off, and there will be no more\\npounding. The reason for this is not easy to\\nfind. Pumps are still used in many places for\\nfeeding boilers, but in a majority of cases in-\\njectors are used. These last are simply man-\\naged, and the fullest directions are sent with\\nthem by the manufacturer. If they are follow-\\ned implicitly there will be no trouble, but if\\npersons undertake experiments on their own\\naccount ihey must not blame the apparatus.\\nThese are succinctly the principles govern-\\ning the action of condensing engines and the\\npumps by which they are worked. All pumps\\nact upon the same principles as those previ-\\nously alluded to. Whether the detail which ex-\\nhausts the air from the water supply pipes is a\\nscroll, a screw, or a fan attached to a shaft and", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "112\\nrotated by it, as in a centrifugal pump, whether\\nit is a simple bucket or a plunger, the fact is the\\nsame: the air must first be removed before any\\nwater can get to the pump, and the special de-\\ntail, the fan aforesaid, or the bucket or plunger\\nwhich forces the water out of the pump cham-\\nber has no direct influence upon drawing the\\nwater itself. Jt may be that we have reiterated\\nthis too often, but we think not, in view of the\\nfact that we were told quite recently by a per-\\nson in charge of a pump that the suction\\nvalves were so heavy that the plunger could not\\nHft them. It is very hard to get rid of notions\\nand ideas; the more erroneous they are the\\nmore difficult it is to abandon them. This is\\nour apology, if any is needed, for insisting\\nupon the facts laid down as regards the\\naction of pumps. Also, let us say here, that in\\nprevious chapters we have stated that water\\nv/ould rise only 32 feet in a pipe in a perfect\\nvacuum. We should have said in a working\\nvacuum, which is far from being a perfect one.\\nThe mean pressure of the atmosphere within\\nits known limits is 14. 7 pounds per square inch,\\nwhich corresponds to a column of mercury\\n(supports it) 29.9 inches high, or will support a\\nwater column 33.9 feet high at the sea level.\\nThese are the exact figures, but we have all\\nalong in this work preferred to deal with every", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "113\\nday results and figures, rather than submit mere\\ncut and dried recitals of tabulated details.\\nDismissing the steam engine and its belong-\\nings, with the bare review of its functions and\\nmanagement which has been possible in the\\nassigned limits of this work, and assuming that\\nwe have a new plant to start for the first time,\\nlet us mention some details that are of great im-\\nportance.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVII.\\nStarting a New Plant.\\nNew engines and boilers should be started\\nwith great care; this statement applies particu-\\nlarly to the boiler. If the latter is large, the\\nfire under it should be started at least three\\ndays before the boiler is actually needed for\\nwork, and the fire should be very small indeed\\nat first. For the first day no attempt should be\\nmade to raise steam, and the fire should not be\\nurged in the least. The water should be al-\\nlowed to get hand- warm only, and be kept\\nat this temperature for twenty-four hours. The\\nreasons for this must be apparent with very\\nlittle thought. Everything is cold on the start,\\nand all the dimensions will be greatly changed\\nby heat, and unless great care is taken at the\\noutset much injury can be done to the brick\\nwork setting and the boiler itself.\\nFor the second day the temperature may be\\nincreased to nearly the boiling point, but the\\nfire should not be driven. The furnace doors\\nmust be kept shut all the time, and the ash-pit\\ndoors also, the amount of draught and of fuel\\nbeing governed so as to keep the boiler from\\nmaking steam. On the third day the boiler\\nmay be allowed to make steam, but the pres-\\nsure must be brought up gradually, and the fire", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "115\\nupon no account forced. The furnace doors\\nmust be always kept closed as before. As the\\npressure rises above the atmosphere, open all\\nthe steam connections and allow the steam to\\nwarm the pipes thoroughly before putting\\ngreater pressure upon them. Do not close any\\nvalve with a rush when the pressure rises to the\\nworking point.\\nThe boiler should be full of water on the\\nstart, three full gauges, so that while the pres-\\nsure is still low the boiler can be blown down\\nthrough the blow-cock to get rid of all the\\nrubbish that has accumulated in inaccessible\\ncorners. Open the blow-cock steadily, not\\nw^ith a twitch of the handle, and bl ^\\\\v down to\\ntwo gauges. This should not be done until a\\nfew minutes before starting the engine; the teed\\nwill not be needed for a few minutes then, and\\nin that time all the feed-pipe connections wull\\nwarm up and expand equally.\\nTry all movable joints, handles, cocks, safety\\nvalves, everything in short, to see if they work\\nproperly, and examine every valve and stuffing\\nbox personally to see if they have been packed\\nproperly. Look carefully to all the joints un-\\nder pressure, and do all this before a working\\npressure is raised; keep up this inspection from\\ntime to time as the pressure increases. On\\nstarting the engine, open all the cylinder cocks", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "ii6\\nto blow out the condensed water which has\\naccumulated in the pipes and cylinder. This\\nis imperative, not only to get rid of the con-\\ndensed water, but to blow out the sand, chips\\nand minute filings, that can be removed in no\\nother way. These have accumulated in the\\nengine while it was being built and erected,\\nand in no other way can they be so effectually\\nremoved. Move the hve steam valves, so that\\nsteam is blown through both ends of the cylin-\\nder for the purpose mentioned.\\nBefore turning the engine over the center for\\nthe first time make absolutely sure that every-\\nthing is clear give the engine steam easily,\\nand run the crank over on the three-quarter\\nposition; then give steam the other way, if\\nthere is hand gear which admits of it, and drive\\nthe crank back again. Do this carefully, and\\nbefore the engine is finally allowed to pass the\\ncenter shut the throttle entirely, so that if any-\\nthing is wrong or anything carries away, the\\nmischief will be confined to one stroke. The\\nflywheel will carry the engine over the center.\\nAn engine should be started the first time\\nunder very moderate pressure five pounds\\nshould be enough if the engine is properly\\nmade. No power is needed, and the only\\npoints to be established are, whether every-\\nthing is in apparent good working order.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "117\\nIf possible, do not lace any main belts\\nuntil after the engine has been tested. There\\nis no knowing- what may have to be done,\\nfor mistakes are possible to all until the en-\\ngine has been tried. If indicator attachments\\nare on, take friction diagrams at this time\\nwith the unloaded engine, and see what it\\nrequires to move itself. Do the same when\\nthe main belts and shafting are on. without\\nthe machines, and valuable data will be had\\nfor future reference. As to the engine con-\\nnections, the main bearings, crank-pin, and\\ncross-head end, should be left perfectly easy.\\nIf they thump slightly, it does not matter when\\nthe engine is running slowly. Thumping\\nfrom loose connections is very different in\\nsound from pounding for want of proper ad-\\njustment, and the careful and experienced\\nengineer will detect the difference at once.\\nIn all that has been said, we hive endeavor-\\ned to inculcate the idea that, above all other\\nthings, the most watchful care and supervision\\nis needed on first starling a new engine and\\nboiler. On such occasions a tremendous\\nchange is introduced. Cold metal is made hot,\\nand, in this transition alone, inconceivable\\nforce is generated. It is none the less power-\\nful because it is invisible, and makes itself\\nknown only by rupture. Boilers are made", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "ii8\\nleaky by careless handlin^^ on the start which\\nwere perfectly tight and well made, and strains\\nare set up within them by forcing^ them, which\\nmaterially affects their life. The same is true\\nof the brick-work, if the boiler is so set, and it\\nis for this latter, primarily, that we advised\\nthree days moderate heating of the boiler upon\\nstarting it. It takes, or should take, a long\\ntime to heat a brick wall alike so that it all\\ngoes together, and three days is none too long.\\nIf these directions are followed, properly\\nbuilt engines and boilers will perform well\\nfrom the start. There will be no running back\\nand forth to the shop, or calking leaks, re-\\nmaking joints, or any sort of fuss. There will\\nbe that harmonious straight-away condition of\\naffairs which mark the difference betv/een a\\nman who knows his business and one who does\\nnot.\\nFrom what has been said in preceding pages\\nit is apparent that to be a successful engineer\\nrequires care and skill of the highest quality.\\nThe attention necessary to keep a steam plant\\nup to its best condition all the while must be\\nunremitting, otherwise great loss results. It\\ndoes not follow from this that an engineer\\nshould be hopping around from engine room\\nto fire room, or running here and there with a\\nsquirt can, or in a fuss generally what we", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "119\\nmean to inculcate is that an engineer should\\nkeep the run of his plant in his head at all\\ntimes, and not suppose things are all right\\nbecause no accident has happened. Accidents\\nnever happen to careful men they only happen\\nto persons who suppose instead of knowing,\\nas far as human foresight can go. Mysterious\\nboiler explosions, mysterious flywheel burst-\\ning, mysterious anythings about steam engines,\\ncould, if all the facts were known and the\\nnaked truth were told, be traced to a condition\\nof things previously known to some one which\\nwas willfully neglected, Let well enough\\nalone, is a good maxim in an engine room,\\nbut this does not mean that bearings are never\\nto be examined, boilers never cleaned, or never\\nexamined for defective braces, and the whole\\nroutine of an engineer s duties neglected. For\\nten hours daily, at the least, an engineer must\\nkeep watch of his engine and boiler, for things\\ngo wrong when they are least expected to. In\\na factory where hundreds of people are em-\\nployed, a very small matter to an engineer may\\nprecipitate a panic which will cost many lives,\\nand it is for him to see that it does not occur\\nthrough his carelessness. We were in an en-\\ngine room fire room, rather once when a\\nrivet blew out above the water line, and made\\na great fuss. A youth who was in the place", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "I20\\nstarted for the door, shouting that the boiler\\nhad burst, but he did not get far enough to\\nfrighten others before he was caught by the\\ncollar and a little advice given him that was of\\nservice. When a rivet blows out it is a simple\\nmatter to whittle a pine plug and jam it in the\\nhole, either above or below the water line, and\\nit is not a bad idea to have plugs handy for this\\npurpose. It is not uncommon for rivets to\\nblow out.\\nAnother point that an engineer should bear\\nin mind is that the engine is upon no account\\nto be stopped in working hours, unless it goes\\nto pieces, direct orders are given, or danger to\\nlife and limb is imminent. No engineer should\\nstop a factory engine where goods are turned\\nout by the piece, or by the yard, or any other\\nquantity, for a hot bearing, or because some\\ndetail of the engine will be ruined if kept run-\\nning:. The cost of most details of an engine is\\nslight, but if the detail costs a hundred dollars\\nit is better to lose it than a thousand dollars\\nworth of work, or two hundred dollars worth\\nof time. This is particularly the case in places\\nwhere power is sold to tenants. Every revolution\\nof the engine means some fractional part of a\\ndollar to them, and the stopping of an engine\\nfor some trifling, or possibly serious, expense\\nto the landlord, might mean ruin to a tenant,", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "121\\nwho would, perhaps, depend upon that very\\nhalf hour to complete a contract in a given\\ntime. Upon trifles, as we call them, very great\\nevents depend sometimes.\\nWe repeat again, never stop an engine in\\nworking hours except for the direst necessity.\\nAlso, never start an engine after it has been\\nstopped without a direct written message, or\\ndirect personal notice, from the man in charge.\\nSuppose nothing. It is a serious business to\\nneglect either of the precautions above men-\\ntioned.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVIII.\\nWater-Tube Boilers.\\nNow that water-tube boilers are supplanting\\nfire-tube boilers, both for stationary and marine\\nwork, it is important that an engineer should\\nknow some of their chief features, and the rea-\\nsons why they are driving out fire-tube boilers.\\nThese are, broadly, their immunity from dis-\\nastrous explosions (there being no shell and\\nbut a limited quantity of water in them), their\\neconomy of maintenance, both in running and\\nin upkeep, their accessibility for cleaning and\\ntheir high efficiency as evaporators.\\nBoiler Explosions.\\nIt is not asserted that no water-tube boiler\\nhas ever been ruptured as to its tubes, but it is\\nasserted that no explosions like those of shell\\nboilers that is, fire-tube boilers can be\\ntraced to w^ater-tube boilers. The reason is,\\nfor one thing, that there is no shell of large\\ndiameter on water-tube boilers, and, for\\nanother, that the rupture of a tube acts like a\\nsafety valve in a certain sense, and releases\\nbut a small quantity of water compared to the\\ntotal water content of the boiler and compared\\nto the water content of fire-tube boilers.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "123\\nThe idea that when a steam boiler is full of\\nwater it is in no danger of explosion is an ab-\\nsurd one and no longer entertained by intelli-\\ngent engineers. The more water there is in a\\nboiler which is in a condition to explode the\\ngreater the danger, for it is the large body of\\nheated w^ater giving up its stored energy of\\nhundreds of tons which causes the terrible de-\\nstruction when a fire-tube boiler explodes.\\nThe moment of explosion of a boiler s shell is\\nsmall and its duration short when above the\\nw^ater line, but if the rupture occurs below the\\nwater line then the total energy of the heated\\nwater is directed to the injured part and de-\\nstruction of the whole plant follows.\\nIt is very similar to the ignition of a given\\nquantity of gunpow^der unconfined and a simi-\\nlar quantity enclosed in a tube. The so-called\\nmysterious boiler explosion, w^hich is often\\nreported in the daily papers, is not mysterious\\nto some one who was about it or in charge of\\nit at the time and who knew of its condition,\\nbut refused to repair it.\\nEconomy of Maintenance.\\nThe water-tube boiler, as compared with the\\nfire-tube boiler, is far more economical in its", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "124\\nfreedom from costly repairs. The chief parts\\nwhich require renewal in a water-tube boiler\\nare the tubes nearest the fire, but with proper\\nmanagement they will last about ten years.\\nWhen they do require to be renewed the ex-\\npense is very small indeed per horse powder of\\nthe engine driven, and the time required, w^hich\\nis also part of the cost, is scarcely worth men-\\ntioning. Water-tube boilers are in action to-\\nday which have not cost one cent for repairs of\\nany kind whatsoever after many years use.\\nThe New York Steam Company has 14,000\\nhorse power Babcock Wilcox Company\\nWater-Tube Boilers running night and day for\\nseveral years, the cost of repairs has been three-\\nquarters of one cent annually per horse power.\\nOther boilers of the same type have been in\\nconstant use day and night without costing one\\ncent for repairs, so it is easy to see that, as\\ncompared with fire-tube boilers, the water-tube\\nis the cheapest to run.\\nEvaporative Efficiency.\\nSteam boilers in these days are rated by their\\nability to turn water into steam, and the term\\nhorse power cannot be properly applied to\\nthem.\\nRegarding the power of steam boilers,", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "1^5\\nthe word is misapplied, but it is still used by\\nreason of custom, and because there is no other\\npopular term to express a boiler of a given size.\\nIt is obvious that a steam boiler is merely a\\nmagazine of stored force which may be, and is,\\nof varying power in accordance with the way\\nin which it is used. A reservoir of water\\ncould not be said to be of 5,000 or any thou-\\nsand horse power if its contents were directed\\non to a turbine wheel, unless it was also stated\\nhow long and with what volume and fall the\\nwater was used. Similarly, a steam boiler is\\nof varying power for a given rating in grate\\nand heating surface, according as its stored\\nforce is used. The rating of steam boilers\\nis now expressed in terms of their ability to\\nevaporate certain quantities of water into dry\\nsteam in a given time, and this is the only fair\\ntest that can be given. The purchaser then\\nknows exactly what he is getting, and can use\\nthe steam in one hour or in ten hours. No\\nquestions enter into argument as to the amount\\nof heating and grate surface these things rest\\nwith the designer of the boiler, and it stands\\nor falls by its performance. These last values,\\nheating and grate surface, have greater or less\\nsignificance, according to the disposition of\\nthem and their relation to each other. A square", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "126\\nfoot of heating surface in a boiler is of nuicli\\ngreater efficiency in one place than in another.\\nTo merely state, then, that a boiler has ten\\nsquare feet of heating surface to a horse power\\nmeans nothing at all as regards its evaporative\\neffect, and its performance cannot be accurately\\nrelied upon.\\nThis will be clearer to non-technical readers\\nwhen it is stated that a simple engine, having a\\nsingle cylinder, should produce a horse powder\\nupon 30 pounds of water evaporated into steam\\nat 70 pounds gauge pressure a compound en-\\ngine, having two cylinders and working at\\nfrom 6 to 10 expansions, will produce a horse\\npower for an expenditure of 20 pounds of\\nwater and a triple cylinder engine, working at\\n16 to 30 expansions, should give one horse\\npower for every 15 pounds of water evaporated\\ninto steam per hour, in all of the above cita-\\ntions. Now, the same boiler wall supply all of\\nthese engines (in rotation) if the proper pres-\\nsures for the work are carried, but the power\\ndeveloped is vastly greater with the high ex-\\npansion engines than with the simple engine.\\nVery much higher values could be given for\\nhigh expansion engines, but the writer has\\ntaken the average. It seems plain, therefore,\\nthat the power of a boiler begins and ends with", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "127\\nits ability to evaporate certain quantities of\\nwater in a given time.\\nFurthermore, the evaporative power of boil-\\ners depends largely upon the amount of coal\\nburned upon the grate in a given time, so the\\npower of a boiler of certain dimensions can be\\naugmented over its normal power by using\\nartificial draught of one kind or another, air\\ndriven in directly by a fan, or air drawn in by\\ninduction, as with a jet, or with the exhaust\\nturned into the chimney.\\nTake the case of a locomotive; under the\\nstimulus of the exhaust, a locomotive of say\\n1,200 square feet of heating surface and 18\\nsquare feet of grate surface will develop 600\\nhorse power, but the normal capacity rating of\\na locomotive boiler under stationary boiler\\nrules would be only 120 horse powder. Each\\npound of coal boils ofif so much water into\\nsteam; with forced draught rather less per\\npound of coal than with natural draught, but\\nsince 75 pounds of coal are burned in the same\\ntime (per square foot of grate) that 15 pounds\\nof coal are burned by natural draught, nearly\\nfour times the amount of water is boiled into\\nsteam in a given time.\\nThe fact that high powers can be obtained\\nfrom boilers of a given heating surface is well", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "128\\nshown by fast yachts and by torpedo boats. A\\nhigh speed steam yacht built last year has a\\nboiler of only 1,200 square feet of heating sur-\\nface, but this boiler has been worked up to over\\n600 horse power with quadruple engines and\\nforced draught of great intensity. As regards\\nthis last, the punishment that a boiler will\\nstand without giving up the ghost incontinently\\nis astonishing, and water-tube boilers seem\\nspecially adapted to this method of driving\\nthem. Fire-tube boilers, especially those of\\nthe vertical type, are the least economical and\\nefficient of their class, particularly when rated\\nby the square feet of heating surface they con-\\ntain. The tubes of plain vertical boilers util-\\nize but from one-half to two-thirds of their\\ntotal surface, for this portion is the only part\\nreached by the water, with an exception in the\\ncase of submerged tubes. Suppose, for ex-\\nample, that a tube is four feet long above the\\nfire box, the water would then be carried in it\\nfor only thirty inches of its length, the re-\\nmainder being for steam room. A vertical\\ntubular boiler having forty 2-inch tubes four\\nfeet long has a nominal heating surface in the\\ntubes of 83 square feet, but owing to the de-\\nfect of its type it has actually but 54 square\\nfeet that is of any value as steam generating", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "129\\nsurface. This is not the case with water-tube\\nboilers of any other type, for the entire tube\\nsurface is directly in the fire, and exposed to\\nan equal temperature all over. The average\\nevaporation and consequently the efficiency\\nper square foot of grate and per pound of coal\\nis much higher in the water-tube boiler than in\\nthe fire-tube. Established records of one type\\nof wdiich there are larger batteries installed,\\ngreater aggregate horse power and longer in\\nuse than any other the Babcock Wilcox\\nCompany boiler show that the evaporation\\nruns from 10.94 pounds of water per pound of\\ncombustible to 11.84, ^^^^1 i^ o^^ ^^se reached\\nthe quantity of 12.42 pounds per pound of\\ncombustible. Even under actual condi-\\ntions, by which is meant every day work,\\nwith coal as it came and the boiler as it was,\\nclean or dirty, the evaporation averages t^n\\npounds.\\nContrast this with the average evaporation\\nof the average fire-tube boiler of all types, and\\nit is easy to see why the water-tube boiler gains\\nin favor.\\nIn comparing these tw^o classes of boilers\\nfire-tube and w^ater-tube general accessibility\\nis a feature of importance, and in this respect\\nthe water-tube boiler surpasses the fire-tube.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "130\\nHorizontal fire-tube boilers are very difficult to\\nkeep clean, some parts being impossible to\\nreach, beneath the lower course of tubes, for\\nexample, but in inclined water-tube boilers the\\ntubes can be opened from end to end.\\nMany Kinds of Water-Tube Boilers.\\nBroadly, all boilers which have the fire out-\\nside of the tube and the water inside of it are", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "131\\nwater-tube boilers, but there are very many\\nkinds of them; that is, the arrangement and\\ndisposition of the heating surfaces varies\\ngreatly also the proportions of grate to heat-\\ning surface and heating surface for a given\\nevaporation, but it is proper to say that there\\nare more inclined tube water-tube boilers in\\nuse than any other. They are fast supersed-\\ning fire-tube boilers in electric-lighting sta-\\ntions, electric railways, water works, and sugar\\nhouses. The oldest and best known of this\\ntype is the Babcock Wilcox boiler, and it is\\nshown in Fig. 24.\\nThe horizontal tube water-tube boiler is\\nhere represented by the Roberts Safety Water-\\nTube Boiler, Fig. 25, and it is also the oldest\\nand best known of its type.\\nIn this type of boiler the water is delivered\\nby the pump into two feed heating coils, one\\non each side of the drum, which abstract a\\ngood deal of heat from the gases that would\\notherwise pass up the smoke-stack. From these\\ncoils the water passes into the drum. This\\nheated water is then taken into the circulation\\nand carried down through the downflows\\nthe two large pipes on each side shown in\\nthe front of the cut the same number being\\nat the back end. From the downflows the", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "132\\nwater passes into the side pipes, one on each\\nside of the grate bars, and up through the up-\\nflow coils and into the drum. The upflow\\ncoils are directly over and form the crown of\\nthe furnace. The steam rises to the top of the\\ndrum and the water not generated into steam.\\nFig. 25.- -Roberts Safety Water-Tube Boiler.\\nbut carried up by the steam, is sent down the\\ndownflows again by the circulation. The\\nsteam then passes through a spray pipe in the\\ndrum and out into two superheating coils\\none of which can be seen above the fire-brick\\non the side of the cut. The superheated steam\\nsupply is taken from the terminals of these\\ncoils.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "^33\\nFig. 86.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Watson Radial Water-Tube Boiler.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "134\\nThe sub-vertical tube type of water-tube\\nboiler is well represented by the Watson Radial\\nWater-Tube Boiler, Figs. 26 and 2J.\\nThis boiler is constructed wholly of steel\\nplate and steel tubes, and is, therefore, free\\nfrom strains caused by metals with variable\\nratios of expansion. In its present form any\\ntube which may wear out by corrosion or use\\ncan be withdrawn readily in a short time, there\\nbeing but one bolted joint, and that a small one,\\nto break.\\nConstruction: The tube system is in the\\nform of a cone, inclined over a central furnace,\\nthe gases and heat from which are diverted\\nbetween the tubes by a bafifle-plate in the upper\\npart directly under the smoke-tube. The tubes\\nare fastened in the tube-sheets by expanding\\nthem in the lower sheet and expanding them\\nin the upper tube-sheet. The tube-sheets are\\ninclined, as wall be seen in the sectional en-\\ngraving, so that the tubes are at right angles\\nwith them.\\nIt w^ill be seen by inspecting the sectional en-\\ngraving that the tubes are very widely spaced\\nat the bottom, and converge at the top; this\\ngreatly facilitates the circulation of the gases\\nand also breaks them up so that combustion of\\nthem is assured. The ash-pit doors are close", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "135\\nFig. 27.-5 H. P. Watson Launch Boiler.\\nHeight over dome, 3 ft. 8 in.; weight, 400 lbs\\nWith exhaust in Stack will develop 7 II. P.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "136\\nto the ground and can be opened or closed by\\nthe foot; fires are easily cleaned and cinders\\nraked out, as all engineers can see.\\nCirculation: A feature of the Watson Radial\\nWater-Tube Boiler is its perfect, natural cir-\\nculation from the moment a fire is started.\\nThis is attained by the following means A\\nsolid air-tight sheet-steel diaphragm extends\\nfrom bottom to top between the outside row\\nof steam tubes and the circulating tubes, broken\\nas to continuity by the fire door only. Outside\\nof this diaphragm are the circulating tubes.\\nThe action is as follows So soon as heat\\nstrikes the inner row of tubes the water in\\nthem is driven up, and in obedience to a natural\\nlaw, flows outwardly toward cooler water. A\\npot on the fire always boils in the centre first,\\nand in like manner the water in this boiler\\nfollows the same law. As it rises in the inner\\nrow of tubes it falls in the outer (or circulating\\ntubes) and the cold water is constantly dis-\\nplaced by heated water. This causes the water\\nto circulate rapidly and the boiler gets hot all\\nover simultaneously. The advantage of this\\nis too obvious to need further comment, and\\naccounts for the rapid steaming of the boiler.\\nThe bent-tube type of water-tube boiler is\\nshown in the engraving, Fig. 28, which", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "^Z7\\nbo", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "138\\ngives two views of the Daring type of\\nthe Thornycroft boiler. The Thornycroft\\nLaunch boiler, Fig. 29, is good for light\\nFig. 29. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Thornycroft Water-Tube Boiler, Launch Type.\\nriver work. It is provided with water fire bars,\\nwhich are kept so much cooler than ordinary\\nbars by the strong current of water rushing\\nthrough them that clinkers do not adhere, and\\na great deal of the trouble usual in firing small\\nboilers is eliminated. Their weight is, of\\ncourse, exceedingly low.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "139\\nFig. 30 shows a side view of Babcock\\nWilcox wrought steel construction marine\\nboiler for 200 pounds pressure. All the pres-\\nsure parts of the boiler are of wrought steel.\\nFig. 30.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Babcock Wilcox Marine Boiler.\\nBefore passing from marine boilers, men-\\ntion must be made of the well-known Bellville\\ntype of water-tube boilers. This boiler has", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "140\\n1)een installed on some of the fastest cruisers\\nafloat. See Fig. 31.\\nAll of these boilers have peculiar features of\\ntheir own and have different proportions, but\\nit is not possible to give details of their con-\\nstruction, neither would it be proper in a work\\nof this kind to express a preference for one\\ntype over the other. They are employed both\\nin stationary and marine work, and, as may be\\nseen from their details, are rapid steamers.\\nWith some of these boilers for marine work\\nit is possible to generate 150 pounds of steam\\nby natural draught from water at 35 degrees\\nF. in twenty to thirty minutes, and all of them\\nare constructed to stand 250 pounds of steam\\nand upward. In order to pass Government in-\\nspection they must be tested to double that\\npressure, and it is easily seen from this fact\\nthat such boilers have great strength all the\\nmaterials are of steel and all the holes are\\ndrilled, and no plate under 60,000 pounds ten-\\nsile strength is allowed to be used in their con-\\nstruction.\\nWhy Water-Tube Boilers Steam Rapidly.\\nBy looking at the engravings it will be seen\\nthat the water in these boilers is contained in\\ntubes of small diameter directlv in the fire, or", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "HI\\nin direct communication with exceedingly\\nhigh temperatures.\\nA tube of I -in. outside diameter and 30 in.\\nlong contains half a pint of water the super-\\nficial area exposed to heat of such a tube is\\n94i square inches, or about the area of an 8 in.\\nby 12 in. pane of glass. Now, half a pint of\\nwater on this surface is a thin film, and when\\nexposed to the heat of a very hot fire, say\\n2,000 degrees F., is evaporated instantly, as\\none may say. By the plan of the boiler this\\nw^ater is in continual circulation, sweeping over\\nall the highly heated surfaces, so that, virtually,\\nthe water constantly goes in at one side, or one\\nend, as the case may be, continuously issuing\\nat the other end as dry steam. All boilers are\\nnot fitted with i-in. tubes some types have\\nmuch larger tubes, but their superficial area is\\ncorrespondingly greater as well. Compare\\nthis action with the fire-tube boiler, where the\\nw^ater is anywhere from 3-in. to 6-in. deep on\\nthe tubes, and we have the explanation why the\\nwater-tube boilers are the most efficient, by\\nwhich term is meant that the heat generated\\nby the fuel burned is applied directly to the\\nheating surfaces, which are, again, directly in\\nthe zone of the fire and close to it, so that the\\nproducts of combustion have but short distances", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "14^\\nrttV OUTLET\\nrROM EC0N0MI6ER LJ _\\nSTEAM\\nOUTLET\\nCEED INtrr TO BOtLER rf^\\nAFTER LEAVING g\\nECONOMISER", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "143\\nto travel to reach their work. This cannot be\\nsaid of fire-tube boilers set in masonry.\\nTorpedo-Boat Boilers.\\nFrom the facts just cited as regards water-\\ntube boilers it is possible to get very high\\nevaporation (boiler power, so called) from a\\nvery small and very Hght apparatus, and it is\\nthis quality which makes them particularly\\nsuited for torpedo boats and vessels akin to\\nthem (high speed yachts). As a rule it ruay\\nbe said that these boilers are less than half the\\nweight of fire-tube shell boilers and far more\\ncompact. They have a very low center of\\ngravity and for very considerable powers can\\nbe put under deck in a light draught vessel.\\nThe heating and grate surfaces allotted to the\\nwater-tube boiler are much less than the fire-\\ntube boiler per horse power evaporation. This\\nlast quantity varies from 30 pounds of water\\nfor a common slide valve engine to 20 pounds\\nof water for a tw^o-cylinder compound engine,\\nand to 15 pounds for a three-cyHnder or triple\\nexpansion engine. It has been found in prac-\\ntice that five square feet of live heating sur-\\nface per one horse power evaporation is ample\\nfor boilers of this type, and many of them\\nshow a horse power evaporation upon three", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "144\\nsquare feet of live heating surface the grate\\nsurface runs from one square foot of grate to\\ntwenty-five square feet of heating surface, to\\nthirty-five, forty, and as high as fifty square\\nfeet of heating surface to one square foot of\\ngrate surface. Compare this with the allot-\\nment in fire-tube boilers for the same purpose,\\nten and twelve square feet of heating surface\\nper horse power evaporation, and additional\\nevidence is given of their relative efficiencies.\\nMention has been made in previous lines of\\nthe high powers exerted by water-tube boilers\\nof the torpedo boat type, and these are cer-\\ntainly phenomenal. It seems quite impossible\\nto persons familiar with heavy, slow combus-\\ntion, shell boilers that boilers of five and six\\nthousand power can be put into a small vessel\\nof say 130 feet length by ten feet beam, or\\nwidth far less superficial area than is contained\\nin an ordinary city lot, for this last has 2,500\\nsquare feet area w^hile the torpedo boat has\\nlittle over half of it.\\nIt will aid to a full comprehension of the\\napparent paradox when we consider the type\\nof engine used and the steam pressures carried.\\nThe engines are in all cases high expansion\\nengines triple or quadruple stage and run at\\nhigh piston speed, i.ooo and 1,200 feet per", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "HS\\nminute being not uncommon. Now the boilers of\\nthese torpedo boats are only directly concerned\\nwith the high pressure or first cylinder of the\\nsystem, because it exhausts into all the others\\nin turn, and if it can supply the first cylinder,\\nat say 250 pounds gauge pressure, the boiler\\ngets credit, so to speak, for the power exerted\\nby the other three cylinders. If, therefore, the\\nboiler can manage the high pressure cylinder\\ndeveloping one thousand horse power per hour,\\nit is furnishing steam (under the conditions)\\npractically for three thousand horse power.\\nAgain, take the case of a locomotive engine\\nin common use. An average modern express\\nengine has about 1,800 square feet heating\\nsurface at the rating usually followed in sta-\\ntionary practice this would only give 180 horse\\npower for the boiler under natural draught, but\\nwith the stimulus of the exhaust in the chim-\\nney a locomotive boiler wnll develop a horse\\npower for less than two square feet of heating\\nsurface and supply two cylinders 20-in. by 24-\\nin. at 300 revolutions per minute, when under\\nnatural draught it would not supply one at 150\\nrevolutions per minute. Examine the grate\\nsurface of the express locomotive boiler and it\\nwill be found to have 30 square feet, a ratio of\\nheating surface to grate surface of 60 to i, or", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "146\\nabout half of what a stationary boiler would\\nrequire for the same work. It follows, there-\\nfore, that high powered boilers of small size\\nobtain their efficiency from their ability to gen-\\nerate large quantities of steam rapidly at very\\nhigh pressures when under forced draught, the\\nconditions being entirely dissimilar from those\\nof stationary boilers.\\nManagement of Water-Tube Boilers.\\nUnder ordinary circumstances that is wath\\nnatural draught and slow combustion, the man-\\nagement of water-tube boilers is the same as\\nthat of any boiler, but since the tubes are small\\n(and these control the amount of water ex-\\nposed to the fire) it is necessary that they\\nshould be kept absolutely clean. This is par-\\nticularly the case with the lower course of\\ntubes, or those nearest the fire. These take\\nthe most intense heat and scale must be care-\\nfully guarded against. If the water is at all\\nbad, or hard it is essential to give strict at-\\ntention to this detail, for unless these tubes are\\nkept free trouble of a serious nature is certain\\nto occur. It is very easy to say that every one\\nknows this, and it is therefore superfluous to\\nmention it, but it does not always follow that\\nwhat every one knows every one attends to.\\nSee Collett on Water Softening. (Spon Chamberlain.)", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "147\\nThe old saying that want of care does more\\nharm than want of knowledge is particularly\\napplicable to all boilers, and to sum the whole\\ncase in a very few words, the careful man\\nabout a steam boiler is the one who never has\\nany trouble. Every man in charge of a steam\\nboiler is supposed to have sense enough to see\\nthat he always has water at the proper level be-\\nfore putting fire under it, but there is a great\\ndeal of laxity in this matter of firing.\\nNot so much is said in the public prints\\nabout the smoke nuisance as there was a few\\nyears ago, and there is no question but that the\\nagitation of this matter of smoky chimneys in\\nlarge cities was a very good thing for steam\\nusers, for if it did nothing else, it caused fire-\\nmen to attend more carefully to their work.\\nSmoke prevention starts directly from the fur-\\nnace door, that is to say, the fireman practi-\\ncally prevents it by not making it, but he has\\nto do a good deal more work than in the days\\nwhen he threw in all the furnace would hold\\nand then took a rest for half an hour with a\\nsmoke pipe of his own in his mouth. Practice\\nproves that the smokiest coal can be deprived\\nof its terrors by judicious firing, the little\\nand often theory but it is harder on the man\\nSee Dahlstrom The Fireman s Guide. (Spon Cham-\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2berlain.)", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "behind the shovel. The writer has fired bi-\\ntuminous coal a scoopful at a time without\\nproducing smoke of any moment at all, but it\\nis not a pastime to do it, and it must not be\\nwondered at that mere flesh and blood rebels\\nagainst crooking the pregnant hinges of the\\nknee hour after hour at such work. It is\\nalso the most economical method of firing, and\\nthose who have been used to heavy firing are\\nadvised to try light as an improvement.\\nFiring a steam boiler, however, has to be\\ndone differently with every plant, or more\\nproperly, all plants cannot be fired in the same\\nway, nor all grates in the same manner, but\\neach one has its peculiarities which those in\\ncharge must discover. Cleanliness in boilers\\ninside and out is as important as anything\\nelse about them soot is a non-conductor, and\\nit is not to be expected that a boiler will steam\\nfreely if the heating surfaces are covered\\nwith it.\\nIf boilers do not steam freely when they\\nhave never given any trouble previously the\\ncause may be found in a combination of several\\nthings. Sometimes the atmosphere itself is so\\nheavy as it is called that the fuel will not\\nburn or the gases combine with it, but it is\\nmore frequently the fault of dirty fires when", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "149\\nsteam is short than a heavy atmosphere. The\\nash pit, should be always bright, and one can\\ntell at a glance whether the fire is doing its\\nduty or not.\\nPerfect combustion, so often claimed for\\nthis or that appliance, or smoke preventer, is\\nimpossible under the conditions prevailing in\\ncommercial steam making, because different\\nvolumes of air are required at every stage of\\nthe process. It is important to distinguish be-\\ntween weight and volume in combustion, A\\ngiven weight may enter through a one-inch\\nhole if it has velocity enough, but volume is re-\\nquired in order that the air and gases may be\\nthoroughly mixed, but while we cannot hope\\nfor perfect combustion we can obtain fairly\\ngood combustion by careful attention to the\\nfires.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIX.\\nThe Highest Qualities Demanded.\\nFinally, let me say, in conclusion of this\\nwork, that the duties of an engineer worthy of\\nthe name call for the highest qualities, and are\\nnot to be lightly undertaken, or held in low es-\\nteem. A man v/ho stops and starts an engine\\nis not an engineer, and has no pride in his\\nbusiness, because he knows nothing of it he\\ndoes not wish to know any more than that\\nopening the throttle lets steam into the chest.\\nBut we should not be discouraged or care-\\nless ourselves because such men get places, to\\nthe exclusion of their betters. There are\\nusurpers everywhere. Quack doctors abound,\\nso do quack ministers and shyster lawyers. It\\nwould be quite as logical and sensible for\\nskilled professional men of these classes to give\\nup trying to rise as it would be for an engineer\\nto follow the same course. Knowledge of our\\nbusiness is paid for always, but an. engineer\\nmust know where to find the best market for\\nhis services, exactly as every other man must\\nwho has something to sell. A dentist, let us\\nsay, settles in a certain locality and does not\\nthrive. He does not immediately accuse his\\nprofession as the cause of his trouble, but he\\nsays that there is no business in that place, and", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "searches until he finds one that is better.\\nKnowledge is power is as true to-day as\\never, but there are some places that are better\\nthan others to sell it in.\\nIf an engineer spares no effort to improve\\nhimself, and studies first principles so as to\\nknow where to look for the cause and cure of\\ntroubles never encountered before, he is a bet-\\nter man for a steam user than a mere stopper\\nand starter who does not wish to learn. Some-\\nwhere there is a steam user looking* for him,\\nand it is the engineer s business to find a place\\nwhere he is paid for his work. We need only\\nlook around us to see engineers who have\\ngood homes, are socially esteemed, and are\\nbrin^fing up families to be a credit to them-\\nselves and the State. These men started from\\nsmall beginnings, and were careful, prudent\\nand anxious to learn. They did learn, and\\nthat is why they thrived.\\nThe Man Himself is the Factor.\\nIt IS not the business which a man follows\\nthat keeps him down or lifts him up it is the\\nman himself in every case, and it is well to\\nbear in mind that a man can not be an engi-\\nneer, or a lawyer, or a doctor, or anything else,\\nat abound. Long service, patient waiting, dis-\\nappointments, reverses, learning through them\\nand learning by success also all these have", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "S\\ntheir perfect work. No faithful service is ever lost.\\nIf a steam plant is in perfect order and runnings\\nlower than others in the vicinity be assured\\nthat if the employer does not see it, others do,\\nand perhaps when we least expect it we may\\nget a call to go elsewhere with manifest benefit.\\nThere are many things conducive to success\\nin eng^ineering, as in all other callings which\\nmankind follow, and none of these has more\\neffect ill business intercourse than a pleasant\\naddress. Engineers are commonly supposed\\nto be rough men/ but after living and asso-\\nciating with them for forty odd years, all over\\nthe United States, and of all classes, locomo-\\ntive, stationary and marine, we have found\\nfewer engineers of violent manners and rude\\nbearing than we have in other professions.\\nSome may feel that civil speech has little to do\\nwith success. It has everything to do with it,\\nfor as a rule, even if men are skillful in their\\nspecial line, we will not encounter them if we\\ncan avoid it when they greet us roughly and\\nare surly in their dealings with us.\\nLastly.\\nIn these United States no man is above his\\ncalling or beyond it. If he is a man in all that\\nthe word implies, he is independent of circum-\\nstances and of conditions, and is always In\\ndemand. The trickster perishes by his own", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "153\\nsword. It does not take long to discover\\nwliethei men are honest or the reverse, and\\nonce the verdict is given either way no one\\ncan escape the consequences. Not merely\\nhonest in the sense that he will not take what\\ndoes not belong to him, but an honest man in\\na moral sense. And with this little sermon we\\nsay farewell.\\n2^ ill\\nrD 0^\\n^?^2^i^**", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nPAGE\\nAbsolute centres 74\\npressure 98\\nAtmospheric pressure 98, 108\\nBack pressure 31, 103\\nBearings, adjustment of 57\\nbadly fitted 54\\nfriction in 54\\nheating in 52, 54\\noil grooves in 53\\nperfectly adjusted 58\\nBlowpipe connection 13\\nBoilers, Babcock Wilcox 129, 131, 139\\nBelleville 139\\nblowing out 6, 8\\nbraces and stays for 9\\nbridge walls 10, 17\\ncirculation of water in 136\\ncorrosion in 4, 7, 8, 10\\ncrown sheet 9\\ndeposit from feed water 3\\ndirty 9\\nevaporative efficiency of 124, 127\\nexamining i\\nexplosions 11, 122\\nfire-tube 122, 128\\nfiring 148\\nfittings for 12\\ngovernment inspection 140\\ngrate bars 15\\ngrease in 9", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "156 Index.\\nPAGE\\nBoilers, heating surface for 126, 131, 143, 145\\nleaky tubes in 2\\nlimestone scale in 4, 8\\nlocomotive 127, 145\\nmaintenance of 146\\noil in 9\\nperfect combustion in 149\\npetroleum oil for cleaning tubes 16\\nplain vertical 128\\nPurger 5\\nrating of 125\\nremoving dirt from i, 4\\nremoving scale from 5\\nreturn tubular 10\\nRoberts water-tube 131\\nscale in 3, 7\\nspace required for v^ater-tube 144\\nstarting a nev^ 115\\ntar in tubes of 9, 16\\ntesting 10\\nThornycroft v^^ater-tube 138\\ntorpedo-boat 143\\ntubes in 15, 128, 141, 146\\nwater-tube 122\\nwater fire-bars 138\\nWatson s water-tube 134\\nwashing out 8\\nyacht 128, 143\\nBrasses 50, 54\\nheating in 55\\noil grooves in 53\\nsolid 53\\nwear in 55\\nChugging of the crosshead 79\\nCocks, blow-off 12, 14\\ngauge 12\\nleaky 13\\nCombustion 48\\nperfect 149", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "Index. 157\\nPAGE\\nCondensers, air leaks in 95\\nfoot-valves 104\\njet 96\\nsurface 97\\ntest for leaky 103\\nConnecting rod j j\\nto centre 79\\nCrank 76\\nreturn, motion 74\\nCrank pin 48\\nfitting of, brasses 50, 51\\nheating of 49, 5 1\\nlubricant for 49\\npressure on 49, 51\\nCrude petroleum oil, use of 16\\nCut-off valves, setting T^y\\nCylinders, clearance in 19\\nreduction of clearance 21\\nwear in the 20\\nwear on the guides of 20\\nDust-proof ceilings, necessity for 56\\nDynamometer, 34\\nEccentrics 46\\nand connections in line 47\\ncrank centre 68\\nof a link motion 71\\nrod connections 47\\nsetting 65, 74\\nuse for 46\\nExhaust 31\\nFeed pipes 11\\nFriction diagrams 117\\nGaskets, black lead on 90\\nmaterials for 2\\nplumbago on 2\\nwhite lead on 2\\nGovernors 42\\ncare of 44\\npatented 43", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "iS8 Indkx.\\nPAGE\\nGovernors, Pickering -44\\nIndicator cards 31\\nInjectors 11 1\\nJoints, drawing-paper for 89\\nmaking 88\\nmaterials for 88\\nplumbago for 2\\nrust joints 89\\nwhite lead for 2, 3\\nKerosene, use of 24\\nLink motion 71\\nLining up an engine 82\\nLubricating 87\\ngrease for 49\\noil for 55\\nMud drums 11\\ncorrosion in 11\\nexplosions in 11\\nNuts, removing Ftubborn 24\\nPacking, materials for 91\\nPiston 19, 22\\ncushioning the ^(y\\nleaky 22\\nleaky, rings 23\\nrings 22\\nsprings for, rings 22\\nsteam-tight 90\\nPounding 76\\ncauses of 77 79. 81\\nPumps 105\\nair leaks in 106\\nair pump 95, 98, 105\\ncentrifugal 112\\ncirculating 97\\ndouble-acting no\\nlift of valves in no\\nmetal valves for no\\nplunger 109\\nsingle-acting no", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "Index. 159\\nPAGE\\nPump, suction side of a 109\\nRadial valve gears 70\\nRivet hole plug 120\\nSafety valve 14\\nScale preventers 5, 7\\nacid purger 7\\ncaustic potash 5\\ncrude petroleum oil 16\\nslippery elm bark 7\\nShaft^ main, out of line 79\\nSlide valve 24\\naction of 28\\nand seat 59\\nbalanced 35\\ncommon connections to 36\\ndefects in 30, 59\\ndifferent kinds 28\\nexhaust 6$\\nexhaust lap 59\\nexhaust lead 59\\nlap 29. 33, 62, 70-\\nlead 34, 70\\nleaky 26\\nmetals for, and seat ;^6\\noff its scat 25\\nplain 35\\nports 27\\npressure on a 34\\nstem 25\\nstem connections to 36\\nstem guides 41\\ntesting for leaks 26\\nuse of stem guides 42\\nwill not work 40\\nSmoke preventers 147, 149\\nSteam chest 25, 37, 41, 59\\nSteam-engine, condensing 93\\nCorliss 82\\nexamination of i", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "i6o Index.\\nPAGE\\nSteam-engine, horizontal 35\\nslide-valve throttling 18\\nstarting a new 116\\nv^ill not move 40\\nStuffing-box 25, 90\\nVacuum 94, 102\\nair pump for 95\\nGuerick s 98\\ngauge 102\\npartial 96\\nPascal s loi\\nperfect 108\\nno power in a loi\\nTorricelli s 98, loi\\nworking 112\\nWater gauge 12", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "BOOKS FOR ENGINEERS.\\nSteam-Engines and Boilers, An elementary text-\\nbook for young students. By Prof. J. H.\\nKinealy. Illustrated, 8vo, cloth.\\nThe Working and Management of Steam Boilers\\nAND Engines, Shafting Gear and Machinery.\\nF. V. Colyer. i2mo, cloth.\\nThe Corliss Engine and Its Management. By\\nHenthorn and Thurber. Illustrated.\\nFireman s Guide on the Care of Boilers. Dahl-\\nstrom. i2mo, cloth.\\nThe Slide- Valve Simply Explained. By Tennant\\nand Kinealy. Illustrated, i2mo, cloth.\\nLubricants, Oils and Greases. By I. I. Redwood.\\nIllustrated, 8vo, cloth.\\nRichards Steam-Engine Indicator. By Porter.\\nIllustrated, 8vo, cloth.\\nTheoretical and Practical Ammonia Refrigera-\\ntion. By I. I. Redwood. Illustrated, i2mo, cloth.\\nThe Repair and Maintenance of Machinery. By\\nT. W. Barber. Illustrated, 8vo, cloth.\\nQuick and Easy Methods of Calculating with\\nTHE Slide Rule. By R. G. Blaine. Illustrated,\\ni2mo, cloth.\\nAlgebra Self-Taught for the Use of Young Engi-\\nneers. By W. P. Higgs. 8vo, cloth.\\nDirect-Acting Pumping Engines. By P. R. Bjor-\\nling. Illustrated, i2mo, cloth.\\nSexton s Boiler Maker s Pocketbook. Illustrated,\\n32mo, leather.\\nBoiler Maker s and Shipbuilder s Companion. By\\nJ. Foden.\\nManagement and Working of Steam Boilers, Land\\nAND Marine. By J. Peattie.\\nSpon s Engineer s Tables.\\nSpon s Mechanic s Own Book. The book for\\nevery one.\\nWorkshop Receipts (in five series).\\nAlso books on Mechanics, Electricity and General\\nEngineering. Catalogues free on application.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "THE\\nENGINEERING AND\\nMINING JOURNAL\\n=0F NEW YORK=\\nThe best and most influential mining paper in the world.\\nIndispensable to the Prospector, Miner, Assayer, Chemist,\\nEngineer, Metallurgist, Merchant, Manufacturer, Banker,\\nInvestor, Legislator.\\nSubscription Price For the United States, Mexico\\nand Canada, $5.00 per annum for all other countries in the\\nPostal Union, $7.00 per annum.\\nTHE MINERAL INDUSTRY\\nIts Statistics, Technology and Trade in the United States\\nand Other Countries from the Earliest Times.\\nUol. I From the Earliest Times to the CiOse of 1 8g2^ $2 ^o\\nVol. II Supplementing Vol. I to the close 0/1893, ^S^-oo\\nJ ol. Ill Supplementing Vols. I and 11 to the Close 0/1894, Ss.oo\\nVol. IV Supplementing Uols. I-III to the Close of 1 89^^, ^S-oo\\nVol. V Supplementing Vols. I -IV to the Close of 1896,^^.00\\nVol. VI Supplementing Vols. I-V to the Close of 189-], $t;.oo\\nVol. VII Supplementing Vols. I -VI to the Close 0/1898, ^S-oo\\nExtremely valuable technical articles, especially prepared\\nfor these volumes by eminent authorities, give the most recent\\nprogress in each department of mining, metallurgy and chemi-\\ncal industry, including the best methods of production and\\nthe uses and properties of nearly all the minerals and metals.\\nThe Best Books on Mining and Metallurgry.\\nThe Metallurgy of Steel, Howe, $10.00\\nMetallurgy of Lead, (New Edition), Ho/iKan, 6.00\\nModern Copper Smelting, Peters, 5.00\\nManufacture and Properties of Structural Steel, Campbell A..^^\\nManual of Qualitative Blowpipe Analysis, Endlich, 4.00\\nOre Deposits of the United States, Kerv.p, 5.00\\nLead and Copper Smelting and Converting, Hixon, 3.00\\nStamp Milling of Cold Ores, Rickard, 2.50\\nPractical Notes on the Cyanide Process, Bosqui 2.50\\nProspecting, Locating and Mine Valuation, Stretch, 2.50\\nChemical and Geological Essays, Hunt,^ 2.50\\nOutline of Qualitative Chemical Analysis, Miller^ L50\\nNew General Technical Catalogue free. When you want\\nany information, prices or advice in reference to the latest and\\nbest books on scientific subjects and miscellaneous literature,\\nwrite to\\nTHE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY\\n253 Broadway, New York City.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "Publication s of H. S. R ICH CO.\\nICE AND REFRIGERATION.\\nA Monthly Review of the Ice, Ice Making, Refrigerating, Cold\\nStorage and kindred trades.\\nThe recognized authority on ail matters connected with ice\\nmaking and refrigeration.\\nSUBSCRIPTION PRICE:\\nIn United States, Canada and Mexico, $2.00 per year.\\nIn all Other Countries, 3.00 per year.\\nPAYABLE IN ADVANCE,\\nSTANDARD BOOKS ON COLD STORAGE, ICE\\nMAKING AND REFRIGERATION.\\nCOMPEND OF MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION.\\nBy Prof. J. E. Siebel.\\nPrice, Prepaid, Cloth, $3.00; Morocco, $3.50.\\nThe only work treating of all the various branches of theoretical\\nand applied refrigeration, and will be found to contain a large amount\\nof information which would be looked for in vain elsewhere.\\nPRACTICAL ICE MAKING AND REFRIGERATING.\\nBy Eugene T. Skinkle.\\nPrice, Prepaid, Cloth, $1.50; Morocco, $2.00.\\nEvery branch of ice making and refrigerating is handled in this\\nwork, with a view to setting out the best and most economical practice\\nin the construction and operation of the plant.\\nINDICATING THE REFRIGERATING MACHINE.\\nBy Gardner T. Voorhees.\\nPrice, Prepaid, Cloth, $1.00; Morocco, $1.50.\\nTreats of the application of the indicator to the ammonia com-\\npressor and steam engine, with practical instructions relating to the\\nconstruction and use of the indicator and reading and computing\\nindicator cards.\\nMACHINERY FOR REFRIGERATION.\\nBy Norman Sei.fe.\\nPrice, Prepaid, Cloth, $3.50.\\nTo the ice or cold storage man who wants to produce the best\\nresults with the least primary investment of capital, the smallest cost\\nof maintenance and the lowest working expenses, this work will\\nprove of great value.\\nAny of the above works will be sent to any address on receipt of\\nprice.\\nH. S. RICH CO., Publishers,\\n20G BROADWAY, 177 LA SALLE STREET,\\nNEW YORK. CHICAGO.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "America Leading Maritime publication\\nTHE\\nMARINE\\nREVIEW\\nt 9*\\nPUBLISHED WEEKLY\\n$2.00 PER ANNUM.\\n5^*\\nMost profusely Illustrated Technical Publication\\nin America*\\nATTRACTIVE SPECIAL ARTICLES.\\nPLL THE NEWS\\nof the SHP BUILDING\\nand SHIP OWNING\\nWORLD.\\nAdvertising rates low but not cheap.\\nIt Reaches the Buyers.\\nt^*\\nMARINE REVIEW PUB. CO.\\nCLEVELAND, OHIO.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "THIRTEENTH EDITION, REVISED\\nAND ENLARGED\\n8vo, Cloth, 29 Woodcuts, 20 Lithographic Plates, d* AA\\ntogether with a Travel Scale ^\u00e2\u0080\u00a2vV\\nTHE PRACTICAL APPLICATION\\nOF THE\\nSLIDE VALVE\\nand\\nLINK MOTION\\nTO\\nStationary, Portable, Locomotive and\\nMarine Engines,\\nWITH NEW AND SIMPLE METHODS FOR PROPOR-\\nTIONING THE PARTS,\\nBy WILLIAM S. AUCHINCLOSS, C.E., Mem. A.S.C.E.\\nCONTENTS\\nPart I The Slide Valve Elementary Principles and General Proportions.\\nPart II\u00e2\u0080\u0094 General Proportions Modified by Crank and Piston Connection.\\nPari III Adjustable Eccentrics,\\nPart IV\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Link Motions.\\nPart V Independent Cut-OfF, Clearance, etc.\\nAppendix\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Formulae Relating to Crank and Piston Motions.\\nD. VAN NOSTRAND CO., Publishers\\n23 Murray and 2T Warren Sts., New York\\nCopies sent prepaid on receipt of price.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "The Marine Record\\nshould be first among: the pub-\\nlications you read each week*\\nIts columns are at all times re-\\nplete with up-to-date information\\nregarding* affairs maritime* The\\ntechnical articles treating on live\\ntopics contained in The Record,\\nare of a nature to supply an ex-\\ncellent source of learning* Over\\n21 years in the field and a uni-\\nversally acknowledged authority\\non marine matters*\\nSubscription $2.00 per year.\\nPublished every Thursday. Illustrated.\\nEstablished isrs.\\nWrite us for free sample copy.\\nTHE MARINE RECORD\\nPUBLISHING CO.,\\nTHIRD FLOOR WESTERN RESERVE BUILDING,\\nCLEVELAND, OHIO*", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "USEFUL BOOKS\\nBarometer. The barometrical determination\\nof heights. A practical method of baro-\\nmetrical levelling and hjpsometry, for\\nsurveyors and mountain climbers. By Dr.\\nF. J. B. Cordeiro, U. S. N. i2mo, leather, i.oo\\nDynamo. Notes on the design of small\\ndynamo, with complete set of drawings to\\nscale. By G. Halliday. 79 pages, illus-\\ntrated, 8vo, cloth, i.oot\\nElectric Bells. A treatise on the construction\\nof electric bells, indicators and similar ap-\\nparatus. By F. C. Allsop. 131 pages, 177\\nillustrations, i2mo, cloth, .1.25\\nElectric Bells. Practical electric bell fitting.\\nA treatise on the fitting up and maintenance\\nof electric bells and all their necessary ap-\\nparatus. By F. C. Allsop. 170 pages,\\n186 illustrations, i2mo, cloth, .1.25\\nElectrical Notes. Practical electrical notes\\nand definitions, for the use of engineering\\nstudents and practical men. By W. Perren\\nMaycock, E.E. 286 pages, illustrated,\\n32mo, cloth, 75\\nElectricity. Comparisons between the differ-\\nent systems of distributing electricity. By\\nProf. Henry Robinson. 8vo, paper, .80\\nGalvanometer. A series of lectures on the\\ngalvanometer and its uses, delivered by\\nProf. E. L. Nicols, and used by him in his\\nclass at Cornell University. 112 pages, 76\\nillustrations, 8vo, paper, i.oo", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "MODERN MACHINERY\\nFURNISHES THE LATEST\\nINFORMATION UPON\\nModern Steam Practice\\nTO KNOW\\nHOW TO RUN ENGINES AND BOILERS\\nREQUIRES KNOWLEDGE OF\\nImprovements and Developments\\nIN THIS BRANCH\\nThese Are Described and Illustrated Every Month\\nSEND FOR SAMPLE COPY\\nMODERN MACHINERY PUBLISHING COMPANY\\n218 La Salle Street, CHICAGO, ILLS.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "CORRESPONDENCE\\nINSTRUCTION\\nIN\\nENGINEERING.\\nSteam Engineering,\\nElectrical Engineering,\\nCivil Engineering,\\nMechanical Engineering,\\nMECHANICAL and ARCHITECTURAL\\nDRAWING,\\nPlumbing, Heating, Ventilation,\\nChemistry, Metal Work, Mining.\\nTHE\\nInternational Correspondence Sohools,\\nSCRANTON, PA.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "THE ENGINEER.\\nDEVOTED TO\\nPower Plpt EpipERip.\\nSEMUMONTHLY.\\nONE DOLLAR PER YEAR.\\nSuperintendents, Engineers and\\nManagers\\nARE SOLICITED TO SEND FOR A\\nKREE SAMfl^H CORY.\\nThe Engineer Pub. Co.\\n94 TRIBUNE BLDG* BLACKSTONE BLDG,\\nNew York* Cleveland, O*", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "RUHMKORFF\\nInduction Coils\\nTheir Construction, Operation and Applications, with\\nChapters on\\nBATTERIES, TESLA COILS AND\\nROENTGEN RADIOGRAPHY\\nBy H. S. NORRIE\\ni\\nContents of Chapters:\\nChapter I. Coil Construction, II. Contact\\nBreakers. Pole Charging Breaker. III. Insulations\\nand Cements. IV. Condensers. Paper Condensers.\\nSeries Condensers. V. Experiments. Luminous\\nDesigns. VI. Spectrum Analysis. VII. Currents\\nin Vacuo. Discharges in Vacuo. VIII. Rotating\\nEffects. IX. Gas Lighting and Ozone Production.\\nX. Primary Batteries and Electric Light Currents.\\nXI. Storage Batteries or Secondary Cells. Charging\\nStorage Batteries. Charging from Primary Batteries.\\nSetting up the Storage Cell. XII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Tesla and Hertz\\nEffects. XIII. Roentgen Rays and Radiography\\nWith 57 new illustrations. Index.\\n183 pages, l2mo, cloth, 50 cents.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "manual of Instruction in\\nl)drd Soldering\\nWITH AN APPENDIX ON THE\\nRepair of Bicycle frames\\nnotes on Jliloys and a Chapter on Soft Soldering\\nBY HARVEY ROWELL\\nThe flame, lamp, charcoal, mats, bhnv-pipes,\\nwash-bottle, binding wire, chemicals, borax, spelter,\\nsilver solder, gold solder, oxidation of metals, fluxes,\\nanti-oxidisers, oxidation of cases, the cone, oxidising\\nflame, reducing flame, heat transmission, conduction,\\ncapacity of metals, radiation, application, the work\\ntable, the joint, applying solder, applying heat, the\\nuse of the blow-pipe, joints, making a ferrule, to re-\\npair a spoon, to repair a watch case, hard soldering\\nwith a forge or hearth, hard soldering with tongs,\\npreserving thin edges, silversmith s pickle, restoring\\ncolor to gold, chromic acid, to mend steel springs,\\nsweating metals together, retaining work in position,\\nmaking joints, applying heat, preventing the loss of\\nheat, effect of sulphur lead and zinc, to preserve\\nprecious stones, annealing and hardening, burnt iron,\\nto hard solder after soft solder. Tables of specific\\ngravity, tenacity, fusibility, alloys.\\n66 pages, illustrated, cloth, 75 cents.\\nFor Soldering Receipts, Cements and Lutes, Pastes, Glues\\nand such like, see Workshop Receipts,", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "SMALL ACCDMDLATORS\\nHow Made and Used\\nA Practical Handbook for Students and Young\\nElectricians\\nEDITED BY PERCIVAL MARSHALL, A.LM.E.\\nContents of Chapters\\nThe Theory of the Accumulator.\\nII. How to make a 4-Volt Pocket Accumulator.\\nIII. How to make a 32-Ampere-Hour Accumulator.\\nIV. Types of Small Accumulators.\\nV. How to Charge and Use Accumulators.\\nVI. Applications of Small Accumulators, Electrical Nov-\\nelties, etc. Useful Receipts. Glossary of Technical Terms.\\n80 passes, 40 illustrations, 12ino, cloth, 50c.\\nTHE MAGNETO -TELEPHONE\\nITS CONSTRUCTION,\\nFitting Up and Adaptability to Every Day Use\\nBY NORMAN HUGHES\\nCONTENTS OF CHAPTERS\\nSome electrical considerations I. Introductory. II.\\nConstruction. III. Lines, Indoor Lines. IV. Signalling\\nApparatus. V. Batteries. Open Circuit Batteries. Closed\\nCircuit Batteries. VI. Practical Operations. Circuit with\\nMagneto Bells and Lightning Arresters. How to Test the\\nLine. Push-Button Magneto Circuit. Two Stations with\\nBattery Bells. VII. Battery Telephone. Battery Tele-\\nphone Circuit. Three Instruments on one Line. VIII.\\nGeneral remarks. Index.\\n80 pages, 23 illustrations, i2ino, cloth, $1.00. In paper, 50c.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "We\\nwant\\n10,000 new\\nsubscribers\\nand are therefore\\nmaking a special\\ntrial rate, for a limited\\ntime, which you can find\\nout about by writing us. If\\ninterested in electricity send for\\nfree sample copy of the\\nWESTERN ELECTRICIAN\\nWhen you see the sample you ll want\\nit every week. We can fill orders\\nfor any electrical book pub-\\nlished, on receipt of price.\\nSend for catalog.\\nElectrician Pub. Co.,\\n610 Marquette,\\nChicago.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "THE\\nFIREMAN S GUIDE\\nA Handbook on the Care of Boilers\\nBV KARL p. DAHLSTROM, M.E.\\nCONTENTS OF CHAPTERS\\nI. Firing and Economy of Fuel. Precautions\\nbefore and after starting the fire, care of the fire,\\nproper firing, draft, smoke, progress of firing, fuel on\\nthe grate, cleaning out, cleaning grate bars and ash\\npan, dampers, firing into two or more furnaces, dr/\\nfuel, loss of heat.\\nII. Feed and Water Line. Feeding, the water\\nline, false water line, defective feeding apparatus,\\nformation of scale, gauge cocks, glass gauge, the\\nfloat, safetj plug, alarm whistle.\\nIII. Low Water and Foaming or Priming.\\nPrecautions when water is low, foaming, priming.\\nIV. Steam Pressure.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Steam gauge, safety valves.\\nV. Cleaning and Blowing Out.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Cleaning the\\nboiler, to examine the state of the boiler, blowing\\nout, refilling the boiler.\\nVI. General Directions. How to prevent acci-\\ndents, repairs, the care of the boiler when not in use,\\ntesting boilers, trimming and cleaning outside.\\nSummary of rules. Index.\\n8vo, cloth, 50 cents.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "THE CORLISS EIGIHE.\\nBy John T. IIenthorn.\\nAND\\nMiNiGEMENT OF THE CORLISS ENGINE.\\nBy Charles D. Thurber.\\nUniform in One Volume. Chfh Cover; Price ^i.oo.\\nTable of Contents.\\nChapter I. Introductory and Historical; Steam Jack-\\neting. Chapter II.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Indicator Cards. Chapter HI.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nIndicator Cards continued; the Governor. Chapter IV.\\nValve Gear and Eccentric Valve Setting. Chapter V.\\nValve Setting continued, with diagrams of same; Table\\nfor laps of Steam Valve. Chapter VI. Valve Setting\\ncontinued. Chapter VII. Lubrication with diagrams\\nfor same. Chapter Vlf I.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Discussion of the Air Pump\\nand its Management. Chapter IX. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Care of Main Driv-\\ning Gears; best Lubricator for same. Chapter X.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nHeating of Mills by Exhaust Steam. Chapter XI. En-\\ngine Foundations; diagrams and templets for same. Chap-\\nter XII Foundations continued Materials for samr^!-, etc.\\nThird Edition, ^Arith an Appendix.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "SAMPLE COPIES MAILED TO ANY ADDRESS\\nON RECEIPT OF 8 CENTS.\\nTHE\\nIMIflEUR DfCieiCIMl\\nA Journal of Mechanics and\\nEiKTRiciTir Amueurs Students\\nEdited bv PERCIVAL MARSHALL\\nITS GOOD POINTS.\\nBetter than any paper of its kind ever published.\\nThe articles are original and practical.\\nThe articles are so clearly and simply written and every-\\nthing made so plain that it will be found easy to follow the\\ndirections and duplicate the articles described.\\nSpecial articles on Model engines and boilers for yachts,\\ntorpedo-boats and war-ships.\\nDesigning and building of model yachts and boats.\\nMaking small tools for model work.\\nThe building of small gas engines.\\nBuilding screvz-cutting and turning lathes.\\nBuilding all kinds of model stationary and locomotive\\nsteam engines and boilers.\\nModel engineers and their work.\\nBuilding of all kinds of electrical machines, apparatus,\\ncoils, batteries, telephones, microphones, phonographs, nov-\\nelties.\\nThe articles are fully illustrated, principally with detail\\ndrawings to scale.\\nNew Books, Notes and Queries, Workshop Notes and\\nHints, Tools and Supplies, etc.\\nIt is published about the 20th of each month.\\nANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, 75c, POSTPAID.\\nSend in your subscription and ^ef your friends to subscribe.\\nUnused postage stamps will be accepted {not revenue.) Ad-\\ndress all communications to\\nSPON CHAMBERLAIN,\\n12 Cortlandt Street, NEW YORK.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "PRACTICAL HANDBOOK ON\\nWith Instructions for Care and Working ol the Same,\\nBYQ. LIECKFELD, C.E,\\nTranslated with permission of the Author by\\nGEORGE RICHMOND, M.E.\\nWITH A CHAPTER ON OIL ENGINES\\nCONTENTS\\nChoosing and installing a gas engine. The con-\\nstruction of good gas engines. Examination as to\\nworkmanship, running, economy. Reliability and\\ndurability of gas engines. Proper erection of a\\ngas engine. Foundation. Arrangement for gas pipes.\\nRubber bag. Locking devices. Exhaust pipes. Air\\npipes. Setting up gr.s engines. Brakes and their\\nuse in ascertaining the power of gas engines. Ar-\\nrangement of a brake test. Distribution of heat in a\\ngas engine. Attendance on gas engines. General\\nremarks. Gas engine oil. Cylinder lubricators.\\nRules as to starting and stopping a gas engine. The\\ncleaning of a gas engine. General observations and\\nspecific examination for defects. The engine refuses\\nto work. Non-starting of the engine. Too much\\npressure on the gas. Water in the exhaust pot.\\nDifficulty in starting the engine. Irregular running.\\nLoss of power. Weak gas mixtures. Late ignition.\\nCracks in air inlet. Back firing. Knocking and\\npounding inside of engine. Dangers and precaution-\\nary measure in handling gas engines. Precautions\\nwhen opening gas valves, removing piston from\\ncylinder, examining with light openings of gas\\nengines. Dangers in starting, cleaning, putting on\\nbelts. Oil Engines. Gas engines with producer gas.\\nGasoline and oil engines. Concluding remarks.\\n120 pages, illustrated, l2nio, cloth, $1.00.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "LUBRICANTS,\\nOILS AND GREASES\\nTreated Theoretically and Giving Practical Informal-\\ntion Regarding Their\\nCOMPOSITION, USES AND MANUFACTURE\\nBY ILTYD I. REDWOOD\\nCONTENTS\\nIntroduction. Lubricants.\\nTheoretical. Chapter I. Mineral Oils American\\nand Russian; Hydrocarbons. Chapter II. Fatty\\nOils: Glycerides; Vegetable Oils; Fish Oils.\\nChapter III. Mineral Lubricants: Graphite;\\nPkimbago. Chapter IV. Greases: Compounded;\\nSet or Axle Boiled or Cup. Chapter V.\\nTests of Oils: Mineral Oils. Fatty Oils.\\nManufacture. Chapter VI. Mineral Oil Lubri-\\ncants: Compounded Oils; Debloomed Oils.\\nChapter VII. Greases: Compounded Greases;\\nSet or Axle Greases; Boiled Greases; En-\\ngine Greases. Appendix. The Action of Oils on\\nVarious Metals. Index.\\nTables. I. Viscosity and Specific Gravity. II.\\nAtomic Weights. III. Origin, Tests, Etc., of\\nOils. IV. Action of Oils on Metals.\\nList of Plates. I. I. I. Redwood s Improved\\nSet Measuring Apparatus. II. Section Grease\\nKettle. III. Diagram of the Action of Oils on\\nDifferent Kinds of Metals.\\n8vo, cloth, $1.50.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL\\nAmmonia Refrigeration\\nA ll^ork of Reference for Engineers and others Employed in the\\nMa^iageinent of Ice and Refrigeration Machinery.\\nBy ILTYD I. REDWOOD\\nCONTENTS\\nB. T. U. Mechanical Equivalent of a Unit of Heat.\\nSpecific Heat. Latent Heat. Theory of Refrigeration.\\nFreezing, by Compressed Air. Ammonia. Charac-\\nteristics of Ammonia. The Compressor. Stuffing-\\nBoxes. Lubrication. Suction and Discharge Valves.\\nSeparator. Condenser-Worm, Receiver. Refrigera-\\ntor or Brine Tank, Size of Pipe and Area of Cooling\\nSurface. Charging the Plantwith Ammonia. Jacket-\\nWater, for Compressor, for Separator. Quantity of\\nCondensing Water Necessary. Loss due to Heating\\nof Condensed Ammonia. Cause of Variation in Ex-\\ncess Pressure. Use of Condensing Pressure in Deter-\\nmining Loss of Ammonia by Leakage. Cooling Di-\\nrectly by Ammonia. Freezing Point of Brine. Mak-\\ning Brine. Specific Heat of Brine. Regulation of\\nBrine Temperature. Indirect Effect of Condensing\\nWater on Brine Temperature. Directions for Deter-\\nmining Refrigerating Efficiency. Equivalent of a Ton\\nof Ice. Compressor Measurement of Ammonia Circu-\\nlated. Loss of Well-Jacketed Compressors. Loss in\\nDouble-Acting Compressors. Distribution of Mer-\\ncury Wells. Examination of Working Parts. Indica-\\ntor Diagrams. Ammonia Figures Effectual Displace-\\nment. Volume of Gas. Ammonia Circulated per\\nTwenty- Four Hours. Refrigerating Efficiency. Brine\\nFigures Gallons Circulated. Pounds Circulated. De-\\ngrees Cooled. Total Degrees Extracted. Loss due to\\nHeating of Ammonia Gas. Loss due to Heating of\\nLiquid Ammonia. Calculation of the Maximum Ca-\\npacity of a Machine. Preparation of Anhydrous Am-\\nmonia. Construction of Apparatus, etc., etc.\\n150 pages, 15 illustrations, cloth, $1.00.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "THE SLIDE VALVE\\nSIMPLY EXPLAINED\\nBy W. J. TENNANT, Asso. M.I.M.E.\\nREVISED AND MUCH ENLARGED\\nBy J. H. KINEALY, D.E.\\nCONTENTS OF CHAPTERS:\\nI. The Simple Slide.\\nII. The Eccentric a Crank. Special Model to\\nGive Quantitative Results.\\nIII. Advance of the Eccentric.\\nIV. Dead Centre. Order of Cranks. Cushion-\\ning and Lead.\\nV. Expansion\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Inside and Outside Lap and\\nLead Advance Affected Thereby.\\nCompression.\\nVI. Double-Ported and Piston Valves.\\nVII. The Effect of Alterations to Valve and\\nEccentric.\\nVIII. Note on Link Motions.\\nIX. Note on Ver^^ Early Cut-Off, and rn Revers-\\ning Gears in General.\\n88 Pages, 4I Illustrations. 12nio, Cloth, $1.00.\\nQUICK AND EASY METHODS\\nOF\\nCalculating\\nWith the Slide Rule\\nA Simple Explanation of the Theory and\\nUse of THE Slide Rule, Logarithms, Etc.\\nIVith numerous examples worked out.\\nBy R. G. BLAINE, M.E.\\nA most reliable, practical and valuable work for the engineer.\\n144 Pages. Illustrated. 127no, Cloth, \u00c2\u00a71.00", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "The Best and Cheapest in the Market\\nALGEBRA SELF-TAEHT\\nFOR THE USE OF\\nMechanics, Young Engineers and Home Students\\nBY W. PAGET HIQQS, M.A., D.Sc.\\nFOURTH EDITION\\nCONTENTS\\nSymbols and the signs of operation. The equa-\\ntion and the unknown quantity. Positive and nega-\\ntive quantities. Multiplication, involution, exponents,\\nnegative exponents, roots, and the use of exponents\\nas logarithms. Logarithms. Tables of logarithms\\nand proportional parts. Transportation of systems\\nof logarithms. Common uses of common logarithms.\\nCompound multiplication and the binomial theorem.\\nDivision, fractions and ratio. Rules for division.\\nRules for fractions. Continued proportion, the series\\nand the summation of the series. Examples. Geo-\\nmetrical means. Limit of series. Equations. Appen-\\ndix. Index. 104 pages, i2mo, cloth, 6oc.\\nSee also Algebraic Signs, Spons Dictionary of\\nKiiirineering, No. 2. 40 cts.\\n.S also Calculus, Supplement to Spons Dic-\\ntionary, Xo. 5. 75 cts.", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "m", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "^1", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3896", "width": "2538", "jp2-path": "howtorunenginesb00wats_0202.jp2"}}