{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "%4\\nv\\n55 Q*\\nA\\nK\\n1\\ntv\\nc\\nV.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "^0*\\n^d*\\n^0*\\nV\\nJ J J\\nv ^l G 0 t k~i v^\\nS*\\\\ S\\no 1\\n3*\\nv _\u00c2\u00abj?\\np%\\n4\\n2*\\n(V c\\nx *TX h*\\ni\\n4?\\nb TXT s a g /y X s s a g X/\\n%o^\\n^.0^\\n.,V .t..,.V ^V^-.. V\\n4\\nv\\nf%\\nVV-O", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "r\\nM o v", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "AA, carbonating tower.\\nb, ammouiacal brine supply.\\nd, escape for gas.\\nE, pipe through which car-\\nbon dioxid is introduced.\\ne, sieve to divide stream of\\ncarbon dioxid.\\nG, guide rod for spherical\\ndiaphragms.\\nQ, vacuum tank (connected\\nwith an air-pump).\\nX tap for withdrawal of\\nprecipitated sodium bicar-\\nbonate.\\nZ, vacuum filter.\\n6\\nTHE SOLVAY CARBONATING TOWEK.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY\\nFOR HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES\\nj\\nBY\\nALBERT L. AREY, C.E.\\nROCHESTER (N.Y.) HIGH SCHOOL\\nNefo fgdtfe\\nTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY\\nLONDON MACMILLAN CO., Ltd.\\n1899\\nAll rights reserved", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "Office o f the\\nRegister of Cop)\\n47542\\nCopyright, 1899\\nBy THE MACMILLAN COMPANY\\nSECOND COPY,\\nNorfoooti ^rrss\\nJ. S. dishing ft Co. Berwick ft Smith\\nNorwood Mass. U.S.A.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "9*\\no\\nPREFACE\\nThe course in elementary chemistry herewith presented\\nhas been in use in the author s laboratories for the past six\\nyears, and is the result of an effort to increase the useful-\\nness of chemistry as a disciplinary subject.\\nThe author was long since convinced that the most\\nvaluable part of the work in chemistry, from an educa-\\ntional standpoint, was derived from the processes of thought\\nwhich the student followed when questioned by the teacher\\nduring his experiment; and the impossiblity of questioning\\neach student in a large class individually and thoroughly\\nled to the adoption of the plan of adding to the questions\\ndesigned to guide the student s observations which ordinarily\\naccompany the directions for experiments, a set of questions\\ndesigned to guide the student s inferences and to suggest a\\ndefinite line of thought in each experiment. This plan\\nnecessitated the use of the text-book as a laboratory\\nmanual, to which so many teachers object because of the\\nmarked resemblance between the notes taken by some\\nstudents and the statements of the same facts in the text-\\nbook. Under these conditions it was decided to omit all\\nreference to those properties of the substances studied in\\nthe laboratory which can be learned by observation of the\\nsubstances themselves; but to render the work more com-\\nplete than it would otherwise be by stating such properties\\nas cannot be shown by experiments adapted to secondary\\nschools.\\nThe laboratory thus becomes a study in which the student\\nprepares his lesson for the next day by preparing the sub-", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "vi PREFACE\\nstance assigned and studying its properties, taking complete\\nnotes as his work proceeds and writing the answers to all\\nquestions in his note book. The next day s recitation shows\\nthe character of the student s observations and of his proc-\\ness of thought at this time he should be expected to give\\na complete account of the substance studied, including his\\npersonal observations and inferences and the facts stated\\nin the text-book concerning its occurrence, preparation,\\nproperties, and uses.\\nThe syllabus in chemistry, of the New York State Board\\nof Eegents, has been used as a guide in the selection of\\ntopics for discussion and the order of their arrangement,\\nand many of the review questions were taken from the\\nEegents examination papers.\\nIn conclusion, I wish to express especial obligation for\\nmany valuable suggestions to Mr. George M. Turner of the\\nMasten Park High School, Buffalo, who has read the entire\\nproof.\\nA. L. A.\\nRochester, N.Y.,\\nNovember, 1899.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nPAET I\\nPAGE\\nPreface v\\nSuggestions to the Student\\nList of Apparatus\\nI. Chemical Action 1\\nII. Symbols and Laws 9\\nIII. Chemistry of the Air 17\\nIV. Oxygen 27\\nV. Combustion 31\\nVI. Nitrogen 39\\nVII. Hydrogen 42\\nVIII. Chemistry of Water 48\\nIX. Problems 64\\nX. Compounds of Mtrogen and Hydrogen 70\\nAmmonia 70\\nAmmonium Hydroxid 72\\nXL Nitric Acid 76\\nXII. Acids, Bases, and Salts 80\\nXIII. Compounds of Nitrogen and Oxygen 84\\nNitrogen Monoxid .84\\nNitrogen Dioxid .86\\nNitrogen Tetroxid 88\\nXIV. The Chlorin Family 90\\nSec. I. Chlorin 90\\nII. Hydrochloric Acid 93\\nIII. Other Compounds of Chlorin 97\\nIV. Bromin 98\\nV. Iodin 100\\nVI. Fluorin 102", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "Vlll CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER PAGE\\nXV. Sulfur and its Compounds 107\\nSec. I. Sulfur 107\\nII. Sulfur Dioxid Ill\\nIII. Hydrogen Sulfid 114\\nIV. Sulfuric Acid 116\\nXVI. Certain Chemical Relations 121\\nXVII. The Alkali Metals 130\\nSec I. Potassium and its Compounds 130\\nII. Sodium .133\\nIII. Ammonium Salts 138\\nXVIII. Calcium 141\\nXIX. Silver, Copper, and Gold 146\\nXX. Zinc and Mercury 150\\nXXI. Aluminum 153\\nXXII. Iron 157\\nXXIII. Tin and Lead 165\\nXXIV. Platinum 169\\nPAET II\\nXXV. Carbon 170\\nXXVI. Carbon and Oxygen 181\\nSec. I. Carbon Dioxid 181\\nII. Carbon Monoxid 189\\nIII. A Study of Flame 192\\nXXVII. Hydrocarbons 197\\nXXVIII. Destructive Distillation 204\\nXXIX. Fermentation 211\\nXXX. Phosphorus 220\\nXXXI. Arsenic 230\\nXXXII. Qualitative Analysis 236\\nPreliminary Experiments 236\\nAnalysis of an Unknown Substance 240\\nThe First Group 243\\nThe Second Group 244\\nThe Third Group 249\\nThe Fourth Group 256\\nThe Fifth Group 257\\nAcid Tests 258\\nIndex 261", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "SUGGESTIONS TO THE STUDENT\\nThe subject which, you are now beginning differs from\\nthose which you have pursued heretofore in several impor-\\ntant particulars, and the benefit which you will derive from\\nyour study will depend, to a large extent, upon your ability\\nto adapt yourself to new conditions and requirements.\\nHeretofore you have studied statements about things, now\\nyon are to study the things themselves; and this change\\naffords an opportunity to cultivate your observation. Let\\nme urge you to endeavor to see all that there is to see, and\\nto be careful that you do not think you see what has no\\nexistence.\\nHeretofore you have depended chiefly upon the author s\\njudgment for inferences from facts stated, now you are to\\ndepend upon your own judgment for inferences from facts\\nobserved; and this change gives to chemistry its chief\\neducational value. Let me urge you to assume a judicial\\nattitude, to carefully consider all evidence, that your infer-\\nences may be fully warranted; and to see that your notes\\nstate only the truth.\\nThe training of hand and mind which may be acquired\\nin the manipulation of chemical apparatus is also of great\\nvalue, but you must guard against the formation of habits\\nof slovenly experimentation. It may sometimes be easier\\nto use a piece of apparatus which is good enough, but\\nthe satisfaction and the training acquired in arranging the\\nperfect apparatus will more than compensate for the extra\\nwork required.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "L", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "APPARATUS\\nEach student should he provided with the following apparatus\\n1 Bunsen burner and tube.\\n1 retort stand.\\n1 pneumatic trough (1).\\n1 16-oz. wide-mouth, packing bottle.\\n2 8-oz., wide-mouth, packing bottles.\\n1 two-holed rubber stopper to fit above bottles.\\n1 test bottle (2).\\n4 pieces of window glass, 2 inches square.\\n1 piece of wire gauze, 5 inches square.\\n1 piece fine copper gauze, 2\\\\ inches square.\\n1 i-inch deflagrating spoon.\\n1 test-tube brush.\\n1 brush for small tubing.\\n1 pair crucible tongs.\\n1 funnel, 3 inches in diameter.\\n1 test tube, f x 6 inches.\\n1 ignition tube, f x 8 inches (3).\\n1 250 cc. flask.\\n1 rubber stopper to fit flask and ignition tube (4).\\n1 evaporating dish, 3 inches in diameter.\\n1 flower pot saucer, 4 inches in diameter (5).\\n2 pieces rubber tubing, 4 inches long, i hole.\\n2 pieces rubber tubing, 4 inches long, hole.\\n1 piece ^-inch glass tubing, 9 inches long.\\n1 piece ^-inch glass tubing, 13 inches long.\\n2 pieces ^-inch glass tubing, 9 inches long, with 90\u00c2\u00b0 bend 3 inches\\nfrom one end.\\n(1) A 4-quart tin pan, or a stoneware milk pan, will answer very\\nwell for this purpose.\\n(2) A 1-ounce morphine bottle, used to test the purity of hydrogen\\nand for various other purposes.\\n(3) In a number of experiments the 6-inch test tube may be used\\ninstead of the ignition tube with advantage.\\n(4) Short pieces of the several sizes of thick- walled rubber tubing,\\nknown to the trade as shaft coupling tube, make satisfactory stoppers\\nfor flasks and ignition tubes. If too small, they may be enlarged by\\nslipping over them pieces of larger thin- walled tubing.\\n(5) This serves as a support for bottles in the pneumatic trough.\\nAny potter will make them with a f hole in the centre and a triangu-\\nlar piece cut out of the side.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "PART I\\nCHAPTER I\\nCHEMICAL ACTION\\n1. Elements and Compounds, The different kinds of\\nmatter known to man may be divided into two classes\\n(1) Compounds, or those which may be decomposed or\\nseparated into other substances.\\n(2) Elements, or those which have thus far resisted all\\nattempts to decompose them.\\nAbout seventy simple substances or elements have been\\ndiscovered, and, so far as is at present known, all com-\\npounds are the result of the chemical union of two or more\\nof these.\\nIt is possible that, as our knowledge of chemistry in-\\ncreases, many, if not all, of the substances now classed as\\nelements may be shown to be compounds. Water was con-\\nsidered an element until 1783, and several other so-called ele-\\nments have been resolved into simpler forms since that time.\\nThere are many chemists who consider the seventy ele-\\nments as so many unsolved problems.\\n2. Molecules and Atoms. The accepted theory of the\\nconstitution of matter maintains\\n1. That it is made up of minute particles called mole-\\ncules (little masses), each one of which, in a given sub-\\nstance, is exactly like its neighbors in weight, volume, and\\nstructure.\\n2. That they move about each other, under the influence\\nof heat, as separate bodies.\\nB 1", "height": "3584", "width": "2228", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "2 CHEMISTRY\\n3. That they are the limit beyond which it is impossible\\nto subdivide matter without destroying its identity.\\nIn accordance with this theory, each molecule of a com-\\npound is believed to contain the same elements that chemi-\\ncal analysis shows the large masses of the substance to\\ncontain, and these smaller portions of the elements are\\ncalled atoms. There is good reason for believing that\\natoms rarely exist in a free state, but that the molecules\\nof most elements consist of two or more atoms.\\nA molecule is the smallest particle of a substance which can\\nexist in the free state, and ichich has the same composition as\\nany larger mass of the same substance.\\nAn atom is the smallest particle, of an element that exists in\\nany molecule.\\nWe may now state the following definitions\\nA compound is a substance ivhose molecule contains two or\\nmore kinds of atoms.\\nAn element is a substance ichose molecule contains only one\\nkind of atoms.\\n3. The Domain of Chemistry. Chemistry is that branch\\nof science ichich deals with changes in the identity of sub-\\nstances; and with the laws, causes, and effects of such changes\\nThe subject is closely related to physics every chemical\\nchange is accompanied by some physical change, but the\\nchemical change differs in one important particular from a\\nphysical change the chemical change is due to forces act-\\ning upon atoms, while the physical change depends upon\\nforces acting upon the molecule.\\nA physical change is one ichich does not destroy the identity\\nof the substance acted upon.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "CHEMICAL ACTION 3\\nIllustration. When a bar of steel is magnetized it acquires\\na new property, bnt it remains the same substance, and the\\nchange is physical.\\nJL chemical change is one which destroys the identity of the\\nsubstance acted upon.\\nIllustration. When a bar of steel rnsts a portion of the\\nsteel is converted into a new substance which differs from\\nthe steel in color, tenacity, elasticity, and other properties.\\n4. Chemical Action. In some instances one may be in\\ndoubt as to whether a chemical change has taken place, and\\nin a few instances chemical analysis is necessary to prove it.\\nBut in general the occurrence of any of the following phe-\\nnomena, when two or more substances are mixed, may be\\ntaken as evidence of chemical action\\n1. Effervescence.\\n2. The evolution of heat and light.\\n3. Change of color.\\n4. Change of volume.\\n5. Change of state.\\n6. The development of electricity.\\nExceptions. 1. A change of state by solution of a solid\\nor gas.\\n2. A change of volume due to the absorption of a gas\\nby a solid or liquid, or to a change in temperature.\\nTake notes on the following experiments which will be\\nperformed by the instructor, and designate them as physical\\nor chemical changes\\nExperiment I. Sugar and potassium chlorate are mixed, and a\\ndrop of sulfuric acid added.\\nExperiment II. Sulfuric acid is added to syrup.\\nExperiment III. A rubber ruler is electrified.\\nExperiment IV. A beam of sunlight is decomposed with a prism.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "4 CHEMISTRY\\nExperiment V. A piece of platinum wire is heated to redness.\\nExperiment VI. A piece of magnesium wire is heated to redness.\\nExperiment VII. Sulfur and potassium chlorate are mixed in a\\nmortar with considerable friction.\\nExperiment VIII. Solutions of potassium iodid and mercuric\\nchlorid are mixed.\\nExperiment 9 and the succeeding experiments are to\\nbe performed by the pupil unless special directions to the\\ncontrary are given.\\nExperiment IX. A Chemical Change. 1. Examine a piece of\\nmarble carefully, fix its appearance in mind, so that you can detect\\nany change.\\n2. Drop a small piece in the test bottle and cover it with dilute\\nhydrochloric acid. What occurs\\n3. After a short time test the gas in the upper part of the test\\nbottle with a lighted match. Does the match continue to burn Is\\nthe gas combustible Is the gas ordinary air Why Does the\\nmarble disappear\\n4. In order to tell whether the marble has been changed chemically,\\nthe acid must be expelled. To accomplish this, pour the solution into\\nan evaporating dish, place it on a piece of wire gauze, and bring the\\nliquid to a boil. When the liquid begins to solidify and turn yellow,\\nadd a few drops of water, repeating, if necessary, to obtain a solid\\nwhite residue.\\nExamine this residue, compare it carefully with marble. Set the\\nresidue aside for 24 hours to determine whether it is permanent when\\nL to the air.\\nEill out the following table\\nMarble\\nResidue\\nIs it hard or soft\\nDoes it effervesce with hydrochloric acid\\nIs it soluble in water\\nIs it permanent in air\\nHow do the properties of the residue compare with those of marble\\nIs it marble\\nWhat have you proven\\nExperiment X. Bring together on a flower-pot saucer a little\\nphosphorus and iodin. What evidence have you that chemical\\naction took place? Have either of the original substances disap-\\npeared? Has a new substance been formed? It will be seen that\\nsimple contact is sufficient to cause the two substances to act upon\\neach other.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "CHEMICAL ACTION 5\\nDoes either substance melt Why\\nIs this a case of chemical action between solids\\nIs the action as energetic at first as it is after a few seconds\\nExplain.\\nCaution. Handle phosphorus with great care it takes fire when\\nrubbed or cut in the air, and should always be kept in water.\\n5. Conservation of Matter.\\nExperiment XL Pour 10 cc. of dilute sulfuric acid into a beaker.\\nIn a second beaker pour an equal quantity of calcium chlorid solution.\\nPlace both beakers in one scale pan and balance them carefully with\\nweights, sand, or shot, placed in the other scale pan. Now pour the\\ncalcium chlorid into the sulfuric acid. Does a chemical change occur\\nReplace the beakers and determine whether the weight of the beakers\\nand their contents has been changed. Does chemical action change\\nthe total quantity of matter in existence Was the total quantity of\\nsulfuric acid in the world increased or diminished by the above ex-\\nperiment How was the total quantity of calcium chlorid affected\\nof the white substance formed\\n6. The Effect of Solution on Chemical Action.\\nExperiment XII. Place as much baking soda as you can take on\\nthe end of a knife blade in a dry test bottle. Add an equal amount\\nof tartaric acid shake the bottle to mix the powders thoroughly.\\nHas any change occurred\\nPour a few cubic centimetres of water into the bottle. What evi-\\ndence of chemical action do you observe\\nDoes solution aid chemical action Is it because more intimate\\ncontact of the molecules is obtained when solutions are mixed than is\\npossible with solids Should diminishing cohesion assist chemical\\naction State your opinion as to why solution aids chemical action.\\n7. Effect of Heat on Chemical Action.\\nExperiment XIII. 1. Mix six grammes of potassium chlorate and\\none gramme of powdered charcoal thoroughly. What occurs\\n2. Apply a lighted match. Was the change chemical or physical\\nHow does the operation of striking a match illustrate the effect of\\nheat upon chemical action\\nWhy do metals rust more rapidly when hot than at lower tempera-\\ntures Experiment 22 illustrates this effect. Do fuels combine with\\nthe air when cold", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "6 CHEMISTRY\\n8. Light causes Chemical Action.\\nExperiment XIV. Cut a design from tin-foil and place it on a\\npiece of blue print paper. Expose paper and design to sunlight for\\na few minutes. Wash the paper in water.\\nHas the sunlight affected the exposed chemical In what way\\nThe art of photography is based on the action of light on\\nchemicals. In growing plants sunlight causes the decompo-\\nsition of carbon dioxid, which is only accomplished by the\\nchemist with difficulty.\\nIn the preparation of hydrochloric acid by synthesis de-\\nscribed on page 93, the chemical action is assisted by light.\\nQuery. Why do certain colors fade when exposed to light\\n9. Pressure. When the two gases, hydrochloric acid\\nand hydrogen phosphid, are subjected to increasing press-\\nure they combine to form a crystalline solid known as\\nphosphonium chlorid. Similarly sulfur and powdered lead\\nmay be caused to combine by great pressure, forming lead\\nsulfid.\\nQuery. What relation does this action suggest between the inten-\\nsities of chemical affinity and distances between molecules\\n10. Concussion or Detonation. In a very few cases,\\nchemical action is brought about by detonation. The\\nmolecules of the gas acetylene consist of two atoms of\\ncarbon united with two of hydrogen. If a small quantity\\nof mercury fulminate be detonated near a globe filled with\\nthis gas the carbon is instantly deposited in solid form and\\nthe hydrogen liberated. This action is not fully under-\\nstood; some chemists believe that the particular form of\\nsound vibration produced disturbs the motions of the atoms\\nconstituting the molecule, and thus causes disruption.\\n11. Electricity. If a current of electricity be passed\\nthrough a solution of copper sulfate, the compound is de-", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "CHEMICAL ACTION 7\\ncomposed, and many other compounds are affected in the\\nsame way. In Experiment 40 this effect is also illustrated.\\n12. The Effect of Trituration on Chemical Action.\\nExperiment XV. Using pincers, hold a small lump of rosin in the\\nBunsen burner flame, observe the character of the flame produced by\\nthe burning rosin. Is rosin easily ignited Does it burn rapidly\\nDoes the rosin melt before it ignites\\nExperiment XVI. Triturate a small piece of rosin in a mortar,\\nfill the end of a large glass tube with the powder and blow it into the\\nburner flame. Does the finely divided rosin burn with a smoky flame\\nor does it flash Does it burn as rapidly as in the previous experi-\\nment How does the energy of the chemical action compare with\\nthat observed in the last experiment In which case is the higher\\ntemperature reached\\nExperiment XVII. Make a compact pile of about cu. cm. of\\npowdered rosin on a piece of porcelain or earthenware, ignite with a\\nBunsen burner. How does the chemical action compare with that of\\nthe previous experiment Does the increased chemical action depend\\nupon the size of the particles Would a solid piece having the same\\narea as the sum of the surfaces flash Does the chemical activity\\ndepend upon the surface only Upon the mass of the particles only\\n13. Mechanical Mixture.\\nExperiment XVIII. 1. Mix about four grammes of sulfur and an\\nequal weight of fine wrought iron filings on a sheet of paper. Divide\\ninto three portions.\\n2. Examine the first portion with a magnifying glass. Can you\\ndistinguish the particles of sulfur from those of iron Can you\\nseparate the iron from the sulfur with a magnet Now put the mix-\\nture in a test tube and pour water on it. Are the substances combined\\nor not Shake the tube what is the yellow substance floating on\\nthe water Has chemical action taken place\\n3. Treat the second portion with carbon disulfid. What is the\\nblack substance at the bottom of the tube What has happened\\nIs the color of the carbon disulfid changed What does this indicate\\nIs a chemical compound formed in this experiment\\nExperiment XIX. 1. Put the third portion of the mixture made\\nin Experiment 18, in a dry test tube and heat gently. When it is red\\nhot remove the tube from the flame. Is there any evidence of com-\\nbustion in the tube", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "8 CHEMISTRY\\n2. After the action is over and the tube has cooled down, loosen\\nthe contents with a short piece of wire, and pour it out on a piece of\\npaper. Does the mass look like the mixture of sulfur and iron with\\nwhich you started\\n3. Examine with a magnifying glass. Can you separate the sulfur\\nand iron with water as before Can you separate them with a\\nmagnet\\n4. Treat a portion of the mass with carbon disulfid. Is the effect\\nthe same as before Is the color of the carbon disulfid changed\\nWhat do you conclude concerning the effect of heat on the mixture\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Define chemical action. What assists it What retards it\\n2. Mention those conditions which aid chemical action, by\\ndecreasing the distance between the unlike molecules, (6) by dimin-\\nishing the cohesion of the factors.\\n3. Describe an experiment to show that there is no loss of matter\\nin chemical change.\\n4. Distinguish between a mechanical mixture and a chemical com-\\npound. Illustrate each.\\n5. Distinguish between chemistry and physics between atoms and\\nmolecules between chemical changes and physical changes.\\n6. What mechanical mixture was formed in Experiment 12\\nIn what part of the experiment were chemical compounds formed\\nWrite answers to these questions in your note-book.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II\\nSYMBOLS AND LAWS\\n14. Symbols. Chemists of all countries have agreed to\\nuse the initial letter of the Latin name of an element as an\\nabbreviation which shall stand for a single atom of that\\nelement. In case two or more elements begin with the\\nsame letter the second characteristic letter is added to the\\nsymbol, thus\\nC Carbon N Nitrogen ISTa* Sodium\\nCa Calcium S Sulfur K* Potassium\\nCI Chlorin Si Silicon Ag Silver\\nSome writers use these symbols as mere shorthand signs\\nfor the full names of the elements. This usage is extremely\\nobjectionable; students who adopt it will not appreciate\\nthe important quantitative relations which are shown by\\nreactions.\\n15. Formulas. Compounds are represented by a formula\\nor a group of symbols, showing the composition of the\\nmolecule of the substance.\\nThus, the formula of sodium chlorid, ]S aCl, indicates that\\nits molecule contains one atom of sodium and one of chlorin,\\nand CaS represents a molecule of calcium sulfid which con-\\ntains one atom of calcium and one of sulfur.\\nIf a molecule contains more than one atom of a given\\nThe Latin name of sodium is Natrium, that of potassium is\\nfolium.\\n9", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "10 CHEMISTRY\\nelement, a subnumber is placed a little below and to the\\nright of the symbol, and indicates the number of such atoms.\\nThus CaCl 2 is the formula for calcium chlorid, which con-\\ntains one atom of calcium and two of chlorin, and the\\nformula for ferric oxid, Fe 2 3 tells us that its molecule\\ncontains two atoms of iron and three of oxygen.\\nIf more than one molecule of the substance is to be repre-\\nsented, the number is placed before the group of symbols.\\nThus 2Fe 2 3 represents two molecules of ferric oxid con-\\ntaining four atoms of iron and six of oxygen.\\nIn the absence of a coefficient a formula always represents\\na single molecule.\\n16. The Law of Constant Proportions. The law of definite\\nproportions which has been called the corner stone of modern\\nchemistry is as follows\\nTJie same compound always contains the same elements\\ncombined in the same fixed and definite proportions\\nThe thousands of analyses which have been made t)f\\nvarious compounds by chemists in all parts of the world,\\nand which are now being made every day, are based upon\\nthis law, and in no single instance have the results obtained\\ncaused the truth of the law to be questioned.\\n17. Combining Weights. Another important relation is\\nto be learned from a study of the composition of various\\nsubstances. Not only is the proportion by weight in which\\na certain element combines with a certain other element, to\\nform a given compound, constant, but it is possible to select\\na number for each element, which shall represent the pro-\\nportion by weight in which it unites with different elements.\\nThe composition of the oxids mentioned thus far is given\\nbelow", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "SYMBOLS AND LAWS\\n11\\nMercury, 200\\nOxygen, 16\\nCopper, 63.6\\nOxygen, 16\\nLead, 207\\nOxygen, 16\\nZinc, 65.4\\nOxygen, 16\\nIron, 56\\nOxygen, 16\\nIn each of the above compounds it is observed that there\\nare 16 parts by weight of oxygen, and this number or a\\nsimple multiple of it will express the proportion in which\\noxygen combines with any other element.\\nSuch numbers have been carefully determined for all ele-\\nments and are called combining weights.\\n18. The Law of Multiple Proportions. The analysis of\\nvarious substances further shows that a given element may\\ncombine with another in more than one proportion. For\\nexample, the elements nitrogen and oxygen form several\\ncompounds having the following composition\\nNitrogen\\nNitrous oxid\\nNitric oxid\\nNitrous anhydrid\\nNitrogen peroxid\\nNitric anhydrid\\n28 parts\\n28 parts\\n28 parts\\n28 parts\\n28 parts\\n16 parts\\n32 parts\\n48 parts\\n64 parts\\n80 parts\\nIt will be observed that while the quantity of nitrogen is\\nthe same in all the above compounds the quantity of oxygen\\nvaries, being twice as great in the second compound as in the\\nfirst, three times as great in the third as in the first, etc. This\\nseries illustrates the law which applies to all cases in which\\nmore than one compound is formed from the same elements.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "12 CHEMISTRY\\nIf tivo elements form more than one compound, the propor-\\ntions by weight in which a given element combines with the\\nother in each compound will be expressed either by its com-\\nbining number or a simple multiple of its combining number.\\n19. The Atomic Theory. The atomic theory was sug-\\ngested by John Dalton, an English schoolmaster, early in\\nthis century, to account for the laws of definite and multiple\\nproportions. It maintains\\n1. That with a few possible exceptions all molecules are\\nmade up of smaller particles.\\n2. That these particles are indivisible (they are therefore\\ncalled atoms).\\n3. That all atoms of a given element are equal in size and\\nweight.\\n4. That atoms of different substances have different\\nweights.\\n5. That the combining weights of the elements are simply\\nthe relative weights of the atoms, and may therefore be\\ncalled the atomic weights.\\nThe explanation of the facts of chemistry which this\\ntheory offers is so satisfactory that it is universally accepted.\\n20. Atomic Weights. As hydrogen enters into combina-\\ntion in smaller proportion than any other element, its com-\\nbining weight or atomic weight is taken as the unit. When\\nwe say that the atomic weight of oxygen is 16, we mean\\nsimply that the atoms of oxygen are sixteen times heavier\\nthan those of hydrogen. The exact weight of an atom of\\nhydrogen has never been determined but it is called a\\nmicrocrith. The atom of oxygen weighs 16 microcriths.\\nThe following table gives the exact values of the atomic\\nweights of the elements referred to in this book. The\\nstandard is Oxygen 16.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "SYMBOLS AND LAWS\\nTable of Atomic Weights\\n13\\nXe-me\\nBym.\\n16\\nXame\\nBym.\\n16\\nAluminum\\nAl\\n27.11\\nAntimony\\nSb\\n120.42\\nArgon\\nA\\nArsenic\\nAs\\n75.01\\nBarium\\nBa\\n137.43\\nBismuth\\nBi\\n208.11\\nBoron\\nB\\n10.95\\nBromin\\nBr\\n79.95\\nCadmium\\nCd\\n111.95\\nCalcium\\nCa\\n40.07\\nCarbon\\nC\\n12.01\\nChromium\\nCr\\n52.14\\nChlorin\\nCI\\n35.45\\nCopper\\nCu\\n63.60\\nCobalt\\nCo\\n58.93\\nGold\\nAu\\n197.23\\nFluorin\\nF\\n19.06\\nIodin\\nI\\n126.85\\nHydrogen\\nH\\n1.008\\nLead\\nPb\\n206.92\\nIron\\nFe\\n56.02\\nMagnesium\\nMg\\n24.28\\nLitliium\\nLi\\n7.03\\nMercury\\nHg\\n200.00\\nManganese\\nMn\\n54.99\\nNitrogen\\nN\\n14.04\\nNickel\\nNi\\n58.69\\nPhosphorus\\nP\\n31.02\\nOxygen\\n16.00\\nPotassium\\nK\\n39.11\\nPlatinum\\nPt\\n194.89\\nSilver\\nAg\\n107.92\\nSilicon\\nSi\\n28.40\\nStrontium\\nSr\\n87.61\\nSodium\\nNa\\n23.05\\nTin\\nSn\\n119.0\\nSulfur\\nS\\n32.0\\nZinc\\nZn\\n65.41\\n21. Reaction. The force which, is exerted between atoms\\nis called chemical affinity, The affinity of a given atom for\\nother atoms varies greatly, often being very strong for cer-\\ntain kinds of atoms and feeble for others. If,, when any\\nsubstances are mixed, a rearrangement of the atoms would\\nproduce more stable compounds, i.e. if the force which\\nholds the atoms together in the new compounds is stronger\\nthan that which bound them in their original form, such\\nrearrangement will take place. The process of redistribu-\\ntion of the atoms in the molecules concerned in the phe-\\nnomenon is called chemical action or reaction.\\nA reaction is due to chemical affinity and causes a chemical\\nchange.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "14 CHEMISTRY\\nSubstances used to bring about desired reactions are\\ncalled reagents.\\nThe substances which go into a reaction are called factors,\\nand those which come from a reaction products.\\nReactions are ordinarily expressed by equations in which\\nthe symbols and formulae of the factors are placed on the\\nleft of the sign of equality, and those of the products on\\nthe right. The algebraic signs plus and minus are used in\\nthe ordinary sense in the equations.\\nThe fact that atoms can neither be created nor destroyed,\\neven by chemical means, justifies the use of the sign of\\nequality to connect factors and products, and it should never\\nbe placed until the student has satisfied the reaction, i.e.\\nhas determined that there are exactly as many atoms of\\neach element in the products as there are in the factors.\\nIllustration. In Experiment 11 the following reaction\\noccurred\\nCaCl 2 H 2 S0 4 CaS0 4 2 HC1.\\nThis should be read as follows one molecule of calcium\\nchlorid plus one molecule of sulfuric acid forms one mole-\\ncule of calcium sulfate plus two molecules of hydrochloric\\nacid.\\nThe chemical change occurring in Experiment 19 may be\\nexpressed as follows\\nFe S EeS.\\nSuch equations express very concisely the relations be-\\ntween the atoms and molecules in the chemical changes\\nwhich they represent, and every chemical change which is\\nclearly understood may be expressed in this way. Equa-\\ntions are also useful because of the important quantitative\\nrelations between masses which are made evident when we\\nconsider the atomic weights of the elements represented.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "SYMBOLS AND LAWS 15\\nIn the equation given above, the symbol Fe not only signi-\\nfies an atom of iron, but it also stands for 56 parts of iron,\\nby weight, and the symbol S stands for 32 parts of sulfur\\nby weight. We thus have a mathematical expression which\\nshows the relation between the masses of iron and sulfur\\nwhich take part in the chemical change.\\nFe S FeS\\n56 32 88\\nThe equation can now be read\\n56 parts of iron unite with 32 parts of sulfur to form 88\\nparts of ferrous sulfid. The solution of many chemical\\nproblems depends upon this use of equations. (See Chap-\\nter IX.)\\n22. Analysis, Synthesis, and Metathesis. All chemical\\nchanges may be referred to one of four classes\\n(a) Compound molecules may be separated into their elements, or\\ninto simpler groups of elements, as, for example, mercury rust is\\nseparated into mercury and oxygen in Experiment 25, or as potassium\\nchlorate KCIO3, is decomposed in Experiment 30, forming potassium\\nchlorid KC1, and oxygen. Such changes are analytic, and the process\\nwhich brings them about is known as analysis.\\n(6) Compound molecules may be formed by direct union of ele-\\nments, or simpler groups of elements, as when phosphorus combined\\nwith iodin, in Experiment 10, forming phosphorous di-iodid PI 2 or\\nwhen carbon monoxid CO, combines with oxygen to form carbon\\ndioxid C0 2 (See Experiment 101.) Such changes are synthetic, and\\nthe process is known as synthesis.\\n(c) Compound molecules may be formed by a change involving\\nboth analysis and synthesis, which is known as metathesis, or double\\ndecomposition. In such processes an exchange of atoms, or groups of\\natoms, takes place between two compound molecules, as when a solu-\\ntion of sodium sulfate Na 2 S0 4 and barium chlorid BaCl 2 are\\nmixed. Each substance is decomposed, and the atoms combine to\\nform two new substances, barium sulfate BaS0 4 and sodium chlorid\\nNaCl.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "16 CHEMISTRY\\n(d) In some cases new substances are formed without changing\\neither the kinds of atoms, or the number of atoms of each kind, in the\\nmolecule. For example, when a solution of ammonium cyanate\\nNH 4 O CN, is heated it is transformed into urea N 2 H 4 CO, a substance\\nhaving entirely different chemical and physical properties. It will be\\nobserved that these molecules contain the same number of atoms of\\neach element we have excellent evidence, however, that the first one\\ncontains cyanogen CN, while the second contains carbon monoxid CO.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. How many atoms of hydrogen in 6 H 2 S0 4 of sulfur of\\noxygen\\n2. How many atoms of each element are represented Dy the fol-\\nlowing formulae 2 ZnCl 2 3 HN0 3 5 H 2 0, 14 NH 3\\n3. How many molecules of each substance are represented by\\nabove formula?\\n4. Define chemical affinity, reaction, reagent, factor, product.\\n5. Distinguish between atoms and molecules. Does a chemical\\naffinity exist between molecules Give a reason for your answer.\\n6. What is atomic weight How is atomic weight related to\\nspecific gravity\\n7. What element is selected as the standard of atomic weight\\nWhy is this element selected\\n8. State the atomic theory.\\n9. State five principles observed in writing chemical symbols and\\nformulae.\\n10. What is a chemical equation What is meant by the combin-\\ning weight of an element\\n11. State the law of constant proportions. Of multiple proportions.\\n12. State five principles to be observed in writing chemical\\nequations.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III\\nCHEMISTRY OF THE AIR\\n23. The Formation of Rust.\\nExperiment XX. 1. In a small porcelain crncible or a clay pipe\\nbowl put a small piece of lead or zinc. Heat with laboratory burner\\nand notice the changes that take place. Do not allow the containing\\nvessel to become too hot, for liquefied rust will be absorbed. After the\\nlead begins to melt, stir with a thick iron wire. Observe carefully\\nwhat forms on the surface of the metal. Does the lead retain its bright\\nmirror-like surface if not stirred Continue to heat and stir until the\\nsubstance is changed to a powder. What is its appearance now\\n2. Let it cool. Is it lead What difference is there between the\\naction in this case and in melting ice and cooling the water again\\nWhich is chemical and which is physical action Why Was the\\nchange just observed produced by the heat or by the action of the air\\nIn order to answer this question let us repeat the experiment, prevent-\\ning any action of the air by covering the metal with a film of melted\\nrosin.\\nExperiment XXL Repeat Experiment 20, adding as much\\npowdered rosin as can be lifted on the blade of a penknife. Do\\nnot stir the metal. Does it rust or does the surface remain bright and\\nmirror-like Is it changed to powder How do you explain the\\ndifference in result of this experiment and the last What do you\\nconclude concerning the cause of the change produced in the previous\\nexperiment Is the action due to the high temperature or to the\\naction of the air or to both Does lead rust more rapidly at high than\\nat low temperature Eosin is used to prevent rusting of hot metals\\nin process of soldering.\\n24. Effects of Air on Iron at Ordinary and at High Tempera-\\ntures.\\nExperiment XXII. Wind a piece of No. 30 iron wire about a foot\\nlong around the finger and heat the loops thus formed in the tip of a\\nlaboratory burner flame for a minute or two. Holding the loop over\\na sheet of paper, straighten the wire. Compare the scale which drops\\nc 17", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "18 CHEMISTRY\\noff with the rust formed on iron at ordinary temperatures. Is it the\\nsame color Does iron rust more rapidly at high or low tempera-\\ntures How do you know Has a chemical change occurred Pass\\na magnet over a mass of red rust of black rust. Are they magnetic\\n(See paragraph on Oxids in Nature, page 37.)\\n25. Various Ways of Protecting Iron.\\nSeveral years ago Professor Barff, of London, suggested\\nthat iron might be protected from the action of the air by\\nexposing it to superheated steam at high temperature, thus\\nforming a coating of black rust on its surface. The pro-\\ncess has been somewhat modified, and is now known as the\\nBower-Barff process. It is quite extensively employed as\\na finish for iron ornaments, and has been used in certain\\ncities to protect water pipes.\\nZinc and lead are protected from the action of the air by\\nthe coating of oxid which forms on their surface.\\nQueries. Mention several ways of protecting iron from the action\\nof the air. Why do we blacken stoves Why are some parts nickel\\nplated What is galvanized iron What is a tin pan made of In\\nwhat two ways are water pipes protected How are iron bridges pro-\\ntected Bicycle frames\\n26. Does the Weight of a Metal change when it rusts\\nWhen a chemical change occurs it is due to the addition\\nof some element or elements to the substance changed, or\\nto the extraction of some element or elements from the sub-\\nstance changed. Now, since loss or gain in matter means\\nloss or gain in weight, let us determine whether a sub-\\nstance was added to or driven off from the iron in the last\\nexperiment.\\nExperiment XXIII. (Performed by the instructor.) Weigh a\\npiece of No. 30 wire, heat as in the last experiment when cool weigh\\nagain. Explain.\\nDoes heating in contact with air drive something away from the\\niron or cause something to combine with it From what source is\\nthe substance derived", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY OF THE AIR 19\\n27. The Material which combines with the Metal to form\\nRust.\\nWe now desire to know the nature of the substance which\\ncauses metals to rust and as it can be expelled easily from\\nthe rust which forms on mercury, we shall study that sub-\\nstance. As air is an invisible gas, special precautions must\\nbe taken to prevent its loss or mixture with other substances.\\nExperiment XXTV. A Method of Collecting Gases. Fill the\\nyellow dish (see description of apparatus, p. xi) one-third full of\\nwater. Place the flower-pot saucer bottom side up in the water.\\nFill one of the medium sized bottles with water, cover with a glass\\nplate, and invert on the flower-pot saucer remove the glass plate.\\nIf your work has been carefully performed your bottle will be full of\\nwater. (If not, try again.)\\nNow put the end of a glass tube at the opening at the side of the\\nflower-pot saucer and blow gently through it. What do you notice\\nWhat is in the bottle after the water is out of it Where does it\\ncome from\\nThis method of collecting gases over water may be used for all\\ngases not dissolved by water.\\nStudents should attempt to devise other methods. Could a rubber\\nbag be used What advantage has the method used in this experi-\\nment over other methods\\nExperiment XXV. A Study of Mercury Bust. 1. Weigh accu-\\nrately a small glass tube, closed at one end, containing about a\\ngramme of mercury rust.\\n2. Holding the tube in a nearly horizontal position with a pair of\\ncrucible tongs, heat the red powder strongly for some minutes, or until\\na bright mirror-like deposit appears near the open end of the tube.\\n3. Weigh the tube again. Is there any evidence that an invisible\\nsubstance has escaped After weighing the tube, examine the de-\\nposit near the open end. Scrape some of it from the tube with an\\niron wire what is it What have you learned about the constitu-\\nents of mercury rust Is either constituent a solid a liquid a gas\\n4. Arrange an ignition tube, as shown in Fig. 1, so that any gas\\ngenerated in the tube may be collected in the bottle. Fill the bottle\\nwith water.\\n5. Put about 15 grammes of mercury rust in the ignition tube and\\napply heat. Describe the gas collected.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "20\\nCHEMISTRY\\n6. Test with a glowing match stick. Remove the match and put\\nit back a few times. Is there any difference between the burning in\\nthe bottle and out of it Is the gas air Has the gas which formed\\nthe rust a marked ability to make things burn Has the color of the\\nmercury rust changed\\n7. Remove the ignition tube and pour its contents on a piece of\\npaper. How is the color affected Compare it with some of the\\nmercury rust which has not been heated. What effect has the air\\nhad upon the hot rust from the tube Has the air entirely restored\\nthe gas driven off by the heat Is the gas collected in this experi-\\nment pure air, or a part of the air\\nThe chemical change which occurs in this experiment may be ex-\\npressed as follows jjgO Hg 0.\\nThe gas which causes metals to rust is called oxygen^ its\\ncompounds are called oxids, and the process of forming oxidfl\\nis known as oxidation. The rust formed on iron at ordinary\\ntemperatures is called ferric hydroxid. That formed at high\\ntemperatures is ferrous oxid and ferric oxid, probably in\\nchemical combination. It is called magnetic oxid.\\nWe have observed that oxygen makes things burn vigor-\\nously, and, although it is deemed best to reserve the dis-\\ncussion of combustion for a subsequent chapter, the next\\ntwo experiments are given here to show the relation between\\nthe processes of rusting and burning.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY OF THE AIR 21\\n28. Effect of excluding the Air from a Flame.\\nExperiment XXVI. Close the holes at the bottom of your labora-\\ntory burner. How is the character of the flame affected Explain.\\nWhy do we close the stove dampers at night What is the effect of\\nremoving the ashes and clinker from a stove Why\\nSuggestion. Wrap a piece of cloth around the lower part of a\\nkerosene lamp burner, covering the holes through which the air enters\\nthe chimney. How does this affect the flame What has air to do\\nwith the combustion of oil How does a lamp chimney increase the\\nbrightness of the lamp name How does a fire extinguisher put out\\na fire It is possible that burning, like rusting, is simply a chemical\\nunion of air, or a part of the air, with the fuel. Let us determine\\nwhether this is so by the method used in Experiment 23.\\n29. Comparison of the Weight of the Products of a Burning\\nCandle with the Amount lost by the Candle.\\nExperiment XXVII. (Performed by the instructor.) On one side of\\na delicate balance, apparatus which will absorb the products of combus-\\ntion is suspended over a candle, the whole being exactly balanced with\\nweights on the other side of the balance. The candle is righted and\\nthe gases are drawn into the absorbing apparatus. As the candle\\nburns away the side of the balance carrying the apparatus grows\\nheavier. The weight of the products is greater than the loss of weight\\nof the candle.\\nIs the candle converted into heat Is heat matter Where does\\nthe matter causing the increase come from Does this prove that the\\ncandle is indestructible What is your conclusion concerning the\\nnature of combustion\\n30. Analysis of the Air. We have learned that oxygen\\nis a part of the air, and now desire to learn what proportion\\nof the air is oxygen.\\nExperiment XXVIII To determine the per cent of oxygen in the\\nair. Cooley-s method. Apparatus required. A small glass funnel.\\nA six-inch test tube, with a two-holed rubber stopper to fit same.\\nRubber bands, a measuring glass, 155 cc. of the absorbent liquid. A\\npiece of glass tubing two inches long fitted in one of the holes of the\\nstopper, a piece of glass rod the same length in the other hole, and a\\npiece of thin rubber tubing six inches long, in which a piece of glass", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "22\\nCHEMISTRY\\nrod half an inch long and of such size as to prevent a liquid from\\nrunning through the tube, is placed.\\nManipulation. 1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 2.\\n2. In your test bottle dissolve a small teaspoonful\\nof pyrogallic acid in 10 cc. of water, quickly add\\n5 cc. of a strong solution of sodium hydroxid, and\\npour into the funnel. This liquid absorbs oxygen\\nand carbon dioxid rapidly.\\n3. Holding the test bottle under the rubber cork,\\npinch the rubber tube where the glass rod closes it\\nuntil a little of the liquid runs through the tube.\\nCarefully remove the drop which is suspended from\\nthe glass tube with a piece of filter paper.\\n4. Now remove the glass rod from the hole in the\\nrubber stopper and put the test tube on the stopper\\nallow it to hang there a minute or two to allow the\\nheat communicated to the tube and air which it con-\\ntains to pass away. Then insert the glass rod in the open hole in the\\nstopper. We have now isolated a definite volume of air at the same\\ntemperature and pressure as the air of the room, and during the ab-\\nsorption and the measurements care must be taken to prevent change\\nin the volume under analysis, either by the escape of a portion or by\\nthe introduction of more air from without.\\n5. Pinch the rubber tube at the glass rod to allow some of the ab-\\nsorbent liquid to run down into the test tube a little stream runs in\\nat first, then drops follow each other more and\\nmore slowly when these have nearly ceased\\nallow the apparatus to stand for two or three\\nminutes. Then allow more of the absorbent\\nliquid to enter the test tube. Repeat the opera-\\ntion every two minutes until only a drop or two\\nenters the tube when opened.\\n6. The gas in the test tube is now compressed\\nby the weight of the liquid in the rubber tube\\nbefore measurements can be made the pressure\\nmust be adjusted to that of the air in the room.\\nThis is accomplished by grasping the test tube\\nby the flange (so as not to warm the gas), rais-\\ning the tube as shown in Fig. 3, and pinching\\nthe rubber tube to open a passage between the\\ntwo masses of liquid. Keep this passage open and move the test tube\\nup or down until the liquid stands at the same level in the test tube", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY OF THE AIR 23\\nand the funnel then close the passage between them. Your results\\nwill depend to a great extent upon the care with which this adjust-\\nment is made.\\n7. Slip a rubber band around the test tube so that its upper edge\\nmarks the position of the bottom of the stopper.\\n8. Remove the test tube from the apparatus and pour the absorbent\\nliquid into a measuring glass. This represents the volume of gas\\nabsorbed record the number of cubic centimetres.\\n9. Now fill the test tube with water to the top of the rubber band\\nand measure this volume. This represents the volume of air analyzed.\\nWe have thus determined, the number of cubic centi-\\nmetres of oxygen in a certain number of cubic centimetres\\nof air, from which we may determine the number of cubic\\ncentimetres of oxygen in 100 cc. of air i.e. the percentage\\nof oxygen in air.\\n31. Other Substances in the Air. When a gas called\\ncarbon dioxid is passed through lime water the latter be-\\ncomes cloudy because a white solid (a precipitate) is formed.\\nThis is the test for carbon dioxid.\\nExperiment XXIX. 1. Take 20 or 30 cc. of lime water in your\\ntest bottle. Blow through a glass tube in such a way that the exhaled\\nair bubbles through the lime water. Does the lime water become\\ncloudy or does it remain clear What does this experiment prove\\nregarding air exhaled from the lungs\\n2. Force air from a bellows through lime water. What inference\\ndo you draw from this experiment\\nCarbon dioxid was absorbed with the oxygen in Experi-\\nment 28, but the amount is so small (about of one per\\ncent) that it may be disregarded.\\nDoes water vapor exist in the air To answer this ques-\\ntion, think of the moisture which collects on the outside of\\nan ice pitcher in summer. What is dew What is frost\\nThe gas which remains in the apparatus after absorbing the\\noxygen and carbon dioxid (Experiments 28 and 31) is nearly\\npure nitrogen. Nitrogen is fully discussed in Chapter VI.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "24 CHEMISTRY\\nARGON\\nSymbol A. Atomic Weight 19.9\\n32. Some years ago Lord Rayleigh proved that nitrogen\\nobtained by removing the oxygen from the air was invariably\\ndenser than that obtained from chemical compounds. He\\nundertook to determine the cause of this difference, and in\\nconjunction with Professor Ramsay found that this greater\\ndensity was due to the presence of an unknown gas, which\\nthey succeeded in isolating and to which they gave the name\\nArgon. Their discovery was announced January 27, 1895.\\nArgon is a gas forming part of the air it is also\\nfound among the occluded* gases in some specimens\\nof meteoric iron. As indicated by its name, argon is the\\nmost inert element it has thus far resisted all attempts\\nto get it to combine with other elements. Its chief char-\\nacteristic, therefore, is its glorious uselessness. It is\\nsparingly soluble in water, boils at 187\u00c2\u00b0 C. and freezes at\\n189\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\nSince the discovery of argon several other new elements\\nhave been found in the air, with properties quite similar to\\nthose of argon.\\n33. Air as a Mixture. Air is believed to be a mechanical\\nmixture of nitrogen and oxygen, and not a chemical com-\\npound, for the following reasons\\n1. Air contains approximately 79 of nitrogen and 21\\nof oxygen. This is not in accordance with the law of\\nmultiple proportions.\\n2. If nitrogen and oxygen be mixed in the above propor-\\ntions the mixture possesses all the properties of air, but is\\nnot accompanied by any phenomena which indicate chemi-\\nDefine term.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY OF THE AIR 25\\ncal action. Whenever chemical union takes place, there is\\nsome change in the temperature of the substance; when\\nnitrogen and oxygen are mixed as above described there is\\nno change in the temperature.\\n3. The law of definite proportion states that the compo-\\nsition of a given chemical substance is invariable; that of\\nair varies slightly.\\n4. Air is somewhat soluble in water, but each gas is\\ndissolved independently.\\nIf we shake up air and water in a bottle some of the air\\nwill be dissolved; if we boil this saturated water the air\\nwhich escapes can be collected and analyzed. This has\\noften been done, and it has been found to contain a larger\\nproportion of oxygen than the original atmospheric air.\\nThus\\nAtmospheric\\nDissolved\\nN\\n79.04\\n66.36\\n20.96\\n33.64\\nThis change in the proportion could not occur if the air\\nwas a compound, for a compound is dissolved as a whole.\\nThe above numbers exactly agree with the solubilities of\\noxygen and nitrogen separately.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Describe the effects of the partial and of the total exclusion of\\nair from a flame.\\n2. State how the effect of air on iron at high temperatures differs\\nfrom the effect of air on iron at ordinary temperatures.\\n3. Describe a chemical method of protecting iron from the action\\nof the air.\\n4. How does the weight of the products of the combustion com-\\npare with the amount lost by the candle Why\\n5. Does the weight of the scale which flies from the blacksmith s\\nhot iron equal the weight lost by the iron Why\\n6. Has air a chemical formula", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "I\\n26 CHEMISTRY\\n7. Is the air a mixture or a compound Describe an experiment\\nto prove the correctness of your answer. Give reasons for your\\nanswer.\\n8. Describe the Bower-Barff process of protecting iron.\\n9. Give an account of the discovery of argon. State the prop-\\nerties of argon and its occurrence in nature.\\n10. Explain the effect of excluding air from a flame. Mention\\nsome practical appliance whose efficiency depends on the principle\\ninvolved.\\n11. What is the scale which accumulates about the blacksmith s\\nanvil?", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV\\nOXYGEN\\nSymbol O. Atomic Weight 16\\n34. Occurrence. Oxygen is the most abundant of all the\\nelements, comprising by weight A of the air, of the water,\\nof all the animal bodies, and about -J of the crust of the\\nearth.\\nThe word oxygen means acid-former, but it is a mis-\\nnomer. Chemists supposed that it was present in all acids\\nwhen the name was given.\\n35. Preparation. Oxygen may be easily obtained by\\nheating potassium chlorate.\\nCautiox. The following precautions must be observed\\n1. The chemicals must be free from impurities which might cause\\nan explosion. If a small quantity of the mixture when heated in a\\ndry test tube melts quietly, the mixture may be considered safe.\\n2. The ignition tube must be inclined.\\n8. It must not be more than one-third full.\\n4. The upper part of the mixture in the tube should be heated first.\\n5. The heat must be so regulated that an even and not too rapid\\nflow of the gas may be secured. It may be necessary to withdraw\\nthe flame and replace it when the gas slackens.\\nExperiment XXX (Two students will work together.) 1. Arrange\\nthe apparatus as in Experiment 25. Mix equal weights of manganese\\ndioxid and potassium chlorate, and heat about ten grammes of the\\nmixture in a test tube. Collect four bottles of the gas evolved over\\nwater.\\n2. Place the bottles on the table, mouth upwards, covering them\\nwith a glass plate. What is the color of the gas Odor Taste\\nIs it soluble in water The slight cloud which appears in the bottle\\n27", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "28 CHEMISTRY\\nat first is due to a substance which is not oxygen. After a while this\\ndisappears and oxygen remains.\\n3. Drop a piece of charcoal, obtained by charring the end of a\\nmatch stick, in the first bottle. In another lower a deflagrating spoon\\ncontaining a little sulfur.\\n4. In the third drop a piece of phosphorus about the size of a\\npea. (Care Let them stand quietly and observe what changes, if\\nany, take place. Does oxygen at ordinary temperatures act readily\\non these substances\\nNow thrust a piece of red-hot charcoal (a glowing match stick)\\ninto the first bottle. Note difference in action.\\n6. Remove the deflagrating spoon from the second bottle set fire\\nto the sulfur. Notice whether it burns with ease or with difficulty.\\nDoes the sulfur burn more readily in the oxygen than in the air\\n7. Remove the phosphorus from the third bottle place it in the\\ndeflagrating spoon, ignite, and quickly lower it into the bottle again.\\nDescribe the action. How does the action of oxygen on these sub-\\nstances at high temperatures compare with the action on the same\\nsubstances when cold Does either substance burn as vigorously in\\nair ^s in oxygen\\nReaction 2 KC10 3 MnO a 2 KC1 Mn0 2 3 Og.\\nThe Test for Oxygen. Thrust a glowing splinter of wood into one\\nof the bottles. What occurs\\nNote. \u00e2\u0080\u0094No substance but oxygen can cause a spark to burst into\\nflame. How can you determine whether a bottle contains oxygen or\\nnot?\\n36. Physical Properties. Pure oxygen is colorless, odor-\\nless, and tasteless; it is heavier than air. What are its\\nother physical properties? It is only sparingly soluble,\\nwater dissolving only 3% of it. Oxygen may be liquefied\\nat \u00e2\u0080\u0094118\u00c2\u00b0 C. by a pressure of fifty atmospheres. The liquid\\nhas a pale steel-blue color, and boils at \u00e2\u0080\u0094181\u00c2\u00b0 C. under\\nordinary pressure.\\n37. Chemical Properties. Oxygen combines with every\\nknown substance except fluorin, and is characterized by\\ngreat chemical activity. It is the great supporter of com-", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "OXYGEN 29\\nbustion. If both the oxygen and a combustible substance\\nbe absolutely dry, it has been shown that they will not\\ncombine. No satisfactory explanation of this fact has\\nbeen offered. Oxygen is the only element capable of sup-\\nporting respiration. Fish breathe the dissolved oxygen in\\nwater.\\n38. Uses. Oxygen is necessary to animal respiration,\\nto ordinary combustion, fermentation, and decay. It is\\nused in the arts to increase the intensity of combustion,\\nand is also used in medicine.\\n39. Burning in Air.\\nExperiment XXXI. 1. Pour 10 cc. of lime water into a bottle\\ncontaining air, shake the bottle, note the effect on the lime water now,\\nnsing a short piece of wire as a handle, lower a burning match into\\nthe bottle when it has gone out cover with the hand and shake the\\nbottle note the changed appearance of the lime water. A milky-\\nappearance proves the presence of carbon dioxid.\\n2. Repeat the experiment using a bottle of oxygen.\\nWhen sulfur burns in air a gas having the characteristic odor of\\nburning matches is formed.\\n3. Determine whether the gas formed when sulfur is burned in\\noxygen is the same that is formed when it burns in air, by burning\\nsulfur in a bottle containing air and in one containing oxygen, and\\ncompare the odors of the gases formed. Discuss the relation between\\ncombustion in air and in oxygen.\\nThe difference in activity is due entirely to the fact that\\nin air oxygen is diluted with another gas which does not\\nsupport combustion.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Describe the preparation of oxygen from potassium chlorate.\\nMention precautions to be observed.\\n2. What is the office of manganese dioxid in the above process\\n3. What are the tests for oxygen", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "30 CHEMISTRY\\n4. Compare the action of oxygen on charcoal at ordinary tem-\\nperatures with its action at high temperatures.\\n5. Compare the product obtained by burning charcoal in oxygen\\nwith the product obtained by burning it in air.\\n6. Compare the action of oxygen on phosphorus at ordinary tem-\\nperatures with its action at high temperatures.\\n7. What can you say of the products of combustion in air and in\\noxygen\\n8. Discuss the occurrence of oxygen in nature.\\n9. State the physical properties of oxygen the chemical prop-\\nerties.\\n10. Does oxygen occur uncombined in nature\\n11. Mention several compounds containing oxygen which occur\\nin nature.\\n12. Does oxygen display greater energy at high temperatures than\\nat low temperatures", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V\\nCOMBUSTION\\n40. Ordinary Combustion. In its broadest sense, the term\\ncombustion is applied to all cases of chemical action which\\nare accompanied by an evolution of heat and light. In the\\nmajority of cases, however, oxygen is one of the elements\\nconcerned in combustion, and because of the rarity of the\\nexceptions, the term is sometimes defined as the union of a\\nsubstance with oxygen, accompanied by the evolution of\\nheat and light and the classification of substances as com-\\nbustible and incombustible depends upon this definition of\\nthe term. Thus a combustible substance is one which unites\\nwith oxygen with evolution of light and heat, and an\\nincombustible substance is one which cannot unite with\\noxygen.\\nMany substances are products of combustion thus water\\nis composed of hydrogen and oxygen, and carbon dioxid of\\ncarbon and oxygen. In these compounds the hydrogen and\\nthe carbon have already combined with oxygen, and cannot\\ndirectly combine with more.\\n41. Kindling Temperature. A wise provision of nature\\nmakes it necessary to raise the temperature of substances\\nslightly above that which ordinarily obtains, to cause them\\nto combine rapidly with oxygen. If this were not true we\\nshould have no fuels. Substances differ widely in the tem-\\nperature to which they must be raised to cause them to\\ncombine with oxygen, but for each combustible substance\\n31", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "32 CHEMISTRY\\nthere is a definite temperature at which it combines with\\noxygen with sufficient energy to develop heat and light, and\\nthis is called the kindling temperature.\\nIf the kindling temperature of a substance is below the\\nordinary temperature, it will take fire when it comes in\\ncontact with the air, and must, therefore, be kept out of\\ncontact with the air. Such substances are said to be spon-\\ntaneously inflammable. Several substances have kindling\\ntemperatures below a red heat, e.g. the gaseous hydrogen\\nphosphid may be ignited with a test tube containing boiling\\nwater, and the vapor of carbon disulfid may be ignited with\\na glass rod heated to 120\u00c2\u00b0. Most solid fuels require a tem-\\nperature slightly above redness, while the diamond must be\\nraised to nearly a white heat before combustion begins. In\\nstarting a fire we take advantage of differences in the\\nkindling temperatures of substances. For example, paper\\nis easily ignited, but the heat which it develops cannot\\nignite the anthracite hence we often put charcoal between\\nthe paper and the coal, as paper can ignite the charcoal.\\nThe use of a coating of sulfur or paraffin on matches, to\\nenable the phosphorus to ignite the wood, is another in-\\nstance of the use of a substance having an intermediate\\nkindling temperature.\\nThe temperature produced by the combustion of a sub-\\nstance is not necessarily the same as its kindling tempera-\\nture. In all cases of ordinary combustion the temperature\\nproduced is higher than the kindling temperature of the\\nsubstance; burning particles thus raise adjoining particles\\nto the kindling temperature, and the burning continues\\nwithout further application of heat when once started.\\nThere are, however, numbers of cases in which the com-\\nbustion cannot proceed without the continuous application\\nof heat. The heat of the electric spark ignites nitrogen,", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "COMBUSTION 33\\nbut the heat developed does not kindle the adjacent par-\\nticles.\\nThe facility with which a combustible substance may be\\nignited depends upon the quantity of heat, i.e. upon the\\nnumber of heat units required to raise it to its kindling\\ntemperature. But, as we learn in physics, the temperature\\nto which a substance is to be raised is only one of four\\nquantities which determine the number of heat units re-\\nquired the other three being the specific heat of the sub-\\nstances, its mass, and the number of heat units lost by\\nconduction and radiation.\\nThe amount of carbon to be kindled in a given stove\\ndepends upon the specific gravity and the porosity of the\\nfuel; for example, charcoal, gas coke and anthracite coal\\nare each of them nearly pure carbon, but they require very\\ndifferent amounts of kindling to ignite them. The specific\\ngravity of the solid portions of these fuels are as follows\\nPine charcoal 40\\nGas coke 86\\nAnthracite 1.60\\nwhile the cell space or porosity expressed in cubic centi-\\nmetres in 100 grammes of the fuel is as follows\\nPine charcoal 200.4\\nGas coke 60.\\nAnthracite 3.6\\nWe thus see why charcoal requires comparatively little\\nkindling to ignite it, although its kindling temperature is\\nthe same as the others.\\nThe amount of heat lost by conduction has an important\\nbearing on the amount of kindling required to build a fire.\\nIf the fuel is a good conductor of heat, it will be diffused\\nthroughout the mass, and such fuels are more readily", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "34 CHEMISTRY\\nignited if they are in small pieces, e.g. shavings are easier\\nto ignite than a block of the same kind of wood.\\nExperiment XXXII. Hold the laboratory burner horizontally\\nover a sheet of white paper. Sprinkle some fine iron filings through\\nthe flame. What occurs Pick up a few of the larger pieces on the\\npaper and drop them througli the flame again. What particles are\\nraised to incandescence Why\\nMasses of metal in contact with the fuel often occasion\\nconsiderable loss of heat by conduction. This action is\\nnicely illustrated in the following experiment.\\nExperiment XXXIII. Light a candle, bring a piece of wire gauze\\nslowly down on the flame until it touches the wick. What occurs\\nNote the conditions above and below the gauze. Hold a lighted match\\nabove the gauze. What occurs Explain. To what extent is the gauze\\nheated The Davy safety lamp used by miners illustrates this action.\\n42. Heat of Combustion. It must be clearly understood\\nthat the light produced by combustion is due to the fact\\nthat the chemical action develops heat more rapidly than it\\ncan escape, thus raising the body to incandescence. There\\nare many cases of oxidation, however, which take place\\nslowly, or in which the substance is so situated that the\\nheat is conducted away as fast as developed and in which a\\nhigh temperature is not reached. The most important illus-\\ntration of this action is the oxidation occurring within our\\nbodies, which supplies the heat necessary to our existence.\\nOther illustrations are found in the heat developed in com-\\npost heaps, in hotbeds, in the decay of wood, in cases of\\nspontaneous combustion, and in the rusting of iron.\\nThe higher temperature acquired by a substance when it\\nburns is readily accounted for by the difference in the rate\\nat which it combines with oxygen. When two substances,\\nsuch as carbon and oxygen, combine, their chemical affinity\\ncauses the atoms to rush toward each other, and the col-", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "COMBUSTION 35\\nlision which, ensues increases their rate of vibration; that\\nis to say, it develops heat. The amount of heat developed\\nby the collision which forms a single molecule depends upon\\nthe magnitude of the attractive force and not upon the rate\\nat which similar molecules are formed it follows, there-\\nfore, that the oxidation of a given mass of a substance will\\ndevelop exactly the same amount of heat when it burns that\\nwould have been developed if it had been oxidized slowly.\\n43. Chemical Energy. All cases of direct chemical com-\\nbination are due to attractions between unlike atoms; and\\nwhether the attraction be great or small, the collison of the\\natoms will develop heat. When molecules consisting of more\\nthan one atom act upon each other, the force which holds\\nthe atoms together in the original molecules must be over-\\ncome before a chemical change can occur; and the amount of\\nheat developed in any reaction will accordingly depend upon\\nthe magnitude of the attractions of the atoms of the factors,\\nas compared with the value of the attractions of atoms of\\nthe products. If the latter exceed the former, a chemical\\nchange will occur, accompanied by an evolution of heat.\\nChemical changes which evolve heat are known as ex-\\nothermic changes, and those compounds which are formed\\nfrom their elements by such changes are known as ex-\\notliermic substances. Such substances are very stable, and\\nwhen they are separated into their original elements the\\nsame quantity of heat that was evolved when they were\\nformed disappears, or more exactly, is transformed into\\nchemical potential energy. The formation of a much\\nsmaller class of substances is accompanied by the dis-\\nappearance of heat; these are known as endothermic\\nbodies, and when they are decomposed heat is evolved.\\nThey are usually unstable and often very explosive. All", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "36 CHEMISTRY\\nendothermic substances possess chemical energy and can do\\nwork that is to say, a substance which can combine with\\nother substances without the aid of external energy possesses\\nchemical energy. Much of the mechanical energy of the\\nworld is derived from endothermic substances, e.g. the fuels.\\nThe decomposition of carbon dioxid in the plant is an\\nendothermic reaction in which the energy of the sunlight\\ndisappears. The carbon thus formed is stored up and may\\nbe again oxidized. For this reason the energy derived from\\nwood and coal is sometimes spoken of as stored sunlight.\\n44. Nomenclature of the Oxids. The simplest chemical\\ncompounds are those composed of two elements only they\\nare known as binary compounds. Many binary compounds\\nend with the letters id; but this rule cannot be depended\\nupon in all instances.\\nBinary compounds of oxygen are called oxids they are\\nvery numerous e.g. oxygen forms five distinct compounds\\nwith nitrogen.\\nWhen there are two oxids of the same element it is quite\\ncommon to distinguish them by adding the suffix ic to the\\nname of the element to denote the oxid having the greater\\namount of oxygen, and the suffix ous to the name of the\\nelement to denote the oxid having the smaller proportion of\\noxygen. Thus, mercuric oxid has a larger percentage of\\noxygen than mercurous oxid, and nitric oxid a larger per-\\ncentage than nitrous oxid.\\nIf there are more than two oxids of the same element,\\nprefixes are often used. Thus a peroxid contains a larger\\npercentage of oxygen than the oxid to which the suffix ic is\\napplied. Nitrogen peroxid, which contains a larger propor-\\ntion of oxygen than nitric oxid, illustrates this usage.\\nA more scientific and simpler method of naming oxids", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "COMBUSTION 37\\nhas been suggested, and is quite generally used. Accord-\\ning to this plan the first part of the name of the oxid con-\\nsists of the name of the element oxidized, and the second\\npart of the name indicates the number of atoms of oxygen\\nwhich the oxid contains, by the use of certain prefixes de-\\nrived from the Greek. Oxids containing one atom of\\noxygen are called monoxids, e.g. carbon monoxid; those\\ncontaining two atoms dioxids, e.g. carbon dioxid those con-\\ntaining three atoms, trioxids, e.g. sulfur trioxid, etc.\\n45. Oxids in Nature. Water, or hydric oxid is the most\\nabundant oxid in nature, and sand (silicon dioxid) is next.\\nThe ores of some of the most important metals are oxids,\\ne.g. the red iron ore so common in this country is a com-\\npound of iron and oxygen, the molecule of which contains\\ntwo atoms of iron and three of oxygen and black iron ore,\\nor lode stone, contains three atoms of iron and four of\\noxygen in its molecule. Many other ores are oxids, e.g.\\nthose of tin, manganese, etc.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. How do substances formed by burning in air compare with\\nthose formed by burning in oxygen\\n2. Why is not combustion as rapid in air as in oxygen\\n3. Define combustion. What are combustible substances\\n4. Define kindling temperature. Which has the highest kindling\\ntemperature, sulfur, carbon, or phosphorus\\n5. Mention examples of slow oxidation. How does slow oxida-\\ntion differ from combustion\\n6. Compare the amount of heat given off during slow oxidation\\nand combustion.\\n7. What is meant by chemical energy What substances possess\\nit What substances do not possess it\\n8. From what source is the mechanical energy of wood derived\\nExplain.\\n9. What are oxids and how are they named What do the ter-\\nminations ic and ous indicate?", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "38 CHEMISTRY\\n10. What important oxids occur in nature Why are they so\\nabundant\\n11. Give evidences that a part of the air combines with the fuel in\\ncombustion.\\n12. Describe an experiment to show the relation of the weight of\\nthe products of a burning candle to the weight of the portion of the\\ncandle consumed.\\n13. How is combustion related to or distinguished from chemical\\naction in general\\n14. Mention conditions that favor combustion and chemical action\\nin general.\\n15. Mention a condition favoring some chemical action but not\\ncombustion.\\n16. What is meant by kindling temperature Explain the theory\\nof shaving wood for use in starting a fire of the same kind of wood.\\n17. How does the chemical energy of the combustion of hydrogen\\ncompare with that of the combustion of other elements Why\\n18. Why is a fire of seasoned wood hotter than a fire of green\\nwood\\n19. Explain the use of sulfur in making the common friction\\nmatch.\\n20. Why is a wood fire easily started with wood shavings\\n21. Upon what does the temperature reached by combustion of a\\ngiven quantity of fuel depend\\n22. Mention five oxids occurring abundantly in nature.\\n23. Mention several substances which are acted upon by oxygen at\\nordinary temperatures.\\n24. Explain the effect of fine wire gauze when lowered over the\\nflame of a lamp. Mention an important practical application of the\\nprinciple involved.\\n25. Compare the kindling temperature of hydrogen with that of\\ncarbon. What bearing has their relative kindling temperature on the\\nproduction of light by illuminating gas?\\n26. Explain the phenomenon of spontaneous combustion.\\n27. What would occur if the temperature developed by the com-\\nbustion of nitrogen were higher than its kindling temperature t", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI\\nNITROGEN\\nSymbol N. Atomic Weight 14\\n46. Occurrence. Xitrogen forms 4 of the bulk of the\\nair. It is found in combination in a large number of sub-\\nstances, e.g. in saltpetre or potassium nitrate, KN0 3 and\\nChili saltpetre, XaX0 3 It also occurs abundantly in am-\\nmonia, nitric acid, flesh, and other animal substances. Its\\ncompounds give to burned hair and woollens their peculiar\\nodor. Many vegetable substances contain nitrogen, as cab-\\nbage, mushroom, horse-radish, and it is an essential con-\\nstituent of quinine, morphine, prussic acid, and strychnin.\\nIt forms a part of nearly all explosives, as nitroglycerin,\\ngunpowder, etc.\\n47. Preparation. Nitrogen may be prepared by removing\\nthe oxygen from the air. Any method which burns up the\\noxygen of the air and forms solid or liquid products, yields\\nnitrogen which is reasonably pure. If any of the products\\nare gaseous they will be mixed with the nitrogen, which\\nwill therefore be impure.\\nFirst Method. Introduce a jet of burning hydrogen into\\na bottle of air. After the flame is extinguished there will\\nremain in the bottle, nitrogen and the product of the com-\\nbustion of hydrogen H 2 0.\\n39", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "40 CHEMISTRY\\nSecond Method. Phosphorus burns in the air forming\\nphosphorus pentoxid, P 2 5 a flaky white substance which is\\nsoluble in water.\\nExperiment XXXIV. (See Experiment 28.) \u00e2\u0080\u0094Support a piece of\\nchalk over water in the water pan by means of a wire standard.\\nMake a hollow in the chalk, place a piece of dry phosphorus about the\\nsize of a pea in it. Ignite the phosphorus, quickly cover it with the\\nlarge bottle so that the mouth of the bottle is under water. What\\nchemical change takes place Notice any change in the volume of\\nthe air. Explain. Does all the air support combustion Take the\\nbottle from the water pan (do not allow the water to escape) and\\nshake it. What is the result? Does the white cloud which at first\\nfilled the bottle remain Test the gas with a lighted taper. Is it\\ncombustible Is it poisonous State its physical properties.\\nThird Method. If air be passed through a tube contain-\\ning heated copper filings, the oxygen combines with the\\ncopper, forming copper oxid, and nitrogen may be col-\\nlected. Nitrogen prepared from the air will contain the J\\nimpurities which exist in the air. Pure nitrogen may be\\nprepared as follows\\nFomih Method. Heat ammonium nitrite and collect\\nevolved gas over water.\\nXIT 4 X0 2 2H 2 2K\\nOn account of the unstable character of ammonium\\nnitrite, it is difficult to keep a supply on hand in practioJ\\ntherefore, a mixture of ammonium chlorid and sodium\\nnitrite is usually substituted for the ammonium nitrite.\\nWhen this mixture is heatcil the reaction proceeds accord-\\ning to the following equation:\\nNH4CI XaX Na 1+2 H 2 X,.\\nThis method supplies tin- puresl nitrogen.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "NITROGEN 41\\n48. Physical Properties. The last experiment taught us\\ncertain physical properties of nitrogen; mention them.\\nThe following additional physical properties not easily\\nshown experimentally are worthy of consideration. It is\\nsparingly soluble in water, only 1.6 being dissolved at\\n10\u00c2\u00b0 C. It may be liquefied at 193\u00c2\u00b0 under pressure of one\\natmosphere. It is slightly lighter than air.\\n49. Chemical Properties. Nitrogen combines directly\\nwith very few elements, and combination with these ele-\\nments is effected with difficulty. By indirect methods it\\ncan be made to combine with hydrogen, and with hydrogen\\nand oxygen. Its chemical affinities are exceedingly feeble,\\nand the compounds which it forms are very unstable.\\nGunpowder, nitroglycerin, and many other explosives are\\nnitrogen compounds, and owe their characteristic properties\\nto the ease with which they are decomposed. The rapid\\ndecay of animal and vegetable substances which contain\\nnitrogen is a further illustration of the unstable character\\nof nitrogen compounds.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. State the physical properties of nitrogen.\\n2. State its chemical properties, activity, combustibility, relation\\nto explosives, relation to decay. Is it poisonous\\n3. What proportion of the air is nitrogen How is this shown\\n4. Describe an experiment for obtaining nitrogen by the use of\\nphosphorus. Give the name and formula of the fumes formed, and\\naccount for their disappearance.\\n5. Compare oxygen with nitrogen with respect to (a) chemical\\nactivity, (6) occurrence, (c) number of compounds, (c?) relation to\\ncombustion and life, and (e) physical properties.\\n6. Why is nitrogen an important constituent of most explosives\\n7. What are nitrogeneous foods", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII\\nHYDROGEN\\nSymbol H. Atomic Weight 1\\n50. Occurrence. Hydrogen is never found uncoinbined\\nin nature its compounds, however, are widely distributed.\\nIt forms i of the weight of water, and occurs in all\\nanimal and vegetable matter. It is the only substance\\ncommon to all acids.\\n51. Preparation by the Action of an Acid on a Metal.\\nExperiment XXXV. 1. Put a few pieces of granulated zinc in\\nthe test bottle. Cover them with dilute hydrochloric acid. What\\noccurs\\n2. After a minute or two hold a lighted match over the bottle.\\nWhat occurs\\n3. Put a few pieces of zinc in your generating bottle. In one hole\\nin the rubber stopper pul a straight glass tube long enough to reach to\\nthe bottom of the bottle in the other fit a bent tube with a delivery\\ntube attached. Pour enough dilute sulfuric acid into the bottle to\\ncover the zinc. Collect the gas over water.\\n42", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "HYDROGEN 43\\nCaution. The gas is explosive when mixed with air when pure,\\nit burns quietly. To determine when all the air which filled the\\nbottle at the beginning of the experiment is driven off, collect a small\\nbottle of gas when full, raise it from the water, mouth .downward,\\nand apply a match. If the first bottle of gas explodes, repeat until a\\nbottle of gas is obtained which burns quietly.\\n4. Collect three bottles of pure gas.\\n5. Place the first bottle, mouth upward and uncovered, on the\\ntable. After a few minutes, test it, to see whether or not it contains\\nhydrogen. Is hydrogen lighter or heavier than air\\n6. Pour the hydrogen in the second bottle upward into an inverted\\nbottle containing air. Test each bottle with a match. Is there any\\nhydrogen in the inverted bottle In the other bottle\\n7. Light a candle with a wire attached for a handle. Hold the\\nthird bottle mouth downward and thrust the lighted candle well into\\nthe bottle. What occurs What burns Does the candle burn\\nWithdraw the candle slowly. Is it alight Why Put it back into\\nthe hydrogen. Does hydrogen support combustion Is the mouth\\nof the bottle heated\\nExperiment XXXVI. The Philosopher 1 s Lamp. (Optional.)\\nRemove the delivery tube and substitute for it a tube drawn out to\\na fine point. If you are sure that the gas is pure, i.e. if you have not\\ntaken the stopper out of the generating bottle since testing the gas,\\nlight the gas at the end of the pointed tube. Hold a cold dry bottle\\nover the flame. What do you see in the bottle Where did it come\\nfrom (Chemical examination proves it to be pure water. What is\\nthe product of the combustion of hydrogen\\nHydrogen may be prepared by several other processes\\nfor example, by decomposing water by electricity (Experi-\\nment 40) by decomposing water by metals at ordinary tem-\\nperatures (Experiment 42) by passing steam over heated\\nmetals (Art. 72, etc.).\\nThe following equations represent chemical changes in\\nthe preparation of hydrogen by the action of an acid on a\\nmetal\\nZn 2 HC1 ZnCl 3 2 H.", "height": "3680", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "44 CHEMISTRY\\nThis is the reaction when hydrochloric acid is used. If\\nsulfuric acid is used, the following equation expresses the\\nreaction\\nZn H 2 S0 4 ZnS0 4 2 H.\\n52. Physical Properties. Pure hydrogen is odorless, and\\nis the lightest known substance one litre of it at ordinary\\npressure weighing .08950 gramme. It may be liquefied\\nby extreme cold and pressure, but is more difficult to\\nliquefy than any other gas. It diffuses more rapidly than\\nany other gas. Water dissolves only 2% of hydrogen.\\n53. Chemical Properties. In its chemical affinities hydro-\\ngen closely resembles a metal; it has a strong affinity for\\noxygen, chlorin, and a few other elements, and the com-\\npounds which it forms with carbon indirectly are very\\nnumerous it is, however, very difficult to get it to combine\\ndirectly with carbon.\\n54. Comparison of Physical and Chemical Properties of\\nHydrogen and Oxygen. Hydrogen will burn oxygen sup-\\nports combustion. Hydrogen has affinity for few sub-\\nstances oxygen for many. Hydrogen is the lightest known\\nsubstance. Oxygen combines readily with carbon, sulfur,\\nphosphorus, and iron. It is difficult to get any of these\\nelements to combine with hydrogen. The two elements\\nhave opposite chemical properties; yet in their physical\\nproperties they resemble each other.\\n55. Uses. On account of its great affinity for oxygen,\\nhydrogen is extensively used for the purpose of extracting\\noxygen from compounds containing it, i.e. as a reducing\\nagent.\\n56. Heat and Chemical Energy of the Combustion of Hydro-\\ngen. The chemical affinity of hydrogen for oxygen is", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "HYDROGEN 45\\ngreater than that of any other known substance. The heat\\nproduced by the combustion of hydrogen is therefore greater\\nthan that of any other substance. One pound of hydrogen\\nin burning gives off 34,400 heat units that is, it develops\\nenough heat to raise 34,400 pounds of water from 0\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\nto 1\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\nThe oxyhydrogen blowpipe consists of a tube H (Fig. 5),\\nthrough which hydrogen flows, and at the end of which\\nit is ignited. In the centre of this is a smaller tube\\nthrough which a stream of oxygen is forced into the flame.\\nThe flame produced gives very little light, but its tem-\\nperature is between 2000 and 2200\u00c2\u00b0 C. it is, therefore, used\\nin working platinum and other metals fused with difficulty.\\nA piece of lime held in the flame is heated to incandes-\\ncence, and emits a bright light equivalent to about 120\\nstandard candles. This device is known as the calcium\\nlight.\\nExperiment XXXVII. Take notes on the effect of the oxy-\\nhydrogen blowpipe flame upon bits of lead, zinc, copper, steel, iron,\\nglass, and calcium oxid.\\n57. Burning of Oxygen or Air in Hydrogen. If a jet of\\noxygen or air be introduced into a vessel containing hydro-\\ngen, the oxygen or air may be ignited and will burn as\\nreadily as hydrogen burns in oxygen or in air.\\nIf a stream of hydrogen be passed through the tube H\\n(Fig. 6), and ignited at the bottom of the bottle, a jet of", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "46 CHEMISTRY\\nair introduced through the hydrogen flame will burn with\\na flame of the same character as that produced when\\nhydrogen burns in air.\\n58. Product of this Combustion. The combustion of\\nhydrogen must form an oxid of hydrogen. Water is an\\noxid of hydrogen, and analysis of the moisture condensed\\non any cold object held over the hydrogen flame, proves\\nthat water is the product.\\nH\\nAIR OR OXYGEN\\n59. Formation of this Substance in Ordinary Combustion.\\nNearly all fuels contain hydrogen, and therefore form more\\nor less water when they burn this can be shown by hold-\\ning a cold object over the flame. Moisture can thus be\\ncondensed over burning oil, wood, coal, gas, etc. When\\noxygen combines with the waste products of the body\\nin the lungs, the hydrogen of the products is turned into\\nwater; thus the well-known cloud formed by the breath\\nin cold weather is this moisture rendered visible by con-\\ndensation. This may be easily shown by breathing upon\\nany cold dry object.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Explain the cause of the moisture which appears on a lamp\\nchimney when the lamp is lighted.\\n2. Why ilces this film disappear?\\n3. If water is a product of combustion, why does it not extinguish\\nthe lire?", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "HYDROGEN 47\\n4. State the symbol, atomic weight, and occurrence of hydrogen.\\n5. Describe the process of preparing hydrogen from zinc and\\nhydrochloric acid. Write the reaction.\\n6. Discuss the physical and chemical properties of hydrogen.\\n7. Describe the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. For what is it used\\n8. Show how a jet of air may be burned in hydrogen.\\n9. What does the moisture which gathers on a cold object held\\nover a lighted kerosene lamp indicate as to the composition of the\\nkerosene oil\\n10. Discuss the heat and chemical energy of the combustion of\\nhydrogen.\\n11. State the color and odor of the gas prepared in Experiment 35.\\n12. Is hydrogen explosive Under what conditions\\n13. Does hydrogen combine with oxygen at ordinary temperatures\\nat high temperatures\\n14. Describe the hydrogen flame as to color, (6) amount of\\nheat, (c) amount of light.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII\\nCHEMISTRY OF WATER\\nFormula H 2 0. Molecular Weight 18\\n60. Occurrence of Water in Nature. Three-fourths of the\\nearth s surface is covered with water. It exists in the\\natmosphere, in all vegetable and animal matter, in the soil,\\nand even in the rocks.\\nExperiment XXX VIII. Heat a small piece of alum in a test tube.\\nNote evidence that it contains water. Is the loss of water accompa-\\nnied by a change in the crystal Explain. Kepeat the experiment,\\nusing pieces of gypsum, meat, potato, etc.\\n61. Properties of Water. At ordinary temperatures pure\\nwater is a tasteless, odorless, transparent fluid, colorless in\\nthin layers, but distinctly blue when viewed in large masses.\\nAt its greatest density water is 773 times heavier than air.\\nMany of the properties of water are used as standards by\\nmeans of which we may express the corresponding proper-\\nties of other substances. The specific gravity of all solids\\nand liquids expresses the relation between the weight of the\\nsubstances and the weight of a like volume of water.\\nThe specific heat of all substances is similarly based upon\\nthat of water. In the metric system the unit of weight is\\nthe weight of a cubic centimetre of water, and the melting\\nand boiling points of water are the standard temperatures\\nused in the manufacture of thermometers.\\n62. Solution. Water dissolves a greater number of solid,\\nliquid, and aeriform substances than any other solvent.\\n48", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY OF WATER 49\\nThe adhesion between the molecules of the dissolved sub-\\nstance and those of water overcomes the cohesion of the\\nsubstance dissolved, and it diffuses through the mass of\\nwater, forming a transparent solution in which the dissolved\\nsubstance is invisible. Strongly colored substances, how-\\never, impart their characteristic color to the solution. There\\nis a limit to the amount of a substance which a solvent can\\ndissolve at a given temperature and pressure, and a solution\\nwhich contains all of a substance which it can dissolve is\\nsaid to be saturated.\\nWe can now understand why solution aids chemical\\naction. The molecules are no longer held firmly together\\nby cohesion; they are free to move, and are thus easily\\nbrought into the intimate contact necessary to chemical\\naction by their chemical affinities.\\nIf sugar is dissolved in water the solution seems to be\\nsimply a mechanical mixture there is no evidence that a\\nchemical change has taken place; and if the solution is\\nevaporated the sugar is recovered unchanged. This, there-\\nfore, is a physical solution.\\nIn Experiment 9, marble was dissolved in hydrochloric\\nacid and a chemical change was proven. Such solutions\\nare called chemical solutions.\\n63. The Effect of Heat on the Solution of Solids and Gases.\\nPhysics teaches us that whenever a solid changes to the\\nliquid form a certain quantity of heat is rendered latent.\\nHot water can supply this heat more readily than cold, and\\ntherefore solids are more rapidly dissolved by hot than by\\ncold water. Furthermore, a larger quantity of most solids\\nis dissolved by hot water than by cold. At high tempera-\\ntures the cohesion of the molecules of a solid is less than at\\nlow temperatures, therefore there is less force to overcome", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "50 CHEMISTRY\\nin dissolving it. As the Avater cools, latent heat is with-\\ndrawn from a certain quantity of the dissolved substance,\\ncausing it to assume a solid state.\\nWhen a gas is dissolved in a liquid its latent heat must\\nbe absorbed, but a cold liquid can absorb heat more rapidly\\nthan a warm one, and therefore a gas is more rapidly dis-\\nsolved in a cold liquid than in a warm one. As the tem-\\nperature of a solution of a gas is raised, a portion of the heat\\nis used to change the state of the dissolved gas and a por-\\ntion is liberated in gaseous forms.\\n64. Water of Crystallization. Experiment 38 taught us\\nthat crystalline alum contained water, and that the alum lost\\nits geometrical form when the water was driven off. Many\\nother crystals are like alum in this respect, and there is evi-\\ndence that the water which they contain is held in feeble chem-\\nical combination. The water of crystallization does not make\\nthe substance moist, as it would if absorbed mechanically,\\nand further, a given substance requires a definite amount\\nof water for each molecule of the crystal. Certain substances\\nform two or more kinds of crystal, requiring different quan-\\ntities of water and in some crystals the color depends upon\\nthe amount of water of crystallization. Cobalt chlorid is\\noften used as a sympathetic ink because of the change in\\ncolor produced by expelling the water of crystallization.\\nIn some crystals the water is held so feebly that they lose\\neither the whole or a portion of- their water of crystallization\\nwhen exposed to the air, and in so doing lose their particular\\ngeometrical form. This process is known as efflorescence.\\nOther crystals absorb water from the air and assume\\nother geometrical forms, in some cases absorbing enough\\nwater to dissolve the crystal. Such crystals are said to be\\ndeliquescent.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY OF WATER 51\\nExperiment XXXIX. Put a crystal of ferrous sulfate and a\\nsmall piece of calcium chlorid on separate pieces of paper and expose\\nthem to the air for several days. Which is efflorescent Which\\ndeliquescent\\n65. Hydroxids. Strictly speaking hydroxids are com-\\npounds formed by replacing one atom of hydrogen in the\\nmolecule of water with an atom of another element or with\\na group of elements.\\nNa H,0 NaOH H\\nCaO H 2 Ca0 2 H 2\\nAccording to this definition most acids are hydroxids but\\nchemists rarely apply the term to them, whereas, all chem-\\nists agree in calling a compound formed by the union of a\\nmetal with hydrogen and oxygen an hydroxid.\\nThese compounds, which are very important and which are\\ndiscussed more fully in Chapter XII., are sometimes called\\nhydrates, but the term is rather objectionable because the\\ntermination ate is used to distinguish a class of compounds\\nto which the hydroxids do not belong.\\n66. Electrolysis of Water.\\nExperiment XL. (Performed by the instructor. Take notes upon\\nthis experiment, answering all the following questions and describing\\nthe apparatus used. An electric current is passed through acidulated\\nwater from one lead or platinum electrode to another. Gas is evolved\\nwhich is collected in two tubes. Where is the gas liberated How\\ndoes the volume over the positive electrode compare with that over\\nthe negative What gas is collected over the positive electrode\\nHow do you know? What gas is collected over the negative elec-\\ntrode Does this experiment prove that water is composed of two\\nelements and no more Is the volume of the water decomposed equal\\nto the volume of the gases formed How do you know\\n67. Synthesis of Water.\\nExperiment X*LI. (Performed by the instructor.) Eudiometer tube\\na U shaped tube of glass about 18 inches long closed at one end,\\nhaving two platinum wires inserted at opposite sides near the closed", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "52 CHEMISTRY\\nend. Fill the eudiometer tube with mercury and invert in a mercury\\nbath. Introduce a certain amount of oxygen, removing the tube and\\nbringing the mercury to a level in both arms. Read the amount of\\noxygen in the tube, filling the arm with mercury again. Introduce\\nabout twice as much hydrogen in a similar manner, determining the\\nexact volume, placing the thumb over the end of the tube that is open,\\nand wrapping the tube in a towel, pass an electric shock through the\\nwire. An explosion occurs, and water is formed. Some of the gas\\nremains in the tube. Testing this residual gas to determine whether\\nit is hydrogen or oxygen and subtracting its volume from the quantity\\nused, we determine the volume of the two gases which combined.\\nThis experiment proves that there are only two elements in water.\\n68. Formation of Water by passing Hydrogen over Heated\\nOxid. When mercuric oxid is heated, oxygen is liberated.\\nIf a stream of hydrogen be passed over a heated oxid,\\nthe hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water. When\\ncopper oxid is used, the following reaction takes place\\nCuO 2H Cu+H 2 0.\\nIn this experiment if the weight of water formed be de-\\ntermined and the tube containing copper oxid be weighed\\nbefore and after the heating, it will be found that f of the\\nweight of w r ater came from the copper oxid, thus proving\\nthat f of the weight of water is oxygen.\\n69. Composition of Water by Weight and by Volume.\\nPreceding experiments have shown that water contains\\ntwice as much hydrogen as oxygen, volume alone consid-\\nered, and that it contains eight times as much oxygen as\\nhydrogen, iveight alone being considered. These two seem-\\ningly contradictory facts being proven, it follows that the\\nsingle volume of oxygen must be eight times as heavy as\\nthe two volumes of hydrogen, and that equal volumes being\\nconsidered, the oxygen is sixteen times as, heavy as the\\nhydrogen. In considering the composition of a compound,\\ncare must be taken to distinguish between these two", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY OF WATER 53\\nmethods of stating the composition, and it must be remem-\\nbered that the volumes used are, in all cases, the volume in\\nan aeriform state, and not the solid or liquid state. One\\nfurther fact should be stated here when two volumes of\\nhydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen to form\\nwater they do not form three volumes of steam their vol-\\numes is condensed one-third, so that\\n2 vols, of hydrogen 1 vol. of oxygen form 2 vols, of steam,\\nand this is the way in which the composition of a substance\\nby volume should be stated. For further discussion of this\\ntopic see p. 118.\\nThe composition of a substance by weight is the same in\\nthe solid as it is in the liquid and aeriform state. That of\\nwater may be stated thus\\n2 parts (by weight) of hydrogen -f- 16 parts of oxygen form\\n18 parts of water.\\n70. Decomposition of Water by Metals.\\nExperiment XLII. 1. Fill a medium sized bottle with water and\\ninvert it in the yellow dish, which should be about half full of water.\\n2. Thoroughly dry a small piece of wire gauze in the gas flame,\\nroll around a lead pencil, so that it forms a cylinder that is double\\nwalled in all parts. Fold one end of the cylinder over and pinch the\\nbend with a pair of pliers. Drop a piece of sodium the size of a pea\\ninto it, using the pliers as before.\\n3. Lift the bottle slightly, but not enough to allow the water to\\nescape, and thrust the wire gauze beneath it. After all action has\\nceased slip a glass plate under the mouth of the bottle and remove the\\nbottle from the water pan, placing it right side up on the table.\\n4. Test the gas with a burning match. Do you recognize the gas?\\nHow? Where did it come from Drop a piece of pink litmus paper\\nin the bottle. Does it change color Does water from the laboratory\\nfaucet produce a similar change What became of the sodium.\\nExplain concisely all that has occurred. The reaction is as fol-\\nlows\\nSodium Water Sodium Hydroxid Hydrogen\\nNa H 2 NaOH H", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "54 CHEMISTRY\\nNote. Litmus paper is prepared by dipping strips of paper into\\nan infusion of litmus. It turns red, when treated with an acid, and\\nblue, when treated with an alkali.\\n71. Decomposition of Water by passing Steam over Heated\\nMetals. Certain other metals which decompose water\\nslowly or not at all at ordinary temperatures, decompose it\\neasily at high temperatures. If steam be passed through\\na tube containing bits of iron heated to redness, it will be\\ndecomposed and hydrogen may be collected over water.\\n3 Fe 4 H 2 Fe 3 4 8 H.\\nQuery. How may the weights of hydrogen and oxygen resulting\\nfrom the decomposition be determined in this experiment\\n72. Water Gas. At high temperatures carbon also de-\\ncomposes water, and this fact is the basis of the process of\\nmanufacturing water gas. Steam is passed over highly\\nheated coal or coke (carbon), which combines with the oxy-\\ngen of the water, forming carbon monoxid (CO). The re-\\naction is as follows\\nC H 2 CO 2H.\\nBoth carbon monoxid and hydrogen are combustible gases,\\nthey are both odorless, and burn with feebly luminous flames.\\nTo overcome these objections it is customary to enrich water\\ngas by adding certain gases, obtained by decomposing naph-\\ntha, which give the gas a distinct odor, and which greatly\\nincrease the amount of light produced.- The illuminating\\ngas used in many of our cities is prepared by this process,\\nbut the increased value of the ammonia and of the tar\\nobtained as by-products in the process of manufacturing\\nilluminating gas from bituminous coal has rendered the\\neconomy of water gas questionable. As water gas is more\\npoisonous than ordinary illuminating gas, laws have been\\npassed in certain states prohibiting its use.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY OF WATER 55\\n73. Oxidation and Reduction. The process of abstract-\\ning oxygen from a body is called reduction. In the manu-\\nfacture of water gas the hot carbon abstracts the oxygen\\nfrom the water, illustrating its use as a reducing agent.\\nCarbon is extensively used in the reduction of ores to a\\nmetallic state. The union of a substance with oxygen is\\ncalled oxidation, and the reagent which causes the oxida-\\ntion is called the oxidizing agent. Nitric acid and potassium\\nchlorate are excellent oxidizing agents, as will be noticed\\nin several subsequent experiments. In Experiment 42 the\\nsodium was oxidized by the water, but water is not among\\nthe better oxidizing agents.\\n74. Natural Waters. Absolutely pure water is never\\nfound in nature. The impurities which it contains are of\\ntwo classes first, the inorganic, or those derived from the\\nrocks; and second, the organic, or those derived from the\\ndecay of animal matter or vegetable substances. Some of\\nthe impurities are held in solution, while others are sus-\\npended and carried along by moving water. The purest\\nwater found in nature is rain water, particularly that which\\nfalls in country districts after it has been raining some\\ntime. But even rain water contains impurities as it falls\\nthrough the air it washes it, removing those suspended\\nmatters which are always present in it, and dissolving small\\nquantities of the gases of the atmosphere. As soon as the\\nrain reaches the earth, its great solvent power is exerted\\nupon the mineral matter with which it comes in contact,\\nand it becomes more impure. An impure water is not neces-\\nsarily unfit for household purposes. See Article 78.\\n75. Spring Water always contains dissolved mineral mat-\\nter as well as a considerable quantity of carbon dioxide de-\\nrived from the decomposition of plants. Waters flowing", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "5Q CHEMISTRY\\nthrough different strata would naturally contain different\\namounts and different kinds of minerals, and we therefore\\nhave various kinds of spring waters. Sulfur springs usually\\nissue from rocks containing a decomposing sulfid. A line\\nof sulfur springs across western New York marks the out-\\ncrop of the Hamilton shale which, in certain layers, contains\\na great deal of iron sulfid. The chalybeate springs contain\\nsome compounds of iron in the same way, and the effervescent\\nwaters have some gas in solution. The famous springs at\\nSaratoga, N. Y, belonging to this class, contain carbon dioxid.\\n76. River water differs from spring water because a part\\nof it, at least, has not been filtered through porous rock\\nand thus relieved of suspended matter. It is consequently\\nturbid, while spring water is usually clear and sparkling.\\nSea-water contains a large amount of mineral matter, the\\naverage quantity being about 3.5 of its weight.\\n77. Hard Water. Certain salts which are frequently\\npresent in natural waters prevent the formation of a lather\\nwith soap in the ordinary process of washing, and give to\\nwaters containing them the property known as hardness.\\nThe chief substances which produce this effect are the com-\\npounds of calcium and magnesium. Soap is decomposed\\nby such waters, forming an insoluble, curdy precipitate or\\nscum which prevents the cleansing action of the soap until\\nall of the hardening salts have been removed. Hardness\\ndue to the presence of carbonates may be removed by boil-\\ning the water, and is called temporary hardness. Waters\\nhaving this kind of hardness are common in limestone\\nregions. The limestone is an impure calcium carbonate\\n(CaC0 3 and is not soluble in water, but water containing\\ncarbon dioxid converts the calcium carbonate into an acid\\ncarbonate (CaH 2 (C0 3 2 which is soluble. Permanent hard-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY OF WATER 57\\nness, or that which remains after prolonged boiling, is\\nusually due to the presence of sulfates.\\n78. Potable Waters, The inorganic impurities found in\\nnatural waters are very rarely injurious to health. The\\norganic impurities, however, are usually accompanied by\\nliving germs, or bacilli, by means of which such diseases\\nas cholera, typhoid fever, diphtheria, etc., are propagated.\\nThe principal source from which these dangerous organic\\nimpurities are derived is the drainage of houses and vil-\\nlages; and though waters thus contaminated may become\\npure again through the action of the air and sunlight, it is\\nnot safe to rely upon this method of purification in the\\nwater which is to be used for drinking purposes.\\nIt is of the greatest importance that the water used for\\ndrinking purposes should be as pure as possible to this end\\nit should be frequently tested, and if there is the slightest\\nsuspicion of contamination, it should be thoroughly boiled.\\nIn general it may be assumed that springs, deep wells,\\nand mountain rivers and lakes, are safe sources of water\\nsupply; that stored rain water and surface water from\\ncultivated land are unreliable and that shallow wells and\\nrivers, to which sewage gains access, are dangerous sources.\\n79. Distillation and other Methods of Purification. The\\nbest method of purifying water is by distillation. This\\nprocess removes both organic and inorganic impurities and,\\nwhen properly conducted, supplies a perfectly pure water.\\nOn shipboard the salt water of the ocean is distilled.\\nExperiment XLIIL Using a flask, distil 30 or 60 cc. of water.\\nUnder Physical Properties note color, taste, odor. What action\\nhas it upon litmus paper Does it leave a residue upon evaporation\\nAnswer same questions concerning some natural water.\\nBoiling. Thoroughly boiling water, renders most of the\\norganic impurities harmless. Disease germs are destroyed", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "58 CHEMISTRY\\nand albuminous matter coagulated so that it may be readily-\\nremoved by nitration.\\nFiltration does not remove the dissolved inorganic im-\\npurities, these can be removed only by chemical processes\\n(see next article) but when properly conducted it removes\\nboth organic and inorganic suspended matter, including\\ndisease germs.\\nSmall charcoal or sand filters are more apt to contaminate\\nthe water passing through them than to purify it for after\\na few days use, the filter becomes so saturated with germs\\nthat the filtered water contains more of them than it did\\nbefore it was filtered. Unless the filter is so constructed\\nthat the charcoal or sand may be removed and exposed to\\nair and sunlight, it is unsafe to use it. The wire strainers,\\nsometimes called filters and made to be attached to faucets,\\nmay remove some of the suspended matter, but they do not\\nremove the germs. The Pasteur filter, in which the water\\npasses through a natural stone, is the most efficient small\\nfilter; the stone must be removed and boiled, or exposed\\nto the air for oxidation of the organic matter, occasionally,\\notherwise germs will pass through the filter after a time.\\nChemical Methods. Attempts are rarely made to purify\\nwater on a large scale by chemical processes. But such\\nprocesses have been employed for many years by frontiers-\\nmen and in regions where no drinkable water exists.\\nIf alum is gradually added to impure water containing\\ncalcium carbonate, calcium sulfate is formed, carbon dioxid\\nis evolved, and aluminum hydroxid is precipitated. The\\naluminum hydroxid entangles the organic matter present\\nand settles with it to the bottom, leaving the water clear and\\nsparkling. If the water contains an insufficient amount of\\ncalcium carbonate, it will not be rendered perfectly clear, and\\nthe deficiency must be supplied by adding sodium carbonate.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY OF WATER 59\\nFerric chlorid, iron borings, and potassium permanganate\\nhave each been used successfully in chemical processes of\\npurifying water.\\n80. Softening. (a) Temporary Hardness.\\nExperiment XLIV. 1. Dissolve 1 gramme of soap shavings in\\n10 cc. of distilled water in a test tube. Draw out one end of a glass\\ntube, about inch in diameter, to a point thus\\nThis is to be used as a dropping tube.\\n2. Test 10 cc. of hard water, made by passing carbon dioxid\\nthrough lime water until it is clear, in a test tube as follows Using\\nthe dropping tube, add a single drop of the soap solution to the hard\\nwater, shake the tube, repeat the operation as often as may be neces-\\nsary to determine the number of drops required to produce frothing.\\n3. Test 10 cc. of distilled water in the same way. What do you\\nconclude concerning the relative values of hard and pure water for\\nwashing purposes\\n4. Boil some of the hard water and test 10 c.c as before. How\\ndoes this compare in value with the unboiled sample\\nBoiling decomposes the soluble carbonates, expelling\\ncarbon dioxid and precipitating the insoluble carbonate.\\nThe fur which forms on the bottom and sides of the\\ntea-kettle and the scale which forms on the shell and tubes\\nof a steam boiler are each due to the repeated removal of\\ncarbonates from water by boiling.\\nClark s process of removing temporary hardness is quite\\nextensively used by water-works engineers. The hardness\\nis estimated, and the quantity of milk of lime required\\nto transform the amount of soluble carbonate present into\\ninsoluble carbonate is then added. The reaction is as\\nfollows\\nCaH 2 (C0 3 2 CaO H 2 2 CaC0 3", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "60 CHEMISTRY\\n(b) Permanent Hardness.\\nExperiment XL V. 1. Test 10 cc. of hard water, made by dissolv-\\ning calcium sulfate in distilled water and filtering, as in Experiment\\n44. Note the number of drops of soap solution necessary to produce\\nfrothing. Boil some of the above-mentioned hard water, and test as\\nbefore. What effect does boiling have on permanent hardness\\nThe sulfates and chlorids of lime and magnesium are\\ndecomposed by sodium carbonate (common washing soda)\\nwith the following reaction\\nCaS0 4 Na 2 C0 3 CaC0 3 Na 2 S0 4\\nThe sodium sulfate produced has no effect on the soap, but\\nwater containing it should not be used for drinking pur-\\nposes. Hence the use of washing soda for softening water.\\n81. Natural Methods of Purification, (a) Action of the\\nAir. Disease germs die when exposed to the sunlight, and\\norganic impurities are oxidized when exposed to the air.\\nTherefore, impure water running through shallow streams, or\\nover precipices in a thin sheet, tends to become pure again.\\n(b) Filtration through beds of sand or porous rock\\nremoves suspended matter. It is in this way that most\\nspring waters are rendered clear and transparent it should\\nbe remarked, however, that clearness is not unfailing evi-\\ndence that water is healthful.\\n(c) Sedimentation. In ponds and lakes water is often\\nrendered clear, the suspended matter settling to the bottom\\nunder the influence of the force of gravity.\\n(d) Natural Distillation. This is the most important\\nmethod of purifying the water in nature. The sun is the\\nsource of heat, and since evaporation takes place at a\\ntemperature far below the boiling point, it occurs every-\\nwhere and at all times, even in winter, and the amount\\nevaporated every hour is enormous. The vapor rises to\\nthe upper atmosphere, and encountering cold currents is", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY OF WATER 61\\ncondensed in microscopic particles which float in the air.\\nThese increase in size as they move about, and finally fall\\nas rain. The purest water found in nature is rain water,\\nparticularly after it has rained some time.\\nMountain streams which flow over rocky beds, notably\\nthose which flow over beds of sandstone, have exceptionally\\npure waters. Water which flows over limestone dissolves\\nsome of the stone and becomes hard.\\nNote. It is suggested that students take advantage of the oppor-\\ntunity offered by Experiments 46-48 to examine the water which they\\nhabitually use for drinking purposes.\\n82. Tests for Organic Impurities.\\nExperiment XLVI. Fill a tall glass jar with water to be tested.\\nAdd a few drops of sulfuric acid, then add a weak solution of potas-\\nsium permanganate, drop by drop, until the water assumes a violet\\ntint. If organic matter be present, the color gradually grows lighter.\\nIf the color remains unchanged for an hour, the water may be con-\\nsidered safe for drinking purposes.\\nKesslefs Test. Xessler s reagent is prepared by mixing potassium\\niodid and mercuric chlorid, and adding caustic soda. It furnishes\\na very delicate test for free ammonia, which is evidence of decom-\\nposing organic matter.\\nA drop or two of the reagent added to water containing ammonia\\ngives it a brown color the greater the amount of ammonia, the darker\\nthe shade of brown. In practice it is customary to concentrate the\\nammonia in 500 cc. of the water to be tested by distilling it with a\\nsmall quantity of sodium carbonate, and testing the first 50 cc. of the\\ndistillate with Xessler s reagent.\\nExperiment XLVIL Test for Chlorids.\\nNote. The members of the class should secure samples of drink-\\ning water from as many sources as possible, including water from a\\nshallow well, a deep well, a pond, and a stream. Distilled water and\\na solution of common salt will be required these are for comparison\\nonly, as distilled water contains no chlorin, and salt water a great\\ndeal. (Common salt is composed of sodium and chlorin.)\\n1. Add a few drops of nitric acid, free from chlorin, to 25 cc. of\\nthe distilled water, then add a few drops of silver nitrate solution.\\n2. Treat 25 cc. of the salt water in the same way. Compare this", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "62 CHEMISTRY\\nwith the distilled water. How can you distinguish water containing\\nchlorin from pure water\\n3. Concentrate 50 cc. of the drinking water to be tested to 25 cc.\\nby boiling, and repeat the test.\\nDoes it contain chlorin Compare your result with that of other\\nmembers of the class, and answer the following questions\\nDoes the water from the shallow well become milky Does that\\nfrom the deep well Which samples contain chlorin\\nSewage always contains chlorids, and hence if a drinking\\nwater is found to contain a chlorid, it is to be suspected,\\nand the chlorin must be proved to come from some other\\nsource, or the water should be avoided. If a well is sunk\\nnear the sea, or near a deposit of rock salt, its water may\\nbe perfectly wholesome although containing a relatively-\\nlarge amount of chlorids.\\n83. Tests for Inorganic Impurities. The presence of\\ninorganic impurities is usually made known without a chem-\\nical test; the presence of hydrogen sulfid is detected by\\nthe odor, free carbon dioxid by effervescence, iron by the\\ntaste, and dissolved salts by the action of soap.\\nThe presence of solids in solution may be determined by\\nevaporating a few drops of the water to be tested on clean\\nplatinum foil. If solids be present, a residue will remain\\non the foil.\\nThe fact that one usually desires to know concerning the\\ninorganic impurities of water supplied for household use\\nis its degree of hardness.\\nExperiment XL VIII. To determine the Degree of Hardness. Pour\\n70 cc. of the water under examination into a flask. Add 1 cc. of\\nClark s soap solution, 1 insert a stopper, and shake thoroughly.\\nSet it aside for two or three minutes if a lather does not remain on\\nthe surface of the water at this time, add a second cubic centimetre\\nof the soap solution. Repeat this process until a permanent lather is\\nobtained. The number of cubic centimetres of soap solution used\\nis equal to the number of degrees of hardness, and is one greater than\\nthe number of grains of calcium carbonate per imperial gallon.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "PROBLEMS 69\\n22. A litre of water weighs 1000 grammes how many grammes of\\nhydrogen does it contain how many grammes of oxygen how many\\nlitres of each\\n23. How many litres of the element in the first column may be\\nobtained from 10 grammes of the substance in the second column\\nH H 3 S0 4\\nO H 2 S0 4\\nO HN0 3\\nH HN0 3\\nN HN0 3\\nH HC1\\nCI HC1\\n24. How many grammes of the substance in the first column will\\nbe required to prepare 10 litres of the element in the second column\\nH 2 S0 4\\nKCIO3 CI\\nKCIO3 O\\nZn H\\nH 2 O", "height": "3592", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X\\nCOMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN AND HYDROGEN\\nNitrogex combines with hydrogen to form three com-\\npounds namely\\nAmmonia, NH 3\\nHydrazine, N 3 H 4\\nHydrazoic acid, N 3 H\\nAMMONIA\\nFormula NH 3 Molecular Weight 17\\n90. Occurrence. Ammonia occurs in small quantities\\nin the air, being formed under certain conditions by the\\ndecay of animal and vegetable substances.\\nThe chief source of ammonia is the ammoniacal liquor\\nof the gas works, which is the water through which the\\ngas has been passed to remove the ammonia formed by\\nthe decomposition of the coal.\\n91. Preparation of Ammonia, NH 3\\nExperiment XLIX. (For two students.)\\nNote. Experiment 50 may be performed with this one if the\\nstudents will arrange the three bottles with tubes required before\\nbeginning this experiment.\\n1. Mix 4 grammes of ammonium chlorid and 8 grammes of calcium\\nhydrate on a piece of glass, adding a few drops of water. Place the\\nmixture in a flask with a suitable delivery tube, add sufficient water\\nto cover the mass, and apply heat.\\n2. Collect three bottles of the gas by upward displacement. Set\\nthem aside, mouth downward.\\n70", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN AND HYDROGEN\\n71\\n3. Hold the Bunsen burner flame in a stream of the gas. Can you\\nignite it Does the gas burn while the burner is held in the stream\\nIs the gas combustible Can its flame be said to have a color\\n4. Connect the flask to the series of bottles described in Experi-\\nment 50, and proceed with that experiment.\\n5. When leisure permits, test the three bottles of the gas in such\\nmanner as to enable you to answer the following questions\\nIs it a supporter of combustion Is it heavier or lighter than air\\nIs it soluble in water Test with a piece of moist pink litmus paper.\\nNote the odor. Caution.\\nWhen ammonia is prepared as above, the action is as\\nfollows\\nCaHA 2 NH 2 C1 2 NH 3 CaCl 2 2 H 2 0.\\nAmmonia is also formed when nitrogenous organic matter\\nis heated out of contact with the air, as in the process of\\nmaking illuminating gas by heating coal, or in the process\\nof making animal charcoal.\\nfri fTi iv*\\nAmmonia gas is often prepared by heating the stronger\\nammonia water of commerce in a flask and collecting the\\ngas as in Experiment 49.\\nAmmonia water was formerly called spirits of hartshorn,\\nbecause it was prepared by distilling the horns of the\\nhart.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "72\\nCHEMISTRY\\n92. Preparation of Ammonium Hydroxid, NH 4 OH (Ammonia\\nWater).\\nExperiment L. (For two students.) 1. Connect a series of\\nthree medium sized bottles with the delivery tube of the flask used\\nin Experiment 49 as shown in Fig. 8. Have 20 cc. of water in the\\nfirst bottle, and about 50 cc. in each of the others. The first and\\nsecond bottles are fitted with rubber stoppers. Neither tube of the\\nfirst bottle should dip below the water. The tubes by which the gas\\nenters the remaining bottles should dip beneath the water. The gas\\nis sometimes dissolved faster than it is supplied in a given bottle, and a\\nvacuum is formed, causing the water to run into it from the next bottle.\\nShould this occur, raise the stopper of the bottle toward which the\\nwater flows. If three-holed stoppers are at hand, it is best to use\\nthem, and to insert safety tubes in the first and second bottles, thus\\npreventing this action.\\n2. Hold a glass rod moistened with hydrochloric acid over a bottle\\nof ammonia water. What occurs This is the test for ammonia.\\nTest the ammonia water with litmus paper.\\n93. Manufacturing Processes. In the arts, ammonia is\\nprepared either by adding slaked lime to the ammoniaeal\\nliquor of the gas works, or by boiling the liquor. In\\nthe latter process the vapor is often passed into sulfuric\\nacid, forming crude ammonium sulfate, which is used as\\na fertilizer.\\nAt the Rochester Ammonia Works the liquor is forced", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN AND HYDROGEN 73\\ninto the generator G, Fig. 9, by a steam siplion S, and\\nslaked lime is introduced through the pipe L. The mix-\\nture is agitated and heated, and the gas escapes through\\nthe delivery pipe D to the iron tanks C, where it is dis-\\nsolved in water as in Experiment 50. Between G and\\nC, the gas passes through several cylinders containing\\npetroleum and various other solvents which absorb im-\\npurities, but allow the ammonia to pass through them. In\\nthis Avay, the stronger ammonia water of the drug stores\\nis made.\\n94. Liquid Ammonia. There is a large demand for\\nanhydrous ammonia for use in ice machines. It is usually\\nprepared as follows Ammonia water is heated in an iron\\ncylinder A, Fig. 10. The\\ngas, NH 3 is driven over\\ninto the condenser C. As\\nit accumulates, the press-\\nure increases until it\\nreaches 130 pounds per\\nsquare inch, when the gas\\nis liquefied.\\n95. Physical Properties. Ammonia gas can be easily con-\\ndensed to the liquid form by cold and pressure. When the\\npressure is removed it passes back to the form of gas and\\nabsorbs heat in so doing.\\nOne volume of water dissolves 600 volumes of ammonia\\ngas at ordinary temperatures. It condenses at ordinary\\ntemperatures at 6.9 atmospheres; at ordinary pressures it\\nboils at 33.7\u00c2\u00b0 C. and solidifies at 75\u00c2\u00b0.\\n96. Chemical Properties. A jet of ammonia to which a\\nflame is applied continues to burn in oxygen after the\\nflame is withdrawn. In air, however, the heat of com-\\nA\\nFig. 10.\\nC\\nm", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "74\\nCHEMISTRY\\nbustion is not sufficient to raise adjoining particles to the\\nkindling temperature.\\nIn gaseous form as well as in the solution ammonia turns\\nred litmus paper blue and neutralizes acids just as the alka-\\nlies, sodium, and potassium hydroxids do.\\nAmmonia combines directly with acids and many other\\nsubstances to form a series of compounds which resemble\\neach other in general properties, and each of which contains\\nthe group of atoms NH 4 In its chemical action, therefore,\\nthis group resembles a metallic element, and in order to dis-\\ntinguish it from ammonia, NH 3 the termination um, which\\nis applied to nearly all metallic elements, is substituted for\\nthe final a of ammonia. The similarity in composition of\\nsome of the compounds of ammonium, zinc, and sodium is\\nshown in the following table\\nNH 4\\nZn\\nNa\\nNH4CI\\n(NH 4 2 S04\\nNH4NO3\\nZnCl 2\\nZ11SO4\\nZn(N0 3 2\\nNaCl\\nNa 2 S0 4\\nNaN0 3\\nCompounds which play the part of an element are called\\nradicals.\\nThere is more or less evidence that a definite chemical\\ncompound is formed when ammonia is dissolved in water\\nand that its formula is NH 4 OH. This compound has never\\nbeen isolated, however, and certain chemists doubt its exist-\\nence. The name ammonium hydroxid implies that the\\nsolution is chemical rather than physical.\\n97. Uses. Ammonia is extensively used in the manu-\\nfacture of artificial ice, aniline colors, indigo, washing soda,", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN AND HYDROGEN 75\\netc. It is also used in the laboratory as a reagent and in\\nthe household as a detergent.\\nThe following device illustrates the manner in which\\nliquid ammonia is employed in making artificial ice:\\nAnhydrous ammonia flows from the tank LA into the\\nchamber which surrounds a vessel of water I; it evapo-\\nrates rapidly, and so much heat is rendered latent that the\\nwater is frozen. The gas is pumped back into the tank\\nand again liquefied by pressure, and the operation is re-\\npeated.\\nIn the Carre Ice Machine, a pound of coal is consumed\\nfor each pound of ice made.\\nf\\nU.A\\n~l_\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Describe the preparation of the ammonia of commerce.\\n2. Describe the preparation of ammonia in the laboratory.\\n3. Discuss the combination of ammonia with water.\\n4. Distinguish between ammonia and ammonium between liquid\\nammonia and ammonia water.\\n5. In what respect does ammonium resemble a metal\\n6. What is hartshorn\\n7. State the color, odor, solubility, and weight of ammonia.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XI\\nNITRIC ACID\\nFormula HNO3. Molecular Weight 63\\n98. Occurrence. Nitric acid is formed in the air in\\nsmall quantities during thunder storms, and is washed to\\nthe earth by rain, where it combines with elements found\\nin the soil.\\nThe compounds of nitric acid and the metals potassium\\nand sodium occur abundantly in certain localities, particu-\\nlarly in India, where the waste products of animal life\\nfound near the villages are rapidly oxidizing, forming\\npotassium nitrate (saltpetre), and in a desert tract in Chili,\\nwhere the oxidation forms sodium nitrate, or Chili salt-\\npetre. It has been suggested that this tract was at one\\ntime covered by the sea, and that the nitric acid was\\nformed from the oxidation of sea-weeds and animals.\\nIn the economy of nature no substance, however obnox-\\nious, is lost, and the formation of these nitrates illustrates\\none method by which the vast army of living organisms in\\nthe soil converts waste material into useful and wholesome\\nforms.\\n99. Preparation. Nitric acid is prepared by distilling\\neither potassium or sodium nitrate with sulfuric acid.\\nExperiment LI. Place 15 grammes powdered potassium nitrate in\\na flask. Add 10 cc. strong sulfuric acid. Heat the flask on a sand\\nbath, and condense the vapor in a test tube placed in a bottle of cold\\nwater. As the mixture begins to boil, drops of liquid will form on the\\n76", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "XITRIC ACID 77\\nsides of the flask and run down into the mixture. After a short time\\nthe lower part of the flask appears dry, and the drops of liquid are\\nobserved on the neck of the flask. As the action progresses, more and\\nmore of the flask appears to he dry. Explain this action. Describe\\nthe acid obtained as to state, color, odor, action on litmus. Describe\\nthe substance which remains in the flask.\\n100. Reaction. At high temperatures the following\\nreaction occurs\\n2 KX0 3 H,S0 4 2 HX0 8 K 2 S0 4\\nIf the temperature be lower, the reaction becomes\\nKX0 3 H 2 S0 4 HXO3 HKS0 4\\n101. Physical Properties. Pure nitric acid is a colorless\\nliquid about 1^ times as heavy as water. The nitric acid of\\ncommerce usually contains 40 to 60 of water and a small\\namount of nitrogen peroxid, which gives to it its color.\\n102. Chemical Properties. Xitric acid is the most un-\\nstable of the common acids j 76 of its weight is oxygen,\\nand the ease with which it is decomposed leads to its exten-\\nsive use as an oxidizing agent. The first steps of the\\nprocess of making sulfuric acid illustrate this action.\\nAs was shown in Experiment 35, when a metal is dis-\\nsolved in hydrochloric acid, hydrogen is evolved. When a\\nmetal is dissolved in nitric acid, however, no hydrogen is\\ngiven off, but the result is the same as though hydrogen\\nwas first set free and afterward took oxygen from some of\\nthe remaining nitric acid, forming water and reducing the\\nacid to one or more of the oxids of nitrogen represented by\\nthe following formulae, K 2 0, jSTO, jST0 2 or even to ammonia\\nor nitrogen. The interesting point here is the fact that\\nwhen hydrogen gas is passed through nitric acid it does not\\ndecompose the nitric acid molecule, while in the case under", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "78 CHEMISTRY\\nconsideration the hydrogen from the nitric acid molecule\\ndoes decompose it. Instances of the increased chemical\\nactivity of elements which are taking part in certain\\nchemical changes are quite numerous, and the cause of the\\nincreased activity is fully discussed in 179 on the nascent\\nstate.\\nFurther chemical properties are illustrated in the follow-\\ning experiments\\nExperiment LII. Nitric Acid as an Oxidising Agent. Place a\\ncubic centimetre of powdered charcoal on a piece of sheet iron, apply\\nheat until the charcoal begins to glow. Using a clean glass tube, drop\\na few drops of concentrated nitric acid on the red hot charcoal.\\nWhat occurs Account for the explosion.\\nAlternate. Pour a few cubic centimetres of concentrated nitric\\nacid into a test tube. Partly close the open end of the test tube with\\nabsorbent cotton, holding the tube with the test-tube holder and over\\nthe yellow dish so as to catch the acid in case the tube breaks. Boil\\nthe acid.\\nDescribe, and account for the action observed.\\nExperiment LIII. Nitric Acid as a Solvent. Test the solubility\\nof the following metals tin, lead, zinc, copper, iron, gold, and silver\\nin dilute nitric acid. If any of the metals fail to dissolve, apply heat.\\nDetermine whether hot concentrated nitric acid will dissolve any of\\nthe metals not acted upon by the hot dilute acid.\\nWrite the reactions.\\nNote. The symbol of copper nitrate is Cu(N03)2, and those of\\nother nitrates are similar to it.\\nExperiment LIV. Action of Nitric Acid on Various Substances.\\nIn a medium sized bottle containing dilute nitric acid place a small\\npiece of each on the following substances: white kid, white flannel,\\nwhite silk, cotton, linen, asbestos, and bleached hemp stir them occa-\\nsionally with a glass rod. Describe any change of color observed.\\nDetermine whether the color is permanent by endeavoring to wash it\\nout. Which of the substances are dyed Which are mineral sub-\\nstances which vegetable which animal Inference\\nExperiment LV. Etching. Cover the metal to be etched with\\nmelted paraffin after the wax has cooled sketch the design with a", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "NITRIC ACID 79\\nsharp instrument, taking care to cut through the paraffin. Cover the\\ndesign with nitric acid, which dissolves the metal where the paraffin\\nhas been removed, and thus etches the design on the plate. After a\\nfew minutes wash off the acid and remove the paraffin.\\n103. Uses of Nitric Acid. Nitric acid is used in etch-\\ning, dyeing, oxidizing silver, and in the arts; for example,\\nin the manufacture of nitroglycerin, guncotton, sulfuric\\nacid, and as a solvent for silver in the processes of pho-\\ntography.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. How are the plates used in printing etchings prepared\\n2. State the occurrence of nitric acid in nature. Is it ever found\\nuncombined\\n3. How does the nitric acid of commerce differ from the chemi-\\ncally pure article\\n4. State the properties and uses of nitric acid, and describe its\\npreparation.\\n5. For what purpose is sulfuric acid used in the manufacture of\\nnitric acid\\n6. Account for the unstable character of nitric acid.\\n7. Why is nitrogen an important constituent of most explosives", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII\\nACIDS\\nBASES AND SALTS\\n104. Metallic and Non-metallic Oxids. It will be remem-\\nbered that oxygen combines with every element except\\nfluorin, forming oxids. Most of these oxids combine with\\nwater to form hydroxids which belong to one of two classes\\npossessing opposite chemical properties, for example, the\\nfollowing oxids form acids when treated with water\\nNon-metallic Oxids.\\nSulfur dioxid, S0 2 +H 2 H 2 S0 3 sulfurous acid.\\nSulfur trioxid, S0 3 -f H 2 H 2 S0 4 sulfuric acid.\\nCarbon dioxid, C0 2 +H 2 H 2 C0 3 carbonic acid.\\nNitrogen trioxid, N 2 3 H 2 2HN0 2 nitrous acid.\\nNitrogen pentoxid, N 2 5 -|-H 2 2 HN0 3 nitric acid.\\nThose included in the following list are called bases.\\nMetallic Oxids.\\nSodium oxid, Na 2 0+H 2 2 Nail 0, caustic soda.\\nPotassium oxid, TL,0 +H 2 2KH0, caustic potash.\\nCalcium oxid, CaO +H 2 CaH 2 2 slaked lime.\\nFerric oxid, Fe,0 3 +3 H 2 Fe 2 H G 0,5, ferric hydroxid.\\nThe oxids which form these compounds are distinguished\\nas acid-forming oxids and basic oxids. This classification\\nis not complete, as some oxids have neither acid nor basic\\nproperties, e.g. water, HX), nitrous oxid, N 2 0, etc. and", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "BASES AND SALTS 81\\ncertain oxids act either as acid-forming or basic oxids,\\ndepending upon the element with which they combine but\\nthe importance of the two classes, and of the compounds\\nformed when they unite, makes a somewhat extended study\\nof their properties desirable. The metallic elements, or\\nthose which form basic oxids, are much more numerous\\nthan the non-metallic, or those which form acids, there\\nbeing only fifteen of the latter.\\n105. Definitions.\\nAcid. A compound containing one or more atoms of\\nhydrogen which may be displaced by a meted.\\nBase. A compound containing hydrogen, oxygen, and a\\nmetal which may be displaced by the hydrogen of an acid.\\nSalt. A compound formed ichen a meted replaces one or\\nmore atoms of hydrogen in an acid.\\nSalts are sometimes formed by direct union of an acid-\\nforming oxid and a basic oxid, in which case the salt is the\\nonly product of the action when an acid combines with a\\nbase, however, the acid liberates hydrogen, taking the metal\\nof the base and forming a salt and the liberated hydrogen\\nof the acid with the hydrogen and oxygen of the base form\\nwater.\\n106. Characteristics of the Stronger Acids.\\nAcids have a strong affinity for all bases.\\nThey are all soluble in water.\\nThey have a sour taste.\\nThey turn vegetable blues red.\\nThey decompose carbonates.\\nThey combine with alkalies, losing their own properties\\nand destroying those of alkalies.\\nThe only element common to all acids is hydrogen.\\n^Nearly all acids contain both hydrogen and oxygen, but a", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "82 CHEMISTRY\\nfew are binary. The most notable of these are formed by\\nthe union of hydrogen with some member of the chlorin\\nfamily, but there are some others, such as the compound of\\nhydrogen and sulfur, sometimes called hydrosulfuric acid,\\nand the compound of hydrogen and nitrogen known as\\nhydrazoic acid.\\n107. Rules for Naming Acids. The terminations ous\\nand ic are applied to acids, and indicate the amount of\\noxygen in the compound, just as they do when applied to\\noxids thus HN0 3 is nitric acid, and HN0 2 is nitrous acid.\\nAll the binary acids end in ic, and have the prefix\\nhydro. The prefix per indicates more oxygen than\\nthe ic acid, and the prefix hypo less oxygen than the\\nous acid, e.g.\\nHC1, Hydrochloric acid\\nHC10, Hypochlorous acid\\nHC10 2 Chlorous acid\\nHCIO3, Chloric acid\\nHCIO4, Perchloric acid\\n108. Characteristics of the Bases. The properties of the\\nbases are in a general way opposite to those of acids. They\\nrestore colors reddened by acids, and turn vegetable colors\\nblue.\\n109. Rules for Naming Salts. The name of the salt\\nformed when a given acid combines with a base, consists of\\ntwo parts.\\nFirst Part. The name of the metal replacing the hydro-\\ngen of the acid.\\nSecond Part. The name of the acid modified in accord-\\nance with the following rules", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "BASES AND SALTS 83\\nRule I. Names of acids containing oxygen, ending in\\nic, have the termination changed to ate, e.g.:\\nNitric acid forms nitrates.\\nAcetic acid forms acetates.\\nSulfuric acid forms sulfates.\\nRule II. Names of acids containing oxygen, ending in\\nous, have their termination changed to ite, e.g.\\nNitrous acid forms nitrites.\\nChlorous acid forms chlorites.\\nSulfurous acid forms sulfites.\\nRule III. TJie prefix hydro is dropped from the\\nname of the binary acids, and the termination ic is changed\\nto u id, e.g.\\nHydrochloric acid forms chlorids.\\nHydrocyanic acid forms cyanids.\\nHydrofluoric acid forms fluorids.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Write the names of the salts formed by the union of the follow-\\ning bases with hydrochloric, nitric, sulfuric, chlorous, nitrous, hydro-\\ncyanic, sulfurous, and chloric acids\\nSodium hydroxid, NaHO\\nPotassium hydroxid, KHO\\nCalcium hydroxid, CaHO\\n2. Write the names of the salts formed by the action of each of the\\nabove acids on the following basic oxids\\nLead oxid, PbO\\nCopper oxid, CuO\\nSilver oxid, AgO\\n3. Define and illustrate acid, salt, base.\\n4. State how a binary compound is named. Illustrate.\\n5. State and illustrate the meaning of hypo, per, id (ide), ate, ous.\\n6. State and illustrate five principles of chemical nomenclature.\\n7. State the characteristics of the stronger acids.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIII\\nCOMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN AND OXYGEN\\n110. Nitrogen combines with oxygen to form five distinct\\ncompounds having the following compositions\\nNitrogen monoxid, N 2\\nNitrogen dioxid, N 2 2 or NO\\nNitrogen trioxid, N 2 3\\nNitrogen tetroxid, N 2 4 or N0 2\\nNitrogen pentoxid, N 2 5\\n111. Nitrogen Monoxid was formerly called nitrous oxid.\\nIt is also known as laughing gas. It does not occur in\\nnature.\\n(a) Preparation.\\nExperiment LVI. (Two students work together.) 1. Place 15\\ngrammes ammonium nitrate (NH 4 N0 3 in a flask. Connect this with\\na dry bottle placed in a dish of water from this bottle lead the gas to\\nthe water pan, as shown in the sketch. Heat the flask very gradually\\nif too high a temperature is reached, nitric oxid may be formed and\\nan explosion may occur.\\n84", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN AND OXYGEN 85\\n2. Collect five bottles of the gas. The first bottle will be mixed\\nwith air throw it away. Do not allow all of the ammonium nitrate\\nto boil away.\\n3. Test the second bottle with a glowing splinter. Does the gas\\nsupport combustion\\n4. Remembering that combustion is a union with oxygen, answer\\nthe following questions\\nIs the nitrous oxid decomposed Does nitrous oxid cause a glowing\\nsplinter to burst into flames Note the color, odor, taste of the gas.\\n5. Remove the third bottle from the pan when about full of gas.\\nCover the mouth of the bottle with the hand and shake vigorously.\\nIs a vacuum formed Is the gas soluble\\n6. Lower a small piece of burning phosphorus into the fourth\\nbottle. What occurs Ignite a small amount of sulfur with a\\nmatch and lower it into the fifth bottle. Does it burn If not,\\nuse a Bunsen burner to ignite the sulfur, and see that it is burning\\nvigorously before you test the gas. Explain the action.\\n7. Examine the condensing bottle, and so state the source of the\\nliquid it contains. Has it an odor or a taste Compare the taste\\nwith that of ammonium nitrate. Has any of the ammonium nitrate\\nbeen carried over into the condensing bottle without chemical change\\nReaction NH 4 N0 3 N 2 2 H 2 0.\\n(b) Properties.\\nIn addition to the properties already shown nitrogen\\nnionoxid possesses the following characteristic properties\\nWhen inhaled it produces a kind of intoxication usually\\nmanifested by hysterical laughing; hence its name. If\\nmore of the gas is inhaled, this is followed by unconscious-\\nness, lasting a few minutes. It is well adapted to use as\\nan anaesthetic in minor surgical operations, but special care\\nmust be taken that the gas used for this purpose be pure\\nif made from ammonium nitrate, containing ammonium\\nchlorid, the gas always contains chlorin; if heated too\\nstrongly, ammonium nitrate yields nitric oxid and possibly\\nhyponitrous acid. If either of these is present, the gas is\\nunfit to breathe. It may be freed from these substances,\\nhowever, by agitation with ferrous sulfate solution.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "gg CHEMISTRY\\nWhen liquid nitrogen monoxid is evaporated in a vac-\\nuum with carbon disulfid, it produces the remarkably low\\ntemperature 140\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\nAVater at 0\u00c2\u00b0 C. dissolves a little more than one volume of\\nthe gas.\\nWhen slightly heated in an atmosphere of this gas\\nmetallic potassium and sodium burn brightly, forming\\noxids if strongly heated, nitrates are formed.\\n112. Unstable Characteristics of Nitrogen Monoxid and\\nAmmonium Nitrate. In Experiment 56 the feeble affinity\\nwhich binds the elements of ammonium nitrate together\\nwas illustrated. At ordinary temperatures it is a stable\\ncompound, but at a temperature somewhat above its melting\\npoint the compound is decomposed, forming nitrous oxid\\nand water as indicated in the equation on page 85. If\\nthe temperature is too high, nitric oxid and water are\\nformed, leaving one-half of the nitrogen in the free state.\\nNH 4 N0 3 2 H 2 NO N*\\nThe so-called ability of nitrous oxid to support combus-\\ntion is due to and is an illustration of its unstable character.\\nIn all cases it is the oxygen of the nitrous oxid which\\nsupports combustion, and the phenomenon is preceded by\\nthe decomposition of the gas.\\n113. Nitrogen Dioxid was formerly called nitric oxid.\\nIts molecular formula is believed to be NO instead of N^OJ\\nbecause its density is 15, and if the latter formula was\\nchosen it would be an exception to the rule that the density\\nof any compound gas is half its molecular weight. It does\\nnot occur in nature.\\n(a) Preparation.\\nExperiment LVII. (Performed only under hood.) Place a small\\nhandful of copper clippings in a generating bottle, and arrange appa-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN AND OXYGEN 87\\nratus as for the preparation of hydrogen, Experiment 35. Pour about\\n50 cc. of water into the generating bottle, and add an equal quantity of\\nnitric acid.\\nLook for evidence of the formation of a colored gas, a colorless\\ngas. a soluble gas.\\nCollect six bottles of the gas, pour the liquid of the generating\\nbottle into the copper nitrate bottle, rinse the copper which remains\\nin the bottle with plenty of water, and put it away to be used again.\\nNote the color of the gas collected, the color of the liquid in the\\ngenerating bottle.\\n1. Remove the cover of the first bottle. Do you note any change\\nin color Is it possible that this bottle contains air only\\n2. Allow the gas in the second bottle to escape into the air. What\\nchange of color occurs Which of the elements in the air is most\\nactive, and therefore most likely to be the cause of the change Does\\nthe colored gas formed resemble that formed in the generating bottle\\nat first How do you account for this Does the colored gas seem\\nheavier, or lighter than air If the colored gas is formed by oxidation\\nof the colorless gas, how should their densities compare\\n3. Hold the third bottle in a horizontal position, and while in this\\nposition remove the glass plate which covers it. Notice whether air\\ndiffuses into the upper or the lower part of the bottle. What does\\nthis show as to the relative weight of air and nitric acid\\n4. Lower a lighted candle into the fourth bottle. Result Ignite\\nsome sulfur in an ignition spoon, and when it is burning vigorously\\nlower it into the same bottle. Result Remove all traces of sulfur\\nfrom the ignition spoon, cool it with water, dry it, and place a small\\npiece of dry phosphorus in it. Ignite the phosphorus by touching it\\nwith a hot wire, and quickly lower it into the fourth bottle. Result\\n5. Ignite a piece of phosphorus, and when it is burning actively\\nlower it into the fifth bottle. Result Nitric oxid contains a larger\\npercentage of oxygen than nitrous oxid. In the light of this fact how\\ncan you explain the difference in the behavior of the two gases\\n6. Pour a few drops of carbon disulfid into the sixth bottle after\\na few minutes apply a lighted match. Describe the result. What is\\ndeposited on the sides of the bottle\\nReaction. The reaction may be considered as taking\\nplace in two stages. First,\\nCu 2 HX0 3 Cu(N0 3 2 2 H.\\nThe hydrogen, however, does not appear as a gas, but passes", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "88 CHEMISTRY\\ndirectly from the nitric acid molecule, from which it has been\\ndisplaced, into combination with the hydrogen and oxygen\\nof other molecules of nitric acid, as shown by the equation,\\n6 H 2 HN0 3 4 H 2 2 1S T 0.\\nComplete the following reaction, which expresses both\\nof the above changes\\n-THoO.\\n3 Cu 8 HN0 3 3 Cu(N0 3 2 ?NO\\nThe hydrogen is said to be in the nascent state see 179.\\n(5) Properties.\\nWhen strongly heated, metallic potassium decomposes\\nnitric oxid and burns brightly, but metallic sodium remains\\nunchanged. It is not easily coudensed to a liquid, requir-\\ning a pressure of more than a hundred atmospheres at a\\ntemperature of 11\u00c2\u00b0 C. Its most important chemical prop-\\nerty was illustrated by its behavior in air.\\n114. Nitrogen Tetroxid or Nitrogen Peroxid, N0 2 The red-\\ndish brown gas noticed in Experiment 57 is nitrogen per-\\noxid. It has a disagreeable odor and is poisonous. It is\\nheavier than air (it is warm when first formed and rises)\\nand is very soluble in water. At 9\u00c2\u00b0 C. it solidifies to color-\\nless crystals. The bonds which hold the oxygen to the nit-\\nrogen in this compound are not nearly so strong as in nitric\\noxid, and upon this fact depends its value as an oxidizing\\nagent, as illustrated in the process of manufacturing sulfuric\\nacid. Metallic potassium bursts into flame in this gas.\\n115. Nitric Oxid and Nitrogen Peroxid as Reducing and\\nOxidizing Agents. In nitric oxid the oxygen is held rather\\nfirmly by the nitrogen, and there seems to be a demand for\\nmore oxygen. The action of this substance as a reducing\\nagent depends upon its ability to take oxygen from other\\nsubstances (a limited number) as illustrated by the forma-\\ntion of nitrogen peroxid in Experiment 57.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN AND OXYGEN 89\\nWhen the additional atom is obtained, the compound is\\nheld together by a very feeble affinity, and nitrogen peroxid\\nis an excellent oxidizing agent; it gives up its oxygen\\nto substances having but little affinity for it.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. State the physical properties of nitric oxid color,\\n(b) weight, (c) odor, (d) solubility, (e) liquefaction.\\n2. Compare the chemical properties of nitrogen monoxid with\\nthose of the dioxid.\\n3. Is there any evidence that the oxygen is held with stronger\\nbonds in nitrogen dioxid than in the monoxid\\n4. Arrange phosphorus, sulfur, and nitrogen in the order of their\\naffinity for oxygen as shown in Experiment 58.\\n5. What chemical property enables us to distinguish oxygen from\\nnitrogen monoxid\\n6. What physical property enables us to distinguish oxygen from\\nnitrogen monoxid\\n7. Discuss the physical properties of nitrous oxid as follows\\n(a) taste, odor, (c) color, (cZ) weight, (e) solubility.\\n8. Distinguish between oxygen and nitrous oxid with respect to\\n(a) taste, (6) solubility, (c) chemical energy, (cZ) affinity for sulfur.\\nWhat chemical properties has nitrous oxid\\n9. State the chemical and physical properties of nitrogen tetroxid.\\n10. Describe an experiment illustrating the unstable character of\\nnitrogen compounds.\\n11. Describe an experiment illustrating the unstable character of\\nammonium nitrate.\\n12. Describe the ordinary preparation of nitrous oxid and name the\\nproperty of nitrogen which makes this preparation easy.\\n13. Describe an experiment to show the unstable character of\\nnitrogen monoxid.\\n14. Name five binary compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, and after\\neach name write its formula. What law is illustrated by these com-\\npounds\\n15. Define oxidizing agent reducing agent. What compound of\\nnitrogen is used in oxidation reduction Why\\n16. Explain the difference in the behavior of potassium when\\nslowly heated in atmospheres of nitrous oxid, nitric oxid, and nitrogen\\nperoxid.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIV\\nTHE CHLORIN FAMILY\\n116. The elements fluorin, chlorin, bromin, and iodin\\nresemble each other in chemical affinities and other proper-\\nties, and are, therefore, treated as members of the same\\nfamily. They are sometimes called the halogens.\\nSECTION I.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 CHLORIN\\nSymbol Cl. Atomic Weight 35.5\\n117. Occurrence. Chlorin does not occur free in nature,\\nbut its compounds are widely distributed and very abun-\\ndant. Common salt, which is present in large quantities in\\nsea-water, is sodium chlorid, NaCl sea-water also contains\\nchlorids of magnesium and potassium. Horn silver, one of\\nthe most important ores, is silver chlorid, AgCl and all\\nplants contain the chlorids of potassium and sodium.\\n118. Preparation. (a) First Method. From Bleaching\\nPowder. (Chlorid of Lime.) (To be performed only under\\nthe hood.)\\nExperiment LVIII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Tl ce 15 grammes of bleaching powder in a\\nflask, and pour through a funnel tube about 30 cc. of dilute sulfuric\\nacid. Collect the gas by displacement of air.\\nIn the arts this process is extensively used. Paper rags\\nare boiled in alkali to remove the grease, then placed in\\na large vat with bleaching powder and sulfuric acid when\\n90", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "THE CHLORIN FAMILY\\n91\\nthey come out they are a pure white. Cotton cloth is\\nbleached by passing it through alternate vats of sulfuric\\nacid and chlorid of lime.\\n(b) Second Method\\nExperiment LVIX. (Performed\\n12 grammes manganese dioxid,\\nMn0 2 and enough hydrochloric\\nacid, HC1, to cover it, in a\\nflask, and gradually apply heat.\\nCollect three bottles of gas by\\ndownward displacement of air,\\nas shown in sketch. Now sub-\\nstitute for the dry bottle a bottle\\nnearly full of water, and allow\\nthe gas to bubble through it for\\na time. Note the color, odor,\\nsolubility, and weight of the gas.\\nFrom Hydrochloric Acid.\\nby the instructor.) Mix\\nw)\\nf\\niQ\\n7\\\\\\nFig. 13.\\nReaction\\nMN0 2 4 HC1 2 H 2 2 CI MnCl 2\\nExperiment LX. Affinity of Chlorin for Metals. Throw a small\\namount of powdered antimony into a jar of chlorin. What occurs\\nIs this combustion\\nExperiment LXI. Affinity of Chlorin for Hydrogen. 1. Prepare\\nhydrogen as directed in Experiment 35. When the gas is pure, fit the\\ngenerating bottle with a jet, as\\nshown in this figure light the\\nhydrogen, and introduce the jet\\ninto the second jar of chlorin.\\nDoes the hydrogen burn Is\\nthere any change in the color\\nof the flame in the color of\\nthe contents of the jar Hold\\na piece of moist blue litmus\\nFig. 14. paper in the jar. What new\\nsubstance is present\\n2. Introduce a burning candle into the third bottle of chlorin, and\\nnote what takes place. State any explanation of the difference in the", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "92 CHEMISTRY\\nresults obtained in this experiment and in the preceding one that\\noccurs to you.\\n3. Moisten a bit of tissue paper with warm turpentine and drop it\\ninto the fourth bottle of the chlorin. What occurs\\nTurpentine is composed of carbon and hydrogen. In the\\nabove experiment the hydrogen is taken by the chlorin, and\\nthe carbon is liberated as smoke.\\nIf chlorin water is exposed to sunlight long enough (say\\nseveral days), it is found that oxygen is set free, the chlorin\\nhaving taken the hydrogen from the water, leaving the\\noxygen. If any substance that has an affinity for oxygen\\nis present in the water, the chlorin acts more rapidly.\\nExperiment LXII. Affinity for Hydrogen. Bleaching. 1. In\\nthe fifth bottle of chlorin place a moistened rose. What occurs\\n2. In another bottle drop a piece of moist, colored calico.\\n3. Write your name in ink, and pour some of the chlorin water\\nmade in Experiment 60 over it.\\n4. Try the effect of chlorin water on printers ink. All except one\\nof the coloring matters tested are attacked by oxygen in the nascent\\nstate. Which one was not\\nIn bleaching, the chlorin may sometimes act directly on\\nthe coloring matter, but very frequently its action is due\\nto its tendency to take hydrogen from water, thus making\\nit easier for other substances to obtain oxygen. Chlorin\\nis, therefore, often called an oxidizing agent. Its action\\nas a disinfectant is somewhat similar to its action as a\\nbleaching agent.\\n119. Physical Properties. Chlorin is 2\\\\ times heavier\\nthan the air. One litre weighs 3.167 grammes. One volume\\nof water will dissolve two volumes of chlorin. The name\\nchlorin is derived from the Greek word meaning green.\\nAt ordinary pressures chlorin may be liquefied at 34\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\na pressure of six atmospheres is required at 0\u00c2\u00b0 C.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "THE CHLORIN FAMILY 93\\n120. Chemical Properties. Clilorin combines with most\\nsubstances at ordinary temperatures, and is remarkably\\nactive. It lias a marked affinity for hydrogen and for\\nmetals, as is shown by the large number of chlorids known.\\nIf inhaled in concentrated form, death will result. It com-\\nbines With hydrogen with explosive violence when the\\nmixture is heated, or even exposed to the sunlight.\\n121. Uses. Bleaching. Chlorin is extensively used in\\nthe arts as a bleaching agent. It destroys the molecules of\\nvegetable coloring matter by replacing its hydrogen, or by\\nadding oxygen. Moist articles bleach very rapidly because\\nthe water is decomposed by the chlorin, and nascent oxygen\\nassists in the destruction of the coloring matter.\\nDisinfection. Chlorin is one of the best disinfectants we\\nhave. It is this substance that our health officers depend\\nupon to keep cholera out of the country. Liquid chlorin is\\nnow an article of commerce, and large quantities are sold in\\niron cylinders for use in certain processes of extracting gold\\nfrom its ores, and other chemical processes requiring the gas.\\nSECTION II.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 HYDROCHLORIC ACID\\nSymbol HCl. Molecular Weight 36.5\\n122. Occurrence. This gas is not found free in nature\\nexcept in the gases evolved from certain active volcanoes\\nits salts, the chlorids, are abundant and important, as was\\nstated in the last chapter, and from one of these, viz.\\nsodium chlorid, or common salt, nearly all the hydrochloric\\nacid of commerce is obtained.\\n123. Preparation, (a) By Synthesis. If equal volumes\\nof hydrogen and chlorin be mixed in a flask and exposed to\\nthe sun, an explosion takes place, and hydrochloric acid is", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "94\\nCHEMISTRY\\nformed. This illustrates the fact that light sometimes aids\\nchemical action.\\nFig. 15.\\nCaution. The explosion sometimes breaks the flask, and to pro-\\ntect the experimenter from injury a screen of plate glass is usually\\nplaced in front of it. If a thin-walled flask be used, there is little\\ndanger of the flying fragments breaking the screen.\\n(b) By Burning Hydrogen in Chlorin.\\nHydrochloric acid was prepared synthetically in Experi-\\nment 60, which see.\\n(c) By the Action of Sulfuric Acid on Common Scdt.\\nExperiment LXIII. Arrange the apparatus as in Experiment 50.\\nWith 20 cc. of water in the first bottle, and about 50 cc. in each of the\\nothers, place 10 grammes common salt in a flask, and when your\\napparatus is all ready, and you are sure that all joints are tight, pour\\ninto the flask 17 cc. of sulfuric acid diluted with 10 cc. of water. Gas\\nis immediately evolved. Heat gradually. Test the gas as follows\\n1. Hold moist litmus paper in a stream of the gas. Note effect.\\nIs the gas visible in the air\\n2. Prove the solubility of the gas. Is the gas in the flask visible P", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "THE CHLORIX FAMILY 95\\n3. Does hydrochloric acid burn Does it support combustion\\n4. Pour a few drops of the liquid in the first bottle into about a\\ntablespoonful of water, and taste.\\n5. Describe the odor.\\n6. Drop a piece of zinc in the first bottle. What occurs Is\\nhydrogen given off\\nCaution. The tube which connects the flask with the first bottle\\nshould not dip beneath the water. In the other bottles the tube by\\nwhich the gas enters should enter the water. Watch the apparatus\\ncarefully, and prevent the water from running from one bottle into\\nanother, by raising the stopper of the bottle toward which it is running.\\n124. Reactions. When prepared as above, hydrogen\\nsodium sulfate is formed with the following results\\nReaction NaCl H 2 S0 4 HC1 HXaS0 4\\nIf concentrated sulfuric acid be used with an excess of\\nsalt and a higher temperature maintained, the same weight\\nof sulfuric acid will form twice as much hydrochloric acid,\\nand the by-product is the normal sodium sulfate instead\\nof the hydrogen sodium sulfate.\\n2 XaCl H 2 S0 4 2 HC1 Na 2 SO.\\n125. Properties. Experiment 63 taught us the color,\\nodor, solubility, combustibility, and acid reaction of hydro-\\nchloric acid gas, and illustrated the use of its aqueous\\nsolution as a solvent. The dry gas is transparent, but in\\ncontact with moist air a dense cloud is formed by the\\nsolution of the gas in an aqueous vapor. At 0\u00c2\u00b0 C, water\\ndissolves five hundred times its own volume of hydro-\\nchloric acid. As the temperature rises, the solubility dimin-\\nishes, so that at 50\u00c2\u00b0 C. only 364 volumes will be dissolved.\\nThe pure gas dissolved in pure water is colorless the\\ncommercial acid, a solution containing about 30% of the\\ngas, owes its yellow color to the presence of a small quan-\\ntity of iron.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "96 CHEMISTRY\\nHydrochloric acid gas may be liquefied at 10\u00c2\u00b0 C. by a\\npressure of forty atmospheres the liquid obtained is color-\\nless, and is almost without action on metals. The aqueous\\nsolution of the gas dissolves iron, zinc, and many other\\nmetals, forming chemical solutions, but it is not as valu-\\nable a solvent as nitric acid, which was formerly called\\nAqua Fortis, or strong water, because of its ability to\\ndissolve so many substances. The mixture of nitric and\\nhydrochloric acids known as Aqua Begia, or royal water,\\nis a better solvent than either of its components. This\\nname was given to it by the alchemists because it dis-\\nsolves gold, which they considered the king of metals;\\nit also dissolves platinum and certain ores, forming chlorids\\nof the metals. Its action is due to the nascent chlorin\\nevolved when the acids are mixed.\\n126. Composition of Hydrochloric Acid. It has been\\nshown that one volume of hydrogen and one volume of\\nchlorin combine to form two volumes of hydrochloric acid;\\nand since the atomic weight of chlorin is 35.5, it follows\\nthat 36.5 parts by weight of hydrochloric acid will contain\\n35.5 parts of chlorin and one part of hydrogen.\\n127. The Manufacture of Hydrochloric Acid. Large quan-\\ntities of hydrochloric acid are now obtained as one of the\\nby-products in the Leblanc process of manufacturing soda-\\nash. In the first stage of this process salt is treated with\\nsulfuric acid, and heated to convert it into sodium sulfate\\nthe hydrochloric acid gas was formerly allowed to escape\\ninto the atmosphere. The acid-laden atmosphere destroyed\\nall vegetable life in the vicinity of the alkali works farms\\nwere rendered worthless, the limestone and metal work\\nof buildings was attacked and destroyed, and the death", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "THE CHLORIN FAMILY 97\\nrate increased. In England the nuisance led to the Alkali\\nAct, which compelled all manufacturers to absorb the\\nhydrochloric acid. This is now accomplished by passing\\nthrough tall brick-lined chimneys loosely tilled with coke\\nor bricks, and at the top of which a spray of water is\\nintroduced. The water at the bottom of the chimney is\\nnearly saturated with the gas. The commercial acid thus\\nprepared is now an important source of income to the\\nmanufacturer.\\n128. Uses. Hydrochloric acid is extensively used in\\nthe preparation of ammonium chlorid, and of bleaching\\npowder, and is an important reagent in the laboratory.\\nSECTION III. OTHER COMPOUNDS OF CHLORIC\\n129. Oxids. By indirect methods two compounds of\\nchlorin and oxygen may be obtained, having the formulas\\nC1 2 and C10 2 they are very unstable compounds, and\\nare, therefore, powerful oxidizing agents, but are of little\\nimportance.\\n130. Acids. Three acids containing hydrogen, chlorin,\\nand oxygen are known\\nHypochlorous acid, HC10\\nChloric acid, HC10 3\\nPerchloric acid, HC10 4\\nThese acids are also very unstable, and are good oxidizing\\nagents they are chiefly important because of the impor-\\ntance of their salts, which will be discussed later.\\n131. Preparation of the Acids. If a perchlorate is treated\\nwith strong sulfuric acid, a sulfate is formed, and perchloric\\nacid may be obtained from the solution by distillation.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "9g CHEMISTRY\\nWhen a solution of a chlorate is treated with sulfuric acid,\\nchloric acid is liberated, but it cannot be separated from the\\nsolution by distillation, because decomposition takes place.\\nIf barium chlorate be used, the sulfate formed is precipi-\\ntated and chloric acid is left in solution.\\nHypochlorous acid cannot be obtained in this way, because\\nit is decomposed by the stronger acids with the liberation\\nof chlorin. It is probable that hypochlorous acid is formed,\\nbut is at once decomposed by the sulfuric acid.\\n132. Formation of Sodium Chlorid by the Action of Hydro-\\nchloric Acid on Baking Soda. If hydrogen sodium carbonate\\n(baking soda) is treated with hydrochloric acid, carbon\\ndioxid, C0 2 is given off and common salt is formed.\\nHC1 HNaC0 3 NaCl H 2 C0 2\\nThis reaction is very similar to that which occurs when\\nbaking powder is moistened, the only difference being that\\nrochelle salt is formed by the baking powder instead of\\ncommon salt. It has been suggested that, inasmuch as\\nrochelle salt is an injurious ingredient in food, and as\\ncommon salt is commonly used, it would be an improvement\\non existing methods of preparing biscuit, if baking soda and\\nhydrochloric acid should be used instead of baking powder.\\nThere are practical difficulties, however, in determining the\\nexact amount of hydrochloric acid to use, and the mistakes\\nwhich would follow its general use would doubtless cause\\nserious illnesses.\\nSECTION IV. BROMIN\\nSymbol Br. Atomic Weight 80\\n133. Occurrence. Bromin does not occur free in nature,\\nbut its compounds, the bromids, are found in small quantities", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "THE CHLORIX FAMILY 99\\nin sea-water and in the waters of certain salt wells and\\nmineral springs. After the extraction of the common salt\\nfrom sea-water, there remains a heavy yellow liquid called\\nbittern, which contains sodium and magnesium bromids\\nthis was formerly the principal source from which the\\nbromin was obtained, but the bromids are found in larger\\nquantities in the upper layers of certain salt deposits, and\\nbromin can therefore be prepared more economically from\\nthese layers than from bittern.\\n134. Preparation. Bromin is prepared by distilling a\\nbromid with manganese dioxid and sulfuric acid and con-\\ndensing the vapor evolved in a well-cooled receiver. It may\\nalso be prepared by treating a bromid with chlorin. The\\nstronger chemical affinity of the chlorin for the metal enables\\nthe chlorin to decompose the bromid, forming a chlorid and\\nsetting the bromin free.\\nExperiment LXIY. 1. Examine liquid bromin while contained\\nin a bottle note its color and odor. (Care.) Is it a mobile or a vis-\\ncous liquid? How do you think its density compares with that of\\nwater Pour a few drops into a test tube containing water. Does\\nthe bromin float on the water or sink Does it dissolve in water\\nIs bromin as soluble as chlorin\\n2. To one or two cubic centimeters of carbon disulfid in a test tube,\\nadd a few drops of the water to which bromin was added. What\\ncolor is obtained This is the test for free bromin.\\n135. Physical Properties. Bromin is the only non-metal-\\nlic element that is a liquid at ordinary temperatures. It is\\nvolatile and very poisonous, and its vapor is more than five\\ntimes as heavy as air.\\n136. Chemical Properties. Bromin closely resembles\\nchlorin in its chemical affinities. It combines directly with\\nmetals and has a strong affinity for hydrogen.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "100 CHEMISTRY\\n137. Uses. The ease with which it abstracts hydrogen\\nfrom substances leads to its use as a disinfectant and to a\\nlimited extent as a decolorizer. Its compounds are used in\\nmedicine and in photography.\\n138. Test. When bromin is dissolved in carbon disulfid,\\nan orange liquid is obtained which is characteristic. It also\\nturns starch a bright yellow color.\\n139. Hydrobromic Acid, HBr. This acid corresponds to\\nhydrochloric acid, which it resembles in its chemical proper-\\nties as well as in composition.\\nSECTION V. IODIN\\nSymbol I. Atomic Weight 127\\n140. Occurrence Like other halogens, iodin occurs in\\nnature only in combination. It is found in sea-water, in\\nthe waters of many mineral springs, and in several impor-\\ntant minerals, but the quantity of iodin present in each\\ncase is exceedingly small. Certain sea-weeds absorb it from\\nsea-water, and much of the iodin of commerce is obtained\\nfrom this source, but the dried weeds contain less than one-\\nhalf of 1 of iodin. The crude sodium nitrate, known as\\nChili saltpetre, contains about 0.2 of iodin, chiefly as\\nsodium iodate. For a number of years the amount of iodin\\nobtained from this source exceeded the total consumption\\nof the whole world.\\n141. Preparation. Iodin may be prepared by distilling\\na salt containing it with manganese dioxid and sulfuric\\nacid, and condensing the vapor in a cooled receiver. A\\nsolution containing an iodin salt may be obtained by leach-\\ning the ashes of sea-weeds, technically known as kelp; or\\nmore economically by boiling the sea-weeds with sodium", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "THE CHLOEIX FAMILY 101\\ncarbonate and filtering. The liquid thus obtained contains\\nbesides the iodin a number of useful substances, which are\\nremoved by precipitation or crystallization, the iodin salts\\nremaining in solution. The solutions obtained by these\\nprocesses are distilled as described above.\\n142. Physical Properties.\\nExperiment LXV. 1. Examine iodin crystals, note the color,\\nlustre, and general form of the crystals.\\n2. Drop a few crystals on a piece of hot sheet iron, holding the\\niron under the hood. 1 Note the color of the vapor.\\n3. Drop a crystal of iodin into a test tube containing water. Does\\nit dissolve Of the three elements chlorin, iodin, and bromin, which\\nis most soluble in water which least soluble which has the greatest\\natomic weight which least\\n4. Drop the smallest particle of iodin that you can pick up on a\\nknife blade into a test tube containing carbon disulfid. Note the color\\nof the solution. This is often used as a test for free iodin.\\nIodin sublimes slowly at ordinary temperatures, con-\\ndensing on the side of the bottle containing it which is\\naway from the light. At 107\u00c2\u00b0 C. it melts, giving off the\\nheaviest known vapor.\\n143. Chemical Properties. The chemical affinities of\\niodin are similar to those of chlorin and bromin, but are\\nless energetic.\\nStarch is turned a dark blue by iodin.\\nExperiment LXVL Belatwe Affinity of Chlorin, Iodin, and\\nBromin for Metals. 1. Pour about 1 cc. of a solution of potassium\\nbromid into a test tube containing an equal amount of carbon disulfid\\nshake the tube. Does bromin in combination change the color of the\\ncarbon disulfid Add a little chlorin water to the mixture, and shake\\nthe tube to mix the liquids thoroughly. Is there any evidence of free\\nchlorin now Which has the stronger affinity for potassium, bromin\\nor chlorin\\n1 In laboratories not provided with a hood, it is suggested that the\\nteacher perform this experiment, dropping the iodin into a flask and\\nheating it", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "102 CHEMISTRY\\n2. Using a solution of potassium iodid instead of potassium bromid,\\nrepeat the experiment. Does iodin in combination change the color\\nof carbon disulfid Does chlorin water set iodin free Which has\\nthe stronger affinity for potassium, iodin or chlorin\\n3. Pour some bromin water into a solution of potassium iodid con-\\ntaining some carbon disulfid. Does bromin water set iodin free\\nWhich has the stronger affinity for potassium Arrange the three\\nelements tested in the order of their affinities for potassium. Also\\narrange them in the order of their atomic weight. Are the lists the\\nsame\\n144. Uses. Dissolved in alcohol it is used in medicine\\nas tincture of iodin. Its compounds are used in photography\\nand the manufacture of aniline.\\n145. Hydriodic Acid, HI. Corresponds to hydrochloric\\nacid.\\nSECTION VI.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 FLUORIN\\nSymbol E. Atomic Weight 19\\n146. Occurrence. This remarkable element does not\\noccur free in nature, and until recently has resisted all\\nattempts to isolate it. Its compounds have long been known.\\nFluorspar, the cubical purple crystal occurring in the\\nNiagara limestone at Rochester, N.Y., and elsewhere, is\\ncalcium fluorid, CaF 2 and cryolite is a double fluorid of\\nsodium and aluminum. Fluorin also occurs in the teeth,\\nbones, and blood of animals.\\n147. Preparation. Fluorin cannot be prepared by the\\nmethod employed in preparing the other members of this\\nfamily, because of its intense chemical energy. Its com-\\npounds are not easily decomposed, and when the chemist\\nsucceeds in decomposing one of them the liberated fluorin\\nusually forms a new compound with some element. It has,\\nin many experiments, combined with the material of the\\nvessel in which it was separated. Gold, platinum, glass, and", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "THE CHLORIN FAMILY 103\\ncarbon vessels have been tried, but in each case a fluoric!\\nwas obtained instead of the element. In 1886, Moissan\\nsolved the problem by electrolyzing a solution of the acid\\npotassium fluoric! in anhydrous hydrofluoric acid in a U-tube\\nmade of an alloy of platinum and iridium.\\n148. Physical Properties. Fluorin is a pale yellow-\\ngreen gas about 1J times heavier than air. Its odor is not\\ndefinitely known, as it attacks the mucous membranes.\\nIts solubility in water is unknown, for it decomposes water,\\nforming hydrofluoric acid, HF.\\n149. Chemical Properties. Fluorin combines with metals,\\nheat and light being developed in some cases in contact\\nwith hydrogen it at once explodes iodin, sulfur, and phos-\\nphorus melt and burst into flame in fluorin; silicon takes\\nfire and burns with great brilliancy, and organic compounds\\nare quickly destroyed in the gas.\\n150. Hydrofluoric Acid, HF. This powerful acid is a\\ncolorless, fuming liquid which must be handled with the\\ngreatest care. Inhaled in a pure state, it causes death, and\\neven when greatly diluted with air, irritates the respiratory\\norgans. A single drop on the skin produces ulcerated sores,\\naccompanied by aching pains throughout the whole body.\\nIt has a strong affinity for water, and mixed with it has the\\npower of dissolving glass. The dry gas does not attack\\nglass, the slightest trace of moisture being necessary. The\\ncommercial acid is a solution in water, and is largely used\\nfor etching designs on glass and for etching the graduations\\nupon measuring glasses, thermometers, etc. It must be\\nkept in gutta percha or wax bottles. The hydrofluoric acid\\nof commerce is prepared by distilling fluorspar and sulfuric\\nacid in leaden retorts and dissolving the vapor in water\\ncontained in a series of leaden bottles.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "104 CHEMISTRY\\n151. Process of Etching Glass.\\nExperiment LXVII. Let each student provide himself with a\\nglass slip such as is used for microscope slides.\\n1. Coat the glass with wax by dipping it in a dish containing\\nmelted beeswax (not too hot) and holding it horizontally while the\\nwax cools.\\n2. Write on the slip with a hat pin, being careful to cut through the\\nwax. The instructor will place a leaden tray under the hood and pour\\ninto it a small amount of commercial hydrofluoric acid and an equal\\nquantity of water.\\n3. Place the slip in the tray, engraved side downward allow it to\\nremain five minutes. Remove the slip with a pair of crucible tongs,\\ndropping it into a basin of water.\\n4. Remove the wax with a knife and wash the slip with benzine.\\nIf a large piece of glass is to be etched, the following process is\\npreferred. It is quite easy by the following process to etch a large\\npane of glass with some appropriate design which provides places for\\nthe autograph of the members of the class.\\nExperiment LXVIII. Alternate. 1. Apply a coat of asphaltum\\nvarnish to the article to be etched. When dry, hold it to the light and\\ntouch up any air bubbles.\\n2. Draw the desired design on paper, sprinkle the asphaltum rather\\nthickly with minium, fasten the corners of the design securely to the\\nglass with mucilage. Trace the design with a stylus, using slight\\npressure this will cause the minium to adhere to the asphaltum where\\nthe stylus has pressed it, and on removing the paper and dusting off\\nthe minium the design will be found on the asphaltum in red lines.\\n3. Cut each line through the asphaltum, using a stylus or a hat pin.\\n4. Pour strong hydrofluoric acid on the design, allowing it to\\nremain for several minutes. Wash the glass with water and remove\\nthe asphaltum with turpentine.\\nThe glass is dissolved by the hydrofluoric acid, and a deep\\nline will be cut wherever the asphaltum has been removed.\\nIf the glass has the formula CaSi0 3 the reaction is as\\nfollows\\nCaSi0 3 6 HF CaF 2 SiF 4 3 H 2 0.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "THE CHLORIN FAMILY\\n105\\n152. Properties of the Elements of the Chlorin Family.\\nThe compounds of the members of this family resemble\\neach other in the shape of their crystals, in their chemical\\nproperties, and in their composition. The properties of the\\nelements seem to depend upon their atomic weight as shown\\nby the following table\\nAtomic\\nWeight\\nState\\nColor of Vapor\\nChemical\\nActivity\\nSolubility\\nFluorin\\nChlorin\\nBromin\\nlodin\\n19\\n35.5\\n80\\n127\\nGas\\nGas\\nLiquid\\nSolid\\nAlmost colorless\\nGreen-yellow\\nRed-brown\\nViolet\\nIt will be observed that as the atomic weight increases,\\nthe density and depth of color of the vapor increase. Fill\\nthe blank spaces in the two right-hand columns.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Describe the process and state the theory of bleaching with\\nchlorin.\\n2. From what is chlorin chiefly obtainable? What property of\\nchlorin renders it valuable in the arts\\n3. Describe the preparation of chlorin from hydrochloric acid.\\n4. If chlorin and hydrogen are mixed and exposed to sunlight,\\nwhat takes place What is the product called What proportions,\\nby volume, of chlorin and hydrogen enter into it What proportions\\nby weight\\n5. Describe two methods of preparing chlorin. Describe an ex-\\nperiment illustrating the affinity of chlorin for metals.\\n6. Tell what you can of hydrochloric acid as to its manufacture,\\nproperties, and uses.\\n7. In what important acid is chlorin an element How does this\\nacid affect many of the metals\\n8. Describe the formation of sodium chlorid by the action of\\nhydrochloric acid on baking soda.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "106 CHEMISTRY\\n9. What is aqua regia\\n10. How did you prove that hydrochloric acid gas was soluble in\\nwater\\n11. State the occurrence, properties of fluorin.\\n12. What difficulties prevent its easy preparation\\n13. State the properties of hydrofluoric acid.\\n14. Describe a process of etching glass.\\n15. Judging from its atomic weight, how would you expect the\\nchemical activity of fluorin to compare with that of the other halogens\\n16. How should its solubility in water compare with the others\\n17. Discuss the physical properties of chlorin as follows (a) color,\\n(b) odor, (c) weight.\\n18. Discuss chemical properties of chlorin as follows (a) chemical\\nenergy, (6) special affinities, (c) relation to combustion, (d) affinities\\nfor hydrogen and carbon.\\n19. Describe the effect of iodin on the skin.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XV\\nSULFUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS\\nSECTION L SULFUR\\nSymbol S. Atomic Weight 32\\n153. Occurrence. In the free state, sulfur is found chiefly\\nin volcanic districts. In this country important deposits\\nare found in California, and in the lava-covered regions of\\nthe eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, particularly in\\nHumboldt County, Nevada. There are also large deposits\\nin Italy, Sicily, Iceland, China, and India. Combined with\\nhydrogen, it occurs in many springs. In combination with\\nmetals as sulficls and sulfates, it occurs in enormous quanti-\\nties in all parts of the world. Many important ores are sul-\\nfids, for example, galena or lead sulfid; cinnabar or mercury\\nsulfid zinc blends or zinc sulfid realgar or arsenic sulfid,\\netc. Gypsum and heavy spar are sulfates.\\n154. Extraction of Sulfur from its Ores. Native sulfur\\nis usually mixed with earthy or mineral substances, from\\nwhich it is separated by igniting a part of the sulfur in a\\nlimited supply of air; the heat of the burning sulfur melts\\nthe rest of the sulfur which is drawn off. In the larger\\nestablishments this is conducted in brick kilns with slop-\\ning bottoms, in which the melted sulfur is collected. Some-\\ntimes the ore is piled up and covered with earth to exclude\\nthe air, and the pile is ignited, and the sulfur settles to the\\n107", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "108 CHEMISTRY\\nbottom of the pile and runs out through channels dug in\\nthe ground. This method is extremely wasteful. Large\\nquantities of sulfur are now obtained as by-products in the\\nprocess of smelting copper pyrites, of making illuminating\\ngas, and in the Leblanc process of making soda ash.\\n155. Refining Sulfur. The crude sulfur obtained by the\\nabove processes is refined by distilling it in earthenware\\nretorts and condensing the vapor in brick chambers if the\\ntemperature of the condensing chamber is below the melting\\npoint of sulfur, the vapor is deposited as a fine powder con-\\nsisting of minute granules and known in commerce as\\nflowers of sulfur if the temperature is above the melting\\npoint, the vapor collects on the floor of the room in a liquid\\nstate. This is drawn off and cast into large cakes or\\ncylindrical rods, the latter form being known as the roll\\nbrimstone in commerce.\\n156. Milk of Sulfur. A third commercial form, called\\nlac sulfur, is obtained by precipitation from solution.\\nIt is somewhat lighter in color than the other commercial\\nforms and usually contains calcium salts in considerable\\nquantity. It is found in nature as a white deposit at the\\nbottom of sulfur springs.\\n157. Behavior of Sulfur at Different Temperatures. At\\n50\u00c2\u00b0 C. sulfur is almost colorless; at ordinary temperature\\nit is a yellow, brittle, crystalline solid; as the temperature\\nis increased a change occurs at 114\u00c2\u00b0 C, another between\\n114\u00c2\u00b0 C. and 150\u00c2\u00b0 C, a third at 230\u00c2\u00b0 C, a fourth between\\n300\u00c2\u00b0 C. and 400\u00c2\u00b0 C, and at 448\u00c2\u00b0 C. it boils.\\nExperiment LXIX. Heat a few grammes of sulfur in a dry test\\ntube. Apply the heat very slowly ami describe all changes of color or\\ndensity which occur. What is the color of the vapor", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "SULFUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS 109\\n158. The Allotropic Forms of Sulfur. Allotropism is the\\nproperty certain substances have of existing in two or more\\nconditions which are distinct in their physical or chemical\\nrelations.\\nExperiment LXX. Prismatic Sulfur. Crystallization by Fusion.\\nMelt a few grainmes of sulfur in a test tube, being careful that it does\\nnot change color. Pour it into a piece of paper folded as for filtering\\nas the crystals begin to form, unfold the paper and hold it vertically\\nuntil the liquid sulfur drains from the crystals. Examine the crystals\\nwith a lens. Describe them. Are they soluble in carbon disulfid\\nThis form is not permanent, but passes slowly into the\\noctohedral form. Its specific gravity is 1.96, a little less\\nthan that of the next variety.\\nExperiment L XXI. Octahedral or Bhombic Sulfur. Crystallization\\nfrom Solution. Place half a gramme on a filter paper, pour a little\\ncarbon disulfid through the filter into a test bottle when it is filtered,\\nset the bottle aside for a few hours. Describe the crystals which are\\nfound in the bottle after the carbon disulfid has evaporated.\\nThis is the most stable form, and therefore the form\\nwhich occurs in nature its specific gravity is 2.05.\\nExperiment LXXII. Plastic Sulfur. Heat a few grammes of\\nsulfur in a test tube until it boils, then pour it into a dish of water.\\nExamine it carefully and describe its properties.\\nPlastic sulfur is not permanent in air, but changes to\\nthe octohedral form in a day or so; its specific gravity\\nis 1.96. Is it soluble in carbon disulfid\\nA fourth form is a white amorphous substance forming\\nabout 5 of flowers of sulfur, from which it may be sepa-\\nrated by dissolving the crystals in carbon disulfid, in which\\nthe white amorphous sulfur is insoluble.\\nExperiment LXXIII. Examine the forms of sulfur which you\\nhave prepared, describe their physical properties, ignite a piece of each,\\nobserve the character of the flame and the odor of the gas formed by\\nthe combustion of each. What evidence do you obtain that sulfur is\\nallotropic", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "HO CHEMISTRY\\nThere are several other allotropic forms, but they are of\\nminor importance; the differences between them may be\\nattributed to the varying number of atoms in the molecule.\\n159. Properties. We have learned some of the more\\nimportant properties of sulfur from the preceding experi-\\nments, but the following additional properties must not be\\noverlooked\\n(a) It is insoluble in water.\\n(b) At high temperatures it has a strong affinity for\\noxygen.\\nAt ordinary temperatures sulfur does not combine with\\noxygen. When heated to about 260\u00c2\u00b0 C. it burns actively and\\nforms sulfur dioxid, S0 2 When one attempts to light it\\nwith a match, they will observe that the time required to\\nignite it depends upon the quantity of sulfur that must be\\nraised to the kindling temperature.\\n(c) Its affinity for metals.\\nExperiment LXXIV. Heat a few grammes of sulfur to boiling\\nhold a spiral of fine copper wire so that the end just dips in the boil-\\ning sulfur. What evidence of chemical action do you observe? Is\\nthe wire changed in appearance Is it still pure copper Test its\\nbrittleness and other physical properties.\\nThe great affinity of sulfur for metal is shown by the\\nlarge number of sulfids found in nature, and also by the\\nactivity with which it combines with metals, the union in\\nmany cases developing heat and light, as in Experiment 19.\\n160. Uses. Sulfur is extensively used in manufacturing\\ncertain substances, among which we may mention gun-\\npowder, fireworks, matches, and sulfuric acid it is also\\nused in the process of vulcanizing caoutchouc, and in the\\npreparation of sulfur dioxid for bleaching and disinfecting.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "SULFUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS HI\\n161. Its Use in Making Lucifer Matches. The low\\nkindling temperature of sulfur, 260\u00c2\u00b0 C, is advantageously\\napplied in making matches. The small amount of phos-\\nphorus on the end of the match stick could not raise the\\nwood to its kindling temperature, but it easily raises sulfur\\nto 260\u00c2\u00b0 C, and the heat of the burning sulfur ignites the\\nwood. In certain kinds of matches paraffin is used for this\\npurpose instead of sulfur, because of the disagreeable odor\\nof burning sulfur.\\nTJie common sulfur match is prepared as follows: The\\nmatch sticks are clipped in melted sulfur to a depth of\\nabout half an inch, and afterward tipped with an emulsion\\nof the following substances\\nOrdinary phosphorus 9 parts\\nSaltpetre 14\\nManganese dioxid 14\\nGlue 16\\nSECTION II. SULFUR DIOXID\\nFormula SOo. Molecular Weight 64\\n162. Occurrence. This substance exists in the gases\\nevolved by volcanoes, and in solution in the springs of cer-\\ntain volcanic regions. It is one of the constituents of coal\\ngas, and is usually present in the air of cities.\\n163. Preparation. Sulfur dioxid is formed when sulfur\\nis burned in air or in oxygen, and for many purposes is best\\nprepared in this way. For experimental purposes the fol-\\nlowing method is preferred\\nExperiment LXXV. In a flask place six or eight pieces of sheet\\ncopper. Pour 5 or 10 cc. of concentrated H2SO4 over it. Arrange\\nthe apparatus for collecting gas over water. Heat gently and can-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "112 CHEMISTRY\\ntiously. The moment the gas begins to come off, lower the flame, and\\nkeep it at such a height that the evolution is regular and not too rapid.\\nAfter concluding whether or not the gas is soluble in water, collect a\\nbottle by downward displacement. It is more than twice as heavy as\\nair. Determine whether the gas will burn or support combustion.\\nWhat effect has the solution of the gas on litmus paper Allow the\\ngas to bubble through a solution of potassium permanganate, a solu-\\ntion of chromic acid, a solution of iodin. What effect has the gas on\\nthe color of the solution Note the physical properties of the gas.\\nThe relation between the factors and the products in this\\nreaction is shown by the following equation\\nCu 2 H 2 SO, CuS0 4 2 HoO S0 2\\nIt is probable, however, that the copper acts upon a\\nmolecule of the acid, and that the nascent hydrogen reduces\\nthe second molecule of the acid, as was explained in Ex-\\nperiment 57, in which copper apparently reduced nitric\\nacid.\\n164. Properties. At ordinary pressure sulfur dioxid is\\ncondensed to a liquid at 10\u00c2\u00b0 C. If the gas be passed\\nthrough a tube packed in ice and salt, it is liquefied at\\nordinary pressure. At ordinary temperatures it liquefies\\nunder a pressure of 75 pounds per square inch. The sudden\\nevaporation of liquid sulfur dioxid causes intense cold, and\\nthe liquid is often used as a refrigerating agent. Sulfur\\ndioxid is irrespirable and perhaps poisonous. It destroys\\ncertain kinds of germs, particularly those which cause fer-\\nmentation and decay of organic substances. Its effect on\\ndisease germs is very much overestimated, but when used\\nin large quantity it is a valuable disinfectant. Sulfur\\ndioxid combines with water to form sulfurous acid, H 2 S0 3\\nwhich has a strong affinity for oxygen, and which takes it\\nfrom many substances. In certain cases sulfur dioxid is\\nsaid to bleach moist substances by abstracting the oxygen", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "SULFUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS 113\\nfrom the water, the nascent hydrogen reducing the coloring\\nmatter, a process which is the reverse of that by which\\nchlorin destroys color. In other cases the bleaching action\\nis due to the formation of a colorless compound by the\\nsulfur dioxid and the pigment, and in such cases the color\\nmay be restored by any chemical which will decompose the\\ncompound formed. The yellow color which flannel gradu-\\nally acquires when washed with soap is an illustration of\\nthe power of alkalies to restore the original color of sub-\\nstances bleached with sulfur dioxid.\\n165. Uses. It is extensively used in bleaching straw,\\nsilk, and woollen goods, or any material that would be in-\\njured by chlorin. There are two processes\\nFirst. By suspending the article to be bleached in the\\nfumes of burning sulfur.\\nSecond. By immersing the substance in an aqueous\\nsolution of the gas.\\nExperiment LXXVI. Suspend a colored flower in a bell jar and\\nburn sulfur under it. After the flower is bleached, dip it into dilute\\nsulfuric acid. What occurs\\nAs sulfur dioxid prevents fermentation, it is sometimes\\nused in preserving fruit juice. The juices are treated with\\nsome substance that gives off the gas slowly, e.g. any sulfite.\\nNote. The writer is unable to see why a substance which will\\nprevent fermentation in the air should not prevent fermentation in\\nthe stomach, or digestion, thus rendering the articles of food preserved\\nin this way worse than useless.\\nSulfur dioxid is sometimes used to extinguish fires in\\nclosed rooms or chimneys. If sulfur is thrown on the fire,\\nit is ignited, using up the oxygen and filling the space with\\na non-supporter of combustion.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "114 CHEMISTRY\\nLiquid sulfur clioxid produces intense cold if rapidly\\nevaporated, and is sometimes used for freezing purposes;\\nit is also extensively used as a disinfectant, in the manu-\\nfacture of sulfuric acid, and as an antichlor in paper mills.\\nSECTION III. HYDROGEN SULFID\\nFormula H 2 S. Molecular Weight 34\\n166. Occurrence. This compound issues from the earth\\nin volcanic regions decomposing organic substances con-\\ntaining sulfur evolve it, and the water of sulfur springs\\nowes its characteristic properties to the dissolved hydrogen\\nsulfid present.\\n167. Preparation. (a) Hydrogen sulfid may be formed\\nby synthesis, by passing streams of hydrogen and sulfur\\nvapor through a hot porcelain tube, (b) In the laboratory\\nit is usually prepared by decomposing a sulfid with an acid.\\nExperiment L XXVII. 1. Arrange your apparatus as for prepa-\\nration of hydrogen, page 42.\\n2. Place a few grains of iron sulfid in the generating bottle and\\ncover it with dilute sulfuric acid. Collect two bottles of the gas over\\nwater test the water with litmus paper.\\n3. Is the gas soluble in water\\n4. Determine whether the gas should be collected by upward or\\ndownward displacement, and fill three bottles.\\n5. Is the gas combustible or a supporter of combustion\\n6. Devise a test which will show whether the gas is explosive when\\nmixed with air.\\n7. Apply a lighted match to the mouth of a bottle of the gas, and\\nlook for evidence of the formation of water, or sulfur dioxid, or both.\\nWhich element of the hydrogen sulfid is deposited on the sides of the\\nbottle\\n8. Pass H 2 S successively through solutions containing lead nitrate,\\nzinc sulfate, copper sulfate, cadmium chlorid, and arsenic chlorid.\\nWhat do you observe in each case The substances formed are re-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "SULFUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS 115\\nspectively the sulfids of lead, zinc, copper, cadmium, and arsenic.\\nThe reaction in the case of copper sulfate is as follows\\nC11SO4 H 2 S CuS H2SO4.\\n9. Describe the odor of the gas and the character of its flame.\\nWhen hydrogen sulfid is prepared by treating iron sulfid with sulfuric\\nacid the following reaction occurs\\nFeS H 2 S0 4 FeS0 4 H 2 S.\\n168. Properties. Hydrogen sulfid is a powerful poison.\\nIn an abundant quantity of air it burns, forming sulfur\\ndioxid and water. When the supply of oxygen is limited\\none of the elements is not completely consumed, as was\\nshown in Experiment 77. At ordinary pressures, hydrogen\\nsulfid is liquefied at 62\u00c2\u00b0 C. at ordinary temperatures it\\nalso liquefies when subjected to a pressure of about seven-\\nteen atmospheres. The acid reaction of the aqueous solu-\\ntion of hydrogen sulfid has led chemists to consider it an\\nacid, and it is often called hydrosulfuric acid the sulfids\\nare considered its salts. Hydrogen sulfid is very unstable\\nat a temperature slightly above 400\u00c2\u00b0 C. its molecule is\\nbroken up it is decomposed by all of the halogens many\\nmetals act upon it at ordinary temperatures, replacing its\\nhydrogen and forming sulfids. Because of its instability,\\nhydrogen sulfid often acts as an excellent reducing agent,\\nits efficiency being due to the action of nascent hydrogen.\\n169. Uses. Hydrogen sulfid is extensively used in\\nchemical analysis. When a solution containing certain\\nbasic elements is treated with this gas, a sulfid is formed\\nwhich may be recognized by its color, or by its behavior\\nwhen treated with certain solvents. Several sulfids are in-\\nsoluble in an acid solution, and are, therefore, deposited as\\nsolids, or precipitated, when gas is passed into an acid solu-\\ntion containing them. Others are soluble in an acid, but", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "11(3 CHEMISTRY\\ninsoluble in an alkaline solution, and are therefore precipi-\\ntated from alkaline solutions. Still others are soluble in\\nwater, and remain in solution. These properties form the\\nbasis of the system of qualitative analysis generally used.\\n170. Test. (a) For Hydrogen Sulfid.\\n1. The free gas may be detected by its odor.\\n2. A piece of filter paper moistened with lead acetate is\\nblackened by the gas.\\n(b) For Sulfids.\\n1. Sulfids are decomposed by hydrochloric acid, with\\nevolution of hydrogen sulfid, which may be recognized as\\nin (a).\\n2. Pulverize the substance to be tested, mix with sodium\\ncarbonate, Na 2 C0 3 on a bit of porcelain or platinum foil,\\nand fuse it in the Bunsen flame. Place the fused mass on\\na clean silver coin and add a drop of water. If a sulfid be\\npresent, a black spot will appear on the silver. Silver is\\nblackened by vulcanized rubber and by eggs. What does\\nthis indicate?\\nSECTION IV. SULFURIC ACID\\n(OIL OF VITRIOL)\\nFormula H 2 S0 4 Molecular Weight 98\\n171. Occurrence. Small quantities of sulfuric acid are\\nfound in some rivers and springs in volcanic regions; its\\nsalts are quite abundant.\\n172. Preparation. Sulfuric acid cannot be easily pre-\\npared from its salts, but is manufactured on a large scale\\nby oxidizing sulfurous acid the chemical changes involved\\nin the process are rudely illustrated in the following experi-\\nment.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "SULFUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS 117\\nExperiment LXXYIII. Pour water into your largest bottle to a\\ndepth of about one inch, lower burning sulfur into the bottle, using an\\nignition spoon cover the bottle with a glass plate. After the sulfur\\nis extinguished, stir the sulfur dioxid in the bottle with a glass rod\\ndipped in nitric acid. Is there any evidence of the formation of nitro-\\ngen peroxid Of nitric oxid When the sulfur dioxid has changed\\ncolor, cover the bottle with the hand and shake it, dissolving the gases.\\nRepeat the process three times over the same layer of water bring a\\nsample of the sulfuric acid thus formed to the desk to be tested.\\n173. The Chemical Changes involved in this process are\\nindicated in the following reactions\\nS0 2 +H 2 H 2 S0 3\\nH 2 S0 3 H 2 S0 4\\nNitric acid is used to hasten this oxidation of the sul-\\nfurons acid, which takes place very slowly in air its action\\nis represented thus\\n2 HN0 3 3 S0 2 2 H 2 3 H 2 S0 4 2 NO.\\nNitric acid is much more expensive than sulfuric, and if it\\nwere not for the interesting action of the nitric oxid formed\\nin the last reaction, nitric acid could not be used for this\\npurpose. It will be remembered that nitric oxid takes\\noxygen from the air, forming nitrogen peroxid, and that\\nnitrogen peroxid is an excellent oxidizing agent. The nitro-\\ngen peroxid converts another molecule of sulfurous acid into\\nsulfuric acid, and is again reduced to nitric oxid thus\\nNO N0 2\\nNO, H 2 S0 3 H 2 S0 4 NO.\\nThe nitric oxid therefore acts as a carrier of oxygen from\\nthe air to the sulfurous acid, alternately abstracting it from\\nthe air and giving it up to the sulfurous acid theoretically", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "118 CHEMISTRY\\nthere is no limit to the number of molecules of sulfurous acid\\nthat may be oxidized by a single molecule of nitric oxid.\\n174. Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid. On a manufacturing\\nscale this reaction is carried on in lead-lined chambers\\nusually about 100 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 20 feet high,\\nseveral of these chambers being connected so that the gases\\nmay pass from one to another. Lead is selected for this\\npurpose because dilute sulfuric acid does not dissolve it.\\nNo other metals can be used with the lead, as electric action\\nwould ensue, and one of the metals would be dissolved.\\nThe leaden chamber must therefore be lined without solder\\nand without nails; the sheets of lead are joined by melting\\nthe edges with an oxyhydrogen blowpipe and are supported\\nby straps of lead fastened to the outside of the lining.\\nAt one end of a series of such chambers are furnaces in\\nwhich sulfur dioxid is formed by burning sulfur or iron\\npyrites in a supply of air which is carefully controlled to\\nprevent too great dilution of the gases or too small a supply\\nof oxygen. The gas from these furnaces heats the nitre\\npots, or vessels containing potassium nitrate and sulfuric\\nacid, which form nitric acid. From this point, the air,\\nsulfur dioxid, and nitric acid are conducted to the leaden\\nchambers. Jets of steam pour into the chambers at frequent\\nintervals. At the end of the last chamber of the series is\\na leaden tower filled with coke a spray of strong sulfuric\\nacid flows in at the top of this tower and absorbs nitrogen\\nperoxid and returns it to the chamber. From this tower\\nthe gases pass into a tall chimney which creates a strong\\ndraft and causes the circulation of the gases within the\\nchamber.\\nThe acid formed is collected on the floor of the chamber,\\nand is removed when rather dilute, as the strong acid dis-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "SULFUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS 119\\nsolves the lead. It is then heated in glass or platinum\\nstills until it contains only two per cent of water, when it\\nis ready for the consumer.\\n175. Properties. (a) At ordinary temperature pure sul-\\nfuric acid is a colorless, oily liquid 1.8 times heavier than\\nwater. At 10.5\u00c2\u00b0 C. it freezes, (b) It has a marked affinity\\nfor water when mixed with it much heat is evolved, and\\na contraction in volume takes place. Sulfuric acid does not\\nevaporate at ordinary temperatures, but absorbs moisture\\nfrom the air, increasing in volume quite rapidly in moist\\nweather unless kept in tightly stoppered bottles. Many\\norganic substances containing hydrogen and oxygen are\\ndecomposed by sulfuric acid, these elements being extracted\\nin the proportions in which they form water. Experiment 2\\nillustrates this fact. Wood is charred by the acid, because\\nit loses its hydrogen and oxygen, (c) Sulfuric acid forms\\nseveral definite compounds with water, the greatest amount\\nof heat being developed when two molecules of water com-\\nbine with one of sulfuric acid, (cl) At high temperatures\\nsulfuric acid forms more stable compounds with the bases\\nthan most other acids, and therefore when sulfuric acid is\\nheated with a salt, a sulfate is formed and the acid which\\nthe salt contained is liberated. Nearly all processes of\\npreparing acids are based upon this ability of sulfuric acid\\nto decompose salts.\\n176. Uses. Sulfuric acid is our most important reagent.\\nMost chemical industries depend upon it e.g. the refining\\nof petroleum, also the manufacture of artificial fertilizers,\\nphosphorus, sodium carbonate, and alum. In the laboratory\\nit is used for drying gases, in the preparation of most acids,\\nand in many other reactions with several of which the\\nstudent is already familiar.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "120 CHEMISTRY\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. In what four allotropic forms does sulfur occur What does\\nallotropic mean\\n2. In what forms is sulfur known in commerce\\n3. State the color, odor, weight, and state of sulfur dioxid.\\n4. Describe the extraction of sulfur from its ores, and discuss its\\nbehavior at different temperatures.\\n5. Compare the crystals of sulfur formed by solution with the\\ncrystals of sulfur formed by fusion.\\n6. Describe the manufacture of matches.\\n7. Describe the preparation of hydrogen sulfid. Give equation.\\n8. For what is hydrogen sulfid used in the chemical laboratory\\nDiscuss its instability.\\n9. What inorganic substance is found in vulcanized rubber How\\nmay the rubber be tested for its presence\\n10. Describe the manufacture of sulfuric acid write the reactions\\nwhich take place, and give its uses.\\n11. For what purpose is nitric acid used in the manufacture of\\nsulfuric acid\\n12. Describe the method of preparing sulfur dioxid from sulfuric\\nacid. State two purposes for which sulfur dioxid is used in large\\nquantities.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVI\\nCERTAIN CHEMICAL RELATIONS\\n177. Basicity of Acids. An acid which, contains only\\none replaceable hydrogen atom is said to be monobasic.\\nHydrochloric and nitric acids belong to this class.\\nAn acid which contains two replaceable hydrogen atoms is\\nsaid to be dibasic. Sulfuric acid, H 2 SO^ and carbonic acid,\\nH 2 C0 3 belong to this class. The terms tribasic, tetrabasic,\\netc., are applied to acids having three, four, etc., replaceable\\nhydrogen atoms.\\nA dibasic acid may form a compound with certain basic\\nelements like sodium, in which only one of the hydrogen\\natoms is replaced; the salt thus formed frequently reddens\\nblue litmus paper and has the power to neutralize more of\\nthe basic element as it retains some of the properties of\\nthe acid* it is called an acid salt. The salt formed when\\nboth of the hydrogen atoms are replaced is an entirely dis-\\ntinct substance and is called a normal salt. Hydrochloric\\nand nitric acids can form but one salt with a given element,\\nbut the dibasic acids may form two salts with a single\\nmetal as is illustrated below:\\nACID SALTS\\nPotassium acid sulfate, HKS0 4\\nSodium acid sulfate, HjSTaS0 4\\nPotassium acid carbonate (saleratus), HKC0 3\\nSodium acid carbonate (baking soda), HN aC0 3\\n121", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "122\\nCHEMISTRY\\nNORMAL SALTS\\nPotassium sulfate, K 2 S0 4\\nSodium sulfate, Na^SC^\\nSodium carbonate (washing soda), Na 2 C0 3\\nPotassium carbonate (pearl-ash), K 2 C0 3\\nAcids of higher basicity also form both acid and normal\\nsalts.\\nAn acid salt is one that contains replaceable hydrogen.\\nA normal salt is one in ivhich the whole of the replaceable\\nhydrogen has been replaced by the base.\\n178. The Theory of Valence. Considering the formulas\\nof the binary compounds of hydrogen, we observe that the\\nelements differ in respect to the number of atoms of hydro-\\ngen with which they combine, and that they may be ar-\\nranged in classes upon this basis. The following formulas\\nillustrate this fact\\nI\\nII\\nill\\nIV\\nHF\\nH 2\\nNH 3\\nCH 4\\nHC1\\nH 2 S\\nPH 3\\n*SiH 4\\nHBr\\nH 2 Se\\nAsH 3\\nHI\\nThe formulas of the chlorids show a similar difference\\nin the number of atoms of the hydrogen of hydrochloric\\nacid which the elements can replace, thus\\n1\\nII\\nin\\nIV\\nV\\nNaCl\\nKC1\\nAgCl\\nCaCl 2\\nBaCl 2\\nZnCla\\nBiCl 3\\nSbCl 3\\nSnCU\\nCC1 4\\nFCI5", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "CERTAIN CHEMICAL RELATIONS\\n123\\nTlie ability of an element to combine with or replace hydro-\\ngen is called valence.\\nElements are said to be univalent, bivalent, trivalent, etc.,\\nas they combine with or replace one, two, three, etc., atoms\\nof hydrogen.\\nThe terms monad, dyad, and triad are sometimes used\\ninstead of univalent, bivalent, and trivalent, but the latter\\nterms are to be preferred.\\nValence of the Elements\\nUnii\\n^alent\\nBivalent\\nTrivalent\\nQuadrivalent\\nF\\n19\\n16\\nSb 120\\nAl 27\\nCI\\n35.5\\nS 32\\nAs 75\\nC 12\\nBr\\n80\\nCa 40\\nBi 208\\nCr 52\\nI\\n127\\nSr 87.5\\nB 11\\nH\\n1\\nBa 137\\nP 31\\nNa\\n23\\nCd 112\\nN 14\\nK\\n39\\nFe 56\\nLi\\n7\\n63\\nAg\\n108\\nSn 118\\nAil\\n186\\nZn 65\\nHg 200\\nThe valence of an element is often indicated by Roman\\nnumerals written above the symbol to the right, thus\\nFe^ indicates quadrivalent iron. Valence may also be\\nindicated in graphic formula by the number of lines drawn\\nto a symbol, thus, CH 4 may be written\\nH\u00e2\u0080\u0094 C\u00e2\u0080\u0094 H, and H,0 becomes H\u00e2\u0080\u0094 O\u00e2\u0080\u0094 H.\\nI\\nH\\nAlthough the valence of many of the elements appears", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "124 CHEMISTRY\\nto be variable, the classification is of great assistance in\\nwriting the formulas of the common compounds. Thus, if\\none desires to write the formula of the sulfate of a univa-\\nlent element, he knows that there must be as many atoms\\nof the element as there are atoms of hydrogen in sulfuric\\nacid; i.e. he considers that the sulfate is formed by re-\\nplacing the hydrogen of the acid with the given element.\\nPotassium sulphate, K 2 S0 4 may be taken as a type of the\\nsulfates of univalent metals calcium sulfate, CaS0 4 as\\na type of the sulfates of bivalent metals and antimony\\nsulfate, Sb 2 (S0 4 3 of trivalent metals.\\n179. The Nascent State.\\nThe term nascent state is convenient, but is not very accurate,\\nbecause it implies that the substance to which it is applied has been\\nliberated from some compound, and exists in some unusual form or\\nstate in which it possesses unusual chemical energy, whereas the\\nnascent element does not exist in the free state at all, but passes\\ndirectly from the molecule of the factor to that of the product. The\\nlesser chemical energy in its normal state is, no doubt, due to the\\nfact that two or more atoms of the element are united to form a\\nmolecule, and, whatever the nature of the force which holds them\\ntogether, energy must be expended to overcome it before the atoms\\ncan form new combinations. Now, in the case of the so-called nascent\\nelement it will be seen that the chemical change involves at least\\nthree molecules, that one of these molecules has the power to decom-\\npose a second molecule and replace some of its atoms, and that the\\nthird molecule is, therefore, acted upon by the full chemical energy\\nof the nascent atom.\\nThe following diagrams will assist the student to understand the\\nincreased chemical activity of nascent hydrogen. An atom of copper\\nhas the power to displace the hydrogen of two molecules of the\\nacid forming copper nitrate, Cu(X0 3 2 The copper atom attracts\\nthe NO3 group of atoms, and then hydrogen is at the same time\\nattracted by the HO group of a neighboring molecule of nitric acid,\\nand, under the action of these forces, a rearrangement of the atoms is\\neffected, forming, at the same instant, molecules of copper nitrate,\\nwater, and nitrogen peroxid.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "CERTAIN CHEMICAL RELATIONS 125\\nHO N0 2\\nX H.N0 3\\nH.NOs\\nHO N0 2\\nIf hydrogen gas be passed through nitric acid, the case is quite\\ndifferent. The hydrogen atoms are held together by a certain force,\\nand the HO group is held to the N0 2 group. The attraction between\\nthe atom of hydrogen and the HO group is not great enough to over-\\ncome the attraction between the hydrogen atoms and to separate the\\nHO and the NO2 groups at the same time.\\nHO.NO2 HO.N0 2\\nV/\\nIn the nascent state, then, monatomic elements should not show\\nincreased activity, while all others should.\\n180. Avogadro s Law. An Italian physicist named Avo-\\ngadrOj who had been studying the specific gravities of aeri-\\nform bodies, in 1811 announced his belief that under like\\nconditions of temperature and pressure equal volumes of all\\ngases, icJiether simple or compound, contain the same number\\nof molecules. Although this important law was not at once\\naccepted, it can now be shown mathematically that in order\\nthat equal volumes of gases may expand and contract\\nequally under like changes of temperature or pressure, it\\nis necessary that each volume contain the same number\\nof molecules.\\n181. Some Deductions from Avogadro s Law. 1. It will\\nbe observed that the vapor densities and the atomic weights\\nof the first nine elements in the following table are numeri-\\ncally equal. There are, therefore, in equal volumes of these\\nelements the same number of atoms, and as there are also", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "126\\nCHEMISTRY\\nthe same number of molecules in the equal volumes, it\\nfollows that there must be the same number of atoms in each\\nmolecule of each of the nine elements.\\nTable of Vapor Densities and Atomic Weights\\nElements\\nAtomic\\nWeight\\nMolecular\\nWeight\\nVapor\\nDensity\\nHydrogen\\nNitrogen\\n1\\n14\\n16\\n19\\n32\\n35.5\\n79\\n80\\n127\\n2\\n28\\n32\\n38\\n64\\n71\\n158\\n180\\n254\\n1\\n14\\n16\\nFluorin\\nSulfur\\n19\\n32\\nChlorin\\nSelenium\\nBromin\\nIodin\\n35.5\\n79\\n80\\n127\\nSodium\\nPotassium\\nZinc\\nCadmium\\nMercury\\n23\\n39\\n65\\n112\\n200\\n31\\n75\\n23\\n39\\n65\\n112\\n200\\n124\\n300\\n11.5\\n19.5\\n32.5\\n56\\n100\\n62\\nArsenic\\n150\\nCompounds\\nMolecular\\nWeight\\nVapor\\nDensity\\nWater, H 2\\nHydrochloric acid, HC1\\nHydriodic acid, HI\\n18\\n36.5\\n81\\n128\\n17\\n28\\n44\\n44\\n9\\n18.25\\n40.5\\n64\\n8.5\\nCarbon monoxid, CO\\nCarbon dioxid, C0 2\\nNitrogen monoxid, N 2\\n14\\n22\\n22", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "CERTAIN CHEMICAL RELATIONS\\n127\\n2. It has been proven experimentally that one litre of\\nhydrogen and one litre of chlorin form two litres of hydro-\\nchloric acid hence, according to Avogadro s law, x molecules\\nof hydrogen plus x molecules of chlorin form 2 x molecules\\nof hydrochloric acid but in 2 molecules of hydrochloric\\nacid there are 2x atoms of hydrogen, therefore in each\\nmolecule of hydrogen there must be at least two atoms of\\nhydrogen and further, the molecules of each of the first nine\\nelements in the table must contain at least tivo atoms.\\nMolecules which consist of tivo atoms are said to be diatomic.\\nThe following diagrams will assist the student in follow-\\ning this line of thought\\nMolecules consist of Single Atoms\\nb o o\\nMolecules consist of Two Atoms\\n\\\\6\\n9\\n1\\nsi*\\nCO\\nMIXED\\nf\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a20\\n*8\\nOS\\nd\u00c2\u00bb\\no 2 o\\no\\nMIXED\\nIn the above diagrams an atom of hydrogen is represented\\nby the symbol and one of chlorin by O. The size of\\nthe squares accords with the fact that one volume of hydro-\\ngen and one volume of chlorin form two volumes of hydro-\\nchloric acid.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "128 CHEMISTRY\\n3. The atomic weights of sodium, potassium, zinc, and\\ncadmium, are respectively twice their vapor densities. That\\nis to say, whereas the atom of sodium is 23 times as heavy\\nas the atom of hydrogen, a litre of sodium vapor is only 11.5\\ntimes as heavy as a litre of hydrogen. Hence, in a litre\\nof sodium vapor there are only half as many atoms as there\\nare in a litre of hydrogen. But according to Avogadro s\\nlaw, the number of molecules in the litre of sodium vapor\\nis the same as the number of molecules in the litre of\\nhydrogen; therefore, there are only half as many atoms in\\na molecule of sodium as there are in a molecule of hydrogen.\\nIf the hydrogen molecule is diatomic, the sodium molecule\\nis monatomic, and so also are the molecules of potassium,\\nzinc, and cadmium. Similar reasoning shows that the mole-\\ncules of phosphorus and arsenic have twice as many atoms as\\nthe molecule of hydrogen. If hydrogen is diatomic, these\\nelements are tetra-atomic, and the molecular weight is four\\ntimes their atomic weight.\\n4. It icill be observed that the density of any gas or vapor\\nis numerically equal to half its molecidar iveight. This is due\\nto the fact that molecular weights are expressed in terms\\nof the weight of au atom of hydrogen, while the density is\\nbased upon the weight of a molecule of hydrogen.\\n5. Inasmuch as there are equal numbers of molecules\\nin equal volumes of all gaseous substances, we may learn\\nfrom an equation expressing chemical action between gases\\nthe relative volumes of each of the factors and products,\\nprovided we are careful to write the reactions so that they\\nexpress the relation between molecules instead of atoms.\\nThe equation\\nH CI HC1\\nis an atomic equation because two of the terms represent\\natoms, but if we write it thus,", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "CERTAIN CHEMICAL RELATIONS 129\\nH 2 Clo 2 HC1,\\nit represents the action as taking place between molecules.\\nFrom this equation we see that one molecule of hydrogen\\nunites with one molecule of chlorin to form two molecules\\nof hydrochloric acid; therefore, one volume of hydrogen\\nunites with one volume of chlorin to form two volumes of\\nhydrochloric acid.\\nThe equation K 2 3H 2 =2NH 3\\nshows us that one volume of nitrogen unites with three\\nvolumes of hydrogen to form two volumes of ammonia.\\nEvery molecular equation which represents a reaction between\\ngases expresses the volumetric relations of the factors and\\nproducts.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Give the symbols of a dibasic acid and the symbols of their\\nsalts which fully illustrate the basic properties of that acid.\\n2. Name, define, and illustrate two great classes of salts.\\n3. Write names and symbols of three univalent elements, three\\nbivalent elements, and three trivalent elements.\\n4. State the theory of valence.\\n5. When are elements said to be in a nascent state What\\npeculiarity do most substances exhibit when in this state Illustrate.\\n6. What does the following equation teach us concerning the vol-\\numetric composition of water\\n2 H 2 2 2 n 2 o.\\n7. State the composition of sulfur dioxid by weight and by volume.\\n8. State the valence of the metals forming chlorids having the fol-\\nlowing formulas CaCl 2 KC1, NaCl.\\n9. Sulfur forms a compound having the formula SH 2 What is the\\nvalence of the sulfur", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVII\\nTHE ALKALI METALS\\nSECTION I.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 POTASSIUM AND ITS COMPOUNDS\\n182. Thus far we have considered only acid-forming\\nelements. It is true that some of them manifest basic\\nproperties when combined with the stronger acid-forming\\nelements, but considering all of their properties, they are\\nclassed with the acid-formers. We can have only time to\\ndiscuss the most important basic elements, and a few of\\ntheir compounds. The principal alkali metals are lithium,\\npotassium, and sodium. Ammonium is treated as a member\\nof this family because of its strong basic properties, but it\\nmust be remembered that it is a radical and not an element.\\nPOTASSIUM\\nSymbol K. Atomic Weight 39\\n183. Occurrence. Potassium is not found free in nature\\nin combination, chiefly as a silicate it occurs in many min-\\nerals. The older rocks, such as granite and gneiss, contain\\na large percentage of feldspar, a silicate of aluminum and\\npotassium. Potassium compounds are necessary constitu-\\nents of all fruitful soils. They are absorbed by the plants,\\nnone of which can live without them.\\n184. Preparation and Properties. At one time the chief\\nsource of this element was wood ashes, from which it may\\nbe obtained as a carbonate. Xow the chief source is the\\n130", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "THE ALKALI METALS 131\\ndeposit of potassium salts found near Stassfurt in Germany.\\nMetallic potassium is prepared by distilling the carbonate\\nwith charcoal, with the following reaction\\nK 2 C0 3 +2C 2K 3CO.\\nPotassium is a light metal with a bright metallic lustre,\\nit floats on water, decomposing it with the evolution of\\nsufficient heat to ignite the hydrogen liberated. The follow-\\ning equation explains the reaction which occurs\\nK H 2 KOH H.\\nIt oxidizes rapidly and must be kept under naphtha or\\nsome liquid which does not contain oxygen. Potassium\\nand its compounds communicate a violet tint to flame.\\nExperiment LXXIX. Drop a small piece of potassium in water.\\nDescribe fully all that occurs. Xote the color of the flame. What\\ngas has evolved What remained in solution Is it an acid or a\\nbase Test the water with litmus.\\n185. Potassium Hydroxid, KOH (Caustic Potash). This\\nsubstance is prepared by heating potassium carbonate with\\nslacked lime in an iron vessel. In what other way may it\\nbe prepared It is a white, brittle solid, usually cast into\\nsticks, is extremely deliquescent, 1 and dissolves in water\\nwith evolution of heat. It is one of the strongest bases\\nknown, and is therefore an important reagent in the labo-\\nratory. It is also used in the manufacture of Bohemian\\nglass and of soft soap. It attacks the flesh, and is some-\\ntimes used as a cautery.\\n186. Potassium Nitrate, KN0 3 (Saltpetre). The occur-\\nrence of this salt is discussed on pages 40 and 76. It\\nis formed in warm climates by the action of microbes on\\n1 Define term.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "132 CHEMISTRY\\norganic refuse rich in nitrogen. Saltpetre plantations,\\nwhere the salt is prepared artificially from soil in the\\nneighborhood of ancient villages which has became satu-\\nrated with animal refuse, are found in India, but the greater\\npart of the potassium nitrate is now obtained by treating\\nsodium nitrate with potassium chlorid. Potassium nitrate\\nis a colorless crystal, very permanent in air, and easily solu-\\nble in water. It is an excellent oxidizing agent. Because\\nof its permanence in air, it is extensively used in the manu-\\nfacture of gunpowder and in pyrotechny.\\n187. Gunpowder is a mixture of saltpetre, charcoal, and\\nsulfur, the proportion varying somewhat in the different\\ngrades, but it is approximately as follows\\nSaltpetre 75%\\nCharcoal 15\\nSulfur 10%\\nIts explosive power is due to a complex chemical change\\nwhich converts about half of its weight into gases; the\\nremainder of the powder forms solids which cause the\\nsmoke, and which render frequent cleaning of the gun\\nnecessary. The explosion of ordinary gunpowder forms\\nseven different gases and ten solids. The smokeless\\npowders are converted into gases only.\\n188. Potassium Chlorate, KC10 3 is chiefly valuable as an\\noxidizing agent. It is used in making parlor matches, in\\nfireworks, medicine, and dyeing.\\nExperiment LXXX. Place a little potassium chlorate in a beaker,\\ncover it with water, drop a small piece of phosphorus into the water.\\nand pour about cc. of concentrated sulfuric acid through a funnel\\ntube which extends to the bottom of the beaker. Does combustion", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "THE ALKALI METALS 133\\ntake place What substances present might furnish oxygen for com-\\nbustion Did it occur before the sulfuric acid was added Does\\nit occur if potassium chlorate is absent Try it. Whence does the\\noxygen come State the physical properties of potassium chlorate.\\n189. Potassium Carbonate, K 2 C0 3 In America this salt\\nis usually prepared by leaching wood ashes. The ashes are\\nplaced in a barrel, water is poured on them and drawn off\\nat the bottom. It dissolves the soluble salts. The potash\\nlye thus obtained contains considerable quantities of potas-\\nsium carbonate. The salt is prepared from the liquid by\\nevaporation, and is known as potash. When refined it is\\ncalled pearl-ash. It is a deliquescent salt with a strong\\nalkaline reaction.\\n190. Potassium Acid Carbonate, KHC0 3 (Saleratus). This\\nfamiliar salt is prepared by passing a current of carbon\\ndioxid through a solution of the normal carbonate.\\nUses. Cooking, bleaching hair.\\nSECTION II. SODIUM\\nSymbol Na. Atomic Weight 23\\n191. Occurrence. The compounds of sodium are widely\\ndistributed, and some of them are found in enormous de-\\nposits. The chlorid is the most abundant, but large deposits\\nof the nitrate, carbonate, silicate, and borate are found in\\ncertain parts of the world.\\n192. Preparation and Properties. Sodium is prepared by\\ndistilling sodium carbonate with charcoal. It resembles\\npotassium in its physical and chemical properties. It\\nfloats on water, decomposing it, but does not always ignite\\nthe evolved hydrogen. Ifc oxidizes rapidly in the presence\\nof moisture, and is used as a reducing agent in the prep-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "134 CHEMISTRY\\naration of certain metals. When sodium and potassium\\nare melted together under petroleum, an alloy is formed\\nwhich is a liquid at ordinary temperatures, and which is\\nused in themometers for measuring high temperatures\\nwhich would vaporize mercury. Sodium and all of its\\ncompounds impart a yellow color to flame.\\n193. Sodium Hydroxid, NaOH (Caustic Soda), like potas-\\nsium hydroxid, is prepared by boiling a solution of sodium\\ncarbonate with calcium hydroxid. It resembles potassium\\nhydroxid in appearance and in chemical properties, but\\ndoes not deliquesce as rapidly. It is used in the manu-\\nfacture of glass and soap and in many chemical processes.\\n194. Sodium Chlorid, NaCl, was formerly obtained by\\nevaporating sea-water, but the discovery of large natural\\ndeposits of rock salt has diminished its value so as to\\nrender this process unprofitable in most countries. At\\nPiffard and at Warsaw, N.Y., salt is taken from the mine\\nin solid form. If the salt is mixed with earthy impurities,\\nwater is allowed to flow into the mines, and after a time is\\npumped out and evaporated. Sodium chlorid crystallizes in\\ntransparent cubes; it is necessary to animal life. In the\\narts, it is extensively used in the alkali industry, in the\\nprocess of glazing earthenware, in reducing silver, and in\\npreserving meats and fish.\\n195. Sodium Carbonate, Na 2 C0 3 This salt is the alkali\\nof the arts, and is almost as extensively used as sulfuric\\nacid in the manufacture of glass and soap large quantities\\nare annually consumed. It occurs in nature in some of the\\nwestern states, and also in Hungary and in Africa. Trior\\nto 1808 sodium carbonate was obtained from the ashes of\\nsea-plants, which extract it from the salt water just as land", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "THE ALKALI METALS\\n135\\nplants absorb potassium from the soil but during the\\nFrench Kevolution, the government being unable to obtain\\nit, offered a large reward for a process of making it from\\ncommon salt. Leblanc won the prize, and the process\\nwhich bears his name has been extensively used ever since.\\nIn the Leblanc process sodium chlorid is first heated with\\nsulfuric acid in a covered cast iron pan, D (figure 16). The\\nhydrochloric acid formed is conducted to the condensing\\ntowers through the pipe E; when the mass begins to\\nsolidify, the slide h is raised and the mass raked out onto\\nthe hearth B of a reverberatory furnace. Here it is heated\\nto dull redness by a coke fire at A. This converts the salt\\ninto the normal sodium sulfate,\\n2 NaCl H 2 S0 4 2 HC1 Na 2 S0 4\\nThe acid evolved during this process is also conducted to\\nthe condensing towers through the pipe F. The salt cake\\ntaken from the hearth is mixed with limestone (calcium\\ncarbonate) and coal dust, and again heated to a high tern-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "136 CHEMISTRY\\nperature on the hearth of a furnace, when the following\\nreaction occurs\\nNa 2 S0 4 CaC0 3 2 C Na 2 C0 3 -f CaS 2 CO*\\nThe black ash formed in this furnace contains something\\nless than half its weight of sodium carbonate. The other\\nsubstances found in the black ash are insoluble in water;\\nthe sodium carbonate is therefore dissolved out. The solu-\\ntion is evaporated and the residue calcined at a red heat.\\nThis forms a nearly pure, anhydrous sodium carbonate\\nknown in commerce as soda-ash. If it is redissolved and\\nallowed to crystallize, the common washing soda is obtained,\\nhaving the composition Na 2 C0 3 10 H 2 0.\\nIn the Solvay process, which is much cheaper than the\\nLeblanc, ammonia is passed through tanks containing brine.\\nThis precipitates magnesia and calcium carbonate, and\\nraises the temperature of the liquid, which is decanted,\\nfiltered, and cooled, and then passed through the carbonat-\\ning tower. The tower is about 50 feet high and 6 feet in\\ndiameter. At intervals of about 3 feet there are compound\\ndiaphragms consisting of a horizontal plate with a large\\nhole in the centre, and over this a curved plate perforated\\nwith small holes and deeply notched around the edge. The\\nbrine is introduced near the top, and carbon dioxid is forced\\ninto the brine near the bottom of the tower and passes\\nupward through the holes in the diaphragms. In this\\ntower the principal reaction occurs\\nNaCl NH 3 C0 2 H 2 NaHC0 3 NH 4 C1.\\nThe hydrogen sodium carbonate thus formed is less\\nsoluble than the ammonium chlorid; it therefore crystal-\\nlizes first as the solution approaches saturation, and collects\\nat the bottom of the tower. The ammonium chlorid funned", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0150.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "THE ALKALI METALS 137\\nis treated with calcium hydrate, and the ammonia liberated\\nis used to saturate more of the brine. A lime-kiln is\\nusually maintained in connection with Solvay plants, to\\nfurnish the lime used in recovering the ammonia, and most\\nof the carbon dioxid required is obtained from the waste\\ngases of the kiln. It thus appears that the raw materials\\nrequired for the Solvay process are common salt, limestone,\\nand a supply of ammonia which is used over and over\\nagain. The materials required for the Leblanc process are\\ncommon salt, sulfuric acid, limestone, and coal, neither of\\nwhich is used again.\\nNotwithstanding the fact that hydrogen sodium car-\\nbonate is the only product as yet obtained from the Solvay\\nprocess, whereas the Leblanc process yields hydrochloric\\nacid and sulfur in addition to sodium carbonate, the greater\\ncost of the raw material, together with the inferior quality\\nof the Leblanc product, places the Leblanc process at such\\na disadvantage that at the present time the Solvay process\\nsupplies considerably more than half of the soda-ash of\\ncommerce. The hydrogen sodium carbonate is converted\\ninto normal carbonate by calcination.\\n196. Hydrogen Sodium Carbonate, HNaC0 3 (Sodium Bicar-\\nbonate or Baking Soda). This substance maybe prepared\\nby passing carbon dioxid through large cylindrical towers\\nfilled with the normal carbonate, but the greater part of the\\nhydrogen sodium carbonate of commerce is prepared by\\nthe Solvay process, described in the preceding article.\\nIts crystals contain no water of crystallization; they dis-\\nsolve readily in eleven parts of water, the solution having\\na feeble alkaline reaction. Boiling a solution of this salt\\ndisengages carbon dioxid, converting the salt into the nor-\\nmal carbonate. It is a valuable reagent in the laboratory,", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0151.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "138 CHEMISTRY\\nis the principal alkali used by cooks, and is used in medi-\\ncine to a limited extent.\\n197. Baking Powders are mixtures which evolve gas when\\nmoistened, and are chiefly used as substitutes for yeast. A\\ncommon form is prepared by mixing cream of tartar,\\nKH 5 C 4 6 56 hydrogen sodium carbonate, 25 and\\nstarch, 19 Tartaric acid is sometimes used instead of\\ncream of tartar, but these powders do not keep as well as\\nthe above. When this mixture is moistened, carbon dioxid\\nis evolved as it is during fermentation, and the purgative\\nRochelle salts remain in solution. When cake or biscuits\\nare raised with baking powder the escaping carbon dioxid\\nrenders the dough light. Professor Horsford has patented\\na baking powder consisting of dried phosphoric acid and\\nhydrogen sodium carbonate. Carbon dioxid is evolved, and\\nsodium phosphate remains in the dough. The best baking\\npowder of the ordinary class is one containing only cream\\nof tartar and hydrogen sodium carbonate, but these powders\\ndo not retain their leavening power very long unless starch\\nor some equivalent is added. Many of the commercial\\narticles contain either alum or ammonium carbonate, and\\nsome of them contain both.\\nSECTION III.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 AMMONIUM SALTS\\n198. The compounds of the radical NH4 are treated here\\nbecause they resemble those of sodium and potassium. In\\nits chemical affinities ammonium behaves like a basic element.\\n199. Ammonium Chlorid, NH,C1, is prepared by neutraliz-\\ning the ammoniacal liquor of the gas works with hydro-\\nchloric acid and evaporating the solution to dryness, the\\nresidue is heated in iron vessels, when ammonium chlorid\\nsublimes.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0152.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "THE ALKALI METALS 139\\nIt has a sharp, saline taste, is soluble in water, and, when\\nheated in contact with a metal, it either dissolves the coat-\\ning of oxid (rust) on the metal or converts it (the rust) into\\na chlorid, thus leaving a bright surface.\\nBecause of this property it is extensively used in solder-\\ning and in galvanizing and tinning metals. When heated\\nit sublimes, that is to say, it passes from a solid state\\ninto a vapor without perceptible liquefaction. Ammonium\\nchlorid is commonly called sal ammoniac. It is largely\\nused as the exciting liquid in batteries and is also employed\\nin calico printing and in medicine.\\n200. Ammonium Nitrate is prepared by neutralizing nitric\\nacid with ammonia and evaporating the solution until it\\ncrystallizes on cooling.\\nWhen heated rapidly, as by contact with a red-hot metal,\\nit detonates, as it does also when heated in contact with\\norganic matter. It dissolves readily in water, producing a\\nmarked drop in temperature.\\nUses. Preparing nitrogen monoxid, in certain explosives,\\nalso in freezing mixtures.\\n201. Ammonium Carbonate. The commercial article (sal\\nvolatile or smelling salts is a somewhat unstable mix-\\nture of hydrogen ammonium carbonate and ammonium car-\\nbonate which smells strongly of ammonia. The normal\\ncarbonate, (]STH 4 2 C0 3 and the acid carbonate, \u00c2\u00a3N H 4 )HC0 3\\nare easily obtained.\\nUses. In medicine, in the laboratory, and by bakers.\\nIt is the cause of the odor of ammonia frequently detected\\nin bakers cake.\\n202. Ammonium Sulfid, (NH 4 2 S. The principal use of\\nthis substance depends upon the ease with which it is de-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0153.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "140 ^CHEMISTRY\\ncomposed by the compounds of certain bases. These bases\\nare precipitated as sulfids, and thus may be easily separated\\nfrom other elements in the process of qualitative analysis.\\nThe solution of ammonium sulfid forms a colorless liquid\\nof disagreeable odor, which gradually turns yellow because\\nof the formation of compounds known as poly-sulfids of\\nammonia, having the formulas (XH 4 2 S 2 (NH 4 2 S 3 etc.\\n203. Ammonium Hydrosulfid, NH 4 HS. This substance\\ncorresponds to the acid salts in having only one of the\\nhydrogen atoms of hydrogen sulfid replaced.\\nThe compounds of the alkali metals, including am-\\nmonium, are isomorphous. Their chemical properties are\\nrelated to their atomic weights.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. What is baking powder What is the theory of its action\\n2. What is gunpowder Describe its manufacture.\\n3. State a method of preparation of an aqueous solution of potas-\\nsium hydroxid from metallic potassium.\\n4. Give the names, formulas, and uses of three important com-\\npounds of sodium. Describe some process of making sodium car-\\nbonate.\\n5. State the composition of black gunpowder and explain the\\nfunction of each of the chemicals.\\n6. Discuss the physical and chemical properties of potassium.\\n7. How is ammonium nitrate prepared What substances are\\nformed when it is decomposed by heat?\\n8. Define isomorphous. (Consult dictionary.\\n9. For what purpose have you used ammonium nitrate What\\noccurs when it is heated", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0154.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVIII\\nCALCIUM\\nSymbol Ca. Atomic Weight 40\\n204. Occurrence. In combination with, other elements,\\ncalcium occurs in enormous quantities. Limestone, marble,\\nand chalk are calcium carbonate, CaC0 3 Gypsum is calcium\\nsulfate, CaS0 4 fluorspar is calcium fluorid, CaF 2 A natural\\nphosphate, Ca 3 (P0 4 2 occurs in large quantities in Florida.\\n205. Preparation and Properties. Calcium is prepared by\\nelectrolizing fused calcium chlorid. It is a yellowish metal,\\nmany times more valuable than gold. Like potassium\\nand sodium, it decomposes water and cannot be kept in\\nmoist air; it is seen only in collections of elements.\\n206. Calcium Oxid, CaO (Quicklime). Preparation. Lime-\\nstone is heated in a large furnace or kiln, carbon dioxid\\nis driven off, and calcium oxid or quicklime remains in the\\nfurnace. CaC0 3 CaO C0 2\\nProperties. Lime is an amorphous, white, infusible solid.\\nIt has a strong affinity for water, combining with it to form\\nthe hydroxid or water-slaked lime with the evolution of much,\\nheat. Exposed to the air, it slowly absorbs moisture and\\ncarbon dioxid, and falls to a powder known as air-slaked\\nlime, one of the forms of CaC0 3 When heated in the\\noxy hydrogen flame it gives forth an intense light of about\\n120 candle power, which is known as the calcium light.\\n141", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0155.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "142 CHEMISTRY\\nUses. In making mortar and cement, in the calcium\\nlight, and for drying gases in the manufacture of illumi-\\nnating gas, as well as in the laboratory.\\n207. Calcium Hydroxid, Ca(0H) 2 Preparation. As stated\\nabove, by treating calcium oxid with about one-third of its\\nweight of water.\\nProperties. It is a white, alkaline, caustic powder, some-\\nwhat soluble in water, and having a strong affinity for car-\\nbon dioxid and hydrogen sulfid. It attacks animal tissues,\\nas is shown by a plasterer s hand, and by its use in remov-\\ning hair from hides in the tannery.\\nUses. Making mortar and whitewash, purifying gas,\\nand in making brown sugar and glucose. Lime water is a\\nsolution of calcium hydroxid in water.\\n208. Calcium Carbonate, CaC0 3 Occurrence. Calcite,\\nchalk, marl, marble, Mexican onyx, and limestone are\\nnearly pure calcium carbonate. It is the chief constituent\\nof the shells of mollusks, corals, etc.\\nProperties. It is sparingly soluble in water, but dis-\\nsolves readily in water containing carbon dioxid, from\\nwhich it is precipitated when the water loses its carbon\\ndioxid. The formation of stalactites, stalagmites, travertin,\\netc., illustrate this property.\\nUses. Making quicklime, building, making glass, reduc-\\ning iron ore, etc.\\n209. Calcium Chlorid, CaCl,. The properties of this sub-\\nstance are very different from those of the so-called chlorid\\nof lime. This salt is odorless, it deliquesces,* it has a\\nstrong affinity for water, and absorbs it from air or moist\\nDefine term.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0156.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "CALCIUM 143\\n210. Calcium Chloro-hypochlorite, Ca(0Cl)Cl. This com-\\npound is extensively used in the arts under the name of\\nbleaching powder, and is often wrongly called chlorid of\\nlime. It is prepared by treating slaked lime with chlorin.\\nIt is a white powder with an odor resembling hypochlorous\\nacid. When treated with a strong acid it gives np all its\\nchlorin. When treated with carbon dioxid it gives up\\nhypochlorous acid. Exposed to the air, the carbon dioxid\\nliberates the acid slowly, hence its action as a disinfectant.\\n211. Calcium Sulfate, CaS0 4 is found in nature as the min-\\neral anhydrite, and in a hydrated condition as satin spar,\\nalabaster, and selenite, which are different varieties of gyp-\\nsum, CaS0 4 -f 2 H 2 0. When slightly heated it loses its water\\nof crystallization, and falls to a powder known as plaster of\\nparis (CaS0 4 2 H 2 0. This substance has a strong affinity for\\nwater, and when treated with it takes up the water of crys-\\ntallization previously expelled, and hardens or sets.\\n(CaS0 4 2 H 2 3 H 2 2(CaS0 4 2 H 2 0).\\nUses. Gypsum is extensively used as a substitute for\\nmarble in buildings, as a fertilizer, and in the manufacture\\nof plaster of paris. Plaster of paris is used as a cement\\ne.g. in incandescent lamps and in making casts.\\n212. Glass. Ordinary window glass and bottle glass are\\nsilicates of calcium and sodium. In the manufacture of\\nbottle glass somewhat impure materials may be used, and\\nits green color is due to the presence of small quantities of\\nthe silicates of aluminum and iron. In window glass, as\\nthis green color is an objection, the purest materials obtain-\\nable are used. The color due to the small amount of iron\\nwhich they contain is partially corrected by adding a small\\nquantity of manganese dioxid. Bohemian glass, a silicate\\nof potassium and calcium, has a higher melting point than", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0157.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "14-4 CHEMISTRY\\nwindow glass, and on this account is largely used for chemi-\\ncal apparatus. Flint glass contains lead instead of calcium\\nit fuses easily, and is extensively used for optical instruments.\\nGlass Making. At the Kochester glass works the follow-\\ning substances are melted for bottle glass Clean sand,\\n100 lbs. soda-ash, 40 lbs. lime, 28 lbs. feldspar, 1 lb.\\nIt requires from 12 to 14 hours to complete the melting.\\nColored glass is made by adding a small quantity of a\\nmetallic oxicl. Thus, cobalt colors glass blue chromium,\\ngreen iron, green gold, red amber glass is made by add-\\ning soft coal.\\nSuggestion. Write an essay on processes of melting, blowing,\\nand annealing glass, making window glass, plate glass.\\n213. Mortar is made by mixing one part of lime with\\nwater to a thin paste, then adding three or four parts of\\ncoarse, sharp sand, and thoroughly incorporating these\\ningredients. When mortar is exposed to the air, calcium\\ncarbonate is slowly formed. Water is formed as the calcium\\nhydroxid is transformed into the calcium carbonate.\\nCaH 2 2 C0 2 CaC0 3 H 2 0.\\nThis explains why plaster dries so slowly. The complete\\nconversion of lime into carbonate requires a very long time,\\nbecause the carbonate which is formed at first protects the\\nrest. Booms heated by open coke and charcoal fire dry\\nmore rapidly because the carbon dioxid which escapes into\\nthe room provides an abundant supply for the above reaction.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Why does mortar harden\\n2. Why is hair used in plaster\\n3. Why not in bricklaying\\n4. Why does plaster of paris set when treated with water\\n5. What is mortar What chemical action occurs when it hardens", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0158.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "CALCIUM 145\\n6. What is glass How is it made\\n7. How does Bohemian glass differ from window glass\\n8. What will dissolve glass\\n9. Describe the preparation of quicklime, writing the reaction.\\n10. Mention two important uses of calcium oxid.\\n11. Describe a lime-kiln.\\n12. Give the chemical names of plaster of Paris, marble, gypsum,\\nand quicklime.\\n13. State the common names of calcium hydroxid and calcium\\nchloro-hypochlorite.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0159.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIX\\nSILVER, COPPER, AND GOLD\\nSILVER\\nSymbol Ag. Atomic Weight 108\\n214. Occurrence. Silver occurs uncombined in nature,\\nbut its most important ores are the sulfids and chlorids.\\nSilver sulfid may be nearly always detected in the sulfids\\nof other metals.\\n215. Properties. Silver is a white metal permanent in\\nair at ordinary temperature. Hydrogen sulfid acts readily\\nupon it, forming a black coating of silver sulfid. It is the\\nbest conductor of heat and electricity known.\\n216. Extraction from its Ores, (a) Pattinson process.\\nSilver is extracted from ores consisting of mixed sulfids of\\nlead, silver, etc., by the Pattinson process. The ore is\\nroasted until the sulfur is expelled, and an alloy of silver\\nand lead remains. This alloy is melted in large kettles and\\nallowed to cool the lead solidifies first and is dipped out.\\nBy this means a product is finally obtained which contains\\na high percentage of silver. This is heated in a stream of\\nair, the lead oxidizes, and the silver remains when all the\\nlead has been removed, the silver reflects light, and the\\noperator sees his face in the molten metal. This depends\\nupon the fact that lead solidifies at higher temperature\\n146", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0160.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "SILVER, COPPER, AND GOLD 147\\nthan an alloy of lead and silver, and also upon the fact\\nthat lead oxidizes while silver is permanent.\\n(b) Amalgamation process. Other ores of silver are\\nreduced by the amalgamation process. The ore is thor-\\noughly ground, mixed with common salt, and roasted, thus\\ntransforming all of the silver into a chlorid. The roasted\\nmass is then placed in suitable vessels with water, iron\\nscraps, and mercury, and vigorously agitated for many\\nhours. The iron decomposes the chlorid, and the silver\\nthus liberated forms an amalgam with the mercury. A\\nportion of the mercury is removed by pressure, and the\\nremainder by distillation, leaving the pure silver in the\\nretort. The mercury is collected and used again.\\n217. Uses. In jewellery, coins, etc., and in protecting\\nother metals from the action of the air by electroplating.\\n218. Silver Nitrate, AgN0 3 In contact with organic\\nmatter it turns black when exposed to the sunlight, hence\\nit is a constituent of indelible inks. It corrodes the flesh,\\nand is used by physicians to burn out wounds. It is some-\\ntimes called lunar caustic.\\n219. Photography. The most important property of the\\nsalts of silver is their changing when exposed to light. The\\nchlorids, bromids, and iodids are extensively used in pho-\\ntography. A plate of glass is coated with the salt of\\nsilver, the plate is then exposed in a camera to light coming\\nfrom the object to be photographed. The salt is changed\\nwhere light strikes it, the amount of the change being\\nproportionate to the intensity of the light. The image does\\nnot appear on the plate until after it is treated with a reduc-\\ning agent, usually pyrogallic acid. After the image is", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0161.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "148 CHEMISTRY\\ndeveloped, the unchanged silver salt is dissolved off with\\nsodium hypos ulfite.\\nCOPPER, Cc, 63.6\\n220. Occurrence. Copper occurs native in large quanti-\\nties near Lake Superior, in Chili, etc. In combination it is\\nfound as ruby copper, Cu 2 0, as copper pyrites, a sulfid of\\niron and copper, and as a carbonate.\\n221. Preparation and Properties. The oxid of copper is\\nreduced by heating with charcoal. It is a hard reddish\\nmetal, having a metallic lustre. In moist air it becomes\\ncoated with a layer of carbonated copper. Copper forms\\ntwo distinct series of compounds. There are two chlorids\\ncuprous chlorid, Cu 2 Cl 2 and cupric chlorid, CuCl 2 also two\\nsulfates, two oxides, etc. Copper sulfate, CuS0 4 5 H 2\\n(common name, blue vitriol), is largely used in galvanic\\nbatteries and in calico printing.\\nGOLD\\nSymbol Au. Atomic Weight 197\\n222. Occurrence and Reduction. This element is seldom\\nfound in combination in nature. In the parent ledges it\\noccurs as isolated particles surrounded by quartz. As the\\nledge weathers, the particles of gold are carried down the\\nstreams with the quartz sand, forming placer deposits like\\nthose of the Klondike. At the ledge the rock is pulverized\\nand carried over amalgamated copper plates by a stream of\\nwater. The gold forms an amalgam with the mercury,\\nwhich is carefully removed and distilled. The gold of the\\nplacer deposits is recovered by mechanical washing.\\n223. Properties. Gold is a soft, yellow metal, not\\naffected by air or oxygen, even at high temperatures. It", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0162.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "SILVER, COPPER, AND GOLD 149\\nis very malleable, easily beaten into sheets .0001 of a milli-\\nmetre thick. When examined by transmitted light, these\\nsheets appear green. It is very easily reduced most metals\\nprecipitate it from solution, hence its use in toning photo-\\ngraphs.\\n224. Uses. Pure gold is too soft for use. Advantage\\nis therefore taken of the fact that it forms alloys with\\ncopper and silver, either of which is more durable than\\npure gold. In Germany, France, and the United States\\nthe standard gold coin contains 90 of gold and 10 of\\ncopper. English gold pieces contain 11 parts of gold to\\n1 of copper. The metal with which gold is alloyed is\\neasily recognized by the color of the alloy that of copper\\nhaving a reddish color, while that of silver is paler than\\npure gold. The fineness of gold jewellery is still expressed\\nin carats. The carat is an old weight equal to the weight\\nof four barleycorns, or of a Troy ounce. Jewellery is\\nsaid to be 18 carats fine when a Troy ounce contains 18\\ncarats of pure gold.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Describe the process of extracting silver from its ores by amal-\\ngamation, giving chemical changes that take place.\\n2. Describe the process of photography, explaining the use of the\\ncompounds of silver employed.\\n3. State the common name, properties, and uses of silver nitrate.\\n4. Erom what acid was silver nitrate obtained\\n5. State the properties of silver chlorid.\\n6. How does copper occur in nature Eor what purposes is it\\nused Describe its most important compounds.\\n7. Discuss the occurrence of gold in nature.\\n8. Describe the extraction of gold from its ores, and state its prin-\\ncipal uses.\\n9. Explain the blackening of silver spoons when in contact with\\nboiled eggs.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0163.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XX\\nZINC AND MERCURY\\nZINC\\nSymbol Zn. Atomic Weight 65.4\\n225. Occurrence. Zinc is said to have been found in\\nAustralia in the uncornbined condition. In combination it\\nis found as a carbonate, ZnC0 3 (calaniin), as a sulfid, ZnS\\n(zinc blende), as the red oxid, ZnO, and as a silicate.\\n226. Preparation. The ores are first calcined, to reduce\\nthem to an oxid, and then mixed with charcoal and raised\\nto a high temperature. The zinc oxid is reduced and the\\nmetal vaporized and condensed in iron vessels.\\n227. Properties. Zinc is a bluish white metal, with a\\ncrystalline fracture; it melts at 412\u00c2\u00b0 C. and vaporizes at\\nabout 1000\u00c2\u00b0 C. It is exceedingly brittle, except between\\n100\u00c2\u00b0 and 150\u00c2\u00b0 C, when it is malleable, and may be rolled\\nout into sheets. It is very soluble in acids, and burns in\\nair with an intense blue light, forming zinc oxid, ZnO, a\\nwhite flocculent substance formerly known as philosophers\\nwool. Zinc is permanent in air, because the coating of zinc\\noxid which forms when first exposed to the air prevents\\nfurther oxidation.\\n228. Uses. Zinc is extensively used in batteries and as\\na coating for other metals to protect them from the action\\n150", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0164.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "ZINC AND MERCURY 151\\nof the air. Galvanized iron is sheet iron coated with zinc,\\nnot by electricity, as the name would indicate, but by dip-\\nping the iron in molten zinc. Several important alloys\\ncontain zinc e.g. brass, German silver, and the bronze used\\nfor coinage.\\n229. Principal Compounds. Zinc oxid, ZnO, is a pure\\nwhite substance, although it occurs native as the red zinc\\nore, its color being due to small amounts of manganese. It\\nis often used as a substitute for white lead, because it is\\nnot blackened by hydrogen sulfid found in the air. Zinc\\nchlorid, ZnCl 2 is a soft solid which may be distilled with-\\nout decomposition. It has a strong affinity for water, ab-\\nsorbing it from the air, hence its use as a drier of gases.\\nIt is an excellent deodorizer, and is an important constitu-\\nent of some of our best disinfectants. It is quite generally\\nused by tinsmiths as a soldering fluid, as its aqueous solu-\\ntion dissolves the oxids which might prevent the adherence\\nof the solder. It is also used to prevent timber from decay\\nand to a limited extent as a caustic in surgery. When zinc\\noxid is moistened with zinc chlorid, a paste is formed which\\nhardens quickly and is used in dentistry.\\nMERCURY\\nSymbol Hg. Atomic Weight 200\\n230. Occurrence and Preparation. Mercury occurs free\\nin nature, but the principal source from which it is obtained\\nis cinnabar, a natural sulfid, which is found in California,\\nMexico, Peru, Spain, China, etc. Cinnabar is roasted and\\nthe vapor of mercury condensed in su,. cable vessels.\\n231. Properties. Mercury is the only liquid metal. It\\nhas a silver-white color, hence its former name, quicksilver", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0165.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "152 CHEMISTRY\\nit freezes at 39.5\u00c2\u00b0 C. it volatilizes, and the vapor is 100\\ntimes as heavy as hydrogen. From this fact it appears\\nthat mercury is mon atomic when a vapor. Mercury forms\\na soft alloy with most metals except iron. The alloys of\\nmercury are called amalgams.\\n232. Uses. Mercury is used in thermometers, barome-\\nters, pressure gauges, and other instruments. Chemists use\\nit in collecting gases, and dentists use an amalgam of\\nmercury and cadmium as a filling for teeth. In the arts\\nit is extensively used in making mirrors and in the pro-\\ncesses of extracting gold and silver from their ores. It\\nis also used in voltaic cells.\\n233. Compounds Mercury forms two series of salts, the\\nmercurous, like calomel, Hg 2 Cl 2 and the nitrate, Hg 2 (N0 3 2\\nin which the double atom is bivalent; and the mercuric\\nsalts, like corrosive sublimate, HgCl 2 and the mercuric\\nnitrate, Hg(X0 3 2 in which the atom is bivalent.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. For what purpose is zinc chlorid used\\n2. What is galvanized iron Why is iron galvanized\\n3. State the properties of zinc.\\n4. What important alloys contain zinc\\n5. What are the chief ores of zinc\\n6. Describe the physical properties of mercury.\\n7. Why is mercury used for thermometers Barometers What\\nare the freezing and boiling points of mercury\\n8. Describe the action of heat on mercuric oxid.\\n9. Mention some metals that will amalgamate with mercury.\\n10. What is cinnabar How would you prove that it contains\\nmercury", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0166.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXI\\nALUMINUM\\nSymbol Al. Atomic Weight 27\\n234. Occurrence. Aluminum is one of the most abun-\\ndant elements. It is never found unconibined, but occurs\\nin combination in most rocks and therefore in nearly all\\nsoil. Among the many common minerals which contain it\\nare feldspar, mica, cryolite, corundum, and bauxite. Emery\\nis an impure corundum. Several valuable gems contain\\naluminum. The ruby, sapphire, and oriental topaz are\\ntransparent crystals of corundum, A1 2 3 the difference\\nbetween them being due to the presence of small quantities\\nof certain oxids. True topaz is a silicate of aluminum.\\nThe emerald is a double silicate of aluminum and berylium.\\n235. Reduction. Until the invention of the electric fur-\\nnace metallic aluminum was very expensive because metallic\\nsodium was used in reducing it. Formerly it was worth\\n20 a pound, but now the price is about 40 cents. Most of\\nthe metal is now obtained from bauxite, A1 2 3 H 2 0, or from\\ncorundum, A1 2 3 A wrought iron furnace is lined with\\ncarbon and partly filled with an artificial cryolite. Large\\ncarbon rods are thrust into the mass, and a powerful cur-\\nrent sent from the rods through the mass to the furnace;\\nthe cryolite is melted, and dissolves the ore which is thrown\\nin from time to time. The oxid is electrolyzed by the cur-\\nrent, and metallic aluminum collects at the bottom of the\\nfurnace, while oxygen appears at the anode.\\n153", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0167.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "154 CHEMISTRY\\n236. Properties. Aluminum is a white lustrous metal,\\nits color is between that of silver and that of zinc. It is\\nvery light (Sp. gr. 2.56, which is about one-quarter that of\\nsilver and about the same as that of glass). It is very\\nmalleable, is easily cast, is tenacious, and is more rigid than\\nequal weights of other metals. It cannot be welded except\\nby electricity. It is permanent in moist as well as dry air,\\neven at moderately high temperatures. It melts at about\\n650\u00c2\u00b0 C, and is an excellent conductor of both heat and\\nelectricity. It is dissolved by hydrochloric acid and by\\nsolutions of sodium and potassium hydrates, but is not\\nsoluble in either sulfuric or nitric acids.\\n237. Uses. The use of aluminum has rapidly increased\\nwithin a year or so, and is now employed for many articles,\\nfrom hairpins to horseshoes from stove hollow ware to\\nflying machines. Aluminum forms valuable alloys with\\ncopper and with steel the most important of these is the\\naluminum bronze, which contains 90 of copper and 10\\nof aluminum. It has the color of gold, the tenacity of\\nsteel, takes a high polish, and does not tarnish in air.\\n238. Compounds. Aluminum sulfate forms compounds\\nwith either sodium or potassium or ammonium sulfates,\\nwhich belong to a class of double sulfates known as alums.\\nAll of the alums form beautiful cubical or octohedral\\ncrystals. Twenty-five different kinds are known, but only\\npotassium alum, KA1(S0 4 2 12 H 2 0, and ammonium alum,\\nNH 4 A1(S0 4 2 12 H 2 0, are common. Alum is extensively\\nused as a mordant by calico printers and dyers it increases\\nthe amount of coloring matter which cotton cloth can\\nabsorb, and makes the color more permanent. Alum is\\noften wrongly used as a constituent of cheap baking\\npowder.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0168.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "ALUMINUM 155\\n239. Hydraulic Cement, which, is made by burning a lime-\\nstone that contains aluminum silicate, owes its ability to\\nset or harden when mixed with water to the formation of\\nsilicates of calcium and aluminum. As these silicates are\\ninsoluble in water, the cement may be used for submerged\\nmasonry.\\n240. Ordinary clay is an impure aluminum silicate when\\nmixed with water it forms a plastic mass which may be\\neasily moulded into any desired shape, and which becomes\\nhard, brittle, and very durable when dried and baked in a\\nsuitable furnace. The common clays are used in the manu-\\nfacture of brick tile and earthenware.\\nEarthenware and tile are rendered impervious to water,\\nor glazed, by throwing common salt into the furnace just\\nbefore the firing is finished; the salt volatilizes, and\\nforms a coating of sodium and aluminum silicate on the\\nsurface of the earthenware. The color of bricks and\\nearthenware is largely due to the presence of iron oxids in\\nthe clay.\\n241. Porcelain clay or kaolin is a very pure silicate,\\nAl 4 (Si0 4 3 H 2 0. In making porcelain a fine mixture of\\nkaolin, feldspar, and quartz is employed. On strong igni-\\ntion feldspar fuses, fills the pores of the clay, and thus fur-\\nnishes a fused transparent mass. The finest porcelain is\\ndried and heated to a red heat, forming a porous ware\\nknown as biscuit. This is dipped in water in which a\\nsmall quantity of finely powdered feldspar is suspended.\\nThe article is now raised to a white heat, the feldspar\\nincreases the, fusibility of the surface, and a thin, smooth,\\nglassy coating results. The colors used in decorating are\\nusually metallic oxids, and are almost always applied over\\nthe glaze in the better work.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0169.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "156 CHEMISTRY\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Discuss the physical and chemical properties of aluminum.\\nDescribe a process by which it may be extracted from some ore.\\n2. What is clay How was it formed\\n3. What is the chemical composition of alum\\n4. Describe the metal aluminum. What name is given to its\\noxid?\\n5. What is hydraulic cement\\n6. How does porcelain clay differ from the ordinary article\\n7. State the occurrence in nature and uses of aluminum.\\n8. Mention the principal compounds of aluminum which occur in\\nnature.\\n9. What is porcelain How is it glazed\\n10. State the uses of alum.\\n11. What advantage does aluminum possess over iron\\n12. What alloys contain aluminum", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0170.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXII\\nIRON\\nSymbol Fe. Atomic Weight 56\\n242. Occurrence. Iron is one of the most abundant as\\nwell as one of the most useful metals it occurs uncombined\\nin meteorites and in minute particles distributed through\\ncertain crystalline rocks. In combination with oxygen it\\noccurs in enormous quantities in the older rocks, as magni-\\ntite, Fe 3 4 which contains more than 72 of iron hematite,\\nFe 2 3 with TO of iron and as limonite, 2 Fe 2 3 3 H 2 0,\\na hydroxid with about 60 of iron.\\nSiderite, FeC0 3 is an important ore. Iron occurs as a\\nsulfid known as pyrite, which is used in the manufacture of\\nsulfuric acid, but which is not yet used as an ore. Most\\nof the iron in this country is obtained from the oxids, but\\nin England the principal source is clay ironstone, a\\ncarbonate mixed with clay.\\n243. Extraction from its Ores. If the ore is a carbonate\\nor a hydroxid, it is calcined to expel the carbon dioxid or\\nthe water, and thus convert it into an oxid. The oxid is\\nreduced by heating with carbon, usually a specially prepared\\ncoke made from soft coal. Charcoal is used in Sweden and\\nNorway, where wood is plentiful. Most ores contain more\\nor less silica and alumina, which must be converted into\\nfusible silicates to effect this, limestone is added to the\\nmixture of ore and carbon, and a double silicate of calcium\\n157", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0171.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "158\\nCHEMISTRY\\nand aluminum, a crude glass called slag, is formed. These\\nreactions are brought about in a blast furnace (Fig. 17).\\nIt consists of a masonry tower some 80 feet in height and\\nfrom 15 to 25 feet in diameter, lined with a most infusible\\nfire-brick. Coke, limestone, and iron ore are introduced at\\nthe top in alternate\\nlayers by means of a\\ncup and cone arrange-\\nment shown at C. A\\nblast of hot air is forced\\nthrough the furnace by\\npowerful engines. The\\nwaste gases, which are\\ncarried off by the pipe\\nW, are used to heat the\\nblast to a temperature\\nof about 600\u00c2\u00b0 C. In the\\nhottest part of the fur-\\nnace a temperature of\\nabout 1400\u00c2\u00b0 C. is prob-\\nably reached. The iron\\nis melted, and runs down\\nto the bottom of the fur-\\nnace at I. The melted\\nslag being lighter floats\\nupon it, and is drawn off at intervals through the slag hole.\\nThe crucible, as the lower part of the furnace is called, is\\nopened three or four times a day and the iron allowed to\\nrun out into the sand moulds, forming bars three or four\\ninches square and about four feet long, which are known as\\npig iron. When a furnace is in full blast charges are intro-\\nduced at the top at regular intervals, and the process often\\ncontinues uninterruptedly for years.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0172.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "iron 159\\n244. Pig Iron is brittle, crystalline, and easily fusible it\\ncannot be welded. It is not pure iron, but contains from\\n3 to 6 of carbon, and varying quantities of silicon,\\nphosphorus, sulfur, and manganese. Most of the carbon is\\ncombined with the iron as a carbid, in what is known as\\nwhite cast iron, whereas in gray cast iron, which is softer\\nand more desirable for certain purposes, a large part of the\\ncarbon in the form of graphite crystals is mechanically dis-\\nseminated through the iron. Sulfur and phosphorus are\\nobjectionable elements in iron, particularly if it is to be\\nconverted into wrought iron or steel; the sulfur makes it\\nhot short, that is, brittle when hot, and the phosphorus\\nmakes it cold short, or brittle when cold.\\n245. Wrought Iron is tough, malleable, and fibrous in\\nstructure; it melts at 1500\u00c2\u00b0 C, and as it approaches this\\ntemperature becomes pasty, in which condition two bars\\nmay be firmly joined by hammering them together; it con-\\ntains less than one-half of 1 of carbon, cannot be tem-\\npered, and does not retain magnetism.\\nPreparation. Wrought iron was originally prepared di-\\nrectly from the pure ore by heating it with charcoal and\\nhammering the slag out of the mass; this process was\\nknown as blooming. The process by which wrought\\niron is now prepared is termed puddling. Cast iron\\nis placed on the hearth (H) of a reverberatory furnace\\n(Fig. 18), which is lined with a layer of ferric oxicl. The\\niron is melted and constantly stirred to expose the impurity\\nto the air for a time the mass appears to boil, owing to\\nthe formation of carbon monoxid. As the impurities are\\noxidized, the mass becomes pasty, because of the higher\\nmelting point of wrought iron and the pasty material is\\ncollected on one side of the furnace and worked up into", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0173.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "160\\nCHEMISTRY\\nlarge lumps or blooms which are passed through rolls to\\nremove the liquid slag. The ferric oxid used for the lining\\nor fettling assists materially in oxidizing the impurities,\\nand the process above described is sometimes called pig\\nboiling to distinguish it from the dry puddling pro-\\ncess in which the cast iron requires preliminary refining.\\nFor interesting history of wrought iron see Roscoe and\\nSchorlemmer s Chemistry Vol. II, pt. ii, p. 34.\\n246. Steel is malleable, has a fine crystalline structure,\\nmay receive a high polish, may be welded, is easily fusible,\\nmelting at about 1400\u00c2\u00b0 C. Its extensive use depends upon\\nthe fact that it may be tempered. When heated to redness\\nand suddenly immersed in cold water, it is rendered very\\nhard and brittle if heated and slowly cooled, it is rendered\\nsoft, and by regulating the temperature at which it is tem-\\nX^ered, almost any desired degree of hardness, toughness, or\\nelasticity may be obtained. Steel contains from to 2\\nof carbon.\\nPreparation. Steel may be made in three ways: (a) by\\nadding carbon to wrought iron (the cementation process),\\n(6) by burning out a part of the carbon of cast iron (the\\nBessemer process), and (c) by melting together proper pro-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0174.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "IRON 161\\nportions of wrought and cast iron (the Siemens-Martin\\nprocess).\\n(a) TJie Cementation Process. Bars of wrought iron are\\npacked in charcoal in fire-clay boxes which are kept at a red\\nheat for a week or more the carbon penetrates the iron,\\ngiving it a blistered appearance, hence its name blister\\nsteel. It is not quite uniform in composition, but when\\nremelted and cast into ingots this objection is overcome, and\\nthe crucible steel thus formed is considered the best kind\\nfor knives, springs, and tools; it is sometimes called cast\\nsteel.\\n(6) The Bessemer Process. A large, covered, egg-shaped\\ncrucible, mounted on trunions, called a converter, and\\ncapable of holding from five to ten tons, is filled with\\nmelted cast iron. A powerful blast of air is blown through\\nthe converter, oxidizing the impurities the peculiar flame\\nof carbon monoxid is observed above the converter, and\\nwhen this disappears, showing that the carbon has all been\\nconsumed, a definite quantity of speigeleisen, an iron rich in\\ncarbon, is added, and the mass is thus converted into the\\ngrade of steel desired. By this process a converter full of\\ncast iron has been converted into steel in five minutes.\\nThis process has reduced the price to such an extent that\\nsome grades of steel are now sold at a lower price than\\nwrought iron.\\n(c) The Siemens-Martin Process. Pig iron is melted in\\nan open hearth furnace, and wrought iron and iron ore are\\nadded in such quantities as to yield a product containing\\nthe desired percentage of carbon. Toward the close of the\\nmelting, which usually lasts eight or ten hours, a sample is\\ntaken and the percentage of carbon quickly determined by\\nthe chemist, who directs such changes in the mixture as\\nmay be necessary to produce the kind of steel desired.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0175.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "162 CHEMISTRY\\n247. Compounds of Iron. Like mercury and copper,\\niron forms two series of salts corresponding to the two\\noxids with which the student is already familiar. For ex-\\nample, we have two chlorids, the ferrous, FeCl 2 and the\\nferric, Fe 2 Cl 6 their properties being entirely distinct.\\n248. Compounds of Iron and Oxygen. Iron forms three\\ncompounds with oxygen, viz.\\nFerrous oxid, FeO\\nFerric oxid, Fe 2 3\\nFerroso-ferric oxid, Fe 3 4\\nFerrous oxid is a black powder which absorbs oxygen so\\nrapidly that it takes fire when exposed to the air. When\\ndissolved in acids it forms ferrous salts.\\nFerric oxid is one of the important ores of iron. It is\\nmuch used as a pigment in so-called iron paint. Jewellers\\nrouge, used in polishing plate glass and jewellery, is a finely\\nground, artificial ferric oxid; the red rust formed at ordi-\\nnary temperatures is a hydrated ferric oxid, 2 Fe 2 3 3 H 2 0,\\nor a hydroxid, Fe 2 (HO) 6 Fe 2 3 which absorbs oxygen\\nfrom the air and communicates it to neighboring molecules\\nof iron. We can now understand why iron does not rust in\\ndry air at ordinary temperatures, and why the process pro-\\nceeds so much more rapidly in moist air after an article\\nbecomes coated with rust.\\nFerroso-ferric oxid is the richest of the ores of iron it is\\nattracted by a magnet (hence its common name, magnetite),\\nand many specimens are strong natural magnets. The\\nmagnetic oxid, as it is often called, is formed when iron\\nis raised to a high temperature in air. Unlike the hydrated\\nferric oxid, this oxid does not absorb oxygen from the air,\\nbut serves to protect a mass of iron from further rusting.\\nMeteorites acquire a coating of this oxid which protects", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0176.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "IKON 163\\nthem from the action of the air. In the Bower-Barff pro-\\ncess of producing rustless iron for various ornaments, the\\narticles are coated with magnetic oxid by heating them in\\nsuperheated steam or in an oxidizing flame.\\n249. Compounds of Iron and Sulfur. Four compounds of\\nthese elements are known.\\nFerrous sulfid, FeS, is the most important to chemists,\\nbeing a convenient and inexpensive source from which\\nhydrogen sulfid can be obtained. It is a brittle, dark gray\\nmass resembling a metal. It is prepared by dipping a white-\\nhot wrought iron in melted sulfur, or by strongly heating\\na mixture of three parts of iron and two of sulfur. Exposed\\nto the air, it slowly decomposes, forming sulfur dioxid and\\nferric oxid.\\nFerric disuljid, FeS 2 occurs in nature as iron pyrite which\\nis used by certain manufacturers in the process of preparing\\nsulfuric acid.\\nFerroso-ferric sulfid, Fe s S 4 corresponds to the magnetic\\noxid of iron. It is attracted by a magnet, and some speci-\\nmens are magnetic.\\nIron sesquisulfid, Fe 2 S 3 a fourth compound, is unim-\\nportant.\\n250. Sulfates.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ferrous sulfate, FeS0 4 7 H 2 (green\\nvitriol or copperas), is formed when iron is dissolved in\\nsulfuric acid it is usually manufactured by exposing heaps\\nof iron pyrite to the action of the air and moisture at a\\ngentle heat. Chemically pure ferrous sulfate forms trans-\\nparent bluish green crystals which effloresce when exposed\\nto dry air and become covered with a white incrustation.\\nFerric sulfate, Fe 2 (S0 4 3 resembles aluminum sulfate in that\\nit combines with alkaline sulfates to form double sulfates\\nor alums.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0177.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "164 CHEMISTRY\\nFerrous sulfate is sometimes used as a disinfectant, but\\nits chief use is in making black ink in connection with some\\nastringent like tannic acid or nutgalls.\\nExperiment LXXXL To prepare ink. Dissolve gramme of\\ntannic acid in 30 cc. of H 2 to 22 cc. of this add a few drops of a\\nsolution of copperas and an equal amount of mucilage a pale ink is\\nformed which gradually darkens.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Name the principal ores of iron.\\n2. Describe the manufacture of crucible steel, the manufacture of\\nBessemer steel, and state for what class of purposes each is used.\\n3. Distinguish chemically between pig iron and wrought iron.\\nDescribe the manufacture of each.\\n4. Describe three processes by which steel is made. Compare the\\ncost of the processes and the value of the products.\\n5. Describe the manufacture of the following (a) cast iron from\\nore (b) wrought iron from cast iron (c) steel from cast iron\\n(d) steel from wrought iron.\\n6. How does ferrous sulfate differ from ferrous sulfid From what\\nacid was each obtained, and for what is each used?", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0178.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXIII\\nTIN AND LEAD\\nTIN\\nSymbol Sn. Atomic Weight 119\\n251. Occurrence. Although tin is not widely diffused in\\nnature, it occurs in very large quantities in a few localities,\\nviz. in Cornwall, England, and in Saxony. It has recently\\nbeen discovered in South Dakota. It is probable that tin\\ndoes not occur free in nature, although it is reported that\\nmetallic tin is found in Siberia and Guiana. Tin stone or\\ncassiterite, Sn0 2 is the only ore that is now reduced.\\n252. Reduction. The finely crushed ore is washed free\\nfrom earthy matter, then calcined in a reverberatory furnace\\nto expel certain impurities and oxidize others, then washed\\na second time. The ore thus purified is mixed with pow-\\ndered anthracite coal, and again heated in the furnace.\\n253. Properties.\\nExperiment LXXXII. Examine pieces of tin and lead, noting the\\ncolor, lustre, and hardness of each. Compare the freshly cut surface\\nof each with a surface that has been exposed to the air for some time.\\nWhich metal is the better as a coating to prevent oxidation of other\\nmetals Which is the more easily oxidized Which metal is the\\nmore malleable Brittle Elastic Has either metal a crystalline\\nstructure (To answer this dip a piece of each metal in dilute aqua\\nregia.)\\nAt ordinary temperatures tin is easily beaten into sheets\\nknown as tin foil. At 200\u00c2\u00b0 C. it is brittle and may be\\npowdered, and at 228\u00c2\u00b0 C. it melts. The crystalline structure\\n165", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0179.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "166 CHEMISTRY\\nof tin is often brought out for purposes of ornamentation.\\nWhen a bar of tin is bent, the surfaces of the crystals\\nwithin the bar rub against each other, making a peculiar\\ncreaking sound known as the tin cry, and a perceptible\\nincrease in temperature at the point of flexure may be caused\\nby bending a bar backwards and forwards a few times.\\nOrdinary tin plate, or in common parlance, tin, is thin sheet\\niron coated with a film of tin by dipping it in a bath of the\\nmolten metal. A cheaper variety, called terne plate, used\\nfor roofing, and sometimes for cheaper tinware, is coated\\nwith an alloy of tin and lead. Such ware should never\\nbe used for cooking or for making cans for preserving fruits\\nand vegetables, because the acids of the foods may form\\npoisonous compounds with the lead.\\n254. Alloys. Tin forms a large number of useful alloys.\\nPewter contains three parts of tin to one of lead.\\nBritannia metal contains tin 84 parts, antimony 10 parts,\\ncopper 4 parts, and bismuth 2 parts.\\nSoft solder contains equal parts of tin and lead.\\nBell metal and bronze are alloys of copper and tin, and the\\nfusible metals, some of which will melt in boiling water,\\nare usually alloys of tin, bismuth, lead, etc.\\nAmong the important alloys which do not contain tin,\\nthe following may be mentioned Brass contains 1 part\\ncopper and 2 parts zinc German silver is brass whitened\\nwith nickel; coin silver is silver with 8 to 10 parts of\\ncopper; gold coin consists of gold with 8 to 10 parts of\\ncoin silver; aluminum bronze contains aluminum parts\\nand copper 1 part. All alloys melt at a lower tempera-\\nture than that of either constituent.\\n255. Compounds. Tin forms two series of compounds:\\nthe stannic, in which the atom is quadrivalent, and the", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0180.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "TIN AND LEAD 1(37\\nstannous, in which it is bivalent. Beside the stannic\\noxid, Sn0 2 which occurs in nature, stannous oxid, SnO,\\nis known; it is a black substance soluble in acids, form-\\ning stannous salts. The best known compounds of tin\\nare the chlorids. Stannous, SnCl 2 is an excellent reducing\\nagent, and is used by dyers. The tin salt of commerce\\nis a crystalline stannous chlorid, SnCl 2 H 2 0. Stannic\\nchlorid, SnCl^ is also used by dyers. Stannic sulfid, SnS 2\\nis a golden yellow crystalline substance, and is largely\\nused as a pigment under the name of mosaic gold.\\nLEAD\\nSymbol Pb. Atomic Weight 207\\n256. Occurrence. The few specimens of metallic lead\\nwhich have been found free in nature were probably formed\\nby the reduction of ores of lead by volcanic action. In\\ncombination it occurs in enormous quantities; the most\\nabundant compounds are the sulfid, PbS, known as gale-\\nnite, and the carbonate, PbC0 3 known as cerussite. The\\nsulfate and the chlorid also occur in considerable quan-\\ntities. Nearly all the lead of commerce is obtained from\\nthe sulfid. Small quantities of the sulfid are found in\\nNew York State, in the Niagara limestone.\\n257. Reduction. Lead is easily reduced from its ores.\\nIt was one of the seven original metals of the ancients.\\nThe richer ores are heated to a dull red heat on the hearth\\nof a reverberatory furnace. Sulfur dioxid is given off, and\\nthere remains a mixture of lead oxid, lead sulfate, and\\nlead sulfid. The air is now shut off and the temperature\\nraised, converting the above compounds into metallic lead\\nand sulfur dioxid. About 10% of the lead remains in the\\nfurnace, mixed with the slag; this may be recovered by", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0181.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "168 CHEMISTRY\\nthe process described below. The poorer ores are heated\\nin a small cupola or blast furnace, with coke and metallic\\niron or ferrous silicate. Iron sulfate is formed, the lead\\nis reduced and is drawn off at the bottom of the furnace.\\n258. Properties and Uses.\\nExperiment LXXXIII. Grind a little oxid of lead with a few\\ncubic centimetres of water in a mortar, filter, and test for lead with\\nhydrogen sulfid. Is lead oxid soluble Is lead suitable for pipes in\\nwhich to convey drinking water\\nAll soluble salts of lead are poisonous. Write a brief\\naccount of the properties of lead shown by Experiment 78.\\nLead is extensively used for water pipes, for plates of\\nstorage batteries, in making shot, in preparing white lead,\\nand in various alloys.\\n259. Compounds. Lead forms five oxids having the\\nfollowing formulas Pb 2 0, PbO, Pb 2 3 Pb 3 4 Pb0 2 Of\\nthese, litharge, PbO, and red lead, Pb 3 4 are the most impor-\\ntant. Eed lead is extensively used as a pigment, and in\\nthe manufacture of flint glass for lenses, cut glassware, etc.\\nThe dioxid, Pb0 2 a chocolate colored powder, is an excellent\\noxidizing agent. It is formed on the positive electrode of\\na storage battery during charging. White lead, which forms\\nthe basis of most paints, is a basic carbonate, having the\\nformula 2PbC0 3 Pb (OH) 2 Lead chromate, PbCr0 4 com-\\nmonly known as chrome yellow, is also used as a pigment.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Describe the physical properties of lead.\\n2. What are the chief ores of lead\\n3. What compounds of lead are used as pigments\\n4. What are the chief properties of tin\\n5. What is tin plate What are its advantages over iron plate\\nOver Terne plate\\n6. From what ores is tin obtained", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0182.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXIV\\nPLATINUM\\nSymbol Pt. Atomic Weight 194.9\\n260. Occurrence. Platinum is invariably found uncom-\\nbined in nature, and is usually associated with the related\\nmetals, osmium, iridium, paladium, etc. Most of the plati-\\nnum of commerce is obtained from the Ural Mountains,\\nbut small quantities are found in California, Australia, and\\nBrazil.\\n261. Preparation. The ore is treated with aqua regia,\\nwhich does not dissolve osmium and iridium the solution\\nis treated with ammonium chlorid, which precipitates a\\ndouble chlorid of ammonium and platinum. This is ig-\\nnited, driving the chlorin and ammonium off, and leaving\\na spongy mass known as platinum sponge.\\n262. Properties.\\nExperiment LXXXIV. Examine a piece of platinum, noting its\\ncolor, malleability, and specific gravity. Heat a piece in the Bunsen\\nburner. Does it melt Is it oxidized in the flame Endeavor to\\nfuse a bit of platinum wire into a glass tube try other kinds of wire.\\nWhy is platinum used in incandescent lamps Is it soluble in any\\nof the ordinary acids Save any salts formed.\\n263. Uses. The properties shown above make platinum\\na very useful article to the chemist; platinum wire, foil,\\ncrucibles, and various other utensils are in constant use\\nin every laboratory. Its permanence in air leads to its\\nuse for small weights, and it is exclusively used in incan-\\ndescent lamps and other apparatus in which an electric\\ncurrent is to be conducted through glass.\\n169", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0183.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "PART II\\nCHAPTER XXV\\nCARBON\\nSymbol C. Atomic AVeight 12\\n264. Occurrence. This important element occurs free in\\nnature in each of its three allotropic forms, viz. the diamond,\\ngraphite, and charcoal combined with oxygen as carbon\\ndioxid, it occurs in the atmosphere and in many mineral\\nwaters, also in limestone, marble, and all carbonates. All\\nliving things contain carbon. In the animal kingdom it is\\nusually combined with hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and\\nin the vegetable kingdom with hydrogen and oxygen.\\nThe number of carbon compounds formed in the life\\nprocesses of plants and animals is almost infinite, and it was\\nonce believed that these compounds could not be formed in\\nany other way, that they possessed some peculiarity of\\nmolecular structure due to the action of vital force, and,\\ntherefore, could not be prepared by laboratory processes\\nthese compounds were distinguished as organic substances,\\nand those which could be prepared without the aid of vital\\nforce were called inorganic substances. There is now no\\ngood reason for maintaining this distinction except the great\\nnumber of compounds and the similarity of their properties.\\nIt is quite likely, however, that for these reasons the terms\\n170", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0184.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "CARBON 171\\norganic chemistry and inorganic chemistry will be\\nretained, but the old meaning is gone and now organic\\nchemistry may be defined as the chemistry of the carbon com-\\npounds.\\n265. The Diamond. Diamonds are found in the East\\nIndies, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, Africa, Borneo, and Suma-\\ntra. There is some evidence that diamonds exist in other\\ncelestial bodies, as they have been recently found in\\nmeteors. The diamond is the hardest substance known,\\nand can be ground and polished only with its own dust.\\nWhen polished it has a magnificent lustre, and its high\\nrefractive power causes it to sparkle and show varied\\ncolors, although the gem itself is generally colorless. Its\\nbeauty and rarity make it the most precious of gems (the\\nKegent diamond is valued at 500,000). If heated to a\\nhigh temperature, it swells up and is converted into a sub-\\nstance resembling graphite, which burns, forming carbon\\ndioxid. In 1814, Sir Humphry Davy proved that carbon\\ndioxid was the only product of the combustion of a diamond,\\nthus proving that it was pure carbon.\\nUses. It is used as a gem; by the glazier in cutting\\nglass in the diamond drill for boring rocks and other hard\\nsubstances. Its powder is used in grinding and polishing\\ngems of all kinds.\\n266. Graphite is familiar as the black lead of the mis-\\nnamed lead pencil. It is found abundantly in nature,\\nlarge beds occurring at Ticonderoga, N.Y., and famous ones\\nin Siberia and on the island of Ceylon. It occurs both in\\nthe crystalline and amorphous forms, but its crystals are not\\nthe same shape as those of the diamond. Ordinary coke\\nor charcoal is converted into graphite when heated in the", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0185.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "172 CHEMISTRY\\narc light. About a quarter of an inch of the end of a carbon\\nfrom an electric lamp is always an impure graphite. Con-\\nsiderable graphite has been formed as a by-product in the\\nprocess of making carborundum in an electric furnace, and a\\ncompany has now been formed to manufacture graphite by\\nthe Acheson process, in which powdered graphite mixed\\nwith certain oxids is passed in a continuous stream through\\nan electric furnace, which converts it into a high grade of\\ngraphite. The inventor believes that the coke first combines\\nwith the metal of the oxid, forming a carbicl, and that as the\\ntemperature rises, the carbid is decomposed and the metal\\nvolatilized, leaving a pure graphite.\\nProperties. Graphite is opaque, has a grayish color and\\na metallic lustre it is very friable, is quite soft, leaving a\\nmark on paper, hence its name it is insoluble in all known\\nliquids, is a good conductor of both heat and electricity, and\\nis smooth and slippery to the touch. It is permanent in air\\nat ordinary temperatures, but burns, forming carbon dioxid,\\nwhen raised to a high temperature.\\nUses. Graphite is used in making lead pencils and\\ncrucibles for molten metals, as a lubricant, as stove polish,\\nfor foundery facings (to secure smooth castings), in the\\nprocess of electrotyping, and in paint.\\n267. Amorphous Carbon. The amorphous varieties of\\ncarbon are almost always obtained by charring some organic\\nsubstance, i.e. by burning it in a limited supply of air. The\\nhydrogen and the volatile compounds are burned, leaving\\nthe amorphous carbon. The principal varieties of amor-\\nphous carbon are charcoal, lampblack, gas carbon, and\\nanimal charcoal.\\n268. Charcoal. The ancient way of coaling wood, as\\nthe process is still called, is carried on as follows In the", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0186.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "CARBON 173\\ncentre of a carefully levelled piece of ground, termed the\\nhearth. or earth/ 1 a centre pole is erected, and around\\nthis the wood is piled, forming a flattened cone. This is\\ncovered with earth, the centre pole is withdrawn, leaving a\\nchimney, at the bottom of which the fire is kindled.\\nDuring the early stage of the process much smoke and flame\\nformed by the combustion of the volatile matter issues from\\nthe top of the pile. As soon as this disappears, all vents are\\nclosed and the mass allowed to cool. In this process there\\nis great liability to loss through the admission of too much\\nair, and the by-products are all wasted.\\nRetort Charcoal. In this process the wood is heated in\\nretorts from which air is excluded, thus preventing combus-\\ntion of the charcoal. The liquids driven off, consisting of\\ntar, pyroligeneous acid, wood alcohol, acetone, benzol, etc.,\\nare collected in suitable condensers, and the gases liberated,\\nwhich consist mainly of marsh gas, hydrogen, carbon mon-\\noxid, and acetylene, are used in heating the retort; small\\nwood and sawdust can be charred by this method.\\n269. Properties of Charcoal.\\nExperiment LXXXV. Carefully measure and weigh a small piece\\nof dry pine, place it in a test tube and cover it with dry sand apply\\nheat as long as gas is evolved. Is the gas combustible When the\\nevolution of gas ceases, set the tube aside to cool empty the tube and\\nexamine the sand. Is there any evidence that either of the liquid\\nproducts was retained by the sand Which Measure and weigh\\nthe charcoal. How do the linear dimensions compare with those of\\nthe wood used How does the volume compare Examine with a\\nglass to determine whether the grain of the wood is preserved. Twist\\na small wire about a piece of charcoal and hold it in the Bunsen\\nburner flame until ignited does it melt does it burn with a flame\\nWhy does wood burn with a flame Is charcoal soluble in acids\\nin alkalies\\nExperiment LXXXVL Filters. Place about a teaspoonful of\\nanimal charcoal in a test bottle fill the bottle nearly full with a", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0187.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "174 CHEMISTRY\\nsolution of potassium permanganate shake the bottle vigorously, then\\npour the contents on a filter. What is the color of the liquid What\\nproperty does charcoal possess that renders it useful in niters\\nExperiment LXXXVII. Charcoal as a Deodorizer. Into the\\nneck of a funnel thrust a bit of cotton and cover it to a depth of two or\\nthree centimetres with powdered charcoal through this filter pass a\\nquantity of water charged with hydrogen sulfid, and observe.\\nExperiment LXXXVIII. Carbon as a Reducing Agent. 1. Mix\\ntwo or three grammes powdered copper oxid, CuO, and about 6 its\\nweight of powdered charcoal heat in an ignition tube fitted with an\\noutlet tube. Pass the gas which is given off into clear lime-water\\ncontained in a test tube. What is the appearance of the substance left\\nin the tube Does it suggest the metal copper\\n2. Treat a little with strong nitric acid. What should take place if\\nthe substance were metallic copper (Refer to process of making\\nnitric oxid.) What does take place What is the reaction which\\ntakes place between the copper oxid and the charcoal Write the\\nequation.\\nExperiment LXXXIX. Products of the Combustion of Carbon.\\nTwist a bit of wire about a small piece of charcoal, hold it in the flame\\nof a Bunsen burner until it is well ignited, then insert it in a test bottle\\ncontaining a little lime-water. Cover the bottle with the hand for a\\nminute, remove the charcoal, and shake the bottle. What occurs\\nWhat compound is formed by the combustion of charcoal\\nExperiment XC. (Performed by Teacher.) Collect a bottle of\\nammonia gas over mercury. Heat two or three lumps of charcoal to\\nredness and pass them through the mercury into the ammonia. What\\nDccurs Estimate the relative volumes of the charcoal and the gas.\\nExperiment XCI. Does Charcoal Float? Drop a piece of char-\\ncoal in a glass of water and place the glass under the receiver of the\\nair pump. Exhaust the air. Explain.\\nAt ordinary temperatures the chemical energy of charcoal\\nis exceedingly feeble. It is, therefore, one of the most dur-\\nable of substances. It is frequently found in prehistoric\\nfireplaces in a very perfect state of preservation. The\\ncharred grain found in the excavations at Pompeii is as fresh\\nas if burned yesterday. The charcoal carbonized at about\\n300\u00c2\u00b0 is a soft, brownish black substance igniting at about", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0188.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "CARBON 175\\n380\u00c2\u00b0 while that carbonized at high temperatures is dense\\nand difficult to ignite. The absorption and condensation of\\ngases by charcoal is due to so-called surface action, i.e. to\\nthe adhesion between the molecules of the gas and the\\ncharcoal. It is probable that in the case of the easily\\nliquefiable gases a portion of the gas is condensed to the\\nliquid state by this action (a phenomenon which should\\nincrease the temperature of the carbon).\\nThe condensed gases manifest marked chemical activity,\\nfor example, hydrogen and chlorin combine even in the\\ndark when absorbed, and absorbed hydrogen sulfid is so\\nrapidly oxidized when charcoal containing it is placed in\\noxygen as to ignite the charcoal. This property explains\\nthe action of charcoal as a disinfectant. The atmospheric\\noxygen which is condensed in the pores of the charcoal\\noxidizes the offensive and injurious gases. Charcoal has\\nbeen known to absorb 170 volumes of dry ammonia.\\nUses. The amorphous varieties of carbon are extensively\\nused as reducing agents as in the processes of smelting, in\\nwhich ores are reduced to metals by heating them with\\nsome form of carbon and in the Leblanc process. Charcoal\\nis used in niters, as a disinfectant, and for kindling purposes.\\n270. Lampblack.\\nExperiment XCIL Close the holes at the base of a Bunsen burner,\\nand hold a piece of cold metal in the flame. Examine the deposit of\\nlampblack formed. Describe it.\\nOn a large scale lampblack is prepared by burning sub-\\nstances rich in carbon in a limited supply of air. The\\ndense smoke formed passes through chambers in which\\ncoarse blankets are suspended, and on these the soot collects.\\nUses. Great quantities of lampblack are used in the\\nmanufacture of printer s ink, paints, and electric light\\ncarbons.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0189.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "176 CHEMISTRY\\n271. Animal Charcoal. Boneblack, as this substance is\\nsometimes called, is prepared by carbonizing bones in iron\\nretorts. It contains about 10 of carbon, but it possesses\\nmany of the valuable properties of charcoal in a marked\\ndegree, because the carbon is disseminated throughout the\\nporous mass of calcium phosphate, which forms about 88\\nof the mass.\\nUses. Sugar refiners use animal charcoal filters to\\nclarify solutions of raw sugar, and oil refiners also use it\\nto decolorize the better grades of lubricating oils.\\n272. Relative Kindling Temperature of Carbon and Hydro-\\ngen. The kindling temperature of hydrogen is probably\\nbetween 500 and 600\u00c2\u00b0 C, and that of carbon is very much\\nhigher. One of the results of this difference in kindling\\ntemperature was seen in Experiment 92, in which the flame\\nof a fuel composed of hydrogen and carbon was cooled\\nbelow the kindling temperature of carbon, and the carbon\\nwas no longer consumed, a part of it was deposited on the\\nmetal, and the balance escaped as smoke. All smoky flames\\nmay be attributed to the fact that the temperature of a\\nportion, or possibly the whole of the flame, is below the\\nkindling temperature of carbon; and the smoke would dis-\\nappear or would be consumed if the temperature of the\\nflame should be raised so that all parts should be above the\\nkindling temperature of carbon.\\nA second effect of this difference in kindling temperature\\nis shown in the facility with which certain fuels may be\\nkindled. When a fuel containing carbon and hydrogen is to\\nbe kindled, it is only necessary to supply sufficient heat to\\nraise it to the temperature at which it evolves hydrogen, or\\nsome compound of hydrogen and carbon, and to kindle the\\nevolved gas whereas if the fuel is a pure carbon it must be", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0190.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "CARBON 177\\nraised to a much higher temperature before it takes fire.\\nThis explains the ease with which wood or soft coal is\\nkindled as compared with hard coal or coke.\\nIn the process of making water gas it is found that at\\nthe high temperature of the anthracite fire, carbon mani-\\nfests sufficient energy to take oxygen away from hydrogen,\\nwhereas we now find that at certain lower temperatures\\nhydrogen combines with oxygen and carbon does not.\\nFew better illustrations of the effect of heat upon chemi-\\ncal energy have been suggested.\\n273. Smoky Flames. The temperature attained by a\\nflame depends upon the rate at which the fuel is con-\\nsumed, and upon the rate at which the heat escapes.\\nAs already illustrated in several processes, the rate of\\ncombustion of fuel may be controlled by regulating the\\namount of air supplied when too little air is supplied the\\nflame is cooled, and this is one of the chief causes of smoky\\nflames.\\nAs has already been shown, smoky flames are sometimes\\ndue to chilling the flame by contact with cold objects. If\\nthe cold object is a good conductor of heat, the effect con-\\ntinues a longer time, as is noticed when one builds a fire in\\na cold stove.\\nA third cause of smoky flame is the presence of moisture\\nin the fuel, a large amount of heat is withdrawn from the\\nflame to vaporize the moisture, thus lowering the tempera-\\nture. To this cause the great volume of smoke noticed\\nwhen green wood or grass is burning is due.\\n274. The Instability of Organic Substances. A number\\nof causes combine to make organic compounds less stable as\\na rule than inorganic compounds.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0191.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "178 CHEMISTRY\\n(a) The chief cause undoubtedly lies in the fact that\\ncarbon compounds are subject to the attacks of micro-\\norganisms. To this cause we must attribute all cases of\\nputrefaction and decay. Both animals and plants require\\ncarbon, and their food is principally composed of substances\\ncontaining carbon, but certain carbon compounds, like car-\\nbolic acid and some of the organic poisons, are not attacked\\nby microorganisms.\\n(b) Some of the most unstable of the organic compounds\\nowe their instability to the presence of nitrogen. The feeble\\naffinity which characterizes the nitrogen atom renders the\\ndecomposition of the substance containing it less difficult\\nthan it would be if some more active element replaced the\\nnitrogen hence most animal products are unstable.\\n(c) All organic compounds are endothermic; and endo-\\nthermic substances are less stable than exothermic, because\\nthey do not require the expenditure of energy to effect their\\ndecomposition.\\n(d) The elements found in organic compounds differ\\nwidely in valence carbon is quadrivalent, oxygen is biva-\\nlent, nitrogen trivalent, and hydrogen univalent, thus ren-\\ndering a greater number of combinations possible than\\ncould be formed if they were all of the same valence. We\\nthus have many organic compounds of the same elements\\nwhich are easily changed into kindred forms.\\n(e) The molecules of many organic compounds are ex-\\nceedingly complex, sometimes containing more than 100\\natoms, united in various sub-groups, or radicals, to form\\nthe molecule. The energy required to bring about a re-\\narrangement of these radicals in the molecule, or the elimi-\\nnation of one or more radicals, is less than that required to\\ndecompose simpler molecules, and they are therefore less\\nstable.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0192.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "CARBON 179\\n275. Use of Organic Substances as Fuels. All organic\\nthings are endothermic, i.e. they develop heat when they\\ncombine with oxygen. The quantity of heat developed by\\nthe oxidation of carbon and hydrogen is greater than that\\ndeveloped by any other elements, and for this reason\\norganic substances are particularly valuable as fuels.\\nAnother decided advantage lies in the fact that the\\nproducts of the combustion are in the aeriform state when\\nformed, and are therefore easily carried away by the draft\\nof the chimney.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Why do we char fence posts and telegraph poles\\n2. Show why lamp chimneys are used. Why is gas flame spread\\nout like a bat s wing\\n3. Why is air introduced in the centre of the flame of the\\nRochester burner\\n4. Why is more smoke seen to issue from a chimney on starting\\na fire than after it has burned for a time\\n5. Why is a curling iron blackened when held in the gas flame\\n6. Discuss the chemical energy of charcoal.\\n7. Describe an experiment to demonstrate that the diamond is a\\nform of carbon.\\n8. Compare the charring of wood by fire with the charring of\\nwood by acid.\\n9. In what respects are charcoal filters better than other kinds for\\npurifying drinking water? If a porous stone or porcelain filter is\\nused, what may be done to attain the same end as that attained by\\nthe use of the charcoal filter\\n10. Discuss the use and care of a charcoal filter as compared with\\nthe use and care of some other filter.\\n11. How does charring of wood protect the wood from decay\\nHow does charging wood with creosote affect its liability to decay\\n12. Show why utensils used over a wood fire are generally more\\nblackened than those used over a coal fire.\\n13. Can you build a bonfire of anthracite coal as you build one of\\ndry wood Give reason for your answer.\\n14. What causes a fire to smoke State two methods employed to\\novercome this difficulty.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0193.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "180 CHEMISTRY\\n15. From what country does the graphite used in Faber pencils\\ncome in Dixon pencils (Consult legend on pencil.)\\n16. What can you say of the affinity of charcoal for oxygen at\\nhigh temperatures How does it compare with the affinity of other\\nsubstances for oxygen at high temperatures\\n17. Discuss the shrinkage of wood when carbonized.\\n18. Describe and explain the combustion of charcoal.\\n19. Does turning a lamp wick up affect the air supply Why does\\nraising the lamp wick cause the lamp to smoke\\n20. Explain why wood is ignited at a lower temperature than coal.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0194.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXVI\\nCARBON AND OXYGEN\\nSECTION I. \u00e2\u0080\u0094CARBON DIOXID\\nFormula CO2. Molecular Weight 44\\n276. Occurrence. This gas is a constant constituent of\\nthe atmosphere, to which it is supplied- by the respiration\\nof animals, and by combustion and decay. It is found in\\nall spring waters, and issues from the earth in many places.\\nThe Poison Valley in Java and the Grotto del Cane near\\nXaples owe their properties to the carbon dioxid, which is\\nsupplied from subterranean sources. Old wells are fre-\\nquently filled with it.\\nIn combination with bases, carbon dioxid occurs in large\\nquantities e.g. limestone, marble, etc.\\n277. Preparation.\\nExperiment XCIII. To prepare carbon dioxid, and to determine\\ncertain of its properties (a) color, (6) odor and taste, (c) weight,\\n{d) solubility, (e) combustibility. In the generating bottle place\\neight or ten lumps of marble or chalk (not prepared crayons) Cover\\nthe lumps with water, and add a small quantity of hydrochloric acid.\\nCollect several bottles of the gas by downward displacement.\\n1. Lower a lighted taper into a bottle of the gas, and observe.\\nNow introduce a burning stick into the same bottle.\\n2. Place a lighted taper in an empty bottle, and pour the contents\\nof the second bottle of gas upon the flame, proceeding as if pouring\\nwater.\\n3. Pour some of the gas into a bottle containing lime-water shake\\nthe bottle this is the test for carbon dioxid.\\n181", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0195.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "182 CHEMISTRY\\n4. Prove that the gas may be transferred by pouring from one\\nvessel to another.\\n5. Is carbon dioxid soluble in water Explain the results obtained,\\nand state the properties of carbon dioxid illustrated by each section of\\nthe experiment. Complete the following reaction\\nCaC0 3 2 HC1 C0 2\\nExperiment XCIV. Object To determine what acids, if any, will\\ndecompose carbonates. The test for carbonates. 1. Place as much\\nsodium acid carbonate as you can take up on the blade of a penknife\\nin a test tube. Arrange a short delivery tube.\\n2. Cover the carbonate with dilute sulfuric acid.\\n3. Jf a gas is evolved, pass it through lime-water. What is it\\n4. Repeat the experiment, using (a) hydrochloric acid acetic\\n(c) any weaker acid. Which acids decompose carbonates What\\nsubstances evolve carbon dioxid when treated with an acid\\nExperiment XCV. Object To investigate the direct combination\\nof carbon dioxid with bases. 1. Fill a test bottle one-fourth full of a\\nsolution of sodium hydroxid.\\n2. Pass carbon dioxid through the solution as long as it is absorbed.\\n3. Add acid to a portion of the solution.\\n4. Devise a test which will prove what gas is evolved.\\n5. Write the reactions which occur when the gas is passed through\\nthe solution, and when the acid is added.\\nExperiment XCVI. Object: To determine why lime-water is ren-\\ndered turbid by carbon dioxid. 1. Collect some of the white insolu-\\nble substance formed by passing carbon dioxid through lime-water on\\na filter.\\n2. Treat the white precipitate with dilute acid. What evidence\\nhave you that it is calcium carbonate How was the carbonate\\nformed\\n278. Physical Properties. Your experiments have shown\\nyou the color, odor, taste, solubility, and weight of this gas.\\nAt ordinary temperatures and pressure, water dissolves\\nabout its own volume of carbon dioxid. As pressure is\\nincreased, the solubility increases this fact is illustrated\\nin the ordinary aerated waters. Water under a pressure of\\nseveral atmospheres is saturated with the gas, and when\\nthe pressure is reduced to one atmosphere by withdrawing", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0196.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "CARBON AND OXYGEN 183\\nthe cork, or by drawing a glassful from a fountain, the\\nexcess of gas dissolved at the higher pressure is liberated,\\ncausing the familiar effervescence. At 5\u00c2\u00b0 C. carbon dioxid\\nis liquefied by a pressure of about 31 atmospheres under\\nordinary pressures it boils at 87\u00c2\u00b0 C. It is a colorless,\\nmobile liquid, which floats on water without mixing with it.\\nLiquid carbon dioxid is prepared on a large scale by com-\\npressing the gas evolved in the process of brewing, in steel\\ncylinders in this form it is largely used by manufacturers\\nof aerated waters. When liquid carbon dioxid is allowed\\nto escape into air, the absorption of heat due to rapid\\nevaporation causes a portion of the liquid to solidify. The\\nsolid carbon dioxid is a soft, white, snow-like substance. It\\nis now an article of commerce known as carbonic acid snow.\\n279. Chemical Properties. The solution of carbon dioxid\\nin water is feebly acid, and may be regarded as the true\\ncarbonic acid. C0 2 H 2 H 2 C0 3 That all carbon dioxid\\ndissolved in water is not chemically combined with it is\\nshown by the fact that a freshly prepared sample of aerated\\nwater effervesces more briskly than those that have long\\nbeen preserved. Thus Apollinaris water, when opened,\\neffervesces very little, while when gently heated it gives off\\na rapid stream of gas. Such waters have in all probability\\nbeen exposed to pressure for a long time, and the dissolved\\ncarbon dioxid has almost entirely combined to form carbonic\\nacid.\\nIn the test for carbon dioxid (Experiment 93) the turbid-\\nity was due to the formation of the insoluble calcium\\ncarbonate.\\nCaH 2 2 C0 2 CaC0 3 H 2 0.\\nLet us repeat this experiment to illustrate another prop-\\nerty of carbon dioxid.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0197.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "184 CHEMISTRY\\nExperiment XCVII. Pour a small quantity of lime-water into a\\ntest tube pass carbon dioxid through it for some minutes. Does the\\nturbidity increase at first Does it continue to increase, or is a point\\nreached where all the calcium is converted into calcium carbonate\\nContinue the supply of carbon dioxid until the liquid becomes clear.\\nNow expel the excess of carbon dioxid by boiling the liquid. What\\noccurs Is calcium carbonate soluble in water containing carbon\\ndioxid If still in doubt, pass carbon dioxid through some water,\\nand pour it into a test tube containing calcium carbonate prepared as\\nabove.\\nThe fact that water containing carbon dioxid will dis-\\nsolve calcium carbonate accounts for the hardness of\\nnatural waters in limestone regions, and also for the for-\\nmation of caves in limestone; and the precipitation of the\\ndissolved calcium carbonate, when the carbon dioxid is\\ngiven off, causes the formation of the so-called scale in\\ntea-kettles and steam boilers, the formation of stalactites\\nand stalagmites in caves, and the deposits of petrified\\nmoss, or travertine, near certain springs.\\n280. Why Carbon Dioxid does not support Combustion.\\nAlthough carbon dioxid contains more than three times as\\nmuch oxygen as the air, it does not support ordinary com-\\nbustion, for it is itself a product of combustion, and as\\nshould be inferred from the chemical energy manifested\\nwhen carbon dioxid is formed, the elements have a strong\\naffinity for each other. Metallic potassium, sodium, and\\nmagnesium are among the few elements w r hich have a suffi-\\nciently strong affinity for oxygen to take it from carbon, and\\nat high temperatures carbon dioxid supports the combustion\\nof these substances.\\nExperiment XCVIII. Light a strip of magnesium ribbon, and\\nthrust it into a bottle of carbon dioxid. Describe the action. What\\nbecomes of the carbon of the C0 2 Test a small piece of the sub-\\nstance into which the ribbon is converted with dilute hydrochloric acid\\nto determine whether it is an oxid or a carbonate. Write the reaction.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0198.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "CARBON AND OXYGEN 185\\nThe efficiency of the fire extinguisher and the chemical\\nfire engines depends upon the fact that carbon dioxid does\\nnot support combustion. These devices consist of two recep-\\ntacles, a larger containing a solution of sodium acid car-\\nbonate, and the smaller a few ounces of sulfuric acid. The\\nreceptacles are usually so arranged that the liquids may be\\nmixed by inverting the extinguisher. Carbon dioxid is\\ngenerated, and water charged with the gas is forced out,\\nextinguishing any moderate conflagration.\\n281. Growth. One of the broad differences between\\nliving and dead matter is in the manner of growing. All\\nliving organisms grow because of the multiplication of cells\\nwithin the body of the organism while inert matter is either\\nsubject to disintegration, or as in the case of the crystal,\\ngrows by the addition of similar molecules to the outside.\\nThe growth of the plant differs from that of the animal, in\\nthat plants constantly increase in bulk by addition to their\\nstore of organic matter, while animals expend a large per-\\ncentage of the material which they receive in replacing the\\ntissues worn out by the activities of life.\\nExperiment XCIX. To determine ivhat gas plants evolve.\\n1. Place a growing plant in a shallow vessel and cover it with a\\nstoppered bell jar.\\n2. Pour enough water into the vessel to prevent the escape of gas\\nfrom the bell jar, and fill the bell jar with carbon dioxid.\\n3. Set the apparatus in the sunlight for a few hours.\\n4. Test the gas in the jar for carbon dioxid by lowering a lighted\\ntaper into it. Is the taper extinguished Has anything replaced the\\ncarbon dioxid If so, what\\n5. Repeat the experiment, having air instead of carbon dioxid in\\nthe bell jar, and covering it with a heavy cloth or otherwise excluding\\nall light.\\n6. After a few hours test the air in the jar for carbon dioxid by\\ndipping out a bottle full and testing it with lime-water, also by lower-\\ning a lighted taper into the jar. Explain any change that you note in", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0199.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "186 CHEMISTRY\\ncomposition of the air. What gas is absorbed by plants in the light\\nIn the dark What gas is evolved in each case\\n282. The Life Processes of Plants and Animals. Plants\\nlive on inorganic substances, chiefly carbon dioxid, water,\\nammonia, and salts; the carbon dioxid is absorbed from\\nthe air by the leaves, and the other substances are derived\\nfrom the soil. The carbon dioxid and water are reduced by\\nthe action of sunlight, and the carbon and hydrogen thus\\nliberated combine with oxygen to form starch, C 6 H 10 O 5 with\\na reaction which is perhaps expressed by the following\\nequation\\n6 C0 2 5 H 2 C 6 H 10 O 5 12 0.\\nThere can be no doubt that the chemical energy which\\neffects the decomposition of the carbon dioxid is derived\\nfrom the sunlight; and it is equally certain that chloro-\\nphyll, the green coloring matter of the plant, is necessary\\nto the reaction, but the part played by the chlorophyll is\\nnot known. The twelve atoms of oxygen liberated by the\\nformation of one molecule of starch are returned to the air.\\nAnimals are unable to produce the complex organic mat-\\nter required to renew their bodies they therefore depend\\neither directly or indirectly upon plants for their food. In\\nthe animal body this organic matter is oxidized and ex-\\nhaled as carbon dioxid and water, a process which main-\\ntains the high temperature of the animal. It thus appears\\nthat the heat as well as the energy possessed by an animal\\nis developed by the combustion of portions of his own body\\nby means of oxygen supplied to the air by plants, and that\\nthe material consumed can only be renewed by foods pro-\\nduced by plants.\\nThe process of respiration in both plants and animals\\nconsists in the absorption of oxygen from the air, the oxida-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0200.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "CARBON AND OXYGEN 187\\nHon of portions of their tissues, and the release of carbon\\ndioxid and water. The process is the opposite of assimila-\\ntion, in which plants reduce carbon dioxid and exhale oxy-\\ngen but it occurs at all times, even at daylight, when it\\nis overshadowed by assimilation. The quantity of carbon\\ndioxid evolved in twenty-four hours by the respiration of a\\ngiven plant is only a small fraction of that assimilated by\\nthe plant in the same time.\\n283. Purification of the Air. Careful analyses of such\\nsamples of bottled ancient air as have been found fail to\\nshow an appreciable difference between the air which the\\nancients breathed and that of to-day. The vegetable king-\\ndom has been able to reduce the carbon dioxid poured into\\nthe air by the oxidation of thousands of tons of animal\\nmatter and by the combustion of thousands of tons of fuel,\\nand to return to the air practically all of the oxygen taken\\nfrom it.\\nThis reciprocal relation of the life processes of plants and\\nanimals may be nicely illustrated in a small way by supply-\\ning an aquarium with such proportion of plants and animals\\nthat the amount of oxygen evolved by the plants shall just\\nequal the amount absorbed by the animals, thus rendering\\nthe renewal of the water unnecessary. Although this action\\nof plants is the only means of supplying oxygen to the air,\\nit is not the only means employed by nature to keep the\\ncomposition of the air constant and to remove harmful\\nimpurities therefrom.\\nDuring the colder months of the year, when the quantity\\nof carbon dioxid received by the air is greater than at any\\nother time because of the increased consumption of fuel,\\nthe action of plants in this latitude is practically suspended,\\nand the amount of carbon dioxid in the air would increase", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0201.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "188 CHEMISTRY\\nwere it not for the action of the winds and for the ten-\\ndency toward equal distribution of gases known as the\\nproperty of diffusion. The rain is an important agent in\\nthe removal of impurities, dissolving carbon dioxicl, nitric\\nacid, ammonia, and all soluble substances and washing\\ndown germs, dust, soot, and organic matter exhaled by\\nanimals.\\nSunlight also destroys germs, and to a certain extent pre-\\nvents the pollution of the air by drying up damp places or\\nstagnant pools.\\n284. Ventilation. The putrid organic matter exhaled\\nfrom the lungs and discharged through the pores of animals\\nis much more harmful than the carbon dioxid which accom-\\npanies it still the amount of carbon dioxid in the air may\\nbe taken as an index of the impurity of the air, for the two\\nsubstances are given off by the lungs in proportional quan-\\ntities. It is a well-established fact that air which is con-\\ntaminated by the products of respiration acts as a poison to\\nthose who breathe it, but the subject of ventilation has not\\nyet received the study which its importance demands, and\\nour knowledge of the subject is in a somewhat chaotic state.\\nThe most that can be said at present is, good ventilation\\nrequires an inlet for fresh air, an outlet for impure air, and\\nsome means of setting the air in motion. In cases of\\nnatural ventilation, or those in which no special appli-\\nance is employed to cause the circulation of the air, let the\\noutlet be at the upper part of the room but no system of\\nnatural ventilation has yet been devised which can be de-\\npended upon in all conditions of wind and weather. The\\nsystem of artificial ventilation which gives most satisfac-\\ntory results requires some mechanical means of forcing the\\nair through the rooms.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0202.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "CARBON AND OXYGEN 189\\nSECTION II. CARBON MONOXID\\nSymbol CO. Molecular Weight 28\\nCaution. Do not inhale this gas.\\n285. Preparation.\\nExperiment C. In a large Florence flask place 3 grammes of finely\\npowdered potassium ferrocynid and 25 grammes of strong sulfuric\\nacid. Heat gently over wire gauze remove the burner as soon as\\ngas is evolved rapidly. Collect two bottles over water.\\n1. Test the inflammability of the gas.\\n2. Thrust a lighted splinter into the gas and observe.\\n3. When the gas is pure, remove the delivery tube from the flask\\nand connect the bent glass tube in its place and ignite the gas as it\\nflows from the tube observe the characteristics of the flame.\\n4. Hold a cold dry bottle over the burning jet.\\n5. Pour a little lime-water into the bottle and shake it. What is\\nthe product of the combustion Is water formed Why\\nState the physical properties of carbon monoxid. Note the character\\nof its flame.\\nExperiment CI. Pass a stream of carbon dioxid through a tube\\ncontaining red-hot charcoal, and from this lead the gas through a\\nbottle containing caustic soda. Collect the gas over water ignite\\na bottle of the gas. What is it\\nThis .experiment illustrates the method by which carbon\\nmonoxid is formed in coal stoves. The carbon dioxid\\nformed by the combustion of the lower layers of coal passes\\nthrough the hot coal above and is reduced to carbon mon-\\noxid, which burns with the characteristic blue name when\\nit comes in contact with the air above the coal.\\n286. Physical Properties. Carbon monoxid is very spar-\\ningly soluble in water, and may be collected over water with\\nvery little loss. It may be liquefied, but with very great\\ndifficulty. It is very poisonous. When inhaled it combines\\nwith the haemoglobin, forming a bright red compound which\\ncannot collect and distribute oxygen less than one per cent", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0203.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "190 CHEMISTRY\\nof carbon monoxid in the atmosphere gives rise to head-\\naches and giddiness, and if inhaled for any considerable\\ntime, insensibility and death quickly follow. The extremely\\npoisonous nature of the choke damp resulting from a\\ncolliery explosion is due to the presence of carbon monoxid\\nwith the carbon dioxid formed as a product of the combus-\\ntion. A pan of smouldering charcoal gives off this gas, and\\nin certain countries is a frequent means of suicide.\\nAs carbon monoxid is odorless, coal gas could not be\\ndetected in the air were it not that carbon monoxid is\\nusually accompanied by other gases having peculiar odors.\\nCarbon monoxid is an important constituent of water gas.\\nThe chief objection to the use of water gas for the illumina-\\ntion of dwellings arose from the fact that w T hile the water\\ngas was more poisonous than the ordinary illuminating gas,\\nit was odorless, and therefore leaks could not be detected\\nexcept by the illness of persons. This objection has been\\novercome by adding to water gas certain gases which have\\npartly an odor, and which increase the light.\\n287. Chemical Properties. At high temperatures carbon\\nmonoxid has a strong affinity for oxygen, and is an excel-\\nlent reducing agent it forms an explosive mixture with air\\nand with oxygen, which is the cause of the explosions which\\nsometimes occur in coal stoves.\\n288. Heat and Chemical Energy of the Combustion of\\nCarbon. The heat developed by the combustion of a\\ngramme of carbon is about 8080 calories; something less\\nthan i as much as is developed by the combustion of an\\nequal weight of hydrogen, but a larger amount than is\\ndeveloped by the combustion of any other element.\\nIt is an interesting fact that the two elements yielding\\nthe largest quantities of heat are the ones recovered from", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0204.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "CARBON AND OXYGEN\\n191\\nthe products of combustion by plants. We have here a\\nspecies of endless chain; the fuel supply of the world\\ncan never be entirely exhausted. All fuels contain either\\ncarbon or hydrogen, and most of them contain both.\\n289. Application of this Energy in doing Mechanical Work.\\nThe steam engine is to-day our main reliance for power\\nit may be considered as a machine which converts the\\nchemical energy of fuel into heat, and the heat in turn\\ninto mechanical motion. The chemical energy of carbon\\nis the principal source from which our power is derived,\\nbut it is not the only source; hydrogen forms some 20%\\nof the weight of certain coals, and therefore supplies more\\nthan half of the heat units developed. The work done\\nby explosives is derived directly from chemical energy\\nwithout passing through the intermediate form.\\nExperiment CII. To illustrate the transformation of the chemical\\nenergy into mechanical motion. 1. Arrange apparatus as in sketch,\\nthe flask being empty.\\n2. The bottle A is f full of water.\\n3. Heat the flask with Bunsen burner. Why does water rise\\nWhat chemical energy is used in this experiment In what other\\nforms does it appear\\nExperiment CIII. To illustrate the direct transformation of chemi-\\ncal energy into mechanical motion. 1. Remove the flask and tube", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0205.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "192 CHEMISTRY\\nleading to bottle A (Experiment 98). Close the hole in the rubber\\nstopper.\\n2. Refill the bottle and see that the tumbler is empty.\\n3. Mix 3 grammes of sodium bicarbonate and an equal weight of\\ntartaric acid.\\n4. Raise the stopper of the bottle and pour the mixture into it.\\nDescribe and explain.\\nThe action is similar to that of the fire extinguisher, in\\nwhich sulfuric acid is used instead of the tartaric acid used\\nin this experiment.\\nSECTION III.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 A STUDY OF FLAME\\n290. We have studied a number of cases of combustion,\\nsome of which developed flames, while others burned with-\\nout flame. It will assist us to understand the cause of\\nthis difference in behavior, if we divide the combustible sub-\\nstances which we have studied into two classes, (a) Those\\nwhich burn with flame, such as hydrogen, water gas, sulfur,\\nphosphorus, hydrogen sulfid, carbon monoxid, wood, rosin,\\nkerosene, alcohol, paraffin, illuminating gas. (b) Those\\nwhich burn without flame, as charcoal, iron, copper. Do\\nall the gases mentioned above burn with flame All the\\nliquids All the solids Are the substances which burn\\nwithout a flame volatilized easily or with difficulty\\nExperiment CIV. To examine the structure of the flame produced\\nby the combustion of a hydrocarbon. 1. Examine the flame of a\\ncandle, noting (a) the blue cup-shaped portion, (b) the dark space,\\n(c) the luminous cone, and (d) the thin layer. (To see the latter hold\\nthe candle near a blackboard. If this does not make it clear, hold\\nflame in the sunlight and examine the shadow cast on white paper.)\\n2. Make a sketch of the flame in your note-book, indicating the parts.\\nExperiment CV. To determine which portion of the flame is\\nhottest. Lower a piece of cardboard into the candle flame until it\\nnearly touches the wick; hold it in place until it begins to char on\\nthe upper side, then quickly remove it to prevent its taking fire. What\\nportion of the flame is hottest Preserve this cardboard in your note-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0206.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "CARBON AND OXYGEN 193\\nbook. This shows a cross-section of the flame. To secure a longi-\\ntudinal section hold a card horizontally, with one edge touching the\\nwick below the flame revolve the card about the edge in contact\\nwith the wick until it is vertical. As soon as the side away from the\\nflame begins to turn brown remove the card. Examine the section of\\nthe flame shown on the card. What portion of the flame is evidently\\nhottest Coolest Is there any relation between the temperature\\nand the intensity of the light of the various parts of the flame\\nExperiment CVI. 1. Spread the wick of the candle to make the\\nflame as large as possible.\\n2. Pass a match stick through the flame just above the wick, hold\\nit there a few seconds, remove it, and quickly blow it out.\\n3. Describe the charred portion of the match. Is the dark portion\\nof the flame a zone of combustion\\nExperiment CVII. Alternate. 1. Thrust the head of a match into\\nthe dark portion of the candle flame. Hold it there while you count\\nten rapidly. Is it ignited while in the dark portion, or as it is with-\\ndrawn\\nExperiment CVIIL To determine the state of the matter forming\\nthe dark portion of the flame. 1. Hold a burning match stick two\\ninches above the wick of a burning candle blow out the candle flame.\\nWhat occurs when a stream of smoke which rises from the hot\\nwick returns to a vertical position and comes into the match flame\\nIs this smoke combustible\\n2. Again extinguish the flame and hold a piece of filter paper in\\nthe stream of smoke after the smoke ceases examine the paper\\nfor evidence that the stream consisted of either solids or liquids.\\n3. Relight the candle, hold a gas tube, drawn out to a point at one\\nend, in the dark zone the pointed end upward hold a lighted match\\nat the upper end. What is the state of the matter in the dark zone\\nExplain how the paraffin reaches the flame also the changes of state\\nwhich it undergoes. Is the candle flame due to the combustion of a\\nsolid, a liquid, or a gas\\nExperiment CIX. To determine ivhy certain flames are luminous.\\n1. Adjust the supply of gas so that the Bunsen flame is non-luminous.\\n2. Sprinkle a very little powered charcoal in the flame how is the\\namount of light affected\\n3. Sprinkle reduced iron in the flame.\\n4. Rub two pieces of charcoal together near the orifices at the base", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0207.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "194 CHEMISTRY\\nof the burner. How is the amount of light affected Explain how\\nthe charcoal reaches the flame.\\n5. Make a spiral by winding a short piece of iron wire about a lead\\npencil hold this in the upper part of the flame how is the light\\naffected How did the solids placed in the oxyhydrogen flame affect\\nthe amount of light\\n6. Hold the mantle of a Welsbach burner in the flame.\\n7. Close the holes at the base of the Bunsen burner note the\\nchanges in the amount of light. Hold a piece of glass tubing in the\\nflame for a short time. Examine the tube for evidence that any\\nelement existed in the flame in a solid state.\\n8. Open the holes in the base of the burner scrape some of the\\ndeposit from the glass tube, holding the tube near the openings at the\\nbase of the burner. How is the amount of light affected Explain.\\nWhat is your opinion as to the cause of the light produced by burn-\\ning hydrocarbons\\nExperiment CX. The Bunsen Burner. 1. Examine the con-\\nstruction of a Bunsen burner. Make a sketch showing its parts.\\n2. Describe the parts of a Bunsen burner flame. If necessary use\\nthe shadow.\\n3. Explore the flame with a piece of platinum wire to determine in\\nwhat zone or part of a zone the highest temperature is reached.\\n(Judge by the degree of incandescence of the wire.)\\nThere is good authority for the statement that the lumi-\\nnosity of certain flames is due to the presence of vapors of\\nsufficient density to become incandescent at the tempera-\\nture of the flame, and it is probable that the luminosity of\\ngas and candle flames is due to this cause acting conjointly\\nwith the presence of solid matter.\\n291. Oxidizing and Reducing Flames. In the outer portion\\nof the candle flame and the Bunsen flame there is an excess\\nof oxygen, hence substances heated in this portion of the\\nflame are oxidized. In the inner portion of each of these\\nflames there is a deficiency of oxygen, and substances con-\\ntaining oxygen are reduced when in this portion. The\\nmouth blowpipe is usually used to increase the efficiency", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0208.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "CARBON AND OXYGEN\\n195\\nof these flames. With a little practice one learns to close\\nthe opening between the mouth and nasal passages, and to\\nforce air through the\\nblowpipe by contract-\\ning the cheek muscles,\\nbreathing regularly\\nthrough the nose\\nmeanwhile. In this\\nway one may blow a\\nsteady stream of air\\ninto a flame for sev-\\neral minutes. The Fig. 20.\\ntip (5) of the outer\\nflame is the most efficient oxidizing flame, and the tip (a)\\nof the inner cone, the most efficient reducing flame.\\nExperiment CXI. To reduce lead oxid. 1. In a hollow made\\nin a piece of charcoal place a small quantity of lead oxid, PbO.\\n2. Using a blowpipe, heat it in the reducing flame until a metallic\\nglobule is obtained.\\n3. Compare the physical properties of the globule with those of lead.\\nExperiment CXII. To oxidize lead. 1. Place a small piece of\\nlead in a hollow made in a piece of charcoal.\\n2. Heat the lead in the oxidizing flame. In what previous experi-\\nment was the coating formed on the charcoal obtained What is the\\nsubstance\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Mention seven physical facts concerning carbon dioxid.\\n2. What are carbonates How may they be detected\\n3. Describe fully the formation of fur in the tea-kettle.\\n4. What is the great supporter of vegetable life animal life\\n5. What binary compounds are present in limestone How would\\nyou separate these binary compounds, and how would you cause them\\nto combine again\\n6. Describe an experiment in which chemical energy ultimately\\nperforms mechanical work.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0209.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "196 CHEMISTRY\\n7. Compare the physical properties of carbon monoxid and carbon\\ndioxid as follows: state, color, odor, and taste, solubility, weight,\\ndifficulty of liquefaction, and solidification, effect of pressure on solu-\\nbility. Compare the chemical properties of carbon monoxid and car-\\nbon dioxid as follows: combustibility, relation to animal life, to\\nvegetable life, stability.\\n8. Account for the unpleasant and sometimes dangerous explo-\\nsions that frequently occur in coal stoves shortly after fuel is added.\\n9. Carbon dioxid is nearly f oxygen, while air is only oxygen.\\nWhy is a flame extinguished in the former, and supported in the\\nlatter\\n10. Compare the respiration of animals with that of plants.\\n11. Show how haemoglobin and chlorophyll are of use to animals\\nand plants respectively.\\n12. Explain in detail the conditions of light and heat in the flame\\nof a Bunsen lamp when the holes in the base of the lamp are (a) open,\\n(b) closed.\\n13. In household chemistry how is carbon monoxid formed\\n14. State two reasons why organic substances are usually more\\nsuitable as fuels than inorganic substances.\\n15. Are the life processes of animals essentially processes of oxida-\\ntion or of reduction\\n16. Is the process of assimilation by plants a process of oxidation,\\nor reduction\\n17. Why does not the air of cities become overcharged with carbon\\ndioxid How is carbon dioxid absorbed at the poles in the winter", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0210.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXVII\\nHYDROCARBONS\\n292. The binary compounds of hydrogen and carbon are\\nknown as hydrocarbons. Chemists are familiar with be-\\ntween one and two hundred of them, and thousands more\\nare theoretically possible. They all form oxids, hydroxids,\\netc., which are known as hydrocarbon derivatives, and which\\nare so numerous that a list of their names would fill a\\ngood-sized volume. Fortunately, very simple relations exist\\nbetween the chemical compositions and between the proper-\\nties of the members of several large groups or series and\\nthe study of these compounds is therefore greatly sim-\\nplified. For example, the paraffin or the marsh gas series\\nis based upon the compound CH 4 and the first six members\\nof the series have the following formula\\nMethane, CH 4 Butane, C 4 H 10\\nEthane, C 2 H 6 Pentane, CsH^,\\nPropane, C 3 H 8 Hexane, C 6 H 14\\nIt will be seen that each formula differs from the pre-\\nceding by CH 2 and that each may be expressed by the\\ngeneral formula C n H 2n+2\\nWe shall study very briefly the three following sub-\\nMethane, CH 4 basis of the C n H 2B+2 series.\\nEthene, C 2 H 4 basis of the C ?l H 2n series.\\nAcetylene, C 2 H 2 basis of the C 9l H 2n _ 2 series.\\n197", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0211.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "198 CHEMISTRY\\nMETHANE\\n(MARSH GAS. FIRE DAMP)\\nFormula CH 4 Molecular Weight 16\\n293. Occurrence. Marsh gas is found free in nature in\\nlarge quantities. It is formed by the decay of vegetable\\nmatter in a limited supply of air. As the name indicates,\\nit is found in marshes the bubbles which rise to the sur-\\nface, when the mud at the bottom of the pond is disturbed,\\nare largely marsh gas. It is one of the products of the\\nprocess of reduction by which coal was formed, and exists,\\noften under great pressure, in seams and crevices in the\\ncoal beds. Petroleum contains it; it often forms a large\\npercentage of natural gas and is present in illuminating\\ngas to the extent of 35 or 40\\n294. Preparation.\\nExperiment CXIII. 1. Mix 2 grammes of fused sodium acetate,\\nNaC 2 H 3 2 4 grammes of caustic soda, and 5 grammes of quicklime.\\nReduce the mixture to a fine powder.\\n2. Heat the mixture on a piece of sheet iron until all moisture is\\nexpelled.\\n3. Charge a long ignition tube with the mixture, support it hori-\\nzontally, and apply heat collect the evolved gas over water in small\\nbottles. Note its physical properties.\\n4. Thrust a lighted taper into a bottle of marsh gas. Describe the\\nflame as to light and heat. What are the probable products of its\\ncombustion How can you prove that your answer is correct Test\\nthe bottle for carbon dioxid. Do you note any evidence of the forma-\\ntion of water\\n5. Determine whether the gas supports combustion.\\n6. Determine whether it is heavier or lighter than air.\\nQuicklime is used in this experiment to make the mass\\nporous, and is not changed chemically. The reaction is as\\nfollows\\nNaC 2 H 3 2 NaOH CH 4 Na 2 C0 3", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0212.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "HYDROCARBONS\\n199\\nQUESTIONS\\nWhy does this gas explode when mixed with the air and ignited\\nIn what proportion should the mixture explode with most violence\\nWhy do miners call this gas fire damp\\nCH 4 2 2 C0 2 2 H 2 0.\\nIf the above equation expresses the reaction which occurs when\\nmarsh gas explodes, how should the volume of the factors compare\\nwith that of the products (Avogadro s law) What effect should the\\nheat developed by the combustion have upon the relative volumes\\nWhich of the products in the above reaction is known as choke\\ndamp and why is this name given it\\n295. Uses. Natural gas, which is largely marsh gas, is\\nused extensively as fuel in various manufacturing establish-\\nments and in households.\\n296. Marsh Gas in Coal Mines. The violent explosions\\nwhich frequently occur in coal mines are due to the ignition\\nof an explosive mixture of fire damp and air.\\nWhen fire damp explodes the products of its\\noxidation fill the mine; one of these products is\\nknown as choke damp. To prevent these explo-\\nsions care is taken to thoroughly ventilate the\\nmines, and miners lamps (Fig. 21) are usually en-\\nclosed in wire gauze so that the flame cannot pass\\nthrough the gauze and ignite the gas outside of\\nthe lamp.\\nETHENE\\n(ETHYLENE. OLEFIANT GAS)\\nFormula C 2 H 4 Molecular Weight 28\\n297. Occurrence. Ethene is one of the important con-\\nstituents of illuminating gas, of which it forms from\\n4 to 10%.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0213.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "200 CHEMISTRY\\n298. Preparation.\\nExperiment CXIV. (Performed by teacher. In a large flask mix\\ncautiously 80 cc. of sulfuric acid and 20 cc. of alcohol (C 2 H 6 0).\\nApply gentle beat and collect the gas evolved over water. Is the gas\\nheavier or lighter than air Is it soluble in water Ignite a bottle\\nof the gas and force the gas out by pouring water into the bottle.\\nDescribe the characteristics of the flame. What compounds are\\nformed? From an inspection of the formulae, CH 4 and C 2 H 4 would\\nyou expect the difference observed in the flames of marsh and olefiant\\ngases Explain.\\nThe principal reaction which occurs in this experiment\\nis expressed in the following equation\\nC 2 H 6 H 2 C 2 H 4\\nThe strong affinity of sulfuric acid for water, withdraws\\nhydrogen and oxygen from the alcohol in the proportion\\nwhich they unite to form water. The gas thus prepared\\ncontains several impurities, which may be removed by pass-\\ning through strong sulfuric acid and then through sodium\\nhydroxid.\\n299. Properties. Mixed with three volumes of oxygen\\nand ignited, ethene explodes violently. Explain. It burns\\nwith a dull, smoky flame, when mixed with two volumes of\\nchlorin and ignited, forming HC1 and C. Ethene may be\\nliquefied at 0\u00c2\u00b0 C. by a pressure of 41 atmospheres. When\\nthe liquefied gas is rapidly evaporated, the extremely low\\ntemperature of 140\u00c2\u00b0 C. may be obtained. Liquid ethene\\nis therefore used in the liquefaction of oxygen and other\\ngases requiring very low temperatures.\\nETHINE\\n(ACETYLENE)\\nFormula C 2 H 2 Molecular Weight 26\\n300. Acetylene is formed when coal gas is burned in an\\ninsufficient supply of air. Its peculiar odor may be de-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0214.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "HYDROCARBONS 201\\ntected when the flame of the Bunsen burner snaps back\\ni.e. when the gas is ignited at the bottom of the burner.\\n301. Preparation.\\nExperiment CXV. 1. Drop a small piece of calcium carbid, CaC 2\\ninto a tin cup that is about half full of water ignite the escaping gas.\\nDescribe its odor, flame.\\n2. Hold a small piece of calcium carbid with tongs, drop a few\\ndrops of water on it, ignite then try to extinguish the flame with a\\nminiature fire extinguisher made as in Experiment 99.\\nExperiment CXYI. 1. Place a small piece of calcium carbid,\\nCaCo, under the mouth of a bottle arranged in the water pan for\\ncollecting a gas over water.\\n2. Observe any change in the volume of the gas. Is it soluble in\\nwater What is its color\\n3. Determine whether the gas is heavier or lighter than the air.\\nOf the three hydrocarbons prepared, which produces the brightest\\nlight Does the brilliancy of the light produced depend upon the\\nproportion of carbon in the compound Of the three, which requires\\nthe most oxygen for its complete combustion\\nCaC 2 2 H 2 CaH 2 2 C 2 H 2\\n302. Properties. Acetylene is poisonous. It explodes\\nviolently under conditions which have not been well under-\\nstood. At present, however, it seems to be established that\\nthe gas may be safely handled if the pressure under which\\nit is confined does not much exceed one atmosphere. At a\\ntemperature of 10\u00c2\u00b0 C. it is liquefied by a pressure of 63\\natmospheres. The deep red color obtained when acetylene\\nis passed through a solution of cuprous chlorid in ammonia\\nwater is a very sensitive test for this gas.\\n303. Derivatives. Among the more important oxygen\\nderivatives of the several homologous series of hydro-\\ncarbons are the hydroxids, the oxids, and the acids. The\\nhydroxids are known as alcoJwls, and are formed by replac-\\ning one of the hydrogen atoms of some hydrocarbon with", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0215.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "202 CHEMISTRY\\nthe radical, OH. The best known examples are methyl\\nhydroxid, or wood alcohol, CH 3 OH, and ethyl hydroxid,\\nor ordinary alcohol, C 2 H 5 OH. The alcohols have distinct\\nbasic properties, and combine readily with the various acids,\\nforming ethereal salts. The oxids are known as ethers, the\\nbest known example being ordinary ether, or ethyl oxid\\n(C 2 H 5 2 0. The acids formed by the further oxidation of\\nthe hydrocarbons form an interesting group they combine\\nwith the inorganic bases, as well as with the alcohols, to\\nform salts. In the following list the names and formulae of\\nsix members of the series of acids derived from the marsh\\ngas series of hydrocarbons are given\\nFormic acid,\\nC-H9O2,\\nor H.CO.OH.\\nAcetic acid,\\nC 2 H 4 2\\nor CtL.CO.OH.\\nPropionic acid,\\nC 3 H 6 2\\nor C 2 H 5 .CO.OH.\\nButyric acid,\\nC 4 H 8 2\\nor C 3 H 7 .CO.OH.\\nPalmitic acid,\\nki HffiQa\\nor C 15 H 31 .CO.OH.\\nStearic acid,\\n^18*1 36^2?\\nor C 17 H 35 .CO.OH.\\nThese acids are commonly known as the fatty acids, be-\\ncause they occur abundantly in most natural fats butyric\\nacid is found in butter, palmitic acid in palm oil, and\\nstearic acid in stearin. The so-called stearin candles are\\na mixture of palmitic and stearic acids. The fats, in a\\nnatural state, are ethereal salts formed by the union of the\\nfatty acids with glycerin, a tribasic alcohol derived from\\npropane, having the formula C 3 H 5 (OH) 3\\n304. Soaps. Like metallic salts, the ethereal salts are\\ndecomposed when treated with an alkaline hydroxid. The\\nethereal salts usually require a higher temperature to bring\\nabout the reaction, but all of them are decomposed when\\nboiled with sodium or potassium hydroxid, the products of", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0216.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "HYDROCARBONS 203\\nthe reaction being a salt of the alkalin base and an alcohol.\\nAs this sort of decomposition occurs in the process of making\\nsoap, it is called saponification. When a fat, as glycerin\\npalmitate, for example, is boiled with sodium hydroxid,\\nsodium palmitate (a soap) and glycerin are formed; the\\nreaction may be expressed as follows\\nC 3 H 5 (C 16 H 3 A) 3 3 KaOH 3 NaC 16 H 31 2 C 3 H 5 (OH) 3\\nOrdinary soaps are usually palmitate or stearate of potas-\\nsium or sodium. The sodium salts make hard soaps, and\\nthe potassium salts, soft soaps. The detergent or cleansing\\npower of soap depends upon the fact that its solution either\\ndissolves, or forms an emulsion of oily substances that water\\nalone would have no effect upon.\\nExperiment GXV1I. To make soap. 1. Dissolve one part of\\nsodium hydroxid in eight parts of water.\\n2. Mix 50 cc. of the above solution with 50 cc. of castor oil and boil\\nfor half an hour.\\n3. Add 200 cc. of water and bring to a boil.\\n4. Add 20 grammes of common salt. The soap separates and\\nsolidifies as the liquid cools.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Describe the artificial preparation of marsh gas, and state its\\nproperties, its use, and the manner of its occurrence in nature.\\n2. Account for the presence of CH 4 in coal mines. Why is it\\ndangerous What precautions should be taken to avoid this danger\\n3. Distinguish between fire damp and choke damp, giving the\\nchemical name, formula, and properties of each.\\n4. Describe the preparation of acetylene, writing the reaction.\\nState one important use of acetylene.\\n5. Compare the physical properties of methane, ethene, and ethine\\nthe chemical properties.\\n6. Describe the manufacture of soap write the reaction.\\n7. What are soaps State the theory of the use of soaps in\\ncleansing.\\n8. Describe the manufacture of hard soap.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0217.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXVIII\\nDESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION\\n305. Distillation. The term distillation is applied to a\\nnumber of operations which differ among themselves in\\nmany important respects, but in all of which a substance\\nis heated and a vapor given off which is condensed in a\\ncooled receiver. Two varieties of distillation depend only\\nupon physical changes. The first variety, which might be\\ncalled simple physical distillation, was illustrated by Experi-\\nment 43, in which water was separated from dissolved\\nsolids. The second variety is known as fractional distilla-\\ntion, and is employed in separating liquids. If a mixture\\nof water and ether be heated in a still, it begins to boil\\nwhen slightly above the boiling point of ether, 35\u00c2\u00b0, and the\\nether vapor accompanied by the small amount of water\\nvapor, due to the normal evaporation of water at this tem-\\nperature, is condensed. As the proportion of ether in the\\nmixture is diminished the boiling point rises, and the pro-\\nportion of water vapor condensed increases, so that it is\\ncustomary to collect the distillate in separate portions or\\nfractions of the whole, hence the name. By repeated dis-\\ntillation of the fractions two or more liquids may be\\nquite completely separated by this process.\\nThere are also two classes of distillation which involve\\nchemical changes. The first of these was illustrated by\\nExperiment 51, in which a chemical change was brought\\n204", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0218.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION 205\\nabout by means of a reagent and the applied heat. As the\\ntemperature reached is sufficient to vaporize one of the\\nproducts of the chemical change, it is easily separated from\\nthe other products by condensation. This is simple chemical\\ndistillation.\\nIn the remaining class, which is known as destructive or\\ndry distillation, a chemical change is brought about by heat\\nalone, the abseuce of reagents being an essential condition.\\nIn the many important applications of this process in the\\narts, the substance distilled consists of animal or vegetable\\nmatter; and when such substances are heated in a retort\\nfrom which air is excluded, the products of their decompo-\\nsition are quite different from the products of their com-\\nbustion. Those products which are volatile may be\\nseparated by passing the vapors through a succession of\\ncondensers which are kept at different temperatures.\\nThe second method of preparing charcoal, the process of\\nmanufacturing coal gas, and process of preparing animal-\\ncharcoal or bone black are processes of destructive dis-\\ntillation. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas were formed\\nby the destructive distillation of organic matter under\\nground.\\n306. Illuminating Gas. There are two kinds of illumi-\\nnating gas in common use, coal gas, and the so-called water\\ngas. Coal gas is generally prepared by the destructive dis-\\ntillation of bituminous coal, although wood, resin, or petro-\\nleum may be used. The coal is placed in fire-clay retorts\\nwhich are heated by a coke fire. A vertical pipe connects\\neach retort with a large horizontal pipe called the hydraulic\\nmain. When the coal is heated, the volatile products pass\\nthrough the riser into the hydraulic main. Here the\\ntemperature of the gas is lowered somewhat by contact", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0219.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "206 CHEMISTRY\\nwith the metal of the pipe, and some of the water vapor,\\ntar, and ammonia salts are condensed. From the hydraulic\\nmain the gas flows through several hundred feet of pipe\\ncalled the condenser. The pipe is exposed to the air and\\nis designed to cool the gas and condense the liquid prod-\\nucts of the distillation. Tar, benzol, tuluol, water, and am-\\nmonia salts are collected here and the mixture, called the\\nammoniacal liquor, is drawn off into cisterns. From the\\ncondenser the gas passes through a scrubber, where it is\\nwashed. The scrubber is a large iron tank, frequently six\\nor eight feet in diameter and twenty feet high, filled with\\ncoke, blocks of wood, or scraps of tin, the object being to\\nexpose a large surface to the gas. A spray of water is\\nintroduced at the top of the scrubber, and the material\\nfilling it is thus kept moist. The remainder of the tar\\nand ammonia salts are here removed, and the gas passes on\\nto the purifier. This is a large rectangular box, frequently\\ntwenty feet square and four feet deep, and is filled with\\nlayers of quicklime which absorbs water, carbon dioxid,\\nand hydrogen sulfid. The gas passes through successive\\npurifiers until a test shows that all the above substances\\nhave been removed. It then passes to the gas holders and\\nis ready for the consumers. Of the products of distillation\\nof bituminous coal, one is solid, viz. coke, which is found in\\nthe retort; four are liquid, viz. tar, benzol, tuluol, and water\\ncontaining a variety of ammonia salts in solution; eight\\nare gases, viz. hydrogen, nitrogen, marsh gas, olefiant gas,\\nacetylene, carbon monoxid, carbon dioxid, and hydrogen\\nsulfid. It seems likely that a small amount of the vapors\\nof benzol and tuluol are also present in the gas and that\\nthey increase the illuminating power. The gas delivered\\nto the consumer is a mixture of all the above gases except\\nhydrogen sulfid and carbon dioxid.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0220.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION 207\\nExperiment C XVIII. (For two students. To prepare coal gas.\\n1. Fill a gas-pipe retort* 6 inches long, one-fourth full of pieces of dry\\npine wood support it so that it may be strongly heated.\\n2. Connect two bottles so that the gas evolved shall bubble through\\nthe liquids which they contaiu.\\n3. The first bottle should be two-thirds full of cold water, the\\nsecond one-third full of lime-water. From the second bottle lead the\\ngas to the water pan, collect two bottles of the pure gas then substi-\\ntute a tube drawn out to a point for the delivery tube in the water pan\\nand ignite the gas. Describe the flame. When the flow of gas ceases,\\nexamine the bottle of lime-water. Of what two substances do you find\\nchemical evidence here Examine the first bottle for evidences of\\nammonia, tar, and oil. Open the retort and examine the coke.\\nExperiment CXIX. Examination of Illuminating Gas. 1. Hold a\\nstrip of filter paper moistened with a solution of lead acetate, in\\na stream of gas coming from the Bunsen burner. (See Art. 170.)\\nWhat substance is detected by this test?\\n2. Hold a strip of moistened red litmus paper in a stream of the\\ngas. The presence or absence of what impurity is indicated by this\\ntest?\\n3. Pass a stream of the gas through a bottle of lime-water. What\\nimpurities have you found in the gas tested What is your conclusion\\nconcerning the efficiency of the purifiers at the gas works furnishing\\nthe gas tested\\n307. Coke. Large quantities of coke are now made\\nfrom the fine coal or slack which was formerly considered\\nvalueless and which accumulated rapidly about coal mines.\\nBituminous coal, containing between 20% and 30% of\\nvolatile hydrocarbons, melts when burned or when heated\\nin a retort, and on cooling leaves a hard porous mass\\nhaving a metallic lustre. The slack is thoroughly washed\\nObtain of the plumber a f inch nipple 6 inches long, a f cap, a f\\nto reducer, and a piece of inch pipe 6 inches long. Put them\\ntogether as shown in the cut.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0221.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "208 CHEMISTRY\\nand placed in ovens somewhat the shape of a beehive, a\\nlimited supply of air is admitted on top of the slack, the\\nheat of the oven ignites it, and the combustion is continued\\nas long as smoke is evolved. When this ceases, the air\\nsupply is cut off and the oven allowed to cool for about\\ntwelve hours the coke is then quenched with water. Coke\\nthus prepared is superior to all other fuels for iron smelting\\nwhile it does not burn as rapidly as charcoal, and therefore\\ndoes not produce quite as high a temperature, it is able to\\nresist the pressure caused by the weight of ore and flux\\nin the highest furnaces. Charcoal can only be used in the\\nsmaller furnaces, because it is crushed by the great weight\\nabove it. Anthracite, on the other hand, is able to with-\\nstand the mechanical effects, but it burns so slowly that it\\ndoes not produce the required temperature. Coke, there-\\nfore, combines the good qualities of both charcoal and\\nanthracite; it yields the required temperature and is able\\nto withstand the charge in the highest furnaces.\\nFor domestic purposes, coke is an economical fuel, and\\npossesses the further advantage of being smokeless, but is\\nunder the disadvantage that when the temperature of the\\ncombustion falls off to any considerable extent, the carbon\\nclioxid produced may be delivered into the living rooms\\ninstead of being carried off by the chimney.\\n308. Coal. Examination of the various varieties of coal\\nshows that they represent various stages in the natural\\ndestructive distillation of vegetable refuse. When a mass\\nof such refuse is covered with a layer of clay or mud so as\\nto exclude the air, and is subjected to pressure due to the\\naccumulation of rock above it, or to heat from beneath it,\\na complex molecule of cellulose, C^H^O^ (woody fibre), is\\nbroken up just as it is in a retort, the composition of the", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0222.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION 209\\nresidue depending upon the degree of heat and the amount\\nof pressure to which the deposit has been subjected. Ac-\\ncording to one theory, petroleum and natural gas are the\\nliquid and gaseous products of the distillation. The objec-\\ntion to this theory is that the occurrence of petroleum seems\\nto have no necessary connection with the occurrence below\\nof coal seams. The most probable theory seems to be that\\nboth petroleum and coal are formed from organic matter,\\nbut of different conditions, and that natural gas is derived\\nchiefly from the slow distillation of petroleum. That each\\nof these substances has been formed by the destruction\\nof organic matter may be regarded as certain. These\\nprocesses have been in progress through long geological\\neras, and the coal of the older formations is more com-\\npletely transformed than that of the recent formations.\\nAnthracite or hard coal corresponds to the coke left in\\nthe gas retort, and is nearly pure carbon. It occurs only\\nin the older geological formations, and in these formations\\nonly in locations showing that the region has been up-\\nturned, thus subjecting the coal to high temperature and\\ngreat pressure. Anthracite burns without flame or smoke,\\nand ignites with difficulty.\\nBituminous or soft coal also occurs in the older geologi-\\ncal formation, but the evidences of high temperature and\\ngreat pressure are always lacking 5 it is softer than anthra-\\ncite, and burns with a smoky flame. Lignite, or brown coal,\\noccurs in more recent geological formation, and often retains\\nthe structure of the wood from which it was formed.\\nPeat is an open mass of vegetable refuse of recent forma-\\ntion. The following table, showing the compositions of\\nthese substances, will give the student an idea of the nature\\nof the changes which the various kinds of coal have under-\\ngone", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0223.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "210\\nCHEMISTRY\\nC\\nII\\nWood\\n49.7%\\n59.5\\n6.2%\\n43\\nPeat\\n5.5\\n33\\nBrown Coal\\n68.7\\n5.5\\n25\\nBituminous Coal\\n81.2\\n5.5\\n12.5\\nAnthracite Coal\\n95\\n2.5\\n2.5\\n309. Ammonia from Compost Heaps. When marsh gas\\nis formed in nature it is a product of decay the molecules\\nof the decomposing substance breaking up into simpler mole-\\ncules. Animal substances usually contain carbon, hydro-\\ngen, nitrogen, and oxygen. When they decay in a limited\\nsupply of air, the oxygen combines with the carbon and\\nhydrogen, and if there is not enough to oxidize all of these\\nelements, some of the carbon is given off, combined with\\nhydrogen, as marsh gas. The nitrogen also combines with\\nhydrogen as ammonia gas (NH 3 These two substances\\nmay be regarded as intermediate products in the process of\\ndecay. Some animal substances give off ammonia when\\nthey decompose in air, but many others yield it when the\\nprocess is carried on in a limited supply of air.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Describe the process of destructive distillation as employed on\\nan extensive scale in the industrial arts. State reasons for employing\\nthis process.\\n2. Describe the preparation of coke, and state for what and why-\\nit is used.\\n3. Discuss petroleum as to (a) origin, method by which\\nobtained, (c) products.\\n4. State the theory of the formation of (a) coal, petroleum,\\n(c) natural gas.\\n5. Describe the process of destructive distillation as accomplished\\nby nature on an extensive scale.\\n6. Account for the formation of ammonia in compost heaps.\\n7. Should destructive distillation be considered a process of oxida-\\ntion or of reduction", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0224.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXIX\\nFERMENTATION\\n310. Definition. As suggested by its derivation, from\\nfervere (to boil), this term was originally applied to all\\nchemical changes involving the effervescence of a liquid.\\nIn its modern acceptance, however, it has nothing at all to\\ndo with effervescence, being used to designate a peculiar\\nclass of decompositions which is produced in complex\\norganic substances by certain living organisms, or by\\nchemical compounds formed by these organisms. The most\\nfamiliar illustrations of fermentation are the fermentation\\nof fruit juices, or fruits, the souring of cider, the decay of\\nvegetable matter, the putrefaction of nitrogenous matter,\\nthe souring of milk, and that which occurs in the process of\\nmaking bread.\\nFermentation occurs more rapidly in the presence of\\nmoisture than in dry substances, and the process is more\\nactive at temperatures between 25\u00c2\u00b0 and 35\u00c2\u00b0 C. than at either\\nhigher or lower temperatures.\\nMost organic substances are subject to fermentation,\\nalthough those of simple molecular structure are less sub-\\nject to it than the complex molecules, and a few of these\\nlike cresol, phenol, or creosote are valuable agents for the\\nprevention of fermentation. The chemical changes consist\\nin the breaking down of complex molecules, forming simpler\\ngroups of atoms, either by the absorption of the hydrogen\\nand oxygen of water, or by slow oxidation: but in some\\n211", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0225.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "212 CHEMISTRY\\ncases it consists in a rearrangement of the atoms in the\\nmolecule, forming an isomeric compound.\\nThe changes cannot be induced by any means except the\\npresence of ferments, and each ferment produces its special\\nchange, which is often the precise opposite of that which\\nthe chemical properties of the elements forming the mole-\\ncule which is decomposed would lead us to expect.\\n311. Ferments. Most ferments are microscopic plants\\nof very simple structure, which multiply with great rapid-\\nity they derive the material needed for their growth from\\nthe medium in which they are placed, transforming it into\\nother substances. They are variously known as germs,\\nmicrobes, bacteria, etc.\\nYeast, the most familiar of these ferments, is a micro-\\nscopic plant found in the air and about certain fruit trees.\\nThe yeast of the store is grown on some suitable culture\\nmedium, as the potato or corn meal.\\nBesides these organized ferments which cause fermenta-\\ntion as a result of their peculiar life processes, there is a\\ngroup of chemical, or unorganized ferments, known as\\nenzymes, of which diastase, pepsin, and ptyalin are exam-\\nples. Although the enzymes are not living organisms, they\\nare all derived directly from animal or vegetable life. The\\nchemical action caused by the enzymes is not well under-\\nstood the decompositions are less complete than those due\\nto organized ferments, and usually consist simply of a\\nrearrangement of the atoms of the molecule. Like organ-\\nized ferments they are most active at certain temperatures,\\nwhich vary for the different ferments. Their characteristic\\nproperties are destroyed when their aqueous solution is\\nheated to the boiling point, but in a dry state they can\\nwithstand a much higher temperature; pepsin, for example,", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0226.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "FERMENTATION 213\\nmay be heated to 170\u00c2\u00b0 C. without losing its ability to cause\\nfermentation. There is some doubt as to whether the real\\ncause of fermentation is the microscopic organism, to which\\nthe action is usually attributed, or a chemical compound\\nexcreted by the organism.\\n312. Alcoholic Fermentation. The fermentation induced\\nby yeast converts sweet fruit juices and solutions contain-\\ning a sugar known as glucose, C^H^Oq, into ethyl alcohol,\\nC 2 H 6 carbon dioxid is liberated, and one or two other\\nsubstances are formed, but the principal reaction is\\nC 6 H^0 6 2C 2 H 6 0+2C0 2\\nSeveral microorganisms besides yeast induce alcoholic\\nfermentation, and they are so abundant that all fruit juices\\nseem to ferment spontaneously; the ferment, however, is\\neither obtained from the air or was clinging to the outside\\nof the fruit. The fermented liquors which are obtained\\nvary as widely in their properties as do the fruits from\\nwhich they are made, and are known by different names.\\nHard cider is fermented apple juice, wine is fermented\\ngrape juice, perry is fermented pear juice.\\nThe percentage of alcohol in wine varies considerably if the fer-\\nmentation is checked before all of the sugar has been converted into\\nalcohol, a sweet wine is obtained which will contain less alcohol than\\nit would have contained if the fermentation had been allowed to pro-\\nceed besides this, the amount of sugar which may be converted into\\nalcohol is greater in some grapes than in others. Perhaps the average\\namount of alcohol in wine is between 15 and 20\\nAlcoholic fermentation occurs only in a dilute solution of\\nsome sugar, but certain of the several ferments which in-\\nduce it can convert other substances into a sugar for this\\nreason alcoholic fermentation often occurs in substances\\ncontaining starch, but it is always preceded by a reaction", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0227.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "214 CHEMISTRY\\nwhich converts the starch into sugar. In the process of\\nbrewing ale and beer the first step is to convert the barley\\ninto malt the maltose, a sugar found in the malt, is then\\nextracted, to this yeast is added, and the fermentation\\nwhich ensues yields a liquid containing between 3 and 9\\nof alcohol. In the manufacture of whiskey, the Indian corn,\\nrye, or other grain undergoes a similar change before alco-\\nholic fermentation takes place. This is also true of the\\nflour in the process of bread making.\\nExperiment CXX. A Study of Alcoholic Fermentation. 1. Dis-\\nsolve about a tea.spoonful of glucose in 100 cc. of water in a flask, add\\na small piece of yeast, and arrange a delivery tube so that any gas\\nwhich may be evolved shall bubble through lime-water.\\n2. Set the apparatus in a warm place for twenty-four hours.\\n3. Examine the lime-water for evidence that carbon dioxid has\\nbeen evolved.\\n4. Arrange a test tube in a bottle of cold water in such manner\\nthat it may serve as a condenser, heat the flask very gradually, receiv-\\ning the vapor in the test tube.\\n5. Examine the first few drops condensed, noting odor, combusti-\\nbility, etc.\\n313. Bread Making.\\nAlcoholic fermentation plays an important part in mak-\\ning bread, but the changes which occur in the oven are not\\nless interesting. Taken together these two processes con-\\nvert the comparatively indigestible flour into one of our\\nmost wholesome foods. It is worth our while to consider\\nbriefly the various steps in the process, with the objects to\\nbe attained in each.\\n(a) The Mixing.\\nFlour, salt, yeast, and milk or water are mixed into\\ndough. In this process the starch granules are to be\\nthoroughly moistened, and the yeast evenly distributed\\nthrough the mass. The latter object may be best accom-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0228.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "FERMENTATION 215\\nplished by vigorously beating with, a spoon, when enough of\\nthe flour has been added to give the mixture the consistency\\nof a rather thick batter much oxygen from the air is at\\nthe same time distributed through the mass. After ten or\\nfifteen minutes beating the remainder of the flour is worked\\nin, and the dough set in a warm place (75\u00c2\u00b0 F.) to rise. It\\nis desirable that all of the flour required be added at this\\ntime, as the flour is rendered more digestible, and acquires\\na better flavor from fermentation.\\nThe addition of a little sugar renders the fermentation\\nmore rapid. The use of milk instead of a part of the\\nwater is strongly recommended, as it materially increases\\nthe value of the bread as a food.\\n(5) TJie Fermentation.\\nIn this process, which lasts about three hours under\\nproper conditions, some of the starch is changed to sugar,\\nand then to alcohol and carbon dioxid the gluten is modi-\\nfied and perhaps combined with the starch granules, and\\nthe albumen is rendered insoluble. The escape of the\\ngases is hindered by the hydrated gluten, which is elastic,\\nand as the gases form, the mass increases in bulk and\\nbecomes porous. If the fermentation continues too long,\\nacetic fermentation sets in, and the mass becomes sour.\\n(c) The Baking.\\nAs the temperature of the dough rises, the starch granules\\nburst, the yeast is killed and fermentation ceases, the gases\\nare expanded, increasing the porosity of the dough, some of\\nthe water together with a portion of the carbon dioxid and\\nof the alcohol are expelled, the albumen is coagulated and\\nrendered more digestible, some of the starch is changed\\ninto dextrin, some caramel is formed in the crust, and a\\ndistinct flavor is developed.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0229.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "216 CHEMISTRY\\n314. The Formation of Acids by Fermentation. In all\\nalcoholic fermentation, including the fermentations which\\nform other kinds of alcohol than that produced by yeast,\\nthe molecule of the substance acted upon takes hydrogen\\nand oxygen, and all of the alcohols formed have basic\\nproperties. We now consider a kind of fermentation which\\nyields an acid product. Familiar examples of this kind of\\nfermentation are the souring of milk and the souring of\\ncider or wine.\\n315. Acetous Fermentation. This kind of fermentation\\nis due to the action of a ferment commonly known as\\nvinegar plant, or as mother of vinegar. It is a micro-\\norganism, and in no way related to the so-called vinegar\\neels which are sometimes seen in vinegar. The acetous\\nferment attacks alcoholic liquids, and changes the alcohol\\nwhich they contain into acetic acid, with the following\\nreaction\\nC 2 H 6 20 C 2 HA H 2 0.\\nIt should be noted that this is a process of oxidation.\\nIf acetic fermentation is not checked, the acetic acid\\nformed is oxidized to carbon dioxid and water.\\n316. Vinegar is a liquid containing from 2 to 4 of\\nacetic acid. It is ordinarily prepared by introducing the\\nacetous ferment into cider, wine, or other liquid containing\\na small per cent of alcohol. The process proceeds very\\nslowly. The so-called mother of vinegar, which is com-\\nmonly used to start acetous fermentation in a fresh cask\\nof the liquid to be fermented, is a mass of minute plants\\nwhich is found in most samples of vinegar.\\n317. Putrefaction and Decay. The term putrefaction is\\nemployed to denote a process of fermentation developed in", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0230.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "FERMENTATION 217\\nnitrogenous organic substances by microorganisms, which is\\naccompanied by the evolution of foul odors.\\nThis action is entirely distinct from the decomposition\\ndue to the action of oxygen, although under ordinary con-\\nditions these two processes occur simultaneously.\\nThe decay of wood and other vegetable tissue, and the\\ndestruction of textile fabrics by mildew, are due to the\\naction of microorganisms, which require both oxygen and\\nmoisture in their life processes for this reason these\\nvarieties of fermentation do not occur in perfectly dry\\nsubstances, nor in those which are immersed in water.\\n318. Methods of Preventing Fermentation. Various meth-\\nods of preventing the decay of organic matter used for food\\nare in common use. In all of them the growth of the\\nferment organisms is prevented, either by bringing about\\nconditions unfavorable to such growth, or by the use of\\nchemical agents which destroy or retard the growth of\\nthe organisms. The following methods may be mentioned\\nby way of illustration\\n1. Drying. Ferments cannot grow without water hence\\ndried fruit, dried meats, and condensed milk keep much\\nlonger than when in their normal condition.\\n2. Cold Storage. The efficiency of cold storage depends\\nupon the fact that most ferments are inactive at low tem-\\ni: eratures.\\n3. Canning. In the process of canning meats, fruits,\\nand vegetables, the material is raised to a high temperature\\n(not necessarily to the boiling point), to destroy all ferments,\\nand the cans are sealed while the material is still hot.\\n4. By the Use of Alcohol or Vinegar. In certain kinds of\\nfermentation the action diminishes in vigor as the product\\nof the chemical action increases, and finally ceases when a", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0231.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "218 CHEMISTRY\\ndefinite percentage of the product has accumulated. It\\nthus appears that the product of the fermentation has an\\ninhibitory effect upon the chemical action, if, indeed, it is\\nnot poisonous to the ferment organism. This is the case in\\nboth alcoholic and acetous fermentation hence the use of\\nalcohol as a preservative agent in brandied fruits, and vine-\\ngar in pickles.\\n5. Preserving and Spicing. Spices and heavy syrups\\nprevent the growth of ferments, and fruits are often pre-\\nserved, even when exposed to the air, by covering them\\nwith syrups or strong infusions of spices.\\n6. By the Use of Antiseptics. Among the chemical agents\\nemployed as antiseptics are common salt, used in curing\\nmeats and fish and wood smoke, which is used to preserve\\nhams, tongue, fish, etc., because of the creosote which it\\ncontains. Salicylic and boracic acids have also been used\\nto some extent in preserving meat and fruits, but the pro-\\npriety of such use is at least questionable, as it is a well-\\nknown fact that even in comparatively small doses they\\ninterfere with digestion.\\nThe decay of wood is materially lessened by impregnating\\nit with some antiseptic, such as carbolic acid or creosote,\\nand mildew in canvas is prevented by saturating the fibres\\nof the cloth with zinc carbonate, lead sulfate, or some simi-\\nlar substance.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. What is yeast For what is it used Explain the chemical\\naction involved in this use.\\n2. Define fermentation. What substances are subject to fermen-\\ntation What is the general character of the chemical changes pro-\\nduced\\n3. Describe the process of making bread. What is the object of\\nthe fermentation What chemical changes occur in the oven", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0232.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "FERMENTATION 219\\n4. Discuss the acetous fermentation. What is vinegar How is\\nit prepared\\n5. Why does milk sour\\n6. Mention eight ways in which the decay of fruits may be pre-\\nvented.\\n7. In what four ways may meats be preserved\\n8. Mention five processes based upon alcoholic fermentation.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0233.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXX\\nPHOSPHORUS\\nSymbol P. Atomic Weight 31\\n319. Occurrence. In combination with oxygen and\\nmetals, phosphorus is widely distributed in nature.\\nCalcium phosphate is present in all fertile soils, and has\\nbeen shown to be necessary to the growth of plants it\\nforms about 60 of the bones of animals. In the mineral\\nkingdom several phosphates occur.\\n320. Preparation. Phosphorus is prepared by treating\\ncalcined bones with sulfuric acid. The following reaction\\noccurs\\nCa 3 (P0 4 2 3 H 2 S0 4 3 CaS0 4 2 H 3 P0 4\\nThe calcium sulfate is insoluble in water, and is separated\\nfrom the solution of orthophosphoric acid by filtration the\\nsolution is concentrated, mixed with carbon, and distilled\\nin bottle-shaped clay retorts. When the retort reaches a\\nwhite heat, the phosphorus distills over, and is condensed\\nunder water. The crude phosphorus thus obtained is re-\\nfined by processes which are carefully guarded as trade\\nsecrets.\\n321. Physical Properties. When freshly prepared, phos-\\nphorus is a colorless, transparent, wax-like solid which\\ngradually becomes coated with a film which is at first\\nwhite, then yellow, brown, red, and finally black. At\\n220", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0234.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "PHOSPHORUS 221\\n0\u00c2\u00b0 C. it is brittle, but at ordinary temperatures it is flexible\\nit melts at 44\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 290\u00c2\u00b0. It is insoluble in water,\\nbut dissolves readily in carbon disulfid, and less freely in\\nchloroform, alcohol, petroleum, and other solvents. When\\na solution of phosphorus in carbon disulfid is evaporated,\\nthe phosphorus is left in exceedingly minute particles, and\\nif the evaporation takes place on a non-conductor of heat,\\nthe oxidation will raise the phosphorus to its kindling tem-\\nperature, and cause it to burst into flame.\\nExperiment CXXI. 1. Pour 2 or 3 cc. of a solution of phos-\\nphorus in carbon disulfid on a piece of filter paper.\\n2. Place the paper on the base of your retort stand, and observe\\nany changes that occur. Do you note the formation of crystals of\\nphosphorus Are white fumes evolved\\n3. After the burning has ceased, examine the paper. Is it entirely\\nconsumed Do you discover a coating on portions of the paper\\nwhich might have prevented its burning On which portions is it\\nthickest From what source might such a coating have been derived\\n322. Chemical Properties. Phosphorus belongs to the\\nnitrogen family, but its chemical activity is in sharp con-\\ntrast with that of nitrogen. It is one of the most active\\nelements.\\nWhen exposed to the air phosphorus is slowly oxidized\\nand gives off fumes which are faintly luminous and visible\\nin a dark room if its temperature is slightly increased,\\nas by the heat of the hand or by friction, it bursts into\\nflame for this reason phosphorus is always kept under\\nwater, and should also be cut only under water. Its\\nkindling temperature is 60\u00c2\u00b0, and its specific gravity 1.82.\\nThe name phosphorus is derived from the Greek, and\\nmeans light bearing. The mark left by a match on any\\nsurface in a dark room is phosphorescent. The affinities\\nof phosphorus for oxygen and for iodin have been illus-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0235.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "222 CHEMISTRY\\ntrated. It has also strong affinity for sulfur and for the\\nhalogens, and it combines directly with the metals, formiug\\nphosphids.\\nPhosphorus is a powerful poison in large doses it causes\\ndeath in a short time, and in smaller doses produces intense\\npains in the stomach, and usually brings on convulsions.\\n323. Red Phosphorus. This important allotropic modi-\\nfication of phosphorus may be formed by subjecting the\\nordinary variety to the action of light, heat, or electricity.\\nIn the arts it is prepared by heating ordinary phosphorus\\nin cast iron retorts, from which air is excluded, to between\\n240\u00c2\u00b0 and 250\u00c2\u00b0 C, by means of a bath of melted solder.\\nIf the temperature rises to 300\u00c2\u00b0, the red phosphorus is\\nchanged back to the ordinary variety. After fifty or sixty\\nhours of heating at 240\u00c2\u00b0, there is found in the retort a layer\\nof hard lumps of red phosphorus containing a small per-\\ncentage of the ordinary variety. To remove this, the\\nmaterial is ground to a powder under water, and treated\\nwith a solution of caustic soda, or with carbon disulfid,\\neither of which dissolves the ordinary phosphorus.\\nIf one part of iodin be added to 100 parts of the ordi-\\nnary or vitreous phosphorus, and the mixture is heated,\\nthe change to red phosphorus occurs below 200\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\n324. Properties of Red Phosphorus. Red phosphorus is\\na chocolate-red, amorphous powder; it is odorless, opaque,\\nand insoluble in the solvents of the ordinary variety; it\\nis not poisonous.\\nIn dry air, at ordinary temperatures, there is practically\\nno oxidation, and therefore no phosphorescence, but in\\nthe presence of moisture it is very slowly oxidized.\\nThe melting point of red phosphorus is evidently above\\nthe temperature at which it changes back to the ordinary", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0236.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "PHOSPHORUS 223\\nvariety, for it lias never been melted. It is somewhat\\nheavier than ordinary phosphorus specific gravity, 2.25.\\nActive combustion begins in air at 300\u00c2\u00b0, the product of the\\ncombustion being identical with that of the ordinary variety.\\n325. Uses of Phosphorus. The principal use of phos-\\nphorus is in the manufacture of matches, although small\\namounts are used annually in poisons for rats and vermin.\\nIts compounds, the phosphates, are used as fertilizers, and\\ncertain other compounds are used in medicine and in the\\nlaboratory.\\nMatches. The process of manufacturing the common\\nsulfur match was described in 161; the disagreeable\\nodor of such matches is obviated if paraffin or stearin is\\nused instead of sulfur, and matches prepared in this way\\nare often called parlor matches. The following is one\\nof the many recipes for a paste with which to tip parlor\\nmatches\\nVitreous phosphorus 6.4 parts\\nLead dioxid 50\\nDextrin 30.6\\nWater 13\\n100\\nMost parlor matches made in this country contain potas-\\nsium chlorate instead of lead dioxid as the oxidizing agent\\nsuch matches snap and burn with great vigor, but the heads\\nsometimes fly off, inflicting severe burns or causing fires.\\nVarious attempts have been made since the discovery\\nof red phosphorus to prepare a non-poisonous match; the\\nefforts were comparative failures except the safety match.\\nThese matches do not contain phosphorus, but some makers\\nput other poisons in the paste. The Swedish safety matches", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0237.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "224 CHEMISTRY\\nare tipped with a paste made of antimony sulfid, potassium\\nchlorate, and glue they are ignited by rubbing them upon\\nthe side of the box, which is coated with a paste made\\nof red phosphorus, antimony sulfid, and glue. In several\\nEuropean countries the use of any other kind of match\\nis prohibited by law.\\nThe paste with which all matches are tipped consists of one or\\nmore oxidizable substances mixed with compounds which can supply-\\noxygen.\\nIn the common match one of the oxidizable substances is phos-\\nphorus, which requires but little friction to ignite it. When the oxi-\\ndizing agent is potassium chlorate, the phosphorus is oxidized, and\\npotassium chlorid remains.\\nIn the safety match, the match head contains antimony sulfid as\\nthe oxidizable substance and an oxidizing agent, while the rubbing\\nsurface contains no oxidizing agent this lack of oxygen prevents the\\ncombustion of the rubbing surface when the match is struck.\\nThe only difference between the chemical actions in the heads of\\nthe common and the safety match is, that in the former, phosphorus\\nis oxidized, and in the latter, antimony sulfid is oxidized.\\n326. Oxids of Phosphorus. Like nitrogen, phosphorus\\nforms several compounds with oxygen the best known of\\nthem are the trioxid, P 4 6 and the pentoxid, P 2 5\\n327. Phosphorus Trioxid, P 4 0\u00e2\u0080\u009e, is a white crystalline solid\\nformed by the slow combustion of phosphorus in a limited\\nsupply of air. It is slowly dissolved by cold water, forming\\nphosphorous acid, H 3 P0 3 In hot water violent action occurs\\nin which the spontaneously inflammable hydrogen phosphid,\\nPH 3 is evolved and red phosphorus is formed.\\n328. Phosphorus Pentoxid, P L ,0,-, is a snow-white amor-\\nphous, odorless, very voluminous powder. It is the chief\\nproduct formed when phosphorus burns in air or in ox} r gen,\\nand was formed in Experiments 30, 56, and 57. It is very\\ndeliquescent, dissolving in the water absorbed if exposed to", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0238.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "PHOSPHORUS 225\\nmoist air for a short time, it must therefore be kept in glass\\ntubes closed at both ends. When thrown into water it dis-\\nsolves with a hiss, forming metaphosphoric acid. Its affinity\\nfor water is its most important property and makes it our\\nmost useful desiccating agent.- The same property enables\\nit to decompose nitric acid as follows\\n2M0 3 -H 2 N 2 5\\nand to abstract water from many compounds containing\\ncarbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, thus converting them into\\nhydrocarbons.\\n329. The Phosphorus Oxyacids. Phosphorus combines\\nwith hydrogen and oxygen to form several acids. Three\\nof the more common are\\nHypoxmosphorous acid, H 3 P0 2\\nPhosphorous acid, H 3 P0 3\\nPhosphoric acid, H 3 P0 4\\nHypophospliorous acid is monobasic and is chiefly im-\\nportant because of the value of its salts in medicine.\\nPhosphorous acid is dibasic and is of little importance\\nsave from a theoretical standpoint.\\nPhosphoric acid is the most important of the acids its\\nsalts are the principal compounds of phosphorus.\\nPhosphorus pentoxid combines with water to form three\\ndistinct acids Metaphosphoric Acid, HP0 3 formed when\\nthe pentoxid dissolves in cold water\\nP 2 5 H 2 2HP0 3\\nOrthophosphoric Acid, H 3 P0 4 formed when the pentoxid\\ndissolves in boiling water,\\nP 2 5 3H 2 2H 3 P0 4", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0239.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "226 CHEMISTRY\\nand Pyrophosphoric Acid, H^P.O^, which is not formed by\\ndirect combination.\\nOrthophosphoric acid may be converted into either of the\\nothers by the application of heat. At 213\u00c2\u00b0 it is converted\\ninto pyrophosphoric acid with the following reaction\\n2 H 3 P0 4 H 4 P 2 7 H 2 0.\\nAt 400\u00c2\u00b0 metaphosphoric acid is formed.\\nH 4 P 2 7 2HP0 3 H 2 0.\\nMetaphosphoric acid is monobasic, orthophosphoric acid is\\ntribasic, and pyrophosphoric acid is tetrabasic; from these\\nthree acids, therefore, eight different salts, phosphates of a\\nunivalent metal, may be formed.\\n330. Phosphoric Acid, H 3 P0 4 or orthophosphoric acid, as\\nit is sometimes called, may be prepared in several ways\\nbesides that described in the last article as, for example,\\nby oxidizing phosphorus with nitric acid, or by decom-\\nposing bone-ash, Ca 3 (P0 4 2 with sulfuric acid, as in the\\npreparation of phosphorus. The solution thus obtained is\\nevaporated to a thick syrup, from which hard, colorless,\\nprismatic crystals, which are very deliquescent, may be\\nobtained.\\nAs phosphoric acid is tribasic, it forms three series of\\nsalts; thus the metal sodium forms the following phos-\\nphates\\nTrisodium phosphate, Na 3 P0 4\\nHydrogen disodium phosphate, H]Sra 2 P0 4\\nDihydrogen sodium phosphate, H 2 NaP0 4\\nThe first of these is the normal phosphate, and the others\\nare called acid phosphates. AVe have here, as we had in\\nthe case of the acid sodium carbonate, an acid salt which", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0240.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "PHOSPHORUS 227\\ngives an alkaline reaction with litmus paper. For this\\nreason there is some objection to the classification of salts\\nas acid and normal, and the suggestion that they be called\\nprimary, secondary, tertiary, etc., depending upon the num-\\nber of atoms of a metal which the molecule contains, has\\nbeen somewhat favorably received. The common sodium\\nphosphate is the second of the three mentioned above.\\nThere are several important double phosphates formed by\\nreplacing part of the hydrogen of the acid with one metal\\nand the rest with another, ammonium magnesium phos-\\nphate, NH 4 MgP0 4 and hydrogen sodium ammonium phos-\\nphate, ffiSTaNK^PO^ commonly called microcosmic salt, are\\nexamples of the double salts.\\n331. Allotropism. Phosphorus presents one of the best\\nillustrations of allotropism, not only because of the differ-\\nence in the physical and chemical properties of the varieties,\\nbut also because of the ease with which either variety may\\nbe converted into the other. In addition to the two modifi-\\ncations of phosphorus already described, a metallic form is\\nknown, but it is rare and of little use.\\nAllotropism is similar to polymerism, defined in 337,\\nbut the term is usually applied to elements instead of com-\\npounds. Some writers, however, apply the term to those\\ncompounds existing in two forms, which differ only in their\\nphysical properties.\\nIt is probable that as our knowledge increases we shall\\nbe able to prove that all cases of allotropism are due to\\ndifferences in the number of atoms in the molecule of the\\nelement. In the case of ozone, which is an allotropic\\nmodification of oxygen, this has already been proven by the\\nchange in volume and in vapor density, which occurs when\\noxygen is transformed into ozone, or when the reverse", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0241.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "228 CHEMISTRY\\nchange takes place. A molecule of oxygen consists of 2\\natoms, and its vapor density is 16, whereas the molecule of\\nozone consists of 3 atoms, and its vapor density is 24.\\n332. Ozone. Oxygen is best converted into ozone by\\nsubjecting it to the silent discharge of an induction coil.\\nIt is also converted into ozone by the electrolysis of dilute\\nsulfuric acid, and by the slow oxidation of phosphorus.\\nPrepared by either of these methods the ozone is very-\\ndilute, rarely forming more than one-fifth of the whole.\\nOzone has a strong odor, somewhat resembling that of\\nchlorin; it irritates mucous membranes, and quickly\\ninduces headache. At 106\u00c2\u00b0 it condenses to a dark blue\\nliquid it is more energetic chemically than oxygen, quickly\\nbleaching, disinfecting, and even destroying organic sub-\\nstances by oxidation. Many metals not affected in oxygen\\nare attacked by ozone. Ozone is sometimes considered as\\noxygen oxid, 2 0. It often acts as a reducing agent, taking\\noxygen from other substances and changing to the ordinary\\nform of oxygen,\\n03 20,.\\nThis is believed to be its action on the blood. Ozone is\\nproduced in air by lightning discharges, and is usually\\npresent in country air. Its characteristic odor proves its\\npresence also in the air near a static electric machine.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS\\n1. Describe the preparation of phosphorus. State the properties\\nand two important uses of phosphorus.\\n2. Describe an experiment illustrating the affinity of phosphorus\\nfor iodin.\\n3. Explain the difference between the chemical action of the\\nordinary friction match and that of the safety match, stating the sub-\\nstances from which each is made.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0242.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "PHOSPHORUS 229\\n4. Describe a method of preparing phosphoric acid. Give the\\nnames, formulas, and methods of preparation of two acids formed\\nfrom phosphoric acid.\\n5. Give the name and properties of the substance formed by the\\nunion of phosphorus pentoxid and hot water, and write the reaction.\\n6. Discuss allotropism. Illustrate by phosphorus and carbon.\\n7. Contrast the characteristics of two forms of phosphorus.\\n8. Mention two forms of oxygen. State the difference between\\nthem, and state a theory to account for the difference in their effects.\\n9. Give the name and formula of a monobasic acid, of a dibasic\\nacid, of a tribasic acid. Give the names and formulas of salts formed\\nby the acids named.\\n10. Define tribasic acid, and give an example with formula.\\nClassify as normal or acid three salts formed from this acid, and give\\nthe formula of each.\\n11. Write the name and formula of a normal salt, an acid salt, a\\ndouble salt. Show how these three classes of salts are related to one\\nanother.\\n12. Describe the chemical changes which occur when phosphorus is\\nburned in oxygen and the product dissolved in water.\\n13. State an objection to the use of the term acid salt.\\n14. In what respects are the properties of ozone similar to those of\\nchlorin", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0243.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXXI\\nARSENIC\\nSymbol As. Atomic Weight 75\\n333. Occurrence. Arsenic is found free in nature, but\\noccurs much more abundantly in combination with other\\nelements. Its principal ores are arsenolite, As 2 3 realgar,\\nAs 2 S 2 the red sulfid orpiment, As 2 S 3 the yellow sulfid\\narsenopyrite (mispickel), FeSAs and arsenical iron, FeAs 2\\n334. Preparation. Arsenic is obtained as a by-product\\nin the process of reducing certain ores, but most of the\\narsenic of commerce is obtained from arsenopyrite. The\\nore is heated in covered iron pots, out of contact with\\nthe air, when the arsenic vaporizes without visible lique-\\nfaction and condenses as a steel-gray powder on the cooler\\nportions of the apparatus.\\n335. Properties. Arsenic is a very brittle steel-gray\\nsubstance, having a metallic lustre it is a good conductor\\nof heat and electricity. At ordinary pressures it cannot\\nbe melted, but passes directly into the aeriform state. If\\nheated in a sealed tube under great pressure, however, it\\nmay be liquefied. At low temperatures its vapor density\\nshows that, like phosphorus, it is tetratomic, but at high\\ntemperature it is diatomic; it exists in at least two allo-\\ntropic forms, a crystal and an amorphous substance, either\\nof which is readily transformed into the other. It burns in\\noxygen with a bluish flame. It will be observed that its\\n230", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0244.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "ARSENIC 231\\nphysical properties resemble those of a metal, and in some\\nof its chemical properties it is like a metal for example, it\\ncombines with the members of the chlorin family and forms\\nalloys with the metals its oxids, however, are acid-forming,\\nand in several other chemical properties it resembles the\\nacid-forming elements. It is one of the elements which lie\\nbetween the metallic and the non-metallic elements which\\nare known as metalloids. The addition of a small amount\\nof arsenic to a metal increases its fluidity in the liquid state\\nand increases its hardness when in the solid state; it is\\ntherefore added to lead which is to be made into shot.\\n336. Compounds of Arsenic and Oxygen. Two compounds\\nof arsenic and oxygen are known, arsenious oxid, As 4 6 and\\narsenic oxid, As 2 5 The formula of the first was formerly\\nwritten As 2 3 and it was known as the trioxid, but it has\\nbeen proven that its vapor density is 198, which corresponds\\nwith the formula As 4 6 Arsenic oxid is unimportant, and\\nwill not be discussed.\\n337. Arsenious Oxid, As 4 6 This is the principal com-\\npound of arsenic known in commerce it is commonly\\nknown as arsenic, or more rarely as white arsenic or as\\narsenious acid.\\nAs has been stated, this substance occurs in nature. It\\nmay be prepared by heating metallic arsenic or an arsenical\\nore in a stream of oxygen or air and condensing the vapors.\\nArsenious oxid occurs in three forms\\n1. An amorphous, vitreous mass, somewhat more soluble\\nin water than the other varieties, which gradually changes\\nto the second form.\\n2. An octohedral crystal, which is converted into the\\namorphous modification by fusion.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0245.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "232 CHEMISTRY\\n3. A prismatic crystal.\\nThe amorphous modification dissolves sparingly in water,\\nrequiring 108 parts its solubility is somewhat increased by\\nacidulating the water with hydrochloric acid.\\nArsenious oxid is a violent poison a dose of two deci-\\ngrammes usually proves fatal, but men employed in arsenic\\nworks and habitual users of arsenic often take much larger\\ndoses without apparent injury. The fact that arsenious\\noxid has neither taste nor smell accounts for its use in so\\nlarge a proportion of the cases of criminal poisoning.\\nThe water solution of arsenious oxid has a feeble acid reaction,\\nwhich is probably due to the presence of a small quantity of arsenious\\nacid, but the acid has never been isolated. Three classes of salts of\\nthis unknown acid are readily obtained they are known as ortho-\\narsenites, meta-arsenites, and pyro-arsenites, and correspond to the\\nthree classes of salts formed by phosphoric acid.\\nArsenious oxid is used in making certain pigments, as Scheele s\\ngreen, CuHAs0 3 and Schweinfurt green, a compound of the arsenite\\nand acetate of copper commonly called Paris green. It is also used as\\nan oxidizing agent in glass making in very small doses it is used in\\nmedicine, and small quantities are consumed each year in the prepara-\\ntion of vermin poisons.\\nCompounds which, like arsenious oxid, exist in two or\\nmore forms which are identical in percentage composition\\nand molecular weight, but which differ in physical or chem-\\nical composition or both, are said to be isomeric and the\\nphenomenon is known as isomerism.\\nCompounds which are identical in percentage composition\\nbut which differ in molecular weight and properties are said\\nto be polymeric and the phenomenon is known as pohjmerism.\\nAcetylene, C 2 H 2 and benzene, C 6 H 6 are polymeric.\\n338. Hydrogen Arsenid, AsH* (Arsin). Like nitrogen,\\nphosphorus and arsenic each furnish a gaseous compound", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0246.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "ARSENIC 233\\ncontaining three atoms of hydrogen. The arsenic com-\\npound is important because it gives ns one of onr more\\nvaluable tests for arsenic.\\nHydrogen arsenid is formed when a soluble arsenic com-\\npound is acted upon by nascent hydrogen. It is a colorless\\ngas with a strong, repulsive odor, extremely poisonous even\\nwhen very dilute, more than one chemist having lost his\\nlife through the accidental inhalation of the gas. It may\\nbe liquefied at 40\u00c2\u00b0, it burns with a bluish white flame,\\nevolving fumes of arsenious oxid. If the gas be passed\\nthrough a solution of silver nitrate, metallic silver is pre-\\ncipitated and the arsenic is found in the solution.\\nExperiment CXXII. Marsh s test for arsenic. 1. Fit a small\\nflask with a two-holed stopper, c, carrying a safety tube in one hole\\nand a delivery tube drawn out to a point in the other.\\n2. Put a few pieces of zinc in the flask, cover them with water,\\nand add dilute hydrochloric acid until brisk effervescence occurs.\\n3. Holding the flask in the hand, collect the evolved hydrogen over\\nwater in a test bottle. Test each bottle of the gas obtained.\\n4. When the air is expelled from the apparatus and the gas burns\\nquietly, pour a few drops of a solution of arsenious oxid through the\\nsafety tube, ignite the gas and hold a concave piece of porcelain, as\\na piece of an evaporating dish, in the flame. Keep the gas alight.\\nDescribe the deposit formed on the porcelain.\\nSoluble compounds of antimony form a similar deposit\\nwhich has no lustre and is blacker but the antimony spot\\ndissolves in ammonium sulfid, whereas that of arsenic does\\nnot dissolve unless heated. There is no substance which\\ncan be identified by the chemist more positively than\\narsenic. The Harsh test will detect the slightest trace\\nof the poison.\\n339. Complete and Incomplete Combustion. The princi-\\nples developed in 272, p. 170, explain the formation of", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0247.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "234 CHEMISTRY\\nthe arsenic mirror. When arsin burns normally, the\\nfollowing reaction occurs\\n4 AsH 3 6 2 As 4 6 6 H 2 0.\\nWhen a cold object is held in the flame, thus excluding\\nthe air and lowering the temperature of the flame below\\nthe kindling temperature of arsenic, the following reaction\\noccurs\\n4 AsH 3 3 2 As 4 6 H 2 0.\\nThere are many cases similar to the above the prepara-\\ntion of lampblack, 270, is one of them. When marsh gas\\nburns in air the following reaction occurs\\nCH 4 2 2 C0 2 2 H 2 0.\\nIn a limited supply of air the reaction is approximately\\nas follows\\nCH 4 2 C 2 H 2 0.\\nSimilarly, the perfect combustion of hydrogen sulfid and\\ncarbon disulfid are expressed by the following equations\\nH 2 S 3 H 2 S0 2\\nCS 2 3 2 C0 2 2 S0 2\\nand the incomplete combustion by the following\\nH 2 S H 2 S,\\nCS 2 2 C0 2 4- 2 S.\\nREVIEW QUESTIONS.\\n1. In what compound is the element arsenic found in nature\\nWhat are its properties\\n2. What compound does arsenic form with hydrogen To what\\ncompound of nitrogen is it analogous How is it formed\\n3. What is the substance which is usually called arsenic I low is\\nit obtained from the element arsenic, and from the compounds of\\narsenic with metals What are its properties", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0248.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "ARSENIC 235\\n4. State the properties and uses of arsenic, and describe a process\\nfor obtaining it.\\n5. Describe the characteristics and process of manufacture of\\narsenious oxid.\\n6. Explain why so many substances unite with the sulfur of hydro-\\ngen sulfid more readily than they do with free sulfur.\\n7. Describe Marsh s test for arsenic.\\n8. Compare the formation of the metallic mirror, of Marsh s test\\nfor arsenic, with the deposition of soot on a cold body held in a candle\\nflame.\\n9. Compare the products of the complete combustion of hydrogen\\narsenid with the products formed when the combustion is rendered\\nincomplete by holding a cold porcelain dish in the flame, writing the\\nreactions in both cases.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0249.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXXII\\nQUALITATIVE ANALYSIS\\n340. Apparatus. For this work the following additional\\napparatus will be required\\n6 test tubes 2 small breakers\\n1 evaporating dish 1 wash bottle\\nfilter paper 1 test-tube stand\\n2 funnels 1 pair forceps\\n1 sand bath litmus paper\\n8 reagent bottles, 150 or 200 cc.\\n(Keep litmus paper in small box or bottle.)\\n341. Reagents. The solutions used in analysis should\\nbe prepared by each student from chemically pure substances\\ndissolved in distilled water. See that the bottles are clean.\\nExperiment C XXIII. Prepare 150 cc. of each of the following\\nreagents\\nHydrochloric acid, 1 part acid to 4 parts water.\\nNitric acid, 1 part acid to 4 parts water.\\nAmmonium hydroxid, 1 part 26\u00c2\u00b0 ammonia water to 3 parts w T ater.\\nAmmonium sulfid, the above saturated with hydrogen sulfid.\\nAmmonium carbonate, 1 part to 4 of water 1 part ammonium\\nhydroxid.\\nAmmonium chlorid, 1 part to 8 of water.\\nSodium hydroxid, 1 part to 8 of water.\\nSulfuric acid, concentrated.\\n342. Suggestions. 1. Keep all apparatus clean; rinse it with\\nwater, using brush when necessary. If not cleaned with water, try\\nconcentrated nitric or nitrohydrochloric acid. Never use brush with\\n236", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0250.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 237\\nacids. Tubes may be cleaned in one-fourth the time if not allowed to\\nstand till dry.\\n2. Hold test tubes in fingers when heating them keep the tubes\\nmoving.\\n3. Never lay the stoppers of reagent bottles down. Hold them be-\\ntween the little finger and the palm and replace them promptly this\\navoids mixing reagents.\\n4. When applying reagents, hold the tubes on a level with, the eye\\nand add the reagent, a drop at a time.\\n5. You will have enough to do without attending to the work of\\nyour neighbor.\\n6. You are responsible for the good order of your locker, drawer,\\nand table. The table must be left clean and dry at the close of each\\nperiod.\\n7. All solid matter to be thrown away must be deposited in jars.\\nIf thrown in the sink the waste pipe will become clogged.\\n8. Never carry reagent bottles from the side table to your table\\nbut use them at the side table and replace them.\\n343. Precipitates. A precipitate is a substance which\\nfalls to the bottom of the vessel containing a solution, on\\nthe addition of some other substance capable of producing a\\nchemical change. Chemical changes may occur when solu-\\ntions are mixed, without forming precipitate, if all of the\\nproducts of the reaction are soluble in the liquid. When\\na precipitate is formed, however, it is always evidence of\\nchemical change, and when one of the products is a solid,\\nit may be separated from the substances in solution by\\nfiltration. For this reason one of the systems of quali-\\ntative analysis is based upon the formation of precipitates\\nwhen the substance to be analyzed is treated with certain\\n344. Grouping of the Metals. In order to determine\\nwhich of the common metals forms precipitates when\\ntreated with various reagents, test four or five cubic centi-\\nmetres by adding the reagent drop by drop. If the sub-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0251.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "238 CHEMISTRY\\nstance is not in solution, it will be necessary to dissolve it\\nbefore beginning the analysis.\\nExperiment CXXIV. 1. Determine which of the following metals\\nare precipitated by hydrochloric acid.\\n2. Record the color of the precipitate and write the reaction.\\n3. Test at least one salt of each of the following metals\\nAluminum Lead\\nAntimony Magnesium\\nAmmonium Manganese\\nArsenic Mercury (ous)\\nBarium Mercury (ic)\\nBismuth Nickel\\nCadmium Potassium\\nCalcium Silver\\nCobalt Sodium\\nChromium Strontium\\nCopper Tin (ous)\\nIron (ous) Tin (ic)\\nIron (ic) Zinc\\nYour notes should have the form\\nCopper sulfate No precipitate\\nCalcium chlorid No precipitate\\nSilver nitrate White precipitate\\nAgNOs HC1 AgCl HNQg.\\nThe precipitate is indicated by underlining the formula. Which of\\nthe elements tested form insoluble chlorids Which may be sepa-\\nrated from the rest by the action of hydrochloric acid These ele-\\nments constitute the first group.\\nExperiment CXXV. To determine which of the common metals\\nform sulfide which are insoluble in acidulated water. Test each of\\nthe metals in the above list as follows Add a few drops of hydro-\\nchloric acid to give the solution an acid reaction, then add a solution\\nof hydrogen sulfid drop by drop, and heat. Which bases are precipi-\\ntated Which bases form light-colored precipitates? Which bases", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0252.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 239\\nform dark-colored precipitates What sulfids are insoluble in acidu-\\nlated water These constitute the second group. What constituent\\nof the hydrogen sulfid enters into these precipitates\\nExperiment CXXVI. To determine which of the common bases\\nform sulfids ivhich are insoluble in free ammonium hydroxid (hydro-\\ngen sulfid is an acid, hence it is best to use one of its salts as the\\nreagent).\\n1. Test each of the bases included in the above list as follows\\n2. Add ammonium hydroxid until the solution has an alkaline\\nreaction, then add ammonium sulfid. Which bases are precipitated\\nby ammonium hydroxid alone which by ammonium hydroxid and\\nammonium sulfid Of the latter bases, which is not precipitated\\nwhen ammonium chlorid is present in excess\\nIt is more convenient to exclude from the third and\\nfourth groups the substance not precipitated in the pres-\\nence of ammonium chlorid. We therefore add an excess of\\nthis reagent to the solution under examination, thus throw-\\ning this substance, which would otherwise appear in the\\nthird group, into the fifth group. Which sulfids are in-\\nsoluble in an alkaline menstrum Which elements belong\\nto the third group\\nExperiment CXXVIL To determine which of the common bases\\nform carbonates ivhich are insoluble in an alkaline menstrum. Test\\nat least one substance containing each metal mentioned on page 229,\\nas follows Add ammonium hydrate until the solution has an alka-\\nline reaction, then add ammonium carbonate. What bases are pre-\\ncipitated What carbonates are insoluble in alkaline water Which\\nare soluble What bases are precipitated by ammonium carbonate\\nand not by ammonium sulfid If the bases included in the first three\\ngroups had been removed from the solution, which of the remaining\\nwould be precipitated by ammonium carbonate Of these, which is\\nnot precipitated when ammonium chlorid is present in excess? If\\nyou had a solution containing silver and calcium, how could you\\nseparate them How could you separate lead, copper, and iron\\nCadmium, barium, and potassium How could you separate sodium,\\npotassium, and ammonium from all the others tested Make a list of\\nthe elements tested, dividing them into five groups.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0253.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "240\\nCHEMISTRY\\nFill out the following table in your note-book, writing the symbols\\nof the metals of each group in appropriate column\\nGrouping of the Metals\\nTo solution containing any metal add HC1\\nPrecipitate\\nGroup I\\nFiltrate add H 2 S\\nPrecipitate\\nGroup II\\nFiltrate addNH 4 HO NH 4 Cl-KNII 4 2 S\\nPrecipitate\\nGroup III\\nFiltrate add\\nNH4HO (NH 4 2 C0 3\\nPrecipitate\\nGroup IV\\nFiltrate\\nGroup V\\nANALYSIS OF AN UNKNOWN SUBSTANCE\\n345. Preparing the Solution. The scheme of analysis,\\nbased upon the facts brought out in the experiments just\\ncompleted, is known as the ivet process to distinguish it\\nfrom the process based upon tests applied directly to the\\nsolid substance, which is known as the dry process. The\\nwet process requires that the substance under examination\\nbe dissolved in some solvent before any reagents are added.\\nThis solution should be transparent and free from solid\\nparticles, and should be obtained by the complete solution\\nof a portion of the substance, as this is the only way that\\none can be sure that all the substances in a mixture are\\ntested. If the substance under examination is a solid, put\\na small amount of it in a test tube with 2 or 3 cc. of distilled\\nicater if it does not dissolve, apply heat; if this fails, add\\na few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid, and boil the\\nsubstance a short time. If the substance is insoluble in", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0254.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 241\\nacidulated water, pour off the liquid and try strong hydro-\\nchloric acid; if this fails to dissolve it, add one-third as\\nmuch strong nitric acid as you have of the hydrochloric (2).\\nIf the substance is insoluble in the aqua regia thus formed,\\nit must be fused with sodium carbonate on platinum foil (3).\\nNotes. 1. If a white residue is obtained here that resembles\\nsilver or lead chlorid, treat a fresh portion of the substance with nitric\\nacid.\\n2. If much strong hydrochloric acid has been used, or if any nitric\\nacid has been added, it is necessary to evaporate to dryness before\\npassing to group 2. (See note 1, article 352.)\\n3. Place a small quantity of the original substance on a piece of\\nplatinum foil or a piece of porcelain cover it with 5 or 6 times its\\nvolume of sodium carbonate, and heat before the blowpipe until the\\neffervescence has ceased and the mixture is fused to a thin liquid\\nthis may require 10 or 15 minutes. Boil the fused mass with water\\nfilter and wash any residue dissolve a portion in dilute nitric acid,\\nand test for group 1. Dissolve the remainder in dilute hydrochloric\\nacid. Save a portion of the water solution for acid tests, and pour the\\nremainder into the hydrochloric solution, and test for metals as usual.\\n346. As a precipitate is a solid, it may be collected on\\nfilter paper. The filtrate, as the filtered liquid is called,\\nmay contain more of the metal which was precipitated\\nif the reagent was used sparingly, and as this may inter-\\nfere with subsequent test, the student should always test\\nthe filtrate with a drop or two of the reagent which formed\\nthe precipitate. If a precipitate is again formed, pour the\\nfiltrate on the filter again, repeating the process until\\ncertain that all of the metal has been removed. Much\\nunnecessary work may be saved if the student will remem-\\nber that reagents lose their characteristic properties when\\nthey take part in a chemical change; therefore, we may\\nbe certain that enough of a reagent, having an odor or a\\ncolor, has been added to entirely remove any metals which\\nit can precipitate, when the liquid tested has acquired the", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0255.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "242 CHEMISTRY\\nodor or the color of the reagent. It is hardly necessary\\nto add that the above statement does not apply to those\\ncases in which an excess of the reagent is required, either\\nfor the complete precipitation of the substance which is\\nrequired in the solid state, or to prevent the precipitation\\nof some substance which we wish to keep in solution. We\\nare certain that enough hydrogen sulfid, ammonium sulfid,\\nor ammonia has been added when the odor of the reagent\\ncan be detected in the liquid.\\n347. Washing Precipitates. The success of the student\\nin qualitative analysis will largely depend upon the atten-\\ntion which he pays to the directions given in the preceding\\nparagraph, the care with which he washes his precipitates,\\nand the purity of his reagents. The chief end to be at-\\ntained by the precipitation of a substance is its separation\\nfrom other substances hence, precipitates must be washed\\nuntil they are entirely free from the liquid in which they\\nwere formed. Precipitates are usually washed on the filter.\\nAfter the filtrate has all passed through the filter paper\\nadd 1 or 2 cc. of water from the wash bottle; the jet\\nshould strike the filter paper near the upper edge, so that\\nthe precipitate may be carried down to the apex of the\\nfilter. When all of the wash water has passed through,\\nrepeat the process. Much time may be saved by washing\\nprecipitates with several small quantities of water rather\\nthan fewer large quantities.\\nIt is not enough to think that the washing is sufficient;\\nthe student must know. Washing should be continued as\\nlong as the wash water gives a test for any substance\\nknown to be in filtrate; e.g. first group precipitates should\\nbe washed until the wash water does not redden blue litmus\\npaper, showing absence of hydrochloric acid.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0256.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 243\\n348. The Analysis. Every analysis is begun by testing\\nfor group one, as directed in 349, and passing to sub-\\nsequent articles as directed. If it is known that only one\\nsubstance is present, tlie filtrate remaining when the group\\nprecipitate is filtered out may be discarded.\\nTHE EIEST GROUP\\n349. Precipitation. (a) If the solution is alkaline or\\nneutral, add nitric acid to distinct acid reaction (1).\\n(b) Add dilute hydrochloric acid, drop by drop, as long\\nas a precipitate is formed (2), (3).\\n(c) Filter and treat the precipitate as directed in 351.\\n(d) If metals, not in the first group, may be present, the\\nfiltrate must be treated as directed in 352.\\n(e) If no precipitate is obtained, treat the solution as\\ndirected in 352.\\nNotes. 1. The solution must have an acid reaction before the\\nanalysis is begun, as many members of the subsequent groups which\\nare soluble in alkaline solution are precipitated when the solution is\\nacidified, and would, therefore, mislead the student.\\n2. Avoid the excess of hydrochloric acid, and do not use the con-\\ncentrated acid.\\n3. Dilute hydrochloric acid sometimes precipitates bismuth and\\nantimony here, but the precipitate dissolves when more of the acid is\\nadded. If in doubt, test a separate portion of the original solution\\nwith a drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid if no precipitate is\\nformed, no first group element is present.\\n350. Separation of the First Group Metals.\\nExperiment CXXVIII. Examine a filtered and washed precipi-\\ntate of each first group metal to determine which chlorid is soluble\\nin hot water and how each is affected by ammonium hydroxid. How\\ncould you determine which of the first group metals in an unknown\\nsolution containing one of them If a solution contained silver and\\nlead, how could you separate them\\nThese properties enable us to separate the first group\\nmetals, and to prove the presence or absence of either of them.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0257.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "244\\nCHEMISTRY\\nExperiment CXXIX. 1. Pour about 1 cc. of a solution of each of\\nthe following nitrates into a test tube (a) silver nitrate, (6) plumbic\\nnitrate, (c) mercurous nitrate.\\n2. Precipitate as directed in 349.\\n8. Follow the directions in 351 endeavor to find a reason for\\neach step.\\n351.\\nAnalysis of Group I\\nWash the precipitate with cold water, using as little as possible\\nthen treat with much hot water. Why See notes (1) and (2).\\nResidue AgCl or HgCl or both\\nAdd NH 4 OH\\nSolution, PbCl 2\\nConfirm by testing\\nThree\\nResidue black,\\nNH 2 Hg 2 Cl\\nSolution AgCl\\nAdd HNO3 to acid\\nreaction\\nPortions of the somuon\\nfollows\\nHg present\\nadd\\nH 2 S0 4\\nto one\\npart\\nadd\\nH 2 Sto\\nanother\\nadd\\nK 2 Cr0 4\\nto an-\\nother\\nPrecipitate\\nAgCl\\nAg present\\nLead may occur\\nPrecipitate\\nPb present\\nhere as white pre-\\ncipitate\\nwhite\\nPbS0 4\\nblack\\nPbS\\nyellow\\nPbCrC-4\\nNotes. 1. Lead is not always precipitated in this group.\\n2. If the lead chlorid is not entirely dissolved by the hot water,\\nthe addition of the ammonium hydroxid changes what remains to a\\nbasic salt (white) this often passes through the filter, rendering the\\nfiltrate turbid. Nitric acid makes it clear again.\\nTHE SECOND GROUP\\n352. Precipitation. (a) Heat the filtrate from the first\\ngroup (1), pass hydrogen sulfid through it as long as the\\nprecipitate increases (2), (3), or until the solution smells\\nstrongly of the gas.\\n(b) Heat to boiling, allow the precipitate to settle (4).", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0258.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 245\\n(c) Filter and wash the precipitate with hot water as\\nlong as the wash water reddens blue litmus (5).\\n(d) Dilute a portion of the filtrate with two or three\\ntimes its volume of water and test again with hydrogen\\nsulfid (6). If a precipitate is obtained, dilute the whole of\\nthe filtrate and treat with the group reagent until complete\\nprecipitation is secured. Pour on the filter paper contain-\\ning the balance of the precipitate.\\n(e) If no precipitate is obtained, or if the filtrate may-\\ncontain metals of subsequent groups, pass to 357.\\nTreat the group precipitate as directed in 354.\\nNotes. 1. Hydrogen sulfid will not precipitate the second group\\nmetals from a solution containing much nitric acid or aqua regia. If\\neither of these acids was used in dissolving the substance, evaporate\\nto dryness in an evaporating dish, dissolve the residue in water con-\\ntaining a little hydrochloric acid, and pass the hydrogen sulfid through\\nthis solution.\\n2. If the solution contains a strong oxidizing agent, e.g. a nitrate,\\nchlorate, chromate, or a ferric salt, a white precipitate of free sulfur\\nis obtained.\\n3. Change of color from red to green, or from a colored to a color-\\nless solution, does not indicate a second group substance. The former\\nchange is probably due to the presence of a chromate, the latter to a\\nferric salt. There are no white precipitates in the second group.\\n4. Some compounds of arsenic are precipitated very slowly from\\na cold solution, and rather slowly from a hot solution. Should a\\nyellow precipitate form slowly, heat the solution nearly to boiling\\nduring the precipitation.\\n5. All traces of acid must be removed before proceeding to the\\nseparation of the metals of this group.\\n6. The second group metals must be entirely removed before pro-\\nceeding to the next group. As the presence of too much hydrochloric\\nacid sometimes prevents complete precipitation, it is best to dilute the\\nfiltrate before the final test.\\n353. The Sub-groups.\\nExperiment CXXX. 1. Determine which of the eight sulfids pre-\\ncipitated in this group are soluble in yellow ammonium sulfid.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0259.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "246\\nCHEMISTRY\\n2. Filter each precipitate, wash, and pour the yellow ammonium\\nsulfid on the paper. Notice whether any of the precipitate is dis-\\nsolved. It is not always necessary to wait for it all to dissolve. The\\nthree metals which are soluble constitute the tin sub-group, the others\\nare the copper sub-group.\\n354. The Separation into Sub-groups. a. Make a hole\\nin the bottom of the filter paper and wash the precipitate\\nthrough it into a test tube, using as little water as possible.\\nb. Warm the precipitate in the test tube with yellow\\nammonium sulfid, and filter again.\\nc. The filtrate will contain the metals of the tin sub-\\ngroup, and the precipitates those of the copper sub-group.\\nd. Treat the filtrate as directed in 356, if a substance\\nbelonging to this group may be present.\\ne. Treat the precipitate as directed in 355.\\n355. Separation of the Metals of the Copper Sub-group.\\nDirections\\nPrecipitate (1), HgS, PbS, Bi 2 S 3 CdS, CuS\\nBoil with HNO3 (2). Replace evaporated acid\\nResidue\\nDissolve in\\nHC1 and KCIO;\\nAdd SnCl 2\\nPrecipitate HgCl 2\\nHg present\\n(4)\\nPrecip.\\nPbS0 4\\nPb present\\nSolution Pb(N0 3 2 Bi(N0 3 2 Cu(N0 3 2\\nCd(N0 3 2 Add H0SO4 (5)\\nFiltrate Bi, Cd, and Cu salts.\\nNH4OH (6)\\nAdd\\nPrecip.\\nBi0 3 H 3\\nDissolve\\nin HC1 (7)\\npour into\\nwater\\nPrecip. (8)\\nBiOCl\\nBi present\\nFiltrate Cd and Cu. Add\\nKCN and H 2 S (9)\\nPrecip.\\nCdS (10)\\nCd present\\nSolution (11)\\nKCN CuCN\\nCu present", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0260.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 241\\nNotes. 1. If the precipitate has been exposed to the air for some\\ntime, it should be washed with a few drops of yellow ammonium sulfid\\nand then with water before treating with nitric acid. Wash until wash\\nwater is neutral.\\n2. Transfer the precipitate to an evaporating dish for this operation\\nboil for several minutes or until dissolved filter and wash the residue,\\nif any.\\n3. If too little nitric acid was used, other sulfids than that of mercury\\nmay occur here. The stannous chlorid test should therefore always be\\ntried. Mercury sometimes occurs here as a yellow residue.\\n4. Use only a small crystal of potassium chlorate and boil until the\\nvapor no longer bleaches litmus paper before adding the stannous\\nchlorid.\\n5. To the filtrate from the mercuric sulfid add about 5 cc. of strong\\nsulfuric acid and boil in an evaporating dish until white fumes appear\\n(this proves that nitric acid has been expelled). When cool, dilute to\\nten volumes and transfer to a beaker filter if turbid.\\n6. Add ammonium hydroxid to slight alkaline reaction. Then if a\\nprecipitate appears, a small quantity more to redissolve any copper or\\ncadmium that may be precipitated heat gently and filter.\\n7. Wash the precipitate, then pour a little strong hydrochloric acid\\non the filter catch it in an evaporating dish and evaporate the solution\\nuntil only a few drops remain pour these into a beaker of water.\\n8. Failure to follow the directions in note 5 will cause a precipitate\\nof lead to appear when ammonium hydroxid is added, hence, the con-\\nfirmatory test should always be tried.\\n9. If the filtrate from the bismuth hydroxid is distinctly blue, we\\nmay conclude that copper is present and test for cadmium with potas-\\nsium cyanide and hydrogen sulfid. If not blue, the following more\\nsensitive test for, copper should be applied. Acidify a small portion of\\nthe filtrate with acetic acid and add potassium ferrocyanidE4Fe(CX) 6\\na reddish brown precipitate indicates copper.\\n10. A yellow solution does not prove the presence of cadmium, but\\na yellow precipitate does.\\n11. Test this, or the original solution, with metallic iron if copper\\nis present, it will be deposited on clean surfaces.\\n356. Separation of the Tin Sub-group. Add dilute hydro-\\nchloric acid to the ammonium sulfid solution to slight acid\\nreaction; filter, dry the precipitate by suction, reject the\\nfiltrate, and treat the precipitate as directed below.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0261.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "248\\nCHEMISTRY\\nPrecipitate As 2 S 5 Sb 2 S 5 SnS 2 Add concentrated HC1 (1)\\nResidue (2)\\nAsaSg\\nDissolve in\\nHC1 KCIO3 (3)\\nAdd NH 4 OH (4)\\nNH4CI MgCl 2\\nPrecip. (3)\\nMgNH 4 As0 4\\nAs present\\nSolution SbCl 3 SnCl 4\\nPlace in hydrogen generator (6)\\nCollect gas in solution of AgN( 3 (7)\\nGen~erator(8)\\nResidue Sn\\nDissolve in\\nstrong HC1\\nAdd HgCl 2\\nPrecip. (9)\\nHgCl\\nwhite to gray\\nSn present\\nAgN0 3 Solution (10)\\nPrecip. Ag, Sb\\nDigest with warm\\nHC1 and dilute (11)\\nDivide\\nAdd H 2 S\\nPrecip.\\norange\\nSb 2 S 5\\nAdd H 2\\nPrecip.\\nwhite\\nSbOCl\\nSb present\\nFiltrate\\nH 2 As0 3\\nAdd HC1 (12)\\nFilter (13)\\nAdd H 2 S\\nPrecip.\\nyellow\\nAs 2 5\\nAs present\\nNotes. 1. Heat gently in an evaporating dish as long as paper\\nmoistened with lead acetate is blackened by the vapors add a little\\nwater and filter.\\n2. Wash the residue on the filter, then dissolve, using very little\\npotassium chlorate.\\n3. Heat to expel the excess of chlorin.\\n4. Add ammonium hydroxid till alkaline, filter, if necessary, add\\nhalf as much more ammonium hydroxid as you have of the solution,\\nthen add magnesia mixture, agitate, and set aside for 24 hours if no\\nprecipitate appears at first.\\n5. This precipitate is slightly soluble in water, and to a less extent\\nin ammonium hydrate, hence traces of arsenic are likely to be lost\\nunless the solution (3) is concentrated.\\n6. Place some strips of platinum, and a few small pieces of zinc\\nknown to be free of arsenic, in a test tube add dilute hydrochloric acid\\nand the solution to be tested quickly insert stopper carrying a delivery\\ntube, which shall conduct the gas through a solution of silver nitrate.\\n7. The gas evolved may be a poisonous one, and must not be\\ninhaled. If tin was present, it will be found in the generator, which\\nmust be examined as directed in Note 8. If antimony was present,\\nit will form a precipitate in the silver solution. Some arsenic\\nmay have been dissolved in the concentrated hydrochloric acid (1),", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0262.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 249\\nin which case it will be found here dissolved in the silver nitrate\\nsolution.\\n8. When the zinc has dissolved, pour the contents of the generator\\non a filter. Wash thoroughly, then dissolve the residue in strong\\nhydrochloric acid.\\n9. The formation of a white or gray precipitate here proves the\\npresence of tin, because the stannous chlorid which is formed when\\ntin is present reduces the mercuric chlorid to mercurous chlorid, or to\\nmetallic mercury.\\n10. Filter and wash any precipitate in the silver solution.\\n11. Do not dilute to precipitation before dividing into two portions.\\n12. To remove silver, add hydrochloric acid, drop by drop, as long\\nas a precipitate is formed, and filter.\\n13. A yellow precipitate formed by the hydrogen sulfid proves the\\npresence of arsenic.\\nTHE THIED GROUP\\n357. Test for Phosphates. If phosphates are present, the\\nfourth group metals will be precipitated with those of the\\nthird group, and a more complicated method of separation\\nmust be used (1).\\nThe Test. Boil a small portion of the second group\\nfiltrate to expel hydrogen sulfid, acidify with nitric acid,\\nand pour it into two volumes of ammonium molybdate\\n(NH 4 2 Mo0 4\\nAgitate, and allow to stand for some minutes if a yellow\\nprecipitate appears, phosphates are present, and the long\\nprocess must be used. If phosphates are present treat the\\nremainder of the second group filtrate as directed in 362.\\nIf phosphates are absent, treat the filtrate as directed in\\n358.\\nNote. The above test, and the table in 362, are given for the\\nconvenience of those teachers who wish to include this case in their\\ncourse. Doubtless few teachers will care to give pupils in secondary\\nschools metals of the third or fourth groups in the presence of\\nphosphates.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0263.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "250 CHEMISTRY\\n358. Separation into Sub-groups in the Absence of Phos-\\nphates. (a) The filtrate from the second group, from\\nwhich all second group substances have been removed, is\\nnow boiled until the vapor no longer blackens paper mois-\\ntened with lead acetate (absence of hydrogen sulfid) (1).\\n(b) Add a few drops of nitric acid, and boil a short\\ntime (2).\\n(c) Add ammonium hydroxid to slight (3) alkaline reac-\\ntion (4).\\n(d) Add decided excess of ammonium chlorid, say 15 or\\n20 cc. (5), (6).\\n(e) If a precipitate is obtained, a metal of the iron sub-\\ngroup is present. Filter and wash any precijritate, and\\ntreat it as directed in 359.\\nTreat the filtrate as directed in 360.\\nNotes. 1. If no first or second group substance is present, time\\nwill be saved by taking a fresh portion of the original solution, which\\nneed not be boiled but this should not be done if the presence of a\\nchromate was indicated when hydrogen sulfid was added (note 3, 352)\\nas the hydrogen sulfid reduces the chromium from its acid to its basic\\ncondition, and without this action the chromium would be detected\\nonly by the test for chromic acid.\\n2. If iron is present, it must be in the ferric state boiling with\\nnitric acid will transform it.\\n3. If too much ammonium hydroxid is added, aluminum will be\\ndissolved.\\n4. If no precipitate is formed here, it proves the absence of inter-\\nfering phosphates.\\n5. Ammonium hydroxid precipitates magnesium, but the precipi-\\ntate dissolves in ammonium chlorid. If an opaque white precipitate\\nis obtained, indicating magnesium, pour a few drops of the liquid\\ncontaining it into a test tube, add 5 or 6 times as much ammonium\\nchlorid. If the precipitate dissolves, add enough ammonium chlorid\\nto the rest of the liquid to dissolve it.\\n6. The color of the precipitate indicates the metal present alumi-\\nnum is white and transparent chromium is blue-green iron is\\nreddish brown.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0264.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS\\n359. Separation of the Iron Sub-group.\\n251\\nPrecipitate Fe 2 (OH) 6 Cr 2 (OH) 6 Al 2 (OH) 6\\nBoil in evaporating dish with XaOH (1)\\nFilter and wash any residue\\nPrecipitate Fe 2 (OH) 6 Cr 2 (OH) 6\\nDivide in two parts\\nDissolve in dilute HC1\\n(2), (3)\\nFe present\\nII\\nFuse with Na 2 C0 3\\nand KC10 3 (4)\\nyellow mass\\nCr present\\nFiltrate Xa 6 6 Al 2\\nAcidify with HC1, and\\nadd NH4OH (5),\\nwhite prec\\nAl present\\nNotes. 1. Add sodium hydroxid to alkaline reaction, then add\\n5 or 6 cc. more, and boil several minutes.\\n2. Dilute with water. To half of the solution add a few drops of\\npotassium ferrocyanid, FHtFe(CX) 6 A blue precipitate indicates\\niron. To the other half of the solution add potassium sulfocyanid,\\nKCXS a blood-red color indicates iron.\\n3. If iron is found, determine whether it is in the ferrous or ferric\\ncondition by testing portions of the original solution with potassium\\nferricyanid and with potassium sulfocyanid.\\nFerrous\\nFerric\\nPotassium sulfocyanid\\nPotassium ferricyanid\\nno prec.\\nblue prec.\\n(dark)\\nred solution\\ngreen solution\\nsometimes brown\\n4. If chromium is present, a yellow mass of sodium chromate is\\nobtained. To confirm, boil the fused mass in water, acidify with\\nacetic acid, boil again, and add lead acetate a yellow precipitate\\nconfirms the presence of chromium.\\n5. Add hydrochloric acid to acid reaction, then ammonium hydrate\\nuntil alkaline, heat gently, and if no precipitate appears at once, set\\naside for half an hour. A flocculent white precipitate indicates\\naluminum.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0265.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "252\\nCHEMISTRY\\n360. Precipitation of the Cobalt Sub-group. (a) To the\\nfiltrate from/, 358, acid colorless ammonium sulfid, filter\\nand wash the precipitate (1). Add a little ammonium sulfid\\nto the wash water.\\n(b) The filtrate must be tested for the metals of groups 4\\nand 5. Pass to 364.\\n(c) Treat the precipitate as directed in 361.\\nNote. The precipitate formed by cobalt and nickel is black, that\\nof manganese is flesh color, but turns brown on standing, and that\\nof zinc is white.\\n361. Separation of the Cobalt Sub-group.\\nPrecipitate CoS, MS, MnS, ZnS\\nDissolve on the filter with cold dilute HC1 (1)\\nReceive the filtrate in an evaporating dish\\nResidue CoS, NiS\\n(on filter paper) (2)\\nWash and dissolve in aqua\\nregia (3)\\nAddKCN (cone.)\\nPrecipitate (8)\\nyellowish\\nbrownish\\ngreen\\nwhite\\ninsoluble in\\nsoluble in\\nHC1\\nHC1\\nM present\\nCo present\\nTest by (4)\\nSolution\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ZnCl 2 MnCl 2\\nAdd decided excess of NaOH, digest\\nwithout warming\\nFilter\\nPrec Mii(OH) 2\\n(5) Fuse with\\nKN0 3 ,andNa 2 C0 3\\nGreen mass (6)\\nMn present\\nSol. Na 2 Zn0 2\\nAdd (NH 4 2 S\\nPrec. (7)\\nZn present\\nNotes. 1. Cobalt and nickel are often partially dissolved here,\\nparticularly if the acid is hot in such case they will be found with\\nthe manganese precipitate.\\n2. If the hydrogen sulfid is not completely removed, zinc sulfid\\nmay be precipitated with the cobalt and nickel.\\n3. If the residue is not abundant, incinerate the filter and dissolve\\nthe residue as directed. Boil the solution as long as the vapor bleaches", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0266.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 253\\nlitmus paper before adding the concentrated solution of potassium\\ncyanid.\\n4. Tlie Borax Bead Test. Heat a piece of platinum wire, the end\\nof which is bent so as to form a small loop, dip it in powdered borax\\nwhile hot and hold it in the flame again when the borax has melted\\nand formed a transparent bead place some of the precipitate on it and\\nheat again cobalt forms a blue bead, nickel in the oxidizing flame\\nforms a red bead while hot, becoming colorless when cool.\\n5. This precipitate must be tested for cobalt and nickel by the\\nborax bead (-4) or with aqua regia and potassium cyanid, as in the\\ntable.\\n6. Fuse on platinum foil or in a porcelain crucible, using six parts\\nof the flux to one of the precipitate, continue heat until a thin liquid\\nis obtained a green mass indicates manganese.\\n7. To distinguish sulfur (from the group sulfids). Add hydro-\\nchloric acid. Sulfur does not dissolve the sodium zincate does.\\n8. If both cobalt and nickel may be present, filter and wash this\\nprecipitate and treat it with hydrochloric acid an insoluble residue\\nindicates nickel. Confirm by the borax bead.\\n362. Precipitation of the Third Group in the Presence of\\nPhosphates. (a) To the second group filtrate, from which\\nall second, group substances have been removed and all\\nhydrogen sulfid has been expelled, add ammonium hydroxid\\nto slight alkaline reaction, then add decided excess of am-\\nmonium chlorid, and then ammonium sulfid as long as a\\nprecipitate is formed.\\n(6) Heat to boiling and shake until the precipitate sub-\\nsides quickly.\\n(c) Filter and wash at once with water to which a little\\nammonium sulfid has been added.\\n(d) Test the filtrate for the fourth* and fifth group\\nmetals. Pass to 364.\\n(e) Treat the precipitate as directed in 363.\\nThis is necessary even though phosphates be present, because\\nthere may not be enough of the phosphates to cause the precipitation\\nof all of the fourth group metals present.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0267.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "254\\nCHEMISTRY\\n363. Separation of the Third Group Metals in the Presence\\nof Phosphates.\\nPrecipitate AIO3H3, Cr0 3 FT 3 CoS, MS, FeS, MnS, ZnS, Ba 3 (P0 4 2\\nSr 3 (P0 4 2 Ca 3 (P0 4 2 MgXH 4 P0 4\\nTreat with dilute HC1 (1)\\nResidue\\nCoS, MS\\nTest for\\nCo and Ni,\\nas in 361\\nSolution A1C1 3 CrCl 3 FeCl 2 MnCl 2 ZnCl 2 BaCl 2\\nSrCl 2 CaCl 2 MgCl 2\\nDivide in three parts\\nI\\nAdd H 2 S0 4 and alcohol\\nPrecipitate\\nBaSC-4\\nCaS0 4\\nSrS0 4\\n(3) (4)\\nFiltrate\\nReject\\nII\\nBoil with\\nHX0 3 (5)\\nand add\\nK 4 Fe(CN) 6\\nprecipitate (6)\\nFe present\\nIII\\nTreated as\\ndirected\\nbelow\\nPart III\\nBoil with HN0 3 add Fe 2 Cl 6 and BaC0 3\\n(7)\\nPrecipitate\\nFiltrate\\nFe0 3 H 3 A10 3 H 3 Cr0 3 H 3\\nFeP0 4 (BaC0 3\\nDissolve in HC1 and add\\nH 2 S0 4 (8)\\nAdd NH 4 OH and (NH) 2 S\\nPrecipitate\\nMnS, ZnS.\\nDissolve in HC1\\nFiltrate\\nAdd (NH 4 2 C0 8\\nand (NH 4 2 C 2 0,\\nPrecip.\\nBaS0 4\\nReject\\nFiltrate (9)\\nAdd NaOH and boil\\nand add\\nNaOH (14)\\nPrecip.\\nBa, etc.\\nreject\\nFiltrate\\n(10) add\\nNa 2 HP0 4\\nPrec.\\nFiltrate\\nPrec.\\nFlLT.\\nFe0 3 H 3\\nAdd HC1\\nMn0 2 H 2\\nadd H 2 S\\n(17)\\nCr0 3 H 3\\nandXH 4 OH\\nFuse\\nPrec.\\nPrec.\\n(10)\\n(12)\\n(15)\\nZn pres.\\nMg pres.\\nCr pres.\\nAl pres.\\nMn pres.\\nNotes. 1. Boil the solution until hydrogen sulfid is entirely-\\nexpelled.\\n2. Evaporate the first portion to dryness, add a little dilute sul-", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0268.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 255\\nfuric acid and twice as much alcohol set aside for a few minutes\\nfilter and wash with a little alcohol.\\n3. Fuse on platinum foil with five parts of sodium carbonate.\\nBoil with water, filter, and wash the precipitate. Dissolve in nitric\\nacid and treat as directed in 364.\\n4. This solution may be added to filtrate from the third group if\\nthe filtrate contains fourth group metals.\\n5. Boil the remaining portions in an evaporating dish with a little\\nnitric acid, pour a little of it into a test tube, dilute and add two or\\nthree drops of potassium ferrocyanid a blue precipitate indicates\\niron.\\n6. If iron is found, test the original solution as directed in note 3,\\n\u00c2\u00a7359.\\n7. To the third portion in the evaporating dish (which has already\\nbeen boiled in nitric acid) add ferric chlorid until a drop of the solu-\\ntion on a piece of glass gives a yellow precipitate with ammonium\\nhydroxid. Evaporate nearly to dryness to expel acid, then add\\nsodium carbonate as long as the precipitate formed is redissolved by\\nshaking. Pour into a flask, dilute to 200 cc, cool, and add barium\\ncarbonate (not too much) agitate frequently for half an hour. Eilter\\nand wash the precipitate.\\n8. Dissolve in dilute hydrochloric acid. Boil and add dilute sul-\\nfuric acid after a few minutes, filter throw the precipitate away.\\n9. Add sodium hydroxid to strong alkaline reaction. Boil a few\\nminutes and filter.\\n10. Fuse the precipitate with sodium carbonate and potassium\\nchlorate a yellow mass indicates chromium. Confirm by (4), 359.\\n11. Acidify the filtrate with hydrochloric acid, add ammonium\\nhydroxid till slightly alkaline heat and set aside for half an hour if\\nno precipitate appears at first. A precipitate indicates aluminum.\\n12. Add a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and boil to expel car-\\nbon dioxid. Then add ammonium hydroxid till alkaline, and add a\\nsmall quantity of ammonium sulfid if a precipitate appears, filter and\\nwash.\\n13. The sodium hydroxid is added until the solution is alkaline.\\n14. Test the precipitate for manganese as directed in note 6,\\n361.\\n15. Concentrate the filtrate, add one-third its volume of ammonium\\nhydroxid and a little disodic hydric phosphate.\\n16. Stir with a glass rod, set aside for 24 hours if no precipitate\\nappears at once.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0269.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "256\\nCHEMISTRY\\nTHE FOURTH GROUP\\n364. Precipitation. (a) To the filtrate from the third\\ngroup (1) containing ammonium chlorid, add ammonium\\nhydroxid and carbonate heat gently for some minutes.\\n(b) Filter out any precipitate, reserving the filtrate to be\\ntested for the fifth group metals, 366.\\n(c) The precipitate is composed of fourth group metals,\\nand is to be treated as directed below, 365.\\n365. Separation of the Fourth Group Metals.\\nPrecipitate. BaC0 3 SrC0 3 CaC0 3\\nWash and dissolve in dilute acetic acid\\nSolution. Ba(C 2 H 3 2 2 Sr(C 2 H 3 2 2 Ca(C 2 H 3 2 2\\nTo a small portion add K2C1O4 if a precipitate is formed, add to the\\nwhole and filter (2)\\nPrecipitate\\nSolution. Sr(C 2 H 3 2 2 Ca(C 3 H 3 2 2\\nBaCr0 4 yel-\\nAdd NH 4 OH and (XH 4 2 C0 3 filter and wash the\\nlow, soluble in\\nprecipitate. Dissolve it in HC1\\nHC1 (3)\\nEvaporate to dryness add H 2 (4)\\nBa present\\nDivide into two portions\\nI\\nII\\nAdd CaS0 4 and\\nAdd K0SO4 (7)\\nboil (5)\\nPrec. (6), white\\nPrecipitate\\nFiltrate\\nSr present\\nReject\\nAdd XH4OH and\\n(XH 4 2 C 2 4\\nPrecipitate (8)\\nCa present\\nNotes. 1. The filtrate from the ammonium sulfid precipitate\\nshould be colorless or light yellow. If brown or black, nickel is prob-\\nably present remove it by adding acetic acid to acid reaction, boiling\\nand filtering if pink, chromium is indicated remove it by boiling\\nand filtering a green color is due to traces of iron which settle to the\\nbottom on standing.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0270.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 257\\nIf no precipitate is obtained in the preceding groups, the fourth\\ngroup precipitate may he obtained by adding ammonium hydrate to\\nthe original solution, to alkaline reaction, then adding ammonium\\nchlorid and carbonate.\\n2. Before adding the potassium chromate, dilute the solution with\\n30 cc. of water, heat to boiling, and add the chromate gradually.\\n3. Precipitate again with sulfuric acid. A white precipitate insolu-\\nble in all acids confirms the presence of barium.\\n4. This solution should be neutral to litmus.\\n5. If a precipitate does not appear at once, set aside for ten minutes.\\n6. Test by flame. The flame of strontium is crimson, that of\\nbarium yellowish green, and that of calcium yellowish red.\\n7. Potassium sulfate must be added as long as a precipitate is\\nproduced in order to remove strontium, which would interfere with\\nthe test for calcium. Filter and reject any precipitate.\\n8. This precipitate is insoluble in acetic acid, but dissolves in\\nhydrochloric acid.\\nTHE FIFTH GROUP\\n366. This group includes all the metals not precipitated\\nin the preceding groups. Divide the filtrate from the\\nfourth group into two portions, and test as directed below.\\n1. To the first portion, add a little ammonium hydroxid,\\nthen enough ammonium chlorid to dissolve any precipitate\\nthat appears; then add sodium phosphate, Na 2 HP0 4 a\\nwhite precipitate indicates magnesium (1) (2).\\n2. Test the second portion by flame (3) (4). Violet, not\\nobscured by blue glass, indicates potassium (5). Yellow,\\nobscured by blue glass, indicates sodium.\\n367. The Ammonia Test. The original solution or solid\\nsubstance should be tested for ammonium salts as follows.\\nPlace a small amount of the substance in a beaker, add\\nsolid calcium hydroxid, moisten with a little water. Cover\\nthe beaker with a glass plate, to the under side of which a\\npiece of moist red litmus is attached. Heat gently. If\\nammonium is present, the vapor will turn litmus paper blue.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0271.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "258 CHEMISTRY\\nNote the odor. (Care.) Hold the stopper of the hydro-\\nchloric acid bottle over the beaker a white cloud will be\\nformed if ammonium is present. Confirm by testing with\\nNessler s reagent, 82.\\nNotes. 1. If calcium was found in the fourth group, traces may\\nappear here to prevent interference with subsequent tests add\\nammonium oxalate (NH 4 2 C204 to the fourth group filtrate and filter.\\nIf barium was found, remove it by precipitating with ammonium sul-\\nfate and filtering. Reject the filtrate. Reject the precipitate in each\\ncase, and concentrate the filtrate until crystals appear, then test as\\ndirected.\\n2. The magnesium precipitate is crystalline. If flocculent, it proba-\\nbly consists of aluminum dissolved because too much ammonium\\nhydroxid was used in precipitating the third group metals.\\n3. If magnesium is abundant, it will interfere with the flame tests\\nto remove it add barium hydroxid, filter, add dilute sulfuric acid to\\nthe filtrate, and filter again this filtrate will contain no magnesium.\\n4. Evaporate the solution to dryness introduce a little of the resi-\\ndue into the flame of a Bunsen burner.\\n5. Ignite a small portion of the residue on platinum foil to faint\\nredness dissolve in the least possible quantity of water, add a few\\ndrops of hydrochloric acid, and the same amount of platinum chlorid,\\nstir, and set aside a short time a precipitate indicates potassium.\\nACID TESTS\\n368. The Removal of Bases. Certain bases interfere\\nwith the acid tests; in cases in which the acid tests,\\n369-373, are indeterminate the following directions\\nshould be followed.\\n(a) The Substance is Soluble in Water. 1. If the sub-\\nstance is in the fourth or fifth group, the original solution\\nmay be used for acid tests.\\n2. If the substance contains metals of the first, second,\\nor third group, add sodium carbonate as long as a precipi-\\ntate continues to form filter and test the filtrate for\\nacids.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0272.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 259\\n(b) The Substance is Insoluble in Water. 3. If the sub-\\nstance contains metals of the third, fourth, or fifth group,\\nboil some of the solid with a strong solution of sodium\\ncarbonate for ten minutes, replacing the water which\\nevaporates. Filter acidify one portion with sulfuric acid,\\nboil to expel carbon dioxid, and test for nitric acid; boil\\nas before and test as in 370, 371.\\n4. If a metal precipitated by hydrogen sulfid is present,\\nsuspend the substance in water, and pass hydrogen sulfid\\nthrough the solution as long as a precipitate forms. Boil\\na short time; filter, expel hydrogen sulfid, and test the\\nfiltrate for acids.\\n369. Suggestions. 1. To the solid under examination or\\na concentrated solution, in a small test tube, add a few drops\\nof strong sulfuric acid.\\n2. Sudden effervescence indicates a carbonate.\\n3. Slight effervescence indicates an oxalate.\\n4. Odor of hydrogen sulfid indicates a sulfid.\\n5. Odor of vinegar indicates an acetate.\\n6. Odor of burning matches indicates a sulfite.\\n7. Violet vapor indicates an iodid.\\n8. Yellow vapor indicates a bromid.\\n9. White cloud with ammonium hydroxid indicates a\\nchlorid.\\n370. For Sulfuric Acid. To a portion of the original\\nsolution add barium chlorid. A white precipitate insoluble\\nin dilute hydrochloric acid proves the presence of a sulfate.\\n371. For Hydrochloric Acid. To the original solution\\nadd a few drops of silver nitrate solution a white precipi-\\ntate insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonium\\nhydroxid, indicates a chlorid.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0273.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "260 CHEMISTRY\\n372. For Nitric Acid. Pour a cubic centimetre of strong\\nsulfuric acid into a test tube, add an equal volume of the\\nsolution to be tested; when cool pour a concentrated solu-\\ntion of ferrous sulfate carefully down the sides of the tube.\\nA brown ring where the two liquids meet indicates nitric\\nacid.\\n373. For Carbonic Acid. Treat a concentrated solution\\nof the original substance with hydrochloric acid; if effer-\\nvescence occurs, hold a drop of barium hydrate on the end\\nof a glass rod just above the surface of the liquid if it\\nbecomes turbid, carbonic acid is indicated.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0274.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nN. B. The numbers refer to the numbered paragraphs.\\nAcetylene, 300-302.\\nAcid, acetic, 303.\\narsenious, 337.\\ncarbonic, 279.\\nchloric, 130.\\nhydrazoic, 90, 106.\\nhydriodic, 115.\\nhydrobromic, 139.\\nhydrochloric, 122, 311, 345, 371.\\nhydrofluoric, 150.\\nhydrosulfuric, 106, 168.\\nhypochlorous, 130.\\nhypophosphorous, 329.\\nmetaphosphoric, 329.\\nmuriatic, 122.\\nnitric, 98-103.\\northophosphoric, 329, 330.\\npalmitic, 303.\\nperchloric, 130.\\nphosphoric, 329, 330.\\nphosphorus, 329.\\npropionic, 303.\\npyrophosphoric, 329.\\nstearic, 303.\\nsulfuric, 171-76, 341, 370.\\nAcid, term defined, 105.\\nforming oxids, 104.\\nreaction, 70.\\nsalts, 177.\\nAcids, bases and salts, Chap. XII.\\nbasicity of, 177.\\nbinary, 106.\\ncharacteristics of, 106.\\nclassification of, 177.\\nfatty, series of, 303.\\nnames of, 107.\\norganic, 303.\\ntests for, 368-73.\\nAir, analysis of, 30, 31.\\na mixture, 33.\\ncomposition, 33.\\neffect on flame, 28.\\neffect on metals, 23-27.\\npurification of, 283.\\nreaction with nitrogen dioxid,\\n113.\\nsoluble in -water, 33.\\nAlcohol, 303.\\nas preservative, 318.\\nAlcoholic fermentation, 312.\\nAle, 312.\\nAlkali metals, Chap. XVII.\\nAlkaline reaction, 70.\\nAllotropism defined, 158.\\nAllotropism, of arsenic, 355.\\nof carbon, 264.\\nof oxygen, 332.\\nof phosphorus, 331.\\nof sulfur, 158.\\nAlloys, 224, 228, 237, 254, 335.\\nAlum, 238.\\nAluminum, Chap. XXI.\\ncompounds of, 238.\\noccurrence, 234.\\nproperties, 236.\\nreduction, 235.\\nsilicate, 239-41.\\nuses, 237.\\nAmalgamation, 216.\\nAmmonia, 90-97, 309.\\nliquid, 94.\\noccurrence, 90.\\npreparation, 91, 93.\\nproperties of,\\nsolubility of, 96.\\ntest, 367.\\n261", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0275.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "262\\nINDEX\\nAmmonia, uses, 97.\\nwater, 92.\\nAmmonium, 96.\\nbasic properties of, 198.\\ncarbonate, 201, 314.\\ncblorid, 199, 314.\\nhydrosulfid, 203, 314.\\nhydroxid, 92, 344.\\nnitrate, 111-112, 200.\\nsalts, 198, 203.\\nsulfid, 202, 344.\\nAnalysis, 22.\\nqualitative, Chap. XXXII.\\nAnimal charcoal, 271.\\nAnimals, growth of, 281.\\nlife processes of, 282.\\nAnthracite, 308.\\nAntichlor, 165.\\nAntiseptic, 318.\\nApparatus for analysis, 340.\\nAqua fortis, 125.\\nAqua regia, 125.\\nArgon, 32.\\nArsenic, Chap. XXXI.\\nmirror, 338-39.\\noccurrence, 333.\\noxygen compounds, 336.\\npreparation, 334.\\nproperties, 335.\\ntest, 338.\\nwhite, 337.\\nArsenious oxid, 337.\\nArsin, 338.\\nAtom, 2.\\nAtomic theory, 19.\\nAtomic weights, table of, 20.\\nAtomic weights and densities, 181.\\nAtoms, number in molecule, 181.\\nAvogadro s law, 180.\\ndeductions from, 181.\\nBaking powder, 197.\\nBaking soda, 132, 196.\\nBase, definition of, 105.\\nBases, characteristics of, 108.\\nremoval of, 368.\\nBasicity of acids, 177.\\nBasic oxids, 101.\\nBeer, 312.\\nBell metal, 251.\\nBessemer process, 246.\\nBicarbonate, of potash, 190.\\nof soda, 19(3.\\nBituminous coal, 308.\\nBlack ash, 195.\\nBlack lead, 266.\\nBlast furnace, 243.\\nBleaching, by chlorid of lime, 118.\\nby chlorin, 118, 121.\\nby ozone, 332.\\nby powder, 210.\\nby sulfur dioxid, 165.\\nBlende, 225.\\nBlooming, 215.\\nBlowpipes, mouth, use of, 291.\\noxidizing flame of, 291.\\noxy hydrogen, 56.\\nreducing flame of, 291.\\nBlue vitriol, 221.\\nBohemian glass, 212.\\nBoneblack, 271.\\nBorax bead test, 361.\\nBower-Barff process, 25.\\nBrass, 228, 254.\\nBread making, fermentation in, 310,\\n312.\\nprocess, 313.\\nBrick, 240.\\nBrimstone, 155.\\nBritannia metal, 254.\\nBromin, 133-39.\\nchemical properties, 136.\\noccurrence, 133.\\npreparation, 134.\\nphysical properties, 135.\\ntest, 138.\\nuses, 137.\\nBronze, 251.\\nBunsen burner, 28.\\nexperiments, 109, 110.\\nBurning in air, 39.\\nButane, 292.\\nButyric acid, 303.\\nCalami n, 225.\\nCalcite, 208.\\nCalcium, Cbap. XVIII.\\nacid carbonate, 77.\\ncarbonate, 77, 79,308,213.\\nchlorid, 209.\\nchloro-bypochlorite, 210.\\nchloro-hypochlorite uses, 118.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0276.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n263\\nCalcium, flue-rid, 204.\\nhydroxid, 207.\\nlight, 56.\\noccurrence of, 204.\\noxid, 206.\\nphosphate, 204.\\npreparation and properties, 205.\\nsulfate, 79, 204, 211.\\nCalomel, 233.\\nCaramel, 313.\\nCarat, use of term, 224.\\nCarbon, Chap. XXV.\\nallotropism of, 264.\\namorphous, 267.\\nenergy of combustion, 288-89.\\nin iron, 244-46.\\nkindling temperature, 272.\\noccurrence, 264.\\nproduct of combustion, 269.\\nCarbonates, 189, 195, 201, 208, 225,\\n242, 256, 259, 264, 279.\\nacid, 190, 196.\\ndecomposed, 277.\\nCarbon dioxid, 276-84.\\nchemical properties of, 279.\\ndecomposition of, 43, 282.\\ndiffusion of, 283.\\nfrom baking powders, 197.\\nfrom sodium acid carbonate, 132.\\nin air, 31, 283.\\nin combustion, 280, 288.\\nin fermentation, 312-13.\\nin plant life, 282.\\nin respiration, 283.\\nin ventilation, 284.\\nliquid, 278.\\noccurrence, 276.\\nphysical properties, 278.\\npreparation, 277.\\nsolid, 278.\\nsolubility of, 278.\\ntest for, 277.\\nCarbon disulfid, 13, 134, 142, 143.\\nCarbon monoxid, 285-87.\\na reducing agent, 287.\\nchemical properties, 287.\\ncombustion of, 285.\\nin coal fires, 285.\\nphysical properties, 286.\\npoisoning, 286.\\npreparation, 285.\\nCarbonic acid, test, 373.\\nCast iron, white, 244.\\ngray, 244.\\nCaustic potash, 185.\\nCaustic soda, 193.\\nCement, hydraulic, 239.\\nCementation process, 246.\\nCerusite, 256.\\nChalk, 208.\\nCharcoal, 267-69.\\nanimal, 271.\\nfilters, 79, 269.\\nproperties of, 269.\\nChemical action, 4-12, 21.\\nand detonation, 10.\\nand electricity, 11.\\nand heat, 7.\\nand light, 8.\\nand pressure, 9.\\nsolution aids, 6.\\nand trituration, 12.\\nChemical affinity, 21.\\nchange, 3.\\ncompounds and m, ,al mix-\\nture, 13.\\nenergy, 43.\\nequations, 21.\\nformula?, 15.\\nlaws, 16, 18, 180.\\npurification of water, 79.\\nrelations, Cbap. XVI.\\nsymbols, 14.\\nChemistry, definition, 3.\\ninorganic, 264.\\norganic, 264.\\nChimneys, to extinguish fire in,\\n165.\\nChlorates, 131, 188.\\nChloric acid, 130.\\nChlorid of lime, 118, 210.\\nChlorids, 109, 125.\\nChlorin, 117-21.\\naffinity for hydrogen, 118.\\naffinity for metals, 118.\\nchemical properties, 120.\\noccurrence, 117.\\noxids, 129.\\npreparation, 118.\\nphysical properties, 119.\\nuses, 121.\\nwater, 118.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0277.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "264\\nINDEX\\nChlorin oxyacids, 130.\\npreparation, 131.\\nChlorin family, Chap. XIV.\\nproperty of, 152.\\nChlorophyll, 282.\\nChrome yellow, 259.\\nCider, 310, 312.\\nCinnahar, 230.\\nClark s process of softening, 80.\\nClassification, of acids, 177.\\nof oxids, 101.\\nof salts, 177.\\nClay, common, 240.\\nporcelain, 211.\\nCoal, 308.\\nanthracite, 308.\\nbituminous, 308.\\ndistillation of, 306.\\ngas, 306.\\ngas preparation, 306.\\ngas purification, 306.\\ntar.\\nCobalt sub-group, 360-61.\\nCoke, 307.\\nCold short iron, 244.\\nCombination by volume, 181 (4)\\nCombustible substances, 40.\\nCombustion, Chap. V.\\ncomplete and incomplete, 339.\\nheat of, 41, 42, 58, 288.\\nin hydrogen, 57.\\nof carbon, 288.\\nof hydrogen, 58-59.\\nproducts of, 40, 58.\\nspontaneous, 41.\\nComposition, percentage, 89.\\nby volume, 181.\\nby weight, 85.\\nCompost, ammonia from, 309.\\nCompound, definition of, 1, 2.\\nbinary, 44.\\nConcussion causes chemical action,\\n10.\\nConduction, loss of heat by, 41.\\nCooling flames, effect of, 27 i, 272-7:;.\\nCopper, 220-21.\\ncompounds of, 221.\\nsub-group, 355.\\nCream of tartar, 197.\\nCreosote, 318.\\nCrith, 88.\\nCryolite, 14/3, 235.\\nCrystallization of sulfur, 158.\\nCrystallization, water of, 64.\\nDecay, 317.\\nDecomposition of water, 70, 71.\\nDefinite proportions, law of, 16.\\nDeliquescence, 04.\\nDensity, vapor, 88.\\nand atomic weight, 181.\\nDetonation and chemical action, 10.\\nDextrin in bread, 313.\\nDiamond, 265.\\nDiffusion of gases, 283.\\nDisinfectants, 121.\\nbleaching powder, 118, 210.\\ncharcoal, 269.\\nchlorin, 121.\\nozone, 332.\\nsulfur dioxid, 164.\\nzinc chlorid, 229.\\nDisplacement of air, Exp. 58.\\nDistillation, 305.\\ndestructive, Chap. XXVIII.\\ndry, 305.\\nfractional, 305.\\nnatural, 81, 308.\\nof soft coal, 306.\\nof water, 79.\\nof wood, 208. Exp. 118.\\nsimple chemical, 305.\\nsimple physical, 305.\\nDistilled water, 79.\\nEarthenware, 240.\\nEffervescence in chemical action, 4.\\nEffervescent waters, 75.\\nEfflorescence. 04.\\nElectricity, development of, 4.\\ncauses chemical action, 11.\\nElectrolysis of water. 66.\\nElement, definition, 1. 2.\\nElements, metallic, 104.\\nnon-metallic, 104.\\nEndothermic bodies, 4\\nEndothermic reactions, 43.\\nEnergy, chemical, 4.:.\\nEnzymes, 311.\\nEquations, chemical, 21.\\nvolumetric interpretation of, 181.\\nEtching on glass, 151.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0278.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n265\\nEthene, 297-99.\\noccurrence, 297.\\npreparation, 298.\\nproperties, 299.\\nEtherial salts, 303.\\nEthers, 303.\\nEthine, 300-302.\\npreparation, 301.\\nproperties, 302.\\nEthylene, 297-99.\\nEudiometer tube, 67.\\nExothermic bodies, 43.\\nExothermic reactions, 43.\\nExpansion by heat, 4.\\nExplosion of hydrogen and oxygen,\\n50, 67.\\nExplosion of hydrogen and chlorin,\\n123.\\nExplosion in coal mines, 296.\\nFactors, 21.\\nvolumes of, 181.\\nFats, 303.\\nsaponification of, 304.\\nFatty acids, series of, 303.\\nused in candles, 303.\\nFeldspar, 234, 241.\\nFermentation, Chap. XXIX.\\nacetous, 315.\\nacids formed, 314.\\nalcoholic, 312.\\ndefinition, 310.\\nprevention, 318.\\nFerments, 311.\\nFerric chlorid, 247.\\nFerric disulfid, 249.\\nFerric oxid, 248.\\nFerric salts, 247.\\nsalts, test for, 359.\\nFerroso-ferric oxid, 248.\\nFerroso -ferric sulfid, 249.\\nFerrous chlorid, 247.\\nFerrous oxid, 248.\\nFerrous salts, 247.\\nsalts, test for, 359.\\nFerrous sulfate, 250.\\nFerrous sulfid, 249.\\nFilters, 79, 269.\\nFiltrates, 346.\\nFiltration, 79, 269.\\nin analysis, 346.\\nFire damp, 293-96.\\nFlames, effect of air, 28.\\neffect of cooling, 270, 272, 273.\\nluminosity of, 290.\\noxidizing, 291.\\nreducing, 291.\\nsmoky, 273.\\nstructure, etc., 290-91.\\nFlint glass, 212.\\nFluorin, 146-51.\\nchemical properties, 149.\\noccurrence, 146.\\nphysical properties, 148.\\npreparation, 147.\\nFluorspar, 146.\\nFormula?, 15.\\nFractional distillation, 305.\\nFriction matches, 161, 325.\\nFuels, are endothermic, 43.\\norganic, 275.\\nFurnace, blast, 243.\\nelectric, 235, 266.\\nreverberatory, 195, 246, 252.\\nFusion, in analysis, 345.\\nGalenite, 256.\\nGalvanized iron, 25, 228.\\nGas, illuminating, 306.\\nmarsh, 293.\\nnatural, 293-95.\\ndefiant, 297-99.\\nto find weight of, 88.\\nGases. See Avogaclro s law, 180.\\nGerman silver, 228, 254.\\nGlass, colored, 152.\\netching, 151.\\nmanufacture, 212.\\nGlazes, 240-41.\\nGluten, 313.\\nGlycerin, 304.\\nGold, 222-24.\\nalloys of, 224.\\ncoin, 224, 254.\\noccurrence, 222.\\nproperties, 223.\\nreduction, 222.\\nuses, 224.\\nGraphite, 266.\\nGray cast iron, 244.\\nGreen vitriol, 250.\\nGrouping of the metals, 344=", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0279.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "266\\nINDEX\\nGrowth, 281.\\nGunpowder, 187.\\nGypsum, 211.\\nHalogens, the, 116-52.\\nHard water, 77.\\nsoftening, 80.\\nHartshorn, spirits of, 91.\\nHeat, effect of, 5.\\neffect on solution, 63.\\nevolution in chemical action, 4.\\nevolution in comhination, 43.\\nlatent, 63.\\nloss of in comhination, 43.\\nof combustion, 42.\\nHematite, 242.\\nHot short iron, 244.\\nHydraulic cement, 239.\\nHydrazoic acid, 90, 106.\\nHydriodic acid, 145.\\nHydrobromic acid, 139.\\nHydrocarbons, Chap. XXVII.\\ndefinition, 292.\\nderivatives of the, 303.\\nmarsh gas, series of, 292.\\nHydrochloric acid, 122-28.\\nas reagent, 341-45.\\ncomposition, 126.\\nmanufacture of, 127.\\noccurrence, 122.\\npreparation, 123.\\nproperties, 125.\\nreactions, 124.\\ntest for, 371.\\nuses, 128.\\nHydrofluoric acid, 150.\\naction on glass, 151.\\nHydrogen, Chap. VII.\\nchemical properties, 53.\\ncomparison with oxygen, 54.\\nenergy of combustion, 56, 57.\\nproduct of its combustion, 58.\\noccurrence, 50.\\nphysical properties, 52.\\nprecautions, 50.\\npreparation, 51.\\nunit of weight, 20.\\nuses of, 55-56.\\nvalence of, 178.\\nHydrogen arsenid, 338.\\nHydrogen dioxid, 84.\\nHydrogen dioxid, in salts, 177.\\nHydrogen sodium carbonate, 196.\\nHydrogen sulfid, 166--70.\\nan acid, 168.\\nas reagent, 344.\\noccurrence, 166.\\npreparations, 167.\\nproperties, 168.\\ntest for, 170.\\nuses, 169.\\nHydroxids, 65.\\nHypochlorous acid, 130.\\nHypophosphorous acid, 329.\\nIgnition, temperature of, 41.\\nIlluminating gas, 306.\\nIndelible ink, 218.\\nInorganic chemistry, 264.\\nInorganic substances, 264.\\nInstability of organic things, 274.\\nIodin, 140-45.\\nchemical properties, 143.\\noccurrence, 140.\\nphysical properties, 142.\\npreparation, 141.\\ntest for, 143.\\nuses, 144.\\nIron, Chap. XXII.\\ncast, 244.\\ncompounds of, 247.\\ncompounds of, with oxvsren,\\n248.\\ncompounds of, with sulfur, 249.\\neffect of air on, 24.\\nextraction from ores, 243.\\ngalvanized, 199-228.\\ngray cast, 244.\\noccurrence of, 242.\\npig, 244.\\npuddling of, 245.\\nsub-group, 359.\\nsmelting, 243.\\nsulfates, 250.\\nways of protecting, 25.\\nwhite cast, 244.\\nwrought, 245.\\nIsomeric compounds, 310.\\nIsomerism, 337.\\nKaolin, 241.\\nKindling temperature, 41.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0280.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n267\\nLampblack, 270.\\nLamp flames, 290.\\nLaughing gas, 111.\\nLaw, of Avogadro, 180.\\nof definite proportions, 16.\\nof multiple proportion, 18.\\nLead, 256-59.\\nchromate, 259.\\ncompounds, 259.\\noccurrence, 256.\\nproperties, 258.\\nreduction of, 257.\\nuses, 258.\\nLeblanc process, 195.\\nLife processes, 282.\\nLight, in chemical action, 8.\\nLime. See Calcium.\\nLitmus, 70.\\nLuminosity of flames, 290.\\nMarsh gas, 293.\\nMarsh s test for arsenic, 338.\\nMatches, parlor, 325.\\nsafety, 325.\\nsulfur, 161.\\nMatter, conservation of, 5.\\nconstitution of, 2.\\nMercury, 230-33.\\nalloys of, 231.\\ncompounds, 233.\\nis monatomic, 181.\\noccurrence, 230.\\npreparation, 230.\\nproperties, 231.\\nrust, 27.\\nuses, 232.\\nMeta-arsenites, 337.\\nMetal, 105.\\nbell, 254.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Britannia, 254.\\nMetals, the alkali, Chap. XVII.\\neffect of air on, 23-27.\\ndecompose water, 70.\\ngrouping by reagents, 344.\\nMetals, qualitative, analysis\\nChap. XXXII.\\nFirst group, 349-51.\\nanalysis of, 351.\\nprecipitation of, 349.\\nseparation of, 350.\\nSecond group, 352-56.\\nof,\\nMetals\\nSecond group,\\nprecipitation of, 352.\\nsub-groups, 353, 354.\\nseparation of copper sub-group,\\n355.\\nseparation of tin sub-group, 356.\\nThird group, 357-63.\\nprecipitation, iron sub-group,\\n358.\\nseparation, iron sub-group, 359.\\nprecipitation, cobalt sub-group,\\n360.\\nseparation, cobalt sub-group,\\n361.\\nprecipitation, presence of phos-\\nphates, 362.\\nseparation, presence of phos-\\nphates, 363.\\nFourth group, 364-67.\\nprecipitation, 364.\\nseparation, 365.\\nFifth group, 366-67.\\nMetalloids, 335.\\nMetaphosphoric acid, 329.\\nMetathesis, 22.\\nMethane, 293-96.\\nin coal mines, 296.\\noccurrence, 293.\\npreparation, 294.\\nproperties, 294.\\nuses, 295.\\nMicrocrith, 20.\\nMicrocosmic salt, 330.\\nMolecular weight, 85.\\nrelation to vapor density, 181.\\nMolecule, definition, 2.\\nrelation to atom, 181.\\nMortar, 213.\\nMosaic gold, 255.\\nMouth blowpipe, 291.\\nNascent state, 179.\\nNatural gas, 293-95.\\nNessler s test, 82.\\nNitre pots, 174.\\nNitric acid, 98-103.\\nchemical properties, 102.\\noccurrence, 98.\\nphysical properties, 101.\\npreparation, 99.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0281.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "268\\nINDEX\\nNitric acid, reaction, 100.\\nas reagent, 341, 345.\\ntest for, 372.\\nuses, 103, 172, 173.\\nNitric oxid, 113, 115.\\nNitrogen, Chap. VI.\\nin air, 30, 33.\\nchemical properties, 49.\\noccurrence, 46.\\nphysical properties, 48\u00c2\u00bb\\npreparation, 47.\\nNitrogen dioxid, 113.\\nNitrogen monoxid, 111-12.\\nNitrogen peroxid (tetroxid), 114-\\n15.\\nNitroglycerin, 46, 49.\\nNomenclature, of acids, 107.\\nof oxids, 44.\\nof salts, 109.\\nNon-metallic elements, 104.\\nNon-metallic oxids, 104.\\nNormal salts, 177.\\nNormal temperature and pressure,\\n88.\\nOlefiant gas, 297-99.\\nOrganic chemistry, 264.\\nOrganic substances, 264.\\nOrganic substances as fuels, 275.\\nOrganic substances unstable, 274.\\nOrtho-arsenites, 337.\\nOrthophosphoric acid, 329.\\nOxidation, 73.\\nin rust, 26.\\nof fuels, 43.\\nOxids, metallic and non-metallic,\\n104.\\nnomenclature, 44.\\noccurrence of, 45.\\nof nitrogen, 110-15.\\nof phosphorus, 326-28.\\nOxygen, Chap. IV.\\nchemical properties, 37.\\neffect on combustion, 39, 40, 43.\\nin air, 27.\\noccurrence of, 35.\\nphysical properties, 36.\\npreparation of, 34.\\ntest for, 34.\\nuses, 38.\\nOxy hydrogen blowpipe, 56.\\nOzone, 331-32.\\nPalmitic acid, 303.\\nParis green, 337.\\nPattinson process, 216.\\nPearl-ash, 189.\\nPeat, 308.\\nPepsin, 311.\\nPercentage composition, 89.\\nPerchloric acid, 130.\\nPerry, 312.\\nPhosphates, acid, 330.\\ndouble, 330.\\nnormal, 330.\\nprimary, 330.\\nprecipitation in third group, 362.\\nseparation in third group, 363.\\ntest for, 357.\\nPhosphorescence, 322.\\nPhosphoric acid, 329-30.\\nmetaphosphoric acid, 329.\\npyrophosphoric acid, 329.\\northophosphoric acid, 329.\\ntribasic acid, 330.\\nPhosphorus, Chap. XXX.\\nacid, 329.\\nallotropism of, 331.\\nchemical properties, 322.\\nin iron, 244.\\noccurrence, 319.\\noxids, 326-28.\\noxyacids, 329.\\npentoxid, 328.\\nphysical properties, 321.\\npreparation, 320.\\nred, 323-24.\\nsolution of, 321.\\ntrioxid, 327.\\nuses, 325.\\nvapor density of, 181.\\nPhotography, 219.\\nPbysical change, 3.\\nPig iron, 243-44.\\nvarieties of, 244.\\nPlants, life processes, 282.\\nPlaster of paris, I ll.\\nPlastering, hardening of, 213.\\nPlatinic chlorid, 367.\\nPlatinum, Chap. XXIV.\\noccurrence, 260.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0282.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n269\\nPlatinum, preparation, 261.\\nproperties, 262.\\nuses, 263.\\nPlumbago (graphite), 266.\\nPolymerism, 337.\\nPorcelain, 241.\\nPorosity, effect on fuels, 41.\\nPotash, 189.\\nPotassium, 182-90.\\nacid carbonate, 190.\\nalum, 238.\\ncarbonate, 189.\\nchlorate, 188.\\nhydroxid, 185.\\noccurrence, 183.\\npreparation, 184.\\nproperties, 184.\\nPotassium nitrate, 186.\\nPrecipitates, 343.\\nwashing of, 347.\\nPreservation agents, 318.\\nPressure in chemical action, 9.\\nProduct, 21.\\nvolume of, 181.\\nProportion, constant laws of, 17.\\nmultiple laws of, 19.\\nPuddling, 245.\\nPurification, of air, 283.\\nof water, 79-81.\\nPutrefaction, 317.\\nPyro-arsenites, 337.\\nPyrogallic acid, 30.\\nPyrophosphoric acid, 329.\\nQualitative analysis, Chap. XXXII.\\nQuantivalence, 178.\\nQuicklime, 206.\\nQuicksilver, 231.\\nRadicals, 96.\\nReaction, 16.\\nacid, 70.\\nalkaline, 70.\\nReagents, 16.\\nin qualitative analysis, 341.\\nRealgar, 333.\\nReducing agent, 73.\\nReducing flame, 291.\\nReduction, 73.\\nReverberatory furnace, 245.\\nRouge, jewellers 248.\\nRuby, 234.\\nRust, formation of, 23, 27.\\neffect of, on weight, 26.\\nSafety lamps, 41, 296.\\nSafety matches, 325.\\nSal ammoniac, 199.\\nSaleratus, 190.\\nSalt, common, 194.\\nSaltpetre, 98, 140, 186.\\nSalts, acid, 177.\\ndefinition, 105.\\nnaming, 109.\\nSalts, normal, 177.\\nof radicals, 303.\\nSand filters, 79.\\nSaponification, 304.\\nSapphire, 234.\\nScheele s green, 338.\\nSchweinfurt green, 338.\\nSedimentation, 81.\\nSeries, acetylene, 292.\\nethylene, 292.\\nmarsh gas, 292.\\nShot, arsenic in, 335.\\nsilicates, 240-tl.\\nSilicates in glass, 212.\\nSilver, 214-19.\\ncoin, 254.\\nextraction from ores, 216.\\nin photography, 219.\\nnitrate, 218.\\noccurrence, 214.\\nproperties, 215.\\nseparation of, from lead, 216.\\nuses, 217.\\nSlag, 243.\\nSmelling salts, 201.\\nSoap, 301.\\nSoda, 196.\\nbaking, 196.\\nbicarbonate of, 196.\\ncaustic, 193.\\nwashing, 195.\\nSoda-ash, 195.\\nSoda water, 278.\\nSodium, 191-96.\\nacid carbonate, 196.\\nas reagent, 341.\\nbicarbonate, 196.\\ncarbonate, 195,", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0283.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "270\\nINDEX\\nSodium, chlorid, 194.\\nhydroxid, 193.\\nnitrate, 140.\\noccurrence, 191.\\npreparation, 192.\\nproperties, 192.\\nSolder, 254.\\nSoldering, use of ammonia, chlorid\\nin, 199.\\nuse of zinc, chlorid in, 229.\\nSolution, chemical, 62.\\ndefinition, 62.\\neffect of, 5.\\nSolution, effect of heat on, 63.\\nphysical, 62.\\nsaturated, 62.\\nSolutions, how prepared, 340.\\nSolvay process, 195.\\nSpecific gravity, 88.\\nstandard of, 61.\\nSpecific gravity of fuels, 41.\\nSpecific heat, standard, 61.\\nSpontaneous combustion, 41-A2.\\nSprings, mineral, 75.\\nStalactites, 279.\\nStarch, blue by iodin, 143.\\nState, change of, 4.\\nnascent, 179.\\nStearic acid, 303.\\nSteel, 246.\\nStove polish, 266.\\nStructure of flames, 290.\\nSub-groups, 353-61.\\nSulfates, 250.\\nSulfids, test for, 170.\\nSulfur, Chap. XV.\\nallotropism of, 158.\\namorphous, 158.\\nbehavior when heated, 157.\\ncrystallization of, 158.\\nextraction of, 154.\\nflowers of, 155.\\nkindling temperature of, 41, 161.\\nmatches, 161.\\nmilk of, 156.\\noccurrence of, 153.\\nproperties of, 159.\\nrefining of, 155.\\nuses of, 160.\\nSulfur dioxid, 162-65.\\noccurrence, 162.\\nSulfur dioxid, preparation, 163.\\nproperties, 164.\\nuses, 165.\\nSulfuric acid, 171-76.\\nas reagent, 341.\\nmanufacture of, 174.\\noccurrence, 171.\\npreparation of, 172.\\nproperties, 175.\\nreactions in, 173.\\ntest for, 370.\\nuses of, 176.\\nSupporters of combustion, 37, 57.\\nSymbols, 14.\\nSympathetic ink, 64.\\nSynthesis, 22.\\nTemperature, kindling, 41.\\nTemperatures, standard, 61.\\nTerminations ous and ic, 44, 107.\\nTerne plate, 253.\\nThermal relations of chemical\\nchanges, 43.\\nTile, 240.\\nTin, 251-55.\\nalloys of, 254.\\ncompounds, 255.\\noccurrence, 251.\\nplate, 253.\\nproperties, 253.\\nreduction, 252.\\nsub-group (analysis) 356.\\nTinned iron, 253.\\nTin salts, 255.\\nTravertine, 279.\\nTrituration in chemical action, 12.\\nValence, theory of, 178.\\nVapor density, 88.\\ntable, 181.\\nVentilation, 284.\\nVinegar, 316.\\nmother of, 316.\\nprevent fermentation, 318.\\nVitriol, blue, 221.\\ngreen, 250.\\noil of, 171-76.\\nVolume, change of, 4.\\nrelation to density, ISO.\\nrelation to molecular weight, 1*1.\\nVolumetric relations, 181.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0284.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n271\\nWashing soda, 195.\\nWater, analysis of, 66.\\nas a solvent, 02-63.\\nby hot oxid process, 68.\\nchemistry of, Chap. Tin.\\ncomposition of, 66, 69.\\ndecomposed by electricity, 70.\\ndecomposed by metals, 70-71.\\ndissolves air, 33.\\ndistilled, 79.\\neffervescent, 75.\\nelectrolysis of, 66.\\nformed by combustion, 59.\\nhard, 77.\\nhov^ removed, 79.\\nimpurities in, 74.\\nin analysis, 315.\\nmineral, 71-75.\\noccurrence, 60.\\nof crystallization, 61.\\norganic impurities in, 82.\\npotable, 78.\\nproperties, 61.\\npurification of, 79, 81.\\npurity of natural, 71.\\nriver, 76.\\nsoda, 278.\\nsoftening, 80.\\nspring, 75.\\nstandard of specific gravity, 61.\\nstandard of specific heat, 61.\\nWater, synthesis of, 67=\\ntemperatures of, 61.\\ntests for impurities, 82-83.\\nWater gas, 72.\\nWaters, effervescent, 75.\\nchalybeate, 75.\\nnatural, 71.\\nsulfur, 75.\\nWeight, composition by, 85-87.\\nloss of, by combustion, 29.\\nof gas, 88.\\nWeights, atomic, 20.\\ncombining, 17.\\nWet process of analysis, 3H-73.\\nWhiskey, 312.\\nWhite arsenic, 337.\\nWhite cast iron, 211.\\nWhite lead, 259.\\nWines, 312.\\nWire gauze, 11, 199.\\nWood, distillation of, 268, 306.\\nWrought iron, 215.\\nZinc, 225-29.\\naction of acids on, 50.\\nalloys of, 228, 251.\\ncompounds of, 229.\\noccurrence, 225.\\npreparation, 226.\\nproperties, 227.\\nuses, 228.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0285.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0286.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "An Introductory Course of Quantitative\\nChemical Analysis\\nWITH EXPLANATORY NOTES AND STOICHIOMETRICAL PROBLEMS\\nBY\\nHENRY P. TALBOT, Ph.D.\\nProfessor of Analytical Chemistry in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology\\nThird Edition. Revised and Enlarged\\n8vo. Cloth, pp. 153. Price, $1.50, net\\nIt is an excellent work, carefully prepared, and on a plan that will supply a want\\nin teaching quantitative analysis. Prof. C. F. Mabery, Case School of Applied\\nScience.\\nWe find in Professor Talbot s Introductory Course of Chemical Quantitative\\nAnalysis something more than a book for local use. There is an idea running through\\nit that is more or less new in books of this kind, and one which instructors will heartily\\nwelcome. There is an attempt to give the student not only the important and essential\\nthings which he should know in special cases, but what is of more importance, so to\\ndirect his thoughts toward his work that he shall grasp the fundamental ideas governing\\nchemical analysis. In other words, the directions and explanations are such as the\\nthoughtful and conscientious teacher would give to his pupil in the laboratory in endeav-\\noring to make him think for himself intelligently. T. M. Drown, President Lehigh\\nUniversity, in the Journal of the American Chemical Society.\\nQualitative Chemical Analysis\\nBY\\nARTHUR A. NOYES, Ph.D.\\nAssistant Professor of Chemistry in the Massachusetts Institute of Tech?iology\\n8vo. Cloth. $1.25, net\\nHaving used the principal methods embodied in this work for more than twenty\\nyears, I can assert that they will give satisfactory results in teaching qualitative analysis\\nwith large as well as with small classes. The arrangement is excellent. Prof. C. F.\\nMabery, Case School of Applied Science.\\nThis book we have used here for two years, and shall continue to do so indefinitely;\\nsince it was eminently satisfactory before, and is more so in its revised form. Herbert\\nR. Morley, Gilbert School, Winsted, Ct.\\nI have used this work to some extent, and as a practical treatise on analytical\\nchemistry find it to excel in just those points where other books of its kind usually fail,\\nviz., in indicating precise methods of procedure as well as giving the rationale of the\\nprocess employed. Dr. W. H. Higbee, Hamilton College.\\nIt is the sort of manual I have been looking for. for use in my class, and I expect to\\ngive it a trial next year. Prof. W. P. Bradley, Wesleyan University.\\nTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY\\n66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0287.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "OUTLINES\\nINDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY.\\nA TEXT-BOOK FOR STUDENTS.\\nBy FRANK HALL THORPE, Ph.D.,\\nInstructor in Industrial Chemistry in the Massachusetts Institute\\nof Technology.\\nCloth. 8vo. Price $3.50.\\nEducation The result is a text -book that will become a stand-\\nard for use in colleges and technical schools.\\nScientific American We have long waited for a modern book\\non this subject which would be strictly scientific, but which would also\\ngive in plain, intelligible language the modern processes for making\\nof various chemicals and information relating to the carrying on of\\nvarious chemical industries. The need of a thoroughly modern\\nbook in English on the subject has been very pronounced, and we\\nare happy to say that at last we have a book which, while possibly\\nnot ideal, fills nearly all the conditions of a book of this kind.\\nThe author has taken an extremely heterogeneous collection of\\nmaterial, and has assorted and combined it with rare judgment.\\nThe result is immensely satisfactory, which will place the book\\namong our standard works of reference.\\nJournal of Education This treatise is all that the Massachu-\\nsetts Institute of Technology stands for in scholarship, in science,\\nand in laboratory ideals. It is what the student seeks who would\\nmaster the elements of industrial chemistry, is all that the teacher\\ncan ask, and meets the ideal of the specialist.\\nTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY,\\n66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0288.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0289.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0290.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0291.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "w\\nSo CP\\n^o\\nQ*\\nv\\n1%^ -X^\\nv v. oJ v\\nQ-\\n\\\\v\\n^O*\\ny\\nf\\nA i\\nrf\\ni\\\\v-\\n^l", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0292.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "0^\\nv\\na\\n\u00c2\u00ab5\\n.1 \u00c2\u00abv\\nv\\nv\\nu*\\n\\\\V", "height": "3555", "width": "2161", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0293.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3672", "width": "2234", "jp2-path": "elementarychemis00arey_0294.jp2"}}