{"1": {"fulltext": "nil i\\nM:v\\\\\\ni\\ni^ ii\\nhiM- i i iii\\nifi!i! iii", "height": "3849", "width": "2561", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\ns-e\\nChap,...:.^.rTJopyright 0t.\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "The\\nFoundations of English\\nLiterature\\nA Study of the Development of\\nEnglish Thought and Expression\\nfrom Beowulf to Milton\\nBy\\nFred Lewis Pattee\\nProfessor of English and Rhetoric in the Pennsylvania\\nState College\\nSilver, Burdett and Company\\nBoston New York Chicago", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "f T i u of t -1 -J\\nRegister of Copyrl^shfj^\\n48645\\nCopyright, i8gg\\nBy\\nSilver, Burdett and Company\\nSECOND COPY,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "PREFACE\\nTHE object of this book is to present a careful study\\nof the origins of English literature, and to trace its\\ndevelopment up to the time when it assumed its perma-\\nnent form. The author has attempted to show that the\\nliterature of England has been a gradual growth that it\\nhas flowed out of the national life and is inseparably in-\\ntertwined with the national history that its develop-\\nment has been constant and consecutive from the very\\nfirst, and that it commences not with Chaucer but with\\nthe primal poetry. The accumulation of a mass of names\\nand dates, of biographical matter and encyclopaedic in-\\nformation, has not been attempted. All writers who were\\nnot materially concerned in the evolution of the literature\\nhave been omitted. The book is not a storehouse of\\nfacts its aim is rather to clear away the confusing\\nmass of details which has grown up about the subject and\\nto expose the main outlines, to trace causes and effects,\\nand to show that no author and no period exist as\\nisolated phenomena, but that they are merely natural\\nresults of previous conditions.\\nAn attempt has been made to study the growth of the\\nEnglish spirit and to weigh all influences that have\\nprominently affected it in any way. The civil and re-\\nligious history of England has been kept constantly in\\nview. The spirit of the age, the condition and the tem-\\nper of all classes of the people, the gradual development\\nof new ideals and of new institutions, the various influ-\\nences that have come from other lands to mold and to", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "4 Preface\\nmodify the native characteristics, have all been carefully\\nnoted at every step of the work.\\nThe author believes that there is no other way to\\nunderstand fully the literature arid the intellectual life of\\na people; nor is he alone in this view. There is no\\ngreater desideratum in our literature at present, says a\\nrecent English critic, than a complete and able account\\nof the history of English literature in which the connec-\\ntion between the literary and political history of our\\ncountry shall be fully dealt with. While the author of\\nthis book does not for an instant presume to assert that it\\nis the work demanded above, he does maintain that it is\\nwritten from the right standpoint. It has attempted to\\ncover only the foundation period it closes with the\\ngreat era of Shakespeare and Milton, when the language\\nand the literature and the people had settled into their\\npermanent forms. The whole subject of English litera-\\nture is too large to be covered in a single session it is\\nbetter to study it by periods, and the foundation period\\nis the first well rounded unity.\\nIn the words of Saintsbury, None but a charlatan\\nwill pretend that he has written, and none but a very\\nunreasonable person will expect any one else to write, a\\nhistory of the kind free from blunders. The author will\\nesteem it a favor if all who detect errors will communicate\\nthem to him. An attempt has been made to base all\\nfacts upon reliable authorities. The chronology has been\\nfounded as far as possible upon Ryland s Chronological\\nOutlines^ and upon Green s Short History the biographi-\\ncal data have been taken in each case from the most recent\\nauthorities, and quotations and estimates have been based\\nupon the latest reprints and editions. The sincere thanks\\nof the author are due to Mr. A. H. Espenshade, of the\\nEnglish department of the Pennsylvania State College,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "Preface 5\\nfor help upon the proof and for valuable suggestions.\\nAcknowledgments are also due to Jno: Lesslie Hall for\\nextracts from his translation of Beowulf and to Charles\\nScribner s Sons; G. P. Putnam s Sons; Ginn Co.;\\nLongmans, Green Co. Cassell Co. Houghton,\\nMifflin Co. Harper Brothers, and others for per-\\nmission to make brief quotations from their publications.\\nF. L. P.\\nState College, Pa.,\\nSeptember, 1S99.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\n[See general index at the end of the volume]\\nPAGE\\nBibliographical Note 8\\nCHAPTER I\\nThe Physical Geography of Britain .11\\nCHAPTER II\\nPre- English Britain 16\\nCHAPTER III\\nThe Primitive Englishman 23\\nCHAPTER IV\\nAnglo-Saxon Britain 30\\nCHAPTER V\\nAnglo-Saxon Literature, 1 40\\nCHAPTER VI\\nAnglo-Saxon Literature, II 60\\nCHAPTER VII\\nNorman England 84\\nCHAPTER VIII\\nAnglo-Norman Literature 96\\nCHAPTER IX\\nThe Age of Chaucer, I. 105\\nCHAPTER X\\nThe Age of Chaucer, II 118", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "Contents 7\\nVAGS\\nCHAPTER XI\\nThe Century of Darkness 137\\nCHAPTER XII\\nThe Age of the Renaissance 153\\nCHAPTER XIII\\nThe Renaissance of English Prose 168\\nCHAPTER XIV\\nThe Dawn of Lyric Poetry 187\\nCHAPTER XV\\nThe Evolution of the Drama 200\\nCHAPTER XVI\\nThe Age of Elizabeth 213\\nCHAPTER XVII\\nSidney and Spenser 225\\nCHAPTER XVIII\\nThe Elizabethan and Jacobean Poets 247\\nCHAPTER XIX\\nThe Transition to Finished Prose 267\\nCHAPTER XX\\nThe Transition to Shakespeare 281\\nCHAPTER XXI\\nShakespeare 298\\nCHAPTER XXII\\nBen Jonson and his Circle 318\\nCHAPTER XXIII\\nThe Decline of the Drama 336\\nCHAPTER XXIV\\nThe Triumph of Prose 352\\nCHAPTER XXV\\nThe Age of Milton 372", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE\\nEVERY careful teacher of literary history has realized\\nkeenly the truth of Ten Brink s remark that the\\nbeginner needs a guide in the labyrinth of literature about\\nliterature. Such a wilderness of criticism and commen-\\ntary, of history and biography, of description and con-\\njecture has grown up about the subject of English\\nliterature that even the most experienced worker is often\\nbewildered. It is to furnish some clue to this labyrinth\\nthat a select list of authorities has been prefixed to every\\nchapter and division of this book.\\nThere has been no attempt at exhaustive bibliographies.\\nThe practical value of every reference has been carefully\\nconsidered, as well from the standpoints of the availabil-\\nity of the book referred to and its adaptation to the needs\\nof beginners, as from that of absolute worth. Often the\\nhighest authorities on a subject, the works that alone\\nwould interest the special student, have not been men-\\ntioned at all. The publications of the Early English Text\\nSociety, for instance, of the Chaucer and Shakespeare\\nSocieties and kindred organizations, the issues of the\\nMaster of the Rolls, and the costly reprints of old books,\\nalthough of untold value to the specialist, have, for ob-\\nvious reasons, been omitted. The student, if he needs\\nthem, can find them in the large libraries.\\nAnother group of authorities that has been neglected\\nis that list of indispensable reference works that every\\nstudent of English literature should have constantly", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "Bibliographical Note 9\\nwithin reach. The minimum list of such helps should\\ncontain these indispensable works\\nThe Encyclopcedia Britannica.\\nThe Library of British Biography.\\nAllibone s Dictioitary of Authors,\\nRyland s Chronological Outlines of English Literature,\\nMorley s English Writers,\\nTen Brink s English Literature (Earliest Times to\\nSurrey).\\nMinto s Characteristics of the English Poets,\\nManual of English Prose Literature,\\nWard s English Poets.\\nCraik s Eyiglish Prose.\\nGreen s Short History of the English People,\\nTrail s Social England,\\nTaine s English Literature should be within easy reach,\\nbut it must be read with caution, it is intoxicating.\\nThe student should constantly remember that the text-\\nbook is simply a guide, and that he should in every case\\nconsult as many authorities upon every topic as his time\\nand opportunities will allow.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "The Foundations of English\\nLiterature\\nCHAPTER I\\nTHE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF BRITAIN\\nThe Element of Insularity. Britain, says Shake-\\nspeare in Cymbeliney is a world by itself. It stands,\\nhe says.\\nAs Neptune s park, ribbed and paled in\\nWith rocks unscalable and roaring waters.\\nAgain he alludes to it m Richard 11. as\\nThis fortress built by Nature for herself\\nAgainst infection and the hand of war.\\nThis happy breed of men, this little world,\\nThis precious stone set in the silver sea,\\n\\\\Vhich serves it in the office of a wall\\nOr as a moat defensive to a house,\\nAgainst the envy of less happier lands,\\nThis blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.\\ni. This fact of the insularity of Britain has been the\\ndominating element in its history. Although the Strait\\nof Dover at its narrowest point is only twenty miles in\\nwidth, it formed for centuries an almost impassable bar-\\nrier between the island and the continent. No rougher\\nand more treacherous body of water than this strait and", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "12 The Foundations of English Literature\\nInsularity of Britain Its Size and Contour\\nthe adjacent seas can anywhere be found. The tides in\\nplaces rise more than twenty-five feet, and they sweep\\nwith fury through the Channel. The North Sea, every-\\nwhere shallow and full of reefs, is subject to sudden\\ntempests, the terror of seamen. When Caesar attempted\\nthe subjugation of Britain, one of these storms swept\\naway his transports, ancj a little later a high tide, to-\\ngether with a sudden tempest, shattered the greater part\\nof his fleet. Any force save a Roman one under a gen-\\neral Hke Caesar would have been destroyed by such a\\ndisaster. The second expedition was delayed three\\nweeks by fierce winds, and after it had reached Britain\\nforty transports were wrecked by a sudden gale. When\\nClaudius had determined upon the conquest of the island\\nhe found the Roman army in a state of mutiny. For a\\ntime it utterly refused to invade a. land protected by such\\nfierce and treacherous seas, i\\nThis insularity of Britain, keeping it free during its\\nearly history from a mixing of foreign elements, has\\nallowed it to evolve a strongly marked individuality, un-\\nlike that of any other nation of Europe. From the Eng-\\nlish conquest to the Norman, a period of six centuries,\\nBritain received, with one striking exception, the intro-\\nduction of Christianity, almost nothing from across the\\nChannel. While all Europe was a kaleidoscope of shift-\\ning boundaries, mixing races, changing institutions and\\ntongues, England was working out its problem practically\\nalone, almost as if it were an island in the unknown Pacific.\\nSize and Contour. (Milner, The British Islands.^\\nThe area of Britain, when compared with that of the other\\ngreat powers, is almost insignificant. England alone is\\nsmaller than the single State of North Carolina; com-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "The Physical Geography of Britain 13\\nDominated by the Sea The English Landscape\\nbined with Wales it is somewhat larger than the States of\\nNew York and New Jersey. In shape the island is like\\na distorted pear, or an irregular triangle with a base of\\n320 miles and an altitude of some 560 miles. Its contour\\nis remarkable. The sea not only girdles it but indents\\nit with numberless bays and estuaries which give to the\\nisland a coast-line three times as long in proportion to\\nthe land surface as that of any other nation of Europe.\\nThere is no spot on the entire island more than one\\nhundred miles from tide-water. The island was made\\nby nature for the home of ships; an eyrie for the sea\\neagles, for the rulers of the Atlantic. The storm-beaten\\nseas about it, fierce and treacherous, have been the train-\\ning-school for the sailors of the world.\\nThe estuaries of Britain played an important part\\nduring the conquests. They admitted the enemy s ships\\ninto the very heart of the island. They were the cause,\\ntoo, of some of the earlier subdivisions. Draw a line\\nbetween the Friths of Forth and Clyde, another from the\\nHumber to the Mersey, and a third from the Thames to\\nthe mouth of the Severn, and you will indicate in a rough\\nway the boundaries of the three rival kingdoms of North-\\numbria, Mercia, and Wessex.\\nThe English Landscape. From the eastern shore, which\\nin early years was lined with broad marshes, covered at\\nlow tide but now rescued from the sea, the land gradu-\\nally rises with a pleasant alternation of valley and hill,\\nuntil it culminates in a low mountain chain extending\\nthe entire length of the western coast. These moun-\\ntains, which in Scotland and Wales become wild and\\nbroken, account for a great part of the present race dis-\\ntribution. The territory north of the Friths was never", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "14 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe English Glebe A Manly Climate\\npermanently conquered even by Rome, nor were the\\nWelsh ever dislodged from the mountains of the western\\nborder. To this day the people of Scotland, Wales, and\\nCornwall are prevailingly Celtic.\\nModern England is a garden; hedgerows cover it as\\nwith a net almost every acre of it is utilized. The soil\\nhas had its own influence upon the molding of the Eng-\\nlish mind. It brings forth abundantly, but success comes\\nonly through skill, and watchfulness, and resolute toil.\\nIt repays what is expended upon it, but it lavishes no\\nunearned gifts. Wrestling for centuries with such a glebe\\nhas bred in the English yeoman that dogged perseverance,\\nthat ability to do hard work long continued, that frugality\\nand hard-headed sagacity which to-day form such con-\\nspicuous elements in his character.\\nA Manly Climate. The British Isles lie in almost\\nthe same latitude as Labrador, yet, owing to the warm\\ncurrent of the Gulf Stream, the climate is more like that\\nof the Southern Middle States of America, Proximity\\nto the sea assures abundant moisture. It rains sometimes\\nfor weeks at a time, and dense fogs, especially in winter,\\ndrift in from the ocean. This element of fog and rain has\\nbeen carried to an extreme by Taine, who saw in it an\\nexplanation for much of the gloom and the seriousness\\nof the English character. But, taken for all in all, few\\ncountries in the world have a more manly climate.\\nIt is seldom warm enough to be enervating; it has no\\nsharp extremes it invites constantly to vigorous and ex-\\nhilarating exercise in the open air. In the words of one\\nof the English kings, There is no other country where\\noutdoor exertion may be taken for so many days in the\\nyear, and for so many hours in the day. The Eng-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "The Physical Geography of Britain 15\\nThe Element of Environment The English People\\nlish have always been a robust race, with large and\\npowerful bodies, with enormous appetites great fighters\\nand hunters, ready for anything that has in it a spice\\nof danger and of hardship.\\nThis Element of Environment must be kept constantly\\nin mind as we study the intellectual life and the literature\\nof England. The insularity of Britain has led inevitably\\nto an insular view of life. The Englishman is self-satis-\\nfied, liable to violent prejudices, intolerant, overbearing.\\nBorn within sound of the sea, he easily becomes a mariner.\\nHe has deep in his soul the vague longing, the feeling of\\nmystery, the sadness, which a life by the ocean always\\nbrings. His struggle with a stubborn soil has made him\\nobstinate, industrious, a man of immense recoil. He has\\nbeen a healthy man with a perfect digestion, and we find\\nthat his view of life, while often gloomy, is seldom mor-\\nbid and jaundiced. His writings are prevailingly sane\\nand wholesome. They abound in a flow of healthy\\nanimal spirits, they are intensely human everywhere are\\nexpressed a love of action, a sense of freedom, a fierce\\nintolerance of oppression. The long residence of the\\nEnglish in their narrow island and in an earlier home\\nwhich resembled it in many respects, has given them a\\nmarked individuality. It is hard to find a people more\\ncompletely the product of its environment.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II\\nPRE-ENGLISH BRITAIN\\nCOMPARED with most of the other nations of\\nEurope, England has had a short history. The\\nisland first emerges from the mists of fable and conjecture\\nabout the time of the Christian Era. The year 55 B.C.,\\nwhen Caesar first tried to add it to the Roman Empire, is\\nthe earliest authentic date. It was then peopled by Celts,\\nand as this race became an important element in the\\nformation of the English people, we will take a swift\\nglance at their more marked characteristics.\\nThe Celts. (Rhys, Celtic Britain Skene, Celtic Scot-\\nland Morley, English Writers, I. Matthew Arnold,\\nCeltic Literature Wright, The Celt, the Roman, and the\\nSaxon; Azarius, Development of Old English Thought.)\\nAs described by the Roman historians, who are almost\\nour only authorities, the primitive Britons, while mainly\\nof Celtic blood, were by no means a homogeneous people,\\nwith unvarying physical characteristics, as were the early\\nAngles and Saxons. Two main branches have been\\nrecognized the Gaels, who included the Irish and the\\nScottish Highlanders, and the Cymry, or Welsh, of whom\\nthere were at least seven widely different tribes. These\\ndivisions account for the civil strife which was the curse\\nof the Celt as it was afterwards of the Teuton. Petty\\njealousies and feuds kept the flames of war ever burning;\\neven when threatened with extermination by the Roman\\n16", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "Pre-English Britain 17\\nCeltic Traits Celtic Literature\\nand the Saxon, the Welsh could not unite forces, and\\neach invaded section fought its fight alone.\\nThe individuality of these Celtic Britons was as marked\\nand persistent as was that of the Teutons, their neigh-\\nbors across the North Sea. The two races were in many-\\nways supplements of each other. The Teutons were\\nstolid, undemonstrative, and serious. They were not\\nquick to anger, but when once aroused their wrath was\\nimplacable. They could bide their time; they were\\ntenacious of purpose, and not easily discouraged. They\\nwere fatalists their view of life was dark and cheerless.\\nThe Celts, however, were vivacious and imaginative.\\nBrave even to recklessness, they were unstable and easily\\ndiscouraged. When injured, says Tacitus, their\\nresentment is quick, sudden, and impatient but they\\nharbored no lasting resentments. They were sanguine\\nand confident, yet their ardor soon cooled. Time and\\nagain during the conquest they failed because they\\nneglected to follow up an advantage. They were a light-\\nhearted people: the word fun is one of the few addi-\\ntions that they have made to our vocabulary. They\\nwere singularly sensitive to things of beauty. Music es-\\npecially dehghted them the harp to this day is the\\nemblem of Ireland. Their religion, while cruel and re-\\nvolting in some of its phases, was full of poetry and\\nmysticism, and was peculiarly fitted to impress the im-\\nagination. In literature the Celts had made considerable\\nadvances even before the English conquest. Their ritual,\\nwhich perished with the Druids, was in itself a literature.\\nWhile the Teutons were shouting wild songs of battle and\\nbooty, the Celts were weaving prose romances of love and\\nfairy-land, of Arthur and Merlin, and making a literature", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "1 8 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Celt and the Teuton Caesar s Conquest\\nSO full of beauty and of true creative energy that it has\\nbeen the inspiration of all the great English poets of later\\ndays. Thus the Celtic element has had a marked influ-\\nence upon the formation of the English character. With-\\nout it England might have become another Holland,\\nstolid, industrious, ponderous, serious, without humor\\nor fancy.\\nIn temperament, manner of thought, and mode of expression, no two\\npeoples could better present a type of permanent contrast, or preserve those\\nidiosyncrasies which when stimulated against each other by national rivalry\\n(as in France and Germany) tend only to discord and distrust, but when\\nblended (as in Britain) are the foundation of national stability, whether in\\naction, art, or letters. The masculine tenderness of the Teuton, the femi-\\nnine of the Celt the affection for nature, associated in the Teuton with\\nlove of exercise and the open air, in the Celt with spiritual sympathy the\\nepic impressiveness of the Teuton, and the dramatic effectiveness of the\\nCelt the elaborate synthesis and detail of the first, with the conciseness\\nand grasp of principle of the other the complex style of the Teuton and\\nthe nervous utterance of the Celt the mysticism of the Teuton where the\\nCelt is realistic, his seriousness where the Celt is sportive and fanciful\\nthese are some of the qualities which go to make up the richness of the\\nliterature, and are so important in conjunction because so complementary\\nto each other. Renton.\\nSuggested Reading. 1.3m r s The Bo/s Mabinogion.\\nThe Roman Domination. (Lappenberg, Anglo-Saxon\\nKings, Part I. Green, The Conquest of England Coote,\\nThe Romans of Britain.^ The so-called conquest of Brit-\\nain by Caesar in 55 and 54 B.C. was by no means a signifi-\\ncant event. Like a band of pirates the Romans landed,\\nburned, plundered, and sailed away, leaving behind them\\nno noticeable results save a small area of ruin. For\\nnearly a century the Britons went on as before, un-\\nmolested by Rome. They increased their commerce", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "Pre-English Britain 19\\nRoman Domination Withdrawal of the Romans\\nwith the continent; London and other towns sprang into\\nprominence as commercial centers and under Cymbeline,\\nthe father of the noted chief Caractacus, the whole island\\narrived at something like a centralized government. Civ-\\nilization was increasing rapidly, and the natives were be-\\ncoming, as Shakespeare declares,\\nMen more order d than when Julius Cj\u00c2\u00a3sar\\nSmiled at their lack of skill, but found their courage\\nWorthy his frowning at.\\nIn 43 A.D., the Emperor Claudius determined upon the\\nconquest of the island toward which the Romans had\\ncast longing eyes for nearly a century.\\nForty years of stubborn warfare followed, of Britain.\\ndi I \u00e2\u0080\u00a2\u00e2\u0096\u00a0u fj. i-t- 5\u00c2\u00b0 Defeat of Caracta-\\nurmg which one tribe after another was\\ncrushed by the Roman legions, until the 61. Destruction of the\\nfinal battle with the Caledonians left Boadic ea.\\nBritain so thoroughly conquered that it 78-^4- Administration\\nofAgricola.\\nremained in comparative peace durmg 84. complete submis-\\nthe next three centuries. sion of Britain.\\nThe same methods that had made France and Spain\\nso thoroughly Roman were at once applied to the con-\\nquered province. Military roads were constructed in\\nevery direction, making it easy to mass troops at short\\nnotice in any quarter of the island. Towns were fortified\\nand garrisoned, and within the protected area there\\nsprang up temples and baths, palaces and other splendid\\nstructures, filled with all the appliances and luxuries of\\nRoman civilization. Harbors were dredged, marshes\\ndrained, and the soil tilled by scientific g^s, invasion of visi-\\nmethods. Thus passed three hundred goths.\\nc ^u ric^-u 395- Final Division of\\nyears. At the opening of the fifth cen- the Empire.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "20 The Foundations of English Literature\\nFailure of Latin Civilization The Barbarian Age\\n410. Sack of Rome by ^urv the Teutonic tribes of Western\\nAlaric. r- 1 T^\\n451, Invasion of the Europe began to press upon Rome until\\nHuns under Attiia ^j^g ^^g f orced to battle f or mere\\n455. Sack of Rome by\\nthe Vandals. cxistence. The more distant provinces\\nr.\u00c2\u00b0^ w of the Empire began to be abandoned;\\npire of the West.\\nBeginning of the Mid- little by little the army was called from\\ndie Ages. Britain. By 409, according to the Anglo-\\nSaxon Chronicle, the greater part of the Roman popu-\\nlation had left the island.\\nAside from purely physical changes, the Roman\\noccupation of Britain left few permanent marks. Not-\\nwithstanding the fact that during three centuries, a period\\nlonger than that since the settlement of America, Romans\\nand Britons lived side by side, that every effort was\\nmade to force the natives into the towns and to teach\\nthem the Latin language and literature, at the close of\\nthe period the territory outside the fortified cities was\\nalmost as Celtic as before the conquest. The Latin lan-\\nguage was spoken in the island much as English is spoken\\nat the present time in India, to some extent in the\\ncities, but scarcely at all in the country. As the Angles\\nand Saxons fell with peculiar ferocity upon Roman towns\\nand in most cases utterly destroyed them with their in-\\nhabitants, they thus took the most effective means possible\\nfor stamping out the last vestiges of Latin civilization\\nThe period of the Roman domination, therefore, need\\nnot detain us, since it affected very little the subsequent\\nhistory of Britain.\\nRequired Reading. Shakespeare s Cymbeline, IIL, i.\\nThe Barbarian Age. During her whole history Rome,\\nwith her outlying provinces, was an area of civilization", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "Pre-English Britain 21\\nThe Saxon Pirates Heroic Defense of the Britons\\nsurrounded by an unbroken circle of barbarism. It was\\nlike an artificial province rescued by dykes from the sea.\\nThe waters are kept at bay only by ceaseless toil and\\nvigilance they never sleep, but are constantly gnawing\\nat the embankments, ready at any moment to rush in at\\nthe weakest point and engulf the whole. While Rome\\nwas in her strength there was no danger, but when,\\nweakened by excesses and political corruption, she lost\\nher power, the whole barbarian world began to close in\\nupon her. It was so in Britain. During the Roman\\nsupremacy the wild tribes of Scotland and the North of\\nIreland had been held back. Time and again had it\\ntaken the whole force of the army to drive them over\\nthe border. So persistent were these attacks that the\\nRomans in self-defense built at two different points mas-\\nsive walls across the entire frontier. The eastern coast,\\nalso, had been rendered safe only by constant vigilance.\\nBands of Saxon pirates, even as early as the middle of\\nthe third century, had poured from the lowlands of North\\nGermany, and had kept the entire coast-line in terror.\\nSo serious did this danger become that the Emperors\\nDiocletian and Maximian appointed a Count of the\\nSaxon Shore, whose whole duty it was to fortify the\\ncoast and to ward off the attacks of these marauders.\\nNo sooner had the Roman legions departed from the\\nisland than the barbarians began to close in upon it.\\nFirst came the fierce tribes from Ireland and Scotland,\\nand shortly afterwards came the Saxon pirates so long\\nkept at bay. Well might they look with eager eyes\\nupon Britain. It had been rich enough to tempt the\\nRomans, and to keep them for five centuries, and it had\\ngrown constantly richer with every year since the con-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "22 The Foundations of English Literature\\nA Study of the Saxon Tribes\\nquest of Agricola. Nor was it plunder alone that tempted\\nthese wild seamen. The island was a natural fortress,\\nsuch as their own land, open on the south, could never\\nbe. It was made by nature as the home of sea kings\\nwhoever ruled it would be ruler of the North Sea and of\\nthe Eastern Atlantic.\\nThe Britons fought desperately, but they lacked unity\\nand leadership. It is a mistaken idea that they had lost\\ntheir old spirit and that they were without arms. It\\ntook a century and a half of almost constant fighting for\\nthe English to gain even the eastern side of the island.\\nEvery foot of ground was heroically contested, sometimes\\nseveral times over. No more stubborn resistance was\\never made by an invaded people.\\nAs these pirates from the North of Europe became the\\nfounders of the modern English nation, we will stop at\\nthis point to make a careful study of their early environ-\\nment, their habits, their institutions, their temper, and\\ntheir view of life.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III\\nTHE PRIMITIVE ENGLISHMAN\\nThe Land. If one examine a map of the Danish penin-\\nsula (see Century Dictionary Atlas), he will note that it\\nlies like a long finger slightly curved and pointing at the\\ncoast of Sweden. It is comparatively narrow, averaging\\nnot over fifty miles in width; it is jagged everywhere\\nwith bays and studded with islands. It has three divi-\\nsions Jutland, Schleswig, and Holstein, which correspond\\nroughly with the territories once occupied by the Jutes,\\nthe Angles, and the Saxons. The little province between\\nthe towns of Flensburg and Schleswig still bears the name\\nof Angeln, or England. The land of the Jutes was a fen\\ncountry with vast swamps and dense forests; the southern\\nhalf of the peninsula, although bordered by wide sea-\\nmarshes, rose into low, heath-clad hills well fitted for\\nflocks and herds; while the Saxon territory, which ex-\\ntended along the coast as far as the Rhine, was as low as\\nJutland and shagged everywhere with forests. On\\nthe whole, it was a gloomy, foggy land a land of fens,\\nwide moors the haunt of water-fowl dense woods full\\nof wild boars, stags, and wolves; a land dominated by\\nthe sea, whose winter roar penetrated every part, whose\\nsalt spray drifted over all things a land bathed for a few\\nmonths in almost incessant rain and mist, and swept for\\nthe rest of the year by icy blasts.\\nThe Germania of Tacitus. The earliest picture that we\\nhave of the inhabitants of these lowlands of Europe is\\n23", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "24 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Germans of Tacitus Teutonic Traits\\nthat furnished by Tacitus, who wrote his Germania, A.D.\\n98. The Germans, as he called all the tribes north of\\nGaul, were a race pure, unmixed, and stamped with a\\ndistinct character. Hence a family Hkeness pervades the\\nwhole, though their numbers are so great eyes stern and\\nblue; ruddy hair; large bodies powerful in sudden exer-\\ntions, but impatient of toil and labor. Their land\\nabounded in flocks and herds, which were their only\\nwealth. In battle they were fierce and determined, rush-\\ning to the onslaught with terrible cries and hoarse songs.\\nIt is reproach and infamy during a whole succeeding\\nlife to retreat from the field, leaving their chief. To aid,\\nto protect him, to place their own gallant actions to the\\naccount of his glory, is their first and most sacred engage-\\nment. They suppose somewhat of sanctity and\\nprescience to be inherent in the female sex the\\nmatrimonial bond is strict and severe they live\\nfenced about with chastity. As to their daily habits\\nof life, Tacitus observes that as soon as they arise from\\nsleep, which they generally protract till late in the day,\\nthey bathe, take their meal, each on a distinct\\nseat, and at a separate table. Then they proceed armed\\nto business, and not less frequently to convivial parties,\\nin which it is no disgrace to pass days and nights, with-\\nout intermission, in drinking. The frequent quarrels\\nthat arise amongst them, when intoxicated, seldom\\nterminate in abusive language but more frequently in\\nblood.\\nSuggested Reading. Tacitus, Germania, Oxford Edi-\\ntion.\\nBeowulf. (Ten Brink, i., 23; Morley, i.,6; Brooke,\\nEarly English Literature, 12-74). But we do not have", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "The Primitive Englishman 25\\nThe Saga of Beowulf A Song of Battle and Blood\\nto depend alone on the testimony of Roman historians\\nwho at best could have had only a superficial knowledge\\nof the subject. This early Englishman has given us a\\npicture of himself which stands complete. To gain any-\\nthing like a clear conception of these dwellers in the Ger-\\nman forests we must go to Beowulf^ doubtless the oldest\\npoem in the English language, and indeed in any modern\\nEuropean tongue. Scholars differ as to its date, but it\\nis generally supposed to have been composed before the\\nEnglish conquest and passed on by tradition during\\nseveral centuries till it was finally put into writing in\\nsome of the early monasteries, perhaps in Northumbria.\\nMutilated as it has been by time and by Christian copy-\\nists, who freely inserted pious antidotes for its heathen-\\nism, it nevertheless breathes the very soul of those fierce\\nseamen who in the fifth and sixth centuries laid the\\nfoundations of the English nation. Here we have the\\nTeuton untouched by extraneous influences; here we\\nhave the child not afraid to be himself, not concealed by\\nartificial forms and requirements here we have the Eng-\\nlishman stripped of fifteen centuries of culture. To get\\nat the heart of things we must turn to this old saga.\\nHe who reads Beowulf XSxxom^ at a sitting goes away\\nwith a maze of impressions. It is a song of blood, of\\nbattle, of wassailing, of the sea. The clang of battle-\\nsarks the flash of war-bills black ships darting over the\\nfoaming currents warriors boasting and bragging horses\\nracing at furious speed fen-moors, windy nesses blood\\nin torrents, the waters boiHng with it; the roll and\\nwelter of waves nickers and fen-stalkers; hoarse shouts\\nof drunken warriors at the mead-benches scops and glee-\\nmen yelling out the joys of fight a confusion of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "26 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Landscape of Beowulf The North Sea\\ngraphic pictures following each other fast, a wild land-\\nscape seen by lightning flashes on a black night.\\nThe landscape in Beowulf is vague and vast. There\\nare no tilled fields, all is wild, weird, stirring. It is a\\nland of mist-covered fen-moors, sea-cliffs gleaming,\\nprecipitous mountains, nesses enormous, blustering\\nbluffs. The inland regions are unknown and terrible;\\nhow can mere words hold more of uncanny suggestion\\nthan those giving the description of the haunts of Grendel?\\nThey guard the wolf-coverts,\\nLands inaccessible, wind-beaten nesses,\\nFearfulest fen-deeps, where a flood from the mountains\\nNeath mists of the nesses netherward rattles.\\nThe stream under earth not far is it henceward\\nMeasured by mile-lengths that the mere-water standeth,\\nWhich forests hang over, with frost-whiting covered,\\nA firm-rooted forest, the floods overshadow.\\nThere ever at night one an ill-meaning portent\\nA fire-flood may see mong children of men\\nNone liveth so wise as wot of the bottom\\nThough harassed by hounds the heath-stepper seek for,\\nFly to the forest, firm-antlered he-deer.\\nSpurred from afar, his spirit he yieldeth,\\nHis life on the shore, ere he will venture\\nTo cover his head. Uncanny the place is\\nThence upward ascendeth the surging of waters,\\nWan to the welkin, when the wind is stirring\\nThe weathers unpleasing till the air groweth gloomy,\\nAnd the heavens lower.\\nBefore this vague land lay the sea, a welter of waters,\\ncold, dark, storm-troubled. Everywhere in the poem\\nare wave-deeps tossing, fighting the fierce wind ice-\\nbonds that close the currents the return of spring, and\\nDr. Hall s translation.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "The Primitive Englishman 27\\nThe Prehistoric Teuton His Fatalism and Gloom\\nthe sea-rovers, winter- weary, eager for new wandering;\\nthe waves twisting the sea on the sands fleet ships,\\nocean-wood, foamy-necked, fanned by the\\nbreezes, gliding like sea-birds over the fallow flood\\nthe dead sea-king in his best ship set adrift, given to\\nthe god of storms.\\nIn this environment, against this background, move a\\nwild people, teeming with animal life, Titanic, somber.\\nThey have no nerves, no pity, no fancy. They are serious\\nand earnest. Their appetites are enormous they eat to\\nrepletion, drink to drunkenness, and then sleep heavily\\nupon the mead-benches. Hoarse shouts of revelry echo\\nfrom every page. Their dream of earthly happiness is to\\nbe surrounded by heroes, to bathe in a surfeit of slaugh-\\nter, and after the battle to divide the booty, to lavish\\ngifts upon each other, to sit in the mead-hall drinking\\nand boasting while bench glee and carousing run\\nwild. The crowning desire of King Hrothgar s life was\\nTo urge his folk to found a great building,\\nA mead-hall grander than men of the era\\nEver had heard of, and in it to share\\nWith young and old all of the blessings\\nThe Lord had allowed him save life and retainers.\\nBlood and slaughter run through the poem like a scarlet\\nthread: seething soul gore, sword-drink, hottest\\nof war-sweats over and over the idea is repeated. Al-\\nmost every trait of character mentioned by Tacitus is here\\nportrayed, often in pictures as realistic as photographs:\\nthe liegeman who will die before he will desert his lord\\nthe honor everywhere paid to women, who are admitted\\nto the mead-halls, and who even make speeches to the\\nDr. Hall s translation.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "28 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Plaint of Hrothgar Teutonic Honesty and Simplicity\\nwarriors the quarrels that arise among intoxicated revel-\\ners. As in Tacitus, we have the record of a whole day\\nwith all its occupations from morn till midnight.\\nThe view of life taken by these men was cheerless and\\nstoical. A level gloom is the atmosphere of the poem.\\nIt begins and ends with a funeral there is in it not a\\nlaughing voice, nor a singing bird, nor a word of pity or\\nof hope. A keen sense of the brevity of life hung heavily\\nover these primitive men. Death was the great horror\\nnot because they shrank from its physical terrors, nor be-\\ncause it snatched its victim to scenes he knew not of, but\\nbecause it was the time for the leaving of life-joys.\\nMan was in the hands of the weirds, and why should he\\nstruggle Fate would take him when his days were\\nnumbered, and not before. The plaint of the aged\\nHrothgar is typical\\nBeware of arrogance, world-famous champion\\nBut a little while lasts thy life-vigor s fullness\\nT will after hap early, that illness or sword-edge\\nShall part thee from strength, or the grasp of the fire,\\nOr the wave of the current, or clutch of the edges,\\nOr flight of the war-spear, or age with its horrors.\\nOr thine eyes bright flashing shall fade into darkness\\nT will happen full early, excellent hero,\\nThat death shall subdue thee.*\\nBut there is a primitive sweetness, a simplicity of view,\\na true pathos, an honesty about the poem that is most\\ndelightful. These old Teutons, with all their fierceness,\\nappetite, and gloom, were true men, as wholesome as\\nnature herself. Compared with the civilized nations to\\nthe south, they were purity personified. They were full\\nof a vigorous animal health, uncorrupted, unweakened;\\nDr. Hall s translation.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "The Primitive Englishman 29\\nThe Teutonic Creed Readings in Beowulf\\nthey were virtuous, sincere, and deeply religious. Their\\ncreed, reduced to its lowest terms, was to vanquish and\\ndestroy, yet it had its roots in the sincere conviction that\\nthe non-warlike man was an inferior, a degenerate. Con-\\ntempt for civilization became a religious sentiment, and\\ncrushed out all pity but all this feeling was honest and\\nsincere, and when turned into right channels it could but\\nresult in sterling character.\\nRequired Reading. Beowulf, Dr. Hall s translation,\\nin connection with the Germania and Emerson s English\\nTraits, which is a study of the modern Englishman made\\nfrom an impartial standpoint by a master.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV\\nANGLO-SAXON BRITAIN\\nThe Dark Period, 44.9-5^7. (York Powell, Early\\nEngland; Allen, Anglo-Saxon Britain; Morley, vols.\\ni. and ii.) The year 449 is to England what 1607 is to\\nAmerica, it marks the close of the century of incursions\\nfor plunder and the opening of the new period of settle-\\nment. The century and a half following this date was in\\nevery respect a time of darkness it was Christianity in a\\ndeath struggle with heathenism it was an era unrecorded.\\nThe Roman historians were silent the invaders almost\\nto a man could neither read nor write, and the Celtic\\nmonks, who alone could have preserved the record, chose\\nnot to chronicle the shame of their race. Only one con-\\ntemporary document is left us, the doleful lamentations\\nof the monk Gildas, the British Jeremiah, which con-\\ntain here and there snatches of what is undoubtedly\\ngenuine history.\\nOn the whole we can judge of the conquest only by\\nstudying its results. It was not a movement that hap-\\n457. Hengist Founds pencd all at once it was not a tidal wave\\ni A that swept rapidly over the island it\\n490. EllaFounds r J\\nSouth Saxony. was the slow work of a century and a\\n^^wesYex!^ ranks of the invaders were\\n520 Death of King comparatively small and their landings\\n54rida Founds King- wcre Scattered both as to time and terri-\\ndom of Bernicia. tory. Each Settlement was in a way in-\\n545-560. Gildas His- i r ^i ^i ^i\\ntory. dependent of the others; there was no\\n30", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Britain 31\\nThree Groups of Settlements Extermination of the Welsh\\nconcert, no unity of forces. It was like\\nthe settlement of America by scattered 57i.^uffa Founds East\\ncolonies working each for its own end. 586. cndda Founds\\nThere were, in time, at least seven of these\\ncolonies along the eastern and southern shores, and these,\\nas in colonial America, fell roughly into three groups:\\nthe northern colonies, the middle, and the southern. A\\ncommon grievance drew the Americans early into a union,\\nbut union came to the English kingdoms only after cen-\\nturies of strife.\\nThe wars with the Welsh were fierce and cruel. Like\\nthe Indians of America in later years, they were driven\\ngradually backward until they were forced to make their\\nlast stand in the mountains of the extreme west. Vast\\nnumbers of them were slain. The women and the hum-\\nblest of the peasantry escaped the general slaughter;\\nthey were retained as wives and slaves but the fighting\\nmen were almost completely exterminated. So merci-\\nlessly were they crushed that they lost their language and\\neven, their identity: only about thirty words of early\\nCeltic origin have survived in our language, and these\\nare almost wholly connected with the lowest forms of\\nmanual toil. But the Celtic element, though it can never\\nbe estimated accurately, must constantly be reckoned\\nwith. In Kent it is small in Wales it is very large in\\nno part of England is it wholly wanting.\\nThe Struggle for Unity, ^gy-828. (Lappenburg, Anglo-\\nSaxon Kings. The history of the next two centuries\\nneed not detain us. The long drama 617-633. Eadwine.\\nof the conquest was practically over the He^r\\nEnglish for the first time were dominant 664. council at whit-\\nin England but the land lay in a chaos", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "32 The Foundations of English Literature\\nStruggle for the Overlordship No Real Union\\n668-690. Theodore, ^f petty kingdoms, each with an inde-\\nArchbishop of Can-\\nterbury. pcndcnt rulcr. A clash was inevitable.\\n680. caedmon ^^^Q should be the greatest,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the Bret-\\n685. Beginningof\\nNorthumbrian De- walder, the wielder of Britain The\\nD^eathofBaeda Q^Gstion was soon answercd in part: it\\n758-796. offa. Mercia must be the king of Northumbria, of\\n,8rDa s p ;t Visit Mercia, or of Wessex. The lead was at\\nEngland. once taken by Northumbria, and under\\n^landuiTd^lr^Ecgb^rht Eadwine there began the first brilliant era\\nof Wessex. in Anglo-Saxon history. Patriotism,\\nbounded it is true by province lines, ran high laws, edu-\\ncation, literature, arts, began to flourish. In less than a\\ncentury Northumbria had become the intellectual leader\\nnot only of England but of Europe as well. But the\\npolitical power of the north was soon crushed by Mercia,\\nand Mercia in turn succumbed to Wessex.\\nAs we read of the struggles between these great powers,\\nwe seem to see a chaos of fierce armies,\\ntfof hT prerh and, one after another, the figures of co-\\nMonarchy. lossal men pushcd up for a moment above\\n^homrt? the mass of shouting warriors only to be\\n732. The Moors De- pulled down and replaced by other figures\\n752. Pepin, King of OH the shouldcrs of othcr armies. It was\\nthe Franks. the era of the kings. The overlordship\\n800. Charlemagne. ti 1 t t\\nfollowed no laws as to succession. It\\ndepended wholly on the personal ability of the king who\\nlaid claim to it. Under such conditions the island be-\\ncame a battle-ground, a school for kings, for great leaders\\nof men.\\nAt the close of the era the unity of England was almost\\nas far away as when it commenced. Even when Wessex\\nhad gathered all the kingdoms into a loose confederacy", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Britain 2 3\\nRoman Missionaries Arrive Spread of Christianity\\nthat owned Ecgberht as supreme lord, there was no real\\nunion. Each province maintained its own tribal organi-\\nzation and obeyed its own king. An intense sectionalism\\nhad been caused by the struggle for the overlordship\\npatriotism was bounded by province lines to them union\\nmeant simply conquest and added territory for the glory\\nof their own little kingdom. The two centuries of war-\\nfare had accustomed the English mind to the thought of\\na single master of Britain, but they had done little more.\\nT/ie Christian Conquest, jg j-686. (Bright, Early Eng-\\nlish Church History Azarius, Development of Old English\\nThought Milman, Latin Christianity, Bk. iv., ch. 4,\\nBk. v., ch. 10.) While this noisy combat of king with\\nking was in full career, a silent force, one that was des-\\ntined to revolutionize the English mind, was at work\\namong the kingdoms. In the year 597, at the very open-\\ning of the era of the kings, there arrived at the old land-\\ning-place in Kent, that gateway through which has come\\nnearly everything destined to work deep changes in Brit-\\nain, a little band of Roman monks sent by Pope Gregory\\nto Christianize the island. Never was there an under-\\ntaking that seemed more visionary and hopeless. As\\nviewed from Rome, Britain seemed to lie at the world s\\nend, and its inhabitants were believed to be utterly law-\\nless and savage, the wildest people in Europe. Before\\nthe exodus to Britain they had never come into contact\\nwith Rome, and during a century and a half in the island\\nthey had received almost nothing from southern civiliza-\\ntion. Their wars were waged for extermination, and\\nwhen the Welsh had been torn to pieces the wolves had\\nfallen with fury upon one another. Thus it looked from\\nRome, but the earliest messengers from Augustine to the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "34 The Foundations of English Literature\\nCauses for its Acceptance Harmonized with Teutonic Ideals\\nPope conveyed the great news that the king of Kent and\\nten thousand of his subjects had at once received baptism.\\nGradually but surely the new religion worked northward\\nand westward, until within less than a century every\\ncorner of Britain had been brought within the pale of the\\nRoman Church.\\nThe causes of the prompt acceptance of Christianity by\\nthese barbaric tribes are easily found. They were chil-\\ndren of nature, almost untouched by civilization, credu-\\nlous, susceptible. The magnificent organization of the\\nRoman Church, its solemn sacraments, its symbolism, its\\npomp and show, impressed them greatly. The Roman\\nmonks appealed constantly to their credulity: Baeda s\\nhistory of the early English Church is almost a book of\\nmiracles. It was soon found that it was no hard thing\\nto accept the new faith it required no rooting-up of age-\\nold beliefs and the substitution of new and startling ideas.\\nThe Teutonic tribes had always been serious and reflec-\\ntive they had believed in a future life, and in the pre-\\nsiding influences of good and evil. They had ever been\\nhonest, and chaste, and loyal to friends and kin. To\\naccept Christianity was but to change the names of their\\ngods and their forms of worship. Christ was to them but\\nanother name for the gentle and gracious Balder; Woden\\nwas found to be after all only the earliest ancestor of\\ntheir kings; and the Virgin corresponded perfectly with\\ntheir ideal of true womanhood. Their great nature festi-\\nvals of Yuletide and Eostratide could be easily changed\\ninto celebrations of the birth and the resurrection of\\nChrist. But the sincerity and the purity of the early\\nRoman missionaries were, perhaps, after all, the leading\\nfactors in the christianizing of the island. More self-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Britain 35\\nHumanizing Effects of Christianity Civil Effects\\n^sacrificing and courageous men never bore the gospel\\ninto heathendom. The breadth and greatness, the\\ngrandeur and high solemnity of their message, together\\nwith the purity, enthusiasm, self-sacrifice, and consistency\\nof their own lives, would have accomplished its end\\namong any people.\\nThis noiseless revolution, in the greatness of its re-\\nsults, is second to no other in English history. It was\\nthe first leaven from Roman Europe that had come\\ninto the lump of Teutonic barbarism, and, wherever it\\ntouched, it humanized and civilized. Wars went on\\nas before, but their character was changed. There was\\nno more extermination, no more battle for mere booty.\\nFrom being out of contact with all the external world,\\nthe English now came into touch with Rome, the\\nspiritual and intellectual center of civilization. The\\nRoman monks and priests brought in books, and art,\\nand culture. Monasteries began to arise, influential\\ncenters where students gathered, where learning and art\\nwere cultivated, where perpetual peace reigned. Sel-\\ndom has any one influence so transformed a people. In\\ntwo centuries Britain was changed from a bloody battle-\\nfield on which shouted wild, unlettered savages, into the\\nintellectual center of Europe, the leader of the world s\\nbest thought and civilization.\\nThe influence of Christianity in cementing the English\\nkingdoms into a unity must not be overlooked. The\\nCouncil of Whitby, which determined that the Roman\\nand not the Celtic type of Christianity was to prevail,\\nwas the first important step. Under Theodore all Eng-\\nland was welded into one spiritual kingdom. The head\\nof the Church was at Canterbury. Here the ecclesiasti-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "36 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Second Teutonic Conquest Barbarity of the Danes\\ncal synods drew the kingdoms into a parliament where\\ncanons were enacted to affect England as a whole. It\\nwas, therefore, no long step from the thought of the\\nsingle spiritual throne at Canterbury to that of a single\\ntemporal throne and a united England.\\nThe Supremacy of Wessex, 828-101 j, The wars of the\\nkites and crows, as Milton termed the two centuries of\\nconflict for the overlordship, were brought suddenly to\\nan end by a most unlooked-for and overwhelming disaster.\\nThe Teutonic tribes on the Baltic, in Jutland and Scan-\\ndinavia, the old home of the English, after three centuries\\nof obscurity, again turned their keels westward, and the\\nold drama of the conquest was repeated in almost every\\ndetail. Again an era of sudden incursions, of ruthless\\nslaughter, of wholesale pillage again an era of conquest\\nand settlement and again, still later, an era of political\\nsubjugation. To realize what the three centuries on\\nBritish soil had done for the Anglo-Saxon tribes, one has\\nbut to compare them with these fierce sea-wolves of the\\nninth and tenth centuries, who were in blood, in speech,\\nin views of life, in religion, customs, and temperament\\nbut a repetition of the hordes that had poured into Eng-\\nland under Hengist and Ida. The first sight of the\\nNorthmen, says Green, is as if the hand on the dial\\nof history had gone back three hundred years. North-\\numbria was ravaged with fire and sword until almost every\\nvestige of culture was blotted out, and then, like a swarm\\nof locusts, the invaders turned southward. The flimsy\\nnature of the union between the kingdoms became at\\nonce apparent. From first to last there was no united\\nresistance. Each invaded section fought for life unaided\\nby neighbors, just as the Welsh had done in earlier years.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Britain 37\\nThe Rise of Wessex Danish Supremacy\\nA united kingdom, in the sense that we now use the\\nterm, was undreamed of.\\nSlowly the black shadow of barbarism crept over the\\nEnglish map but in the meantime a new force was\\narising in England. The close of the era 867. Danes conquer\\nof the kings had seen Wessex in the lead, ^y^^l^^ ^ifr ^d.\\nUnder Ecgberht there had been for the 874- Danes conquer\\nfirst time a union of all English kingdoms. 878. Danes invade\\nThis powerful ore^anizer had learned king- wessex Defeated\\nr 1 r 1 ^11 byiElfred.\\ncraft m the court of the great Charle- gi2. Northmen settle\\nmagne he was in full sympathy with the Normandy.\\n\\\\.-u r-U 1 959. Dunstan, Arch-\\nnew pohtical ideas across the Channel, bishop of canter-\\nand he was able to organize his domain, ^y-\\n980. Death of Dun-\\nin accordance with these ideas, to such a stan. wessex at\\ndegree that he could at last do the un- ^^s height.\\n994. Invasion of Danes\\nprecedented thing of handing down the under swein.\\noverlordship to his successors. Under l^^^^l f\u00e2\u0080\u009e\\nhim, despite the omnipresent Dane that 1016-1042. Danish\\nhung like a millstone upon the island, .J^Zlee. Last Eng-\\nthere began a new era for England. iJsh Kings.\\nUnder Alfred, a grandson of Ecgberht, Wessex took\\nanother step forward. The Danes were checked in their\\nvictorious career, and a line was drawn beyond which\\nthey might not go. The little kingdom became the head\\nof England in every sense it was the only section un-\\nconquered by the Danes, the only section where learning\\nand literature and law still existed. The hearts of its\\npeople began to throb with pride and patriotism. For\\nnearly a century after Alfred s time the Danish move-\\nment upon the island ceased, and little by little the king-\\ndom of Wessex wrested the north from the invaders. In\\ntime something like a national spirit began to awaken", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "38 The Foundations of English Literature\\nImportance of the Danish Epoch The Formative Era\\namong all the English tribes. The tenth century wit-\\nnessed the glory of Wessex, as the seventh had witnessed\\nthat of Northumbria. The two brief eras stand out in\\nbright relief when we look down the dreary perspective\\nof Anglo-Saxon history.\\nThe Danish Supremacy^ ioij-1066. But like North-\\numbria two centuries before, Wessex fell at length into\\nweak hands. Alfred and his immediate successors had\\nkept the Dane within bounds by vigorous action the\\nlater kings secured immunity from attack by the payment\\nof heavy tribute, and it became only a matter of time\\nwhen the inevitable result would follow. An act of\\ntreachery precipitated the calamity. In 1013 the North-\\nman was supreme in England Cnut, the leader, became\\nking, and the Danish dream of a great Scandinavian\\nempire, embracing all the lands about the North Sea,\\nbade fair to be realized. Until 1066, when William,\\nhimself a Northman, took possession of England, the\\nDane was the leading factor in English politics.\\nThe short period of Danish supremacy need not be dis-\\ncussed at length, yet it cannot be overlooked by the\\nstudent seeking the elements that have made the English\\npeople. It was simply throwing into the crucible new\\nmasses of crude ore, of fresh raw material. It greatly\\nretarded the process of evolution it was a positive\\nsetback, even but it introduced no new element, and it\\ndid not change the character of the final product. The\\nAngles and Saxons had found the Welsh utterly different\\nfrom themselves, and they had mingled with them to no\\nappreciable degree but the Danes found in the English\\na people differing from themselves only in degree of\\ncivilization, and barbarism soon yielded to the stronger", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Britain 39\\nThe Englishman An Evolution\\nforce of enlightenment. Gradually they learned the lan-\\nguage, not much different from their own they accepted\\nChristianity as readily as had the Anglo-Saxons; they\\ntook English wives; they mingled freely with the con-\\nquered people, and in time their national identity was\\nswallowed up completely.\\nThe Formative Era. Between Hengist and William the\\nConqueror lies a period of six centuries, a period five\\ntimes as long as our own national history. Its impor-\\ntance need not be dwelt upon. It was the formative era\\nin English history. At its opening we see barbaric\\nhordes, at its close we have what is essentially the Eng-\\nlishman of to-day. Other elements were to be added,\\nbut they were to work no fundamental changes. The\\nEnglish had evolved themselves seldom has there been\\na people that has arisen from barbarism to enlightenment\\nwith so little help from outside hands. One important\\nelement, that of Christianity, had come from abroad, but\\nnevertheless it is safe to say with Duruy that from the\\ntime when the Roman power had been broken until the\\nmoment when William the Conqueror brought the British\\nIsles again under continental dominion, England s rela-\\ntions with the rest of Europe were slight. It was this\\nthat gave the Englishman his peculiar personality, his-\\nviews of life, his estimate of values, so different from\\nthose of other Europeans.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V\\nANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE\\nI. The Primal Poetry\\nThe Scop. (Brooke, History of Early English Litera-\\nture Morley, English Writers, vol. ii. Azarius, De-\\nvelopment of Old English Thought Earle, Anglo-Saxon\\nLiterature.) To a greater extent than that of almost\\nany other nation, save perhaps Greece, the literature of\\nEngland has been an evolution. In everything that per-\\ntained to mental culture the Englishman began at tjie\\nlowest elements, and in a corner of the world, almost out\\nof contact with all others, educated himself. The story\\nof his earliest lispings will never be known. When,\\nthrough the aid of Tacitus, we first catch sight of him,\\nhe has already made an advance, he goes into battle\\nsinging rude songs of heroism and boasting. Still later,\\nin Beowulf J we see him again in his bardic age. First of\\nall a warrior, his loftiest ideals are connected with physi-\\ncal bravery, with power, with glory. Kings and heroes\\nlove to hear chanted the praises of their own prowess and\\nthe glory of their ancestry. A class of professional sing-\\ners has arisen, scops, or gleemen, who wander, like the\\nrhapsodists of Homeric days, from court to court, chant-\\ning from memory or improvising at will wild songs of\\nbattle and bale, accompanying themselves upon the\\nglee-beam, and stirring their hearers as with trumpets.\\nOn the joyous morning after Beowulf had cleared Heorot\\nof Grendel, the gleeman of the hall,\\n40", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 41\\nThe Wandering Singer Few Songs Preserved\\na thane of the folk-lord,\\nWho ancient traditions treasured in memory,\\nNew word-groups found properly bound\\nThe bard after gan then Beowulf s venture\\nWisely to tell of, and words that were clever\\nTo utter skilfully, earnestly speaking.^\\nThis gleeman was a singer stationed permanently in the\\ncourt of the king. In The Lament of Dear we have the\\ncomplaint of such a gleeman after he has been supplanted\\nin the king s favor by another singer more skilful or more\\npopular. But more frequently the scop was a wanderer\\nlike Widsith who\\nFar traveled through strange lands and learnt\\nOf good and evil in the spacious world,\\nParted from home friends and dear kindred,^\\nSuch a wanderer was eagerly welcomed wherever he\\nwent. He brought news, gossip, entertainment. He\\nwas poet, novelist, singer, actor, newspaper, all in one.\\nThrough a long era the scop ruled supreme in every\\nrealm of literature.\\nThe poetry of this prehistoric epoch was not written.\\nIt was transmitted orally from generation to generation\\nas were the earliest murmurings of Greek song. The few\\nmutilated leaves that have survived the blasts of more\\nthan a thousand winters represent but a pitiful fragment\\nof that minstrelsy that made joyous those long hypobo-\\nrean evenings, the twilight of history. Moreover, the\\nlittle that survives is far from its original form. The\\nsongs, since they were not written, changed constantly.\\nAll the specimens now extant are in Anglo-Saxon, a lan-\\nDr. Hall s translation. Morley s translation.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "42 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Most Important Survivals Anglo-Saxon Prosody\\nguage formed after the migration to Britain, a fact which\\nproves that the gleemen, as the language changed, were\\nforced gradually to recast the old ballads in order to be\\nunderstood. In later days all the heathen poetry was at\\nthe mercy of the Church. In her hands alone was the\\nart preservative. The scops and gleemen became monks,\\nand the few ancient ballads which they saw fit to copy\\nthey mutilated and amended at will.\\nThese fragments of primal poetry which have come\\nwithout name or date out of the mists of the past may\\nbe counted almost on one s fingers. Aside from the\\nsingle manuscript of Beowulf and Judith, now in the\\nBritish Museum; the Junian Manuscript of Caedmon,\\nnow in the Bodleian the mutilated leaf of parchment\\nrescued from an old bookbinding, telling of a fight around\\nthe burning castle of Finn, doubtless all that remains of\\na noble epic and two leaves of the poem Waldhere, ac-\\ncidentally discovered at Copenhagen they are all to be\\nfound in a single manuscript collection that by great good\\nfortune has remained undisturbed in Exeter Cathedral\\nfor nearly nine centuries. This collection includes Wid-\\nsith, The Wanderer, The Seafarer, The Lament of Deor^\\nThe Fates of Men, The Ruined City.\\n[For a full bibliography of the Anglo-Saxon literature\\nup to the time of Alfred, see Brooke, p. xiv. also\\nEarle, ch. ii. Excellent translations from most of these\\npoems may be found in Brooke and Morley.]\\nThe Characteristics of Anglo-Saxon Poetry. While early\\nEnglish poetry knew nothing of rhyme or meter it never-\\ntheless followed laws that were definite and difficult. Each\\nverse must have four accents and must consist of two parts\\nwith three alliterating words, two of them in the first half.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 43\\nA Blood-stirring Meter Its Picturesqueness\\nOft Scyld Scefing sceathena J?reatum,\\nMonegum maeg} um meodo-setla ofteah.\\nThe effect of this arrangement is to give a curious, jerky-\\nmovement. One gets from it the idea of rude, nervous\\nstrength. It is poetry for the dealers of sword-strokes,\\nfor the rowers of war-galleys. The very monotony of the\\ntime-beat is exhilarating. One can almost hear the ex-\\ncited cadences of the old gleeman; the steady, blood-\\nstirring roll of his harp-notes; and see the rhythmic sway\\nof his head and his body as one reads such lines as those\\ndescribing the attack on the castle of Finn\\nThen wildly cried he, the warrior king,\\nThis is no dawn of East, no flight of dragon\\nNor burn the cressets, bright in the broad hall,\\nFierce is the flaming. Frightened the birds sing,\\nWild chirps the cricket, but wilder the war wood,\\nShield and shaft meeting. See the moon shining,\\nIn clouds she wanders, waking the woful deeds,\\nHates of the people. Rouse ye my heroes\\nFight for your dear land, fight in the forefront.\\nThen in the hall rose roar of the slaughter,\\nRound mighty Guthlafsson lay many corpses.\\nSailed then the raven, swart and brown-sallow\\nIn the fierce sword-gleam seemed it Finn s castle\\nBlazed altogether. Battle I never heard,\\nNobler of heroes fitter for mead feast.*\\nBut usually this old poetry moves slowly. Repetitions\\nand parallel constructions are frequent. The singer often\\nhovers over his ideas, repeats his nouns in figurative\\nsynonyms, and dwells fondly on the added epithets thus\\nmade possible. Picturesque compounds and metaphors\\nWashburn s translation.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "44 The Foundations of English Literature\\nIts Beauty Northumbrian Literature\\nare everywhere abundant. The ocean is the whale s\\npath blood is sword-drink the stag is the heath-\\nstepper and hail is the coldest of corn. When\\nBeowulf rains sword-blows upon the mother of Grendel\\nhis war-blade sings a greedy battle-song.\\nThe great beauty of this early minstrelsy lies in its\\noriginality and freshness. It was the epic era of English\\nsong, and its pictures are drawn in the vague tints that\\nare characteristic of childhood. Much of it is dreary and\\nunpoetic, but through it are scattered rare gems battle\\nscenes, realistic and stirring; graphic pictures of the sea;\\nswift glimpses into home and hall, and, what is better,\\ninto heart and soul. Here and there are passages that\\nsoar into the pure ether of world-poetry single lines that\\nare whole poems in miniature. What a line is that in\\nThe Seafarer\\nHe lives ever longing who looks to the sea.\\nFeeble work does not survive the storms of a thousand\\nyears.\\nRequired Reading. The Seafarer, tr. Morley, ii.\\nThe Wanderer, tr. Morley, ii. The Ruined City, Brooke.\\nII. The Northumbrian School (680-782)\\nThe introduction of Christianity, with its insistence\\nupon the use of Latin as the literary tongue, well-nigh\\ndestroyed in the bud all native song. Ecclesiastical\\nwritings in abundance sprang up everywhere in the track\\nof the Roman missionaries, but they were English neither\\nin form nor spirit. The old songs that had come from\\nthe heart and the life of the people were regarded by the\\nChurch as heathen and impious, and gradually they dis-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 45\\nEnglish Literature begins in Northumbria\\nappeared. Only in Northumbria did the old literary\\nspirit survive. Here the scop, when he became monk,\\nremembered the old minstrelsy; he preserved with care\\nthe primal poetry that he loved, easing his new Christian\\nconscience with pious editing. He created new songs\\nfrom Biblical lore. Hell now took the place of Grendel s\\nden devils roamed the dark places instead of nickers and\\nfen-stalkers; his minstrel harp now glorified not the deeds\\nof world-heroes, but the wars of the Lord. It was in\\nNorthumbria that English literature really began, and its\\nopening notes were strong and varied. Beginning with\\nCaedmon and ending with Cynewulf there was a well-\\nrounded literary era which passed through every stage of\\ndevelopment; which rose, flourished, and decayed, and\\nwhich in its short life of a century showed a wonderful\\nactivity and fruitfulness.\\nThis sudden outburst of literature and culture in the\\nrude north, among a people who a century before had\\nbeen merely an invading horde of barbarians, seems at\\nfirst thought paradoxical. A study of the era, however,\\nreveals well defined causes, the same, indeed, in the\\nmain, that have made every distinct literary period.\\nNorthumbria was the last important province of Eng-\\nland to fall into Teutonic hands. Baeda records that it\\nwas settled by Angles who came with their families in a\\nregular exodus, leaving the motherland well-nigh de-\\nserted. From the very first they showed a marvelous\\nactivity. They swept away the native Britons, pushed\\ntheir frontiers to the Humber, the Frith of Forth, and\\nthe Irish Sea, and then under ^thelfrith, scarce fifty\\nyears from their first settlement, they made themselves\\nmasters of all the southern kingdoms save Kent. The", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "46 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Glory of the North Influence of Christianity\\nseventh century in England was the era of Northumbria.\\nUnder Eadwine and the three strong kings that followed\\nhim, the glory of the north, though at times temporarily\\ndimmed, illumined all of Britain, and even shed its rays\\nacross the Channel. As a result of this temporal pros-\\nperity, this period of national expansion, of pride and\\nconfidence in fatherland, there came an enlargement of\\nideas and a new intellectual activity. Nor did the move-\\nment cease when Northumbria lost her political leader-\\nship, for the years of peace and material prosperity that\\nfollow this loss mark the time of her greatest intellectual\\nglory.\\nIt was at this fortunate moment, this period of rapid\\ntransition, that Christianity entered the north. From\\nthe first the Angles had done nothing by halves, and\\nnow, having accepted the new religion, they followed it\\nwith zeal and vigor. There arose a wonderful band of\\nspiritual leaders, afterwards to be revered as saints.\\nThe freshness and power of the Church was like that of\\napostolic times. Monasteries arose on every hand. En-\\nthusiastic workers like Aldhelm and Biscop and Wilfrid\\nvisited Rome again and again to bring books, pictures,\\nand vestments, skilled workers, artisans, and chanters.\\nEager Northumbrian learners went to Canterbury to sit\\nat the feet of Theodore and the learned Hadrian. Grad-\\nually there grew up in the north a remarkable band of\\nscholars, until, in the eighth century, the best learning\\nof Europe was to be found in the Northumbrian monas-\\nteries. When Charlemagne, the central figure of the\\nMiddle Ages, looked over Europe for a scholar worthy\\nto instruct his sons and his people, he chose Alcuin of\\nYork.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 47\\nA Tolerant Priesthood A Spontaneous Outburst of Poetry\\nThe Church being thus powerful in the north, why did\\nit not cast a blight on all literary products in the native\\ntongue, as it had done elsewhere in England The\\nreasons can only be conjectured. The Church of North-\\numbria had been founded by the Irish the Celtic ritual\\nwas in the vernacular, and it was a whole generation be-\\nfore it was supplanted by the Roman form. The clergy\\ntherefore were less prejudiced against the native tongue.\\nThey taught the people freely in the only language they\\ncould understand. Even Bseda, that quintessence of\\nmonasticism, spent his last hours turning the Gospel into\\nEnglish for the use of the people, and the learned monks\\nof Whitby translated with pious care that an illiterate\\npeasant might turn the Scriptures into native verse.\\nThen, too, the Angles had come to England without\\nbreaking their home life, and old songs and traditions\\nlinger longest about the fireside. They had remained in\\nthe old home on the North Sea a century longer than\\nhad the men of Kent. They were nearer to their child-\\nhood and the epic era. The old minstrel harp, ringing\\nwith heathen songs of heroes and booty, enlivened the\\nlong evenings, and it was permitted even under the\\nshadow of the monastery. The old songs still had their\\nprimal vigor and freshness. They were still a part of\\nthe individual and the national life. The Church could\\nchange the theme, but it was powerless to change the\\nspirit and the form. Then, too, the new school of poetry\\nin Northumbria was spontaneous even as it was in later\\nElizabethan times, and when the song bursts from the\\nheart the singer must voice it in his own tongue. And\\nwho can tell that it was not Caedmon, the unlettered\\nherdsman, who sang because he must, and, like Shake-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "48 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Poet Caedmon Bosda s Account\\nspeare and Burns of later years, used his native tongue\\nbecause he knew no other, who gave the primal impulse\\nto Northumbrian song Others after him, writes\\nBaeda, attempted in the English nation to compose\\nreligious poems, but none could ever compare with him,\\nfor he did not learn the art of poetry from men, but from\\nGod.\\nCcedmon (d. 680\\nThe Anglo-Saxon Milton.\\nLife, (Baeda, Ecclesiastical History Bk. iv., Ch. xxiv.)\\nThe early English minstrelsy is anonymous. Amid all\\nthe wreckage of the settlement era we find not the name\\nof a single poet until in a chapter of Baeda we find, in-\\nserted half by accident, an account of the poet Caedmon\\n(pr. Kadmon). Other singers of greater power there may\\nhave been in Baeda s day; it is not impossible that even\\nthe glorious old shaper of Beowulf or of The Fight at\\nFinnesbruh was known to him, but he mentioned only\\nthis one singer since the motive of his work was wholly\\nreligious, and since he lost no opportunity for recording\\nevents that he believed to be miraculous. Of Caedmon\\nwe know nothing save what is contained in this single\\nchapter. Of his poetry we cannot say with certainty that\\nwe have a single line.\\nHaving lived [says Baeda] in a secular habit till he was well advanced in\\nyears, he had never learned anything of versifying for which reason, being\\nsometimes at entertainments, when it was agreed for the sake of mirth that\\nall present should sing in their turns, when he saw the instrument coming\\ntowards him, he rose up from table and returned home. Having done\\nso at a certain time and gone out of the house where the entertainment was\\nto the stable, where he had to take care of the horses that night, he there\\ncomposed himself to rest at the proper time a person appeared to him in", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 49\\nCaedmon s Miraculous Gift His Songs\\nhis sleep and saluting him by his name said, Caedmon, sing some song\\nto me. He answered, I cannot sing for that was the reason why I left\\nthe entertainment, and retired to this place, because I could not sing. The\\nother who talked to him replied, However, you shall sing. What\\nshall I sing? rejoined he. Sing the beginning of created things, said\\nthe other. Hereupon he presently began to sing verses to the praise of\\nGod, which he had never heard, the purport whereof was thus\\nWe are now to praise the Maker of the Heavenly Kingdom, the power\\nof the Creator and His counsel, the deeds of the Father of Glory. How\\nHe, being the Eternal God, became the author of all miracles, who first, as\\nalmighty preserver of the human race, created Heaven for the sons of men\\nas the roof of the house, and next the earth.\\nThis is the sense and not the words in order as he sung them in his sleep\\nfor verses, though never so well composed, cannot be literally translated out\\nof one language into another without losing much of their beauty and lofti-\\nness. Awaking from his sleep, he remembered all that he had sung in his\\ndream, and soon added much more to the same effect in verse worthy of the\\nDeity.\\nBelieving this to be a veritable miracle, the heads of the\\nmonastery at once admitted Caedmon as a monk, and\\nhere he passed the rest of his life. Portions of Scripture\\nwere translated to him daily, and he,\\nkeeping in mind all he heard, and, as it were, chewing the cud, converted\\nthe same into most harmonious verse and sweetly repeating the same, made\\nhis masters in their turn his hearers. He sang the creation of the world,\\nthe origin of man, and all the history of Genesis and made many verses\\non the departure of the children of Israel out of Egypt, and their entering\\ninto the land of promise, with many other histories from holy writ the in-\\ncarnation, passion, resurrection of our Lord, and His ascension into Heaven\\nthe coming of the Holy Ghost and the preaching of the Apostles also the\\nterror of future judgment^ the horror of the pains of Hell, and the delights\\nof Heaven besides many more about the divine benefits and judgments.\\nHere, then, is the border-land between the old and the\\nnew. Caedmon s childhood was over before the conver-\\nsion of Northumbria. By instinct and early training he\\nwas as heathen as were his wild ancestors whose ships", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "50 The Foundations of English Literature\\nA Christianized Scop The Junian Manuscript\\nhad spread terror along the Saxon shore. Christianity-\\nhad come to him in early manhood it had changed the\\nnames of his gods and had added to his stores of religious\\nlore. We may be sure that had we the veritable words\\nwhich Caedmon sang from Genesis and Exodus that stirred\\nthose English monks of Whitby, we should find them\\nHebraic and Christian only in externals. In conception,\\nin spirit, in scene, they would be as Teutonic as Beowulf,\\nand almost as heathen.\\nThe CcBdmon Cycle. (Brooke, Chs. xv.-xx. Azarius,\\nDevelopment of Old English Thought.) In the year 1650\\nor thereabout there came into the hands\\nThe Junian Manu- -r^ i i t 11\\nscript. of the Dutch scholar Junius an old\\nBOOK I. Anglo-Saxon manuscript in two parts,\\nGenesis (2935 lines), the first Containing paraphrases from the\\nExodus (589 lines). Qj^ Tcstamcnt and the second a short\\nDaniel (765 lines).\\nBOOK II collection of NewTestament paraphrases,\\nChrist and Satin (733 ^hich have been grouped under the title\\nlines) Christ and Satan. The opening lines of\\nHa rol[ng ^fTen! Genesis suggested Baeda s Latin para-\\nThe Resurrection, phrase of Csedmon s first song, and the\\nThe Ascension. r j j\\nPentecost. contcnts of the manuscript corresponded\\nThe Last Judgment, go fully with Bseda s description of the\\nThe Temptation. 1 1 n\\npoet s work that the collection was at\\nonce attributed to Caedmon. Modern criticism, how-\\never, has made sad work with this estimate. It now\\nseems certain that the collection embraces the work of\\nseveral singers, and it may even be doubted if Caedmon\\nwrote any part of the book. Portions of Genesis and\\nExoduSy however, are certainly worthy of this inspired\\nsinger, and in the absence of positive knowledge it will\\ndo no harm to consider all of the poems under his name.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 51\\nLiterary Merit of the Cycle The Old Heathen Spirit\\nThat they were done by members of the Northumbrian\\nschool within a century following the death of Caedmon\\nseems reasonably certain.\\nThe literary merit of this song cycle varies greatly.\\nWhen the paraphrase follows closely the Scripture narra-\\ntive or when it becomes homiletic, it is usually dull and\\nlifeless. The Daniel and the Christ and Satan may be\\ndismissed without comment. But there are thrilling\\npassages in Exodus, and parts of Genesis mark the highest\\nsweep of Anglo-Saxon song. The poet leaves at times\\nthe Scripture narrative, and is never so delightful as when\\nhe has wandered farthest and has given his imagination\\nfree rein. At every point where there is action he enters\\nwith heart and soul into the scene. It lives again it\\nseems almost reenacting before his eyes. The episode\\nof the flood, the battles of Abraham, the destruction of\\nthe cities of the plain, are told with all the enthusiasm\\nof an eye-witness. There is a mental picture before the\\nsinger, clean-cut, vivid, and its background is ever some\\nfamiliar scene of his native Northland. The offering of\\nIsaac takes place on a high dune overlooking the low-\\nlands. The preparations for the burning are thoroughly\\nTeutonic it reminds one of the closing scene of Beowulf.\\nAll battle songs have the old heathen ring blood flows\\nin rivers; even when the sea swallows the Egyptians\\nblood is everywhere. It is not the monk but the heathen\\nscop who sings the approach of Pharaoh s host:\\nA spear-wood was moving, the war-line gleamed,\\nFlags wildly flapped, folk the march treading\\nFierce clattered trappings, war was approaching,\\nBlickered the broadswords, blared the brass trumpets.\\nWar-fowls were wheeling, wailing above them,\\nGreedy for carnage ravens were croaking,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "52 The Foundations of English Literature\\nDestruction of the Egyptians Caedmon s Genesis\\nDewy-winged spoilers over slain bodies,\\nSwart battle-seekers. Wolves were singing\\nHorrible even-song, hopeful of having.\\nThe blood leaps in the veins of the singer as he tells of\\nthe final catastrophe. The fierce harp-roll of the Finnes-\\nbruh fragment resounds from the verse. The singer is\\ntense with excitement. Like one who has just emerged\\nfrom a great battle he can think and talk of nothing else.\\nHe repeats himself again and again he uses every epithet,\\nevery image of battle and carnage known to the Teutonic\\nmind\\nThe folk was affrighted, flood-terror seized on\\nSouls deeply saddened sea threatened death then,\\nRed were the burg-slopes, blood did bedew them\\nGore gushed from ocean, corpse rode the billow,\\nWater was weapon-full, wail-mist started.\\nBack the Egyptians turned wildly rushing,\\nTore mad with terror, torment pursued them\\nHome now they longed for, battle-sick heroes,\\nBoast became v\\\\^eeping began then with fury\\nBoiling of billows of all that war-band\\nNone saw his dear home, for fast behind them\\nWeird locked the wave-doors. Where erst the way was\\nMere galloped madly, the host was o erwhelmed,\\nand so through eighty quivering lines. Such songs\\nwould have pleased heathen revelers on the mead-benches\\nwho had just listened to the thrilling roll of Beowulf.\\nBut the glory of the Junian Manuscript is the story of\\nthe revolt of Satan and the fall of man in Genesis. It is\\nParadise Lost nine centuries before Milton. As we know\\nsurely of no earlier work from which Coedmon could have\\ngained his materials, it is pleasing to fancy that this poet,\\ndivinely inspired, created with sublime imagination the\\nstory that was afterwards to appear as the greatest of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 53\\nSimilarity to Paradise Lost Soliloquy of Satan\\nEnglish epics. For Milton was deeply interested in\\nthings Anglo-Saxon, he had written a history of the\\nperiod; he was doubtless a friend of Junius, and the\\nJunian Manuscript was first printed in 1655, seven years\\nbefore Paradise Lost. The two epics coincide in many\\npoints. The theme of both is the same: after the expul-\\nsion from heaven of the rebel angels, God creates man to\\nfill the seats thus left vacant, and Satan ruins him for\\nrevenge. The conception of Satan and of Hell, so widely\\ndifferent from that of Dante and the Middle Ages, is the\\nsame with both poets. How Miltonic is the description\\nof the fall of the angels as told by the elder poet:\\nThen was the mighty wroth, Heaven s highest Lord\\nCast him from his high seat, for he had brought\\nHis master s hate on him. His favor lost,\\nThe Good was angered against him, and he\\nMust therefore seek the depths of Hell s fierce pains,\\nBecause he strove against Heaven s highest Lord,\\nWho shook him from His favor, cast him down\\nTo the deep dales of Hell, where he became\\nDevil. The fiend with all his comrades fell\\nFrom Heaven, Angels, for three nights and days,\\nFrom Heaven to Hell.\\nAnd how natural to us is this picture of Satan bound\\nin the fiery pit and soliloquizing on his fallen estate:\\nMost unlike this narrow place\\nTo that which once we knew, high in Heaven s realm.\\nWoe Woe had I the power of my hands,\\nAnd for a season, for one winter s space,\\nMight be without then, with this host I\\nBut iron binds me round this coil of chains\\nMorley s translation.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "54 The Foundations of English Literature\\nTerse and Vivid Passages A Teutonic Poem\\nRides me I rule no more close bonds of Hell\\nHem me their prisoner. Above, below,\\nHere is vast fire, and never have I seen\\nMore loathly landscape never fade the flames.\\nMay we then not plan vengeance, pay Him back\\nWith any hurt, since shorn by Him of light?\\nNow He has set the bounds of a mid-earth\\nWhere after His own image He has wrought\\nMan, by whom He will people once again\\nHeaven s kingdom with pure souls. Therefore, intent\\nMust be our thought that, if we ever may.\\nOn Adam and his offspring we may wreak\\nRevenge, and, if we can devise a way,\\nPervert His will.^\\nThere are passages in Csedmon as terse, condensed,\\nvivid, as any in Milton, for instance, the description of\\nHell, the land\\nThat was lere of light and that was full of flame,\\nFire s horror huge\\nor where the fiend took wing and\\nSmote the flame in two with fiendish craft.\\nThe conception of the poem is thoroughly Teutonic.\\nThe deep Northern gloom and pathos pervade it. Satan\\nis a powerful folk-lord seeking revenge. Bound and\\nriveted down beyond all hope of escape he calls to his\\nwar-band: Stand by me, comrades, now. If ever in\\nformer days I gave you cause for joy, t is now you can\\nrepay. But there is no need for appeal; his shoulder-\\ncompanions are true Teutons, who will die ere they\\nleave their chief in distress. It is this element in Caed-\\nmon s work that explains its similarity to Milton s. The\\nMorley s translation.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 55\\nPersistence of Teutonic Traits The Father of English Poetry\\ntwo poems coincide in conception, and to some degree\\neven in detail, yet this does not of necessity make Para-\\ndise Lost an imitation. It simply shows how marked and\\npersistent has been the English personality, for it is safe\\nto say with Taine that Milton s Satan exists already\\nin Caedmon s as the picture exists in the sketch because\\nboth have their model in the race.\\nThe figure of Caedmon in English literature, despite\\nuncertainty and conjecture, is vast and impressive:\\nHe was one of those gifted men [says Guest] who have stamped deeply\\nand lastingly upon the literature of their country the impress of their own\\nminds and feelings. He was the first Englishman it may be the first in-\\ndividual of Gothic race who exchanged the gorgeous images of the old\\nmythology for the chaster beauties of Christian poetry. From the sixth to\\nthe twelfth century he appears to have been the great model whom all\\nimitated and few could equal. For upward of five centuries he was the\\nfather of English poetry and when his body was discovered in the reign of\\nour first Henry it seems to have excited no less reverence than those of the\\nkings and saints by which it was surrounded. History of English Rhythms.\\nRequired Reading. The translation from Genesis in\\nMorley, ii., 81.\\n2. BcBda (6j3-y35)\\nThe father of English learning. Burke,\\nLife. (Autobiographical sketch and letter of Cuthbert\\nat the end of the Ecclesiastical History^ Bohn ed.\\nBrowne, The Venerable Bede.)\\nTo turn from Caedmon to Baeda is like leaving a Saxon\\nmead-hall to enter the solemn aisles of a cathedral. In\\none we have wild song in a barbaric tongue, full of energy\\nand rude beauty; in the other graceful periods in the\\npolished language of a foreign civilization. Baeda more", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "56 The Foundations of English Literature\\nPoverty of the Vernacular Latin the Literary Language\\nthan Csedmon is the representative Hterary figure of the\\nNorthumbrian era. We may be sure that had this illus-\\ntrious scholar added a chapter to his church history on\\nthe literary development of his native province, he would\\nhave passed rapidly over all writings in the vernacular.\\nHowever necessary they may have been considered to\\nthe education and spiritual development of the common\\npeople, writings in the native tongue could have had\\nlittle literary weight when compared with productions in\\nthe Latin. For the English was a barbarous tongue it\\nwas extremely limited in its vocabulary; it could not\\nmake nice discriminations; it was weak in conjunctions;\\nit confounded nouns with adjectives and even adverbs;\\nit was guttural and harsh it had no standards of good\\nusage, no written literature. The Latin, on the contrary,\\nwas one of the most flexible and polished instruments\\never made by man. The EngUsh was changing rapidly,\\nthe Latin was fixed and permanent. Little wonder it is\\nthat those who desired literary finish and literary per-\\nmanence turned to the Latin. As late as the Elizabethan\\nAge, Bacon wrote his Novum Organmn in Latin since he\\ndared not trust that great work to the vernacular. The\\nwonder is that anything during the early era was wTitten\\nin the native tongue.\\nWe cannot, therefore, simply because from a stand-\\npoint twelve centuries away we see the great signifi-\\ncance of the use of this early English, refuse to consider,\\nas many have done, the Latin writings of the era. They\\nplayed their part, and a leading one it was, in the develop-\\nment of Enghsh civilization and English literature. To\\nneglect this element is to get a partial and distorted view\\nof the beginnings. We need not consider all of the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 57\\nThe Life of Bseda His Industry\\nmonastic writers. We may take Bseda as the type and\\nconsider him alone.\\nFew lives, even of scholars, have been more bare of\\nincident than his. From early childhood, when he was\\nleft an orphan, until his death, he dwelt in the monastery\\nat Jarrow, working day after day his long life through\\nwithout an idle hour or a needless pause. While at-\\ntentive to the rule of my order, he writes, and the\\nservice of the Church, my constant pleasure lay in learn-\\ning or teaching or writing. Thus without incident or\\nbreak he passed his life. The fiery zeal of Wilfrid and\\nBiscop displayed itself in action. It was for them to rule\\nsynods, build monasteries, and ransack Christendom for\\necclesiastical stores. Bseda s zeal was no less earnest,\\nbut it turned into quieter channels. The costly books\\nthat Wilfrid collected with such energy were a miscellane-\\nous heap until Baeda arranged them and digested them.\\nWith magnificent courage he plunged into this wilderness\\nof tomes, nor did he cease his labors until from their\\npages he had reconstructed the temple of human knowl-\\nedge. The range of his themes is surprising: he was a\\ntireless biblical commentator; he made an encyclopedia\\nof all that the Church Fathers had said about the Scrip-\\ntures; he was a scientist six centuries before Roger Bacon,\\nand he even left his books to study nature at first-hand\\nhe wrote treatises on mathematics, grammar, rhetoric,\\nmusic, philosophy, language, and many other subjects.\\nThe forty-five books of his composition form an encyclo-\\npedia of the learning of his age. And all this he did in\\nthe spare hours left after Church duties and after giving\\ndaily instruction to a school of six hundred monks.\\nBut the work that most endears him to the modern", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "58 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis History of England Its Great Value\\nworld is his Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation,\\nwhich he completed three years before his death. His\\nmotive, as the title indicates, was to trace the religious\\ndevelopment of Britain; but so closely were Church and\\nState connected that he found it necessary to give the\\nsecular history as well. The work is therefore a complete\\nhistory of England from the earliest times until 731, but\\nthe valuable portion is that following the year 597, all\\nthat precedes being derived from Gildas, Orosius, and the\\nLife of St. Germanus. In his historical methods Baeda\\nwas singularly modern. He had the papal archives at\\nRome searched for original documents, and he spared no\\npains in collecting materials from eye-witnesses and con-\\ntemporaries. As a result we can rely implicitly on any\\nstatement that Baeda declares to be true, a fact of the\\nutmost importance when we remember that, in the words\\nof Green, all that we really know of the century and a\\nhalf that follows the landing of Augustine we know from\\nhim. The book is permeated with the monastic spirit.\\nIts author delights in recording what he believes to have\\nbeen miracles he draws spiritual lessons from everything\\nand he is constantly detecting curious symbolisms and\\nanalogies. All this, instead of detracting from the value\\nof the book, makes it the more dehghtful. The line be-\\ntween fact and miracle is sharply drawn. Often in his\\nstories of saints who have seen angels or heard miracu-\\nlous voices or received divine recovery from disease, we\\ncatch charming glimpses into the life of the times and the\\nspirit of the age. Even aside from its historical value\\nthe book is charming reading, as interesting in parts as a\\nnovel, and the gentle piety and sweetness that breathe\\nfrom its pages make it holy reading even to-day. Brooke", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 59\\nCuthbert s Narrative of Baeda s Last Hours\\ndeclares that there is in the writings of the whole monastic\\nschool of the era a religious tenderness, a fuller love\\nof quiet beauty, an imaginative heavenliness, which our\\nsacred poetry has never lost.\\nThe story of Baeda s last hours as related by his pupil\\nCuthbert has often been told\\nDuring these days he labored to compose two works well worthy to be\\nremembered, besides the lessons we had from him, and singing of psalms\\nviz., he translated the Gospel of St. John into our own tongue\\nfor the benefit of the Church, and some collections out of the Book of Notes\\nof Bishop Isidorus. On Wednesday he ordered us to write with\\nall speed what he had begun and this done, we walked till the third hour\\nwith the relics of saints, according to the custom of that day. There was\\none of us with him who said, to him, Most dear master, there is still one\\nchapter wanting. He answered, Take your pen and make\\nready and write fast, which he did. He passed the day joyfully\\ntill evening, and the boy above mentioned, said, Dear master, there is yet\\none sentence not written. He answered, Write quickly. Soon after\\nthe boy said, The sentence is now written. He replied, It is well\\nyou have said the truth. It is ended. And on the pavement of\\nhis little cell, singing Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the\\nHoly Ghost, when he had named the Holy Ghost he breathed his last and\\nso departed to the heavenly kingdom.\\nRequired Reading. Cuthbert s Letter, Morley, ii.,\\n153.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI\\nANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE\\nThe Northumbrian School (680-782) Continued.\\nJ. Cy new II If\\nThe most many-sided, prolific, and, we might say, greatest poet of his\\ntime, Tefz Brink.\\nLife. (Brooke, Chs. xxiii.-xxiv. Morley, ii., Ch. ix.\\nAzarius, Development of Old English Thought Earle,\\nCh. xi. Ten Brink, i., p. 48.)\\nUntil comparatively recent times the Caedmon men-\\ntioned in Baeda s history stood solitary as the only\\nAnglo-Saxon poet whose name we knew. In the year\\n1840, however, while editing the old poem Eleite, Kemble\\ndiscovered that several words in the epilogue were runes,\\nand that they spelled out the word CYNEWULF. Since\\nthen three other Anglo-Saxon poems, Juliana, Christ,\\nand Fates of the Apostles, have been found to be signed\\nin the same way, and the conclusion that the four are\\nthe work of one poet by the name of Cynewulf has been\\ngenerally accepted.\\nOf the identity and biography of this newly discovered\\nsinger we know nothing. Of his personality, however,\\nwe can tell considerable, for the work that he has left us\\nabounds in personal allusions. All of his poems are re-\\nligious, and their materials are drawn mostly from Bible\\nhomilies and Church legends. The Juliana is the story\\nof a Christian maiden who submitted heroically to torture\\n60", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 6i\\nCynewulf s Christ His Elene\\nand even to martyrdom rather than take as a husband one\\nnot a Christian. This and The Fates of the Apostles need\\nnot detain us. While they contain passages of undoubted\\npower, both poems are far below the rest of Cynewulf s\\nwork. His true strength is shown in his Christ and his\\nElene, both of which he entered upon with his whole\\nsoul.\\nThe Christ is a trilogy treating successively of the\\nNativity, the Ascension, and the Day of Judgment.\\nScattered through it are passionate lyrics, prayers, hymns,\\nbursts of praise and joy. Parts are dramatic, suggesting\\nthe miracle plays of later years everywhere there is lofti-\\nness of thought and sustained power.\\nIn the Elene Cynewulf treats the old legend of Con-\\nstantine s vision of the cross; the expedition of his\\nmother Helena Elene is the Greek form) to Jerusalem\\nthe finding of the cross and the nails, and the conversion\\nof the Jew Cyriarcus. Like all of Cynewulf s work, the\\npoem is deficient in plot and in constructive art the\\nfinding of the cross is the climax, and yet after this\\nepisode the narrative drags on and on for many pages.\\nThe characters are mere puppets, and the movement of\\nthe narrative is often retarded by tiresome repetitions.\\nBut despite all these faults, there is unmistakable dra-\\nmatic power about the poem. With little trouble it\\ncould be turned into a miracle play, each of the chapters\\nfurnishing a scene. Parts of it are powerfully conceived,\\nand it is hard to escape from the conviction that the\\nwhole poem was written in heat, that it was poured from\\na full heart. We know from the epilogue that it was\\ncomposed during a time of spiritual crisis. Old age v/as\\nupon the poet he was", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "62 The Foundations of English Literature\\nAutobiography in Elene Its Art\\nstained with crimes,\\nFettered with sins, pained with sorrows,\\nBitterly bound, banefully vexed.\\nHe sought aid from books; late into the night he labored\\nwith them, and at last Heaven revealed to him a vision\\nof the tree of glory as the emblem of victory. The\\nlegend of Elene, then, was typical of his own experience,\\nand the poem burst from the full heart of the singer.\\nJudas is none other than Cynewulf himself, and his pas-\\nsionate prayer for guidance came from the depths of the\\npoet s soul.\\nThe art of the poem lies in its artlessness. It has not\\na trace of self-consciousness, of effort, of constraint. The\\npoet again and again allows the wild heathen fire in his\\nblood to blaze up unchecked. When Helena, for in-\\nstance, set out on her journey to find oversea the true\\ncross, we find him picturing a scene that had happened\\nmany a time along the Viking coast when fleets of black\\nwar-ships were making ready to harry the Saxon shore\\nThe steeds of the sea\\nRound the shore of the ocean were standing,\\nCabled sea-horses, at rest on the water.\\nThen severally hastened\\nOver the mark-paths, band after band.\\nThen they loaded with battle-sarks.\\nWith shields and spears, with mail-clad warriors,\\nWith men and women, the steeds of the sea.\\nThen they let o er the billows the foamy ones go,\\nThe high wave-rushers. The hull oft received\\nO er the mingling of waters the blows of the waves.\\nThere might he see who that voyage beheld\\nBurst o er the pathway the sea- wood, hasten\\nNeath swelling sails, the sea-horse play.^\\nGarnett s translation. Garnett s translation.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 63\\nCynewulf and Caedmon Cynewulf s Minor Strain\\nCynewulf is a stronger singer than Caedmon, than any\\nearly English poet save the creator of Beowulf. In\\nCaedmon we had lofty flights, some of them the highest\\nefforts of the Anglo-Saxon muse; in Cynewulf we have\\nsustained power. Caedmon, kept close to the Scripture\\ntext Cynewulf constantly wanders far from authorities,\\nand, like Chaucer, tells the tale anew so that it becomes\\nhis own. Caedmon, while deeply religious, and devout\\neven to asceticism, belonged, after all, to the first genera-\\ntion of Christians with Cynewulf Christianity had pene-\\ntrated deeper; it was a part of his birthright, and not\\noften does his heathen blood rise to his eyes and brain\\nand make him to forget. Caedmon s songs are all in the\\nmajor key, full of hope and joy; Cynewulf sang a minor\\nsong, his was a sad soul, doubtless he lived in the melan-\\ncholy days of his country s decline.\\nSuch was Cynewulf, a true poet with a soul as sensitive\\nas gossamer. In youth, as such natures often will, he\\nhad plunged into the mire of worldly life he had seen\\nmuch, he had suffered much. In old age we find him\\nsad and serious, oppressed by the hollowness of life. His\\ncry comes to us strangely like that of Hrothgar in Beo-\\nwulfy strangely like that of Macbeth in Shakespeare.\\nHow thoroughly English, how familiar is his lament\\nTo each one is wealth\\nFleeting neath heaven, treasures of earth\\nPass neath the clouds lilcest to wind,\\nWhen before men it mounts up aloud.\\nRoars round the clouds, raging rushes,\\nAnd then all at once silent becomes,\\nIn- narrow prison closely confined,\\nStrongly repressed. So passes this world.*\\nGarnett s translation.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "64 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Seeds of Puritanism Poems Assigned to Cynewulf\\nCynewulf is a long step av/ay from Caedmon toward\\nthe typical churchman of the Middle Ages introspective,\\ndreamy, mystic, dwelling on thoughts of the emblems of\\nChristianity until he sees visions, musing on his unwor-\\nthiness and sin until he despises the life that is and lives\\nonly in the life to be. He is but the logical result of the\\ncombination of Christianity with the Teutonic nature.\\nHe shows that the seeds of Puritanism were already\\nplanted ten centuries before Cromwell and Milton.\\nRequired Reading. Garnett s translation of Elene,\\nFor text see Kent s edition of Elene, Library of Anglo-\\nSaxon Poetry, vol. vi., and Cook s Cynewulf s Christ.\\nThe Cynewulfian Cycle. He must needs have a steady\\nhand who .would steer safely through the reefs of Cyne-\\nwulfian criticism. The temptation to leave the known\\npath and to wander into romantic conjecture is. well-nigh\\noverpowering. Critics of the highest authority have at dif-\\nferent times attributed to Cynewulf almost every known\\npiece of Anglo-Saxon literature, including Beowulf and\\nthe primal poetry. Full biographies of the poet have\\nbeen constructed by drawing from this and that poem of\\nwhich he may have been the author. Such summaries,\\nhowever, in view of our present knowledge of Cynewulf,\\nmust be viewed with caution at best they are only\\nexpressions of opinion.\\nIn the Exeter and Vercelli books the poems Guthlac,\\nDescent into Hell, Riddles, The Phcenix, The Visio7z of\\nthe Rood, and Andreas resemble closely in tone and style\\nthe signed work of Cynewulf, and have, therefore, almost\\nby common consent been regarded as the work of this\\nsinger. The evidence is wholly internal. For instance,\\nin the Vision of the Rood the poet declares that", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 65\\nThe Riddles, Gut Mac Andreas\\nSpotted with sins,\\nWounded sorely with vices, the glorious Tree\\nAs it blissfully shone, I saw worthily robed,\\nAnd with gold all adorned, nobly covered with gems.^\\nThe tree speaks to him, recounts its pathetic story, and\\nbegs him to tell the vision among men. From that mo-\\nment a change came to his life.\\nI have known\\nIn all my hours many an hour of longing\\nNow my life s comfort is that I may seek\\nThe Tree of Victory,\\nNow for defense I look but to the Cross.\\nI have not many precious friends on earth.\\nFrom the world s joys they have gone hence to seek\\nThe King of Glory. I now day by day\\nExpect the time when the Lord s Cross, that here\\nOn earth I once beheld, shall take me forth\\nFrom this weak life and bring me where is joy.^\\nNo one can fail to note the close similarity to Elene.\\nThe Riddles, of which there are ninety-three in all, have\\nbeen attributed to Cynewulf since, according to Leo and\\nother eminent scholars, the first of the series contains\\nthe poet s name in acrostic. If they are indeed Cyne-\\nwulf s, they must have been written early in life during\\nhis career as a wandering scop, and they thus furnish\\nconsiderable material for a biography of his early years.\\nOf the other poems ascribed to Cynewulf, Guthlac, The\\nPhoenix, 2^x6, Andreas alone need be mentioned. Guthlac,\\nlike Juliana, records the life and death of a saint. At\\nfirst it drags painfully, but at length its manner suddenly\\nchanges, and its ending is worthy of Cynewulf when at\\nhis best. The Ph(\u00c2\u00a3nix is an allegory. In the fabled bird\\nMorley s translation. Morley s translation.\\n5", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "66 The Foundations of English Literature\\nProbably Influenced by Cynewulf The Saga of yudith\\nthat Hved for a thousand years, then flew to the desert\\nwhere it was consumed by the heat only to rise re-created\\nfrom its own ashes, the poet saw typified the life and res-\\nurrection of Christ. The Andreas is a masterpiece fully\\nequal in power of conception and vigor of treatment to the\\nElene and the Christ. It is an account of the legendary\\nadventures of St. Andrew who voyaged to Mirmedonia\\nto rescue St. Matthew. The poet who wrote it was a\\npassionate lover of the sea; the salt breezes of the great\\nocean surge through it as they do through no other\\nAnglo-Saxon poem. It is strongly conceived and vigor-\\nously executed. It differs from the known work of\\nCynewulf in that its plot and mechanical construction\\nare carefully handled. It strikes the true epic note;\\nparts of it suggest Beowulf.\\nIn all these poems, save perhaps the Andreas^ we have\\nthe Cynewulfian subjectivity, the minor strain, the de-\\nfects in constructive art. If they belong to Cynewulf,\\nthey modify in no respect our previous estimate of the\\npoet formed from a study of the four signed poems.\\nThey enlarge the picture and add details, but they bring\\nno discordant elements. If they are not Cynewulf s, we\\ncan say with conservatism that they were influenced by\\nthe work of this singer; that they were done, perhaps, by\\ndisciples who followed carefully in the footprints of their\\nmaster.\\n[For the text of Andreas, see Baskervill s edition. Li-\\nbrary of Anglo-Saxon Poetry vol. iii.]\\nJudith. In the same manuscript with Beowulf there is\\nthe fragment of an old heroic saga which, all things con-\\nsidered, is the most remarkable production that we have\\nthus far seen. Only three of the original twelve cantos", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 67\\nThe Theme of Judith Its Dramatic Energy\\nremain, but by great good fortune these preserve the cli-\\nmax and the end of the poem. The author of Judith and\\nthe date of its composition are unknown. Concerning\\nfew things have Anglo-Saxon scholars differed so widely\\nalmost every date from 680 to the tenth century has been\\nassigned to it. Some have confidently claimed it as\\nCsedmon s, others have attributed it to Cynewulf, and\\nstill others to a writer of the Cynewulfian school. Pro-\\nfessor Cook propounds the rather plausible theory that\\nthe poem Judith was composed in or about the year\\n856 in gratitude for the deliverance of Wessex from the\\nfury of the heathen Northmen, and dedicated to the\\nadopted daughter of England, the pride, the hope,\\nthe darling of the nation. In the face of such diversity\\nof opinion, it is safe to say that we know nothing sure\\nabout the author or the era of the poem.\\nThe theme of Judith is taken from the Apocrypha.\\nThe Assyrian host under Holofernes is laying siege to the\\nHebrew city, and on the eve of triumph the great leader\\ngives a magnificent banquet to his lords. At its close,\\ndrunken to the verge of helplessness, he orders the\\nHebrew maiden Judith to be brought into his tent, and\\nthen falls into a drunken stupor. Judith has her enemy\\nwithin her power; she hews off his head and steals forth\\nwith the ghastly trophy into the Hebrew camp. The\\npoem closes with the reception of the heroine by her\\ncountrymen, the attack upon the enemy at daybreak, and\\nthe complete rout of the Assyrians.\\nMutilated as it is, this poem is one of the finest in the whole range of\\nAnglo-Saxon literature. The language is of the most polished and brilliant\\ncharacter the meter harmonious, and varied with admirable skill. The\\naction is dramatic and energetic, culminating impressively in the catastrophe", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "68 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe School at York Alcuin\\nof Holof ernes death but there is none of that pathos which gives Beowulf\\nso much of its power. The whole poem breathes only of triumph and war-\\nlike enthusiasm. In constructive skill and perfect command of his foreign\\nsubject the unknown author of Judith surpasses both Caedmon and Cyne-\\nwulf, while he is certainly not inferior to either of them in command of\\nlanguage and meter. Sweet.\\nRequired Reading. Cook s or Garnett s translation.\\nThe best edition of the text is Cook s.\\n/J., The Scholars of York\\n(Brooke, Ch. xxvi. West, Life of Alcuin,) In\\nBaeda s day the literary capitol of Northumbria and of\\nEngland had been the monastery of Jarrow, but no sooner\\nhad the great scholar died than the leadership passed to\\nYork. Here were collected the riches of Northumbrian\\nlearning and literature here under Archbishops Ecgberht\\nand ^thelberht was established what was in everything\\nexcept name the first English university. Its library was\\nthe best in Europe outside of Rome; its corps of instruc-\\ntors included the ablest scholars of their age its curric-\\nulum covered every realm of knowledge. It produced\\nan abundance of Latin works, and it copied out and\\npreserved the vanishing songs of the native singers.\\nThe books that afterwards were to be translated into\\nthe dialect of Wessex by Alfred and his school came\\nwithout a doubt from the great literary center of\\nYork.\\nThe brightest alumnus of this school was Alcuin, who\\nfrom infancy until middle age resided in its cloisters. It\\nwas at its highest point of prosperity in 782 but in this\\nyear, owing to the death of ^thelfrith and the departure\\nof Alcuin, its decline began. The great scholar left none", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 69\\nHe Rescues English Learning Literary Unproductiveness of Mercia\\ntoo soon. In less than ten years the Danes had made\\ntheir first descent upon the northern coasts. Soon they\\nhad overrun all Northumbria and had fallen with ferocity\\nupon the monasteries. It devolved upon Alcuin to bear\\nthe precious shoots of English learning across the Chan-\\nnel and to transplant them into continental soil, thus\\nsaving them from utter destruction. It belongs, says\\nBrooke, to the glory of England to say that it was an\\nEnglish scholar of York who exactly at the right time\\nbore off to the continent the whole of English learning,\\nand out of English learning built up a new world.\\nIII. The Era of Wessex (871-1016)\\nThe Middle Period, y8o-8ji. The kingdom of Mercia,\\nwhose rising power humbled Northumbria and whose\\nbrilliancy filled the eighth century in England, need not\\ndetain us, since it produced nothing of literary value.\\nDespite defeat and humiliation, the north still continued\\nto be the center of Anglo-Saxon letters; the school of\\nYork was never more brilliant than during the reign of\\nOffa, under whom Mercia reached its highest point. But\\nboth the political power of the Midlands and the intel-\\nlectual supremacy of the north were destined to a speedy\\nfall. The ninth century with its Danes was another era\\nof darkness. Its horror and uncertainty can hardly be\\nimagined. Throughout the whole of the ninth cen-\\ntury, says Allen, and the early part of the tenth the\\nwhole history of England is the history of a perpetual\\npillage. No man who sowed could tell whether he might\\nreap or not. The Englishman lived in constant fear of\\nlife and goods he was liable at any moment to be called", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "7o The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Story of Wessex West-Saxon Literature\\nout against the enemy. Whatever Httle civiHzation had\\never existed in the country died out altogether.\\nWessex. The story of Alfred and the kingdom of\\nWessex that unaided and alone broke the Danish wave\\nand gave to England a new era need not be dwelt upon.\\nThe great King brought order out of confusion he\\norganized a regular and well-discipHned army and he built\\nthe first English navy he made laws and enforced them\\nuntil perfect order reigned from the Thames southward\\nto the sea; he rebuilt the ruined city of London; he re-\\nstored communication with the continent; he reestab-\\nlished the Church, founded schools, and with his own\\nhand gave his countrymen the beginnings of a literature.\\nDuring his reign was born the kingdom of England.\\n958-975 Under the strong kings\\n^^^g^ who followed him the\\nrival provinces were\\nunited never again to be\\ndivided, and the founda-\\ntions of modern England\\nwere laid broad and deep.\\nThe power of Wessex gradually increased until the era\\nof Eadgar and Archbishop Dunstan, after which it\\nrapidly declined.\\nWest-Saxon Literature. Reasoning from the analogy of\\nNorthumberland and its literary greatness we might ex-\\npect to find in Wessex the golden era of Anglo-Saxon\\nliterature. The soldiers of vElfred had faced a peril as\\nawful as ever threatened England in the days of the\\nArmada they were victorious after a desperate struggle\\nby sheer English pluck and obstinacy they stood around\\na sovereign more worthy even than Elizabeth a hero of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 71\\nDecline of the Church A Worldly, Practical Age\\ncolossal mold they saw the fatherland which they had\\nhallowed with their blood taking a firm place, expanding,\\nand developing. The strong, exultant spirit of patriot-\\nism, of action, of a new view of their ultimate destiny,\\nwas fierce within them. England was thrilling with a\\nnew life, a new hope. But no literary outpouring re-\\nsulted, the fresh voice of the nation did not burst into\\nsong. The era was one of prose, of imitation, of transla-\\ntion, of paraphrase. It was not creative it turned into\\nits own dialect the songs that had burst a century before\\nfrom the heart of Northumbria.\\nThe causes for this literary inactivity were many. The\\nChurch was in a sad state of decay. The enthusiasm,\\nthe apostolic freshness and sincerity that had marked the\\nnorthern outburst of Christianity were wholly lacking.\\nThere had come the inevitable age of reaction. Asser\\ndeclared that during many previous years the love of a\\nmonastic life had utterly decayed from the nation, that\\nthey looked with contempt upon it. When Alfred\\ncommenced to reestablish the monasteries he had to\\nsend abroad even for the common brethren. But the\\ngrowth was a forced one, and it soon became full of cor-\\nruption. The life of the spirit being thus dead, and the\\nmonasteries, which in this age were the only libraries and\\nschools and centers of literary effort, having fallen to so\\nlow an ebb, it is not hard to account for the literary dead-\\nness of Wessex. It was a worldly, practical, material age\\nthat followed the era of song. Schools were founded for\\nthe laity, and learning became secular. Politics and the\\nstudy of practical things took the place so long occupied\\nby religion arid poetry. Prose treatises on medicine, law,\\nhistory, philosophy, began to appear. From first to last", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "]2 The Foundations of English Literature\\nOther Causes of Literary Decline King Alfred\\nit was an era of prose. As Caedmon, the earliest singer,\\ndominated the whole chorus of Northumbrian song, so\\nAlfred, the first West-Saxon writer, gave with his practi-\\ncal and business-like translations the keynote for the whole\\nliterature of Wessex. Then, again, the south was less\\npoetic than the north. The Celtic element the genius,\\nthe enthusiasm, the wild fancy of the Irish, who had so\\ninfluenced the Northumbrian poetry was conspicuously\\nabsent. The wild natural scenery of the north, which\\nwas in itself an inspiration, had no counterpart in Wessex.\\nThere is another reason which almost of itself might ex-\\nplain the absence of West-Saxon poetry. No poetic\\nschool can survive forever. The wild native note no\\nlonger satisfied; the mind of the nation was growing\\naway from the ancient forms. This appears even in the\\nlater Northumbrian poetry. It is more and more full of\\nexperiment: rhyme, the dropping of alliteration, the\\nvarying of line length, the introduction of new meters.\\nEverywhere in the little West-Saxon poetry that is\\nleft us is evident a groping for something new. But\\nthere was no new source of inspiration, and there arose\\nno great creator who could draw out of the depths of\\nhis own genius the materials for a new cycle of song.\\nIt was not until the romance of Southern Europe had\\nstirred the English heart that a new era began in English\\nliterature.\\nKing Alfred 8^g-Q0i)\\nThe most perfect character in history. Freeman,\\nAuthorities. The earliest Life of Alfred is by Asser,\\nthe King s constant companion (Bohn) the most scholarly\\nand critical Hfe is Dr. Pauli s (Bohn) the best popular", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature T})\\nHis Literary Ambitions His Translations\\nlife is Hughes the best for the ordinary student is\\nYork-PoweU s, in Heroes of the Nations.\\nIn far-seeing sagacity, in benevolent enterprise, in hard-\\nheaded common sense and worldly wisdom, King Alfred\\nreminds us of our own Benjamin Franklin. He was a liter-\\nary man for precisely the same reasons that he was a law-\\ngiver, a military and naval organizer, a builder of cities and\\nchurches, an educator. The destruction of the monas-\\nteries and the degradation of the people had blotted out all\\nlearning and literature a nation could attain to no height\\nof civilization without these, so the King with his own hand\\nsought to spread among all his subjects the works that in\\nhis opinion would be of greatest educational value.\\nNaturally the book that came first under the King s\\nhand, when once he had determined to make a literature\\nfor his people, was that work which for many centuries,\\neven to Chaucer s day, headed every list of best books,\\nthe Consolation of the Roman statesman and philos-\\nopher, Boethius. Alfred turned this goethius consoia-\\ninto a handbook of ethics and practical tion of philosophy.\\n.J TT J i.T_ t.1 r^u Baeda s Ecclesiastical\\nWisdom. He made it thoroughly Chris- History,\\ntian in sentiment; he removed from it all orosius universal\\nthat might perplex his English readers, Grego\u00c2\u00b0y^* Pastoral\\nand by changing its allusions to persons Care.\\nand places he gave it local color, so that the work,\\nalthough a translation, is almost Alfred s own. From\\nphilosophy it is but a step to history. His subjects\\nshould know the history of their own land. There was\\nbut one book that could tell the story, the monumental\\nwork of Bseda. Alfred edited the text with judicious\\ncare, having constantly in mind the needs of his people.\\nHe abridged, corrected, commented, and added with a", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "74 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Comments and Additions Translation of Cura Pastoralis\\nfree hand. From the history of England to a com-\\npendium of general history was a natural step. The best\\nuniversal history then available was that by Orosius, a\\nSpanish churchman, a work that had been written at the\\nrequest of Pope Gregory. With this Alfred took even\\ngreater liberties than with the Bseda. The impress of his\\npersonality is everywhere upon it nowhere can one get\\na more charming conception of the King, of his homely,\\nhonest character, his view of life, his earnestness, his\\nlimitations, than by comparing this translation with the\\noriginal. When he comes to Nero he comments freely\\nupon the evils of tyranny and the duties of kings; he\\ngives his conceptions of civil government and religious\\nduty; he makes naive remarks concerning persons and\\nevents, and he sets the historian right concerning such\\nthings as the geography of Iceland and of Caesar s marches\\nin Britain. In one place he breaks abruptly from the\\ntext to ^Wf^ a long account of the voyages of Othere and\\nWulfstan into the unknown seas to the north of Scandi-\\nnavia, as he had himself heard it from the lips of the\\nadventurers. Last of all, the King, realizing the low re-\\nligious ebb to which his people had come, made for their\\nspiritual nourishment a translation of Gregory s Cura\\nPastoralis. Upon this work the royal translator expended\\nthe greatest care. No book was more sadly needed. Its\\npicture of the ideal Christian pastor, of his humility, un-\\nselfishness, and unworldliness was in marked contrast\\nwith the actual Saxon churchman of the era. So zealous\\nwas the King in his work of reform that he prefaced his\\ntranslation with an earnest exhortation to the clergy, and\\ncommanded that one copy of the book be sent to each\\nbishop s see in the kingdom.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 75\\nHis Use of the Vernacular The Saxon Chronicles\\nIt is significant that ^Elfred, in thus striving to educate\\nhis people, made use wholly of the vernacular. The\\nDanish scourge gave new life to the English language.\\nThe English had learned out of sheer necessity to use\\ntheir own tongue, when continental nations were using\\nthe Latin. As a result, while the South of Europe was\\nspeaking broken Latin and building up Romance lan-\\nguages, England was speaking exclusively in her own\\ntongue, and her King, who earnestly desired to bring back\\nscholarship to his people, must do it in the vernacular or\\nnot at all.\\nThus did ^Elfred strive to promote in his kingdom\\nlearning, literature, and godliness. He realized fully the\\ncondition of himself and his subjects, and he could adapt\\nhis work to their needs. Thus it is that while his writings\\nare translations merely, they are nevertheless permeated\\nwith his personality, and they must be reckoned with as\\namong the most widely influential elements that have\\nentered into the building up of the English character.\\nSuggested Readings. Alfred s Boethius, with trans-\\nlation (Bohn ed.); Sweet s Extracts from yElfred s\\nOroshis, Clarendon Press; Preface to Gregory s Cicra\\nPastoralis, and Bseda s account of Caedmon in Mac-\\nLean s Old and Middle English Reader the Preface of\\nthe Pastoral Care^ with extracts from that work, and the\\nVoyages of Othere and Wulfstan, Bright s Anglo-Saxon\\nReader,\\n2, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles\\n(Earle, Ch. vii Two Saxon Chronicles Parallel, Plum-\\nmer and Earle.) As if fully conscious of the ultimate\\ngreatness of the nation of which they were the founders,\\nthe early Saxons, especially the men of Wessex, took", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "76 The Foundations of English Literature\\nTheir Great Value The Fight at Brunanburh\\ngreat pains to hand down a record of the deeds of the\\nfathers. The movement seems to have started in early\\nNorthumbria, perhaps with Baeda. There is much evi-\\ndence that the Worcester Chronicle, for instance, is but\\nan enlargement of a northern original. But we know\\nthat about the time of Alfred in all the leading monas-\\nteries books were kept in which annually were recorded\\nthe leading events of the year. Seven of these old\\nchronicles have come down to us, and it is needless to\\nsay that their value is inestimable that without them our\\nknowledge of the Anglo-Saxon era would be fragmentary\\nindeed. Altogether they cover the period between 449\\nand 1 1 54, at first drawing almost wholly from Baeda, then\\ncontinuing with short entries chiefly concerning kings and\\nbishops, and later, during the glorious era of Wessex,\\nswelling into really magnificent prose, varied here and\\nthere by an inserted battle poem, then falling off one by\\none until the Peterborough Chronicle alone remains to\\ncarry the story through the first century after the Con-\\nquest. There are many gaps in the narrative, long\\nperiods when all the chronicles are silent there are con-\\ntradictions and false or worthless assertions but on the\\nwhole the chronicles agree remarkably. It would be\\ndifficult to point to any texts, says Earle, through\\nwhich the taste for living history history in immediate\\ncontact with events can better be cultivated.\\nIn 937, instead of making the usual prose entry, the\\nchronicler burst into a metrical description of the battle\\nof Brunanburh. In this poem and the one on the battle\\nof Maldon, which took place in 991, we catch the last\\nfull strains of the Anglo-Saxon harp.\\nRequired Reading, Tennyson s translation of the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature\\nDecline of Learning and Morality in Wessex\\nFight at Brunanbitrh. See also translation of this and\\nthe Fight at Maldon, by Garnett, in Elene. For text of\\nthe poems see most Anglo-Saxon Readers and Crow s\\nMaldon and Brunanburh, Library of Anglo-Saxon Litera-\\nture, vol. iv.\\nJ. ^Ifric (c. g^^-c.i02o)\\nHe is the voice of that great Church reform which is the most signal fact\\nin the history of the latter half of the tenth century. Earle.\\nAuthorities. Ten Brink, Vol. i., pp. 133-140; Earle,\\nAnglo-Saxon Literature, ch. x. Skeat, ^Ifric s Lives\\nof the Saints, text and English translation Sweet, Se-\\nlected Homilies of u!Fllfric, Clarendon Press; Azarius,\\nDevelopment of Old English Thought, Ch. viii. White,\\n^Ifric, a New Study of his Life and Writings, with full\\nbibliography, Yale Studies.\\nThe Monastic Revival. The writers of Wessex fall\\ninto two schools the earlier group that gathered about\\nAlfred and occupied itself mainly with translations, and\\nthe later group that gave voice to the great era of Church\\nreform. The half century between Alfred and Eadgar\\nwas a time of material advancement; the kingdom of\\nWessex grew constantly in political power, but in learn-\\ning and morality it gradually waned. The spirit of re-\\naction against the fervent religious life of the early days\\nhad been aided by the Danish wars. Utter barbarism\\nhad swept over Northern England, destroying every\\nmonastery and every manuscript. The kingdom of Wes-\\nsex had thrown all of its energies into the life-and-death\\nstruggle with the invaders. Everything, even the\\nChurch, was forgotten in the fierce conflict. For a cen-\\ntury the English mind was busy with practical things:\\nproblems of defense, of organization, of finance, of ma-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "78 The Foundations of English Literature\\nArchbishop Dunstan ^Ifric\\nterial development. All of the nation s energies and\\nresources were demanded by its civil life. Despite the\\nefforts of Alfred, the Church gradually lost its power,\\nand as it declined, as it fell more and more into the\\nhands of small and unspiritual men, it became more and\\nmore a center of corruption. The rule enforcing celibacy\\nwas broken down; the education of the clergy, says\\nWhite, and consequently of the people, had fallen with\\ntheir morals and from the same causes. Everywhere\\nthe Church was drifting from the strict rules of the early\\ndays.\\nIt was at this point that a reformer arose, a strong,\\nfar-seeing man, who had gained from the throne almost\\nabsolute power. In thirty years, beginning in 959, Dun-\\nstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, completely reorganized\\nthe English Church. He turned out the secular clergy,\\nbuilt new monasteries, and infused a new spirit into\\nmonastic life; he insisted upon the strictest asceticism;\\nhe revived to some degree the old spirit of learning and\\nculture, and prepared the way for a new school of ecclesi-\\nastical writers who worked almost wholly in prose.\\ny^lfric. The central literary figure of the period was\\n^Ifric, an ecclesiastic of the new movement, a man who\\ncombined the earnestness and the simple, unselfish zeal\\nof Aldhelm and the early Christian workers with the\\npractical common sense of King Alfred and the school\\nof Wessex. Educated in the Benedictine monastery of\\nWinchester at the time when it was, perhaps, the literary\\nand intellectual center of England, ^Ifric had early been\\nturned toward a scholarly life. The atmosphere of reform,\\nof renewed holiness, and reawakened intellectual life that\\nso filled his age early affected him, and it aroused in him", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 79\\nHis Homilies His Prose Style\\nthe missionary spirit. First at Winchester, then at the\\nAbbey of Cernel, and finally at Eynsham, near Oxford,\\nwhere in 1005 he was made abbot, he devoted himself\\nwith all the enthusiasm and earnestness of a Baeda to\\nexhortation and teaching, to translation and literary pro-\\nduction, and to humble work among all classes. Like\\nAlfred, who in many respects was his predecessor, and\\nlike Wyclif, of whom he was the forerunner, he would\\nreach the poor and the ignorant. A few works he wrote\\nin Latin, but the most of his writings were for those\\nwho knew no tongue but their own. He made a Latin\\ngrammar, carefully adapting it to the needs of beginners,\\nhe translated parts of the Scriptures, he made compila-\\ntions from the works of Baeda, he translated lives of the\\nsaints, and he wrote a large mass of sermons, in all of\\nwhich he had constantly in mind the needs of the com-\\nmon people.\\nHis Homilies, eighty in number, charming little ser-\\nmons arranged for nearly every Sabbath and feast-day of\\nthe Christian year, are his best-known work. Few of them\\nare original they are adapted largely from St. Gregory\\nand the Church Fathers, and they seldom wander far from\\nthe originals. Their charm lies in their artlessness and\\ntheir wonderful adaptation to the audiences for which\\nthey were written. The author s first desire was to be\\nunderstood by all, hence his simplicity and clearness.\\nHis lesson came from his heart, hence the power and the\\nsweetness of his lines. They are readable even now with\\npleasure and spiritual profit.\\n^Ifric s writings form the link between the old native\\npoetry and the homely but strong native prose of Wyclif.\\nThe preacher would bring home to his simple hearers the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "8o The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Transition to Prose Influence of ^Ifric\\ngreat truths of holy writ he would make vivid to them\\nthe events of biblical history and the lives of the saints,\\nand he appealed to the strongest literary passion within\\nthem, the inborn love for the old Saxon minstrelsy.\\nHis prose is full of alliteration, of balanced structure, and\\neven of rhyme. We can imagine the preacher telling the\\ndeeds of saints in the half-musical recitative of the\\nold gleemen, and arriving at much the same result as did\\nthey. -^Ifric s lives of saints, says Morley, are\\nactually marked for rhythmical delivery by division into\\nlines convenient for recitation. They are not poems,\\nbut they bring to the Church a form of story-telling, ap-\\nplied to the lives of saints, that had been applied to the\\ndeeds of heroes in the mead-hall.\\nThe influence of ^Ifric, while not a great one, cannot\\nbe overlooked. His genius, like that of all the West-\\nSaxon school, was not creative he added little that was\\nstrictly original to the sum of English literature; what\\ninfluence he might have had as a stylist was well-nigh\\ndestroyed by the Norman Conquest, which relegated all\\nAnglo-Saxon culture to the background yet the pure\\nand earnest life of ^Ifric and the example of his clear\\nand simple English were not wholly lost. His Hom-\\nilies were copied again and again until long after the\\nConquest, and while it is impossible to estimate ac-\\ncurately the part that they played in the formation of\\nthe prose of Wyclif, we know that it was by no means\\ninconsiderable.\\nThe Era of Wessex^ then, despite the heroic efforts of\\nT^lfred and the temporary blazing up of the embers\\nduring the reign of Eadgar, was a period of gradual\\nliterary decline. The Anglo-Saxon literature stood com-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Saxon Literature 8i\\nThe Decline of Anglo-Saxon Literature\\nplete. It had begun in heat with a full, original note, but\\nthis had been repeated until it had become jaded and\\noutworn. It had listened to no melodies but its own, and\\nthe inevitable result had followed. Artistic prose was a\\nnew variation it satisfied for a time, but new themes and\\nnew tones must come at length, or English song must be\\nforever still. They came with appalling suddenness, in\\na way quite unlooked for. For two centuries and more\\nthe Anglo-Saxon voice was utterly silent, and when next\\nit was heard it proclaimed that the old era had forever\\npassed away and that a new and nobler one had begun.\\nSuggested Reading. The Creation and St. Cuth-\\nbert in Sweet s Selected Homilies of ^Ifric, Clarendon\\nPress.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "TABLE I. EARLY BRITAIN\\nCeltic\\nBritain.\\nFrom Prehistoric times\\nthe Roman Conquest.\\n43 A.D.\\nuntil\\n55 B.C. Caesar in Britain.\\nRoman\\nBritain.\\n43-409. Roman Domination.\\n409-449, Period of weakness.\\nThe withdrawal of the Ro-\\nmans left England the prey\\nof invaders.\\n55. Defeat of Caractacus.\\n61. Revolt of Boadicea.\\n78-84. Agricola.\\n409. Romans leave Britain.\\n410. Sack of Rome by\\nAlaric.\\n449-597. Anglo-Saxon Con-\\nquest. The Dark Period,\\nsince it blotted out Celtic\\nChristianity and since it is\\nunrecorded.\\n597-686. Christian Conquest,\\nAnglo-\\nSaxon\\nBritain.\\nStruggle for\\nthe\\nOverlordship\\n597-867.\\n588-685. Era of\\nNorthumbria.\\nFrom the be-\\nginning of the\\nkingdom to the\\ndeath of Ecg-\\nfrith.\\n685-828. Era of\\nMercia.\\n828-1016, Era\\nof Wessex.\\nThe appearance\\nof the Danes\\nended the\\nstruggle for\\nthe overlord-\\nship of Britain.\\n449-588, Era of settlement.\\n597. Augustine lands in\\nKent.\\n617-633. Eadwine of North-\\numbria, overlord,\\n670-685, Ecgfrith of North-\\numbria, overlord,\\n675-704. Ethelred of Mer-\\ncia, overlord.\\n716. Ethelbald of Mercia,\\noverlord,\\n758-796, Offa, Mercia at\\nits height,\\n787, Danes first land in\\nEngland.\\n828, Ecgberht of Wessex,\\noverlord of England,\\n866, First Danish settle-\\nment.\\n867. Danes conquer North-\\numbria.\\n871. Danes invade Wessex.\\n871-901, Alfred.\\n912, Northmen settle Nor-\\nmandy.\\n958-975. Eadgar. Wessex\\nat its height,\\n1013, All England submits\\nto the Danes,\\nAnglo-\\nDanish\\nBritain\\n1016-1042, England under\\nDanish kings. Since 866 the\\nDanes had been pouring into\\nEngland, until the island was\\nalmost as much Danish as\\nSaxon,\\n1016-1035, Cnut,\\n1035-1042, Harold\\nHarthacnut.\\nand\\nAnglo-\\nNorman\\nBritain.\\nFrom 1042, when Edward the\\nConfessor filled the English\\ncourt with Normans, until the\\ndays of Edward III., when\\nthe two races became finally\\nblended.\\n1042-1066, Edward the Con-\\nfessor,\\n1066-1087. William I.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "TABLE II. LITERATURE OF THE ANGLO-SAXON AGE,\\n449-1016\\nFrom the Settlement to tJie Danish Conquest\\nI. The Primal Poetry. Dates unknown.\\nFirst copied in Northumbria, per-\\nhaps by the School of York. Era\\nof the scop and gleeman.\\nII. The Northumbrian School. 680-\\n782. From Caedmon to the depar-\\nture of Alcuin from York.\\n1. C^DMON. d. 680.\\n2. The C^dmon Cycle. Codex Jun-\\niensis, Bodleian. Author sup-\\nposed to be Csedmon.\\n3. B^DA, 673-735. Wrote in Latin.\\nForemost scholar of his age.\\n4. Cynewulf. Known only through\\nrunes affixed to four Anglo-Saxon\\npoems. A few personal facts\\nknown through internal evidence.\\n5. The Cynewulfian Cycle. Un-\\nsigned poems supposed to have\\nbeen written by Cynewulf or his\\ndisciples.\\n6. The Author of Judith.\\n7. The Scholars of York. Best\\nknown figure, Alcuin.\\nThe complete wreck of Northumbria\\nby the Danes closed the era and\\ncreated a century of darkness.\\nIII. The Era of JVessex, 871-1016.\\nFrom Alfred to Cnut.\\n1. Alfred (849-goi). Tried by trans-\\nlation to give a vernacular litera-\\nture to his people.\\n2. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.\\nSeveral original songs inserted.\\n3. ^LFRic (c. 955-c. 1020). Revived\\nEnglish prose.\\nThe era was a minor one of transla-\\ntion. Few works showing crea-\\ntive power produced until long\\nafter the Norman Conquest.\\n83\\nBeowulf.\\nThe Fight a Finnesbruh,\\nWaldhere.\\nThe Wanderer.\\nThe Seafarer.\\nThe Lament of Deor,\\nSong of the Creation.\\nGenesis\\nExodus.\\nDaniel.\\nChrist and Satan.\\nEcclesiastical History of Eng-\\nland,\\nyuliana.\\nChrist.\\nFates of the Apostles.\\nElene.\\nRiddles.\\nGuthlac.\\nDescent into Hell.\\nThe Phoenix.\\nThe Vision of the Rood.\\nAndreas,\\nTranslations of Boethius,\\nBcsda.\\nOrosius.\\nGregory.\\nFight at Brunanburh.\\nMaldon.\\nHomilies.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII\\nNORMAN ENGLAND\\n1066- I 3 50\\nAuthorities, The standard authority is Freeman,\\nNorman Conquest the same author s Short History of the\\nNorman Conquest covers the same field in epitome. Valu-\\nable short studies of the Conquest are Johnson, The\\nNormans in Europe, in the Epoch series; and Hunt,\\nNorman England, The most useful histories of the Eng-\\nlish language are Lounsbury s and Emerson s.\\nThe Anglo-Saxon Era with its six centuries of isolation\\nstands as a unique phenomenon in European history.\\nWhen Italy and France and Germany were mere amor-\\nphous fragments of the Roman wreck, without individual-\\nity or fixed tongue, England had already evolved a marked\\npersonality, had supplied herself with a language, and\\nhad produced in it writings of surprising strength and\\nvariety. The Anglo-Saxon school of literature had\\narisen, flourished, and decayed before a single significant\\nnote had been sounded in the chorus of modern continen-\\ntal song. From every standpoint the era seems unique\\nand lonely. A century and more of complete literary\\nunproductiveness separated it from modern English\\nliterature, and when the silence was at length broken it\\nwas with a new tongue so unlike the old that the writings\\nof Caedmon and Alfred must now be read with lexicon\\nand notes, like those of a foreign land.\\nOn the Eve of the Conquest. Before leaving this well\\nrounded and most important era, let us for a moment\\n84", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "Norman England\\nPre-Norman England A Rude, Warlike People\\nlook over England and note the changes which had been\\nwrought by six centuries. The island was still a wild\\nand barbarous land. Great forests full of wolves and\\nwild boars and stags covered half its area, and in the\\neast and south, where now are fertile meadows, there\\nstretched vast sea-marshes screamed over by wild swan\\nand heron. The fierce sea-rovers of earlier centuries had\\nabandoned their ships and had settled down as landlords\\nand farmers, and, as in the days of Tacitus, flocks and\\nherds had become their chief wealth. Commerce, aside\\nfrom a small trade in hides and wool and slaves exchanged\\nfor a few articles of luxury, there was none. Only the\\nriver-bottoms and the richest lands had been reclaimed\\nfor agriculture. Roads, with the exception of rude paths,\\nwere confined to the neighborhood of towns. Trans-\\nportation was difficult, and communication with distant\\npoints was a work of time.\\nThe legal codes reveal to us a people but little changed\\nat heart from the fierce invaders of earlier days. They\\nwere still given to brawling and fighting and feuds, which\\nended often in blood. A statute had to be enacted to\\nmake it a crime to draw weapons in the public assembly.\\nMurder, as in the time of Beowulf, was atoned for by the\\npayment of blood-money according to the rank of the\\nvictim. The most severe penalties were connected with\\ntreachery to a lord. Woman was still protected and\\nhonored. As in the days of Tacitus, the stranger who\\napproached a dwelling without shouting or blowing his\\nhorn was declared an outlaw and slain. Despite six\\nhumanizing centuries, the Englishman was still coarse\\nand brutal, addicted to drunkenness, and, aside from a\\nsmall class mostly to be found in the monasteries, he was", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "86 The Foundations of English Literature\\nSocial Classes An Illiterate People\\nunlettered and grossly ignorant. He had added to that\\nwild barbaric freedom which had made the perfect union\\nof the different tribes almost impossible, an insular con-\\ntempt for all the world beyond his little domain.\\nOutside the cities, society fell roughly into three groups\\nthe gentleman class, eorls or thanes, a large division\\nwhich embraced all landholders from the great lord of\\nnoble birth down to the small landlord whose claim to\\ndistinction was the possession of five hides of land the\\nmiddle class, or churls, who worked the farms, who must\\ngo with the land they tilled, but who were allowed to\\nhold land of their own; and, last of all, the thralls or\\nslaves, remnants largely of the conquered Welsh, a de-\\ngraded class, of which Wamba in Ivanhoe is a true picture.\\nFundamentally the society of the era was a feudal one.\\nIt was a recognized law that every churl or thrall must be\\nattached to a lord or be declared an outlaw. The popu-\\nlation was divided into groups, great families, of which\\nthe thane was the head and his residence the center.\\nAround it were arranged the rude huts of thrall and\\nchurl, who not only tilled the land but carried on a\\nvariety of industries, so that the little community was\\nself-supporting and independent. Thus towns were\\nrendered unnecessary. The members of this group\\nusually passed their lives on the estate where they were\\nborn, seldom during their whole lives wandering beyond\\nits limits. With very few exceptions, churls and thralls,\\nand even thanes, were illiterate. The noble families\\nmight seek education, and even in later days send their\\nsons to the French schools, but the great majority could\\nneither read nor write. It must not be forgotten that\\nalmost all the literature produced in England up to", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "Norman England Sy\\nThe English Language The Viking Age\\nChaucer s day was written to be read or recited aloud to\\ninterested listeners who were themselves unable to read.\\nThe best land in the island was in the hands of the\\nmonasteries, whose stone walls, the only substantial\\narchitecture of the time, arose on every hand. These\\nvast estates were worked by the monks with diligence\\nand skill, so that the monasteries not only became self-\\nsupporting, but they yielded a surplus for trade. They\\nwere, moreover, manufacturing centers where skilled\\nworkmen congregated and wrought. Their influence\\nhas already been dwelt upon. The civilization of early\\nEngland rose and fell just in proportion as these centers\\nof intellectual energy waxed or waned.\\nThere was as yet no national language. The nature of\\nthe settlement of Britain and the provincial character of\\nthe early history of the island had encouraged dialects,\\ntraces of which exist even to this day. At the time of\\nthe Conquest three were prominent the Northern, the\\nMidland, and the Southern, corresponding generally with\\nthe chief provinces of the island. These dialects differed\\nwidely. A man of Devonshire could hardly understand\\na man of York. Which of these dialects was to win and\\nbecome the language of England For three centuries,\\neven until the days of Chaucer, the question remained\\nunanswered.\\nSuggested Reading. Klngsley s Her eward tke Wake\\nLytton s Harold, the Last of the Saxon Kings.\\nNormandy. (Du ChsiillUj The Viking Age.) The wave\\nof Scandinavian invasion which in the ninth and tenth\\ncenturies rolled with such disastrous results upon Britain,\\nfell with equal fury upon the lands across the Channel.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "88 The Foundations of English Literature\\nSettlement of Normandy The Norman Conquest\\nNo sooner was the great Charlemagne dead than the\\nblack ships of the Northmen began to appear off every\\ncoast from the Rhine to the Tiber. For two centuries\\nWestern Europe lived in a perpetual reign of terror.\\nBand after band of Vikings, saturated with slaughter,\\nsettled in the provinces of Gaul and quickly adopting\\nthe language and customs of the natives, were lost to\\nview. Southern Europe received a fresh infusion of\\nblood that was soon to put a new spirit into continental\\n888. Final Division of history. Only onc Northman band re-\\nchariemagne s Em- taincd to any degree its identity. The\\n888! ^koiio Besieges g^^^^ Viking leader, Rolf or Rollo, had\\nParis. sailed up the Seine as far as Paris, but,\\n^Franks.\u00c2\u00b0 bcatcn off there, had dropped down the\\n912. Normandy Grant- rivcr and taken possession of Rouen and\\n912. Riseof Germany, the adjacent territory. So strong was\\n962. Riseof Italy. j^ig position that the West Frank King,\\nCharles the Simple, made a treaty with him precisely as\\nAlfred had done with Guthrum in England, fixing the\\nbounds beyond which he might not go. Thus arose the\\nduchy of Normandy. The sea-rovers settled down as\\nlandlords and farmers; they married native wives, and\\nwith their usual versatility adopted the customs of the\\ncountry. The children of the second generation, trained\\nfrom infancy by French mothers, spoke the French\\ntongue, and within a century the Normans, as they were\\nnow called, had become in reality a French people.\\nThe Norman Conquest. Under the successors of Rollo,\\nNormandy became the leading province of France. It\\nextended its territory and under William, the seventh\\nduke, who proved to be one of the commanding figures\\nin the world s history, successfully opposed even the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "Norman England 89\\nThe Claims of William Importance of Understanding his Position\\nFrench king himself. But William s ambitions lay in\\nanother direction. For a long time a chain of circum-\\nstances had been forming to draw together England and\\nNormandy. The last of the Saxon kings before the\\nDanish interregnum had married Emma, daughter of the\\nthird Norman duke. Their son Edward, afterwards called\\nthe Confessor, was reared and educated in France,\\nwhither his father had fled upon the accession of Cnut,\\nand when he was called to take the English throne he\\nwent in reality as a prince who had inherited a foreign\\nkingdom. He filled his court with French nobles, to\\nwhom he gave many important offices and estates. From\\nfirst to last his reign was more Norman than English.\\nUpon his death, Duke William, the Norman ruler, an-\\nnounced himself as his legal successor, and the winning\\nof what the great Duke considered his just rights quickly\\nfollowed.\\nThe Norman Conquest cannot be rightly understood\\nwithout a careful consideration of William s position. He\\nconsidered himself not a usurper but the true heir to the\\nthrone. His chief claims were four in number: through\\nthe mother of Edward he was in the royal line; the King\\nhad solemnly sworn to name him as his successor; Har-\\nold had also sworn to support him in his claim the heir\\napparent had been set aside, and Harold, a perjurer, a man\\nnot of royal blood, had been elected King. Furthermore,\\nthe Pope had sanctioned the Duke s claim. However\\nflimsy these pretensions may seem to-day, to William they\\nwere real and amply sufficient. It is doubtful whether for\\na moment he questioned his legal right to the throne. In\\nevery action of his later life he bore himself like a true\\nand lawful king, who to gain his throne had to overcome", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "90 The Foundations of English Literature\\nObstinacy of the English Their Punishment\\na rebellion headed by a usurper. This fact alone stamps\\nthe Norman Conquest as radically different from all earlier\\ninvasions. In the guise of direct successor of Edward\\nand the Saxon line of kings, William could not displace\\nthe old institutions. He made no attempt to change\\nthe laws and the customs of the land or to alter the\\ncondition of the people otherwise than strictly according\\nto the ancient laws. Those who had opposed him in his\\nstruggle for the throne were rebels, and as such their\\nproperty was confiscate to the Crown. Those who had\\naided him deserved reward. If the greater part of the\\nland of England changed from Saxon to Norman hands\\nit was simply because the greater part of the Saxon\\nlandholders were disloyal to their King. Grant the absurd\\nclaim, so fully believed by William, and all the usurpation\\nand oppression that followed are logical and inevitable.\\nResults of the Conquest. The sullen obstinacy of the\\nEnglish character, its tenacity, its stubborn fierceness, its\\nunconquerable spirit even in the face of inevitable de-\\nfeat have never been more conspicuous than during the\\nstruggle with William. The battle of Hastings was only\\nthe beginning. With marvelous energy the King crushed\\ndown opposition; he moved without hesitancy; he pun-\\nished with frightful severity he blotted out entire com-\\nmunities and confiscated whole shires yet the English\\nfought sullenly on. It was this unparalleled stubbornness,\\nthis dogged refusal to submit to the inevitable, that makes\\nthe Norman Conquest seem like the destruction of all\\nlandmarks. The island indeed passed through a furnace.\\nAt the close of William s reign the old nobility had well-\\nnigh disappeared. The land was in the hands of Norman\\nlords, whose great castles with their massive square towers", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "Norman England 91\\nResults of the Conquest Evil Elements Introduced\\narose from every estate society had practically reduced\\nitself to two classes, Normans and Saxons. The old\\nthanes had been thrust down, and the slaves had in reality\\nbecome free, for the new lords made no distinctions. All\\nwho spoke the English tongue were looked upon with\\ncontempt they were the ignorant masses who deserved\\nneither consideration nor law. French was the language\\nof court and hall French ideas and French songs, save\\nin the hovels of the poor and about the hearthstones of\\na few who had known better days, ruled supreme.\\nWilliam s temperament was cold and merciless: he did\\nfew things in heat he could cut like a surgeon to the\\nvery heart of things, heedless of present agony, mindful\\nonly of the future. The treatment was heroic, but it\\nmade England what she is to-day. In reality the great\\nKing cut away only weak elements. The curse of Eng-\\nland from earliest times had been disunion the fire that\\nWilliam kindled welded the island forever into a unity.\\nThe Conquest taught the English for the first time the\\nmeaning of discipline it cut them forever from the bar-\\nbarous North, and by bringing them into contact with\\nthe continent, modified to some degree their insular nar-\\nrowness. It brought a fresh infusion of Celtic blood\\nwhich tempered the sullen Northern gloom, and added\\nvivacity and culture without weakening at all the stronger\\nelements in the national character. Moreover it changed\\nand strengthened the national tongue and the national\\nliterature.\\nBut not all the changes brought in by William were\\ndestined to bear good fruit. The Conquest firmly estab-\\nlished feudalism in England. The King gave confiscated\\nlands as rewards for personal service, but he considered", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "92 The Foundations of English Literature\\nEnglish Feudalism Norman Traits\\nthe acceptance of these estates as a pledge for future serv-\\nice. Thus arose the barons, an active, warlike class des-\\ntined to become a dominant factor in English history until\\nafter the Wars of the Roses. Each baron had jurisdic-\\ntion over a large district in the midst of which stood his\\ncastle, erected by Saxon toil. The inhabitants were ac-\\ncountable chiefly to the baron, in whose complete power\\nthey were the baron was accountable only to the king.\\nThe villeins could do nothing without their lord s con-\\nsent; they paid their rents by laboring upon his land\\nwhenever he called, and they were to be ever ready to do\\nhis will in case of war. They had little hope of bettering\\ntheir condition they received no education they were\\npunished most frightfully for the smallest infringement of\\nthe laws; they were secure in nothing. The baron and\\nhis friends, while on their hunts, galloped through and\\nthrough the Saxon s grain, and he in return must refresh\\nand entertain them without recompense when they called\\nat his door. The Conquest put an end to real slavery in\\nEngland, but it left the great majority of the English-\\nspeaking race in a condition but little removed from\\nbondage.\\nNorman Traits. Since the Norman was the last im-\\nportant element to enter the crucible from which emerged\\nthe English personality, it will be necessary to consider\\ncarefully his characteristics and his attainments. He\\nbrought to England nothing radically new. In blood he\\nwas allied in different degrees to all the peoples of Brit-\\nain. In political ideas, says Hunt, in culture, and\\nin habits of social life England was in advance of her\\nconquerors. The Normans had little originality; they\\nadopted everywhere the institutions and the customs of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "Norman England 93\\nA Masterful Race The Successors of William\\nothers. In England they yielded in time to their own\\nservants, and gave up their institutions and even their\\nlanguage. They had no original literature, no arts, no\\nrefinement, of their own. They were religious but not\\nmoral; they founded churches everywhere and obeyed\\npunctiliously the demands of the Church, but they knew\\nnothing of practical morality. In marked contrast with\\nthe Saxons, they degraded woman. They condemned\\nthe English habits of gluttony and drunkenness, but after\\na brief period they fell into the same vices themselves.\\nHow, then, could the Normans add strength to the\\nEnglish character Because they opened a permanent\\nchannel between England and the Romance world but\\nchiefly because, despite their failings, they furnished the\\nbest possible alloy, or rather flux, for the English char-\\nacter. The Norman was a blend of the North with\\nthe South, unlike either of the original elements, richer\\nand stronger, as copper and tin blend into bronze. The\\nNorman energy, indomitable vigor, and love of adventure,\\ntogether with the Norman heaviness, coarseness, and\\ngloom, found as its complement the Gallic culture, its bril-\\nliancy, nimble fancy, and lightness, its impulsiveness, its\\nroseate view of life. Seldom has there been a better mar-\\nriage than that between the Northman and the Gaul. It\\nresulted in the new type whose characteristics we have dis-\\ncussed, an intensely active, masterful, buoyant race, the\\nsoul of the Crusades, the dominating element in later Eu-\\nropean history. It was just the metal needed in the Eng-\\nlish crucible. It fused the whole mass into a stable unity.\\nThe Later Kings. During the century covered by the\\nfour Norman kings feudalism in England reached its\\nhighest point. The barons strove to divide the island", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "94 The Foundations of English Literature\\nTheir Imperious, Active Reigns The Early Plantagenets\\ninto a number of vast estates, over each of which there\\nmight be an absolute ruler, a dream which if realized\\nwould have made England a perpetual\\nWilliam, 1066-1087. TU c ^u n\\nWilliam Rufus, -iioo. battk-ground. The sons of the Con-\\nHenry,-ii35. qucror werc virtually despots; they were\\nStephen, -1154. -.t,\\nsmall, mean men m comparison with\\ntheir father, but they had inherited in full measure his\\nimperious, active temperament, and this alone saved Eng-\\nland. They curbed the barons with ruthless hand, and\\nfor a time at least they brought the crown into close\\ncontact with the English masses. The two races were\\nbrought a step nearer each other by the marriage of\\nHenry I. to the Saxon Princess Matilda. As the years\\nwent by, more and more of the Norman nobility took Eng-\\nlish wives, and thus silently and slowly the two factions be-\\ngan to fuse into one people. The fierce rule of William and\\nhis sons established the unity of England. Had a feeble\\nsovereign, like Stephen, succeeded the Conqueror, the re-\\nsult would have been hopeless anarchy and confusion.\\nThe century and a half covered by the early Plantag-\\nenets is the most picturesque era in EngHsh history. It\\nHenry II., 1154-1189. was a time of storm and change, of great\\nRichard I -1199. j^gj^ heroic deeds. It resounds with\\nJohn, -1210.\\nHenry III., -1272. the shouts of Crusadcrs and glitters with\\nEdw d n::-x\u00c2\u00b032 7. the trappings of knights and the splendors\\nEdward III,, 1377- of toumaments. Over it all hangs the\\nromantic haze of the Middle Ages, rendered yet more\\nromantic by novelist and poet. It was a time of rapid\\ntransition. During this era the tough elements in the\\nEnglish cauldron fused into their final form. Gaul and\\nTeuton blended at last into one; Anglo-Saxon and\\nRomance hardened into EngHsh. The era was opened", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "Norman England 95\\nGradual Blending of Saxon and Norman\\nby Henry of Anjou, the grandson of Henry I., an organ-\\niser well-nigh as great as the Conqueror. Under his strong\\nhand the barons, who had broken over all bounds during\\nthe reign of Stephen, were curbed and conquered. He\\ndestroyed no less than eleven hundred castles, which like\\nfoul growths of the night had sprung up over all the\\nland. He enforced without mercy, even upon churchman\\nand noble, the full penalties of the old English law. It\\nwas the vigorous reign of Henry that gave the death-\\nblow to English feudalism. For centuries, even until\\nafter the Wars of the Roses, the rubbish of this great\\nruin encumbered the land, but it was no longer a living\\nand growing organism. The kingdom was soon bound\\nmore firmly together by the struggle that now arose be-\\ntween England and Anjou and that culminated during\\nthe romantic reign of Richard the absentee, who was\\nin every respect a foreigner. England became a mere\\nprovince of Anjou Norman and Saxon had a common\\ncause, and they fought shoulder to shoulder for their\\ncommon fatherland. Under John and Henry HI. the\\nstruggle was renewed. All were English now, fighting\\nagainst foreign favorites and the whole outside world.\\nThe Magna Charta, which was a victory for the old Eng-\\nlish liberties wrested by the combined force of Norman\\nand Saxon from a tyrannical king, broke down the last\\nbarrier. Soon it was no longer possible to tell who was\\nNorman and who was Saxon, for all were Englishmen.\\nSuggested Readings. Scott s The Talisman (1193);\\nIvanhoe (1194); Shakespeare s King John (1199-1216);\\nJane Porter s Scottish Chiefs (1297); Scott s Castle\\nDangerous (1306); Lord of the Isles (1307); Marlowe s\\nEdward II (1327).", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII\\nANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE\\nAuthorities. Morley, Vols. ii. and iii. Ten Brink,\\nBk. i. Craik, English Literature and Language, Vol. i.\\nSaint sbury, Flourishing of Romance EXW.s^ Early English\\nMetrical Romances (Bohn); Rhys, Studies in the Arthur-\\nian Legend.\\nThe Barren Period. The old native literature which\\nhad shone so brilliantly during the Northumbrian era,\\nwhich had reflected its Hght upon the Wessex of Alfred,\\nand which had flickered fitfully under the hands of Dun-\\nstan and ^Ifric, went out entirely at the first shock\\nof the Conquest. A solitary spark, the Peterborough\\nChronicle, smoldered sullenly on amid the waste, but\\neven that went out in the last year of Stephen. For a\\ncentury and a half the field of vernacular literature lay in\\ndarkness. This barren waste in English literary history,\\nwhich covers the whole Norman period and a large part\\nof the Angevin, is easily accounted for. At the coming\\nof William to England, the Church of the island, which\\nincluded almost the entire literary class, opposed him\\nand thus felt the full force of his crushing policy. The\\nwriters of books disappeared they were cut down they\\nbecame wanderers and outcasts, and in their places came\\nNormans and Frenchmen. The Church and with it all\\nother centers of culture passed at once into the hands of\\nforeigners. There was no attempt to thrust upon the\\npeople the language of the conquerors, but since the\\nNorman held court and hall and church, French became\\n96", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Norman Literature 97\\nLater Chroniclers William of Malmesbury\\ninevitably the polite language of Britain, while the Eng-\\nlish became the tongue of the masses, of the unlettered\\nand the poor.\\nThe Later Chroniclers. The first-fruits of the Conquest\\nwere Latin chronicles. The Norman bishops whom\\nWilliam had distributed over England Florence of worces-\\nwere scholarly men. They revived learn- ^9-\\nGeoffrey of Mon-\\nmg m the monasteries, and to some mouth, 1128.\\ndegree they awakened a new literary ^iiiiam of Maimes-\\nbury, 1142.\\nenthusiasm. The old Saxon passion for oderic vitaiis, 1150.\\nchronicles was revived and directed, as in ^l Hunting-\\ndon, 1154.\\nBaeda s day, into Latin channels. No Roger de Hoveden,\\nless than a score of these old records have ,,J^.\u00c2\u00b0^,\\nWilliam of Ne w-\\ncome down to us. They were no longer burgh, 1208.\\nanonymous as in the days of Wessex; the writers had\\nmore of the spirit of the modern historian. They broke\\naway, many of them, from the dry annalistic forms of\\nthe ecclesiastical chroniclers and took broad views of their\\nsubjects. They delved, like Baeda, into contemporary\\ndocuments, striving constantly for fulness and accuracy\\nto a large degree they divested themselves of religious\\nprejudice; they even grasped the philosophic import of\\nmeasures and periods, and they narrated their stories in a\\nlively, interesting way. Perhaps the greatest of the\\ngroup was William of Malmesbury, who wrote a history\\nof England from 449 to 1143, a work of the utmost value\\nto the student of this period.\\n(Nearly all of these chronicles, many of them with\\ntranslations, may be found in Bohn s Antiquarian\\nLibrary.)\\nThe Flourishing of Ro7nance. From the chronicle of\\ncold fact it was but a step to the record of legend and", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "gS The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Rise of Romance Influence of the Crusades\\nthe whole wide province of romance. Geoffrey of Mon-\\nmouth had written as real history the half-mythical tales\\nof the Celtic Arthur and the enchanter Merlin. In the\\nearlier days these would have rested unchanged, as did\\nthe romantic episodes in Baeda, but a new spirit was in\\nthe air. The twelfth century in Europe was electric with\\nromance. Where originated this new spirit which for two\\ncenturies and more was to dominate European song,\\nand who gave the final impulse, whether Scandinavian,\\nArabian, or Celt, is a problem for scholars. We know,\\nhowever, that the new movement, whatever its parent-\\nage, was nurtured and developed by the Crusades. Men\\nfrom every nation were thrown together; thousands who\\nhad never before left their native province hurried into\\nfar lands, came in contact with ancient civilizations, lived\\nfor a time in a whirl of romantic action, in the dreamy\\nOrient. They learned to their amazement that those\\nwhom they had looked upon as barbarians possessed a\\nculture and a civilization finer, perhaps, than their own;\\nthat the despised East had a chivalry and a religious\\ndevotion that could satisfy the highest Western ideals.\\nThey returned to Europe with a new horizon, and they\\ntold tales which to their less adventurous hearers were\\nlike the fabric of dreams. The Crusades quickened the\\npulse of Europe and set on fire its imagination. In the\\ntwelfth and thirteenth centuries the Western world had\\nalmost no literature save the epic romance. It was the\\nera of the troubadours in Provence, of the trouveres in\\nNorthern France, of the minnesingers in Germany, of\\nthe Scaldic singers in the North with their eddas and\\nsagas. It produced the Gesta Romanorum, The Nibe-\\nlungenliedj The Romance of the Rose, and the cycle of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Norman Literature 99\\nThe ArthurianLegend Walter Map\\nArthurian poems which has so cast its j^^j^^^.^ j^\u00e2\u0080\u009e^^, ^-a,.\\nspell over later English literature. It was\\nTennyson s Idyls of\\nthis warm breath from the South that the King.\\nstirred again to life the ruins of Engish Amoid-s Tristram and\\nIseult.\\nsong. But there was to be a lingering Morris Defense of\\nspringtime. Not until there came a sec- Q^ e^t s ^Medin.\\nond impulse from over the sea in Chau- Swinburne s Arthur-\\ncer s day did the field burst into bloom.\\nT/ie Legend of Arthur, The new literature had come\\nearly to England. In court and hall during all the Nor-\\nman era trouveres and jongleurs had sung in French the\\nromances of Roland and of Charlemagne. Doubtless\\nmany of the Cha7iso7is de Geste were made by Norman\\nsingers on English soil. But the movement was not\\nnational; it came late to the people, and the medium\\nthrough which it came at last was the legend of Arthur.\\nThe romantic history of Geoffrey of Monmouth in 1155\\nwas turned into old French verse by the Norman Wace,\\nand thus it passed at once into the current of romance.\\nThe Charlemagne cycle was fast losing its charm, and\\nthe Arthurian legend, caught up by Breton minstrels, at\\nonce replaced it. During the reign of Henry II. the\\nlegend was entirely reorganized, perhaps by WALTER\\nMap (b. 1137), a French-speaking native of the Welsh\\nborder and a prominent member of the King s court.\\nThe new poet, and he must rank with the greatest liter-\\nary creators of all time, threw over the Arthur story\\nthe twilight glow, the religious fervor of the Crusade era.\\nHe added the episode of the Holy Grail, and so trans-\\nformed the entire legend that he may almost be said to\\nhave created it. He molded it into a unity and gave\\nit a spiritual purpose. The cycle has been changed", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "loo The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Transition to English Norman-French Translations\\nonly in minor details since it left the hand of this great\\nmaster.\\nThe Renaissance of the Vernacular. It is a significant\\nfact that the first important poem in English written\\nafter the Conquest, or indeed after the days of Dunstan,\\nwas inspired by a Norman-French version of the Arthur\\nlegend. Wace had turned the Latin work of an English\\nmonk into French epic verse for the amusement of those\\nwho spoke no English, and now Layamon, another native\\nmonk, was to complete the circle by translating Wace\\ninto English, that those who spoke no French might\\nshare the enjoyment of the new literature heretofore\\nconfined to court and hall. The Brut of Layamon is\\nalmost purely Saxon in its diction, and prevailingly\\nSaxon in its metrical arrangement, but it nevertheless\\nshows most clearly the workings of the new leaven that\\nfor a century and more had been permeating England.\\nThat the poet left out almost entirely the vigorous verse-\\nring, the poetic compounds, the fire and thrill of the old\\ngleemen, may perhaps be explained by the fact that he\\nwas an inferior singer. But despite its Saxon garb the\\npoem is Norman in its turn of expression, its frequent\\nrhymes, its intellectual horizon, and its view of life. The\\nAnglo-Saxon harp, though uncaptured by the conquerors,\\nwas being retuned to the Norman pitch. That this was\\ntrue is shown by the popularity of the Brut and its im-\\nmediate successors in the same field. Great numbers of\\nEnglish poems rapidly followed, all of them imitated or\\ntranslated from the Norman-French, like The Owl and\\nthe Nightingale, Havelok the Dane, Guy of Warwick,\\nFloris and Blanchefleur, and many others. Beginning\\nabout 1250, they continued for nearly a century to be", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Norman Literature loi\\nA Period of Rapid Change Literary Products in English\\nthe most voluminous and popular productions of the\\nperiod.\\nBut the new inspiration for which the Anglo-Saxon\\nliterature had so long waited came when the people and\\nthe language were powerless to produce a new school of\\noriginal writers. England, although a political unity,\\nwas a confusion of tongues. The French was yielding\\nto English as a spoken language, but the English was in\\nan unstable condition. During the century and a half in\\nwhich it had been a vulgar tongue, unwritten and unfash-\\nionable, it had become corrupted and changed. It had\\nlost its inflections and modified its constructions. When\\nonce the two races had begun to unite, the change had\\nbeen very rapid. The French began to pour into\\nEnglish, says Marsh, the greatest infusion of foreign\\nwords and foreign idioms which any European tongue\\never received from a foreign source. Besides this there\\nwere three widely different dialects of English, and it\\nwas uncertain as yet which was to win. A distinctly\\nnational literature was impossible in such a language;\\nand even were it possible, the people were not yet suf-\\nficiently welded into a unity to bring about such a con-\\nsummation. It was not until the days of Edward III.\\nthat the English nation awoke to the realization of\\nfatherland and to the consciousness of a glorious future,\\nwhich for the first time made a really national literature\\npossible.\\nIn the meantime all literary effort was sporadic, but\\nthe product was more and more in the English tongue.\\nIn the Midland dialect, in addition to the Bru^, was\\nwritten the Ormulum, a series of metrical homilies, which,\\nalthough exceedingly valuable to the philologist, are", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "I02 The Foundations of English Literature\\nA Period of Preparation Rise of Universities\\nalmost destitute of literary value; in the Southern dialect\\nwe have the rhyming Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester,\\nand The Ancren Riwle, or Rules for Nuns and the North\\nhas preserved for us such writings as the Cursor Mundi\\nand The Prick of Conscience, These works only empha-\\nsize the fact of the utter barrenness of the era from the\\nConquest to Edward III. From a merely literary stand-\\npoint not a single work was produced of the first or even\\nof the second rank. It was a period of preparation, of\\ntransition it built up a language and molded a people,\\nbut left behind it no finished art. The creation of the\\nArthurian legend opened a vast quarry from which suc-\\nceeding poets have drawn materials for imposing struc-\\ntures, but the era produced no masterwork. It furnished\\ntools and raw material and inspiration for later workers,\\nbut it was powerless to do more.\\n(See Morris* Specimens of Early English^ Part L, 1150-\\n1300.)\\nThe Rise of Universities. The Crusades not only\\nstirred the imagination of Europe and enlarged its hori-\\nzon, but, by revealing the treasures of Oriental scholarship,\\nthey gave a new impulse to Western education. They,\\nmore than any other influence, caused the rapid rise of\\nuniversities in the twelfth century. By the end of the\\ncentury the universities of Paris, Bologna, and Salerno\\nwere preeminent, and it was through Paris that the new\\nimpulse entered England. During the Norman era, when\\nBritain and France were in close contact, the wealthy\\nclasses had sent their sons across the Channel for the\\neducation that the island could not furnish them. The\\nstream grew ever greater, until in the days of Henry II.\\nthousands of English learners sat at the feet of Abelard", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "Anglo-Norman Literature 103\\nIntolerance of the Universities Roger Bacon\\nand other masters who gathered at the University of\\nParis. The return of these scholars did much to stimu-\\nlate English learning. Oxford and Cambridge, old\\ncenters of monastic training, burst into vigor as universi-\\nties, and by the opening of the fourteenth century took\\nrank even with Paris and Salerno.\\nThe university movement, however, which promised\\nfor a time to produce a new intellectual era, accomplished\\nlittle. It was but a rattling of dry bones. There could\\nbe no intellectual advancement where the student must\\nnever leave the circular rut worn by ages of scholastic\\nfeet. Originality was heresy. With literature in the\\nvernacular the schools could have no sympathy. The\\ngreat intellectual and literary movement of Chaucer s day\\ngot from them discouragement rather than help indeed,\\nwhen we inquire into the causes for the quick decline of\\nthis most briUiant era, and the long succeeding era of\\ndarkness, we find the universities a prominent factor.\\nAnd yet this great scholastic movement cannot be\\noverlooked. It produced the ferment from which grew\\nthe Reformation, and it produced also the most com-\\nmanding intellectual figure of the era, Roger Bacon,\\nwho stands at the portals of modern science. But\\nBacon s great Latin work, at once the encyclopaedia\\nand the Novum Organum of the thirteenth century,\\nneed not be discussed here, since it belongs not to litera-\\nture but to pure science.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "TABLE III. LITERATURE OF THE NORMAN PERIOD,\\n1066-13 50\\nLatin and French.\\nlatin chronicles.\\n1 1 19. Florence of Worcester.\\n1 128. Geoffrey of Monmouth,\\n1 142. William of Malmesbury.\\n1 1 50. Oderic Vitalis.\\nII 54. Henry of Huntingdon.\\n1202. Roger de Hoveden.\\n1208. William of Newburgh,\\nand others.\\nANGLO-NORMAN ROMANCE.\\nWalter Map (d. 12 10).\\nDe Nugis Curialium (Court\\nGossip in Latin).\\nGoldias.\\nLancelot du Lac.\\nQueste de St. Graal.\\nMort Artus.\\nVarious Romances of Arthur.\\nThe story of Arthur in the\\nLatin Chronicle of Geoffrey of\\nMonmouth was expanded and\\nturned into French by the Nor-\\nman Wace, whose work in turn\\nwas translated into English by\\nLayamon. Map added other\\nepisodes to the romance.\\nEnglish.\\nNorthern. Cursor\\nMundi.\\nThe Prick of Con-\\nscience.\\nMidland. Chron-\\nicle, 1123-1131.\\nChronicle, ii54.\\nOrmulum, 1200.\\nGenesis and Exo-\\ndus, 1230-1250.\\nHarrowing of\\nHell, c. 1350.\\n(Earliest Eng-\\nlish drama).\\nRobert of Brunne.\\nSouthern. Cotton\\nHomilies, 1 1 50.\\nHatton Gospels,\\n1 1 70.\\nLayamon s Brut,\\n1203.\\nAncr en Riwle,\\n1220\\nRobert of Glouces-\\nter, 1300.\\nAyenbite, 1340.\\nTranslations of\\nFrench Romances,\\n1250-1350.\\nNicholas of Guild-\\nford s The Owl and\\nthe Nightingale.\\nSong of Horn.\\nHavelok the Dane,\\n1270-1280.\\nGuy of Warwick.\\nFloris and Blanche-\\nfleur.\\nKing Alexander\\nRichard Cceur de\\nLion.\\nSir Gawayne and the\\nGreen Knight, c.\\n1360.\\nGeste Historyal of\\nthe Destruction of\\nTroy, 1360,\\nand many others.\\n104", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX\\nTHE AGE OF CHAUCER (l)\\n1350-14OO\\nI. Chaucer s England\\nAuthorities. Browne s Chaucer s England, which un-\\nfortunately is now out of print, is of great value to the\\nstudent of the era, as is also Jusserand, Piers Plowman.\\nGreen, Shorter History Warburton, Edward III. and\\nGairdner, Houses of Lancaster and York in the Epoch\\nSeries Morley, English Writers, Vols. iii. and iv. Ten\\nBrink, Vols. i. and ii. Marsh, English Language;\\nCraik, English Literature and Language and Morris\\nand Skeat, Specimens, Part ii., 1 298-1 393, are invaluable\\naids. For a more complete bibliography, see Skeat,\\nPiers the Plowman, Clarendon Press Ed., p. xlviii., and\\nWelsh, English Masterpiece Course.\\nUnion. In 1350 the people of England could look\\nback to the days of William the Conqueror over a stretch\\nof nearly three centuries, as long a period as from the\\npresent back to the days of Elizabeth, ere a single Eng-\\nlish home existed in the new world. The passions and\\nthe problems of that early day had faded into story and\\nlegend the distinction between Norman and Saxon had\\nlong ago been forgotten, but despite all this the English\\nwere not yet a perfectly homogeneous people. There had\\nbeen two well-nigh insurmountable obstacles in the way\\nof complete union. During a large part of the era the\\nkingdom had embraced a goodly section of continental\\n105", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "io6 The Foundations of English Literature\\nRemoval of Obstacles Obstinacy of the English\\nEurope, and under such conditions a united nationality\\nwas impossible. Nature herself had placed the barrier to\\nsuch a union. Caesar and Swein had struggled against it\\nin vain, and the successors of William were to succeed no\\nbetter. England must work out her problem alone or\\nnot at all. John s fortunate loss of the French province\\nremoved at last this great obstacle, but it left still another\\ndifficulty in the way of union, the obstinate conserva-\\ntism of the English masses. A sober, industrious, un-\\neducated peasantry is ever a slow-moving body add the\\nadjective English and you increase the inertia ten-\\nfold. The final fusion of the two peoples was doubtless\\ninevitable, but it proved to be an almost interminable\\nprocess. The English yielded not at all; almost every\\nconcession came from the ruling class. They made the\\nfirst move they went half way and more they gave up\\nindeed nearly everything that was essentially their own.\\nOnly when the change was well-nigh complete did the\\nSaxons relent. Then for a time there was a period of\\nbreaking and building such as no other European lan-\\nguage has ever experienced. But the changes were\\nlargely external. The English language is to-day in\\nfoundation and framework strictly Anglo-Saxon, and the\\ninstitutions and laws of the land are fundamentally Teu-\\ntonic facts which testify most eloquently to the strength\\nand tenacity of the Saxon race.\\nThe final union of the English people and the shaping\\nof their language into its ultimate form took place during\\nthe reign of Edward III. So sharply defined was this\\nconsummation that it can be definitely located within\\nthe limits of one generation.\\nA Literary Outburst. During the thirty-two years be-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 107\\nA Literary Outburst Causes for the Era of Chaucer\\ntween 1362 and 1393 there were produced in England\\nLangland s Piers the Plowman, that ear- ,35,. Langiand sPiers\\nliest voice from the downtrodden masses thePiowman. a\\nWycHf s great Bible, the first complete .gJe^ ^chaucer s ro-\\ntranslation of the Book into any Teutonic maunt of the Rose.\\nr^ y r /I 1 1370 -1378. Wyclif s\\ntongue; Cjower s Lonfessio Amantts, and Bible.\\nalmost the entire works of Geoffrey ^387. The canter-\\n_,- 1 bury Tales.\\nChaucer, who ranks as one of the great 1393. Gower-s confes-\\npoets of the race. Back of this opening: sioAmantis.\\ndate lies a dreary mass of ecclesfastical ^Tt ^auff r\\nbabblings and an interminable drone of Mandeviiie.\\nmetrical romance after French models. The French\\ncritic Jusserand has admirably characterized this poetry\\nThe poet sleeps and his slumber is peopled by dreams. He dreams de\\nomni re scibili, and it takes his whole existence to tell all he has seen nay\\none lifetime does not always suffice he dies, having been unable to write\\nmore than five thousand verses, and another poet must come and sleep in\\nhis stead, in order to finish in eighteen thousand lines the dream commenced\\nforty years before. This happened to Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de\\nMean, authors of the Roman de la Rose.\\nThat this drowsy, chaotic field of dreams should sud-\\ndenly burst into full life and bloom, produce new forms\\nof beauty of wonderful variety and of lasting fragrance,\\nseems little short of miraculous. Why this sudden out-\\nburst Why should the old field of English song, which\\nhad been lifeless for centuries, which had been stirred to\\na pale, somnolent florescence by the new breath of the\\nSouth, have turned in a moment from death to life, from\\nbarrenness to almost tropic profusion Why, in the\\nshort space of a generation, should a group of masters\\nhave appeared who could bring order out of a Babel of\\ntongues, who could lay the foundations of English prose.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "io8 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Age of Edward III. A Stormy Era\\nand give the final pitch to English song And why,\\nfurthermore, after this short season of profusion should\\nthe field have lapsed again into barrenness to lie for a\\ncentury and a half with naught but the dream of this\\nhour of beauty This is the problem that faces the\\nstudent of the beginnings of English literature. It can\\nbe answered only in part. It is the same problem that\\nrises before the student of the golden age of Grecian art,\\nthat will confront us again during the days of Elizabeth.\\nThe Spirit of the Age. The reign of Edward III. was\\nlike a Northern April, full of swift changes; running\\nquickly to extremes boisterous, now with merriment,\\nnow with rage ending at last in cold and storm, yet full\\nof the promise of a glorious June. Ever since the days\\nof King John there had been growing in English hearts a\\nnew sense of freedom. The fetters which during the long\\nwinter of the Middle Ages had compelled the masses to\\nendure without hope of redress every form of despotic\\nrule, were beginning to give way. The king no longer\\nhad absolute power. John had been weakened and\\nhumbled and his successors had been held in check.\\nSuddenly it was realized that the people were the su-\\npreme power in the state, that they could even push a\\nbad king, like Edward II., from the throne. The Par-\\nliament was gaining constantly in authority the people\\nwere thrilling more and more with a sense of power.\\nBut it was a stormy era. England was full of fierce\\nbarons eager for desperate adventure. There could be\\nno peace in Britain until this last vestige of feudalism had\\nbeen destroyed. The Scottish wars had for a time given\\nvent to their fierce passions; but the victory won by\\nEdward III. had exhausted this field for glory. Un-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 109\\nCrecy and Poitiers A Time of Rapid Expansion\\ndoubtedly they would have fallen fiercely upon each other\\nin civil strife had not Edward provoked a war with France\\nwhich sent them shoulder to shoulder to fight for England.\\nThe war was maintained on a vast scale. The great\\narmies led by knights were recruited\\nfrom the English yeomanry, and after ]2: ^TZlZult\\nthe splendid victories of Crecy and Poi- the Scots.\\ntiers, won almost entirely by the English ^^prench^crown!^\\narchers, a mighty thrill of pride shook ^340. Navai victory\\nall England. The shout that arose from i3\u00c2\u00b06. Bauie of crecy.\\nevery quarter of the land was in the ^348, 1361, 1369. The\\nEnglish tongue and warm from English 1356. Battle of Poi-\\nhearts. It shook Eng-land into such a\\n1375. Death of Black\\nunion as she had never before known, prince.\\nBefore this era English history had been 377. Death of Ed-\\nward III.\\nprovincial; henceforth it was to be na- 1377. Accession o.\\nf i/^nal Richard II.\\n1381. Wat Tyler s Re-\\nBut military enthusiasm alone cannot voit.\\naccount for the new life that was puis- ^i.^^^l\\ning in English veins. It was in every\\nrealm of activity an era of enlargement. Commerce\\nhad begun to flourish, London was growing enormously\\nin wealth, England had won her first great naval battle\\nsince Alfred s day and was waking to a realization of\\nwherein her strength was to lie her ships already covered\\nthe seas and English sailors thronged every foreign port.\\nThis in itself brought an enlarged horizon. The reading\\npublic turned eagerly to the travels of Mandeville, the\\nfirst secular English book to gain a wide reading. The\\nnew spirit was penetrating even to the lowest ranks of\\nthe people. A murmur from the masses increasing ever\\nin volume began to rise until it filled the land.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "no The Foundations of English Literature\\nChivalry The Selfishness of Chivalry\\nChivalry. It was the high noon of EngHsh chivalry,\\nthat solitary blossom of the feudal system. At first it\\nhad promised unmixed good. It had tended to tame\\nand soften the brutal warrior, to make him unselfish and\\nthoughtful of others, but it had rapidly degenerated into\\npageantry and ostentation. As one reads the thrilling\\npages of Froissart, which chronicle the brave deeds of\\nEdward s reign, as one witnesses the crash of knights, the\\nglitter and stir of tournaments, the gallant deeds, the\\nreckless heroism, and the magnificent victories, one can-\\nnot but glow with enthusiasm. Yet chivalry had little in\\nit save its poetry. It was all on the surface it was but\\na cloak for grasping ambition. It widened the gulf be-\\ntween the high and the low it had no sympathy with\\nthe poor, it sacrificed them and tortured them to main-\\ntain its glory. One incident alone, that of the French\\nknights at Crecy who rode over and cut down their own\\nfoot-soldiers in order the more quickly to reach their foes\\nand display their valor, is enough to show the emptiness\\nand the selfishness of the system. It was supported by\\ntaxes that fell ultimately upon the shoulders of the\\npeasantry. Such outrage could not long be borne in\\nsilence. The Black Death, which first visited England in\\n1348, precipitated the storm. This awful visitation, which\\nswept away more than one half the inhabitants of the\\nisland, came with especial severity upon the laboring\\nclasses. It upset the industrial system. Laborers could\\nnot be found to carry on the estates, and wages rose\\nenormously. Thereupon a law was passed which bound\\nthe peasantry to their lords estates. It became impos-\\nsible for the working class to benefit by the new demand\\nfor labor, and it was this last straw that set all England", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 1 1 1\\nNeed of Reform The New Language\\ninto the peasant revolt under Tyler and Ball. The peas-\\nants were defeated, yet in the end they gained all they\\nasked.\\nThe Spirit of Reform was not confined to industrial and\\nsocial circles alone. The Church was being stirred as\\nwell. It had become sadly corrupt. Both Langland\\nand Chaucer agree in their descriptions of wanton friars,\\ndishonest pardoners, and unholy priests. Earnest re-\\nformers like Wyclif were speaking boldly against these\\nabuses and arousing the people to think for themselves.\\nThus was the era one of intense activity. The people\\nwere awakening from the long sleep of the Middle Ages\\nand were stirring the social, the intellectual, the moral\\nlife of England to its very bottom. It was the prelude\\nto the greater renaissance that was to commence a century\\nlater, and that was to shake the last fetters from the\\nhuman mind.\\nSuggested Reading. Lanier, Boys Froissart Wil-\\nliam Ainsworth, Merrie Engla^id Conan Doyle, Tlie\\nWhite Company Shakespeare, Richard IL Southey,\\nWat Tyler.\\nThe New Language. We have already noted that when\\nonce the Anglo-Saxon tongue had begun to yield at all,\\nit gave way with great rapidity. Between 1300 and\\n1350, says Marsh, as many Latin and French words\\nwere introduced into the English language as in the\\nwhole period of more than two centuries which had\\nelapsed between the Conquest and the beginning of the\\nfourteenth century. When Mandeville wrote in 1356,\\nEnglish was in use everywhere as the spoken tongue, but\\nit had been used very little as a literary medium. That\\nhe viewed it with suspicion is proved by the fact that he", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "112 The Foundations of English Literature\\nNo Standard for English Influence of Chaucer\\nwrote his great work first in Latin, then in French, and\\nlast of all in English. Langland and Chaucer, of all the\\nprominent writers of the era, alone confined themselves\\nto the vernacular, but Langland, since he wrote for the\\nmasses, had no alternative. That Chaucer, a child of the\\ncourt, educated and cultured, cosmopolitan in his life, and\\nwithal a genius of the very first rank, should have chosen\\na rapidly shifting medium of expression, seems at first\\ninexplicable, but that he did thus confine himself to the\\nEnglish tongue is wonderfully significant. Until Chau-\\ncer wrote there was no standard for English there were\\nno models, there were no masters. It is hard to realize\\nto-day in how chaotic a condition the language really\\nwas. It needed a master to fix its changing forms, to\\nsanction its new usages, and to preserve its strong old\\nwords. Fortunately the master was at hand. From\\nthis Babylonish confusion of speech, says Marsh, the\\ninfluence and example of Chaucer did more to rescue his\\nnative tongue than any other single cause. But he\\ndid more than give mere form to the language. He\\nbreathed into it the breath of life.\\nIt is true [says Lowell] that a language, as respects the uses of literature,\\nis liable to a kind of syncope. No matter how complete its vocabulary may\\nbe, how thorough an outfit of inflections and case-endings it may have, it is\\na mere dead body without a soul until some man of genius sets its arrested\\npulses once more athrob, and shows what wealth of sweetness, scorn, per-\\nsuasion, and passion lay there awaiting its liberation. In this sense it is\\nhardly too much to say that Chaucer, like Dante, found his native tongue\\na dialect, and left it a language.\\nThat the form of English spoken in the East Midland\\nregion should have become the language of England was\\nalmost inevitable. It was the tongue of London, the\\ncenter of government, wealth, and culture. It was", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 113\\nThree Distinct Dialects William Langland\\nspoken in the central province, the heart of England\\ndialects survive longest in the distant corners. It was\\nsituated geographically between the two other chief\\ndialects. Peasants of Devonshire and of Yorkshire could\\nscarce understand each other, yet both could understand\\nthe man from the Midlands. The great universities were\\nin the middle province, and, furthermore, all the great\\nwriters of Chaucer s era produced their works in the\\nMidland vernacular, thus making it the literary tongue.\\nThe literary product of the period falls into two divi-\\nsions: the poetry of Langland, Gower, and Chaucer, and\\nthe prose of Mandeville and Wyclif.\\nII. Poetry\\nAt the portal of modern English song stands a quaint\\nfigure, one of those marked characters found only in tran-\\nsition eras, looking fondly into the past and hesitatingly\\ninto the present and the future clinging to the ancient\\nforms yet using freely of the new; a voice from the\\nmasses which embodied the English past, yet a voice full\\nof the present and ringing with the prophecy of the new\\nera. While all around him were repeating the strains of\\nFrench romance Langland clung to the Anglo-Saxon\\nharp, silent since the days of the singers of Maldon and\\nBrunanburh, and from its ancient strings he struck the\\nfirst notes of modern popular song.\\nWilliam Langland (c. ijj2-c. 14.00)\\nAuthorities. J usserandj Piers Plowman S\\\\s.ea.tj Piers\\nthe Plowman, Clarendon Press Ed. Scudder, Social\\nIdeals in English Letters,\\nThe facts concerning Langland s life must be gathered\\n8", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "114 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Piers the Plowman A Picture of England\\nfrom the lines of his masterwork. The most widely\\npopular poet of his time, he nevertheless, so far as we\\nknow, provoked not a single contemporary mention.\\nFrom scattered autobiographical fragments of his poem\\nwe construct a vague picture of the author: a tall, gaunt\\nman Long Will with the tonsure and the bearing\\nof a minor ecclesiastic; abstracted, taciturn, striding\\ndown London streets without a word or a nod to the gay\\nnobles and gallants, yet noting with fierce heart all of\\ntheir vanities; a man from the people, who knew the\\nhomes and the life of the poor, who recognized what few\\nof his day even dreamed, that a man *s a man for a that,\\na mediaeval Burns picking up the few pence required\\nfor his simple needs by singing at the funerals of the rich\\nand by writing in the courts of law; a man with open\\neyes, who saw more clearly than any other of his time the\\ncondition of his age.\\nTo his masterpiece. The Vision Concerning Piers the\\nPlowman^ Langland gave his entire life. He revised it\\nand added to it from year to year. He poured into it,\\nas did our own Whitman into Leaves of Grass, the ob-\\nservations, the reflections, the philosophy, the dreams\\nof his best years. It is a biography of the heart-life of\\nits author and his times. As a work of art it is extremely\\nfaulty it is mystical and vague, it has little coherence, it\\nis as uncouth as the people for whom it was written. It\\ntells no well-rounded story as do Chaucer s tales; it is a\\nseries of chaotic pictures, glimpses of rugged fields through\\nopenings in the mist.\\nThe poem opens, as do the Canterbury Tales, with a\\nprologue which presents to us every class of English\\nsociety", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 1 1 5\\nCorruption of the Church A Voice of Protest\\nBarons, burgesses, and bond-men also,\\nI saw in this assembly, as ye shall hereafter.\\nBakers and brewers and butchers many,\\nWoolen Websters and weavers of linen,\\nTailors and tinkers and toilers in markets.\\nMasons and miners and many other crafts.\\nHe shows us the monk, the friar, the parson, the poor\\npriest, the pardoner, just as we see them in Chaucer s\\nprocession. But it is not Langland s method to point at\\nparticular figures. He deals with society, Chaucer with\\nthe individual; he shows the forest, Chaucer the tree.\\nHis characters become mere symbols with which to work\\nhis problems, and his poem is an allegory, more and more\\nmystical. The field of folks sets out to find Truth. A\\npalmer, who knows the shrines of all saints, becomes the\\nguide, but he leads them astray. Piers, a plowman, is\\nfound, who discloses the falseness of clerical leaders, and\\npoints out the true way himself. This, then, is the\\nmoral the people seek truth the Church has become a\\nblind guide; guidance must come from the people them-\\nselves. To get the lessons of the poem one must read\\nbetween the lines every page is bitter with satire, but it\\nis veiled and ambiguous. To those, however, who most\\nneeded the lesson it was plainly in evidence. It was not\\nsafe in Langland s day to speak too clearly. He gives\\nthe picture; you must interpret. He tells the fable of\\nthe mice who would bell the cat, but he drives no moral\\nhome; his reader must guess it. Divine ye, cries the\\nauthor, for I ne dare.\\nThe poem is a voice of protest, a cry from the poor.\\nIts pathetic pictures of oppressed poverty even now stir\\nthe feelings. Its influence upon the peasants was great\\nit was an incentive to the great revolt that finally liberated", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "ii6 The Foundations of English Literature\\nJohn Gower His Attitude toward the Peasants\\nthe working class. It is not to be wondered at that it\\nbecame the book of the masses, that upwards of forty-\\nmanuscripts of it survive, all of them unilluminated and\\nplain. It was an English poem from an English pen, the\\nfirst significant native note since the Conquest,\\nRequired Reading. The Prologue to Piers Plow-\\nman, Morris Ed. See also Baldwin, Famous Allegories,\\n2. John Gower (c. ijjo-14.08)\\nThe moral Gower. Chaucer.\\nTo turn from this apostle of the poor to Gower, the\\ncourt poet of the period, is to go from the squalid hut\\ninto the brilliant hall. As we read the pages of Lang-\\nland we see England from the standpoint of the plowman,\\nfrom that of the Hfe all toil, the life bowed down by\\nthe burden of centuries of hopeless oppression. When\\nwe turn to Gower s Vox Clamantis we see the same Eng-\\nland from the standpoint of the aristocrat. To him the\\nbitter cry of the poor beneath their heavy burden was\\nbut the hee-aw of a herd of asses that had refused to\\ncarry their rightful burdens, and that were rushing about,\\nterrifying honest people, and demanding to be lodged and\\ncurried like horses. The maddened and desperate throng\\nunder Wat Tyler was to Gower a herd of unclean swine\\npossessed by the devil, and their leader was a furious wild\\nboar. They should be hunted down and rings put into\\ntheir noses. He has not a word of pity; these turbulent\\nmasses belong to an utterly different world he will be in\\nperfect sympathy with the torturing and maiming and\\nmurdering of the thousands of wretched victims after the\\nrevolt has failed.\\nIn all this, however, Gower was sincere and honest.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 1 1 7\\nHis Use of Three Languages His Influence Small\\nHe realized that something was radically wrong in the\\nstate, and he set forth courageously to find the evil. He\\nmeant the Vox Clamantis to be the voice of one crying in\\nthe social wilderness, Make straight the ways of the\\nLord. He divided society into its three classes, repre-\\nsented by the clergy, the soldiers, and the plowmen, and\\nhe carefully studied each of them. He found the root of\\nthe evil in the corruptions of the Church, and he assailed it\\nas fearlessly as did Langland. His search for evils reveals\\nto us the actual conditions of England in a most realistic\\nway; there is no better preparation for the Canterbury\\nTales than a reading of Piers Plowman and Vox Clamantis.\\nThe works of Gower afford a striking illustration of the\\nlinguistic conditions of his time. His amatory ballads,\\nhis roundels a la inodey and his long philosophic poem,\\nSpeculum MeditantiSy now lost, were written in French,\\nand his Vox Clamantis^ which was meant to be his master-\\nwork, was written in Latin, the only language then con-\\nsidered permanent. In his old age, however, influenced\\nby the great success of Chaucer, he lapsed into English,\\nand amused the idle court with the interminable drone of\\nthe Confessio Amantis.\\nGower invented nothing and he ornamented little that\\nhe borrowed yet he was the fashionable singer of his\\ngeneration. His influence upon later writers is inappre-\\nciable. His poems have but little value they are well-\\nnigh unreadable to-day. The Vox Clamantis is a valuable\\ndocument in the history of the English people, but it has\\nlittle merit as a literary work. Over the grave of Gower\\nat St. Saviour s, Southwark, rests a marble figure of the\\npoet, his head upon three books of stone, symbolic per-\\nhaps of the heaviness of the author s three masterpieces.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X\\nTHE AGE OF CHAUCER (ll)\\nJ. Geoffrey Chaucer^ ij^o-i/j.oo)\\nThe last of the trouveres. Minto.\\nAuthorities, Skeat s Works of Chaucer in six volumes\\nis the most scholarly and complete edition of the poet;\\nthe Aldine is an excellent working edition; the Globe\\nis the best single-volume edition. The best edition of\\nthe Prologue and the Knight s Tale is Morris*,\\nClarendon Press Series. The most helpful works on the\\ngeneral subject of Chaucer are Pollard, Chaucer, Liter-\\nature Primer Series Browne, Chaucer s England\\nTen Brink, Vol. ii., Part i. and Lounsbury, Studies in\\nChaucer^ 3 vols., an excellent work for reference. The\\nmost helpful Life of Chaucer is Ward s in the English\\nMen of Letters Series that by Nicolas prefixed to the\\nAldine edition of the poet s works is of great value.\\nFor a bibliography of Chaucer authorities, see Welsh,\\nEnglish Masterpiece Course.\\nThe wave of romantic song that had started during the\\nninth century among the troubadours of Provence, that\\nhad rolled northward awakening the trouveres, that had\\ncrossed the Channel and had swept over the ancient\\nSaxon landmarks, was in the twelfth century spending its\\nebbing energies in an interminable welter of feeble imita-\\ntion. Then arose, as so often happens at the close of\\nperiods of decadence, a master who rescued all that was\\nbest from the wreckage, who bound it into a unity, who\\nadded new elements gathered from wide fields, who\\n118", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 119\\nLife of Chaucer A Man of Affairs\\npoured over it the light of creative genius until the entire\\nmass was transfigured, and who gave to it an impetus\\nthat made it the dominating power of the new era. Thus\\nstands Chaucer, like Langland, on the border, the last\\nof the old, the first of the new. Langland the last of the\\nscops, the first of the popular poets Chaucer the last of\\nthe trouv^res, the father of modern epic song.\\nHis Life, The biography of Chaucer, when stripped\\nof all tradition and conjecture, reduces to a mass of dates\\nand fragmentary entries in the legal and official documents\\nof his time. In a legal paper dated 1380, he describes\\nhimself as the son of John Chaucer, vintner, of London.\\nAnother document establishes the fact that in 13 10\\nChaucer s grandfather had been a collector of the port of\\nLondon. In 1386 the poet, as a witness in a court trial,\\ndescribes himself as of the age of forty years and more,\\nhaving borne arms for twenty-seven years.\\nThe first authentic allusion to Chaucer is dated 1357,\\nwhen he is mentioned as a member of the household of\\nPrince Lionel, the third son of Edward III. In 1360 the\\nking paid sixteen pounds to France for his ransom as a\\nprisoner of war. Seven years later he was granted a\\npension for services rendered and to be rendered, and\\nthis was continued in various forms until his death. The\\npension rolls contain constant records of the drawing of\\nthis pension, specifying in each case whether it was drawn\\nby his own hand or by deputy, a seemingly trivial fact\\nthat has upset many a tradition concerning the poet s\\nwanderings. From 1370 to 1380 Chaucer was sent by\\nthe Crown on no less than six important missions to the\\ncontinent, three of them to Italy. The best known of\\nthese is that of 1372, when he negotiated a commercial", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "I20 The Foundations of English Literature\\nA Brief yet Satisfactory Biography His Early Writings\\ntreaty with Genoa, and remained abroad nearly a year.\\nFrom 1374 to 1386 he was controller of the customs of\\nthe port of London, and the deed is still extant describ-\\ning the Corporation house at Aldgate which he occupied\\nduring this time. In 1386 he was elected to ParHament;\\nin 1389 he was made clerk of the King s works at the\\npalace at Westminster, and he held several other minor\\ngovernment offices during the last years of his life. He\\ndied February 5, 1400.\\nThis, then, in connection with several autobiographical\\nallusions in his poems, is all that we know of Chaucer s\\nlife. But these few fragmentary facts are infinitely sug-\\ngestive. They furnish a biography of the poet that is\\nmore satisfactory and complete than is that of Shake-\\nspeare, who lived two centuries nearer our day. They\\nshow us a man educated in a most briUiant court and\\nmoving in the highest society during all his life a soldier\\nin a stirring and eventful age; a diplomat of rare powers;\\na man with administrative talents, sagacious in business\\ntransactions a man of the world who had traveled widely\\nand who knew all of his generation worth knowing; and\\nwithal a most lovable personality, upon whom honors\\nand gifts were showered during all his life. And all this\\nin addition to his poetical skill, which is never once\\nalluded to in the documents. Had it not been for his\\nconnection with public life we should know little more\\nof Chaucer than we do of Langland.\\nHis Early Writings. The court of Edward HI., in\\nwhich Chaucer was reared and educated, was the most\\nbrilliant in Europe. It was Parisian in its pomp and\\ngayety. It resounded with the sensuous French min-\\nstrelsy troubadours and trouveres were constantly in the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 121\\nDitties and Glad Songs A Court Poet\\nservice of the King. Love was the ruHng theme amorous\\nlays, especially that most popular of mediaeval epics, the\\nRomaunt of the Rose, were the delight of the court life\\nwas a perpetual May-day.\\nAmid such surroundings did the young Chaucer learn\\nthe poetic art. He served, we know, the full apprentice-\\nship of a trouv^re. In his youth, according to Gower,\\nhe filled all the land for Venus sake with ditties and glad\\nsongs and according to Lydgate he made\\nFull many a fresh ditty,\\nComplantes, ballades, roundels, virelays.\\nBut of this early work, made up of many a song and\\nmany a lecherous lay, not a trace remains.\\nIt may have been in French a la mode, but it is more\\nprobable that like all the extant writings of the poet it\\nwas in the English tongue. The reasons The Romaunt of the\\nfor Chaucer s selection of the vernacular\\nT^ The Dethe of\\nwhen all about him were writmg m French Biaunche the Duch-\\nare hard to find. It may be that on ac-\\nThe Compleynte unto\\ncount of his humble birth he had not pite.\\nsufficient command of the French f or c.\\npoetic use, and that he refused to make, like Gower, bad\\nFrench verses when he could use English with ease it\\nmay be that like all other true poets he was conscious of\\nhis power and sang in his own tongue because he must;\\nor it may be that the court, which was leaning more and\\nmore toward the vernac\\\\ilar, delighted even in the day of\\nChaucer s youth to hear one English voice amid the\\nFrench chorus. At best we can only conjecture.\\nBut the early work of Chaucer is English only in exter-\\nnals. Like a true courtier of the era, he was fascinated", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "122 The Foundations of English Literature\\nChaucer Visits Italy Italian Influence\\nby the Romance of the Rose, so much so that he must\\nneeds translate it, and later, when as court poet he would\\nwrite a melancholy epic on the death of Blaunche, the\\nyoung wife of John of Gaunt, it was the machinery and\\nthe spirit of this poem that furnished inspiration. Until\\nhis first journey to Italy, when in his thirty-second year,\\nChaucer was an English trouvere.\\nThe Period of Italian Influence, In 1372, when the\\nyoung poet visited Genoa and Florence as the represen-\\ntative of King Edward, all Italy was thrilling with a new\\nintellectual life. Dante, with a genius unknown since\\nclassic times, had cast aside the mist that had so dimmed\\nDante, 1265-1321. hoHzon of the Middle Ages, and had\\nPetrarch, 1304-1375- shown the possibilities of a broader and\\nBoccaccio, 13x3-1375. j.j^j^gj. intellectual life. Now, a half-\\ncentury later, Petrarch, a lyrist like those of Grecian\\ndays, was pouring out a wealth of song that was to furnish\\nEurope with models for centuries to come, and Boccaccio,\\nhalf poet, half romancer, was making the standard for\\nItalian prose. It was this great Etruscan three that\\nset in motion the Early Italian Renaissance, the first\\nwave of that greater renaissance which two centuries later\\nwas to sweep all Europe from its ancient moorings.\\nThe effect of Chaucer s three visits to the radiating\\nThe compieynte of centcrs of the new intellectual movement\\nMars. Upon his later life and work is not at first\\nLady? sight apparent. It furnished him with\\nAneiida and Arcite fresh raw materials for his tales, but it\\nKnighte s Tale). did not change the fundamentals of his\\nThe Pariament of ^rt. He had been too lone: in the school\\nFoules.\\nBoece. of the trouv^res to change his instrument\\nTroiius and Criseyde. j^jg method. But the Italian influence", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 123\\nThe Hous of Fame Legende of Good Women\\nserved to balance and to broaden the poet. It gave him\\na new ideal of literary art. It increased greatly the num-\\nber of his literary models, it opened to him a new world\\nof art. Without it the Legende of Good Women and the\\nCanterbury Tales might have been but brilliant variations\\nof the Romaunt of the Rose.\\nThe works of this second period need not be dwelt\\nupon, so completely are they shadowed by the poet s\\nmasterpiece, the Canterbury Tales. The most charming\\nof them all is the Parlament of Foules, a poem full of\\nthe breath and joy of the springtime which it celebrates.\\nThe Last Period in Chaucer s literary life was opened\\nby the appearance of that splendid allegory, the Hous\\nof Fame. The poet had at last mastered his instru-\\nm ent; he now realized fully the extent and the nature of\\nhis powers, and accordingly he set out deliberately to\\nmake a poem that should be the crowning work of his\\nlife. It was no middle flight that he now attempted.\\nSo exacting were his ideals that he left all of the poetry\\nof this period unfinished at his death. The Hous of\\nFame was to be an epic to do for the English what Dante\\nhad done for the Italian but he left it a splendid torso\\nto execute the command of the Queen to make a poem\\ncelebrating the constancy and the heroism of woman.\\nThe work was to be almost of the nature of a penance,\\nfor Chaucer in many of his poems had sadly offended the\\nladies of the court by his frequent reflections upon the in-\\nconstancy of their sex. The Legende of TheHousofFame.\\nGood Women was a noble atonement. Its The legende of Good\\nW^omen.\\ndescription of the springtime and the Treatise on the Astro-\\npoet s wanderings in the meadows to be Jf^^\\nThe Canterbury\\nnear his favorite flower, the daisy; his Tales.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "124 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Canterbury Tales Chaucer s Crowning Effort\\nmeeting with the queen of love, who upbraids him for his\\ncruel poems and commands him to write\\nOf goode wymtnen, maydenes and wyves\\nThat weren trew in lovyng al hire lyves\\nand finally his artless tales of Cleopatra, Thisbe, Dido,\\nand other heroines who had been constant even unto\\ndeath, combine to make one of the finest poems in\\nChaucer s collection. But the penance was never com-\\npleted. There were to be twenty legends, and the poet\\nfinished only nine. The theme of the Canterbury Tales\\nhad taken possession of him, and despite the Queen s\\ncommission, he dropped the poem, of which he was be-\\nginning to tire, to plunge with enthusiasm into what\\nwas to be his masterwork.\\nThe Canterbury Tales. (Skeat, Vols, iv., v. Saunders,\\nCanterbury Tales}) So completely have the Canterbury\\nTales become synonymous with Chaucer that the major-\\nity of readers forget that he ever wrote anything else.\\nThe perfect naturalness of the Prologue, its simplicity and\\ngrace, its fidelity to nature, as if it had flowed spon-\\ntaneously like the songs of wild birds, lead one to enjoy\\nit as he does the springtime flowers, without a question as\\nto its evolution. But we must not lose sight of the fact\\nthat the work was the crowning effort of a long life whose\\nleisure hours had been devoted wholly to art. Through\\nall the poet s earlier work there may be traced a growing\\nsteadiness of hand, an enlarging conception of literary\\nart, an increasing self-confidence. In the Legende of Good\\nWomen he attempted for the first time to define character\\nand to individualize his creations; in the Prologue he\\nthrew away all models and drew no longer from the cast", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 125\\nPlan of the Work Its Supreme Art\\nbut from nature herself. His whole life had been a\\npreparation for the work. The thread of prologue, when\\nonce it was found, could bind together things both new\\nand old. The collection contains poems from every\\nperiod of Chaucer s career. Some of his early work, like\\nthe tale told by the second nun, was inserted without\\nchange; other early creations, like The Knighte s Tale,\\nwere carefully remodeled.\\nThe plan of the work is very simple. On an April\\nevening there gathers by chance at the Tabard Inn, on\\nthe outskirts of London, a motley company of twenty-\\nnine persons, all intending to start in the morning on a\\npilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas a Becket at\\nCanterbury,\\nThat hem hath holpen, whan that they were seke.\\nFor mutual safety they agree to journey together, and\\nat the suggestion of the host, who volunteers to accom-\\npany them, they plan that each of them shall tell two\\nstories on the way to Canterbury and two on the return\\njourney;\\nFor trewely, confort ne mirthe is noon\\nTo ryde by the weye doumb as a stoon.\\nThe host is to act as interlocutor and judge, and upon\\ntheir return to the Tabard the one who has told the best\\ntale is to be given a supper at the common cost.\\nThis plan gave great freedom to the poet he could\\nextend the series indefinitely and stop at will, and he\\ncould bring in any style of composition that his fancy\\nmight dictate. As a matter of fact, but twenty-four out\\nof the projected one hundred and twenty-eight tales are", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "126 The Foundations of English Literature\\nAll England in the Poem Personality of the Poet\\nrecorded by Chaucer, and on his pages the jolly company\\nnever reaches Canterbury at all, nor enjoys the final feast\\nat the Tabard. But the work is nevertheless a unity and\\none of the glories of the English language.\\nIt is the first time in English poetry [says Green] that we are brought\\nface to face not with characters or allegories or reminiscences of the past,\\nbut with living and breathing men, men distinct in temper and sentiment\\nas in face or costume or mode of speech and with this distinctness of each\\nmaintained throughout the story by a thousand shades of expression and\\naction. It is the first time, too, that we meet with the dramatic power\\nwhich not only creates each character, but combines it with its fellows,\\nwhich not only adjusts each tale or jest to the temper of the person who\\nutters it, but fuses all into a poetic unity.\\nIt is a truly representative band that travels from Lon-\\ndon ^o Canterbury. All England is in it, every class of\\nsociety from the noble knight, the hero of fifteen mortal\\nbattles, to the poor plowman and the vulgar miller.\\nShould all the histories of England be lost one could\\nreconstruct from Chaucer s pages a living picture of the\\nsocial life of Edward s times and the spirit of his age.\\nSome things would be wanting: there is little in the\\npoems concerning the martial glories of the era, or of\\nthe miseries of the masses; the Black Death is never\\nmentioned, nor is there a word concerning the peasant\\nrevolt, for Chaucer was a court poet intent upon amusing\\na gentle audience, but otherwise the picture is complete.\\nHis Personality and Literary Style. (Lowell, Essay\\non Chaucer Minto, Characteristics of English Poets\\nTaine, English Literature.^ Few poets of any era have\\nleft in their works a more pleasing picture of their own\\npersonality than has Chaucer. As we read there comes\\nto us the figure of a jovial, hearty man, intensely human,\\nteeming with life and enthusiasm, wholesome and sane as", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 127\\nPowers of Observation and Description His Objectiveness\\nnature herself. He is the poet of youth, of love, of the\\nspringtime. From every page there breathe the odors\\nof May meadows, and gush the songs of the throstle and\\nthe lark. How charming the picture of the poet in the\\nLegende of Good WomeUy hastening into the fields and\\nkneeling to the daisy\\nAnd doun on knes anon-ryght I me sette,\\nAnd as I koude, this fresshe flour I grette,\\nKnelyng alwey, til it unclosed was,\\nUpon the smale, softe, swote grass.\\nThe perfect naturalness and simplicity of the man is a\\ncontinual charm. In his poems there is not a trace of\\nthe drone and the artificiality of Gower. We follow him\\non and on without a thought of weariness. He is the\\ngreatest story-teller of the English language, for he\\nwastes not a word; his lines have the rare charm of in-\\nevitableness, we cannot conceive how they could have\\ncost their maker a single struggle he carries us at will,\\nseemingly without effort, and he has the rare power of\\ngiving life to his characters. As we think of the monk,\\nthe pardoner, the wife of Bath, the miller, they seem like\\npeople that we have actually known. They stand almost\\nin the flesh before us, intensely English, overflowing with\\nlife and animal spirits. Not until Fielding s day shall we\\nsee again such a healthy, joyous band, such a careful\\nstudy of the Englishman made from nature unidealized.\\nChaucer s power as a delineator came largely from his\\nobjectiveness. Occleve s portrait of the poet is signifi-\\ncant it represents him with pointed finger. It was\\nChaucer s mission to point out the individual and his\\ndistinguishing characteristics, so that others could see", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "128 The Foundations of English Literature\\nOne of the World s Great Poets The Rise of Prose\\nthem. With a few strokes he completes the picture,\\nand it is alive forever.\\nChaucer s place as a poet has been established for\\ncenturies; he is one of the four great masters who have\\nused the English tongue, and his name stands high on\\nthe roll of the great poets of the world. His appearance\\nmarks in reality the birth of English literature. The\\nTeutonic and the Celtic elements had at last fully\\nblended, and the English race in its final form had been\\nevolved.\\nRequired Readings. The Legende of Good Women;\\nthe general Prologue to the Canterbury Tales and the\\nPrologues to the several tales; The Knight e s Tale The\\nNonnes Priestes Tale The Pardoner s Tale; Longfel-\\nlow s sonnet, Chaucer.\\nIII. Prose\\nThe age of Chaucer is also noted for its vernacular\\nprose, a literary form that had been practically unknown\\nin England since the days of -^Ifric. It arose sponta-\\nneously to meet the new demands of the times. Wyclif s\\npoor priests could get at the people through no other\\nmedium Mandeville s Travels^ the most entertaining\\nwork of the age, could come to the great mass of Eng-\\nlishmen by no other channel. Even Chaucer made large\\nuse of it. Two of the Canterbury Tales, his own tale,\\ncuriously enough, and that of the parson, who took ad-\\nvantage of his opportunity to preach a long sermon, are\\nin prose, and the poet also used it for his vigorous trans-\\nlation of Boethius and for his Treatise on the Astrolabe\\nmade during his last years for the instruction of his little\\nson. In a sense, then, Chaucer may be called the father", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 129\\nJohn Wyclif Corrupt State of the Church\\nof English prose as well as of English poetry. The title,\\nhowever, belongs more properly to John Wyclif, who\\ngave added permanency to the new tongue by translating\\ninto it the entire Bible.\\nJohn Wyclif (c. 1324.-1384.)\\nLife by Lewis Sergeant, Heroes of the Nations;\\nPoole, Wyclif a7id Movements for Reform; Morley,\\nVol. V. Trevelyan, England in the Age of Wycliffe.\\nThe low ebb to which the Church had fallen has been\\nalready noted. Langland had written with fierce pen of\\nthe tendencies of the time, of pilgrims and palmers who\\nwent to Rome\\nAnd hadden leave to lien all hir life after\\nof the great crowds of hermits,\\nGreat loobies and long, that loath were to swink,\\nthat had entered orders their ease for to have of\\nfriars and pardoners\\nPreaching the people for profit of hem selve\\nClosed the gospel as hem good liked\\nFor covetise of copes construed it as they would.\\nGower in his aristocratic Latin had declaimed earnestly\\nagainst Church abuses. Chaucer, under the guise of\\nplayful satire, had touched the evils. He had laughed\\nheartily at the worldly monk, the wanton friar, and the\\nmercenary pardoner; but even as he laughed he had left\\nupon his page, etched sharp and deep, a burning sense\\nRich clothes.\\n9", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "130 The Foundations of English Literature\\nWyclif s Connection with Oxford His Reforms\\nof the utter mockery of it all, of the awful deadness of\\nthe spiritual life. If his picture be true, as it assuredly\\nis, says Browne, who can wonder that Wyclif arose in\\nEngland, and that the echo of his footsteps did not die\\nout till Luther arose in Germany\\nDespite the narrowness and the utter unprogressiveness\\nof the universities that were filling Europe with such a\\nclattering of flails upon century-old straw, it was from\\nout of them, after all, that nearly all the real reformers\\nof the age were to come. Oxford had already produced\\na Roger Bacon, and now she was to send forth a still\\ngreater character. Until middle life John Wyclif was a\\nschoolman of the ordinary type. He became early noted\\nfor his profound scholarship; he was made master of\\nBalliol College, and later he became the leading figure in\\nthe English Church. The details of his career need not\\nbe given. Suffice it to say that he set himself vigorously\\nagainst the tide of corruption that was fast destroying the\\nChurch that he even denied the papal supremacy and\\nquestioned the fundamental doctrine of transubstantia-\\ntion. As a result he found himself at war with the entire\\necclesiastical body. The Pope launched five bulls against\\nhim and his own college, after carefully examining his\\nwritings and finding two hundred and sixty-seven\\nopinions worthy of fire, turned him out of its halls.\\nWyclif defended himself with a vigorous fusillade of\\npamphlets, a method of warfare of his own invention,\\nbut he undoubtedly would have suffered violence but for\\nhis powerful friend, John of Gaunt.\\nThe greater part of Wyclif *s writings are in Latin. It\\nwas only during the last six or eight years of his life that\\nhe devoted himself to the vernacular. To combat the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 131\\nHis Poor Priests His Translation of the Bible\\nevils which the wandering friars and other ecclesiastics\\nwere bringing upon England, he had sent out from his\\nlittle parish at Lutterworth, where he passed his last\\nyears, wandering preachers, who were known as Wyclif s\\npoor priests, or as Lollards. The parish priest of Chau-\\ncer s Prologue, who was poor in purse\\nBut riche he was of hooly thoght and werk,\\nis a perfect likeness of one of these holy men. They\\nworked among the common people and gave, by their\\nself-sacrificing and earnest preaching, a new ideal of the\\nspiritual life. Within a few years they had well-nigh\\nrevolutionized England. For his band of workers Wyclif\\nfurnished sermons and tracts, written of necessity in Eng-\\nlish, for use among the masses; and to facilitate the work\\nhe began the translation of the Bible into the vernacular\\ntongue. The great reformer did not attempt the work\\nsingle-handed. Nicholas Hereford, his disciple, translated\\nthe greater part of the Old Testament, and his assistant\\nat Lutterworth, Thomas Purvey, thoroughly revised the\\nentire work, but the impress of the master mind is upon\\nevery page. The poor priests distributed the book widely,\\noften dealing out pages or chapters to those too poor to\\nafford more. Its popularity was marvelous. Despite\\nthe active efforts of its enemies during a long period to\\nroot it utterly out of England, no less than one hundred\\nand fifty manuscripts in whole or in part still remain.\\nThe Bible, says Sergeant, which had hitherto been\\njealously and mysteriously withheld, sank during these\\ngenerations so deeply into the popular mind that the\\nfifteenth and sixteenth centuries found all England\\nsaturated with Biblical knowledge.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "132 The Foundations of English Literature\\nInfluence of Wyclif s Bible Sir John Mandeville\\nMade as it was for the evangelization of the poor,\\nWyclif s Bible is written in the simple language of the\\ncommon people. Its influence during the critical period\\nof the English language was very great. Scattered\\nthickly over all England, it became a model for later\\nwriters, and it did much to bring uniformity to the new\\ntongue and to establish its vocabulary.\\nRequired Reading. Th.Q Books of Job y Psalms, etc..\\nClarendon Press Series, selections.\\n2. Sir John Mandeville (1300 f-ijyi\\nOf Sir John Mandeville we know little save what comes\\nfrom the pages of the book that bears his name. Ac-\\ncording to the opening chapter of this work, he was born\\nin St. Albans. Desiring to see the Holy Land he left\\nEngland in 1322, and the spirit of wandering being upon\\nhim he continued to drift from land to land during the\\nnext thirty years.\\nHe passed thorghout Turkye, Ermonye the litylle and the grete, Tar-\\ntarye, Percye, Surrye, Arabye, Egypt the high and the lowe through\\nLybye, Culdee, and a gret partie of Ethiope thorgh Amazoyne, Inde the\\nlasse and the more, a gret partie and thorought many other iles, that\\nben abouten Inde where dwellen many dyverse folk, and of dyverse\\nmaneres and lawes, and of dyverse schappes of men.\\nThe Voiage and Travaile of Sir John Mandeville, which\\npurports to be the record of this journey, is a strange\\nmixture. Its descriptions of the Holy Land bear the\\nmarks of genuineness, they are evidently the work of\\nan eye-witness; but when the narrative leaves the beaten\\npath and wanders into regions vaguely known in the\\nfifteenth century, it becomes correspondingly vague and\\nincreasingly marvelous. It tells with all seriousness of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "The Age of Chaucer 133\\nHis Voiage and Travaile Its Simple Prose Style\\na race of men having but one foot which they used as a\\nsunshade, and of islands of adamant that draw irresistibly\\nto themselves all ships having iron in their construction.\\nBut the work is no longer taken seriously as the record\\nof an actual traveler. It is rather an encyclopaedia of\\ntravel, bringing under one cover all that was known or\\nimagined during the Middle Ages concerning the world\\noutside of Europe. It was translated from the French\\nby an unknown author near the close of the century, and\\nso skilfully was the work done that not until our own day\\nwas the hoax revealed.\\nBut whoever its author, he was the master of a simple,\\nstraightforward prose style. It is the prose of a man\\nwho, like Wyclif, is writing for the common people, who\\nhas a story to tell, and who tells it in a terse, unlabored\\nway. It can even now be read with interest. During the\\ncentury after its publication, it was, with the single ex-\\nception of Wyclif s Bible, the most popular book in\\nEngland.\\nSuggested Reading. Mandeville in Early Travels\\nin Palestine, Bohn; Morris and Skeat s Specimens, Part ii.\\nFor a complete analysis of the Mandeville question, see\\nEncyclopcedia Britannica.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "TABLE IV. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.\\nPeriods.^\\nCharacteristics and Events.\\nBooks and\\nWriters.\\nPeriod ofFoun-\\ndations.\\n449-1066,\\nThe evolution\\nof the native\\ntongue.\\nThe period of dialects. Three of\\nthem prominent.\\n1002. Marriage of ^thelred to\\nEmma the Norman.\\n1042. Edward the Confessor. Be-\\nginning of direct Norman influence.\\n1066. Anglo-Saxon no longer the\\nstandard language.\\n680.\\n8th\\nNorthern.\\nCsedmon, c\\nCynewulf,\\ncentury.\\nSouthern.\\nAlfred, 849-901\\n^Ifric, c. 990.\\nII.\\nPeriod of Sus-\\npense.\\n1066-1250.\\nThe native\\ntongue holding\\nits own against\\nthe French.\\nThree distinct languages in England:\\nLatin, the official language of\\nChurch and State French, the\\npolite language of court and no-\\nbility and English, the vulgar\\ntongue spoken by the natives.\\n1 1 54. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle closes,\\nEnglish works, like the Brut,contSiin\\nalmost no traces of French influ-\\nence French works, like those of\\nMap, contain no trace of English.\\nLayamon s Brut,\\nc. 1205.\\nOrmulum, c. 1215.\\nAncren Riwle, c.\\n1225.\\nWalter Map, d.\\n1210,\\nin.\\nPeriod of\\nGradual\\nTransition.\\n1250-1350.\\nNative tongue\\nsteadily gaining.\\n1258. Proclamation of Henry III,\\nin English.\\n1 274-1 307. Edward I. used Eng-\\nlish familiarly.\\nPeriod of French romances with\\nEnglish translations.\\nHavelok the Dane,\\n1270-1280.\\nRobert of Glouces-\\nter s Chronicle,\\n1300,\\nGuy of Warwick.\\nThe dates are mere approximations.\\n134", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "TALBE IV. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Continued.\\nPeriods.\\nCharacteristics and Events.\\nBooks and\\nWriters.\\nIV.\\nPeriod of\\nRapid Transi-\\ntion.\\n1350-1400.\\nSaxon and\\nFrench blend\\ninto English.\\n1362. Parliament first opened with\\nan English speech,\\n1362. Statute requiring that\\npleadings in the law courts be in\\nEnglish.\\n1375. Trevisa s translation of Poly-\\nchronicon the first revival of the\\nold English chronicle.\\n1375. Oldest extant private records\\nin English.\\n1385. English rather than French\\nused in the schools.\\n1386. Earliest English petition to\\nParliament.\\n1387. Earliest English will.\\nPiers Plowman,\\n1362.\\nChaucer s Dethe\\nof B launc he,\\n1369.\\nMandeville s Trav-\\nels:\\nFrench, 1370.\\nEnglish, c, 1400.\\nCanterbury Tales,\\n1373-1393.\\nWyclif s Bible,\\n1380,\\nGower s Confessio\\nAmantis,Q..i 2()2.\\nV.\\nThe Begin-\\nnings OF Mod-\\nern English.\\n140(^1557.\\nThe language\\naugmented, en-\\nriched, and pu-\\nrified.\\nDuring this period the English lan-\\nguage was firmly established.\\n1413-1422. Henry V. sends ambas-\\nsadors to France who could\\nneither speak nor understand\\nFrench.\\n1444. Petitions and wills regularly\\nin English.\\n1477. Caxton s press set up in Eng-\\nland.\\n1488. Birth of Coverdale.\\n1491. Grocyn teaches Greek at\\nOxford.\\n1505. Birth of John Knox.\\n15 15. Birth of Roger Ascham.\\n1535. Death of Thomas More.\\n1542. Death of Wyatt.\\n1557. TotteVs Miscellany\\nPaston Letters,\\n1422-1507.\\nMalory s Morte\\nd Arthur c.\\n1470.\\nCaxton s Transla-\\ntion of Reynard,\\n1481.\\nSkelton, 1460-\\n1529.\\nMore s Utopia,\\n1516.\\nTyndal s Transla-\\ntion, 1525.\\nLatimer s Plowers,\\n1549.\\n135", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "TABLE v.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 THE AGE OF CHAUCER, I350-I4OO.\\nEnglish Literature.\\nEnglish History.\\nForeign Litera-\\nture.\\nI. Poetry.\\n1327-1377. Edward III.\\nDante, 1265-1321.\\nI. William Langland,\\n1339. Beginnings of the\\nVita Nuova, 1307.\\nc. 1332-C. 1400.\\nHundred Years War.\\nDivina Commedia,\\nPiers Plowman.\\n1346. Battle of Crecy.\\nI307?-I32i?.\\n2. John Gower, c. 133a-\\n1349. First appearance\\nPetrarch, 1304-1375.\\n1408.\\nof Black Death.\\nSonnets and Lyrics.\\nVox Clamantis (Latin).\\n1356. Battle of Poi-\\nBoccaccio, 1313-\\nConfessio A mantis.\\ntiers.\\n1375. The Decam-\\n3. Geoffrey Chaucer,\\n1359. Chaucer taken by\\neron, 1350.\\n1340-1400,\\nthe French.\\nPetrarch Crowned\\nThe Parlament of\\n1372. Chaucer meets\\nat Rome, 1341.\\nFoules.\\nPetrarch.\\nGiotto, Italian artist,\\nTroilus and Criseyde.\\n1377. Chaucer s mission\\n1276-1336,\\nThe Hous of Fame.\\nto France.\\nFroissart, French\\nThe Legende of Good\\n1377-1399- Richard II.\\nChronicler, 1337-\\nWomen.\\n1381. Wat Tyler s Re-\\n1410.\\nTreatise on the Astro-\\nvolt.\\nlabe.\\n1382. Suppression of\\nThe Canterbury Tales.\\nWyclif s poor priests.\\nII. Prose.\\n1384. Death of Wyclif.\\n1389. Truce with\\nI. John Wyclif, c. 1324\\nFrance.\\n-1384.\\n1390. Chaucer clerk of\\nTranslation of the\\nKing s works.\\nBible.\\n1399-1413. Henry IV.\\n2. Sir John Mande-\\n1399. Persecution of the\\nviLLE, 13007-137 1?.\\nLollards.\\nThe Voiage and Trav-\\naile.\\n136", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XI\\nTHE CENTURY OF DARKNESS\\nI4OO-1485\\nFrom the Death of Chaucer to the Accession of\\nHenry VII\\nAuthorities. Gairdner, The Houses of Lancaster and\\nYork; The Paston Letters (Bohn), a series of private\\nletters written between 1422 and 1507, throw a flood of\\nlight upon the manners and the spirit of the age;\\nShakespeare s Richard LI. Henry IV. Henry V. Henry\\nVI., and Richard HI. should be studied with care in con-\\nnection with Warner, English History in Shakespeare s\\nPlays.\\nIn literature and in civilization generally, the century\\nafter the death of Chaucer was a time of almost total\\neclipse, well-nigh as dark as that which in earlier days\\nhad followed the era of Northumbria. Taine even calls\\nit the age of pagan renaissance. With the death of\\nChaucer the new literature which had sprung up every-\\nwhere in England with such richness and variety, and\\nwhich had seemed but the promise of a more glorious\\nfuture, ceased as suddenly as it had begun. A few sing-\\ners there were like Occleve and Lydgate who for a time\\nfeebly imitated their great master, but they were soon\\nsilent and the century dragged on to its close as if the\\ngreat era of Chaucer had never been.\\nThe reasons for this sudden relapse are plainly evi-\\n137", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "138 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHenry s Usurpation of the Throne Revolution Stayed\\ndent. It was a century of civil war, when the nation was\\nlearning at a fearful price the lesson of self-control and\\nit was an era of most narrow religious intolerance. Not\\nuntil there is freedom of thought and freedom of con-\\nscience can there be a national literature.\\nThe Later Plantagenets. The dark days for England\\nhad begun even before the death of Chaucer. The early\\ndeath of the Black Prince caused the succession to fall to\\nhis son, Richard II. But his reign was so full of weak-\\nness and injustice that Henry, son of John of Gaunt,\\naided by the Percies and other powerful houses, had even\\ndared to rise against him. In 1399, only a few months\\nbefore Chaucer s death, this daring young noble suc-\\nceeded in his rebellion, deposed the King,\\n(Red Rose.) ^nd although he was not in the direct\\nHenry IV., 1399-1413. ijj^g ^f succcssion, scizcd the crown under\\nHenry v., -1422. r tt ttt --t-i r\\nHenry VI. ,-1461. the title of Henry iV. Ihis act of\\nYORK. usurpation kept England in a tumult\\nEdward iv., 1483- nearly a century, and precipitated the\\nEdward v., 1483. quarrel between baron and baron which\\nRichard III., 1485. 1 1 x. 1 4. j\\nwas bound to come sooner or later, and\\nwhich eventually cleared from England the last vestiges\\nof the feudal system.\\nThe storm soon burst with fury upon Henry, but the\\nKing was master of the situation and at the battle of\\nShrewsbury dealt such a blow at the great houses which\\nhad arisen against him that the feudal power did not\\nrally again for a generation. His son, Henry V., was a\\nstrong, masterful man, one of the brilliant figures in\\nEnglish history. He saw clearly his position, England\\nwas a powder-mill that a single spark might destroy and\\nwith cool wisdom he adopted the plan of Edward III.\u00e2\u0080\u0094", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "The Century of Darkness\\nPeriod of Inevitable Conflict Wars of the Roses\\nTo busy giddy minds\\nWith foreign quarrels.\\nThe briUiant campaign that culminated in the victory\\nof Agincourt followed; all France was at the King s feet,\\nand for a moment the old thrill of the days of Crecy\\nswept over England. But it was only for a moment.\\nThe great King died in the midst of his triumph, and his\\nson, only nine months old, was crowned in his cradle.\\nThe strong wills of the two Henrys had stayed the tide\\nof civil discord, but now there was no hand to check it,\\nfor even when the young King became of age he was but\\na child. During his whole life he was a shuttlecock\\ntossed between powerful factions. Little by little the\\nFrench territory won by his father was wrested away, for\\na p^reat power, the peasant maiden, Joan\\n14I5- Agincourt.\\nof Arc, had arisen in France. Soon there 1429. siege of Orleans,\\nwas but the little town of Calais to show\\nArc.\\nfor the brilliant and costly wars of the 1455- Battle of st.\\nformer reign, and now the house of ^^f/.^Battie of Tow-\\nYork, led by the powerful baron War- ton.\\nwick, who boasted that on festal days he ^Tewkesbury.^\\nfed thirty thousand at his table, boldly M85. Battle of Bos-\\ndemanded its rights, wrested from it by\\nthe usurper Henry IV. The Wars of the Roses followed,\\nand for thirty years the island w^as a battlefield. The\\nconflict so long inevitable had burst upon England with\\nfury, seldom in history does one find so savage and so\\nbloody a struggle. No quarter was asked or given.\\nAfter every battle there was a wholesale beheading, until\\nalmost all the nobility of the kingdom were destroyed.\\nWhole houses like that of Warwick and of Somierset were\\nexterminated to a man. When the Wars of the Roses", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "140 The Foundations of English Literature\\nReligious Repression Persecution of the Lollards\\nwere over, the great wreck of the feudal system that had\\ncumbered and threatened the land since the days of\\nHenry II. was swept entirely from English soil.\\nThis struggle, so fearfully cruel and bloody, was the\\nlast lesson in that harsh school whose first master had\\nbeen William the Norman. It was a lesson that England\\nhad sooner or later to learn if she was ever to become a\\nunited, self-centered nation.\\nAnother and perhaps more important cause for the\\nliterary barrenness of the period was the policy of re-\\nligious repression adopted by Henry IV. and continued\\nwith fierceness until the middle of the century. Pro-\\ntected by John of Gaunt, Wyclif had sown broadcast the\\nseeds of religious and intellectual emancipation. For\\nhalf a century England had thrilled with a new life;\\nliterature had flourished, originality of thought and\\nopinion had been tolerated. But no sooner was the\\ngreat Duke dead than the tide turned. In 1400 a fierce\\ndecree against the Lollards was enacted, and during the\\nfollowing half-century no efforts were spared to root out\\nthe effects of Wyclif s sowing. The colleges were\\nprominent in the persecution, and as a result learning\\nsank lower and lower. Since all free inquiry, all origin-\\nality, was heresy, scholarship must continue to beat at\\nthe old straw, and literature must be content to echo\\nmasters who had sung in more fortunate days.\\nSuggested Reading. Drayton, Ballad of Agin-\\ncourt (Ward, English Poets) Scott, The Fair Maid of\\nPerth Bulwer, The Last of the Barons Southey, Joan\\nof Arc,\\nI. William Caxton (c. 1^1-i/j.gi)\\n{Life, by William Blades, scholarly and exhaustive\\nMorley, vi., Ch. xiv.)", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "The Century of Darkness 141\\nLife of Caxton His Publications\\nWhile the darkness of the period was most dense there\\nentered England, silently and unobserved, a force that\\nwas destined to revolutionize the nation s intellectual\\nlife. The advent of Caxton with his printing press\\ndivides sharply the history of English literature. All be-\\nfore him is the old all after him the new.\\nCaxton was of English parentage, a native of Kent\\nbut being apprenticed to a mercer he was early taken\\nabroad, and in 1450 we find him a prosperous merchant\\nof Bruges. He remained in the Flemish city during the\\nnext twenty-five years, an active and important business\\nman, kept in constant trouble by the trade relations be-\\ntween England and the Low Countries. In 1468 a\\nchange in the treaty relieved him of much of his labor,\\nand he immediately began to improve his leisure hours\\nby making a translation from the French. Three years\\nlater he had completed an English version of Le Recueil\\ndes Histoires de Troye. It became exceedingly popular,\\nbut the old difficulty that had confronted every successful\\nwriter since the earliest times now arose before Caxton.\\nThe reduplication of manuscripts was a long and tedious\\nprocess. He copied until his eyes were dimmed with\\novermuch looking on the white paper, and then he be-\\nthought himself of the newly discovered art of printing\\nwhich had just been introduced into Bruges. As a result\\nhis translation of the Recueil was printed in 1474, perhaps\\nat Bruges, probably at Cologne, thereby winning the dis-\\ntinction of being the first English book reproduced by\\nmovable types. Caxton was evidently charmed with his\\nnew accomplishment. In 1476 he took a complete print-\\ning outfit to London, and the next year he produced The\\nDictes and Sayings of the Philosophers^ the first book ever", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "142 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Service to the English Tongue His Love of Romance\\nprinted in England. From this date until 149 1 Caxton s\\npress was in constant activity. He threw into his new\\nwork all the marvelous energy that had characterized\\nhim as a business man. He translated from the French\\ntwenty-one books, mainly romances, and issued them\\nsometimes in several editions. He produced editions of\\nChaucer, Gower, Malory, and Lydgate, besides transla-\\ntions from the Latin and the Dutch. He printed in\\nfourteen years, says his biographer, more than eighteen\\nthousand pages, nearly all of folio size, and nearly eighty\\nseparate books.\\nThe service that Caxton rendered the English language\\nand literature cannot be overestimated. He selected\\nwith a careful hand the best that English literature had\\nproduced, and he made it possible for it to be distributed\\nwidely; the author was no longer at the mercy of the\\ncopyist; large numbers of a work, absolutely uniform,\\ncould be produced, a fact that in itself did much to settle\\nEnglish speech. But Caxton did more he was the first\\nEnglish editor; he suppHed introductory matter and in-\\nsisted upon uniformity of orthography and diction. His\\nown prose style, although not especially notable, is never-\\ntheless vigorous and idiomatic. He stood, says Green,\\nbetween two schools of translation, that of French\\naffectation and English pedantry and his sturdy good\\nsense bade him use the strong, homely English that he\\nheard all about him.\\nThe publications of the first printer, with their simple,\\nhonest introductions, throw a flood of light upon his\\ncharacter and his time. He loved romance and the old\\ntales of chivalry.\\nO blessed Lord [he cried] when I remembre the grete and many volumes", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "The Century of Darkness 143\\nSir Thomas Malory Le Morte d Arthur\\nof Seynt Graal, Ghalehot Launcelotte de Lake, Gawayn, Perceval, Ly-\\nonel, and Tristram, and many other, of whom were over longe to reherce,\\nand also to me unknowen But thy storye of the said Arthur is so glory-\\nous and shyning that he is stalled in the fyrst place of the moost noble,\\nbeste and worthyest of the Cristen men.\\nBut Caxton was not alone in his enthusiasm. Romance\\nwas still the chief literary diet of those who could read,\\nas it had been ever since the Normans had brought it into\\nthe island four centuries before.\\n2. Sir Thomas Malory\\nAuthorities. The Globe Edition Sommer s Edition,\\n3 vols., is the leading authority; Mead s Selections from\\nLe Morte d Arthur, with its excellent introduction, is the\\nmost helpful for the general student; see also Rhys\\nStudies in the Arthur Legend.\\nIn July, 1485, there issued from Caxton s press the\\nmost important work produced in England during the\\ncentury, Le Morte d Arthur of Sir Thomas Malory.\\nThe book comes suddenly before us like one of Merlin s\\ncreations. Of its origin and its author we know almost\\nnothing. It was ended the ix yere of the reygne of\\nKing Edward the fourth [1470] by Syr Thom.as Maleore\\nKnight a copy was delivered to Caxton, whyche\\ncopye Syr Thomas Malorye dyd take oute of certeyn\\nbookes of frensshe and reduced it in to Englysshe\\nand it was edited, furnished with preface and table of\\ncontents, divided into books and chapters, and printed\\nby Caxton. So much we gather from the work itself.\\nAll attempts to supply more details and to connect the\\nauthor with any historical personage must rest upon\\nconjecture.\\nBut the personality of the old knight breathes from", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "144 The Foundations of English Literature\\nDreams of the Middle Ages Full of the Soul of Mediaeval Life\\nevery page of his romance. He was a survival, a Don\\nQuixote, a courtly figure, who had wandered into a de-\\ngenerate age and whose thoughts and dreams were of the\\nold days. The time was ripe for the work; no other\\ncentury could have produced it. The generation before\\nMalory had lived in the Middle Ages; the generation\\nafter him smiled at the pompous ideals of their grand-\\nfathers. But as chivalry was passing away there came\\nover it the golden light that ever is wont to envelop the\\nfading system or the vanishing race, and the hand of the\\nmaster caught it at the right moment and fixed it forever.\\nAll that was brightest and most romantic in chivalry\\nlives and breathes on the pages of Malory. We find\\nthere not the life of the Middle Ages as it was actually\\nlived, but the ideals and the dreams of that age trans-\\nfigured and made golden by four centuries of dreamers.\\nIt is a fairyland that the old knight lives in, peopled\\nwith the bravest men and the fairest women that fancy\\ncan create. Marvelous events come thick and fast and\\nas a matter of course. Blocks descend with swords in-\\nfixed which only the true may draw forth magic letters\\nspring up conveying hidden messages enchanters appear\\nin strange forms to reveal the future. It is true to no\\nlife that ever was outside of dreamland, and yet it\\nbreathes the very soul of mediaeval life, its pomp and\\nglitter, its superstition, its ideals and dreams, with all\\nits hollowness and fantastic bigotry, its selfishness and\\ncruelty, refined away.\\nMalory found his materials in the French romances\\nthat had been accumulating since the days of Wace, but\\nhis work is far more than a mere translation. The vast ac-\\ncumulations of Arthurian romance were a pathless chaos,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "The Century of Darkness 145\\nInfluence of the Morte d^ Arthur Its Charming Prose Style\\na mere heap, before Malory touched them. Episode\\nafter episode had been added to the legend by various\\nhands, until it was an incoherent mass, inconsistent with\\nitself. It was Malory s task to select from this confusion\\nwhatever was worthy of preservation to arrange it into\\na consecutive, harmonious whole, and to express it in\\nclear, simple English.\\nThe influence of the Morte d Arthur upon later writers\\nhas been conspicuous. It has been a veritable storehouse\\nfrom which almost every great poet since Malory s day\\nhas copiously drawn. Nor has its influence been con-\\nfined to poets. It is not too much to say that it is the\\none book written in English before Shakespeare s day,\\nsaving Chaucer alone, that is still widely read solely\\non its merits. Its charm lies in its golden atmosphere,\\nin its perfect simplicity and crystal clearness, and in the\\nabsorbing interest of its episodes, which follow each other\\nin breathless succession. Its style is artless and seem-\\ningly spontaneous. There are no strainings after effect,\\nno labored constructions and artificial devices such as we\\nfind so freely in later English prose. It is condensed\\nand forcible, full of quaint expressions and picturesque\\nphrases. One need not read far to agree with Mead that\\nits author was the greatest master of prose before the\\nrevival of learning.\\nRequired Reading. Mead, Selections from Morte\\nd Arthur. If less is required, read books xiii. and xvii.\\nLanier s Boys King Arthur is an excellent compilation,\\nto be read if possible.\\nJ. The Old English Ballads\\nAuthorities. Professor Child s article in Johnson s\\nCyclopcedia. The earliest and most famous collection of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "146 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Old English Ballads Their Origin\\nold English ballads Percy s Reliques the most com-\\nplete and scholarly is Professor Child, English and Scot-\\ntish Ballads the best collections for the general student\\nare those of Gummere (Athenaeum Press Series), and of\\nKatherine Lee Bates.\\nThe century was not destitute of poets. Occleve,\\nLydgate, King James L Skelton, and others were volumi-\\nnous singers, but they were content either to echo their\\ngreat master Chaucer or to drone monotonously in their\\nown key. A few of the Scottish bards, like Dunbar and\\nDouglas, struck original notes, but their work was not\\nstrong enough to change at all the current of the age.\\nThe only poems of the century that are still readable\\nwith pleasure are the quaint old ballads, like A Geste of\\nRobyn Hode^ The Battle of Otter burn, Chevy Chace, and\\nNut-Brown Maid that have drifted, without name or date\\nto our own times. These ballads are the lineal descend-\\nants of the old Saxon minstrelsy, oi Beowulf diXid Judith\\nand the Battle of Brunanburh. They sprang like all primi-\\ntive epic poetry from the common folk, who took huge\\ndelight in their stirring lines. The offspring at first of\\nsingle singers, they were passed on by tradition, receiving\\nin transit many additions and changes, and they were\\nsung, perhaps with instrumental accompaniment, at the\\ngatherings and merrymakings of the people. Doubtless\\nthe most popular of all the ballads was that cycle of\\nstories which gathered around the name of Robin Hood,\\nwhose bold, free life in the greenwood forest, whose skill\\nwith the long-bow and whose pluck and daring have\\nmade him the typical hero of English folk-lore. Perhaps\\nthe most spirited of the ballads and the one with the\\ngreatest literary merit is Chevy Chace, or its older and", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "The Century of Darkness 147\\nTheir Force and Charm Successors of the Anglo-Saxon Poetry\\nbetter version, The Hunting of tke Cheviot. The popu-\\nlarity of this poem has always been marvelous. Cer-\\ntainly I must confess mine own barbarousness, declared\\nSir Philip Sidney; I never heard the old song of Percy\\nand Douglas that I found not my heart moved more\\nthan with a trumpet and yet it is sung but by some\\nblind Crowder, with no rougher voice than rude style.\\nBallads of the English border have continued to be made\\neven to our own day. Sir Walter Scott at the beginning\\nof the century collected three volumes of the Minstrelsy\\nof the Scottish Border, much of which had never before\\nbeen written down.\\nThe charm of the ballads lies in their simplicity and\\ntheir unconscious art. The meter often hobbles and the\\nmovement is by no means uniform, yet the story is told\\nwith effectiveness. The stirring scene stands graphically\\nbefore us the interest is sustained to the end, and the\\nclimax is skilfully managed. There is much in the bal-\\nlads to remind one of the old Saxon poetry. There are\\nthe same picturesque epithets and recurring phrases the\\nsame parallel constructions and alliteration. As we read\\nthem there comes before us the same stalwart figure that\\nwe found centuries before in Beowulf. The Englishman\\nof the ballads is the Englishman of the primal poetry,\\nwith more civilization and a larger horizon, yet at heart\\nunchanged.\\nRequired Reading. The Hunting of the Cheviot and\\na Geste of Robyn Hode. See also Addison, Spectator,\\n70-74.\\nThe Religious Drama\\nAuthorities. Pollard, English Miracle Plays, Moral-\\nities, and Interludes Ten Brink, Vol. ii. Symonds,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "148 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Miracle Play Its Origin\\nShakespeare s Predecessors in the English Drama Bates,\\nEnglish Religious Drama Tolman, Bibliography of the\\nEnglish Drama before Elizabeth (University of Chicago\\nPress).\\nOur survey of the century would be incomplete with-\\nout a consideration of the mystery or miracle play, which\\nduring this age reached in England its most flourishing\\nstage. It was by no means a new thing; it had been\\nslowly evolving for centuries, but so small is its literary\\nmerit that were it not that from it was developed the\\nElizabethan drama it would doubtless be overlooked.\\nThe germs of the miracle play must be sought for on\\nthe continent, in France and Germany. It seems to\\nhave sprung almost spontaneously from the Roman\\nCatholic ritual. The great mass of the people during\\nall the Middle Ages were rude and unlettered. To im-\\npress upon them the solemn lessons of Christmas and\\nEaster and other holy days, the Latin service was made\\nas objective as possible. A crucifix was buried with im-\\npressive ceremonies on the evening of Good Friday, to be\\nresurrected with joyous hymns on Easter morn. So suc-\\ncessful was this device that it was gradually improved\\nupon; characters were introduced, with dialogue and\\nappropriate costumes, until the Easter service had become\\nin all its essentials a passion play. Other festival days\\nwere similarly observed, and so popular did the service\\nbecome that the Church could no longer hold the eager\\nmultitudes who pressed for admittance. The priests\\nwere forced to perform the service in the churchyard\\nand later on the village green. At first only ecclesiastics\\ntook part, but at length laymen were admitted, and the\\nplay drifted farther and farther from the service until at", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "The Century of Darkness 149\\nPlay Cycles Presentation of these Plays\\nlast, by order of the Pope, the priests withdrew and left\\nit wholly a secular performance.\\nThe miracle play was brought into England by the\\nNormans during the twelfth century. Its popularity was\\nso immediate that by the middle of the next century it\\nhad spread over the entire island. In certain cities,\\nnotably at Chester and York, there sprang up elaborate\\nplay cycles, written doubtless by ecclesiastics and enacted\\nonce each year by actors chosen from the citizens. One\\nhundred and sixty-one of these plays have been pre-\\nserved, and among them, by great good fortune, there\\nare four complete cycles: the Chester cycle, of twenty-\\nfive plays, which was in continual use between the years\\n1268 and 1577; the Towneley cycle, which consisted of\\nthirty-two the Coventry, which consisted of forty-two\\nand the York, which contained forty-eight.\\nOn the day chosen for the presentation of a cycle of\\nplays the country for miles around was in motion; the\\ncity was thronged with eager multitudes. At an early\\nhour the play began. A large van or platform, divided\\ninto two rooms, the lower to be used as a dressing-room,\\nthe upper as a stage, came rolling into the market-place\\nin charge of one of the city guilds. After a short pro-\\nlogue the actors chosen from the guild of tanners be-\\ngan upon the stage to enact the fall of Lucifer. The\\nplay at length over, the van was drawn into the next\\nstreet to repeat the performance to a new audience, while\\nits place was taken by another van in charge of the\\nplasterers, whose duty it was to enact the creation of\\nthe world. Then came the shipwrights, w^ho repre-\\nsented the building of the ark; and the fishmongers and\\nmariners, who enacted the episode of the flood. Thus", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "150 The Foundations of English Literature\\nTheir Literary Merit Small Their Influence\\none by one the vans, each in charge of its guild, rolled by,\\nuntil the entire twenty-five plays had been presented.\\nIn many places the acting covered several days, and in\\none case a whole week was given over to the festivities.\\nThe intrinsic merit of the plays, aside from their im-\\nportance as germs of the drama, is not large. They were\\nwritten with religious rather than literary intent, and\\ncompared with the elaborate productions of a later day\\nthey seem like the crude attempts of schoolboys. But\\nlet no one despise the drama that can hold for more\\nthan three centuries an unbroken popularity. The plays\\nwere made with all sincerity and earnestness, and they\\naccomplished to the full the object for which they were\\ncreated. Nor are they devoid of a certain unintentional\\nart, which came from the very earnestness of the author\\nto drive his lesson home. Unity of action is fully ob-\\nserved, all of the personages and episodes being grouped\\nin every case about one central act or situation. Here\\nand there, notably in the Brome version of Abrahain and\\nIsaac, there is a true pathos handled with dramatic skill;\\nthere are traces also of lyric inspiration, notably in the\\nBrome play, which opens with the invocation\\nFather of heaven omnipotent,\\nWith all my heart to thee I call\\nand scattered everywhere through the plays may be\\nfound traces of humor, rude and boisterous, yet none the\\nless effective, as in Noah s Flood, where the patriarch s\\nwife refuses to enter the ark.\\nThe influence of the miracle plays upon the rude peas-\\nantry, the majority of whom had no other way of ac-\\nquiring Scriptural truths, must not be overlooked. The", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "The Century of Darkness 151\\nThey Soften and Civilize the Saxon Mind\\ncountry boor witnessed with all reverence the scenes that\\npassed before him. Biblical stories and lessons were im-\\npressed upon his slow mind with a vividness that nothing\\nelse could have given. The figure of the meek and lowly\\nChrist, bearing with patience the insults heaped upon\\nHim, and forgiving with His last breath the enemies who\\nhad slain Him, was made a living reality to the brutal\\nSaxon and the spectacle softened and civilized him more\\nthan would centuries of mere preaching. The miracle\\nplay not only molded his spiritual and religious life, but\\nit gave intellectual stimulus as well. All classes, the\\nhigh and the low, took unmeasured delight in it. It wg.s\\nalmost their only intellectual amusement. It took the\\nplace of the old scop and minstrel; it was newspaper,\\nnovel, and theater combined, and it educated the masses\\nmore than can be estimated. Later, when the new im-\\npulse came, and England, awakened from the slumber of\\nthe Middle Ages, began to create a new and classic\\ndrama, it found an audience eager to receive and com-\\npetent to appreciate.\\nRequired Reading. The Brome version of Abraham\\nand Isaac and the Towneley version of Noalts Flood, both\\nin Manly, Specimens of the Pre-Shaksperean Drama,\\nAthenaeum Press Series.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "TABLE VI. THE AGE OF DARKNESS\\nI4OO-I485.\\nEnglish Literature.\\nEnglish History.\\nForeign.\\nOccLEVE, c. 1365-C. 1450.\\n1399-1413. Henry IV.\\n1410. Death of\\nDe Regimine P r in-\\n1403. Revolt of the\\nFroissart.\\ncipium.\\nPercies.\\n1415. John Huss\\nLament for Chaucer.\\n1403-4. French de-\\nburned.\\nJohn Lydgate, died c.\\nscents upon England.\\n1420. 400 Greek\\n1450.\\n1405. James I. priso-\\nMSS. brought to\\nThe Siege of Troy.\\nner in England.\\nItaly.\\nThe Falls of Princes.\\n1413-1422. Henry V.\\n143 1. Birth of Vil-\\nJames I. of Scotland,\\n141 5. Battle of Agin-\\nlon.\\nI 394-143 7.\\ncourt.\\n1452-1498. Savon-\\nThe King s Quhair.\\n141 7. Henry invades\\narola.\\nCaxton. c. 1422-1491.\\nNormandy.\\n1453. Constantino-\\nReynard the Fox, 148 1.\\n1422-1461. Henry VI.\\nple taken.\\nMalory.\\n1428-9. Siege of Or-\\n1455. Guttenburg\\nMorte d Arthur, 1470.\\nleans.\\nprints Mazarin Bi-\\nSkelton, c. 1460-1529.\\n143 1. Death of Joan\\nble.\\nColin Clout.\\nof Arc.\\n1469. Birth of Ma-\\nPhilip Sparrow.\\n1450. Loss of Nor-\\nchiavelli.\\nWhy Come ye not to\\nmandy.\\n1469-1492. Lorenzo\\nCourt?\\n1455. First Battle of\\nde Medici.\\nDunbar, c. 1460-c. 1530.\\nSt. Albans..\\n147 1. A Kempis\\nThe Thistle and the\\n1461. Battle of Wake-\\nImitation of\\nRose.\\nfield.\\nChrist.\\nBallads,\\n1461-1483. Edward IV.\\n1474. Birth of Ari-\\nThe Battle of Otter-\\n1461. Battle of Tow-\\nosto.\\nburn.\\nton.\\n1483. Birth of Lu-\\nChevy Chace.\\n146 1-7 1 Warwick the\\nther.\\nNut-Brown Maid, etc.\\nking-maker.\\nMiracle Plays,\\n1464. Edward mar-\\nChester Cycle.\\nries Lady Grey.\\nYork Cycle.\\n147 1. Battles of Bar-\\nTowneley Cycle.\\nnet and Tewkesbury.\\nCoventry Cycle.\\n1475. Edward invades\\nFrance.\\n1483-1483. Edward V.\\n1483. Murder of Ed-\\nward V.\\n1483-1485. Richard III.\\n1485. Battle of Bos-\\nworth Field.\\n152", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII\\nTHE AGE OF THE RENAISSANCE\\nI485-I557\\nFrom the Accession of Henry VII. to the Publication\\nOF Tottel s Miscellany\\nThe Later Renaissance. (The standard English history\\nof the period is Symonds, Renaissance in Italy a more\\ncondensed and convenient work for the general student\\nis Schaff, The Renaissance. See also Mrs. Oliphant,\\nThe Makers of Florence, Taine, Lectures on Art, and\\nRoscoe, Life of Lorenzo de Medici.)\\nWhile England was lying thus in darkness, wasting\\nits energies and starving its soul in endless civil wars,\\nthere was springing up in Italy in Florence and Rome\\na new life that was destined to spread over all Eu-\\nrope. The enthusiasm of the earlier Renaissance, of the\\ndays of Dante and Petrarch and Boccaccio, had almost\\nebbed away, but now it arose again with tenfold\\npower. The immediate cause of the avv^akening was\\nthe renewal of contact between the Western and the\\nEastern civilizations of Europe. Early in the fifteenth\\ncentury scholars from Byzantium had wandered to\\nItaly, bringing with them the language and the mas-\\nterpieces of ancient Greece. Still later, in 1453, when\\nConstantinople, which for years had been the seat of\\nthe world s best civilization, yielded to the Turk, there\\nwas another migration of scholars westward. Manu-\\n153", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "154 The Foundations of English Literature\\nDiscovery of Ancient Greece The City of Florence\\nscripts and art treasures from the conquered city poured\\ninto Italy. The effect was immediate. Greece was re-\\ndiscovered, even as Egypt and Assyria have been in our\\nown day, and the discovery caused an awakening which\\ncan be compared only with the revolution in natural\\nscience which marks the nineteenth century. A new\\nworld was opened before the eyes of scholars, and its\\nminutest details were studied with eager interest. The\\nworld was ransacked for manuscripts and relics of an-\\ntiquity. During the pontificate of Nicholas V. (1447-145 5)\\nthe Vatican library was founded, soon to become the\\nmost valuable collection of books since the library of\\nAlexandria, Nicholas himself bought for it no less than\\nfive thousand rare manuscripts, and soon the number was\\ngreatly increased. From books the collectors turned to\\nstatuary and art. The great masterpieces, many of\\nwhich, like the Laocoon group, the torso of Hercules, and\\nthe Apollo Belvedere, had been lost for centuries, were\\nrecovered and brought to the Vatican.\\nThe center of the new Italy was Florence, the magnifi-\\ncent, the flower of cities. Rich and powerful families\\nlike the Medici poured out their wealth to adorn it, to\\nmake it the home of beauty and refinement, of art and\\npoetry and scholarship. There could be but one result.\\nContact with the masters of ancient Greece and Rome\\nbrought in a new conception of human life, new ideals,\\nnew dreams. A joyous and eager intellectual life began\\nin Florence and Italy. There arose a new school of\\npoets, Ariosto, Michel Angelo, Tasso, and the rest,\\nsuccessors of Dante and Petrarch. There sprang up all\\nat once in a single generation the most marvelous group\\nof painters that the world has ever seen. Italy had be-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "The Age of the Renaissance 155\\nThe Invention of Printing The Renaissance in England\\ncome a nation of scholars, of antiquari-\\nDa Vinci, 1452-1519.\\nans; of poets, artists, enthusiasts. The Fra Bartoiommeo,\\nItalians, says Schaff, took the place of \u00e2\u0080\u009e-fh.?A;g..o. ,475-\\nthe ancient Greeks, and even surpassed 1564-\\nthem as poets and artists. Republican oroTgion t^Ji^^^^^^^^^^\\nFlorence rivaled and outshone Athens as a Raphael, 1483-1520.\\nhome of genius, and papal Rome excelled M93-1534.\\nimperial Rome in the liberal patronage of letters and arts.\\nFrom Italy the new humanistic movement passed on to\\nGermany and Holland, where there soon arose a group\\nof scholars and painters well-nigh as marvelous as those\\nof Italy. The printing press, a product of Germany, was\\nin itself a renaissance. It gave wings to literature,*\\nscattering to the winds the treasures so long the exclusive\\nproperty of the rich. By its aid the new learning quickly\\npenetrated all Europe, preparing it for the mighty up-\\nheaval of the Reformation and marking the dividing line\\nbetween mediaeval and modern history.\\nEngland. The movement came late to England.\\nWhile all Italy was thrilling with new intellectual life,\\ndarkness still hung over the island like a morning fog.\\nTo the scholars of Florence in the days of the Medici,\\nBritain was a land of barbarians, even as it had seemed\\nin the early centuries as viewed from Rome. What was\\nrefinement to the rude North Were the English not\\ncoarse and brutal, enormous eaters and drinkers Had\\nthey not spent a century in mutual slaughter like the\\nwolves that they were\\nBut with the accession of the first Tudor there dawned\\na new era. The houses of Lancaster and York had been\\nnearly exterminated when Richard fell at Bosworth\\nField there was none to oppose the victor. With mar-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "156 The Foundations of English Literature\\nInfluence of Henry VII, The Oxford Reformers\\nvelous activity the young King proceeded to fortify him-\\nself. He united the red and the white roses by wedding\\nMargaret, the heiress of York; he made harmless all\\npossible heirs to the throne he crushed with vigor two\\nrebellions, the last ebbing energies of the great wars and\\nhe used Caxton s press to scatter broadcast over England\\na clear exposition of his title to the crown. He was soon\\nsecure, with a firmer seat upon the throne than had any\\nother king since Edward HI., and, once secure, he turned\\nall his energies toward the arts of peace. For a genera-\\ntion England was free from war; free to build up her\\nshattered industries and to repair everywhere the wreck\\ncaused by the century of civil strife.\\nThe Oxford Reformers. (Froude, Life and Letters of\\nErasmus; Seebohm, Oxford Reformers Bridgett,\\nLife of More Knight, Life of Colet Johnson, Life of\\nLinacre,)\\nIt was during this lull after the storm that two Ox-\\nford students, Grocyn and Linacre, returned from Italy\\nbringing with them the true Renaissance spirit, to open\\nat the University courses in Greek with an enthusiasm\\nakin to that of Theodore and Hadrian in Anglo-Saxon\\ndays. Still later, in 1496, John Colet, the leading intel-\\nlect of his generation, fresh from the Italy of Lorenzo de\\nMedici and Savonarola, announced a course of lectures on\\nSt. Paul s Epistles, to be given from the new standpoint\\nof Greek scholarship.\\nThe effect of such a torrent in the stagnant marsh of\\nscholastic Oxford can hardly be imagined. For centuries\\neducation had consisted of a minute study of the school-\\nmen, of Duns Scotus, Aquinas, and the rest, whose\\nauthority was absolute. They had taken universal knowl-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "The Age of the Renaissance 157\\nCondition of the English Universities Success of the Reformers\\nedge as their realm, and they settled all questions,\\nwhether of theology, philosophy, or science, with Bible\\ntexts, which were interpreted apart from their context in\\nthe light of elaborate and fantastic commentaries of the\\nolder schoolmen. The letter had become everything;\\nthe spirit, nothing. Twenty doctors, says Tyndale,\\nwho received his early education at their hands, ex-\\npound one text twenty ways, and with an antitheme\\n[text] of half an inch some of them draw a thread of nine\\ndays long. The Bible had become a mere book of\\nsibylline leaves, a dead storehouse of texts. Even the\\nlaws of nature must yield if they clashed with the laws of\\nAquinas. Progress under such conditions was impossible.\\nBefore the age of freedom and discovery could begin, the\\nscholastic system, which fettered all education, must be\\nutterly removed, for every discovery of science or phi-\\nlosophy contrary to the dicta of the schoolmen was re-\\ngarded as a crime, and every method of teaching not\\nfounded on the old system was heresy.\\nIt is with deep interest, then, that we watch the little\\nband of humanists in Oxford. From the first they seem\\nto have prospered. Eager throngs crowded the lecture-\\nrooms of Colet, and the fame of his methods and his\\nmessage went abroad over England. Brilliant young\\nstudents from every quarter of the land caught the true\\nRenaissance enthusiasm and plunged into the study of\\nGreek, to them the veritable key to all truth and beauty.\\nSilently the leaven spread among the best minds of the\\nnation. Learned bishops and statesmen joined the\\nmovement; the King himself was in hearty sympathy.\\nTwo years after Colet s return from Italy, Oxford had\\nbecome a center of Greek learning, so that Erasmus, the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "158 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Dutch Scholar Erasmus Trend of the New Learning\\ngreat Dutch scholar, too poor to afford a journey to Italy,\\ncontented himself with a pilgrimage to England instead.\\nHe was delighted with the scholarly atmosphere of\\nOxford.\\nWith two such friends as Colet and Charnock [he cried] I would not re-\\nfuse to live even in Scythia, I have found in Oxford so much polish\\nand learning that now I hardly care about going to Italy at all save\\nfor the sake of having been there. When I hear my friend Colet it seems\\nlike listening to Plato himself. Who does not wonder at the wide range of\\nGrocyn s knowledge What could be more searching, deep, and refined\\nthan the judgment of Linacre and when did nature ever mold a character\\nmore gentle, endearing, and happy than Thomas More s\\nIt was the magic of this little group that drew Erasmus\\nagain and again across the Channel, so that he belongs\\nalmost as much to England as to the continent.\\nThe Trend of the New Learning, But the new learning\\nof England, unlike that of Italy, took from the very start\\na religious and political turn. It produced no poets; it\\ninspired no artists. Its keynote had been struck by\\nColet, to whom Greek and the Italian culture were simply\\na means for obtaining religious truth and purity. And\\nyet, despite the fact that it expended itself in religious\\ncontroversy, and at last was lost sight of in the smudge\\nthat settled over the land during the days of Edward and\\nMary, it must be carefully considered, since from it came\\nthe England of Elizabeth.\\nIts assault upon scholasticism led inevitably to a criti-\\ncism of the Church, and never had the Church stood more\\nin need of criticism. The corruption so graphically por-\\ntrayed by Langland and Chaucer a century before had\\nincreased with every year. Before Wyclif s day the\\nBible had been free; the Lollards had attempted to", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "The Age of the Renaissance 159\\nAn Attack upon the Church Revival of the Lollards\\nspread it broadcast among the people, and to make its\\nmessage everywhere understood, but they had been\\ncruelly repressed. An unsuccessful revolution ends in\\ntightening the chains which it ought to have broken.\\nFor a century the Bible had been a sealed volume save\\nto those who through a long study of the schoolmen had\\nwon the key to the mystic book. Even more than in\\nLangland s day Christianity had become a kind of fetich\\nworship, a veneration of relics, the most of them de-\\nliberately manufactured by the monks a thing of cere-\\nmonies and outward form. Colet and Erasmus denounced\\nin unmeasured terms the worship of relics, the efficacy of\\npilgrimages, the belief in miracles at shrines, the hollow-\\nness of mere formalism. All unconsciously they were\\nspreading under the royal sanction the tenets of the\\ndespised Lollards. The same multitudes who, two cen-\\nturies earlier, had listened with eagerness to the poor\\npriests of Wyclif, now crowded the audience rooms of\\nColet and Latimer, or read the pamphlets and the trans-\\nlations of Tyndale. Colet and his followers had dreamed\\nof a reformation that should work from the top down-\\nwards; that should touch the common people through\\nthe regenerated upper classes; but all unconsciously they\\naroused the people first, thus setting in motion a mighty\\npower which, once started, they were powerless to control.\\nThe Reformation. (Perry, TJie Reformation in Eng-\\nland Seebohm, Era of the Protestant Revolution;\\nCreighton, The Tudor s and the Reformation Lingard s\\nHistory of England tells the story from the Catholic point\\nof view.)\\nIt is at this point that we come to what unquestion-\\nably is the most important event in modern history.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "i6o The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Reformation External Causes\\nIt comes suddenly before us. As we read the Tudor\\nannals, all in a moment we witness a transformation.\\nA nation Catholic from its very foundation, serious\\nalways and very deeply religious, at the word of its king,\\nseemingly through mere caprice, becomes a Protestant\\nstronghold. A fierce struggle there is, a time when the\\nopposing forces seem to be equal, but it is not long.\\nUnder Elizabeth the nation is as firmly Protestant as it\\nwas Catholic in the first years of her father. What was\\nthe secret of this great movement Revolutions never\\ngrow in a moment; the law of a king may force outward\\nconformity for a time, but it can never change the heart\\nof a people.\\nThe external causes of the Reformation are not hard\\nto find. They came almost by accident. With the\\nTudors had opened the era of personal monarchy,\\nTHE TUDORS. unchccked royal power. The\\nHenry VII., 1485-1509. barons, who had curbed the throne since\\nHenry VIII., -1547. the days of the Conqueror, who had\\nEdward v., -1553.\\nMary, -1558. wrcstcd Magna Charta from. John, and\\nElizabeth, -1603. had deposed Edward 11. were dead.\\nAlmost to a man they had perished in the civil wars, and\\nthe only check upon the king was now the common\\npeople, whose one weapon was insurrection, a terrible\\nengine in the early days, but one made comparatively\\nharmless by the invention of ordnance, an expensive\\nluxury to be had only by royalty. The first Tudor, by\\nhis energy and foresight, had entrenched himself beyond\\nthe possibility of overthrow and had then proceeded to\\ndo his will. His weakness was avarice. He filled his\\ncoffers to overflowing with treasure extorted without law\\nor mercy from rich and poor. But his despotism was", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "The Age of the Renaissance i6i\\nHenry VIII. and the Catholic Church Tyranny of Henry\\nmild compared with that of his son. No czar ever ruled\\nwith more absolute power than did Henry VIII. His\\nwish was the law of the land, and none durst, on peril of\\nhis life, to demur. Enraged at the Pope, who would not\\nsanction his unreasonable divorce from Catherine, he de-\\nclared England free from papal jurisdiction, and an-\\nnounced himself as head of the English branch of the\\nCatholic Church. Though nothing could have been\\nfarther from the King s intention, this was the first step\\ntoward Protestantism. He was a zealous Catholic; he\\nhad written with his own hand bitter attacks upon\\nLuther, and he had received from the Pope as a reward\\nfor his zeal the title. Defender of the Faith. But the\\nfirst step taken in anger made others inevitable. Those\\nwho still recognized the Pope must be punished. The\\nnoblest heads in England rolled in the dust. Even Sir\\nThomas More and Bishop Fisher could not avoid the\\nfury of the great despot. Nearly all the monasteries of\\nEngland were destroyed and all ecclesiastical representa-\\ntives were removed from Parliament. Calling himself a\\nCatholic, Henry persecuted and crippled the Catholic\\nChurch as if he were a fanatical Protestant.\\nBut Henry s tyranny was only the external cause of\\nthe Reformation. Had the masses of the English people\\nbeen Catholic at heart no amount of persecution could\\nhave changed the ancient Church. The Protestant up-\\nrising was in reality the logical outcome of a long series\\nof causes; it was the bursting out of a flame that had\\nbeen smoldering and spreading for generations; and the\\nrage of the King only precipitated what was bound to\\ncome sooner or later. A revolution to succeed must be\\ncarried by the masses. Its ideals must be on the plane", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "1 62 The Foundations of English Literature\\nProtestantism Appeals to the Masses Erasmus and Luther\\nof their experience; must appeal powerfully to their\\nsense of right and wrong. Wyclif had understood this\\nthoroughly. His poor priests with their humble, sincere\\nlives and their plain sermons to common people, had\\ncarried a spark into every hamlet of England, and but\\nfor vigorous-and timely action on the part of the govern-\\nment the flames of revolt would quickly have passed\\nbeyond control. They had been stamped out with un-\\nspeakable ferocity, but in nooks and corners of the land\\nthere smoldered embers of the old fire. The new learn-\\ning was as revolutionary in many of its ideals as were the\\ndreams of the Lollards, but its disciples studiously\\navoided the masses. They realized the condition of the\\nChurch as keenly as did Luther, but they would cleanse\\nit by different methods. They believed that reform\\nshould come without violence; that the tranquil spread\\nof knowledge and the gradual enlightenment of the\\nhuman conscience would in time remedy all evils. To\\nremove the more glaring abuses a Church council should\\nbe called. They preached against these abuses, they in-\\nsisted upon an open Bible and a rational interpretation\\nof it. Erasmus even declared that the sacred Scrip-\\ntures should be read by the unlearned, translated into\\ntheir vulgar tongue. In all this they were on common\\nground with the Lollards and with Luther, and their\\nwork fanned the embers so long hidden in English hearts.\\nBut, while agreeing with Luther as to the disease, the Ox-\\nford school differed radically with him as to the remedy.\\nLuther was for wrenching up violently the old religious\\nsystem, rooted as it was by a thousand years of growth,\\nand substituting for it another system, fully as arbi-\\ntrary, but as yet unsullied by use. The school of the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "The Age of the Renaissance 163\\nProtestantism and the New Learning Influence of Tyndale\\nnew learning, says Grofts, was too literary, too largely\\nhuman to seek refuge in one dogma in order to refute\\nanother. Thus the two factions who were aiming with\\nall their soul at the same object, were fighting each other\\nas enemies.\\nLuther, however, had from the first used the methods\\nof Wyclif he had appealed to the people, and the new\\nlearning in England, while it aimed to educate first the\\nruling classes, had unconsciously taught the masses to\\ncomprehend more fully the ideals of the great German\\nReformer. It had opened their eyes. It had cleared\\naway the century-old weeds and the people saw as they\\nhad never seen before. To the uneducated the evolu-\\ntion into goodness preached by Erasmus was incompre-\\nhensible, but they quickly understood the justification\\nby faith of Luther. His dogmas delighted them; it\\noffered them something tangible to which they might\\ncling. The new learning had thoroughly awakened the\\nnation. In the words of Ten Brink, The religious agi-\\ntation of the century had found in England its spiritual\\ncenter. It needed but the common sense of Tyndale\\nto bridge the gulf between Erasmus and Luther, and the\\nrude hand of Henry VIII. to give the final shock, to set\\nin motion a power that nothing could withstand.\\nThe Spirit of the Age, The great movement was far\\nmore than a mere change from one ecclesiastical basis to\\nanother. It opened a new world to the national view.\\nMore s Utopian dream of a land where the people dared\\nto think for themselves, where every man might worship\\nas he would, and where toleration and independence were\\nthe mainsprings of action, became for the first time an\\naccomplished fact. It was an era of education such as", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "164 The Foundations of English Literature\\nEducating Effects of the Reformation A World-Shaking Revolution\\nthe world had never before seen. Along the whole hori-\\nzon the black clouds that so long had shadowed Europe\\nwere breaking and scattering, and even the dullest peasant\\ncould not fail to realize the momentous change. The\\nmonasteries, which for a thousand years had been the cen-\\ntral object in every English landscape, which held in their\\ngrasp one-fifth of the richest land of the kingdom, and\\nwhich were regarded by the nation at large as an institu-\\ntion as permanent as the throne itself, had been swept ut-\\nterly away in a moment. The Roman Catholic Church, a\\nsystem as ancient as the very government and seemingly as\\nstable, had been destroyed at a word the King had de-\\nfied the Pope and was ruling in his stead. Protestantism\\nwas actually making progress against the Church, en-\\ntrenched as it was by the workers of fourteen centuries,\\nand impressed on the imagination of men as nothing else\\nhas been in human history, save the Empire of Rome\\nitself. To the slow-thinking Englishman it was a most\\ntremendous object lesson. The very foundations of the\\nworld seemed to be tottering.\\nEvery realm of human activity was being shaken to its\\ncenter. The age of manuscript had come suddenly to an\\nend with the invention of paper and the printing press;\\nnavigation had entered upon a new era with the mariner s\\ncompass; the feudal system with its castles and armor\\nhad become archaic with the boom of the first cannon.\\n1492. Columbus. Within a single generation the New\\n1497. Cabot Discovers ^^y a i- ii_ r^i i_\\nNorth America. World was discovcred by Columbus,\\n1498. Da Gama Rounds India was rcachcd by rounding Africa,\\nAfrica. r 1\\n1500. The copernican the nature of the solar system was de-\\nTheory. monstratcd by Copernicus, and the Ref-\\n1517. The Reforma- 1 t 1 ix/r\\ntion in Germany, ormation was Opened by Luther. Men", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "The Age of the Renaissance 165\\nTudor England An Era of Storm and Stress\\nbegan to look away from their narrow 1520. Magellan Rounds\\nsurroundings into a broader world that the Globe.\\n1521. Cortez Conquers\\nStirred their imaginations and awakened Mexico.\\ntheir activities; they began to think for ^53i. Pi^arro subju-\\n1 1 1,111,- gates Peru.\\nthemselves and to breathe aloud their 1541. Discovery of the\\nthoughts. Science in its modern sense Mississippi.\\narose; commerce began to flourish daring spirits pushed\\ninto new lands and came back with stories that quickened\\nthe pulse of Europe and the world. The modern era had\\nbegun.\\nTudor England. (Froude, History of England Mo-\\nberly, Early Tudors, and Creighton, Age of Elizabeth\\n(Epoch Series); Bright, History of England, Yo\\\\. ii.\\nGairdner, Henry F//., and Beesly, Queen Elizabeth.^\\nThe century after the accession of Henry VII. was\\nthus an era of swift change, of fierce struggle, of dark-\\nness and unrest. England lay between two worlds, one\\ndead, the other powerless to be born. It was an era of\\nintense mental strain. Men s hearts were ever full of\\nfear; their minds were racked with religious controversy.\\nThere were times when no man could feel himself safe,\\nwhen it was as dangerous to say too little as to say too\\nmuch. There were times when the people day after day\\nsaw relatives and friends breathing out their lives in\\nagony amid the burning fagots. There were times\\nwhen the king was an absolute tyrant, and the most\\nbarefaced injustice must be suffered in silence. And\\nthere came a time when the land was rent into two war-\\nring nations, and its independence was openly surren-\\ndered to Spain.\\nBut beneath the plowshare that was thus rending Eng-\\nland there were germs that were destined to spring up", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "1 66 The Foundations of English Literature\\nElements of Strength England Awakes\\nand transform the nation. In 1510 Colet had founded at\\nhis own expense a school where classic Latin and Greek\\nshould be taught after the new methods to deserving\\nboys, thus laying the foundations for that system of\\nmiddle-class education which before the close of the\\ncentury had changed the very face of England. The\\nvery violence and despotism of the king were in the end\\nto benefit the nation. The government was consolidated\\nand centralized. Peace and war were now in the hands\\nof the sovereign, and with his kingdom an obedient unit\\nbefore him he could engage in international politics.\\nUnder the two Henrys England took a leading place\\namong the nations of Europe, and she gained a new con-\\nception of her own power and destiny. She was no\\nlonger to be an isolated nation viewing with unconcern\\nthe doings of the rest of the world. It was to be her\\nwork to break down the ancient barriers of the Channel.\\nTo compete with Spain and Italy and Holland she must\\nlook to the sea. Whatever their faults, it was the early\\nTudors who taught England the secret of her strength, for\\nthey gave to the nation her first navy in the modern\\nsense of the word. The discovery of America put new\\nlife into English mariners and opened another Age of the\\nVikings. Eager English crews were soon racing across\\nthe Atlantic to win new lands for their king. Commerce\\nsprang up on every sea. The docks of London and Dart-\\nmouth, Southampton and Hull, were thronged with ships\\nladen with far-borne riches. England became a new\\nbeing under the touch of material prosperity her intel-\\nlectual life was broadened with the increase of her geo-\\ngraphical horizon. It needed but the hand of a wise and\\ntolerant sovereign to make her the leader of Europe, not", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "The Age of the Renaissance 167\\nNovels and Poems Descriptive of the Age\\nonly in things material, but in intellectual and spiritual\\nfreedom, in literature and scholarship.\\nSuggested Readings. Scott, Marmion (15 13), and\\nLady of the Lake\\\\ Shakespeare, Henry VIII. Miihl-\\nbach, Henry VIII. and His Court; Boker, Anne Boleyn\\n(drama); Ainsworth, Windsor Castle and Tower Hill\\n(1538); Mrs. Manning, Household of Sir Thomas More\\nMark Twain, The Prince and the Pauper Mrs. Oliphant,\\nMagdalen Hepburn,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIII\\nTHE RENAISSANCE OF ENGLISH PROSE\\nThe English Tongue. At the opening of the sixteenth\\ncentury the powerful old Anglo-Saxon had fairly con-\\nquered all the foreign elements into its own idiom. The\\nlanguage stood substantially complete, ready for the great\\nmasters who so soon were to make it the medium for\\ntheir work. As we have seen, it had not won its place\\nwithout a struggle. For four hundred years, says\\nSidney Lanier, that is, in round numbers, from 670\\nto 1070 the English language was desperately striving to\\nget into literature, against the sacred wishes of Latin;\\nand now, when the Normans come, the tongue of Aid-\\nhelm and Caedmon, ^Elfred and ^Ifric and Cynewulf,\\nmust begin and fight again for another four hundred\\nyears against French. The fight was still fierce in\\nChaucer s day. Langland and Gower had represented\\nthe extremes Chaucer had taken middle ground with a\\nleaning more and more towards his native tongue. With\\nthe destruction of the baron class the followers of Lang-\\nland grew gradually in power, until when Henry VIII.\\nhad destroyed the monasteries, the last lurking-place\\nof mediaevalism, and established the grammar schools\\nconducted in the vernacular, the triumph of the language\\nwas complete.\\nThe Birth of Prose, The strength and brightness of\\nthe old tongue were never more manifest than at the\\n168", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "The Renaissance of English Prose 169\\nStrength of the New Prose A Movement toward the People\\nmoment of its victory. It recorded its triumph in prose.\\nBetween the Morte d Arthur and the King James version\\nof the Bible or between the years 1470 and 161 1 was\\nthe formative era of EngHsh prose. It began with the\\nvigorous and picturesque creations of men with a mes-\\nsage; men who wrote from their heart and soul. Never\\nbefore had there been such strong and vivacious English,\\nnever afterwards has there been such manly, idiomatic\\nprose, poured out without a thought of art. The be-\\nginnings of this vigorous prose arose from the very nature\\nof the times. It was a period of plain and earnest\\npreaching, made simple and clear for the ears of the\\nmasses. Great reformers like Cranmer and Latimer and\\nTyndale, burning with their message, gave it forth in\\nwords that went straight to the understanding of every\\npeasant. The whole trend of the period was in the\\ndirection of the people. Even the enthusiasts of the\\nnew learning forgot their classic models when they used\\ntheir mother tongue. Colet, says Erasmus, labored\\nto improve his English style by the diligent perusal and\\nstudy of Chaucer and the other old poets. Even the\\nscholars yielded to the current. The learned Ascham in\\nhis Toxophilus, published in 1545, advised his readers\\nto speak as the common people do, to think as the\\nwise men do and Wilson, in his Art of Rhetoric y writ-\\nten eight years later, declared that writers ought to\\nspeak as is commonly received, to speak\\nplainly and nakedly after the common sort of men, in\\nfew words. The Italian Renaissance quickened in due\\ntime and fructified English poetry, but its effect at first\\nwas to emasculate the sturdy old English prose.\\nThe chief prose writers after Malory and before Lyly", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "170 The Foundations of English Literature\\nSir Thomas More His Early Training\\nand Hooker were Sir Thomas More, Roger Ascham, and\\nWilliam Tyndale.\\nI. Sir Thomas More (1^8^-1535)\\nAuthorities. The Life of More by Roper, his son-in-\\nlaw (prefixed to the Pitt Press Edition of the Utopia), is\\nthe basis of all subsequent biographies the correspond-\\nence of Erasmus adds much valuable material. The most\\nrecent Life is that by J. CoUer Monson. Other excellent\\nauthorities are Froude s and Green s histories of Eng-\\nland, Bridgett, Life of More, and Seebohm, Oxford\\nReformers. For additional references, see Welsh, Eng-\\nlish Masterpiece Course,\\nOn its political and social side the new learning centered\\nabout Thomas More, under-sheriff of London, royal\\nambassador to France, courtier of King Henry VHL,\\nand successor of the great Wolsey as Lord Chancellor of\\nEngland. In early life he had come in contact with\\nGrocyn and Linacre, and though his father, to whom\\nGreek was synonymous with heresy, had removed him\\nfrom Oxford on the first suspicion of contagion and had\\nset him to studying law, the young scholar had caught a\\nfull breath of the Renaissance enthusiasm. A little later\\nhe made the acquaintance of Colet and Erasmus and was\\nsoon again in the full tide of the new learning. His\\nprogress was marvelous. His home became at length\\nthe rallying-place of the new movement, the focal point\\nof English culture. But his early training in the law,\\nwhich had been made broad and severe by his practical\\nfather, turned him into the tide of pubHc life, and step\\nby step, almost against his will, he was led upward till he\\nstood for a time the leading statesman of England.\\nThe picture of More left by his contemporaries is a", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "The Renaissance of English Prose 171\\nA Gifted and Lovable Man M ore s Utopia\\nsingularly fascinating one. He is the one genius of\\nEngland, declared Dean Colet, and this estimate,\\nwarmly seconded by Erasmus, was shared by all who\\never met him. Seldom has any age produced a nature\\nmore magnetic and lovable. Erasmus and Colet never\\naddressed him save with endearing epithets. His jovial\\nhumor and his quick wit have become proverbial. He\\nheld his powers at instant command, and none of his gen-\\neration, not even Erasmus, could withstand him in argu-\\nment. But he was by no means a perfect character.\\nLike the age in which he lived, he was a contradiction;\\nthe gentlest of men, he could personally superintend the\\ntorture of a heretic. No one was ever more genial and\\noptimistic, yet beneath the jovial exterior he lived a life\\nas stern and ascetic as any Carthusian. For spiritual dis-\\ncipline he wore all his life long an inner sharp shirt of\\nhair, and subjected himself continually to severe pen-\\nances. No man in all that singular age, save Erasmus,\\nperhaps seems to have been perfectly sane on religious\\ntopics. More, so far ahead of his generation at almost\\nevery point, lost utterly his self-control when the argu-\\nment drifted toward theology; his prose, usually so\\nmeasured and eloquent, descends almost to the level of\\nrant when he uses it for religious controversy.\\nUtopia. Along social and political lines More was the\\nsanest and most far-seeing of men. His Utopia, written\\nin Latin and not published until after his death, stands\\nas the handbook of the new learning. It is the dream\\nof the Oxford reformers. Utopia (from two Greek words\\nmeaning No Land) is but the island of Britain; its great\\nriver spanned by the massive bridge is the Thames the\\ncity lying four-square upon this stream is London and", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "172 The Foundations of English Literature\\nAn Idealized England Customs and Laws of Utopia\\nthe government and the laws and the people are those of\\nEngland, transformed by the evolution of culture. The\\nvital part of the work is the second book it was written\\nfirst, and the rest was but an afterthought. Let us ex-\\namine for a moment this ideal England, that we may-\\nlearn the dreams of the English Renaissance.\\nThe government of Utopia is democratic; representa-\\ntives of the people have power to elect and to depose the\\nking, and the legislative branch is a constant check upon\\nhis actions. Absolutism and oppression of the poor are\\nimpossible. The Utopians have but few laws and they\\nutterlie exclude and banishe all attorneys and ser-\\ngeants of the law. There is no unproductive class, for\\nall must learn some useful labor and pursue it for six\\nhours every day. All classes, high and low, in their\\nchildhode be instructe in learninge. And the better\\nparte of the people, bothe men and women throughe oute\\nall their whole lyffe doo bestowe in learninge those spare\\nhoures, which we sayde they have vacante from bodelye\\nlaboures. They be taughte learninge in theire owne\\nnatyve tong. Early in the morning, before the day s\\nlabor begins, a great multitude of every sort of people,\\nboth men and women, go to heare lectures, some one and\\nsome an other, as everye mans nayure is inclined. In\\nthe exercise and studie of the mind they be never wery.\\nWarre or battel as a thing very beastly, and yet to no\\nkinde of beastes in so muche use as to man, they do de-\\ntest and abhorre. They are merciful and piteous. How\\nun-English indeed is their opinion of hunting, for they\\ncount it the lowest, vyleste and moste abjecte part of\\nboucherie. Yf the hope of slaughter and the ex-\\npectation of tearynge in peces the beaste doth please", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "The Renaissance of English Prose 173\\nPhilosophy of the Utopians Their Education\\nthee, writes More, a whole millennium ahead of his gen-\\neration, thou shouldest rather be moved with pitie to\\nsee a selye innocente hare murdered of a dogge, the weake\\nof the stronger, the fearfull of the fearce, the innocente\\nof the cruell and unmercyfull. And again they mar-\\nveyle that any men be so folyshe as to have delite and\\npleasure in the doubtful glisteringe of a lytil tryffelynge\\nstone, or that anye man is madde as to count himselfe\\nthe nobler for the smaller or fyner threde of wolle, which\\nselfe same wol a shepe did ones weare. By al meanes\\npossible thei procure to have golde and silver among\\nthem in reproche and infamie. They were a tolerant\\npeople, for this is one of the auncientest lawes amonge\\nthem, that no man shall be blamed for resoninge in the\\nmaintenaunce of his owne religion, and they consider\\nit a point of arrogant presumption to compell all other by\\nviolence and threateninges to agre to the same that thou\\nbelevest to be trew. These and such like opinions,\\ndeclares More, have they conceaved, partely by educa-\\ntion, and partely by good litterature and learning, and\\nthus we might read on and on until the whole dream of\\nthe new learning stood complete before us. It is a mag-\\nnificent structure. To More s century it was a castle in\\nthe clouds, beautiful but impossible; we of a later cen-\\ntury can see that it was a prophecy. Much of it is still\\nbeyond us; but its wildest dreams have long ago become\\ncommonplace achievements.\\nIf the second book is the bright side, the picture of\\nwhat England might become, the first book is the dark\\nside, the picture of the actual England of More s day.\\nNever was there a sharper contrast. It is a series of\\nvivid pictures taken by flashlight in the dark corners of a", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "174 The Foundations of English Literature\\nA Vivid Picture of England Style and Art of the Utopia\\ndark age. A quarto history of the times could make no\\nclearer impression. The misery of the peasants whose\\nfarms had been seized for sheep pastures; the struggle\\nwith heavy taxes; the frightful punishments; the whole-\\nsale use of the death penalty for the most trivial offenses\\nthe cruelty of the disbanded soldiery the corruption in\\nChurch and State, all this stands out sharp and clear as\\nif etched by acid.\\nConsistent with his ideal that all reform should be from\\nthe top downward, More wrote the Utopia in Latin that\\nit might not inflame the common people but the work\\nmust not be dismissed as a mere piece of Latin literature.\\nIt is the one document which embodies the whole of a\\ngreat epoch in the nation s spiritual life, and though by\\nmere accident it uses another medium than the national\\ntongue, it is English and only English. It is reckoned\\nthe world over as one of the few great English classics.\\nMoreover it has never traveled in Latin dress, for the\\nworld knows it only in its first translation, the English\\nversion made in 155 1 by Ralph Robinson.\\nThe style and literary art of the Utopia may be dis-\\ncussed in spite of its Latin. The tale is told with skill.\\nThe author s whole energy seems to be bent on making\\nreal to us the ideal land of which he has heard. To\\nmake it clearer he brings in illustrations, seemingly un-\\npremeditated, from the EngHsh life of his own day, dis-\\ncussing freely its abuses, its evil laws, its national crimes.\\nOnly at length does it dawn upon the reader that the ap-\\nplication to England is the central purpose of the book,\\nand that the imaginary Utopia is but a skilful device to\\nhide his design and yet at the same time to emphasize\\nhis lesson. The author is responsible for nothing. He", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "The Renaissance of English Prose 175\\nThe Germ of the Modern Novel More s English Histories\\nis but the hand that records the tale. He represents\\nhimself as opposing many of the ideals presented by the\\nimaginary traveler, and he puts all the criticisms of exist-\\ning systems into other mouths than his own. The device\\ngave him a wonderful freedom. Never before had one so\\nnear the nation s heart poured out his full soul on topics\\nreligious, political, and social. Besides its dramatic set-\\nting the work has other conspicuous literary merits.\\nIn it we find the earliest germs of the modern English\\nnovel. The narrative moves rapidly and naturally the\\ncharacters are not puppets but living men the humor is\\nfresh despite the lapse of centuries, and the descriptions\\nare terse and vivid. An artist could fill a sketch-book\\nwith Utopian landscapes and portraits.\\nMore s English Work. More used the Latin for his\\nUtopia only as a safeguard. Despite his deep scholar-\\nship, he preferred his native tongue as a literary medium.\\nThe volume of his English work is considerable. Be-\\nsides his familiar letters, a charming series, and his con-\\ntroversial writings, imperious and often ill-considered,\\nhe was the author of two short histories: the Life of\\nRichard III., an unfinished work adapted from an older\\noriginal and the Life of Edward V., called by Craik the\\nfirst English composition that can be said to aspire to be\\nmore than a mere chronicle, and declared by Green,\\nwho only echoes Hallam, to be the first book in which\\nwhat we may call modern English prose appears, written\\nwith purity and clearness of style and a freedom either\\nfrom antiquated forms of expression or classical pedan-\\ntry. As authorities these histories have great weight, so\\ncompetent a judge even as Hume declaring them well-\\nnigh as valuable as original documents. With them the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "176 The Foundations of English Literature\\nInfluence of More Roger Ascham\\nmodern era of English historical writing may be said to\\nopen.\\nAs the chief exponent, then, of the new learning in\\nEngland, as its mouthpiece and interpreter, and as the\\nauthor of the earHest vernacular English history not a\\nmere chronicle, More stands as the leading literary figure\\nof his era. He had all the elements of literary greatness.\\nHad he been born in a more happy age, had it been his\\nlot to join the circle of which Shakespeare and Ben Jon-\\nson were the soul, he might have become one of the\\nsupreme masters of our English tongue.\\nRequired Reading. Utopia (Pitt Press Edition),\\nBook i., and the description of Utopia, and Of the\\nRehgions in Utopia, Book ii.\\n2. Roger Ascham (151^-1586)\\nOld Ascham is one of the freshest, truest spirits I have ever met with a\\nscholar and writer, yet a genuine man. Carlyle.\\nAuthorities. Arber, Edition of The Scholemaster and\\nToxophilus (English Reprints); Croft, English Litera-\\nture; Quick, Educational Reformers. Ascham s com-\\nplete works in four volumes are included in the Library\\nof Old Authors.\\nThe attitude of the new learning toward popular educa-\\ntion has already been noted. It scattered grammar\\nschools over all England, and, what is more, it insisted on\\na break from ancient methods. With Colet pedagogy\\nbecame for the first time in England a distinct and\\nhonored profession. The training of boys had been re-\\ngarded as mean and low: Colet engaged as the first\\nmaster of St. Paul s the celebrated scholar Lily, paying\\nhim a salary that a courtier might envy. The methods in", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "The Renaissance of English Prose 177\\nEducational Reforms of Colet The New Pedagogy\\nvogue had been unnatural, and hard even to the verge of\\ncruelty Colet insisted upon new text-books whose cen-\\ntral aim should be simplicity and naturalness. Discipline\\nhad been maintained by brutal floggings: Colet ruled his\\nschool with gentleness and love. In the preface to the\\nfamous text-book known to two centuries of schoolboys\\nas Lily s Latin Grammar, though in reality the inception\\nand general plan of the work belonged to Colet and Eras-\\nmus, Colet pours out his full heart:\\nIn this little book I have left many things out on purpose, considering\\nthe tenderness and capacity of young minds. Wherefore I pray\\nyou all, little babes, all little children, learn gladly this little treatise and\\ncommend it diligently unto your memories, trusting of this beginning ye\\nshall proceed and grow to perfect literature, and come at last to be great\\nclerks. And lift up your little white hands for me, which prayeth for you\\nto God, to whom be all honor and imperial majesty and glory.\\nSuch were the ideals of the new pedagogy, but their\\nfull import came slowly to the popular mind indeed, not\\nuntil our own day have they come into general use. It\\nwas not, however, for lack of plain statement, for a dis-\\nciple of Colet, Roger Ascham, the last of the English\\nhumanists, a man who had caught his enthusiasm in the\\ndays when the glory of the first Italian Renaissance was\\nas yet undimmed, gathered up these ideals and molded\\nthem into a complete and permanent system, compre-\\nhensible even by the popular mind. The Scholemaster\\nwas the handbook of the new pedagogy. It was the\\ndream of the new learning along educational lines, even\\nas the Utopia had been along social and political, and as\\nsuch it must be reckoned with as one of the great books\\nof the era.\\nThe life of Ascham takes us into the second generation", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "178 The Foundations of English Literature\\nCambridge University The St. John s Group of Scholars\\nof humanists and leads to an investigation of the half-\\ncentury following the death of Colet. Cambridge Uni-\\nversity had become the intellectual center of England,\\nand St. John s College, dominated by the master minds of\\nJohn Cheke and John Redman, was the soul of Cambridge.\\nHere Ascham spent his youth and young manhood.\\nEverywhere in his works he extols his two masters, who\\nseemed to him the fountainhead of all excellency in\\nlearnyng, of godnes in liuyng, of diligence in studying, of\\ncouncell in exhorting, of good order in all thyng, [who]\\ndid breed vp so many learned men in that one College of\\nS. Johns, at one time, as I beleue, the whole vniuersitie of\\nLouaine, in many yeares was neuer able to affourd.\\nThe intellectual life of England during the middle of the\\ncentury centers about this college. The greatest service,\\nhowever, done by the St. John s group of scholars was\\ntheir insisting, as the earlier humanists had done, upon\\nthe English tongue as the literary medium. Cheke was\\nsteadfast in his insistence that our own tung shold be\\nwritten cleane and pure, vnmixt and vnmangled with bor-\\nowing of other tunges and Ascham, though he recog-\\nnized that the vernacular was often unrefined and harsh\\ncompared with the classic languages, insisted upon its\\nuse, even in poetry, for although hexameters rather trot\\nand hoble, than run smoothly in our English tung, yet I\\nam sure, our English tung will receive carmen lambicum\\nas naturally as either Greke or Latin. His own prac-\\ntice attests his sincerity, for although he was the master\\nscholar of his day, he wrote his best works in English\\nprose, and he even made heroic attempts at English verse.\\nThe story of Ascham s life, like that of all other\\nschoolmasters, is quickly told. He was connected with", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "The Renaissance of English Prose 179\\nAscham s Scholemaster Its Object and Message\\nCambridge for nearly forty years, and the remainder of\\nhis long life was passed at court, chiefly as private tutor\\nof Queen Elizabeth. His most important works are his\\nToxophiluSy or Lover of the Bow, a treatise on archery,\\nand The Scholemaster^ not published until after his death.\\nThe Scholemaster. The Toxophilus is a manly book:\\nEnglish matter, in the English tung, for English men.\\nAscham would have the old national weapon restored to\\ngeneral use that the young might be trained in the vigor-\\nous school of the old yeomen. Physical culture was to\\nbe the basis of all sound education the mediaeval idea\\nthat the soul shone more brightly and purely in a thin\\nand emaciated body, looking out of sunken and hollow\\neyes was to him the acme of absurdity. Toxophilus is\\nin reality an introduction to the more important work,\\nThe Scholemaster, whose aim it was to show the simple\\nand rational laws that underlie all education. Teaching\\nis a profession, he insists, more vital than almost any\\nother, yet few regard it so.\\nIt is pitie, that commonly, more care is had, yea and that emonges verie\\nwise men, to finde out rather a cunnynge man for their horse, than a cun-\\nnynge man for their children. For, to the one, they will gladlie giue a\\nstipend of 200 Crounes by yeare, and loth to offer to the other, 200 shil-\\nlinges. God, that sitteth in heauen laugheth their choice to skorne, and\\nrewardeth their liberalitie as it should for he suffereth them to haue tame\\nand well ordered horse, but wilde and vnfortunate Children.\\nHe finds the methods of teaching deplorably at fault.\\nThe languages are taught, not in a natural way, but by a\\nprocess that even the brightest pupil can scarcely com-\\nprehend and the dull are flogged for their stupidity.\\nMany scholemasters, as I have seen, when they meet\\nwith a hard witted scholer, they rather breake him, than", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "i8o The Foundations of English Literature\\nIt Advocates Educational Reforms Ascham s Methods\\nbowe him, rather marre him, than mend him. In his\\nopinion, loue is fitter thaen feare, ientlenes better than\\nbeating, to bring vp a childe rightlie in learninge. If\\nyour scholer do misse sometimes, chide not hastelie For\\nthat shall both dull his witte, and discorage his diligence\\nbut monish him genteHe: which shall make him, both\\nwilling to amende, and glad to go forward in loue and\\nhope of learning. Learninge shold be alwaise\\nmingled, with honest mirthe, and cumlie exercise. He\\nscores the schoolmen roundly at every turn. They\\nwere always learning, and little profiting their whole\\nknowledge was tied only to their tong and lips, and neuer\\nascended vp to the braine and head. Ascham would\\ncommence with simple exercises in the natural way,\\nteaching the pupil to think for himself; leading him on\\nand on by ingenious methods, which he describes at\\nlength, to perfect mastery. As an example of what his\\nsystem can accomplish he points triumphantly to his\\npupil. Queen Elizabeth, who goes beyond you all in\\nexcellencie of learnyng, and knowledge of divers tonges,\\nand whose onely example, if the rest of our nobilitie\\nwould folow, than might England be, for learning and\\nwisedome in nobilitie, a spectacle to all the world beside.\\nTruly the book contains, as Dr. Johnson well said, the\\nbest advice that was ever given for the study of the\\nlanguages.\\nTo enter Ascham s little scholehouse after having\\nvisited the halls of the schoolmen is like stepping from the\\ndim mediaeval monastery into the full blaze of the nine-\\nteenth century. Even to-day the book may be read with\\ndelight. Its prose is vigorous and flexible. Its author\\nis deeply in earnest at times, as when he condemns the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "The Renaissance of English Prose i8i\\nAscham s Prose Style Lord Berners and George Cavendish\\nnew influences that were creeping in from Italy, he writes\\nimpetuously and with heat. He wanders constantly into\\nwide fields, and never is he more delightful than when on\\nsuch digressions. He never loses himself ever and anon\\nhe returns to the little scholehouse for a fresh start.\\nBut, to cum downe, from greate men, and heir matters,\\nto my litle children, and poore scholehouse againe, I\\nwill, God willing, go forward orderlie, as I purposed.\\nHis figures are most delightful; they seem to flow spon-\\ntaneously from his daily life. Therefore thou, that\\nshotest at perfection in the Latin tong, think not thyselfe\\nwiser than Tullie was and again, I have bene a looker\\non in the Cokpit of learning thies many yeares and\\nso we might go on and on.\\nThis, then, was Roger Ascham, the strong, plain\\nEnglishman of Henry s day, with his love for all field\\nsports and for cock-fighting, his warm generous heart,\\nhis tolerant spirit, his thorough scholarship, his beautiful\\npenmanship: a man to be loved and honored. Arber.\\nRequired Reading. Ascham, Scholemaster Book i.,\\nArber s Edition.\\nOther Writers, In the seventy years between the\\nUtopia and The Scholemaster a whole new school of prose\\nwriters had arisen. Lord Berners had made his masterly\\ntranslation of Froissart s Chronicles, identifying himself\\nso thoroughly with the spirit of the old master, and ex-\\npressing himself in such strong, simple, and idiomatic\\nEnglish that the work became well-nigh a new creation\\nGeorge Cavendish had written his lively and interesting\\nLife of Wolsey and Wilson, our earliest academic\\ncritic, had put forth his Art of Rhetoric, English prose", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "1 82 The Foundations of English Literature\\nWilliam Tyndale An Intensely Practical Man\\nhad made a strong beginning; and the EngHsh language,\\nthat could serve as a medium for work so finished and\\nflexible, was no longer to be used with hesitation and\\nmisgivings.\\nJ. William Tyndale (1^84.-1536)\\nAuthorities. Deman, William Tyndale^ London, 1871\\nTen Brink, English Literature Marsh, Lectures on the\\nEnglish Language Froude, History of England An\\nApology for Tindale, 1535, Arber s Edition.\\nThe representative of the new learning on its popular\\nside was William Tyndale, a native of the Welsh border,\\na man from the middle classes, a latter-day Langland.\\nEducated at Oxford, where he came under the influence\\nof Colet, and later at Cambridge, where there still lingered\\nthe spell of Erasmus, he had eagerly absorbed all that\\nwas best in the new learning. He had delighted in\\nColet, to whom Greek was but the key to the truth in\\nthe Holy Scriptures, and he had translated with enthusi-\\nasm the Enchiridion of Erasmus, that handbook of\\nhandbooks for earnest men, and in the school of the\\ngreat Dutchman, says Ten Brink, he became ripe for\\nLuther s doctrine. Owing to the preeminently practical\\nbent of his mind, he was less clearly conscious of the\\ndifferences that existed between these two teachers, than\\nhe was of the principles upon which they agreed. He\\nrejected utterly the dreams of the new learning. More\\nwould raise his generation to higher levels by pointing to\\nan ideal world in the clouds; Erasmus would lift it up by\\nsheer intellectual culture; Tyndale, with sturdy common\\nsense, would accomplish it by turning to a world of which\\nErasmus and More knew nothing. Like Langland two\\ncenturies before, he saw the heart of the difficulty who-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "The Renaissance of English Prose 183\\nHe Recognizes the English Masses Tyndale and More\\never would touch England must touch the common\\npeople. Their cries were ever in his ears, and to him\\nthey came as the very voice of God. The masses poor,\\nignorant, oppressed must be enlightened they must\\nhave the truth, and what fountain of truth was there but\\nthe Holy Scriptures His resolution was quickly made.\\nIf God spare my life,* he declared to a learned prelate,\\nere many years I will cause a boy that drivest the plow\\nshall know more of the Scripture than thou dost. From\\nthat moment, though exiled forever from the land of his\\nbirth, hunted from city to city, and threatened every\\nday of his life with imminent torture and death, he held\\ninflexibly to his great purpose, nor did the bitter hate of\\nHenry and Wolsey and More overtake him till his work\\nwas well-nigh done.\\nThe first part of Tyndale s Bible was published at\\nWorms in 1525, and other parts followed from time to\\ntime. They were brought secretly in great quantities\\ninto England, where they raised a tempest of opposition.\\nSir Thomas More launched against them seven volumes\\nof controversy. Our Saviour will say to Tyndale, he\\ncried, Thou art accursed, Tyndale the son of the devil\\nfor neither flesh nor blood hath taught thee these heresies\\nbut thine own father, the devil, that is in Hell. Mild,\\ngentle Thomas More! Tyndale on his side kept up a\\nvigorous warfare. In his answer to More, in his doctri-\\nnal treatises, in his introductions to different portions of\\nthe Scriptures, and in his expositions and notes, he made\\nhis position perfectly clear, and his works, in spite of op-\\nposition and denunciation, in spite of wholesale burnings,\\nspread rapidly over England. The common people\\nbought them eagerly and read them as the very words", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "184 The Foundations of English Literature\\nInfluence of Tyndale s Bible It Colors all Subsequent English Prose\\nof God. Opposition only fanned the flames; soon noth-\\ning could stay their headlong fury.\\nTyndale s Bible, aside from its influence upon the\\nnation s spiritual life, is still one of the most notable\\nbooks in the whole range of English literature. Wyclif s\\ntranslation was from the Vulgate, and it was not printed\\nuntil our own century Tyndale made his translation of\\nthe New Testament from the Greek text of Erasmus,\\nthus making the first English version from the original.\\nFrom the very first it was circulated over all England in\\ncountless editions.\\nTyndale s translation of the New Testament [says Marsh in an oft-quoted\\npassage] is the most important philological monument of the first half of\\nthe sixteenth century, perhaps I should say of the whole period between\\nChaucer and Shakespeare, both as a historical relic and as having more\\nthan anything else contributed to shape and fix the sacred dialect, and\\nestablish the form which the Bible must permanently assume in an English\\ndress. The best features of the translation of 1611 are derived from the\\nversion of Tyndale, and thus that remarkable work has exerted, directly\\nand indirectly, a more powerful influence on the English language than any\\nother single production between the ages of Richard II. and Queen\\nElizabeth.\\nAnd Edmund Gosse well declares that\\nthe introduction into every English household of the Bible, translated into\\nprose of this fluid, vivid period, is, after all, by far the most important\\nliterary fact of the reign of Henry VIII. It colored the entire complexion\\nof subsequent English prose, and set up a kind of typical harmony in the\\nconstruction and arrangement of sentences.\\nTo show how closely the King James version followed\\nthe earlier translation, let us examine Tyndale s rendering\\nof the Lord s Prayer:\\nCure Father which arte in heven, halowed be thy name. Let thy king-\\ndom come. Thy wyll be fulfilled, as well in erth, as hit ys in heven. Geve", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "The Renaissance of English Prose 185\\nHugh Latimer His Originality and Popularity\\nvs this daye cure dayly breade. And forgeve vs oure treaspases, even as\\nwe forgeve them which treaspas vs. Leede vs not into temptacion, but\\ndelyvre vs from yvell. Amen.\\nWhile Tyndale was thus struggling in exile and danger\\nto make a Bible for his people, other reformers were\\nlaboring as earnestly at home, and the most eloquent and\\nfearless of them all was HUGH Latimer, a man who had\\nstruggled from the little farm where his father had\\nwalk for a hundred shepe, and his mother mylked xxx\\nkyne, to the position of Bishop of Worcester and\\npreacher to the king. His success had come from his\\nfearlessness that hesitated not a moment to speak all that\\nwas in his heart, were it even to the king himself; and\\nfrom his brilliant though homely style of preaching. He\\nwas as quick and witty as Thomas More himself; he saw\\nthe humor of things, and he dared to draw illustrations\\nfrom the homely life about him. He was startlingly\\noriginal: there is a constant element of surprise in his\\nwords. Who is the most diligentest bishop and pre-\\nlate in all England, he demanded in one of his sermons\\nbefore King Edward, that passeth all the rest in doing\\nhis office I can tell you, for I know him who it is I\\nknow him well. It is the Devil. He is the most diligent\\npreacher of all other; he is never out of his diocese; he\\nis never from his cure ye shall never find him unoccupied\\ncall for him when you will, he is ever at home. Such\\npreaching caught the multitude; the manly, courageous\\ntone of the speaker, his intense earnestness, and his\\nsolemn message straight from the heart made a most\\npowerful impression.\\nMuch of the prose of the era was thus simple and\\nstrong. Its writers were terribly in earnest.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "1 86 The Foundations of English Literature\\nEarnestness of the Prose Writers Progress of English Prose\\nThey are entirely occupied [says Crofts] with what they are going to say\\nthey are filled with ideas that are new and striking to them, and which they\\npour out garrulously and diffusely they have no conception of the selection\\nand arrangement of thought with a view to bringing out a point still less\\nhave they the idea of studying the proportion of thoughts and the harmony\\nof words with a view to style. Only very faintly can be perceived in their\\nworks the beginnings of that self-control and self-criticism in thought and\\nstyle which mark the great thinker and artist. This is one of the last gifts\\nof culture. The Renaissance had to give first an impetus to thought by\\nstimulating interest in the ideas of others, before it could influence in the\\ndirection of study of expression, and could lastly encourage that harmony\\nof thought and expression which makes art. The works of the new learn-\\ning mark the first phase, the works of the Euphuists and the courtly Makers\\nthe second, and the last includes the productions of the most glorious\\nElizabethan period, its poems, its dramas, its beginnings of fine prose\\nwriting in the works of Hooker and Bacon,\\nRequired Reading. Tyndale s Eighth Chapter of\\nMatthew, in Marsh, Origin and History of the English\\nLanguage selections from Tyndale in Craik, English\\nProse Latimer, The Ploughers, Arber s Edition; selec-\\ntions from Latimer in Craik, English Prose,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIV\\nTHE DAWN OF LYRIC POETRY\\n1557-1579\\nFrom Tottel s Miscellany to the Shepheardes\\nCalender\\nTHE first-fruits of the Renaissance in Italy had been a\\nquick awakening of the spirit of art, a new birth in\\npainting and poetry, in architecture and sculpture, in the\\ndomain of mere beauty. The English Renaissance had\\nworked along far different lines. The message from the\\nEast, which the quick Latin mind had received at a flash,\\ncame slowly to the Teuton. He must measure it by the\\nstandards of practical value, and he must look carefully\\nto its bearings upon his religion. In both respects it\\nbrought to him new light, and he stopped to question it\\nno more. Grocyn and Linacre and Colet could live for\\nmonths and years in the glorious Italy of Lorenzo the\\nMagnificent, of Raphael and Michel Angelo, of Tasso\\nand Ariosto, and go home without a thought of art, of\\npoetry, of beauty radiant only with the dream of a new\\nreligion, of a new method of Scripture interpretation;\\nand the new learning could voice itself only in prose, a\\nnew prose it is true, enlarged, enriched, revivified, but\\nyet prose. English poetry still droned on as it had done\\nduring all the years since Chaucer laid down his pen; a\\ntouch of true poetry there was in the homes of the peas-\\n187", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "1 88 The Foundations of English Literature\\nEnglish Poetry Drones On A Sudden Change\\nants, where the homely old ballads, survivals of the Anglo-\\nSaxon minstrelsy, were still making, but in court and hall\\nmediaeval tradition held full sway.\\nAs one wanders through the dreary verse of the era,\\nall of it modeled after obsolete French forms or after the\\nancient Chaucer, for two centuries the only English\\nclassic as one drives himself through the great mass of\\ndroning narratives and worn-out rhymes through the\\ntwo volumes of Skelton, wild and erratic, a startling\\nvariation and yet but a variation; through the inane\\nrepetition of Hawes, and the more original settings\\nof the Scottish poets, he comes to a time when sud-\\ndenly without warning the whole chorus changes. In-\\nstead of the mediaeval epic of six thousand lines, there\\ncomes all at once the lyric of passion, short and intense;\\ninstead of the threadbare verse-forms, the Chaucerian\\nmeasures or the Skeltonian variations, there comes as\\nby magic a flood of Itahan and French forms the sonnet,\\nterza rima, the rondeau, and blank verse. It seems like\\na revolution. From the moment that Wyatt and Surrey\\nstruck the new key, all the gay ones of England were\\ntripping to the Italian music: the era of modern lyric\\npoetry had opened in England.\\nThe Reasons for the Sudden Change rest largely on con-\\njecture. The new education, the rise of the grammar\\nschools, had stirred up all classes. Noblemen became\\nanxious about the education of their sons, and the fashion\\nof sending them abroad for the finishing touches was re-\\nvived. It became the custom for all university graduates\\nwho could afford the expense to complete their education\\non the continent. It is certain that before the middle of\\nthe century many educated Englishmen were wandering", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "The Dawn of Lyric Poetry 189\\nInfluence of Italy Totter s Miscellany\\ninto Italy and, unlike Colet and his school, were becom-\\ning enamored of its gay and brilliant life. Old Ascham\\nin The Scholemaster sounds a note of warning. I am\\naffraide, he sighs, that ouer many of our travelers into\\nItalic, do not eschewe the way to Circes Court. There\\nwas a new influx of Italian literature. Every shop in\\nLondon, according to Ascham, was full of bookes, of\\nlate translated out of Italian into English. The younger\\neducated class was becoming Italianated, and the change\\nwas not at all for the better. Young men came home\\nfrom Italy despisers of religion, of morals, of the true\\nspirit of learning. An Italianated Englishman, cried\\nthe old schoolmaster, is the devil incarnate\\nThey mock the Pope: they raile on Luther: They like\\nnone but only themselves.\\nTotteV s Miscellany. With this band of gay young\\nworldlings, children of a most brilliant and dissolute\\ncourt, did the new prosody come into England.\\nIn the latter end of Henry the Eighth s reign [writes Puttenham in his\\nArt of English Poesy, 1589 (Arber s English Reprints)] sprung up a new\\ncompany of Courtly Makers, of whom Sir Thomas Wyatt the elder, and\\nHenry Earl of Surrey, were the two chieftains, who having travelled into\\nItaly, and there tasted the sweet and stately measures and style of the Ital-\\nian poesie, as novices newly crept out of the schools of Dante, Ariosto, and\\nPetrarch, they greatly polished our rude and homely manner of vulgar\\npoesie.\\nThe new school touched only a handful compared with\\nthe great mass of the people, but it changed in a twink-\\nling the music in court circles, and it influenced in time\\nthe poetic pitch of the entire nation. At first the poetry\\nwas anonymous. The poets of that age, remarks\\nEdward Arber, wrote for their own delectation and for", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "iQO The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe First English Anthology Sir Thomas Wyatt\\nthat of their friends, and not for the general public.\\nThey generally had the greatest aversion to their works\\nappearing in print. The new movement was at first,\\ntherefore, extremely restricted, but in 1557, after the\\ndeath of Wyatt and Surrey, there was published by\\nRichard Tottel, under the title, Songes and Sonettes\\nwritten by the right Honourable Lorde Henry Howard,\\nLate Earle of Surrey, and other, a collection of the best\\nwork, not only of Surrey, but of Wyatt and Grimald and\\nother leaders of the new school. This was the first Eng-\\nlish anthology, and it stands as a milestone in the history\\nof English poetry. To haue wel written in verse, yea\\nand in small parcelles deserueth great praise, wrote\\nTottel in his address to the reader, and our tong is able\\nin that kynde to do as praiseworthy as ye rest. Little\\ndid he dream that his little collection was to mark an\\nepoch; that English poetry in small parcelles lyric\\npoetry was soon to be reckoned as one of the glories of\\nhis native tongue.\\nSir Thomas Wyatt (i 503-1 54.2)\\nAuthorities. Simonds, Sir Thomas Wyatt and his\\nPoems; Tottel s Miscellany, Arh^vs Edition; Ten Brink,\\nVol. ii.. Part i. Wy at f s Poetical Works, Aldine Edition.\\nThe Riverside Edition in the British Poets Series is prac-\\ntically a reprint of the Aldine.\\nThe life of Sir Thomas Wyatt takes us into the gay\\ncourt of Henry VIII. into the very heart of the nation s\\nlife during a most vital era. In him we have the typical\\nnobleman of the time. Educated at St. John s College,\\nCambridge, and at Paris, where, Laertes-like, he finished\\nhis school career; enrolled at an early age in the gorgeous", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "The Dawn of Lyric Poetry 191\\nA Typical Life His Many Adventures\\nthrong that fluttered about the great King; entered at\\nlength upon a career full of quick changes now rich in\\nthe King s favor, laughing with him, bandying witti-\\ncisms and epigrams, now under the royal frown, in immi-\\nnent danger of the axe; now the pet of the court ladies,\\nwriting sonnets and love songs to Anne Boleyn; now\\nmarshal in France, living the rough life of the soldier;\\nnow sharing richly in the plunder of the broken mon-\\nasteries now starving in the Tower, such was the life of\\nmost nobles in Henry s day.\\nThe records of Wyatt s life are fragmentary, but they\\nare sufficient to give us a full picture of the man tall and\\nsturdy, full of manly beauty and grace, quick of wit, the\\nsoul of every gathering, generous and hearty, in youth\\nimpulsive even to recklessness, plunging headlong into\\nevery wild adventure that had in it a spice of danger or a\\npromise of applause performing feats of arms in tourney\\nbefore the King; quelling, at the head of the royal\\ntroops, insurrection against the throne captured in Italy\\nby Spaniards, and held for ransom, and then, with reck-\\nless daring, making his escape; flinging himself, while\\nambassador to Spain, into the very jaws of the Inquisi-\\ntion, and escaping almost by miracle charged with\\ntreason when such a charge was in itself equivalent to\\ndeath, ignorant of the specific complaints against him,\\npermitted neither to call witnesses and counsel nor to\\ncross-examine his accusers, yet in a single speech utterly\\nconfounding his enemies and at last dying of fever caused\\nby riding too impetuously at the King s bidding, such\\nwas Thomas Wyatt as revealed to us by the fragments of\\nhis biography.\\nWhen we turn to his written work we find another", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "192 The Foundations of English Literature\\nAn Honest, Sincere Man A Linguist and Cosmopolitan\\nphase of his character. Though the child of a most cor-\\nrupt court, a polished and politic man of the world, wise\\nenough to steer between the policy of Cromwell and the\\ncaprice of the King, he was yet an honest and sincere\\nman. No one can read his defense, which was poured\\nfrom a full heart, his poems, which are free from every\\ntrace of indelicacy, or his letters to his son, which de-\\nserve to be inscribed in letters of gold in a conspicuous\\npart of every place of instruction for youth in the world,\\nwithout a hearty liking for the man and a conviction that\\nat heart he was pure and true.\\nFew men have seen more of their age. He was sent\\nrepeatedly by the King into all the important courts of\\nEurope to keep close watch of measures and men, and\\nhe became the best informed man in all England on con-\\ntinental affairs. He knew intimately the languages of\\nItaly and Spain and France he had come in contact with\\nthe Renaissance spirit in all its phases and he had read\\nthoroughly the new literature that was awakening every-\\nwhere in the Romance world. It is not strange that a\\ncosmopolitan so polished should realize keenly the artistic\\nneeds of his native land and should attempt to do in his\\nown vernacular tongue what Italy and France and Spain\\nwere doing so nobly in theirs.\\nWyatt holds his place among the English poets, not so\\nmuch from the intrinsic merit of his verse, as from the fact\\nthat he was the earliest pioneer in a most wonderful\\nregion. His creative power was small; his range of sub-\\njects was narrow indeed his sense of rhythm and his ear\\nfor rhyme were almost gross. From first to last his songs\\nare echoes and transcripts of Petrarch and the French\\nsingers. He affected the Italian poetic fashion. Roman-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "The Dawn of Lyric Poetry 193\\nCharacteristics of His Poetry His Defects and His Beauties\\ntic love had become a disease, and it was the task of the\\npoet to analyze with minuteness all its thousand symp-\\ntoms and effects. Never before and never since has\\npoetry been so full of flaming sighs that boil/* of\\nsmoking tears, of stony-hearted maidens, of lovers\\nslowly dying of love. I die, I die, sobs the poet,\\nand you regard it not. But in Petrarch s minute\\nstudies of the love malady there is a daintiness, an ex-\\nquisiteness of workmanship, a sweet charm, that can be\\nexpressed only by the adjective Petrarchian, and this\\nrare quality Wyatt seldom caught. He wrote carelessly,\\nit seems as if he had thrown to us the first draft of\\nhis song, rough and unfinished, and had turned with\\nvigor to his next task; for there is more than mere lack\\nof ear and skill in his work. What a wrenching of words,\\nwhat a clashing of rhymes in a quartrain like this\\nCsesar, when that the traitor of Egypt\\nWith th honourable head did him present,\\nCovering his heart s gladness, did represent\\nPlaint with his tears outward, as it is writ.\\nEverywhere in Wyatt we find such work as this, and yet\\never and anon there comes a line, a stanza, a whole lyric,\\nthat thrills us. How delightful in a desert of artificial\\nsighs and tears to come upon such true pathos as that\\nin Forget not yet, or Disdain me not, or And\\nWilt thou Leave me thus or such manly lines as\\nthose in Most Wretched Heart\\nWhat though that curs do fall by kind\\nOn him that hath the overthrow\\nAll that cannot oppress my mind\\nFor he is wretched that weens him so.\\nIt reminds us of Hamlet. Such lyrics came from a", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "194 The Foundations of English Literature\\nA Pioneer in English Poetry The Earl of Surrey\\nserious, contemplative mind, prone to look at the dark\\nside of life; from a man who had lived intensely and\\nsuffered deeply.\\nWe need read no farther. When we think of the glo-\\nrious outburst of Elizabethan song, the halting measures\\nof Wyatt seem poor indeed but when we compare his\\nwork with that which immediately preceded his, it seems\\nlike a burst of music from a new world. As the pioneer\\nin a most barren age, as the father of the whole chorus\\nof English lyrists, Wyatt is no mean figure in the history\\nof our literature.\\nRequired Reading. Forget not yet, Disdain\\nme not, And Wilt thou Leave me thus Most\\nWretched Heart, Blame not my Lute, Aldine Edi-\\ntion of the British Poets.\\n2, Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1517-154-7)\\nAuthorities. Dr. Nott, Life of Surrey TotteV s Mis-\\ncellany Arber s Edition; Surrey s Poetical Works, Aldine\\nEdition Minto, Characteristics of the English Poets\\nTen Brink, Vol. ii., 2.\\nHenry, Earl of Surrey, writes Puttenham, and\\nSir Thomas Wyatt, between whom I find very little dif-\\nference, I repute them for the two chief lanterns of light\\nto all others that have since employed their pens upon\\nEnglish poesie. It is well-nigh certain, however, that\\nWyatt was the pioneer, and that Surrey received from\\nhim his first impulse. Wyatt was fourteen years the\\nelder; he had become enamored of Anne Boleyn before\\nSurrey was sixteen, and he had written her many a song\\nand sonnet, the last of the series being Whoso List to\\nHunt with its significant lines:", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "The Dawn of Lyric Poetry 195\\nA Disciple of Wyatt Little Known of His Life\\nThere is written her fair neck round about\\nNoli me tangere for Csesar s I am.\\nIf Surrey, who was but twenty-five when Wyatt died,\\nwas, as some have maintained, his poetic master, then\\nindeed must he have been a precocious youth. But the\\nyoung poet acknowledges his indebtedness. He quotes\\nfondly from Wyatt s poems; he declares that his was\\nA hand that taught what might be said in rhyme,\\nThat reft Chaucer the glory of his wit.\\nA mark, the which (imperfected for time)\\nSome may approach, but never none shall hit.\\nOf the sixty poems in his collection, five are eulogies of\\nWyatt. But the pupil was by far the better poet his\\nwork is a long step away from his master s toward the\\nglorious company of the Elizabethan singers.\\nOf the greater part of Surrey s short thirty years we\\nknow nothing. He was reared in the seclusion of the\\ncountry; he was educated doubtless by private tutors,\\nand he was taken in due time to the royal court, where he\\narose but slowly. Unlike the elder poet he was unfitted\\nfor diplomatic work; his father was the hero of Flodden,\\nand the son had dreams of a martial life. At length he\\nhad his chance. He went with the troops into Scotland\\nand into France. He was a born leader of men he was\\nrising rapidly, but in an evil hour he fell under the royal\\ndispleasure. For reasons that are more or less veiled in\\nmystery he was condemned to the block, and he died, the\\nlast victim of the great tyrant.\\nThe materials for a biography are indeed fragmentary,\\nbut in many ways they are sufficient. They make clear\\nto us his personality. His temper was hasty and im-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "196 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Personality Impetuous, Extravagant, Original\\nperious; in his own words he was full of the fury of\\nreckless youth he found it hard to learn how to\\nbridle [his] heady will. He was thrice in prison, once\\nfor going at midnight about the city with a boisterous\\ncrew, breaking many glass windows both of houses\\nand churches and shooting at men in the street. He\\nwas proud, independent, original; more impetuous than\\nWyatt, less serious and sincere.\\nIn the externals of his work Surrey far surpassed\\nWyatt. He was a better workman his ear for rhythm\\nand rhyme was more sensitive, his hand more skilful.\\nHe was more painstaking and accurate. The task for\\nboth poets was no light one; the language had never\\nbefore been poured into the hght, dainty mold of the\\nlove lyric. Wyatt was more timid, even in his deepest\\npassion he clung closely to his, foreign models; Surrey\\nwas too self-confident, too headstrong, long to follow in\\nanother s path. He was a leader, imperious and original,\\nand he broke quickly away from his early masters. He\\nwas in danger of going to extremes, even to the extreme\\nof Skeltonian Hcense. He was more gay and trivial\\nthan Wyatt. A youth in the twenties, fond of the glitter\\nand the flattery of the court, fond of war, Hfe was to him\\nno very serious thing. His love songs are too extrava-\\ngant, too impulsive, to be the index of any deep feeling.\\nThey trip gracefully and merrily compared with those of\\nhis elder brother in the muse. They have a sweet\\nlilting movement, and a lightness that make some of\\nWyatt s efforts seem almost grotesque, but they never\\nreach the depth of passion or the intensity of feeling\\nwhich the elder poet often touched.\\nExternal nature, doubtless because of his early asso-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "The Dawn of Lyric Poetry 197\\nA Lover of External Nature His Blank Verse\\nciations, appealed most strongly to Surrey. His verse is\\nfull of green fields and song-birds. What a sweet Chau-\\ncerian note in his sonnet on the springtime, beginning\\nThe soote season, that bud and bloom forth brings,\\nWith green hath clad the hill, and eke the vale.\\nIn Surrey s translation of the second and fourth books\\nof the ^neidvjQ find the first English blank verse. As\\na whole the work possesses no great merit it is far from\\nbeing smooth and correct, the meter halts often, and the\\ntale is not seldom commonplace but here and there are\\ngrand lines and passages prophetic of the great days of\\nShakespeare and Milton, who were to make this instru-\\nment the medium of their mighty creations. Such pas-\\nsages as this are not far behind the best Elizabethan\\nefforts\\nAs wrestling winds, out of dispersed whirl\\nBefight themselves, the west with southern blast,\\nAnd gladsome east proud of Aurora s horse\\nThe woods do whiz and foamy Nereus\\nRaging in fury, with three-forked mace\\nFrom bottom s depth doth welter up the seas\\nSo came the Greeks.\\nRequired Readings. The Soote Season Wyatt\\nRested Here Alas! so all Things now From\\nTuscane Came London! Hast thou Accused me\\nAldine Edition.\\nThe Courtly Makers. Wyatt and Surrey were but the\\nleaders of the school of courtly makers. Grimald,\\nwho was doubtless the editor of TotteV s 1557. Totters Miscei-\\nMiscellany Lord Vaux, Churchyard, y-\\nr- \\\\u ^U f -^7 C. ^576. TheParadyseof\\nGascoigne, the author of T/ie Steel Glass, Daynty Devises.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "198 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Courtly Makers Influence of the Early Ljrrists\\n1578. The Gorgious one of the earliest English satires (see\\nGallery of Gallant Arber s Reprint), and Sackville, who is\\nInventions. j.\\n1584. A Handefuii of numbered among the Elizabethan singers,\\nPleasant Deiites. ^jj belonged to the merrv company.\\n1592. Breton s Bower J f J\\nof Deiites. From the moment of the publication of\\nN^r^ TotteVs Miscellany the school had control\\n1597. The Arbor of of English poetry. At least ten collec-\\nis^^ThT^asIlonate ^ions of poctry modeled on Tottel s were\\nPilgrim. published during the reign of Elizabeth,\\n1600. England s Heli- .1 1 1.\\ncon. some of them going through many edi-\\n1602. A Poetical Rhap- tions. TotteV s Miscellanv was published\\nsody.\\neight times before 1587, and the Paradyse\\nof Daynty Devises went through nine editions between\\n1576 and 1606.\\nThe influence of these early lyrists in schooling Eng-\\nland for the new era cannot be estimated. They\\ngave, says Collins, the death-blow to that rudeness,\\nthat grotesqueness, that prolixity, that diffuseness, that\\npedantry, which had deformed with fatal persistency the\\npoetry of mediaevalism, and while they purified our lan-\\nguage from the Gallicisms of Chaucer and his followers,\\nthey fixed the permanent standard of our versification.\\nMuch that they wrote is rude and unfinished. It is not\\neasy to read long in their squared sonnets. One has\\nto drive himself to the task, but their work is immeasur-\\nably superior to that of their immediate predecessors.\\nAnd all at once as we read on we find ourselves in the\\nglorious era of Elizabeth. It is, says Washburn, as\\nif like the first voyagers over the Atlantic, after picking\\nup in the waste a bough or two laden with spring blos-\\nsoms and hearing the voice of a stray land bird, we had\\nsuddenly come on the vision of a fresh continent.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "TABLE VII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 AGE OF THE RENAISSANCE, 1485-1557\\nEnglish Literature. English History\\nI. Prose.\\n1. Sir Thomas More,\\n1485-1535.\\nUtopia, 1516 trans-\\nlation, 1 55 1.\\nRichard III., 1557.\\n2. Roger Ascham,\\n1515-1586.\\nToxophilus, 1544.\\nThe Sc hole master,\\n1570.\\n3. William Tyndale,\\n1484-15 36.\\nTranslation of New\\nTestament, 1525\\nThe Practice of Prel-\\nates, 1531.\\n4. Hugh Latimer,\\n1491-1555.\\nThe Ploughers, 1549.\\nSeven Sermons, 1549.\\nII. Poetry.\\n1. Sir Thomas Wyatt,\\n1503-1542.\\nSongs and Sonnets,\\n2. Henry Howard,\\nEarl of Surrey,\\n1517-1547.\\nTranslation of the\\ny^neid, ook\\nand IV.\\nSongs and Sonnets.\\n3. Other Courtly\\nMakers\\nGeorge Gascoigne,\\n1525-1577.\\nThomas Sackville,\\n1536-1608.\\nNicholas Grimald,\\n1519-1562.\\nThe Tudor Era.\\n1485-1509. Henry VII.\\n1497. Cornish Rebel\\nlion.\\n1499. Colet and Eras\\nmus at Oxford.\\n1505. Colet Dean of\\nSt. Paul s.\\n1509-1547. Henry VIII.\\n1 5 13. Battle of Spiers\\nand of Flodden.\\n1 5 13. Wolsey becomes\\nPrime Minister.\\n1521. Quarrel of Luther\\nwith Henry VIII.\\n1526. Henry resolves\\non divorce.\\n1529, Fall of Wolsey.\\n1 53 1. King acknowl-\\nedged as supreme\\nhead of the Church\\n1535. Execution of\\nMore,\\n1539. Suppression o\\ngreater Abbeys.\\n1547. Execution of Sur-\\nrey.\\n1547-1553. Edward VI.\\n1547, Battle of Pinkie\\nCleugh.\\n1548. Book of Common\\nPrayer.\\n1553-1558. Mary.\\n1554. Mary marries\\nPhilip of Spain.\\n1555. Persecution o f\\nProtestants begins.\\n1556. Burning of\\nCranmer,\\n1558, Loss of Calais.\\n1558-1603. Elizabeth.\\n199\\nForeign.\\n1474-1533. Ariosto.\\nRise of Romantic\\nEpic,\\n1475-1564. Michel An-\\ngelo.\\n1477-1576. Titian.\\n1478-15 II, Giorgione.\\n1483-1520. Raphael.\\n1490-1547. Vittoria Co-\\nlonna. Rise of Lyric\\nPoetry.\\n1492. Columbus.\\n1497. Cabot discovers\\nNorth America,\\n1498. Da Gama rounds\\nAfrica,\\n1498. Savonarola\\nburned.\\n1500. The theory of\\nCopernicus.\\n1506. First stone of St,\\nPeter s.\\n1 5 16. Erasmus Greek\\nTestament.\\n1517. Luther s XCV.\\nTheses,\\n1520, Cortez conquers\\nMexico.\\n1523. Luther s New\\nTestament.\\n1524, Birth of Ronsard.\\n1547. Cervantes born.\\n1549, Tasso born.\\n1553. Death of Ra-\\nbelais.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XV\\nTHE EVOLUTION OF THE DRAMA\\nAuthorities. The most serviceable and accessible\\nauthorities for the general student are Manly, Specimens\\nof the Pre -Shakespearian Drama Pollard, English Mir-\\nacle Plays Symonds, Shakespeare s Predecessors^ and\\nMorley, English Writers, One who wishes to pursue\\nthe subject further can consult Ward, History of English\\nDramatic Literature Fleay, Chronicle History of the\\nLondon Stage^ and Biographical Chronicle of the English\\nDrama; Ulrici, Shakespeare s Dramatic Art, 2.n^Q,Q\\\\\\\\\\\\^v,\\nHistory of English Dramatic Poetry, all scholarly and\\nexhaustive works. For a complete bibliography, see\\nStoddard, References for Students of Miracle Plays and\\nMysteries, University of California, Bulletin No. 8, and\\nA Brief Bibliography of the English Drama before Eliza-\\nbeth, University of Chicago Publications.\\nThe history of the English drama is a story of back-\\nsliding. The Miracle play had sprung from the most\\nsacred rites of the Church its earliest mission had been\\nto instruct, to inspire, to make holy. It had wandered\\nat length from its early surroundings even into the\\nstreets, and little by little its earnestness, its piety and\\nholiness, had faded into mere morality. The clergy for-\\nsook it it passed into the fellowship of laymen and of\\nlaborers. Gradually it became more and more worldly;\\nit threw off the last vestige of its religious life, until the\\nsimple artisans turned away and left it the companion of\\nwild roisterers and professional mountebanks, whose only", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "The Evolution of the Drama 201\\nThe Moralities Their Epic Nature\\nobject was to amuse, to fill with forgetfulness an idle\\nhour. And this might have been the end had not the\\nnew learning rescued it and turned it into wider channels.\\n7. The Moralities. It is impossible to fix a date even\\napproximating the time when the Miracle play began to\\nshade into the Morality when abstractions, mere person-\\nifications of good and evil qualities, began to displace the\\nold Bible characters. The Castle of Perseverence^ the\\nearliest Morality play that has come down to us, belongs\\nto the reign of Henry VI. but it is certain that Moralities\\nwere acted much earlier. The change was a gradual one.\\nThe Miracle play, as Ulrici declares, was epic in its char-\\nacter.\\nThe action is still a purely external occurrence, the reasons and motives\\nof which lie beyond the stage, nay, generally beyond this earthly life no\\naction is derived from the life and character of the dramatic personages, of\\nresults from previous conditions and relations every character appears un-\\nexpectedly and unprepared, like an accidental occurrence in nature every\\naction appears but as the special incident of the plan designed by God in\\nBible history, and consequently, as in the epos, depends more or less upon\\nthe invisible threads with which the Divine Power directs the lives of mor-\\ntals in short, the action takes place more for men than through men.\\nThe latter are merely tools in the hand of God, or the vessels which have\\nto receive the Divine will, and to, carry out the Divine act the whole story\\npasses by them, like a mere occurrence, their personal participation consists\\nonly in the feeling, sympathy, and receptive activity of their minds the\\nindividuality, the freedom of the will, the character of the persons repre-\\nsented, do not come the least into the play. Shakespeare s Dramatic Art.\\nIt was impossible for the drama to remain long on\\nthis level and retain its hold on the people. From the\\nvery first secular elements began to steal in. Noah s\\nwife with her gossiping circle, and the shepherds of the\\nNativity, who are but rude English peasants, were a wide", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "202 The Foundations of English Literature\\nGradual Introduction of Secular Elements Abundance of Action\\ndeparture from the biblical and spiritual world. It was\\nthis human addition alone that kept the Miracle plays\\nalive after their first spiritual glow had passed. The ele-\\nment was constantly increased. Pharaoh and Pilate be-\\ncame in time mere ranting clowns; Herod was permitted\\neven to leave the stage and rage in the street, and the\\nactor who could out-Herod Herod, in Shakespeare s\\nphrase, pleased best the common people. To reconcile\\nthis secular element with the traditional religious basis of\\nthe plays, allegory was gradually introduced, and at\\nlength the Morality play pure and simple was evolved.\\nIts creation marks an epoch in the history of the drama.\\nIt is the transition of the drama from heaven to earth,\\nfrom the next world of the religious conception to the\\npresent one of the moral action, from the ideal to the\\nreal.\\nAs a whole, the Moralities are dry indeed. Few read-\\ners have the will power to force themselves far into the\\ndusty mass. The plays have almost no literary merit,\\nbut they are full of possibilities for action. The action\\nis everything without it the play is a lifeless heap. In\\neach there is a clown, who is some element of perverse-\\nness, Vice, Sin, Fraud, Iniquity, and his fun consists\\nalmost wholly in blows, quarrelings, and impish tricks.\\nAt every opportunity he belabors the devil, who roars\\nlustily and at length carries him off on his back to the\\nflames.\\nIn the Moralities we pass the border-line between\\nknown and unknown authorship. The early drama was\\nanonymous; the Miracle plays seem to have sprung up\\nas spontaneously as Beowulf we can only guess at their\\norigin a few of the later Moralities however are by known", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "The Evolution of the Drama 203\\nSkelton s Magnificeyice Everyman, and Hyke Scorner\\nwriters. One of the earHest figures on this vague frontier\\nis the poet Skelton, who is known to have produced four\\nMoraHty plays, one of which, Magnificence, has survived.\\nIts plot illustrates fully the methods employed by this\\nwhole class of plays. Magnificence, the title character,\\nwhile in perplexity, takes as counsellors a motley crowd\\nof seeming friends: Fancy, Counterfeit-countenance,\\nCloaked-collusion, Crafty-conveyance, and others, and\\nfollowing their advice is brought to ruin. He comes\\nunder the blows of Adversity, says Pollard, is visited\\nby Poverty, Despair, and Mischief. Only the entrance\\nof Good Hope saves him from suicide, but by the\\naid of Redress, Sad Circumspection, and Perseverance\\nhe is eventually restored to his high estate. Even\\nfrom this bare description it can easily be gathered how\\nmuch of the interest depended on the players, upon their\\ncostumes and behavior.\\nFrom a literary standpoint, the best of the Moralities\\nare doubtless Everyman, probably written late in the\\nfifteenth century, and Hyke Scorner, which stands on the\\nborder-line between the Morality and the Interlude.\\nRequired Reading. Description of the manner of act-\\ning The Castle of Per sever ence, Pollard, p. 197; and Pol-\\nlard s selection from Everyman. Consult Hamlet, III.,\\nii., and Midsummer Nighf s Dream, I., ii., and V., i.\\n2. Heywood s Interludes. The Morality play allowed\\nfar more freedom to the dramatist than did the Miracle.\\nIt dealt v/ith a broader range of subjects; it could draw\\nits characters from the lives of saints and the legendary\\nhistory of the Church, as well as from the whole field of\\nabstract human qualities, and it offered far wider oppor-\\ntunities for action and for rough humor; but it was still", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "204 The Foundations of English Literature\\nCharacters Lifeless and Wooden Introduction of Personal Types\\ngreatly restricted. The religious element was still its\\nbasis, and its characters were of necessity wooden and\\nlifeless. They lacked flesh and blood; an abstract qual-\\nity personified can never be galvanized into life. The\\nabundance of action in the Moralities, the buffoonery and\\nhorse-play, had kept them alive they had pleased the\\npeople precisely as the Punch-and-Judy shows please\\nchildren to-day; but without an added element they\\nnever could have made an advance. The drama, says\\nMiss Bates, had dribbled into miserable hybrids neither\\nsecular nor sacred. But at length a saving element\\nbegan to appear; actual men and women, familiar village\\ntypes, began to take places among the puppets. Hyke\\nScorner, the last of the Moralities, brings before us a de-\\nlightful study from real life. He is a creature of the\\nborderland bearing the name of an abstract human attri-\\nbute and yet characterized until we recognize the type.\\nSuddenly at this point there appeared a writer bold\\nenough, in the words of Ward, to throw overboard\\naltogether the traditionary machinery and the personified\\nabstractions of allegory and elevate to the first place the\\npersonal types which had been gradually introduced.\\nWith Heywood the English drama lost the last traces of\\nits religious origin it was no longer to be a medium of\\ninstruction its sole function was to amuse.\\nIn creating the Interlude Heywood was only obeying\\nthe voice of the times. The reign of Henry VIII. was\\nan era of untold love of ostentation and amusement. A\\ngay whirl of pleasure was in constant demand. Every\\ncourt occasion, every move of the sovereign or his circle,\\nmust be accompanied with appropriate pageants and\\nplays, the more gay and boisterous the better. To meet", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "The Evolution of the Drama 205\\nHeywood s Interludes The Four P s\\nthe extravagant demands of the times a class of profes-\\nsional actors had sprung up. Not only the King but also\\nmany of the nobles kept bands of players continually in\\ntheir employ. There was an unusual demand for plays,\\nand vast numbers were created, many of them extempo-\\nraneous productions which perished with the occasion.\\nAll through the Tudor century, that most intense and\\nactive era in English history, plays and pageants were\\nmade and acted in unheard-of profusion. It was John\\nHeywood, a musician and actor in the court of Henry\\nVIII. who, more than any one else, directed the current\\ninto its new channel. He realized that the demand was\\nfor short secular pieces, little farces that went with\\nvigor and snap and were soon over; and his The Pardoner\\nand the Friar, The Four P s, and other pieces mark\\nanother era in English dramatic history.\\nThe Four P s may be taken as a type of the Interlude.\\nThe plot is simple indeed. Four familiar characters, a\\nPalmer, a Pardoner, a Potycary, and a Pedler, engage in\\na lying contest, and the prize is won by the Palmer, who\\ndeclares that\\nIn all places where I haue ben\\nOf all the women that I haue sene,\\nI neuer sawe or knewe, in my consyens,\\nAny one woman out of paciens.\\nThe humor of the piece consists almost wholly in the droll\\nraillery of the actors at each other s professions, in coarse\\njokes and allusions, in puns, and animated disputes.\\nThere is such a redundancy of wit that it becomes weari-\\nsome and even nauseating. In Heywood s Play between\\nJohn the Husband and Tyb the Wife we are shown the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "2o6 The Foundations of English Literature\\nInfluence of the New Learning The Rise of Comedy\\nwoes of a henpecked husband, which culminate in a hard\\nbeating for the poor victim.\\nRequired Reading. Heywood, The Pardoner and\\nthe Friar in Pollard, English Miracle Plays,\\nJ. The Classic Comedy. It is at this point that the line\\nof the new learning crosses the path of the drama. The\\nInterludes had been without a trace of foreign influence;\\nthey had grown spontaneously and naturally from the\\nnative religious drama; but in 1536, or later, while Hey-\\nwood was still writing, Nicholas Udall, a scholar of note,\\nhead master of Eton, and afterwards head master of West-\\nminster School, turned his attention to dramatic work,\\nand, like a true son of the Renaissance, modeled his play\\nafter classic patterns. The writers most prized by the\\nnew learning seem to have been Plautus, Terence, and\\nSeneca. Erasmus and others of his school knew their\\nTerence by heart. It is not strange that Udall, attempt-\\ning an English drama, should turn to these Latin masters,\\nthat he should declare in his prologue that Plautus and\\nTerence among the learned at this day bear the bell.\\nHis Ralph Roister Bolster is but a careful imitation of the\\nMiles Gloriosus of Plautus. Heywood had depended on\\ndialogue, on incessant rapier flashes of wit he had drawn\\nhis characters from actual life, but he had not attempted\\nthe development of character by dialogue and action.\\nThe plays of Plautus had aimed to reproduce their age\\nby means of comic characterization; they had made\\nstudies from real life, and they had depended not alone\\nupon dialogue and brilliancy of wit but upon action\\nand contrasts of character. Udall held to the best\\npoints of both the Latin and the English drama, and the\\nresult was an epoch-making work, Ralph Roister Bolster", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "The Evolution of the Drama 207\\nRalph Roister JDoister Gammer Gurtons Nedle\\nthe first English comedy. It is not in itself a great play;\\nit is full of Latin echoes; its principal characters are\\ncopied faithfully from Plautus; its methods are borrowed\\neither from the Latin master or from Heywood, but\\nnevertheless it marks a new tendency. In it we find\\nblended for the first time naturalness, individuality of\\ncharacterization, sprightliness of dialogue, brilliancy of\\nwit, and freedom of action. It is also significant that it\\nis divided into five acts, each subdivided into scenes.\\nUdall s work was followed before 1562 by another\\nnotable comedy, Gammer Gurtons Nedle, by an anony-\\nmous writer, perhaps John Still, Bishop of Bath and\\nWells. At first sight it seems like a step backward, for,\\ncompared with Ralph Roister Bolster, the play is rude\\nand unclassic, the plot is exceedingly slender, and the\\nhumor and the language are coarse and popular. A care-\\nful reading of the comedy, however, quickly corrects such\\nan estimate. The play is unquestionably the most prom-\\nising dramatic work that had been produced in England\\nup to that time. It was but a step from Gammer Gurton\\nto the Comedy of Errors and the Merry Wives of Windsor,\\nfor its characters are living people, and they act and\\nspeak and think just as might be expected of characters\\nin their walk of life and under the same conditions. The\\nplay manifestly tried to follow classic rules, but notwith-\\nstanding this its spirit is almost wholly English. It takes\\nus into the coarse, brutal world of the English peasantry.\\nWe can imagine as we read it where the early audiences\\nwould burst into boisterous merriment. Such people are\\ninsensible to the more delicate forms of wit and humor:\\nnothing will make them laugh but coarse horse-play, vul-\\ngar jokes, and hard blows. When Dr. Rat appears with", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "2o8 The Foundations of English Literature\\nIts Characterizations Its Truth to Nature\\nhis broken head, all burst into a roar which increases the\\nmore he complains, and the climax of mirth comes when\\nthe two good wives of the play, after exhausting their\\ncopious vocabularies, fall upon each other, tooth and\\nnail. It is no imaginary picture; it is the real England\\nthat we are looking at, and these are types of the great\\nmajority of its people. These rude creatures in scanty\\nleather clothing, with their narrow little world, with their\\nignorance, their nearness to the soil, are as truly English-\\nmen as the perfumed gallants of the great Henry s court.\\nHow full of coarse life they are! With what broad\\nstrokes are Hodge, and Tyb, and Dame Chat, and Dr.\\nRat made real to us! It is as if we were actually visiting\\na rural hamlet. We feel acquainted even with Gyb, the\\ncat, jumping into the milk-pan over head and ears\\ncrouching in the fireplace until Hodge blows upon her\\neyes, thinking them coals and gasping with a bone in\\nher throat until all believe that she has swallowed the\\nneedle. There is a touch of nature in the work, an un-\\nconscious portrayal of character, a study of life at first\\nhand, that promised glorious things. It is a document\\nin the nation s history; it gives us more of the actual\\nTudor England than the whole school of the Courtly\\nMakers with their elaborate library of miscellanies. Eng-\\nland was moving with huge strides toward its greatest\\ncreative epoch.\\nRequired Reading. Drinking song in Act. II. of\\nGam^ner Gurton, Back and syde go bare, and Act III.,\\niv. Manly, Specimens of the Pre-Shakespearian Drama\\nVol. ii.\\n4.. The Classic Tragedy, (See Cunliffe, The Influence\\nof Seneca on Elizabethan Tragedy.^ Only one more step", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "The Evolution of the Drama 209\\nInfluence of Seneca Attempts to Naturalize Classic Tragedy\\nwas necessary to prepare the English drama for the great\\nmasters who were so soon to mold it into its final form.\\nUp to this point there had been no attempt at artistic\\ndevelopment; there had been no appreciation of dra-\\nmatic form. Even in the early comedies, which had\\nbeen produced confessedly under the influence of Plautus\\nand Terence, the action, in the words of Ulrici, is\\nstill devoid of anything like an organic center; it consists\\nmerely of a series of comic scenes, which turn upon the\\nunraveling of a simple and in itself an unimportant plot.\\nThis sense of artistic form is first found in the tragedies\\nwhich sprang up shortly after the appearance of the early\\ncomedy. During the middle of the century the later\\nLatin writers, especially Seneca, became exceedingly\\npopular with English scholars. In the decade following\\nthe year 1559 no less than five English authors busied\\nthemselves with translations from Seneca, and in 1581 a\\ncomplete edition of his works was issued. It was but\\nnatural that in such an active era there should spring\\nup an English drama modeled upon Seneca and his\\nschool.\\nTo naturalize in England the classic tragedy, however,\\nwas by no means an easy task. The comedy had proved\\neasily adaptable it had found in the early English plays\\nmany elements which it could appropriate. The Inter-\\nludes of Heywood had paved the way for the entrance of\\nreal comedy, but tragedy, especially after the model of\\nSeneca, was an exotic form. It was highly artificial it\\nrequired but little action; it depended upon sonorous\\nlines, upon ringing forensic dialogue; it held rigidly to\\nthe unities of time, place, and action; and, permeated\\nwith the Greek artistic sense, it kept in the background", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "2IO The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Tragedy Gorboduc Other Early Tragedies\\nall realistic details of suffering or death. The new school\\nturned away completely from the rude native drama they\\nwould throw it away utterly and substitute the purely\\nclassic type. Roger Ascham in The Scholemaster lamented\\nthat not one of the English plays is able to abyde the\\ntrew touch of Aristotle s preceptes and Euripides ex-\\namples, and even Sidney, at the very dawn of the new\\nera, complained bitterly of the wholesale violations of the\\nclassic requirements.\\nThe earliest of these tragedies, Gorboduc or Ferrex and\\nPorrex, the joint work of Thomas Norton and Thomas\\nSackville, was first acted in 1562. It is a significant pro-\\nduction, for, though it falls far short of the Senecan\\nmodels, and though it is dreary and monotonous, a mere\\nrunning series, to use Sidney s description, of stately\\nspeeches and well sounding phrases, climbing to the\\nheight of Seneca his style, each announcing deaths and\\nmurders by the wholesale, its theme is serious and of\\ntragic significance; the treatment is dignified, and, from\\nthe special point of view, adequate. The play is also\\nsignificant since it used for the first time blank verse for\\ndramatic purposes, and since it drew its plot from the\\nnational history. Following its lead there came a long\\nseries of tragedies whose subjects came more and more\\nfrom the national chronicles: Tancred and Gismunda,\\nThe Misfortunes of Arthur, The Troublesome Raign of\\nKing John, and numerous others. Compared with the\\nlater drama they are still rude and inartistic: their\\ntragedy consists merely of recitals of slaughter; their art\\nlies wholly in their careful imitation of classic models;\\nthey possess no trace of the spontaneousness and natural-\\nness of the early comedies, and yet despite all this their", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "The Evolution of the Drama 211\\nA Master Needed to Give the Drama its Final Form\\nadvent was a long step in the direction of the regular\\ndrama.\\nIt must not be gathered that the English drama was a\\nperfect evolution, that with each advance the old type\\ndisappeared and the new took its place. As a matter of\\nfact, the Miracle plays persisted until well into the cen-\\ntury; the Chester Cycle was still acted in 1577; ^.s\\nlate as 1601, while Shakespeare and his group were in the\\nfull tide of production, Queen Elizabeth took pleasure in\\nwitnessing a Morality play of the most primitive type. It\\nhas been our purpose to note only the tendency of the\\ndrama, and to show that despite the seeming confusion,\\ndespite the persistence of early types, it was steadily\\nmoving forward toward more perfect form and methods.\\nNotwithstanding the fact that in 1579, the year that we\\nhave taken as the close of our period, all varieties of dra-\\nmatic work were simultaneously before the people; not-\\nwithstanding that the field seemed to be a chaos and\\nthat no one type of dramatic art had reached perfection\\nor had in any way shown itself strong enough to lead\\nthe others, it must nevertheless be remembered that all\\nof the elements which finally produced the Elizabethan\\ndrama had been evolved, and that it needed but the\\nhand of a master to mold them into their ultimate form\\nand to breathe into them the breath of life.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "v^\\nN5J\\nCN CN C* i\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a22\\n^1 12\\no\\no.S\\nB 5\\nOa o\\nO 4)\\no\\nt^ yi3\\no\\n4 O S?\\no\\nO w\\ncam\\no\\n,\u00c2\u00abu HJ 4j 4)\\nt^ C3 O rt\\nW\\nCO\\nP4\\nPi\\no\\n1^\\no\\nin\\nf\\nCO\\nin\\n=5\\n1\\n11\\n8\\n8\\n1\\n(73\\nQ\\nw\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2|3\\ns\\n8\\n1\\n1\\n3.\\nh\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2^g\\nK\\nu-\\n8\\nM\\no\\n^3\\n3\\nf?f^\\n05\\ns rd\\nC\\n(3\\nd\\nO\\no\\nctf\\no rt\\no\\nO\\no\\n2S\\n05\\n2:\\na\\nc3\\nO\\no\\nIxl\\n-d\\nd\\n(U\\nCO\\n1^\\nk\\ni\\ni1\\nU\\na\\no\\nB\\no\\no o\\nt3\\n.2^ 2\\no\\nd\\no g\\no 3\\nM\\n5 :i o\\nCO\\n5\\nm\\nrt\\n3 -d\\ncJ5\\ns\\ncJ5\\nU O\\n1\\nC\\n03 -Td\\nLis\\nV) u S\\n15\\nm\\ns\\no\\n^1^\\nex,\\n_\\nQ\\nQ\\ns\\nfH\\nw\\nJ\\n(4\\n212", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVI\\nTHE AGE OF ELIZABETH\\n1 579-1649\\nFrom Spenser s Shepheardes Calender to the Estab-\\nlishment OF THE Commonwealth\\nAuthorities. Froude, History of England from the Fall\\nof Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth, is the supreme author-\\nity the best short history is Creighton, Age of Elizabeth.\\nBright, History of England, Vol. ii. Creighton, The\\nTudor s and the Reformation Macaulay, Essay on Lord\\nBurleigh, and Corbett, Drake and the Tudor Navy, may\\nbe consulted with profit. Lingard, History of Ejzgland,\\ntells the story from the Catholic point of view. To gain\\na vivid conception of the era one should also consult\\nHarrison, Elizabethan England {Cdcvcv^lot Series) Thorn-\\nbury, Shakespeare s England Goadby, Shakespeare s\\nEngland Drake, Shakespeare and his Times, and War-\\nner, The People for whom Shakespeare Wrote For literary\\nconditions, see Hazlitt, Elizabethan Literature; Whipple,\\nThe Literature of the Age of Elizabeth; Saintsbury,\\nElizabethan Literature Qv oils, English Literature, 1509-\\n1625, and Hannay, The Later Reriaissance.\\nThe great intellectual awakening of the fifteenth cen-\\ntury commonly known as the Renaissance produced\\nmore immediate effects upon the Latin nations of Europe\\nthan upon the Teutonic. Under its influence, Italy,\\nFrance, and Spain burst all in a moment into a new intel-\\nlectual life, but the northern nations, especially England,\\ndeveloped more slowly. We have already noted how\\n213", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "214 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Renaissance Enters England Slowly An Era of Fierce Storm\\nthe new learning, the earliest English phase of the Ren-\\naissance, had drifted into religious and social channels.\\nInstead of becoming at once, as in Italy\\nMa^chiaveih, 1469- France, a constructive power impel-\\nAriosto, 1474-1533. ling the nation toward artistic creation,\\n1564! it took from the very first a destructive\\nvittoria Coionna, form, and it directed its first energies\\nRabelais, 1495-1553. against the corruptions and excesses of\\nMarot, 1497-1544. the national Church. It insisted upon\\nRonsard, 1524-1585.\\nMontaigne, 1533-1592. mild mcasurcs It would purge away\\nBoscan, 1493-1550. evils, rchVious and social, by a g-radual\\nGarcilaso, 1503-1536.\\nCervantes, 1547-1616. cvolution through cducatiou and en-\\nLope^ de Vega, 1562- Ughtenmcnt. But the impetuous and\\nself-seeking spirit of Henry VIII. pre-\\ncipitated the work of reform, and the Protestantism of\\nLuther, which entered England at this critical moment,\\nthrew everything into confusion. An era of storm and\\nchange followed. Four times within a single generation\\nwas the national religion changed, and each change\\nwas accompanied by a veritable reign of terror. In\\nthe words of Macaulay, Edward persecuted Catho-\\nlics. Mary persecuted Protestants. Elizabeth persecuted\\nCatholics again. The father of those three sovereigns\\nhad enjoyed the pleasure of persecuting both sects at\\nonce. Until well into the reign of Elizabeth England\\nwas a seething cauldron, and the very thought of literary\\nart well-nigh died out of English hearts.\\nThe Era of Reconstruction. The first twenty years of\\nElizabeth were as barren of original literary products as\\nwas any other equal period since the days of Edward III.\\nAlmost nothing save translations from the Latin came\\nfrom the English presses. The accession of EHzabeth", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "The Age of Elizabeth 215\\nA Critical Period in English History The Fear of Spain\\nwas a time of doubt and fear; it was the most critical\\nperiod in English history. The island had been swept\\nby a tidal wave; nothing seemed fixed and permanent.\\nFor fifty years [says R. W. Church] the English people had had before\\nits eyes the great vicissitudes which make tragedy. They had seen the\\nmost unforeseen and most unexpected revolutions in what had for ages been\\nheld certain and immovable the overthrow of the strongest institutions,\\nand the most venerable authorities the violent shifting of feelings from\\nfaith to passionate rejection, from reverence to scorn and a hate which\\ncould not be satisfied. They had seen the strangest turns of fortune, the\\nmost wonderful elevations to power, the most terrible visitations of dis-\\ngrace. They had seen the mightiest ruined, the brightest and most ad-\\nmired brought down to shame and death, men struck down with all the\\nforms of law, whom the age honored as its noblest ornaments. Such\\na time of surprise of hope and anxiety, of horror and anguish to-day, of\\nrelief and exultation to-morrow had hardly been in England as the first\\nhalf of the sixteenth century. All that could stir men s souls, all that could\\ninflame their hearts, or that could wring them, had happened.\\nThe future looked black and threatening. Elizabeth\\nwas regarded with fear and distrust. Her speedy mar-\\nriage was thought to be inevitable, and the destinies of\\nEngland were in the hands of her husband, whoever he\\nmight be. The reign of Mary had thrown the shadow of\\nan inevitable conflict over the island before England\\ncould again be free she must defeat Spain, the wealth-\\niest and most powerful nation of Europe. As the husband\\nof Mary, Philip had claimed England as a part of his\\nown vast empire, and he had consented to the accession\\nof Elizabeth under the firm belief that she would continue\\nthe Catholic faith and would at once consent to unite\\nwith him in marriage. The Inquisition was to be ex-\\ntended to England, and the future of the island was to\\nbe merged into that of the great empire of the South.\\nSuch was the state of affairs in 1558. No wonder that", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "2i6 The Foundations of English Literature\\nPerplexities that Beset Elizabeth Her Peculiar Policy\\nthe nation was restless and fearful; no wonder that it\\ntook more than twenty years of her reign to restore con-\\nfidence in English hearts.\\nWe need not follow the windings of Elizabeth s career.\\nNo monarch was ever beset with more perplexities re-\\nligious, political, and personal. During the first half of\\nher reign the religious quarrel was active and dangerous,\\nbut at last, under her peculiar policy. Protestantism be-\\n1533. Birth of Eliza. Came firmly established. During nearly\\nbeth. thirty years Mary Queen of Scots, who\\n1558. Her Coronation.\\n1560. Scotland and had been named as her successor and\\nIreland Added to ^j^q ^^g to reestablish the Catholic\\nthe Crown. ^11\\n1566. Birth of James. Church, was a constant danger; what-\\n1570. Elizabeth Ex- ^^^j. |.]^g Quecn might do with her was\\ncommunicated.\\n1572. St. Barthoio- opcn to ficrcc criticism. Her policy on\\n1*^^^, r the whole, was one of toleration. The\\n1576. Blackfriars\\nTheatre. scaffold on Towcr Hill went to decay;\\n1580. The Jesuit In- fourteen years not a single noble went\\nvasion. o\\n1587. Shakespeare in to cxccution. She made cvcry effort to\\n158^7!\u00c2\u00b0 Mary Behead- ^^^P ^hc nation from war, and every in-\\ned. terval of peace she used in adding to the\\n^^ArmLa.** national resources and strengthening the\\n1598. The Irish Re- country for possible emergencies. Her\\n1603. Breath of Eliza- strong point was diplomacy. So skil-\\nfully did she play her antagonists against\\neach other, promising marriage first to this one, then to\\nthat, seizing each point of vantage and using every pos-\\nsible means of retreat, and deceiving in a thousand wily\\nways, and again and again, the most subtle diplomats of\\nEurope, that she succeeded in putting off for thirty\\nyears the inevitable conflict with Spain, and when at\\nlast it came she was more than ready.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "The Age of Elizabeth 217\\nHer Success Rise of the Sea-Kings\\nIt took a quarter of a century of such statesmanship to\\nreassure England and to bring back confidence and\\nnational consciousness. They came all at once.\\nWhen the great Armada, loaded with the soldiery that\\nfor years had been spreading terror over the Low Countries\\nof Europe, and filled with shackles and instruments of\\ntorture for the establishment of an English Inquisition,\\nhad at length, by sheer English pluck and skill, been sent\\nflying up the Channel, there arose from the whole nation\\na mighty shout of patriotic pride and exultation, and\\nwith that shout was born the England of to-day.\\nThe Sea-Kings. It was almost literally a new England\\nthat swelled this burst of patriotism. While the Queen\\nhad been struggling with her problems, while she had been\\ncoquetting with kings and ambassadors, and had been\\npostponing with all her wily arts the inevitable struggle\\nwith Spain, a new spirit and a new nation had grown up\\naround her. The new world beyond the Atlantic had in-\\nfluenced mightily the imagination of the age. The ships\\nof Pizarro and Cortez with their loads of gold and gems\\nhad filled all Europe with feverish un-\\nrest. After these realities nothing seemed 563. HawkinsOpens\\nthe Slave-Trade,\\nimpossible. The sixteenth century wit- 1572. Drake Harries\\nnessed a mad scramble for the wealth of the Spanish Main\\n1576-1578. Frobisher s\\nthe new lands, and England joined early Three voyages.\\nin the struggle. The old Viking spirit yj^-jnesio^f\\nawoke in English hearts it was the 1583. Gilbert s coi-\\nera of the sea-kings: Drake, Hawkins, \u00c2\u00b0aYd.^\u00c2\u00b0 ewoun\\nFrobisher, Gilbert, Cavendish. They 1584-1587. Raleigh s\\n1 J Attempts to Settle\\nplunged mto every sea; they searched Virginia.\\nthe Arctic ice for the Northwest Passage; 1585-1587. Davis seeks\\n111. 1 1 1 Northwest Pa\u00c2\u00bb\\nthey descended like sea-wolves upon the sage.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "2i8 The Foundations of English Literature\\nEngland s Second Epic Era A Group of Homeric Men\\n1585-1588. Drake Har- j-jch bootv of the Spanish Main they\\nries the Spaniards. -r^ r\\n1586-1588. Cavendish burst into the unknown Pacific and solved\\n?o I.V o^ ^*^V its secret; they rounded Scandinavia and\\n1588. The Spanish\\nArmada. Opened new routes to Russia and the far\\nEast. Their exploits read like the deeds of a mythic\\nage. It was another epic era, with men of true epic\\nmold. When we read of the mad exploits of Drake,\\nhis dash into the very jaws of the Spanish ports, his de-\\nstruction of the ships that were building for the great\\nArmada, and his capture of the rich East Indiaman in the\\nvery harbor of Cadiz; or the last fight of the Revenge\\nunder Sir Richard Grenville, his ship becalmed and sur-\\nrounded by fifteen Spanish men-of-war, fighting hand to\\nhand like wolves for fifteen hours, until only twenty of his\\none hundred and fifty men remained alive or the last\\nwords of Gilbert sinking in his foundered vessel, We\\nare as near to heaven by sea as by land, -^when we read\\nof such deeds by scores and hundreds we no longer\\nwonder at the great strides that England all at once\\nmade in her national life for what nation could be small\\nwhile witnessing the deeds of such men we no longer\\nwonder at the sudden burst of Elizabethan literature;\\nmen had only to write as they lived to make works\\nwhich would be immortal.\\nSocial Conditions. One of the first results of this new\\nage of the Vikings was a mighty increase in English com-\\nmerce. Along the whole seaboard little towns began to\\nawake and to spring into activity and prominence. The\\nnew slave-trade, the rich products of the Indies, East and\\nWest, the spoils of the world that now began to pour into\\nthe home island, increased enormously the national\\nwealth. The whole system of society was changed.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "The Age of Elizabeth 219\\nSocial Conditions Rise of the Common People\\nThe ancient nobility had well-nigh disappeared and their\\nplaces had been taken by a new aristocracy elevated from\\nthe middle class and endowed from the broken monas-\\nteries. But a new and powerful element was appearing.\\nThe wealth of the great commercial movement was pour-\\ning into the laps of the middle-class merchants, and they\\nsoon became a dominating power. It was no longer birtb,\\nbut wealth, which made the gentleman. The lines of\\ncaste were breaking down every man, no matter what\\nhis origin, had a chance to rise.\\nBelow the middle class were the small landholders, the\\nyeomen and cottagers, the sturdy old native stock, then\\nas always the muscle and vigor of the nation. We shall\\nsee them more and more, crowding the theatre pits,\\nmanning the ships of Frobisher and Drake, swelling the\\narmies of Elizabeth and Cromwell. It was a people\\nteeming with vitality, eager for activity, intensely re-\\nligious even to superstition. They were prodigal of\\nlife they went to death cheerfully they delighted like\\ntheir Teutonic ancestry in hard blows, in danger and\\nbattle, in reckless adventure. They were brutal in their\\namusements: bear and bull baiting became almost the\\nnational pastime.\\nIt was an era of rapid change in manners and customs.\\nThe nobles were moving out of the dismal, windowless\\ncastles into bright and comfortable homes armor with\\nall its accompaniments was rapidly disappearing; a thou-\\nsand household comforts, undreamed of in the earlier\\ndays, were to be found even in the homes of the poor.\\nThe vast increase of wealth soon led to untold extrava-\\ngance. Never before had there been such magnificence\\nof apparel.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "2 20 The Foundations of English Literature\\nWealth and Magnificence of the Era Queen Elizabeth\\nThere was [says Warner] no limit to the caprice and extravagance.\\nHose and breeches of silk, velvet, or other rich stuff, and fringed garters\\nwrought of gold or silver, worth five pounds apiece, are some of the items\\nnoted. Burton says, Tis ordinary for a gallant to put a thousand oaks\\nand an hundred oxen into a suit of apparel, to wear a whole manor on his\\nback. Even serving-men and tailors wore jewels in their shoes. We\\nshould note also the magnificence in the furnishing of houses, the arras,\\ntapestries, cloth of gold and silver, silk hangings of many colors, the\\nsplendid plate on the tables and sideboards. Even in the houses of the\\nmiddle classes the furniture was rich and comfortable, and there was an\\nair of amenity in the chambers and parlors strewn with sweet herbs and\\ndaily decked with pretty nosegays and fragrant flowers. The People for\\nwhom Shakespeare Wrote.\\nLife was gay and joyous; everywhere there was an at-\\nmosphere of boundless hope, of infinite possibility.\\nQueen Elizabeth. The center of all this activity and\\nlife was the Queen. It may be very well asserted,\\nwrites Jusserand, that whatever the branch of art or\\nliterature you wish to understand you must first study\\nElizabeth. Rogers* engraving of the Queen arrayed in\\nall her magnificence almost surpasses belief. Around\\nher was a perpetual field of cloth of gold, and the nobles\\nsold their lands in order to appear at court sufficiently\\nembroidered. Her royal progresses were miracles of\\nsplendor. Even the pen of Scott was not equal to the\\ndescription of her visit to Kenilworth Castle. To the\\nvery last her love of finery and gems was a ruling pas-\\nsion. After her death there were found in her wardrobe\\nno less than three thousand rich dresses.\\nAfter the Armada year the Queen was the national\\nidol, the embodiment of the national patriotism. A new\\nchivalry flowered about her. Sidney and Raleigh are the\\nbest types of that gallant and noble group of young men\\nthat stood ready to do her will, and their spirit permeated", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "The Age of Elizabeth 221\\nAn Outburst of Loyalty and Patriotism The Nation Exults in its Youth\\nthe whole nation. Again and again in the Elizabethan\\nwriters, notably in Shakespeare, do we catch the thrill\\nof devotion to Queen and to fatherland that was stirring\\nin every breast.\\nThis England never did, nor never shall\\nLie at the proud foot of a conqueror.\\nCome the three corners of the world in arms\\nAnd we shall shock them. Nought shall make us rue,\\nIf England to herself do rest but true,\\ncries Philip in King Johuy and he, with John of Gaunt in\\nRichard 11. who called England\\nThis other Eden, demi paradise,\\nThis blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,\\nand with Bolingbroke, who declared that\\nWhere er I wander boast of this I can,\\nThough banished, yet a true-born Englishman,\\nwas but voicing the thought of every English heart.\\nSuch was the England of Elizabeth. It was like a\\nyouth teeming with life and the sense of power, just freed\\nfrom early restraints, running to excesses, full of romance\\nand dreams. The nation had nothing to hamper it; it\\nhad fought its way into a leading place among the powers\\nof the world; it was free, and it had all the resources\\nfor perfect independence. The language was at last\\nready, a wonderful instrument, fit for the hands of the\\nmasters. The new poets and scholars were without\\nmodels to restrain them. The way was clear for creation,\\nand there was every incentive.\\nLiterary Conditions. The year 1579, twenty-one years", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "222 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Year 1579 The First Years of Elizabeth a Seed Time\\nafter the accession of Elizabeth, since it witnessed the\\npublication of Spenser s Shepheardes Calender, the first\\nwork since Chaucer showing real poetic inspiration, and\\nLily s EuphueSy the first book of Elizabeth s reign\\nwhich attained to really commanding notoriety, may\\nbe taken as the opening date of the great creative period\\ngenerally known as the Elizabethan era. But the twenty-\\none years, thous^h barren of actual liter-\\n1552. Spenser ana\\nRaleigh. ary production, are full of wonderful\\n^S\\\\y. literary interest. The great writers who\\n1554. Sidney. wcrc to be the chief glory of her reign\\n^^Peeie.\u00c2\u00b0 Were most of them unborn when the\\n1559. Chapman. Qucen took the throne. The immor-\\n1561! Bacon^ tals ncvcr appear alone, says Schiller:\\n1562. Daniel. within the short space of twelve years\\n1564*. Marlowe and there was bom in England the most\\nShakespeare. marvclous group of literary masters\\nsince the days of Greece. It was the early springtime of\\na great era. On every side there were bursting and\\nspringing the germs that so long had waited for mild and\\npeaceful skies. The spirit of the Italian Renaissance so\\nlong repressed at last was free. The fearful pressure that\\nhad been on English hearts was lifting; men could dream\\nof toleration and freedom. The new learning had edu-\\ncated England. With a sovereign who could read Greek\\nand write Latin verse, ignorance was no longer fashion-\\nable. The grammar schools were giving new life to the\\nmiddle classes more persons could read in England than\\nat any previous time in her history, and this fact created\\na wide demand for reading matter. An era of translation\\nfollowed. Ascham, who wrote his Scholemaster between\\n1563 and 1568, declared that bookes, of late translated", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "The Age of Elizabeth 223\\nGrowing Popularity of Translations The City of London\\nout of Italian into English, [were] sold in every shop in\\nLondon, and he further added that there be moe of\\nthese vngratious bookes set out in Printe within these\\nfew monethes, than have bene sene in England many\\nscore yeares before. In the twenty-five years following\\nSurrey s translation of the ySnetd there appeared no less\\nthan twenty-five important translations from the Latin\\nand the Italian, more than half of them being from\\nSeneca, Ovid, and Virgil. Nearly all of the great crea-\\ntors Spenser, Marlowe, Shakespeare began with trans-\\nlations or imitations of classic writers.\\nThus after more than a century the Renaissance entered\\nEngland. The same enthusiasm for the ancient masters,\\nthe same eager spirit of creation, the same sensuous de-\\nlight in beauty and in art, the same spontaneous outpour-\\nings of genius that had marked the Italian Renaissance,\\nnow marked the English. The literary product, like that\\nof Italy, was dominated by the Greek spirit, and yet it\\nwas spontaneous and original. The era ended with the\\nCommonwealth, when a new order gained the ascendency\\nin England. For a period, the Hebraic spirit was in con-\\ntrol the Bible was the central fact in English religion,\\npolitics, and literature.\\nThe Elizabethan literature was the literature of a city\\nduring the whole of the era London, so far as literature\\nwas concerned, was England. Outside its limits the\\nisland was still in the barren era that had followed Chau-\\ncer. In addition to this, the literature of London was\\nfor the rich and the elegant. Spenser then, as now,\\nappealed to a small and select audience; Lily wrote\\nconfessedly only for fashionable ladies, and even the\\ndramatists, though the poorer classes crowded the theatre", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "224 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHistorical Novels and Poems Dealing with the Era\\npits, wrote first of all for the rich and the noble. A real-\\nization of these facts will add much to an understanding\\nof the Elizabethan writers.\\nSuggested Reading. Scott, Kenilworth, The Monas-\\ntery ySXid The Abbot Kingsley, Westward Ho Macau-\\nlay s poem. The Armada; Miss Yonge, Unknown to\\nHistory; Wordsworth, White Doe of Rylstone Tenny-\\nson, Queen Mary Swinburne, Mary Stuart,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVII\\nSIDNEY AND SPENSER\\nAuthorities. The best materials for a study of the\\nperiod between Wyatt and Spenser are Arber s editions\\nof Googe, EglogueSy Epitaphs, and Sonnets (1563); Gas-\\ncoigne, The Steel Glass (1576); Gosson, School of Abuse\\n(1579); Sidney, Defense of Poesy (1580), and Robin-\\nson, Handful of Pleasant Delights 1 5 84). Minto, English\\nPoets, Ch. iii. Sackville-West, The Works of Thomas\\nSackville, and Schelling, Life and Writings of George\\nGascoigne, should also be consulted.\\nThe years between the publication of TotteV s Miscellany\\nand The Shepheardes Calender stand in the history of Eng-\\nlish poetry as the era of the Courtly Makers. After the\\nsuccess of Wyatt and Surrey it became highly fashion-\\nable for the gay group about the king to breathe its\\namorous woes in verse modeled after Italian lyrists. A\\nfew there were like Gascoigne, the author of The Steel\\nGlass, and Sackville, whose contributions to the Mirror\\nfor Magistrates show a surprising strength, that were\\ntrue poets, but the age as a whole deserved the taunt of\\nSidney. Poetry, he declared, is fallen to be the laugh-\\ning-stock of children, and in summing up the achieve-\\nments of the English Muse he found at the very middle\\nof Elizabeth s reign that there had been but four poets\\nwhose works deserved mention. He says:\\nChaucer, undoubtedly, did excellently in his Troilus and Cressida of\\nwhom, truly, I know not whether to marvel more, either that he in that\\nmisty time could see so clearly, or that we in this clear age walk so stum-\\nblingly after him. Yet had he great wants, fit to be forgiven in so reverend\\n15\\n225", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "226 The Foundations of English Literature\\nSidney s Literary Position A Transition Figure\\nantiquity. I account the Mirror of Magistrates meetly furnished of beau-\\ntiful parts and in the Earl of Surrey s lyrics many things tasting of a noble\\nbirth, and worthy of a noble mind. The Shepherd s Calendar hath much\\npoetry in his eclogues, indeed worthy the reading, if I be not deceived.\\nBesides these, I do not remember to have seen but few (to speak\\nboldly) printed, that have poetical sinews in them.\\nSidney modestly forgets his own poetic achievements,\\nbut no other critic can omit them. He occupies a unique\\nplace in English poetry half-way between the old and\\nthe new, the last of the Courtly Makers, the first of\\nthe Elizabethan creators, he stands a transition figure\\nat the portal of the new era. As the president of the\\nAreopagus he was leader of the group that would bind\\nEnglish poetry with the classic prosody yet his sonnet\\nsequence, written after the new methods, became the\\nchief inspiration of the school that opposed the old meas-\\nures. Though destined to become the typical figure of\\nthe Elizabethan era, he maintained at its very dawn that\\nthe English drama should adhere to the unities of Aris-\\ntotle and avoid mixing comedy and tragedy, advice\\nwhich if followed would have made Shakespeare and his\\nschool impossible, and he died knowing nothing of\\nShakespeare, and Bacon, and Jonson, nothing of the\\nArmada, nothing of the ultimate glory of the great\\nsovereign whom he so zealously served.\\nThe era is dated from the first work of Spenser, who\\nbelonged wholly to the new school and who was destined\\nto become one of the four great poets of the English\\nrace, but its opening notes were struck by Sidney.\\n7. Sir Philip Sidney (1^^4.-1^86)\\nAuthorities, The standard life of Sidney is Fox\\nBourne, Memoir of Sir Philip Sidney, The same au-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "Sidney and Spenser 227\\nSidney s Great Fame and Small Achievement His Life\\nthor s Sir Philip Sidney in Heroes of the Nations Series,\\nand Symonds Sir Philip Sidney in the Engh sh Men of\\nLetters Series, are the most serviceable works for the\\ngeneral student. The standard edition of Sidney s poems\\nis Grosart s, a work indispensable to the student; but a\\ngood working edition is published in three volumes by\\nthe Scribners. See also Davis, Life and Times of Sir Philip\\nSidney Arber s and Cook s editions of The Defense of\\nPoesy; Scribner s edition of the Arcadia Welsh, English\\nMasterpiece Course, and Minto, Ch. iv. Sir Henry Sidney s\\nletter to his son is in Arber s English Garner, Vol. i.\\nFew men in all history have left so deep an impress\\nupon their times with so small a showing of brilliant and\\nfar-reaching accomplishment as Philip Sidney. In his\\nown estimation at least, his whole brief career, which\\ncovered indeed only the first period of Elizabeth s reign,\\nwas but a time of preparation. When he fell at Zutphen\\nhe had but just entered upon his real life-work.\\nAs the son of Sir Henry Sidney, Viceroy of Ireland,\\nand as nephew of the powerful Earls of Warwick and\\nLeicester, Sidney was early given every advantage. His\\neducation was carefully attended to. After several years\\nat Oxford he was granted a license to go abroad with\\nthree servants and four horses, and for the next three\\nyears he was busy with his studies in the leading Euro-\\npean cities. He was in Paris during the massacre of St.\\nBartholomew he was for nine months in Frankfort, where\\nhe had as master the celebrated Languet he studied for\\neight months in Italy, and after a winter in Vienna he\\nreturned through the Low Countries to England to spend\\nthe greater part of his remaining years at the royal court.\\nHis ideal life was one of action literature was but an\\navocation, a solace for idle hours; he longed to join in", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "2 28 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Typical English Hero His Contemporary Renown\\nthe stirring life of the times, to sail into the Northwest\\nwith Frobisher or to the Spanish Main with Drake, but\\nthe Queen gave him little chance for action. She sent\\nhim on an embassy to the continent, and at length made\\nhim Governor of Flushing in the Netherlands, but it was\\nhis fate to fall in his first important engagement with the\\nnational foe.\\nWith this slight record of actual achievement Sidney is\\nthe typical figure of a heroic age, one of the idols of the\\nEnglish nation. No man ever had a more perfect and\\nlovable character, a more delightful personality. Over\\nall who met him he cast a singular charm. None could\\nknow him and speak of him dispassionately. Queen\\nElizabeth, who was seldom mistaken in a man, declared\\nhim the jewel of her kingdom. William of Orange, the\\nhero of the Netherlands, declared that her Majesty had\\nin Mr. Philip Sidney one of the ripest and greatest coun-\\nsellors of State that lived in Europe. His death was a\\nnational bereavement. It was accounted a sin, says\\na contemporary, for any gentleman of quality, for\\nmonths after, to appear at court or city in any light or\\ngaudy apparel. Volumes would be filled, says Fox\\nBourne, were I to collect all the praise uttered in prose\\nand still more extensively in verse, by Sir Philip Sidney s\\ncontemporaries or his immediate successors. And all\\nthis for a youth who died at thirty-two.\\nThe Areopagus. It was almost inevitable that one of\\nSidney s temperament and training should be drawn\\ntoward literary work. As early as 1578 he had written a\\nmasque. The Lady of the May, to be acted before the\\nQueen, and by the following year he was regarded by all\\nas the foremost representative and patron of English let-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "Sidney and Spenser 229\\nThe Areopagus The Unsettled Nature of English Verse\\nters. Around him gathered a brilliant circle Harvey,\\nGrevil, afterwards Lord Brooke, Dyer, Spenser, and\\nothers, the Areopagus, whose function it was, in the\\nwords of Spenser, to proclaim a general surceasing and\\nsilence of bald rhymers, and also of the very best too in-\\nstead whereof they have by authority of their whole sen-\\nate, prescribed certain laws and rules of quantities of\\nEnglish syllables for English verse.\\nIt is a somewhat startling thought that scarcely ten\\nyears before Spenser and Shakespeare and the whole\\nschool of Elizabethan poets were to put forth their im-\\nmortal works, it was still a debatable question whether\\nthe old or the new prosody was to prevail. The an-\\ncient, says Sidney, marked the quantity of each\\nsyllable, and according to that framed his verse; the\\nmodern observing only number, with some regard to the\\naccent, the chief life of it standeth in that like sounding\\nof the words which we call rime. Whether of these be\\nthe most excellent would bear many speeches. He\\nhimself was inclined to compromise: the English, he\\ndeclares, is fit for both sorts. Many of his songs and\\neclogues in the Arcadia are in the classic measures, but\\nhis sonnets, upon which his fame as a poet almost wholly\\nrests, are in the modern form. Harvey stood uncom-\\npromisingly for the old meters. What English poetry\\nwould have been had his counsel prevailed may be seen\\nin Stanyhurst s translation of the ^neid (1582), one\\nof the most grotesque books in the English language\\n(Arber s ed.). Spenser fell for a time under the influence\\nof the Areopagus, but he soon broke away, and his work,\\ntogether with Sidney s incomparable sonnets, set the\\nstandard for all later poetry.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "230 The Foundations of English Literature\\nAstrophel and Stella Its Perfect Art\\nAstrophel and Stella. Sidney s literary product consists\\nof three works: The Defense of Poesy the Arcadia^ a\\nlong romance, and Astrophel and Stella, a sonnet se-\\nquence and the greater part of this product was written\\nin the three years following 1580, in these my not old\\nyears and idlest times. In the sonnets, which are his\\nsupreme achievement, he was a true Courtly Maker.\\nWhat Wyatt saw afar off Sidney accomplished. Wyatt,\\nrude and unskilled, using an instrument not his own, had\\ntried to voice the song in his heart, and despite his crude-\\nness and imitation we feel as we read him the thrill of an\\nhonest passion, deep and sad. In Sidney the thrill is\\nmore intense. Here we have perfect mastery of technique\\nwithout a trace of imitation. Every sonnet deepens the\\nimpression that the poet had obeyed his Muse\\nFool, said my Muse to me, look in thy heart and write\\nand that this is the record of an honest heart written\\nbecause\\nLove doth hold my hand and make me write.\\nWe need not search the lives of Sidney to find the facts\\nas to Stella we shall settle nothing if we do. The\\npoem is enough. No one can read it through and doubt\\nthat the poet was\\nLoving in truth and fain in verse my love to show\\nThat she, dear she, might take some pleasure of my pain.\\nIt is the full story of a hopeless passion, and it holds\\nsome of the most impassioned, some of the saddest, some\\nof the sweetest sonnets in the language. Such sonnets\\nas With what sad steps, O moon, thou climb st the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "Sidney and Spenser 231\\nIts Sadness and Passion Its Influence on Other Poets\\nskies, and Come sleep! O sleep, and O joy too\\nhigh for my low style to show, mark the highest sweep\\nof the English love sonnet. As a series of sonnets,\\nsays Ward, the Astrophel and Stella poems are second\\nonly to Shakespeare s; as a series of love poems they\\nare, perhaps, unsurpassed.\\nThe influence of this first sequence of sonnets was wide-\\nspread and immediate. Following the publication of\\nAstrophel and Stella in 1 591 there came, as we shall see,\\nthe greatest sonnet era in the history of English litera-\\nture. All of the early Elizabethan poets, Daniel, Drayton,\\nLodge, Chapman, Spenser, and Shakespeare, tried their\\nhand at the making of sequences, and in all of their son-\\nnets there is the spirit of the first master. What Sidney\\nmight have become had he lived to fulfil the promise of\\nhis young manhood it is idle to conjecture. It is enough\\nto say that had Spenser or Shakespeare died at thirty-\\ntwo they would have left not much more than he. Even\\nas it is he must be reckoned with as one of the great\\ninfluences in the history of English poetry.\\nRequired Reading. Spenser, Astrophel Astro-\\nphel and Stella, Sonnets i, 23, 26, 30, 31, 32, 33, 39, 48,\\n87, 90, 92, 107; Golden Treasury, xxxii., xlvii. Also\\nA Dirge and Philomela. The selections in\\nSchelling, Elizabethan Lyrics are excellent, also those in\\nWard, English Poets.\\n2. Edmund Spenser (1^^2-i^gg)\\nAuthorities. The leading authority on Spenser and\\nhis works is Grosart s edition of Spenser, a somewhat\\nrare book. Craik, Spenser and his Poetry the Globe\\nedition of the. poet, edited by Morris, with a memoir by\\nHales; the Riverside edition by Professor Child; the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "232 The Foundations of English Literature\\nEdmund Spenser Little Known of His Life\\nAldine edition by Collier and the essay by Lowell in\\nVol. iv. of his works, are indispensable authorities. The\\nbest working edition is the Aldine; the most satisfactory\\nlife of Spenser for the general student is Church s in the\\nEnglish Men of Letters Series. Fleay, Guide to Chaucer\\nand Spenser Dowden, Transcripts and Studies Gum-\\nmere, Selections from Spenser^ Ath. Press Series (an-\\nnounced); Kitchin, Faerie Queene^ Books i. and ii.\\n(Clarendon Press Series), and Philips, English Literature,\\nshould be consulted. For a complete bibliography, see\\nCarpenter, Guide to the Study of Spenser Welsh, Eng-\\nlish Masterpiece Course, and Winchester, Short Courses\\nof Reading.\\nThe life of Spenser, though he lived two centuries\\nnearer our own day, is well-nigh as unknown to us as that\\nof Chaucer. A few dates from the Cambridge records,\\nthe Stationer s Register,and the State Rolls a few letters\\nand autobiographic poems a few writings of contempo-\\nraries, and the rest is tradition and conjecture. Elaborate\\nlives have been written after the method described by\\nHenry James, A thin soil of historical evidence is\\nmade to produce luxuriant flowers of deduction, but\\nthrough them all the poet moves as a cold, shadowy\\nfigure, never clearly seen, often hopelessly obscured.\\nOnly once or twice, as in Mother Hubberd s Tale, Amor-\\netiiy and Epithalamion, do we seem to get near him, but\\nat best we find that we have caught only a glimpse. His\\nlife was of a piece with his great poem, vague and un-\\nreal, and his death was of a piece with his life. The\\nwhole story of his later days, says Lowell, has a\\nstrong savor of legend.\\nThe time and place of Spenser s birth, and the facts as\\nto his family, are unrecorded, but in his poem Protha-\\nlamion he speaks of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "Sidney and Spenser 233\\nBiographical Facts His Acquaintance with Harvey\\nMerry London, my most kindly nurse,\\nThat to me gavej;his life s first kindly source,\\nThough from another place I take my name.\\nAn house of ancient fame\\nand in a sonnet written not far from 1593, he declares\\nthat the past year has seemed longer to him\\nThen al those fourty which my life outwent.\\nOn such evidence rests the birth date, 1552. The next\\nthat we know of Spenser is in 1569, when he was entered\\nat Cambridge as a free student. Four years later he re-\\nceived the first degree, and three years later still, in 1576,\\nhe became master of arts and left the university. Again\\nfor three years we know little about him, though The\\nShepheardes Caleyider has been made by some to yield a\\nfull account of the period. While at Cambridge he had\\nbecome the close friend of Gabriel Harvey, whose curious\\nefforts to reform English prosody have already been\\nnoticed. After Spenser left the university the two\\nfriends seem to have carried on a voluminous correspond-\\nence, a part of which has been preserved, and from this\\nit appears that Spenser some time previous to 1579 had\\ngone to London to join the circle about the brilliant\\nSidney, and that the two from the first had been strongly\\ndrawn toward each other. The influence of the great\\ncourtier upon the poet was a strong one. It was Sidney,\\nhe declared,\\nWho first my muse did lift out of the flora\\nTo sing his sweet delights in lowlie laies.\\nTo him, the noble and vertuous gentleman, most\\nworthy of all titles both of learning and chevalrie, Spen-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "234 The Foundations of English Literature\\nSpenser in Ireland The Visit of Raleigh\\nser dedicated his maiden volume, The Shepheardes Calen-\\nder which, appearing in 1579, announced to the world the\\nadvent of a new poet.\\nOn the following year Spenser went to Ireland as Sec-\\nretary to Lord Grey, and during the next ten years we\\nlose sight of him almost altogether. In 1590 he was\\nliving quietly on the large estate at Kilcolman which had\\nbeen granted him by the English government, and here\\nit was that Raleigh found him, as related in Colin Clouts\\nCome Home Againe, Spenser declares that one day while\\nKeeping my sheepe amongst the cooly shade\\nOf the green alders by the Mullaes shore,\\nA strange shepheard chaunst to find me out.\\nHe, sitting me beside in that same shade,\\nProvoked me to plaie some pleasant fit\\nAnd when he heard the musicke which I made,\\nHe found himself full greatly pleased with it.\\nThe music was nothing less than the first three books of\\nThe Faerie Queene, and after the Shepheard of the\\nOcean, who was none other than Raleigh, had heard it\\nall\\nHe gan to cast great lyking to my lore,\\nAnd great dislyking to my lucklesse lot,\\nThat banisht had myselfe, like wight forlore,\\nInto that waste, where I was quite forgot.\\nThe which to leave thenceforth he counseld mee,\\nUnmeet for man in whom was ought regardful!,\\nAnd wend with him his Cynthia to see,\\nWhose grace was great, and bounty most rewardfull.\\nThe result was a journey to London, where after reading\\nhis new poem to the Queen, who was delighted with it,\\nhe published it with due pomp in 1591, inscribed to the\\nmost high and mighty and magnificent empresse, re-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "Sidney and Spenser 235\\nPublication of The Faerie Queene Minor Poems of Spenser\\nnowmed for pietie, vertue, and all gratious government,\\nElizabeth, to live with the eternitie of her\\nfame. The popularity of the poem was immediate and\\nunprecedented. Spenser returned to Ireland with the\\nplaudits of his countrymen, and, what was to him of\\nequal importance, a goodly pension from the Queen, who\\nhad indeed proved most rewardfuU. In 1594 he mar-\\nried very happily, and he celebrated the event with\\nAmorettiy a sonnet sequence after the style of Sidney, and\\nEpithalamiofiy the most magnificent wedding ode in the\\nlanguage. Two years later he crossed to England again\\nwith three more books of The Faerie Queene, which were\\npublished in 1596. But life at the royal court, to judge\\nfrom his poems, was never congenial. He soon returned\\nto the salvage soyl which had doubtless become dear\\nto him, and there he lived until the Tyrone rebellion of\\n1598 destroyed his home and sent him flying into Eng-\\nland to die, soon after, an obscure and untimely death.\\nHis Minor Poems. So completely does Spenser s i^x^r^V\\nQueene overshadow his other work that, like Chaucer, he\\nlives in most minds as the creator ofa_\u00e2\u0080\u009e ri,.ci,\u00c2\u00bb..\\n^579* The Snep-\\nSingle poem. But it must not be for- heardes calender.\\ngotten that he published during his J^^ Daphi^da.*\\nlifetime no less than eight volumes of 1595. Astrophei.\\npoetry besides The Faerie Queene that ^EpithaTaTi^n/\\nsome of these, like Complaints, for in- ^596. coiin ciouts\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0t -i Come Home.\\nstance, which contams nme long pieces, i^ge. Four Hymns.\\nare sizable books, and that much of 596. Prothaiamion.\\nthis poetry is on a level with the best work in his great\\nmasterpiece.\\nThe Shepheardes Calender, Spenser s first significant\\npublication, is a series of twelve eclogues or pastorals,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "236 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Shephearde s Calender His Pastoral Strain\\none for each month of the year. The pleasant fiction of\\npoetic shepherds piping to their flocks on oaten quill/\\nand leading them with song and dance through flowery-\\nmeads and downs, a fiction as old as poetry itself, seems\\ngreatly to have impressed the imagination of Spenser.\\nIn all of his poetry to the very last he speaks of himself as\\nThe shepheardes boy, best knowen by that name,\\nand he alludes to his poems, even to The Faerie Queene^\\nthough in much of it he is enforced\\nFor trumpets sterne to change mine Oaten reeds,\\nas pastoral lays, the pipings of his shepherd hours. To\\nhim it was a world of shepherds; the fair Eliza is the\\nqueen of shepherds all her great father is Pan, the shep-\\nherd s god, and all about her are shepherds, whose one\\ndelight it is\\nto blow\\nTheir pipes aloud, her name to glorifie.\\nWith this loose thread are bound together the twelve\\npoems, which otherwise differ greatly both as to subject\\nand merit. Some are romantic songs full of youth and\\nextravagance some are translations or imitations of The-\\nocritus and the Latin pastorals; some are fables and bur-\\nlesques three of them are religious satires which show\\nthe poet s early bent toward Puritanism. Everywhere in\\nthem are manifest the exuberant fancy and extravagance\\nof a youthful dreamer who knows more of Theocritus\\nand Virgil than of actual life, and who believes himself\\nhopelessly and delightfully in love. But notwithstanding\\nthis, notwithstanding the archaic affectation complained", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "Sidney and Spenser 237\\nA Delightful Sheaf of Verse Other Minor Poems\\nof by Sidney, The Shepheardes Calender is a most remark-\\nable work. The poems are full of the sweet music now\\nso familiar in The Faerie Queene, and they show a sus-\\ntained poetic power seldom found in a poet s first volume.\\nWe need not wander long among the minor poems.\\nWith the land of The Faerie Queene before us we are in-\\nclined to view all else with impatience. But some of the\\nrarest of the shorter poems must not be passed over, for\\nthey alone would have established their maker as a poet\\nof high rank. The satirical fable, Mother Hubberd s\\nTale of the Ape and the Fox, says one critic, may take\\nrank with the satirical writings of Chaucer and Dryden\\nfor keenness of touch, for breadth of treatment, for swing\\nand fiery scorn, and sustained strength of sarcasm. It\\nshows us the dark side of Elizabeth s court, and it hints\\nstrongly at the poet s disgust at all that pertained to the\\nbrilliant yet hollow and uncertain life of the courtier.\\nFor what is life at court but\\nTo loose good dayes, that might be better spent\\nTo wast long nights in pensive discontent\\nTo speed to day, to be put back to morrow\\nTo feed on hope, to pine with feare and sorrow\\nTo have thy Princes grace, yet want her Peeres\\nTo have thy asking, yet waite manie yeeres\\nTo fret thy soule with crosses and with cares\\nTo eate thy heart through comfortlesse dispaires\\nTo fawne, to crowche, to waite, to ride, to ronne,\\nTo spend, to give, to want, to be undonne\\nThe Colin Clouts Come Home Againe, written to Raleigh\\nafter Spenser s return to his Irish home, gives us another\\nglimpse into the poet s heart, yet we are never sure of\\nwhat we see, so cumbered is the tale with artificial im-\\n.agery. It is in the poems that followed Spenser s mar-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "238 The Foundations of English Literature\\nColin Clouts Come Home Againe Epithalamion\\nriage in 1596 that we seem to get nearest to him. The\\nAmoretti, the sonnet cycle that tells in detail the whole\\nhistory of his love affair, is full of tenderness and passion,\\nthough it falls far short of Sidney s Astrophel and Stella,\\nbut the magnificent wedding ode, Epithalamion, in its\\nspontaneous joy and exultation, its tenderness and truth,\\nits rapt passion and its purity, stands at the head of all\\nSpenser s poetry. It is the world s wedding ode, as Men-\\ndelssohn s great creation is the world s wedding march.\\nOpen it at random and note the joy, the passion, the\\nsweet music.\\nNow al is done bring home the bride againe\\nBring home the triumph of our victorie\\nBring home with you the glory of her gaine,\\nWith joyance bring her and with jollity.\\nNever had man more joy full day then this,\\nWhom heaven would heape with blis.\\nRing ye the bels, ye yong men of the towne\\nAnd leave your wonted labors for this day\\nThis day is holy doe ye write it downe,\\nThat ye forever it remember may.\\nThe Faerie Queene, But the minor poems of Spenser,\\nhowever exquisite, were, after all, but recreations of his\\nMuse. The real work of his life was his great allegory,\\nThe Faerie Queene. We know from one of Harvey s let-\\nters that the poet had begun upon this masterpiece even\\nbefore the publication of The Shepheardes Calender, and\\nwe also know that he spent all the rest of his life in elabo-\\nrating and extending it. The poem, therefore, stands as\\npeculiarly the life-work of Spenser. The dream of his\\nyoung manhood had taken so firm a grasp upon him that\\nit ruled his whole career. The poem, even to its end, is", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "Sidney and Spenser 239\\nThe Faerie Queene A Dream of Young Manhood\\nthe vision of a young man all of its heroes are in the\\nprime of youth, full of lusty life, teeming with\\nstrength, eager for adventure; its heroines are all\\nmaidens, depicted con amorej full of life, and faire as\\never living wight was faire its atmosphere is one of\\ninfinite hope and boundless possibility its rewards and\\npunishments are absolutely just, all comes out divinely\\nright. It is not hard to find what gave the young poet\\nhis dream and what kept his song young even to the last.\\nHe was but voicing the hope, the youth, the dreams of\\nhis young nation, now in the first flush of its manhood.\\nThe Faerie Queene is none other than Elizabeth, the\\nGoddesse heavenly bright,\\nMirrour of grace, and majesty divine,\\nGreat Ladie of the greatest Isle, whose light\\nLike Phoebus lamp throughout the world doth shine\\nthe magnificence, the costly furnishings, with royal\\narras and resplendent gold, is but a reflection of the\\ngorgeous court of the Queen; the monsters and miracles\\nare but commonplaces when compared with the nation s\\ndream of America and the unknown seas the knights are\\nbut Sidney and Raleigh in disguise; the chivalry, the\\nboundless hope, the restless longing for adventure are but\\nthe spirit of the age. What Spenser dreamed, Drake put\\ninto living deeds.\\nAs we study the plan of The Faerie Queene and mark\\nthe vastness of its foundations, we are impressed first of\\nall by the tremendous enthusiasm and confidence of the\\nyoung poet who could deliberately begin such a work.\\nThe poem as we have it consists of six books, each divided\\ninto twelve long cantos, but the part that was finished is but\\na fragment of what the poet projected. We learn from the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "240 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Plan of the Poem It was Left Incomplete\\nletter to Raleigh that there were to have been twelve books\\nin the first part, each of which was to show forth one of\\nthe twelve private morall vertues, as Aristotle hath de-\\nvised, the which is the purpose of these twelve books:\\nwhich if I find to be well accepted, I may be perhaps en-\\ncouraged to frame the other part of politic vertues.\\nThus we have, says Church, but a fourth part of the\\nwhole of the projected work. The first three books, as\\nwe learn from the introductory letter, recount the ad-\\nventures of three knights: The first of the Knight of\\nthe Redcrosse, in whom I expresse Holines: the seconde\\nof Sir Guyon, in whome I set foorth Temperaunce: the\\nthird of Britomartis, a Lady knight, in whom I picture\\nChastity. The remaining books treat respectively of\\nFriendship, Justice, and Courtesy.\\nThis element of allegory must be fully appreciated or\\nThe Faerie Queene will become a vast phantasmagoria of\\nKings, queenes, lords, ladies, knights, and damsels gent,\\nthrown with endless confusion into a wilderness of strange\\ncreatures, the dreams of every race and age. No one, after\\nreading Spenser s letter to Raleigh, can wander far into\\nthe poem without the conviction that the author s central\\npurpose was didactic, almost as much as was Bunyan s in\\nPilgrim s Progress, The poem is, as Milton declares, a\\nsong\\nOf turneys and of trophies hung.\\nOf forests and enchantments drear.\\nWhere more is meant than meets the ear.\\nLiterature produced for the mere love of creating the\\nbeautiful was unknown in Spenser s day. The work of\\nart, it was thought, must teach its lesson must have its", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "Sidney and Spenser 241\\nIts Purpose Didactic Morals to be Made Attractive for Readers\\naim clearly evident. That Spenser regarded the most\\nof his works as moral exercises we have abundant evi-\\ndence. He declares of his poems in Complaints that they\\nare all complaints and meditations on the world s\\nvanity, verie grave and profitable. Of The Faerie\\nQueene he declares that\\nThe generall end therefore of all the booke is to fashion a gentleman or\\nnoble person in vertuous and gentle discipline. Which for that I conceived\\nshould be most plausible and pleasing, being coloured with an historicall\\nfiction, the which the most part of men delight to read, rather for varietie\\nof matter then for profite of the ensample.\\nThe fanciful creations, the teeming world of myths and\\nmonsters, the atmosphere of chivalry and romance, were,\\ntherefore, only an outward dress to render attractive cer-\\ntain moral lessons. The Faerie Queene was to be a series\\nof sermons on holiness, temperance, chastity, and kindred\\nvirtues. In the first book of the poem the allegory is\\nwell-nigh as evident as it is in Bunyan. The book is a\\nunity, complete in itself indeed each of the six books\\nstands in reality independent of the others. The young\\nknight, true in deede and word, who ever as he rode\\ndid yearn\\nTo prove his puissance in battell brave\\nUpon his foe, a Dragon horrible and steame,\\nrepresents a human soul just starting in the holy life.\\nHis foe is the arch-enemy of holiness; the plain, with its\\nvague scenery and its varied life, is the world. The youth\\nsets out with light heart, led with delight,\\nJoying to heare the birdes sweete harmony,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "242 The Foundations of English Literature\\nAnalysis of Book I. Its Allegory\\nhis companions Truth and Innocence; but soon a storm\\ndrives him from the narrow path. Wandering in search\\nof the way he falls in with Error, whom he overcomes.\\nHe is deceived by Hypocrisy, who separates him from\\nTruth and Innocence; is stained by Falsehood, and at\\nlength is almost destroyed by Pride. But by the aid\\nof Truth, who at last finds him, he escapes, feeble and\\nemaciated, from Pride s dungeons, only to fall in with\\nDespair, who counsels suicide. Again rescued by his\\ngood angel, he seeks the house of Holiness, where he is\\nrefreshed and disciplined by Faith, Hope, and Charity,\\nuntil at last he is ready to meet and overcome the last\\ngreat enemy, the dragon that he had started out to de-\\nstroy. The book is full of sermons, thinly concealed.\\nPuritanic in their earnestness. What preacher could sur-\\npass the earnest words in Canto x, or what Puritan could\\ndraw a more doleful picture of the vanities of human life\\nthan that presented by Despair in Canto ix Despite\\nits mythology and its sensuous beauty the poem is Pu-\\nritan at heart. There is no laughter; it is as serious\\nand as earnest as Paradise Lost.\\nBut the allegory grows more and more obscure after\\nthe first book. Many other adventures, says the\\npoet, are intermeddled, but, he naively adds, rather\\nas accidents than intendents. As the love of Britomart,\\nthe overthrow of Florimell, the vertuousness of Belphoebe,\\nand many the like. These accidents increase with every\\nbook. The poet s love of the merely beautiful, his pas-\\nsion for the poetic and the romantic, tempt him constantly\\nfrom his task. The poem becomes more and more vague\\nand discursive. Having chosen his course, the poet seems\\nto have had no power to hold his helm steadily to the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "Sidney and Spenser 243\\nThe Poet s Wanderings The Poem a Confused and Gorgeous Dream\\ngoal. He wanders everywhere we are never sure of\\nwhere we are to go next or what we are to see. We lose\\nsight of the allegory completely and surrender ourselves\\nto the charm of the movement and the sweetness of the\\nmusic. In the later books the poem is like a gorgeous\\ndream. Fantastic figures come without warning, whirl\\nwildly for a moment, and disappear. The tale moves\\nmerrily for a time; our interest is awakened, we read\\nbreathlessly it is broken never to be resumed. The\\nsorely tried couple Amoret and Scudamour enlist our\\nsympathies. They are ever on the verge of a joyous\\nmeeting, but they never find each other in Spenser s tale\\nBritomart never weds the Knight of Justice the fair Una\\nis forsaken and forgotten.\\nThe poem is a vast picture gallery, unclassified, chaotic,\\nteeming with treasures. Never was there such an em-\\nbarrassing wealth of beauty, old masters retouched, new\\ncreations, sketches and studies with subjects drawn from\\nevery realm of imaginative art, ancient and modern:\\ndragons, giants, enchanters, personified virtues and vices,\\nmermaids, witches, satyrs, gods, monsters in every shape,\\nenchanted castles, descents into Avernus, everywhere the\\nmachinery of knight-errantry, and over it all the romantic\\nlight of the vanishing Middle Ages. With what master\\nstrokes are painted such creations as the description of\\nthe house of Morpheus, the cave of Despair, the castle of\\nPride, the punishment of Tantalus, the song of the Mer-\\nmaids, the fight between Artagall and Britomart,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 there\\nis no end to the list. Each picture is elaborated with in-\\nfinite art we can stand and admire it indefinitely but\\nthe vastness of the collection at length confuses us. We\\nwander enchanted for a time, but the very richness of the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "244 The Foundations of English Literature\\nIts Exaggeration Demand of the Age for Marvelous Tales\\ngallery is wearisome. To get the most from it one must\\ncome in the right mood, and wander at leisure. After\\nthe first book one may open at random,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 few ever at-\\ntempt to read consecutively the whole poem.\\nIt is an easy task to criticise The Faerie Queene, its\\nvagueness of landscape, its unreality, and exaggeration.\\nFair Una rode a beast more white than snow, yet she\\nmuch whiter. Arthur s shield shone so exceeding\\nbright that it dimmed the sun as if a cloud had passed.\\nIn Shakespeare we meet with creations that are true at\\nevery point to human nature. We think of them and\\ntalk of them as if they had been a part of our own experi-\\nence but in Spenser we seldom touch the earth at all.\\nHis creations force their unreality upon us at every step.\\nBut we must remember constantly Spenser s environ-\\nment. The audience for whom he wrote must be con-\\nsidered. Never has a poet been allowed more license.\\nThe English imagination in the early Elizabethan days,\\nstimulated as it was by the dreams of the new world and\\nby the deeds of the sea-kings, demanded marvelous tales.\\nNo exaggeration could be too wild no landscape too un-\\nreal no adventure too improbable. It must be remem-\\nbered, too, that the poem was created in a land as chaotic\\nand lawless as any in The Faerie Queene. In the words\\nof his biographer\\nIn Ireland he had before his eyes continually that dreary world which the\\npoet of knight-errantry imagines. There men might in good truth travel\\nlong through wildernesses and great woods given over to the outlaw\\nand the ruffian. There the avenger of wrong need seldom want for peril-\\nous adventure and the occasion for quelling the oppressor. There the\\narmed and unrelenting hand of right was but too truly the only substitute\\nfor law. There might be found in most certain and prosaic reality, the\\nambushes, the disguises, the treacheries, the deceits and temptations, even", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "Sidney and Spenser 245\\nThe Epic of the Wars of Elizabeth Beauties of the Poem\\nthe supposed witchcrafts and enchantments, against which the fairy cham-\\npions of the virtues have to be on their guard.\\nIreland was still in the Middle Ages. Everything\\naround the poet kindled his imagination. His home on\\nthe Mulla, under the foote of Mole, that mountain\\nhoar, on the edge of a dark forest in which lurked un-\\nknown terrors, was a perfect spot for the creation of a\\npoem like The Faerie Queene. It might almost be called\\nthe epic of the English wars in Ireland under Elizabeth.\\nThe chief excellencies of Spenser are the richness and\\npower of his conceptions, the sweet poetic atmosphere\\neverywhere in his work, and the dreamy melody of his\\nmusic. The story does not long hold us. When once\\nwe know that the lance is charmed, or the shield invin-\\ncible, the tales of combat cease to be absorbing. The plot\\ndoes not work to a climax. At times we seem to be\\nmaking progress, but we soon discover that there is no\\nfixed destination. But the mere power of the poet s\\nconceptions and the sweetness of his music hold us on\\nand on. What swing and force in a picture like this\\nWhich when that Champion heard, with percing point\\nOf pitty deare his hart was thrilled sore,\\nAnd trembling horrour ran through every joynt\\nFor ruth of gentle knight so fowle forlore\\nWhich shaking off, he rent that yron dore,\\nWith furious force, and indignation fell\\nWhere entered in, his foot could find no flore.\\nBut all a deepe descent, as darke as hell.\\nThat breathed ever forth a filthie baneful smell.\\nWhat dreamy, melodious softness in the song of the\\nsirens", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "246 The Foundations of English Literature\\nIts Dreamy Melody Spenser a Transition Figure\\nO thou fair son of gentle Faery,\\nThou art in mighty arms most magnified\\nAbove all knights that ever battell tried\\nO turn thy rudder hitherward awhile\\nHere may thy storm-beat vessel safely ride\\nThis is the port of rest from troublous toil,\\nThe world s sweet inn from paine and wearisome turmoil.\\nOpen at random. The sweet stanzas hold you and the\\nvivid pictures thrill you. Never before had it been\\ndreamed that there was so much music in the English\\ntongue. In Spenser s hands it became as liquid as the\\nItalian.\\nThis, then, is Spenser. Seen in the light of his whole\\nwork he stands as a transition figure, one that would have\\nbeen impossible a few years earlier or later. His great\\npoem belongs, in the words of Bascom, in type and\\nform to the tedious and dreary works of a retreating\\nage. The poet stands at the opening of the new era\\nbut he looks dreamily backward. Shakespeare belonged\\nwholly to the present. To him the past and future were\\nsignificant only so far as they could interpret the present\\nmoment. Milton s eyes were fixed steadfastly on the\\nfuture. These were the three stages of the great creative\\nera. But Spenser was not lost in the past. He was\\npeculiarly the product of his age. He had a message for\\nhis times and he looked often into the future. He was\\nthe first great English poet in the modern sense, and his\\nwork has colored all subsequent English poetry.\\nRequired Reading. To get an adequate conception\\nof Spenser one should read at least the first book of The\\nFaerie Queene. For the general student Kitchin s edition\\n(Clarendon Press) and Kate M. Warren s edition are ex-\\ntremely helpful.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVIII\\nTHE ELIZABETHAN AND JACOBEAN POETS\\nAuthorities. Palgrave, Golden Treasury Bullen,\\nLyrics from the Elizabethan Age, three series; Main,\\nEnglish Sonnets; Schelling, Elizabethan Lyrics (Athe-\\nnaeum Press Series); Garrett, Elizabethan Songs Bullen,\\nEngland s Helicon Drake, Shakespeare and his Times\\nGosse, Jacobean Poets Arber, English Garner, which\\ncontains most of the sonnet cycles; Crow, Elizabethan\\nSonnet Sequences Chappel, Popular Music in the Olden\\nTime Minto, English Poets Saintsbury, Elizabethan\\nLiterature.\\nThe Sonneteers, The suddenness of the outburst of\\nlyric poetry that followed in 1591 the publication of As-\\ntrophel and Stella, together with its volume and its excel-\\nlence, may be counted as one of the most remarkable\\nphenomena in English literary history. The first rush of\\nthis poetic flood brought almost nothing 1592. Daniel s Delia,\\nbut sonnets. In the five years following constable s Diana.\\n1593. Lodge s Philhs.\\nthe publication of Sidney s work no less watson s Tears of\\nthan sixteen sequences of sonnets, all of fh^e n7phfrTnd par^\\nthem dedicated to some faultless maiden thenophe. Fiet-\\nwith a classic name, and all of them ,594 percy I cceiia.\\nshowing more or less the influence of Drayton s idea s\\n1 1 r Ti 1* 11 Mirror. The ma-\\nSidney and of Italian models, were en- j^rity of shakes-\\ntered upon the Stationer s Register, peare-s sonnets\\nr^y 1 1 11.1 written. Zepheria\\nTheir popularity was unbounded; they (anonymous).\\nwere republished, many of them, again ^595- Bamfieid sCyn-\\nthia. Chapman s\\nand again, and they soon began to take a coronet, etc.\\n247", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "248 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Sonnet Era Rise and Growth of the Lyric Spirit\\nBarnes A Divine among English readers the place so long\\nx596! *GrTffin s Fides- ^^Id by the Italian and French transla-\\nsa. Smith s Ohio- tions. The sonnet era was quickly fol-\\nDi^eiia. ^Spenser s lowed by a burst of romantic, patriotic,\\nAmoretti. ^nd miscellaneous song, until England\\nwas in very truth a nest of singing birds.\\nThe leading causes of this outburst are not hard to dis-\\ncover. Lyric poetry is almost wholly subjective. The\\npoet voices his own joy or pain, his aspirations and hopes,\\nhis fears, his complaints, his despair. Its basis is the in-\\ndividual it emphasizes not the mass but the unit. The\\nspontaneous outpouring of lyric song in the days of Eliza-\\nbeth marks the rise of individual consciousness. During\\nall the Middle Ages the unit had been forgotten, but now\\na new age was dawning which recognized the rights of the\\nindividual and listened to his complaint. But these lyrics\\nare more than mere personal cries. They are voices of\\nyoung men on every line are stamped the passion, the\\nexuberance, the extravagance of youth. They teem with\\nvitality and health seldom is there a morbid strain or a\\nminor note. Nothing could be more natural, more in-\\nevitable. They are the strong voice of a young nation,\\njust conscious of its power, turbulent often, reckless and\\nheadstrong, romantic and full of dreams, brimming over\\nwith hope and joy and mere sensuous delight.\\nThe very suddenness of the outburst may in some de-\\ngree be explained. The growth of the lyric spirit had\\nbeen a gradual one. The period between 1557 and 1591\\nhad been a time of growing poetic achievement. Since\\nthe days of Wyatt the young nobility had been educated\\nin Italy and France. They knew by heart the fashion-\\nable amoretti of the romance world, and they translated", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "The Elizabethan and Jacobean Poets 249\\nIt is Considered Vulgar to Print Poems Circulated in Manuscript\\nand imitated freely, but with rare exceptions they pub-\\nlished nothing. It was considered vulgar to print. Says\\nPuttenham in Arte of Poetry, published in 1589: I\\nknow very many notable gentlemen in the court that have\\nwritten commendably and suppressed it again, or else\\nsuffered it to be published without their names to it as\\nif it were a discredit for a gentleman to seem learned and\\nto show himself amorous of any good Art. The poems\\nof Raleigh, for instance, which included the magnificent\\nCynthia, declared by Spenser to be a rival to The Faerie\\nQueene, were not published during Elizabethan days, and\\nnow only a pitiful fragment remains. The dainty manu-\\nscripts of these court singers circulated among choice\\ngroups of friends, and it was only by accident that a son-\\nnet descended to the vulgarity of print. The poems of\\nWyatt and Surrey, long after the death of their makers,\\nhad been rescued and given to the public in TotteV s Mis-\\ncellany, and their popularity, even among the common\\npeople, ever curious to catch a glimpse into aristocratic\\nlife, had tempted others to make collections. But by far\\nthe greater number of poems in the four miscellanies\\nprinted previous to 1591, and indeed in all the miscel-\\nlanies, are anonymous.\\nIt is certain that Sidney no more wrote his Astrophel\\nand Stella for the general public than he did his love let-\\nters. The book was printed almost surreptitiously by\\nNashe, who, after Sidney s death, had secured the manu-\\nscript and had added to it sundry other rare sonnets of\\ndivers noblemen and gentlemen. Twenty-seven of\\nthese rare sonnets had been boldly taken from the\\nmanuscripts of Samuel Daniel, who, being abroad, was\\nof course ignorant of the outrage. To set himself right", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "250 The Foundations of English Literature\\nPrejudice against Publication Gradually Overcome The Lyric Outburst\\nbefore the world, Daniel, upon his return to England, im-\\nmediately published his sonnet sequence Delias and em-\\nboldened by this the poet Constable in the same year put\\nforth his Diana. The fact that Spenser had given to the\\npublic his great allegory, that the friends of the noble\\nSidney could permit a publication of his sonnets, and\\nthat such men as Daniel and Constable had thought far\\nmore of their art than their nobility, gave literature all\\nat once a social reputation. Publication became immedi-\\nately fashionable, and the era of the sonnet cycles was\\nthe result.\\nThe characteristics of the early sonneteers need not be\\ndwelt upon. One need read only Astrophel and Stellay\\nthe parent of the sequences, and Amoretti, after Sidney s\\nthe most poetic of them all, to understand the whole\\nseries. The rest are but variations more or less excellent.\\nThe Lyric Era (i 591-1625). When we examine the\\ncollections of early EngHsh lyrics we find that by far the\\ngreater number of them were produced during a single\\ngeneration. It was the most fruitful era of song that\\nEngland has ever known, and yet the lyric was only one\\nphase of the poetic activity of the age. After the episode\\nof the sonnet sequences, lyric song became to a large de-\\ngree sporadic in its production. Almost all of the Eliza-\\nbethans, even the practical and prosaic Bacon, tried at\\none time or another their skill at the lyric pipe. The\\ninditing of songs became the avocation of poets. Every-\\nwhere we find them, little love strains, artless and im-\\npassioned, rollicking songs, madrigals, and merry dances.\\nWe find them prefaced to the publications of the period\\nwe find them written by diamond on window-panes; we\\nrescue them from ponderous books of verse where they", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "The Elizabethan and Jacobean Poets 251\\nBriefness of the Lyric Era Extent and Excellence of the Poetic Product\\nlie crushed like dainty flowers; and everywhere through\\nthe great mass of tragedy and comedy they sparkle mer-\\nrily Hke the gems that they are. But in an age distinc-\\ntively lyrical we find no distinctively lyrical master; no\\none who, like Herrick in later days, was nothing if not a\\nsinger. The most exquisite of the songs were made by\\npoets who were but incidentally lyrists, like Shakespeare\\nand Dekker and Greene.\\nThe lyric era was surprisingly brief. By the year\\n162^,* says Schelling, almost every lyrist of importance\\nwho had written in the reign of Elizabeth, had either\\ncompleted his best work or ceased altogether to write.\\nBut the poetic product was by no means small. The very\\nabundance of material is positively embarrassing. One\\nis well-nigh forced into silence by the very vastness of the\\nfield, for the various collections from this period repre-\\nsent, says Saintsbury, such a body of verse as prob-\\nably could not be got together, with the same origin and\\ncircumstances, in any quarter-century of any nation s\\nhistory since the foundation of the world. While there\\nis much that is inferior and even worthless, the average,\\nmeasured by any standard, is surprisingly high and there\\nare in the collection not a few lyrics that rank with the\\nbrightest gems of the world s literature.\\nRequired Readings. The very least that a student\\nmay read are the lyrics of the era in T/ie Golden Treasury.\\nEvery one, if possible, should read through such a collec-\\ntion as Schelling s Elizabethan Lyrics (Ath. Press).\\nPopular Ballads. Nor was the lyric impulse confined\\nto the upper classes. It was an era prolific in what Put-\\ntenham describes as vulgar makings. Music was\\neverywhere. The England of Elizabeth, says Gum-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "252 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Popular Ballads Vast Numbers Written\\nmere, who bases the statement upon Chappell, surpassed\\nboth Italy and France in the matter of music. High and\\nlow, every one loved to sing; every one was expected to\\ntake part, even in difficult songs; and the very barber\\nkept in his shop lute, cittern, or virginal for the amuse-\\nment of waiting customers. Music was everywhere and\\neverywhere were songs. Many of the ballads in our\\nmodern collections simple and stirring, full of the odor\\nof the vague past, relics of the old native minstrelsy were\\nmade at this time. It was the golden age of the was-\\nsailing song, the merry dancing strain, and the ballad of\\ncurrent happenings. Every event in an era that teemed\\nwith great deeds was put into ballad form to be hawked\\nabout the London streets and sung at every convivial\\ngathering. Shakespeare sends us for songs old and\\nplain to\\nThe spinsters and the knitters in the sun.\\nThe ballad filled in a way the place now occupied by the\\ndaily paper. No happening was too trivial for its notice\\nScarce a cat can look out of a gutter, says an old\\nwriter, but presently a proper new ballet of a strange\\nsight is indited. That the greater part of such poetry\\nshould be worthless was inevitable, yet here and there in\\nthe mass of faded and dusty broadsides that have come\\ndown to us there is a true ballad worth a hundred Italian-\\nate sonnets. Without this popular note the literature of\\nthe age of Elizabeth would have been almost wholly\\naristocratic.\\nRequired Readings. Captain Car, The Baron\\nof Brackley, Young Waters, etc., Gummere, Old\\nEnglish Ballads.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "The Elizabethan and Jacobean Poets 253\\nOther Poetic Products Difficulty of Classification\\nElizabethan and Jacobean Poets. But by far the leading\\npoetic product of the age, in mass at least, remains to be\\nconsidered. After the great success of Spenser it was\\nbelieved that to attain a permanent literary fame one\\nmust produce a long poem. The early dramatists were\\nall poets. The drama was as yet uncertain its produc-\\ntion was simply a matter of business; often it required\\nbut a working over of old material, and furthermore it\\ncatered only to the passing hour; but true poetry was for\\nall time. Thus Shakespeare expended the greatest care\\nupon his long romantic poems Venus and Adonis and\\nLucrece^ and Marlowe sought to make his fame secure\\nwith the sweet and sensuous Hero and Leander. It was\\na time of vast poetic attempts like the Albion s England\\nof Warner, which endeavored to tell in verse the entire\\nhistory of Britain from the creation of the world and the\\nCivil Wars of Daniel, and the huge Polyolbion of Drayton.\\nTo classify this vast mass of poetry, beginning with\\nlyrics and running down the whole poetic gamut, has been\\noften attempted. Brooke detects three divisions, each\\ncorresponding to phases in the growth of the Elizabethan\\nmind. The lyric outburst marks the period of eager\\nyouth the patriotic era with its histories and its great\\ninterest in England s past, marks the time of maturity;\\nwhile the last phase, the era of philosophic and reflective\\npoems, denotes the time of old age and decline. Such a\\ngeneralization, though based upon the truth, is at best\\nbut vague and unpractical. All three varieties of poetry\\nwere making at the same time. The satires and funeral\\nelegies of Donne were contemporaneous with Spenser\\nand the first lyric outburst. In so short a period lines\\ncannot be drawn with precision. It is better with Gosse", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "254 The Foundations of English Literature\\nTwo General Periods Typical Poets\\nto make an arbitrary division at the death of EHzabeth,\\nand form only two general periods, the Elizabethan and\\nthe Jacobean. While there is no literary reason why\\n1603 should be chosen, yet a comparison of the poetry\\nproduced ten years before this date with that produced\\nten years later shows, if we examine the whole poetic\\nproduct, that a marked change had taken place, and the\\ndate seems to be a convenient dividing line.\\nThe period of lyric inspiration reached its culminating\\npoint in 1600 with the publication of England s Helicon\\none of the richest and most inspired collections of mis-\\ncellaneous verse ever published in any country or at any\\ntime. From this point the early lyrists began to drop\\noff one by one and English poetry became more and more\\nserious, until at length it could even ridicule the pastoral\\nsweetness and extravagance of the first singers. Of the\\ndistinctly Elizabethan poets, Sidney and Spenser are the\\nmost perfect types; of the Jacobean group, Donne is\\ndoubtless the best representative. Two other poets,\\nDrayton and Daniel, are also typical figures, since their\\nwork belongs to both periods. Beginning at the very\\ndawn of the lyric era they worked through nearly the\\nwhole reign of James, and illustrated in their poetry\\nalmost every phase of Elizabethan and Jacobean song.\\nI. Samuel Daniel i^62-i6ig)\\nThe well-languaged Daniel.\\nAuthorities. The complete works of the poet are not\\neasily accessible to all students. They are included in\\nChalmers British Poets, and there is a complete edition\\nby Grosart. The Delia cycle of sonnets is reprinted in\\nArber, English Garner Vol. iii.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "The Elizabethan and Jacobean Poets 255\\nStormy and Eventful Lives of the Early Poets Samuel Daniel\\nThe Hves of nearly all of the Elizabethan poets were\\nstormy and eventful. They were a restless, impetuous\\ngroup of young men who plunged eagerly into the activi-\\nties of a most active age. We read the romances of\\nLodge, and know that they were written in the Straits of\\nMagellan, and that every line was wet with a surge, and\\nevery humorous passion counter-checked with a storm.\\nWe wander with Raleigh in desperate adventure on the\\nSpanish Main or in the Irish wilds; we follow Southwell\\non his hazardous mission that brought him to the rack\\nand the scaffold; we trail a pike with Churchyard in\\nthe English wars we follow into exile the unhappy Con-\\nstable, and we mark the steps of that wild crew which,\\nheaded by Marlowe and Greene, held high revelry in the\\nLondon inns.\\nAmong such a throng the gentle Daniel, right minded\\nand right hearted, the Wordsworth of the Elizabethans,\\nseems singularly out of place. As we read his smooth\\nlines, his gentle meditations and moralizings, we seem to\\nhave wandered into the next century. In him we find\\nthe first signs of decadence, the first example of poetry\\nbeginning to wither on the bough.\\nThe work of Daniel shows every phase of poetic change\\nfrom the first youth of the creative era to its moralizing\\nold age. His earliest work is purely Elizabethan. He\\ncaught the exultation, the rapture, of the first lyric out-\\nburst. His Delia, the second of the sonnet cycles, con-\\ntains some of the finest work of the period indeed,\\nthe 45th of the series, Care charmer sleep, is one of\\nthe few perfect sonnets in the language. The exhilara-\\ntion of the great era seems for a time to have intoxi-\\ncated him:", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "256 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Attempt to Make a Great English Epic Daniel s Attempt\\nThe pulse of England never more did beat\\nSo strong as now nor ever were our hearts\\nLet out to hopes so spacious and so great\\nAs now they are.\\nThe spirit of intense patriotism was upon him as it was\\nupon so many of the young poets of the time. England\\nhad awakened to a realization of her own great past, and\\nher poets longed, like Warner,\\nTo write the gestes of Britons stout,\\nAnd actes of English men.\\nEngland must have an epic commensurate with her glory,\\nand native both in theme and scene. We have only to\\nglance through (Hfe is too short to read them entire) such\\nponderous works as Warner s Albion s England, Daniel s\\nCivil Wars between Lancaster and York, and Drayton s\\nBarons Wars and Polyolbion to realize fully the spirit of\\nboundless enthusiasm and of unlimited ambition that\\nfilled the spacious times of great Elizabeth. There\\nis but one parallel in literary history, and that is where, in\\nthe early years of the American republic, Joel Barlow by\\nsheer force tried to create an epic that should be com-\\nmensurate with the hope and the glory of America. But\\nDaniel s vast poem is not now counted with the great\\nepics; no one reads it. It has little movement and\\nalmost no poetic fire. The poet moves leisurely, tracing\\nat length the causes of the great drama, dwelling upon\\nthe actors, omitting all battle-scenes, all spirited action,\\nand moralizing freely, until at last, just before the battle\\nof Tewkesbury, he drops his pen as if weary himself of the\\ninterminable tale. But the poem is far from being worth-\\nless. Its limpid lines, its ease and grace, its gentle, con-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "The Elizabethan and Jacobean Poets 257\\nHis Contemplative Verse An Elizabethan Wordsworth\\ntemplative atmosphere, are almost enough to balance its\\ngreat defects.\\nWhen the poet, putting aside his epic tale, devoted\\nhimself to purely contemplative verse he did by far his\\nmost charming work. In Musophilus, in Hymen s Tri-\\numph, and the Epistle to the Countess of Cumberland we\\nseem to get close to the poet s heart. One has to read\\nbut little from these poems, especially from the Epistle,\\nto know the sweet contemplative nature of the man, and\\nto realize why he stole away from the royal court where\\nhe so long had been a favorite, to spend the autumn of\\nhis days in the seclusion of the country. A single stanza\\nof the Epistle throws more light upon the poet s nature\\nthan would a whole chapter of commentary.\\nDaniel is not a great figure among the Elizabethan\\npoets, but the sweetness and strength of his style and\\nthe gentle meditative atmosphere of his poems give\\nhim a peculiar charm. Coleridge was delighted with\\nthe old poet. Read Daniel, was his advice, the\\nadmirable Daniel, and other poets and critics have\\nheartily concurred. Lowell s criticism is a very happy\\none.\\nWriting two hundred and fifty years ago, he stands in no need of a\\nglossary, and I have noted scarce a dozen words, and not more turns of\\nphrase, in his works, that have become obsolete. This certainly indicates\\nboth remarkable taste and equally remarkable judgment. There is a\\nconscious dignity in his thought and sentiment such as we rarely meet.\\nHis best poems always remind me of a table-land, where, because all is so\\nlevel, we are apt to forget on how lofty a plane we are standing. I think\\nhis Musophilus the best poem of its kind in the language. The reflections\\nare natural, the expression condensed, the thought weighty, and the lan-\\nguage worthy of it. But he wasted himself on an historical poem, in which\\nthe characters were incapable of that remoteness from ordinary associations\\nwhich is essential to the ideal.\\n17", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "258 The Foundations of English Literature\\nMichael Drayton A Versatile and Voluminous Writer\\nRequired Reading. The student should read the\\nselections in The Golden Treasury Schelling, Elizabethan\\nLyrics^ and Ward, English Poets,\\n2, Michael Drayton (i^6j-i6ji)\\nAuthorities. Chalmers British Poets of course includes\\nDrayton. The most accessible edition of Drayton s\\npoetical works is that in the Library of Old Authors, 3\\nvols. The most recent edition of the poet s works is\\nHooper s (not yet complete). Vol. vi. of the English\\nGarner contains the Idea sequence.\\nIf Daniel s poetry in tone and finish is prevailingly\\nJacobean, an echo of the decadent days of the great song\\nera, Drayton s enormous mass of verse is almost purely\\nElizabethan. Though his life was divided into two dis-\\ntinct poetic periods by the accession of James, and though\\nhe lived well into the reign of Charles I., his work never\\nlost the force and fire of the first lyric outburst. In the\\nfirst days of his rejection by James he was inclined to be\\nsatirical, but the prevailing tone of his work to the very\\nlast is wholly Elizabethan, full of the hope, the patriot-\\nism, the spontaneous enthusiasm of the early days.\\nDrayton was undoubtedly the most versatile and volu-\\nminous of all the English poets. As we enter the vast\\nwilderness of his published work and note the amazing\\nvariety of his subjects and forms, we are at first confused.\\nHow shall we classify this enormous producer who entered\\nalmost every realm of poetic art Religious poems,\\nbiblical paraphrases, sonnets and lyrics in every key,\\npastorals and eclogues modeled after Spenser, heroic\\nepistles after Ovid, rhyming chronicles, epics, satires,\\nfantasies and extravaganzas, martial songs and ballads", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "The Elizabethan and Jacobean Poets 259\\nVastness of His Poetic Product His Life\\nwhat has he not attempted And it was no middle\\nflight that he would make. He completed no less than\\nfive epics with themes ranging from the miracles of\\nMoses to legends of Robert of Normandy and chroni-\\ncles of the days of Edward II. Nor are any of these\\npoems noted for their brevity. Lowell declares that\\nPolyolbion is the plesiosaurus of verse. The pub-\\nlished works of the poet contain, according to Craik,\\nnearly one hundred thousand lines, or a bulk ten times\\nas great as Paradise Lost.\\nOf the life of Drayton we know but little. Like\\nShakespeare, he was a native of Warwickshire he is sup-\\nposed to have been a student at Oxford and some time\\nprevious to 1591 he went to London, where in six years\\nhe published no less than eight volumes of poetry. He\\nsecured the patronage of several noble families and\\nwas honored by Elizabeth, but being rejected by James\\nhe retired into seclusion. He was soon befriended, how-\\never, by the Earl of Dorset, who took him into his own\\nhome and enabled him to devote his last years uninter-\\nruptedly to poetry.\\nThe first period of Drayton s literary career resembles\\nin many respects that of his contemporary and friend,\\nDaniel. He contributed his book of sonnets, he wrote\\nhis pastorals and songs, and he had his time of patriotic\\nexaltation, the most notable fruit of which was The Bar-\\nons Wars. This teeming and exultant period seems\\nto have been followed by one of inactivity, but the inter-\\nval of unproductiveness was a short one; his last period,\\nwhich opened with the accession of James, was one of\\nalmost constant publication. During these years the\\npoet, without Hterary incentive save his own caprice,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "26o The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Poems the Recreations of a True Poet His Martial Ballad Agincourt\\nallowed his Muse to wander at will. Hence the variety,\\nthe fanciful nature, the strength, of his later creations.\\nThey are the dreams and the poetic recreations of a poet\\nwho, no longer anxious about material things, and sure\\nof his inspiration, wandered at his own sweet will.\\nDrayton s sonnets, though by no means inferior, would\\nnot be mentioned were it not that among them is one of\\nthe few great sonnets of all literature, the Since there s\\nno hope, a gem so pure that many have questioned its\\nauthorship. His historical poems far surpass those of\\nDaniel. They have more vigor and movement than\\nthose of the gentle poet. Drayton delighted in action\\nhe was rough and daring, and he filled his lines with the\\nold English fire. Of his later work his ballad Agincourt,\\nuniversally rated as the best martial lyric in the language,\\nstands conspicuous. No one who has in his veins a drop\\nof English blood can read its ringing stanzas without a\\nthrill of the old Saxon war spirit\\nWhen down their bows they threw,\\nAnd forth their bilbows drew,\\nAnd on the French they flew\\nNo man was tardy,\\nArms from the shoulders sent,\\nScalps to the teeth were rent,\\nDown the French peasants went,\\nThese men were hardy.\\nThe lines are like a trumpet. And the wonder is that the\\npenner of this poem that, as Lowell says, runs and leaps,\\nclashing its verses like swords upon bucklers, could also\\nwrite Nymphidia, a dainty song of Queen Mab and fairy\\nland, as fanciful as the Midsummer Nighf s Dream and\\nas exquisite in its settings as Drake s Culprit Fay,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "The Elizabethan and Jacobean Poets 261\\nHis Nymphidia His Polyolbion an Inspired Guidebook\\nUpon a grasshopper they got,\\nAnd what with amble and with trot,\\nFor hedge nor ditch they spared not,\\nBut after her they hied them\\nA cobweb over them they throw,\\nTo shield the wind if it should blow\\nThemselves they wisely could bestow\\nLeast any should espy them.\\nBut to compare these agile and perfect lyrics with the\\nponderous, unwieldy Polyolbion is indeed to reach a\\nclimax. The task that the poet set for himself was\\nsimply to write in alexandrines A chorographical de-\\nscription of all the tracts, rivers, mountains, forests, and\\nother parts of this renowned Isle of Great Britain with\\nintermixture of the most remarkable stories, antiquities,\\nwonders of the same. It is the poetic Dooms-\\nday Book of England. And yet the subject was not an\\nunpoetic one. To celebrate the beauties and tell the\\nlegends of English hills and streams was an eminently\\npoetic task. It is only the attempt to celebrate all the\\nnatural beauties of the island that lays the poem open to\\ncriticism. But despite this the poet was equal to his\\ntask. One has but to read a dozen pages of this in-\\nspired guidebook to realize that it is full of beautiful\\ndescriptions and charmingly told episodes. When the\\npoet reaches his native soil, when\\nUpon the mid-lands now the industrious muse doth fall.\\nThat shire which we the heart of England well may call,\\nhe is at his best. The picture is traced with loving care.\\nCharles Lamb was delighted with the poem. He has\\ngone over the soil, he declared, with the fidelity of a\\nherald and the painful love of a son he has not left a", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "262 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Doomsday Book of English Poetry John Donne\\nrivulet, so narrow that it may be stepped over, without\\nhonorable mention, and has animated streams with life\\nand passion above the dreams of old mythology. But\\nthe vast extent of the poem repels readers. It doubtless\\nwill never be read save in selections.\\nThere are other sides of Drayton upon which we cannot\\ndwell. His achievements were so many that at best one\\ncan hope to treat only the most typical. He was not a\\npoet of the highest rank; he was in no sense an inspired\\nsinger; and yet of the small group of Elizabethans who\\ndevoted their powers wholly to poetry, Drayton, after\\nSpenser, is undoubtedly the most conspicuous figure.\\nRequired Reading. Since there s no help, Agin-\\ncourt, and Nymphidia. The selections in Ward, Eng-\\nlish PoetSy and Schelling, Elizabethan LyricSy should be\\nread.\\nJ. John Donne (i^yj-i6ji)\\nAuthorities. The life of Donne by Izaak Walton\\n(Bohn), a charming book, is the chief source of informa-\\ntion about the poet; Dr. Johnson s sketch in Lives of the\\nPoets (Bohn) should be read with caution. The best re-\\ncent life of Donne is Jessop s in English Religious\\nLeaders Series; the most helpful edition of his poems is\\nthat by Chambers and Saintsbury in The Musers Li-\\nbrary; the edition of Donne in the Riverside British\\nPoets is also valuable. Gosse, Life and Letters of Dr,\\nJohn Donne (announced).\\nThe place of John Donne in the history of Elizabethan\\npoetry has never been fully settled. No other poet of\\nthe age has been so variously estimated. Dryden and\\nDr. Johnson considered him the founder of the meta-\\nphysical school of poets, the chief characteristics of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "The Elizabethan and Jacobean Poets 263\\nVarying Estimates of Donne He was Not a Culmination\\nwhose work were unnatural and far-fetched conceits,\\nenormous and disgusting hyperboles, violent and\\nunnatural fictions, slight and trifling sentiments.\\nOf late years there have been critics, notably Dowden\\nand Minto, who would dismiss the whole metaphysical\\nschool as a myth, and who see in the poems of Donne\\nonly the vagaries common to the court poetry of the\\nage. What Tudor courtier, they ask, was not full of\\nconceits and crotchets, of artificial sentiments and striv-\\nings after effect The poetry of Donne could not mark\\nthe old age of the poetic era, since nearly all of it was\\nwritten when the first chorus of Elizabethan singers was\\nin full voice. To sustain the theory, he should have\\nwritten at the end of the period, in the sad afternoon that\\nfollowed the glad morning of Spenser and Marlowe and\\nShakespeare.\\nThe theory that the great poetic period went through\\ncertain well-defined phases, commencing with joyous\\nand spontaneous song and ending with moralizings and\\nmetaphysics, cannot for a moment be maintained. But\\nwhile we may dismiss this idea of progressive develop-\\nment during the short poetic period, we cannot read\\nthrough the poems of Donne without feeling that in them\\nis something radically different froni anything in the\\nworks of his contemporaries or predecessors. We are\\nimpressed first of all by the melancholy, half-morbid note\\nthat dominates nearly all his poems and persists as an\\nundertone through them all. Even when he is most gay\\nand spontaneous we detect two tones,\\nThe lyric lark and the grave whispering dove.\\nIt is like the slow strokes of a knell echoing through the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "264 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe First Decadent Figure A Melancholy and Morbid Poet\\njoyous air of a June morning; like a branch of yellow\\nleaves amid the springtime blossoms, a hint of the coming\\nautumn days. The sight of a lovely maiden sets the poet\\nto thinking of the grave a summer rose, instead of filling\\nhim with rapturous delight, sets him to moralizing\\nLittle think st thou, poor flower,\\nWhom I have watched six or seven days.\\nAnd seen thy birth, and seen that every hour\\nGave to thy growth, thee to this height to raise,\\nAnd now dost laugh and triumph on this bough\\nLittle think st thou\\nThat it will freeze anon and that I shall\\nTo-morrow find thee fallen, or not at all.\\nIn everything he was serious and sad, sad even to mel-\\nancholy and morbidness. He wrote a work in praise of\\nsuicide; he composed a book of funeral elegies; in his\\nlast hours he wrapped himself in his shroud to have his\\nportrait painted with closed eyes and ghastly face.\\nIt is easy to misrepresent Donne by dwelling on one\\nphase of his many-sided character, but at whatever angle\\nwe view his poetry we find the melancholy and moraliz-\\ning tendency predominant. The lyrists, like Greene,\\nand Marlowe, and Lyly, were an unpractical set, who\\nwent into ecstasies over beauty and stopped not to think\\nbeyond the present moment, but Donne was meditative\\nand speculative. Even Dowden admits that his songs\\ndeal with the metaphysics and casuistry of love.\\nThink of Greene and Marlowe opening a love-song with\\nStand still and I will read to thee\\nA lecture. Love, in love s philosophy.\\nWhen poets begin to moralize and seek the scientific\\nbasis of their passion they cease to be poets they have", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "The Elizabethan and Jacobean Poets 265\\nAn Autumn Note in Midsummer Two Periods in Donne s Life\\nbecome mere psychologists. Every art, says Taine,\\nends in a science. Donne, and to a less degree\\nDaniel, was the first symptom of the decline of the great\\npoetic period. Often at midsummer, and even in June,\\none may hear a single mournful cricket, the first note in\\nthe chorus of the coming autumn.\\nThe life of Donne is divided sharply into two periods.\\nWhen at the age of forty he entered the Church, to be-\\ncome six years later Dean of St. Paul s, he left behind\\nhim a wild and checkered youth, to enter upon a career\\nconspicuous in English church history for its rapt spiritual\\nexaltation and its wide-spread influence. Of Dr. Donne,\\nthe great preacher, we shall not speak; it is Jack\\nDonne whose life concerns us, since nearly all of his\\npoems were written before he entered the ministry.\\nWhen he entered upon his new life he is said to have\\nwished that all his poems might be destroyed.\\nDonne s early life is admirably summed by Professor\\nDowden\\nPapist and Protestant doubter and believer a seeker for faith and one\\nwho amused himself with skeptical paradoxes a solitary thinker on obscur-\\nest problems and a great visitor of ladies, as Sir Richard Baker describes\\nhim, a great frequenter of plays a passionate student longing for\\naction a reader of the law a toiler among folios of theology a poet and\\na soldier one who communed with lust and with death a courtier and a\\nsatirist of the court a wanderer over Europe and one who lay inactive in\\na sullen weedy lake without space for stroke of arms or legs such was\\nDonne up to his fortieth year.\\nHis poetic product was small, ludicrously so when com-\\npared with the work of a poet like Drayton. He did not\\nwrite for publication. His verses were intended for\\nthe delight and amusement of a small circle. It was", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "266 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Influence on Later Writers The First of the Metaphysical Poets\\nnot until after his death that his poems were collected\\nand published.\\nThe great influence of Donne upon later English\\npoetry cannot be overlooked. His example, beyond a\\ndoubt, helped to turn the current of English poetry into\\nthe fantastic channels which it occupied during the\\nmiddle of the century. Cowley and Waller, Suckling\\nand Cleveland, and indeed the whole group of artificial\\nrhymers who wrote from the intellect rather than from\\nthe heart, and who represent the autumn of the great\\ncreative era, were but copying the vagaries and blemishes\\nof this early poet, neglecting utterly the inspired portions\\nof his work, the frequent lines that glow with the true\\nElizabethan fire.\\nRequired Readings. For a marked example of his\\nmetaphysical side, which traces resemblances that are\\nfantastic or uncalled-for or unseemly, read The Flea\\nor A Valediction of my Name. Among his best\\nsongs are Sweetest Love, I do not go, Love s\\nDeity, The Message, Go Catch a Falling Star,\\nThe Dream. See Go/den Treasury Schelling, Elizq,-\\nbethan Lyrics^ and Ward, English Poets,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIX\\nTHE TRANSITION TO FINISHED PROSE\\nThe Rise of the Novel\\nAuthorities. Jusserand, The English Novel in the\\nTime of SJiakespeare Dunlop, History of Prose Fiction\\nRaleigh, The English Novel Tuckerman, History of\\nEnglish Prose Fiction; Lanier, The English Novel; Si-\\nmonds. Introduction to English Prose Fiction Warren,\\nHistory of the Novel Previous to the Seventeenth Century.\\nTo understand fully the Elizabethan age one must\\nrealize that it was the breaking upon England of the\\nItalian Renaissance a full century after it had reached its\\nhighest point in Southern Europe. The genuine enthu-\\nsiasm, the marvelous genius, the honest religious devotion\\nof the early days, had long passed from Italy. There were\\nno more Dantes and Michel Angelos and Savonarolas.\\nItaly had become corrupt in morals and decadent in art\\nand literature, and it was this degenerate Italy that now\\ntook possession of England. The school of the new\\nlearning, which had endeavored to model itself on the\\npurest and best of the Italian culture, had become but a\\ntradition. The young men of the English nobility were\\nflocking to the new Italy, to return, as Ascham declared,\\nworse transformed than were any of Circes court.\\nThe gayety and lightness, the pomp and extravagance,\\nthe fantastic style of architecture and costume, the\\nartificial life, the inflated conversation, indeed all the\\nstrivings of the age to achieve nothing but what was\\n267", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "268 The Foundations of English Literature\\nTranslations from the Italian Native Imitations of Italian Novels\\nbrilliant, unexpected, extraordinary, all this came out\\nof Italy.\\nOf the tide of translations from the Italian that poured\\ninto England during the first twenty years of Elizabeth s\\nreign the greater part consisted of novels and amorous\\ntales, which old Ascham, who stands as a solitary figure\\nbetween the old and the new, declared to be full of\\nabominations. Ten Morte d Arthurs do not the tenth\\npart so much harme as one of these bookes made in\\nItaHe and translated in England. Works like Boccac-\\ncio s Amorous Fiametta, wherein is sette downe a\\ncatalogue of all and singular passions of love, like Cas-\\ntiglione s Courtier^ which contains lengthy precepts\\nconcerning assignations and lovemaking, like Painter s\\nPallace of Pleasure^ Fenton s Tragicall Discourses, and\\nWhetstone s Heptameron of Civill Discourses^ became\\nbefore the end of Elizabeth s reign the chief literary diet\\nof the reading class. They were highly fashionable no\\nlady s table was complete without the latest issues. The\\nmoralists and the Puritans might thunder against them,\\nit made little difference. They were found, says Jus-\\nserand, not only in every shop but in every house;\\ntranslations of them were the daily reading of Shake-\\nspeare, and they had an immense influence not only in\\nemancipating the genius of the dramatists of the period,\\nbut, what was of equal importance, in preparing an\\naudience for them.\\nThat a school of native novelists should follow fast\\nupon the heels of the Italian translators was inevitable.\\nNo sooner was it realized that the new literary form had\\ntaken a fast hold upon fashionable reading circles than\\nEnglish writers began in earnest to supply the demand", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Finished Prose 269\\nThe Advent of John Lyly His Compromise between Prose and Poetry\\nwith a native product. The earliest of all was John\\nLyly, whose Euphues^ published in the same year as\\nSpenser s Shepheardes Calender^ marks an epoch not only\\nin the history of the English novel but of English prose.\\nThe age was preeminently poetic. Prose had made little\\nprogress it was not yet recognized as a form capable of\\nartistic treatment. The writings of the great reformers,\\nlike Tyndale and Latimer, had been marked by perfect\\nsimplicity and naturalness. They were the words of\\nmen inspired by a message; they were as unstudied as\\nthe talk of the street they had not a trace of art they\\nwere poured out spontaneously like the first outburst of\\nlyric song. But the new school of novelists, when sud-\\ndenly called upon to express themselves in prose, pro-\\nduced a form that is not prose at all when compared\\nwith the work of Latimer. Lyly and Sidney and Greene\\nwere poets, and their prose was but a single step away\\nfrom poetry; Sidney even believed that his Arcadia was\\na poem. The balancing and alliteration and antithesis,\\nthe brilliancy and the ornamentation of the work of these\\nnovelists, combine to make up a literary form which in\\nexternals at least is as near poetry as prose can ever get.\\nEuphuism and Arcadianism mark the point of the firsv\\ntransition from poetry to classic prose.\\nLyly was followed by Sidney, Greene, Lodge, Nash,\\nand others, who form a distinct literary group. Their\\nnovels quickly surpassed in popularity the translations\\nfrom the Italian writers. They wrote largely for the\\nfashionable and the wealthy, for cultured ladies, who\\nthen, as now, were the arbiters of literary success, and\\ntheir novels, though to-day they seem like mere paste\\nand tinsel, were the most successful products of their age.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "270 The Foundations of English Literature\\nLife of John Lyly His Ambition for Court Preferment\\nI. John Lyly (1^53-1606)\\nThe witty, comical, facetiously quick, and unparalleled John Lyly.\\nAuthorities, The best text of Euphues is Arber s re-\\nprint the most serviceable and accessible study of Lyly s\\nlife is that prefixed to Baker s edition of Endymion, in\\nwhich there is a full bibliography the best discussions\\nof euphuism are in Jusserand, English Novel in the Time\\nof Shakespeare^ Morley, Vol. viii., and Euphuism, by\\nJ. M. Hart.\\nFew lives, even of Elizabethan writers, are more com-\\npletely veiled in obscurity than that of John Lyly. Be-\\nfore his entrance at Magdalene College, Oxford, in 1569,\\nvery little is known of him, and after that date even until\\nthe publication of Euphues, which brought him into sud-\\nden prominence, the known facts of his life reduce to a\\nsingle mention in Wood s History of Oxford (1674). He\\nwas\\nalways adverse [says Wood] to the crabbed studies of logic and philosophy.\\nFor so it was that his genie being naturally bent to the pleasant paths of\\npoetry, did in a manner neglect academical studies, yet not so much but\\nthat he took the degrees in arts, that of master being compleated 1575. At\\nwhich time, as he was esteemed at the university a noted wit, so afterwards\\nwas at the court of Queen Elizabeth, where he was also reputed a rare poet,\\nwitty, comical, and facetious.\\nEven after his great success we find the records of his\\nlife singularly fragmentary. His literary industry was\\nunceasing: novels, poems, dramas, pamphlets, flowed\\nfrom his pen he was a leader in literary circles, he was\\nthe popular writer of his day, but the great ambition of\\nhis life remained ungratified. He longed for preferment\\nat court. For thirteen years he lived in constant ex-\\npectation of gaining the mastership of the revels, but his", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Finished Prose 271\\nHis Euphues A Book for Fashionable Ladies\\nhopes were doomed to disappointment. He became a\\nmere hanger-on at court, a perfect example of Spenser s\\npicture of the expectant courtier, a pathetic figure grow-\\ning more and more hopeless until at length he passes out\\nof sight altogether. The last ten years of his life are\\nalmost completely unknown.\\nLyly s first book, Euphues, the Anatomy of Wit, 1579,\\nwas followed the next year by Euphues and his England,\\nwhich was in reality only the completion of the earlier\\nvolume. The plot is a mere shadow, well-nigh lost amid\\na chaos of disquisitions chiefly sentimental. Euphues, an\\nAthenian, journeys to Naples and finally to England, but\\nhis progress is marked not by happenings but by dis-\\ncourses and moralizings. It was a book with a purpose\\nas much as was The Faerie Qiieene, It would set forth\\nthe delights that wit foUoweth in his youth by the\\npleasantness of Love and the happiness he reapeth in\\nage by the perfectness of Wisdom. It was written con-\\nfessedly for ladies. Euphues, declared Lyly in his\\nPreface To the Ladies and Gentlewoemen of England,\\nhad rather laye shut in a Ladyes casket then open in a\\nschollers studie. He was modest in his demands: It\\nresteth Ladies, that you take the paines to read it, but\\nat such times, as you spend in playing with your little\\nDogges, and yet will I not pinch you of that pastime,\\nfor I am content that your Dogges lye in your laps: so\\nEuphues may be in your hands, that when you shall be\\nwearie of the one, you may be ready to sport with the\\nother. The book is dreary enough reading to-day.\\nThe constant moralizing, the endless analogies, the\\nplethora of fantastic similes, the wire-drawn distinc-\\ntions, the monstrous natural history which speaks", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "272 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Nature of Euphuism Its Influence on Other Writers\\nvolumes concerning the scientific attainments of the\\nElizabethans, the never-ending citation of parallel cases\\nfrom classic lore, and the inflated and artificial style\\nplace it in another world from the novels of to-day but\\nto the audience for whom it was written it was the acme\\nof brilliancy and wit. While its vogue lasted it was the\\nmost successful of books it went through no less than\\nsix editions in two years.\\nThe style of Euphues, which has been much discussed\\nand much misunderstood, need not detain us. It was\\nnot invented by Lyly it was only one variation of the\\nartificial manner in use by the Italians and their imitators.\\nLyly undoubtedly borrowed it from Guevara, a Spanish\\nromancer who had been translated by Lord Berners. Its\\nleading characteristic is its extreme use of antithesis and\\nbalanced structure embellished by alliteration. Euphues,\\nfor instance, was a young gallant of more witte than\\nwealth and yet of more wealth than wisdom. The\\nvogue of the style was a short one it was out of fashion\\nbefore 1590, and, aside from a few of the novelists like\\nGreene and Lodge, none of the writers of the age were\\naffected by it. The whole episode of Euphuism might\\nbe dismissed as a mere passing fad were it not that it\\nindicated a new trend in the direction of English prose.\\nProfessor Baker has admirably summed up its influence.\\nNo student of the growth of English prose from Ascham to Bunyan can\\ndoubt that even as a youth gains suppleness, grace, quickness, and sureness\\nof movement from the severe exercises of the gymnasium, in like manner\\nEnglish prose gained something from the temporary success of Euphuism\\nbetween 1580 and 1590. The careful study of words, of their values in\\nsound and in meaning, meant a better understanding of the scope of the\\nEnglish language, of its possibilities, English prose must have come forth\\nfrom the period of Ephuism more supple, with a better knowledge of its", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Finished Prose 273\\nLyly Neglects his Opportunity Robert Greene\\nown strength and of the methods by which any weakness in it as a means of\\nliterary expression might be overcome. The contribution of Euphuism to\\nthe development of English prose must have been, though less in extent,\\nsimilar to the gain of English poetry from the study of the sonnet from\\nWyatt to Shakespeare.\\nRequired Reading. Euphues, selections at random.\\n2. Robert Greene 1^60-1 jg2)\\nAuthorities. Life and complete works of Greene by\\nGrosart (London, 1881), 15 vols.; Jusserand, The\\nEnglish Novel, Ch. iv. Arber s edition of Menaphon\\nwith Nash s Preface; Bell, Poems of Robert Greene,\\nChristopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson (Bohn).\\nDespite the phenomenal success of Euphues, Lyly never\\nattempted another novel. He was not working for mere\\ngain nor for mere popularity his ambitions were centered\\nupon the one thought of gaining favor at court. He\\nwould please the Queen with dramas sugared with fulsome\\nflattery dramas in which her glorified self should appear\\nin thin disguise. In the meantime, however, others\\nwere reaping the fruit of his discovery. Robert Greene,\\na leader of the roistering crew that invaded London\\nfrom the universities during the close of Elizabeth s\\nreign, was the first to realize the great possibilities in\\nthe field that Lyly was neglecting. To this erratic\\ngenius, whose life reads like a chapter from La Vie de\\nBoheme, literature was valuable chiefly because it put\\na spel in his purse to conjure up a good cuppe of wine\\nwith at all times. He made no account of winning\\ncredit by his workes, says Nash. He worked rapidly\\nand spasmodically. In a night and a day would he\\nhave yarkt up a pamphlet that would have cost another\\nman seven years. The spell of Euphues could open all\\nz8", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "2 74 The Foundations of English Literature\\nLyly s Legatees Rise of the Sentimental Novel\\ndoors and lavish emoluments upon any who could wield\\nit, and Greene soon caught the trick so cleverly that he\\neven surpassed Lyly himself. Beginning with Mamilla\\nin 1583, he published during the next seven years no less\\nthan fifteen love-pamphlets, as he called his novels,\\nall of them containing the great Euphuist s tricks of\\nstyle his languid elegance, his excessive prettiness, and\\nhis abnormal botany and zoology. Euphues was forgotten\\nin the popularity of this new and voluminous romancer.\\nThe publishers, declared Nash, considered themselves\\nblest to pay Greene dear for the very dregs of his wit.\\nFollowing Greene a veritable school of young novelists\\nentered the lists, Lodge, Riche, Warner, Dickenson,\\nand others, to contend for the spoils of Euphues, Never\\nbefore was such a plethora of elegance and sentiment\\nshowered upon the reading public. In the countrey\\nof Bohemia there rayned a king called Pandosto, begins\\nthe novel, and immediately we lose sight of time and\\nplace and wander in a society that never was and never\\ncan be, amid a landscape that defies human geography,\\nand meet adventures such as youthful poets dream\\non midsummer nights. Everything is carried to ex-\\ntremes. Doralicia was so adorned with more than\\nearthlie perfection as she seemed to be framed by nature\\nto blemishe nature, and that beautie had skipt beyond\\nher skil in framing a piece of such curious workmanship.\\nThere is no middle ground.\\nThe lovers [says Gosse] are devoted beyond belief, the knights are braver,\\nthe shepherds wiser, the nymphs more lovely and more flinty-hearted than\\ntongue can tell the courteous amorous couples file down the long arcades\\nof the enchanted forest, and find the madrigal that Rosander or the hapless\\nArsinous has fastened to the balsam tree, or else they gather round the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Finished Prose 275\\nDecline of Euphuism Sidney s Arcadia\\nalabaster tomb of one who died for love, and read the sonnet that his own\\nhand has engraved there.\\nWith the pubHcation of Sidney s Arcadia in 1590\\nEuphuism lost its vogue and a new phase of ItaHanate\\nprose sprang into popularity.\\nSuggested Reading. Selections from Menaphon, Ar-\\nber s ed.\\nJ. Sir Philip Sidney (155^-1586)\\nIn 1580, while under a cloud at court, Sidney had\\npassed several months at the country residence of his\\nsister, the Countess of Pembroke, and to while away the\\ntime he had amused himself and his gracious hostess\\nwith the construction of the Arcadia^ a prose romance.\\nThere is every evidence that Sidney regarded this work\\nsimply as a recreation. For sterner eyes it is not, he\\nwrote to his sister, being but a trifle and that triflingly\\nhandled. It was never revised; it was never even\\nfinished; it was a mere rough draft of a romance, written\\nto divert an idle hour and to be burned as soon as read.\\nBut fortunately it was not burned. Four years after\\nSidney s death it was brought forth and published under\\nthe title of the Countess of Pembroke s Arcadia, and its\\nappearance created a sensation in the literary world well-\\nnigh as great as that occasioned by the publication of\\nEuphues ten years before. Its vogue was immediate.\\nGreene wrote no more love pamphlets Euphuism\\nwent out of style never again to appear in English liter-\\nature, and Arcadianism at once became the fashionable\\nform of prose.\\nUnder Sidney s definition the Arcadia is a pastoral\\npoem. Poesy, he says in his Defeizse^ is a speaking", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "276 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Purpose of the Romance Its Prose Style\\npicture, with this end, to teach and delight* and\\nagain, it is not riming and versing that maketh a poet.\\nBut it is that feigning notable images of virtues,\\nvices, or what else, with that delightful teaching, which\\nmust be the right describing note to know a poet by.\\nMeasured by this standard, the Arcadia belongs with\\nThe Faerie Queene. Its moral is hazy at times, but it\\nis never lost. The purpose of the romance, according\\nto Fulke Greville, Sidney s early friend, was to limn\\nout such exact pictures of every posture of the mind\\nthat any man might see how to set a good counte-\\nnance upon all the discountenances of adversity. Oth-\\nerwise it is a love-story, laid in Arcadia, the paradise of\\nshepherds, and full of diverting episodes and romantic\\nadventures.\\nThe style of the romance deserves careful attention.\\nSidney denounced all of Lyly s tricks of style as barbar-\\nous and pedantic. Very seldom does he use the alliter-\\nated balance, and never does he encroach upon the realm\\nof natural history. But his style is nevertheless highly\\nembellished, and it could hardly have been otherwise.\\nThe Arcadia is the dream of a young Elizabethan courtier\\nin temporary exile, full of the ideals of chivalry, of great\\nexploits, of gorgeous drapery and furnishings, of tourna-\\nments and pageants and romantic adventures, and it is\\nthe work of one who believed that he was writing a poem.\\nWhat wonder if it is ruffled like a courtier, if it is daintily\\nperfumed and exquisitely jewelled But there is no such\\nstraining after effect, no such embellishment dragged in\\nby main force as in Lyly and Greene. It is prose that\\nflows like a poem, with liquid cadences and beautiful\\nperiods. It is a style which, though it is over-ornamented", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Finished Prose 277\\nIts Great Influence on Later Writers Thomas Nash\\nat times, was, nevertheless, a long step in advance of\\nEuphuism towards the perfect product of later days.\\nAs a novel, too, the Arcadia was a distinct advance\\nupon anything that had been previously written. Even\\nnow it may be read with interest for the story alone, a\\nstatement that is certainly not true of Euphues and its\\nfollowers. Its influence even down to Dryden s day was\\nenormous. The great fame of its author and the real\\ncharm of the story combined to give it an influence which\\nfew other novels have ever been able to exert.\\nRequired Reading. The Arcadia, Book i. The most\\naccessible edition is that published by Sampson, Low\\nMarston and imported by the Scribners.\\n/J.. Thomas Nash (i^6y-i6oo)\\nAuthorities. The only complete collection of Nash s\\nworks is Grosart s edition (London, 1883-84), 6 vols.\\nsee also Jusserand, Ch. vi., and Morley, Vol. ix.\\nThe last step in the development of the Elizabethan\\nnovel was taken by Thomas Nash, another of that\\nstrangely^ gifted and boisterous group of young men who\\nso completely took possession of the closing decade of\\nthe century. With Nash the realistic novel, the novel\\nfounded on actual life, first appears in English literature.\\nGreene was in reality the pioneer; his Cony-catching\\npamphlets, issued during the last two years of his life,\\nhad described with minuteness the criminal class of Lon-\\ndon, but it was not until Nash had issued in 1594 his\\nUnfortunate Traveller, or the Adventures of Jack Wilton,\\nthat a novel was attempted based wholly upon real life.\\nThe tale is a picaresque romance that is to say, a\\nromance describing realistically the shifts and adventures,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "278 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe First Realistic Novel The Forerunner of Defoe\\nperils and escapes, of a light-hearted, witty, spring-heeled\\nknave, who goes through all worldly vicissitudes, thus\\nlending himself to his creator s purpose to describe or\\nsatirize all classes of society. The book is full of ad-\\nventures, of realistic pictures and character-sketches,\\nstrung upon a slight thread of plot. After a vivid de-\\nscription of life in England during the days of Henry\\nVIII., the author conducts his hero through France and\\nGermany to Italy, in which drain and sink of hell he\\nfinds ample opportunities for observation and adventure.\\nFor vividness of description and for skill at character-\\nization Nash may be compared even with Defoe. He\\nwas a fastidious chooser of words. Mere generalizations\\ndid not satisfy him he must have the one strong specific\\nword that would best reproduce the character or scene,\\nand it is this constant struggle for originality and force\\nthat is his chief excellence as a writer. His metaphors\\nare terse and telling, and altogether his style, though\\nhere and there it shows traces of Lyly and the artificial\\nschool, is graphic and picturesque.\\nNash had no immediate followers. He stood for more\\nthan a century a solitary figure; a pioneer who had\\nstrayed into a rich field where no one wished to follow, a\\nfield which he soon abandoned himself. But his influ-\\nence told at last. As Sir Philip Sidney was the precur-\\nsor of Richardson, says Raleigh, so Nash is the direct\\nforerunner of Defoe. The Unfortunate Traveller\\nstands alone among the productions of a many-sided,\\nvigorous, and brilliant age, and among the novels of that\\nage must certainly be counted the most vigorous and\\nbrilliant.\\nThe Elizabethan Novel, Thus was evolved the Eliza-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Finished Prose 279\\nThe Novel and English Prose Style Prose Flows in Two Currents\\nbethan novel. It was the child of Italy it was from first\\nto last clothed in peculiar and fantastic literary forms;\\nyet it marks a definite stage in the evolution of English\\nprose, and it is the foundation of the modern English\\nnovel. It is impossible to understand the age without a\\nstudy of it. Grotesque as it often was in style and senti-\\nment, it nevertheless refined both the language and the\\nmanners of the people. From first to last it was used as\\na vehicle for moral instruction Lyly s first aim was to\\ngive wise and philosophic advice; Sidney, like Spenser,\\nwould seek to fashion a gentleman or noble person in\\nvertuous and gentle discipline, and even Nash, the jolly\\nroisterer of the London inns, would show in vivid colors\\nthe evil side of life that the innocent might avoid it. The\\ninfluence of the novel upon the language was certainly\\ngreat. It was the school in which English prose received\\nits earliest laws and its first shaping touch. For the first\\ntim.e it was realized that prose was as susceptible of artis-\\ntic finish as poetry. It was but a step from the elaborate\\nand highly ornate prose of Sidney to the polished and\\nstately periods of Hooker and the perfect creations of\\nthe great prose masters.\\nThe strong and homely old native prose all through\\nthe period kept on parallel with the new-fangled product.\\nThere seemed in the minds of writers to be a distinct line\\ndrawn between prose written to please and that written\\nto instruct. From the same pen would come work that\\nwas stiff and florid, and work that was rude and simple,\\nand to compare the two was like setting the ruffled and\\nperfumed courtier beside the rude and simple peasant.\\nIt was an era of pamphlets. The Marprelate controversy\\nwas waged fiercely during a part of the time that the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "28o The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Marprelate Controversy Spirited Prose Narratives\\nnovel was evolving, and many of the writers, even Lyly\\nand Nash, were connected with it. But the war of pam-\\nphlets added little to English literature. In those fierce\\ntracts, hot with controversy, prose reverted largely to its\\nnative type homely, unfinished, often obscure, yet at\\ntimes exceedingly forcible and picturesque.\\nA few spirited records of travel there were (Hakluyt s\\nVoj/ag-es, for instance, and Raleigh s Last Fight of the Re-\\nvenge), a few notable translations, and several famous\\nchronicles, but they throw no new light upon the de-\\nvelopment of the age, and they add little that is new\\ntoward an appreciation of the tendencies of English\\nprose.\\nReferences. For a full consideration of the Marprelate\\ncontroversy the student should consult Arber, The Martin\\nMarprelate Controversy the prose of the pamphlets is\\ncarefully considered in Saintsbury, Elizabethan Litera-\\nture. Raleigh s The Last Fight of the Revenge is among\\nArber s Reprints. Holinshed s Chronicles and North s\\nPlutarch are so closely connected with Shakespeare s work\\nthat they can be easily studied, large parts of them be-\\ning reproduced in Morley s edition of Shakespeare and\\nFurness Variorum. They may also be found in Hazlet,\\nShakespeare s Library,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XX\\nTHE TRANSITION TO SHAKESPEARE\\nAuthorities, The same as on page 200 above Gosson,\\nSchool of Abuse, Ed. Arber; The Works of George Pee le,\\nEd. Bullen, 2 vols. also Ed. Dyce Marlowe, Doctor\\nFaust us Greene, History of Friar Bacon and Friar\\nBungay, Ed. Ward (Clarendon Press) Dramatic Works\\nof Robert Greene, Ed. Dyce; Manly, Specimens of the\\nPre -Shakespearian Drama, Vol. ii. (Athenaeum Press).\\nIn 1579, ^t opening of the creative era, English\\nliterature was flowing in two distinct channels. The\\nItalian influence in its various phases had resulted in an\\nartificial product that seems at first sight to dominate the\\nwhole period. The poems of Spenser, who was both\\nthe morning and the evening of the movement, the\\ncreations of Sidney and the lyrists, and the works of\\nLyly and the novelists are the most conspicuous produc-\\ntions of the pre-Shakespearian period, yet all of these\\nauthors wrote for an extremely limited audience. They\\ntouched only the fashionable and the cultured the people\\nknew nothing of their artistic creations. All out of sight\\nthere still flowed on the old popular literature, the bal-\\nlads and rude songs, the vigorous, homely prose of\\npreacher and chronicler, and, above all, the crude but\\nstrong old native drama.\\nFrom the very first the stage had found a congenial\\nhome in England. The common people had greeted\\nwith enthusiasm every phase of the drama from its first\\nreligious beginnings down to its final secular form. All\\n281", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "282 The Foundations of English Literature\\nFondness of the People for the Native Drama The Popular Drama in 1579\\nthrough the Tudor century it had constantly grown in\\npopularity until at length it became the chief diversion of\\nall classes. The dramatic representation took the place\\nof the old minstrelsy. The solitary singer, wandering\\nfrom court to court or from hamlet to hamlet, was now\\nrepresented by the strolling band of actors. Instead of\\nthe single reciter who, with voice and instrument, repro-\\nduced the stirring scene, there was now the group of\\nreciters working in concert. Nor did their themes differ\\ngreatly from those of the old minstrels. There must be\\na moving story which the hearer must feel. If it be a\\ntragedy, there must be a surfeit of slaughter; blood must\\nflow as freely as in Beowulf. In some of the early\\ntragedies the entire dramatis personcB perish. Give\\nme the man who will all others kill and last of all him-\\nself cries one of Fletcher s characters. When there is\\ncomedy it must be broad and coarse: quarrels of fish-\\nwives oaths and billingsgate hard blows and torn hair.\\nThere is no attempt at dramatic art the unities are\\nundreamed of; kings and peasants jostle each other;\\ncomedy and tragedy are hopelessly mixed. There is no\\nunity of plot, no unity of characterization. The play is\\na mere series of detached scenes in which the action is\\nviolent, and the spectator goes away surfeited with sen-\\nsation. Such was the popular drama in 1579, ten years\\nbefore the first work of Shakespeare.\\nThe attempt to naturalize the classic drama founded\\nupon Latin models and upon Aristotle we have already\\nnoted. The cultured class welcomed the innovation.\\nSidney as late as 1583 condemned the popular dramas\\nas gross absurdities all their plays be neither\\ntragedies nor right comedies, mingling kings with rigth", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Shakespeare 283\\nFailure of the Classic Forms The Rise of the Theaters\\nclowns faulty both in place and time, the two nec-\\nessary companions of all corporal actions. Scholars did\\ntheir best to introduce the new form and to discourage\\nthe production of inartistic work. Between 1568 and\\n1580 fifty-two dramas were performed at court and, judg-\\ning by their titles, which are all that remain of them,\\nthey were prevailingly of the classic type. But despite\\nthe efforts of the classicists the native romantic drama\\nincreased constantly in popularity.\\nThe Rise of the Theaters. In 1576 the Corporation of\\nLondon, believing that the popular stage was an enemy\\nto morality, and also that the coming and going of wan-\\ndering bands of players increased the danger of contagion\\nin time of plague, ordered that no theatrical performances\\nshould be given within the city limits. The action marks\\nan era in the history of the English drama; it turned the\\neyes of all London toward the popular stage, and it pre-\\ncipitated a movement that was of the highest importance.\\nA spirited contest arose in which all the city was involved.\\nLodge wrote a Defense of Stage Plays Gosson put forth\\nhis School of Abuse conteining a pleasaunt invective\\nagainst Poets, Pipers, Plaiers, Jesters, and such like\\nCaterpillers of a commonwealth and Sidney replied in\\nhis noble Defense of Poesy in the course of which he de-\\nfended the drama in its classic form. The players, profit-\\ning by the publicity thus thrust upon them, boldly\\ncontinued their performances, avoiding the law by setting\\nup regular playhouses just outside the city bounds. Thus\\nbegan the permanent theater; thus ended the period of\\nstrolling players, of performances in the courtyards of\\ninns, of private companies in the employ of noblemen. In\\n1576 and in the years immediately following no less than", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "284 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Courtly Drama Yields to the Popular Shakespeare s Predecessors\\nfive prominent playhouses were erected just outside the\\ncity bounds, and their success was phenomenal. The\\ndrama soon became the leading diversion of London.\\nIt is obvious that the popular and the classic dramas\\ncould not forever move side by side. A clash was\\ninevitable. Which would yield, the cultured minority\\nor the people In Germany and France the cultured\\nclasses won, their drama became purely classic; but in\\nEngland the people held stubbornly to the form that\\nthrough centuries of evolution had become peculiarly\\ntheir own. It was the courtly drama that yielded at\\nlast it was the lawless romantic form that finally became\\nthe national type.\\nShakespeare s Predecessors. But the old native drama\\ncould not survive unchanged. It must gain organic\\nunity; it must cast off its crudities, and, without losing\\nany of its abundant vitality and individuality, it must ac-\\nquire artistic finish and refinement. In 1579 this seemed\\nlike an impossibility, like a work that would require long\\nand gradual evolution. But it came all in a moment.\\nDuring the next decade there arose a school of drama-\\ntists who harmonized the discordant elements. Start-\\ning from the popular standpoint and adding nothing\\nwhich at any time could offend their audiences, upon\\nwhose good will they depended for support, they grad-\\nually refined out the worst elements, adding all that\\nwas best in the classic forms, until at length everything\\nwas ready for a supreme master who should make a\\nmodel for the English drama of all time.\\nPerhaps the most picturesque event in the history of\\nEnghsh literature is the descent upon London of this\\nboisterous crew of young men from the universities of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Shakespeare 285\\nThe University Wits Their Genius and Activity\\nCambridge and Oxford. For over a decade, beginning\\nsoon after 1580, they were the most conspicuous element\\nin the Hterary life of the city. Greene, Peele, Lyly,\\nKyd, Nash, Lodge, Whetstone, Marlowe it was a wild\\nand wayward group of youths, who exhausted every form\\nof vice and fast living, and who, the most of them, drove\\nthemselves into early graves. Marlowe was dead at the\\nage of twenty-nine, Greene at thirty-two, Nash at thirty-\\nthree, and Peele at forty. They were peculiarly the\\nproducts of Elizabeth s reign they were born after her\\naccession to the throne; they died, almost all of them,\\nbefore the end of her career; they received their training\\nduring her most glorious period they were full of the\\nnew and exultant spirit of the age, so full that they\\nwere unbalanced and overcome. Their genius and ver-\\nsatility and activity were marvelous. They attempted\\neverything, they entered every realm of literary art,\\nbut it was the drama that most attracted them. They\\nhad no intention of becoming reformers. They wished\\nsimply to cater to the popular taste that they might keep\\ntheir purses full but they had received the best educa-\\ntion to be had in their day; they were refined and cul-\\ntured in their tastes and unconsciously their training told\\nupon their work. They pruned the rudeness from the\\nnative drama, they refined it to an appreciable degree,\\nbut, aside from Marlowe, they did not change its form or\\nits drift. Their chief importance, says Symonds,\\nconsists in their having contributed to the formation of\\nMarlowe s dramatic style. It Vv^as he who irrevocably\\ndecided the destinies of the romantic drama; and the\\nwhole subsequent evolution of that species, including\\nShakespeare s work, can be regarded as the expansion,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "286 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Great Work of Marlowe He Makes the Romantic Drama Possible\\nrectification, and artistic ennoblement of the type fixed\\nby Marlowe s epoch-making tragedies. In the light of\\nthis fact we need not examine in detail the work of\\nGreene and Peele. Before 1587, when Marlowe put\\nforth his earliest drama, they had done little save to\\nprune away the roughest of the excrescences on the old\\nnative branch, and after this date they were content to\\nfollow their master. The whole English drama before\\nTamburlaine and the part that Marlowe played in reshap-\\ning it is best described in the prologue to his first play\\nFrom jigging veins of rhyming mother wits,\\nAnd such conceits as clownage keeps in pay,\\nWe 11 lead you to the stately tent of war,\\nWhere you shall hear the Scythian Tamburlaine\\nThreatening the world with high astounding terms,\\nAnd scourging kingdoms with his conquering sword.\\nIt was Marlowe s task to cast off the jigging, rhym-\\ning measures of rude playwrights and the trivial themes\\nwith which they pleased their simple audiences, and to\\nsubstitute for them a stately, unrhymed measure full of\\nhigh astounding terms, and a plot that should deal\\nwith the deeds of kings, even of kings who threatened\\nthe whole world. To show what he meant by jigging\\nveins, let us quote almost at random from the dramas\\nthat held the stage when he began his work. Let us\\nchoose from Preston s Cambises, a play licensed in 1569:\\nWith speed I am sent all things to prepare.\\nMy message to doe as the king did declare.\\nHis Grace doth meane a banquet to make.\\nMeaning in this place repast for to take.\\nWei, the cloth shal be laid, and all things in redines,\\nTo court to return, when doon is my busines", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Shakespeare 287\\nHe Frees the Drama from Jigging Measures John Lyly\\nor from Appius and Virginia, first printed in 1575\\nWell, then, this is my counsel, thus standeth the case,\\nPerhaps such a fetch as may please your Grace\\nThere is no more ways, but hap or hap not,\\nEither hap, or else hapless, to knit up the knot.\\nOne has only to read these short extracts in connection\\nwith the six Hnes quoted from the prologue to Tambur-\\nlaine to realize what Marlowe did for the English drama.\\nOf the pre-Shakespearian group we will consider only\\nLyly and Marlowe.\\nI. John Lyly (i^^j-1606)\\nAuthorities. The best edition of Lyly s dramas for\\ngeneral use is that in the Library of Old Authors, 2 vols.\\nLyly s Dramatic Works, Ed. Fairholt (London, 1858);\\nLyly s Endymion, Ed. Baker; The Children s Com-\\npanies, Shakesperiana, ix., No. 3; Morley, vol. ix.\\nFor full bibliography of Lyly, see Baker, Endyinio7t.\\nThe great success of Euphues placed Lyly at once at\\nthe head of the literary circle of the court and gave him\\nthe opportunity of supplying the Master of the Revels\\nwith plays for the royal amusement. The form that he\\nchose for his new work was a variation of the old masque\\nor pageant that had long been popular at the court revels.\\nThe scene is usually classic, the vague, romantic Athens\\nof the Midsummer Nighf s Dream the atmosphere is the\\ngolden one of fairy-land the texture of the plot is of the\\nflimsiest a bit of Grecian mythology or tradition, a few\\ncharacters from legend or history, Endymion, Sappho,\\nCampaspe, and an old story, vague and fanciful, often\\nthinly clad in allegory. The play lends itself to gorgeous\\nsettings; what contrasts in Alexander, Diogenes, Cam-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "288 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Classicism He Alternates the Fanciful and the Comic\\npaspe, Apelles! What magnificence in Midas and in\\nCynthia, who is at once the moon and the matchless\\nElizabeth! What statuesque beauty in Galatea, and\\nCampaspe, and Daphne!\\nLyly s earliest play. The Woman in the Moon, was\\nwritten in the verse forms of the classic school, but it is\\nplainly evident that its author was not at ease. The\\npenner of Euphues to be at his best must work in prose.\\nThe grace and brilliance of his style were obscured by the\\nclassic measures, and therefore, unconscious that he was\\nrevolutionizing one branch of the English drama, Lyly\\nwrote all his other plays in the Euphuized prose of which\\nhe was so perfect a master.\\nIn all his dramas there are two distinct currents\\nwhich seldom cross, the one broadly comic, the other\\npoetic and fanciful. In Endymion the fun is furnished\\nby the scapegrace pages and by. the boastful and cowardly\\nSir Thopas in Campaspe it is furnished by the servants\\nand by the philosopher Diogenes. There is some at-\\ntempt at characterization, especially in the comic parts,\\nbut the more serious characters are often wooden to a\\ndegree. Campaspe at times breaks from her statue-like\\nbeauty into sweet womanhood, and Endymion once or\\ntwice, as in the scene where he awakes like Rip Van\\nWinkle from his forty years sleep, seems to be really\\nalive, but such characters as Tellus and Cynthia are\\nmere shadows. The style is finished and often beautiful\\nonly in the long soliloquies does the author carry his\\nEuphuism to extremes, but even in these one constantly\\nfinds lines and passages of exquisite beauty. Love,\\nsays Alexander, falleth like a dew as well upon the low\\ngrasse as upon the high cedar. When will you finish", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Shakespeare 289\\nThe First to Insert Lyrics in the Drama Lyly Invents Dramatic Prose\\nCampaspe he asks of the painter Apelles. Never\\nfinish replies the artist for always in absolute beauty\\nthere is somewhat above art.\\nIt was Lyly who first set the fashion of inserting lyrics\\ninto the drama. His comedies were all of them per-\\nformed by the boy actors of the Royal Chapel and of St.\\nPaul s, and the temptation to use the trained voice of\\nthe chorister was irresistible. Little songs are scattered\\neverywhere, like Apelles song in Campaspe, Sappho s\\nsong in Sappho and PhaoUy the song of Daphne in Midas,\\nand that most spontaneous of all his lyrics, the one that\\nmust have been singing in Shakespeare s ears when he\\nwrote Hark, hark, the lark, the spring song in\\nCampaspe\\nWho is t now we hear\\nNone but the lark so shrill and clear.\\nHow at heauens gats she claps her wings,\\nThe morne not waking till shee sings\\nHeark, heark, with what a pretty throat\\nPoore Robin red-breast tunes his note\\nHearh how the jolly cuckoes sing\\nCuckoe, to welcome in the spring,\\nCuckoe, to welcome in the spring\\nLyly s place in the history of Elizabethan literature is\\ncertainly a large one. His part in shaping English prose\\nand the English novel has been commented upon, and in\\nthe history of the drama he is fully as prominent. It\\nwas he who first made use of dramatic prose and turned\\nit to the use of comedy. So weighty was his example\\nthat by the close of the century prose was generally used\\nby all dramatists for comic scenes. Marlowe used it in\\nthe minor scenes of Dr. Faustus and it became the uni-\\nform practice of Shakespeare to cast in prose all passages", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "290 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHe Elevates Comedy The Influence of Lyly\\nof a comic nature, all scenes where clowns and peasants\\ntake up the dialogue. It is not too much to say that\\nLyly gave to comedy its permanent form as Marlowe did\\nto tragedy.\\nLyly deserves mention, too, for lifting comedy to a\\nhigher level. He showed that laughable situations may\\nbe produced without horse-play or coarseness. Often in\\nhis scenes we find real wit and humor: Alexander seizes\\nthe brush of Apelles and attempts a picture. How do\\nI paint he asks at length. Like a king, answers\\nthe artist. Often there is amusing characterization, and\\neverywhere there is a chasteness, a refinement of humor,\\nwhich the later drama would have done well to copy.\\nThe comedies of Lyly were the direct precursors of\\nsuch works as Shakespeare s Midsummer Nighfs Dream\\nand the masques of Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher,\\nand Milton. Surely Lyly deserves a most careful study\\nby all who would seek the origin of the English drama.\\nRequired Reading. Campaspe, in Manly, Specimens\\nof the Pre-Shakespearian Drama^ Vol. ii. or Endymion,\\nBaker s Ed.\\n2. Christopher Marlowe (1^64.-1^^^)\\nMarlowe was one of the greatest poets of the world, whose work was\\ncast by accident and caprice into an imperfect mold of drama. Saints-\\nbury.\\nAuthorities. The best edition of Marlowe s works is\\nBullen s, 3 vols. (Elizabethan Dramatists); the most\\nconvenient edition of his plays for the general student is\\nEllis in the Mermaid Series. See also Marlowe s\\nDramatic Works, including translations (Scribners), and\\nBell, Poems of Robert GreenCy Christopher Marlowe^ and", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Shakespeare 291\\nThe Sudden Advent of Marlowe Little Known of His Life\\nBen Jonson; (Bohn). McLaughlin, Edward the Second\\n(Holt) Tancock, Edward the Second (Clarendon Press)\\nWagner, Dr. Faustus (London Series); Ward, Dr.\\nFaustiis, with Green, Friar Bacon, etc. (Clarendon Press);\\nand Thayer, Best Elizabethan Plays, which contains the\\nJew of Malta, are all valuable works. The most helpful\\nstudies of Marlowe are Lowell s in The Old British\\nDramatists, and Dowden s in Transcripts and Studies.\\nAs we read the long annals of the early English drama,\\nnoting its slow evolution, dwelling upon each minute\\nchange in form or spirit which may indicate the rate of\\ngrowth and the tendency of development, suddenly, un-\\nheralded and unaccounted for, there appears a youth\\nof twenty-three who all in a moment with a single\\nplay advances the drama a whole era, making of it a new\\ncreation. His advent seems almost like an apparition.\\nNo one knows when he came to London, or whence he\\ncame, or, with few exceptions, what had been his pre-\\nvious career.\\n.In the parish of Canterbury it is recorded that on Feb-\\nruary 26, 1564, was christened Christopher Marlowe,\\nthe Sonne of John Marlowe a date exactly two months\\nbefore the christening of Shakespeare at Stratford-on-\\nAvon. The father was a shoemaker, a man of some\\nability, for he was Clarke of St. Maries, but of moder-\\nate means; yet in 1581 we find his son matriculated at\\nOxford where in 1583 he received the bachelor s degree.\\nNo more is known of the young student until he sud-\\ndenly startled London with the high astounding lines\\nof Tamburlaine. He was unknown in literary circles.\\nThe wild young crew whose revels he was so soon to join\\ndenounced him as an intruder. Nash and Greene, fear-\\ning for their own laurels in the sudden popularity of the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "292 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHe Recreates Blank Verse Blank Verse Before Marlowe\\nnew favorite, broke into coarse abuse of his swelling\\nbombast of bragging blank verse, but they were soon\\nhis friends, using his mighty line as if it were their\\nown creation.\\nThe new thing that Marlowe brought to the English\\ndrama was artistic blank verse. Not that he invented\\nthe measure; Surrey had first introduced it to English\\nreaders in his translations from Virgil, and it had been\\nused for dramatic work by the authors of Gorboduc and\\nthe classic dramas, but it was a wooden and lifeless thing\\nbefore Marlowe touched it. The blank verse of Gorboduc\\nhalts at the end of every line the voice struggles desper-\\nately over the syllables, to come down heavily on the last\\nword of the verse, where it lingers for a moment before\\nagain launching out. The anatomy of the measure is\\nunconcealed it is as evident and well-nigh as painful as\\nthat of a corduroy road\\nLo, here the end of these two youthful kings,\\nThe father s death, the ruin of their realms\\nO most unhappy state of counsellors,\\nThat light on so unhappy lords and times,\\nThat neither can their good advice be heard,\\nYet must they bear the blames of ill success.\\nBut I will to the king, their father, haste.\\nEre this mischief come to the likely end.\\nThis was the best effort of English dramatic blank verse\\nbefore 1587, when Marlowe began to write; this was the\\nmeasure that only nine years after this date Shakespeare\\nwas to mold into the perfect cadences of The Merchant\\nof Venice. To show what Marlowe did we have only to\\ncompare these halting, lifeless lines with a typical passage\\nfrom Doctor Faustus", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Shakespeare 293\\nHis Liquid Cadences His Mighty Line\\nWas this the face that launched a thousand ships\\nAnd burnt the topless towers of Ilium\\nSweet Helen, make me immortal with a kiss.\\nHere will I dwell, for heaven is in those lips\\nAnd all is dross that is not Helena.\\nOh, thou art fairer than the evening air\\nClad in the beauty of a thousand stars\\nBrighter art thou than flaming Jupiter\\nWhen he appeared to hapless Semele.\\nBut what most of all impressed the contemporaries of\\nMarlowe was his high astounding terms. In the\\nopinion of Mr. Ward, the dramatist intentionally\\nstrained the force of diction to the utmost as a com-\\npensation for the rhymes and jingles of the contemporary\\ndrama. Tamburlaine is full of mighty lines, round,\\nresonant proper names, and reverberating phrases.\\nAnd Christian merchants that with Russian stems\\nPlough up huge furrows in the Caspian sea.\\nIs it not passing brave to be a king\\nAnd ride in triumph through Persepolis\\nOf such a burden as outweighs the sands\\nAnd all the craggy rocks of Caspia.\\nAwake, ye men of Memphis hear the clang\\nOf Scythian trumpets hear the basilisks\\nThat, roaring, shake Damascus turrets down\\nThe rogue of Volga holds Zenocrate.\\nThe partition between such lines and mere bombast is\\nindeed a thin one. Marlowe often overstepped the limit\\nhe is full of ranting, turgid passages which in the mouth\\nof a strong-lunged actor would send a thrill through the\\nsimple audiences that first heard them. Some of the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "294 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Frequent Bombast Elements in Common with the Popular Drama\\nsoliloquies of the Scythian monarch are pure fustian. It\\nwas against this inartistic work which often blemishes\\nMarlowe s plays that Shakespeare speaks in Hamlet\\nO, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious, periwigpated fellow tear\\na passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the groundlings, who\\nfor the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumb shows and\\nnoise.\\nMarlowe s three earliest dramas, Tamburlaine^ Doctor\\nFaustuSy and The Jew of Malta have much in common.\\nThey belong in plot and spirit to the sensational, popu-\\nlar drama which then held the stage. Tamburlaine is\\nfull of the old spirit, few plays in all literature so reek\\nwith blood Doctor Faustus is a kind of Morality play,\\ngood and evil angels struggle for the soul of Faustus, the\\nDevil in various forms assists him to play all manner of\\nimpish tricks, and finally he carries the doomed man on\\nhis back to the flames in the old Morality fashion the\\nJew of Malta becomes after the second act of the play\\na mere ogre whose deeds of crime are bounded only by\\nhis creator s imagination.\\nNor are these the only resemblances to the primitive\\nEnglish drama. To Marlowe the theater was primarily\\na source of income he must please the people if he was\\nto receive his pay, and he dare not depart too radically\\nfrom the old methods. His plays are therefore destitute\\nof that fine humor that preserves the work of Shake-\\nspeare. The audience laughs often at Doctor Faustus,\\nbut it is for the same reason that they laugh at Vice in\\nthe Moralities. There are, says Lowell, properly\\nspeaking, no characters in the plays of Marlowe, but\\npersonages and interlocutors. We do not get to know", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Shakespeare 295\\nHis Inability to Portray Character Edward II. His Strongest Creation\\nthem, but only to know what they do or say. The\\nnearest approach to a character is Barabbas, in The Jew\\nof Malta, and he is but the incarnation of the popular\\nhatred of the Jew. There is really nothing human in\\nhim. He seems a bugaboo rather than a man. The\\naction of the plays is without an organic center. The\\nacts and scenes of Doctor Faustus, for instance, are de-\\ntached stories; they are the several adventures and\\nescapades of a man who has the Devil as his servant.\\nNothing happens, continues Lowell, because it\\nmust, but because the author wills it so. The concep-\\ntion of life is purely arbitrary and as far from nature as\\nthat of an imaginative child.\\nIn Edward the Second there is more careful work. The\\nplot moves toward a culmination and the scenes are but\\nthe accessories. The bombast of Tamburlaine and the\\nearlier plays is almost wholly wanting, perhaps because\\nthe theme was narrower and did not kindle the author s\\nimagination. His conception of the weak and vacillating\\nking, of his mental anguish and fearful death, is full of\\npower and truth. The reluctant pangs of abdicating\\nroyalty in Edward, says Charles Lamb, furnished\\nhints which Shakespeare scarce improved in Richard II.\\nBut Marlowe, despite the restraint and the artistic\\nsuperiority of Edward the Second, displayed, after all,\\nhis greatest power in his first tragedies. It is in them\\nthat we find his real contributions to the drama. It\\nmust constantly be borne in mind that Tamburlaine, and\\nindeed all of Marlowe s plays, was the work of a mere\\nyouth, of a sensitive and imaginative soul in its most\\nextravagant period. Hero and Leander in its passion and\\nimaginative richness can be compared only with the work", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "296 The Foundations of English Literature\\nMarlowe s Gorgeous Pictures His Unlimited Creative Power\\nof Keats. The young dramatist dreamed of Oriental\\nmagnificence\\nA thousand galleys, manned with Christian slaves\\nI freely give thee, which shall cut the straits\\nAnd bring armados from the coasts of Spain\\nFraughted with gold of rich America.\\nThe Grecian virgins shall attend on thee,\\nSkilful in music and in amorous lays.\\nWith naked negroes shall thy coach be drawn,\\nAnd as thou rid st in triumph through the streets\\nThe pavement underneath thy chariot wheels\\nWith Turkey carpets shall be covered\\nAnd cloth of Arras hung about the walls.\\nA hundred bassoes, clothed in crimson silk.\\nShall ride before thee on Barbarian steeds\\nAnd when thou goest, a golden canopy\\nEnchased with precious stones, which shine as bright\\nAs that fair veil that covers all the world.\\nAnd more than this for all I cannot tell.\\nThere is no limit to the gorgeous dream save the bounds\\nof the dreamer s imagination. His fancy ran riot he must\\ndeal only with kings who have absolute power and world\\ndominion; with men who at the price of their souls have\\nall pleasure and all power at command of monsters who\\nexhaust all the energies of crime in every form. But this\\nvery passion and extravagance of youth, which a few\\nyears would have subdued and tempered, only proves the\\nenormous power of the man. The sonorous passages of\\nTamburlaine, the bombast, the passion, the magnificent\\nsettings, the imaginative power that could scarce be satis-\\nfied with the most gorgeous pages of human experience,\\nwere not lost upon the later drama.\\nIt was he afld no other [says Ward] who first inspired with true poetic\\npassion the form of literature to which his chief efforts were consecrated.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "The Transition to Shakespeare 297\\nHis Influence on the Later Drama His Early Death\\nAfter Marlowe had written it was impossible for our dramatists to return to\\nthe cold horrors or tame declamation of the earlier tragic drama The\\nSpanish Tragedy a.ndi Gordoduchsid alike been left behind. His raptures\\nwere all air and fire, and it is his gift of passion which, together with his\\nservices to the outward form of the English drama, makes Marlowe worthy\\nto be called not a predecessor but the earliest in the immortal company of\\nour great dramatists.\\nThe early death of Marlowe he was stabbed in a\\ntavern brawl before he was thirty can never be too\\nmuch regretted. He is the only man in the whole range\\nof English history of whom we can say, Had he lived he\\nmight perhaps have equaled Shakespeare. He was,\\nlike his own Faustus, a victim to the baser part of his\\nnature, and the final words of the chorus in his play were\\nhis own epitaph\\nCut is the branch that might have grown full straight\\nAnd burned is Apollo s laurel bough.\\nThat sometime grew within this learned man.\\nFaustus is gone regard his hellish fall\\nWhose fiendful fortune may exhort the wise\\nOnly to wonder at unlawful things\\nWhose deepness does intice such forward wits.\\nTo practice more than heavenly power permits.\\nRequired Reading. The student should read at least\\ntwo of Marlowe s plays, Doctor Faustus^ or The Jew of\\nMalta, and Edward the Second.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXI\\nSHAKESPEARE\\nAuthorities. The best life of Shakespeare is that by\\nSidney Lee the most helpful introduction to Shake-\\nspeare is Dowden s Primer; the standard single-volume\\nedition of Shakespeare s works is the Globe. A veritable\\nlibrary of commentary and criticism has grown up about\\nthe great poet, all of which is of more or less value the\\nfollowing books comprise the minimum list that the gen-\\neral student should have at hand a standard edition of\\nShakespeare s complete works, Hudson, White, Rolfe,\\nMorley, Clark and Wright, the Arden, or any other\\ncarefully edited, well printed edition Furness, Vario-\\nrum Coleridge, Lectures and Notes on Shakespeare\\nDowden, Shakspere his Mind and Art; Moulton,\\nShakespeare as a Dramatic Artist Wendell, William\\nShakespeare Wyndham, Poems of Shakespeare Ger-\\nvinus, Shakespeare Commentaries; Ten Brink, Five\\nLectures on Shakespeare Bartlett, Concordance to Shake-\\nspeare Welsh, English Masterpiece Course for practical\\nbibliography.\\nAt last all was ready for the supreme master who\\nshould end the long era of preparation and of gradual\\ndevelopment and fix the final form of the English lan-\\nguage and the English drama. It was the earliest mo-\\nment when such a master could appear. The language\\nbefore the days of Wyatt had been a barbarous mixture,\\nbut the refining influence of the Courtly Writers and the\\ncivilizing force of contact with continental culture had\\nhumanized and enriched it until now it was an instru-\\nment of marvelous compass and flexibility. The English\\n298", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "Shakespeare 299\\nThe Need of a Great Literary Master He Must Come from the People\\npeople, too, for the first time were ready for the great\\nnational poet. The nation in its modern sense had just\\ncome into being; it had just awakened to a realization\\nof its position it had for the first time developed a sense\\nof national consciousness. The spirit of the era was\\ndramatic the age was preeminently one of action, and\\nhe who would interpret it must do it with the drama as\\nhis medium. The stage had been prepared it had been\\ngradually evolved from the nation s life; the people of\\nall classes were ready there was lacking only the master,\\nand just at the right moment he appeared.\\nThat this supreme English master should have sprung\\nfrom the common people, that he should have been a\\nman untouched by the schools, one whose entire youth\\nhad been passed amid the ordinary life of a remote\\ncountry village, while it presents one of the most dif^-\\ncult problems in the whole history of English literature,\\nis, nevertheless, a fact of immense significance. It was\\na man from the people who gave the final form to the\\nEnglish drama, and who fixed forever the English\\ntongue, a fact that wonderfully illustrates the strength\\nand the resistance of the old native English stock.\\nShakespeare settled forever all question as to which was\\nto rule English literature, the classic and courtly elements\\nor the strong old Anglo-Saxon undercurrent which ever\\nsince the Conquest had been constantly appearing, in\\nLayamon, in Langland, in the balladists, in Latimer.\\nThe one thing that impresses us most as we study the\\ngreat dramatist is his enormous personality. He is him-\\nself; he can be compared with no one; he can be traced\\nto no one. He is not content, like the classicists, to fol-\\nlow older models he borrows freely, but all that he bor-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "300 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Briticism of Shakespeare John Shakespeare and Mary Arden\\nrows he turns into the mold of his own mind and it\\ncomes forth utterly new, utterly unlike any previous\\neffort. But this individuality is only another name for\\nhis Briticism. He is English in every fiber of his being;\\nhe is the incarnation of the English nation; and all of\\nthis Briticism was but his inheritance from the common\\npeople from whom he sprung, the common people who\\nsince the days of the Conquest had preserved unemascu-\\nlated the old native English spirit.\\nThe Life of Shakespeare^ like that of all early English\\nwriters who were unconnected with the civil government,\\nhas come down to us in a very fragmentary condition.\\nAbout his origin there is no question. The life of John\\nShakespeare, his father, as revealed by the local records,\\nstands out with considerable completeness. We know\\nthat he was a shrewd, energetic business man, the de-\\nscendant of a long line of substantial Warwickshire yeo-\\nmen. In 1 55 1 he had removed to Stratford-on-Avon,\\nwhere he began his career as a dealer in agricultural prod-\\nuce, and so marked was his early prosperity that he was\\nsoon able not only to make considerable purchases of real\\nestate in Stratford and to become a prominent figure in\\nthe little village, but to win for his wife a daughter of\\none of the best-known families of Warwickshire. The\\nmarriage of John Shakespeare and Mary Arden took\\nplace in the autumn of 1557; seven years later, on April\\n26th, according to the parish register, was baptized\\nWilliam, their first son and third child. A tradition,\\nseemingly well grounded, that the poet died on the anni-\\nversary of his birth, has led to the general acceptance of\\nApril 23d as his birthday.\\nNothing more is heard of Shakespeare until 1582, the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "Shakespeare 301\\nThe Life of John Shakespeare Shakespeare s Early Years\\nyear of his marriage, but his father s doings are recorded\\nwith considerable fullness. He continued to grow in im-\\nportance in municipal affairs until, in 1 571, he became\\nchief alderman of the city. After the next year, how-\\never, he began to lose interest in public life. His family\\nhad become large and expensive he was for some reason\\nin constant need of large sums of money he began to\\nmortgage his property, and for the next ten or fifteen\\nyears his life was a constant struggle with financial diffi-\\nculties. His loss of fortune, however, did not deprive\\nhis sons of educational privileges. The grammar school\\nof the town provided free tuition, and the young poet\\ndoubtless became one of its pupils; but his education\\ncould not have been a broad one, even had he received all\\nthat the school had to give. The instruction, says\\nLee, was mainly confined to the Latin language and\\nliterature, but what the average student actually ac-\\nquired of this subject was probably not large.\\nShakespeare doubtless left the school early. According\\nto Rowe, his first biographer, he was taken away at the\\nage of fourteen, doubtless to assist his father in his busi-\\nness. We know that at eighteen he was married to Anne\\nHathaway, a maiden of the neighborhood, who was eight\\nyears his senior, and that in 1585, at the age of twenty-\\none, he was the father of three children. Then we hear\\nno more of him until suddenly he appears in London as\\na successful actor and playwright. The whole period\\nfrom the date of his marriage until 1592 is almost un-\\nknown, but in the absence of authentic record, tradition\\nand conjecture have been exceedingly busy. According\\nto Rowe, he. left Stratford to avoid prosecution for deer-\\nstealing, a story that is not improbable; according to", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "302 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHe Appears in London The Elizabethan Theater\\nothers, he left for London with a stroUing band of play-\\ners that had visited his native town; and according to\\nstill others, he set out on foot for the great metropolis to\\nseek his fortune and found his first employment in hold-\\ning horses before the theaters. Such stories must be\\nread with caution. It is certain, however, that Shake-\\nspeare must have been in London as early as 1586, or the\\nyear following, and that he must have found early em-\\nployment in one of the theaters. At first this must have\\nbeen of the simplest and most menial nature, but gradu-\\nally as he gained experience and confidence he doubtless\\nwas entrusted with minor parts in the plays presented,\\nand with the recasting and adapting of old dramas for the\\nuse of the company. His rapid rise was but the natural\\nconsequence of his sound common sense and business\\nabilities, inherited from his father, and his undoubted\\nquickness and sympathy and mental power. His country\\nhonesty and hard-headed sense kept him in a large de-\\ngree out of the Bohemian life that was ruining so many\\nof his fellow-workers; his earnestness and eagerness to\\nsucceed kept him from dissipating his powers.\\nThe Elizabethan Theater. The condition of the Eng-\\nlish drama when Shakespeare first appeared in London\\nhas already been described. The theaters just outside\\nthe city bounds had begun their period of immense\\npopularity. People of all classes filled them nightly\\nand applauded the coarse comedy and fierce tragedy that\\nwere typical of the period. The accessories of the theater\\nwere of the rudest kind. The stage was a mere raised\\nplatform without scenery or illusion.\\nYou shall have Asia of the one side, and Afric of the other [declared Sir\\nPhilip Sidney], and so many other under-kingdoms, that the player, when", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "Shakespeare 303\\nIts Primitive Nature The London of Shakespeare s Youth\\nhe cometh in, must ever begin with telling where he is, or else the tale will\\nnot be conceived. Now ye shall have three ladies walk to gather flowers,\\nand then we must believe the stage to be a garden. By and by we hear\\nnews of shipwreck in the same place, and then we are to blame if we accept\\nit not for a rock. Upon the back of that comes out a hideous monster with\\nfire and smoke, and then the miserable beholders are bound to take it for a\\ncave. While in the meantime two armies fly in, represented with four\\nswords and bucklers, and then what hard heart will not receive it for a\\npitched field Defense of Poesy.\\nThis accounts for the remarkable shifting of scene in the\\nElizabethan drama, a shifting that is often the despair\\nof the modern stage manager. The scene changes con-\\nstantly, as Hallam observed, for the simple reason that it\\ndoes not change at all. The female roles all through the\\nera were played by boys. The theater was circular, with\\nbalconies one above the other for the better class of the\\naudience, while the central space, the pit, was occu-\\npied by the poorer classes, the groundlings, who stood\\nduring the entire performance.\\nIt is not hard to imagine the experiences of the sensi-\\ntive, poetic country lad, who doubtless never before had\\nleft his native region, as he lived those early days in the\\nmighty London whose very air was electric with the\\nthrill of a new life. Everything must have appealed\\nstrongly to his imagination everything must have made\\na profound impression. He appeared when the stage was\\npassing through its most critical period. The drama, in\\nthe hands of Marlowe and the University Wits, was\\nchanging its form, and there must have been excited dis-\\ncussions behind the scenes of the playhouse. The sus-\\nceptible young poet was eager to learn, eager to succeed,\\nand in such an environment he matured rapidly.\\nThe Period of Apprenticeship, 1^86-1 ^g/j.. In the ab-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "304 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Demand for Skillful Playwrights Shakespeare Retouches Old Plays\\nsence of stage effects the attention of the EHzabethan\\naudience was drawn with peculiar force to the actual\\nwords of the drama. Where the modern manager seeks\\nconstantly for new settings and new costumes to make\\nold plays attractive, the Elizabethan manager sought\\nconstantly to add new and striking passages, to make\\nnew arrangements of scenes, and to change generally the\\neffect of the play. Skillful playwrights were, therefore,\\nconstantly in the employ of the theaters, and often they\\nearned a double salary by acting as well as writing. There\\nis plenty of evidence that Shakespeare was constantly\\nupon the stage as an actor, that this at length became his\\nreal profession, and it is more than probable that he\\nturned to the editing and writing of plays as a mere mat-\\nter of business to add to the resources of his company and\\nto eke out his regular salary.\\nThe first work of Shakespeare of which we have any\\nrecord is Titus AndronicuSy an inferior tragedy, which\\nTitus Andronicus, the young playwright retouched and\\n1588-1590.* remodeled for immediate stage use.\\n1 Henry VI., 1590-- 1 -ni 1 t\\n1591. Nothmg can better illustrate the condi-\\nLove sLabour sLost, q\u00c2\u00a3 ^j^g English drama when Shake-\\n1590.\\nComedy of Errors, spcarc began his work than this crude\\nI and 2 Henr VI P^oduction. It is a history play written\\n1591-1592. almost wholly from the popular stand-\\nTwo Gentlemen of j ^^Is tO the pit in almOSt\\nVerona, 1592-1593. i^^*^ Vr tr\\nVenus and Adonis, evcry passage. Blood flows in truc Tcu-\\nLucfece, 1593-1594. tonic profusion there is no attempt to\\nRichard III., 1593. conceal it only three of the original cast\\n^Dr^^am TiL-^sgr^ remain alive at the close of the play, and\\nSonnets, 1595-1605. Qj^e of thcse IS to bc buried alive after\\nThe dates in this chapter are largely from Dowden s Primer.\\nThe date is from Lee s Shakespeare.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "Shakespeare 305\\nCrudeness of His Early Work Its Growing Power\\nthe last speech. The lines are violently end-stopped;\\nthe movement is heavy the characters are mere figures.\\nTo realize Shakespeare s marvelous growth in art and\\npower one has but to read in the light of his later work\\na few of even the best lines of this his earliest dramatic\\nattempt. There is better work in the first part of Henry\\nVL, which Shakespeare doubtless touched more or less,\\nbut it is thoroughly pre-Shakespearian in form and spirit.\\nThe first independent work of Shakespeare is found in\\nhis Love s Labour s Losty the Comedy of Errors, the Two\\nGentlemen of Verona, and the Midsummer Nighf s Dream.\\nHere for the first time we get an unobstructed glance at\\nthe young apprentice. They are just what we might ex-\\npect of a marvelously gifted, enthusiastic young play-\\nwright who had had six or seven years of practical\\nexperience in a theater. They are, above all, the work\\nof a young man who is experimenting, who has not yet\\ndiscovered the secret of his strength. They are often\\nextravagant, often full of elaborate imagery, of puns and\\nrollicking wit and unbridled satire. The wild dreams\\nand sensuous fancy of the poet often run to extremes.\\nThe Comedy of Errors is only a step removed from the\\nboisterous and headlong comedy of the Gammer Gurton\\ntype. The plays are full of echoes. Love s Labour s Lost\\nand the delightfully fanciful Midsummer Nighf s Dream\\nare imitations, more or less direct, of the fashionable\\nJohn Lyly. Marlowe, too, exerted an early influence.\\nThere is evidence that Parts II and III of Henry VL.\\nwere revised by Shakespeare and Marlowe working in\\ncollaboration. The mighty line made a deep im-\\npression upon the young playwright. Richard LH. is\\nfull of the spirit and style of Marlowe. Although the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "3o6 The Foundations of English Literature\\nInfluence of Marlowe Dramatic Work a Mere Matter of Business\\ngreat dramatist quickly ceased to imitate, although he\\nhad the power of transmuting the best things of all other\\npoets into forms that became peculiarly his own, yet\\nthere can be no question that it was Marlowe who taught\\nhim the secret of imparting life to blank verse.\\nShakespeare s Poems. Thus far dramatic work has been\\nto Shakespeare only a matter of business. No one could\\nlook upon the drama as a permanent medium of literary\\nexpression. The young actor had helped revise and re-\\ncast too many plays to hope that his own efforts would\\nlong retain the form that he had given them. Despite\\nthe fact that all classes save the Puritans patronized the\\ntheater, it was regarded generally as a place of ill repute.\\nIts morals were more than doubtful its refinement was\\nnot far above that of the vulgar throng. Altogether it\\ncould not be expected to be the disseminator of perma-\\nnent literature. Moreover the early plays were not\\nprinted. The company that bought a drama guarded it\\nwith care, under the impression that printed copies would\\ndecrease its power to draw the public. But the young\\nactor had visions of a literary career. The mighty burst\\nof lyric song that had opened with the first notes of\\nSidney s sonnets was swelling about him. He had\\ndoubtless long been experimenting with rhyme, and in\\n1593 he made his first appeal to the reading public\\nwith Venus and Adonis^ a sensuous and romantic poem\\nof the type then so fashionable. That Shakespeare con-\\nsidered it his first permanent literary effort there can be\\nno question he declared in his dedication to the Earl of\\nSouthampton that it was the first heir of his inven-\\ntion; that the reading public regarded it as the poet s\\nfirst real literary venture is attested by the burst of ap-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "Shakespeare 307\\nShakespeare Seeks Permanence Gradual Unfolding of His Powers\\nplause that greeted it and the many editions through\\nwhich it immediately ran. Even up to the great days of\\nHamlet and Macbeth, Shakespeare was chiefly praised for\\nhis lyric poems. Emboldened by the success of this first\\nventure, the poet next published The Rape of Lucrece,\\nand when the sonnet era was at its height he began a\\nsequence, which, however, was not completed until later\\nyears.\\nThe Period of Growing Power, i^g4.-i6oi. In 1594\\nShakespeare was in his thirtieth year. His powers were\\nreaching the full strength of manhood he had been\\ntrained by at least seven years of practical experience in\\nthe best playhouses of the time; he had been in constant\\ncontact with the brightest minds of the age he had been\\nin touch with one of the most teeming and electric eras\\nin human history. The joyous thrill of the Armada year\\nhad not yet subsided. The fierce Marprelate controversy\\nwas echoing on every hand the new burst of lyric song\\nhad just begun The Faerie Queene had stirred the nation s\\nfancy Marlowe had ended his short and brilliant career\\nthe University Wits were at their best, what univer-\\nsity since the world began could offer such a seven years\\nof training\\nDespite his success with Venus and Adonis, lyric poetry\\ncould be only an avocation with Shakespeare. Every\\nyear saw him bound more closely to the theater. His\\nwork was becoming exceedingly profitable: in 1599 he\\nbecame a shareholder in the new Globe Theater circum-\\nstance had decreed that the best efforts of his life should\\nbe directed toward the profession that he had first chosen.\\nHe could not even thus early have been unconscious of\\nhis real power. The theater and the public had already", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "3o8 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Characters Become more Lifelike He Incarnates English Types\\nrecognized it. His early plays, while they abounded in\\ncrudities, had been welcomed as something new in Eng-\\nlish dramatic art. They had shown a marvelous imagi-\\nnation, an increasing power of characterization, a growing\\nfacility in the use of language and of dramatic verse.\\nDuring the next seven years Shakespeare reached his full\\ndevelopment as a dramatic artist. It was the period of\\ngradual breaking away from all traditions. His end-\\nstopped lines grow fewer and fewer; his rhyming coup-\\nlets steadily decrease; his comedy, though rough and\\nboisterous in The Taming of the Shrew and The Merry\\nWiveSy grows more refined and artistic; his characters\\nbecome more and more alive his blank verse, like that\\nin The Merchant of Venice, becomes marvelously flexible\\nand sonorous. It was the period of ma-\\nRichard II., 1594. i 1 1\\nKing John, 1595. turing Strength, and its themes and its\\nMerchant of Venice, ^^j^^g ^jj might CXpCCt of\\nRomeo and Juliet, vigorous early manhood. The poet s\\n1596-1597 patriotism is intense he delights in the\\nTaming of the Shrew,\\n1597 national heroes. How fondly he dwells\\niT97-i598^^ English of sovereigns,\\nMerry Wives of Henry V. He incamatcs English types\\nMTch Tdo tbcut and sets them living before us. What\\nNothing, 1598. creation in his whole marvelous gallery\\nHenr\u00c2\u00b0y v.! 1599. Hiorc lifelike than Sir John Falstaff\\nTwelfth Night, 1600- He studies English life with the minute-\\nness of a realist, what we know of Eliza-\\nbethan tavern life we know from him. He is full of the\\nmere joy of existence. His fancy, now extravagant and\\nboisterous, now disciplined and refined, peoples the forest\\nof Arden or ranges into Arcadia and unknown lands with\\nclassic names. He conceives his characters and scenes", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "Shakespeare 309\\nThe Period of Maturity The Darkest Themes of Tragedy\\nwith ever-increasing power. We live with them and in\\nthem. Life seems a joyous, glorified holiday where\\ndukes and kings and queens, clowns and boors, beautiful\\nmaidens and radiant lovers, join together in a world where\\nall things are possible, a world that exists only in the\\ndreams of healthy young manhood.\\nThe Period of Maturity^ 1601-1608. During the next\\nseven years Shakespeare was in the fullness of his powers.\\nHe had now reached the point where all experiment\\nceased. His dramatic style had become spontaneous;\\nhe had thrown away all traditions of predecessors and\\nwas writing as a master. His mind had reached full\\nmaturity deep reflective power and insight into charac-\\nter had come with maturing years. He could write now\\nfrom a large experience of human life. The workings of\\nthe soul, the play of motives, the chain of circumstance,\\nthe majesty of life, now appealed to him as they do to all\\nstrong and earnest men.\\nIt was at this point that, without apparent cause, the\\nwhole tone of his work suddenly changed. With the\\nsingle exception of Romeo and Juliet, that young man s\\nachievement, the lyrical tragedy of youth, of love, of\\ndeath, he had produced nothing but histories and joy-\\nous comedies. He now turned to the darkest themes of\\ntragedy, the hell of jealousy, of ingratitude, of o er-\\nweening ambition, of revenge. The seven deadly sins\\nwith all their attendant horrors hold high carnival, and\\nthe strong and the pure are helpless in their hands. Even\\nhis comedies became dark and ironical. As to what had\\nso embittered the man we can only guess. In financial\\naffairs he was prospering wonderfully. He had bought\\nin 1597 the best house in his native village; he had sue-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "3IO The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Financial Prosperity His Four Great Tragedies\\nceeded in 1599 in obtaining for his family a coat of arms\\nand a place among the gentry; he had purchased in\\n1602 one hundred and seven acres of the best land in\\nStratford, and he had shown other evidences of prosper-\\nity. But his only son had died in 1596, his friend Essex\\nhad gone to execution in 1602, and his early patron\\nSouthampton was in extreme danger. The poet com-\\nplains bitterly of false friends and of fickle fortune. He\\nis in disgrace with fortune and men s eyes, he is an\\noutcast, he is all alone, he despises his work, and even\\nhis life.\\nWhatever his frame of mind, however, his work during\\nJulius Caesar, 1601. thls era shows him to have been at the\\nAll s Well that Ends ygj.y gummit of hls powers. His four\\nWell, 1601-1602. r\\nHamlet, 1602. great tragedies, which followed each other\\nMeasure for Measure, SUCCCSsIon, Hamlet, Otkello,\\n1603.\\nTroiius and Cressida, King Lear, diVid.. Macbeth, mark the high-\\notheuo^ieo literary achievement of the English\\nKing Lear, 1605. mind, if not of the human race.\\nMacbeth, 1606.\\nAntony and Cleo-\\npatra, 1607. Each one [says Ten Brink] has its own peculiar ex-\\nCoriolanus, 1607. cellences, some points in which it surpasses the others.\\nTimon of Athens, None of them can rival Hamlet in its truth to nature,\\nand its wealth of psychological delineation. Othello,\\nwhich follows directly upon Hamlet, surpasses all the others in the strength\\nof its dramatic effects, culminating in the third act, which is indeed, dra-\\nmatically, the most thrilling act in all his writings. The succeeding tragedy,\\nMacbeth, stands alone by its grand simplicity of conception and the origi-\\nnality of its execution, giving us in a few bold strokes a consummate\\npicture of the strange workings of a human soul. But it is in King Lear\\nthat the poet attains the summit of his tragic powers. Higher than in\\nLear Shakespeare could not rise.\\nDuring all of this period Shakespeare produced no in-\\nferior work. His Julius Ccesar, Antony and Cleopatra,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "Shakespeare 311\\nHe Reaches His Highest Levels The Period of Calm after the Storm\\nand Coriolanus are well-nigh equal in conception and\\ndramatic art to his greatest masterpieces. In every line\\nthere is the conscious power, the marvelous skill, the\\nprofound knowledge of human life that Shakespeare\\nalone possessed.\\nThe Period of Retire^nent, 1 608-161 6. With Timon of\\nAthens, which doubtless was largely the work of another\\nplaywright, ended the period of trap;e-\\nr J t^ r S Pericles, 1608.\\ndies. The four remaining plays of Shake- cymbeiine, 1609.\\nspeare are romantic in their themes and V ^t^^T\\\\\\nThe Winter s Tale,\\nhappy in their endings. The atmosphere 1610-1611.\\nis one of lofty serenity; it is the peace ^7^\u00c2\u00b0^^\u00c2\u00b0^^^\\nafter the storm. The dramatist writes Henry viii., 1612-\\nfrom the fullness of experience he has\\ndrunk life to the full, and he speaks with authority\\nand precision. There is a grandeur, a compression of\\nthought, a mastery of expression in parts of these plays\\nthat one will in vain seek for elsewhere. One has but to\\ncompare the best passages of his early works with this,\\nfor instance, from The Tempest, to realize in its fullness\\nShakespeare s marvelous growth:\\nAnd, like the baseless fabric of this vision,\\nThe cloud-capp d towers, the gorgeous palaces,\\nThe solemn temples, the great globe itself,\\nYea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve,\\nAnd, like this unsubstantial pageant faded,\\nLeave not a rack behind. We are such stuff\\nAs dreams are made on and our little life\\nIs rounded with a sleep.\\nAfter 161 1, when he doubtless disposed of his last\\nstock in the London theaters, Shakespeare spent his re-\\nmaining years in Stratford in ease, retirement, and the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "312 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Last Years His Place and Influence\\nconversation of his friends. If we except two fragment-\\nary plays that doubtless passed under his hand, he did no\\nmore dramatic work. He had won the ideal of his life\\nand he cared for no more honors. The details of his last\\nyears have not come down to us. We know only that he\\ndied on April 23, 1616, and that he was buried in the\\nparish church of his native town, where his bones still\\nrepose.\\nShakespeare s Place and Influence. To study in detail\\nthe plays of Shakespeare, to dwell upon his myriad\\nmoods, and to analyze the elements of his dramatic art\\nis not within the province of this chapter. The student\\nmust do this work for himself; he must study with the\\nbest apparatus at his command all of the leading plays,\\nfor no education is complete without a full knowledge of\\nthe best creations of the great dramatist. This chapter\\ncan investigate only the gradual development of Shake-\\nspeare from his surroundings and his era, and determine\\nhis place in the history of the English drama and his in-\\nfluence upon his successors.\\nIt must be realized first of all that Shakespeare was a\\nnatural development; that he was not a supernatural\\ngenius who arose unheralded and unaccounted for, an\\ninspired peasant who warbled spontaneously his native\\nwood-notes wild. The contrast between the poet s birth\\nand early training and the marvelous creations of his\\nlater years is so great that many sober critics have taken\\nrefuge in the theory that Lord Bacon, and not Shake-\\nspeare, wrote the plays, a theory that seems to us not\\nworth refuting. Others have accepted Shakespeare as a\\npure and unaccountable genius, like Morphy, the chess\\nplayer, or Colburn, the mathematician. But there is no", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "Shakespeare 3 1 3\\nShakespeare a Natural Evolution A Blend of the Celt and Teuton\\nneed of such subterfuges. Shakespeare was only one re-\\nsult of a great literary movement. The same forces that\\nproduced him produced a score of other dramatists of\\nalmost equal magnitude. He is only the loftiest peak in\\na great mountain range which was elevated all at once by\\nthe same primal impulse. That he surpassed all of his\\ncontemporaries was due wholly to the harmonious blend-\\ning of the elements of his nature. There was scarcely a\\ndramatist of the era but what equaled or even surpassed\\nhim at some one point. In Shakespeare the elements of\\nstrength were evenly balanced.\\nThe circumstances of his early life need not trouble us.\\nHis family was by no means of peasant blood the Ardens\\nhad at one time been prominent among the gentry.\\nFrom his mother the poet inherited a sensitive and re-\\nfined nature; from his father he received the practical\\nand active temperament that served as a balance to his\\npoetic side. He was a perfect blend of the Celtic and\\nthe Teutonic elements. He had the sensitive, sympa-\\nthetic, intuitive nature of the Celt, and it was this that\\nmade him the sweetest Shakespeare, the man idolized\\nby his contemporaries, and that allowed him to project\\nhimself into the lives of others, to feel intensely their\\njoys, their passions, their woes. He had the fancy, the\\nlightness, the humor, the nervous energy of the Celt,\\nbut blended with it all he had the masculine vigor, the\\nserious, often gloomy, outlook, the hard common sense\\nof the Teuton. It is hard to say which element predom-\\ninates in the poet. The Midsummer Nighf s Dream is all\\nCeltic, but Macbeth may be compared even with Beowulf\\nas to its Teutonism. There is no squeamishness about\\nthe poet blood flows freely even in his best tragedies", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "314 The Foundations of English Literature\\nA Symmetrically Developed Man His Dramatic Art no Accident\\nHamlet ends almost as bloodily as does Titus Andronicus\\nand the pre-Shakespearian tragedies. It was the perfect\\nblending of these two diverse elements that gave him his\\npower.\\nMoreover, Shakespeare s education need not trouble\\nus. He lived during the active period of his life amid an\\nenvironment that was tenfold better than any university,\\nand the marvelous epoch of which he was a part de-\\nveloped him, unlike so many of his contemporaries, sym-\\nmetrically. It created in him no theories; it placed him\\nupon no hobbies. His very lack of a university course\\ntended to make him more sane and tolerant.\\nHis dramatic art was no accident; it grew from a long\\npractical experience with the stage and a careful study\\nof the public wants. He threw himself with all his Teu-\\ntonic energy into his chosen profession. The youth\\nwho at twenty-two was penniless and unkhown in a vast\\ncity, at thirty -three was able to purchase the best estate\\nin his native town, to procure for his family a patent of\\nnobility, and to win the patronage of royalty itself.\\nThis alone is enough to show the intensity with which he\\nhad practiced his profession. He was first of all a prac-\\ntical, studious, hard-working caterer to the wants of the\\ntheater-going public. It was the ruling thought of his\\nwhole life to make his every line count upon his audi-\\nences, to hold his hearers within his grasp, and to move\\nthem as he would. As an actor in his own plays he had\\na chance to study the effect of his work his characters\\nstood living before him in the persons of his fellow-play-\\ners; it was as if he wrote with his characters actually in\\nthe flesh about him and in the presence of his audience.\\nTo do this was to make a successful play, and success-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "Shakespeare 3 1 5\\nHis Knowledge of Human Life His Use of External Nature\\nful plays meant increased income, a worthy home for his\\ndeclining years, and the honor and respect of all men.\\nHis marvelous grasp upon the meaning of life, his in-\\nsight into human character, and his knowledge of every\\nround of human experience came from his quick sympathy\\nand intuition and his wide acquaintance with gifted men\\nin an era of great intellectual activity. His knowledge of\\nexternal nature, of country life and scenes, came from his\\nearly experiences at Stratford. He was an accurate ob-\\nserver, and he knew the birds and flowers as well as did\\nChaucer. He is seldom at fault in his descriptions and\\nallusions, but to him external nature was but the back-\\nground for the play of human character, and in the ab-\\nsence of all scenery on the early stage he elaborated his\\nbackgrounds with peculiar minuteness and care. Nature\\nis ever in sympathy with the action. Lovers ever woo\\nin the moonlight amid the flowers murderers ever work\\nat midnight to the accompaniment of the owl and the\\nstorm.\\nThe influence of Shakespeare upon later literature can\\nhardly be estimated. He created no sudden revolution\\nhe was no literary dictator like his contemporary, Jonson.\\nHe illustrates perfectly the old fable of the contest be-\\ntween the wind and the sun. His contemporaries, who\\nwere all men of broader education, did not dream of his\\ntranscendent superiority, and he took no pains to impress\\nit upon them.\\nHe was gentle Shakespeare to them [declares Gosse], and they loved\\nboth the man and his poetry. That he excelled them at every point, as\\nthe oak excels the willow, this, had it been whispered at the Mermaid,\\nwould have aroused smiles of derision, It must not be forgotten\\nthat his works made no definite appeal to the reading class until after his", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "3i6 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Influence of His Work Three Centuries of Shakespeare\\ndeath. The study of Shakespeare as a book cannot date farther back\\nthan 1623.\\nBut the quiet, pervasive influence of Shakespeare s\\nwork told upon the playgoing public. After a taste of\\nhis marvelous dramas it was impossible to satisfy them\\nwith anything else. Jonson might propound with vigor\\nhis learned theories it was the sun working silently and\\ngently that won. After Hamlet^ Othello, Macbeth, and\\nLear, it was impossible for the English stage to develop\\nanything but the strong romantic drama.\\nThree Centuries of Shakespeare. During the centuries\\nsince the close of the Elizabethan era Shakespeare has\\nhad a varied career. The Restoration stage preferred\\nits drama in the French style Shakespeare was altered\\nand improved remorselessly. During the classic\\nAugustan period the great dramatist was looked\\nupon as a rude and Gothic genius who sang wood-\\nnotes wild, but who sadly needed polish. In the\\nmiddle of the eighteenth century David Garrick, the\\nactor, began his revival of the old dramatist, which soon\\nresulted in a Shakespeare fever. Soon afterwards\\nbegan the era of Shakespearian scholars, Dr. Johnson,\\nCapell, Steevens, Malone, and others, who industriously\\ncollected every scrap of textual information. It was not\\nuntil 1 8 14, however, when Coleridge began his celebrated\\nseries of lectures, that modern Shakespearian criticism,\\nwhich is constructive and sympathetic, may be said to\\nhave begun. Since then Shakespeare has been the\\nsupreme figure in English literature. The Germans\\nhave studied his plays as if they were a part of the phe-\\nnomena of Nature herself, and the English have written\\nvoluminously upon every phase of his work. The growth", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "Shakespeare 3 1 7\\nSupreme Figure in English Literature His Characterization of Brutus\\nof Shakespeare as an educating power has been constant\\nall through the present century, until to-day he is studied\\nby every schoolboy, and his works, in annotated editions\\nfor every possible use, are like leaves in the autumn\\nforests.\\nSuch was Shakespeare. It is impossible for us to do\\nmore than introduce him to the reader. He is in him-\\nself a literature, and to treat adequately his art and his\\npersonality would require volumes. Yet no amount of\\ncriticism could describe the man better than he has done\\nhimself in his comment upon Brutus in Julius Ccesar\\nHis life was gentle, and the elements\\nSo mix d in him that Nature might stand up\\nAnd say to all the world, This was a Man\\nRequired Reading. The minimum reading of Shake-\\nspeare should include Romeo and Juliet^ A Midsummer\\nNight s Dreamy The Merchant of Venice, As You Like It,\\nThe Merry Wives of Windsor, The Winter s Tale, Richard\\nIII,, Henry V., Julius Ccesar, Hamlet, Macbeth, King\\nLear, Othello, and The Tempest,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXII\\nBEN JONSON AND HIS CIRCLE\\nHe stands alone, colossal, iron-jointed, the behemoth of the\\ndrama. Symonds.\\nTHE years between 1593 and 1616 are so filled with the\\nradiance of Shakespeare that we are liable to forget\\nthat other dramatists of originality and power were at\\nwork during the same era. The same conditions that\\nhad produced the master dramatist produced, as we have\\nalready remarked, a school of playwrights whose produc-\\ntions, even had there arisen no Shakespeare, would have\\nmade the age a glorious one. Contemporary criticism\\nwas unjust to Shakespeare. He won the hearts of the\\npeople with his romantic creations, but the scholars of\\nthe period, the literary critics and dramatic experts, by\\nno means awarded to him the preeminent place that he\\nhas since gained. The real literary master of the age, the\\nculmination of correct dramatic art, was, almost by ac-\\nclamation of the critics, the ponderous Ben Jonson. Near\\nhim in learned esteem stood the classic Chapman and the\\nmore romantic Dekker, Heywood, and Marston. It\\nwas this group of dramatists that, with Marlowe and\\nShakespeare, made the golden age of the Elizabethan\\ndrama.\\nBen Jonson (iS73-i6jy)\\nAuthorities. The standard edition of Jonson has long\\nbeen Gifford s, first issued in 18 16; more modern and\\n318", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "Ben Jonson and His Circle 319\\nThe Contrast between Shakespeare and Jonson Jonson s Teutonic Traits\\nhelpful editions, however, are those by Nicholson and\\nHerford (Mermaid Series) and by Cunningham. The\\nNotes of Ben Jonson s Conversations with William Drnm-\\nfnond of Hawthornden (Shakespeare Society) is the chief\\noriginal authority on the life of the poet the most help-\\nful recent life is Symonds in English Worthies Series.\\nSwinburne, Study of Ben Jonson, a somewhat glowing\\npicture Bell, The Poems of Robert Greene, Christopher\\nMarlowe, and Ben Jonson, and Schelling, Ben Jonson s\\nTimber, are valuable helps.\\nNever was there a more perfect contrast than that be-\\ntween the two leading dramatists of the Elizabethan age.\\nThey were results of precisely the same general condi-\\ntions, they received their dramatic experience in the\\nsame school; they did their strongest work during the\\nsame decade yet the plays of Jonson, while just as origi-\\nnal as those of Shakespeare, belong to an utterly different\\nworld. The early life of the two poets was radically dif-\\nferent. The childhood and youth of Jonson were spent in\\nLondon. While Shakespeare was studying the fields and\\nthe birds, country types and scenes, Jonson was threading\\nthe narrow streets of the great metropolis, noting its\\nteeming life and its curious personages; or was receiving\\nat the hands of the scholar Cambden the beginnings of\\na ponderous education. Unlike Shakespeare, his tem-\\nperament was prevailingly Teutonic. He was irascible,\\noverbearing, intolerant; he lacked the quick sympathy\\nand the Celtic intuition of his elder brother in the Muse;\\nhe was large of limb, muscular, and in later life unwieldy\\nand unhealthy of body he drank with Teutonic freedom\\nhis appetite was enormous. Shakespeare s imagination\\nwas quick and restless he seldom blotted a line he threw\\noff his work almost carelessly. Jonson elaborated his", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "320 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHe Despises the Stage A Man Born for Strife\\nlines slowly and with extreme labor; he spent weeks and\\nmonths in the planning of his work and the careful per-\\nfecting of its parts. Shakespeare threw his heart and\\nsoul into his chosen profession he studied his audiences,\\nand with marvelous intuition built up a dramatic art that\\nwould appeal to them at every point Jonson hated the\\npeople and the popular stage, and he abandoned them at\\nthe first opportunity. He would not, longer than he could\\nhelp, make himself a page to that strumpet the stage.\\nTo him the audience was the beast, the multitude.\\nThey love nothing that is right and proper. He would\\nnot please them he would educate them to like what\\nthey should. People go to the theaters to be amused\\nnot to be educated, and it is not strange that Jonson s\\nplays never succeeded. All of his work for the popular\\nstage, he once declared, netted him scarce ;^200. Shake-\\nspeare is ever the gentle Shakespeare with his con-\\ntemporaries; he figures not at all in any of the fierce\\ncontroversies of the era his theories of dramatic art he\\nnever formulated; his fellow-artists he never criticised:\\nbut a wild battle raged about Jonson during his whole\\ncareer.\\nHe was born for strife. In his youth he had run away\\nfrom his stepfather, who would make of him a bricklayer,\\nand had joined the army in the Netherlands, where he\\nhad in face of both campes, killed ane enemie and taken\\nopima spolia from him. Later, after returning to Eng-\\nland and joining a theater company, he had slain in a\\nduel a fellow-actor, for which crime he had narrowly\\nescaped the gallows. He would be master wherever he\\nwent; he would say the last word concerning literary\\nart; but his rivals, says Minto, had too much", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "Ben Jonson and His Circle 321\\nHe Adheres to the Unities of Aristotle His Work Perfect in Construction\\nrespect for themselves to give way absolutely to his\\nauthority. They refused to be as grasshoppers in his\\nsight, and the result we know. He carried on a wordy\\nwar with Dekker, and he even used personal violence\\nupon Marston.\\nHis Period of Dramatic Work, Jonson was doubtless\\ndrawn into dramatic work much as was Shakespeare. He\\nbegan as an editor of old plays, and as a collaborator with\\nother playwrights. His first significant comedy, Every\\nMan in His Humour^ was first acted in 1596, and follow-\\ning this there appeared before 1616, which closed his first\\ndramatic period, no less than nine prominent comedies\\nand two tragedies. His conception of the drama was far\\ndifferent from Shakespeare s. He defended with vigor\\nthe canons of Aristotle; from his earliest prologue in\\nEvery Man in His Humour to the last pages of his Timber\\nhe insisted upon a rigid observance of the dramatic unities.\\nBut Jonson was not a man to follow long the leadership\\nof a master, even though he were Aristotle himself. His\\ncomedy was a new creation, neither classical nor romantic.\\nHe took the classic stage properties and traditions and\\nre-created them even as Shakespeare re-created the\\nromantic drama. His work is true, in a degree, to the\\nunities, especially the unity of time; it is carefully elabo-\\nrated in plot, and it is skillfully combined. Its accumu-\\nlation of incident, its movement of characters, and its\\nstudied organic unity are well-nigh perfect. He took\\nall of his materials from contemporary low life he made\\nhis own plots; he studied, with all the minute pains of a\\nrealist, every type of\\nShark, squire, impostor, many persons more\\nWhose manners, now called humours, feed the s*;age.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "32 2 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Delineation of Humors All His Characters Extremes\\nIt is the delineation of these humors, these personal\\npeculiarities, extravagant habits, passions, or affecta-\\ntions of the low classes that makes up the comedy of\\nJonson. His two earliest titles strike the keynote of all\\nhis work; every man is in his own humor during the\\nfirst four acts of the comedy, and, as Minto remarks, out\\nof his humor in the last act. In other words, each\\ncharacter has his own distinguishing mark which we\\nnever for a moment are allowed to forget, he is a miser,\\na hypocrite, a glutton, a parasite, a quack, a shrew, and\\nthroughout the whole comedy he emphasizes with every\\naction and word his ruling passion. The glutton does\\nnothing but eat and talk of eating; the miser never\\nthinks or speaks of anything but gold; the hypocrite\\nnever for an instant forgets his whine and his pious cant.\\nThe various humors triumph during the first four acts\\nthe impostors dupe all who meet them; the scoundrels\\nhave nothing but success but all receive poetic justice in\\nthe last act. All the characters are extremes. Volpone,\\nthe aged miser, who feigns mortal sickness that his pos-\\nsible heirs may bring him presents Morose, the churlish\\nold misanthrope of The Silent Woman^ who is morbidly\\nsensitive to noise the miserly Mannon in The Alchemist\\nthe hypocritical Puritan, Zeal-of-the-Hand Busy in Bar-\\ntholomew Fair, and indeed every character the poet has\\ndrawn is an impossible creature, a mere caricature of\\nhumanity. Jonson s object in such extreme pictures\\nwas to make vice and shams detested by simply showing\\nthem in exaggerated forms. But caricature never re-\\nforms; mere distortion can only provoke curiosity and\\nmirth. Jonson saw only the outside of things; his lack\\nof intuition and sympathy made him a mere painter of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "Ben Jonson and His Circle 323\\nHis Satire The First Poet Laureate\\ngrotesque masks. Of the struggles of the soul and the\\nmotives of the heart he never dreamed. He is rather a\\nsatirist; his wit is brilliant but it leaves a cruel sting.\\nHe had, says Lowell, a keen and ready eye for the\\ncomic in situation, but no humor. He sneers at\\nhumanity we laugh at his creations, never with them\\nthey are mere figures in hideous disguises, that fail to\\nmove us by their very grotesqueness. In his superabun-\\ndance of characters and his caricature-like creations he\\nreminds us of Dickens, but the great novelist possessed\\nthe sympathy and the toleration that gave life to his\\ncharacters, distorted though they sometimes are, while\\nJonson seldom made anything but wooden figures.\\nJonson twice attempted tragedy, but with small suc-\\ncess. Sejanus and Catiline are studies in Roman history,\\npassionless and unsympathetic. They do not appeal to\\nthe hopes and fears of humanity they are learned and\\nclassical; they have all the accuracy and coldness of a\\nmarble frieze.\\nAt Court. In 1616, the year of Shakespeare s death,\\nthere opened a new era in the life of Jonson. He was\\ngranted a pension by the Crown and he laureates.\\nwas made poet laureate, an honor offi- 1616-1637. Ben jonson.\\ncially s^iven for the first time. During ^^37-1668. wiiiiam\\nDavenant.\\nthe next ten years he wrote only for 1670-1688. John Dry.\\naristocratic circles. He addressed lyrics\\n1689-1692. Thomas\\nand epigrams to noble patrons, he made shadweii.\\nsongs in various keys, he created large ^692-1715.\\nN ahu m\\nTate.\\nnumbers of masques which were given 1715-1718. Nicholas\\nelaborate stage settings by such artists as\\no -o J 1718-1730. Lawrence\\nInigo Jones, and performed before the Eusden.\\nking and his court, and he wrote his two ^^^-^J^?. coiieycib-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "324 The Foundations of English Literature\\nO Rare Ben Jonson Jonson s Lyrics\\n1757-1785. William bcautiful apostfophcs to Shakespeare,\\n1785-1790/ Thorn as whlch are now doubtless the most widely\\nwarton. knowii of all his works. During this era\\nXinesPye. he bccame the recognized leader of Eng-\\n1813-1843. Robert lish poets, the first of that line of literary\\ni843\u00c2\u00b0-^85o.^ w i 1 1 i a m kings whose best-known representatives\\nWordsworth. j^ later years are Dryden and Dr. Johnson.\\nnyson. TAe Last Period of his Life, which dates\\n1894 Alfred Aus- from 1625, was sad in the extreme. His\\ntin.\\nirregular life had given him an enormous,\\ntun-like body, inflicted with many infirmities. The\\ndeath of James had for several years deprived him of his\\nusual income, and he turned again to his old profession\\nfor support. But his later comedies added little to his\\nfame or fortune; all that he did during these declining\\nyears must rank among his dotages. He held for a\\ntime a minor ofifice in London, but he soon lost even\\nthis and troubles gathered thickly about him. Palsied,\\ndropsical, bedridden, he passed his last days almost\\nalone. He died on the 6th of August, 1637, and was\\nburied in the Poet s Corner of Westminster Abbey. In\\nlater years a stranger in the city, noticing the unmarked\\nslab over his grave, gave orders for the simple inscrip-\\ntion, O rare Ben Jonson.\\nHis Style and Rank, Jonson s masques are sometimes\\nlight and graceful, and in connection with the gorgeous\\nsettings amid which they first appeared they doubtless\\nwere really charming. But much of their beauty has\\nevaporated since the days of their first triumphs, and to\\nmost readers now they are dull and spiritless. The little\\nlyrics, however, scattered everywhere among them, are\\noften of dainty finish. It was as a lyrist that Jonson", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "Ben Jonson and His Circle 325\\nA Realist Among the Romanticists Jonson s Excellences\\ncame the nearest to true spontaneous art. His epigrams\\nare marvels of compression, and such songs as It is\\nnot growing like a tree, and Drink to me only with\\nthine eyes, and For love s sake kiss me once again,\\nprepared the way for such lyric masters as Herrick.\\nAs a dramatist Jonson marks the first significant symp-\\ntom of the reaction against the imaginative school, and\\nhe thus became the parent of the dramatists of the Res-\\ntoration. He appealed to the intellect rather than to the\\nimagination and the feelings. Among the romanticists\\nhe was a realist in the modern sense of the term. He\\nsought not for the beautiful and the ideal but for the\\nrepulsive and the disgusting, and he pictured them\\nfaithfully from every standpoint. He was material rather\\nthan spiritual, and thus he struck the first note of deca-\\ndence. He would have had Shakespeare blot a thousand\\nlines, but he loved the man and would not have dreamed\\nof actually doing the blotting himself. It was but a step\\nto the generation that actually did blot the thousand\\nlines and more.\\nJonson s excellences lay in his constructive power, his\\nperfection of plot, and his ingenuity of intellect in the\\nvast range of his learning and his observation, and in his\\nperfect sincerity and honesty. He was, in the words of\\nCrofts,\\na great, high-minded spirit, of high standards, shocked with the immorality\\nof his time, longing to be its teacher showing the bad effects of his\\ndivorce from his age in the pompous-pedantic tone, the consciousness with\\nwhich he enunciates sentiments whose morality he knows will strike un-\\npleasantly a popular audience, in the brutal coarseness of some of his\\nplays, when contemporary manners are represented at their worst in order\\nto point a moral.\\nThe courage, the vigor and manliness of Jonson which", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "326 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Mermaid Inn Wit-Combats between Shakespeare and Jonson\\ncrushed all opposition by sheer force, his vast intellect,\\nand his marvelous industry will ever endear him to all\\nwho love the English character.\\nThe Mermaid Inn. The life of Jonson brings before us\\nfor the first time an institution that was to play an in-\\ncreasing part in the development of English literature.\\nThere were no clubs in Elizabethan days, but their places\\nwere amply supplied by the inns, where gathered night\\nafter night merry bands of congenial spirits. The Mer-\\nmaid early became the headquarters of actors and play-\\nwrights. Here, evening after evening, gathered that\\nimmortal band headed by Shakespeare and Jonson, Hey-\\nwood and Marston and Fletcher, to hold contests both\\nwet and witty, which there was no Boswell to record.\\nMany were the wit-combats [wrote Fuller in his Worthies^ twixt him\\nand Ben Jonson, which two I beheld like a Spanish great galleon and an\\nEnglish man of war Master Jonson (like the former) was built far higher\\nin learning, solid but slow in his performances Shakespear, with the\\nEnglish man of war, lesser in bulk, but lighter in sailing, could turn with\\nall tides, tack about, and take advantage of all winds by the quickness of\\nhis wit and invention.\\nBeaumont, in a letter to Jonson, thus described the\\nmeetings in this famous hostelry\\nWhat things we have seen\\nDone at the Mermaid heard words that have been\\nSo nimble and so full of subtle flame\\nAs if every one from whence they came\\nHad meant to put his whole wit in a jest\\nAnd had resolved to live a fool the rest\\nOf his dull life.\\nIn later years Jonson frequented other inns, the Sun,\\nthe Dog, the Triple Tun. But it was the old Devil", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "Ben Jonson and His Circle 327\\nThe Tribe of Ben George Chapman\\nTavern at Temple Bar where he so long ruled the Apollo\\nClub as literary dictator. Here he gathered about him\\nthe Tribe of Ben, a band of young writers and men\\nof station who hung breathless upon his words, men who\\nwere to be rulers during the next literary era, Herrick,\\nSuckling, Brome, Cartwright, Field, Howell, and many\\nothers.\\nThe era of the inn and the coffee-house did not end\\nuntil after the days of the Old Cheshire Cheese and the\\nreign of Samuel Johnson. For a century and more the\\npublic house was to be a dominating element in English\\nliterature.\\nRequired Reading. The best comedies of Jonson are\\nEvery Man in His Humour (in the London Series, and\\nTemple Dramatists), The Alchemist (in Thayer s Best\\nElizabethan Plays), Volpone the Fox, and The Silent\\nWoman. The student should read at least the first two,\\nthe poems eulogizing Shakespeare, and a selection of\\nlyrics from Underwoods.\\n2. George Chapman (iS59 f-i6j^)\\nAuthorities. Shepherd, Chapman s Plays, and Phelps,\\nBest Plays of ChapmaJt, in Mermaid Series, and Swin-\\nburne, The Poems and Minor Translations of Chapman,\\nare the most helpful editions. Swinburne, George Chap-\\nman An Essay, and Lowell s essay in Old English\\nDramatists are suggestive and helpful studies. Snep-\\nherd s translation of Homer s Iliad and Odyssey is an\\nexcellent edition of Chapman s Homer. See also Mat-\\nthew Arnold s essay On Translating Homer.\\nTo the majority of readers Chapman is known only as\\nthe translator of Homer and the inspirer of Keats ex-\\nquisite sonnet. Had he done nothing besides this trans-\\nlation he would still be a large figure in the Elizabethan", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "328 The Foundations of English Literature\\nLittle Known of His Life A Ponderous and Reflective Marlowe\\nage, but he was a dramatist as well, and a popular one,\\neven in the days of Shakespeare and Ben Jonson. His\\nlife is almost unknown. He was born in Kent, he was\\neducated in both universities, and he first appeared in\\nLondon in 1594. In the following year he produced\\nwith Jonson and Marston a play entitled Eastward Ho\\nwhich, on account of certain reflections upon the Scotch,\\nbrought its authors for a time into prison. Again in\\n1606 he was forced to flee from the wrath of the French\\nambassador, who had been greatly offended by The Duke\\nof Biron. We know little else concerning the dramatist\\nsave the dates of his plays and a few contemporary\\nallusions.\\nAs a Dramatist Chapman may be described as a ponder-\\nous and reflective Marlowe. His genius was epic rather\\nthan dramatic. He loved a brilliant hero, one of colossal\\nmold\\nGive me a spirit that on this life s rough sea\\nLoves to have his sails filled with a lusty wind,\\nEven till his sail-yards tremble, his masts crack,\\nAnd his rapt ship run on her side so low\\nThat she drinks water and her keel plows air.\\nThere is no danger to a man who knows\\nWhat life and death is.\\nHe delighted in stirring deeds on land and sea. His\\ntragedies are the lives of heroes who, like Tamburlaine,\\ngo from triumph to triumph. The minor actors are ob-\\nscured in the fierce light shed on the central figure.\\nThere is little attempt at character analysis there is no\\nlaying bare of the heart and the soul, but everywhere\\nthere is a striving after the grand and the extraordinary.\\nWebster speaks of Chapman s full and heightened", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "Ben Jonson and His Circle 329\\nHis Full and Heightened Style Best Read in Selections\\nstyle, and indeed there are places in his dramas that are\\nfree-aired and vast, that thrill and exhilarate us with their\\nforce and sweep. But he sometimes, like Marlowe, goes\\nbeyond safe limits and makes mere bombast. He sought,\\nin his own words, to\\nShun common and plebeian forms of speech.\\nBut he had not the passion and the lightness of touch of\\nhis younger rival. He had more restraint; he was pon-\\nderous and didactic. He had learned from Jonson that\\na drama should teach a lesson, and accordingly he is often\\ntedious and pedantic. He was by nature grave and\\nspeculative; Wood mentions him as a person of most\\nreverend aspect, religious and temperate. His extrav-\\nagance came by flashes; his dramas are not, like Mar-\\nlowe s, all of a piece; no writer was ever more uneven.\\nHe describes with vigor and fire a duel with six contest-\\nants, and at the critical moment when it seems as if the\\nhero will prove to be the sole surviving victor, he pauses\\nfor a long Homeric simile. It is for this reason that he\\nis best read in selections there are passages in his works\\nthat equal anything produced during the whole period,\\nbut the dramas as a whole are of inferior merit. They\\nare full, as Dryden remarked, of dwarfish thought\\ndressed up in gigantic words, repetition in abundance,\\nlooseness of expression, and gross hyperbole, the sense\\nof one line prodigiously expanded into ten.\\nHis comedy falls below his tragedy. He was superior\\nto Jonson in force and fire, but he lacked his master s\\ncomic vein and his skill and constructive power.\\nNearly all of his comedies [says Lowell] are formless and coarse, but", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "330 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Lack of Humor and His Coarseness Chapman s Translation of Homer\\nwith what seems to me a kind of stiff and willful coarseness, as if he were\\ntrying to make his personages speak in what he supposed to be their\\nproper dialect, in which he himself was unpracticed, having never learned\\nit in those haunts, familiar to most of his fellow-poets, where it was ver-\\nnacular. He thought he was being comic, and there is, on the\\nwhole, no more depressing sight than a naturally grave man under that\\ndelusion.\\nHe constantly depreciated woman, and he invariably\\ndealt with the baser motives and passions. All Fools y\\none of his early titles, might, as Minto remarks, be\\ngiven as the title to all of his comedies. Not one charac-\\nter in them rises above the ignoble level.\\nChapman s Homer. It was in his translation of Homer\\nthat Chapman did by far his best work. The epic bent\\nof his nature found in Homer a congenial field, and he\\nthrew himself with his whole soul into the translation.\\nHe believed that he had been born to accomplish this\\none task. He brought to Homer the Elizabethan view\\nof life, its humors and its fantasticalities, its freedom and\\nits exuberance, its lyric inspiration, its unbounded youth\\nand hope. He brought his own poetic peculiarities, his\\nlove of action, of the sea, of the deeds of heroes. He\\ntook unwarranted liberties with the text; he twisted it\\neverywhere to conform to his own personality and ideals;\\nhe expanded and changed the similes, and added what-\\never and whenever he pleased. The result was a work\\nthat Coleridge declared as truly an original poem as The\\nFaerie Queene. It will, he adds, give you small\\nidea of Homer, though a far truer one than Pope s\\nepigrams or Cowper s cumbersome, most anti-Homeric\\nMiltonism. For Chapman writes and feels as a poet, as\\nHomer might have written had he lived in England in", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "Ben Jonson and His Circle 331\\nA True Elizabethan Epic Minor Dramatists of the Earlier School\\nthe reign of Queen Elizabeth. Assuredly it is not\\nHomer as some have maintained. I confess, says\\nMatthew Arnold, that I can never read twenty lines of\\nChapman s version without recurring to Bentley s cry,\\nThis is not Homer. Yet the great critic freely admits\\nthat Chapman is plain-spoken, fresh, vigorous, and\\nto a certain degree rapid, and all these are Homeric\\nqualities.\\nIt is not too much to claim for Chapman s translation\\nwhat the poet himself would not for a moment have\\nadmitted: that it is well-nigh an original creation and\\nthat it comes nearer to being a native Elizabethan epic\\nthan anything else written during the era. It came at\\nthe very flood-tide of the creative period, when the air was\\nfull of music and electric with creative energy. If it is\\nnot a distinct and original epic, it nevertheless is Homer\\nset to the marvelous Elizabethan music.\\nRequired Reading. At least one book of Chapman s\\nHomer; also Keats sonnet On First Looking into Chap-\\nman s Homer.\\nJ. Thomas Heywood (1581 f -164.0\\nAuthorities. Pearson, The Works of Heywood, 6\\nvols. Best Plays of Heywood and of Decker, Mermaid\\nSeries; Dramatic Works of Tho7nas Dekker (London,\\n1873); Marston s Works in Bullen s English Dramatists,\\n3 vols.\\nAmong the minor dramatists of the earlier days who\\nbegan their work with Shakespeare and Jonson, and who\\nbelong to the same original and spontaneous school, the\\nmost conspicuous are Heywood, Marston, and Dekker.\\nOf none of them have we more than the fragments of a", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "332 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThomas Heywood His Sympathetic Pictures of Humble Life\\nbiography. They are mere names, vague shadows that\\nflit through the era, leaving nothing of their personaHty\\nand history save what may be gathered from their dramas.\\nThey grew, Hke Shakespeare, from the popular stage;\\nthey were taught by Marlowe and the University Wits,\\nand unlike Jonson they followed romantic models.\\nWhile they sometimes did exceedingly well, while in\\nsome things they approached the great master of the\\nepoch, they had not his symmetry of power, his all-\\nembracing intuition, his artistic sense, his knowledge of\\nlife. They are, taken for all in all, distinctly minor\\nfigures when we compare them with Shakespeare they\\nmade no significant addition to the drama as he left it;\\nthey contributed not even to the decline of the period,\\nand consequently we need not examine closely their\\nwork. A study of Heywood, who may be taken as a\\ntype of this whole school of dramatists, will show their\\nprevailing characteristics, their mastery of certain phases\\nof dramatic art, their fatal defects.\\nThe chief merit of Heywood lies in his mastery of\\npathos and his power to depict scenes and characters in\\nhumble life. He delighted in rural pictures, in the de-\\nlineation of country types and customs, in touching\\nstories of love amid humble surroundings. Nowhere,\\nnot even in Shakespeare, do we get nearer to the cottage\\nhearth, and the picture is ever tender and sympathetic,\\nfor Heywood was the gentlest of all poets that have\\nswept the chords of passion. He had none of Mar-\\nston s fierce satire, or his blood and thunder:\\nWe use no drum nor trumpet, nor dumb show\\nAs song, dance, masque, to bombast out a play.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "Ben Jonson and His Circle 333\\nHis Powerful Passages His Pathos and Intensity\\nhe declares in his English Traveller he has none of Jon-\\nson s cynicism or Chapman s depreciation of woman.\\nHis characters are charming and simple we feel even for\\nthe guilty ones there are times when we see the very\\nsoul of the victim. The agony of Frankford in A Woman\\nKilled with Kindness, when he discovers the faithlessness\\nof his wife\\nO God O God that it were possible\\nTo undo things done to call back yesterday\\nThat Time could turn up his swift sandy glass,\\nTo untell the days, and to redeem these hours\\nOr that the sun\\nCould, rising from the west, draw his coach backward,\\nTake from the account of time so many minutes\\nTill he had all these seasons called again,\\nThose minutes, and those actions done in them,\\nEven from her first offense that I might take her\\nAs spotless as an angel in my arms\\nBut, oh I talk of things impossible\\nAnd cast beyond the moon\\nthe grief of Bess in The Fair Maid of the West when\\ncompelled to part with the picture of her love whom she\\nbelieves to be dead\\nthou, the perfect semblance of my love\\nAnd all that s left of him, take one sweet kiss\\nAs my last sad farewell Thou resemblest him\\nFor whose sweet safety I was every morning\\nDown on my knees, and with the lark s sweet tunes\\n1 did begin my prayers and when sad sleep\\nHad charmed all eyes, when none save the bright stars\\nWere up and waking, I remembered thee\\nand many other passages come in pathos and intensity\\nvery near to Shakespeare s level. Dekker alone can", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "334 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Lack of Sustained Power A Prose Shakespeare\\nstand with Heywood, after Shakespeare, as a delineator\\nof grief and tenderness and as an interpreter of the\\nfeminine heart.\\nWhere Heywood failed was in sustained dramatic art.\\nHe could not follow the gradual unfolding of character.\\nHis personages act often without sufficient motive the\\nwife of Frankford, a faithful and charming creature,\\nyields suddenly to crime for no apparent reason. The\\nplays are extremely uneven. Often through a whole\\ndrama, as in The Wise Woman of Hogsden, we find nothing\\nthat moves us. We are interested the story is well told,\\nbut there is no passion, no appeal to the deeper emotions.\\nThe poetry has been omitted we think of Lamb s criti-\\ncism of Heywood as a sort of prose Shakespeare. Had\\nthe poet been able to maintain himself at the heights that\\nhe sometimes reached had he studied more carefully the\\nheart-life of his characters at every point as the play de-\\nveloped, instead of only at the periods of crisis had he\\nstriven more for unity of plot and characterization, he\\nmight have raised himself far above the minor figures\\namong whom he now moves.\\nDespite his defects, however, despite the blots that\\never and anon disfigure his work, Heywood is a thor-\\noughly enjoyable writer. It is often a sore task to read\\nJonson; one positively rebels before some of Chapman s\\nwork, but no one can despise Heywood. Whatever he\\ndoes, he never fails to interest. He has a dash of romance\\nand adventure, a collection of interesting characters, a\\ntouch of pathos and of sentiment that are irresistible.\\nWe come to love the man and to name his plays among\\nour favorite books to be read more than once. To the\\naverage reader, who cares nothing for the critics. The", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "Ben Jonson and His Circle 335\\nThe Fair Maid of the West\\nFair Maid of the West, despite its defects, is worth more\\nthan Jonson s whole repertory.\\nRequired Reading. A Woman Killed with Kindness\\nis Heywood s strongest play, but many will find more\\ndelightful the first part of The Fair Maid of the West\\n(Mermaid Series).", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXIII\\nTHE DECLINE OF THE DRAMA\\nNOTHING in English literary history is more marvel-\\nous than the story of the sudden rise, the rapid\\nmaturity, the transcendent achievements, and the quick\\ndecay of the Elizabethan drama. It was a period of\\nscarce fifty years, sharply defined at its beginning by the\\nearliest work of Marlowe and at its end by the sudden\\ncessation of all dramatic work in 1642 when the theaters\\nwere closed by the Puritans. It was a period of enormous\\nproduction. The crowd of playwrights and the mass of\\nplays that meet the investigator are almost bewildering.\\nIt is like the enormous flood of novels that has filled our\\npresent era, with the important difference that only a\\ncomparatively small number of the Elizabethan dramas\\nwere ever printed. Heywood s extant works comprise\\nsome twenty-three plays, but we have his own word in\\nthe introduction to his English Traveller that the play\\nwas one out of two hundred and twenty in which he had\\nhad either an entire hand or at least a whole finger.\\nMany plays disappeared even during the lifetime of their\\nauthors.\\nTrue it is [declares Heywood] that my plays are not exposed unto the\\nworld in volumes, to bear the title of works (as others) one reason is that\\nmany of them by shifting and change of companies have been negligently\\nlost others of them are still retained in the hands of some actors, who\\nthink it against their peculiar profit to have them come in print, and a\\nthird that it never was any great ambition in me, to be in this kind volumi-\\nnously read.\\n336", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "The Decline of the Drama 337\\nThe Frequency of Collaboration Four Distinct Dramatic Periods\\nMany plays have come to us in a garbled and fragmen-\\ntary condition. Reporters were often sent to the theater\\nto take down for publication as best they could the words\\nof a successful but closely guarded play. Many excellent\\ndramas are anonymous, preserved by accident or by the\\ntradition that they were the work of Shakespeare.\\nArden of Faversham, Edward III., and The Merry Devil\\nof Edmonton are conspicuous examples.\\nA large number of the plays are collaborations. We\\nare seldom sure that a play was the individual work of a\\nsingle writer. Often three or four worked in unison.\\nThe greater part of Dekker s productions bear evidence\\nof other hands; Ford and Webster constantly assisted\\nother playwrights Fletcher worked with Shakespeare on\\nHenry VIIL, and perhaps on Two Noble Kinsmen Mar-\\nlowe helped compose Henry VL, and Beaumont and\\nFletcher worked together until they became the twin\\nstars of the English literary firmament. This practice\\nof collaboration gives a surprising uniformity to the Eliza-\\nbethan drama. The constant revision of older works,\\noften by several playwrights, the constant dwelling to-\\ngether of dramatists, the frequency of joint production,\\nand the surprising lack of interest which writers took in\\ntheir own creations tended to bring the drama to a dead\\nlevel of excellence.\\nNotwithstanding the shortness of the era four distinct\\nphases may be detected in it first, the period of transi-\\ntion from the old types of tragedy and comedy to the\\nnew forms of Shakespeare and Jonson second, the period\\nof culmination, the golden era of spontaneous and lavish\\nproduction; third, the period of premeditated creation,\\nof dramatic art which was the result of a careful study of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "33^ The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe National Decline under James The Puritans and the Drama\\nmodels from the earlier school; and last, the period of\\nrapid decline.\\nIn reality the decadence began during the lifetime of\\nShakespeare. The first rapturous outburst of creative\\nenergy which so filled the last years of Elizabeth sub-\\nsided almost as suddenly as it began. Reaction was\\ninevitable. The rank growth of immorality, of superficial-\\nity in all things, of inordinate vanity, and of ruinous\\nluxury was beginning to bear abundant fruit. There was\\na marked decline in the national life, and the new sover-\\neign, who had inherited the Tudor ideals without the\\nTudor force to animate them, was partly responsible.\\nNarrow, pedantic, cowardly, he did not impress, as Eliza-\\nbeth had done, the national imagination. He was im-\\nmeasurably inferior to her at almost every point. He\\nwas weak and wavering his foreign policy lost for Eng-\\nland nearly all that had been gained during the preceding\\nreign he was bigoted and intolerant his religious policy\\nstirred again the old passions of the nation. The people\\nwere divided more and more into two sharply differ-\\nentiated factions: the gay Cavaliers, the remnant of the\\nTudor courtiers, the embodiment of all the luxury and\\ndisplay, the brightness and joyousness, the worldliness\\nand vice, of the Elizabethan age and the grim Puritans,\\nthe heirs of Langland and of Wyclif, of Tyndale and Lat-\\nimer, with their intense hatred of all sensuous beauty and\\nmere art and their loud condemnation of the vanity and\\nimmorality of the age.\\nThe Puritans from the first had fought against the\\ntheaters. They were the devil s chapels, and stage\\nplays were the devil s litanies. Under the intolerant\\nhand of James both parties soon went to extremes. The", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "The Decline of the Drama 339\\nThe First Symptoms of Dramatic Decline The Decline Becomes Rapid\\nCavalier stage became more and more corrupt. The\\nhumors of Ben Jonson, the first conspicuous signs of de-\\ncline, were followed more and more by grotesque char-\\nacterizations, studies of types built up from without.\\nInstead of characters true to the great fundamental prin-\\nciples that underlie all human life, there began to appear\\nstudies of exceptions, deformities, abnormal types, mon-\\nstrosities, displayed against an ingenious and sensational\\nbackground. The tendency was increasingly towards\\ncomedy, towards light, fantastic variety. The strong\\nold blank verse of ^larlowe and Shakespeare was weak-\\nened and softened; foulness and immorality were intro-\\nduced with ever-increasing frequency. The decline, at\\nfirst gradual, became rapid, until, in the last decade\\nbefore the closing of the theaters, the drama had almost\\nhopelessly degenerated. It had not lost all the elements\\nof its former glory; it was not until after the Restoration\\nthat English audiences could dispense with all that was\\nspiritual and spontaneous in the drama; but even before\\nthe Puritan edict had put a mechanical stop to the period,\\nit had in reality reached its final stage.\\nTo explore the vast cemetery of The British Drama-\\ntistSj to treat with fullness even the most prominent among\\nthe enormous number of playwrights who contributed to\\nthe work of the period, is not our intention. We can\\nonly select three or four typical figures and from their\\nwork study the characteristics and the causes of the\\ndecline.\\n7. Beaumont and Fletcher\\nAuthorities. Darley, The Old Dramatists, new ed.,\\n1883; The Mermaid Series, 2 vols.; Dyce s edition, 2\\nvols. Beaumont and Fletcher Their Finest 5c:^\u00c2\u00ab^j, selected", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "340 The Foundations of English Literature\\nBeaumont and Fletcher They Learn from both Shakespeare and Jonson\\nby Leigh Hunt Golden, Brief History of the Eng-\\nlish Drama Lowell s essay in Old English Dramatists\\nGosse, Jacobean Poets Macaulay, Francis Beaumont.\\nThe opening years of the dramatic era were dominated\\nby the genius of Shakespeare the middle and later years\\nwere ruled by the art of Beaumont and Fletcher. The\\nearliest work of these famous partners began when the\\nmaster dramatist was closing his labors and preparing to\\nleave forever the London stage; their later work was\\ndone for the second generation of play-lovers, and, taken\\nas a whole, it is the best possible commentary upon those\\nlatter days. Shakespeare had sought ever for the deep\\nsprings that underlie human action he had dealt only\\nwith what is universal and fundamental in human life,\\nand he had held his audiences by the sheer truth and\\npower of his creations. It was his to command, to com-\\npel his hearers to follow, awed or enraptured, wherever\\nhe might lead. Ben Jonson was the first dramatist to\\nperceive the signs of decay in the national life. He be-\\ncame a man with a purpose his one effort was to reform.\\nTo him, vice, to be hated, needed but to be seen in its\\ntrue light. He would show in their most revolting as-\\npects all the evils that were threatening the nation s\\nhigher life, but he exaggerated his creations, he showed\\nonly the surface, and he failed to hold the audiences that\\nhad been trained by Shakespeare to feel rather than to\\nreason. Beaumont and Fletcher learned from both of\\nthese masters; they learned from Jonson to present un-\\nusual types rather than characters true at every point to\\nthe fundamentals of human life; they learned from\\nShakespeare to appeal to the feelings rather than the\\nreasoning powers. But they went far beyond their mas-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "The Decline of the Drama 341\\nTheir Phenomenal Popularity Both from Excellent Families\\nters; they won their audiences by a banquet of mere\\nsensuous dehght and romantic beauty; with characters\\nand scenes that are often not far from sensational. They\\nstrove only to please; they yielded at every point to the\\ndemands of the time. They had no theories, no message,\\nno lesson it was theirs to supply what the people cared\\nfor, no matter what it might be. The result was a phe-\\nnomena] popularity which was not lessened, to say the\\nleast, by the fact that they were gentlemen by birth and\\naccomplished scholars. Their own generation believed\\nthem to be artists as great as Shakespeare, if not greater.\\nOn the title-page of Two Noble Kinsmen, first published\\nin 1634, the name of Fletcher is placed before that of\\nShakespeare. The two dramatists were favorites with the\\ntheaters of the Restoration indeed during nearly a cen-\\ntury they were reverenced as artists of the highest rank.\\nBoth writers were from excellent families. Fletcher,\\nthe elder of the two, was born in 1579, the son of Richard\\nFletcher, who afterwards became successively Bishop of\\nBristol, of Worcester, and of London. Of the life of the\\ndramatist, however, almost nothing is known. The life\\nof Beaumont, who was the son of a prominent Leicester-\\nshire family, is almost equally obscure. We know that\\nhe was educated at Oxford and at the Inner Temple,\\nthat he was a prominent figure among the wits of the\\nMermaid Inn, and that he joined Fletcher in dramatic\\ncollaboration some time in 1608. Few details are known\\nof this famous partnership. Aubrey relates that the two\\ndramatists lived together on the Bankside, not far from\\nthe playhouse, both bachelors, had the same clothes,\\ncloak, etc., between them. The period of collaboration\\nlasted, probably, not more than three or four years, during", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "342 The Foundations of English Literature\\nFletcher s Fluent Ease His Brilliancy and Charming Personality\\nwhich time they produced no less than ten plays. In\\ni6ii Beaumont married and retired to country life, and\\nfive years later he died at the early age of thirty-one.\\nFletcher worked on for nine years more, producing a pro-\\nfusion of plays. He was brilliant and versatile he turned\\noff work almost without effort. The extant dramas in\\nwhich he certainly had a hand number over fifty titles. His\\ncontemporary, Brome, has remarked upon his fluent ease:\\nOf Fletcher and his works I speak.\\nHis works says Momus, nay his plays you d say\\nThou hast said right, for that to him was play\\nWhich was to others brains a toil.\\nHis charming personality, his gentleness, his wit, his\\nlearning, his gentle birth, his brilliancy, made him the\\ndelight of his age. His love of comradeship was strong;\\nafter the departure of Beaumont he col-\\nBY BEAUMONT laborated freely with Massineer, Shirley\\nAND FLETCHER. _,\\n1608. phiiaster. Rowlcy, and doubtless others. There are\\n1609-1610. The Maid s few plays that are known absolutely to\\nleJiX^The Knight he his alone, and, on the other hand,\\nof the Burning there are few dramas of the era in which\\ni6i2*^*cupid s Re- he may not have had a hand. He died\\nv^ i^\u00c2\u00ab- of the plague in 1625, and was buried in\\nTheodore the Church of St. Saviour s, Southwark,\\nBY FLETCHER, in a grave that a few years later was\\n1610. The Faithful Opened to receive his old friend Mas-\\nShepherdess.\\n1612. The Captain. Smger.\\n1613. The Honest No literary partnership ever produced\\nMan s Fortune.\\n1616. Bonduca. work more uniform in texture than that\\n1624. The Bloody of Beaumont and Fletcher. It is impos-\\nBrother. ,i i\\nMany Others. s*t)le to tell With certainty just what\\ndramas they produced together, or to de-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "The Decline of the Drama 343\\nThe Work of Beaumont and Fletcher Its Richness and Gorgeous Coloring\\ntect in the collaborated plays what is Beaumont s and\\nwhat Fletcher s. Contemporary criticism maintained\\nthat Beaumont, as Lowell expresses it, contributed\\nthe artistic judgment and Fletcher the fine frenzy, that\\nBeaumont s part was to prune and subdue the exuber-\\nance and fancy of his more gifted companion. This on\\nthe whole seems highly reasonable, especially in the light\\nshed by Fletcher s later plays, which are certainly more\\nrich and gorgeous, more large and free than the earlier\\nworks, but which lack their sustained strength and artis-\\ntic development. The trend of recent criticism seems\\nto make more and more of Fletcher, and to cast Beau-\\nmont more and more into the background.\\nThe strength of Beaumont and Fletcher, for it is almost\\nimpossible to separate them, lay in their spontaneous ease\\nand their romantic grace. Dryden declared that they\\nreproduced the easy conversation of gentlefolks more\\nably than Shakespeare. There is a richness of setting,\\na gorgeousness of coloring, about their work that gives it\\nan indefinable charm.\\nIn spite of all their coarseness [declares Lowell] there is a delicacy, a\\nsensibility, an air of romance, and above all, a grace, in their best work\\nthat make them forever attractive to the young, and to all those who have\\nlearned to grow old amiably. Imagination, as Shakespeare teaches us to\\nknow it, we can hardly allow them, but they are the absolute lords of some\\nof the fairest provinces in the domain of fancy. Their poetry is genuine,\\nspontaneous, and at first hand.\\nThey were strongest in comedy. Nothing else in\\nEnglish, says Gosse, is so like Shakespeare as a suc-\\ncessful scene from a romantic comedy of Fletcher.\\nThere is, indeed, much in Fletcher s personality and art\\nto remind us of Shakespeare. They seem to have at-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "344 The Foundations of English Literature\\nFletcher and Shakespeare Defects in Fletcher s Work\\ntracted each other. As far as we know, none but Mar-\\nlowe and Fletcher was ever admitted into the workshop\\nof the great master. The young dramatist served with\\nhim his apprenticeship, and he learned much of the\\nsecrets of his power, but his desire to please his age was\\nfatal to art in its highest sense, and he failed to reach\\nthe highest place. His defects were not many, but they\\nwere fatal. He took impossible types or characters;\\nlight, airy creations, often beautiful and sensuous. He\\nworked from without rather than from within. His\\nwomen are always extremes; they go beyond nature in\\ngoodness and badness, and there is no middle ground.\\nHis plays, especially those of his later days, reek with\\nindecency and filth.\\nThey exaggerated [says Gosse] all the dangerous elements which he\\n[Jonson] had held restrained they proceeded, in fact, downwards towards\\nthe inevitable decadence, gay with all the dolphin colors of approaching\\ndeath. Yet no conception of English poetry is complete without\\nreference to these beautiful, sensuous, incoherent plays. The Alexandrine\\ngenius of Beaumont and Fletcher was steeped through and through in\\nbeauty and so quickly did they follow the fresh morning of Elizabethan\\npoetry that their premature sunset was tinged with dewy and fresh-\\nquilted hues of dawn. In the short span of their labors they seem to\\ntake hold of the entire field of the drama, from birth to death, and\\nFletcher s quarter of a century helps us to see how rapid and direct was\\nthe decline. Modern English Literature.\\n2. John Webster (c. 1580-c, 1625)\\nAuthorities, Webster s Dramatic Works, 4 vols. (Scrib-\\nners) Webster and Tourneur (Mermaid Series) Golden,\\nBrief History of the English Drama Lowell s essay in\\nOld English Dramatists, and Swinburne s essay in\\nNineteenth Century, June, 1886.\\nOf all the Elizabethan dramatists, Fletcher and Web-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "The Decline of the Drama 345\\nA Somber Group of Tragedians Tourneur and Ford\\nster alone may be compared with Shakespeare, the one\\nin comedy, the other in tragedy. Webster was the\\nstrongest of that somber Httle group of playwrights who\\nduring a vague period in the early years of the new reign\\nw^ove tragedies from the darkest and most fearful ma-\\nterials in human experience. Of their personalities and\\nlife histories we know almost nothing. Tourneur, a\\nwild genius, infected by some rankling plague-spot of\\nthe soul, is a mere shadow that flits for a moment across\\nthe period. The two or three tragedies that bear his\\nname are intense, lawless creations, abounding in melo-\\ndrama, yet full of tragic grandeur. And Ford, who\\ndelves with style of steel on plates of bronze his monu-\\nmental scenes of spiritual anguish, although he came\\nfrom a good family, is scarcely better known. Law was\\nhis profession; he doubtless had no practical experience\\nwith the stage he wrote for recreation and not for money,\\nand he did some things supremely well. In the opinion\\nof Lamb he was of the first order of poets. He sought\\nfor sublimity not by parcels in metaphors or visible im-\\nages, but directly where she has her full residence in the\\nheart of man, in the actions and sufferings of the greatest\\nminds. But his lack of humor, his extravagance and\\nimpurity, were fatal defects.\\nWebster also is a mere name. He was born free of\\nthe Merchant-Tailors Company, he began to write for\\nthe stage about 1602, he collaborated freely, especially\\nwith Dekker, he made his will in 1625, the rest is con-\\njecture. Seven plays with his name upon the title-page\\nhave come down to us, but of these at least three are\\nknown to have been largely influenced by other hands.\\nTo realize the full strength of the dramatist, to feel, in", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "34^ The Foundations of English Literature\\nJohn Webster The Power of His Tragedies\\nthe words of Swinburne, the fierce and scornful inten-\\nsity, the ardor of passionate and compressed contempt\\nwhich distinguishes the savagely humorous satire of\\nWebster, one must confine himself to his two great\\ntragedies, The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi.\\nThese without question are the strongest tragedies in the\\nlanguage outside of Shakespeare. They contain charac-\\nters that are like real men and women they leave upon\\nus the impression that we have seen a vivid section of\\nhuman life and not a movement of artificial figures, a\\nstatement that can be made in its fullness of no other\\ndramatist of the period save the great master himself.\\nWe are continually reminded of Shakespeare, little\\ntouches, allusions, turns of thought, coincidences, that\\ncannot be charged as direct imitation but which are so\\nnear it as to be suggestive. Often he equals his master\\nin his power of compressing a thought into few words.\\nThough his fame [says Swinburne] assuredly does not depend upon the\\nmerit of a casual passage here and there, it would be easy to select from\\nany of his representative plays such examples of the highest, the purest,\\nthe most perfect power, as can be found only in the works of the greatest\\namong poets. There is not, as far as my studies have ever extended, a\\nthird English poet to whom these words might rationally be attributed by\\nthe conjecture of a competent reader\\nWe cease to grieve, cease to be fortune s slaves,\\nNay, cease to die, by dying.\\nWebster s greatest power lay in his command of terror.\\nIn the oft-quoted words of Lamb,\\nTo move a horror skilfully, to touch a soul to the quick, to lay upon\\nfear as much as it can bear, to wean and weary a life till it is ready to\\ndrop, and then step in with mortal instruments to take its last forfeit", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "The Decline of the Drama 347\\nHis Command of Terror His Knowledge of Abnormal Life\\nthis only a Webster can do. Writers of an inferior genius may upon\\nhorror s head horrors accumulate, but they cannot do this.\\nIn Webster s two great tragedies\\nthere is [says Lowell] almost something like a fascination of crime and\\nhorror. Our eyes dazzle with them. The imagination that conceived\\nthem is a ghastly imagination. Hell is naked before it. It is the imagina-\\ntion of nightmare, but of no vulgar nightmare. I would rather call it\\nfantasy than imagination, for there is something fantastic in its creations\\nand the fantastic is dangerously near to the grotesque.\\nIt was this constant intensity, this striving after effect\\nat any cost, that marks Webster as a decadent dramatist.\\nHe works always with extremes, he keeps his audience\\nalways at highest tension. His characters are alive they\\nare the result of careful design, and we may study them\\nas we do real men and women but they are abnormal\\ncharacters. Crime is ever before us; it is presented as\\na spectacle and not as a means of looking into our own\\nhearts and fathoming our own consciousness. In Web-\\nster we find every sensation that abnormal life can give:\\nthere are dances of maniacs, death by crafty devices,\\nterrific death-scenes, ghastly tortures, ghosts with skulls,\\nstrangled infants, madness, murder, crime, always crime,\\nin its most creepy and insidious forms. This was a\\ndecadent note. To dwell upon deformity and upon ex-\\nceptions to the great laws of life and society is not true\\nart it is but a step from this to vulgar sensationalism.\\nWebster had not Shakespeare s constructive power; he\\nlacked a practical knowledge of stage-craft. His Appius\\nand Virginia is well designed, but the other dramas are\\nsketchy, incoherent, even chaotic. It is, as Gosse has\\nremarked, as if the dramatist had furnished a series of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "34^ The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Lack of Constructive Power Philip Massinger\\npowerful scenes for a collaborator to round out and com-\\nplete. His dramas do not succeed upon the stage they\\nare best read in extracts. Had a contemporary selected\\nthe best passages and scenes of Webster, and had these\\ncome down to us as the mutilated remains of a great\\ndramatist, we doubtless to-day would rank him by the\\nside of Shakespeare himself.\\nRequired Reading. The Duchess of Malfi (Thayer),\\nand The White Devily Temple Dramatists or Mermaid\\nSeries.\\nJ. Philip Massinger (1^8^-164.0)\\nAuthorities. Massinger s Dramatic Works, edited by\\nGifford, also by Cunningham, also by Symonds in\\nMermaid Series; Golden, Brief History of the English\\nDrama; Stephen, Hours in a Library Lowell, Old\\nEnglish Dramatists and Gosse, Jacobean Poets.\\nMassinger, says Gosse, is really, though not tech-\\nnically and literally, the last of the great men. In him\\nwe have all the characteristics of the school in their final\\ndecay, before they dissolved and were dispersed. Born\\njust at the opening of the dramatic period, he belongs\\ndistinctly to the later group of playwrights who worked\\nfrom models rather than from nature. A little of his\\npersonal history is known. He was born and reared in\\nthe household of the Duchess of Pembroke, Sidney s\\nsister, where his father was a trusted servant he was for\\na time at Oxford, but he drifted early to London, where\\nhe becomes indistinct in the mist that closes about all the\\ndramatists of the era. A few hints there are that he lived\\na life of poverty, and that for years he was driven to do\\nhack work for the theaters and to collaborate with more", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "The Decline of the Drama 349\\nHis Life Vague and Unknown His Powers of Construction\\nsuccessful playwrights. There is evidence that he worked\\nmuch with Dekker, who is so rarely found save in solu-\\ntion with others, with Fletcher, Middleton, Rowley, and\\nField. He is known to have produced no less than\\nthirty-seven plays, half of which have perished. His best\\ndramas are his tragedy, The Duke of Milan^ and his\\ncomedy, A New Way to Pay Old Debts, which, on ac-\\ncount of the striking and picturesque character of Sir\\nGiles Overreach, still holds the stage.\\nMassinger s strength as a dramatist lay in his powers of\\nconstruction, his skill with stage-craft, his subdued and\\npleasing pictures of contemporary life and manners. He\\nwas almost wholly without spontaneous creative power;\\nhe had little humor; he never touched the deeper pas-\\nsions he seldom created characters that are not of the\\nstage stagey.\\nHe never [says Lamb] shakes or disturbs the mind with grief. He is\\nread with composure and placid delight. He wrote with that equability of\\nall the passions which made his English style the purest and most free\\nfrom violent metaphors and harsh constructions of any of the dramatists\\nwho were his contemporaries.\\nEverywhere in Massinger s work and the statement is\\nequally true of Shirley and of all the later dramatists\\nthere are signs of decaying vitality. Sentiment has taken\\nthe place of passion rhetorical finish has supplanted the\\nfine frenzy of the early days. There is an increased\\nelaboration, a growing tendency toward complexity and\\ndetail, a striving after the novel and unusual. Pictur-\\nesque types and extreme situations, first used by Jonson,\\nhave taken the place of studies from life and nature.\\nThe era was fast declining. Fletcher and Webster and\\nTourneur were the blazing and shifting colors of the sun-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "350 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Sunset of the Dramatic Era Summary\\nset Massinger and Shirley were the fading afterglow\\nthat quickly died into leaden hues and utter darkness.\\nThus closed the great dramatic era. It stands sharply\\ndefined and singularly complete. It was a brief period\\nShakespeare and Marlowe might have lived to see its en-\\ntire extent. It produced all at once a marvelous group\\nof artists all of the real masters of the era received their\\ninspiration during a single decade. The decline began\\nwhen the ranks of this earlier school began to thin the\\nrecruits from the second generation of dramatists were all\\ninferior men. It was a period of romanticism: it was\\nimpossible to make headway with classic forms after the\\ngreat dramas of Shakespeare. He was the Jupiter who\\ndrew all minor bodies into his vast orbit. The ponderous\\nJonson might resist but he could not overcome the noise-\\nless force that drew all men to his great contemporary.\\nIt was, despite its brevity, a well-rounded era, passing\\nthrough every phase of growth and decline. And it\\nended in a decay that was the result of inevitable laws\\nthat arose from the decline in the national life, from the\\nsubsidence of that joyous and spontaneous spirit that had\\nfirst made the era possible.\\nRequired Reading. A New Way to Pay Old Debts\\n(Bell s English Classics).", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "TABLE IX. THE ELIZABETHAN DRAMA\\nI.\\nPeriod of\\nTransition.\\n1561-1593-\\nFrom Gorboduc\\nto the death of\\nMarlowe.\\nA gradual blending of the\\nold native drama with\\nthe classic comedy and\\ntragedy to produce the\\nnew romantic type. The\\nwork of Marlowe marks\\ntransition to the next\\nperiod.\\nJohn Lyly, 1553-1606.\\nRobert Greene, 1560-1592.\\nGeorge Peele, I550?-I59S?\\nThomas Xash, 1 567-1600?\\nThomas Lodge, 1558 7-1625.\\nChristopher Marlowe,\\n1564-1593.\\nII.\\nPeriod of\\nCulmination.\\n1593-1616.\\nTo the death of\\nShakespeare.\\nSpontaneous creative\\npower. Work done from\\nnature and not from\\nmodels. Scenes and\\ncharacters true to the\\ngreat fundamentals of\\nhuman life. Artlessness\\nand simplicity. Johson\\nmarks beginning of de-\\ncline.\\nW I L L I a m Shakespeare,\\n1564-1616.\\nThomas Dekker, c. 1570-\\n1637.\\nGeorge Chapman, 1559?-\\n1634.\\nThomas Heywood, 15S1?-\\n1640?\\nJohji Marston, 15757-1634.\\nBen Jonson, 1573-1637.\\nIII.\\nPeriod of De-\\ncadence.\\n1616-1637.\\nTo the death of\\nJonson.\\nArt learned by careful\\nstudy of models. In-\\ncreasing elaboration of\\nplot characters pic-\\nturesque types, marked\\nexceptions scenes un-\\nusual, sensational, ex-\\ntreme a constant striv-\\ning after novelty and\\nall that is unusual dic-\\ntion rhetorical and fin-\\nished, rather than spon-\\ntaneous.\\nFrancis Beaumont, 1584-\\n1616.\\nJohn Fletcher, 1579-1625.\\nJohn Webster, 1580 7-1625 7\\nCyril Tourneur. 7\\nJo Jm Ford, 15 86-1640 7\\nThomas Aliddleton, 1570-\\n1627.\\nPhilip Mas singer, 1 583-1640.\\nJames Shirley, 1 596-1666.\\nIV.\\nPeriod of\\nQuick Decline.\\n1637-1642.\\nTo the closing of\\nthe theaters.\\nIncreasing sensationalism;\\nstriving after effects\\nimmoral scenes and sug-\\ngestions. Not until af-\\nter the Restoration did\\nthe drama reach its low-\\nest level of degradation.\\nJohn Crowne, 7\\nSir William Davenant, 1606-\\ni663.\\nRichard Brome,\\nSir John Suckling, 1609-\\n1641.\\n351", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXIV\\nTHE TRIUMPH OF PROSE\\nTHE homely, yet strong and picturesque, writings of\\nmen like Tyndale and Latimer are in the history\\nof English prose what the creations of Langland and the\\nballad-makers are in English poetry. They were vigor-\\nous, unschooled, spontaneous outpourings. The Renais-\\nsance touched this native prose, but it did not greatly\\nchange its form or its spirit. Sir John Cheke, the master\\nmind of the Cambridge scholars, maintained that our\\ntongue should be written clean and pure, unmixed and\\nunmingled with borrowings of other tongues, and his\\ninfluence and that of his followers kept the old vernacu-\\nlar prose in something like its native simplicity. But\\nclassic influence was inevitable. Later scholars like\\nAscham were influenced all unconsciously by their knowl-\\nedge of Greek and Latin; their work was often per-\\nmeated by the classic spirit it followed often in curious\\nwindings the classic order, and there are traces even of\\nclassic idioms. English prose very gradually was begin-\\nning to assume two forms, the scholarly and the popular,\\nyet it is needless to attempt to draw the line between\\nthem. The scholarly writers made no attempt to evolve\\na new prose style their imitation of the classics had been\\nall unconscious; it had come spontaneously and was as\\nfree from artificiality and from deliberate self-criticism as\\nwere even Latimer s unclassic sermons. All prose before\\nLyly, and indeed much that came after his time, belongs\\n352", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "The Triumph of Prose 353\\nThree Periods of English Prose The Need of a Great Prose Master\\nto the first period, the period of writers who were entirely\\noccupied with their message and who gave not a thought\\nto the manner of presenting it. The\\nprose of this earliest period has already 1552. The Book of\\nbeen considered. It is singularly rich common Prayer.\\ni y J558. Knox s First\\nand volummous, and it contams some of Blast of the xrum-\\nthe strongest and most idiomatic crea- f^^v\\n1363. Foxe s Book of\\ntions in the language. Martyrs.\\nWith Lyly begins the second period ^IJ: Hounshed s\\nJ y i= IT Chronicle.\\nof English prose, the period of experi- 1579- North s piu-\\nment, of uncertainty, of transition. All ,581. Sidney s Apoi-\\nin a moment, with a single book, English ogyforPoesy.\\nI J r .1 r 1582. Hakluyt s Di-\\nprose leaped from the extreme of sim- vers voyages.\\nplicity to the extreme of elaboration. 1589. Puttenham sArt\\nEuphues was a mere vagary, but it marks i^gi. Raleigh s Fight\\nthe opening of an epoch. The vogue of about the Azores.\\nEuphuism was short, but not so the\\nvogue of prose that depended upon some peculiarity of\\nstyle. For a decade style was everything; readers read\\nbooks not for what was said but for how it was said. A\\ntime of reaction was inevitable; sooner or later a master\\nmust appear to gather up the strongest elements of both\\nschools and unite them in a new and superior type of\\nprose.\\nThis master proved to be Richard Hooker. With no\\nthought of producing a new literary form, with no thought\\nof anything save the message that burned within him, he\\nproduced a prose that was as impassioned and spontaneous\\nas Latimer s and as finished and artificial as Lyly s. He\\nstands as a transition figure; he by no means spoke the\\nfinal word concerning English prose it remained for later\\nmasters to form the perfect blend between the styles of\\n23", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "354 The Foundations of English Literature\\nRichard Hooker His Eventless Life\\nLatimer and Lyly, yet it was Hooker who first discovered\\nthe secret of strong and artistic prose, a Hterary form that\\nwas to dominate the next era in English literature.\\nI. Richard Hooker (i^^j-i6oo)\\nAuthorities. Walton s charming work, though written\\nin 1665, is still the standard biography of Hooker (Temple\\nClassics). Keble s Hooker s Complete Works was long the\\nstandard edition, but it is now superseded by Church s\\nedition. See also Church, Ecclesiastical Polity, Book i.\\n(Clarendon Press), and Whipple s essay in Literature of\\nthe Age of Elizabeth.\\nThe life of Hooker leads us away from the glitter and\\nexcitement of the court and theater, where almost all the\\nliterature of the period is to be found, into the quiet\\nseclusion of the scholastic hall and the country parsonage.\\nCompared with the wild careers of the University Wits,\\nand of many of the poets and dramatists, his life was well-\\nnigh colorless. The son of poor parents, better quali-\\nfied to rejoice in his early piety than to appreciate his\\nearly intelligence, he had the great good fortune of fall-\\ning into the hands of an appreciative schoolmaster, who,\\nafter teaching him what he was able, succeeded in impart-\\ning his enthusiasm in the lad to Bishop Jewell. The\\nyoung genius was thereupon rescued from the trade ap-\\nprenticeship to which his parents would have bound him,\\nand sent at the early age of fourteen to Oxford, where as\\nstudent, fellow, and lecturer he passed the next fifteen\\nyears. His after-life was eventless. He was for seven\\nyears Master of the Temple, but he preferred the retire-\\nment of country parishes, and his last days were spent in\\ncomparative seclusion. He was first of all a student.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "The Triumph of Prose 355\\nA Lover of Studious Seclusion The Ecclesiastical Polity\\nSlight and feeble of body, retiring and sensitive in dis-\\nposition, he was ill-equipped for the rough hand-to-hand\\ncontest with the world. It was only when in his study,\\npen in hand, surrounded by his books, that he was per-\\nfectly in his element. It was from this secluded nook,\\nhimself unseen, that he sent forth his Laws of Ecclesiasti-\\ncal Polity, a work to which he gave his entire life, and a\\nwork which even now ranks as the best exposition and\\ndefense of the English Church.\\nThe subject-matter of the Ecclesiastical Polity need not\\nlong detain us. The work grew from the fierce religious\\ncontroversy that raged with ever-increasing violence\\nduring the whole period. It was an age, as Hooker de-\\nclared, full of tongue and weak of brain. Theologi-\\ncal discussion that was wild and windy filled the period\\nfull of pamphlets and sermons. The Church of England\\nstood in the thick of the battle it was regarded by many\\nas almost an accident, an unconsidered creation called\\ninto being by the whim of Henry VIII. It was bitterly\\nassailed by Catholic, Puritan, and Calvinist. Hooker at-\\ntempted to defend it, to justify its laws, to prove it the\\nbest possible compromise between widely differing ele-\\nments. But in attempting to do this he did far more.\\nAs Crofts has so well expressed it\\nHooker s work is not only important in the history of the English Church\\nand as marking an epoch in the Puritan controversy it is important in the\\nhighest degree in the history of English thought. Hooker did in the sphere\\nof moral and social knowledge what Bacon did in the sphere of natural sci-\\nence. Bacon gave to the students and observers of nature the idea of law,\\nof law which was not the creation of the intellectual imagination, but\\nwhose actual existence was to be discovered by the careful and patient\\nexamination of phenomena. Bacon was the first in the modern world to\\nestablish scientifically the idea that there was an invariable sequence in the", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "356 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Impassioned and Finished Style His Elaborate and Sonorous Diction\\nphenomena of nature that there was order in the world of nature.\\nHooker s work first suggested that there was order in the moral world that\\nman has neither absolute power over his life nor is the servant of an om-\\nnipotent and capricious will but is always unconsciously governed by law.\\nHe laid down, says Mr. Church, the theory of a rule derived not from\\none alone, but from all sources of light and truth with which man finds\\nhimself encompassed. In his work lay the germs of what has since devel-\\noped into moral and political science. English Literature.\\nThe style of Hooker is at once impassioned and finished.\\nMatter and manner are wedded as in few other books\\nof the same kind, and indeed as in no other books be-\\nfore the age of Dryden. He does not depend upon oc-\\ncasional flashes of eloquence he is singularly sustained\\nand constant. His round, full periods follow each other\\nlike the vast unbreaking waves in mid-ocean. He draws\\nupon the full resources of the language, and sometimes\\nhe goes beyond it. Like More and Ascham, he follows\\noften the Latin order and presses into service Latinized\\nterms and expressions. At times his elaborate and sono-\\nrous diction overleaps itself and becomes dangerously near\\nto mere fustian, but this by no means condemns the\\nauthor. The partition between sublimity and bombast,\\nas we learned from Marlowe, is indeed a thin one. He\\nwas an innovator; he worked without models; and the\\nwonder is that he accomplished results of such uniform\\nexcellence and power. Hallam s criticism, while to\\nsome it may seem extreme, has been generally indorsed\\nSo stately and graceful is the march of his periods, so various the fall of\\nhis musical cadences upon the ear, so rich in images, so condensed in sen-\\ntences, so grave and noble his diction, so little is there of vulgarity in his\\nracy idiom, of pedantry in his learned phrases, that I know not whether\\nany later writer has more admirably displayed the capacities of our Ian-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "The Triumph of Prose 357\\nFrancis Bacon The Influx of Decomposition and Prose\\nguage, or produced passages more worthy of comparison with the splendid\\nmonuments of antiquity.\\nRequired Reading. Ecclesiastical Polity, Book i.\\n(Clarendon Press).\\n2. Francis Bacon, Viscount St. Albans (1^61-1626)\\nAuthorities. Spedding, Francis Bacon and His Times,\\na scholarly and authoritative work, presents Bacon in the\\nbest possible light; Macaulay s Essay is brilliant and\\nmerciless; Church s Life, in English Men of Letters\\nSeries, is conservative and accurate, the best short\\nstudy of Bacon. Among the great mass of other authori-\\nties the most helpful are Abbot, Life and Work of Bacon\\nNichol, Francis Bacon, His Life and Philosophy Rey-\\nnold, Bacons Essays Arber, A Harmony of the Essays,\\nand Ellis, Bacons Complete Works, Riverside Edition.\\nFor bibliography of authorities, see Welsh, English\\nMasterpiece Course, and Clark, English Prose Writers.\\nWhen we reach Francis Bacon we catch our first glimpse\\nof the modern world. The Elizabethans with their fine\\nfrenzy, their gorgeous dreams, their delight in the present\\nhour, were creatures of the Renaissance. They were in-\\ntoxicated with the promise and the joy of life, its sensu-\\nous delights, its awful mysteries, its swift movement, its\\nwild uncertainty. They wrote for the present moment,\\nintensely, artlessly; and never dreamed of literary laws,\\nof criticism, of analysis, of posterity. Into this care-\\nless, inspired Renaissance age Francis Bacon came as a\\nbreath from a new world. He brought with him the idea\\nof science in its modern sense, an idea which is the very\\nopposite of poetry and romance. With him began, in\\nEmerson s phrase, the influx of decomposition and\\nprose. With him began the modern age of analysis,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "358 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHe Opens the Modern Age of Analysis His Early Training\\nof cause and effect, of criticism, of science. The great\\ncreative age had reached its full poetry in its primitive,\\nspontaneous, youthful beauty must henceforth fade\\nmore and more, for, says Emerson again, Whoever dis-\\ncredits analogy and requires heaps of facts before any\\ntheories can be attempted has no poetic power, and\\nnothing original or beautiful will be produced by him.\\nBut despite the work that separates him from his con-\\ntemporaries Bacon was still peculiarly a child of his age.\\nHe touched it at a thousand points. His father was for\\ntwenty years Lord Keeper of the Great Seal of Elizabeth,\\nand the childhood and youth of Bacon were passed in the\\nvery heart of the royal court. He was reared among\\ncourtiers and favorites in an atmosphere heavy with ful-\\nsome flattery, with intrigue and corruption. His moral\\nsense became blunted, while his naturally powerful intel-\\nlect became sharpened and strengthened. He went to\\nCambridge, where he soon detected the weakness of the\\nprevailing educational methods he went to Paris, where\\nhe studied a new phase of worldliness he returned to\\nEngland and plunged into a study of the law as the\\nsurest profession for winning political preferment, which\\nin his mind was the only desirable means of worldly\\nadvancement.\\nBacon s Political Career y its struggles and its triumphs,\\nits weakness and its mistakes, we need not follow. It is\\na sad story and it points an obvious moral. The man\\nwas a strange mixture of things good and evil, one wholly\\nimpossible in any other age and environment than that\\nin which he flourished. He had the daring, the power,\\nthe lofty idealism of the Elizabethans, but to it was\\njoined the fawning meanness, the venality, the petty", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "The Triumph of Prose 359\\nThe Two Natures within Him His Philosophy\\nplace-seeking ideals of the Jacobean court. He seems\\nlike two men in one he lived two lives separated from\\none another by a whole world. In one he rises into the\\nclouds; he would bring to the world for all time a new\\nmethod of arriving at truth. He writes like a pure-\\nhearted, broad-souled man his essays contain all of the\\nrudiments of practical ethics: and yet, because he feared\\nto lose favor with the sovereign, he who could write so\\nsweetly of Friendship, hastened his dearest friend to\\ndeath and he who wrote, as if inspired, counsels to those in\\ngreat place, condemning with eloquence bribery and cor-\\nruption, confessed in abject and fawning humility that he\\nhimself as Lord Chancellor had received countless bribes\\nwithout a thought of protest. The man who could rise\\nto the heights of the Novum Organum could also bathe\\nin the mire of the most corrupt of all royal courts.\\nHis Philosophy. It was the dream of Bacon s life from\\nthe days of his early manhood to establish himself with\\nposterity as a philosopher and a benefactor of the human\\nrace. He was the first of Elizabethans, perhaps the first\\nof Englishmen, to look away from his own day to an im-\\nmortality in the generations unborn. His one thought\\nwas for permanency. He would be a cosmopolitan\\nphilosopher writing for all ages and all nations, and he\\nwould also win the best prizes of his own day. He would\\ntake all knowledge for his province, and he would also\\nbe Lord Chancellor of England. He believed that he had\\ndiscovered a new instrument, a novum organum, by\\nthe use of which vast unexplored areas of truth would be\\nopened up. His Novum Organum was to be a thesaurus\\nof things which, in his own words, had never yet en-\\ntered the thoughts of any mortal man it was to revo-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "360 The Foundations of English Literature\\nBacon and the Scholastic System He Originates but Does Not Execute\\nlutionize the whole realm of thought. Such were his\\ndreams, wild enough in the Elizabethan times, but com-\\nmonplace enough to-day. For this novum organum\\nwas the inductive method which is the very foundation\\nof modern science.\\nBefore Bacon s day all knowledge had been based upon\\nauthority. The investigator after truth must delve in\\nthe learned dust of the libraries; he must consult the\\nschoolmen from Aristotle down. The scholastic system\\nhad been modified since the days of Duns Scotus, but it\\nstill ruled the universities. Bacon insisted that nature\\nis the supreme authority; that she is commanded by\\nobeying her, that the mind must follow nature, not\\nanticipate her; it must be passive and receptive rather\\nthan active and speculative. The investigator after\\ntruth must gather facts in abundance; he must note ex-\\nceptions and variations he must tabulate and retabulate\\nhis results, and by a series of exclusions and coincidences\\narrive at the ultimate law. But Bacon, after explaining\\nthe workings of his new instrument, left others to test\\nand perfect it. He made few experiments; he arrived at\\nfew conclusions.\\nThe great and wonderful work which the world owes to him [says\\nChurch] was in the idea and not in the execution. The idea was that the\\nsystematic and wide examination of facts was the first thing to be done in\\nscience, and until this had been done faithfully and impartially, with all\\nthe appliances and all the safeguards that experience and forethought\\ncould suggest, all generalizations, all anticipations from mere reasoning,\\nmust be adjourned and postponed and further, that, sought on these con-\\nditions, knowledge, certain and fruitful, beyond all that men then im-\\nagined, could be attained. His was the faith of the discoverer, the\\nimagination of the poet, the voice of the prophet. But his was not the\\nwarrior s arm, the engineer s skill, the architect s creativeness. I only\\nsound the clarion, he says, but I enter not into the battle.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "The Triumph of Prose 361\\nThe Rise of Modern Science Bacon Suspicious of the English Tongue\\nBut there were plenty of men who would enter the\\nbattle. Modern science was awakening all about him.\\nHonest, unprejudiced investigators, who could grapple\\nclosely with the phenomena of nature, 1539-1583.\\nwere for the first time in human history Tycho Brahe, 1546-\\nbeginning to appear. The age of geo- apier, 1550-1617.\\ngraphical discovery was to be succeeded Gaiiieo, 1564-1642.\\nL ^1 r x-i2 J- -ru Kepler, 1571-1613.\\nby the age of scientific discovery. Ihe Harvey, 1578-1657.\\nrealm of nature was beginning to be seen Boyie, 1625-1691.\\nr I r 1-1 1 Huygens, 1629-1695.\\nfor the first time m its true light, and it Locke, 1632-1704.\\nwas Bacon who furnished the instrument Newton, 1642-1727.\\nthat made all clear. He moved, says Macaulay,\\nthe intellects which have moved the world.\\nThe Writings of Bacoft. The controlling motive of\\nBacon s life was to develop and explain his philosophy.\\nThe greater part of his writings are, therefore, philosophi-\\ncal and technical rather than literary. ^Moreover, in his\\nzeal to work for all ages and all people he used the Latin\\ntongue, the universal language, which in his estima-\\ntion was to last as long as bookes last. He looked\\nwith distrust upon the strong old English tongue.\\nThese modern languages, he declared, will at one\\ntime or another play the bank-rowte with books. He\\nwould take no risk with his precious message to poster-\\nity, and he was uneasy until all of his books, even his\\nEssays, had been turned into the trusty Latin. As a re-\\nsult his purely literary accomplishment in his native\\ntongue was not large; yet, small as it is, it is of enormous\\nvalue. For the prose of Bacon in its extreme conciseness\\nand vigor, its clearness and proportion, its eloquence and\\nrich imagery, is unsurpassed by any other English prose\\nof his age. Bacon wrote with extreme care he hoarded", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "362 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHis Writings His New Atlantis the Jacobean Utopia\\nhis thoughts and poHshed them again and again. His\\nnotebooks which still exist bear testimony to his habit\\nof economy of ideas and words. He toiled over his page\\nlike a Macaulay. After my manner, he declares, I\\nalter ever when I add. So that nothing is finished till\\nall be finished. His Essays, the first ten of which ap-\\npeared in 1597, is beyond doubt his best known and most\\ndeserving book. It is a work, says Green, remark-\\nable not merely for the condensation of its thought and\\nEssays, 1597, 1612,1625. its fcHcity and exactness of expression,\\n^le^Tning!^i6oV P\u00c2\u00b0^^^ applied\\nHistory of Henry to human life that experimental analysis\\nThe New Atlantis, which Bacon was at a later time to make\\n^^27. the key to Science. The same accuracy\\nand compression of thought, the same breadth of view\\nand fullness of experience, appear in The Advancement of\\nLearning, which is a general introduction to his great\\nphilosophic work in his Henry VII. which was the first\\nphilosophic history ever written in English, and his New\\nAtlantis, which was the Jacobean Utopia. A comparison\\nof the dream of More with that of Bacon is extremely\\nsuggestive. More would renovate England, he would\\nmake an ideal island from existing elements; Bacon\\nwould commence anew and build a government founded\\nupon his Novum Organum. The New Atlantis is the\\nnineteenth century as Bacon dreamed of it. The differ-\\nence between the Renaissance and the modern scientific\\nspirit cannot be better illustrated than by a comparison\\nof these old dreams.\\nBacons Essays. It would doubtless amaze Bacon, were\\nhe to visit the present century, to find the verdict which\\ntime has rendered upon his writings. His ponderous", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "The Triumph of Prose 363\\nBacon s Essays Their Incisive, Practical Style\\nNovum OrganuMy which was too precious to trust to the\\nEngHsh language, is often mentioned by students, but\\nnot a dozen men now Hving have ever read it the dust\\nof centuries has gathered upon the few editions that the\\nyears have demanded, but the essays, the homely, un-\\nbookish diversions of its author s idle moments, have\\ngained in popularity and influence with every year.\\nThe word essay was borrowed from Montaigne. It\\nmeant in Bacon s mind a first attempt, a preliminary\\nstudy, a rough jotting down of notes, or, as he himself\\nphrases it, of dispersed meditations. The first ten\\nessays of 1597 were indeed but jottings from a notebook,\\nbut as the author proceeded he gained more and more in\\nform and arrangement until at length he had evolved the\\nessay in the modern sense of the term, the short, con-\\ncise, perfectly rounded study of some single phase of\\nhuman thought or human interest. In Bacon s mind the\\nessay must come near to the homely, familiar things of\\ncommon life; it must come home to men s businesses\\nand bosoms.\\nDescending from his specular mount [says Storr] the philosopher of\\nthe Novum Organum strolls with us to the market-place, conducts us\\nover his great house and stately gardens, lets us peep into his study, and\\npoints out his favorite authors, entertains us with reminiscences of court\\nand council chambers, and unfolds the secrets of statecraft and the wind-\\nings and doubles of diplomatists and placemen he gives us hints on\\ntravel, hints on bargaining, hints on physicking ourselves he advises us\\n(though his advice on those deeper matters is superficial and commonplace)\\nabout marriage and education of children, the religious conduct of life, and\\nthe fear of facing death. Yet it may be noted in passing that, in spite of\\nthe familiarity of manner and the practical common-sense of the essays,\\ntheir range in one direction is very limited, and they deal only with a\\nsmall fraction of hurhanity. Throughout, life is regarded from the stand-\\ning point of the author of the courtier, the high official, the man of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "364 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Dawn of Self-Criticism Bacon a True Elizabethan\\nwealth and position and the conduct and feelings of the masses are con-\\nsidered only as they affect him.\\nThe style of Bacon differs widely from that of Hooker.\\nThe long majestic periods of the Ecclesiastical Polity are\\nthe work of a man who is carried to the height of elo-\\nquence by the very force of his passion. Bacon worked\\ndeliberately; he saw clearly and deeply and he would\\nhave his reader see clearly also. A constant seeking for\\neffectiveness led to a constant self-criticism which is at\\nthe very basis of style in the modern sense. Without\\nstriving for style he became unconsciously a stylist. As\\nwe read him we feel at once that we are in contact with\\nan intellect of marvelous keenness and power; with one\\nwho had a message, but who sought by every possible\\nmeans to make that message most effective. He pre-\\nserved the pungent, native flavor of the old English\\nprose, but he united to it the careful art of Lyly and the\\nbroad facility of the classic writers.\\nSuch, then, was Francis Bacon, a vast and half-uncer-\\ntain figure standing on the border between the ancient\\nand the modern worlds. He was a true Elizabethan.\\nHe had all the daring and idealism and splendid creative\\nability of his most marvelous generation. He who at\\nthirty-one could announce that he had taken all knowl-\\nedge for his province was a true son of the spacious\\nage, the age that could inspire Spenser to begin the\\nmighty task of The Faerie Queene, and that could lead\\nMilton to essay things unattempted yet in prose or\\nrhyme. But Bacon was the first of the Elizabethans to\\nturn to the material world. Spenser had been kindled by\\nthe heroic past to sing of an ideal society where chival-\\nrous morality should rule Shakespeare had shed the fierce", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "The Triumph of Prose 365\\nA Prophet and Seer The King James Version\\nlight of his genius upon the workings of the human heart\\nin an immortal present Milton was to cast his eyes into\\nthe world beyond this life. All of them dealt with the\\nimmaterial side of the universe; Bacon turned the Eliza-\\nbethan inspiration upon the physical and the material.\\nHe had caught a single glimpse of the centuries to come,\\nand he told the secret that was to make possible modern\\nscience. Yet Bacon is by no means to be reckoned\\namong the moderns; he was by no means a scientist; he\\ncould not, like a Newton or a Darwin, grapple closely\\nwith the phenomena of nature. He was an Elizabethan,\\ninspired and artless; a prophet and a seer; a pure idealist\\nas much as was Shakespeare or Milton. He was, as he\\nhas declared himself, the bell that called others into the\\nsanctuary but he himself entered not.\\nRequired Reading. Bacons Essays. The most satis-\\nfactory and accessible edition of The Advancement of\\nLearning is Cook s, and of Henry VIII. is Lumby s (Pitt\\nPress Series).\\nJ. The King James Version.\\nAuthorities. Scrivener, The Authorized Edition of the\\nEnglish Bible, 161 1 Eadie, The English Bible Moul-\\nton, The History of the English Bible Westcott, A\\nGeneral View of the History of the English Bible Cook,\\nThe Bible and English Prose Style.\\nThe crowning work of the Elizabethan period was un-\\nquestionably the King James Version of the Scriptures.\\nIts appearance marks the end of the age of foundations\\nand the beginning of the modern era. Before it there\\nhad been no generally accepted standard of measure for\\ndiction and style the language had become strong and", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "366 The Foundations of English Literature\\nA Century of Earnest Workers Various Translations of the Bible\\nrich and wonderfully flexible, but it was yet as wax in\\nthe hands of every original writer. It needed to be em-\\nbodied in some supreme, universally accepted masterpiece\\nbefore it could become fixed and inviolable. Shakespeare\\nhad done this in a degree, but his dramas, popular as\\nthey were with contemporary playgoers, were for a cen-\\ntury almost unread. It was the English Bible, read by all\\nclasses and by every fireside, that gave the final form both\\nto the English language and to English literature.\\nThe formation of this supreme masterpiece was not the\\nwork of any one man or of any one body of men it was\\nthe result of a century of earnest laborers. The era of\\nBible translation began in reality with Tyndale. From\\nthe days when his strong and marvelously simple versions\\nof the Gospels began to circulate in England down to the\\ndays of King James hardly a decade went by without its\\ntranslation of the Scriptures. It was during this century\\nthat England became, in the words of Green, the\\npeople of a book. Every version had its own peculiari-\\nties and merits, and every one was to\\n1380. Wyclifs Ver-\\nsion. some degree an advance upon its prede-\\n1388. Purvey s Re- cggsors, but all vcrsions were true in the\\nvision.\\n1525-1536. Tyndaie s main to the great model first struck out\\nisro! ^ndl^eTpen. ^y Tyndale. He it was, says Dr.\\ntateuch. Eadie, who gave us the first great out-\\n^Blbie.\u00c2\u00b0 lin^ distinctly and wonderfully etched.\\n1537. Matthew s Working wholly without forensample,\\nisfg.^^^Taverner s expressed it, for he did not consult\\nBible. Wyclifs translation, Tyndale made a\\n1539. The Great Bible. 1 1.1. j ^l.\\n1557. whittingham s wholly ongmal version, clothed in the\\nNew Testament. strong, homcly idioms of the common\\n1560. TheGeneva i i-. .1 rr-\\nBible. people, a version which is to the King", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "The Triumph of Prose 367\\nRequest for a New Version Rules Laid Down by the King\\nJames Bible what the Anglo-Saxon 1568. The Bishops-\\ntongue is to modern English. The ^^f^^^he Rheims\\nwhole century of translation was only a New Testament.\\n1 1 r, 11 1609-1610. The Douay\\ngradual enrichmg, a softenmg and har- oid Testament,\\nmonizing, of this first great outline. ^^n. The King james\\nTo follow the gradual evolution of theigsi-isss. The Re.\\nEnglish Bible from Tyndale s first sketch version.\\nis a fascinating study. No field of liter-\\nary history is more full of stirring incident, of noble self-\\nsacrifice, of heroic devotion to lofty ideals, and of grander\\nresults, but it does not fall within the limits of our plan.\\nDuring the era of Elizabeth the two versions commonly\\nin use in England were the Bishops Bible and the Geneva\\nBible, the one supported by Church and Parliament and\\nthe other used widely by the common people, especially\\nthe Puritans. Under such conditions jealousy and dis-\\ncontent were natural and inevitable. Both churchmen\\nand Puritans were anxious for a change, and accordingly\\nat the great conference called by the King at the open-\\ning of his reign to hear and determine things pretended\\nto be amiss in the Church, it is not strange that a request\\nshould have been made for an authorized and standard\\nversion of the Scriptures. The request found favor with\\nJames, who had ideas of his own upon theological mat-\\nters, and he at once chose fifty-four of his leading scholars\\nand divines to prepare the new version.\\nEvery means possible was taken to secure a perfect\\ntranslation. By the rules laid down by the King, the\\ntranslators were to be divided into companies, and it was\\nrequired of every particular man of each company to\\ntake the same chapter or chapters, and having translated\\nor emended them severally by himself, where he thinks", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "368 The Foundations of English Literature\\nA Revision Rather than a Translation Made at the Right Moment\\ngood, all to meet together to confer what they have done\\nand agree for their part what shall stand. The work\\nthereupon was to be sent to all of the other companies,\\nwho were to examine it seriously and judiciously,\\nfor his Majesty is very careful on this point. They\\nwere to follow the Bishops Bible, which was to be as\\nlittle altered as the original will permit, but the King\\nadded as his last rule: These translations to be used\\nwhen they agree better with the text than the Bishops Bi-\\nble Tyndale s, Coverdale s, Matthew s, Whitchurch s,\\nGeneva.\\nThe King James Version was, therefore, a revision\\nrather than a translation. It was the result of a careful\\ncollation of all previous translations compared with the\\noriginals, and as a result it contains the strongest ele-\\nments of all previous versions. It is singularly free from\\nthe personality of its translators. Working as they did\\nin companies and allowing no word or phrase to pass\\nuntil by general consent it had been declared the best\\npossible rendering, and drawing constantly, as they were\\nrequired to do, the best words and phrases from previous\\ntranslations, it is not strange that their work should have\\nhad a strength, a smoothness, a consistency, and an ab-\\nsence of all marks of personal peculiarity that no single\\ntranslator could ever have reached. The work was done\\nat precisely the right time. The Elizabethan period was\\nat its height; the air was electric with creative energy;\\nall the elements of style and diction had been evolved\\nthe language had become rich and full and wholly ade-\\nquate, everything was ready. A half-century later the\\ntask would have been impossible; the age of prose and\\nreason would have produced a literary Bible which", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0370.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "The Triumph of Prose 369\\nStrength and Beauty of the Version Its Influence on Later Writers\\nwould have been a failure. The rules of James which\\nheld the translators rigidly to the old Saxon outline made\\nthe version a popular book, and the scholarly and literary\\natmosphere through which it passed in translation made\\nit acceptable to scholars and churchmen. It was the final\\ntriumph of the old native tongue. The school of Lang-\\nland and Tyndale and Latimer was henceforth to rule\\nEnglish literature.\\nThe strength and beauty of the King James Version\\nhave been recognized by every English master for three\\ncenturies. It is the greatest prose triumph of the\\ntime, says Brooke; it is probably the greatest prose\\nwork in any language, declares Saintsbury. Its influ-\\nence is traceable in every masterpiece in later English\\nliterature. The makers of the Revised Version testify\\nto its beauty and power: We have had to study this\\ngreat Version carefully and minutely, line by line and\\nthe longer we have been engaged upon it the more we\\nhave learned to admire its simplicity, its dignity, its\\npower, its happy turns of expression, its general ac-\\ncuracy, and, we must not fail to add, the music of its\\ncadences, and the felicity of its rhythm.\\nNor has its influence been confined to literary fields.\\nFrom the study of its pages there came to Englishmen\\na new conception of human life and of individual liberty,\\nand a new outlook upon religious and social problems.\\nThe Puritan Revolution had its roots in this one book,\\nand the whole spirit of the succeeding age which made\\nEngland what she now is came largely from its pages. It\\nstimulated mental activity; it awoke the lower classes,\\nupon whom there still hung the drowsiness of the Middle\\nAges. Legend and annal, says Green, war-song", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0371.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "370 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe National Epic of Britain Close of the Period of Foundations\\nand psalm, State-roll and biography, the mighty voices\\nof prophets, the parables of Evangelists, stories of mis-\\nsion journeys, of perils by the sea and among the heathen,\\nphilosophic arguments, apocalyptic visions, all were flung\\nbroadcast over minds unoccupied for the most part by\\nany rival learning. It educated England as no other\\ncountry has ever been educated, and its influence has in-\\ncreased with every year.\\nConsider [says Huxley], that for three centuries this book has been\\nwoven into the life of all that is best and noblest in English history that\\nit has become the national epic of Britain, and is as familiar to noble and\\nsimple from John-o -Groat s house to Land s End as Dante and Tasso once\\nwere to the Italians that it is written in the noblest and purest English and\\nabounds in exquisite beauties of mere literary form and, finally, that it\\nforbids the veriest hind who never left his village to be ignorant of the\\nexistence of other countries and other civilizations, and of a great past\\nstretching back to the farthest limits of the oldest nations in the world.\\nWith the Bible in its final form the period of founda-\\ntions may be said to have closed in England. Henceforth\\nthere was to be the rearing of a noble superstructure, but\\nit was to be upon a broad and unchangeable base.\\nRequired Reading. No one can attain to a strong and\\nidiomatic prose style or be able to appreciate fully the\\nmasterpieces of English literature without a constant\\nstudy of the English Bible.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0372.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "TABLE X.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 THE\\nELIZABETHAN\\nAGE, 1557-1625\\nEnglish Literature,\\nEnglish History\\nForeign Literature and\\nEvents.\\nI.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Poetry.\\n1585. Raleigh s\\n1544-1595. Tasso.\\nSir Philip Sidney, 1554-\\nVirginia Colony.\\n1 564-1642. Galileo.\\n1586.\\n1587. Execution\\n1572. St, Bartholomew.\\nEdmund Spenser, 1552-\\nof Mary.\\n1580, Montaigne s J- j-^jj/J.\\n1599.\\n1588. The Spanish\\n1584, Death of William\\nThe Sonneteers, 1592-\\nArmada.\\nof Orange,\\n1596.\\n1595. Tyrone s Re-\\n1596-1650, Descartes,\\nSamuel Daniel, 1562-\\nbellion.\\nFrench Philosopher.\\n1619,\\n1603, Accession of\\n1598. Edict of Nantes.\\nMichael Drayton, 1563-\\nJames I.\\n1600-1681. C alder on,\\n1631.\\n1604. Hampton\\nSpanish Dramatist.\\nJohn Donne, 1573-1621.\\nCourt Confer-\\n1605. Cervantes Don\\nence.\\nQuixote.\\nII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Elizabethan\\n1605. Gunpowder\\n1606 -1684. Corneille,\\nNovel.\\nPlot.\\nFrench Dramatist.\\nJohn Lyly, 1553-1606.\\n1607. Virginia\\n1618. Thirty Years War\\nRobert Greene, 1560-\\nSettled.\\nOpens.\\n1592.\\n1620. The Puritans\\n1621-1695. La Fontaine,\\nSir Philip Sidney, 1554-\\nSettle New Eng-\\nFrench Fabulist.\\n1586.\\nland,\\n1622 -1673, Moliere,\\nThomas Nash, 1 567-1600.\\n1621. Impeachment\\nFrench Dramatist,\\nIII. Later Prose.\\nof Bacon.\\n1623-1662. Pascal,\\n1625. Charles I.\\nFrench Philosopher.\\nRichard Hooker, 1553-\\n1600.\\nFrancis Bacon, 1 561-1626.\\nKing James Bible, 1611.\\nIV.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Drama.\\nSee Table IX.\\n37X", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0373.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXV\\nTHE AGE OF MILTON\\nI 62 5- I 660\\nIN just what year or what decade the great creative\\nperiod came to an end it is impossible to say. It\\ncertainly did not close with the reign of Elizabeth. The\\nQueen undoubtedly heard its most rapturous and inspired\\nnotes, but many of its greatest productions came forth\\nduring the reign of her successor, and its echoes died- not\\nwholly away until the days of the Commonwealth. But\\nwhile it is impossible to fix precise limits, just as it is im-\\npossible to tell the day or the week when spring closes\\nand summer begins, it is nevertheless certain that some\\ntime during the last years of King James and the early\\nyears of Charles I. the period came to an\\nTHE STUARTS. rj.,\\nJames I., 1603-1625. ^hc mspircd group of poets and\\nCharles I., 1625-1649. dramatists and prose writers who began\\nThe Commonwealth, their work during the last decade of\\nCharles II., 1660-1685. Elizabeth left behind them no successors,\\nwuuam and^Mary, As onc by One thcsc truc Elizabethans\\n1688-1702. ceased to sing, the chorus died away.\\nAnne, 1702-1714. ^i_ 1 1\\nSingers there were m abundance, writers\\nand poets in every style and key, but they had lost the\\nrapture, the inspiration, and the daring of the earlier\\ncreators.\\nIt had been a marvelous epoch. When it opened, the\\nnative books of England might have been gathered upon\\n372", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0374.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "The Age of Milton 373\\nThe Elizabethan Period English Phase of Italian Renaissance\\na single shelf. Imitation and experiment had set its\\nstamp upon every volume; not one could have been\\nchosen as a safe model for future writers. But in a scant\\nhalf-century all was changed. England now had a native\\nliterature which in volume and strength and originality\\nwas not inferior to the best literatures of the world. It\\nhad produced works which have served even to our own\\nday as the supreme models for literary production; it\\nhad laid completely the foundations upon which all later\\nEnglish writers have built and upon which all future\\nwriters must continue to build. All the centuries from\\nCaedmon to Chaucer and Spenser had been but a gradual\\npreparation for this epoch.\\nIt was a brief period. It had originated in the enthu-\\nsiasm and patriotism and hope of a great people united in\\na moment of crisis about an idealized leader. It had\\nbeen the English phase of the Italian Renaissance. The\\nleaders of the nation s thought had awakened for a mo-\\nment to the meaning of a larger life they had caught a\\nglimpse of a new world, and it thrilled them and inspired\\nthem. But the direction of this English Renaissance\\nhad been sensuous and uncontrolled. Mere beauty, the\\necstasy of the present hour, the artless voicing of the\\nmoment s joy or woe, this became the literature of\\nthe time. It was an era of intensity and passion, an\\nera that cared nothing for posterity, and by its very care-\\nlessness made itself immortal. The movement had been\\nlargely aristocratic its center had to a large degree been\\nthe court and the sovereign, and all of its leading literary\\nproducts had been first presented with magnificent ac-\\ncompaniments and with royal acclamation.\\nIt was this very element of aristocracy and exclusive-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0375.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "374 The Foundations of English Literature\\nThe Mass of the English People The Beginnings of Personal Liberty\\nness that made the period so brief. Beneath the gay-\\nsurface that flashed and glittered was the great mass of\\nthe English people whom the Elizabethan creators almost\\nto a man had distrusted and despised. The Renaissance\\nand the Reformation had come to them slowly, as all\\ngreat ideas have come to the mass of English minds.\\nThey had come largely from the Bible, which a century\\nof translation had spread over England. While Hellen-\\nism, brought in by the Renaissance, was molding the\\ncourt and the aristocracy generally, Hebraism, the result\\nof the Reformation, with its simple yet sublime ideals,\\nand its appeal to the conscience and the individual, was\\ndoing its work among the people. The old spark of\\nLoUardy, that had never wholly died in England, had\\nbeen fanned into new life slowly it had permeated the\\nmass of the English people, until it was ready to sweep\\nover England with resistless fury. A century of the\\nopen Bible had taught the common people the meaning\\nof personal liberty. The divinity that had hedged about\\nthe Tudors had been turned by James I. and Charles I.\\ninto contempt. There was to be no more divine right of\\nkings the sovereign was but the servant of the people.\\nNever before in England had there been such an awaken-\\ning. The slow-moving masses that had bowed meekly\\nunder the absolute tyranny of Henry VHL, that had\\nallowed Elizabeth to work her will and then had given\\nway to universal grief at her death, within less than half\\na century were crushing the royal arms, shouting over\\nthe beheaded king, driving the crown prince, terrified,\\ninto exile in foreign lands, and placing the royal powers\\nof the Tudors in the hands of a mere country squire in\\nwhose veins there flowed not a drop of royal blood.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0376.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "The Age of Milton 375\\nIncompleteness of the English Reformation John Milton\\nIt was indeed a fierce and stormy era that followed the\\nage of Elizabeth, but it was bound to come sooner or\\nlater. Before modern England was possible there must\\nbe settled the great religious problem that had kept the\\nisland continually upon the verge of a crisis since the\\ndays of Wyclif. The Reformation in England had been\\nincomplete. The rulers and the leaders had settled it,\\nbut not the slow-moving masses who are the real masters\\nof England, and it required nothing less than civil war\\nand a temporary upsetting of the very foundations of the\\ngovernment to settle the question forever.\\nA brief survey of this last great epoch in the formation\\nof modern England will complete our study of the founda-\\ntions of English literature. Fortunately, the whole\\nliterary history of the period, as well as much of its\\npolitical and religious life, is embodied in the career of a\\nsingle man. The writings of John Milton in prose and\\nverse form a complete history of the Puritan age and\\nfurnish the best possible interpretation of Puritanism.\\nJohn Milton (1608-167^)\\nAuthorities, Masson, Life and Times of John Milton,\\nis the supreme authority, and his Poetical Works of John\\nMilton is the standard edition. The most helpful of the\\nminor lives of Milton are Pattison s in English Men of\\nLetters Series, Brooke s in Classical Writers Series, and\\nGarnett s in Great Writers Series. Verity, Cambridge\\nMilton Masson, Globe edition St. John, Milton s Prose\\nWorks (Bohn), and Arber, Reprint of Areopagitica, are\\nindispensable helps. Among the great mass of literature\\nabout the poet may be mentioned Addison, Criticism of\\nParadise Lost Coleridge, Lectures on Shakespeare and\\nMilton Masson, Three Devils and other Essays Myers,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0377.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "376 The Foundations of English Literature\\nMilton s Life a Drama in Three Acts The Puritans\\nIntroduction to Milton s Prose, and Johnson s, Macau-\\nlay s, M. Arnold s, Channing s, Emerson s, Dowden s,\\nBagehot s, and Lowell s essays on Milton. For a more\\ncomplete bibliography, see Garnett, Life of Milton, and\\nWelsh, English Masterpiece Course.\\nMilton s life, says his biographer Pattison, is a\\ndrama in three acts. What is more, it is a drama that\\ncoincides almost perfectly with the three acts of the great\\nPuritan tragedy. Its first period was one of transition\\nand preparation. The dreams of the Renaissance faded\\nslowly. Many of the beauties of the Elizabethan period\\nhad entered into even the sternest Puritan homes. Mil-\\nton s father was a lover of art and music and classic\\npoetry. But the external glory which played over the\\nperiod could not conceal its underlying falseness, its sham\\nand impurity. The Puritan revolt, in its beginning at\\nleast, was honest. There was need of revolt if England\\nwas not to follow in the footsteps of Italy. The Puritans\\nbegan by denouncing the most glaring evils, the\\nextravagance in dress, the vain love of show, the shame-\\nless immorality of the playhouses, the abuses of the\\nChurch, and finally the bigotry and intolerance of the\\nsovereign. There was little of fanaticism in the earliest\\ndays of the movement. Good Puritans there were who\\ndelighted in Shakespeare and the drama, and who loved\\nart and literature and all that was beautiful. But the\\nsecond and third generations of Puritans were narrower\\nand less tolerant men.\\nMiltons First Period, i6o8-i6jg. During the first\\nthirty years of Milton s life he was Elizabethan in his\\ntastes and sympathies. He was born in London his\\nfather, a scrivener in good circumstances, a broad-minded", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0378.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "The Age of Milton 377\\nHis Years of Preparation His Early Writings\\nand cultured Puritan, spared no expense to give his son\\na Hberal and well-rounded education. He furnished him\\nwith the best of tutors and in due time sent him to Cam-\\nbridge for the full term of seven years. The young\\nstudent was then ready for a profession, but neither\\ndivinity nor the law had attractions for him. He would\\ncontinue his studies with no definite aim he would retire\\ninto seclusion to live with his favorite writers and dream\\nin the true Elizabethan way of a great poem more ambi-\\ntious even than Spenser s. His father listened to this\\nmost unpuritanical request, and allowed his son for six\\nyears to do his sweet will among the books and the rural\\nscenes of his country estate at Horton, seventeen miles\\nfrom London. The spell of romantic beauty was upon\\nthe young student. External nature he noted but little\\nhe lived wholly in the world of books. He read far into\\nthe night the Hebrew and Greek and Latin classics; he\\nread the English Bible, the King James Version of which\\nwas then among the new books he read Spenser, who\\nhimself had been half a Puritan, and he meditated upon\\na vast, romantic, moral epic of Arthur and the Round\\nTable. Had he been born half a century earlier he would\\nhave given us another Faerie Queene.\\nHe wrote comparatively little. He believed his whole\\nlife long that poetry should spring from a life that had\\nbeen especially prepared and fully ripened. But the\\nperiod was by no means fruitless. In\\ncollege he had written several lyrics, On ?t\\nn Penseroso.\\nthe Death of a Fair Infant, On the Morn- Arcades.\\ning of Christ s Nativity, At a Solemn ^g^g L\u00c2\u00b0ddas\\nMusic, over-rich, perhaps, in imagery,\\nand full of youthful extravagance, and conceits borrowed", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0379.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "^yS The Foundations of English Literature\\nTheir Harmony and Power L Allegro and II Penseroso\\nfrom the metaphysical school of poets that was beginning\\nto dominate English poetry. The lines, for instance,\\nSo when the sun in bed\\nCurtained with cloudy red\\nPillows his chin upon an orient wave,\\nmight have been written by Donne. Yet were they mar-\\nvelous productions for a mere youth at school. Few\\npoets of the world at twenty-one have reached such\\npoetic heights the harmony of such a stanza as this in\\nOn the Morning of Chrisfs Nativity is not inferior to the\\nnoblest chords of Paradise Lost\\nRing out, ye crystal spheres\\nOnce bless our human ears,\\nIf ye have power to touch our senses so\\nAnd let your silver chime\\nMove in melodious time\\nAnd let the bass of heaven s deep organ blow\\nAnd with your ninefold harmony\\nMake up full consort to the angelic symphony.\\nFrom his seclusion at Horton he sent forth a few per-\\nfect lyrics, L Allegro and Penseroso, the literary rec-\\nreations of a sensitive, meditative youth who has lived\\nlong amid poets and sages, whose mind is as yet unruffled\\nby the world s cares and problems, who looks out upon\\nlife over his book in the calm seclusion and Sabbath still-\\nness of his country retreat. There is not a trace in these\\nperfect lyrics of the metaphysical school they are almost\\nwholly Elizabethan in their spirit and form. They ring\\nwith a melody of marvelous sweetness; they are spon-\\ntaneous and full of the spirit of mere sensuous delight in", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0380.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "The Age of Milton 379\\nPuritan Elements Comus Its Spirit of Revolt\\nlife; they are the last full notes of the true Elizabethan\\npoetry.\\nBut Milton had none of the lawlessness and the careless-\\nness of the future that mark the older Elizabethans. His\\nPuritan training had ever been a ruling force in his life.\\nAt college, on account of his conscience and his chastity,\\nhe had been called the Lady of Christ s. In his son-\\nnet written at the age of twenty-three he had revealed\\nthe depths of his heart. I would live, he declares,\\nAs ever in my great task-master s eye.\\nHe was not wholly lost in his books and his dreams.\\nEchoes from the great religious struggle, which was be-\\ncoming more and more passionate, reached his retreat,\\nand they stirred in him all the Puritan instincts that had\\nbeen his birthright. In Comus, a masque written for the\\ncelebration at Ludlow Castle of the arrival of the Earl of\\nBridgewater as Lord-Lieutenant of the Welsh Marches,\\nwe find the point of transition from the Elizabethan to\\nthe Puritan. He who was to become a leader in the\\nPuritan ranks throws his soul into a dramatic poem, a\\nmasque, the most luxurious and decadent form of the\\ndrama. But in it planted deep we find the seeds of re-\\nvolt. It is full of earnest pleading for a higher morality.\\nComus and his sensual crew, with their glistening apparel\\nand their heads of swine, stand for the spirit of vileness\\nand revelry against which Puritanism was fighting. The\\nlady rescued from their power is Milton s ideal of chastity\\nand uprightness. The moral is everywhere obvious,\\nMortals that would follow me\\nLove virtue she alone is free.", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0381.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "380 The Foundations of English Literature\\nLycidas Its Hints of Rebellion The Last Strains of the Elizabethan Age\\nIt is a noble poem. It was the last and the greatest of\\nthe English masques. Its chasteness and its classic\\nbeauty, the melody of its blank verse, and the purity of\\nits message place it among the few perfect dramatic\\npoems of the language.\\nDuring the four years after Comus the poet made rapid\\nstrides toward open rebellion. In Lycidas, which in\\nmany respects is the most perfect creation of Milton, and\\nindeed of English poetry, we find open hints of militant\\nPuritanism. The poet fiercely denounces the corruption\\nof the Church, the throngs\\nof such as for their bellies sake\\nCreep, and intrude, and climb into the fold.\\nThe hungry sheep, he declares, look up and are not\\nfed. But the day of reckoning is coming,\\nBut that two-handed engine at the door\\nStands ready to smite once and smite no more.\\nAlready the grim and terribly earnest soldiers of Crom-\\nwell were stalking over the land. The second period of\\nPuritanism was at hand. Lycidas, says Pattison, is\\nthe elegy of much more than Edward King it is the last\\nnote of the inspiration of an age that was passing away.\\nWith Lycidas the Elizabethan period culminated and came\\nto an end.\\nMilton was waxing more and more warlike, but he had\\nnot yet parted wholly with the Elizabethans. Lycidas\\nended with the half promise\\nTo-morrow to fresh woods and pastures new,\\nbut to-morrow never came. To complete his education,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0382.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "The Age of Milton 381\\nThe Civil War Calls Milton from Italy The Period of Controversy\\nthe poet in 1638 visited the continent. For over a year\\nhe wandered chiefly in Italy, where he met the most\\nnotable men of his age and where he found food in\\nabundance for his intellect and his imagination. But the\\nnews from home became more and more alarming. The\\nPuritan revolt was reaching its crisis. While I was\\ndesirous, he wrote, to cross into Sicily and Greece,\\nthe sad news of Civil War in England called me back\\nfor I considered it base that, while my fellow-countrymen\\nwere fighting at home for liberty I should be traveling\\nabroad at ease for intellectual culture. He would join\\nactively in the cause of civil and religious liberty, even\\nthough it meant the sacrifice of all his fondest dreams.\\nThe first period of his life had come to an end.\\nThe Second Period, i6jg-i66o. From a meditative,\\nbeauty-loving youth dallying with Latin meters, dream-\\ning of romantic epics, saturating himself with classic lore,\\nand weaving graceful lyrics of more than Italian beauty,\\nMilton now became changed into a fierce controversialist,\\na writer of pamphlets, a hurler of prose invective against\\nthe enemies of the Commonwealth. Puritanism had en-\\ntered upon its militant era, and it drew Milton with it.\\nThe storm swept away the last vestige of the Elizabethan\\nspirit. The penner of L Allegro and Penseroso was\\nnow tossed amid fierce waves the hoarse roar of tumult\\ndrowned for a time the poetry in his soul. Only a few\\nsonnets, some of them, like Avenge, O Lord, Thy\\nSlaughtered Saints, mere roars of anger, came from the\\npoet s pen. For twenty years he wallowed through this\\nfearful bog of controversy, and when in 1660 at the col-\\nlapse of the Commonwealth he emerged, he had lost\\nthe spontaneous joy, the Elizabethan fire of his earlier", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0383.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "382 The Foundations of English Literature\\nHe Sacrifices His Eyesight Liberty the Keynote of His Writings\\nperiod, and he could now rail at Shakespeare and call\\nsuch a book as Sidney s Arcadia a vain amatorious\\npoem. The last spark of the Italian Renaissance was\\nfast dying out of English literature. But Milton counted\\nnot the cost. He threw his whole soul into the battle\\nfor liberty. No sacrifice was too great. He was warned\\nby his physician that to continue to use his eyes would\\nresult in total blindness. His party called for a reply to\\nthe attack of the learned Salmasius, and Milton deliber-\\nately wrote it at the cost of his eyesight. Had the\\nCommonwealth continued, and had it needed the full\\ntime of the great Puritan, there would have been no\\nParadise Lost. He would have sacrificed even the dream\\nof his youth.\\nThe keynote to Milton s prose writings is Liberty,\\nsocial, domestic, civil, religious liberty. He recognized\\nfully the value of the individual, the liberty of every\\nman to make the most of himself. His pamphlets on\\ndivorce arose from his own unhappy married life. They\\nare an honest plea for individual liberty against a law that\\nallowed no exceptions. His Areopagitica is a magnificent\\nappeal for a free and unlicensed press, and his political and\\nreligious tracts plead for freedom from lifeless forms\\nand old traditions. But Milton, despite his earnestness\\nand sacrifice, accomplished little by his prose. Almost\\nall that he did was to furnish fuel for the controversy that\\nwas raging so fiercely. The work in which he ruined\\nhis eyes did no practical good; all of his tracts were\\nquickly swept into the great dust-heap of that most\\nvoluminous and bitter of pamphlet ages, and they would\\nhave passed into quick oblivion had their author not in\\nlater years written Paradise Lost,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0384.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "The Age of Milton 383\\nMilton s Prose Milton s Life after the Restoration\\nOne who has read only Milton s poetry has difficulty\\nto believe that many of these prose works came from the\\nsame pen that wrote the sublime lines of the great epic.\\nThey are full of coarse personal abuse, of rancorous and\\nshrill invective, of epithets that well-nigh pass belief.\\nHere and there, however, as in Areopagitica, there are\\npassages that are truly sublime. Milton had not the\\naphoristic style of Bacon, or the flowing and graceful\\nperiods of Hooker, but he had a marvelous command of\\nthe resources of the language. He gives one constantly\\nthe impression of unlimited power, of sweep, of sublime\\nrage. He is not always easy reading; he is diffuse at\\ntimes; he delights in ponderous Latinized words, and in\\nsentences long and involved even to obscurity, but one\\ncannot read a page without being thrilled and awed by its\\npower and its earnestness. In him throbbed the pulse\\nof the historic movement of his age, and one as he reads\\ncannot long escape the resistless onrush of the writer s\\ntremendous convictions.\\nThe Third Period, 1 660-1 6 j^. The year 1660, that wit-\\nnessed the fall of the Commonwealth and the reestablish-\\nment of the old royal line, divides as with a knife-cut the\\nlife-history of Milton and of Puritanism. His work as\\nLatin Secretary and general propagandist to the Puritan\\ngovernment came suddenly to an end. In a moment he\\nbecame an outlaw, in peril of his life. He beheld his late\\ncompanions dispersed into exile, fiercely hunted, brought\\nto prison and execution, and he saw the political fabric\\nto which he had given his eyesight and the twenty best\\nyears of his life, rent and scattered like a morning cloud.\\nHis property had been swept away, and now, poor and\\nblind, with old age creeping upon him, with the dream of", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0385.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "384 The Foundations of English Literature\\nOverthrown but Unconquered Paradise Lost\\nhis manhood forever shattered, he settled down, a pa-\\nthetic, lonely figure, to spend his last days. But despite\\nall he was unconquered. He would return to his early\\ndream and sing\\nWith mortal voice, unchanged\\nTo hoarse or mute, though fallen on evil days,\\nOn evil days though fallen, and evil tongues,\\nIn darkness, and with dangers compassed round\\nAnd solitude.\\nFew would listen to his song. About him echoed\\nthe barbarous dissonance\\nOf Bacchus and his revelers, the race\\nOf that wild rout that tore the Thracian bard\\nIn Rhodope.\\nThough the savage clamor of his times threatened to\\ndrown both harp and voice he would still work on and\\nfij: audience find though few.\\nThus grew the immortal epic, Paradise Lost, a poem\\nthat stands solitary in our literature. There is in it not\\na trace of the Elizabethan rapture and self-abandonment,\\nnot a trace of the Augustan classicism and self-conscious-\\nness. It is a blend between the Hebraism of early\\nPuritanism and the Hellenism of the Italian Renaissance.\\nIt is the record of the life-history of its creator. Had\\nMilton failed to pass through just the training that fate\\nhad meted out to him the poem would have been impos-\\nsible. It was written in the only moment in English\\nhistory when such a creation could have been made and\\nby the only man who had received the requisite disci-\\npline. His Puritan training, his familiarity with the Eng-", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0386.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "The Age of Milton 385\\nMilton s Life a Preparation for this Epic Its Scholarship and Accuracy\\nlish Bible, had led to the conception of the poem his\\nearly studies in classic literature had made possible its\\nform and imagery; the fierce drama of the Common-\\nwealth had given it its intensity and vivid reality; the\\ncollapse of the Puritan ideal, which had been the dream\\nof his youth, together with his own personal danger, had\\ngiven it a tremendous actuality in his life and his years\\nof loneliness and brooding, and above all his blindness,\\nthat had kept his mental eye fixed upon the world of his\\ndreams, had given it a sublimity and an unworldliness\\nthat no other English poem has ever approached.\\nThe poem lives in another world from that occupied by\\nthe purely Elizabethan creations. It was the result of\\nself-criticism, of careful preparation, of deliberate art.\\nShakespeare, the typical Elizabethan, had poured out in\\nprofusion his native wood-notes wild. So full had he\\nbeen of creative energy that, after once the glow and\\npassion of creation had passed away, he had not given a\\nthought to his productions. His work has come down to\\nus garbled and mutilated. There is hardly a page that\\nwe can feel sure remains as it left his hand. But Milton\\nwrote with exceeding care. His whole life had been a\\npreparation for his poem. He had read the classics of\\nthe world as a preliminary discipline, and they may all be\\nfound in his great masterpiece. A set of notes explaining\\nfully all allusions and all origins in Paradise Lost would\\nbe a complete biblical and classical dictionary. He\\nworked with deliberation. Even the proof-reading of\\nthe poem the spelling and punctuation was done\\nwith minutest care. The book is peculiarly a life-work,\\nand all that its author could do for it he did.\\nIt is needless, in view of the vast amount of eminent\\n25", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0387.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "386 The Foundations of English Literature\\nA Solitary Peak on the Horizon His Later Poems\\ncriticism, to attempt a detailed analysis oi Paradise Lost,\\nIts sublimity, its vastness, its mighty organ-tones, have\\nbeen noted by all critics. Its most striking characteristic\\nis, perhaps, its loneliness. It was an emanation from one\\nwhose soul was like a star and dwelt apart. It has\\nhad little influence upon later poetry no imitation of it\\nhas ever been possible. It stands like a vast mountain\\npeak, lonely and sublime, the supreme achievement of\\nEnglish literature.\\nTwo other poems Paradise Regained and Samson\\nAgonistes followed Paradise Lost^ but both are inferior\\nto the great masterpiece. Paradise Regained, in literary\\n1667, 1674. Paradise ^^^^t, is WCll-nigh perfect, but it\\nLost. lacks the intensity, the sense of actuality,\\nTainld t^e sublimity of the eariier poem. In\\n1671. Samson Agon- Samson Agonistes, a tragedy of blindness,\\nwe have Milton s last poetic task. In\\nform and spirit it is severely classic the poet confessedly\\nmodels it upon the Greek masters of tragedy. In its\\ngeneral effect it is strong and moving, especially in the\\npassages that exhibit the once mighty Samson, now\\nblinded and weakened, the sport of his enemies. Its\\nautobiographical import is obvious. It was a fitting end\\nfor the poetic labors of the great Puritan.\\nThe Age of Prose and Reason. To turn from Milton\\nto the crowd of common singers that filled the period is\\nlike leaving the vast and solemn cathedral with its hush\\nand its awe, its mighty organ, its presence of the sacred\\ndead, and rushing into the babble and the clatter of the\\nstreets. The quarter-century before the fall of the Com-\\nmonwealth had been full of writers, and a few of them,\\nlike Jeremy Taylor, the Shakespeare of the pulpit,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0388.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "The Age of Milton 387\\nMilton s Contemporaries The Age of Prose and Reason\\nthe most inspired of prose writers, Robert Herrick, the\\nlast of the lyrists, SiR THOMAS BROWNE, the author of\\nReligio Medici, and John Bunyan, whose Pilgrim s Prog-\\nress ranks with the English people second only to the\\nBible, were men of commanding power, but none of them\\nadded anything really new to the foundations of English\\nliterature. Even Bunyan, the strongest and most in-\\nspired of them all, owed his power almost wholly to the\\nEnglish Bible, which he knew literally by heart. The\\nminor writers contented themselves with merely echoing\\nthe great music which was passing so rapidly away, or\\nwith sounding weak and decadent notes that are now\\nforgotten.\\nWith the beginning of the new monarchy there opened\\na new period in English literature, one utterly distinct\\nand individual. The creators of the Elizabethan period\\nseemed to the writers of the Restoration to belong to a\\ndistant past. Shakespeare and his school were now re-\\ngarded as the children of a barbarous age, marvelously\\ngifted, even inspired, yet fatally defective in art and in\\nall that made for refinement. The new era of analysis,\\nof propriety, of self-control and self-criticism, had opened.\\nIt was, to quote Matthew Arnold, the age of prose and\\nreason, of self-satisfaction and complacent conformity\\nto rule. To the disciples of Dryden it was manifest that\\nEnglish had never been properly and purely written\\nuntil Waller and Denham arose. Literary form was\\nnow everything. It mattered not so much what, as how.\\nProse began more and more to take the place once held\\nby poetry. The new interest in individual life led to\\nbiography, which now became voluminous the new rules\\nof literary art led to criticism the two together led to", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0389.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "388 The Foundations of English Literature\\nRise of Biography and Criticism The School of Dryden\\nthe analysis of moods and emotions and all those studies\\nof individual subjective phenomena that have sprung from\\nBurton s Anatomy of Melancholy. A new literary dictator\\nhad arisen whose rules cramped English poetry into iron\\nforms until a century and more of growth was needed to\\nbring it back into its native shape. Until the rise of\\nWordsworth and the Romantic poets the school of Dryden\\nand Pope had full control of English literature.\\nTHE END", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0390.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nAbelard, 102\\nAdvancefnent of Learning, 361\\nyEfred, 37, 68, 70-75, 79\\n^Ifric, 78-81, 96\\nAgincourt, 139\\nAgincourt, Ballad of, 260\\nAlbion s England, 253, 255\\nAlchemist, The, 322\\nAlcuin, 46, 68\\nAldhelm, 46\\nAnatoyny of Melajicholy, 388\\nAncren Riwle, 102, 104\\nAndreas, 65\\nAppius and Virginia, 287\\nAquinas, 156\\nArcadia, 230, 269, 275\\nArden of Faversham, 337\\nAreopagitica, 382\\nAreopagus, The, 226, 228, 229\\nArthur, 30, 98\\nArthur Cycle, 99, 100, 102, 144,\\nAscham, Roger, 169, 176-182,\\n199, 210, 222, 268, 352\\nAsser, 71\\nAstrophel and Stella, 230, 249\\nAubrey, John, 341\\nAugustine, 33\\nAyenbite, 104\\nBacon, Francis, 250, 312, 355,\\n365\\nBacon, Roger, 57, 103, 130\\nBseda, 45, 47, 48, 55-59, 73\\nBallads, 145-147\\nBarnes, Barnaby, 247\\n377\\n184,\\n357-\\nBarnfield, Richard, 247\\nBarons, The, 92, 108, 138, 160\\nBattle of Br unanburh, 76\\nBattle of Maldon, 76\\nBeaumont, Francis, 326, 337, 339,\\n344\\nBeowulf, 24-29, 42\\nBerners, Lord, 181\\nBible, Translations of, 366\\nBiscop, 46, 57\\nBishop s Bible, 367\\nBlack Death, 109, no\\nBlack Prince, 109, 138\\nBlank verse, 197, 292\\nBoccaccio, 122\\nBoethius Consolation, 73, 122\\nBrome, Richard, 327, 351\\nBrowne, Sir Thomas, 387\\nBunyan, John, 240, 387\\nBurton, Robert. q88\\nCasdmon, 42, 48-55, 63\\nCaesar, 12,16,18\\nCambises, 286\\nCambridge University, 103, 178\\nCampaspe, 287\\nCanterbury Tales, 124-126\\nCartwright, William, 327\\nCatiline, 323\\nCavendish, George, 181\\nCavendish, Thomas, 217\\nCaxton, 140-143\\nCelts, The, 16\\nCerdic, 30\\n389", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0391.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "390\\nIndex\\nChapman, George, 231, 247, 327-\\n331\\nChaucer, 107, 112, 118-128, 129,\\n142, 168\\nCheke, Sir John, 178, 352\\nChevy Chace, 146\\nChivalry, no\\nChronicles, Anglo-Saxon, 75-76\\nChurchyard, Thomas, 197, 255\\nCibber, Colley, 323\\nClassic Comedy, 206, 212\\nClaudius, 19\\nCleveland, John, 266\\nCnut, 38\\nColeridge, 316\\nColet, 156, 166, 169, 170, 176\\nColin Clout, 234\\nComedy of Errors, 305\\nComus, 379\\nConstable, Henry, 247, 250, 255\\nCony-catching pamphlets, 277\\nCotton Homilies, 104\\nCourtly Makers, 197, 225, 298\\nCoverdale, Miles, 366\\nCowley, Abraham, 266\\nCranmer, Thomas, 169\\nCrecy, 109, 136\\nCrowne, John, 351\\nCrusades, The, 98, 102\\nCursor Mundi, 102, 104\\nCynewulf, 45, 60-66\\nDaniel, Samuel, 231, 248, 249, 253-\\n258\\nDavenant, SirW., 323, 351\\nDavis, John, 217\\nDefense of Poesy, 230, 283\\nDefense of Stage Plays, 283\\nDekker, Thomas, 331, 337, 345,\\n349, 351\\nDenham, Sir John, 387\\nDr. Faustus, 289, 292, 294\\nDonne, John, 253, 262-266\\nDouay Old Testament, 367\\nDouglas, 146\\nDrake, Sir Francis, 217, 228, 239\\nDrayton, Michael, 231, 247, 253,\\n255, 258-262\\nDryden, John, 262, 323, 387\\nDuchess of Malf,, 346\\nDunbar, William, 146, 152\\nDuns Scotus, 156\\nDunstan, 37, 70, 78, 96\\nEadgar, 70\\nEadwine, 31, 46\\nEcclesiastical Polity, 355\\nEcgberht, 37, 70\\nEdward the Confessor, 89\\nEdward II., 108\\nEdward II., 295\\nEdward III., loi, 106, 108, 120\\nEdward III., 337\\nElizabeth, 180, 214\\nEndymion, 288\\nEngland^ s Helicon, 253\\nEpithalamion, 235, 238\\nErasmus, 157, 158, 162, 171, 182\\nEssays of Bacon, 361\\nEuphues, 111, 353\\nEuphuism, 272, 353\\nEusden, Lawrence, 323\\nEveryman, 203\\nEvery Man in his Humor, 321\\nExeter Book, 42, 64\\nFaerie Queene, 238-246, 307\\nFeudalism, 91, 108, 140\\nField, Nathaniel, 327, 349\\nFight at Finnsbruh, 43\\nFisher, 161\\nFletcher, John, 247, 326, 337, 339-\\n344\\nFlorence of Worcester, 97\\nFord, John, 345, 351,", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0392.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "Index\\n391\\nFour P s, 205, 212\\nFoxe, John, 353\\nFrobisher, Martin, 217, 228\\nFroissart, no, 136, 181\\nFuller, Thomas, 326\\nGammer Gurtons Nedle, 207, 212\\nGarrick, David, 316\\nGascoigne, George, 197, 199, 225\\nGeneva Bible, 366\\nGeoffrey of Monmouth, 97, 99\\nGesta Eomanorum, 98\\nGilbert, Sir H., 217\\nGildas, 30, 58\\nGorboduc, 210, 212, 292\\nGosson, Stephen, 283\\nGower, John, 107, 116, 117, 121,\\n135. 136, 142, 168\\nGreene, Robert, 264, 269, 273-275,\\n285\\nGregory, 33, 74\\nGrevil, Fulke, 229, 276\\nGreville, Sir R., 218\\nGriffin, Bartholomew, 248\\nGrimald, Nicolas, 190, 197, 199\\nGrocyn, 156, 170, 187\\nGuthlac, 65\\nGuy of Warwick, 100\\nHadrian, 46, 156\\nHakluyt, Richard, 280, 353\\nHamlet, 310\\nHarrowing of Hell, 104\\nHarvey, Gabriel, 229, 233\\nHatton Gospels, 104\\nHaus of Fame, 123\\nHavelok the Dane, 100, 104\\nHawes, Stephen, 188\\nHawkins, Sir J., 217\\nHengist, 30\\nHenry I., 94\\nHenry II., 94\\nHenry IV., 137\\nHenry v., 138\\nHenry VII., 155, 160\\nHenry VIII., 160, 168\\nHenry of Huntingdon, 97\\nHereford, Nicholas, 131\\nHero and Leander 253, 295\\nHerrick, Robert, 251, 325, 327, 387\\nHeywood, John, 204, 206\\nHeywood, Thomas, 326, 331-336\\nHolinshed, Raphael, 280, 353\\nHomer, Chapman s, 330\\nHooker, Richard, 353-357, 364\\nHowell, James, 327\\nHyke Scorner, 203, 204, 212\\nIda, 30\\nPenseroso, 378\\nInterludes, 203-206, 212\\nIvanhoe, 86\\nJames I. of Scotland, 146, 152\\nJew of Malta, 294\\nJohn, 95, 106, 108\\nJohn of Gaunt, 122, 130, 138, 140\\nJohnson, Samuel, 180, 262, 316,\\n324, 327\\nJonson, Ben, 316, 318-327, 340\\nJudith, 66\\nJulius Ccesar, 310, 317\\nJunius, 50\\nKing James Version, 365-370\\nKing Lear, 310\\nKnox, John, 353\\nKyd, 285\\nV Allegro, 378\\nLangland, in, 113-116, 119, 129,\\n158, 168, 182, 299\\nLatimer, 159, 185, 199, 269\\nLaureates, The, 323\\nLayamon, 100, 104, 299\\nLegende of Good Women, 123\\nLily.W., 176", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0393.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "392\\nIndex\\nLinacre, 156, 170, 187\\nLodge, Thomas, 231, 247, 255, 283\\nLollards, The, 131, 136, 140, 158,\\n162\\nLondon, 109, 166\\nLovers Labour s Lost, 305\\nLucrece^ 253\\nLuther, 162\\nLycidas, 380\\nLydgate, John, 121, 137, 142, 146,\\n152\\nLyly, John, 222, 223, 264, 269-273,\\n287-290\\nLynche, T., 240\\nLyric Poetry, 248, 250\\nMacbeth, 310\\nMagna Charta, 95, 160\\nMagnificence, 203, 212\\nMalory, 142-145\\nMamilla, 274\\nMandeville, 107, 109, iii, 128, 132,\\n133\\nMap, Walter, 99, 104\\nMarlowe, 253, 264, 285, 290-297,\\n305\\nMarprelate Controversy, 279, 307\\nMarston, Thomas, 326, 331\\nMasque, The, 290\\nMassinger, Philip, 348, 351\\nMatthew s Bible, 366\\nMerchant of Venice, 308\\nMermaid Inn, 326\\nMerry Devil of Edmonton, 337\\nMetaphysical School, 262\\nMiddleton, Thomas, 349, 351\\nMidsummer Night s Dream, 305, 313\\nMilton, 53, 240, 365, 375-386\\nMinnesingers, 98\\nMiracle Plays, 148-151, 211, 212\\nMirror for Magistrates, 225\\nMisfortunes of Arthur, 210, 212\\nMorality Plays, 201-203, 212\\nMore, Sir Thomas 161, 163, 170-\\n176, 183, 199\\nMorted Arthur, 143\\nNash, Thomas, 277, 280, 285, 293\\nNew Atlantis, 362\\nNibelungenlied, 98\\nNormandy, 88\\nNormans, The, 92, 93\\nNorth, Thomas, 280, 353\\nNovum Organum, 359\\nNymphidia, 260\\nOccleve, 127, 137, 146, 152\\nOderic Vitalis, 97\\nOrmulum, loi\\nOrosius, 58, 73\\nOthello, 310\\nOvid, 223\\nOwl and Nightingale, 100, 104\\nOxford Reformers, 156\\nOxford University, 103\\nParadise Lost, 384\\nParadise Regained, 386\\nPas ton Letters, 135, 137\\nPeele, George, 285\\nPeterborough Chronicle, 96\\nPetrarch, 122\\nPhoenix, The, 65\\nPiers the Plowman, 107, 114\\nPlautus, 206\\nPoitiers, 109, 136\\nPolyolbion, 253, 261\\nPreston, Thomas, 286\\nPrick of Conscience, 102, 104\\nPuritans, The, 376\\nPurvey, 131, 366\\nPuttenham, George, 189, 194, 249,\\n353\\nPye, H., 323\\nRaleigh, Sir W., 217, 234, 239, 240,\\n249, 255, 280, 353", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0394.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "Index\\n393\\nRalph Roister Doisier, 206, 212\\nReformation, The, 159, 373\\nRenaissance, The, 153-156, 187,\\n213, 223, 373\\nRheims New Testament, 367\\nRichard I., 95\\nRichard II., 109\\nRichard III., 305\\nRiche, 274\\nRiddles, 64, 65\\nRobert of Gloucester, 134\\nRobin Hood, 146\\nRobinson, Ralph, 174\\nRoger de Hoveden, 97\\nRollo, 88\\nRomance of the Rose, 98, 121\\nRomeo and yuliet, 309\\nRowley, William, 349\\nSackville, Thomas, 197, 199\\nSamson Agonistes, 386\\nScholemasier The, 179\\nSchool of Abuse, 283\\nScop, The, 40\\nScott, Sir W., 147\\nSejanus, 323\\nSeneca, 209, 223\\nShadwell, T., 323\\nShakespeare, 221, 231, 247, 253,\\n298-317, 319, 340, 364\\nShepheardes Calender, 235\\nShirley, James, 349, 351\\nSidney, Sir P., 147, 210, 225-231,\\n233, 269, iis- ^n, 302\\nSilent Woman, The, 322\\nSkelton, 135, 146, 152, 188, 203\\nSmith, T.,248\\nSouthey, Robert, 323\\nSouthwell, Robert, 255\\nSpenser, 222, 231-246, 364\\nSt. John s College, 178, 190\\nStanyhurst, Richard, 229\\nSteel Glass, The^ 225\\nStephen, 94\\nStill, John, 207\\nStuarts, The, 372\\nSuckling, Sir J., 266, 327, 351\\nSurrey, 189, 194-197, 199, 292\\nTacitus, 23, 40, 85\\nTaine, 14, 137, 265\\nTamburlaine, 286, 293\\nTancred and Gismunda, 210, 212\\nTate, Nahum, 323\\nTaverner s Bible, 366\\nTaylor, Jeremy, 386\\nTempest, The, 311\\nTennyson, 323\\nTerence, 206\\nTheater, Rise of the, 283\\nTheodore, 32, 35, 46, 156\\nTimber, Jonson s, 321\\nTitus Andronicus, 304\\nTotteVs Miscellany, 189\\nTourneur, Cyril, 345, 351\\nToxophilus, 179\\nTragedy, 208\\nTrouveres, The, 98\\nTudors, The, 165\\nTyler, Wat, 109, in, 116, 136\\nTyndale, 157, 169, 182-185, 199,\\n269\\nUdall, Nicholas, 206\\nUnfortunate Traveller, The, 278\\nUniversities, The, 102\\nUtopia, 1 71-17 5\\nVaux, Lord, 197\\nVenus and Adonis, 253, 306\\nVercelli Book, 64\\nVirgil, 223\\nVolpone the Fox, 2 2- l\\nWace, 99, 144\\nWaller, Edmund, 266, 387\\nWarner, W., 253, 255, 274", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0395.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "394\\nIndex\\nWars of the Roses, 95, 138\\nWarwick, 139\\nWatson, Thomas, 247\\nWebster, John, 337, 344-348\\nWessex, Kingdom of, 36\\nWhetstone, George, 268, 285\\nWhitby, Council of, 35\\nWhite Devil, The, 346\\nWhitehead, William, 324\\nWhittingham, W., 366\\nWilfrid, 46, 57\\nWilliam the Conqueror, 88-92, 140\\nWilliam II., 94\\nWilliam of Malmsbury, 97\\nWilliam of Newburgh, 97\\nWilson, Thomas, 169, 181\\nWoden, 34\\nWolsey, Cardinal, 170\\nWoman in the Moon, 288\\nWood, Anthony, 270, 329\\nWordsworth, William, 324\\nWyatt, Sir Thomas, 189-195, 199\\nWyclif, 79, 107, III, 128-132, 162,\\n184, 366\\nYork, School at, 68", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0396.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "Valuable Literature Books^\\nBy Fred Lewis Pattee, M.A., Professor of English and Rhetoric in\\nthe Pennsylvania State College.\\nA HISTORY OF AMERICAN LITERATURE\\nWith a view to the Fundamental Principles underlying its Develop-\\nment. 12 mo. 487 pages. Cloth. Introductory price, ^1.20.\\nTHIS is practically a history of the rise and development of American\\nliterature, in which the influences of race, epoch, and environment are\\nall carefutly noted, and our literature is shown to be closely connected with\\nthe distinctive events of each historic era. Interesting chapters on the\\nFirst and Second Colonial Periods indicate the beginnings of our literature\\nThe First Creative Period marks its opening individuality while later\\nchapters take up The Cambridge Poets, The Historians, The\\nLater Poets, Woman in Literature, The Humorists, etc. Graphic\\nbiographical data of each author are given, followed by a summary of his\\nwritings and the critical estimates of literary judges, with suggested and\\nrequired readings, etc.\\nOf the many commendations of this book from distinguished scholars\\nand educators, in all sections, we cite the following\\nProf. J. H. Gilmore, University of Rochester, N.Y. I have no hesitation in pro-\\nnouncing Professor Pattee s the best history of American Uterature for the use of schools and\\ncolleges now before the public.\\nProf. Granville H. Meixel, Midland College, Atchison, Kan.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 As a handbook for\\nclass use it has no equal. The plan is admirable, the proportion of the parts well maintained,\\nthe scope adequate, the suggestions for reading and study excellent, and the critical estimates\\nimpartial, appreciative, and stimulating.\\nProf. H. A. Shands, Southwestern Uftiversiiy, Georgetown, Texas. I have never\\nread a better characterization of our American authors in so condensed and convenient a form.\\nAs a reference book, both for student and teacher, it is almost invaluable.\\nREADING COURSES IN AMERICAN LITERATURE.\\nFor Schools, Colleges, Reading Circles, etc. 12 mo. 55 pages. Cloth.\\nIntroductory price, 36 cents.\\nTHREE courses are presented in this valuable series, as arranged for\\nProfessor Pattee s work with his own classes. Course I. embraces the\\nfive great periods in our literary history, and includes only the choicest\\nwork of the best writers. Course II. is devoted to contemporary American\\nfiction, and Course HI. as an appendix to this, gives the best short stories.\\nThe references to biographies and critical works given with each author\\nform a most valuable feature of the book.\\nThe Independent (N.Y. in a critical notice of the book, says\\nNothing can be more useful to the student, especially if he is reading by himself at\\nhome, than such a carefully prepared, systematic course as this. It gives, in a way, the best\\naid that a teacher can offer in telling him what to read, and in putting every work he does\\nread in its right relation with all the others.\\nTHE FOUNDATIONS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.\\nA Study of the Development of English Thought and Expression from\\nBeowulf to Milton. 12 mo. 394 pages. Cloth.\\nIN this volume the author has aimed to show that the literature of England\\nhas been a gradual growth that it has flowed out of the national life\\nand is inseparably connected with the national history, civil and religious.\\nThe spirit of the age, the condition of the different classes, the gradual\\ndevelopment of new ideals and new institutions, the various influences\\nfrom outside that have helped to modify and to mold native characteristics,\\nhave all been carefully noted at each step. The foundation period is all\\nthat is embraced in this study, beginning with Beowulf and the earliest\\nEnglish writers, and closing with the great era of Shakespeare and Milton,\\nwhen the language and literature had settled into their permanent forms.\\nOur list includes superior text-books for all departments of instruction. Catalogues\\nand descriptive circulars mailed free on application.\\nSILVER, BURDETT COMPANY, Publishers,\\nBOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO.", "height": "3636", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0397.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0398.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0399.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "NOV 37 1899", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0400.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "i", "height": "3458", "width": "2165", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0401.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS\\n013 762 919 7\\ni\\nm\\n|j;j :l\u00e2\u0080\u009eil\\nia i\\nil\\nilll,l^lli\\nf:\\nmm::\\nI,;..: m\\nill\\nml I\\ni lil,!\\nii ililife\\nf^yvii^ iiii):\\n:-y\\n:ii|i!ll\\nIII\\nli\\nnil\\nm\\nmm\\n^*H\\nli!\\n,!lim:iiiiim.ii1\\nII\\nl(T\\ni l; !hlii!li!iUilM!!iil \u00c2\u00abll!(\\niiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!:\\nIllli i iilliil ll", "height": "3857", "width": "2437", "jp2-path": "foundationsofeng00patt_0402.jp2"}}