{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3320", "width": "2212", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3200", "width": "2043", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3210", "width": "1968", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3210", "width": "1968", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "U6e Kural Science ^mt0\\nEdited by L. H. Bailey\\nIRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "lTl^ ^o", "height": "3210", "width": "1968", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "mRIGATION AND DRAmAGE\\nPRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE\\nOF THEIR\\nCULTURAL PHASES\\nBY\\nF\\\\ H. KING\\nProfessor of Agricultural Physics in the University of Wisconsin;\\nAiithor of The Soil\\nTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY\\nLONDON MACMILLAN CO., Ltd.\\n1899\\nAll rights reserved", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "TWO COPlfcs\\nLi\\nni:cEiVEp\\nthe\\nU L. :.j\\nRegister of Cc\\n19477\\nOPYRIGHT, 1899\\nBy F. H. king\\nSECOND COPY,\\nI\\n^oiint {^Icagant {printer?\\nJ. Horace McFarland Company\\nHairisbiirgr, Ha.\\na", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "p\\nPREFACE\\nMost works on irrigation have been written\\nfrom the legal or sociological standpoint, or from\\nthat of the engineer, rather than from the cul-\\ntural phases of the subject. The effort is made\\nhere to present in a broad yet specific way the\\nfundamental principles which underlie the methods\\nof culture by irrigation and drainage. Distinc-\\ntively engineering principles and problems, as such,\\nhave been avoided, and so have those of plant\\nhusbandry. The aim has been to deal with those\\nrelations of water to soils and to plants which\\nmust be grasped in order, to permit a rational\\npractice of applying, removing or conserving soil\\nmoisture in crop production. The immediately\\npractical i)roblems, from the farmer s, fruit-grower s\\nand gardener s standpoints, with the principles\\nwhich underlie them, are presented in as con-\\ncrete and concise a manner as appears needful\\nto build up a rational practice of irrigation\\nculture and farm drainage and the effort has\\nbeen to broaden the conceptions of general soil\\n(v)", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "vi Preface\\nmanagement, even when neither irrigation nor\\ndrainage is practiced.\\nGreat pains has been taken to personally\\ninspect the irrigation practices of both humid and\\narid climates in this country and in Europe, to\\ngain a broader view of essential details, and to\\nsecure suitable illustrations, which are presented\\nlargely as photo -engravings, in the hope of getting\\ncloser to the spirit of the subject.\\nFree use has been made of all available litera-\\nture on the subject, and credit is given throughout\\nthe body of the text to various writers and\\nworks.\\nF. H. KING.\\nUniversity of Wisconsin,\\nMarch, 1899.", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nINTRODUCTION (pages 1-65)\\nGeneral Remarks on the Importance of Water\\nPAGES\\nDefinition of irrigation and drainage Importance of water*\\nin crop production Plants adapted to intermittent\\nwatering Variation in the capacity of soils for water\\nAdaptation of plants to soils of different water capacity\\nVariations in soils and in rainfall may make irrigation\\nor drainage needful Better aeration and deeper root\\nfeeding in arid soils Explanations not entirely satis-\\nfactory 1-9\\nThe Advantages of Abundant Supply of Soil Moisture. Large\\nvolumes of water generally needed Part played by water\\nin crop production Relation to plant life Relation to\\nsoil microbes Rains and irrigation may start formation\\nof nitrates by diluting soil moisture Relation of drain-\\nage to development of nitrates and soil fertility Soil\\nwater dissolves ash ingredients of plant -food Water\\ncauses oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen to enter\\nthe soil 9-15\\nWater only One of the Necessary Plant-foods. Difference in\\nvalue of water for plant-food More water used than\\nany other substance 15, 16\\nAmount of Water Used hy Plants. Relation of climate to\\nwater used Treatment of soil affects amount of water\\nused Irrigation and drainage modify amount of soil\\nmoisture Apparatus used in measuring water used by\\nplants Aims of the experiments First trials with oats,\\nbarley and maize Field results with maize Changes\\nof soil moisture in field Experiments with oats and\\nbarley Experiments of 1893 to 1896 10 38\\n(vii)", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "viii Contents\\n77- PAGES\\nVanaH07is tn the Amount of Water Used hy Plaiits.-Two\\nyears compared Field and plant-house yields compared\\nLoss of water in a saturated air Amount of water\\nrequired to produce one ton of dry matter 39_4G\\nThe Mechanism, and Method of Transpmition in PUints.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nTranspiration and breathing Structure of barley leaf\\nInevitable loss of water by evaporation makes demands\\nlarge -Amount of air breathed by clover to secure the\\nneeded carbon Changes in humidity of air over a clover\\nfield\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Assimilation of carbon takes place only in sun-\\nshine\u00e2\u0080\u0094Breathing pores in leaves How stomata per-\\nmit and prevent loss of water Structure of breathing\\nP^^^\u00c2\u00ab 4G-54\\nMechanism by ichich Land Plants Supply Themselves icith\\nWater.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 F rt played by roots Essential features of\\nroots Only the newer portions active in absorbing\\nmoisture How water is taken up Rate of feeding\\nslows down as thickness of film becomes less Root\\nhairs acid and may hasten solution of plant-food Need\\nof great extent of root surface Distribution of roots in\\nsoil How roots advai!^e through soil The root -cap. 54-65\\nPart I\\nIRRIGATION CULTURE\\nCHAPTER I\\nThe Extent and Geographic Range of Irrigation\\n(pages 66-90)\\nTJie Antiquity of Irrigation In Egypt In Assyria By\\nthe Phoenicians- Early Grecian and Roman In China\\nIn Mexico and Peru 66-72\\nExtent of Irrigation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In the Po valley In Sicily In\\nSpain In France In Switzerland \u00e2\u0080\u0094In Belgium In\\nDenmark\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In Austria-Hungaria In Bavaria In Eng-\\nland\u00e2\u0080\u0094In India\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In Ceylon In Australia -In other", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "Contents ix\\nPAGES\\nparts of Asia In Algeria In Egypt In Cape Colony\\nIn Madagascar In the Hawaiian Islands In Java\\nIn South America In the Argentine Republic In\\nWestern United States Amount of land irrigated 72-89\\nThe Climatic Conditions Under ivhich Irrigation Has Been\\nPracticed. Amount of rainfall where irrigation has been\\npracticed Distribution of rain with reference to the\\ny growing season 89, 90\\nCHAPTER II\\nThe Conditions which Make Irrigation Imperative,\\nDesirable, or Unnecessary (pages 91-116)\\nObjects of Irrigation. To establish right moisture relations\\nTo increase fertility To change texture of soil To\\nbuild up low areas For sewage disposal 91-94\\nTlie Least Amount of Water which Can Produce a Paying\\nCrop. Importance of the subject Amount of water\\nneeded for wheat Slow rate of evaporation from dry\\nsoil Average yield of wheat as related to rainfall\\nDry farming 95-101\\nLike Amounts of Rainfall not Equally Productive. Differ-\\nences in yield and in rainfall Causes of differences 101-106\\nFrequency ayid Length of Periods of Drought. Abundant\\nwatering at short intervals needful Type of rain dis-\\ntribution\u00e2\u0080\u0094Ineffective rains Length of rainfall periods\\nin Wisconsin Yield of crops compared with rainfall\\nLength of too long periods of no rain Yields due to\\nrainfall and to irrigation compared 106-110\\nConditions ivhich Modify the Effectiveness of Rainfall. In-\\nfluence of soil texture Amount of moisture in soil\\nwhen growth is checked Loss of water by percolation\\nRapid percolation chief cause of poor yields Supple-\\nmentary irrigation helpful on light lands\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Topographic\\nconditions influencing effectiveness Sub -irrigation may\\nsupplement rainfall 110-116", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "Contents\\nCHAPTER HI\\nThe Extent to which Tillage May Take the Place\\nOF Irrigation (pages 117-170)\\nPAGES\\nThe Insufficiency of Water to Irrigate all Cultivated Lands.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nDischarge of the Mississippi river\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mean annual run-\\noff for the United States Proportion of cultivated\\nfields which might be irrigated 117-120\\nMost which may he Hoped for Tillage in the Use of Water.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nDo soils take moisture from air to helpful extent\\nTillage does not diminish transpiration in plants, and\\ncannot dispense with water 220 121\\nTJie Amount of Main Needed to Produce Maximum Crops in\\nHumid and Sub-humid Begions.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Acre-inches required\\nfor a pound of dry matter\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The amount of available\\nrainfall in the United States Effective rainfall of 13\\nstates\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Theoretical yields which may be expected 121-125\\nTJie Distribution of Bain in Time Unfavorable to Maximum\\nYields.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mean yields of barley, oats and maize in 13\\nstates Small mean yields, due to unfavorable dis-\\ntribution of rain 125-127\\nMethods of Tillage to Conserve Moisture often Ineffective.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nCultivation inapplicable\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Meadows and pastures\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mean\\nyield of hay in 13 states\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Relation of yield of hay to\\neffective rainfall \u00e2\u0080\u0094Tillage methods only partly appli-\\ncable to small grains 227 128\\nTillage to Save Moisture is Chiefly Effective in Saving Winter\\nand Early Spring Bains.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 hate rains largely absorbed\\nby the surface three inches Roots develop close to\\nthe surface in late summer 128 129\\nMidsummer and Early Fall Crops Difficult to Baise without\\nIrrigation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Summer vains less effective\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Yields of sec-\\nond crop clover\u00e2\u0080\u0094 A crop of barley and hay the same\\nseason -j 9q_-i q-i", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "Contents xi\\nPAGES\\nFall Plowing to Co7iserve Moisture. How most effective-\\nAmount of moisture saved\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Most important in sub-\\nhumid climates\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Applicable to orchards and small\\nfruits 131-133\\nSubsoiling to Conserve Moisture. Magnitude of the effects\\nDuration of the effects 133-138\\nExplanation of Effects of Subsoilifig .\u00e2\u0080\u0094InQveases^ v^^ater ca-\\npacity of soil stirred\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Decreases the capillary conduct-\\ning power\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Allows the water to enter soil more deeply\\nLarger per cent of water available to crops 139-142\\nEarth Mulches. Conditions modifying effectiveness\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Loses\\nin effectiveness with age\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Other mulches\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Too close\\npasturing wasteful\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Value of surface dressings of ma-\\nnure\u00e2\u0080\u0094Harrowing and rolling small grains after they\\nare up 142-147\\nEarly Tillage to Save Moisture .\u00e2\u0080\u0094Amount saved\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Most\\neffective tools Early stirring rather than early\\nplanting 147-151\\nDanger of Plowing Under Green Manures. Catch crops in\\nhumid and sub-humid climates 151-153\\nSummer Fallowing in Relation to Soil Moisture 153,154\\nInfluence of Summer Falloiving on Soil Moisture and on\\nPlant-food 154-157\\nOld Systems of Inter tillage.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 J ethro Tull s method\\nHunter s modification The Lois-Weedon system\\nPlanting and tillage to utilize the whole rainfall\\nDistance roots of corn and potatoes spread laterally\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nDistribution of moisture in potato field\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lateral feed-\\ning of oats\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Horse -hoeing grain a form of summer\\nfallowing 157-163\\nFrequency of Tillage to Conserve Soil Moisture.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Should\\noften take place at the earliest possible moment\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Dan-\\nger from late tillage 164, 165", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "xii Contents\\nPAGES\\nTlie Proper Depth of Surface Tillage and Bidged and Flat\\nCultivation. Depth of early tillage Deep ridges objec-\\ntionable Ridge cultivation may be advisable for potato\\nculture 165,166\\nBoiling in Belation to Soil Moisture. ^Firming the surface\\nto establish capillary connection with the soil below\\nRolling may warm soil Rolling may bring water to the\\nsurface The press drill 166,167\\nDestructive Effects of Winds. Conditions for injury De-\\nstructive effects on sandy lands Influence of groves\\nand hedgerows on evaporation Protective influence of\\ngrass The value of hedges in windy sections 168-170\\nCHAPTER IV\\nThe Increase of Yield Due to Irrigation in Humid Climates\\n(pages 171-195)\\nDnportance of the Amount and Distribution of Water in\\nPotato Culture, and the Advantage of Irrigation in Cli-\\nmates like Wisconsin. T\\\\xn.Q and method of planting\\nAmount of water used Differences in yield 171-175\\nEffect of Supplementing the BainfaU in Wisconsin for Cab-\\nbage Culture. Method of planting Weight of heads\\nInfluence on yield of thick and thin planting Amount\\nof water given crop 175, 176\\nEffect of Supplementing the BainfaU ivith D rigation on the\\nYield of Corn. Difference in yield and in water used. 176-178\\nEffect of Supplementing the BainfaU with Irrigation on the\\nYield of Clover and Hay 178, 179\\nA Crop of Barley and a Crop of May the Same Season 179-181\\nEffect of Supplementing the BainfaU for Strawberries 181", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "Contents xin\\nPAGES\\nCloser Planting Made Possible hy Irrigation\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Breathmg\\nroom in the soil limited\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Soil temperature lowered by\\nclose planting \u00e2\u0080\u0094Amount of sunshine limited Ten-\\ndency to lodge when planted too close\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Possible insuf-\\nficiency of carbon dioxide\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Amount of carbon used by\\nmaize 181-187\\nT]ie Maximum Limit of Productiveness for ilfai^e.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mean\\nweio-lit of plants\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Maximum yields computed\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Observed\\nyields 187-190\\nObserved Yields of Maize i^er acre, Planted in Different\\nDegrees of Thickness and with Different Amounts of\\n^^^e^,_Yields of dry matter -Yields of shelled corn. 190-193\\nInfluence of Thick Seeding and Irrigation on the Develop-\\nment of the P/awf.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lengthening of the nodes 193-195\\nCHAPTER V\\nAmount and Measurement of Water for Irrigation\\n(pages 196-221)\\nThe Maximum Duty of Water in Crop Production 196-199\\nConditions which Modify the Amount of Water Required for\\nIrri^a^iori. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Peculiarities of crop\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Character of soil-\\nCharacter of subsoil\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Character of rainfall\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Frequency\\nand thoroughness of cultivation\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Closeness of planting\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Fertility of land- Frequency of applying water 199-208\\nAmount of Water Used in Irrigation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In Italy\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In Spain\\nand France\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In Egypt\u00e2\u0080\u0094 General tables\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mean amount\\nFor sugar cane Highest probable duty, table\\nBushels of grain per cubic foot of water, table 208-217\\nDuty of Water in Bice Culture 217,218\\nDuty of Water on Water-meadows 219,220\\nDuty of Water in Cranberry Culture 220,221", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "xiv Contents\\nCHAPTER VI\\nFrequency, Amount and Measurement of Water for Single\\nIrrigations (page 222-247)\\nPAGES\\nAmount of Water for Single Irrigations. Soil leaching in\\nhumid climates Conditions which determine the\\namount of water used Conditions which determine the\\nfrequency of irrigation 222-224\\nCapacity of Soils to Store Water under Field Conditions.\\nAmount of soil moisture when growth was cheeked\\nUpper and lower limits of best amount Amount\\nneeded for one irrigation 224-227\\nDepth of Boot Penetration. Prune on Peach Apple\\nGrape Raspberry Strawberry Alfalfa 227-234\\nFrequency of Jn-igrai^ow.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Theoretical For wheat For\\nmaize For clover, alfalfa and meadows For potatoes\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094For rice 234-239\\nMeasurement of Water. Necessity Advantages 239\\nUnits of Measurement. Acre-inch Acre-foot Second-\\nfoot\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Miner s inch 239-241\\nMethods of Measurement. Time division Subdivision of\\nlaterals Use of divisors Use of modules 241-247\\nCHAPTER VII\\nCharacter of Water for Irrigation (pages 248-268)\\nTemperature of Water for Irrigation. Best temperature\\nDanger from cold water Amount soil temperature may\\nbe lowered 248-251\\nFertilizing Value of Irrigation Water. Amount in two acre\\nfeet 251-253\\nSewage Water for Irrigation. On Craigentinny meadows\\nHealthfulness of milk from sewage grass 253-258", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "Contents xv\\nPAGES\\nThe Value of Turbid Water in Irrigation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Uio Grande\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nPo\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Nile\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Durance 259, 260\\nImprovement of Land S:ilting .\u00e2\u0080\u0094Wsbr^ting or colmatage\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nSilting of gravelly soils 261-264\\nOpportunities for Silting in Eastern United States. In Wis-\\nconsin and Michigan\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In New York and New Jersey\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nIn the South 264-266\\nAlkali Waters not Suitable for Irrigation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Safe and unsafe\\nalkali waters 266-268\\nCHAPTER VIII\\nAlkali Lands (pages 269-289)\\nCharacteristics of Alkali Lands 269, 270\\nCauses of Injuries by Alkalies .\u00e2\u0080\u0094F\\\\a mo\\\\yi\\\\Q effects\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Toxic\\neffects 270, 271\\nHow Alkalies Accumulate in the Soil.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 By capillarity\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In\\nmarsh soils by underflow 272-274\\nIntensive Farming may Tend to the Accu7nulation of Alkalies. 274, 275\\nAmount of Soluble Salts which are Injurious in ^o^7s.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Con-\\nclusions of Plagniol\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Of Deherain\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Of Gasparin\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Of\\nHilgard\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Plasmolytic action 275-278\\nComposition of Alkali Salts.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In California\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In Washington 278-280\\nAppearance of Vegetation on Alkali Lands.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In arid regions\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nIn humid regions 281-283\\nConditions which Modify the Distribution of Alkalies in Soil.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Tillage\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Shading\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Action of roots 283, 284\\nUse of Land Plaster to Destroy Black Alkali.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 B.i\\\\garQVs\\nconclusions 284, 285\\nKinds of Soil ivMch Soonest Develop Alkali 286\\nCorrection of Alkali Water before Use in Irrigation 287\\nDrainage Must be Ultimate Remedy for Alkali Lands 287-289", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "xvi Contents\\nCHAPTER IX\\nSupplying Water for Irrigation (pages 290-328)\\nPAGES\\nDiverting Biver Waters. Sirhind canal Kern Island canal\\nDangers from seepage Eedlands system Redwood\\npipe line Inverted siphon Redwood flume Cement\\nflume Cement hydrants 290-304\\nDiverting Underground Waters. By submerged dams By\\nsubmerged canals\u00e2\u0080\u0094 By tunnels 304, 305\\nDiverting Water by Tidal Damming 306\\nDiverting Water hij Power of the Stream. Undershot wheels\\nBucket wheels Turbines Hydraulic rams Ram-\\nming engines\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Siphon elevator 306-310\\nUtilizing Storm Waters for Irrigatioyi 311, 312\\nWind Power for Irrigation. Record of experiments 312-316\\nWater Pumped in 10- day Periods. Number of acres a\\nwindmill may irrigate 316-318\\nNecessary Conditions for the Highest Service with a Wind-\\nmill. Good exposure More than one pump Storage\\nsystem 318, 319\\nThe Use of Reservoirs. Construction Size to supply given\\nareas 320-323\\nPumping Water with Engines. Cost with gasolene With\\nsteam\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In Egypt 324 327\\nUse of Animal Power for Lifting Water for Irrigation.\\nPersian wheel Bucket pump\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Doon- Shadoof 328\\nCHAPTER X\\nMethods of Applying Water in Irrigation (pages 329-402)\\nPrinciples Governing the Wetting of Soils. Influence of\\ntexture Effect of soil becoming dry 330-334", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "Contents xvii\\nPAGES\\nPrinciples Governing the Puddling of Soils. Character of\\npuddling Bad effects Precautions to prevent 334-33G\\nPrinciples Governing the Washing of Soils. The common\\nmistake What constitutes good irrigation Methods\\nwhich prevent washing 337^ 338\\nField Irrigation by Flooding. Two different types Used\\nmost where intertillage cannot be practiced Flooding\\nby running water As practiced in Colorado Where\\nslopes are steep Where fields are short Flooding by\\ncheeks Size of checks Forming checks On irregular\\nslopes Handling the water Large systems -Forming\\ncheck ridges 338-350\\nFitting the Surface for Irrigation. Leveling devices\\nShuart land grader French land grader 351, 352\\nField Irrigation hy Furroivs. Adapted to intertillage crops\\nWatering before planting Irrigation of potatoes\\nWatering alternate rows Lateral spreading of water\\nEffect on yield \u00e2\u0080\u0094Watering sugar beets and maize 352-359\\nWater-meadows. Laid out for continuous flow System at\\nSalisbury, England In Italy In Belgium Mountain\\nmeadows 359-365\\nIrrigation of Cranberries. Laying out the marshes Rapid\\nflooding and draining Irrigation of small fields by\\npumping 365-368\\nIrrigation of Bice Fields. South Carolina system Trunks\\nGerminating the rice Dry hoeing Irrigation after\\ndry growth stage Prevention of red rice Upland irri-\\ngation 368-373\\nOrchard Irrigation. Furrow method best Capillary\\nspreading of water Distributing flumes Foot ditch\\nWatering by ring furrows 373-381\\nCultivation after Irrigation. The cardinal principle\\nForms of orchard cultivators Importance of cultiva-\\ntion in humid climates. 381-383", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "xviii Contents\\nPAGES\\nSmall Fruit Irrigation. Frequent irrigation needed for\\nstrawberries Watering alternate rows to facilitate\\npicking 383, 384\\nGarden Irrigation. Bed irrigation Bailing system Ridge\\nand furrowmethod\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Basin flooding \u00e2\u0080\u0094At Gennevilliers\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nAt San Bernardino 384-391\\nIrrigation of Lawns and Parks. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Inadequacy of spraying\\nRainfall of humid climates not usually sufficient 391-396\\niSub- irrigation. Not economical of water Water not ap-\\nplied where most effective Unequal wetting of the\\nsoil\u00e2\u0080\u0094 First cost heavy May be applicable in certain\\ncases 396-402\\nCHAPTER XI\\nSewage Irrigation (pages 403-414)\\nObjects Sought in Sewage Irrigation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Destruction of or-\\nganic products Utilization of fertility carried 403\\nClimatic Conditions Favorable to Sewage Irrigation. Warm\\nclimates best suited Cold soils chiefly filters Large\\narea required for winter handling 404, 405\\nProcess of Seivage Purif cation by Irrigation and Intermit-\\ntent Filtration. Essential conditions Effect of too\\nrapid application 405, 406\\nSoils Best Suited to Seivage Irrigation. Lighter loams and\\nsandy soils\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Any soil adapted if area is sufficient 406\\nDesirability of Wider Agricultural Use of Sewage in Irriga-\\ntion.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Kxsuniples of valuable results Sections of country\\nspecially adapted to it 406-409\\nCrops Suited to Seivage Irrigation. Grass, most generally\\nSoil for intertillage crops fertilized by winter irriga-\\ntion\u00e2\u0080\u0094Potatoes at Croyden May injure grass if applied\\nin winter 409-413\\nInfluence of Sewage Upon the Health.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Xt Gennevilliers\\nPurity of eflfiuent compared with well water 413, 414", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "Contents xix\\nPart II\\nFARM DRAINAGE\\nCHAPTER XII\\nPrinciples of Drainage (pages 415-466)\\nPAGES\\nTJie Necessity for Drainage. Removal of injurious salts\\nBetter soil ventilation Makes the soil more firm 416, 417\\nThe Demands for Air in the Soil.- Supply of free oxygen\\nTo lessen denitrifieation\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Facilitates chemical changes. 418, 419\\nHow Drainage Ventilates the Soil. Permits roots and bur-\\nrowing animals to go deeper Develops shrinkage\\nchecks Favors granulation of soil Barometric and\\ntemperature changes Suctional effect of rains 419-421\\nToo Thorough Aeration of the Soil. Leads to destruction of\\nhumus Care of open soils 421,422\\nDrainage Increases the Supply of Available Moisture for\\nCrops. Deeper root penetration Stronger capillarity\\nStronger nitrification Deeper ground water more\\navailable 422, 423\\nSoil Made Warmer by Drainage. By lessening surface\\nevaporation By lowering specific heat Observed\\ndifferences of temperature 423-425\\nImportance of Soil Warmth. Relation to germination\\nHastens development of plant -food 425-428\\nConditions under which Land Drainage Becomes Desirable.\\nLands subject to frequent overflow Lands with strong\\nunderflow near surface Tidal plains Flat lands with\\nheavy subsoils 428\\nOrigin of Ground Water and its Relation to the Surface.\\nVertical movement of rains Surface of ground water\\nLines of flow Growth of rivers 429-435", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "XX Contents\\nPAGES\\nBate at ivMch Ground Water Surface Rises away from the\\nDrainage Outlet. In tile-drained field Where not\\ntile-drained 435, 436\\nDepth at wliicli Drains should he Placed. Kind of crop\\nSeasonal changes of ground water Character of soil\\nDistance between drains 436, 437\\nDistance Between Drains. Texture of subsoil Depth of\\ndrain Interval of time between rains or irrigations\\nClimatic conditions 437, 442\\nKinds of Drains. Closed Open Stone Wood Brick\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Peat\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Tile Cement 443-445\\nHoiv Water Enters Drains. Rate through the walls\\nThrough the joints Care in making close joints Use\\nof collars 445, 446 i\\nFall or Gradient of Drains. Highest practicable Selecting\\ncourse for the main Care in laying to grade Change I\\nof grade Use of silt well 447-449\\nSize of Tile. No specific statement possible except where\\nall details are known Size increases with length\\nSeldom smaller than three inches in diameter Example\\nof sizes and lengths 449-452\\nOutlet o/ Dmins.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Should have a clear fall Precautions\\nagainst injury from frost Connecting laterals with\\nmains. 453, 454\\nObstructions to Drains. From roots\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Kinds of trees most\\ntroublesome 455, 456\\nLaying Out Systems of Tile 456-459\\nIntercepting the Underflow from Hillsides 459, 460\\nDraining Sinks and Ponds. By intercepting surface drain-\\nage By subdrainage 460-462\\nTTie Use of Trees in Drainage 4 -2, 463", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "r\\nContents xxi\\nPAGES\\nThe Use of the Windmill in Drainage. Arrangement for\\nwinter pumping Subirrigation as an adjunct 463, 464\\nLands which must he Surface Drained. Ancient lake bot-\\ntoms underlaid with clay Sections where there are no\\nnatural surface outlets 464-466\\nCHAPTER XIII\\nPractical Details of Underdraining (pages 467-492)\\nMethods of Determining Levels. Kinds of levels 469-471\\nLeveling a Field. Making contour map Using the level. 471-473\\nLocation of Mains and Laterals. Securing the greatest\\nfall 474-476\\nStaking Out Drains. Grade pegs 476, 477\\nDeternmiing the Grade and Depth of Ditches. Method of\\nmarking stakes for use of ditchers 477-481\\nMore than One Grade on the Same Drain 481\\nDigging the Ditch. Tools used Method of procedure\\nMethods of filling 481-488\\nCost of Underdraining For mains For laterals 489-491\\nPeat Marshes 491, 492", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE\\nINTRODUCTION\\nGENERAL REMARKS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER\\nThe watering of laud, which is irrigation, and the\\nwithdrawal of such part of that water as does not\\nevaporate, which is land drainage, are two methods,\\none the opposite of the other but, looked at in the\\nbroadest sense, both are natural, and each is as old\\nas the time when the rains descended upon the first\\nlands which rose above the ocean s level. The periodic\\nwatering and draining of the earliest rock fragments\\nwhich covered the earliest lands, and which came to\\nbe the earliest soils, constituted at once the most\\nprimitive, the most profound, and the most persis-\\ntent environment to which all forms of land -life\\nhave been forced to adapt themselves.\\nSince the very earliest forms of life probably came\\ninto being in the water, and were composed in large\\nmeasure of it, it is not strange that we yet know of\\nno forms which can live without water, and to which,\\nindeed, water is not the most fundamentally important\\nsubstance and food. It is so, not more because it\\nmakes up so large a part by weight of all living and\\nA (1)", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "2 Irrigation and Drainage\\ngrowing parts of plant life, than because it is the\\nmedium in which the transformation of the crude\\nmaterials into assimilable food -products takes place,\\nand through and by means of which these products\\nare transported to their destinations at the various\\npoints of growth. It is only when we fully appreciate\\nthe important role played by water in crop production,\\nthat we are in position to see how necessary to large\\nyields is the right amount of water at the right time,\\nand thus be led to insure to our crops a sufficient\\nirrigation and an adequate drainage.\\nSince the falling of rain upon soils has always\\nbeen intermittent in its character, and during the in-\\ntervals of fair weather a part of the water so given\\nto the soil has been lost by drainage, land vegetation,\\nduring its evolutionary stages, has become fitted to do\\nits best work when the soil is watered once in about\\nso often, and when that soil retains a certain amount\\nof the rain which falls. But the intervals between j\\nrains in almost all countries are irregular in length,\\nand the amount of rain which falls at one time also\\nvaries between very wide limits, so that in many if\\nnot in the majority of climates, those seasons are rare _|\\nindeed when a crop can be carried to maturity with\\nthe soil containing at all times the best amount of\\nmoisture. This being true, there will occur times with\\nalmost all soils when they would give larger yields if\\nthey could be artificially irrigated or artificially drained,\\naccording as the period is one of deficient or of exces-\\nsive rain.\\nBut not all soils are alike in their capacity for re-", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "Soil Texture in Relation to Rainfall 3\\ntaining moisture and of permitting it to drain away,\\nand this being true, under one and the same conditions\\nof rainfall one field might be benefited by irrigation\\nwhile another one would profit by better drainage.\\nIt is this fact of varying capacity of soils to store\\nwater for given periods of time that, in the long strug-\\ngle for existence and of fitting and refitting among\\nplants, has led to the evolution of certain species\\nwhich can thrive best in a soil of coarse texture, re-\\ntaining but sinall amounts of water for anj length of\\ntime, while other species have become adapted to the\\nsoils of finer texture and higher water capacity. This\\nis a fact of fundamental importance, not only in decid-\\ning what crops may be grown in a given soil, but\\nwhether or not it will be desirable to irrigate such\\nlands beyond the natural rainfall.\\nA soil of fine texture is spoken of as the best grass\\nland, for example but this has reference, in a very\\nlarge degree, to a certain amount and frequency of\\nrainfall, which chances to be such as to maintain for\\nthe grasses the amount of water in the soil under\\nwhich they have become accustomed to grow best. If\\nthere were another soil in the same locality, of similar\\ncomposition but of coarser texture, and so of smaller\\nwater capacity, it is most probable that this soil would\\nbe converted into equally good grass land, giving just\\nas large or even larger yields per acre, if o\\\\\\\\\\\\j the\\nnatural rainfall were supplemented by artificial irri-\\ngation, so as to hold the water of the soil up to that\\nquantity which the grass has become accustomed, by\\nlong breeding, to use.", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "4 Irrigation mid Drainage\\nThen, again, on the other hand, the soil which for\\na given climate is so close-grained that it does not\\ndrain sufficiently between rains to leave it dry enough\\nfor those crops which have become accustomed to the\\nsmaller water capacity of the coarser soils, may be all\\nright for the dry -soil crop, provided it occurs in a\\nlocality of smaller or less frequent rainfall. Or, again,\\nin the region of heavier rainfall, this soil may be fitted\\nfor the dry-soil crop by thorough under-draining, when\\nthe lines of tile are placed close enough to draw down\\nthe water to a sufficiently low point to leave the soil\\nwith the amount of moisture which is suited to the\\ncrop in question.\\nAnother soil may be very deep and exceptionally\\nwell aerated, on account of its peculiar texture, so\\nthat the roots of cultivated crops easily penetrate it to\\nmuch greater depths than is possible in the closer,\\nmore compact, non- aerated subsoils of other localities.\\nWhen this is the case, as appears often to be true\\nin arid and semi- arid climates, notably in parts of\\nthe San Joaquin Valley, in California, the smaller rain-\\nfall of the winter season penetrates the soil so deeply,\\nand returns to the surface by capillarity so slowly, that\\nfair and even large crops are often raised on these\\nsoils without artificial irrigation, yet not a drop of\\nrain may fall upon the land from May first to Septem-\\nber. So different are the conditions in humid soils, like\\nthose of the eastern United States, that even a period\\nof ten days without rain, especially if it occurs in the\\nheight of the growing season, is sure to bring marked\\ndistress even to field crops like maize.", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "Apparently High Service of Water 5\\nOne of the most striking features of the arid sec-\\ntions of the United States, which attracted the writer s\\nattention during his travels through the West, was this\\napparently greater service of water in crop production\\nthan is realized in the more humid climate of the east-\\nern section of this country. Reasoning from general\\nprinciples, one is naturally led to anticipate that in an\\nexceptionally dry atmosphere and under a clear sky,\\nsuch as we have in the western United States, the rate\\nof evaporation, both from soil and vegetation, would\\nbe exceptionally rapid, and hence that enormous quan-\\ntities of water would be required in crop production,\\nwhen compared with the demands of crops under more\\nhumid conditions.\\nSuch, however, does not appear to be the case, and\\nit is this fortunate relation which makes it possible\\nfor larger areas to be placed under irrigation with the\\nlimited amounts of water than would be possible were\\nthe conditions of the soil more like those of humid\\nclimates.\\nIt is not easy to assign a thoroughly satisfactory\\nset of reasons for this marked difference without a\\nmore detailed study of the field conditions than has\\nyet been made. It seems quite probable, however, that\\nprominent among the reasons to be assigned for these\\ndifferences is the one to which reference has already\\nbeen made namely, the texture of the soil, which\\nallows the water to distribute itself evenly and rela-\\ntively deep in the soil, and it does not return\\nreadily and rapidly by capillarity to the surface to be\\nlost.", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "6 Irrigation and Drainage\\nIn passing south from San Francisco, through Lath-\\nrop, Merced and Fresno, to Bakersfield, in California,\\nwe pass across a long stretch of country where there\\nis at present relatively very little irrigation, and yet\\nthrough all of the country north of Merced wheat has\\nbeen extensively grown, and during the early years,\\nwhen the soil was new, large yields per acre have been\\nrealized without irrigation, the crop depending upon\\nthe rain which falls during the rainy season of winter\\nand sinks into the soil, to be later used by the deeper\\nfeeding roots. In discussing the matter with Professor\\nHilgard, he informed me that the roots of crops\\npenetrate these soils much more deeply than is normal\\nto them under other conditions, and that some plants,\\nwhen brought here, really change their habits of root\\ngrowth through a dying off of the normal surface\\nfeeders on account of an insufficiency of moisture in\\nthe upper layers.\\nProfessor Hilgard further informed me that over\\nmuch of the state of California the rains only wet\\ndown a relatively short distance, and that beneath this\\nzone of moistened soil the balance is often almost\\nair- dry, extending, in certain cases which have come\\nunder his observation, to depths as great as forty feet.\\nWhere such conditions as these exist there is, of\\ncourse, no possibility of crops deriving a supply of\\nmoisture through natural sub -irrigation from waters\\nfrom the foothills or higher mountain masses which\\nrise above the plains.\\nMy own observations on the soils of humid cli-\\nmates convince me that the zone of dry soil to which", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "Apparently High Service of Water 7\\nreference has been made must act as a powerful ad-\\njunct in the retardation of both capillary and gravi-\\ntational movements of water below the reach of deep\\nroot feeding and if this is true, practically all loss of\\nwater by downward percolation is prevented, and the\\nwhole rainfall not lost by surface evaporation becomes\\navailable for crop production.\\nThere is another condition, brought about by the\\npresence of the layer of air dry soil beneath the\\nmoisture -bearing zone, which in humid regions only\\nexists in exceptional localities, and which may have an\\nimportant influence in making a larger part of each\\nyear s rainfall available for crop production. I refer\\nto the possibility of the large amount of air stored in\\nthe air -dry soil beneath the moist layer contributing\\nto deep soil breathing. By slow diffusion upward, and\\nby movements induced by changes in atmospheric pres-\\nsure, the roots may be supplied with oxygen from be-\\nlow as well as from above, and thus have their feed-\\ning depth lowered on this account beyond what is\\nusual in humid soils. So, too, it appears to be quite\\npossible that nitrification and other biologic processes\\nmay be permitted to go forward under these condi-\\ntions, when in humid soils they are largely prohibited\\nfor lack of sufficient aeration.\\nThese suggestions, however, do not appear to offer\\nan adequate explanation of the ability of crops to\\nreach maturity in the arid soils of the West without\\nirrigation, when there is no rain for such long inter-\\nvals for, as we approached Merced from the north, a\\nvery sandy belt of land was passed which was white", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "8 Irrigation and Drainage\\nand glistening in the snn, and which drifted as badly\\nas much of apparent!} similar land in Wisconsin, and\\nyet on these coarse sands wheat was being harvested\\nwhich would give larger yields than would be expected\\non such lands in Wisconsin with a summer rainfall\\nof not less than ten inches. But here the crop had\\nstood and matured from early May until the end of\\nJuly without irrigation and without rain. One is led\\nto question whether it ma}^ not be true that, under\\nthe stress of such arid conditions of both atmosphere\\nand soil, plants of some kinds may develop a texture\\nof a closer nature, with fewer and smaller breathing\\npores, and thus reduce the loss of moisture through\\ntheir surfaces much below what is normal to the same\\nspecies under more humid conditions of soil and atmos-\\nphere. Such a question could, of course, readily be\\nsettled by a proper comparative study of tissues de-\\nveloped under the two conditions but, so far as we\\nknow, it has not yet been done. It should be said,\\nhowever, in this connection, that the seemingly greater\\nservice of water to which reference is here made may\\nbe more apparent than real. The climate of the region\\nbeing warm, and wheat being sown from the begin-\\nning of the rainy season in November until the end\\nof January, there is much time for the crop to germi-\\nnate, and to get its root system thoroughly established\\nin the ground, and to have made a very considerable\\ngrowth, before the close of the rainy season earlj in\\nMay. There are left, then, only the months of May\\nand June during which the crop must complete its\\ngrowth without rain. It is true that this is a long", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "Advantages of Abundant Moisture 9\\nperiod, and in humid climates, where the growth of\\nvegetation can only heg ui in March or April, even\\nthough the rainfall were the same as in the San Joaquin\\nValley, crops like wheat could not be matured and it\\nis quite possible that this would also be true of the\\ncountry in question did it have an ice-bound winter.\\nIn the vicinity of Fresno, California, where a large\\nacreage of raisin grapes are grown on a sandy loam,\\ngenerally without irrigation, it is the belief of many\\nof the growers that their vinej-ards derive not a little\\nmoisture through a seepage from the canals and ditches\\nof the district, whose waters are more generally used\\nin the irrigation of alfalfa but, as many of these\\nvineyards are considerable distances from both canals\\nand ditches, it is, perhaps, more probable that the\\ngrapes survive through extremely deep and wide root-\\nfeeding and, perhaps, small foliage evaporation. It is\\nthe naturally small water capacity of the Fresno soils,\\nand those referred to near Merced, which makes it so\\ndifficult to understand how, even with very wide and\\ndeep root -feeding, moisture enough could be gathered\\nto maintain growth and carrj^ a crop to maturity\\nwithout rain during the summer season, and without\\nirrigation\\nADVANTAGES OF AN ABUNDANT SUPPLY OF\\nSOIL MOISTURE\\nWhile there are such cases as those cited above,\\nin which plants appear to thrive and to produce fair\\nyields with relatively small amounts of water, yet it", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "10 Irrigation and Drainage\\nis a matter of universal experience in humid climates\\nthat on claj ey soils heavy protracted spring rains con-\\ntribute more to the production of large crops of grass\\nthan all the manure which farmers can put upon their\\nlands, and that with dry springs fertilizers, of what-\\never sort and however applied, are of but little avail.\\nSo, too, four weeks of copious, timely, warm rains fall-\\ning upon fields of potatoes after the tubers begin to\\nset, and of corn after the tassels and silk begin to\\nform, are certain to be followed by enormous yields,\\neven when the soil is not rich, unless frost or disease\\nintervenes. On the other hand, let the tuber and grain-\\nforming period of these crops be one of drought, and\\nit is only those soils which are most retentive of mois-\\nture, and which have been most skillfully handled, that\\nare able to mature even moderate yields, though the\\nland be very rich.\\nWhat, then, do warm spring and summer rains and\\nwarm, sweet irrigation waters do in the soil which con-\\ntributes so much to plant growth In the first place,\\nit is only through the soil, where very extensive absorb-\\ning surfaces of root hairs are developed, that plants\\nare able to obtain the very large amounts of water\\nthey need for food and for the maintenance and carry-\\ning forward of the physiological processes which are\\nassociated with plant growth.\\nBut it is not alone for the crop which is being grown\\nupon the ground that water is needed in the soil for\\nit must never be forgotten that there are living within\\nthe dark recesses of the soil organisms of various kinds\\nupon whose normal and vigorous activity depends, in", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "Advantages of Ahtmdant Moisture 11\\na high degree, the magnitude of the specific crop which\\nis to be harvested. The germs which react upon the\\ndead organic matter in the soil, converting it into\\nammonia, the germs which change the ammonia into\\nnitrous acid, and the germs which transform the nitrous\\nacid into nitric acid, which is the real nitrogen supply\\nof most of the higher plants, each and all are depend-\\nent for their proper activity upon the right amount of\\nmoisture in the soil. Then, there are those symbiotic\\nforms of lowly organisms whose great mission it is\\nto take the free nitrogen from the air and compound\\nit into such forms as shall leave it available for the\\nhigher plants, and which like all other forms of life,\\nmust have water and to spare if they are to perform\\ntheir work. Let the water content of any soil be\\nreduced below a certain amount, and all of these vital\\nprocesses are inevitably slowed down let it be reduced\\nto a still lower degree, and the whole line is at a com-\\nplete standstill.\\nNow, in humid regions, where the subsoils are much\\nof the time water-logged, and where, as a consequence\\nof this, there is but little soil ventilation, the plant-\\nfood builders to which reference has just been made\\nare all of them forced into a thin zone close to the\\nsurface of the ground, where their work must all be\\ndone but if this surface zone is allowed to become\\ndry, then the nitrogen -supplying processes must come\\nto a standstill, and the crop which is growing above\\nthe ground must have its growth checked, even though\\nit has put its roots down into the subsoil where mois-\\nture for its own purposes may be had. Indeed, we may", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "12 Irrigation and Drainage\\nwell believe that one of the chief causes which has led\\nthe higher plants to send their roots foraging so deeplj^\\ninto the ground is this great need of water in the sur-\\nface layer, where the nitrogen suppliers dwell, and for\\nthe express purpose of not drawing upon this supply\\ntoo extensively, and thus leaving the surface soil to,\\nbecome too dry. It is true that when heavy rains,\\ncome, or when irrigation waters are applied which lead:\\nto the percolation of water downward, the nitrates\\nwhich have been formed at and near the surface are\\ndissolved and more or less completel}^ washed more\\ndeeply into the ground, where the deep -running roots\\nare in position to take advantage of them and prevent\\ntheir being lost and thus a double gain is secured.\\nLet us call attention to another important principle.\\nIn the soils which have been highly manured, or which\\nare naturally w^ell supplied with organic matter ready\\nfor decay, large amounts of nitrates are rapidly formed.\\nUnder such conditions the moisture wiiich invests the\\nsoil grains rapidly approaches saturation, and finally\\nreaches a point when it is carrying so many salts in\\nsolution that the water is no longer suitable for th^\\nuse of the germs which have given rise to the salts,\\nand their activities are on this account brought to a\\nstandstill. But let a rain come which produces perco-\\nlation, or let the field be irrigated sufiiciently to pro-\\nduce the same effect, and at once the salts which have\\nbeen inhibiting the nitrate -forming process are washed\\nout and a fresh supply of water is left, which at once\\nbecomes a stimulus for increased activity, while the\\nready -formed salts containing nitric acid are carried\\n1", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "Fertility Influenced by Drainage 13\\nto a lower level, where they may be taken up by the\\ni deeper -feeding roots. Here, then, we are led to see\\nyone of the ways in which water, applied at the sur-\\nface at opportune times, acts as a wonderful stimulus\\nto plant growth.\\nIf, now, we turn from the irrigation to the drain-\\nage side of the same problem we shall see in another\\nway how fundamentally important this principle is.\\nLet a soil be inadequately drained, and the roots of\\nthe plants will be forced to occupy the surface soil,\\nfor they cannot abide in the water -logged region.\\n.Then, if heavy rains come and percolation results, all\\njof the unused nitrates which may have been in the\\nsoil at the time are at once washed below the roots,\\ntand perhaps entirely lost to the crop. But, on the\\nI other hand, if the soil had been properly drained, so\\nithat the roots of the crop could have been two, three\\nor four feet below the surface, then, as has been pointed\\n,out, the nitrates would have been washed to the roots,\\nwhere they would have become at once available.\\nThen, too, when a dry period comes, with all the life\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2processes going on in the soil confined close to the\\nsurface, the great demand for water from the roots\\nforces them at once to so completely dry out the sec-\\ntion they occupy that a violent check is at once put\\nboth upon the plant itself and upon all the food-form-\\ning processes in the soil for, under these conditions,\\nit is usually impossible for capillarity to keep pace\\n\\\\with the loss of water from above, and the soil quickly\\nbecomes too dry.\\nSo far we have been speaking of the importance of", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "14 Irrigation and Drainage\\nwater in the soil to the direct vital processes which\\nare going on there whenever steady growth is taking\\nplace. But there are other processes which are purely\\nphysical, to which attention needs to be called before\\nwe have brought into view the full line of operations\\nto which this great agent, water, leads.\\nOther plant-foods, those which contain the phos-\\nphoric acid, potash, lime, magnesia, iron and sulfur,\\nmust be taken from the inert solid form in the soil\\ninto solution in water before they can be of any service\\nin plant growth, and this is another of the important\\nroles which water has to play in the life processes of\\nthe soil. Then, too, all water used in irrigation, and\\neven rain water, contains^ larger or smaller quantities\\nof plant -food, either directly in solution or borne in\\nsuspension, which adds so much to the fertility of the\\nsoil itself.\\nSo, too, all waters which have been exposed to the\\natmosphere have become charged with oxygen, carbonic\\nacid and nitrogen, which they carry with them into\\nthe soil, and these always aid, in one way or another,\\nboth the physical and the life processes which make\\nfor fertility of the land. And, again, when a large\\nvolume of warm water falls upon or is applied to the\\nsoil, and it sinks deeplj into it, it carries with it not\\nonly its own warmth, but also the heat which it may;\\nhave absorbed from the surface of the ground; and;\\nthis warmth, carried deeply into the ground, makes\\nthe root action stronger and at the same time increases\\nthe rate of solution of plant -food from the soil grains.\\nWhen we have made this brief survey of what warm", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "Water only One of the Necessary Plant -foods 15\\nrains and sweet irrigation waters do in the soil, we\\nmay not be surprised to see the large yields of grass\\nor of potatoes or corn it is capable of helping the\\nsoil and the sunshine to bring forth as the product\\nof a summer s work.\\nWATER ONLY ONE OF THE NECESSARY PLANT -FOODS\\nIn view of the facts which have just been pre-\\nsented, it is not at all strange that the ancient Egyp-\\ntian and Grecian philosophers, with their lack of exact\\nknowledge and under their arid climatic conditions,\\nshould have come to believe that water is the sole\\nfood of plants nor that this opinion should have\\nbeen held until nearly the beginning of the eighteenth\\ncentury. As a matter of fact, water does contribute\\nmore than half of the materials which make up the\\ndry matter of plants, and, as water, it constitutes from\\nthree -fourths to more than nine -tenths of their green\\nweight.\\nBut while these are the facts, and while it is true\\nthat abundant and timely rains do make compara-\\ntively poor soils produce large yields, it must not be\\ninferred that, with ample and timely supplies of water\\napplied to the soil, all else may be neglected and the\\nhope entertained that any agricultural soil will thus\\nbe held up to a high state of productiveness for an\\nindefinite term of years.\\nIt is a matter of universal experience that sewage\\nwaters, not contaminated with poisonous compounds\\nand not too highly concentrated, cause lands to give", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "16 Irrigatioyi and Drainage\\nmuch larger returns in grass than do river, lake or\\nwell waters. The writer learned, while visiting the\\ncelebrated Craigentinny meadows near Edinburgh, that\\nthe purchasers of the grass from those lands are very\\nparticular to specify, as a condition of their purchase,\\nthat their grass shall be watered with the day sewage,\\nwhich contains a higher per cent of soluble and sus-\\npended organic matter than that of the night and\\nthey are also particular to stipulate that they shall\\nhave the first rather than the second or third use of\\nthe water, knowing that water which has passed over\\na cultivated field or meadow has lost something of its\\nfertilizing value.\\nIt is asserted, also, by the owners and renters of\\nwater meadows in the south of England, where the\\nirrigation is directly from the streams, that that land\\nwhich receives the water first is most benefited by it.\\nIt is true that there are those who contend that on their\\nlands the second and third waters are as good as the\\nfirst, but this is quite likely to be due to the presence\\nin those particular soils of an abundance of the sub-\\nstances carried by the waters.\\nIt is, however, impossible to overestimate the im-\\nportance of water as a plant-food. It is indispensable\\nand is used more than any other substance. It must\\nbe borne in mind, however, that irrigation waters are\\nseldom, if ever, a complete plant-food.\\nTHE AMOUNT OF WATER USED BY PLANTS\\nThe amount of water which is required to mature crops of\\nvarious kinds under field conditions varies between wide limits\\ni\\nI", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "Amount of Water Used by Plants 17\\nbut just what are the precise factors, and what their quantitative\\nrelations, is not yet so definitely known as it needs to be. The\\nproblem is manifestly a complex one, and many of the factors\\nare obscure, and will only be made known in their quantitative\\nrelations after much patient critical work has been done having\\nfor its prime object the solution of this problem.\\nIt has already been pointed out that there appears to be\\nrelatively less water consumed in the production of a pound of\\ndry matter under some of the conditions which exist in arid\\nAmerica than is required in the more humid sections of this\\ncountry, and that it appears probable that a part of this differ-\\nence is to be sought, possibly, in adaptive functions in the plant\\nitself and a part in the differences of soil conditions.\\nUnder the natural conditions of the field, it would be expected\\nthat very much will depend upon the character of the season\\nthat is, whether the season is humid or dry, whether the tempera-\\ntures are high or low, whether the wind velocities are strong or\\nlight, and whether the amount of sunshine is more or less. Very\\nmuch, too, will depend upon the soil and the character of the\\nrainfall, whether the soil is open and the rains are frequent and\\nheavy, so that considerable amounts of water are lost to the crop\\nby percolation and under-drainage, or whether the soil has a\\nretentive texture, and the rainfall is so proportioned that rela-\\ntively small amounts are lost, nearly all being used in the pro-\\nduction of the crop. Then, too, the manner in which the crop is\\ndisposed on the field, whether it covers the surface closely, as do\\nthe grasses and small grains, or whether considerable areas of\\nthe field are exposed to the direct action of wind and sun, as in\\nmany of the hoed crops and in orchards, must have a marked\\ninfluence in determining the actual amount of water which will\\ndisappear or will need to be applied during a season, in order\\nt to maintain the best moisture conditions for the particular\\ncrop.\\nThen, again, the treatment of the soil itself will have much\\nto do with the quantity of water which disappears at once from\\nthe surface without in any way benefiting the crop, and also the\\nquantity which drops at once entirely through the root zone, con-\\nB", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "18 Irrigation and Drainage\\ntributing nothing to the physiological processes which are involved\\nin the production of the harvest sought.\\nIrrigation and land drainage are, each of theua, nuethods of\\ntreatment of field conditions which aim to modify and control the\\nquantitative relations of the water which the soil shall contain,\\nand hence it becomes a matter of importance to know how much\\nwater is necessarily involved in the production of a given amount\\nof a given crop. Much work has been done by various investi-\\ngators bearing upon this problem, but in all of those eases the\\nwork has been by methods and appliances which have placed the\\nplants experimented with under such conditions that the roots\\nwere forced to develop in a volume of soil which was much smaller\\nthan field conditions usually afford. In the writer s work, how-\\never, he has aimed to give the plants more nearly the normal\\namount of root room and in one series has aimed, also, to so\\nplace the experiment that the plants should be growing as\\nnearly as possibly under the meteorological conditions of the field\\ncrop.\\nThe apparatus used for this work is illustrated in Fig. 1,\\nwhere, for the first trials, 50 -gallon vinegar casks were used for\\npots in which to place the soil. But after the first year s work\\nthese were abandoned, and there were substituted for them, for\\nthe field work, galvanized iron cylinders 18 inches in diameter and\\n42 inches deep. These were placed in pits in the ground in the\\nfield, as illustrated in Fig. 1, so that the tops of the cylinders\\nwere at the level of the top of the field soil, and so that the cylin-\\nders in which the experimental plants were growing stood in the\\nfield surrounded by the crop of the same kind growing under field\\nconditions. The object of placing the experiment in this manner\\nwas to secure for the plants, as nearly as possible, the meteorologi-\\ncal conditions of the field, and these conditions were quite closely\\nrealized in all particulars except the one of soil temperature. In\\nthis particular the cylinders, being necessarily isolated from the\\nbody of the field soil in order that they might be weighed at any\\ntime, allowed the soil to take more nearly the temperature of the\\natmosphere than was true of the deeper layers of soil in the field,\\nand also to be subject to wider diurnal changes in the lower por-", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "Water Eequired for a Pound of Dry Matter 19\\nFig. 1. Method used to measure the amount of watei* reqiiii-ed to produce\\na pound of dry matter.\\ntions of the cylinders than could have occurred in the correspond-\\ning depths in the field soil. Just how these differences of tem-\\nperature conditions have modified the results we are not yet in a\\nposition to say, but it is not likely that they have caused very", "height": "3205", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "20 Irrigation and Drainage\\nwide departures from what would have been observed had it been\\npossible to have measured as accurately the water consumed by\\nthe surrounding plants of the same kind which were growing at\\nthe same time in the field under every way normal field condi-\\ntions.\\nIn all of these pot experiments, the effort has been to hold\\nthe amount of moisture in the soil at a constant quantity equal\\nto that which was possessed by the field soil in the spring of\\nthe year, when it was in good working condition and this\\nwas done by weighing the cylinders periodically, usually as\\noften as once a week, and then adding water in sufficient quan-\\ntity to bring the weight of the cylinder back to the original\\namount. The cylinders were, of course, water-tight, so that the\\nonly loss was through evaporation from the surface of the soil in\\nthe cylinders and from the plants themselves. No effort has been\\nmade in these experiments to distinguish between the amount of\\nwater which actually passed through the plant and was -evaporated\\nfrom its surface, and that which escaped from the surface of the\\nsoil in which the plants were growing, as to do this would\\nnecessitate the covering of the soil in which the plants were grow-\\ning so as to prevent evaporation from it. To do this effectively\\nwould interfere with the normal aeration of the soil, and thus viti-\\nate the results by producing abnormal conditions. During the\\nwork of the first year, when the wooden casks were used, there\\nwas probably some loss of water through the walls of the casks,\\ndue to capillarity in the wood and evaporation from it but\\nthe amount was probably small, because they were all well\\npainted.\\nThe first year s trials were with oats, barley and corn. With\\nthe oats and barley the surface of the soil was not disturbed after\\nseeding, but in the case of the corn the ground was stirred after\\neach watering, so as to develop a soil mulch after the manner\\nof field culture. In each case the work was done in dupli-\\ncate. In the table which follows are given the results of these\\ntrials", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "Water Used by Plants\\n21\\n*Table shoiving the amount of water evaporated from plant and soil iji producing\\na pound of dry matter in Wisconsin in 1891\\nWater used\\nLBS.\\nBarley 1 158.3\\nBarley 2 141.03\\nOats 1 224.25\\nOats 2 220.7\\nCorn 1 300.45\\nCorn 2 298.65\\nDry matter Water per lb. of Water as inches\\nproduced dry matter of rain\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\nINCHES\\n.3966\\n.3488\\n399 14 1\\n404.33 J\\n13.19\\n.4405\\n509.31 1\\n493 63 J\\n19.6\\n.4471\\n1.0152\\n.9727\\n295.95\\n307.03 i\\n26.39\\nIt will be seen from an inspection of the table that the sev-\\neral experiments agree among themselves as closely as could be\\nexpected, and that the barley used 13,19 inches of water in\\ncoming to maturity, the oats 19.6 inches, and the corn 26.39\\ninches.\\nDuring the same season an effort was made to measure the\\nwater required for a crop of corn under perfectly normal field\\nconditions. To do this two plots of ground, each 48 feet long\\nand 42 feet wide, were planted to a local form of Pride of the\\nNorth dent corn, in rows 3.5 feet apart and in hills 16 inches\\napart in the rows, the corn being thinned to two stalks in a hill\\nafter it had come up and was well established. At the time of\\nplanting, samples of soil were taken in 1-foot sections to a depth\\nof 4 feet from six different places on each plot, and the water\\nin the soil determined. This was also done when the corn was\\ncut, in order to get a measure of the change in the water con-\\ntent of the soil, which it was proposed to add to the measured\\nrainfall of the growing season, to give the amount of water\\nused.\\nAt the time of maturity, the whole of the corn of each plot\\nwas cut and dried in a large dry -house, in order to get an exact\\nmeasure of the amount of dry matter produced. There is given\\nbelow the water content of the soil in the two plots at the time\\nof planting and at the time of harvest\\n*Eighth Annual Report Wisconsin Experiment Station, p. 126.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "22 Irrigation and Drainage\\n*Table showing the changes in the water content of the soil upon ivhich com had\\nbeen grown in 1890 under field conditions\\nDry weight of soil per First foot Second foot Third foot Fourth foot\\ncubic foot 77.25 lbs. 79.79 lbs. 94.1.3 lbs. 98.07 lbs.\\nPEROT. LBS. PEROT. LBS. PER CT. LBS. PER OT. LBS.\\nJuue7 22.66 17.5 19.77 15.77 18.16 17.09 19.16 18.79\\nPLOT I Sept. 16 15.75 12.17 11.8 9.42 9.91 9.33 10.77 10.56\\nLoss 6.91 5.33 7.97 6.35 8.25 7.76 8.39 8.23\\n[June 7 24.93 19.26 24.32 19.4 20.08 18.9 19.37 19\\nPLOT II-! Sept. 16 18.43 14.24 15.03 11.99 12.62 11.88 9.8 9.61\\n[Loss 65 5.02 9.29 7.41 7.46 7.02 9.57 9.39\\nFrom this table it appears that each volume of soil four feet\\nlong and one square foot in section lost the amounts of water\\nwhich follow:\\nPlot I Plot II\\nLBS. LBS.\\nLoss of water in soil 27.67 28.84\\nRainfall from June 7 to Sept. 16 64.72 64.72\\nTotal loss 92.39 93.56\\n17.76 inches 17.99 inches\\nThe amount of dry matter produced in these cases was, for\\nPlot I, 450.18 pounds; Plot II, 455.36 pounds, making a yield per\\nacre of 9,727 pounds and 9,840 pounds for the two plots respectively.\\nWere it admissible to assume that the percolation of rain-\\nwater below the zone of root action had been exactly equaled by\\nthe rise of water into it by capillarity from the subsoil below, it\\nwould follow, from the observed losses of water and yields of dry\\nmatter, that the amount of water used for a pound of dry matter\\nunder these field conditions was 413.7 pounds for Plot I, and 414.2\\npounds for Plot II.\\nThe results of a trial similar to the one just described, and with\\nthe same variety of corn, for the year 1891, gave 309 pounds of\\nwater for one pound of dry matter, on ground which had been given\\na dressing of farmyard manure, and 333 pounds of water for a\\npound of dry matter on land which had not been manured. Here\\nwe have two trials by pot culture, where everything was under\\n*-Eighth Annual Report Wisconsin Experiment Station, p. 123.", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "Water Used hij Plants 23\\ncontrol, and there could be no percolation, which gave an aver-\\nage of 301.49 pounds of water for a pound of dry matter. We also\\nhave four field trials, where there is the uncertainty of some loss\\nof water by percolation and of some gain by capillarity from\\nbelow, which gave a mean of 413.95 pounds for 1890, and in 1891\\n321 pounds of water for a pound of dry matter. The amount of\\npercolation during the season of 1890 was certainly greater than it\\nwas during the season of 1891, and this may or may not be an\\nexplanation of the difference in the amounts of water used per\\npound of dry matter in the two seasons.\\nIn the case of oats grown under field conditions and studied\\nin the same manner as that described for the corn, the results\\nshowed 519 pounds of water for a pound of dry matter in the one\\ncase, and 534 pounds in another case, while the average of the\\ntwo pot experiments was 501.47 pounds of water for one pound\\nof dry matter.\\nSo, too, in the case of field studies with barley, we had an\\nobserved loss of 537 pounds of water in one case on ground which\\nhad been fallow, but 719 pounds on ground which had not been\\nfallow, for each pound of dry matter produced while the pot\\nculture gave a mean loss of only 401.74 pounds of water for a\\npound of dry matter.\\nIf we count the rainfall during the growing season and the\\ndifference between the amounts of water in the soil at the time\\nof planting and at harvest, in the several field eases, as the\\namounts of water used by the crop, including surface evaporation,\\nand then compare these amounts per square foot with those added\\nto the several pots in the pot trials, we shall have results which\\nare given below:\\nTable, slioiving number of pounds of ivater consumed per square foot\\nOats\\nIn pots In field Difference\\nMean amount of water per sq. ft.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lbs 101.98 72.98 29\\nBarley\\nMean amount of water per sq. ft.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lbs. :..*.;v.. 79.11 58.65 20.46\\nCorn V\\nMean amount of water per sq. ft.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lbs. 137.3 63.8 73.5", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "24 Irrigation mid Drainage\\nFrom these figures it appears that while more water was lost\\nin the field, for each pound of dry matter produced, than in the\\npot experiments, the amount of water used per square foot in\\nthe pots was in every case much greater than it was in the field.\\nSo, too, were the yields of dry matter, when expressed in\\nunits of equal areas, much greater in the pots than they were in\\nthe field. These relations are very suggestive, though, of course,\\nnot at all demonstrative, that the larger amount of water used\\nper unit area in the pot experiments is to be credited with the\\nlarger amount of dry matter produced per unit area. The differ-\\nences are certainly in the direction we should expect if water\\nplays the important part we have attributed to it, and if in the\\nfield experiments the several crops did not have all of the water\\nthey might have used to advantage.\\nIn 1892 pot experiments similar to those described were eon-\\nducted with barley, oats, corn, clover, and field peas, using gal-\\nvanized iron cylinders 18 inches in diameter and 42 inches deep,\\nplaced in the field, surrounded by the field crop, and each experi-\\nment being in duplicate. The results of these trials are given in\\nthe table below:\\nTable showing the amount of water used in producing a pound of dry matter\\nin Wisconsin in 1892\\nDry matter Water per lb. of Computed yield Water\\nper acre used\\nLBS. INCHES\\n14,196 23.52\\n8,189 19\\n19,184 25\\n12,486 29.73\\n8,017 16.89\\nIf, now, we express the relation between the amount of dry\\nmatter produced and the number of inches of water used in these\\ntrials and in those of 1891, it will be seen that the yields of dry\\nWater used\\nproduced\\ndry matt\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\nBarley 1....\\n216.12\\n.576\\n375.21\\nBarley 2....\\n206.12\\nOats 1....\\n174.6\\n.3322\\n525.59\\nOats 2....\\n167.58\\nCorn 1\\n235.96\\n.9905\\n238.22\\nCorn 2....\\n225.24\\n.5657\\n398.15\\nClover 1\\n337.36\\n.5977\\n564.43\\nClover 2....\\n348 66\\nPeas 1....\\n155.24\\n.3252\\n477.37\\nPeas 2....\\n139.17", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "8,189\\n19\\n4,157\\n11.27\\n7,441\\n13.19\\n14,196\\n23.52\\n8,190.5\\n12.26\\n19,845\\n26.39\\n7,045.3\\n11.34\\n19,184\\n25.09\\n12,496\\n29.73\\n8,017\\n16.89\\nWater Used by Plants 25\\nmatter per acre are measurably proportional to the amount of\\nwater used by the crop in producing it. These relations are\\nexpressed in the following table:\\nIn the field In cylinders\\nDry matter Water nsed Dry matter Water used\\nLBS. PKR ACRE INCHES LBS. PER ACRE INCHES\\nOats in 1891 6,083 13.93 8,861 19.69\\nOats in 1892\\nBarley in 1891\\nBarley in 1892\\nCorn in 1891\\nCorn in 1892\\nClover in 1892\\nPeas in 1892\\nNow, here, in the ease of the oats, the average yield of dry\\nmatter per acre in the cylinders was 4,26 tons, while in the field\\nit was 3.04 tons. But the soil put into the cylinders in the spring\\nwas the same as that in the field and contained the same per cent\\nof soil moisture, but there was given to the soil in the cylinders\\n1.39 times the amount of water which fell as rain upon the sur-\\nrounding fields, plus the amount of water by which the soil was\\ndryer at harvest than at seed-time and we had a yield 1.4 times\\nas large.\\nIn the experiment with barley, we had an average yield of\\n5.41 tons of dry matter per acre in the cylinders, but only 2.08\\ntons in the field. There were added to the cylinders 1.63 times\\nthe amount of water which fell upon the field, plus the amount\\nof water by which the soil was dryer at harvest than at seed-time,\\nand we realized a yield of dry matter 2.6 times as large. There\\nwas in the field a yield of 40 bushels of grain per acre, but in\\nthe cylinders 104 bushels, and yet so far as we can see, the only\\nadvantage the barley in the cylinders had over that in the field\\nwas the increased amount of water added to the soil.\\nIn the case of corn, the yield of dry matter per acre in the\\ncylinders was nearly 2.6 times as large as that in the field, and\\nthere was added to the soil in which this corn grew a little less", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "26 Irrigation and Drainage\\nthan 2.2 times the amount of water which was available for the\\nfield crop.\\nIn 1893, oats used water at the rate of 595 pounds per pound of\\ndry matter on a sandy soil where the yield was 1.196 pounds on\\n7.069 sq. ft., making a yield of 7,370 pounds of dry matter per acre.\\nBut in this case the pot was a galvanized iron cylinder 6 feet deep,\\nstanding above the ground, so that the evaporation would neces-\\nsarily be large, as the figures show it was. Expressed in inches,\\nthe water used was equal to 19.37 inches of rain.\\nClover, too, was grown in the usual form of cylinder in the\\nground in the field, and two crops cut from each of two cylinders,\\nproducing the yield and using the amounts of water stated below\\nFirst crop Second crop^\\nNo. 1 No. 2 No. 1 No. 2\\nLBS. LBS. LBS. LBS.\\nDry matter per acre 7,000 9,353 5,734 7,886\\nWater per pound of dry matter 423.14 370.92 983.7 730.9\\nIt will be seen that in these cases the first crops, which were\\ncut July 1, were much more economical of water used than wer^\\nthe second crops, when measured by the standard of the number\\nof pounds of water per pound of dry matter produced. Express-\\ning the, water used in inches over the surface covered by the\\ncrop, the results stand\\nFirst crop -\u00e2\u0080\u0094Second crop\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nNo. 1 No. 2 No. 1 No. 2\\nINCHES INCHES INCHES INCHKS\\nInches of water used 13.06 15.28 24.89 25.44\\nIt is thus seen that the two crops of clover, averaging for\\nthe four cases a yield of 7.493 tons of dry matter per acre, and\\nequivalent to 8.815 tons of hay containing 15 per cent of water,\\nused for the season a mean of 39.33 inches of water, an amount |j\\nwhich considerably exceeds the total annual rainfall of the year 1\\nfor this locality.\\nSide by side with the clover trials of 1893, four cylinders were\\ntreated in the same manner for corn, all of them growing a flint\\nvariety. In these cases, too, one cylinder of each pair had its\\ni", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "Water Used by Plants 27\\nsoil enriched with farmyard manure, to- determine if a rich soil\\naffected in any notable way the rate at which water was used in\\ncrop production.\\nThe results of these trials may be stq,ted as given below:\\nFlint corn Flint corn\\nManured Not man d Manured Not man d\\n12 3 4\\nLBS. LBS. LBS. LBS.\\nDry matter per acre 34,730 33,620 22,540 9,505\\nWater used per lb. of dry matter 223.3 232 257.4 223\\nWater expressed in inches 34.23 34.42 25.56 13.06\\nThe difference in yield between cylinders 3 and 4 and 1 and 2\\nappears to have been due to the condition of the soil at the time\\nthe cylinders were fitted, the soil being more moist in 3 and 4,\\nwhich stood upon ground lower and too wet for conditions of best\\ngrowth. The field yield of corn surrounding the cylinders, and\\nwith the same kind of soil, was 4.4 tons of dry matter, yielding\\n66.95 bushels of kiln-dried shelled corn per acre, which is large\\nfor field conditions with the normal rainfall. But the mean yield\\nin cylinders 1 and 2 was 17.09 tons of dry matter per acre, or\\nalmost four times as much, while the average of the four cylinders\\nwas 2.85 times as large, but using 2.2 times the amount of water\\nwhich fell upon the surrounding fields as rain during the growing\\nseason for this corn.\\nIt does not, of course, follow from these experiments that well\\ntilled field soil, if irrigated properly, will produce such yields as\\nthese which have been recorded neither does it follow, neces-\\nsarily, that these large yields owe their excess over normal crops\\nonly to the extra supply of water added at the proper times.\\nIt does, however, follow from these experiments, we think, that\\nwere our water supply under better control and larger at certain\\ntimes than it is in Wisconsin, our field yields would be much\\nincreased, if not actually doubled. It does follow, also, from\\nthese experiments, that well drained lands in Wisconsin and in\\nother countries having similar climatic conditions are not supplied\\nnatui ally with as much water during the growing season as most", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "28\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\ncrops are capable of utilizing, and, hence, that all methods of till-\\nage which are wasteful of soil moisture detract by so much from-\\nthe yields per acre. Indeed, what we call good average yields\\nper acre are determined, in a large measure, by the amount of\\nsoil moisture which the land is capable of turning over to the\\ncrops growing upon it.\\nIn 1894, work similar to that described was done with pota-\\ntoes, eight cylinders being used, two of which were placed in the\\nFig. 2. Potatoes grown in cylinders to determine the amount of water\\nused in producing a crop.\\nfield, as already described, and six others were kept standing upon\\nthe surface of the ground, shaded on the south side from the sun\\nin the manner represented in Fig. 2, which shows the potatoes as\\nthey appeared when growing. In the same year, oats were agai?\\ngrown in four other cylinders surrounded by field grain of t\\nsame kind, and in pots with their tops flush with the top of i\\nground. A statement of the results of these several trials ib\\nhere given.\\nWe give, in the first place, in illustration of the rate at whic\\npotato plants use water in the various stages of their growth.", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "Water Used by Plants\\n29\\ntable showing the times of watering and the amounts of water\\n^iven through the whole growing season for the crop\\nTable showing the times of watering potatoes, and the amounts of\\nivater given\\n-In field\\nCylinders above ground-\\nNo. 1\\nLBS.\\nWeights at start 504\\nMay 15, water added\\nJune 4, 10\\nJune 13, 10\\nJune 21, 13\\nJune 25, 10\\nJune 30, 10\\nJuly 2, 10\\nJuly 5, 15\\nJuly 9. 20\\n1 Tuly 12, 20\\nJuly 16, 15\\nJuly 20, 15\\nJuly 24, 10\\nluly 28. 15\\nVug. 2. 10\\nVug. 10, 15\\nA.ug. 16,\\niUg. 25,\\nWeights at close 481.7\\nTotal water added 198\\nSoil water used 22.3\\ni Dry matter 5\\nTotal water 220.8\\nWater used, in inches. 24.02\\nNo. 2\\nLBS.\\n506.7\\n10\\n10\\n13\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n15\\n20\\n20\\n15\\n15\\n10\\n15\\n10\\n20\\n492\\n203\\n14.7\\n.5\\n218.2\\n23.74\\nNo. 1\\nLBS.\\n581\\n19.8\\n10\\n10\\nNo. 2\\nLBS.\\n576.5\\n18.4\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n12\\n10\\n15\\n8.9\\n15\\n10\\n9.8\\n10\\n8.1\\n554\\n168.6\\n27\\n.3\\n195.9\\n21.31\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n12\\n10\\n15\\n7.1\\n15\\n10\\n22.7\\n10\\n21.4\\n527.8\\n191.6\\n48.7\\n.5\\n240.8\\n26.2\\nNo. 3\\nLBS.\\n579.6\\n18.2\\n10\\n10\\nNo. 4\\nLBS.\\n579.7\\n17.8\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n12\\n10\\n15\\n5.2\\n15\\n10\\n18\\n10\\n20.9\\n531.6\\n184.3\\n48\\n.5\\n232.8\\n25.33\\nNo. 5\\nLBS.\\n582\\n17.9\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n12\\n10\\n15\\n10.6\\n15\\n10\\n18.3\\n10\\n16.9\\n528.8\\n185.6\\n50.9\\n.5\\n237\\n25.78\\nNo. 6\\nLBS.\\n579.5\\n18.3\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n12\\n10\\n15\\n12\\n15\\n10\\n15.1\\n10\\n10.3\\n545.5\\n177.9\\n36.5\\n.4\\n214.8\\n23.27\\n10\\n10\\n10\\n12\\n10\\n15\\n6\\n15\\n10\\n21.7\\n10\\n22.1\\n521.4\\n190.1\\n58.1\\n.5\\n248.7\\n27.06\\nThe potatoes in the two field cylinders matured first, and were\\niug on Aug. 25, while the others stood until Sept. 21. It should\\ne stated in this connection that all of the potatoes, including\\n.se in the field, were affected by the hot weather blight, so that\\n.n no case were the plants in full vigor and presenting the normal\\n^amount of foliage to the atmosphere.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Y The yields of tubers in the several cases, and the computed\\nW ields per acre, figured as proportional to the surface and vol-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "30\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nTime of soil in which the crop grew, are given in the table be-\\nlow:\\nCylinders in the Ground\\nWeight of tubers Yield per acre-\\nMerchantable Merchantable\\ntubers Small Total timbers Sni. 11 Total\\nLBS. LBS. LBS. BU. BU. BIT.\\nNo. 1 1.308 .386 1.694 537.3 158.5 6958\\nNo. 2 .817 .775 1.593 335.6 318.3 653.9\\nCylinders above Ground\\nNo. 1 452 .539 .991 185.6 221.5 407.1\\nNo. 2 379 .792 1.171 155.7 325.5 481.2\\nNo. 3 322 .875 1.197 132.4 359.2 491.6\\nNo. 4 1.024 .314 1.338 420.6 128.9 549.5\\nNo. 5 709 .282 1.091 291.2 1.56.9 448.1\\nNo. 6 681 .435 1.116 279.9 178.8 458.7\\nIt will be seen from the relation between the weights of small\\nand merchantable tubers that the blight referred to had exerted a\\nvery appreciable influence on the crop in all of the cases, so that\\nthe relations which exist between the water used and the dry\\nmatter produced cannot be regarded as normal. These relations,\\nas they were found to stand, are given below:\\nTable showing the pounds of ivater used by potatoes in producing a pound\\nof dry matter in tuber and vine in Wisconsin during the season of 1894\\nDry matter\\nWater per lb. of\\ndry matter\\nComputed yield of\\ndry matter per acre\\nWater used\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\ninches\\nNo. 1....\\n513\\n430.4\\n12,6.50\\n24.02\\nNo. 2....\\n5258\\n415\\n12,960\\n23.74\\nNo. 1....\\n.3338\\n5869\\n8,248\\n21.31\\nNo. 2....\\n5007\\n480.9\\n12,340\\n26.2\\nNo. 3....\\n4505\\n516.8\\n11,110\\n25.33\\nNo. 4....\\n5020\\n472.1\\n12,370\\n25.78\\nNo. 5....\\n3596\\n497.3\\n8,865\\n23.37\\nNo. 6....\\n5425\\n458.4\\n13,370\\n27.06\\nIt is evident from this table, whatever may be said in\\nregard to the yields, that the potatoes did use a very large amount", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "Water Used hij Plants 31\\nof water, although it was unquestionably less than it would have\\nbeen had the plants not been affected by the blight. As it was,\\nthe plants received an average of 24.6 inches, which is three times\\nthe amount of rainfall during their season of growth.\\nIt should be said further, in regard to the amount of water\\nused this season, that the whole of the watering was from the\\nbottom, so that the surface of the ground was kept dry throughout\\nthe time. In order to introduce the water at the bottom, a layer\\nof sand was first placed in each cylinder before the soil was filled\\nin, and then a column of 3-inch drain tile was set up against one\\nside, reaching from the bottom to the top of the cylinders, and in\\nadding the water it was poured into these tiles.\\nIn the case of the cylinders of oats which were grown in 1894,\\nthey were watered in the same manner, so that in these cases\\nnearly all of the water used did actually pass through the plants.\\nThe results with the oats are given below:\\nNo. 1\\nLBS.\\nAmount of water used 282.8\\ndry matter produced .5235\\nwater per lb. of dry\\nmatter 540.6\\ndry matter per acre 12,900\\nIN.\\nTotal water used, in inches 30.77\\nIf reference is made to the yields of 1891 and 1892, which have\\nbeen given on a preceding page, it will be seen that the yields for\\n1894 have been decidedly larger than they were in the former\\ncases, but so were the amounts of water used by the plants. The\\nmean of the three earlier trials gives a yield of 8,525 pounds of dry\\nmatter per acre, using 19.345 inches of water to produce it; but\\nin these last cases the mean yield of dry matter was 11,870 pounds\\nper acre, and the water used to produce it was 31.08 inches. The\\nyields of 1894 average 1.39 times the earlier ones, and the amount\\nof water used in producing this greater yield was 1.06 times the\\namount required for the smaller.\\nNo. 2\\nNo. 3\\nNo. 4\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\n280.2\\n283.3\\n285.6\\n.516 5\\n.4198\\n.4663\\n542.7\\n674.9\\n614.7\\n12,730\\n10,350\\n11,500\\nIN.\\nIN.\\nIN.\\n30.48\\n30.82\\n31.18", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "32 Irrigation and Drainage\\nIn 1895, and again in 1896, similar experiments were carried\\non with potatoes, barley and clover, both upon very sandy soils\\nand upon good clay loam. The first experiments described were\\nwith potatoes on very sundy soil taken from the pine barrens in\\nDouglas county. Wis., and which was ouite coarse-grained and\\ndeficient in organic matter.\\nOn June 3, 1895, the three cylinders in the right of the pho-\\ntograph, Fig. 2, were filled with the soil in question. Some 2,000\\npounds of this soil had been procured from the surface down to a\\ndepth of three feet. The first, second and third feet of the soil\\nwere placed in them in their natural order in the field, the third\\nfoot being at the bottom and the surface foot at the top, so as\\nto reproduce the natural conditions as closely as possible.\\nIn cylinder 1, on the right, the soil was left in its virgin con-\\ndition to No. 2 there was applied two pounds of well -rotted\\nfarmyard manure, and to No. 3 there were given four pounds.\\nThe remaining three cylinders, 4, 5 and 6, were used as checks,\\nand were filled to within 5 inches of the top with good surface\\nsoil of a light clay loam character. In order that the tubers of\\nthe potatoes might develop under as closely similar conditions as\\npossible, and that the surface evaporation from the soil might not\\nbe very different, there was placed upon the surface of cylinder\\n4 five inches of the surface soil from the pine barrens, on cylin-\\nder 5 five inches of the second foot, and upon 6 five inches of the\\nthird foot.\\nIn planting, one tuber of the Alexander Prolific potato was\\ncut in halves and the two pieces planted, so as to give two hills in\\neach cylinder. The cylinders were weighed and watered once\\neach week, water enough being given to maintain a constant\\nweight.\\nIn 1896, the cylinders were again planted in the same manner\\nwith Rural New-Yorker potatoes. No fertilizers were used, but the\\nplants were watered twice each week, 5 pounds of water being\\ngiven to each cylinder every Monday morning and enough more\\non every Thursday, when the cylinders were weighed, to bring\\nthem to a constant weight. This change was made because it\\nappeared possible that the texture of the soil was too coarse to", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "Water Used hy Plants 33\\npermit a single watering every seven days to meet the needs of\\nthe plants.\\nThe results of the two years are given in the following table:\\n1\\n2\\n3\\n4\\n5\\n6\\nBU.\\nBU.\\nBU.\\nBU.\\nBU.\\nBU.\\nYield per acre, 1896..\\n513.5\\n862.6\\n801\\n1,089\\n1,119\\n883.2\\n189.3...\\n74\\n449.5\\n450\\n412.6\\n284\\n517\\n279\\n810\\n416\\n703\\n152\\nDifference\\n731.2\\nIN.\\nIN.\\nIN.\\nIN.\\nIN.\\nIN.\\nInches of water used,\\n1896\\n25.85\\n27.91\\n29.07\\n34.08\\n32.63\\n27.51\\n189.5\\n10.76\\n20 02\\n17.65\\n16 27\\n20.65\\n12.96\\nDifference\\n15.09\\n7.89\\n11.42\\n17.81\\n11.98\\n14.55\\nIt will be seen from this table that both the yield of potatoes\\nand the amount of water used are much larger in 1896 than they\\nare in 1895, the average yield in 1896 being 878.1 and in 1895\\nonly 275.8 bushels, the former being 3.18 times the latter. The\\naverage amount of water used was 29.51 inches in 1896, and 16.385\\ninches in 1895, the former being 1.8 times the latter.\\nAs a further check upon these experiments, two cylinders 7\\nfeet deep and 4.33 feet in diameter were filled with a local yellow\\nsand, and to one of the cylinders farmyard manure was applied\\nat the rate of 50 tons per acre, and to the other at the rate of 25\\nIons per acre. These were planted in 1895 with Alexander Pro-\\nlific potatoes, seven pieces in each cylinder. The watering in\\n1895 was once each week, and twice each week in 1896. In the\\nlatter year no fertilizers of any kind were applied, and Rural\\nNew-Yorker potatoes were planted instead of the Alexander Pro-\\nlific. In 1895, 20.05 inches of water gave a yield of 605.5 bushels\\non the heavily manured cylinder and 563.5 bushels per acre on\\nthe other. But in 1896, when the potatoes were watered twice\\neach week at the rate of 75 pounds for the lightly manured ease\\nand 50 pounds for the other, the yield per acre on the lightly\\nmanured cylinder was only 312 bushels, and yet 40.61 inches of\\nwater were used; while the other cylinder gave a yield of 344.5\\nbushels per acre and used 31.92 inches of water,\\nC", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "34\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nIn this case it will be seen that a decidedly smaller yield is\\nassociated with a much larger amount of water applied at shorter\\nintervals, but why this should be does not appear, unless the\\nmanure had become exhausted and the plants were not properly\\nfed. The vines in all cases were abnormally small, and looked\\nstarved.\\nIn the experiments with both barley and clover, the small\\ncylinders were used set into the ground in the field. Two cylin-\\nders were used for the barley and four for the clover, one -half of\\nthem filled with the yellowish sand referred to, well manured,\\nand the other filled with good soil. All the cylinders were\\nweighed and watered once each week, holding them at a constant\\nweight, and the results are given in the table below:\\nBarley, 1895\\nSand Soil\\nYield of dry matter in tons per acre 5.02 6.32\\nBushels of grain per acre 30.47 38.14\\nInches of water 25.84 31.24\\nClover, 1895\\nBoth crops\\nSand Soil\\nFirst crop Second crop Water used\\nSand Soil Sand Soil inches\\nTons dry matter per acre. No. 1 2.88 3.48 2.36 3.28 29.36 38.18\\nNo. 2.. 2.91 3.25 3.19 2.77 .37.15 39.91\\nClover, 1896\\nTonsdry matter per acre, No. 1.. 1.86 2.45 4.32 3.63 22.09 19.78\\nNo. 2.. 2.09 2.9 3.62 3.29 20.87 20 48\\nMean for two years 2.435 3.02 3.372 3.242 27.37 29.59\\nThe mean annual yield of clover on the sand for the two years\\nwas 5.807 tons of dry matter per acre, using 27.37 inches of\\nwater, and the mean product for both crops on the good soil for\\nthe two years was 6.262 tons of dry matter per acre, usiug an\\naverage of 29.59 inches of water to produce it.\\nIn addition to the field results which have now been presented,\\nmeasuring the water used in the production of crops in Wisconsin,\\nwe have obtained some results in essentially the same manner,\\nexcept that the cylinders were made deep enough to contain four", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "Water Used by Plants\\n35\\nfeet of soil, and all were placed in the plant-house, arranged in\\nthe manner shown in Fig. 3.\\nIn these trials, two sizes of cylinders have been used one 18\\ninches in diameter and 51 inches deep, and the other 36 inches\\nFig. 3. Method of growing plants in plant-house to determine the\\namonnt of water used.\\nin diameter and the sam.e depth. The large cylinders this year\\nhave been filled with a black marsh soil, and the small ones with\\na virgin soil of medium clay loam variety, taken from a second-\\ngrowth black oak grove.\\nFirst, the results obtained from four of the large cylinders\\nsowed to oats Dec. 12, 1896, and harvested July 1, 1897, after a\\nperiod of 200 days. The oats were sown thick, and grew very\\nrank, lodging quite badly.\\nThe total dry matter and the total water used by the crop\\nof the four cylinders was as given below:", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "36 Irrigation and Drainage\\nNo. of cylinders 13 14 23 24\\nDry matter produced\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lbs 4 3.16 4.93 4.32\\nTotal water used\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lbs 1,808 1,668 2,061.5 1,782.5\\nDividing the amount of water used on the four cylinders by\\nthe dry matter produced, we get, as the mean of the four trials,\\nunder the conditions of the plant-house, 446.1 pounds of water for\\na pound of dry matter, and a yield of dry matter per acre amount-\\ning to 12.645 tons, which is very large, indeed. The water used\\nby this crop expressed as rainfall was, as a mean of the four\\ntrials, 49.76 inches. Here is a depth of water used from this soil\\nwhich is a little greater than the soil itself but the rate at which\\nthe water was used, it will be observed, is less per pound of dry\\nmatter produced than that for the out-of-door experiments.\\nIn the case of the clover on these black marsh soils, there\\nwere eight of the large cylinders used, in four of which medium\\nclover grew, and on the other four alsike clover. These were\\nsown without a nurse crop, and at the same time as the oats, but\\nwere cut July 8, so that the period of growth was 207 days. The\\nresults obtained here with medium clover were as stated below\\nNo. of cylinders 15\\nDry matter produced gms 507\\nWater used\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lbs 673.5\\nDividing the total amount of water used on the four cylinders\\nby the total dry matter produced, we get 582.9 pounds of water\\nas the amount used per pound of dry matter. In this case the\\nyield of dry matter per acre was 3.92 tons, equal to 4.61 tons\\nof hay containing 15 per cent of water. The amount of water\\nused, expressed in inches, was 20.16.\\nThe alsike clover gave yields and results as follows\\nNo. of cylinders 17 18 19 20\\nDry matter produced\u00e2\u0080\u0094 gms 628 616 576 634\\nWater used\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lbs 809 758 774 804.5\\nIn this case, the mean amount of water for a pound of dry\\nmatter was 581.5 pounds, and the yield of dry matter per acre\\n16\\n21\\n22\\n608\\n620\\n573\\n795.5\\n819\\n678", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "72\\n73\\n74\\n75\\n76\\n77\\n315.5\\n252.4\\n230\\n212.5\\n214.5\\n222.5\\n350\\n206\\n297\\n292.5\\n318\\n295.5\\n79\\n80\\n81\\n82\\n83\\n84\\n223.5\\n284.5\\n292.6\\n284.2\\n277.5\\n266.5\\n300.5\\n311.5\\n290\\n326.5\\n336\\n347.5\\nWater Used by Plants 37\\nwas 4.168 tons, equal to 4.9 tons of hay containing 15 per cent\\nof water. The water used, expressed in inches, was 21.43.\\nIn the trials of clover on the virgin soil in the plant-house,\\n14 cylinders of the smaller size were used, and these were seeded\\nDee. 12, 1896, and cut July 8, 1897. The yield of dry matter in\\nthese cases per unit area was much heavier than on the black\\nsoil, the amounts standing as below:\\nNo. of cylinders 71\\nDry matter\u00e2\u0080\u0094 gms 312.5\\nWater used\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lbs 373.5\\nNo. of cylinders 78\\nDry matter\u00e2\u0080\u0094 gms 303.5\\nWater used\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lbs 351.5\\nThe total amount of water- free dry matter produced on all\\nthe cylinders was 3,724.2 gms., or 8.215 pounds., using 4,496\\npounds of water, or at the rate of 547.3 pounds for one pound\\nof dry matter. The average yield of water-free dry matter per\\nacre was 7.23 tons, equal to 8.51 tons of hay containing 15 per\\ncent of water. The water used during the 207 days from seed-\\ntime to cutting of the first crop was 34.93 inches.\\nSide by side with the cases now cited, six other cylinders\\nwere planted to Rural New-Yorker potatoes on the same date.\\nThese were dug July 2, and the photo-engraving, Fig. 4, shows\\nthe crop produced. Although the potatoes were planted Dec. 12,\\nthey did not come up until into February, apparently for no other\\nreason than that the tubers needed a certain period in which to\\ndevelop the conditions for growth, which at the time of planting\\nthey had not had. When the plaints did come up they grew very\\nrapidly. Below are given the results of these trials:\\nNo. of cylinders 65\\nWeight of tubers\u00e2\u0080\u0094 gms 1,288.7\\nBushels per acre 1,168\\nTotal dry matter\u00e2\u0080\u0094 gms 342.6\\nWater per lb. of dry mattei* 275.4\\nWater used by crop lbs 208\\nInches of water 22.63\\n66\\n67\\n68\\n69\\n70\\n808.1\\n1,376\\n1,313.4\\n1,275.4\\n1,204.8\\n732\\n1,249\\n1,189\\n1,155\\n1,091.5\\n263.6\\n332,5\\n334\\n312.2\\n328.8\\n347.6\\n281.7\\n272.3\\n307.3\\n306.3\\n202\\n206.5\\n200.5\\n211.5\\n222\\n21.98\\n22.47\\n21.81\\n23.01\\n24.15", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "38\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nHere, again, if we figure the yield of dry matter per acre on\\nthe basis of the amount of ground occupied, we shall have the\\nlarge crop of 8.67 tons of dry matter per acre, using in its pro-\\nduction 22.67 inches of water.\\nIn twenty other 18-inch cylinders in the plant-house, a variety\\nof white dent corn was grown, four plants in a cylinder. These\\nFig. 4. Crop of potatoes using from 272-347 pounds of water for 1\\npound of dry matter.\\nwere planted May 22 and harvested Aug. 23, and on the twenty\\ncylinders, aggregating 35.34 square feet of soil, 18.1 pounds of\\ndry matter were produced, which used 5,685 pounds of water in\\ncoming to maturity, or at the rate of 314.1 pounds of water for\\none pound of dry matter, and a depth of water, when expressed\\nas rainfall, of 30,93 inches, the yield per acre being 22,310 pounds\\nof water -free matter.", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "Amount of Wafer Used by Plants 89\\nVARIATIONS IN THE AMOUNT OP WATER USED\\nBY PLANTS\\nIt is a matter of very fundamental ipiportanee to know what\\nfactors or conditions may cause a variation in the amount of water\\nwhicli is necessary to produce a ton of dry matter, because it is\\nonly by knowing these that it will be possible to lay down any\\ngenei al principles for determining the amount of water which\\nwill be required to produce a given yield.\\nIf we examine the data which have been presented, it will\\nbe observed that not only is there a rather wide variation in the\\namount of water used by different crops, but, also, that there is,\\nfurther, a wide difference recorded as occurring with the same\\nspecies or variety, sometimes with the same species in the same\\nyear, and sometimes for different years, and it is important to\\nknow to what these differences are due.\\nIn the case of corn, for example, where we have grown it\\nunder the cylinder conditions in the field, the following varia-\\ntions have been noted\\nIn 1891, Pride of the North dent corn used in one case 295.95\\npounds of water for a pound of dry matter, and in the other 307.03\\npounds. But in the first case more dry matter was produced by\\nthe individual plants, the first producing 4.369 per cent more than\\nthe other did, but in doing this only .602 per cent more water\\nwas taken that is, the most vigorous plants have produced the\\nmost dry matter when measured by the amount of water used.\\nIndeed, it may be laid down as a general rule, that the more\\nfavorable all conditions are for plant growth, the more effective\\nwill be the water supplied to the crop. Good management, there-\\nfore, will look closely to all details, even to the minor ones,\\nfor everything counts in plant feeding just as it does in animal\\nfeeding.\\nNot all varieties of the same species of plant use water in\\nthe production of dry matter with the same degree of effective-\\nness. In our work with dent and flint corn, for example, we have\\nfound, as a mean of four trials, that Pride of the North dent", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "40 Irrigation and Drainage\\ncorn used water at the rate of 309.84 pounds of water per pound of\\ndry matter produced, and 25.74 inches of water when measured\\nin depth on the area occupied. But four trials with a variety of\\nflint corn gave a mean of 233.9 pounds of water per pound of dry\\nmatter, which is 75.94 poinds or 32,5 percent less than in the case\\nof the dent variety. This is not because actually less water was\\nused per unit area, for the flint corn in these four trials did use\\na mean of 26.82 inches against 25.74 for the dent corn.\\nIt seems not improbable that this more economical use of\\nwater by the flint corn may be in part due to its lower habit of\\ngrowth and the greater abundance of foliage closer to the ground,\\nfor it may be expected that the lower position of the leaves, and\\ntheir crowding as well, would tend to lessen the amount of\\nevaporation in a given time. But to whatever the difference may\\nbe due, it is plain that on light soils and wherever the water\\nsupply is limited, larger returns may be secured by paying atten-\\ntion to the variety of plant grown.\\nThe amount of water used by a particular crop might be\\nexpected to vary with the humidity of the season and the amount\\nof wind movement during the period of growth of the crop but\\nthe data obtained do not appear to show so marked a relation as\\nwould seem should exist. The mean relative humidity of the air\\nat Madison at 2 p. M., in 1891, for June, July and August, was\\n63.66 per cent, while in 1892, for the same time of day and period,\\nthe mean was 68 per cent and the total wind movement for\\nMadison, these years, for the three months, as given by the\\nrecords of the Washburn Observatory, was 20,712 miles in 1891\\nand 18,870 in 1892. But in 1891, 26.39 inches of water gave a\\nyield of dry matter per acre of 19,845 pounds, and in 1892, 25.09\\ninches gave a yield of 19,184 pounds of dry matter per acre of\\ncorn in the plant cylinders in the field. The differences in the\\namounts of water used during the two years, it will be seen, is\\nvery small, especially when it is recognized that in 1892 the dry\\nmatter produced, and presumably the evaporation surface also,\\nwas less than in 1891.\\nSo, too, in the case of oats for these two years, 19.60 inches\\nof water gave 8,861 pounds of dry matter per acre in 1891, and in", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "Amomit of Water Used by Plants 41\\n1892, 19 inches gave 8,189 pounds, leaving the rate of evapo-\\nration from the plant surface very nearly the same for the two\\nseasons, in spite of the differences of humidity and of wind\\nvelocities.\\nIn the case of barley for these two years, there was a wide\\ndifference in the amount of water used per unit area, 13.19 inches\\nbeing used in 1891 and 23.52 inches in 1892. But the yields of dry\\nmatter per unit area were also widely different, being 7,441 pounds\\nof dry matter per acre in 1891 and 14,196 pounds in 1892. The\\nbarley in 1891 used 3.54 inches of water per ton of dry matter,\\nand in 1892, 3.31, or only .23 inches less, which is small.\\nEven when the conditions are as different as those in the\\nplant-house and the open field, the differences are not as marked\\nas we were led to expect, as the table which follows will show:\\nIn field 1 In plant-house v\\nAcre-inches of water\\nAcre-inches of water\\nNo.\\nof trials\\nper ton of dry matter No. of trials\\nper ton of dry matter\\nMaize\\n8\\n2.433 44\\n2.386\\nOats\\n8\\n5.011 12\\n4.535\\nClover.\\n24\\n5.345 22\\n5.005\\nTotal\\n40\\nMean 4.263 Total 78\\nMean 3.975\\nIf the results are expressed in pounds of water used per\\npound of dry matter, then they stand as follows\\nPounds of water per Pounds of water per\\nNo. of trials pound of dry matter No. of trials pound of dry matter\\nMaize.... 8 275.6 44 270.3\\nOats 8 567.8 12 490.6\\nClover... 24 605.5 22 567.1\\nTotal 40 Mean 483 Total 78 Mean 442.3\\nThe tables show that in the case of these crops maize, oats\\nand clover they have used in the field .288 acre -inches of water\\nmore per ton of dry matter produced than in the plant -house or,\\nwhen expressed in the other way, 40.7 pounds of water per pound\\nof dry matter more in the field cylinders than in the cylinders in\\nthe plant-house. Expressed in percentages, the field conditions\\ndemanded 9.2 per cent more water when the cylinders stood out-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "42 h^rUjaiion and Drainage\\nof-doors, with tho l;iiils surrouiultHl by the tichl crop aiul iiuder\\nthe out-of-door meteoi olojj:ical conditions, than they did in the\\nhouse.\\nThis difference, liowever, shows hir^er than it really is, for it\\n1ms been shown that tlie use of water is usually more economical\\nin tliosti cases in which the yields are lar ^est, and in these cases\\nthei-e liiis been a larfj^iu yield of dry matter i)or unit an^a in the\\n])hint-house cylind\u00c2\u00abn-s than were secui-cd from tlu^ cylinders in the\\nti(*ld. The total mean yield per aci-e for the oats, nmize and\\nclover in the lield cylinders was (JJH J tons and in tho l!int-liouse\\n1 .Vdl tons of dry matter per acre, making the latter yields on the\\naverage 17.19 per cent larger; and to this difference in yield must\\ncertainly be ascribed a part of the difference in the amount of\\nwater given off from the plants and from the soil during the\\nperiods of growth. It is quite i)lain, for example, that the loss\\nof water from the soil surface would tend to be relatively larger,\\nand probably, also, absolut(dy larger from the cylinders bearing\\nthe snnilh st crop of a given kind. The absolute loss would cer-\\ntainly e largest from the cylinders where the crop had the thin-\\nnest stand on the ground, and some of the cases of larger yield\\nper unit area in the ])liiiit -housi^ are due to the fact that more\\nphuits occupied llie same iU a.\\nWhile, therefore, from the general principles govei uing the\\nrate of evaporation, we are led to expect that more moisture must\\nbe lost from vegetation growing in a dry atmosphere than under\\nmore humid conditions, we are not able to point to our data as\\nbearing out such a view in any emphatic manner. The rate of\\nair movement in the plant -house has certainly been less than it\\nwas in the field, but the higher temperature in the plant-house\\nhas probably left the air relatively dryer during both day and\\nnight than in the iield.\\nThe conditions which did exist, both in the plant -house and\\nin a tield of maize, were noted on July 27, 28 and 29. The rela-\\ntive humidity of the air was measured with a wet-and-dry bulb\\nthermometer, and the rate of evaporation was also measured under\\nthe two conditions with a form of Piclie evaporometer. Two of\\nthese instruments were hung among the corn plants in the plant-", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "Amount of Wider Used ht/ Plants 43\\nhouse iind two others in the (iel l, one jtiiif on irri^atod gi ound\\nand the other on ^m-ouikI not irri^ ;i,t(Ml.\\nThe tabhi Ixilow shows the ViU i:it ions in tlu) nite of (!VJii)or.i-\\ntioii obaei vod in the three loealities\\nIM;iiit, liousd\\n\\\\vviiiid\\n0(1 fi(ll l\\nP:\\niold not\\nirriKatod\\nNo. 1 No. J\\nNo. 1\\nNo. 2\\nNo. 1\\nNo. 2\\nC. C. C.\\nc. c.\\nc. c.\\nC.\\n7 r .H\\n4.o:{\\n(i.8()\\n4.2\\nr..7r 4.:ir.\\n2.\\n:i.i:{\\n4.H7\\nn.jct\\nr).!\u00c2\u00bb()\\n.^).7\\n(i.l\\nr).7()\\n().o:t.^) r).-2r\\n4.!)H\\n4.2H7\\n5.94\\n4.:{4\\nJuly 27\\nJuly 28\\nJuly 2i)\\nMean.\\nThese rates of evaporation took place ny)on a surface of 27\\nsquare inches of wet filtfu- pnjxtr.\\nThe relative humidity observations were as here jijiven:\\nI lanL-hous(* IrriKutod Hold Fidld not irrigated\\nI KIt CKNT IMOli eiCNT I Klt OKNT\\nJuly 27 M 45 51 45) 5:*\\nJuly 28 :{9.5 54 55 57 02\\nJuly 29 41 49 52 48.5 49\\nMoan .5 49.:{ 52.7 51.5 55.:!\\nSo i ai- as these* (inures niiiy be relicMl ujx)!), it would :ii)pear\\nthat the rate of eviiporation in the plant-house may even have\\nexceeded that in the fiehl, and if this was true durinj.? the time the\\ndry matter of tlm phuit-house (ixpcM iments Wiis bein produced,\\ntluMi th(} indications iii-e still Iciss marked jtointinji: toward an\\nincrease in the amount of waier Ix in^ re iuired for a ])ound of\\ndry matter in a dry, rai)idly chaiij^inj? atmosphere, than is\\nrequired under stiller and more humid conditions.\\nIt may be true that in the dry air a more rapid loss of mois-\\nture from the plant does take i)lace, and that this loss stimuliites\\na proportional incrense of dry matter. This is mei-ely a suppo-\\nsition, however, with no experimental evidence to bear it out,\\nbut such a tendency would ^ive relations approaching^ those\\nrecorded above. So, too, if the rate of evaporation is automatic-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "44 Irrigation and Drainage\\nally controlled by changes in the transpiring surfaces of plants,\\nand if this control is sensitive, then there would also be a ten-\\ndency to cause the amount of water necessary to produce a pound\\nof dry matter in a given species of plant to remain nearly con-\\nstant under wide ranges of climatic conditions. That most land\\nplants are provided with organs which modify the rate of trans-\\npiration has been long established but how narrow the limits\\nof control are remains to be demonstrated. It is fundamentally\\nvery important that such facts as these should be established, for\\nthey are needed in order that we may know how much land under\\na given crop a given quantity of water will irrigate.\\nWe have, at this writing, just completed a set of observations\\nbearing upon this fundamental problem, and although they are\\nnot sufficiently extended to be demonstrative, they are yet very\\nsuggestive, and will be of interest here.\\nIf it is true that plants lose little moisture except through\\ntheir breathing pores, and if these are closed during those times\\nwhen there is not sufficient light to allow carbonic acid gas to be\\ndecomposed by the plant, then during the night, and perhaps,\\nalso, during cloudy weather, plants should lose but little moisture\\nthrough their surfaces. To test this question, one of the small\\ncylinders in the plant- house, containing four fully grown stalks\\nof maize, was hung upon the scales, to be weighed hourly dur-\\ning the day and by the side of it was set a Piche evapo-\\nrometer having an evaporation surface of 27 square inches, also\\nto be read hourly. Below are given the results of these obser-\\nvations\\nDuring the day, from 8:15 a. m. until 6:15 p. m., it was some-\\nwhat cloudy most of the time, but the clouds were not heavy, and\\nthere was a little sunshine through a haze from 11:15 a. m. until\\n2:15 P. M. From 8:15 A, M. until 6:15 P. M. the corn and soil\\nlost 3 pounds of water, and there was evaporated from the evaporo-\\nmeter 31.5 c. c. or 1.2 cu. in. From 6:15 P. m. until 6:45 a. m.\\nthe next morning, the corn had not lost enough to show on the\\nscales, which are sensitive to one-half pound and the evaporo-\\nmeter showed a loss of 2.3 e. c, equal to .14 cu. in. The next\\nday was bright and sunny the whole time, and from 6:45 a. m.", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "Transpiration Greatest During Sunshine 45\\nuntil 6:15 P. M. the maize lost 7.5 pounds of water and the\\nevaporometer lost 67.5 e. c, or 4.12 cu. in. but during the night\\nagain the loss from the maize was too small to be measured,\\nwhile the evaporometer showed a loss of 4.6 e. c, equal to .28\\ncu. in.\\nOn the next day, Aug. 9, all of the cylinders in the plant-\\nhouse were weighed during the forenoon, which was cloudy, but\\nin the afternoon it cleared and the sun shone brightly. During\\nthe whole of the afternoon and until 9 p. m. we forced steam from\\nthe boiler, under a pressure of 7 to 15 pounds, into lue plant-house\\nthrough an inch pipe wide open, and kept the house closed\\nthrough the experiment. Steam filled the whole plant-house and\\ncondensed upon the glass and walls, dripping in many places from\\nthe roof.\\nOn the following morning, Aug. 10, a number of the cylinders\\nwere again weighed, to see if there had been any loss 46f water\\nfrom the plants, and it was found that three of the small clover\\ncylinders had lost an average of 2 pounds each, while their mean\\nloss during the seven preceding days had been at the rate of 2f\\npounds. Eight stalks of maize in a large cylinder lost 7 pounds,\\nwhile its mean loss per day had been 6f pounds. Six small cylin-\\nders, each containing 4 stalks of maize, lost an average of 4|\\npounds each, while the mean loss for the week had been 4|\\npounds.\\nIt thus appears that during the night and cloudy weather\\nplants lose but little moisture, but that when the sun shines\\nbrightly, even in an atmosphere nearly saturated with moisture,\\nthere is a very marked loss of water from the growing plants,\\nand it would appear that the amount is nearly or quite as large\\nin a damp as in a dry air. These observations seem strange,\\nand need to be confirmed but they are in harmony with our\\nobservations regarding the amount of water required for a pound\\nof dry matter.\\nIf we bring together all of the observations made in Wiscon-\\nsin on the amount of water used in the production of dry matter\\nby plants, they will stand as in the table which follows", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "46\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nTable shoiving the mean amount of water used by various plants in Wisconsin\\nin producing a ton of dry matter\\nNo. of\\ntrials\\nWater used per ton\\nof dry matter\\nLBS.\\nWater used\\nINCHES\\nDry matter\\nproduced\\nTONS\\nAcre-inch\\nwater per t\\ndry mat\\nBarley\\n5\\n464.1\\n20.69\\n5.05\\n4.096\\nOats\\n20\\n503.9^\\n39.53\\n8.89\\n4.447\\nMaize\\n52\\n270.9\\n15.76\\n6.59\\n2.391\\nClover\\n46\\n576.6\\n22.34\\n4.39\\n5.089\\nPeas\\n1\\n477.2\\n16.89\\n4.009\\n4.212\\nPotatoes.\\n14\\n385.1\\n23.78\\n6.995\\n3.399\\nTotal 138 Average 446.3\\n23.165\\n5.987\\n3.939\\nIn computing the results in this table, the combined area of\\nall cylinders, the combined weights of dry matter produced, and\\nthe combined amounts of water used, have been divided by the\\nnumber of trials with each kind of crop and the average results\\nused in making the calculations.\\nIn considering these results, it should be kept in mind that\\nthe water used by the several crops is made to include that which\\nwas lost through the soil by surface evaporation, because it was\\nnot easy to measure this separately or to prevent it without intro-\\nducing abnormal conditions. It is quite certain, however, that\\nduring all of these trials the rate of loss from the soil has been\\nsomewhat less than would have occurred under the best possible\\nmanagement with field conditions.\\nAttention should be called to the fact, also, that the large\\namount of water used, averaging for the 138 trials 23.165 inches,\\nis greater than field conditions would demand, if nothing were\\nlost by percolation, for the reason that we have planted so as to\\nutilize less surface area than is the practice in the field and it is\\nto this fact, also, that the very large average yields, when com-\\nputed per acre, are due, rather than to the growth of plants of\\nabnormal size.\\nTHE MECHANISM AND METHOD OF TRANSPIRATION\\nIN PLANTS\\nSince water plays so large a part in the life and develop-\\nment of land plants, and since such large quantities of it are", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "Mechanism of Transpiration 47\\ntised by them, it will be very helpful to know in what manner\\nthis water is moved through and from the plant, and just what\\npart it plays in plant life.\\nWe may understand the essentials of this complex process\\nbest if we compare it with our own breathing for transpiration\\nand ^respiration of land plants have much in common with the\\nbreathing of animals. Bot-h the plant and animal breathe air, and\\nwhile breathing it, both give off large quantities of water from the\\norgans of respiration. If you hold a cold, clean mirror in front\\nof a person breathing, its surface becomes at once clouded with\\nthe moisture from the breath. So, too, if you hold the same\\ncold mirror close to the foliage of a growing plant, the moisture\\nescaping from that will also cloud the mirror.\\nNow, the primary object of the lungs in our case is not to\\nremove water from the system, but to provide a means for oxy-\\ngen to enter the blood from the air, and for the carbonic acid\\ngas to escape from the blood into the air. This can take place\\nrapidly, however, only when the delicate lining of the air cells\\nin the lungs is kept moist and so the chief function of the\\nwater escaping from the lungs is to maintain their inner surface\\ncontinually wet. Let the lung lining once become dry, and the\\nrate at which oxygen could enter and carbonic acid gas escape\\nfrom the blood would be so slow that life could not be main-\\ntained and in order that this fatal accident shall not occur, the\\nlung surface is placed on the inside of the chest, where the rate\\nof evaporation is very greatly impeded,\\nV When we turn to the breathing of plants, we find that they,\\ntoo, are only able to accomplish that very important work as\\nrapidly as it needs to be done by having a very broad surface\\nagainst which the air may come, but so placed that it shall be\\nkept always wet and, just as in our case, it would never do to\\nhave this surface exposed to the open air, so the real breathing\\nsurface of plants is spread out on the inside of their structure,\\nwhere hot, strong winds can never reach it.\\nIn Fig. 5 is represented a piece of a barley leaf, partly dis-\\nsected and much magnified, which shows the breathing surface of\\nthis plant, and how it is protected from excessive evaporation.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "48\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nIn the upper part of the figure, the under surface of the leal\\nis shown covered by its skin or epidermis, through which there\\ncan but little evaporation take place except through the opening\\nwhich is shown at sp and the seven others like it and even\\nthese openings or breathing\\npores are so made that they\\nmay be automatically opened\\nwide or almost completely\\nclosed when the needs of the\\nplant call for much or little\\nair.\\nIn the lower part of the\\nfigure, the skin has been re-\\nmoved from the leaf, so as to\\nshow the actual breathing sur-\\nface of the barley plant, con-\\nsisting of the cells marked m,\\nand which are filled with the\\ngreen coloring matter of the\\nleaf, or chlorophyll. The open\\nspaces, marked i, between the\\nbreathing cells, are the breath-\\ning or respiratory chambers,\\nwhich communicate with one\\nanother all through the leaf,\\nbut under the cover of its\\nFig. 5. Stmcture of barley leaf. (After\\nSorauer.) sj9 is a breathing-pore m,\\ncbloropbyll cells i, respiratory cham-\\nbers.\\nskin or epidermis, which in various ways, by a varnish, a wax or\\na close mat of hairs, is rendered less pervious to water and\\nto air. In the case of tall plants, like shrubs and forest\\ntrees, rising a hundred and more feet into the air, nature has\\nmade still greater efforts to avert the danger of plants being\\ndestroyed by the action of drying winds. Here we find the\\ntrunks and all the larger limbs thoroughly protected by a thick\\nbark, through which there can but little water escape as it slowly\\nascends from the roots to the leaves indeed, the more detailed\\nwe make the study of the structure and the function of parts in\\nthe plant, the more plain it becomes that in naost land plants the", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "Magnitude of Transpiration 49\\ngreatest economy is everywhere practiced in regard to the use of\\nwater.\\nIf it were true that no water need be used by plants except\\nthat which is assimilated during their growth and reproduction, and\\nin keeping the cells distended and turgid, so that wilting shall\\nnot occur, then there would be little need for irrigation anywhere\\nexcept in the most arid of arid regions, for then even the hygro-\\nscopic moisture of a dry soil would be sufficient in quantity to\\nsupply the demands of almost any land plant.\\n\\\\The facts are, however, that during the hours of sunshine all\\ngrowing plants which feed directly upon soil and air must have\\ntheir assimilating chlorophyll-bearing cells continually in contact\\nwith a changing volume of air, in order that the carbon, which\\nmakes up so large a part of their dry weight, may be obtained in\\nsufficient quantity from the carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere.\\nBut the more recent analyses of air show that on the average it\\ncontains but one part of carbonic acid by weight in 2,000 parts.\\nNow, how much air must a field of clover breath in order that\\nit may produce two tons of hay per acre Let us see.\\nBoussingault found by analysis that 4,500 pounds of clover\\nhay harvested from an acre of ground contained no less than 1,680\\npounds of carbon, and as this was derived almost wholly from the\\ncarbonic acid of the air, it must have decomposed 6,160 pounds\\nof carbonic acid in order to procure it. But as there is only\\none pound of carbonic acid in 2,000 of air, it follows that\\n12,320,000 pounds of air must have yielded up the whole of its\\ncarbonic acid gas in order to supply the needed amount of carbon.\\nNow, one cubic foot of air at a pressure of 29.922 inches and\\nat a temperature of 62\u00c2\u00b0 F. weighs .080728 pounds, and this being\\ntrue, not less than 152,600,000 cubic feet of air must have been\\nrequired to meet the demands of this clover field for carbonic\\nacid. This amount of air would cover the acre to a depth of\\n3,503 feet, having a uniform normal density.\\nOf course, not all of the carbonic acid in the air which\\npasses across a clover field can be secured, nor indeed all of\\nthat which enters the intercellular air passages of the green\\nparts of the plant, and hence it follows that very much larger\\nD", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "50 Irrigation and Drainage\\nvolumes of air than have beeu stated must be brought into close\\ncontact with the growing clover in order to meet its needs. This\\nair, however, cannot come into intimate relations with the green\\nchlorophyll-bearing cells of the clover in the field without of\\nnecessity permitting the evaporation of large quantities of water\\nfrom the plants and this brings us to realize how imperative is\\nthe demand for water by rapidly growing crops.\\nThe writer has found, for example, by direct measurement,\\nthat the air passing three feet above a clover field, and at a\\nmoderate rate, even as early as May 30 in Wisconsin, when the\\nair temperature is only 52.48\u00c2\u00b0 F., may have its relative humidity\\nincreased from 44 to 48 per cent by the moisture taken from the\\nfield and this means that 3,510 pounds of water are required to\\nmake even the observed change of humidity in a volume of 152,-\\n600,000 cu. ft. of air, which is the amount required to carry to\\nthe clover crop its carbon, supposing all the carbon which the air\\ncontained to be utilized. It is quite likely, however, that the\\nvolume of air which did contribute its carbon to Boussingault s\\ncrop of clover not only exceeded fourfold the amount stated\\nabove, but that it also had its relative humidity raised at least\\nto 94 per cent. If these suppositions are true, then the amount\\nof water borne away from the plants in question must have ex-\\nceeded 176,100 pounds, or at the rate of about 40 pounds of water\\nfor a pound of dry matter but it has been shown on a preceding\\npage that, as a mean of 46 trials, the clover crop did lose from its\\ntissues and from the soil in which it grew 576.6 pounds of water\\nper pound of dry matter produced, so that, large as are the\\nfigures stated above, they fall far below the actual ones.\\nWith these estimates and considerations before us, we can\\nreadily understand that one of the chief functions of water in\\nplant life is to keep the tissues moist and in a suitable condition\\nto carry on the process of breathing, whose primary object is to\\nget the plant its carbon from the air.\\nIn order that the plant may utilize the carbon of the car-\\nbonic acid in the air, it is necessary that this should come to\\nthe chlorophyll-bearing cells when there is sunshine enough to\\ndecompose it; and since the carbonic acid would be useless at", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "Control of Transpiration 51\\nother times, and since the continual ingress and egress of the air\\nwhich brings it would entail a steady drain of moisture from the\\nplant by evaporation, the^breathing pores in the leaves are usu-\\nally provided with a pair of guard cells, which are so constituted\\nthat they may be opened and closed, and thus exclude nearly all\\ntlie air from the interior of the plant or, by partly closing\\nthem, to vary the amount of air which may be admitted in a\\ngiven time.\\nIn order that the escape of moisture from the plant may be\\nas little as possible when the breathing pores must be open t6\\nadmit air, the great majority of them are placed on the under or\\nshaded side of the leaf. Thus Goodale, quoting from Weiss,\\ngives in a table the number of breathing pores observed per\\nsquare millimeter of surface on both the under and the upper\\nsurfaces of the leaves of forty species of plants, from which it is\\ncomputed that, on the average in these cases, there are 209\\nbreathing pores on the lower side of the leaf for every 51 on the\\nupper side. How numerous and how minute these openings are\\nmay be appreciated when it is said that in the forty cases cited\\nthere are, on the average, 209,000 stomata on each area the size\\nof the square in Fig. 6, on the under sides of the leaves of these\\nspecies. Taking a specific case, that of corn, Zea Mays, it is\\nstated that the breathing pores number, on the under side of the\\nleaf, 158, and on the upper side 94, or in all 252 for each square\\nmillimeter of leaf, and that the combined area of these openings\\nis .2124 of a square millimeter, so that 21 per cent of the leaf\\nsurface of corn is made up of doorways through which air may\\nreach the interior of the plant, and out of which moisture must\\nescape whenever they are open.\\nIt is not strange, therefore, that large amounts of mois-\\nture do escape from plants while they are growing, nor that there\\nhas been provided a means of checking this loss as far as pos-;\\nsible.\\nThe opening and closing of the guard cells is brought about\\nby changes in the quantity of material which they contain, caus-\\ning them to open when the cells become distended and to close\\nwhen they again become limp. Unlike the other ce*lls in the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "52 Irrigation and Drainage\\nepidermis of the leaf, these guard cells of the breathing pores\\ncontain chlorophyll grains, and are thus able, in the sunshine, to\\ndecompose carbonic acid and carry on the processes of building\\nplant- food but the very fact that food is being elaborated in\\nthese cells causes the sap in them to become more dense, and\\nthis, in its turn, causes water from the direction of the roots to\\nenter these cells more rapidly than the elaborated materials es-\\ncape, and so to distend them, and open wide the breathing pores\\njust at the time when air should be admitted to the interior of\\nthe leaf. But just as soon as the stimulating effect of sunlight\\nbecomes too feeble to allow work to be done in them, then both\\non account of the elastic tension of these cell walls and because\\nof the diminished osmotic pressure toward the guard cells, more\\nfluid escapes from them than enters them in a given time they\\nbecome limp, and their concave faces flatten and approach each\\nother, thus shutting off the entrance of air to the interior of the\\nleaf and at the same time reducing the loss of water to the\\nmininum.\\nAgain, if the soil moisture becomes insufficient to meet the\\ndemands of the plant, or if hot, drying winds take away the\\nmoisture from the leaves faster than osmotic pressure can supply\\nit from the roots, then these guard cells are in the very position to\\nbe most and first affected by the shortage of water, and hence are\\nwhere they will collapse and check the loss from the leaf surface.\\nBut just as assimilation cannot go on in the absence of sunlight,\\nso it cannot go on properly in the presence of sunshine if there\\nis a great deficiency of water and hence we see that the guard\\ncells are so conditioned that they will shut off the air from the\\ninterior of the plant at just those times when, if it could be\\nchanging, it would be doing an injury by wasting moisture, which\\nis so indispensable to growth, and which it is usually really dif-\\nficult for plants to get enough of to insure their most rapid and\\ncomplete development.\\nThe mechanical principle upon which the guard cells are\\nopened and closed may be readily understood from Fig. 6. For\\nsimplicity in illustrating the principles, let A, B, C, D represent\\nfour views of a pair of guard cells, A being the pair with the", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "Control of Transpiration\\n53\\nmouth open, but with their two ends abutting against each other\\nand pressing firmly with their backs against the surrounding tis-\\nsue of the leaf, 3-4 B is a cross -section of these cells along the\\nFig. 6. Diagram showing the mechanical action of guard cells in opening and\\nclosing breathing pores. The square shows the area of under side of leaf\\ncontaining an average of 209,000 breathing pores or stomata.\\nline 1-2 while C and D are corresponding views with the breath-\\ning pore closed. It will readily be seen that if the water holding\\nthe two cells in A and B rigid and distended partially escapes\\nfrom them, their thin walls will then fall down and take the\\npositions shown in C and D, where, as no displacement can take\\nplace in the directions away from the opening on account of the\\nsurrounding tissue, the walls must advance toward each other,\\nmore or less completely closing the aperture between them, as\\nshown at C and D. Then, too, when the cells again become dis-\\ntended and turgid, the pressure will tend to force them to take\\nthe circular outline shown in section at B, and as the back wall\\nof the two is fixed to the tissue so as not to be able to move,\\nnearly all of the motion takes place upward and downward, and\\nthis pulls the two faces which are not fixed away from each other\\nand widens the stoma or pore. It must, of course, be kept in mind\\nthat the shape of the actual guard cells varies in detail in many\\nways from the diagram given, and that we have here only intended\\nto illustrate the mechanical principle involved in their opening\\nand closing.\\nWe see, then, that not only is water a very important sub-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "54 Irrigation and Drainage\\nstance in the economy of plant life, and large quantities of it are\\nused, but that it is so difficult to always procure enough that\\nnature has provided in the organization of the plant that none\\nbe wasted unnecessarily. It must be very evident, also, that\\nwhatever we may do, in our methods for growing crops, to keep\\nthe plants so fully supplied with moisture that they shall be able\\nto utilize, all the sunlight, by keeping their breathing pores\\nwide open, so that all air which can be used will be supplied,\\nmust tend to give us larger yields.\\nTHE MECHANISM BY WHICH LAND PLANTS SUPPLY\\nTHEMSELVES WITH MOISTURE\\nSo long as plants maintained a simple, or relatively few-celled\\nstructure, and especially so long as they lived wholly or largely\\nimmersed in water, it was an easy matter for them to be supplied\\nwith as much water as they needed by simple diffusion and\\nosmosis, just as the dry bean, when put to soak, swells and\\nbecomes turgid by the water which has been driven into its cellu-\\nlar structure under the ceaseless hammering impulses of heat.\\nBut when the time came for plants to abandon the water and to\\noccupy the land with their varied forms, and especially when that\\nrace began for free air and direct sunshine which led on from\\nherb to shrub, and through arborescent forms to the giant forest\\ntrees, then it became necessary for that complex and wonderful\\nsystem of water-works which, with its intakes in the form of roots,\\nspread out in a comparatively dry, well -drained soil, is able to\\ngather from off the damp surfaces of soil grains and send to a\\nheight of a hundred feet a stream which, when divided between\\nten thousand leaves, shall yet have volume and pressure enough\\nto keep them turgid in a strong, drying wind and a hot sun.\\nMan, with his mechanical skill and inventive genius, has been\\nable to install pumping plants which can lift more water to a\\ngreater height in a shorter time but to do this he has been\\nforced to station himself by a running stream, or to import his\\nenergy at a great cost while the land plant, independent of wind", "height": "3205", "width": "1957", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "AhsorMng Surfaces of Roots\\n55\\nand water and eoal, stations itself in any fertile soil, and does its\\nwork with the warmth of a summer day.\\nIn all our problems of land drainage and irrigation, we are\\nsearching to better understand, and through this better under-\\nstanding to better meet, the conditions under which a system of\\nroots can best do its work. But the foundation of such an under-\\nstanding should be a knowledge of the root itself, ond how it\\nplaces itself in the soil in order that it may do its work. Let us\\nattempt, then, to present in a brief form what has been learned\\nregarding the essential features of root structure and root action.\\nRoots have three distinct functions to perform in land plants\\nhaving green leaves first, to absorb moisture and the salts held\\nin solution y second, to convey and deliver into the\\nstem of the plant the water which has been absorbed\\nand third, to act as a support to the plant and hold\\nit upright in the air and sunshine, whenever it is\\nnot trailing or climbing in habit, or is without\\nstems.\\nIt appears to be the general conviction among\\nplant physiologists that only the very tip ends of\\nthe roots are particularly serviceable as absorbing\\nagents, and that even these are serviceable for a\\nshort time only. Farther than this, it is the root-\\nhairs which branch out in great numbers from them,\\nrather than the fine roots, which are the real ab-\\nsorbing surfac-es. These root-hairs are extremely\\nB A\\ndelicate, thin-walled tubes, usually not more than of mustard\\none-eighth of an inch long and a hundredth of an plauts,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 A with\\ninch or less in diameter, which stand out on the xf^ \u00e2\u0096\u00a0^\u00e2\u0096\u00a0i^\\nwitii sou le-\\nroot surfaces like the pile on velvet. These absorb- moved. (After\\ning root-hairs never form at the very tip end of a\\nnew advancing root, and as, according to Sachs, they die off\\nafter a few days, they form a brush-like covering on the root\\nfor a distance of half an inch to two or three inches, dying\\noff behind and forming anew as the advance is made into new\\nsoil. In Fig. 7 are shown the roots of two seedling white mus-\\ntard plants, A with the particles of soil still adhering to the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "56\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nroot -hairs and held in a body about the young root, while B is\\nintended to show the appearance of the plant with the soil grains\\nwashed away. So, too, in Fig. 8 is shown the root of wheat soon\\nafter germination, and again four\\nweeks later, after the root has ad-\\nvanced into new soil, and the root-\\nhairs have died away behind and\\nnew ones formed.\\nThe soil grains of a good soil\\nare very small, the majority of\\nthem even much less than to^ of\\nan inch in diameter. Indeed, in a\\nheavy clay soil one -half of the dry\\nweight may be made up of soil\\ngrains as small as 25000 of an inch\\nin diameter. Now, the fine root-\\nhairs make their way in between\\nthese minute soil grains, and even\\nchange their shape to fit them-\\nselves closely upon their surfaces\\nin many cases.\\nThe soil particles are them-\\nselves invested with a thin layer\\nof water, even in the condition\\nFig. 8. Root -hairs of wheat,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 A when which we know as air-dry, and\\nvery young, B four weeks later, ^s these minute root-hairs apply\\n(After Sachs.) i 1 x ^i j?\\nthemselves closely to the surfaces\\nof the soil grains, they are brought into immediate contact with\\nthe soil moisture. Indeed, capillarity has the same tendency to\\ninvest the root-hairs with a film of moisture that it has the soil\\ngrains, and we may suppose, in the absence of direct observation,\\nthat the root -hairs all the time carry a film of moisture equal in\\nthickness to that which invests the soil grains of like diameters,\\nexcept in so far as the film of water is thinned out by the flow\\nthrough the walls of the root-hairs and away through the root to\\nmeet the demands in the green parts of the plants. Such a thin-\\nning out of the film of water on the root -hairs does take place", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "Relation of Boot -hairs to Soil Grains\\n57\\nso long as they are in action, and it is this very process of thin-\\nning which furnishes the conditions needed in order to keep them\\nsupplied with water from the surfaces of the soil grains.\\nThe effect of surface tension, as it acts upon the water of a\\nwell-drained soil, is to bring about a certain regularity of dis-\\ntribution of soil moisture over the surfaces of the soil grains,\\nwhich is determined by the sizes of the grains and by the dimen-\\nsions of the open spaces between them. This condition of things\\nmay be represented by what is shown in Fig. 9 for a particular\\nsoil, in which two root -hairs have found their way in among the\\nsoil grains.\\nTo explain the action of the root, let us suppose that for\\nsome reason there has been no movement of soil moisture and\\nno root action, so that everything has come to a condition of\\nrest, and we have what answers to the condition of water\\nstanding in a tank where everything is still and the surface has\\nbecome level. We may now suppose that morning has come,\\nwith the sun shining\\nbrightly, so that the\\nbreathing pores in\\nthe green parts of\\nthe plant have opened\\nwide, making it pos-\\nsible for both assim-\\nilation and evapora-\\ntion to go on rapidly.\\nUnder these condi-\\ntions the sap in the\\ntissues of the leaves,\\nstem and root will Fig. 9. Distribution of water on the surfaces of soil\\ngradually become grains and of root hairs, e, main root; 1, air-space;\\nmore dense than that 2, soil grain 3, film of water hh, root-hairs.\\nT (After Sachs.)\\nwhich IS contained\\nin the root-hairs, which are encased in the film of soil mois-\\nture. But no sooner is this condition of things established than\\nwater in the root-hairs will begin to move toward the root,\\nstem and leaves more rapidly than the denser sap enters them.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "58 Irrigation and Drainage\\nJust as soon as this happens, however, the balance between\\nthe motion inside of the root-hairs and that outside of them will\\nbe destroyed, and then more water will enter the root-hair from\\nthe soil than has been escaping from it into the soil in a unit of\\ntime. This will thin out the film of water which surrounds the\\nroot-hairs, and then w^ater which has been surrounding the soil\\ngrains, impelled by surface tension, must advance upon the root-\\nhairs to make good that which has been lost and just so long\\nas the water continues to enter the roots from the root- hairs\\nfaster than osmotic pressure can restore it, just so long will\\nsurface tension force the water from the soil grains upon the\\nwalls of the root-hairs.\\nNot only will the water which surrounds the soil grains move\\ntoward and upon the root-hairs so long as evaporation is going on\\nfrom the plant and assimilation is taking place in its cells, but\\nwith it will go the salts containing potash, nitrogen, phosphorus,\\nand other ash ingredients of plants, which have been dissolved\\nby the moisture surrounding the grains.\\nIn the figure the root-hair, h, h, leading out from the main\\nroot, e, is represented, for the sake of clearness, nearly full width\\nthroughout its course, and, as if it had either found or had made\\nfor itself, by setting the soil grains aside, an unobstructed path\\nin which to develop. As a matter of fact, these root-hairs are\\nobliged to work their way as best they can between the angles\\nformed by the meeting of the soil grains, changing both their\\ndirection and their form in order to do so, and sometimes the\\nspaces are so narrow or the turns so abrupt that the root-hair\\nseems to have applied itself to the soil, and to have adapted its\\nshape so as to more completely come in contact with the surface\\nof the grain itself.\\nAs the water surrounding the soil grains, and which is also\\ndrawn out upon the root-hairs, becomes more and more ex-\\nhausted, the film finally becomes so thin that the rate at which\\nthe water can be moved out upon the root -hairs is so slow that it\\nis no longer able to meet the needs of the plant, and it wilts,\\nand finally ceases to grow altogether.\\nAttention should be called to the fact that fresh growing", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "The Extent of Root Surface 59\\nroots usually have an acid reaction, and so much so that if they\\nar allowed to develop in contact with blue litmus paper, it is\\nchanged to red along the lines of contact with the root. Further\\nthan this, if the roots of a plant are allowed to develop in eon-\\ntact with a polished surface of marble, the lines of root contact\\nwith it will be plainly etched into its surface. Such observations\\nas these lead to the belief that the delicate root-hairs, at their\\ninnumerable places of contact, hasten the solution of plant-food\\nfrom the difficultly soluble ingredients of the soil by the acids\\nwhich permeate their walls being exuded upon the soil grains,\\nand there, in conjunction with the water, being able to dissolve\\nmaterials much more rapidly than water alone could do.\\nWhen we reflect upon the many wide leaves with which most\\nland plants are provided, we are impressed with the great extent\\nof surface through which the sunshine and the air may come into\\ntouch with the plant. But broad as these leaf surfaces .are, they\\nonly in the smallest way express the real magnitude of the sur-\\nface of contact, for the air actually enters the leaf and passes\\naround and between and in contact witii the millions of loosely\\npacked cells in every leaf, and the number of times the extent of\\nthe internal surface of the leaf exceeds that of its outer sur-\\nface is more than one would dare to express. Then, too, to in-\\ncrease the contact surface for sunlight, the chlorophyll grains\\nwhich are scattered through the interior of the cells around\\nwhich the air can pass provide an enormous surface for the\\nabsorption of light.\\nIn the root system under ground, the extremely numerous\\nroot-hairs, small as they are, yet provide a surface for the con-\\ntact of soil and moisture with the plant which is quite commen-\\nsurate with that furnished by the leaf.\\nThat we may the more clearly appreciate the great need\\nthere is for the vast extent of root surface spread out by agri-\\ncultural crops, and how important it is that there shall be a\\ndeep, well-drained soil in which the roots may expand, let me\\ngive the measured amounts of water used by four stalks of corn,\\nand withdrawn by their roots from the soil, between July 29 and\\nAugust 11. Two of the maize plants were growing in each of", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "60\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\ntwo cylinders filled with soil, having a depth of 42 inches and a\\ndiameter of 18 inches. These four stalks of corn, as they were\\ncoming into tassel and their ears were beginning to form, used\\nduring 13 days 150.6 pounds of water, or at the mean rate daily\\nof 2.896 pounds for each stalk. Had an acre of ground been\\nplanted to corn in rows .3 feet 8 inches each way and four stalks\\nin a hill, then, with an average consumption of water at the ob-\\nFig. 10. Total root of four stalks of maize, and of oats, clover and barley.\\n(Prom The Soil.\\nserved rate given above, there would have been withdrawn from\\nthat acre an amount of water, during those 13 days, equal to 244\\ntons, or 2.42 acre-inches and when it is observed that this water\\nwas withdrawn from a soil so dry that no amount of pressure\\ncould express a drop of water from it, it is not strange that such\\na mass of roots as those shown in Fig. 10 should be required to\\ncarry away from the soil the water absorbed by the root -hairs as", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "The Extent of Root Surface\\n61\\nrapidly as it was needed. In reflecting upon the extent of root\\nsurface indicated by the photo -engraving, let it be remembered\\nthat no root-hairs contribute to the mass of the bundle, and that\\nonly a part of the roots proper are there, for many of the smaller\\nfibers were unavoidably broken off during the operation of wash-\\ning away the soil.\\nEeferring, now, to Fig. 11, it will be seen how completely the\\nFig. 11. Distribution of corn roots in field soil. (From The Soil.\\nwhole soil of the field is threaded with roots for in both cases\\ntwo hills of corn, standing opposite each other in adjacent rows,\\nare shown, and the roots meet and pass one another between the\\nhills, and in the younger stage these had already exceeded a\\ndepth of two feet while in the second case, taken just as the\\ncorn was coming into tassel, the roots had descended until at\\nthis time the whole upper three feet of the field soil was so fully", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "62 Irrigation and Drainage\\noccupied with, corn roots that not a cube of earth one inch on a\\nside existed in the three feet of depth which was not penetrated\\nby more than one fiber of threadlike size. In many parts of\\nthe soil the roots were much closer together than thisT\\nAt the distance apart of planting in the field from which these\\nroots were taken, there were, in the surface three feet, 40/^ cubic\\nfeet of soil available for each four stalks, so that by multiplying\\nthe 1,72S cubic inches in one cubic foot by 40%, the number of\\ncubic feet of soil occupied, we get a total of 69,696 cubic inches.\\nIf, then, each cubic inch of this soil contained not less than one\\nlinear inch of thread-like root, their aggregate length could not\\nbe less than one-twelfth of 69,696, or 5,808 feet, which is 1.1\\nmiles. But this extent of root-surface does not even express the\\namount of that to which the root-hairs, which are the real absorb-\\ning surfaces, are attached and hence we must understand that\\nthe actual area of surface of root-hairs for a full-grown hill of\\ncorn is very much greater than would be indicated by the figures\\ngiven above.\\nLet the reader bear in mind that the corn roots here under\\nconsideration grew in the field under perfectly natural conditions,\\nand that the cage of wire shown in the engraving was simply\\nslipped over the block of soil which contained the roots there\\nshown, after the corn had reached that stage of maturity.\\nIt should also be understood that the four stalks of corn which\\nabsorbed from the soil the 150.6 pounds of water in 13 days did\\nit at the stage of growth represented by the oldest plants in\\nFig. 11; and further, that these were only good average plants,\\nsuch as would make a yield of 4.5 tons of dry matter per acre.\\nIt may be difficult for some persons to realize how it is\\npossible for the delicate roots of plants to force their way\\nthrough the soil to depths such as are indicated by the engrav-\\nings above, especially when the subsoil is a stiff, heavy clay, as\\nit ^Nas in this case. Nature s method of overcoming the diffi-\\nculty, however, is simple enough when we come to understand it,\\nand it is as effective as it is simple.\\nThe first fact which we need to understand when we wish to\\nlearn how a root advances through the soil, is that the soil grains", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "Hoiv Roots Advance in Soil 63\\nin the upper four to six feet are never everywhere in close con-\\ntact with one another. There are great numbers of empty spaces\\nall through the surface layers of earth, and we get a very forcible\\nillustration of this fact in setting fence posts. Here we dig a\\nmoderate sized post hole, 2 or 2% feet deep, place a 6-inch post in\\nthe hole, and then scrape and ram into the same hole all of the\\ndirt which was removed from it, and if the job is well done we\\nhave a scant supply to fill it. It is the existence of these unoccu-\\npied cavities in the soil which enables roots to make their way\\nthrough it by wedging it aside. In a thoroughly puddled soil it\\nis impossible for roots to develop, not simply for lack of air, but\\nbecause there is no room into which it is possible to set the soil\\naside to make place for the root. When a fine-grained soil is\\nthoroughly puddled, all of the small clusters of grains which in a\\nsoil in good tilth hold together, are completely broken down, and\\nthe smallest particles are packed in between the larger ones until\\nits cavities are so completely obliterated that even water will\\nnot penetrate it and when this is true there is not even room for\\nthe root-hairs to make their way between the angles formed by\\nthe soil-grains, for the finest silt and clay particles have been\\nforced into these to fill them up.\\nThe second fact needed to understand how the root advances\\nitself in the soil is, that it makes use of osmotic pressure to set\\nthe soil grains aside. Most of us know with what force dry wood\\nwill expand when it becomes wet and is allowed to swell. Iron\\nhoops are burst by the pressure developed. A primitive method\\nof blasting rock was to drive dry blocks of wood into the holes\\nand then wet them. Another method of blasting is to fill the\\ndrill holes with unslaked lime and then add water to slake it. In\\nall of these eases, the work is done by osmotic pressure, and\\nthe results illustrate how very great this force is when it is\\nrestrained, and how thoroughly adequate it would be for the pur-\\nposes of the root in setting aside the soil particles if it could make\\nuse of it.\\nThB method by which the root uses osmotic pressure in mak-\\ning its way through the soil may be explained with the aid of\\nFig. 12, which represents diagrammatically the tip of an advancing", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "64\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nroot in the soil. It has been found that a short way back from the\\ntip end of a growing root, there is at 1 a center of growth, where\\nnew cells are developed by repeated enlargements and divisions.\\nOn the forward or advancing side of this center the new cells\\nform the root-cap, which in the figure is represented by the cells\\nwith heavier lines while\\nthose forming on the rear\\nside of the center are fin-\\nally transformed into the\\nvarious structures which\\nconstitute the body of the\\nroot proper.\\nThe root-cap is a sort\\nof shield or thimble, under\\nthe protection of which the\\nroot advances to set aside\\nthe soil grains, and the\\nmethod of advance is this\\nAt the center of growth,\\nnew cells are forming and\\nFig. 12. Method by which root-hairs advance enlarging out of the as-\\nthrough the soil. (Adapted from Sachs.) similated products which\\nare being brought down\\nfrom the g^een parts of the plants by osmotic pressure. But\\nwhen this strong pressure drives the sap into the forming cells,\\nthey must enlarge just as the dry wood swells, and in doing so\\nsomething must give way. As the body of the root is larger than\\nthe tip, and as it is already anchored to the soil by the root-hairs\\nand any branches which may have formed, the direction of least\\nresistance is forward, and the cells which are in the interior of\\nthe base of the root- cap are crowded forward and the walls of the\\ncap are wedged outward so that the soil grains on all sides are\\ndisplaced, making room for the end of the root proper to be built\\ninto it. The root-cap does not slide forward through the soil,\\nshoving past the soil grains, but its outer and rear cells hold\\nfirmly against the earth as the root builds past them, and as fast\\nas they have performed their function they die and new ones are", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "How Roots Advance in Soil 65\\nformed in advance. The root-cap, then, is a sort of point\\nthrough which the root advances, and which is being continually\\nreplaced by a new growth.\\nThe increase of the root in diameter thro-ughout its length is\\nproduced by the addition of new cells wholly within those which\\nlie in contact with the soil, and the same osmotic pressure is the\\npower which is exerted outward on all sides to move the earth\\naway and give room for the increase in size.\\nSince this osmotic pressure in the roots of plants may be very\\ngreat, certainly more than 100 pounds to the square inch, and\\npresumably several times this amount, and since during the\\ngrowth of the root the pressure is increased slowly, and acts\\ngradually to set the soil aside, it is not difficult to see that the\\nplant has chosen a method of making its way through the soil\\nwhich is not only effective, but one which utilizes the energy and\\nthe materials present in a soil during the growing season with\\nwhich to accomplish its purpose. The molecules of soil moisture\\nare at once the hammer and the wedge, which are driven by soil\\ntemperature into the growing cells to expand them and set the\\nsoil aside.\\nE", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "Part I\\nIRRIGATION CULTURE\\nCHAPTER I\\nTEE EXTENT AND GEOGRAPHIC RANGE OF\\nIRRIGATION\\nWhile there is no reason to suppose that the rais-\\ning of crops by irrigation on an extended scale is as\\nold as agriculture itself, the methods have, nevertheless,\\nbeen so long practiced as to far antedate authentic his-\\ntory. We are told that the numerous remains of\\nhuge tanks, dams, canals, aqueducts, pipes and pumps\\nin Egypt, Assyria, Mesopotamia, India, Ceylon, Phoe-\\nnicia, and Italy, prove that the ancients had a far\\nmore perfect knowledge of hj^draulic science than most\\npeople are inclined to credit them with.\\nIn a paper read before the Royal Society of New\\nSouth Wales in 1887, Mr. Frederick S. Gipps states\\nthat the first artificial lake or reservoir of which we\\nhave authentic record was Lake Maeris, constructed,\\nsome historians affirm, by King Maeris, and others by\\nKing Amenemhet III, in the twelfth dynasty, 2084\\nB. C. Its object, it is thought, was the regulation of\\n(66)", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "Antiquity of Irrigation 67\\nthe iuundations of the Nile, with which it communi-\\ncated through a canal 12 miles long and 50 feet broad.\\nWhen the river rose to a height of 24 feet, and was\\nlikely to be disastrous to crops, the sluices were opened\\nand the river relieved by sending the flood into this\\nlake, which modern travelers give a circumference of\\n50 miles but at times of low water, when drought\\nwas threatened, the gates could be opened and the\\nvolume of the stream reinforced by the water stored\\nin this reservoir.\\nSesostris, who reigned in Egypt in 1491 B. C, is\\nsaid to have had a great number of canals cut for the\\npurposes of trade and irrigation, and to have designed\\nthe first canal to connect the Red Sea with the Medi-\\nterranean, which was continued by Darius but aban-\\ndoned by him, and ultimately completed under the\\nPtolemies. So numerous are the irrigation canals of\\nEgypt that it is estimated that not more than one-,\\ntenth of the water which enters Egypt by the Nile\\nfinds its way into the Mediterranean Sea. Fig. 13\\nshows Lower Egypt, with its extended system of canals\\nas they exist to-day.\\nThe Assyrians appear to have been equally re-\\nnowned with the Egyptains, from very ancient times,\\nfor their skill and ingenuity in developing extended\\nirrigation systems, which converted the naturally ster-\\nile valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris into the most\\nfertile of fields. We are told that the country below\\nHit, on the Euphrates, and Samarra, on the Tigris,\\nw^as at one time intersected with numerous canals, one\\nof the most ancient of which was the Nahr Malikah,", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "68\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nconnecting the Euphrates with the Tigris. The an-\\ncient city of Babylon seems to have been protected\\nfrom the floods of June, July and August by high\\nCMAU\\nFig. 13. Egyptian system of irrigation canals at the present time. (Willeocks.)\\ncemented brick embankments on both banks of the\\nEuphrates, and, to supplement the protection of these,\\nand to store water for irrigation, a large reservoir was\\nexcavated 42 miles in circumference and 35 feet deep,\\ninto which the whole river might be turned through\\nan artificial canal. There were five principal canals\\nsupplied by the Euphrates the Nahr Malikah, the\\nNah-raga, the Nahr Sares, the Kutha, and the Palla-\\ncopus while the Tigris furnished water for the great", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "Antiquity of Irrigation 69\\nNahrawan and Dyiel, besides several smaller ones.\\nAlont^ the banks of the former of these canals fed by\\nthe Tigris are now found the ruins of numerous towns\\nand cities on both sides, which are silent witnesses of\\nthe great importance it held, and the great antiquity\\nof the work. It started on the right bank of the river,\\nwhere it comes from the Hamrine Hills, and was led\\naway at a distance of six or seven miles from the\\nstream toward Samarra, where it joined a second\\ncanal. Another feeder was received 10 miles farther\\non its course to Bagdad, a few miles beyond which its\\nwaters fell into the river Shirwan, and were again\\ntaken out over a wier and led on through Kurzistan.\\nIt absorbed all the streams from the vSour and Buck-\\nharee Mountains, and finally discharged into Kerkha\\nRiver, but onlj- after having attained a length exceed-\\ning 400 miles, with a width varying from 250 to 400\\nfeet. This great canal, with its numerous branches on\\neither side, leading water to broad irrigated fields,\\nwhile it bore along its main waterway the commerce\\nof those far distant days, stands out as a piece of bold\\nengineering hardly equaled by anything of its kind in\\nmodern times.\\nThe Phoenicians, in the time of their zenith, were\\ncelebrated for their canals, used both for irrigation\\nand city purposes and at the time of the invasion of\\nAfrica the Syracusan General Agathocles wrote that\\nthe African shore was covered with gardens and large\\nplantations everywhere abounding in canals, by means\\nof which they were plentifully watered and 50 years\\nlater, when the Romans invaded the Carthaginian do-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "70 Irrigation and Drainage\\nminions, their historian, Polybius, drew a similar pic-\\nture of the high state of cultivation of this country.\\nIn the early days of both Grecian and Roman his-\\ntory, great progress had already been made by these\\npeoples in handling and convejdng water by gravity\\nover long distances for domestic purposes. At Patara\\nthe Greeks, according to Herodotus, carried an aque-\\nduct across a ravine 200 feet wide and 250 feet deep,\\nconstructing a pipe line by drilling 13 -inch holes\\nthrough cubic blocks 3 feet in diameter, fitting these\\nblocks together with curved necks and recesses, whose\\njoints were laid in cement and held secure by means\\nof iron bands run with lead. This was an inverted\\nsyphon, now so often used to cross a ravine or canon\\nin the west, but made from stone instead of steel\\nor redwood hooped with steel, so commonly used to-\\nday.\\nRome was supplied with water in Nero s time by\\nnine separate aqueducts aggregating a length of 255\\nmiles, and which delivered daily 173,000,000 gallons\\nof water, which was later increased to 312,500,000 gal-\\nlons. The Aqua Martia conduit, which brought the\\ndrinking water for the city, had a diameter of 16 feet,\\nand was 40 miles long.\\nWhen the Romans invaded France, they constructed\\ngreat systems of water works for cities in various\\nplaces at Lyons, Sony, Nismes, Frejus, and Metz.\\nThe Nismes conduit was constructed at the time of\\nAugustus, 19 B.C., and delivered 14,000,000 gallons\\nper day. It is noted for the great Pont du Gard,\\nwhich carried it across a ravine, and w^iich is spoken", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "Antiquity of Irri(jati ))i 71\\nof by Humble as one of the grandest monuments the\\nRomans left in France.\\nChina, like Egypt, dates its early enterprises of irri-\\ngation and transportation by water far back in antiq-\\nuity, for she has numerous canals, some of them\\nthe most stupendous works of the kind ever under-\\ntaken. The Great Imperial Canal has a length of 650\\nmiles, and connects the Hoang-Ho with the Yang-tse-\\nKiang. It has a depth seldom exceeding 5 to 6 feet,\\nand in it the water moves at the rate of 2% miles per\\nhour. In its path there are several large lakes, and\\nacross these the canal is carried on the crest of enor-\\nmous dykes.\\nIf we leave the Old World and come to the New for\\nrecords of an early development of the cultivation of\\nland by irrigation, we shall not be disappointed, for\\ntraces of an early civilization in Colorado, New Mexico\\nand Arizona, and extending through Mexico and Cen-\\ntral America on into Peru, are found in the ruins of\\nancient towns and irrigating canals in many places.\\nWhen the Spaniards invaded Mexico, Central America\\nand Peru, they were greatly surprised to find in these\\ncountries, and particularly in Peru, the land of the\\nIncas, very elaborate and extensive irrigation systems,\\nlaid out and in actual general use by these people.\\nPrescott, in his Conquest of Peru, speaking of\\nthe use of water for irrigation, writes that water was\\nconveyed by means of canals and subterraneous aque-\\nducts executed on a noble scale. They consisted of\\nlarge slabs of freestone nicely fitted together without\\ncement, and discharged a volume of water sufficient,", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "72 Irrigation and Drainage\\nby means of latent ducts or sluices, to moisten the\\nlands in the lower levels through which they passed.\\nSome of these aqueducts were of great length. One,\\nthat traversed the district of Condesuyos, measured\\nbetween 400 and 500 miles. They were brought from\\nsome lake or natural reservoir in the heart of the\\nmountains, and were fed at intervals by other basins\\nwhich lay in their route along the slopes of the Sierra.\\nIn their descent a passage was sometimes opened\\nthrough rocks, and this without the aid of iron tools\\nimpracticable mountains were to be turned, rivers and\\nmarshes to be crossed in short, the same obstacles\\nwere to be encountered as in the construction of their\\nmighty roads.\\nTHE EXTENT OF IRRIGATION\\nFrom what has been said regarding the antiquity of irriga-\\ntion, we shall not be surprised to find that its practice has found\\na geographic range which is commensurate with its distribution\\nin time. We look first to European countries, and begin with\\nItaly, where irrigation certainly had a very early development,\\nand has ever since been yearly practiced in rural life.\\nIn the valley of the Po, naturally very fertile, but made more\\nso by thorough and systematic irrigation, water is extensively\\napplied to almost all crops. To convey some idea of the general\\npractice of irrigation in the Po valley, it may be stated that on\\nAugust 7, 1895, while riding by rail from Turin to Milan, between\\nChivasso and Santhia, a distance of 18.5 miles, the writer saw\\nwater being applied to 100 different fields of maize by as many\\ndifferent parties, and the fields ranged in size all the way from 4\\nto 20 acres. Wheat, barley, hemp, rye-grass, clover, rice, and\\nmaize are among the field crops generally and extensively irri-\\ngated in this part of Italy. So, too, very extensive mulberry", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "Extent of Irrigation 73\\norchards are grown for the feeding of silk worms, and these are\\nset along the main and distributing canals, while the space be-\\ntween them is occupied by various kinds of farm crops.\\nIn Sicily and throughout southern Italy, nearly all fruit cul-\\nture is carried on by irrigation, the ratio of irrigated to non-\\nirrigated orchards being as 15 to 1, and it is said that 100 10 -year-\\nold lemon trees, when irrigated, have yielded, on the average,\\n15,000 lemons, while similar orchards under similar conditions,\\nbut not watered, yield, on the average, but 10,000, or one-third\\nless per annum. In Lombardy, there were under irrigation, in\\n1878, 2,034,000 acres; in Piedmont, 1,329,000 acres; in Venetia,\\nEmilia, and other provinces, enough to make a total of 4,715,000\\nacres.\\nIn Spain, irrigation is widely practiced, and has been at least\\nsince Roman and Moorish times, and the total acreage has been\\nvariously estimated at from 700,000 to 6,000,000, the first figure\\nreferring to cereals, vegetables and fruits, and the latter to forage\\nplants and grass lands also. In the last edition of the Encyclo-\\npedia Britannica, the area under irrigation is placed at 2,840,-\\n160 acres.\\nIn France, irrigation began at an early date, and in recent\\nyears new interest has been taken in the subject, so much so that\\nin Consul -General Rathbone s Report on Canals and Irrigation,\\n1891, it is stated that during the past ten years in the Depart-\\nments Drome, Alpes Maritimes, Aude and Herault, Vaucluse,\\nBasses- Alpes, Hautes- Alpes, and Loire, 41,460,000 francs were\\nexpended on no less than 13 different canals for waterways and\\nirrigation.\\nThe Forez Canal,* supplied by the Loire River, and irrigating,\\nit is said, 65,000 acres, was begun in 1863, and the national gov-\\nernment granted $122,200 for it, loaning the balance needed to the\\ndepartment at 4 per cent. In 1886 there were 23,000 acres served\\nwith 115 miles of ditches, at a cost of $9.50 per acre. The water\\nis distributed periodically, through pipes carrying it to points\\nmost convenient for a group of farms, where it is delivered to the\\nReport on Irrigation, to Senate. Ex. Doc. 41, Part 1, 1892.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "74\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nfarm laterals. The water is served once each week, on the same\\nday and hour, the amount received being regulated by the amount\\npurchased. The delivery commences on land farthest from the\\nmain canal, and each proprietor turns off the water from his lat-\\neral when he has received the amount paid for, and the next in\\norder is then served. The assessment is made out by November\\n1, and each irrigator is notified of the days and hours when water\\nwill be applied to his land. This irrigation is used almost wholly\\non meadows, and it is stated that the value of land has increased\\nFig. 14. Alpine water-meadows on tJie soutli side of the\\nSimplon Pass, Switzerland.\\nfrom $44 to $300 per acre since the development of the irrigation\\nfacilities.\\nIn Switzerland, the mountain streams and rills are used in\\nvery many places on meadows, and this has been done so long and\\ncontinuously on some meadows that very decided ridges have been\\nformed from the sediment moved by the water and we were sur-\\nprised to find that, even so high up asthe south side of the Sim-\\nplon Pass, meadows are regularly irrigated, even by the waters", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "Irrigation in Europe 75\\nwhich have come down from the perennial snow fields of still\\nhigher altitudes, as shown in Fig. 14.\\nIn Belgium there is a network of canals known as de la Cam-\\npine, which have an aggregate length of 350 miles, constructed\\nboth for navigation and irrigation purposes, at a cost placed at\\n$5,000,000. This water is generally used in the irrigation of\\nmeadow lands, and the soil of the section is very sandy. It is\\neven said to have been wholly unproductive until it was reclaimed\\nby irrigation.\\nThe figures given by E. Laveleye will show the effect of irri-\\ngation on this land. An area of 5,636 acres of barren soil, pro-\\nducing absolutely nothing before irrigation, now yields an average\\nof 1.32 tons of hay per acre for the first crop, and the aftermath\\nis counted worth a third as much, making the total equivalent to a\\ncrop of 1.76 tons per acre.\\nIn Denmark, too, an extensive system of 145 canals, carrying,\\nin 1890, 22,000 second-feet of water, has been provided, whose\\nobject is to reclaim some of the sandy heath lands in Jutland\\nand it is said that the 21,000 acres of land which has been\\nbrought under cultivation has increased in value at the rate of\\nnearly $80 per acre.\\nIn Austria-Hungary, irrigation, largely meadow, is practiced\\nin the Mattig valley, in upper Austria in lower Austria near\\nKlagenfurth, in Carinthia in certain of the upper and central\\nvalleys in Tyrol in the Bistritz valley, and in the valley of the\\nElbe, in Bohemia. In these countries the water is usually taken\\nfrom rivers, creeks, springs, and ponds, or reservoirs constructed\\nto impound that which is running to waste, and is led directly\\nupon the land by gravity, being taken from the natural channels\\nby damming the stream until head enough has been secured to\\ncause the water to discharge into the distributing canal or ditch.\\nFor the irrigation of small meadows, water wheels are found\\nalong the streams in many places, for lifting the water out of the\\nchannels where it runs too low to be led out in the usual manner.\\nThese wheels, provided with buckets, according to Consul -General\\nGoldschmidt, are found in great numbers on the Eisack River, in\\nTyrol, above Bozen. About the large cities, small gardens ar\u00c2\u00ab", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "76\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nirrigated by pumps, worked usually by horse -power, taking water\\nfrom wells or cisterns. In the mountainous portions of the Tyrol,\\nmeadow irriga tion is said to be both very extensive and very\\nancient, and in recent times many of the old works have been\\nreconstructed and new ones introduced.\\nSo, too, in parts of Bavaria, meadow irrigation is common,\\nand at Baiersdorf, on the river Regnitz, the writer counted, in\\n.^-f^^^SjS^l. ff-^A\\nI^t\\n1^\\njv*!\\nB\u00c2\u00bb\\no\\n^W ^K^H^^MnfT \u00e2\u0096\u00a0^r J\\nFjwgw|\\n-iBsit\\ntfAfi\\n|mmm|\\n,j\\n^^^\u00e2\u0096\u00a0adi\\n1\\n^^^^^^^^^r ^fV .^^r^iT\\nQ\\n1\\n^^H^^^P\\nH\\nR^j fl\\nm\\nSB\\n^hI^m\\n^^^H^^^^^^\\n/^B||\\n^^M^eS^Mi\\n^^^Sl\\n^H^Eh^^^I\\nn\\nWk\\nA\\n|F;; -aJ^^cJ^^S^^\\n1\\n1\\nI\\nnl^^K\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^^^^^H\\n6\\nMJ^MBP i^-\\\\mi\\nfj^^fm\\n^H\\n^^^^H\\n^^Hj\\nI\\n1\\njH^pi\\nmmm\\nMm\\n^^H\\n^H\\nm\\n^1\\nl^^^^^l\\n9dBSilait4jaaL*\u00c2\u00bb^ .**al!i.\u00c2\u00abRa4C -4,3CSr\u00c2\u00ab.\\n,^BKM\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a01\\nHi\\nI^HB\\nFig. 15. Wlieel for lifting water, at Baiersdorf, Bavaria.\\n1895, no less than 20 of the wheels represented in Fig. 15 in a\\ndistance of 1/^ miles, all of them used in lifting water for meadow\\nirrigation, the grass being cut and fed to the cows green.\\nEven in England, there are numerous water-meadows which\\nhave been irrigated so long that the time at which they were laid\\nout, and the canals and ditches dug, is unknown. It is thought\\nthat some of the English water-meadows were constructed under\\nthe direction of Roman engineering skill, while others have sup-", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "Irrigation in Europe 77\\nposed that they were introduced from the Netherlands but the\\nfact that the character of the works bears a much closer resem-\\nblance to the Italian construction, and that extensive tracts of\\nirrigated land are found in the vicinity of ancient Roman stations,\\nas at Cirencester, lends support to the former view.\\nThis water-meadow irrigation of England is largely confined\\nto the southern parts of the island, as in Berkshire, along the\\nKennet in Derbyshire, in the valley of the Dove in Dorset in\\nGloucestershire, along the Churn, Severn, Avon, Lidden, and other\\nstreams on the Avon, Itchen, and Test, in Hampshire in Wilt-\\nshire in Worcestershire and in Devonshire, where catch meadows\\nFig. 16. River and canal for water-meadow irrigation, at Salisbury, England.\\nare laid out in the valleys of many rivers and brooks. In Figs.\\n16 and 17 are shown two views of water-meadow construction at\\nSalisbury, in England.\\nIf we pass to the continent of Asia, we shall find irrigation\\npracticed over a wide extent of territory in many countries, but\\nnowhere on so large a scale as in the ancient and modern develop-\\nments in India. How wide the extent of irrigation is in India\\nmay be most easily comprehended from the map, Fig. 18, where,\\nfrom Lahore, in the northwest, to Calcutta, in the southeast, a\\ndistance of nearly 1,400 miles, and covering a mean width not less\\nthan 100 miles, a large share of the land is under irrigation.\\nOther modern irrigation works are to be found at Cuttack, on the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "78\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nMahanadi River, and farther south, at various points in the Madras\\nPresidency. On the western side of the peninsula, too, back from\\nBombay, both at Poona, in the valley of the Mutha River, and at\\nFig. 17. Ridged surface of a water-meadow, Salisbury, England.\\nBhutan, where there is a great dam 4,067 feet long and 130 feet\\nhigh, which forms a reservoir for the supply of the Nira canals,\\nare other extensive modern irrigation systems. The Vir weir, at\\nthe head of the Nira canal, is 2,340 feet long, with a maximum\\nheight above the river bed of 40 feet, and over this weir, at maxi-\\nmum flood, there pours 160,000 cubic feet of water per second, in\\na sheet 8 feet deep over the crest.\\nThe number of wells used for irrigation in the Madras Presi-\\ndency has been estimated at not less than 400,000, while the area\\nthey serve is placed at 2,000,000 acres. It is further estimated for\\nthe whole Indian peninsula, British and native, that not less than\\n300,000 shallow wells are in use, while they serve certainly more\\nthan 6,000,000 acres of land.\\nReferring, now, more particularly to the extent of irrigation\\nenterprises in India, we learn from Richard J. Hinton s report to\\nthe Senate that in the Madras Presidency, with a population of", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "80 Irrigation and Drainage\\nover 31,000,000, the irrigation works, up to 1890, involved an\\ninvested sum amounting to $32,488,000, and the acreage watered\\nin 1889-90 is placed at 6,000,000. In lower Bengal, the same\\nyear, 560,000 acres were under cultivation by irrigation while in\\nthe Soane Circle system, 2,611,000 acres were served, 1,305,000 of\\nwhich produced rice.\\nThe Ganges system is among the greatest in India. The\\nUpper Ganges has 890 miles of main canals, with 3,700 distribu-\\ntaries and 17 great dams, and serves 1,205,000 acres, the system\\ncosting $14,644,000. The lower Ganges embraces 531 miles of\\nmain canal and 1,854 distributaries, serving 620,000 acres, and\\ncosting $7,000,000.\\nIn the Bombay Presidency, in 1889-90, 839,000 acres were\\nirrigated, and 915,000 acres were under the public canals, whose\\ntotal cost is placed at $10,792,000.\\nIn the Punjab and Sind, many ancient works dating from the\\ntwelfth and thirteenth centuries are still in partial operation, but\\nthe great famine years of 1831--32 have brought about many\\nchanges and great improvements. The West Jumna canal had\\ncost, up to 1890, $8,000,000, and it embraces 84 miles of main\\ncanal and 1,110 miles of distributaries, or 1,194 in all. This,\\nwith the East Jumna canal, controlled 2,000,000 acres, and\\nbi ought the Indian Government in 1889-90 a revenue or land\\ntax of $96,000,000. To this same system belongs the Doab canal,\\nrunning parallel with the Jumna river thi ough 450 miles, and\\nwith its 1,112 miles of distributaries and 130 miles of main\\ncanals, serving 580,000 acres of land which can be cultivated. It\\nis said that the total expenditure in these provinces for irrigation\\npurposes is represented by $36,400,000, covering about 6,000,000\\nacres, one-half of which is under irrigation each year. It is\\nfurther represented that for 60 years these investments of capital\\nhave realized an annual return of 8 per cent.\\nIt is stated that the total expenditure under British direction\\nin the Punjab, Swat, Sirhind, Sind, and the sub-Himalayan\\nregion, has been not less than $64,000,000, with about 2,500 miles\\nof canals in operation in 1890. But, besides these, there are in\\nthe same districts many private canals and a very large num-", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "Irrigation in Asia 81\\nber of wells, which supply from 4,000 to 6,000 gallons each 24\\nhours.\\nIn the Indus valley, there are many small canals, ranging\\nfrom 8 to 16 miles in length, having a sum total of 709 miles,\\nwhich supply water to 214,000 acres. Three other important\\nsystems supply 411,000 acres, with a total length of channel\\namounting to 1,479 miles. The Lahore branch of the Bari-Doab\\ncanal irrigates 523,000 acres, besides supplying the water needed\\nby 1,352 villages. The cost of these works in 1889-90 had reached\\n$7,872,000, while the year s net proceeds of the water supply was\\n$873,000, with an associated expenditure of $288,000.\\nIn the province of Orissa, with an area of 24,000 square miles\\nand a population of 4,250,000, there were, in 1889-90, 511,000\\nacres of land under the canal systems, ready for irrigation.\\nAside from these Anglo -Indian enterprises to which reference\\nhas been made, Hinton states that the native or independent\\nstates of India comprise two-thirds of the peninsula, and that\\ntheir peoples are extensive irrigators. The most advanced of\\nthese states, viewed from the standpoint of agriculture and irri-\\ngation, is Jaipur, with an area of 14,463 square miles and a\\npopulation of 2,500,000. It has 108 separate systems of irrigation\\nworks, with 364 miles of mam canals and 422 miles of distribu-\\ntaries. In the native state of Mysore, there are 1,000 miles of\\nirrigation canals and 20,000 village tanks.\\nIn the island of Ceylon, a decided effort has been and is being\\nmade to restore and to extend the ancient irrigation systems,\\nwhich have been allowed to fall into ruin. The British authori-\\nties in 1891 had already restored 2,250 of the small and 59 of the\\nlarge tanks or reservoirs they have constructed 245 wiers and\\n700 miles of canals. There are now over 5,000 ancient reser-\\nvoirs in the island, and one king, in the twelfth century, is\\ncredited with having had constructed 4,770 tanks and 543 great\\ncanals.\\nIn Australia, work seems to be largely prospective as yet, with\\nbut few results actually attained. But there are some 500,000\\nacres in Victoria to be served by irrigation works which are in\\nprogress. In New South Wales, the amount of land in 1891", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "82 Irrigation and Drainage\\nactually irrigated is said not to exceed 3,000 acres, but provision\\nis being made under government aid for the irrigation of 38,000\\nacres. In South Australia, there are about 5,000 acres now under\\nirrigation, and a company has been organized for the develop-\\nment of an irrigation system on the Murray River, to place under\\nditch 200,000 acres. Up to June, 1891, the government had sunk\\n15 artesian wells, 8 of which are flowing and yielding from 8,228\\nto 3,000,000 gallons in 24 hours. These are in Queensland, and\\nin the same region there are 86 private artesian flowing wells.\\nIn China, irrigation has a very extended and general distri-\\nbution. The great canal systems are laid out primarily for\\ntransportation, but are used jointly and generally for irrigation\\nas well. It is said the most scrupulous care is taken to save and\\nutilize every source of water in cultivation and in southern and\\ncentral China it is estimated than an acre of land is made to sup-\\nport from three to five persons.\\nIn the provinces of Ningpo, Fo-Kien and Shanghai, the water\\nis generally taken from small ditches led out from the streams or\\nlarger canals, or they are fed from springs in the hilly country.\\nIt is said that in very many parts almost every farm is supplied\\nfrom canals or shallow laterals, which are 2 or 3 miles long\\nand from 10 to 30 feet wide, leading out at right angles from the\\nmain canals, often from 200 to 400 feet apart. It se ems, from the\\nwritten accounts, that a large part of the water used by the gar-\\ndeners, and even on the small but numerous rice fields, is raised\\nout of the canals and streams or ponds by a species of chain\\nor rope pump, worked either by hand or by oxen, and in the\\nirrigation season, when water is needed, they are run at night\\nas well as day. It is even said that water for irrigating is carried\\nconsiderable distances at times and places, in buckets on a yoke\\nplaced on the shoulders of men.\\nIn the province of Fo-Kien, where the rainfall is both quite\\nlarge and well distributed, irrigation is still practiced, but as a\\nmeans of insuring larger yields rather than a necessity.\\nIn Japan, as well as in China, irrigation is, and has been from\\ntime immemorial, extensively practiced, and it is estimated that not\\nless than two-thirds of the 12,500,000 acres of land under eulti-", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "Irrigation in Asia 83\\nvation, supporting 41,000,000 people, is under irrigation that is\\nto say, water is artificially applied to not less than 8,000,000 acres\\nof land in Japan.\\nOn the island of Lew Chew, belonging to Japan, the greatest\\ncare is exercised to utilize the water of all the short streams,\\nwherever they are found. On the slopes and in the narrow val-\\nleys, the lands are carefully leveled by terracing, to avoid washing\\nand to cause the water to spread evenly over the surface of the\\nground, and thus become most effective. On the margins of the\\nterraces are slight ridges, which are given permanency of form\\nby being covered with grass these are boundaries and foot-ways,\\nas well as barriers against land washing. It is said that dams\\nare not used upon the streams, but in times of high water the\\nterracing has been such that the water can be at once spread out\\nover the cultivated areas, and gently let down to the lower levels\\nand back into the main channels, after having done its work of\\nsaturating and fertilizing the fields. In order that nothing shall\\nbe lost by way of washing, there is a lower waterway around the\\nmargin of the terraced areas, which conducts the water to one\\ncorner, where it passes to the next terrace below, but first flowing\\nthrough a sort of settling basin partly filled with vines or rubbish,\\nwhose purpose it is to collect the silt, to be used in compost heaps\\nfor manure. At the lowermost level, before the water finally\\nenters the stream, there is a larger settling basin, through which\\nthe water must pass and drop whatever of value it may still\\nbe carrying where it may be recovered and used.\\nIn writing of irrigation in Siam, Consul -G-eneral Jacob T.\\nChild states that about one-half of that country is under cultiva-\\ntion, and of this four -fifths are irrigated, much of it for rice.\\nThe fields are supplied with water from canals, which branch out\\nfrom the rivers in all directions, and the main lines are con-\\nstructed by the general government, but those supplying the\\nindividual fields directly are made by the individual land\\nowners. Where the land is government property, there is an\\nannual rental of about 28 cents per ri, or 84 cents per acre,\\nincluding the use of the water.\\nIrrigation in other parts of Asia at the present time, as is", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "84 Irrigation and Drainage\\nthe case both in Japan and China, is carried on in a small way\\nlargely by individual effort, but is widely and irregularly scattered,\\nso that it is difficult to form any exact or even adequate estimate\\nof the extent of such irrigation and the same statement is also\\ntrue of British India outside of the organized enterprises of\\nEnglish capital. Indeed, it must be said that all through Asia\\nMinor and Central Asia isolated and individual irrigation plants\\nare to be found, which in the aggregate would sum up a grand\\ntotal. Irrigation is carried on in this individual way in Corea, in\\nAfghanistan, and parts of Russian Central Asia. It is even to be\\nfound in Thibet and on the Pamir, The Roof of the World,\\n12,000 feet above sea level. Nor can it be said that this irriga-\\ntion is carried on only in those places where water is most easily\\nobtainable, for it is sometimes secured under conditions so labo-\\nrious that few Americans would think of undertaking the task. In\\nparts of Armenia, for example, where underground water is\\nabundant, and where the ground is sloping, it is a common prac-\\ntice to dig a line of wells extending down the slope and then, by\\nconnecting the bottoms of these wells by a tunnel leading out\\nupon the surface at a lower level, the water becomes available for\\nirrigation, and is collected in reservoirs, to be used as needed.\\nWater is thus collected and brought to the surface of the ground\\nby gravity, even in sections where the uppermost wells must be\\nsunk to depths as great as 80 to 100 feet. The same practice also\\nis said to exist in the mountainous parts of Afghanistan, Cashmere,\\nand other parts of Central Asia, and these underground water\\nchannels are often of considerable length, and many miles in\\nthe aggregate have been constructed.\\nOn the continent of Africa, the most extended system is, of\\ncourse, that found in Egypt, developed along the valley and\\ndelta of the Nile. Willcocks tells us, in his Egyptain Irriga-\\ntion, that the cultivated or irrigated area in this long, narrow\\nvalley is 4,955,000 acres, while the total area which is below the\\nlevel of flood waters, and, therefore, capable of irrigation, is\\n6,400,000 acres. This irrigated area is confined at present to a\\nlong and relatively very narrow strip bordering the course of the\\nstream, and the naked desert sands on both sides come up sharp", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "Irrigation in Africa 85\\nagainst the watered area, which begins at Assuan, some 500 miles\\nfrom the sea, not following the windings of the Nile. The popu-\\nlation of this country is now given as 5,000,000, but it has been\\nestimated that Egypt once supported 20,000,000 inhabitants and\\na practice of today, which will seem strange to the reader, is\\nthat of digging up the rubbish piles on the sites of ancient vil-\\nlages, towns and cities, which represent the waste of the millions\\nwho have passed away, and using this as manure to fertilize the\\nfields now under irrigation. The dry climate of this country has\\npreserved these materials from complete decay, and the site of\\nold Cairo is now being dug over to enrich the fields for miles\\naround.\\nThe mean daily discharge of water which passes from Upper\\nEgypt, at Cairo, into Lower Egypt is estimated at 8,830,000,000\\ncubic feet, but as large as this amount is, it would require 20\\ndays to place Wisconsin under an inch of water.\\nIn the Algerian Sahara, since the sinking of the first artesian\\nwell, in 1848, at Biskra, by M. Henri Fournel, the work went for-\\nward, until in 1875 there had been 615 wells put down, having\\nan average depth of 145 feet, 404 of which are in the province of\\nConstantine, 194 in the province of Algiers, and 15 in that of\\nOran. A strange thing about these artesian waters is the pres-\\nence in them of nitrates, and irrigation with them has brought\\nupon the desert sands wonderful oases, 43 in number in the Oued\\nRir, supporting, in 1885, 520,000 date palms of bearing age, 140,-\\n000 palms from one to seven years old, and about 100,000 other\\nfruit trees.\\nOn the south side of the equator, in Africa, there has as yet\\nbut little been done in the way of irrigation, although in Cape\\nColony efforts are being made. In 1889 the U. S. Consul at Cape\\nTown, Geo. F. Hollis, states that the most complete storage work\\nnow constructed in the colony, and the most important, is that at\\nVan Wyck s Vley. The rainfall in this section is very irregular,\\nthe average for 11 years being 10 inches. The reservoir has de-\\npended upon a catchment area of, say, 240 square miles, but this\\nhas been found inadequate, and a furrow is now nearly com-\\npleted to bring over water from a neighboring river, by which it", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "86 Irrigation and Drainage\\nis estimated that the water- covered area will be increased to 19\\nsquare miles, with a depth of 27 feet. The land under irrigation\\nis owned by the government, and is leased at a minimum rate of\\n10 shillings per acre.\\nIn the island of Madagascar, on the east, and that of Madeira,\\non the west of Africa, irrigation is also practiced in the former\\nfor rice culture only, and by the system of flooding but in Ma-\\ndeira the system is both elaborate and extensive, covering over\\none-half of the whole island, or 120 square miles. There are no\\ncatchment basins or reservoirs other than those which nature has\\nprovided, and the water used is that which the soil collects dur-\\ning the rainy season and gives up in the form of springs. The\\nwater carriers have been constructed with care and skill, and\\nsome of them have a length of 60 or 70 miles. The thrifty\\nfarmers have on their lands reservoirs into which they collect\\ntheir share of water when it is delivered to them, and from this\\ndistribute it to their several crops as they desire but the poorer\\nclass, who cannot afford the reservoir, are obliged to use the water\\ndirectly as it comes to them, and as the intervals are long be-\\ntween the delivery of water they are not able to make the best use\\nof that which they get, and their crops suffer in consequence.\\nIn the Pacific Ocean, too, there are islands in which irrigation\\nis practiced with great skill outside of those of Japan, to which\\nreference has already been made. Among these may be men-\\ntioned those of Hawaii, and the development of the sugar industry\\nthere has in recent years led to a corresponding development of\\nthe facilities for irrigation, as would be expected when it is stated\\nthat adequate irrigation there has increased the yield of sugar\\nfrom 2 tons to 4 tons per acre. It is stated that there are about\\n90,000 acres under cane, one-half of which is irrigated some\\n7,000 acres of rice, and 5,000 acres of bananas, the rice being all\\nunder water. The water supply comes from mountain streams,\\nwith their reservoirs, and from springs and artesian wells.\\nThe artesian wells about Pearl Harbor are among the largest,\\nyielding an enormous quantity of water, sufficient to irrigate\\n20,000 acres of rice and a large area of bananas and other products\\nbesides. There have been 100 of these wells sunk about the mar-", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "Irrigation in America 87\\ngin of this island, 21 to 42 feet above ocean level, in the last 12\\nyears, and four of them are said to yield water enough for a city\\nof 165,000 inhabitants.\\nIn the island of Java, too, irrigation is extensively practiced,\\nand regarding the island of Lombock, still to the east of Java,\\nMr. Arthur R. Wallace writes It was here that I first obtained\\nan adequate idea of one of the most wonderful systems of cultiva-\\ntion in the world, equaling all that is related of Chinese industry,\\nand, as far as I know, surpassing, in the labor bestowed on it,\\nany tract of equal extent in the most civilized countries of Europe.\\nI rode through this strange garden utterly amazed, and hardly\\nable to realize the fact that in this remote and little known island,\\nLombock, from which all Europeans (except a few traders at the\\nport) are jealously excluded, many hundreds of square miles of\\nirregularly undulating country have been so skillfully terraced and\\nleveled and permeated by artificial channels that every portion of\\nit can be irrigated and dried at pleasure.\\nPassing, now, to the American continent, we have already\\nreferred to its prehistoric irrigation works, and to the extensive\\nand complete systems of irrigation found in South America before\\nthe occupancy of that continent by the Spanish and Portuguese,\\nfor irrigation was practiced there on both slopes of the great\\nAndean ranges. It must be said, however^ to the shame of our\\nboasted civilization, that a very large share of those extensive\\nand valuable improvements have been allowed to pass into ruin,\\nand now must be restored at great cost.\\nIn the Argentine Republic, lying between 20\u00c2\u00b0 and 56\u00c2\u00b0 south\\nlatitude, irrigation is being practiced in the provinces of Cordoba,\\nSan Luis, Mendosa, San Juan, Catamarca, Rioja, Santiago del\\nEstero, Tucman, Salta and Jujuy and it is stated that the total\\narea under cultivation by irrigation will exceed 1,759,600 acres.\\nAccording to Consul Baker s report, works were begun about\\n1882-83 on a number of large dams and canals, using the water\\nof four important rivers, at an estimated cost of $15,280,000,\\nwhich were expected to have an aggregate capacity equal to about\\n3,020,000 acres.\\nWhile there are large areas in the aggregate irrigated in", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "88 Irrigation and Drainage\\nother parts of South America, Central America and Mexico, no\\nvery definite idea of its magnitude or distribution can be given\\nas yet.\\nNewell i says, in the report of the Eleventh Census, that in\\nthe western part of the United States the area irrigated within the\\narid and sub -humid regions aggregated at the end of May,\\n1890, 3,631,381 acres, or 5,674.03 square miles, while the total\\nnumber of farms or holdings upon which crops were raised by\\nirrigation was 54,136. In this irrigation, water was supplied by\\n3,930 wells to 51,896 acres, at an average cost of $245.58 per well,\\nthe wells yielding an average of 54.43 gallons per minute. The\\naverage value of products from this irrigated land per acre he\\nfound to be $14.89, the farms having an estimated mean value\\nper acre of $83.28, while the average size of each farm or holding\\nwas 67 acres. The average value of the product of the average\\nfarm was thus $897.63.\\nTo bring together in close review the extent of irrigation as\\nit is today practiced in the various parts of the world, we may\\nquote the statements of Wilson The total area irrigated in\\nIndia is about 25,000,000 acres, in Egypt about 6,000,000 acres,\\nand in Italy about 3,700,000 acres. In Spain there are 500,000\\nacres, in France 400,000 acres, and in the United States 4,000,000\\nacres of irrigated land. This means that crops are grown on\\n40,000,000 acres which, but for irrigation, would be relatively bar-\\nren or not profitably productive. In addition to these, there are\\nsome millions more of acres cultivated by aid of irrigation in\\nChina, Japan, Australia, Algeria, South America, and elsewhere.\\nThese figures seem enormous as we read them, and so they\\nare, but they leave an exaggerated impression on the mind which\\nneeds to be corrected, for very few realize the magnitude of the\\nvolume of water which must be handled in raising a crop by irri-\\ngation. In order that we may not mislead in this direction, we\\nwish to make the correction. Let us suppose that the amount of\\nland which is actually under irrigation at the present ti-me is four\\ntimes the 40,000,000 of acres which have been enumerated above.\\nNow, were this supposition true, and all of these acres were\\nbrought together in one solid square, it would have but 500 miles", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "Climatic Conditions 89\\non a side. But to cover such an area as this with 2 inches of\\nwater once in 10 days would require more than three Nile rivers\\nflowing at maximum flood\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a river 50 feet deep, 1.156 miles wide,\\nrunning three miles an hour.\\nTHE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH IRRIGATION\\nIS PRACTICED\\nIf we study the conditions of rainfall under which\\nirrigation has been practiced, we shall find rather wide\\nvariations in the mean amounts which fall upon the dif-\\nferent countries, especially when the mean annual rain-\\nfalls are compared. In all of India except the extreme\\nnorthwest part; throughout China, Japan and Siam,\\nin Italy, and France, and Mexico, as much rain falls\\nduring the year as falls in the United States east of\\nthe 97th meridian, if we except Louisiana, Mississippi,\\nGeorgia and Florida, an amount ranging from 23.6\\ninches to 51.2 inches, or between 60 and 130 centime-\\nters. But in Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan and\\nthe extreme northwest of India in the irrigated parts\\nof Queensland, Victoria and South Australia in Cape\\nColony, Algiers and Spain and in Argentina and the\\nwestern United States, south of Washington state, the\\nrainfall for the year drops from 23 inches to less than\\n8 inches. On the lower Ganges, from the Soane region\\nto Calcutta, and south along the east coast as far as the\\nOrissa canals, the yearly rainfall is equal to that of the\\nsouthern states, or from 51 inches to 78 inches (130 to\\n200 centimeters). It is not, therefore, in regions of\\nsmall rainfall alone that irrigation systems have been\\ndeveloped. Indeed, there must always be contiguous", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "90 Irrigation and Drainage\\nterritory of considerable rainfall, in order to fill the soil\\nand give rise to springs, streams, and wells, or there\\ncould be no water for irrigation. It is only the accident\\nof a great stream like the Nile, gathering its waters in a\\nregion of large rainfall, that makes any irrigation at all\\npossible in a rainless, desert country like Upper and\\nLower Egypt.\\nThe distribution of the rainfall with reference to the\\ngrowing season, more than the quantity of it, is the\\nchief factor in determining whether irrigation will be\\nprofitable or not. In the irrigated districts of Italy,\\nSpain, France, Austria -Hungary, Algiers, Cape Colony,\\nAsia Minor, Armenia, Victoria, South Australia, and\\nthe westernmost part of the United States, there is a\\ntendency to a dry time in early or late summer, at the\\ntime when crops need water most, or in some of these\\ncountries it may be dry the whole season through, the\\nrainy season being in fall or winter. In China, south-\\nern Japan, Siam and Ceylon the summer is rainy, but\\nthere is a tendency to develop a short dry season in\\nmidsummer. In Switzerland, Belgium, Denmark, Eng-\\nland, Bavaria, Madagascar, North Japan, Queensland,\\nand Mexico there is usually a uniform distribution of\\nrain throughout the whole of the growing season. In\\nthese latter countries, however, while irrigation is prac-\\nticed in them, it must be said that it is supplementary\\nrather than a necessity.", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II\\nTHE CONDITIONS WHICH MAKE I RBI CATION IMPERA-\\nTIVE, DESIRABLE OR UNNECESSARY\\nTo understand the conditions which make it im-\\nperative, desirable or unnecessary to irrigate land, it\\nis important to have clearly in mind the various objects\\nwhich may be attained by the application of water to\\ncultivated fields.\\nTHE OBJECTS OF IRRIGATION\\nThe first and primary object to be attained in irri-\\ngating the soils of arid climates is to establish those\\nmoisture relations which are essential to plant growth,\\nand the same fundamental object will usually stand\\nfirst in sub -humid climates, as it may even in those\\nwhich are distinctly humid for in the sub -humid\\nclimates it very often happens that the intervals\\nbetween rains of sufficient quantity are so long that\\nalmost any crop may suffer and in humid climates\\nthere are certain crops, like the cranberry and rice,\\nwhich profit by more or less protracted inundations\\nor, again, like the pineapple, growing upon extremely\\nleachy sands, which can retain but a small quantity\\nof water even for a single day, and where it is neces-\\n(91)", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "92 Irrigation and Drainage\\nsary that even frequent showers shall be supplemented\\nin order that the best results may be attained.\\nIn the second place, lands may be irrigated in any\\nclimate, when it is desired to carry to the land ferti-\\nlizing matter which the irrigation waters may hold in\\nsolution or in suspension. The extreme cases of this\\npractice are where cultivators take advantage of the\\nlarge amounts of plant -food which are borne along\\nin the waters of streams into which the sewage of\\ngreat cities, like Paris or Edinburgh, are discharged.\\nSuch waters are extremely fertile, even when much\\ndiluted. In emphasis of this fact, Fig. 19 shows a\\nfield of heavy grass growing on the Craigentinny\\nmeadows of Edinburgh. This ground yields from three\\nto five such crops each year, and has done so for\\nnearly a century, with no other fertilization than that\\nwhich comes to it through the winter and summer\\napplication of diluted sewage water. Hence we need\\nnot be surprised that such lands have rented as high\\nas 18 to 22 pounds sterling for the season per acre,\\nwhen the rentals are sold at auction to the highest\\nbidder.\\nBut ordinary river waters are widely used in vari-\\nous countries, chiefiy for the fertilization of water\\nmeadows. The amount of water applied in a year\\nis in some sections very great, reaching, in the Vosges,\\nin France, over 300 feet in depth per year. It is\\nduring the colder portions of the year, when the grass\\nis not growing, that the larger part of the water is\\napplied, depending upon the absorptive and retentive\\npower of the soil to abstract from the water, as it", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "Objects of Irrigation\\n93\\npasses over and leaches through, enough of potash,\\nphosphoric acid, and other ingredients of plant-food,\\nto hold the strength of the soil up to a uniformly high\\nstandard, even when constant cropping is practiced.\\nm\\n1\\n-\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^ftonL\\nBl^.\\n1\\n1\\niK^iigSi^M^.::9M\\ni\\nSl\\n--.u -^^^^^g^, -y\\nHH^\\n1\\n^^1^^\\npSi\\n1\\nII\\n3...\\ni\\nK;\\nl\\n^^Bh^,\\ni ig. 19. Heavy growth of grass on the Craigeutiuny meadows,\\nEdinbxu-gh, Scotland.\\nA third object in irrigation, in certain classes of\\ncases, is primarily to change the texture of the soil.\\nWhen soils are very sandy and open, having so small\\na water capacity that not enough is retained for the\\ngrowth of most crops, then the leading of the water of\\na turbid stream over such lands results in the deposition\\nof silt to such an extent as, in the course of time, to", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "94 Irrigation and Drainage\\nvery materially improve their physical condition but\\nat the same time giving to these soils a large amount\\nof plant -food, for the material borne along in suspen-\\nsion in the water of rivers is usually very valuable,\\nderived, as it is, from the finest and best parts of fer-\\ntile soils. These ingredients of the flood waters of\\nthe river Nile are extremely valuable to those desert\\nsands which, under the long action of strong winds,\\nhave lost the major part of those fine and extremely\\nimportant grains which the sand storms of the deserts\\nhave picked up and swept away.\\nIn the fourth type of irrigation, which is an extreme\\ncase of the last, the aim is to flood low tracts of land\\nwith silt -bearing water in large volume, and to hold it\\nthere until the suspended matters have been deposited,\\nso as ultimately to build up the whole tract, raising it to\\na level at which it may be naturally drained, or at which\\na depth of fertile soil sufficient to meet the needs of\\nagriculture may be laid down over one which had been\\nundesirable. Low -lying lands have been built up by\\nthis method until in the course of ten or a dozen years\\nthe whole surface has been raised as much as 5 to 7 feet.\\nA fifth type of irrigation, which has received a\\nnotable expansion in recent years, has for its primary\\nobject the rapid destruction of the organic matters held\\nin solution and in suspension in the sewage waters of\\ncities, in order that they shall reach river channels and\\nthe ground -water of the surrounding country suffi-\\nciently purified not to endanger the public health by\\na pollution of drinking waters, or by developing un-\\nheal thful atmospheric conditions.", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "Water Needed for a Paying Crop 95\\nTHE LEAST AMOUNT OF WATER WHICH CAN PRODUCE\\nA PAYING CROP\\nIn the manufacture of butter from milk, it is a mat-\\nter of prime commercial importance to know just how\\nmuch butter -fat that milk contains, and what is the\\nmaximum amount of butter that fat is capable of pro-\\nducing for only this knowledge can show how closely\\nthe manufacturer is working to his possible limit of\\nprofit, and how great his losses may be. For a like rea-\\nson, it is very important to know what is the minimum\\namount of water which, under stated climatic conditions,\\ncan meet the needs of a given crop, producing a paying\\nyield. It is important, because only such knowledge as\\nthis can show how economical or how wasteful our\\nmethods of tillage may be, and how nearly we are realiz-\\ning the largest profits which are possible to the business.\\nIn the Introduction, much pains has been taken\\nto give in detail the evidence, and the methods of pro-\\ncuring it, which shows how much water must be used\\nby a given crop in coming to maturity when placed\\nunder the best of conditions. This has been done,\\nbecause it is a part of the knowledge which is needed\\nto show under what climatic conditions irrigation msiy,\\nand under what it may not, be practiced because it\\nis needed to show how far into the sub -humid districts\\nagricultural operations may be pushed without the aid\\nof irrigation because it will help to teach how far we\\nmay hope, by the practice of the best methods of till-\\nage, to dispense with irrigation, and avert disastrous\\nresults during seasons of drought.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "96 Irrigation mid Drainage\\nWe have already referred at some length to the\\nseemingly small amounts of water used by the wheat\\ncrop in coming to maturity in the San Joaquin valley,\\nin California, and to the long period of some 60 days\\nat the close of its growing season during which it\\nreceives no water, either as rain or by irrigation.\\nWhat is the minimum amount of water which is capa-\\nble of producing a yield of 15, 20, 30 or 40 bushels of\\nwheat per acre, and how does this compare with the\\nactual rainfall of the San Joaquin valley\\nWe have made no observations with wheat, like those\\nwhich have been recorded for oats, barley, maize, clover\\nand potatoes, but from similar observations made by\\nHellriegel, in Germany, it is probable that the amount\\nof water necessary to produce a ton of dry matter with\\nwheat is not very far from 906,000 pounds or 453 tons,\\nequal to 3.998 acre -inches. How many bushels of\\nwheat should this give\\nThe ratio of the dry weight of the kernels to that\\nof the straw and chaff in a crop of wheat has been\\nfound to be as 1 to 1.1 in a dry season, but to be as\\nhigh as 1 to 1.5 when there has not been an undesir-\\nable stimulation to the growth of straw. But where\\nwheat is irrigated in the southeast of France, Gasparin\\nstates that a ratio of 1 of grain to 2 of straw is usual.\\nIf we take the ratio of 1 to 1.5, and allow 60 pounds\\nto the bushel of wheat, we may compute the least\\namount of water which is likely to enable a crop of\\nvarying yields per acre to be produced, and the re-\\nsults of such a computation are given in the following\\ntable", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "Water Needed for a Given Crop 97\\nTable showing the least amount of water required to produce different yields of\\nwheat per acre when the ratio of grain to straw is 1-1.5\\nYield\\nper\\nacre\\nWgt\\nof grain\\nWi\\nit. of straw\\nTotal wgt.\\nWater used\\nNo. bushels\\nTONS\\nTONS\\nTONS\\nACRE-IN.\\n15\\n.45\\n.675\\n1.125\\n4.498\\n20\\n.6\\n.9\\n1.5\\n5.998\\n25\\n.75\\n1.125\\n1.875\\n7.497\\n30\\n.9\\n1.35\\n2.25\\n8.997\\n35\\n1.05\\n1.575\\n2.625\\n10.495\\n40\\n1.2\\n1.8\\n3\\n12\\nThese amounts of water, given in the last column\\nof the table, are so small that they appear false, for the\\nquantity given for 15 bushels to the acre is almost\\ncovered by the rainfall of the most arid parts of the\\nworld. Several statements need to be made in order\\nto put them in their true light.\\nIn the first place, the figures could only be true\\nwhen the amount and kind of plant -food in the soil\\nis all that the crop can use to advantage, for no amount\\nof pure water can make up for such deficiencies except\\nin so far as it makes more rapid the solution of other-\\nwise unavailable plant -food in the soil. Then, again,\\nthe data for the table were procured under conditions\\nwhich permitted no loss of moisture from the soil,\\neither by surface drainage or by downward movements\\nbeyond the depth of root action. Further than this,\\nno account is taken of the water which may have been\\ngiven to the soil in bringing it to the proper moisture\\nconditions previous to planting the crop in it. Water\\nenough was given to the soil to put it in the right\\ncondition to start with, and the amounts in the table\\nQ", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "98 Irrigation and Drainage\\ncover simply what has been found necessary to main-\\ntain that amount against surface evaporation from the\\nsoil under the best of conditions and through the crop\\nitself. In the San Joaquin valley there is a long inter-\\nval, from the end of July until the fall rains begin\\nin November, when some evaporation is taking place\\nfrom the surface soil, and enough rain must have\\nfallen to bring the soil up to a good standard condi-\\ntion of soil moisture before the crop is started in it,\\nand the amounts in the table would need to be in-\\ncreased by so much, at least, as would be required\\nto establish this condition.\\nHow much water would need to be added to the\\nsoil in the San Joaquin valley by the fall rains, in\\norder to restore the proper amount of soil water, or\\nhow great the evaporation maj^ be between harvest and\\nseeding time, we do iiot know. We do know, however,\\nthat the rate of evaporation from the surface of a dry\\nsoil is not very rapid. In illustration of this, it may\\nbe stated that after removing a crop of oats from four\\nof our cylinders in the field, a record was kept of the\\nloss of moisture from them between Aug. 2 and Aug.\\n25, and it was found that the total evaporation from\\n7.068 square feet was 5.3 pounds. In another case,\\nsix cylinders in the field lost by surface evaporation\\nbetween Jan. 10, 1894, and March 12, 41.8 pounds.\\nThe loss per 100 days expressed in inches in the first\\nease was .6268, and in the second 1.243.\\nTaking the first of these two figures, which is likely\\nto be more nearly true for the district in question, the\\ntotal loss would be .79 inches, and at the second rate", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "Water Needed for a Given Crop 99\\nit would be 1.54 inches. It is certain that there is a\\nfurther loss from these soils which is likely to be\\nnearly if not quite as large as that computed, and that\\nis the evaporation which takes place through the grain\\nafter coming to maturity, w^hile it is standing upon the\\nground before being cut for it is known that the\\nmovement of water through the plant does not stop at\\nonce when the kernels have fully matured. Further\\nthan this, if a considerable time intervenes between\\nthe time of the first rains and the germination of the\\nseed, and especiall}^ if, after the grain comes up, it\\nfor any reason makes an abnormally slow growth, there\\nwill then be considerable additional losses which are\\nnot included in the figures given in the table and it\\nwould seem that the average necessary loss of soil\\nmoisture from these lands which in no way contributes\\nto the growth of the crop of wheat may easily be as\\nhigh as 3 inches. If this be true, the figures in the\\nlast column of the table would be nearer 7.5, 9, 10.5,\\n12, 13.5 and 15 inches, respectively, for the differ-\\nent yields, than those stated. It is further probable\\nthat for the lighter yields, where the grain would have\\nto stand thinner on the ground or else the plants be\\nsmaller, there would be absolutely more loss of water\\nfrom the surface of the soil itself, and, hence, that the\\nlower figures just given are likely to be found larger\\nthan they are there stated.\\nThe mean annual rainfall of the San Joaquin-\\nSacramento valley, as given by Harrington in his rain-\\nfall map, ranges from 5 inches in the far south to 12\\ninches in the north, this amount all falling between", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "100 Irrigation and Drainage\\nNovember 1 and May 1. Tlie tenth census gives the\\naverage yield of wheat per acre as 6 to 13 bushels in\\nthe south, and from 13 to 20 bushels in the northern\\npart of the valley. The average yield in California\\nin 1879, on 1,832,429 acres, is placed at 16.1 bushels\\nper acre while it is stated that certified records of\\nyields as high as 73 bushels per acre are recorded from\\nareas as large as 10 acres.\\nIf we consider the dry farming sections of the\\nstate of Washington, where most of the wheat grown\\nhas been the spring varieties, sown in April, and some-\\ntimes as late as May, and harvested in August or early\\nSeptember, we shall have the growing season more\\nnearly the same as that in the corresponding latitudes of\\nthe humid parts of the United States. Here, too,\\nthe rainfall in amount is very nearly the same as that of\\nthe district to the south for the corresponding period of\\ntime, but the rains begin a month earlier and co.ntinue a\\nmonth later, so that the amount for the year is from 8.4\\nto 13.5 inches, or about 33 per cent more, while the\\nmean yield per acre was 23.4 bushels in 1879, as\\nagainst 16.1 bushels in California. There is here\\nin Washington, as in California, a dry period of\\nsome 60 days, in which the crop is forced to come to\\nmaturity.\\nIt appears, therefore, from the observations and\\nexperiments regarding the number of inches of water\\nwhich may be used in producing a ton of dry matter,\\nand from practical experience in arid climates, that on\\ndeep, fertile soils, well managed, good, paying yields of\\nwheat may be realized where the amount of rain is as", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "lATie Rainfalls not Equally Prodtictive 101\\nsmall as 7 or 8 inches, and large yields when it reaches\\n12 to 15 inches, provided it has a suitable distribu-\\ntion.\\nLIKE AMOUNTS OF RAINFALL NOT EQUALLY\\nPRODUCTIVE\\nIn the United States west of the 97th meridian,\\nwhere the rainfall is notably deficient, except on the\\nwest side of the Cascade range in Oregon and Washing-\\nton, there are a large number of areas in which an effort\\nhas been made to grow crops of one kind or another\\nwithout irrigation, and in considerable areas with\\nmarked success, as in the San Joaquin-Sacramento val-\\nley, in California, and in eastern Washington and\\nOregon, to which reference has just been made. In the\\nsketch map. Fig. 20, prepared by Newell, the areas in\\nwhich dry farming, or farming without irrigation,\\nhas been practiced with greater or less success, are\\nrepresented in black. It will be seen that this map\\nshows a long, continuous area, just west of the 97th\\nmeridian, another one in California, and a third in\\nWashington, besides very many smaller ones. These\\nthree larger areas receive very nearly the same amounts\\nof rainfall for the year, but the distribution of it in time\\nis very different. In California the rain all falls in [the\\nsix months, November to April, inclusive in Washing-\\nton it is from October to May, inclusive, while in the\\n97th meridian region, much the larger part of the rain\\nfalls during the months between April and September.\\nThe eastern region, therefore, has its moisture well dis-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "102\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nr\\nlit\\ni An?\\n.i!^\\ns.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0I?\\nFig. 20. The dry-farming areas (in black) in the western United States.\\n(After NevvelJ.)\\ntributed through the growing season, while both of the\\nwestern areas mature their crops in from 30 to 60 days\\nof continuous nearly rainless weather and yet, if we", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "Lil e Uainfalls not Equally Productive 103\\ncompare the yields of barley, oats, rye and wheat in\\nthe three districts, taking the Tenth Census figures for\\nCalifornia, Washington and Kansas for comparison,\\nthe yields are largest in Washington and smallest in\\nKansas, as shown below:\\nMean yield\\nper acre o\\nf\\nBarley Oats\\nRye\\nWheat\\n38 41\\n14\\n23\\n21 26.8\\n9\\n16.1\\n12.5 19\\n12\\n9.3\\nWashington\\nCalifornia 21\\nKansas\\nExpressing these differences in percentages, we get:\\nWashington 100 100 100 100\\nCalifornia 55.2 65.3 64.3 70\\nKansas 32.9 46.3 85.7 40.4\\nAs the soils in the three regions are notably fertile,\\nand were in 1879 very close, on the average, to virgin\\nconditions, the differences in yield can hardly be attrib-\\nuted to differences in plant -food other than as influenced\\nby soil moisture and as the quantity of rain which falls\\nin Kansas during the growing season, April to Septem-\\nber, inclusive, is 11.5 to 16.8 inches, while that in\\nWashington is only 8.4 to 13.5 inches, it appears plain\\nthat in some way the available moisture is more effective\\non the Pacific border than it is in the 97th meridian\\nregion.\\nIt would be of very great practical importance to\\nunderstand fully the causes which permit so small an\\namount of rain as that of eastern Washington, falling,\\nso much of it, before the growing season, to ensure the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "104 Irrigation and Drainage\\nmaturity of such large crops under so clear a sky and in\\nspite of so long and continuous a period of drought,\\nwhile in western Kansas 25 to 38 per cent more rain-\\nfall, well distributed through the growing season, pro-\\nduces less than one -half the yield per acre. The yield\\nis certainly less than one- half, because the averages\\nused for Kansas are to o large for the western section\\nof the state, whose rainfall has been brought into\\ncomparison.\\nWhile we are a long way from possessing the need-\\nful data for the solution of this problem, some of the\\nfactors are evident enough, and may be stated here. In\\nthe first place, the rains of the sections of California and\\nof Washington under consideration fall in the cooler\\nportion of the year, when the air is more nearly\\nsaturated and when the wind velocities are small,\\nwhile the sun is much of the time obscured b}^ clouds.\\nAll these conditions conspire to permit a large per\\ncent of the water which falls upon the ground to\\nenter it deeply, without being lost by evaporation,\\nwhile a deep, retentive soil serves to prevent loss by\\ndrainage.\\nIn western Kansas, on the other hand, where the\\nrain falls largely in the form of showers in the heated,\\nsunny season of the year, and where the wind veloci-\\nties are high and the air extremely dry, it is plain that\\na much larger per cent of water falling as rain must\\nbe at once lost by evaporation from the surface of the\\nsoil, before it has had an opportunity to enter it deeply\\nenough to be retained by soil mulches.\\nIn the second place, a frequent surface wetting of", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "lATte Rainfalls not Equally Productive 105\\nthe soil, such as takes place in Kansas, tends strongly\\nto hold the roots near to the surface, where with scanty\\nmulches they are certain to suffer severely whenever a\\nperiod of ten days without rain occurs and if, under\\nthese conditions, the plant is able to send new roots\\nmore deeply into the soil, they can find there but a\\nscanty supply of moisture, because there have been no\\nwinter rains sufficient to produce percolation. Then,\\nagain, after such a ten -day drought, with the surface\\nroots now become inactive through a dying off of the\\nabsorbing root -hairs, when the next rain does fall,\\nunless it is a very heavy one, the major part of it will\\nbe lost by evaporation from the soil, in the case of\\ncrops like wheat, oats, rye and barley, long before the\\nplants are able to put themselves in position to take\\nfull advantage of it.\\nIn California and eastern Washington, the case is\\nradically different. There the water gets well into the\\nsoil before the crop is put upon the ground. Moisture\\nenough is present to produce germination, and the\\nroots develop at first near the surface, when there is\\nample moisture present but later, under the rainless\\nconditions, it is quite likely that they advance more\\nand more deeply into the ground as the moisture in\\nthe upper layers of the soil becomes too scanty, and\\nthus day by day the effectiveness of the soil -mulch is\\nincreased, while the roots have only to advance so far\\nas is needful to allow capillarity to bring them the\\nwater they need from the store which the soil has re-\\ntained. With these physical principles and conditions\\nset down as foot -lights to illuminate our problem, and", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "106 Irrigation and Drainage\\nwith the other fact for a side-light turned upon it,\\nthat 6 inches of water, when the crop can have it to\\nuse to the best advantage, is enough to produce 20\\nbushels of wheat to the acre, we can see its outlines\\nwith sufficient clearness to feel sure that more study\\nin the field would give us its full solution. As the\\nmatter now stands, the case is sufficiently clear that\\nwe may not conclude, because 9 to 12 inches of rain\\nin California has produced abundant crops of wheat,\\nthat a similar rainfall in the sub -humid belt ought\\nto produce like results. It should be sufficiently\\nevident, also, that even with the best modes of till-\\nage we can hope to adopt, there will still be much\\nmore water required per pound of dry matter pro-\\nduced all through the sub -humid region, than is de-\\nmanded under the conditions of the lower San Joa-\\nquin valley.\\nThe same principles make it very clear, also, that a\\njudicious application of water by the methods of irri-\\ngation, in many humid climates, is certain to be at-\\ntended by marked increase in the yield.\\nFREQUENCY AND LENGTH OF PERIODS OP\\nDROUGHT\\nIn humid and sub-humid regions, it is the frequent recur-\\nrence of periods of small or no rainfall, especially if they occur\\nat the time when the crop is approaching or has reached the\\nfruiting stage, that, more than anything else, makes extremely\\ncareful and thorough tillage, or else supplementary irrigation,\\nindispensable, if large yields are to be realized.\\nIn cur repeated trials in the field cylinders here in Wiscon-", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "Freqiiency and Length of Drought 107\\nsin, we have found it necessary to water all of the crops grown\\nin them as often as once in seven days; and even this period has\\nbeen found too long for the soils which are coarse and sandy.\\nSo, too, in our field irrigation we have found that as much as 2\\ninches of water may be applied to corn, cabbages and potatoes as\\noften as once in 10 days, with decided advantage unless, in the\\ninterval, there has been a rain of from .5 to a full inch, falling\\nnearly at one time, so as to penetrate the ground deeply. To\\nwhat extent and to what advantage tillage may take the place of\\nirrigation, or make it undesirable, we shall discuss in the next\\nchapter. Starting with the soil well supplied with moisture at\\nseeding time, and then a uniform distribution of rains equal to 1\\ninch once in seven days through the growing season, we shall have\\nall the moisture that would be needed for very large crops. On\\nthe average of years most parts of the United States east of the\\n97th meridian have this amount of rain during the growing season.\\nIt is true, however, that in many parts of the humid districts the\\ndistribution of the rainfall in time and in quantity is such as to\\ncause severe suffering from drought.\\nTo show just why it is that in Wisconsin the irrigation of\\nordinary farm crops does produce a very marked increase in the\\nyield, we have made a study of the distribution of the rainfall at\\nMadison for the years 1887 to 1897, inclusive. The results\\nare here given in a condensed form, as an illustration of the type\\nof rainfall conditions under which, in a humid climate, it may be\\ndesirable to irrigate where water privileges are such as to permit\\nit to be done cheaply.\\nIt is generally true that a rain of .05 or even of .1 of an\\ninch, when it comes alone, separated by two or three days\\nfrom any other rain, benefits ordinary farm crops but little but\\nin order that we shall not undervalue the rain which falls, we\\nhave included everything, large and small alike, and have con-\\nstructed a table for these years, 1887 to 1897, which shows the\\nlength and number of periods in each year between April 1 and\\nSeptember 30, when there were consecutive days having a rain-\\nfall whose sum did not exceed .05, .1, .5, 1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5\\ninches. The table is given below", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "108\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nTable showing the number of periods, and the mean length of these periods, in each\\nyear ivhen the amount of rain is not greater than that given at the head of the\\nrespective columns\\nRainfall Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall\\nof .05 in. of .1 in. of .5 in. of 1 in. of 1.5 in. of 2 in. of 2.5 in.\\nO\\no\\np.\\n1887\\n1888\\n1889\\n1890\\n1891\\n1892\\n1893\\n1894\\n1895\\n1896\\n1897\\nAv. I g h\\nperiod\\nAv. No.\\nperiods 23.27\\n20\\n27\\n21\\n28\\n20\\n22\\n22\\n20\\n21\\n27\\n28\\nto\\n.2\\n\u00c2\u00abM\\n01\\nd\\n22\\n25\\n20\\n23\\n20\\n25\\n23\\n18\\n23\\n27\\n28\\n|1\\np.\\n5.82\\nP-^\\n7\\n6\\n8\\n5\\n6\\n7\\n7\\n5\\n5\\n6.18\\n16\\n20\\n15\\n22\\n20\\n16\\n13\\n27\\n19\\n4? o\\n.in\\nO P.\\nd.\u00c2\u00a33\\na\\nTS u\\np -d\\n-0.2\\nt3 U\\nP.\\nd.ia\\n.S! 5\\nft.ra\\n-0.2\\nCO\\n.2\\nd\\n11\\n8\\n12\\n7\\n9\\n9\\n14\\n6\\n15\\n13\\n17\\n11\\n20\\n18\\n15\\n9\\n26\\n15\\n12 11 15\\n9.27\\n15\\n10\\n15\\n9\\n9\\n12\\n20\\n7\\n13\\n12.27\\n10\\n16\\n8\\n19\\n14\\n13\\n5\\n19\\n11\\n18\\n10\\n9\\n13\\n14\\n37\\n10\\n17\\n16. 2-;\\n23.09\\n18.91\\n15.55\\n12.45\\n7\\n14\\n7\\n15\\n12\\n9\\n5\\n15\\n8\\n10\\nH\\nC.2\\np.\\nd.r]\\nIz\\nCO\\nd\\n18 9 12 13 11 14 10 18\\n8 21\\n26\\n13\\n26\\n12\\n15\\n14\\n39\\n12\\n23\\n19.91\\n6\\n6\\n12\\n5\\n13\\n10\\n9\\n4\\n11\\n6\\nw\\n-0.2\\n^1\\n6 si\\noi.ld\\n24\\n31\\n31\\n15\\n36\\n15\\n18\\n20\\n44\\n17\\n31\\n25.63\\n8.17\\nStudying this table, it will be seen that during the eleven\\nyears there have been on the average in the growing season 23\\nperiods of 5.82 days duration when the rainfall has not exceeded\\n.05 inches there have been 23 periods 6 days long, with a rain-\\nfall of .1 inch 19 periods on the average 9 days long, with a\\nrainfall of .5 inch 15 periods each year 12 days long, with 1\\ninch 12 periods 16 days each, with but 1.5 inches 10 periods\\neach season 19 days long, with 2 inches, and 8 periods each\\nseason of 25 days each, when the mean rainfall did not exceed\\n2.5 inches.\\nIf we will now compare the field yields which are produced\\nunder these conditions of rainfall, we shall be better able to see\\nhow important are the quantity and time distribution of rain. It", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "Frequency and Length of Drought 109\\nis unfortunate that we are unable to present closely comparable\\ndata for more than the years 1894, 95, 96 and 97, and even for\\nthese years only for corn. As for other crops in the different\\nyears, they were grown on different soils but bringing the yields\\nof dry matter of maize per acre into comparison with the rainfall\\nconditions under which they were produced, we shall have the\\ntable which follows\\nTable showing the relation of yields of dry matter per acre to the quantity and\\ndistribution of rainfall\\nYield of dry\\nmatter per acre Aggregate No\\nof inches of rainfall\\nYear\\nPeriods\\nTONS\\n.05\\n.1\\n.5\\n1\\n1.5\\n2\\n2.5\\n1894\\nr No. of rainfall periods\\nL Length days\\n20\\n7\\n18\\n7\\n16\\n9\\n15\\n12\\n13\\n14\\n9\\n14\\n9\\n20\\n1895\\nfNo. of\\nI Length\\n1.401\\n21\\n6\\n23\\n7\\n13\\n14\\n9\\n20\\n5\\n37\\n5\\n39\\n4\\n44\\n1896\\n/No. of\\nLength\\n4.145\\n27\\n4\\n27\\n5\\n27\\n6\\n26\\n7\\n19\\n10\\n15\\n12\\n11\\n17\\n1897\\nNo. of\\nLength\\nw 3.405\\n28\\n5\\n28\\n5\\n19\\n9\\n15\\n13\\n11\\n17\\n8\\n23\\n6\\n31\\nIf the rainfall in 1896 and in 1894 is compared with that in\\n1895, when there was a very much smaller crop, it will be seen\\nthat the number of rainfall periods in 1895 is decidedly less, while\\nthe length of them is much greater. It was this much longer\\ninterval of time intervening between like quantities of rain which\\ndetermined the small yield and it is this character of the rain\\nof humid climates which so seriously cuts down the average\\nyields per acre, and which makes it possible for the methods of\\nirrigation to give such constant and such large yields wherever it\\nis well practiced in arid climates.\\nTaking the best year of the four, 1896, it will be seen that\\nthe average length of periods of 1 inch of rainfall was 7 days,\\nand there were 26 of them in the six months, making about as\\nuniform distribution of rain as is likely to occur in humid cli-\\nmates but there were in this season 1 period of 10 days, 3\\nperiods of 11 days, 2 periods of 12 days and 2 periods of 13 days\\nduration with but 1 inch of rain, which are too long in Wisconsin", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "110\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nto permit the largest crops the soil is capable of carrying. This\\nstatement is founded upon the fact that with plenty of water the\\nsame soils did produce much larger crops, the differences being\\nsuch as are given in the table below:\\nTable showing differences in yield when the natural rainfall in Wisconsin is\\nsupplemented by irrigation\\nCorn\\nYields per acre\\nPotatoes Strawberries Cabbage\\nBarley\\nClover\\ni^\\nTONS TONS BU. BU. BOXES BOXES TONS TONS BU.\\n1894 5.176 3.835 6,867 3,496\\n1895 5.293 1.384 8,732 1,030 51 25\\n1896 5.15 4.145 394.2 290.5 22.79 20.04\\nBU. TONS TONS\\n4.01 1.45\\n3.632 2.254\\n1897 4.252 3.405 333.9 212.3\\n45.67 44.25 4.434 2.482\\nThese figures show very clearly the insufficiency of rain in\\nthese four years to produce the largest possible yields, and they\\nshow to what extent irrigation in a climate such as that which\\nhas occurred during the years 1894 to 1897 in Wisconsin is likely\\nto increase the average yields.\\nCONDITIONS WHICH MODIFY THE EFFECTIVENESS OP\\nRAINFALL\\nThe rains which fall upon a given area are not equally effec-\\ntive under all conditions of soil and topography, and hence it\\nhappens that irrigation may be desirable in localities where the\\namount of rain which falls may be both large and uniformly dis-\\ntributed throughout the growing season. It has been pointed out,\\nin the study aiming to measure the amount of water required to\\nproduce a pound of dry matter, that it was necessary to water the\\nsandy soils of coarse texture once in three to four days in order\\nm", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "Conditions Modifying Effectiveness of Rainfall 111\\nto prevent the crops from suffering for lack of moisture, while\\nonce in seven days met the needs of plants growing upon soils\\nof the finer texture used in the experiments.\\nThe diflfieulty in the case of soils of coarse texture is, not\\nthat the water evaporates more rapidly from the surface of them,\\nnor is it because more water must be present in them in order\\nthat plants may utilize it, for it is true that the surface evapora-\\ntion from them is slower than with most other soils, and that\\nplants may use the water more closely from them than is\\npossible when the grains are smaller. The real trouble is found\\nin the fact that when they are underlaid by a coarse subsoil, and\\nwhen standing water in the ground is more than 5 feet below\\nthe surface, the water drains out so completely in a short time\\nthat not enough remains to keep the crop from wilting.\\nWe do not yet know how closely the water may be used up\\nin field soils of different textures before crops of different kinds\\nwill begin to suffer, or will have their rate of growth checked\\nbut the writer has found that clover, timothy, blue -grass and\\nmaize have their growth brought nearly to a standstill in a clay\\nloam soil underlaid with sand at 3 to 4 feet, when the amount of\\nwater left in it was that stated in the table below:\\nTable showing the amount of water in a clay loam in the field when crops wilted\\nand growth was brought nearly to a standstill\\nTimothy and\\nClover\\nBlue-grass\\nMaize\\nDepth of sample\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\n0- 6 inches loam\\n8.39\\n6.55\\n6.97\\n6-12\\nclay loam\\n8.48\\n7.62\\n7.8\\n12-18\\nclay-\\n12.42\\n11.49\\n11.6\\n18-24\\nclay\\n13.27\\n13.58\\n11.98\\n24-30\\nclay\\n13.52\\n13.26\\n10.84\\n40-43\\nsand\\n9.53\\n18.37\\n4.17\\nNothing more definite can be said regarding the data of this\\ntable, than that under the moisture relations there shown, growth\\nwas practically at a standstill, and that when very considerably\\nlarger percentages of water were present in the soil the normal\\nrate of growth was checked.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "112\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nHow completely water will drain out of sands by percolation\\nunder conditions in which almost no evaporation can take place, is\\nshown by the data in the table which follows, in which the results\\nwere obtained by a set of apparatus shown in Fig. 21. It will be\\n6\u00e2\u0080\u00941 r~0~T PV\\nWm\\nm\\nm\\nK n lv\\nMM\\nmi\\nFig. 21. Method of determining water-holding power of long columns of sand.\\nseen that the conditions provided by the apparatus are such that\\nstanding water was maintained continuously in the soil at a level\\nof 8 feet below the surface, and, hence, that the amount of water\\nretained in the whole column was much greater than it would\\nhave been were it under such field conditions as when standing", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "Water Lost hy Percolation\\n113\\nwater in the ground is found at greater distances below the sur-\\nface\\nTable showing the per cent of water in 8-foot columns of sand after percolation\\nperiods of different lengths\\nEffective diameter of sand\\ngrains 474 mm. .185 mm. .155 mm. .1143 mm. .0826 mm.\\nHeight of sec n\\nabove ground\\nwater\\nINCHES F\\n96\\n93\\n93\\n90\\n90\\n87\\n87\\n84\\n84\\n81\\n81\\n78\\n78\\n75\\n75\\n72\\n72\\n69\\n69\\n66\\n66\\n63\\n63\\n60\\n60\\n57\\n57\\n54\\n54\\n51\\n51\\n48\\n48\\n45\\n45\\n42\\n42\\n39\\n39\\n36\\n36\\n33\\n33\\n30\\n30\\n27\\n27\\n24\\n24\\n21\\n21\\n18\\n18\\n15\\n15\\n12\\n12\\n9\\n9\\n6\\n6\\n3\\n3\\nFEET\\nWater retained after percolating over 2 years\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\n.27\\n.17\\n.22\\n1.26\\n3.44\\n.22\\n.17\\n.23\\n1.16\\n3.44\\n.23\\n.16\\n.29\\n1.34\\n3.82\\n.22\\n.15\\n.32\\n1.61\\n3.83\\n.23\\n.18\\n.61\\n1.98\\n3.93\\n.29\\n.19\\n1.07\\n2.32\\n4.19\\n.44\\n.26\\n1.33\\n2.61\\n4.38\\n.89\\n.58\\n1.57\\n2.90\\n4.92\\n1.18\\n1.16\\n1.80\\n3.12\\n4.94\\n1.48\\n1.45\\n1.85\\n3.36\\n5.70\\n1.71\\n1.67\\n2.03\\n3.56\\n5.91\\n1.80\\n1.80\\n2.18\\n3.92\\n6.43\\n1.83\\n1.86\\n2.26\\n4.22\\n6.77\\n1.93\\n1.87\\n2.27\\n4.53\\n7.72\\n1.98\\n1.98\\n2.30\\n4.88\\n8.59\\n2.02\\n1.92\\n2.38\\n5.42\\n9.42\\n2.03\\n2.12\\n2.46\\n6.03\\n10.50\\n2.02\\n2.07\\n2.71\\n6.99\\n11.34\\n2.06\\n2.18\\n3.08\\n7.47\\n12.58\\n2.17\\n2.29\\n3.46\\n8.71\\n13\\n2.31\\n2.48\\n4.10\\n10.54\\n14.95\\n2.36\\n2.65\\n5.09\\n11.77\\n15.90\\n2.63\\n3.14\\n6.36\\n12.95\\n17.20\\n2.86\\n3.63\\n8.74\\n15.05\\n17.96\\n3.42\\n4.71\\n13.52\\n17.24\\n18.92\\n4.26\\n6.76\\n23.57\\n19.08\\n20.49\\n6.41\\n9.38\\n27.93\\n19.37\\n21.34\\n9.77\\n14.66\\n23.61\\n21.44\\n21.63\\n16.08\\n21.31\\n22.46\\n22.69\\n22.68\\n19.33\\n22.39\\n22 76\\n23.20\\n23.39\\n20.96\\n2352\\n22.88\\n24.22\\n30.28\\n21.58\\n24.61\\n23.54\\n25.07\\n24.06\\nH", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "114 Irrigation and Drainage\\nTotal water retained\\n2,121 4\\n2,474.9\\n3,515. 4,576.2\\n5,831.5\\n4.24\\n5.05\\n7.25 9.41\\n11.82\\n3,128.\\n3,551.1\\n4,259.9 5,672.\\n6,659.7\\n6.25\\n7.238\\n8.785 11.66\\n13.5\\n2,926.\\n3,213.5\\n4,094.7 5,416.2\\n6,452.8\\n5.846\\n6.753\\n8.445 11.13\\n13.08\\nL0,425.2\\n10,356.2\\n10,329.1 10,289.7\\n10,606.8\\n20.84\\n21.12\\n21.3 21.15\\n21.5\\nfgms.\\nper cent\\nWater retained after 4J gms.\\ndays I per cent\\nWater retained after 9/gms.\\ndays I per cent\\nTotal water recovered.\\nL per cent\\nTotalweightof dry sand... gms. 50,050. 49,060. 48.490. 48,650. 49,340.\\nA glance at this table shows how completely and how rapidly\\nwater will drain away by downward percolation from the coarse\\nand fine sauds when there is nothing within 8 feet of the surface\\nto prevent it. It will be seen that in four days the coarsest sand\\nhad lost nearly three-quarters of all the water it could contain\\nunder flooded conditions, while the finest had lost nearly one-\\nhalf and this has occurred, too, under such conditions that\\nstanding water is maintained within 8 feet of the surface. Had\\nstanding water been 16 feet from the surface, it is quite likely\\nthat the surface 8 feet of these sands would not have retained 3\\nper cent in the coarsest sample nor 5 per cent in the finest.\\nWith such a rate of loss of water from sands as this, it must\\nbe plain that the coarser soils, when they are long distances from\\nstanding water in the ground, or are not underlaid with a more\\nimpervious stratum near the surface, must lose the water which\\nfalls upon them as rain so rapidly that even in very humid regions\\nthey cannot maintain profitable crops without irrigation.\\nIt is this fact of coarse texture, coupled with the long inter-\\nvals of deficient rain, more than a lack of plant-food, which has\\nmaintained in an unproductive state the extensive areas of sandy\\nlands found in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, New\\nJersey, and further south, in the United states, and throughout\\nBelgium, Holland, and the plains of northern Germany, in\\nEurope. Had the soils of these areas identically the same\\nchemical composition, but a texture as fine as that of our best\\nsoils, so that water would drain from them no more rapidly,\\nprofitable agriculture could be practiced upon them under the\\nrainfall conditions which exist. And it is possible to so supple-", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "Water Lost hy Surface Drainage 115\\nment the rainfall upon these types of land by irrigation as, even\\nwith the coarse texture they have, to make them bear remuner-\\native crops of various kinds, as has been abundantly proved in\\nmany places.\\nPassing from the extreme type of barrens soil which we\\nhave been discussing, there are extremely large areas of only the\\nless coarse loamy sands and sandy loams in all humid climates,\\nwhere supplementary irrigation, could it be practiced, would\\ngreatly increase the average yields beyond the largest which are\\npossible with the best of tillage but the truth of this proposition\\ndoes not carry with it the corollary that it will pay to irrigate\\nthem whenever there is an abundance of water to do so.\\nThen, there are topographic conditions which greatly diminish\\nthe effectiveness of the rain which may fall in a given locality.\\nWhen the fields are decidedly rolling, every one is familiar with\\nthe fact that wherever heavy rains occur in short periods of time\\nvery considerable percentages of such rains flow at once over the\\nsurface to the lower lying lands, producing only damaging effects\\nupon the hillsides. Under such conditions, it is plain that the\\nmeasured rainfall of the growing season is not available for crop\\nproduction, even though the texture of the soil were such as to\\nretain the whole of it, could it rest upon the surface long enough\\nto be absorbed. Further than this, the brows of hills, where\\nthey are exposed to the prevailing winds, lose a much higher\\npercentage of the absorbed soil moisture by surface evaporation than\\nis the case on the level plains or in the sheltered valleys, and\\nfrom this it follows that when the whole rainfall of the growing\\nseason is only enough to make the soil produce at its full\\ncapacity, the exposed hillsides must receive irrigation sufficient\\nto make good the losses by surface drainage and greater evapo-\\nration, if equally large yields per acre are expected.\\nAgain, in rolling countries, where the higher lands are\\nporous, the rains which are there lost by deep percolation reap-\\npear under the lower lands, to supplement the rain which falls\\ndirectly there, and often to such an extent as to make under-\\ndraining a necessity. Where these conditions exist, and where\\ndrainage is sufficient, so that crops may take advantage of the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "116 Irrigation and Drainage\\nunderflow which gives rise to a natural sub -irrigation, it is evi-\\ndent that on such lands a much smaller rainfall, and even longer\\nintervals between rains, may occur without producing suffering\\nfrom drought.\\nFrom what has been shown regarding the amount of water\\nused by different crops in coming to maturity, it is plain that\\nwith a full command of water for irrigation, it would be possible\\nfor crops to be grown on a given soil in a given locality when the\\nnatural rainfall would not permit that crop to be so grown. It\\nis plain, therefore, that neither the amount of rain nor the dis-\\ntribution of it are sufficient to determine under what conditions\\nirrigation will or will not pay.\\n1", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III\\nTHE EXTENT TO WHICH TILLAGE MAY TAKE THE\\nPLACE OF BAIN OR IRRIGATION\\nWere it desirable to irrigate all agricultural lands\\nlying in humid climates, it would not be possible to\\ndo so, on account of the insufficiency of water for the\\npurpose. The truth of this proposition will be evident\\nif we deal quantitatively with the problem.\\nTHE INSUFFICIENCY OF WATER TO IRRIGATE ALL\\nCULTIVATED LANDS\\nHumphreys and Abbott have placed the mean an-\\nnual discharge of the Mississippi at 19,500,000,000,000\\ncubic feet, while the catchment area is placed at 1,-\\n244,000 square miles. Assuming that these quantities\\nare correct, then the mean annual run -off for the\\nwhole Mississippi basin would be 6.747 inches. But\\nnot all this run -off is available for irrigation, were it\\ndesirable to so use it for during a large part of the\\ntime this water is flowing away when the season does\\nnot permit of its being used, and it is impracticable to\\nimpound it and hold it until it might be used. If we\\ntake the mean daily discharge of the river as -wir of\\nits annual amount, and allow that the whole of this is\\n(117)", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "118 Irrigation mid Drainage\\navailable for irrigation purposes during the irrigation\\nseason, it is capable of watering but .092 of the catch-\\nment area at the rate of 2 inches of water once m 10\\ndays.\\nIt is true that the mean run -off for the whole\\nbasin is less than is found in much of the United\\nStates but, taking a district where the mean drainage\\nto the sea is 30 inches instead of 6.7, and supposing\\nthat this is collected into canals, so as to be used for\\nirrigation, then it would be able to supply only about\\nA of the area at the rate assumed above. It is\\nsafe to say that these estimates of the area which\\nmight be irrigated with such amounts of water is too\\nlarge, for the summer discharge, when irrigation is\\nneeded, is in most drainage basins much less than\\nthe mean values which have been taken in making\\nthe calculations.\\nNewell has made as close an estimate of the mean\\nannual run -off for the United States as the then ex-\\nisting data would permit, and has expressed the\\nresults in a map, which is reproduced in Fig. 22. An\\ninspection of this map will make it plain, in connec-\\ntion with what has been said, that however great irri-\\ngation developments may become in the future, it is\\nnot possible for the practice to be extended so as to\\ndisplace the methods of dry farming. Hence the\\nquestion. How far may tillage compensate for a defi-\\ncient rainfall will long remain a pertinent one in\\nagricultural practice.\\nSince much less than one -half of agricultural lands\\ncan be irrigated under any efforts which can be made,", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "120 Irrigation and Drainage\\nit is plain that the question, What are the largest\\npossible yields which may be realized without irri-\\ngation is of much greater practical moment than its\\nconverse.\\nTHE MOST WHICH MAY BE HOPED FOR TILLAGE\\nIN THE USE OF WATER\\nWe have, as yet, been unable experimentally to\\ndemonstrate that any method of handling the soil\\nunder field conditions will permit it to abstract from\\nthe air above it an amount of moisture sufficiently\\nlarge to materially contribute to the supply already in\\nthe soil, and thus aid in compensating for a deficient\\nrainfall. The discussion presented on a preceding\\npage, regarding the production of wheat in California\\nand Washington without irrigation, certainly lends no\\nweight to the view that the hygroscopic power of soils\\naids in supplying moisture to the crops under field\\nconditions. Still, it must be admitted that those who\\nmaintain that soils do absorb important quantities of\\nmoisture from the air direct may continue to do so\\nwithout fear of successful refutation by existing posi-\\ntive knowledge.\\nIf it is true that soils do not withdraw from the\\nair important quantities of water, then the most which\\ncan be hoped for by methods of tillage is that they\\nmay store in the soil and retain there the water which\\nfalls as rain, until that shall be removed by the action\\nof the roots of the crop growing upon the field. Cer-\\ntain it is that no method of tillage now practiced can", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "Amount of Bain Needed 121\\nvery much increase the moisture in the soil above that\\nwhich falls as rain or snow.\\nFurther than this, we have no reason to believe\\nthat mere tillage, as such, can in any way diminish\\nthe rate of transpiration from the crop which is grow-\\ning upon the soil being tilled, unless, indeed, it should\\nbe done by root -pruning, a method decidedly injurious\\nin most cases. It follows, therefore, that in no way\\ncan we hope, by methods of tillage, to diminish the\\nloss of water by transpiration through the crop itself.\\nWe may, indeed, make the conditions for growth so\\nfavorable that the maximum amount of dry matter is\\ndeveloped during the time a given amount of water\\nis being evaporated from the surface of the crop but\\nso far as the direct influence of tillage is concerned, it\\ncan only lessen the evaporation from the soil surface,\\nand reduce the losses by percolation and by surface\\ndrainage. No amount or kind of tillage can dispense\\nwith water that must be had, either from rain or\\nsnow, or be supplied by irrigation. With water enough\\nin the soil to make a crop, good tillage will bring the\\nmost out of it but when the rainfall has really been\\ndeficient, nothing short of irrigation can make the crop.\\nAMOUNT OF RAIN NEEDED TO PRODUCE CROPS\\nIN HUMID AND SUB -HUMID REGIONS\\nHaving pointed out in a general way the limitations of tillage\\nin conserving soil moisture for crop production, it is important to\\nshow how great its possibilittes may be when unaided by irriga-\\ntion for if in humid and sub -humid climates tillage may enable", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "122 Irrigation and Drainage\\nall soils to produce maximum crops of all kinds, then irrigation\\nwill be unnecessary in them.\\nIt has been shown that, under conditions in which no water\\ncan be lost by surface or under- drainage:\\nClover uses 5.089 acre-inches in producing one ton of dry matter.\\nOats 4.447\\nBarley 4.096\\nMaize 2.391\\nPotatoes use 3.399\\nThese figures are an approximate measure of the demands of\\nthose crops for water, and if one, twc or three tons of dry matter\\nper acre are to be produced by these crops, then the amount of\\navailable rainfall needed will be given by multiplying the figures\\nin this table by the yield which is expected per acre from\\nthe soil.\\nLet us see what the available rainfall is in various parts of\\nthe eastern and central United States. To make the discussion as\\npointed as possible, let us draw our data from the states of Illi-\\nnois, Indiana, Iowa, eastern Kansas, Maine, Michigan, Missouri,\\nMinnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Wiscon-\\nsin. In these states, what is the amount of rainfall available for\\ncrop production\\nIn the map. Fig. 23, is represented the mean annual rainfall of\\nthe United States, as given by the Weather Bureau. Such a map,\\nhowever, does not show the amount of water which is available for\\ncrop production, because, as shown on the map, Fig. 22, a large\\npart of this rain is carried to the sea in the rivers, and cannot,\\ntherefore, be used in producing crops. But if the rains which\\nwould drain away were subtracted from the mean annual rainfall,\\nthe difference would still be too large, for we have many showers\\nwhich are too slight to be of any service whatever. Not only this,\\nbut very light rains often do positive injury by destroying the\\neffectiveness of earth mulches which have been developed by till-\\nage, thus causing a loss of a part of the water already in the soil,\\nwith that which fell as rain.\\nIt is further necessary, in discussing this problem, to consider", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "_/\\npa\\no", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "124 Irrigation and Drainage\\nthe growing season of the specific crop in question, in order to\\nknow whether tillage alone will answer for that crop, unaided by\\nirrigation. The first crop of clover, for example, must be largely-\\nmade by the rains of May and June in the states which have been\\nnamed, while the crop of potatoes will be determined more largely\\nby that which falls between June and October. The period of\\nbarley would extend from May 1 nearly through July oats, from\\nMay to the middle of August and maize, from the middle of May\\nto the middle of September.\\nIn the table which follows, the amount of rain which falls\\nduring the growing season of barley, oats and maize has been\\ngiven, and from the averages have been deducted the am-ounts\\nwhich it is quite certain do not become available for crop produc-\\ntion, on account of loss by drainage and by the light rains not\\npenetrating deeply enough to be of service agriculturally:\\nTable showing the mean rainfall for the growing season for barley, oats\\nand maize Rainfall in inches for\\nBarley\\n^linois 13\\nIndiana 13.5\\nIowa 12.5\\nEastern Kansas 12\\nSouthern Maine 10.5\\nSouthern Michigan 9.5\\nMissoiiri 13.25\\nMinnesota 10.75\\nNew York 10.25\\nOhio 11.75\\nPennsylvania 12\\nVermont 10.5\\nWisconsin 11.5\\nOats\\nMaize\\n15\\n15.25\\n15.25\\n16.25\\n14.25\\n15.375\\n13.625\\n14.5\\n12.25\\n14\\n11\\n12.625\\n15\\n16.375\\n12.25\\n13.75\\n12\\n13.5\\n13.5\\n15\\n14\\n15.75\\n12.5\\n14.75\\n13.25\\n15\\n13.375\\n14.779\\n3.185\\n2.765\\n10.19\\n12.014\\nMean 11.616\\nEstimated loss by percolation and from light showers. 2.964\\nMean effective rain 8.625\\nIn estimating the loss from percolation and small showers, 2\\ninches has been assumed as the amount of percolation in the ease\\nof barley and oats, and 1.5 inches for maize. The amount deducted\\nfor small, ineffective showers has been gotten by taking the total", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "Tmie Distributio7i of Bain 125\\nrainfall for Madison, Wisconsin, from 1887 to 18\u00c2\u00a97, which was\\nless than .2 of an inch in any day of 24 hours during the periods\\ncovered by the table.\\nNow, these amounts of effective rain, could they be used with\\nthe same economy as we were able to use them in our plant cylin-\\nders, ought to produce the following yields per acre:\\nBu. per acre\\nBarley 40.29\\nOats 64.97\\nMaize 71.51\\nIn making these calculations, the ratio of grain to straw for\\nbarley has been taken as 2 to 3, and for oats as 1 to 1.448: and\\nwe have used the percentages of water in grain and straw given in\\ntables of feeding -stuffs. In the case of maize, data derived from\\ndirect determinations by the writer have been used.\\nIt will be seen that these computed yields, although much\\nlarger than average yields, are, nevertheless, very close to what is\\nexpected during our best seasons, when there has been plenty of\\nrain, well distributed, and when the crop has not been affected by\\ndisease or insects. It appears, therefore, that the rainfall for the\\nthirteen states enumerated is sufficient in quantity to produce very\\nheavy crops, not only of the three grains named, but of many\\nothers also.\\nTHE DISTRIBUTION OF KAIN IN TIME USUALLY UNFA-\\nVORABLE TO MAXIMUM YIELDS\\nThere is little question that in the thirteeen states named, the\\nmean yields of barley, oats and maize would easily be held to\\n41, 64 and 75 bushels per acre respectively, if it were only possible\\nto control the distribution of rain in time and in quantity, as it is\\ncontrolled by irrigation. As it is, however, such large mean\\nyields can never be reached by tillage alone in a territory as\\nextended as that under consideration. This will be evident from\\nthe table which follows, in which the mean yields of barley, oat\u00c2\u00a7", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "126 Irrigation and Drainage\\nand maize for 1879 are given as reported for the 10th Census for\\nthe thirteen states:\\nBu. barley Bu. oats Bu. maize\\nper acre per acre per acre\\nIllinois 22.25 32.24 36.12\\nIndiana 23.35 25.02 31.39\\nIowa 20.23 33.57 41.57\\nKansas 12.52 18.77 30.93\\nMaine 21.81 28.76 30.99\\nMichigan 22.1 33.93 35.3\\nMissouri 19.01 21.34 36.22\\nMinnesota 25.62 37.97 33.81\\nNew York 21.85 29.79 32.97\\nOhio 29.7 31.49 34.09\\nPennsylvania 18.57 27.34 33.37\\nVermont 25.36 37.57 36.46\\nWisconsin 24.68 34.43 33.71\\nMean 22.08 30.17 34.38\\nIf a comparison is made between these reported yields and\\nthose which are given above as possible with the recorded rain-\\nfalls, when a favorable distribution in time occurs, it will be seen\\nthat the mean reported yields are only about half as large as the\\ncomputed ones, and as observed ones are in localities where the\\ndistribution of rain in time and in quantity has been favorable.\\nThese small average yields, reported from so many states,\\nand agreeing so closely one with another, must be looked upon\\nas expressing conditions unfavorable to large yields, and condi-\\ntions which the best of management cannot hope wholly to\\ncounteract.\\nThe facts are that we are here confronted with results which\\nare due, in a very large measure, to the long intervals between\\neffective rains, to which reference has already been made. This\\nuneven distribution is so general in its character that when\\nthe yields over wide areas are brought together for comparison,\\nthe small yields due to faulty distribution of rain so far outweigh\\nthe large yields, where the amount of moisture has been just\\nright, that small averages are inevitable. Nor is this condition\\nof things strange for, since the rainfall is in no way controlled\\nby any factor operating to cause precipitation, either when it is", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "Tillage to Conserve Moisture 127\\nwanted or in the amount which the particular crop on the par-\\nticular soil may at that time need, it cannot be expected that\\nsuch a regime of chance would on the average develop the con-\\nditions most favorable to large crops.\\nTHE METHODS OF TILLAGE TO CONSERVE MOISTURE\\nARE OFTEN INAPPLICABLE\\nIf it is urged that better tillage and more systematic rota-\\ntions of crops, coupled with a more rational practice of fertiliza-\\ntion of the soil, would go a long way toward making larger\\naverage yields, every one must admit the truth of the assertion.\\nBut, while this is true, it must still be recognized that there are\\nsome cases in which the methods of tillage to conserve soil mois-\\nture are either wholly inapplicable or they may be applied only\\nwith so great difficulty or with so small an effect, that they have\\nnever come into general use for the specific purpose of saving\\nsoil moisture.\\nThe most important illustration in point is that of the hay\\ncrop, with which should also be associated that of pasture as\\nwell, when these are made from the grasses and from clover.\\nWith these two crops, hay and pasture, which together cover a\\nwider acreage than any other single crop grown, there has not\\nbeen and cannot well be any method of tillage aiming specifically\\nto conserve soil moisture for the use of the crop.\\nIn the thirteen states referred to when discussing the yields\\nof barley, oats and maize, there were cut 24,439,485 acres of\\ngrass, making 28,314,650 tons of hay, or at the mean rate of\\n1.158 tons per acre, in 1879. Nearly all of this hay is made\\nduring the months of May and June, when there is a mean rain-\\nfall for the thirteen states amounting to 7.83 inches, of which\\nnot less than 2 inches is lost by percolation, and nearly .69 of an\\ninch is ineffective on account of showers giving less than .2 of\\nan inch, thus leaving an effective rain of 5.14 inches\\nIt has been shown that clover uses 5.089 acre -inches of water\\nin producing one ton of dry matter, and at this rate 5.14 inches", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "128 Irrigation and Drainage\\nof effective rain ought to give a yield of 1.01 tons of dry matter,\\nequal to 1.188 tons of hay containing 15 per cent of water, while\\nthe observed mean yield is 1.158 tons. Now, this yield of 1.1\\ntons per acre is not what a farmer calls a good yield, for 1.5\\ntons to 2 tons per acre of hay are often cut but these larger\\nyields are invariably associated with seasons of early heavy rain-\\nfall. It must be evident, then, that in the thirteen states from\\nMaine to eastern Kansas there are large areas where, if water\\ncould be applied to the first crop of hay, the yield might easily\\nbe increased 40 to 90 per cent, and there can be no question\\nthat the aggregate extent of such areas exceeds what could be\\nsupplied by all the water of all the rivers and all the ground\\nwater of those states.\\nThen, again, in the case of such crops as wheat, oats, barley,\\nrye, buckwheat, and the millets, which are sown broadcast or in\\nclose drills, it has not been usual to practice methods of tillage\\naiming specifically to save moisture but when the acreage of\\nthese crops in the United States, together with that of hay and\\npasture, is set aside, there remains relatively but a small part\\nof the cultivated lands upon which intertillage is or can well be\\npracticed.\\nThese statements are made neither to depreciate the impor-\\ntance of conserving soil moisture by tillage nor to emphasize the\\nimportance of irrigation, but rather that each may be seen in its\\ntrue perspective for the fact is, neither method is universally\\nadapted to meet the needs of insufficient rain at all times and in\\nall places. But there are conditions for which each is better\\nsuited than the other, and for a man to know these is to make\\nhim a better farmer.\\nTILLAGE TO CONSERVE SOIL MOISTURE IS CHIEFLY\\nEFFECTIVE IN SAVING THE WINTER AND\\nEARLY SPRING RAINS\\nIt is not sufficiently appreciated that early and frequent till-\\nage where irrigation is not practiced is far more important and\\neffective in conserving soil moisture than later tillage can be\\nafter the ground once becomes dry. From this it follows that\\n1", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "Tillage to Conserve Moisture 129\\nintertillage and surface tillage generally can be counted upon as\\ncapable of saving to the crop which is to be grown upon the\\nground only a part of the rains which fall in winter and spring.\\nThe rains of later June and July, August and September are\\nusually beyond the power of tillage to conserve in any marked\\ndegree, without at the same time seriously injuring the roots of\\nvegetation growing upon the ground.\\nIn the first place, after the last of June, in climates like\\nthat of the thirteen states selected, the water of nearly all rains\\nis absorbed and retained in the surface 3 inches of soil or less.\\nIt is only the rains exceeding 1 inch which penetrate more deeply\\nthan this and to stir a wet soil is to hasten the rate of evapora-\\ntion of moisture from the soil stirred. If, then, the roots of a\\ncrop have dried the surface 8 inches of soil so that it contains\\nbut 20 to 30 per cent of its full amount, and a rain falls which\\nwets in but 2 inches, stirring that soil can save but little of the\\nmoisture. Further than this, when the surface of the soil has\\nbecome so dry, capillarity acts very slowly to conduct the water\\ndownward into the soil.\\nIn the second place, most cultivated crops, in order to take\\nadvantage of the general fact that summer rains do not as a rule\\npenetrate deeply into the soil, develop a system of roots ex-\\ntremely close to the surface of the ground, where momentary ad-\\nvantage may be taken of those rains which do not wet in deeply\\nand hence it is that in sub-humid climates, and after a dry time\\nin all climates, surface cultivation right after a rain may do posi-\\ntive injury by cutting off roots which have been developed to\\ntake advantage of such rains, while at the same time the rate\\nof evaporation from the stirred soil has been increased. Here,\\nagain, it is seen that rigid physical laws and conditions have set\\nlimitations to the methods of tillage as a substitute for irrigation.\\nMIDSUMMER AND EARLY FALL CROPS DIFFICULT TO\\nGROW WITHOUT IRRIGATION\\nThe fact that after early summer the surface of the ground\\nusually becomes quite dry, coupled with the other fact that water", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "130 Irrigation and Drainage\\npercolates and travels downward through such soil with difl eulty,\\nmakes the growing of a second crop of almost any kind very\\ndiflcult and uncertain by methods of tillage unaided by irriga-\\ntion. Every one is familiar with the fact of short pastures in\\nmidsummer and early fall, and that secoud crops of hay can be\\nraised only in exceptional seasons, and even then they are seldom\\nheavy.\\nThe difficulty in these cases is not that less rain falls during\\nthe summer and autumn, for the measured amount is actually\\ngreater. Neither is it true that they will not grow because it is\\nout of season, for when plenty of water is supplied heavy crops\\nof grass are obtained for the second cutting. As a matter of\\nfact, the summer rains are less effective because they are re-\\ntained so near to the surface as not to come within reach of the\\nroots before they are lost by surface evaporation.\\nIn our own experiments in irrigating clover, there has been\\nsecured for the second crop of clover hay 1.789 tons in 1895,\\n2.035. tons in 1896, and 1.648 tons of hay, containing 15 per cent\\nof water, in 1897, or an average for three years of 1.824 tons per\\nacre. When it is recalled that the average yield of hay per acre\\nfor the thirteen states cited is but little more than 1 ton per acre\\nfor the first crop, when the rains have their maximum effective-\\nness, it is plain that without irrigation it is not possible to grow\\na paying second crop of hay to any extent in either the sub-\\nhumid or humid parts of the United States. Further than this,\\non account of the small effectiveness of summer rains, it is often\\nquite impossible to secure a catch of clover with any of the small\\ngrains, while with irrigation the catch would be positively as-\\nsured every year. These are cases in which present methods of\\ntillage can do nothing, but in which irrigation will give certain\\nresults.\\nThe present season we put into the silo 6,552 pounds of\\nclover and volunteer barley, cut from .58 acres of ground upon\\nwhich had been harvested 45 bushels of barley to the acre. This\\nwas rendered possible by irrigating the land, and thus forcing\\nthe new seeding of clover after the crop was removed. In this\\nway it was possible to get two good crops in one season from the", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "Fall Plowing to Conserve Moisture 131\\nsame piece of ground namely, 45 bushels of barley per acre,\\nand the equivalent of 1.4 tons of hay containing 15 per cent of\\nwater. Only very extraordinary seasons would by any method\\nof tillage permit this to be done.\\nMEANS OP CONSERVING MOISTURE\\n1. Fall Plotving to Conserve Moisture\\nIn those parts of the world where winter precipita-\\ntion is not large, so as to over -saturate the soil, and\\nso as to cause the running together of soils, and thus\\ndestroy their tilth, fall plowing may be found very\\ndesirable when its chief object is to diminish surface\\nevaporation during the winter and early spring, and\\nwhere it is desirable to facilitate the ready and deeper\\npenetration of the water into the soil which, during\\nthe growing season, has become dried to considerable\\ndepths.\\nIn order that fall plowing may be most effective in\\nthis way, it should be done as late as practicable, so\\nthat its looseness may not be destroyed by the early\\nrains, and its usefulness as a mulch thus reduced; and\\nalso in order that it may allow the later rains and melt-\\ning snows to drop easily and more completely through\\nit, when surface drainage will be prevented, and loss\\nby evaporation will be reduced to the minimum. In\\nsuch conditions capillarity and gravity may together\\naid in conveying the water into the second, third and\\nfourth feet, where it will become most effective in\\nsupplementing the spring and early summer rains.\\nThe writer has shown, in The Soil, p. 187, that", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "132 Irrigation and Drainage\\nland in Wisconsin fall -plowed late in the season was\\nfound in the spring, even as late as May 14, to con-\\ntain not less than 6 pounds of water to the square\\nfoot more than similar adjacent land not so treated.\\nThis is equivalent to 1.15 inches of rain, a very\\nimportant quantity to have been stored in the soil at\\nso late a period and in such a position that inter-\\ntillage is certain to retain it for service when it is\\nneeded.\\nIt will be readily appreciated that this sort of tillage\\nto conserve moisture is most important in the sub-\\nhumid and humid climates, whenever those dry seasons\\noccur which close the year with an under -supply of\\nsoil moisture.\\nIt should not be inferred that this sort of tillage to\\nsave moisture must be confined to such lands as are to\\nbe sowed to small grains in the spring, or even planted\\nto corn or potatoes. It is particularly desirable in all\\nlines of orcharding, and where small fruits and grapes\\nare grown. The laying down and covering of the\\nplants need not prevent it, for the plowing may imme-\\ndiately precede the laying down. In the growing of\\nsmall fruits without irrigation, the late fall tillage, just\\nbefore the ground freezes, is a matter of considerable\\nmoment, because with strawberries, raspberries and\\nblackberries it very often happens that a shortage of\\nsoil moisture just at the fruiting season results in a\\nvery serious loss through a reduction of the yield,\\nand late, deep tillage will usually lessen this danger.\\nIf it should be urged by some that this practice\\napplied to orchards would tend to stimulate a too late", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "Suhsoiling to Conserve Moisture\\n133\\ngrowth of wood in the fall, and thus lead to danger\\nfrom winter -killing, the reply is that when it is done\\nlate, just before freezing up, there can be no danger\\non this score.\\n2. Subsoiling to Conserve Moisture\\nSubsoiling to conserve soil moisture cannot have\\nthe extended practice that methods of surface tillage\\nshould, but there are cases when it is quite likely to\\nprove sufficiently helpful to pay for the relatively heavy\\nexpense which it involves. In view of this fact, and\\nbecause it is being urged particularly in the sub-humid\\nr- FOOT\\n:mm:m;Pi^-^^:\\npOIOn\\nu\\n^^:r.-\\\\r.\\n3\\n;V:::.V.\\n4TM\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2G\u00e2\u0096\u00a0AIN.ED:14.LB6\u00e2\u0080\u00a2\\n;::LP:5T IS ;LB5^\\n51\\nf\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^f.\u00e2\u0096\u00a0|;^p^\u00e2\u0096\u00a0|^^\u00e2\u0096\u00a0p^\u00e2\u0096\u00a0 ^i::?\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^^t^;:i\u00e2\u0096\u00a0t^^f::^^\\nFig. 24. Method of determining the iniliienee of subsoiling.\\nbelt, the principles underlying the practice should be\\nclearly understood.\\nThe method used to demonstrate the influence of\\nsubsoiling in retaining the rains which fall upon the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "134 Irrigation and Drainage\\nground is illustrated in Fig. 24, where all losses by\\nsurface evaporation were prevented by placing an air-\\ntight cover over the areas under experiment. In order\\nthat the extreme influence of subsoiling might be\\nascertained, 8 inches of the surface soil was completely\\nremoved from an area 6x6 feet on a side, and when\\nthe subsoil had been spaded to a depth of 13 inches\\nmore it was returned to its place without firming in any\\nway, except to smooth the surface with a plank pressed\\ndown by the weight of a man. After samples of soil\\nhad been taken from this and the adjacent area, to give\\nthe existing water content, water was slowly sprinkled\\nover the two surfaces until 254.41 pounds, or 1.36\\ninches, had been added to each, and then they were\\ncovered, as shown in the figure, and allowed to stand\\nfrom June 11 until June 15, when the covers were\\nremoved and samples of soil again taken, to demon-\\nstrate what changes had occurred.\\nWhen this was done it was found that the water\\nadded had effected the changes which are recorded in\\nthe table which follows\\nThe first foot gained\\nThe second foot gained\\nThe third foot gained\\nThe fourth foot gained\\nThe fifth foot lost\\nTotal water gained\\nTotal water added\\nDifference +14.24 \u00e2\u0080\u0094126.1\\nSubsoiled\\nNot STiTssoiled\\nDifference\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\n124.6\\n102.1\\n+22.5\\n72.57\\n10.34\\n+62.23\\n38.22\\n12.05\\n+26.17\\n33.26\\n3.82\\n+29.43\\n2.29\\n19.5\\n\u00e2\u0080\u009417.21\\n268.65\\n128.31\\n254.41\\n254.41", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "Subsoiling to Conserve Moisture 135\\nIt will thus be seen that the subsoiled ground,\\nunder conditions where no evaporation could take place\\nfrom the surface, had not only retained all the wat^r\\nwhich had been added to it, but that it had actually\\ngained by capillarity from the adjacent soil 14.24\\npounds additional. The ground not subsoiled, on the\\nother hand, had actually lost, without evaporation from\\nthe surface of the soil, 126.1 pounds of water.\\nIn a second experiment, which was handled in the\\nsaime way, except that no water was added to the sur-\\nface, the treated soil was allowed to stand from June\\n26 to July 2, covered so that no evaporation could\\ntake place from the surface, the object being to learn\\nwhether capillary action would draw moisture from\\nbelow into the subsoiled earth, and thus increase its\\nwater supply. The changes which took place are\\nshown by the following figures\\nOn Subsoiled Ground\\n1st foot 2iid foot 3rd foot 4th foot 5th foot\\nPER CENT PER CENT PER CENT PER CENT PER CENT\\nJune26{^^\u00c2\u00b0\\\\\\\\*^/^^} 23.29 21.89 17.85 14.14 19.55\\nJuly 2 {^t\u00c2\u00b0cS} 22.66 22.50 17.49 14.45 20.27\\nChange .63 .61 .36 .31 .72\\nOn Ground not Subsoiled\\nJune 26\u00e2\u0080\u0094 start.... 22.52 20.67 17.74 15.06 19.34\\nJuly 2\u00e2\u0080\u0094 close 23.97 22.09 18.92 14.62 18.38\\nChange +1.45 +1.32 +1.18 \u00e2\u0080\u0094.44 \u00e2\u0080\u0094.96\\nIt appears from these results that there was but", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "136 Irrigation and Drainage\\nlittle tendency for the deeper soil water to pass npward\\nby capillarity into the subsoiled earth. But quite the\\nopposite was the case with the ground not subsoiled,\\nfor here the upper 3 feet had each gained more than\\n1 per cent of their drj weight of water. Express-\\ning the movement which had taken place during the\\n6 days in pounds of water on the 36 square feet of\\nsurface, we find that the surface 3 feet had gained\\n129.69 pounds, while the lower 2 feet had lost 53.52\\npounds, leaving an absolute gain of 76.17 pounds. In\\nthe case of the subsoiled ground, the surface 3 feet\\nshowed a loss of 11.14 pounds, and the lower 2 feet a\\ngain of 39.38, making an absolute gain to the area of\\nonly 28.24 pounds.\\nIn another field trial, when a piece of land was\\nsubsoiled on October 22, while a strip on each side of\\nthis was plowed without subsoiling, the water in the\\nsoil was found in the spring to be distributed in the\\nmanner indicated below\\nFirst foot\\nSecond foot\\nThird foot\\nFourth foot\\nTotal 69.10 68.76 -f 34\\nHere it will be seen that the surface foot of\\nsubsoiled ground contained nearly 2 pounds less\\nwater than that not subsoiled, but that the absolute\\nSubsoiled\\nin the field\\nNot subsoiled\\nin the field\\nDifference\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\n15.47\\n17.41\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00941.94\\n17.61\\n16.31\\n+1.30\\n18.19\\n17.84\\n.35\\n17.83\\n17.20\\n.63", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "Suhsoiling to Conserve Moisture 137\\namount of water in the two cases is practically the\\nsame.\\nIn a fourth experiment to show the effect of sub-\\nsoiling in the spring on the water content of the soil\\nin the fall, one of the small areas already described was\\nallowed to stand exposed from June until September,\\n75 days, without in any way disturbing the surface,\\nexcept to keep it free from weeds by shaving them off\\nwith a sharp hoe. The results were these\\nFirst foot\\nSecond foot\\nThird foot\\nFourth foot\\nFifth foot\\nHere, again, the results have the same general char-\\nacter as they did when the subsoil period was from\\nOctober to April, the surface foot of subsoiled ground\\nbeing the dryest, while the next 3 feet are more moist.\\nWhen the effect of subsoiling in this case is expressed\\nin inches of rain, the gain in the saving of soil moisture\\namounts to 1.64 inches, which is a very important\\namount.\\nThe effects of subsoiling probably do not last much\\nlonger than a single season, unless there has been but\\nlittle rain, so that the ground has never been thoroughly\\nsaturated, permitting it to again settle together. In\\nthe case of the field trial here reported, samples of soil\\nwere taken on the same ground April 8, April 16, and\\nSubsoiled\\nground\\nNot subsoiled\\nground\\nDifference\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\n17.07\\n18.91\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00941.84\\n23.29\\n19.42\\n+3.87\\n22.76\\n17.78\\n+4.98\\n16.35\\n14.19\\n+2.16\\n18.14\\n19.20\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00941.06", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "138 Irrigation and Drainage\\nagain May 5, in order to discover whether in that time\\nprogressive changes would take place. Between the\\nfirst and last date there had been a total rainfall of 5.33\\ninches, making conditions very favorable indeed to\\nobliterate the effects of the subsoiling in a short time.\\nThe changes which these rains, together with the fitting\\nand planting of the ground, produced, are shown in the\\ntable below:\\nApril 8 April 16\\nNot Not\\nSubsoiled subsoiled Difference Subsoiled subsoiled Difference\\nPER CENT PER CENT PER CENT PER CENT PER CENT PER CENT\\nFirst ft 19.58 22.04 \u00e2\u0080\u00942.46 20.80 22.88 \u00e2\u0080\u00942.08\\nSecond ft.. 19.01 17.61 +1.40 18.62 18.97 .35\\nThird ft... 17.39 17.06 +.33 16.48 16.70 \u00e2\u0080\u0094.22\\nFourth ft.. 16.79 16.20 +.59 16.11 16.50 \u00e2\u0080\u0094.39\\nMay 5\\nNot\\nSubsoiled subsoiled Difference\\nPER CENT PER CENT PER CENT\\nFirstfoot 21.28 21.34 \u00e2\u0080\u0094.06\\nSecond foot 19.02 19.11 \u00e2\u0080\u0094.09\\nThird foot 19.11 18.37 +.74\\nFourth foot 16.67 17 \u00e2\u0080\u0094.33\\nIt will be seen that the difference between the water\\nill the soil under the two treatments becomes less each\\ntime the samples are taken, and that on May 5 the dif-\\nference between them had nearly disappeared. But it\\nshould be observed that this close agreement at the last\\ntime may be more apparent than real, on account of the\\nfact that a rain of 1.3 inches had fallen on May 1, and\\nit is possible- that time enough had not yet elapsed to\\nallow an equilibrium to be established.\\nJ", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "Effects of Suhsoiling 139\\nEXPLANATION OF THE MOISTURE EFFECTS OF\\nSUBSOILING\\nThe results stated show that subsoiling produces several very\\ndistinct effects, so far as soil moisture is concerned, and these\\nmay be stated as follows\\n1. Subsoiling increases the percentage capacity for water of\\nthe soil stirred.\\n2. Subsoiling decreases the capillary conducting power of the\\nsoil stirred.\\n3. Subsoiling increases the rate of percolation through the\\nsoil stirred, or its gravitational conducting capacity.\\nIn order to understand how these effects are produced by sab-\\nsoiling, it is necessary to have clearly in mind the nature of the\\nphysical changes in the soil which the operation in question sets\\nup. In the small plot experiments which have been cited, the\\nsubsoiling had the effect of increasing the pore space in the soil\\nstirred at the rate of over 245 cubic inches per cubic foot, or 14.2\\nper cent. Further than this, the pore space so added consisted in\\na large measure of cavities which were so large that air and water\\nwould move through them in obedience to the laws which govern\\nthe flow of water through large pipes, rather than those control-\\nling the flow through capillary tubes.\\nIt must here be born in mind that the increase of space was\\nmade as large as it could well be, and hence that the results have\\na maximum value.\\nHow suhsoiling increases the water capacity of the soil stirred.\\nWhen a soil is broken into lumps which lie loosely together, and\\nthese lumps are saturated with water, the many lumps behave\\ntoward that water much as if each were a short column of soil\\nwhich is in contact with standing water. The surface film of\\nwater which spans the pores at the surface of the saturated lump\\nof soil has a definite strength, and, if the lump is not too large,\\ncan hold every cavity within that lump completely full of water,\\njust as the lump of sugar dipped into the tea and then withdrawn\\ncomes forth completely filled with the fluid. But when the soil", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "140 Irrigation and Drainage\\nis compact, so that each portion is part of one long and continuous\\nmass extending downward several feet before water is reached,\\nthe surface tension of the water is not strong enough to maintain\\nthe soil cavities full of water, and a part drains away downward.\\nIt is easy to demonstrate the nature of this action with a bit of\\ncandle wicking 2 or 3 feet long, or with two or three folds of cot-\\nton wrapping twine loosely twisted together. Placing this in a\\nbasin of water and letting it become saturated, if it is then raised\\nout by both ends, holding it nearly horizontal and straight, the\\nwater very soon ceases to drip from it but if it is allowed to sag\\nin the middle, the water will begin to drip rapidly, and will con-\\ntinue to do so until a new equilibrium has been reached. The\\nstring will lose its water still more rapidly and completely if it is\\nsimply suspended from one end, when it then represents the long-\\nest column of soil.\\nHow suhsoiling decreases the capillary conducting power of\\nsoils. When large open spaces have been developed in a soil by\\nany means, then every such cavity cuts off a part of the capil-\\nlary passageways through which the water might travel by capillary\\nconduction, thus making the amount of water which may move in\\na given direction proportionally smaller. This being true, when\\nrain falls upon subsoiled ground it travels downward very slowly\\nthrough it until after the soil has become completely filled, and\\ndrainage or percolation takes place. If, then, the shower is not\\nheavy enough to completely fill this subsoiled layer, it is nearly\\nall retained within it whereas, when the capillary connection is\\ngood, then so soon as the surface laj^er becomes wetter than that\\nbelow, the water begins to move under the impulse of capillarity,\\nand will continue to do so until a balance has been reached.\\nOn the other hand, when the surface of the subsoiled ground\\nhas become dryer through evaporation or by root action, water\\nfrom below will not enter it as rapidly as it will soil not so treated.\\nIt is thus capable of acting as a deep mulch, to diminish the loss\\nof water by capillary movement upward. But should conditions\\nchance to be such that the whole root system of the crop has been\\ndeveloped within this subsoiled layer, then a rapidly- growing crop\\nupon it might suffer for want of water when there was an abun-", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "Effects of Subsoiling 141\\ndance of it in the unstirred soil below, but now prevented from\\nrising into the root zone by the reduced rate at which it is possible\\nfor the water to rise.\\nThis is a matter of great importance to comprehend, because\\nin a humid climate, where the subsoils frequently become satu-\\nrated with water, rendering them unfit for the feeding ground of\\nroots, to develop a deep mulch over this by subsoiling would tend\\nto maintain this lower soil permanently in a condition which\\nexcludes the roots of plants from it, while at the same time that\\nwater cannot rise into the loosened soil above, and a drought\\nactually occurs when, if the field had not been subsoiled, a good\\nsupply of water might easily be reached by the crop.\\nIn the arid and sub -humid regions, the saturated subsoil is\\nrarely found, except for short periods, at long intervals apart,\\nand hence there is little danger from this score in subsoiling in\\nthese climates.\\nHoio subsoiling allows the water to enter the soil more readily.\\nFrom what has already been said, it will be understood that it is\\nonly after the subsoiled layer has become saturated that water\\nbegins to percolate through it, and so to store itself in the\\nundisturbed layer below. But when rain enough has fallen to\\naccomplish this result, then whatever else falls drops readily and\\nrapidly through it, not only because there are wider channels for\\nthe water to move through under the stress of gravity, but because\\nfrom an open soil the air escapes quickly and readily, thus making\\nplace for the water which cannot enter until the space for it has\\nbeen vacated. The water entering the soil in time of rain or irri-\\ngation is like water entering an open-mouthed jug, which cian only\\ndo so as rapidly as the air is permitted to escape.\\nA larger percentage of the water contained hy subsoiled ground\\navailable to crops. With all soils, of whatever kind, there is a cer-\\ntain amount of water they contain which it is impossible for the\\nroots of plants to remove with sufficient rapidity to meet their\\nneeds, and this amount is relatively smaller in the coarse-grained\\nsoils than it is in those having a finer texture. But whenever any\\nsoil has been subsoiled, and its water-holding power thereby\\nincreased, this extra amount of water beconies wholly available to", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "142 Irrigation and Drainage\\nthe plant and if this amount would have been lost, either by-\\ndownward percolation or by evaporation from the surface, then the\\nsubsoiling has been a gain.\\n3. Earth Mulches\\nWhen the damp surface of a soil is covered with a\\ndry layer of earth, the rate of evaporation from it is\\nvery much decreased. It is because of this fact that\\nthorough surface tillage is able to so conserve the soil\\nmoisture stored in the upper four to six feet of culti-\\nvated fields that fair crops may be grown with very\\nlittle rain and it is in the effective handling of these\\nmulches that the hope of farmers in sub -humid districts\\nmust be laid.\\nConditions modifying the effectiveness of mulches. The laws\\nwhich govern the loss of water through mulches have not yet\\nbeen sufficiently worked out to permit a full discussion of this\\nimportant subject, but several important facts have been defi-\\nnitely settled, and may be here stated.\\nIn the first place, when other conditions are the same, the\\nthicker or deeper the layer of loose, dry soil is, the less rapidly\\ncan the soil moisture pass upward through it, to be lost by\\nevaporation.\\nIt was found, for example, that when soil covered with no\\nmulch lost water in the still air of the laboratory at the rat^e of\\n4.375 acre-inches per 100 days, the same soil stirred to a depth\\nof .5 inches lost but 4.017 acre-inches, and when stirred to a\\ndepth of .75 inches lost 3.169 acre -inches in the same time. In\\nanother case, when the loss of water from the unmulched surface\\nwas 6.2 acre-inches per 100 days, stirring this same soil to a\\ndepth of 1 inch reduced the loss to 4 acre -inches, while stirring\\nit to a depth of 2 inches left the loss but 2.8 acre -inches per\\n100 days.\\nSo^ too, when corn was cultivated to a depth of 1 to 1.5", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "Mulches to Conserve Moisture 143\\ninches with a Tower cultivator, and adjacent rows were culti-\\nvated to a depth of 3 inches with narrow shovels, it was found at\\nthe end of the season that the ground cultivated 3 inches deep\\ncontained 1.478 inches more water than the 1-inch cultivation\\ndid in the upper 4 feet, the conditions of the soil being as repre-\\nsented below\\n1st foot 2iid foot 3rd foot 4th foot\\nPER CENT PER CENT PER CENT PER CENT\\nCultivated 3 inches deep 23.14 23.3 21.94 22.46\\nCultivated 1 inch deep 22.7 21.08 19.65 19.58\\nDifference .44 2.22 2.29 2.88\\nThese differences do not show the amount of water which the\\ndeeper mulch saved, because at several times during the season\\nthe rains may have brought the soil of the two kinds of treat-\\nment very close together in their water content, the results above\\nbeing simply the final difference. They do show, however, how\\nmuch more moist one soil was kept than the other, and, hence,\\nhow much better were the conditions in one case than in the\\nother for plant growth.\\nThat the full significance of such differences in soil moisture\\nin crop production may be better appreciated. Fig. 25 shows the\\ngrowth of corn under every way similar conditions, except that\\nthe amounts of water in the soil in which the corn was large\\nand in which it was small were as stated in the table which\\nfollows\\nMoisture in soil Moisture in soil\\nof largest corn of smallest corn\\nPER CENT PER CENT Difference\\nFirst foot 13.29 10.18 3.11\\nSecond foot 17.23 16.33 .9\\nThird foot 19.17 18.63 1.08\\nFourth foot 16.21 15.48 .73\\nThese differences, it will be noted, are much smaller than in\\nthe ease cited above. But let it be observed that the difference in\\nthe surface foot here is very much larger than there, and it is the\\nshortage of water in this layer which is chiefly responsible for the\\ndifference in growth shown in the figure.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "144\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nThe character of the mulch, also, has an important influence\\non the amount of water which is permitted to escape through it.\\nThus, it was found that when the same soil was covered to a depth\\nFig. 25. Difference in growth of corn where there is a difference of\\n3 per cent of soil moisture in the surface foot.\\nof 2 inches with mulches of different kinds, the observed loss of\\nwater per 100 days was as stated below\\nINCHES\\nThrough 2-inch mulch of coarse sand l.l\\nblack marsh soils 3.0\\nfine clay loam 3.9\\ndry peat 2\\nclay loam, crumb-form 2.8\\nFrom these results it is seen that a coarse-grained texture\\nproduces a better mulch than one extremely fine that is, the loss\\nof water by evaporation through the coarsest sand was less rapid\\nthan it was through the fine sand, and it was more rapid through\\nthe finely powdered clay loam than it was through the same soil\\nleft in the crumbled condition in which we usually fiud it when\\nthe soil is in good tilth. The small loss from the peat mulch, too,\\nwas due largely to the fact that it did not rub down to a fine\\ntexture.\\nJust why this law holds for soil mulches cannot now be stated,\\nexcept that it seems evident that the water is not lost by direct\\nevaporation at the surface of the damp soil, for in that case we\\nshould expect the largest losses to take place from the mulches\\nhaving the most open structure, and the least when the diameter", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "Mulches to Conserve Moisture 145\\nof the pore spaces is smallest, but which observation proves not\\nto be true. The only explanation which now occurs to the writer\\nfor the law is, that even in the air-dry condition of soil, the film\\nof moisture still investing the soil grains, although so extremely\\nthin, is subject to the same disturbance by evaporation at the\\nexposed surface that it is when that film is much thicker, as in the\\ncase of soils containing the right amount of moisture for plant\\ngrowth, and when evaporation from the surface takes place\\nrapidly.\\nEarth mulches lose in effectiveness with age. When a good\\nearth mulch has been developed, it does not remain equally effec-\\ntive for an indefinite period, even if no rain falls upon it. This is\\nparticularly true early in the season, when the amount of soil\\nmoisture is high, and when it tends to creep into the lower part\\nof the mulch, saturating it and causing the open texture to\\ndisappear by breaking down the crumb structure, and thus restor-\\ning the original and normal capillary power. A soil mulch devel-\\noped to a depth of two or three inches thus grows gradually\\nthinner with age by reverting to the original condition. This be-\\ning true, it is necessary, when the greatest protection is desired,\\nto repeat the stirring of the soil as often as observation shows that\\nits effectiveness has been impaired.\\nMulches that are not made from soil. By far the largest part\\nof the protection offered against the loss of water by surface\\nevaporation from the soil is and must be furnished by mulches\\ndeveloped from the soil itself. But it should be understood that\\nall vegetation growing upon the surface of a field, whether it\\ncompletely covers the ground or not, exerts a protective influence,\\ntending to diminish the loss of water from the surface of the\\nground. This protection comes partly from shading the ground,\\npartly from a reduction of the wind velocity close to the surface,\\nand partly from the tendency of vegetation, by the transpiration\\nfrom its foliage, to saturate the air with moisture, and so reduce\\nthe rate of evaporation which otherwise would be possible.\\nEven in pastures where the grass is short, if it is only close\\nand completely covers the ground with its foliage, the mulching\\ninfluence is marked. Hence, in order to get the largest returns", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "146 Irrigation and Drainage\\nfrom the natural rainfall on pasture land, great care should be\\ntaken to keep it in such condition that the whole surface is well\\nand closely covered with vegetation. Of course, the same remarks\\napply to meadow lands.\\nToo close pasturing is very wasteful in every way. The\\nanimals themselves are not fed properly, the grass is not permitted\\nto have foliage enough for the most vigorous growth, and so much\\nof the surface of the ground is exposed to the sun that evapora-\\ntion directly from the soil is rapid and a dead loss, not only doing\\nno good in itself, but throwing out of use the upper layer of soil,\\nin which the nitrifying processes should be permitted to go for-\\nward rapidly, because it is too dry for them.\\nThe surface dressing of meadows with a good coating of\\nfarmyard manure, and then harrowing this thoroughly to spread it\\nevenly over the surface, is extremely beneficial, not simply because\\nof the plant-food which it contains, but because of the mulching\\neffect which it furnishes to shade the naked spots of soil and\\nthose which are only thinly covered. When this dressing is\\napplied very early, and is early spread over the surface, while\\nthe soil is yet damp, it, of course, does the most good, both as a\\nmulch and as a plant-food for then fermentation goes on better\\nin the manure, and the moisture dissolves out the soluble parts\\nand conveys it to the roots of the grass. Then, too, in the case\\nof thin meadows, if new grass and clover seed are added at the\\nsame time, before the harrowing, much of it will be sufficiently\\ncovered by the harrowing and shaded by the manure to allow it to\\ngerminate, and thus thicken up the meadow and bring it back to\\nits proper condition.\\nHarrowing and rolling small grain after it is up. When the\\nground is closely covered with plants, as in the case of oats,\\nwheat and barley sowed broadcast or in close drills, advantage\\nhas sometimes been found in either harrowing the ground or in\\nrolling it for the express purpose of changing the character of the\\nsurface. The changes thus wrought have sometimes a double\\neffectiveness, in that a thin mulch is produced which in a meas-\\nure reduces the direct loss of water through the surface soil by\\nevaporation from it and in breaking up a crust which forms", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "Early Tillage to Conserve Moisture 147\\nover plowed fields when a considerable evaporation has taken\\nplace from the wet surface, and which, on account of the shrink-\\nage and of the salts brought to the surface by the soil water, tend\\nto close up the soil pores, and thus interfere with the proper\\nentrance of air to it, which is essential to the best results. Roll-\\ning in such cases will seldom do much good, except where the\\nground was left somewhat uneven at the time of seeding, either\\nby the drill ridges or by those left by the harrow, or unless there\\nare many small lumps, which the rolling tends to break down,\\nforming from them and the ridges, or both, a thin mulch. The\\nharrowing in such eases has a wider range than rolling, and is\\noften likely to be more effective. But neither of these treat-\\nments should be given except when the soil of the field is dry\\nand crumbly at the surface, for otherwise no mulch will be formed,\\nand the effect would be to increase rather than diminish the loss\\nof water from the soil by surface evaporation from it.\\n4. Early Tillage to Conserve Moisture\\nIt has already been pointed out that tillage to\\nconserve moisture is most useful in humid climates\\nwhen it is applied as early in the season as the condi-\\ntion of the soil will admit. But the case is stated in\\nthe most general terms when it is said that tillage,\\nto save moisture, should be given to the soil just as\\nsoon after the wetting of the surface as it is possi-\\nble to do so without puddling or otherwise injuring\\nits texture.\\nLet it be fully understood that tillage to save soil\\nmoisture is concerned almost wholly with the saving\\nof that which has penetrated the soil to a depth exceed-\\ning that of the mulch developed by stirring, As a\\nthoroughly effective soil mulch cannot be readily made\\nhaving a depth less than 2 to 3 inches, it follows that", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "148 Irrigation and Drainage\\ntillage to conserve soil moisture is chiefly concerned\\nwith saving moisture which has penetrated the ground\\nto a depth exceeding 2.5 to 3 or more inches. The\\nmoisture which is caught and held by the soil closer\\nto the surface than stated must usually be taken up\\ndirectly by the surface feeding roots, or it must be\\nlost by surface evaporation.\\nWhen the snows and frosts of winter have melted,\\nand the earliest spring rains have come, the soil is\\nusually left so moist as to be fully saturated with\\nwater to a depth exceeding 1, 2, and even 3 feet,\\naccording as the snows or rains have been copious or\\nlight. At the same time, the texture of the surface\\nsoil has been so changed as to place it in the very\\nbest possible condition for rapidly conveying the deeper\\nsoil -water to the surface, where, if the sun shines and\\na brisk, drj^ wind is blowing, it will be lost with great\\nrapidity, sometimes in single exceptionally favorable\\ndays amounting to 2, 3, and even 4 pounds per square\\nfoot per day, equivalent to more than 40, 60 and 80\\ntons per acre.\\nBut these high rates of loss are not maintained,\\nfortunately, for long periods of time, even when there\\nhas been no effort made to prevent them. We have,\\nhowever, measured losses during seven days amounting\\nto 9.13 pounds per square foot, or at a daily rate of\\n1.3 pounds; and in four days a rate as high as 1.77\\npounds per square foot. Under extremely favorable\\nconditions, and where the surface of the soil was kept\\ncontinuously wet, we have measured a mean daily loss\\nby evaporation as great as 2.37 pounds for fine sand,", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "Early Tillage to Conserve Moisture 149\\nand 2.05 pounds for a clay loam, per day and per\\nsquare foot.\\nAs soon as the surface of the soil becomes air -dry,\\nthe rate of evaporation from it is very much slower,\\nfor in this condition it does not conduct the water\\nupward as rapidly as when nearly saturated. Early\\ntillage contributes to this end, and thus greatly di-\\nminishes the losses which would occur early in the\\nseason.\\nThere is no tool made which produces a more\\neffective mulch than the common plow, which cuts off\\ncompletely a layer of soil of the depth desired and\\nlays it down bottom up in a loose, crumbled condition,\\nreducing the capillary conducting power to the mini-\\nmum. It is not possible, however, to use the plow as\\nearly in the season as some of the other tools, like the\\nharrow neither is it possible to cover the ground as\\nrapidly with it. Further than this, it is often unde-\\nsirable to stir the soil as deep as it must be worked\\nwith the plow, in order to make a good mulch and\\nso one or another form of harrow is used instead.\\nWhen small grains are sowed on fall plowing, or\\non corn or potato ground without plowing, it is\\nimportant to start the surface -working tools at the\\nvery earliest possible moment, not simply to save\\nmoisture by developing a mulch, but to aerate and\\nwarm up the surface soil, so that the nitrates may\\nbegin to be developed and placed in readiness for the\\ncrop which is to follow. It is this saving of moisture,\\nand the early and abundant development of soluble\\nplant -food, which is invariably associated with and the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "150 Irrigation and Drainage\\ndirect result of a thorough preparation of the seed-\\nbed, which has always led the most successful farmers\\nto insist upon the importance of a good seed-bed.\\nLet it be remembered that it is the early stirring\\nof the soil, rather than the early planting of the seed,\\nwhich is the all -important point to be insisted upon.\\nNothing is gained by putting seed in a soil which is\\ntoo cold but several days may often be saved in bring-\\ning the soil to the right temperature by stirring a suf-\\nficient depth of it for the seed-bed, and getting rid\\nof the surplus water which it contains by cutting it\\nloose from the wet soil below, and at the same time\\nconcentrating the heat from the sun in this stirred\\nlayer, because loosening it has made it a poor con-\\nductor to the unstirred cold soil below it.\\nEven when ground is not to be planted until quite\\n]ate, as in the case of corn and potatoes, it is a far\\nbetter practice to plow as early as other labor will per-\\nmit, than to leave it unstirred until near the planting\\ntime, because the early fitting develops plant -food and\\ngets it in readiness for the crop because it saves\\nmoisture because it prevents clods from forming, and\\ninsures a more perfect tilth, and because it allows one\\nand sometimes two crops of weeds to be killed before\\nthe planting. This last advantage is a very important\\none, because weeds can be killed much more cheaply\\nand effectively when there is nothing on the ground\\nin the way, and because it is a very wasteful practice\\nto permit weeds to start in a field, to use up both the\\nmoisture and the plant -food which will be needed by\\nthe crop. It is much better to plant late, and take", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "Ploiving Under Green Manures 151\\ntime enougli to have everything in the best possible\\ncondition, than to rush the seed in early and expect\\nto do the fitting and weed -killing afterward.\\nThe importance of observing the practice here\\npointed out increases more and more as we pass from\\nthe more hnmid climates to the semi -humid ones.\\nBe it remembered that it is important not simply from\\nthe soil -moisture side, but from the plant -food side as\\nwell; for plant -food cannot be developed in the soil\\nwithout the right conditions of moisture, temperature\\nand air, all of which are secured by early, thorough and\\nfrequent tillage before the seed is in the ground.\\n5. The Danger of Ploiving Under Green Manures\\nIn both humid and sub-humid climates, where irri-\\ngation is not practiced, the use of green crops for ma-\\nnures in the spring cannot be looked upon as always\\na rational practice, unless it be on grounds which are\\nnaturally sub -irrigated, or for other reasons are natu-\\nrally too wet. The difficulties standing in the way of\\nthis practice are these If the green manure crop\\nshould be rye, or anything of that character, its ten-\\ndency to remove from the soil all of the nitrates and\\nother soluble plant -foods as rapidly as they can be\\nformed leaves the soil for the time being impover-\\nished and it can be readily understood that if another\\ncrop like corn or potatoes is put at once upon the\\nground, in weather when germination takes place\\nquickly, this crop would find itself placed under con-\\nditions in which it will be forced to wait, or at best to", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "152 Irrigation and Drainage\\ngrow slowly, until time enough shall have elapsed for\\nthe processes of fermentation to be set up in the green\\ncrop which shall reconvert it into available plant-\\nfood. But if the spring should chance to be a dry\\none, so that the crop of green manure has itself left\\nthe soil deficient in moisture, or if the capacity of the\\nsoil for moisture is naturally small, then there will be\\npresent in the soil neither moisture enough to make\\nthe green crop turned under ferment rapidly, nor to\\nenable the planted crop to make the best growth, even\\nwhere there is an abundance of plant -food in the\\nsoil.\\nThe sowing of a catch crop in the fall in humid\\nclimates is not open to the same objection, for then\\nthis crop has a tendency to gather up available ni-\\ntrates which develop during the warm part of the fall,\\nafter the crop has been taken off the ground, and to\\ncarry them through the winter in an insoluble form,\\nso that they are not lost by drainage. But to bring\\nthem into requisition, especially if the season or soil\\nis at all dry, it is important that this should be turned\\nunder early, and a sufficient interval of time allowed\\nto intervene for fermentation to take place before the\\nseed of the new crop is put upon the ground.\\nIn sub -humid climates, on soils that are not sub-\\nject to washing, it is very doubtful if there is any\\nadvantage to be gained from catch crops, as such,\\neven when sown in the fall for in those cases there is\\nneither winter nor spring leaching of the soil, and as\\nthere is naturally a deficiency of soil moisture, the indi-\\ncations are that very early fall plowing, to develop a", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "Summer Fallowing and Soil Moisture 153\\nnew mulch to lessen further evaporation during the\\nfall and winter, and to permit nitrification in the fall to\\nbe carried forward, is likely to leave the soil in a much\\nbetter condition for the next season, both as to moisture\\nand available nitrates, than could be hoped for by the\\nother method.\\nIt is not only difficult to get a good catch crop in the\\nfall on account of deficient moisture, but there is during\\nthe growing season of the sub -humid climate so little\\nmoisture that a rapid rate of nitrification in the soil\\nis impossible, and hence all the time which can be had\\nfor this purpose is needed in order to have enough\\nnitrates developed for the crop the next year.\\n6. Summer Fallowing in Relation to Soil Moisture\\nThe old practice of summer fallowing, which it has\\nbeen the fashion for writers on agricultural chemistry\\nto discourage of late years, has really much more of\\nmerit in it, as indeed practical experience has proved,\\nthan has been recently taught. It is not here intended\\nto convey the idea that there are not soils and climates\\nin which, in the majority of seasons, it would be better\\nnot to summer fallow, on account of there being danger\\nof an excessive development of nitrates, which would be\\nlost by drainage but there is much to suggest that in\\nrich soils which are usually deficient in soil moisture,\\nas in many sub -humid sections, there is not mois-\\nture enough in a single year to develop the requisite\\namount of plant -food and to mature the crop as well,\\nand hence, that some form of summer fallowing, or", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "154 Irrigation and Drainage\\npractice which is equivalent to it in effect, will be found\\nto give better results than steady cropping, either with\\nor without catch crops.\\nINFLUENCE OF SUMMER FALLOWING ON SOIL MOIS-\\nTURE AND ON PLANT -FOOD\\nIn a study on the influence of summer fallowing on the water\\ncontent of the soil, it was found that the effect still showed, even\\nat the end of the following season, after a crop had been matured\\non the ground. In order to show how great this influence may\\nbe, the results of the study are cited here, giving first the con-\\ndition of the soil in the spring, when the fallowing experiment\\nwas begun. The results cited are from three adjacent plots, the\\nmiddle plot being the one bearing the crop. The table which\\nfollows shows the water content of the plots as given by three\\ndeterminations, on May 22, June 11, and June 17, the averages\\nbeing given in every case, and the data from the two fallow\\nplots being combined:\\n0-12 inches\\n12-18\\n24-30\\n36-42\\n48-52\\nMean 19.20 18.92\\nHere it will be seen that there is a slight tendency for the\\nground left fallow to be a little wetter than that which was to\\nbear the crop, but this difference is not as large as the table\\nshows, because the fallowing effect had begun to show its in-\\nfluence somewhat when the last two sets of samples were taken,\\ncorn having already begun to grow upon the intervening plot.\\nAt the end of the growing season, August 24, the difference\\nGro^^nd to be\\nleft fallow\\nGround not to be\\nleft fallow\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\n23.63\\n21.49\\n19.78\\n18.57\\n18.06\\n18.13\\n15.50\\n17.48\\n19.03\\n18.91", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "Summer FaUotving and Soil Moisture\\n155\\nin the water content of the soil under the two treatments was\\nfound to be as given in the table below\\nNot fallow ground near by\\nFallow ground Not fallow ground Timothy and Clover\\nNo crop\\nCorn\\nbluegrass\\nin pasture\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\n0-6 inches\\n16.23\\n6.97\\n6.55\\n8.39\\n6-12\\n17.74\\n7.8\\n7.62\\n8.48\\n12-18\\n19.88\\n11.6\\n11.49\\n12.42\\n18-24\\n19.84\\n11.98\\n13.58\\n13.27\\n24-30\\n18.56\\n10.84\\n13.26\\n13.52\\n40-43\\n15.9\\n4.17\\n18.51\\n9.53\\nIn the first half of this table, where the soils are closely\\nsimilar and entirely comparable in every way, it will be seen\\nthat the ground bearing no crop is much more moist than is\\nthat on which the corn was grown and since a good degree of\\nmoisture in the surface foot of soil is absolutely indispensable\\nto the processes which develop the available nitrates, it can readily\\nbe seen how much more favorable were the conditions for the for-\\nmation of nitrates on the fallow ground than they were on the\\nground which was not fallow. In the last two columns of the\\ntable, there has been set down, for the sake of comparison, the\\nresults of moisture determinations at corresponding depths on\\nlands bearing pastured clover in one case and hay in the other.\\nThese samples were taken from essentially the same kinds of soil,\\nand but a short distance from where the other samples were\\ntaken, and illustrate in a very forcible manner how thoroughly\\nthe surface foot of soil in a dry time loses its moisture when it\\nis occupied by a crop, and how unfavorable are the conditions\\nfor nitrification in the soil when compared with those offered by\\nthe fallow ground.\\nIn the following spring, after the frost was out of the ground,\\nand the fall and winter rains and snows had given their moisture\\nto the plots under experiment, samples of soil were again taken,\\nto learn what the relative conditions were at this time, and the\\nresults found are given in the table below, where both the per-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "156\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\ncentage of water in the soil and the number of pounds of water\\nper cubic foot are given\\nTable showing the water content in the spring, in soil tvhich the year before had\\nbeen fallow and not falloio\\nDepth Fallow\\nof sample per cent\\nFirst foot 19.43\\nSecond foot..,. 20.55\\nThird foot 18.56\\nFourth foot.... 17.78\\nSum\\nNot\\nfallow\\nDifference\\nFallow\\nNot\\nfallow\\nDifference\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\n16.61\\n2.82\\n15.01\\n12.83\\n2.18\\n17.76\\n2.79\\n16.4\\n14.17\\n2.23\\n16.09\\n2.47\\n17.47\\n15.15\\n2.32\\n15.11\\n2.67\\n17.44\\n14.82\\n2.62\\n66.32\\n56.97\\n9.35\\nThis table shows that the fallow ground starts out in the\\nspring with 9.35 pounds of water to the square foot more than\\nthe ground not fallow did in its upper four feet, besides having\\na much higher percentage of available nitrogen in the soil. How\\nmuch greater the available nitrogen was is not known, except\\nthat in another trial, ground which had- been fallow the year\\nbefore produced practically the same yield as did a strip which\\nreceived a good dressing of farmyard manure.\\nAt the end of harvest the same year, samples of soil were\\nagain taken on the ground which had been fallow and on that\\nwhich had not been fallow, the results standing as shown below:\\nTable showing the water content of soil at the end of harvest, which the\\npreceding year had been fallow, and had not been fallow\\nDepth\\nof sample\\nFirst foot\\nSecond foot\\nThird foot...\\nFourth foot.\\nSum 34.13\\nFallow\\nUUUU WILU\\nNot\\nfallow\\noais\\nDifference\\nXJTTV\\nFallow\\nunu Willi\\nNot\\nfallow\\nuaimy\\nDifference\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\nLBS.\\n6.01\\n3.74\\n2.27\\n9.06\\n7.08\\n1.98\\n9.65\\n4.45\\n5.20\\n11.90\\n10.10\\n1.80\\n9.54\\n9.30\\n.24\\n12.48\\n10.60\\n1.88\\n8.93\\n8.43\\n.50\\n14.07\\n11.52\\n2.55\\n25.92\\n8.21\\n47.51\\n39.30\\n8.21\\nThe data of this table show very clearly that summer fallow-\\ning exerts a marked influence upon the relation of the soil to", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "Old System of Iiifertillage 157\\nwater, and one which is great enough to modify the water con-\\ntent of the soil throughout the whole of the following season under\\ncrop. The table shows that where oats were grown, the soil,\\nwhen the crop had been harvested, contained 8.21 pounds of\\nwater per square foot, or 1.57 inches more than did the ground\\nwhich had not been summer fallowed the year before. The same\\ndifference also existed on the barley ground, and in both cases\\nnotwithstanding the fact that larger yields of both straw and\\ngrain had been produced on the fallow ground.\\n7. The Old System of Intertillage\\nThe old system of horse -hoeiug, introduced by\\nJethro Tull in England, and modified by Hunter, and\\nstill later by Smith, at Lois-Weedon, has much to rec-\\nommend it on fertile soils, in which there is a deficiency\\nof soil moisture, as is the case in the sub -humid\\nregions of this country. Tull was a close observer,\\nand early learned to appreciate the great advantage\\nof thorough tillage, not only in conserving soil mois-\\nture, but also in developing available plant -food. He\\nstrongly advocated planting in drills, so as to admit\\nof thorough and frequent stirring of the soil and with\\nthe aid of the horse.\\nHunter modified Tull s system by laying out his\\nfields in strips about 9 feet wide, every other one of\\nwhich was sown, while the intermediate ones were\\nleft naked, and were frequently cultivated through the\\nseason, and kept free from weeds. In the fall of the\\nyear the bare strips were sown, and the others, which\\nhad borne the crop, were plowed up and tilled in a\\nsimilar manner. His method amounted to a system", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "158 Irrigation and Drainage\\nof summer .fallowing, as that practice is now generally\\nunderstood, except that it possessed one important ad-\\nvantage namely, his strips being so narrow, and hence\\nso numerous, that both the moisture saved by the til-\\nlage and the nitrates developed became available to\\nthe plants growing along the margin. Further than\\nthis, a part of the rain which fell upon the strips,\\nboth by its lateral capillary movement and by the\\ndevelopment of roots into this unoccupied ground,\\ncontributed to the growth of the crop as though it\\nhad been partially irrigated, or its rainfall had been\\nincreased,- which in fact it had.\\nThe Rev. Mr. Smith, at Lois-Weedon, in North-\\namptonshire, raised wheat very successfully by still a\\ndifferent modification of TulPs idea. His practice\\nwas to sow about one peck of seed to the acre, by\\ndropping the grains 3 inches apart in three rows 1 foot\\napart, and leaving a space 3 feet wide unplanted be-\\ntween each group of three rows. These strips were\\nthoroughly tilled until the wheat was in bloom, and\\nkept free from weeds. He even went to the extent of\\ntrenching the naked strip, bringing up some of the\\nsubsoil and putting the surface loam into the trenches.\\nBy his thorough tillage, thorough aeration and con-\\nservation of soil moisture, he was able to maintain a\\nyield of 18 to 20 bushels per acre without manure.\\nThese cases of old and now generally abandoned\\npractice are called up here because they involve a\\nprinciple which, when correctly applied, is of great\\nimportance in sub -humid climates, where water for\\nirrigation is not available. The principle referred to", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "Old System of Intertillage 159\\nis that of using the rain which falls upon an acre of\\nground to produce a crop on one -half of that same\\narea. For this, as a matter of fact, was the essential\\nthing which the Lois-Weedon system did. It is evi-\\ndent enough that in a country where the rain which\\nfalls is only one -half the amount which is needed to\\nproduce remunerative crops, if that water can be\\nbrought to use on one -half of the area, then a fair\\ncrop on one -half of the ground may reasonably be\\nexpected.\\nThe important matter, then, is to devise a system\\nof planting for the various crops which shall permit\\nthe rain which falls upon the unused area to be\\nbrought within reach of the plants growing upon the\\noccupied ground. For all crops which are grown in\\nhills or in rows, like inaize, potatoes, and various\\nvegetables, the problem is simple enough, as it resolves\\nitself into the single question of how many plants can\\nbe matured uj^on the ground with the available water,\\nallowing for unavoidable losses. This fixes the dis-\\ntance between the rows and the distance between the\\nhills in the row. In countries where there is an\\nabundance of water, or where irrigation is practiced,\\nplants may be brought so close together that the limit-\\ning factor is amount of sunshine, or available plant-\\nfood in the soil, or air about the plant but in sub-\\nhumid regions, the limiting factor is water alone, and\\nthe distance between plants must be made such, if\\nnecessary, that the roots of one will not encroach upon\\nthe feeding ground of another.\\nThe roots of the maize plant commonly spread", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "160 Irrigation and Drainage\\nlaterally to a distance of 3.5 to 4.5 feet hence, if\\nnecessary, the rows of corn might be placed as far as\\n7 to 8 feet apart, and yet be able to take moisture\\nfrom the whole field. Taking the extreme case of\\nrows 8 feet apart and plants 2 feet apart in the row,\\nthe number of plants per acre would be 2,725. Sup-\\nposing each plant to produce a large stalk and large\\near, the total weight of diy matter for the acre might\\nbe 2,157.5 pounds, giving 18.32 bushels of shelled\\ncorn. This yield of dry matter per acre would call\\nfor only 2.577 acre -inches of water to produce it, at\\nthe rate of the results which have been obtained from\\n52 trials in Wisconsin.\\nPotato roots spread laterally to the distance of 2\\nto 2.5 feet hence these might be planted in rows 4\\nto 5 feet apart without having the roots overlap in\\nthe feeding ground. The chief advantage of wider\\nrows for potatoes in the sub -humid climate comes in\\nits permitting intertillage after the vines have reached\\nfull size, and thus better conserving the scanty mois-\\nture, so important in the later development of the\\ntubers, and which would travel laterally by capillarity\\ntoward the roots in case they did not reach the center.\\nThe table which follows shows the actual distribution\\nof soil moisture in the upper 18 inches of a potato\\nfield in which the rows extended east and west, and\\nwere planted 3 feet apart, under flat cultivation\\nI", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "Old System of IniertiUage 161\\nTable showing the distribution of moisture in a potato patch, June 27\\nMidway\\nbetween rows\\nNine inches\\nsouth of row\\nIn the row\\nNine inches\\nnorth of row\\nDepth of sample\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\n0-6 inches\\n23.50\\n18.37\\n17.80\\n23\\n6-12\\n19.03\\n18.13\\n17.40\\n18.50\\n12-18\\n20.73\\n21.43\\n19.53\\n21.40\\n0-18 20.99 19.31 18.24 20.97\\nAt the time these determinations were made, the\\npotato vines were about one -half full size. It will be\\nseen that the moisture had been withdrawn from the\\nsoil more completely at 18 inches directly below the\\ncenter of the hill than it had at 18 inches on either\\nside. It does not follow from this, however, that the\\nplants were not receiving important additions of soil\\nmoisture from the soil in the center of the row. In\\nour work in irrigating potatoes, where the rows were\\n30 inches apart, and where ridge culture was adopted,\\nthe water being applied in furrows about 9 inches\\nwide, it was found that on the boundary between the\\nirrigated and non- irrigated areas, the second row of\\npotatoes from the last water furrow had its yield\\nincreased on the average, in 1897, 7.9 bushels per\\nacre, or 3.2 per cent of the yield of merchantable\\ntubers, grown on the land not irrigated. That is to\\nsay, the lateral capillary movement of the water in\\nirrigation influenced the yield to that extent through\\na distance of about 40 inches.\\nIn the case of corn, the second rows beyond the\\nlast irrigating furrow showed the influence of the\\nwater to the extent of 2.2 per cent of the non-\\nK", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "162 Irrigation and Drainage\\nirrigated yield, and through a distance of about 58\\ninciies.\\nThen, again, in the case of some experimental plots\\nof oats which were separated by a naked strip 2 feet\\nwide, and kept free from weeds by surface hoeing, the\\nfollowing distribution of water was found on July\\n19, 1889:\\nTable shoivtng distribution of soil moisture ia oats and in adjacent\\nfallow strip 2 feet wide\\nIn oats 2 ft.\\nfrom path\\nIn oats 1 ft.\\nfrom path\\nAt edge\\nof oats\\nIn center\\nof path\\nDifference\\nDepth of sample\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\n0-6 inches\\n8.08\\n11.43\\n3.35\\n6-12\\n7.51\\n11.80\\n4.29\\n12-18\\n10.61\\n15.42\\n4.81\\n18-24\\n14.01\\n18.78\\n4.77\\n0-24 10.40 10.05 10.70 14.35\\nIt will be seen from these percentages that there is\\na very marked higher per cent of water in the fallow\\nstrip than there is immediately adjacent to it in the\\noats, and from this it might be inferred that the oats\\nwas not being fed from the fallow strip. This inference,\\nhowever, would not be correct, for it was found that\\nthe yield of oats on a strip 1 foot wide, on the south\\nside of the path, was 39 per cent larger than from a\\ncorresponding area in the center of the plot 12 feet\\nwide, while the yield on the north side of the path\\nwas 28.7 per cent larger, showing very clearly that\\nthere was better feeding in consequence of the narrow\\n2 -foot path.\\nIn view of such facts as these, and practical experi-", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "Old System of IntertiUage 163\\nence, it is not unreasonable to expect that where there\\nis a deficiency of water in the soil, the small grains\\nmay be sown in narrow strips of 4 to 6 drill rows,\\n9 inches apart, separated by naked strips 30 inches\\nwide, which may be cultivated to yield up their mois-\\nture and developed nitrates to the growing grain on\\neither side, and thus mature heavier crops of well-\\nfiUed grain than would be possible if the seeds were\\nscattered evenl}^ over ihe whole surface, none of which\\ncould be cultivated.\\nSuch a practice as is here suggested is manifest!}\\nsummer fallowing, but in a very different way, and\\nfor quite a distinct purpose, from that usually had in\\nmind. Of course, it would not be urged, except on\\nsoil and in climates in which there is an insufficient sup-\\nply of soil moisture to mature the crop under ordinary\\nmethods of handling. The method, however, has a\\nrational basis for sub -humid climates and for the\\nlighter soils of small water capacity in the more humid\\nclimates; but it cannot be hoped that it will, under\\nthese conditions, give as large yields per acre when\\nfigured upon the whole area as the closer planting on\\nthe soils better supplied with soil moisture. Neither\\ncan it be expected that crops can be raised as cheaply\\nby this method as by the ordinary methods. All that\\ncan be asserted, or can be reasonablj^ expected, is that\\nbetter crops can be raised by it- in sub -humid climates\\nand on the lighter soils in humid climates, than can\\nbe raised by the ordinary methods. It is not an easy\\nmatter to adapt the method either to growing hay or\\nto maintaining pastures of the ordinary sort.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "164 Irrigation and Drainage\\n8. Frequency of Tillage to Conserve Soil Moisture\\nTillage to conserve soil moisture, like water for irrigatiorij\\ncannot be applied except at an increased cost of production.\\nHence, to cultivate a field when there is nothing to be gained\\nfrom it is to be avoided. In the early part of the growing sea-\\nson, when the soil is so fully charged with moisture that a small\\nrain easily causes the soil granules to coalesce and destroy the\\neffectiveness of mulches, it is often desirable to repeat the culti-\\nvation or harrowing as often as there has been a shower of suffi-\\ncient intensity to establish good capillary connection between\\nthe stirred and unstirred soil.\\nIt is often of the greatest importance that this reestablish-\\nment of the mulch should take place at the earliest possible\\nmoment, not only because of the rapid loss of water from wet\\nsurfaces, but because of the fact that, when the surface soil has\\nreached a certain degree of dryness while the deeper soil is yet\\nwet, the moisture of the surface layer so strengthens the upward\\nmovement of soil moisture into that layer that not only is all\\nof the rain held at the surface, but a very considerable amount\\nof the deeper soil w^ater is brought there also. Our studies have\\nproved, both by observation and by repeated experiment, that\\nwetting the surface of the ground may leave the deeper soil\\nactually dryer than it was before, and if the new mulch is not\\nearly developed the rain may leave the surface four feet dryer\\nthan it would have been had the rain not occurred.\\nThen, too, in the early part of the year, there are so many\\nadvantages to be gained through frequent stirring of the soil,\\nother than the saving of moisture, that the slightest reason for\\ngoing over the ground again should lead to its being done. But\\nas the season advances, and the soil has become dryer to con- j\\nsiderable depths, then the desirability of frequent stirrings of\\nthe surface to develop or restore the texture of the mulch, is\\nmuch less. This is so, partly because when the surface of the\\nground is dry, it is an excellent mulch, even though it is quite\\nfirm and close in texture but also, because the smaller showers", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "Ridged or Flat Cidiivation 165\\nof the later season are largely retained very close to the surface,\\nso that stirring the surface may hasten the evaporation of it, and\\nat the same time prevent a part of it from being conducted\\ndownward into the soil by capillarity.\\nFurther than this, in the latter part of the season many plants\\nin humid climates put out new roots, which reach up extremely\\nclose to the surface, in order to take advantage of the showers\\nw^hose waters are retained there and tillage at once after a\\nrain may do positive injury to the crop, by destroying these roots\\nbefore they have conveyed the soil moisture to the plant, heavily\\nladen with plant-food, as it is likely to be under these conditions.\\n9. Proper Dei)th of Surface Tillage and Eidged or\\nFlat Cultivation\\nIt will be readily inferred, from what has already been\\nsaid, that the best depth of tillage will vary with the season.\\nEarly in the season it should almost invariably be deep, not less\\nthan 2 to 3 inches, but rarely should it be deeper than this. The\\ndeep stirring in the spring is to develop fertility by thoroughly\\naerating the soil and making it warm, so that the nitrates are\\nrapidly formed. Later in the season the cultivation should be-\\ncome more and more shallow, until, as already pointed out, it\\nshould be finally abandoned altogether.\\nWhen it is stated that the early tillage should have a depth of\\n2 to 3 inches, this should be understood as meaning that the\\nwhole surface of ground not occupied by the plants should be\\nstirred to this depth, and some tool which actually displaces the\\nwhole of the soil to a uniform depth does the best work. As a\\nrule, the field should not be furrowed with deep grooves and\\nridges, for this method early dries out too large a volume of the\\nsoil, and thus lessens its productive power. Indeed, it should\\nalways be kept in mind that the surface soil in humid climates is\\nthe most valuable soil of the field; and for this reason, after the\\nperiod of stirring for fertility is passed, as little should be moved\\nand allowed to become dry as will answer the needs of the mulch,\\nbecause in this condition the soil is valueless in plant feeding.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "166 Irrigation and Drainage\\nThrowing a f eld iuto ridges with deep furrows between, as is\\ndone with some of the wide -shovel cultivators, and as used to\\nbe done generally in laying corn by, has little to recommend it\\nexcept on flat fields of stiff, heavy soil, in wet climates or seasons.\\nThe chief objection to the ridges and furrows is that they greatly\\nincrease the evaporating surface and the amount of soil which is\\nthrown out of use. In the case of potatoes, however, especially\\non the heavy soils, the last cultivation should be to hill them in\\norder to form a loose, deep, mellow soil, in which the tubers may\\nform and expand without meeting with excessive resistance.\\nIndeed, it is quite doubtful whether there are many soils in which\\npotatoes will not do better if hilled to some extent the last thing\\nbefore the vines spread to cover the ground. The earlier\\ncultivation should by all means be flat.\\n10. Rolling in Relation to Soil Moisture\\nThe roller has an extensive nse in many localities\\nin fitting land for crops in the spring or fall. It\\nshonld be nnderstood, however, that when the surface\\nof a field is finished with a heavy roller, it is left in\\na condition in which its moisture will be rapidly lost,\\nand for several reasons\\n1. Firming the surface reestablishes the capillary\\nconnection with the soil below, and the moisture is\\nbrought to the surface quickly from depths as great\\nas four feet. The appearance to the eye is that the\\nground is made more moist, and so it is at the sur-\\nface, as a matter of fact, but it must never be for-\\ngotten that this is at the expense of moisture stored\\ndeep in the ground.\\n2. Rolling leaves the surface smooth and even,\\nso that it absorbs heat rapidlj^ from the sun on a\\nI", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "Rolling in Relation to Soil Moisture 167\\nclear day, and becomes warmer below the surface than\\nground not rolled. This hastens the rate of evapo-\\nration from the surface. Then, too, this smooth sur-\\nface allows the wind velocity to be much greater close\\nto the ground, and on this account the loss of water\\nis increased.\\nIt is often desirable to use the heavy roller in fit-\\nting ground for seed, and sometimes for the express\\npurpose of bringing an increased amount of moisture\\nto the seed, in order to hasten or to ensure germi-\\nnation when the soil has become dry. But when this\\nhas been found desirable, the roller should immedi-\\nately be followed with a light harroAV, in order to\\nrestore a thin mulch, which shall check the loss by\\nevaporation from the surface without at the same\\ntime preventing the rise of water from below to mois-\\nten the soil about the seed.\\nThe press -drill, which has been invented to assist\\ngermination, and avoid some of the bad effects of the\\nroller, is a tool employing a sound principle. The\\nseed is well covered to begin with, and then the soil\\ndirectly above it is firmed by the press -wheel, while\\nthe intervening soil is left loose, to act as a mulch\\nand diminish the loss of water, which would be inevi-\\ntable with the roller. This tool, however, has a much\\nsafer application in the sub -humid regions than it\\nhas in the East, where the soil in the spring is natu-\\nrally more moist, and where, for this reason, there is\\ndanger of the seed being so closely covered that an\\ninsufficient amount of air gets to it to enable it to\\ngerminate properly.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "168 Irrigation and Drainage\\n11. Lessening Destructive Effects of Winds\\n111 sub- humid climates, especially like those of our\\nwestern prairies, where there is a high mean wind\\nvelocity, and in the level districts of humid climates,\\nwhere the soils are light and sandy, with a small\\nwater capacity, and which are lacking in adhesive\\nquality, the fields may suffer greatly at times, not\\nonl} from excessive loss of moisture, but the soil itself\\nmaj^ be greatly damaged by drifting caused by the\\nwinds. Under such conditions, it is a matter of great\\nimportance that the wind velocities close to the sur-\\nface should be reduced as much as possible.\\nWe have, in Wisconsin, extensive areas of light\\nlands which almost every j ear suffer severely from\\nthe drifting action of the winds. On these lands,\\nwherever broad open fields lie unsheltered by any\\nwindbreak, the clearing west and northwest winds\\nwhich follow storms not only rapidly dry out the soil,\\nbut often sweep entirely awaj- crops of grain after\\nthey are 4 inches high, uncovering the roots by the\\nremoval of 1 to 3 inches of the surface soil. It has\\nbeen observed, however, in these districts, that where-\\never there are windbreaks of any sort, even such slight\\nbarriers as fences and even fields of grass, a marked\\nprotection against drifting has been experienced for\\nseveral hundred feet to the leeward of them.\\nIn the case of groves, hedgerows, and fields of\\ngrass, the protection results partlj- from their ten-\\ndency to render the air which passes across them more\\nmoist, and partl}^ by lessening the surface velocity of", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "Lessening Destructive Effects of Winds 169\\nthe wind. The writer has observed that when the\\nrate of evaporation at 20, 40, and 60 feet to the lee-\\nward of a grove of black oak 15 to 20 feet high was\\n11.5 c.e., 11.6 C.C., and 11.9 c.c., respectively, from a\\nwet surface of 27 square inches, it was 14.5, 14.2 and\\n14.7 c.c, at 280, 300 and 320 feet distant, or 24 per\\ncent greater at the three outer stations than at the\\nnearer ones. So, too, a scanty hedge-row produced\\nobserved differences in the rate of evaporation as fol-\\nlows, during an interval of one hour\\nAt 20 feet from the hedge-row the evaporation was 10.3 e.e.\\nAt 150 12.5 c.e.\\nAt 300 13.4 c.c.\\nHere the drying effect of the wind at 300 feet was\\n30 per cent greater than at 20 feet, and 7 per cent\\ngreater than at 150 feet from the hedge.\\nThen, too, when the air came across a clover field\\n780 feet wide the observed rates of evaporation were\\nAt 20 feet from clover 9.3 c.c.\\nAt 150 12.1 c.c.\\nAt 300 13 c.c.\\nOr 40 per cent greater at 300 feet away than at 20 feet,\\nand 7.4 per cent greater than at 150 feet.\\nThe protective influence of grass lands, and the dis-\\nadvantage of ver}^ broad fields on these light lands,\\nwas further shown by the increasingly poorer stand of\\nyoung clover as the eastern margin of these fields was\\napproached, even when the drifting had been inappre-\\nciable. Below are given the number of clover plants", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "170 Irrigation and Drainage\\nper equal areas on three different farms as the distance\\nto the eastward of the grass fields increased No. 1, at\\n50 feet, 574 plants; at 200 feet, 390 plants; at 400 feet,\\n231 plants. No. 2, at 100 feet, 249 plants; at 200 feet,\\n277 plants at 400 feet, 193 plants at 600 feet, 189\\nplants at 800 feet, 138 plants and at 1,000 feet, 48\\nplants. No. 3, at 50 feet, 1,130 plants; at 400 feet, 600\\nplants; at 700 feet, 543 plants.\\nIn these cases the difference in stand appears to\\nhave resulted from an increasing drying action of the\\nwind. On most of the fields, the destructive effects\\nof the winds were very evident to the eye, and aug-\\nmented as the distance from the windbreaks increased.\\nIt appears from these observations, and from the\\nprotection against drifting which is afforded by grass\\nfields, hedgerows, and groves, that a system of rotation\\nshould be adopted, on such lands, which avoids broad,\\ncontinuous fields. The fields should be laid out in nar-\\nrow lands, and alternate ones kept in clover or grass.\\nWindbreaks of suitable trees must also have a beneficial\\neffect upon the crops when maintained along fields, rail-\\nroads, and wagon roads in such places as have been\\ndescribed, and especially in the prairie sections of the\\nsub -h amid regions, where irrigation cannot be prac-\\nticed. It is, of course, true that trees on the margins\\nof fields sap the soil in their immediate vicinity, and\\nthus reduce the yield there but it seems more than\\nprobable that in open, windj^ sections their protective\\ninfluence, which it has been shown they exert, will\\nmuch more than compensate for this where there is a\\ngeneral deficiency of soil moisture.", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV\\nTHE INCREASE IN YIELD DTE TO IRRIGATION IN\\nHUMID CLIMATES\\nIn order to know liow important the right amount\\nof soil moisture, applied at the right time, is, and in\\norder to know whether it will pay to irrigate in humid\\nclimates, it is necessary to learn what yields are possi-\\nble under the best conditions when the crop must\\ndepend upon the natural rainfall, and, side by side\\nwith these in time and place, to measure the possible\\nincrease in yield due to irrigation, if any there be.\\nWhen the study of the importance of soil moisture,\\nand the principles underlying the methods of saving\\nand utilizing it, were begun at the Wisconsin station\\nin 1888, it very early became evident that, in order to\\nlearn just how important it is in plant culture to con-\\nserve the soil moisture, some method must be adopted\\nwhich would permit of giving to the plants under inves-\\ntigation all the water they can use to advantage.\\nThis led to the series of experiments which have been\\nrecorded in the introductory chapter, aiming to meas-\\nure the amount of water which different cultivated\\nplants can use under the conditions of field life. But\\nwhen the results attained under the methods there used\\nshowed that such large yields are possible, it became\\n(171)", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "172 Irrigaiion and Drainage\\nimportant to supplement the rainfall under wholly\\nnormal field conditions, to see if there would then be\\nany notable increase over the yields produced under\\nthe natural field conditions. This led to a series of\\nexperiments to be conducted parallel with those on till-\\nage, to learn how far short of possible yields our actual\\nones are when secured under the best moisture relations\\nat our command and irrigation experiments as checks\\non our tillage experiments were begun, the results of\\nwhich it is important to state.\\nIn conducting these control experiments on irriga-\\ntion, the aim has been to treat the crop growing under\\nthe conditions of the normal rainfall and under those\\nof the rainfall supplemented by irrigation, exactly\\nalike in every way until it became apparent that more\\nwater might be used with advantage, when water was\\napplied to the control plots as often as it seemed de-\\nsirable. No other elements of difference have been\\nintroduced than those growing out of appljdng the\\nadditional water.\\nIMPORTANCE OF THE AMOUNT AND DISTRIBUTION OF\\nWATER IN POTATO CULTURE, AND THE ADVANTAGE\\nOF IRRIGATION IN CLIMATES LIKE WISCONSIN\\nThere have been two seasons woi k with this crop, 1896 and\\n1897, and both years the potatoes have been planted in rows 30\\ninches apart and in hills 15 inches in the row, or else twice that\\ndistance. The ground in each case was given a good dressing of\\nfarmyard manure, plowed in 6 inches deep. Large tubers were\\nnsed for seed, cut two eyes to the piece, and planted with hoe\\nabout 3 inches deep, and the ground harrowed after planting.", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "Increase of Potato Croj) hy Irrigation 173\\nThe Rural New-Yorker has been the chief variety grown, but\\neach year an unnamed variety of the Burbank type has been used\\nto finish out the piece.\\nThe potatoes were planted about the middle of May each year,\\nFig. 26.\\nDifference in yield between Rural New-Yorker potatoes,\\nirrigated and not irrigated, in 1898.\\nFig. 27. Difference in yield between potatoes of Bnrbanli t5T)e irrigated\\nand not irrigated, in 189G.\\nFig. 28. Difference in yield between Rural New-Yorker potatoes,\\nirrigated and not irrigated, in 1897.\\nand given flat cultivation after every rain, or oftener, until the\\nvines were so large as nearly to cover the ground, when they were\\nhilled with a double shovel plow drawn through the center of each\\nrow, forming ridges about 5 inches high, the nose of the shovel\\npassing about 3 inches below the surface of the ground.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "174\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nThe amounts of rainfall and of water applied by irrigation are\\ngiven in the table below\\nRainfall\\nWater\\nof irrigation-\\n1896\\n1897\\n1896\\n1897\\nINCHES\\nINCHES\\nINCHES\\nINCHES\\nMay...\\n6.11\\n.51\\nMay\\nMay\\nJune\\n2.25\\n4.03\\nJune.\\nJune\\nJuly...\\n3.42\\n1.79\\nJuly 10.\\n2.15\\nJuly 20....\\n2.45\\nAug.\\n2.43\\n3.7\\nJuly 21.\\n2.15\\nAug, 18\\n2.45\\nSept...\\n3.73\\n1.73\\nAug. 3\\nAug. 10\\nSept. 3.\\n2.15\\n2.15\\n2.15\\nSept. 8\\n2.45\\nSum.\\n17.94\\n11.76\\n10.75\\n7.35\\nThe distribution of the rainfall during the season can be\\nlearned from the table given on page 108. It will be seen that in\\n1896 the irrigated potatoes had 10.75 inches, and in 1897 7.35\\ninches, more water than the potatoes grown under the natural\\nrainfall conditions.\\nThese differences in the amount of water produced differences\\nof yield, which are shown below in the table, and graphically to\\nthe eye in Figs. 26, 27 and 28. To eliminate the effects of varying\\nsoil conditions, the water was applied to alternate groups of 6 to\\n10 rows, with corresponding intervening groups of rows which\\nreceived no water. There were 16 of these plots in 1896 and 22\\nin 1897, making 38 trials in all, in which there were grown a total\\nof 555 bushels of potatoes, or 33,304.4 pounds.\\nTable showing yield per acre of potatoes irrigated and not irrigated in\\nWisco7isin\\nRural New-Yorker\\n1896\\n1897\\n1896\\n1897\\nMean\\nDifference 105. 1.2\\nLarge\\nIrrigated-\\nSmall\\nNot irrigated\\nLarge Small\\nBU.\\nBU,\\nBU, BUo\\n382\\n12.2\\n280.3 10.2\\n365.8\\n9.1\\n239.6 9.7\\nBuRBANK Type\\n220\\n22.7\\n141.5 16.2\\n302\\n16.8\\n184.9 19.75\\n317.5\\n15.2\\n2ii.e 14", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "Increase of Cabbage Croj) by Irrigation 175\\nThere is thus shown a difference of 105.9 bushels of merchant-\\nable tubers per acre, as an average of two years, in favor of the\\nlarger water supply.\\nEFFECT OF SUPPLEMENTING THE RAINFALL IN WIS-\\nCONSIN FOR CABBAGE CULTURE\\nIn the work with cabbage, the rows were set 30 inches apart,\\nand in half of the area the plants were set 15 inches apart in the\\nrow, and on the balance of the area 30 inches apart, of the variety\\nFottler s Drumhead. There were, in all, 22 alternating plots of 6\\nrows each, one half irrigated and the balance not. The soil was\\na rather heavy clay loam, which had been heavily manured the\\nprevious year, and had grown a crop of cabbage and cauliflower,\\nbut nothing was added this season. Flat and frequent cultivation\\nwas given until the plants were large and nearly covered the ground,\\nJuly 21, when the first irrigation was made, the irrigated rows\\nbeing furrowed the same as the potatoes, and not again disturbed.\\nThe mean weight of heads produced under the two treatments\\nwas as follows\\nThin planting Thick planting\\nIrrigated Not irrig. Irrigated Not irrig.\\nLBS. LBS. LBS. LBS.\\nFirm heads 7.6 6.95 5.13 4.46\\nLoose heads 4.88 4.33 3.23 2.39\\nThe weight of the heads dressed for market, computed for one\\nacre, was as expressed in the following table:\\nThin planting v Thick planting\\nIrrigated Not irrig. Diff. Irrigated Not irrig. Diff.\\nLBS. LBS. LBS. LBS. LBS. LBS.\\nFirm heads 30,610 29,480 1,130 46,590 40.100 6,490\\nLoose heads 6,227 4,624 1,603 7,688 5,943 1,745\\nTotal 36,837 34,104 2,733 54,278 46^043 8,235\\nLeaves and stumps.. 42,730 39,220 3,510 64,100 57,630 6,470\\nGrand total.... 79,567 73,324 6,243 118,378 103,673 14,705\\nTons 39.78 36.66 3.12 59.19 51.84 7.35", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "176 Irrigation and Drainage\\nThe amount of water given to this crop was 8.245 inches, in\\nfour applications, July 21, Aug. 3 and 10, and Sept. 3, 2.061\\ninches being applied each time.\\nThe difference between equal numbers of rows of cabbage\\nirrigated and not irrigated is shown in Fig. 29. Were the cabbage\\ngrown for green fall and early winter feed for stock it will be seen\\nthat the close setting gives a difference in favor of irrigation\\nFig. 29. Difference in yield between cabbage, irrigated and not irrigated.\\namounting to 7.35 tons per acre. This occurred, too, under con-\\nditions in which the plots not irrigated received considerable\\nwater from seepage from the heavy irrigation of a piece of\\nmeadow.\\nThe same season that these experiments were made with cab-\\nbage, similar ones were conducted with mangold -wurzels and with\\nturnips. But while a good yield of beets was secured per acre,\\nnamely, 15.7 tons, there was only 18 pounds difference, the six\\nrows of irrigated mangolds yielding 5,100 pounds and those not\\nirrigated 5,082 pounds. The turnips, on account of a blight,\\ndid nothing under either treatment, and the same was true foi\\nrape.\\nTHE EFFECT OF SUPPLEMENTING THE RAINFALL WITH\\nIRRIGATION ON THE YIELD OF CORN\\nDuring four consecutive years we have grown corn upon one\\narea, irrigating a part and reserving another part not irri-\\ngated, as a check. The soil of this plot is medium clay loam.", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0096\u00a0Pxi\\nIncrease of Corn Croj) by Irrigation\\n177\\nrust before beginning the experiments it had been in clover, and\\nwas dressed with farmyard manure at the rate of 44 loads per acre\\nbefore plowing, in the spring of 1894. Since this time it had re-\\nceived no manure or fertilizers of any kind, one object of the\\nexperiment being to ascertain whether under irrigation the land\\nrapidly deteriorates in productiveness.\\nEach season the corn has been planted very close, in rows 30\\ninches apart and in hills 15 inches in the row, working upon the\\nhypothesis that when an abundance of water is supplied more\\nplants may be grown upon the same area, the hypothesis having\\nbeen suggested by the large yields universally secured in the\\nexperimental cylinders.\\nThe number of stalks in a hill has varied, but usually as\\nmany as 3 to 5 stalks have been allowed to mature. Both flint\\nand Pride of the North dent corn have been grown each year,\\nand one season a part of the area was planted with rows 36\\ninstead of 30 inches apart. The table which follows gives the\\nyields of water-free matter per acre, together with the rainfall of\\nthe growing season and water added by irrigation:\\nNot Irrigated\\nIn\\nigated\\nDiffer\\nence\\nKind\\nWater\\nDry\\nWater\\nDry\\nWater\\nDry\\nof corn\\nused\\nmatter\\nused\\nmatter\\nused\\nmatter\\nINCHES\\nLBS.\\nINCHES\\nLBS.\\nINCHES\\nLBS.\\nFlint\\nDent\\n8.15\\n7,916\\n7,426\\n16.76\\n11,080\\n9,625\\n8.61\\n3,164\\n2,199\\nFlint\\nDent\\n4.48\\n2,458\\n3,144\\n31.08\\n10,048\\n11,125\\n26.6\\n7,590\\n7.981\\nFlint\\nDent\\n15.02\\n8,129\\n8,450\\n27.07\\n10,320\\n10,280\\n12.03\\n2,191\\n1,830\\nFlint\\nDent\\n10.66\\n6,766\\n6.853\\n16.36\\n8,571\\n8,438\\n5.7\\n1,805\\n1,585\\n1894\\n1895\\n1896\\n1897\\nIt will be seen, from the data of this table, that there has been\\nduring the four years a mean gain due to the increased water sup-\\nply amounting to 3,543 pounds of water-free substance, while the\\nmean yield under the season s rainfall with the best of tillage has\\nbeen 6,393 pounds per acre, or an increase of 55 per cent. The\\nsmallest mean gain realized in any year has been 24.9 per cent\\nand the largest 278 per cent.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "178\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nIn Fig. 30 is shown the difference between tne corn on land\\nirrigated and not irrigated in 1895, when there was the largest ob-\\nFig. 30. Difference in yield between maize, thickly seeded, irrigated\\nand not irrigated, in a di-y season.\\nserved difference in the yield. Fig. 25 shows the difference where\\nthe rows are 44 inches apart instead of JO inches, as in the former\\ncase.\\nTHE EFFECT OF SUPPLEMENTING THE RAINFALLL WITH\\nIRRIGATION ON THE YIELD OF CLOVER AND HAY\\nThe crop of hay is, perhaps, the one above all others among\\nthe general farm crops which may be made to respond most effec-\\ntively to irrigation in humid climates. Indeed, it is the chief on-\\nin Europe which has been grown by irrigation north of Ital", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "Increase of Hay Crop hy Irrigation 179\\nand southern l^ rance. Reference has already been made to\\nwater meadows.\\nWe have shown in another place that the average yield of hay\\nper acre in thirteen states in this country was, for 1879, only 1.1\\ntons. It is true, however, that good soils, well managed, may be\\nmade to yield most years an average of possibly 1.5 tons per acre.\\nThere will be seasons, however, for these soils when the yield will\\ndrop back to 1 ton per acre. Again, those seasons are rare for\\nmost soils in the United States which will permit them to produce\\nthree -fourths of a ton of hay per acre as a second crop without\\nirrigation.\\nOur experiments in irrigating clover for a second crop gave\\n1.798 tons, 2.035 tons, and 1.773 tons of hay, containing 15 per\\ncent of moisture, for the years 1895, 1896, and 1897 respectively.\\nIn irrigating the first crop of clover, the yields have been 4.01 tons\\nper acre, in a case of sub -irrigation through tile drains in 1895,\\nand 2.G71 and 2.65 tons in 1897, which were surface irrigated,\\nmaking an average for the two crops of 4.979 tons of hay per acre\\nso thoroughly cured as to contain 85 per cent of dry matter.\\nThese results, it should be understood, are derived by making an\\nactual determination of the dry matter in each crop and comput-\\ning the weights of hay from the amount of dry matter.\\nIt will be observed that these yields are more than four times\\nthe mean yield of the thirteen states cited in another place. In\\naddition to the first and second crops, there has been each time an\\nexcellent third crop, which could be used for fall pasture, and\\neasily double in quantity the non- irrigated fall feed of the best\\nseasons. Fig. 31 is a view of the second crop of 1895, the third\\ncrop on the same ground, giving pasture for 58 adult sheep 31 days\\non 3.2 acres.\\nA CROP OF BARLEY AND A CROP OF HAY THE\\nSAME SEASON\\nIn the spring of 1897 we seeded a piece of ground to clover\\nrith barley, irrigating a part of the barley twice, both to see what\\nle effect would be upon the yield of barley and upon the clover", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "180\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nwhich had been sown with it. It so happened that immediately-\\nafter each time of irrigating the barley a good rain followed, and\\nthe difference in yield of grain and straw per acre was small, as\\nstated below:\\nAir-dry straw\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lbs.\\nAir-dry grain bu.\\nIrrigated\\nNot irrigated\\nDifference\\n5,735\\n5,133\\nG02\\n45.67\\n44.25\\n1.42\\nBut the effect on the clover was very marked. In order to\\nbring np tlie clover on the areas not irrigated, the ground was\\nFig. 31. Second crop of clover hay on iiTigated ground.\\nirrigated immediately after cutting the barley, July 23. Two other\\nirrigations were given the ground, and as a result there was a crop\\nof mixed clover and barley, cut on Sept. 22, which equaled 1,36\\ntons of hay. The barley cut with the clover resulted from the\\ngermination of seed which shelled in harvesting the grain, and\\nwas just heading out when it was cut to put into the silo.\\nIt is very evident, from these results, that it will be possible", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "Increase of Small Fruit Crop bij Irrigation 181\\nto seed clover with either oats or barley, and by cutting the first\\ncrop early for hay and then irrigating, a second crop of hay equal\\nat least to one ton per acre may usually be taken, besides making\\nit certain that a good stand of clover is secured for the next year.\\nTHE EFFECT OF SUPPLEMENTING THE RAINFALL FOR\\nSTRAWBERRIES\\nThe strawberry is a crop which will respond in a marked man-\\nner to judicious applications of water in most parts of the United\\nStates suited to its growth, as the results secured at this station\\nby Professor Goff clearly show. His yields x er acre were:\\nIrrigated Not irrigated Difference\\nBU. BU. BU.\\n1894 214.6 109.3 105.3\\n1895 272.9 32.2 240.7\\nMean 243.8 70.8 173\\nIt is here seen that the irrigated yield was more than three\\ntimes as large as that under natural rainfall conditions and not\\nonly was the yield this much larger, but the quality of the berries\\nwas also improved by the irrigation, they being larger and more\\nsalable.\\nWhile we are able to cite no critical data regarding the\\nadvantage of irrigation in humid climates on blackberries, rasp-\\nberries, currants and gooseberries, the unquestioned fact that these\\ndo very frequently suffer severely from the effects of drought\\nleaves no room to doubt that these, like the strawberries, would\\nbe greatly benefited by irrigation in very many seasons.\\nCLOSER PLANTING MADE POSSIBLE BY IRRIGATION\\nIt has been pointed out that in sub -humid climates\\nthe limiting factor which determines the number of\\nplants which may develop to advantage in a given soil\\nis the amount of available moisture but that in coun-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "182 Irrigation and Drainage\\ntries where there is an abundant and timely distribution\\nof rain, or where irrigation is practiced, the number\\nof plants per acre may be so far increased that the\\nlimiting factors become the available plant-food stored\\nin the soil, the amount of sunshine which falls upon\\nthe area, or the circulation of air about the assimilat-\\ning foliage.\\nIt is very evident that were the amount of available\\nwater for crop production the only factor which de-\\ntermines the number of plants which can be grown per\\nunit area, the methods of irrigation would make it pos-\\nsible to greatly increase the yield of almost any crop\\nin the most humid of climates. But there are many\\nlimiting factors which set rigid bounds beyond which\\nirrigation may not pass.\\nSufficient hreathing room in the soil. Since the roots\\nof all cultivated plants demand free oxygen in the soil\\nfor their respiration, and since not only the possible\\nquantity of free oxygen in the soil, but the rate at\\nwhich it may be supplied, decreases as the quantity of\\nwater in the soil increases, and since the closer the\\nplants are set upon the ground the more densely crowded\\nmust the roots be in the soil, and the more rapid must\\nbe the interchange of gases between the soil and the\\nair above in order to meet the increased demands for\\ngrowth, it is plain that the demand for free oxj^gen in\\nthe soil sets a rigid limit beyond which closer planting\\nmust not be pushed.\\nIt must be kept ever in mind that the soil is like a\\nvery poorly ventilated assembly hall, which may easily\\nbe so crowded as not only to produce discomfiture to", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "Factors Limiting Closeness of Planting 183\\nits occupants, but disaster as well. Nor do the roots\\nof the plants which occupy the field constitute the only\\ndemand for free oxygen in the soil, for the various\\nfermenting germs which transform humus into avail-\\nable nitrates must have free oxygen, or the all-\\nimportant nitric acid cannot be made, and the farm-\\nyard manures applied to the soil must lie there unal-\\ntered and of no avail.\\nSoil temperature reduced hy too close planting. Then,\\nagain, too heavy verdure above the soil so completely\\nabsorbs the heat from the surrounding air and dissi-\\npates it again into space, that the soil temperature can-\\nnot rise high enough to produce the maximum rate\\nof solution and production of plant -food, nor the\\nmaximum root pressure so essential to sending the dis-\\nsolved and prepared food into the foliage above, where\\nassimilation takes place while the humus and ma-\\nnure-fermenting germs themselves must work the slower\\nthe lower the soil temperature is after it falls below\\n98\u00c2\u00b0 F. It is true that available nitrates may be applied\\nto the soil direct, and other of the ash ingredients in\\nsoluble form may be added, or the soil may receive\\nthorough and repeated tillage before the crop is put\\nupon it, and thus a supply in advance be generated,\\nwhich leaves more of the oxygen and of the soil warmth\\nfor the service of the roots; but neither of these con-\\nditions can be attained except at added cost.\\nThe sunshine itself is limited. Even when we come\\nto the item of sunshine itself, it is easy to so increase\\nthe number of plants that not enough sunshine can be\\nabsorbed to produce normal growth, and a diminished", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "184 Irrigation and Drainage\\nyield or inferior quality results. The taller the plauts\\nwhich are brought togethe-r, the farther apart as a\\nrule must they be placed, in order that sufficient sun-\\nlight for the best results can be had. The flint varie-\\nties of maize are readily grown closer together than the\\nsmaller of the dent varieties, and these, in their turn,\\nmay stand closer on the ground than the large southern\\nvarieties.\\nNeither the starches nor the cellulose out of which\\nplant tissues are built can be properly organized and\\nlaid down in too feeble a light, for its actinic power is\\ndemanded to accomplish this work, just as it is in pho-\\ntography. When it is remembered that an instanta-\\nneous exposure of a plate in the bright sunshine may\\naccomplish more chemical change in the negative than\\ncan be done in two minutes in the diffused light of a\\nwell-lighted room, it can be readily understood that the\\nwork of assimilation in the lower leaves in close plant-\\ning must be greatly enfeebled.\\nIt is for this reason, apparently, that ears will not\\nform on stalks of maize planted too closely, and that\\nthey form, more abundantly in closer planting on the\\nsmall, low varieties than on those which are taller.\\nIt is for the same reason, too, that too closely\\nplanted crops of almost any kind have weak stems and\\nare unable to stand up well, often lodging neither the\\nstarches for the kernels, in the former case, nor the\\ncellulose in the latter for the building of the frame-\\nwork, are able to form rapidly, and abnormal growth\\nis the result. Whoever has entered and emerged from\\na tunnel has been surprised at the short distance from\\nI", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "Factors Limiting Closeness of Planting 185\\nthe nioutli at which the tunnel becomes dark the re-\\npeated reflections from the walls soon absorb completely\\nall of the light which enters. It is the same way with\\nclose planting, especially if the individuals are tall, the\\nupper parts of the tall plants absorbing just as\\nmuch light as the same length of shorter plants, hence\\nleaving less light to work in the foliage and stems of\\nthe lower parts.\\nPossible insiifficiencii of carbon dioxide in close\\nplanting. When a crop like maize, which grows so\\ntall and spreads its leaves so broadly, is planted closelj^\\nit seems not impossible that on days of exceptionally\\nbright sunshine and when very little wind is moving,\\nthere may be such rapid consumption of carbon dioxide\\nfrom the air as to so far reduce its amount that an\\ninadequate supply may actually reach the plants.\\nIt has been shown on a preceding page that a clover\\ncrop 3 ielding 4,500 pounds of hay per acre demands\\nfor its carbon all of the carbon dioxide contained in a\\nlayer of uniform density covering the acre 3,503 feet\\ndeep. But in the case of a corn crop, in which the yield\\nof water -free matter has exceeded 14,000 pounds, the\\nvolume of air required to give up its carbon dioxide\\nmust have exceeded that above more than threefold,\\nor a column of uniform density exceeding 10,509 feet\\nin height. Fully 80 per cent of this assimilation of\\ncarbon by the corn plant must take place in the 50\\ndays following July 1. Imagine, if you will, a field of\\ncorn 160 rods long and 1 rod wide, enclosed by a\\ntransparent structure having the same floor space and\\nrising to a height of 10,000 feet, so as to enclose the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "186 Irrigation and Drainage\\nvolume of air stated above. Now, let this structure be\\nprovided with a ceiling without weight, which is lifted\\nas the corn grows in height. This imaginary ceiling is\\nto separate the volume of air stored above from the\\nmoving air in the corn field below, and to admit\\nthrough a changing doorway a steady stream whose\\ncross -section is that of the transverse section of the\\nroom occupied by the corn. How rapidly must this\\nstream of air flow in order to discharge 80 per cent of\\nthe volume contained in the structure in the sunshine\\nhours of 50 days The maximum number of sunshine\\nhours in the latitude of New York is about 623. If we\\nsuppose the corn to be 1 foot high July 1 and 10 feet\\nhigh on August 19, the ceiling to have risen uniformly\\nin the meantime, so that the stream of air increased in\\ndepth from 1 foot to 10 feet then, taking the mean\\ndepth of the moving air current at 5.5 feet, its hourly\\nvelocity, in order to convey the 80 per cent of air\\nacross the field, must have been 1.167 miles. On the\\nother hand, let us suppose the corn field to be square,\\nso that the area is as compact as possible, so that a\\nstream of air now about 13 rods wide instead of 1 is\\npassing across it. The required velocity to convey the\\n80 per cent of air across the field is now only one-\\nninth of a mile per hour and less than 10 feet per\\nsecond. Since the yield of dry matter per acre is the\\nlargest we have yet raised under field conditions, and\\nthe computed velocities above are so small, it does not\\nappear likely that an insufficiency of carbon dioxide in\\nthe air can ever be a serious limiting factor to the\\ncloseness of planting when irrigation is practiced.", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "Maximum Limit of Productiveness for Maize 187\\nMAXIMUM LIMIT OF PRODUCTIVENESS FOR MAIZE\\nIn order that some idea of the possible maximum yields of\\nmaize per acre might be formed, we have gone into the fields\\nwhen the corn was mature, and selected 40 of the largest stalks\\nbearing the largest ears we could find, and have determined the\\nwater-free matter in both ears and stalks, in order to secure a\\nmeasure of the mean maximum adult plant to use as a basis of\\ncomputation for this problem. The results were these:\\n40 stalks of Pride of the North maize contained 15.6 lbs. water-free substance.\\n40 ears 16.1\\n40 13.7 shelled corn.\\n40 2.4 cobs.\\nUsing these data, we may compute the maximum possible\\nyields per acre where different degrees of closeness of planting are\\nadopted, supposing that every plant produces a maximum-sized\\nstalk, bearing a maximum ear corresponding with the data above.\\nThen maize planted in hills 4 feet x 4 feet, and 4 stalks in a\\nhill, or in drills 4 feet x 1 foot, might yield 8,630 pounds dry mat-\\nter, 3,730 pounds kiln-dried shell corn, equal to 66.61 bushels, or\\n73.27 bushels when containing 10 per cent of moisture.\\nWith maize planted in hills 44 inches x 44 inches, 4 stalks in\\na hill, or 44 inches x 11 inches in drills, the maximum yield per\\nacre would be 10,270 pounds dry matter, 4,439 pounds kiln-dried\\nshelled corn, equal to 79.27 bushels, or 87.2 when containing 10\\nper cent of moisture.\\nMaize planted 42 inches x 42 inches, 4 stalks in a hill, or in\\ndrills 42 inches x 10.5 inches, might yield 11,270 pounds of water-\\nfree matter and 4,871 pounds of kiln-dried shelled corn, equal to\\n87 bushels, or to 95.7 bushels when containing 10 per cent of\\nmoisture.\\nMaize planted 36 inches x 36 inches, 4 stalks in a hill, or in\\ndrills 36 inches x9 inches, might yield 15,340 pounds of dry matter\\nand 6,600 pounds of kiln-dried shelled corn, equal to 118.4\\nbushels, or to 130.27 bushels when containing 10 per cent of water.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "188 Irrigation and Drainage\\nMaize planted 30 inches x 30 inches, 4 stalks in a hill, or 30\\ninches x 7.5 inches in drills, might yield 22,090 pounds of dry\\nmatter per acre and 9,574 pounds of kiln-dried shelled corn,\\nequal to 170.4 bushels, or 187.44 bushels containing ]0 per cent\\nof water.\\nMaize planted 30 inches x 15 inches, 4 stalks in a hill, or in\\ndrills 30 inches x 3% inches, might yield, if every stalk equaled the\\naverage of the 40 stalks cited above, 44,180 pounds of dry matter\\nper acre and 19,148 pounds of kiln-dried shelled corn, equal to\\n340.8 bushels, or 374.88 bushels when containing 10 per cent of\\nmoisture.\\nSome of the yields here computed have been realized under\\nfield conditions, but the higher ones never have been and prob-\\nably never can be, under any system of culture as a single crop.\\nIn our experimental work with the large cylinders, the largest\\nyield we have obtained was 34,730 pounds of water-free sub-\\nstance when 4 stalks occupied a soil space of 1.767 square feet,\\nwhich is closer planting than the closest given above, namely\\nrows 30 inches apart, with corn in drills, stalks inches apart.\\nThe largest yield we have secured in the field was on an\\narea of irrigated ground measuring about 2,400 square feet, where\\nthe amount of dry matter per acre was 29,000 pounds, or 14.5\\ntons. In this case, the corn was planted in rows 30 inches apart\\nand in hills 15 inches apart, with 3 to 5 stalks in a hill. The area\\nwas not an isolated plot, but was a selected spot in an irrigated\\narea where, on account of a sag in the ground, the corn had\\nreceived more than the average amount of water. The closeness\\nof planting in this case was equivalent to drilled rows with 1 stalk\\nevery 3% inches, which is the same as the closest given above,\\nbut the corn was a variety of flint maize, not dent.\\nTHE OBSERVED YIELDS OF MAIZE PER ACRE PLANTED\\nIN DIFFERENT DEGREES OF THICKNESS AND WITH\\nDIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF WATER\\nIt has been possible, with our irrigation, to make a direct test\\nof the influence of the amount of water on closeness of planting", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "Maximum Limit of Production for Maize 189\\nmaize, and thus to demonstrate whether, with the aid of irriga-\\ntion, it will be possible in humid climates to secure larger yields\\nby planting closer together.\\nThe problem this year has been tested with two varieties of\\nmaize. Pride of the North, and a white dent of unknown name.\\nEach has been planted in rows 44 inches apart and in hills 15\\ninches in the row. The white dent was thinned to 4 stalks, 3\\nstalks, 2 stalks, and 1 stalk in a hill, and the Pride of the North\\nto 3 stalks, 2 stalks, and 1 stalk in a hill. It was found, after the\\nstalks had attained some size after thinning, that the white dent\\nthrew out 1 and sometimes 2 suckers where it had been thinned\\nto 1 stalk. These were allowed to stand, rather than incur the\\nrisk of introducing greater irregularities which would be unknown.\\nBut few of these suckers matured ears, and hence their effect has\\nbeen to increase the amount of stalk in proportion to the ear, and\\npossibly even to reduce the weight of ears, particularly on the\\nground not irrigated. The Pride of the North was planted on\\nground from which hay had been cut three consecutive years, and\\nin which a fair amount of clover was maintained, the land having\\nbeen irrigated. The white dent was grown upon ground from\\nwhich two crops of cabbage had been taken, and which had been\\nirrigated for both crops. Preparatory to planting the first crop of\\ncabbage, after turning under the clover sod, the ground had been\\ngiven a dressing of partly rotted stable manure amounting to 68\\ntons per acre. In addition to this, a mixture of commercial fer-\\ntilizers consisting of 157 pounds of bone meal, 25 pounds Armour s\\nall soluble fertilizer and 6 pounds of nitrate of soda was sown\\nbroadcast upon the ground Aug. 16. Neither manure nor fertil-\\nizers of any kind were given to the soil of either piece for the\\nseason the corn was grown nor the year before.\\nIn both cases the corn was harrowed before coming up, and\\ncultivated twice in a row until too large to ivork longer. The\\nseveral areas bearing corn of different degrees of thickness were\\ndivided into three sub-plots, and the middle one in each case was\\nnot irrigated, while the two adjacent ones were.\\nAt maturity the corn was husked, and the amount of water-\\nfree substance in both ear and stalk determined in each case.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "190\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nThe photo- engravings, Figs. 32, 33, 34 and 35 (pages 192, 193),\\nstow the relative amounts of corn husked from each plot and the\\nareas upon which these were grown, while in the table below are\\ngiven the yields per acre:\\nWhite Dent\\n4 stalks\\n3 stalks 2 stalks\\n1 stalk\\nDry\\nmatter\\nShelled\\nDry\\nmatter\\nDry\\nShelled matter\\nShelled\\nDry\\nmatter\\nShelled\\nper acre\\ncorn\\nper acre\\ncorn per acre\\ncorn\\nper acre\\ncorn\\nLBS.\\nBU.\\nLBS.\\nBU. LBS.\\nCorn Irrigated\\nBU.\\nLBS.\\nBU.\\n11,426\\n53.44\\n12,567\\n63.23 11,712\\n66.01\\n9,554\\n49.53\\nCorn not Irrigated\\n8,758 30.38 9,126 39.45 7.931 48.66 7,354 39.03\\nDifference in Yield\\n2,668 23.06 3,441 23.78 3,181 17.35 2,200 10.5\\nIn the case of the Pride of the North, the corn was planted\\n3 stalks, 2 stalks, and 1 stalk in a hill, and the yields in this case\\nwere as follows\\nPride of the North Dent\\nDry matter\\nShelled\\nDry matter Shelled\\nJ. hiai\\nDry matter\\nK. V\\nShelled\\nper acre\\ncorn\\nper acre corn\\nper acre\\ncorn\\nLBS,\\nBU.\\nLBS. BU.\\nCorn Irrigated\\nLBS.\\nBU.\\n12,300\\n73.24\\n11.350 69.62\\nCorn not Irrigated\\n8,944\\n55.29\\n10,265\\n45.20\\n9,328 47.79\\nDifference\\n8,536\\n52.65\\n2.035\\n28.04\\n2,022 21.83\\n408\\n3.64\\nIt will be seen from these tables that the yield of water-free\\nsubstance per acre was largest in every case where the corn was\\nplanted 3 stalks in a hill every 15 inches, and in rows 44 inches\\napart. It is a significent fact that this is true, not only with both", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "Yields of Maize tvith Irrigation 191\\nvarieties of corn, but. also where the corn was irrigated and where\\nit was not irrigated. It will be seen, further, that the smallest\\nyield of dry matter per acre was produced where the smallest\\namount of seed was used, namely, where 1 stalk grew every 15\\ninches but one-third the number of plants produced about three-\\nfourths as much dry matter per acre as did the larger number of\\nplants.\\nIt must be understood, however, that so far as mere water\\nis concerned, the thinnest planting had decidedly the advantage,\\nas no effort was made, even on the ground irrigated, to make\\nthe water applied proportional to the number of plants and, there-\\nfore, to the evaporating surface. Whether making the amount\\nof water proportional to the number of plants would have materi-\\nally increased the yields of the ithicker seeding, is a problem\\nwhich awaits demonstration. Indeed, we do not, as yet, know\\nthat the thinnest seeding had all of the water which could be used\\nto advantage, even where irrigation was practiced. But the fact\\nthat the smaller variety of maize. Pride of the North, the one\\nwhich produced no suckers, and, therefore, the one which more\\nnearly represented 1 stalk every 15 inches, only gave an increase\\nof 408 pounds of dry matter per acre for the 7.642 inches of water\\nadded by irrigation to the rainfall of 10.06 inches, appears to show\\nthat this corn found in the 10.66 inches of rain nearly all the\\nwater it could use to advantage. This view is strengthened,\\nalso, by the fact that the theoretical yield of dry matter per\\nacre for the maize, computed from the data in the table on\\npage 187, is 8,848 pounds, only 312 pounds more than was\\nobserved.\\nLooking at the yield of kiln-dried shelled corn per acre, it\\nwill be seen that here a somewhat different relation holds, the\\nlargest crop with the white dent variety being secured from 2\\nstalks in a hill every 15 inches but with the smaller variety of\\nPride of the North the largest yield of shelled corn coincided\\nwith the 3 stalks in a hill where irrigation was practiced but\\nwhere the natural rainfall alone produced the crop, the largest\\nyield was associated with the thinnest seeding, or 1 stalk every\\n15 inches in the row. It is a noteworthy fact, too, that the 7.642", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "192\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\ninches of water added by irrigation only increased the grain yield\\n3.64 bushels per acre on the thinnest seeding, appearing to show\\nFig. 32. Maize, irrigated and not irrigated, four stalks in a hill,\\nmiddle section not irrigated.\\nthat for this soil and rainfall there was very nearly the right num-\\nber of plants in the row.\\n^ji\\n-iimMM ^^4:m:^Mli%d #^4\\nFig. 33. Maize, irrigated and not irrigated, three stalks in a hill,\\nmiddle section not irrigated.\\nIn regard to the yields from the thicker seeding, it must be\\nsaid that it does not follow from the experiments that they might\\nnot have been quite different if, in the application of water to the\\nseveral plots, the amounts had been made proportional to the\\nnumber of plants growing on the area for it may fairly be pre-", "height": "3210", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "Influence of Thick Seeding on Development 193\\nsumed, until positive demonstration shall prove to the contrary,\\nthat in case there was a deficiency of soil moisture for the thick\\nWfW k\\nFig. 34. Maize, irrigated and not irrigated, two stalks in a hill,\\nmiddle section not irrigated.\\nseeding, a larger supply would have increased the yield of shelled\\ncorn as well as the total amount of dry matter.\\n^L\u00c2\u00abi]^\\n\u00c2\u00ab^\u00c2\u00aba*jc1^SaJ1^^5\\nm\\\\\\nFig. 35. Maize. Irrigated and not irrigated, one stalk in a liill,\\nmiddle section not irrigated.\\nINFLUENCE OF THICK SEEDING AND IRRIGATION ON\\nTHE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLANT\\nIt was observed, the first year the maize was planted thickly\\nand irrigated, that the corn did not appear to develop quite nor-\\nM", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "194 Irrigation and Drainage\\nmally, the tassels coming into bloom before the silks were ready to\\nreceive the pollen, and it looked then as though the failure to\\ndevelop the normal amount of ears might result from this ab-\\nnormal development, in time, of the staminate and pistillate\\nflowers.\\nThe facts are that very few kernels at all formed on the non-\\nirrigated dent variety, and only imperfect ears matured on the\\nflint variety while on the irrigated plots very many ears never\\nfilled at all, and with many of those which did develop ears, the\\nkernels did not cover the entire cob, it being very often observed\\nthat no kernels at all formed at the butt of the ear, and sometimes\\nnone even half way to the tip. Whether the thick seeding and\\nrapid growth stimulated by irrigation retards the development of\\nthe ear by shading, or overstimulates the maturing of the tassel\\nso as to interfere with the proper fertilization, cannot be decided\\nfrom data yet at hand, although the appearance of the plants\\nlooks very much as though such an abnormal development had\\nbeen brought about.\\nThe nodes of the stalks are certainly lengthened by the close\\nplanting and irrigation practiced, but not all are equally affected.\\nIf it is true that a certain intensity of sunlight is required for the\\nproper maturing of the ear, it might be anticipated that the effect\\nof the shading would stimulate a greater elongation of the lower\\nthan of the upper nodes of the stem, thus placing the ear in more\\nintense light. To ascertain whether any such change as this had\\noccurred, measurements were made of 40 stalks of irrigated thick\\nplanting, and a corresponding number of plants not so closely\\nplanted and not irrigated, of Pride of the North dent, with the\\nresult that in the non- irrigated corn the height of the axil bear-\\ning the ear was 46.82 per cent of the height from the ground to\\nthe base of the tassel while that of the irrigated corn was 55.2\\nper cent of the height. That is to say, the ear axil in the thickly\\nplanted irrigated corn was raised 8.38 per cent nearer to the\\ntassel.\\nIn a second set of measurements, with the same variety of\\ncorn, the height of the axil bearing the ear was 49.44 per cent of\\nthe height of the tassel above the ground, while under the condi-", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "Influence of Thick Seeding on Development 195\\ntions of irrigation the height of the axil was 56.94 per cent of the\\nheight of the tassel, making a difference in this ease of 7.5 per\\ncent in the same direction. In the case of a variety of flint corn,\\nhowever, the conditions are the reverse of those just cited, the axil\\nbearing the ear being 41.16 per cent of the height of the tassel,\\nwhile on the ground irrigated this height is 39.59 per cent of the\\nheight of the tassel above the ground. The case is, therefore, not\\nwithout exception as tending to show that the deficiency of light\\nmodifies the plant in the manner pointed out.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V\\nTHE AMOUNT AND MEASUREMENT OF WATER REQUIRED\\nFOR IRRIGATION\\nThere is no problem of greater or more fundamen-\\ntal importance to the irrigator than that which deals\\nwith the amount of water required to produce paying\\nyields when correctly and economically handled in the\\nproduction of crops of various kinds. The problem is\\nan extremely complex one, which has received as yet\\nvery inadequate systematic study on a rational basis,\\nsuch as the exigencies of the case demand.\\nTHE MAXIMUM DUTY OF WATER IN CROP\\nPRODUCTION\\ni\\nA given quantity of water applied to the soil, either\\nin the form of rain or by methods of irrigation, renders\\nits greatest service when the whole of it is taken up by\\nthe roots of the crop growing upon the ground, leaving\\nnone to be lost by surface evaporation or by percolation,\\nunless, indeed, some soil leaching is indispensable to\\nunimpaired fertility. Were it practicable to establish\\nand maintain field conditions of culture which would\\ninsure that all water lost from the soil should take\\n(196)", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "The Duty of Water 197\\nplace through the foliage of the crop being fed, then a\\nvery small rainfall during the growing season, and a\\nvery small amount of water added by irrigation, would\\nsuffice for the production of large yields.\\nIn other words, the duty of water in crop produc-\\ntion is determined by the necessary losses (1) by\\ntranspiration through the plant (2) by surface evapo-\\nration from the soil; and (3) by surface and under-\\ndrainage. The more these sources of loss may be cur-\\ntailed, the larger will be the duty of water in both arid\\nand humid regions.\\nIn countries where irrigation must be practiced in\\norder to successfully grow crops, skillful management\\nmay almost wholly prevent loss by drainage, and loss\\nby surface evaporation from the soil can be made\\nrelatively very small, so that the major loss may\\nbe that which is transpired through the plant itself.\\nSo, too, in humid climates, the losses during the grow-\\ning season by both drainage and surface evaporation\\nmay be greatly reduced through skillful, intelligent\\npractice.\\nIt will, therefore, be helpful, in forming an estimate\\nof the possible duty of water, to use the data already\\npresented in another place to compute the minimum\\nnumber of acre -inches of water which may be made to\\nproduce yields of different amounts under the condi-\\ntions where no drainage takes place, and where surface\\nevaporation is made as small as it can well be. The\\nresults of such a calculation are given in the table\\nwhich follows:", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "198\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nTable showing the highest probable duty of water for different yields per acre\\nof different crops\\nBushels per acre\\n15\\n20\\n30\\n40\\n50 60\\n1\\n70\\n80\\n100\\n200\\n300\\n400\\nName of crop\\nLeast number of acre-inches of water\\nWTieat\\n4.5\\n3.21\\n2.35\\n2.52\\n6\\n4.28\\n3.13\\n3.36\\n.41\\n9\\n6.42\\n5.70\\n5.04\\n.62\\n12\\n8.56\\n6.27\\n6.72\\n.83\\n15\\n10.7\\n7.84\\n8.4\\n1.03\\n18\\n12.84\\nBarley\\n14.98\\n15.68\\n16.77\\n2.07\\n4.14\\n6.2\\nOats\\nMaize\\n9.40\\n10.08\\n1.24\\n10.98 12.54\\n11.75 13.43\\n1.45 1.65\\nPotatoes\\n3.27\\n1\\nTons per acre\\n1\\n2\\n3\\n4\\n6\\n8\\n10\\n12\\n14\\n16\\n18\\n20\\nLeast number of acre-inches of water\\nClover hay,\\n15 per cent water\\nCorn with ears,\\n15 percent water.\\nCorn silage,\\n70 per cent water.\\n4.43\\n2.08\\n1.41\\n8.85\\n4.16\\n2.82\\n13.28\\n6.24\\n4.23\\n17.7\\n8.32\\n5.64\\n26.55\\n12.47\\n8.46\\n35.4\\n16.61\\n11.28\\n44.25\\n20.72\\n14.1\\n24.95\\n16.92\\n29.1\\n19.74\\n33.26\\n22.56\\n37.42\\n25.38\\n41.58\\n28.2\\nThis table must be regarded as showing the mini-\\nmum amounts of water which will bring the crops\\nnamed to full maturity so as to produce the jdelds speci-\\nfied under conditions of absolutely no loss by surface\\nor under -drainage, and where the evaporation from the\\nsoil itself is as small as it can well be. It must be\\nfurther understood that the soil at seeding time already\\npossesses the needful amount of water for the best con-\\nditions, and that at the end of the growing season it is\\nyet so moist that no check to vigorous, normal growth\\nhas occurred.\\nThe figures in the table may, therefore, be regarded", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "Conditions Modifying the Duty of Water 199\\nas the nearest estimate now attainable of the minimum\\namount of water the irrigator can hope to deliver to his\\nfield where the yields there stated are expected and if\\nthere are necessary losses in bringing the water to the\\nfield, either by seepage or evaporation from the main or\\nlateral ditches, or if the water is badly handled, so that\\nthere is a large amount of percolation or, again, if\\nunnecessary losses occur through lack of proper tillage\\nafter irrigation, then the amounts stated in the table\\nmust be exceeded by the amount of these losses.\\nCONDITIONS WHICH MODIFY THE AMOUNT OF WATER\\nREQUIRED IN IRRIGATION\\nAmong the many factors and conditions which increase or\\ndiminish the duty of water may be mentioned:\\n1. The peculiarities of the crop grown. From what has been\\nsaid regarding the amount of water required for a pound of dry\\nmatter and for yields of different amounts for different crops, it\\nwill be evident that both the amount of water required by a\\ngiven crop and the frequency with which it should be applied will\\ndepend much upon the crop being grown.\\nThis variation in the amount of water required by different\\ncrops depends upon many factors, some of which are not well\\nunderstood. Both the number and size of the breathing pores of\\nthe green parts of the plant, through which the air enters and\\nfrom which the moisture escapes, may be expected to play an\\nimportant part in determining the necessary loss of water which\\ntakes place. So, too, will the character of the foliage and the\\nhabit of the plant as influencing the amount of wind movement,\\nand of shade over the soil of the field, effect the necessary loss\\nof water from the soil.\\nIn illustration of the influence of the shade offered by the\\ncrop upon the loss of water from the soil may be cited the differ-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "200 IrrigaHon and Drainage\\nence in the amount of water in the soil of a potato field where\\nthe rows extended east and west, thus producing a shade on\\nthe north side of each row. The samples of soil were taken\\nJune 27. In this ease the rows were planted 3 feet apart, and\\nthe table given on page 161 shows a difference of 4.5 per\\ncent in the upper six inches on the sunny and shaded sides of\\nthe row.\\nThen, too, if the roots of the crop do not penetrate deeply\\ninto the soil, more water will be required, for the double reason\\nthat more water is liable to be lost by percolation below the root\\nzone, and because a greater frequency of water will be required\\nthan if the roots went deeper hence, there will be more loss by\\nsurface evaporation.\\n2. The character of the soil. In the studies which have been\\nmade regarding the amount of water required for a pound of dry\\nmatter, there has been nothing to indicate that a plant growing\\nin one soil requires more water than when growing in another,\\nprovided there is always an abundance of plant-food available to\\nthe crop throughout its period of growth. In other words, if it\\nwere possible to avoid losses by seepage, and by evaporation\\nother than that which takes place through the growing crop, it\\ndoes not appear that the duty of water would vary with the\\ncharacter of the soil.\\nBut, while it is true that by skillful management water may\\nbe distributed, even over the soils of coarse texture, with\\nlittle or no waste through seepage, and while surface evaporation\\nmay be very greatly reduced by suitable methods of applying the\\nwater and of tillage, there will always be those living under the\\nsame water supply who are less skillful than others, and who will,\\nby their lack of skill, require more water in order to secure the\\nsame yields and, in consequence of this, the duty of water will\\nvary to some extent with the soil.\\nThere are really wide variations in the effectiveness of\\nmulches developed from different soils, and while these are not\\nas great as the variations in the rates of seepage, the losses of\\nwater through surface evaporation are less completely under con-\\ntrol than those due to percolation. The force of these statements", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "Conditions Modifying Duty of Water 201\\nwill be more readily appreciated after a study of the results\\ngiven in the following table\\n*Table showing the difference between the effectiveness of mulches developed from\\ndifferent kinds of soil\\nLoss of water per 100 days\\nMulch Mulch Mulch Mulch\\nBlack marsh soil: No mulch 1-in. deep 2-in. deep 3-in. deep 4-in. deep\\nTons per acre 588 355 270 256.4 252.5\\nInches of water 5.193 3.12 2.384 2.265 2.23\\nPer cent saved by mulches 39.54 54.08 56.39 57.06\\nSandy loam\\nTons per acre 741.5 373.7 339.3 287.5 335.4\\nInches of water 6.548 3.3 2.996 2.539 2.785\\nPer cent saved by mulches 49.6 54.24 61.22 57.47\\nVirgin clay loam\\nTons per acre 2,414 1,260 979.7 889.2 883.9\\nInches of water 21.31 11.13 8.652 7.852 7805\\nPer cent saved by mulches 47.76 59.38 63.13 63.34\\nThe results in this table were secured by filling cylinders of\\ngalvanized iron, having a depth of 22 inches and a cross-section\\nof -fjT of a square foot, with the soil named, by thorough tamp-\\ning, and then removing a depth of these soils equal to 1, 2, 3\\nand 4 inches, returning enough of each kind in a loose, crumbled\\ncondition to fill the cylinders again level full, thus forming\\nmulches of the respective depths. Under these conditions, the\\nsoils were exposed in the open field during 42 days to the normal\\natmospheric conditions, except that during times of rain the\\ncylinders were covered. Water was added every 10 days to the\\nreservoirs shown in Fig. 36, bringing the lowered surface back\\nto a standard level.\\nIt will be seen that while the black marsh soil lost water\\nthrough the unmulched surface at the rate of 5.88 tons per acre\\nper day, the sandy loam lost water at the rate of 7.42 tons,\\nand the virgin clay loam at the rate of 24.14 tons per acre per\\nday, the latter exceeding the two former more than three- and\\nfour-fold. And, then, when the losses through mulches of cor-\\nresponding depths are compared, it will be seen that although\\n\u00e2\u0099\u00a6Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Wis. Agr. Expt. Station, page 137.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "202\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nthese are much less than through the undisturbed soil, yet the\\nrelative differences are nearly as large. That is to say, the soil\\nwhich, in the firm condition, has brought the largest amount of\\nwater to the surface, has also, when its surface 1, 2, 3 or 4\\nV\\ny\\ns\\ns\\nFig. 36. Method of measuring effectiveness of mulches.\\ninches were converted into a mulch, permitted the largest losses\\nto take place while the soil having the slowest rate of loss\\nwhen the surface was firm has also given the least evaporation\\nthrough the several depths of mulches.\\nIf the losses per 100 days, expressed in inches, are brought\\ninto contrast, they stand as shown below:\\nNo mulch\\n1-inch\\nmulch\\n2-inch\\nmulch\\n3-inch\\nmulch\\n4-inch\\nmulch\\nINCHES\\nINCHES\\nINCHES\\nINCHES\\nINCHES\\nVirgin clay loam\\n21 31\\n11.13\\n3.12\\n8.65\\n2.38\\n6.27\\n7.85\\n2.27\\n5.58\\n7.81\\nBlack marsh soil\\n5.19\\n2.23\\nDifference\\n16.12\\n8.01\\n5.58\\nIt will be seen from this table that very wide differences\\nexist between the losses of moisture through mulches of like", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "Conditions Modifying Duty of Water 203\\ndepth, when developed from soils of different textures, and it is\\nplain that with equal losses by percolation from the three soils\\nhere under consideration, more water would be required to bring\\na crop to maturity on the virgin clay loam than on either of the\\nother soils, and hence, that the duty of water would be less,\\nsupposing, of course, that the three soils were equally fertile.\\nWhere water is plentiful and is being used freely, and es-\\npecially where irrigation by flooding is being practiced, the soils\\nhaving the coarsest, most open texture will waste the most water\\nby percolation through the zone of root feeding. Hence on this\\naccount the duty of water would be smaller on these soils than\\non those having finer texture. But, on the other hand, the sur-\\nface evaporation from the closer soils is so much greater than\\nfrom the sandy soils that the duty of water is much more nearly\\nequal on them than it could be were it not for these opposite\\ncharacteristics.\\nBearing upon this point E. Perels,* citing Eduard Markus,\\ngives the results of observations covering three years in northern\\nItaly on different kinds of soils and with different crops, from\\nwhich it appears that rice, meadows and field crops use water in\\nthe ratio of 7 to 3 to 1, respectively, and when field crops are\\ngrown upon very heavy soil, heavy soil, medium soil, or light\\nsoil, they take water in the ratio of\\nVery heavy soil Heavy soil Medium soil Light soil\\n100 to 115 to 168 to 230\\nIt is quite probable, however, that these ratios represent the\\nrelations of the degree of permeability of these soils under the\\nconditions of the district, rather than the necessary amounts of\\nwater required for irrigation on these soils, where simply the\\ntranspiration from the crops and the evaporation from the soils\\nis considered. In the cases of the rice and meadows, it is cer-\\ntain that large percolation or surface drainage must have occurred.\\nThe losses of water by seepage from canals and reservoirs\\n*Landwirthschaftlicher Wasserbau, p. 501.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "204 Irrigation and Drainage\\nand the various distributaries will, of course, be relatively greater\\nin regions of soils of coarse texture than where the soils are finer,\\nso that here is a factor modifying the duty of water as con-\\nsidered from the standpoint of the water company and irrigation\\nengineer especially, but also with the large irrigator, who has\\nextensive distributaries, through which the water must be con-\\nveyed before it is finally taken out upon the land. It should be\\nemphasized that our discussion has reference to the duty of water\\nafter it has reached the field where it is used.\\nIf it shall be found true that the continued growth of large\\ncrops upon a piece of land, and the consequent more complete\\nevaporation of all water brought to the soil, thus curtailing the\\ndrainage, tends to develop alkalies to an injurious extent, or\\nother prejudicial salts, so that flooding or leaching by irrigation\\nshall be found necessary in order to restore fertility, then here,\\nagain, the character of the soil will modify the amount of water\\nrequired.\\n3. The character of the rainfall will necessarily modify in a\\nmarked manner the amount of additional water which may be\\nused to advantage in the production of crops. It has already\\nbeen pointed out on page 103 that the difference in the character\\nof the rainfall in parts of California, Oregon and Washington, as\\ncompared with that of western Kansas and Nebraska, may explain\\nwhy equivalent amounts of rain are much more effective in the\\nformer than in the latter regions, and if it is true that the fre-\\nquent summer rains east of the Rocky Mountains do tend to hold\\nthe development of the roots of crops closer to the surface, and\\nalso to destroy the effectiveness of soil mulches, it is clear that\\nthe duty of water in climates where most of the growing season\\nis an uninterrupted rainless period will be relatively higher than\\nwhere frequent but inefficient showers tend to reduce the effi-\\nciency of mulches, and to hold the roots of crops closer to the\\nsurface. It is, therefore, likely to be found true that more water\\nwill be required for like results in western Texas, Oklahoma,\\nKansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, and similar climates, than\\nwill be required where the whole summer season is one con-\\ntinuous interval of no rain.", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "Conditions Modifying Duty of Water 205\\nIn still more humid climates, but where there are frequent\\nrecurrences of intervals of drought, the amount of water which\\nmust be used in order to secure full yields will be relatively\\nlarger than would be required in rainless countries, because the\\nsurface losses of moisture will be relatively greater, as well as\\nthose from percolation and drainage.\\n4. The character of the subsoil, as well as that of the surface\\nsoil, is an important factor in determining the duty of water,\\nespecially in the hands of the unskillful irrigator, and par-\\nticularly so if he possesses no knowledge, or exerijises poor\\njudgment, regarding the water-holding power of the soil to\\nwhich the water is being applied. Where the texture of the\\nsubsoil is coarse and its water -holding power small, it requires\\nthe best of judgment, both in regard to the amount of water\\nwhich may be applied at one time and as to the rate at which it\\nshould be led over the surface or along the furrows, in order\\nthat there shall be no waste by percolation below the depth of\\nroot feeding.\\nIt has been pointed out that even moderately fine sands 8\\nfeet above the ground water quickly lose by percolation all but 4\\nper cent, or less, of their dry weight, of the water given to them.\\nSince plants will suffer for water when such soils have lost all\\nbut 2 to 3 per cent of their dry weight of the soil moisture, it\\nfollows that in 4 feet in depth of such a subsoil there is room for\\nonly 1.5 to 2 per cent of water, or 1 to 1.5 inches, to be applied\\nat one time, without loss taking place by percolation below the\\ndepth of root action. It is plain, therefore, that on open soils\\nthe duty of water will be relatively small, unless great skill and\\nrare judgment are exercised in its application.\\n5. The frequency and thoroughness of cultivation after irriga-\\ntion is another factor which will modify the duty of water. For\\nthe effectiveness of soil mulches is modified as well by the fre-\\nquency of stirring as by its depth. The force of this statement\\nwill be better appreciated when the results given in the table\\nwhich follows have been considered:", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "724.1\\n551.2\\n545\\n527.8\\n6.394\\n4.867\\n4.812\\n4.662\\n23.88\\n24.73\\n27.1\\n724.1\\n609.2\\n552.1\\n515.4\\n6.394\\n5.38\\n4.875\\n4.552\\n15.88\\n23.76\\n28.81\\n724.1\\n612\\n531.5\\n495\\n6.394\\n5.28\\n4.694\\n4.371\\n15.49\\n26.6\\n31.64\\n206 Irrigation and Drainage\\nTable showing the loss of ivater from a virgin clay loam, through mulches 1, 2,\\nand 3 inches deep, when cultivated once in two weeks, once per week, and\\ntwice per week\\nNot Once in Once per Twice per\\ncultivated 2 weeks week week\\nCultivated 1 inch deep\u00e2\u0080\u0094 per acre pe.h acre per acre per acre\\nThe loss in tons per 100 days was\\nThe loss in inches per 100 days was.\\nThe percentage of water saved was\\nCultivated 2 inches deep\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe loss in tons per 100 days was\\nThe loss in inches per 100 days was..\\nThe percentage of water saved was.\\nCultivated 3 inches deep\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe loss in tons per 100 days was\\nThe loss in inches per 100 days was.\\nThe percentage of water saved was.\\nIt will be seen from this table that with each of the three\\ndepths of cultivation the loss of water decreased with the fre-\\nquency, so that the per cent of moisture saved by the cultivation,\\nwhen computed on that which was lost with no cultivation, was\\nmore than 31 for 3 inches deep twice per week, as against a sav-\\ning of only 15 per cent where the same cultivation was made only\\nonce in two weeKS. That is to say, if one is cultivating ground\\nof this character 3 inches deep twice per week, the saving over\\nno cultivation may be at the rate of 2.29 tons per acre per day,\\nor 22.9 tons per each 10 days, or 2 acre-inches per 100 days.\\nThe results presented in the table were obtained in our\\nplant-house, with cylinders 52 inches deep and 18 inches in\\ndiameter, filled with soil under a nearly still air and a compara-\\ntively low mean temperature, not exceeding 55\u00c2\u00b0 F., during the\\nshort days and long nights of December and January, so that\\nthe observed losses in the several cases must be looked upon as\\nsmall, and below what may obtain under field conditions. It is\\nplain, therefore, that in orchard irrigation and in arid climates,\\nunder a clear sky, dry air and high temperature, the duty of\\nwater during the long seasons may be very materially increased\\nby adequate cultivation, and decreased by the lack of it.\\nThe same will also be true, but in a less marked degree,\\ni", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "Conditions Modifying Duty of Water 207\\nwith all cultivated crops where the soil is not completely shaded\\nby the plants on the ground.\\n6. TJie closeness of planting is another factor which affects\\nthe duty of water when this is expressed in terms of land served,\\nrather than in terms of crop produced. This is particularly true\\nin climates where a rainy season contributes a considerable por-\\ntion of the moisture needed to produce a crop because if one is\\ncontented with a small yield per acre, a comparatively thin stand\\nupon the ground, with thorough tillage, may often be brought to\\nfull maturity with a relatively small amount of water applied\\nby irrigation, thus making the duty of water to appear very high,\\nwhereas if the plants were made to stand as closely as the sun-\\nshine would permit, much more water, when expressed simply\\nin acre-inches, would be required. The real duty, however, might\\nbe even higher in the second case, when expressed in terms of\\nyield per acre.\\n7. The fertility of the land is still another factor which\\naffects the duty of water, tending to make it appear less the\\nricher and more fertile the soil is, when the standard of com-\\nparison is the unit area rather than the yield of crop. This\\napparent decrease in the duty results from the larger evaporation\\nof water which takes place from the more vigorous growth of\\nvegetation, and the closer stand which the larger amount of\\navailable plant-food renders possible. In such cases as these,\\nhowever, the real duty of water is higher on the most fertile soil,\\nwhen this is based upon the actual yields per acre not so much\\nbecause the plant uses the water more economically, as that the\\nnecessary loss from the soil itself is relatively less with the large\\nyield than it is with the small yield per acre. The loss from the\\nsoil direct may even be actually larger with the smaller crop on\\nthe ground, on account of a less complete shading and stronger\\nair movement close to the surface.\\n8. The frequency of applying water also modifies the quantity\\nwhich will be used during a season. This may be true even\\nwhen the greatest skill is exercised in the application of the water.\\nIn the first place, too frequent application of water in small\\nquantities at a time not only increases in a marked degree the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "208 Irrigation and Drainage\\ndirect loss of moisture from the wet, unmulched soil but it may\\nhave a tendency, as has been pointed out, to induce a superficial\\ndevelopment of roots, causing the crop to show signs of need of\\nwater sooner than would be the case if a smaller number of more\\nthorough irrigations were resorted to. This is so, not only be-\\ncause the water disappears sooner from the soil, but also because\\nof the larger amount of root-pruning which results from culti-\\nvation where the roots are developed near the surface of the\\nground.\\nIt is probable that a large supply of water in the soil during\\nthe early stages of growth of many plants tends to develop in\\nthem a possibility for using more water. In some, at least, of\\nour experiments with corn, oats, potatoes and clover, where we\\nhave started with like amounts of water in the soil, and have\\nwatered one set of plants every seven days while the others\\nwere allowed to go without water until the soil was so far ex-\\nhausted that the plants were plainly suffering for want of mois-\\nture, it was found that these plants not only did not use water as\\nrapidly after they were given it as did those which had been\\nwatered every week, but they used the water they did have with\\nrelatively greater economy. Whether this was because the plants\\nwere smaller, and thus presented a smaller surface to the air and\\nsun, or whether the size or number of breathing pores per unit\\narea of foliage was actually less, cannot yet be stated but it\\nappeared evident that for some reason the plants which had not\\nbeen watered at first were later not able to use the larger amount\\nof water which was given to them, as they might have done had\\nthey been more freely watered at first.\\nTHE AMOUNT OF WATER USED IN IRRIGATION\\nIt is very difficult, indeed, to get data bearing\\nupon this important subject which may be regarded as\\nin every way satisfactory and trustworthy. Nearly all\\nstatistics are necessarily so general in their character,\\nthe exact amount of land to which the water of a", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "Amount of Water Used in Irrigation 209\\nstated canal is actually applied is so uncertain, and\\nthe amount of water lost by seepage and evaporation\\nfrom the canal and its distributaries before the land to\\nwhich it is nominally applied is reached, is so variable\\nand indeterminate that the best which can be said\\nregarding most available data is that they should be\\nlooked upon as only rough approximations. Further\\nthan this, it must be constantly borne in mind, when\\ndealing with the problem of how much water is re-\\nquired for irrigation, with all the variations of weather,\\nclimate, crops, soils and degrees of skill in applying\\nwater which exist, that were sufficiently exact data at\\nhand covering a wide range of conditions, it would\\nstill be impossible to combine them into averages not\\nrequiring wide marginal allowances to be made when\\nspecific application is desired. But, notwithstanding\\nall this, general statements may be helpful if only\\nthey are rightly considered.\\nReferring, first, to Italy,* where irrigation has long\\nbeen systematically practiced, it is generally calculated\\nthat in Piedmont one cubic foot of water per second\\nwill serve satisfactorily 55 acres of land but on ac-\\ncount of loss by evaporation and seepage, this is\\nreduced to 51.4 acres, this providing sufficient for\\n4.63 inches of water every 10 days during the irri-\\ngation season.\\nUnder the canal of Ivrea, where a large amount\\nof rice is grown, which is given more water than ordi-\\nnary crops, one second -foot serves but 42.75 acres, or\\nat the rate of 5.668 inches every 10 days and under\\n*Baird Smith, Italian Irrigation, Vol. I.\\nN", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "210 Irrigation and Drainage\\nthe Gattinara canal, water is provided which may be\\napplied at the rate of 5.289 inches per 10 days. But\\nu r the Busca canal, where the utmost economy is\\npr ced and every drop is saved, the duty of water\\nis so much increased that one second -foot serves 106\\nacres, making a depth of water equal to 2.245 inches\\nevery 10 days for the irrigation season.\\nBringing all cases cited by Smith into one table,\\nand expressing the second -foot in inches of water per\\n10 days, the following results are found\\nAmount of water used for irrigation in Italy\\nNo. of acres\\nper sec. foot\\nNo. of inches of water\\nper 10 days\\nNo\\nper\\nof acres\\nsec. foot\\nNo. of inches of water\\nper 10 days\\n51.4\\n4.63\\n99.3\\n2.397\\n45\\n5.289\\n80.4\\n2.96\\n106\\n2.245\\n66.62\\n3.572\\n100.6\\n2.366\\n61.8\\n3.851\\n63\\n3.778\\n66.6\\n3.574\\n90.6\\n2.627\\n69.2\\n3.44\\n50.3\\n4.732\\n63.9\\n2.837 J\\n70\\n3.4\\n67.2\\n3.542\\n77\\n3.091\\n90.4\\n2.633\\n69\\n3.449\\nThis gives a general average for ordinary crops of\\n3.39 inches of water every 10 days and 33.9 inches\\nper 100 days, were it used at such a rate for so long\\na period.\\nIn the rice irrigation of Italy, the amount of water\\nprovided is said to be at the rate of 5.568 inches,\\n5.921, 3.412, 9.521, and 3.334 inches every 10 days\\nin as many districts, or an average of 5.55 inches per\\n10 days.", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "Amount of Water Used in Irrigation 211\\nIn Spain, where the rainfall is less than in Italy,\\nand where greater economy of water is practiced, 19\\nimportant allotments* of water give an average ot\\n2.353 inches every 10 days for various sections ot\\nthat country.\\nIn France, in the Department of the Upper\\nGaronne, contracts were made calling for water at\\nthe rate of three -fourths of a liter per hectare per\\nsecond, which makes a duty of about 93.25 acres per\\nsecond foot, or water applied at the rate of 2.552\\ninches every 10 days. In the department of Vau-\\ncluse, the concession was at the rate of only 1.361\\ninches per 10 days.\\nIn Egypt, Willcockst states that in winter water\\nis applied at an average depth of 10 c. m., equal to\\n3.937 inches, once in 40 days, which is a rate of\\n.984 inches once in 10 days; but in summer the first\\nwatering is at the rate of 11.5 c. m., equal to 4.528\\ninches, while subsequent waterings are at the rate of\\n3.412 inches in depth. Cotton requires this amount\\nonce in 20 days, or at the rate of 1.706 inches per 10\\ndays. Rice is given water at the rate of 3.412 inches\\nonce every 10 days, and maize gets the same amount\\nevery 15 days, or at the rate of 2.276 inches in depth\\nevery 10 days.\\nWilsonl gives a table of general averages of the\\nduty of water in different parts of the world, which\\nwe put in the form stated below:\\n*Hall, Irrigation Development, p. 523.\\ntWillcocks, Egyptain Irrigation, pp. 234, 235.\\njManual of Irrigation Engineering, See. Ed., p. 49.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "212\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nAmount of water used in irrigation in different countries\\nName of country No. of acres per sec. -ft. No. of inches per 10 days\\nNorthern India\\nItaly\\nColorado\\nUtah\\nMontana\\nWyoming\\nIdaho\\nNew Mexico\\nSouthern Arizona\\nSan Joaquin Valley\\nSouthern California\\n60 to 150\\n65 to 70\\n80 to 120\\n60 to 120\\n80 to 100\\n70 to 90\\n60 to 80\\n60 to 80\\n100 to 150\\n100 to 150\\n150 to 300\\n3.967 to 1.587\\n3.661 to 3.4\\n2.975 to 1.983\\n3.967 to 1.983\\n2.975 to 2.38\\n3.4 to 2.644\\n3.967 to 2.975\\n3.967 to 2.975\\n2.38 to 1.587\\n2.38 to 1.587\\n1.587 to .793\\nE. Perels* tabulates the duty of water in Algeria\\nas follows\\nWater required for irrigation in Algeria\\nCrops\\nNo. of\\nwaterings\\nWater used n\\nEach During the\\napplication season\\nLength of\\nculture period\\nINCHES IN\\nINCHES IN\\nMONTHS\\nDEPTH\\nDEPTH\\nAlfalfa\\n10\\n1.575\\n15.75\\n6\\nVegetables\\n36\\n1.575\\n56.7\\n6\\nCotton\\ni\\nFlax\\n2.52\\n25.2\\n5 i\\nSesame\\nMaize\\n4\\n1.575\\n6.3\\n2\\nWinter grain\\n3\\n3.937\\n11.87\\n7\\nOranges\\n12\\n1.575\\n18.9\\n6\\nTobacco\\n4\\n1.575\\n6.3\\n3\\nGrapes\\n4\\n4.725\\n18.9\\n3\\n^1\\nFrom another general table giving the duty of\\nwater in different countries, by Flynn,t the results\\nwhich follow are derived:\\n*Landwirthschaftlieher Wasserbau, zweite Auflage, p. 502,\\nt Irrigation Canals and Hydraulic Engineering, p. 293.", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "Amount of Water Used in Irrigation 213\\nAmount of water used in irrigation in different countries\\n89\\n-90\\nLocality\\nEastern Jumna Canal\\nWestern Jumna Canal\\nGanges Canal\\nCanals of Upper India\\nCanals of India average\\nBari Doab Canals\\nMadras Canals (rice)\\nTanjore (rice)\\nSwat River Canal, 1888-89\\nSwat River Canal, 1889-90\\nWestern Jumna Canal, 1888\\nWestern Jumna Canal, 1889\\nBari Doab Canal, 1888-89\\nBari Doab Canal, 1889-90\\nSirhind Canal, 1888-89\\nSirhind Canal, 1889-90\\nChenab Canal, 1888-89\\nChenab Canal, 1889-90\\nNira Canal\\nGenii Canal\\nJuear (rice)\\nHenares Canal\\nCanals of Valencia\\nForez Canal\\nCanals south of France\\nSefi. Canals, Southern France\\nSefi, or Lower Nile Canals\\nSefi, or Lower Nile Canals\\nCanals of Northern Peru\\nCanals of Northern Chili\\nCanals, Lombardy\\nCanals, Piedmont\\nMarcite\\nSefi Canals, Victoria\\nName of\\nNo. of acres\\nNo. of inches\\ncountry\\nper sec-foot\\nper 10 days\\nIndia\\n306\\n.778\\n11\\n240\\n.989\\n232\\n1.026\\nn\\n267\\n.891\\n11\\n250\\n.952\\nit\\n155\\n1.536\\n(I\\n66\\n3.606\\n11\\n40\\n5.964\\nli\\n216\\n1.345\\na\\n177\\n1.202\\n143\\n1.664\\n179\\n1.33\\n11\\n201\\n1.184\\n11\\n227\\n1.049\\n180\\n1.322\\n180\\n1.322\\n154\\n1.545\\n154\\n1.545\\n186\\n1.28\\nSpain\\n240\\n.992\\nii\\n35\\n6.8\\nit\\n157\\n1.516\\n(I\\n242\\n.984\\nFrance\\n140\\n1.7\\n70\\n3.4\\n60\\n3.877\\nEgypt\\n350\\n.68\\n274\\n.867\\nPeru\\n160\\n1.488\\nChili\\n190\\n1.253\\nItaly\\n90\\n2.644\\n60\\n3.877\\n1 to 18\\n238 to 13.22\\nAustralia 200\\n1.19", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "214 Irrigation and Drainage\\nAmount of water used in irrigation\u00e2\u0080\u0094 continued\\nName of No. of acres No. of inches\\nLocality country per sec. foot per 10 days\\nSweetwater, San Diego California 500 .476\\nPomona, San Bernardino 500 .476\\nOntario 500 .476\\nCalifornia 80tol50 2.975tol.587\\nCanals of Utah Territory Utah 100 2.38\\nCanals of Colorado Colorado 100 2.38\\nCanals of Cache la Poudre 193 1.233\\nCanals of Colorado 55 4.328\\nIt is apparent, from the data which have been\\npresented, that the amount of water actually used in\\nirrigation in different countries and for different crops\\nis an extremely variable quantity; so much so, indeed,\\nthat it is hardly possible to deduce from available sta-\\ntistics a mean value for the duty of water. But, using\\nthe 100 cases at hand from all parts of the world, and\\nexcluding those which apply to rice culture and the\\nirrigation of water-meadows and sugar cane, it ap-\\npears that a cubic foot of water per second is made\\nto serve on the average 117.6 acres. If this water\\nwere applied to the land once in 10 days, it would\\ncover the surface to a depth of 2.024 inches each\\nwatering, and during a season of 100 days would be\\nthe equivalent of 20.24 inches of rain.\\nSugar cane is a crop which demands large and fre-\\nquent irrigations in order to secure the largest returns\\nfrom the soil. In the Sandwich Islands one cubic\\nfoot of water per second is required for 41.6 acres of\\ncane, and it is found that if the duty is made larger\\nthan 60 acres per second -foot, a falling off in yield is", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "Highest Prohahle Duty of Water\\n215\\nsure to result. In India and Siam writers on this sub-\\nject state that from 43 to 45 acres is the usual duty\\nof a second -foot. The mean value for good, thorough\\nwatering appears to be 43.2 acres per second -foot, or\\na depth of water aggregating, for the year, between 19\\nand 20 feet on the level.\\nIf reference is again made to the table on page\\n198, it will be seen that this duty of water is much\\nsmaller than was realized in the experiments cited.\\nAccording to the results there given, one second -foot\\nshould be able to serve the number of acres stated in\\nthe table below:\\nThe highest probable duty of water for different crops expressed in acres per\\nsecond-foot for different yields per acre\\nYield per\\nWheat\\nBarley\\nOats\\nMaize\\nPotatoes\\nClover hay\\nacre\\nACRES\\nACRES\\nACRES\\nACRES\\nACRES\\nACRES\\n15 bushels\\n529.2\\n593.0\\n1002\\n1039\\n20\\n352.8\\n395.3\\n751.5\\n779.2\\n30\\n264.6\\n296.5\\n501.0\\n519.5\\n40\\n176.4\\n197.6\\n375.7\\n389.6\\n50\\n141.1\\n158.1\\n300.6\\n311.7\\n60\\n117.6\\n131.7\\n250.5\\n259.7\\n2493.7\\n70\\n112.9\\n214.3\\n222.6\\n2137.4\\n80\\n98.8\\n187.9\\n194.8\\n1870.2\\n90\\n167.0\\n173.2\\n1662.4\\n100\\n150.3\\n155.8\\n1496.2\\n200\\n748.1\\n300\\n498.7\\n400\\n374.0\\n1 tOQ\\n322.7\\n2 tons\\n161.3\\n3\\n107.6\\n4\\n80.7", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "216\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nIn constructing this table, the season of growth\\nhas been taken at 100 days for wheat and oats, 80\\ndays for barley, 110 days for maize, 130 days for pota-\\ntoes, and 60 d-ays for one crop of clover hay. It has\\nfurther been assumed that the ground at seeding time\\nis well supplied with moisture, while at harvest it is\\nonly so much dried out as to have just become ready\\nfor another watering.\\nAs in the experiments which gave the fundamental\\ndata for the table above, the soil was more closely\\nplanted than is practicable under field conditions, the\\nloss of water by evaporation from the soil of the field\\nis likely to be greater, relatively, than was the case in\\nthe experiments hence, the observed duty of water is\\nlikely to be lower than the table indicates. Again,\\nin the case of the smaller yields per acre, the evapo-\\nration from the soil will necessarily be relatively larger\\nthan w^here the heavier crops are produced hence, the\\nduty expressed for water when the yields are small is\\nlikely to be farther from the possibilities than in the\\ncases where the yields i)er acre are larger.\\nIf the amount of water which the last table indi-\\ncates is required to produce a crop of the various\\nkinds is expressed in cubic feet, the figures will\\nstand\\n8,640,000 ou. ft. of water may produce 7,056 bushels of wheat\\n8,640,000 15,030 oats\\n6,912,000\\n9,5040,000\\n11,232,0000\\n5,184,000\\n7,906 barley\\n15,580 maize\\n149,620 potatoes\\n322.7 tons of hay,", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "I\\nDuty of Water in Bice Culture 217\\nwhere the number of cubic feet is the product of one\\nsecond -foot into the number of seconds in the season\\nof growth, and the number of bushels is the product\\nof the yield per acre into the number of acres irri-\\ngated.\\nTHE DUTY OF WATER IN RICE CULTURE\\nThe aquatic nature of the rice plant makes the\\ndemands for water quite different from those of ordi-\\nnary agricultural crops, and so different are these\\nneeds that the quantity of water required to bring a\\ncrop to maturity is determined by quite different\\nfactors. The duty of water, therefore, in rice culture\\ncould not consistently be considered in connection with\\nthat of ordinary crops.\\nThe normal habitat of this plant is low, swampy\\nlands, where the surface is more or less continuously\\nunder water, and where such lands are available under\\n-suitable conditions for rice culture, they are largely\\nbrought into requisition for this purpose but the\\nseeding of the ground and the harvesting of the crop\\nmake it needful that the fields shall be drained at\\ntimes and at others flooded. Under these conditions,\\nthere can be but little waste from seepage, and the\\nchief demands for water are created by the loss from\\nevaporation from the surface of the water, from the\\ngrowing crop, and from the wet soil when the fields\\nhave been drained, together with the amounts which\\nare required for reflooding the fields after they have\\nbeen drained. Occasionally threatened attacks upon", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "218 Irrigation and Drainage\\nthe crop by insect enemies make an extrr ^q: O-\\ndrainage necessary, and this increases th\\nwater. Further than this, in order that t- jp may\\nbe the best, the water must not remain lov*^ stagnant,\\nand this requires either alternate flooding md drain-\\ning, or else a considerable steady surplus flow of water\\nover the fields.\\nIn order to secure more economical methods of\\nseeding and harvesting the rice fields, this crop is\\nextensively grown on naturally dry lands, which may\\nbe readily checked off into flooding basins, to which\\nthe water may be admitted and withdrawn at pleasure.\\nIn these cases, there is added to the demands for\\nwater already mentioned the loss from seepage. This\\nloss from seepage may be so large that rice irrigation\\ncannot be economically practiced on uplands unless\\nthey are quite fine and close in texture, so that the\\nrate of seepage will be small, or unless the normal\\nlevel of the ground -water is within a few feet of the\\nsurface. Even here the subsoil must be pretty close,\\nor the loss of water by under -drainage will be too\\nlarge.\\nThe various available sources of data regarding the\\nduty of water in rice irrigation place the amounts of\\nwater used as varying all the way from one second -foot\\nfor 25, 28, 30, 35, 40, 55 and 66 acres of rice, thus\\nmaking an average of 38.6 acres per cubic foot of\\nwater per second, and this is equivalent to covering\\nthe surface with water about 6.2 inches deep every 10\\ndays.", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "D ty of Water on Water-meadows 219\\nTHE QTY of WATEK ON WATER-MEADOWS\\nIn this ^x-m of irrigation, immense volumes of water are\\nused on th\u00c2\u00bb. land. In Italy, where the practice has attained\\nthe highest cage of perfection, where it may have had its\\norigin, and x. m which been introduced into France, and even\\ninto England at the time of the Roman invasion, the duty of\\nwater appears to average only about 1.5 acres per cubic foot per\\nsecond. On these meadows in Italy there is maintained a nearly\\ncontinuous flow of water, night and day, from September 8 to\\nMarch 28 of each year, this being the legal time allotted to\\nMarcite, or winter-meadow irrigation.\\nThe lands are so laid out that the roots of the grass over the\\nwhole meadow are continuously submerged beneath a thin veil\\nof relatively warm running water, this being turned off only long\\nenough to cut the grass, which is done two or three times during\\nthe winter season, the green grass being used for the winter feed\\nof dairy cows, which are largely kept in the irrigated portions of\\nItaly. So large is the quantity of water used during a single\\nseason on these meadows that did none of it drain away they\\nwould become submerged to a depth of 300 feet.\\nCarpenter, quoting Mangon, states that in southern France\\nand in the Vosges, where the most careful measurements of the\\nwater applied to the meadows have been made, amounts are used\\nin some eases sufficient to cover the surface 1,400 feet deep\\nand that of this great volume, as much water as 160 feet on the\\nI ^vel sinks into and percolates through the soil of the field during\\na winter season. But even in the summer irrigation, as much as\\n374 feet of water on the level are applied between April and\\nJuly, while of this amount no less than 88 feet percolates into\\nthe ground or is evaporated.\\nThe meadows upon which these large volumes of water are\\napplied are usually permanent ones, and have had their surfaces\\nntted with the greatest care, so that the relatively warm water\\nmay be kept steadily flowing over the surface about the roots of\\nthe grass in a thin veil until it is ready to cut, when it is turned\\noff only long enough to remove the crop.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "220 Irrigation and Drainage\\nIn Italy these heavy and continuous irrigations stimulate\\nthe grass to grow the year round, and in the vicinity of Milan,\\nwhere the irrigation canals are led through and beneath the\\ncity, relieving it of all its sewage, this warm and highly ferti-\\nlizing water so stimulates the growth of grass that seven heavy\\ncrops are taken from the ground each year, aggregating, accord-\\ning to Baird Smith, 45 to 50 tons per acre, and in exceptional\\ncases one -half more than this.\\nIt will be readily understood that the application of water\\nto these winter and summer water-meadows in such large vol-\\numes has quite a distinct purpose from that of supplying the\\nneeded moisture for the transpiration of the grasses. In short,\\nthe practice has been found to be a sure way of greatly pro-\\nlonging the growing season of each year, and a cheap means of\\npermanently maintaining a high state of fertility of the soil.\\nTHE DUTY OP WATER IN CRANBERRY CULTURE\\nIn the irrigation of cranberries, as in the case of rice and\\nwater-meadows, the purpose of the treatment is quite distinct\\nfrom that of ordinary irrigation. It is true that this crop\\ndemands a large amount of water, but its normal habitat is such\\nthat ordinarily it is abundantly supplied by natural sub -irri-\\ngation. In this case, the water is demanded chiefly to protect\\nthe crop against the ravages of insects and injury from frost,\\nand to prevent winter-killing.\\nAs the surface of the ground-water is seldom more than one\\nto two feet below the surface of the bog, and as the peat and\\nmuck above the water are at all times nearly saturated, the\\namount of water required for cranberry irrigation is but little\\nmore than that necessary to submerge the vines, which will\\nrarely be more than .8 to 1.5 acre-feet. But, except for the\\nflooding for winter protection, the demands for water are so\\nperemptory and the time so short which can be allowed for sup-\\nplying it, that but a low duty is possible when this is measured\\nby the rate at which the water must be delivered.", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "Duty of Water in Cranberry Culture 221\\nWhen it is protection against frost which is required, the\\nmarsh must be given as much as 4 to 6 inches of water on the\\nlevel in nearly as many hours. To do this will require a stream\\nof 1 to 1.3 cubic feet per second per acre. But when the flood-\\ning is to destroy insects, the haste need not be so great while\\nfor winter flooding, a relatively small stream will answer the\\nneeds, as six weeks, if need be, may be taken in the flooding,\\nand as the ground-water surface around the marsh is usually\\nabove the marsh itself, the loss from seepage is small, as must\\nalso be that by evaporation during the winter.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI\\nFREQUENCY, AMOUNT AND MEASUREMENT OF WATER\\nFOR SINGLE IRRIGATIONS\\nTo have become able to apply water to crops at\\nthe right time, in the i-ight amounts and in the best\\nmanner is to have attained the acme of the art of\\nirrigation. Unfortunately, it is no more possible to\\nbear a man to this position on the vehicle of language f J\\nthan it is a cook to the art of making the best bread.\\nBoth arts are founded upon the most rigid of laws,\\nwhich may be readily and certainly followed when the\\nconditions have been learned. But the minutias of\\nessential details are so extreme that words fail utterly\\nto convey them to the mind, and they must be per-\\nceived through the senses, to be grasped with such\\nclearness as to lead unerringly to the right results.\\nThere are, however, general principles underlying the\\nart, which may be readily stated, and, when com-\\nprehended, place one in position to more quickly grasp\\nthe details essential to complete success in the appli-\\ncation of water to crops.\\nTHE AMOUNT OF WATER FOR SINGLE IRRIGATIONS\\nIn humid climates, there is always more or less\\nsoil -leaching, resulting from super- saturation of the\\n(222)", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "Amount of Water for Single Irrigations 223\\nsoil during times of heavy or protracted rains. This\\nleaching is usually looked upon as a necessary evil,\\nwhich results in a waste of fertility. Whether this\\nconviction is well founded, or whether a certain\\namount of soil washing is indispensable to unim-\\npaired fertility, it appears to the writer is one of\\nthe important soil problems awaiting positive demon-\\nstration. The accumulation of alkalies in the soils\\nof arid climates, where relatively small leaching is\\nassociated with large evaporation, and the tendency\\nof alkalies to become intensified where irrigation has\\nbeen long practiced, are facts which suggest that\\nthere may be such a thing as too great economy of\\nwater in irrigation.\\nBut, waiving this possibilit}^ of demand for water,\\nand all of those cases where the water is applied ^for\\nother purposes than meeting the ordinary needs of\\nvegetation, the fundamental conditions which deter-\\nmine the amount of water which should be applied at\\na single irrigation are (1) the capacity of the soil\\nand subsoil to store capillary water; (2) the depth\\nof the soil stratum penetrated by the roots of the\\nparticular crop (3) the rate at which the soil below\\nthe root zone may supply water by upward capillarity\\nto the roots and (4) the extent to which the soil\\nand subsoil have become dried out.\\nOn the other hand, the conditions which determine\\nthe frequency of irrigation are (1) the amount of\\navailable moisture which may be stored in the soil\\n(2) the rate at which this moisture is lost through\\nthe crop and through the soil; and (3) the degree", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "224 Irrigation and Drainage\\nof desiccation of the soil which the particular crop\\nwill tolerate before serious interference to growth le-\\nsults.\\nTHE CAPACITY OF SOILS TO STORE WATER\\nUNDER FIELD CONDITIONS\\nTke amount of water which may be stored in soils under\\nfield conditions varies between wide limits with the character\\nand texture of the soils, and also with the distance of standing\\nwater in the ground below the surface.\\nWhen a fine sand will hold in the first foot above the\\nground-water 23.86 per cent of its dry weight of water, at 4 feet\\nabove it was found to hold only 8.12 per cent, and 8 feet above\\nonly 3.14 per cent of the dry weight. When these amounts are\\nexpressed in pounds per cubic foot, they stand only a little more\\nthan 23.86 pounds, 8.12 pounds, and 3.14 pounds, a cubic foot\\nof the dry sand weighing about 105 pounds.\\nIn the case of a natural field soil of sandy clay loam with\\nclay subsoil changing to a sand at 4 feet, and where the\\nground-water changed during the season from 7.6 feet below\\nthe surface to 8.4 feet, the water content of the soil was found\\nto be as follows:\\n1st ft. 2d ft. 3d ft. 4th ft. 5th ft. 6th ft. 7th ft.\\nlbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs.\\nwater water water water water water water\\nJuly 25 10.44 16.91 14.81 10-38 7.82 13.66 22.29\\nOctober 2 9.49 16.27 14.41 6 99 7.74 7.85 19-35\\nLoss .95 .64 .4 3.39 .08 5.81 2.94\\nDuring this interval there had been a rainfall of 10.84\\npounds per square foot. There is no doubt that in the upper\\n4 feet a considerable part of the water was lost through surface\\nevaporation. It is quite likely, also, that a portion of the loss\\nshown in the 5th, 6th, and 7th feet was due to an upward capil-\\nlary movement. But there is little reason to doubt that the", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "Amount of Water for Single Irrigations 225\\nchief loss shown in the lower three feet is due to downward\\ndrainage or percolation, owing to a lowering of the ground-\\nwater surface.\\nThe 8-foot column of fine sand, referred to above, lost water\\nby percolation in 22 hours and 46 minutes, after full saturation,\\nequal to 6.35 per cent of the dry weight of the whole column\\nand as this must have come almost wholly from the upper 4\\nfeet, the water there must have been reduced in that time more\\nthan 12 per cent, which would leave a saturation of only 8\\nper cent.\\nBut as plants would suffer severely for water in a soil of\\nthis texture when the moisture was brought down to 4 per cent,\\nit is plain that only from 2 to 4 per cent of the weight of such\\na soil can be added at one irrigation without entailing severe\\nloss by percolation below the depth of root-feeding. Taking a\\ncubic foot of such a soil at 105 pounds, the maximum irrigation\\nwhich could be applied without severe loss, supposing the ground\\nto be wet down 5 feet and the soil to have dried 3 per cent,\\nwould be 15.75 pounds per square foot, or 2.86 inches in depth.\\nThe sand in question, however, is more open than most agri-\\ncultural soils; hence it follows that more than 2 inches of water\\nmay be safely applied at one irrigation to any crop much in\\nneed of water.\\nBy taking samples of soil in a field of maize and clover\\nwhen the corn leaves were badly curled and when clover wilted\\nquite early in the forenoon, the following moisture conditions\\nwere found:\\nSoil moisture relations when growth is brought to a standstill\\nDepth of sample Clover\\nPER CENT\\n0-6 ju. clay loam 8.39\\n6-12\\n12-18\\n18-24\\n24-30\\n40-43\\n8.48\\nreddish clay 12.42\\n13.27\\nsandy clay 13.52\\nsand 9.53\\nMaize\\nFallow ground\\nPER CENT\\nPER CENT\\n6 97\\n16.28\\n7.8\\n17.74\\n11.6\\n19.88\\n11.98\\n19.84\\n10.84\\n18.56\\n4.17\\n15.9", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "226 Irrigation and Drainage\\nThe moisture contained in the fallow ground, determined at\\nthe same time, shows how much water such a soil may hold\\nagainst a drought and against percolation below root action.\\nThe amount of moisture, too, in this fallow ground happens\\nto stand just at the under limit for most vigorous plant-growth\\nin this type of soil, while the upper limit is given in the table\\nbelow for comparison\\nShowing upper and lovjer limits of best amount of soil moisture for one type of soil\\nKind and depth Lower limit of Upper limit of Available\\nof soil soil moisture soil moisture soil moisture\\nPEU CENT PER CENT LBS- FEB CU. FT.\\nClay loam, first foot 17.01 25 77 6.92\\nKeddish clay, second foot 19.86 24.3 4.112\\nSandy clay, third foot 18.56 24.03 5.722\\nSand, fourth foot 15.9 22.29 6.786\\nTotal 23 55\\nIt will be seen from this table that to bring the surface four\\nfeet of soil from the lower limit of the best productive stage of\\nwater content to the upper limit requires an application of 23.55\\npounds per square foot, or a depth of irrigation equal to 4.527\\ninches.\\nIt is quite certain that with a greater distance to standing\\nwater in the ground, the 4th foot, and probably also the 3d foot,\\ncould not have retained the amount of water shown by the table\\nand, hence, that an irrigation of 4.5 inches on such a soil would f\\nhave resulted in some loss by percolation below the depth of\\nroot feeding.\\nIf it should happen that a soil like the one in question be-\\ncame as dry as is shown in the table on page 225, then the depth\\nof irrigation required to bring the moisture content up to the\\nupper limit of productiveness would be for the maize 11.37 inches,\\nand for the clover 9.39 inches, supposing the ground- water to be\\nat the time not more than 7 feet below the surface.\\nIt follows, therefore, from the observations and data pre-\\nsented, that the amount of water required for one irrigation,\\nwhere the soil has not been permitted to become too dry, and", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "Depth of Boot Penetration 227\\nwhere the aim is to bring the soil moisture to the upper limit\\nof productiveness without causing percolation below 4 or 5 feet,\\nwill range from about 2.5 inches on the most open soils to 4.5\\ninches on soils of average texture. But when excessive drying\\nof the soil has taken place, then the amount of water applied\\nmay range from 3.75 inches on the most open soils to as high as\\neven 11 inches on that which is of medium or fine texture. It\\nshould be understood that many soils, when they become very\\ndry, develop shrinkage cracks, which permit very rapid and ab-\\nnormally large percolation if excessive amounts of water are\\napplied at one time, and this without saturating the soil, the\\nwater simply di aining through the large open channels. In such\\neases repeated smaller applications of water will ensure less loss\\nby percolation, permitting the soil to expand and close up the\\nshrinkage cracks.\\nTHE DEPTH OP ROOT PENETRATION\\nThe greater the depth to which the roots of a\\ncrop iivdy feed to advantage in the soil, the larger\\nmay be the amount of water applied to the field at a\\nsingle irrigation without any passing beyond the zone\\nof root action, simply because 2 feet of soil will store\\nmore water than 1 foot, and 10 feet more than 5. But,\\nfurther than this, where the roots of a plant penetrate\\nthe soil deeply and spread widely, a much smaller per\\ncent of water in the soil will enable the plant to ob-\\ntain enough to carry on its functions to good advan-\\ntage. This is so because the roots go to the moisture,\\nand do not, therefore, need to wait for the moisture to\\ncome to Them at the extremely slow rate it is known\\nto travel in a relatively dry soil. Then, too, when a crop,\\nby reason of its great spread of root, is able to meet", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "228\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nFig. 37. Penetration of roots of prune on peach in arid soil of\\nCalifornia. (Hilgard.)", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "Depth of Hoot Penetration\\n229\\nits needs in a dryer soil, it is evident that a much\\nhigher duty of water is possible, for the simple reason\\nthat none can be lost by percolation, and much less\\nwill be lost by surface evaporation, even with deficient\\ntillage.\\nWe have already called attention to the probable\\ndeeper rooting of plants in soils of arid regions, where\\nFig. 38. Penetration of apple root in Wisconsin, 7 years planted.\\nDepth 9 feet. (Goff.)\\nthere is less distinction between the soil and subsoil,\\nthan in those of humid climates. Since writing that\\nsection, we have received Professors Hilgard and\\nLoughridge s Bulletin 121, in which they emphasize\\nthis point by placing in evidence a photo -engraving\\nof a prune tree on a peach root exposed in the soil\\nto a depth of 8 feet, and represented in Fig. 37. The\\nmethod they have used in exposing the root appears,", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "230\\nIrrigation and. Drainage\\nfrom the photograph, to have destroyed nearly all but\\nthe main trunks, unless it was true that the active\\nFig. 39. Penetration of grape roots in Wisconsin soil.\\nDepth 6 feet. (Gofe.)\\nabsorbing surfaces were chiefly still more deeply buried\\nin the soil than the excavation extended. This appears\\nquite likely to have been the case, for this penetra-", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "Depth of Root Penetration\\n231\\ntion is no greater than has been found in soils in\\nWisconsin.\\nFig. 40. Penetration of raspberry roots in Wisconsin soil.\\nDepth 5 feet. (Goff.)\\nProfessor Goff has washed out the roots of the\\napple, grape, raspberry and strawberry, showing the\\nextent of their development in a loamy clay soil", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "232\\nlynigation and Drainage\\nunderlaid bj^ a reddish clay subsoil, which changed\\nthrough a sandy clay into a mixed sand and gravel,\\nat 4 or more feet. His photographs, reproduced in\\nFigs. 38, 39, 40 and 41, show to what extent the roots\\nof these fruits penetrate the soils and subsoils of\\nFig. 41. Penetration of roots of strawberry in matted rows in Wisconsin\\nsoil. Depth 22 inches. (Goff.)\\nWisconsin, where the annual rainfall ranges from 28\\nto 40 inches. It will be seen from the legends that\\nthe roots of the apple have extended to a depth of\\nfully 9 feet, the grape more than 6, and the raspberry\\nmore than 5. It is plain, therefore, that even in the\\nsoils of humid climates the roots penetrate so deeply\\nthat the moisture of the surface 8 to 10 or 12 feet is", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "Depth of Root Penetration\\n238\\nlaid under tribute by them, and\\nthis makes it clear that the stor-\\nage room for water in the soil for\\nmany of the fruits may be much\\ngreater than we have pointed out\\nabove.\\nIn the case of the strawberry,\\nhowever, the figure shows that it\\nis a particularly shallow feeder,\\nand, therefore, is certain to suffer\\nseverely in dry times if not irri-\\ngated.\\nIn Fig. 42 are shown the roots\\nof alfalfa only 174 days from\\nseeding. These had forged their\\nway through so close a clay subsoil\\nthat more than four days of con-\\ntinuous washing were required to\\ndissolve away a cylinder of soil 1\\nfoot in diameter and 4 feet long.\\nThe roots, however, had penetrated\\nthis soil to a depth exceeding four\\nfeet, and the nitrogen-fixing tuber-\\ncles were already developed 22\\ninches below the surface.\\nIn the rigid data here pre-\\nsented, combined with that shown\\nin Figs. 10 and 11, we have a\\nrational basis upon which to build\\na practice of irrigation, so far as\\nthat relates t(? the depth of soil\\nFig. 42. Roots\\nin Wisconsin\\nfrom seeding.\\nof alfalfa\\n174 days", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "234 Irrigation and Drainage\\nwhich may be moistened and yet be within the reach\\nof plants.\\nTHE FREQUENCY OF IRRIGATION\\nThe data presented in the last two sections are a\\nportion of those required to understand the rationale\\nof this important subject. Viewed from the standpoint\\nof labor involved in distributing water for irrigation,\\nit is evident that the fewer the number of irrigations\\nthe smaller may be the labor involved and the lower\\nthe cost. Moreover, the less often the surface of the\\nsoil is wet, the smaller will be the loss of water by\\nevaporation and by seepage in bringing the water\\nto the fields hence, the higher will be the duty of\\nwater.\\nThe most general rule which can be laid down\\ngoverning the frequency of irrigations and the amount\\nof water to be applied at one time, is to apply as much\\nwater to the soil which is available to the crop as the\\ncrop will tolerate without suffering in yield or quality,\\nand then husband this water with the most thorough\\ntillage practicable, in order to reduce the number of\\nirrigations to the minimum.\\nIt has been shown that a crop of maize yielding\\n70 bushels per acre may be brought to maturity in 110\\ndays with 11.75 acre-inches of water. It has also been\\nshown that a soil of medium texture may cany in the\\nsurface 4 feet 4.5 inches of available water, or, if ex-\\ntremely open, 2.5 inches. Could so high a dutj^ of\\nwater as this be attained under field conditions, three", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "Frequency of Irrigation 235\\nirrigations would be required for such a crop of maize\\non the medium soil and five on the most open one,\\nmaking the intervals between waterings 37 and 22 days;\\nbut if the yield was 100 bushels per acre instead of\\n70, the number of irrigations required would be four\\nor seven, and the intervals between waterings would be\\n27 days for the medium soil and 15 days for the most\\nopen one.\\nComputing for wheat on a similar basis, with a\\nyield of 40 bushels per acre, requiring 12 acre -inches\\nof water under the conditions of the highest duty, the\\nnumber of irrigations would have to be three or five,\\nat intervals of 33 or 20 days, according as the texture\\nof the soil was medium or very coarse; while a crop\\nof barley yielding 60 bushels per acre in a period of\\n88 days would need 12.84 acre -inches, to be applied in\\nthree or five irrigations, at intervals of 29 or 18 days.\\nThese three cases may be taken as types of the\\nhighest limits likely to be attained under the best of\\nfield conditions, and they may serve as standards\\ntoward which we may strive with the satisfaction of\\nknowing that extremely good and thorough work has\\nbeen done if they are attained.\\nIt will be desirable, now, to review the literature of\\nthe frequency of irrigation, and see how actual practice\\nin various parts of the world corresponds with the\\nconclusions stated.\\nIn southern Europe, wheat is irrigated three to four\\ntimes; in India, five times during the hot seasons and\\nfour times for the crop of the cool season. In the\\nUnited States, Colorado irrigates two, three and, occa-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "236 Irrigation and Drainage\\nsionally, four times, two being the usual number in\\n-New Mexico, the ground is irrigated once before and\\nonce after seeding and five times later, making seven\\ntimes in all while in Utah the number of w^aterings is\\nthree to five.\\nThe average number of irrigations appears to be\\nfrom three to five for wheat in all parts of the world.\\nBut it should be understood that these irrigations are,\\nin all cases, supplemented more or less with natural\\nrainfall. In Colorado, for example, where the usual\\nnumber of irrigations is two, the rainfall from April 1\\nto July 1 is often as great as 8 inches, or two- thirds\\nthe amount of water required for a yield of 40 bushels\\nper acre, thus making the number of irrigations amount\\npractically to six rather than two, and the mean interval\\n16% days, instead of 33 to 20.\\nIt must be remembered, further, that while the\\nirrigations of wheat are in all cases supplemented with\\nnatural rainfall, the yield per acre does not average 40\\nbushels hence the agreement of the theoretical fre-\\nquency of irrigation, 33 to 20 days, with that actually\\npracticed is more apparent than real.\\nIn Egypt, maize is irrigated every 15 daj S, which\\nwould make seven waterings for the crop. Barker states\\nthat six irrigations are given to a crop in the Mesilla\\nvalley, New Mexico; while in Italy three is the usual\\nnumber. But here, again, the spring and early summer\\nrainfall is quite large; so large, indeed, that much maize\\nis grown without irrigation. It appears, therefore, that\\nwhere this cro p must really depend upon irrigation\\nfor the water needed, it must be applied as often as", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "Frequency of Irrigation 237\\nevery 15 to 20 days, and our experimental studies place\\nit at 15 to 27 days for yields of 100 bushels per acre.\\nThe intervals between the irrigations for other\\ncereals will be found to fall between those for wheat\\nand maize, oats requiring the largest amount of water\\nand barley the least, to mature a large crop.\\nIn the irrigation of clover and alfalfa, the usual\\npractice is to irrigate once for each crop. But there is\\nlittle question that larger yields for each crop may be\\nsecured where the number of irrigations is doubled^\\ngiving six where the number of crops is three, and teu\\nwhere it is five, thus making the length of the interval\\n10 or 20 days.\\nWith other meadows, the general custom is to give\\nthese as much and as many waterings as the water\\nsupply will permit. In Italy, the summer meadows are\\nwatered every 14 days. In southern France they are\\nwatered every 5 to 18 days, and on the average every\\n10 days. Winter water meadows, as has been stated,\\nare watered with a nearly continuous flow of water over\\ntheir surfaces.\\nWith potatoes, the custom is usually to depend upon\\nthe natural rainfall to bring the crop nearly or quite\\nto blossoming, and then to irrigate twice on nearly\\nlevel fields, and three to four times where the slopes are\\nsteep or where the soil is very porous and coarse in\\ntexture, thus making an interval for this crop of 20\\nto 40 days.\\nFor this crop our experimental studies indicate that\\n8.24 acre-inches may produce 400 bushels per acre\\nhence, that two to four irrigations might be sufficient", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "238 Irrigation and Drainage\\nfor a full season, starting with the ground in good con-\\ndition as regards moisture at time of planting, making\\nthe possible interval 33 to 65 days.\\nFruit trees in Sicily and southern Italy are watered\\n12 to 25 times during one season or once every 7 to 14\\ndaj S. The peach and apple in Mesilla, New Mexico, are\\nwatered once at the beginning of winter, once early in\\nJanuarj^ and four or five times between April 1 and\\nSeptember 30, thus making the interval for the growing\\nseason 30 to 40 days. In Algeria and Spain, oranges\\nare irrigated the year round every 15 days in spring\\nand summer, but at longer intervals the balance of the\\nyear and it is only on the heavy soils that irrigation\\nis dispensed with during the rainy season. Grapes,\\nwhen irrigated, are usually watered every 10 to 20\\nda3 S, and young vineyards oftener than those more\\nmature.\\nRice in Italy is kept flooded from the time of\\nseeding until the plants are coming into bloom, and\\nthen the water is drawn off, but the fields are irrigated\\nafterwards every few days. In Egypt the water in\\nthe rice basins is changed every 15 days, and in India\\na crop of rice gets as many as twelve waterings.\\nIn South Carolina, Mr. Hazzard informs me that\\ntheir custom is to clay the seed to prevent it from\\nfloating, and then to flood the fields, keeping them so\\nuntil the rice is well up, when the water is drawn off\\nfor 3 days to allow the plants to become rooted in\\nthe soil, when the fields are again flooded for 3 weeks,\\nbut changing the water everj^ 7 daj^s. The water\\nis again drawn off for 30 days, to give the fields two", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "Measitrement of ^yater 239\\ndry lioeings, when flooding is again resorted to and\\nmaintained until the crop is matured.\\nTHE MEASUREMENT OF WATER\\nThe man who has become expert in handling water\\nfor irrigation really needs no means for measuring\\nthe amount required for the watering. His judg-\\nment, based upon an examination of the soil, is more\\nreliable as to when enough has been applied than any\\nmeasurement which could be made. But as soon as\\nthe same source of water becomes the joint property\\nof a community, or wherever water is sold to consumers,\\nmeans for measurement and division become indis-\\npensable. For the user of water, too, a definite knowl-\\nedge of the exact amount he is putting upon a given\\narea of land is very important, until he comes to know\\nthe needs of his land and of his crops for water be-\\ncause without this knowledge he is liable to run on\\nfor years, using too much or too little water, leading the\\nwater too slowlj^ or too rapidly through the furrows,\\ncausing waste by deep percolation or too shallow wet-\\nting of the soil. If he knows that he has put the\\nequivalent of 3 inches of water upon his field and only a\\nquarter of the surface has been wet, it is certain that\\nhis method has been faulty and a large part of the\\nwater used has been lost.\\nUNITS OF MEASUREMENT\\nFrom the standpoint of the agriculturist, there is\\nno unit for the measurement of water used in irrigation", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "240 Irrigation and Drainage\\nso satisfactory as one which expresses the depth of\\nwater to be applied to a uuit area, and the acre -inch\\nfor English-speaking people, or the hectare -centimeter\\nfor those who nse the metric system, should become\\nuniversal. Rainfall is now universally measured in\\nunits of depth, and, as irrigation is intended to make\\ngood deficiencies of rainfall, it would simplify matters\\ngreatly if the irrigator could call for the depth of water\\nhe desired.\\nAn acre-inch is enough water to cover 1 acre 1 inch\\ndeep; and 10 acre -inches of water is enough to cover 1\\nacre 10 inches deep, or 10 acres 1 inch deep. As an\\nacre contains 43,560 square feet, 12 acre-inches is equal\\nto 43,560 cubic feet of water, and 1 acre -inch equals\\none -twelfth of this amount, or 3,630 cubic feet. As\\nthere are 1,728 cubic inches in a cubic foot, and 231\\ncubic inches in a gallon, 1 cubic foot equals 7.48+\\ngallons, and 1 acre -inch equals 27,150 gallons.\\nAs 1 cubic foot of water at 60\u00c2\u00b0 F. weighs 62.367\\npounds, 1 acre -inch equals 226,392 pounds, or 113.2\\ntons of 2,000 pounds.\\nAnother measure frequently used in the gauging of\\nstreams, and also used as an irrigation unit, is the\\nsecond-foot, which means a discharge or flow of water\\nequal in volume to 1 cubic foot per second of time;\\nand a stream having the volume of 1 second -foot would\\nsupply an acre-inch in 3,630 seconds, or in 30 seconds\\nmore than one hour. In 24 hours, a stream of 1\\nsecond-foot would supply 23.8 acre -inches, and would\\ncover 7.93 acres of land with water 3 inches deep.\\nStill another unit in common use in the western", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "Measurement of Water 241\\nUnited States is the miner s inch, which is the amount\\nof water which may flow through an opening 1\\nsquare inch in section in one second under a certain\\npressure or head. But the legal pressure varies in\\ndifferent states hence, the miner s inch has not a\\nfixed and definite value. In California 50 miner s\\ninches are usually counted equivalent to 1 second -foot,\\nwhile in Colorado only 38.4 statute inches are required\\nfor a second -foot.\\nWhere a larger unit of measure is desired than\\neither of those named, the acre -foot is sometimes\\nused. This is an amount of water required to cover\\nan acre 1 foot deep, and is, therefore, equal to 12\\nacre -inches.\\nMETHODS OF MEASUREMENT OF WATER\\nm Much and long as irrigation has been practiced, and impor-\\ntant as the subject is, especially in communities where water\\nis scarce and where each user has need of every drop of water\\nhe can get, there appears even yet to have been devised few\\nmethods of measuring or of apportioning water among the users\\nwhich possess the degree of precision which could be desired.\\nIn the ease of individual irrigators, where the water is\\npumped and stored in reservoirs, to be used as desired, the area\\nof the reservoir and the amount the water is lowered in it fur-\\nnish the needed data for determining the amount which has\\nbeen applied to a given area of land. Or, in the case of direct\\napplication of the water pumped to the land, the rate of the\\npump may be known, and thus, through a knowledge of the time\\nof pumping, furnish an approximate measure of the water used.\\nIn the great majority of cases, however, a knowledge of the\\namount of water used in irrigation must be gained in some other\\nway.\\nI", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "242\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nThe Method of Time Division\\nWhere the amount of water carried in a ditch, lateral or\\npipe is not so large but that an individual may use the whole\\nof it to advantage, the usual and the simplest method of divid-\\ning the water is on the basis of time, allowing each user to\\nhave the whole stream a specified number of hours and minutes,\\nmaking the length of the time proportional to the amount of\\nwater to which each user is entitled.\\nWith this method, it is customary to issue to the various\\nusers under the ditch, at the beginning of the irrigation season,\\nprinted schedules or tickets, covering the whole or a portion of\\nthe season, which specify the dates upon which they will be\\nentitled to the use of water, and the length of time they can\\nhave it, as illustrated by the following ticket:\\nj^\u00c2\u00ab_rCi.rfi_\u00c2\u00bb^\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2S WATHK TICKET NO-vfJT.\\nI DISTRICT N0. -DITCH NoC^\\nI Spnngville.UtQl). CM^^U^ J^2, 1896\\nYouav* antltud to th\u00c2\u00ab us* et th\u00c2\u00ab uiatcp on\\nttao SiHf. .,Amy of_^^lf;^2 \u00c2\u00abC:-ijf. ,.^_ m\\\\ ^^.^ra. until V ^td. of th\u00c2\u00ab\\n^Ji\\nVou aive then v\u00c2\u00abqulvod todlsoontlnuo Ita us\u00c2\u00ab and tupn it off youp l\u00c2\u00bbnd\\nWAliTEl^ BIRD, watavmastor.\\nj;t 7^ v^ jjr z{i Tjr -jjr ^;s Tji Tjr Tjr z\u00c2\u00bbs \u00e2\u0096\u00a0z;*, ^{1 \u00e2\u0080\u00a2jy \u00c2\u00bb\u00c2\u00bbi ^^s -zjr 2J1 Tjr ^;i Tjr T^i i}ri5r-i;iT^-\\nWith this system, if one man is entitled to two, three or\\nfour times the amount of water that a neighbor is entitled to,\\nthe length of his period is two, three or four times as long:\\nand, as shown by the ticket, a regular rotation is followed, the\\nwater returning to the same user after the same number of\\ndays.\\nWhere the water must be used day and night, as should be\\nthe case where water is scarce and is allowed to run continuously\\nto reduce waste, in order to prevent the night use of water fall-\\ning always upon the same individuals, the rotation period may", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "Measurement of Water\\n243\\nbe made to include a fraction of a day, say 8% days instead of\\n8, as in the one cited or, after a certain number of rotations,\\nthe water may be given first to a different member in the\\ncircuit, and thus change the time of day at which each gets\\nhis turn.\\nIn those eases where the supply of water in the ditch is\\nalways the same, this is the most accurate and best method of\\ndividing water which has been devised, and where the amount\\nof water which the ditch carries is known, it gives every one a\\ndefinite knowledge of the amount of water he is using.\\nIt often happens, however, that the volume of water changes\\nfrom time to time, and when this is true those who chance to\\nbe using water when the supply is high will receive most.\\nBut if the period of rotation is short, the injustice will seldom\\nbe very great, and where the periods of rotation are short, the\\nservice is usually more convenient and better for other reasons\\nthan that of a more equitable division of the water, because it\\npermits a user to apply his water to certain fields one date and\\nto another on his next turn, thus permitting him to do his fit-\\nting and cultivation between irrigations to a greater advantage.\\nThe Subdivision of Laterals\\nWhere the lateral carries too much water to be used to\\nadvantage by single indi-\\nviduals, this may be sub-\\ndivided readily into two\\nexactly equal portions, and\\nthese two divisions may\\nbe again subdivided into\\ntwo precisely equal streams.\\nBut in order that the di-\\nvision may be exact, it\\nmust be done in certain\\nways, as represented in Fig. 43. If the two branches of the lateral\\nform equal angles with the main, have the same fall, and their\\nbottoms at the same level where they start, they will carry equal\\nB\\n\\\\7\\nM\\nFig. 43. Branching of canal to divide -water\\nequally (A and and unequally (C),", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "244 Irrigation and Drainage\\nvolumes of water if their dimensions are exactly the same as\\nshown at A and B. But if the division is made as at C, or in\\nany other manner, which makes the two arms in any way\\nunlike, one will carry more water than the other. So, too, if\\ncare is not taken to keep the main and the two branches clean\\nwhere the division is made, it will not be exact.\\nWhen an effort is made to divide the main into. two unequal\\nparts, or into an odd number of equal parts, the task becomes\\nan extremely difficult one, and one which is not likely to be\\naccomplished, and the attempt should be avoided.\\nThe cause of the difficulty is found in the fact that the water\\ntravels with the greatest velocity in the center of the stream\\nand diminishes in speed as the sides are approached, so that if\\nthe main is divided into two branches which have cross -sections\\nin the ratio of 1 to 2, the larger arm will carry more than twice\\nthe amount of the smaller one, because it must take a larger\\nshare of the water moving in the central portion of the main.\\nOr if the main is divided into three equal laterals, then the\\ncentral branch is sure to carry more water than either of the\\ntwo taking the water from nearer the sides, and it is not prac-\\nticable to so adjust the dimensions of these branches that with\\nvarying volumes of water moving in the main the desired ratios\\nshall always be secured in the divisions.\\nThe Use of Divisors\\nWhen it is desired to remove from a ditch a certain portion\\nof the amount of water which it is carrying, this is sometimes\\nattempted by means of an arrangement represented in Fig. 44,\\ncalled a divisor, in which the portion A is set into the channel\\nsome fractional part of the whole width, determined by the\\namount which it is desired to take out. Thus, if it was desired\\nto take out one -fifth of the stream, and the lateral had a width\\nof 40 inches, the divisor would be set in toward the center 8\\ninches. But from what has already been said, it follows that\\nless than one-fifth of the water can thus be removed, for the\\ntwo reasons, that the section of the stream removed does not", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "Fig. 44. One form of water divisor.\\nDivision of Water 245\\nhave the mean velocity of the part remaining, and, having to\\nchange its direction to one at right angles, its velocity is still\\nfurther checked in making the turn. The smallest users of water\\nby this system, therefore, in-\\nvariably receive an amount\\nwhich is less than they are\\nentitled to use, while the larger\\nusers receive more. In order\\nto reduce this inequality of\\ndivision, the practice of insert-\\ning a weir-board in the canal\\njust above the divisor, so as to\\nrestore a more nearly equal velocity across the stream, is some-\\ntimes adopted; and if the canal is broadened above the measur-\\ning-box, so that the water a,pproaches the weir slowly and passes\\nover it smoothly without contraction, Carpenter states that the\\nmethod will give as satisfactory results as any with which he\\nis acquainted.\\nThe Use of Modules\\nA module is defined as a means of taking out of a canal a\\ndefinitely specified quantity of water, measured as so many inches,\\ncubic feet per secoad, or other units, rather than the simple\\ndivision of a stream into a certain number of parts, as is the\\ncase where the divisor is used.\\nTwo types of modules are employed, one based upon the\\nprinciple of the weir as a means for measuTing water, and the\\nother on the laws governing the flow of water through orifices.\\nIf it were readily practicable to establish and maintain any\\ndesired pressure at a weir or an opening, water could be appor-\\ntioned for irrigation with satisfactory precision with the aid of\\nmodules, but no method for doing this has yet been devised,\\nalthough much study through many centuries has been devoted\\nto it.\\nThe spill-box, invented by A. D. Foote, and represented in\\nFig. 45, is, perhaps, as satisfactory a means for maintaining a", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "246\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nnearly uniform head against either a weir or an opening as has\\nyet been devised. Its essential feature is a long, sharp lip,\\nover which the water may spill back into the canal in a thin\\nsheet, and thus maintain a nearly constant pressure back of\\nFig. 45. Spill-baek method of dividing water.\\nthe lip of a weir or above an opening. But this arrangement\\ndoes not and cannot maintain a constant pressure where there\\nis any considerable fluctuation in the volume of water in the\\nmain canal; and, since the depth of water above the opening\\nor lip of the weir must always be small, even a slight change", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "Division of Water 247\\nin the depth of the water over the lip of the spill -back must\\nmake a perceptible difference in the discharge.\\nFurther than this, where the form of the opening is designed\\nto be made longer or shorter by means of a sliding valve accord-\\ning as more or less water is desired, the amount discharged,\\neven when the head is maintained rigidly constant, is not\\ndirectly proportional to the length of the opening, because the\\nnumber of inches of margin upon which the resistance to flow\\ndepends does not maintain a constant ratio to the cross -section\\nof the opening. The more margin there is in proportion to the\\narea of the opening, the greater must be the loss of discharge\\nthrough friction and contraction, so that the most exact and\\ngenerally satisfactory way of apportioning water among users\\nwhich has yet been devised, is that of bisecting the stream until\\nits volume has become suitable for individual use, and then sub-\\ndividing by time under some system of rotation.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII\\nTHE CHARACTER OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION\\nThe characteristics which determine the suitability\\nof water for the purposes of irrigation must depend\\nupon the chief objects for which the water is used\\nwhether it is to control temperature, as in the case of\\nwinter -meadows and in cranberry culture to supply\\nplant -food, as in the case of summer water-meadows\\nto meet the simple need of water for the transpiration\\nof the growing crop, or to deposit sediments for the\\npurpose of building up the surface of low-lying areas,\\nas in the case of warping.\\nTEMPERATURE OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION\\nWhere one of the prime objects in the use of water\\nfor irrigation is to stimulate plant -growth, the warmer\\nthe water is within the natural ranges of temperature\\nthe better are the results. According to Ebermayer,\\nwhen the temperature of the soil in which a crop is\\ngrowing has been lowered to from 45\u00c2\u00b0 to 48\u00c2\u00b0 F., phys-\\niological processes are brought nearly to a standstill\\nin it, and the maximum rate of growth does not be-\\ncome possible until after the soil temperature has\\nrisen above 68\u00c2\u00b0 to 70\u00c2\u00b0. It is plain, therefore, that if\\nlarge volumes of cold water were applied to the soil at\\n(248)", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "Temperature of Water for Irrigation 249\\none time, and especially if a flooding system were\\nadopted by which the cold water were kept moving\\nover the ground in the growing season during several\\ndays, the temperature of the soil might easily be\\nbrought so low as to seriously interfere with normal\\ngrowth.\\nThe dangers, however, from using cold irrigation\\nw^aters are not as great as might at first be supposed;\\nand it is seldom, where good judgment is exercised, that\\nthe low temperature of the water of wells and springs\\nneed prohibit its use for the purposes of irrigation.\\nIn the first place, there are few cases where the\\ntemperature of well or spring water during the irri-\\ngation season will be found as cold as 45\u00c2\u00b0 F., the\\nmore usual temperature being nearly 50\u00c2\u00b0 or above.\\nIn the second place, water warms very rapidly during\\nbright summer daj^s, when spread over the surface\\nof the ground, or when led along furrows, and even\\nwhile flowing through ditches, for it absorbs the direct\\nheat from the sun readily, as the rays of light pene-\\ntrate it, and is further indirectly warmed by the\\nbalance of the sunshine which, passing through the\\nwater, is arrested by the dark soil beneath. While\\nthe water is flowing over the surface of the ground,\\nif its temperature is below that of the soil, it really\\nstores much heat which otherwise would be lost, be-\\ncause relatively much less will be lost by radiation\\nfrom the hot surface of the soil and stored in the\\nwater, leaving less to pass away from the dry ground\\nwhose immediate surface becomes very warm, and\\nhence fitted to lose heat rapidly.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "250 Irrigation mid Drainage\\nIn the third place, the temperature of the surface\\nfoot of soil in the daytime of midsummer, with its\\ncontained moisture, is usuall} as high as 68\u00c2\u00b0 to\\n75\u00c2\u00b0, and to lower its temperature 1\u00c2\u00b0 F. requires the\\nabsorption by water added of from 25 to 40 heat units,\\naccording as the soil varies from a nearly pure sand,\\nweighing 110 pounds per cubic foot, and containing\\n4 per cent of water, to a humus soil, containing 30\\nper cent of water and 50 pounds of dry matter per\\ncubic foot.\\nOne heat unit is taken as the amount needed to raise 1\\npound of water at 32\u00c2\u00b0 to 33\u00c2\u00b0 F. With the relations stated, it\\nappears that 4 inches of water having a temperature of 45\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\napplied to a field having a soil temperature of 75\u00c2\u00b0 might lower\\nthe surface foot to 65\u00c2\u00b0 or 61.7\u00c2\u00b0, according to the specific heat of\\nthe soil and with a soil temperature of 68\u00c2\u00b0, the lowest tem-\\nperature the 4 inches of water could produce would range be-\\ntween 60\u00c2\u00b0 and 57.6\u00c2\u00b0. But this assumes that the water is applied\\nat once, with no opportunity for warming until it is brought into\\ncontact with the soil, which, of course, cannot be the case. If\\nthe irrigation water has a temperature of 50\u00c2\u00b0 F., then the lowest\\ndegree 4 inches of water could force upon the surface foot of\\nsoil would be some amount above 66.7\u00c2\u00b0 to 63.7\u00c2\u00b0 when the origi-\\nnal soil temperature was 75\u00c2\u00b0, or 62\u00c2\u00b0 to 59.9\u00c2\u00b0 if the initial soil\\ntemperature were 68\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nThe results summarized on page 214 indicate that the mean\\namount of water used in single irrigations is at the rate of 2.02\\ninches once in 10 days. Hence, were the coldest water used in\\nthis quantity, the greatest depression of the temperature of the\\nsurface foot could not exceed 6.7\u00c2\u00b0 F. This assumes that neither\\nthe water nor the soil receives any heat during the time the\\nwater is being applied. It is clear, therefore, that where good\\njudgment is exercised in the application of either well or spring\\nwater, it may be used without in any serious way interfering with\\nnormal growth. The chief danger will, of course, lie in the ap-", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "Fertilizing Value of Water 251\\nplication of excessive amounts of water, when injury would fol-\\nlow certainly, and sooner than where warmer water is at hand.\\nWarm water is better than cold, and in making a choice of\\nwaters it is, of course, best to select the warmest where this can\\nbe done. But the point we wish to emphasize is, that well and\\nspring water and mountain streams may be used to advantage\\nfor irrigation where warmer water is not at hand. Mr. Crane-\\nfield* has experimented with tomatoes, radishes and beans grown\\nin a greenhouse and in the garden, irrigated with water at 32\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand has found them to do nearly as well as those given water at\\n70\u00c2\u00b0 or 100\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe writer waters his own garden and lawn directly from a\\nwell with water having a temperature of 48\u00c2\u00b0 to 50\u00c2\u00b0 F., and the\\npresent year we cut with a lawn mower, on 21,869 square feet\\nof lawn about the house, between May 6 and November 5, enough\\ngrass to feed one cow all she needed for 95% days. On 90,709\\nsquare feet, including the lawn, or 2.08 acres, we this year fed,\\nby soiling, two cows and one horse from May 6 until November\\n5, and put into the barn besides 4.75 tons of hay, .14 acres of\\nthis ground being in Stowell s Evergreen sweet corn. Three crops\\nof clover were cut from the same ground, and the third cutting,\\nNovember 1, averaged a ton of hay per acre, and was a little\\npast full bloom, and yet the watering was done directly from\\nthe well with water at 48\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nFERTILIZING VALUE OF IRRIGATION WATER\\nIn traveling from place to place in Europe, it was\\na continual surprise to the writer to learn from those\\nwho were using water for the irrigation of meadows\\nthat the fertility which the river waters added to the\\nsoil was generally regarded as the chief advantage\\nderived from them. The vast volumes of water which\\nare sometimes used for this purpose have already been\\ncited.\\n*Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Wis. Agr. Exp. Station, p. 250.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "252 Irrigation and Drainage\\nAs an example of the amount and kind of material\\nwhich would be added to the land where what is re-\\ngarded as exceptionally pure water is used, we com-\\npute from the results of analyses of the water of the\\nDelaware river* the amount of material contained in\\nsolution in 24 acre-inches, as follows:\\nMaterials in 24 acre-inches of Delaware river water\\nPounds\\nCalcium carbonate 242.6\\nMagnesium carbonate 166.16\\nPotassium carbonate IU.74\\nSodium chloride 20.54\\nPotassium chloride 1.86\\nCalcium sulphate 35.48\\nCalcium phosphate 26.14\\nSilica 93.34\\nFerric oxide 5 6\\nOrganic matter containing ammonia 117.62\\nTotal 741.08\\nThe average amounts of nitrogen compounds, as\\ncomputed from the chemical analyses of the waters of\\ntwelve streams in New Jersey, are as follows:\\nNitrogen Compounds dissolved in 24 acre-inches of water from 12\\nstreams in Neiv Jersey\\nPounds\\nFree ammonia 15.63\\nAlbuminoid ammonia 81.12\\nNitrates 772.67\\nNitrites .86\\nTotal 870.28\\n*Rept. New Jersey Geol. Survey 1868, p. 102.", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "Setvage Waters for Irrigation 253\\nUsing the figures of T. M. Read* regarding the\\namount of materials which the great rivers of the\\nworld bear in solution to the sea, it appears that the\\nMississippi and St. Lawrence rivers, in North America,\\nand the Amazon and La Plata, in South An] erica,\\ncarry an amount such that the average is 655.6 pounds-\\nper each 24 acre-inches of water.\\nGoss and Haret, from analyses of the water of the\\nRio Grande at different periods from June 1 to Octo-\\nber 31, compute that 24 acre- inches of the water\\ncontained in sediment and in solution 1,075 pounds\\nof potash, 116 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 107\\npounds of nitrogen. The water of this river contains\\na sufficient amount of sediment so that 24 acre- inches\\nof it furnishes 81,309 pounds, or more than 4 tons\\nper acre.\\nIt is evident from these data that the ordinary\\nclear waters of rivers, lakes, springs and wells cannot\\nbe expected to bear to the fields upon which they are\\napplied a sufficient amount of plant -food to meet the\\nneeds of crops, unless the water is applied in much\\nlarger volumes than is required to meet the demands\\nof soil moisture.\\nSEWAGE WATERS FOR PURPOSES OF IRRIGATION\\nIt may be laid down as a general rule that the\\nwater of highest value for the purposes of irrigation\\nis the sewage of large cities, unless it contains too\\n*Ain. Jour. Sci., vol. xxix p. 290.\\ntNew Mexico Expt. Sta., Bull. 12.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "254 Irrigation and Drainage\\nlarge amounts of poisonous products from factories\\nin the form of injurious chemical compounds.\\nThe organic matter of sewage, in both its soluble\\nand finely divided, suspended form of solids, when\\nsufficiently diluted with other water, is of the highest\\nvahie as a fertilizer for many crops, and in all\\nwarm climates it is often practicable and very de-\\nsirable to use such water for this purpose.\\nReference has alreadj^ been made to the use of\\nsewage waters from the city of Milan on the water-\\nmeadows of Italy. The far-famed Craigentinny\\nmeadows, outside of Edinburgh, are another emphatic\\nillustration of the value of sewage in the production\\nof grass, and Storer, after visiting them in 1877,\\nw^rites as follows\\nIn 1877 there were 400 acres of these forced\\nmeadows near Edinburgh, and they are said to in-\\ncrease gradually. The Craigentinny meadows, just\\nnow mentioned, were about 200 acres in extent, and\\nthey had then been irrigated 30 years and more.\\nThey were laid down at first to Italian raj^ grass\\nand a mixture of other grass seed, but these arti-\\nficial grasses disappeared long ago, couch-grass and\\nvarious natural grasses having taken their place.\\nThe grass is sold green to cow -keepers, and yields\\nfrom $80 to $150 per acre. One year the price\\nreached $220 per acre. They get five cuts between\\nthe 1st of April and the end of October. This farm\\nof 200 acres turns in to its owner every year $15,000\\nto $20,000 at the least calculation, and his running\\nexpenses consist in the wages of two men, who keep", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "Setvage Waters for Irrigation\\n255\\nthe ditches in order. The sewage he gets free. The\\nyield of grass is estimated at from 50 to 70 tons\\nper acre.\\nIn 1895, 18 years later, the writer visited the\\nmeadows described above, and Figs. 46 and 47 were\\ntaken at the time. The first figure shows a load\\nof grass, estimated to weigh 2,500 pounds, cut to\\nfeed 23 cows during one day, from an area of 2,734\\nsquare feet. Seven acres of this grass had been\\npurchased to feed the herd of 23 cows from May 1 to\\nFig. 46. Two thousand five hundred pounds of grass cut on 2,734 sq. ft.\\nof Craigentinny Meadows, Edinburgh, Scotland.\\nOctober 20, during which time the grass would be\\ncut four or five times, and the price paid for this\\ngrass, sold at auction, varied from $77.44 to $111.32\\nper acre, according to the quality of the several plots\\nmaking up the seven acres purchased. The increase of\\nthese meadows about Edinburgh, it was said, was\\ntending to lower the price which this grass could", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "256 Irrigation and Drainage\\ncommand, but the superintendent informed me that\\nduring the past twenty years the average price per\\nacre for the whole estate had been $102,20. Yet\\nthis grass is cat by the purchasers and hauled three\\nFig. 47. Distribution of sewage on Craigentinny meadows, Edinburgh,\\nScotland, just after cutting grass.\\nto four miles day by day to feed their cows, stabled\\nand milked in the crowded business portions of\\nthe city.\\nWhen it is further stated that much of the land\\nupon which this grass is now grown, and has been\\ncontinuously grown for nearly a century without\\nrotation, was originally a waste sandy sea beach, it\\nwill be the better appreciated how valuable is such\\nsewage water for the purposes of irrigation.\\nRegarding the healthfulness of milk produced from grass\\ngrown under sewage irrigation, statements like the following\\nare repeatedly being made: The only question is, whether\\nthere may not remain adhering to grass which has been bathed", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "Sewage Water for Irrigation 257\\nwith sewage some germs of typhoid, cholera or other vile disease\\nwhich are propagated in human excrement and in view of\\nwhat is now known regarding the nature of such diseases, it\\nis not strange that such fears should arise in the minds of\\nsanitarians.\\nBut in view of the fact that milk has been produced from\\nsuch feed for nearly a century immediately within the city of\\nEdinburgh, the sewaged grass traversing the streets daily during\\nthe whole season in sufficient quantity for several thousand cows,\\nand the milk so produced wholly consumed by its people with-\\nout protest, must be taken as the safest possible evidence\\nthat there is practically little danger in this direction and\\nwhen it is remembered that the large city of Milan, Italy, has\\nbeen supplied with milk produced from such grass fed the year\\nround for more than two centuries, the evidence against the\\nfear expressed is more than doubly strong, coming, as it does,\\nfrom a warm southern climate and covering so long a period.\\nThe question, however, is still discussed, and in order that\\nthere may be no tendency to throw public vigilance off its guard\\nin so grave a matter, we quote from the Edinburgh Evening\\nDispatch of July 5, 1895, parts of a discussion which was being\\nhad at the time of my visit, as follows:\\nLast week we called attention to the peculiar tactics\\nadopted by some medical gentlemen, sanitarians and others, who\\nare attempting to float a new dairy company. One of\\nthe strategic movements of these ^philanthropic speculators was\\nto try and create a prejudice against the milk produced in the\\nEdinburgh dairies, on the ground that the cows were largely\\nfed on sewage grass during the summer. In regard to this, we\\npointed out that the royal commission which investigated the\\nwhole subject of sewage farming some years ago, reported that\\nthey had failed to discover a single case where injury to health\\nhad resulted from the use of milk drawn from cows fed on\\nsewage grass. Since our article on the subject appeared last\\nweek, our attention has been called to some further evidence\\nwhich fully confirms the conclusions at which the royal com-\\nmissioners had arrived. In his evidence given before the Rivers", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "258 Irrigation and Drainage\\nPollution Commissioners, the medical officer of health for Edin-\\nburgh, Dr. Littlejohn, now Sir Henry Littlejohn, said:\\n^The cows in Edinburgh are chiefly fed with sewage grass\\nthat is grown on Craigentinny meadows. I have thought that\\nthere might be objection to feeding cows upon grass so grown,\\nbecause I was of opinion that grass so grown might be of inferior\\nquality. But practically I have failed to detect any bad effects\\nresulting from the use of such grass.\\nAnother point which these philanthropic sanitarians tried to\\nmake out against milk from sewage -grass -fed cows was that\\nsuch milk Uurned putrid in a very short space of time. The\\nmost ample evidence is forthcoming to show the absolute ground-\\nlessness of this contention also. Mr. Spier, the Scottish Dairy\\nCommissioner, who has conducted most of the dairy experiments\\nwhich have been carried on for the Highland Agricultural\\nSociety, has fully tested the matter, and he writes to us as\\nfollows on the subject:\\n^By way of testing this point, I set aside eighteen cows for\\nthe experiment: Of these, six were fed in the house on sewage\\ngrass, six were fed in the house on vetches, and the other six\\nwere pastured in the fields. Milk from each of these sets of\\ncows was repeatedly set aside in separate vessels until it became\\ndecidedly tainted, and out of the numerous tests the milk from\\nthe cows fed on sewage grass never once turned sour first. In\\nthe majority of cases, the milk from the cows fed on the vetches\\nwas the first to turn sour, while the milk from the sewage grass\\nand on the pasture was about equal in keeping properties. On\\nseveral occasions the milk from the three lots of cows was kept\\nfor the same length of time and churned separately, but on no\\nsingle occasion did the butter from the cows fed on sewage grass\\nbecome rancid before the other lots did. Samples of the butter\\nfrom the three different lots of milk were sent to the chemist\\nof the society, and he was unable to tell which was which.\\nThese statements will serve to call attention to the fears\\nwhich have been expressed on theoretical considerations, and\\nthe nature of the evidence which appears to indicate that there\\nis little ground for them.", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "Value of TurMcl Water 259\\nTHE VALUE OF TURBID WATER IN IRRIGATION\\nNext in value to warm sewage water for irrigation\\nmust be placed that of streams carrying considerable\\nquantities of suspended solids. It is generally recog-\\nnized that the richest and most enduring soils of the\\nworld are those formed from the alluvium of streams\\nlaid down by the water on its flood plains, and\\nreworked many times over as the stream shifts its\\ncourse from side to side in the valley; and when this\\nis true, it will not be strange that the water of turbid\\nstreams has generally been held in great esteem for\\nirrigation, on account of its high fertilizing value.\\nIn the case of the Rio Grande river, Goss has\\nshown that the application of 24 inches of this water\\nwould add nearly one -quarter of an inch of soil to\\nthe field in the form of river sediment, and that this\\nsediment would contain per acre 1,821 pounds of\\npotassium sulphate, 116 pounds of phosphoric acid\\n(P2O5), and 107 pounds of nitrogen. Four years of\\nirrigation at this rate would add an inch of soil to\\nthe field, and 24 years would cover it 6 inches deep\\nwith a sediment containing three times the amount\\nof potash found in the average clay soil, and the same\\npercentage of phosphoric acid and a high percentage\\nof nitrogen.\\nWhen such sediments are laid down upon coarse,\\nsandy soils, it will be readily appreciated that the\\ngain to the field is far greater than that due to the\\nmere plant -food which the sediments contain; for such\\nsediments, being composed of very fine grains, their", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "260 Irrigation and Drainage\\ninfluence in improving the texture of the soil is quite\\nas great as that due to the fertilizers contained.\\nThe sediment carried by the Po is given by Lom-\\nbardini as toIT of the volume of the river, and on\\nthis account the waters are held in high esteem for\\nirrigation.\\nThe river Nile, during the time of the rainy season\\nof mountainous Abyssinia, comes loaded with sedi-\\nment constituting ittT of the volume of the water;\\nand this, under the old system of the Pharoahs of\\nbasin irrigation, which permitted the rich mud to col-\\nlect on the fields, kept them fertile for thousands of\\nyears, and they are so today; whereas in Lower Egypt,\\nwhere the old practice has been abandoned in recent\\nyears for an improved system, which does not per-\\nmit the utilization of the rich Nile mud, the fields are\\nfast deteriorating in fertility, although only half a\\ncentury has passed.\\nThe Durance, in France, is famous for its fertile\\nwaters, and they carry at the ordinary maximum sV of\\ntheir weight of sediment, or nearly 1.9 pounds per\\ncubic foot, equal to 82,464 pounds per each acre-foot\\nof water. In rare cases the sediment of this stream\\nrises to iV of the water by weight, and the average\\nproportion for nine j^ears has been found to be yio\\nWhen such waters are used year after year on poor\\nlands, the improvement becomes very great, while on\\nthe better lands a high and permanent degree of fer-\\ntility is maintained indefinitely, with heavy yields per\\nacre as the result.", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "Improvement of Land hy Silting 261\\nIMPROVEMENT OF LAND BY SILTING\\nNature s method of depositing the fine silt borne\\nalong by streams, whenever they overflowed their\\nbanks, early suggested the idea of directing this work\\nso that the materials should be laid down on sandy\\nor gravelly soils, to so improve the texture and fer-\\ntility as to convert comparatively worthless areas into\\nextremely productive lands.\\nIn other cases, where marshy, low -lying lands, or\\nshallow lakes and estuaries were lying adjacent to\\nturbid streams, the waters have been so turned upon\\nthem and then led away as to lay down mantles of\\nrich soil of sufficient thickness to raise the surface to\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0such a height as to permit of di ainage, and thus\\nreclaim worthless swamps, converting them into rich,\\narable fields.\\nIn England, where the method was introduced\\nfrom Italy to reclaim waste lands near the sea, the\\ni process is called warping, and in France colmatage.\\nIn England, as on the Humber, where the tides rise\\nseveral feet, and the waters of the river are turbid,\\nimuch land has been reclaimed by warping. Centuries\\n;ago low, flat lands were dyked off from the sea to\\n{prevent inundation; but in more recent years, to\\nthis improvement was added the one under considera-\\nttion. Tide sluices, provided with gates to admit\\nthe turbid water held back by the sea, were set in\\nthe dykes, and the low lands were laid out in fields\\nsurrounded by banks for retaining the water until\\nthe sediment borne in upon the area should have time", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "262 Irrigation ayid Drainage\\nto settle, when the clear water returned to the stream\\nwith the fall of the tide.\\nSo large was the amount of sediment carried in\\nthe water, and so rapid was the silting -up, that fields\\nof 10 to 15 acres are said to have been raised from\\none to three feet during a single season, thus convert-\\ning worthless peat bogs in so brief a time into fields\\nof the richest soil. One season spent in warping,\\none for the ground to settle and become compacted,\\nand a third to get it into grass, is the usual time\\nrequn-ed for reclamation, and after this such fields\\nproduce enormous crops of almost any kind suited to\\nthe climate. In other regions, where less sediment\\nis carried in the water, or where greater depths of\\nsilt must be laid down in order to secure the desired\\nlevel of the surface, longer time is required for the\\nwork, but in Italy fields have been raised as much\\nas 6 to 7 feet in 10 years.\\nIn other portions of the world, notably in the\\nNile valley, a modification of this system of silting\\nfor the yearly enrichment of the soil is practiced.\\nTo this end the ancient irrigators, both in upper and\\nlower Egypt, had laid out the accessible lands for\\nbasin irrigation, by which the turbid and fertile waters\\nof the Nile, at its flood season, could be led upon the\\nsettling areas and held until the rich sediments were\\nlaid down, thus converting otherwise comparatively\\nworthless sandy soils into the richest and most de-\\nsirable of fields, and so maintained for thousands of\\nyears by periodic inundations.\\nThen, again, in France, as in the Moselle valley.", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "Improvement of Land hy Silting\\n26e3\\nand in the district of the months of the Rhone,\\nbetween Aries and Mirimas, for example, on broad,\\nflat plains of extremely coarse gravel, where in earlier\\nyears the uncontrolled waters have permitted no soil\\nto form, this system of silting, colmatage or\\nFig. 48. Head-gate on the Durance above Avignon, France.\\nwarping, has been introduced, and rich deposits\\nlaid down among and above the coarse materials,\\nuntil productive fields, orchards and gardens have\\ntaken the place of wide reaches of naked gravel\\nbeds.\\nFig. 48 is a head gate on the Durance, above\\nAvignon, where a portion of the water of the district\\nis taken out. The soil here, for depths exceeding\\n10 feet, as shown by cuts observed, is made up, seem-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "264 Irrigation and Drainage\\ningly, of 70 per cent of coarse gravel from Xinch\\nup to 4 and 5 inches in diameter, and a surprisingly\\nlarge per cent is composed of the larger sizes. Among\\nthis gravel the river silt has been deposited until\\nfields of alfalfa and wheat, as well as gardens and\\nalmond orchards, are grown upon these extremely\\npervious beds.\\nOPPORTUNITIES FOR SILTING IN EASTERN\\nUNITED STATES\\nEast of the Mississippi, extending from Wiscon-\\nsin through Michigan, New York, and into New\\nJersey, as well as in New England, there are exten-\\nsive areas of very sandy lands which, if they were\\nsubjected to this process of silting, so as to render\\nthem less open in texture, and to increase the per\\ncent of plant -food thej^ contain, would become pro-\\nductive and very desirable lands. At present they\\nare gently sloping sandy plains, bearing a scant vege-\\ntation, but presenting ideal slopes for irrigation, and\\nvery many of which are so situated that water could\\nreadil} be led upon them, both for silting purposes\\nand for permanent irrigation, at relatively small cost.\\nThen, again, in the southern states, notably in the\\nCarolinas and Georgia, there are vast areas of sandy\\nsoil which stand greatly in need of such improvement\\nas flooding with silt -laden waters could bring about.\\nThese lands possess surface features and slopes which\\nreadily permit of this being done and, what is more\\nto the point, the streams are abundant and heavily", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "Improvement of Land by Silting 265\\nladen with silt which they are carrying out to sea in\\ngreat volumes, thus robbing the Piedmont country at\\na fearful rate, through lack of sufficient care, of its\\nmost fertile soil, and transporting it directly through\\nthe fields to which it should be applied and upon\\nwhich it could readily be led to great advantage.\\nOn the sea coasts of these three states, and par-\\nticularly in South Carolina, there lie those extensive\\nand once wonderfully productive rice fields upon which\\nso much labor and capital have been spent, but which\\nare now largely abandoned, since the war of the re-\\nbellion, for the lack of sufficient energy to bring the\\nneeded capital to the region.\\nHere are opportunities for capital to find splendid\\npermanent investment at good rates of interest, to\\nreclaim the vast rice fields now fast falling into ruin,\\nand to apply the methods of warping to these and\\nother lands until they become what they may certainly\\nreadily be made, both thoroughly healthful and the\\nrichest of fields, adapted to a wide diversity of pro-\\nductions. The opportunities for warping are better\\nnowhere in the world, and there must certainly be a\\ngreat future awaiting intelligence, energy and capital\\nhere to work out the needed improvements.\\nALKALI V^ATERS NOT SUITABLE FOR IRRIGATION\\nIn many portions of the world, and oftenest in\\narid and semi -arid regions, the waters of some\\nstreams and wells, and particularly those of lakes,\\nare too heavily charged with the salts of sodium", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "266 Irrigation and Drainage\\ncommon salt, sal soda and Glauber s salt or sodium\\nchloride, carbonate and sulphate respectively to\\nmake it advisable to use them for the purposes of\\nirrigation.\\nThese salts are a part of the waste products of\\nsoil production which ordinary vegetation is unable to\\nuse with profit, and which in countries of heavy rain-\\nfall are washed out of the soil nearly as rapidly as\\nformed. Where these salts, however, do accumulate\\nto any notable extent, it is designated an alkali soil,\\nand will not produce normal crops of many of the\\nforms grown in plant husbandry. The general sub-\\nject of alkalies and their treatment is discussed in\\nthe next chapter, but we cite below the composition\\nof waters which have been regarded as safe and as\\nunsafe, without treatment, for purposes of irrigation:\\nTable of safe and unsafe alkali waters* in parts per 1,000\\nSafe water\\nUnsafe water\\nNo. of\\nsample\\nBlack\\nalkali\\nWhite\\nalkali\\nNo. of\\nsample\\nBlack\\nalkali\\nWhite\\nalkali\\n740\\n.022\\n.067\\n739\\n.141\\n.135\\n742\\n.005\\n.306\\n741\\n.009\\n8.756\\n743\\n.007\\n.155\\n753\\n.026\\n.818\\n744\\n.022\\n.399\\n751\\n.011\\n7.374\\n755\\n.009\\n.334\\n746\\n.101\\n1.063\\n749\\n.026\\n.306\\n747\\n.115\\n1.082\\n750\\n.014\\n.111\\n757\\n.036\\n1.577\\n754\\n.026\\n.033\\n760\\n.132\\n.084\\nIt is very unfortunate that after an analysis of a\\nsample of water has shown accurately the amounts of\\nvarious elements it may contain, it has not been pos-\\n*Oomputea from Bull. 29, p. 4, Oklahoma Exp. Sta.\\nI", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "Alkali Water not Suitable for Irrigation 267\\nsible to state with certainty precisely how these ele-\\nments were combined in the sample. It is more\\nunfortnnate that chemists are not agreed as to how\\nresults should be interpreted, and that different sys-\\ntems are followed by different analysts. But what is\\nmost unfortunate of all, is that many chemists have\\npublished their computed results, as though there\\nwere but one interpretation of them, and have not\\ngiven the data upon which their computations were\\nbased. Hence, we have found it impossible to arrive\\nat what may be regarded as the safe amount of\\nblack or white alkali an irrigation water may contain.\\nThe table given above represents the opinion of two\\nchemists as shaped by their system of computing the\\namounts of the alkalies in the samples analyzed, but\\nit must be understood that another chemist using the\\nsame data, with a different system of apportionment,\\nwould compute either less or more black alkali and\\nmore or less white alkali than the authors have\\ncredited the samples with as given in the table above.\\nWe make this explanation, that the irrigator may\\nunderstand that when the water from a given source\\nis said to contain .022 parts in 1,000 of black alkali,\\nmore allowance must be made in regard to accuracy\\nthan is required for the statement that the water car-\\nries in solution 11.234 grains of solids per gallon.\\nIt should be understood further, as will be shown\\nin the next chapter, that a given quantity of black\\nalkali may prohibit the use of the water for irrigation\\npurposes on one soil, when upon another it may be\\nused with perfect safety.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "268 Irrigation and Drainage\\nIt sometimes happens that waters draining from\\nswamp lands where there has been considerable stag-\\nnation, or where there are too strong solutions of\\nhumie acids or salts of iron, are not suitable for irri-\\ngation purposes, and must be avoided. In portions\\nof Europe, too, there are streams used for irrigation\\nwhich are known as good streams and bad\\nstreams. Crops irrigated from one produce heavier\\nyields than when irrigated from the other, and cases\\nare cited where the differences in yield are so large\\nthat they can hardly be assigned entirely to difference\\nin the amount of plant -food carried by the two.", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII\\nALKALI LANDS\\nCHARACTERISTICS OF ALKALI LANDS\\nThe use of the term alkali lauds, as commonly\\nemployed, has quite a loose or wide application. Hil-\\ngard states that in California the term is applied\\nalmost indiscriminately to all lands whose soils con-\\ntain unusual amounts of soluble salts, so that during\\nthe dry season or after irrigation the surface becomes\\nmore or less white with the deposits left by the evapo-\\nration of the capillary waters. Throughout much of\\nMinnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, and other states lying\\nwithin the glaciated areas of this country, there are\\nblack marsh soils which, after being drained and\\ntilled, come to acquire in spots a deposit of white\\nsalts at the surface whenever there is much evapo-\\nration from the soil, and these are frequently spoken\\nof as alkali spots. Where these salts are well\\nmarked in character, crops are killed out entirely, or\\nthe growth is stunted much as is true of the black\\nalkali spots of arid regions. On the rice fields of\\nSouth Carolina, there appear during the dry stage\\nof growth of the crop alum spots, as they are there\\ncalled, upon which the rice may die out or be of\\ninferior quality. Then, too, on the margins of the\\n(269)", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "270 Irrigation and Drainage\\nsea, where there are low -lying lands periodically in-\\nundated by high tides, white deposits are again left\\nwhen the surface becomes dry, and are injurious to\\ncultivated crops when they have accumulated to suf-\\nficient strength, and these are sometimes spoken of\\nas alkali lands.\\nIn the wide application of the term, then, alkali\\nlands are those upon which soluble salts have ac-\\ncumulated in sufficient quantity, through evaporation\\nand capillarity, to attract attention by their usually\\nwhite appearance and their injurious effects upon\\nvegetation.\\nHilgard states that alkali lands must be pointedly\\ndistinguished from the salt lands of the sea margins\\nor marshes, from which they differ both in their\\norigin and essential nature and, in the sense he\\nwishes to be understood, the distinction should be\\nmade but there are important advantages, as will\\nappear, in treating them all under one head.\\nCAUSE OF INJURIES BY ALKALIES\\nWhen the soil water about the roots of plants or\\ngerminating seeds becomes sufficiently strong with\\nsalts in solution, the osmotic pressure is so modified\\nthat a discharge of the cell contents into the soil takes\\nplace to such an extent as to produce what is equiva-\\nlent to wilting. The cells are not maintained suffi-\\nciently turgid to permit normal growth, or they may\\nhave the pressure so much lowered as to cause death.\\nThe case is like placing the plump strawberry or", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "Cause of Injuries by Alkalies 271\\ncurrant in a strong solution of sugar, where it is ob-\\nserved to greatly shrink in volume. So, too, it is\\nlike placing meat under strong brine, and the use of\\nsugar in preserves, where there is so strong a solution\\nabout the products preserved that the germs of decay\\ncannot thrive in them.\\nThis, then, is one of the modes by which the in-\\njurious effects of alkalies are produced, and it should\\nbe understood that it matters very little what sub-\\nstance may be in solution in the soil water, so long\\nas it is there in sufficient quantity to produce the\\nosmotic shrinkage referred to.\\nEvery one is familiar with the fact that too con-\\ncentrated fertilizers may produce death to the plant,\\nand it may be by this action. Applying the principle\\nto the alkalies in the soil, it must be recalled that\\nthese compounds are all relatively very soluble in\\nwater, so that if only large quantities of water con-\\ntaining even small amounts of the salts are evaporated\\nin contact with the roots of growing crops, the so-\\nlution surrounding the soil grains may become too\\nstrong for good plant feeding, and even death may\\nresult.\\nOn this fundamental principle of action, it is plain\\nthat the black as well as the white alkalies fall into\\nthe same category, and this, too, no matter what may\\nbe their composition, origin or geographic range.\\nIt is more than probable, if not even certain,\\nthat the action of some of these salts may be that of\\ntrue poison; but the real nature of toxic effects is not\\nas yet understood in any full sense.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "272 Irrigation and Drainage\\nHOW ALKALIES ACCUMULATE IN THE SOIL\\nEverywhere in the soil where there are sufficient\\nchanges in the air and the moisture, the soil grains\\nare being broken down and dissolved by both physical\\nand chemical means, and unless the rains are suffi-\\nciently heavy to carry the ever -forming dissolved\\nsalts away in the country drainage, they will be\\nbrought to the surface by capillarity and there con-\\ncentrated until precipitated. The more insoluble of\\nthe plant -foods, and other salts which are not such,\\ncannot charge the water sufficiently high to do serious\\nharm, hence in common language and in the sense\\nthe term is here used, they do not become alkalies.\\nBut with the other salts the case is different.\\nThey are precipitated when the solution becomes\\nstrong enough, and form deposits on the surface or\\nabout the roots in the soil where water is being re-\\nmoved, but before this actually occurs one or both of\\nthe actions referred to above begins to take place.\\nIn arid regions, where the alkalies proper are most\\nabundant, rains enough maj^ fall to slowly carry for-\\nward their formation, but not enough to carry them\\nout of the land. From the higher levels and steeper\\nslopes they are readily moved by surface drainage and\\nwind action to the lower lands, where the amount\\nmay become so large as to form thick beds. During\\nthe wet season of such countries, these salts may sink\\ninto the soil, but to rise again when dry weather\\nrestores the action of capillarity.\\nIn the humid regions, there is necessarily an even", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "How Alkalies Accumulate in Soil 273\\nmore rapid formation of all the true alkalies of arid\\nclimates; for fundamentally similar rock ingredients\\nare subjected to identical weathering processes, but of\\na more intense nature, because the rainfall is greater.\\nIf, therefore, there occur conditions favorable to the\\naccumulation of the soluble salts formed at and near\\nthe surface of the soil, these should be expected to\\nshow as alkalies.\\nMost of the marsh lands of the world, excepting\\nthose under the influence of tide waters, owe their\\nwet character to the underflow of ground-water which\\nhas percolated into the adjacent higher lands, and\\nwhich rises to or near the surface w^herever this is\\nsufficiently low to permit of it doing so. When such\\nlands are drained, the rate of surface evaporation and\\nthe rise of capillary water from below may exceed\\nthe annual rainfall, and thus lead to an accumulation\\nat the surface of salts of such intensity and character\\nas to interfere with the normal growth of plants.\\nIt must be kept in mind that where the ground- water\\nlevel is near the surface, the rate of capillary rise may\\nmany times exceed what it could be under other con-\\nditions, and since the rate of evaporation is most\\nrapid where the surface soil is wettest, the conditions\\nare extremely favorable for the accumulation of solu-\\nble salts at the surface of marsh lands in humid\\nclimates after they have been driined. The waters\\nleaching through the more open, higher lands become\\ncharged with salts, and as these waters come again\\nnear the surface under the low areas they are raised\\nby capillarity and evaporated, leaving the salts which", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "274 Irrigation and Drainage\\nhad been taken up along the underground path\\nto accumuhite over the low -lying lands, and since\\nthe evaporation of 12 inches of salt -laden Avater may\\nproduce more deposits than the same depth of rain\\nwould be sure to remove in leaching downward, the\\nchances are favorable to accumulation.\\nINTENSIVE FARMING MAY TEND TO THE ACCUI\\\\rU-\\nLATION OP ALKALIES\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2It has already been pointed out that during the\\ngrowing season, after vegetation has come into full\\naction, nearly all of the raius which fall in humid\\nclimates are retained near the surface until they are\\nevaporated, either through the growing crop or from\\nthe soil, and since these waters tend to form salts\\nwhen thej are in contact with the soil grains, they\\nmust tend to increase the salt content near the surface.\\nIt is plain, too, that the heavier the crops produced\\nand the greater the number of them in the season, the\\nless is likely to be the loss of any water fi oai the field\\nby. under- drainage hence the greater the tendency\\nfor soluble salts to accumulate. Then, if during the\\nwinter season of a country the rainfall is deficient, so\\nthat little leaching can take place, conditions become\\nstill more favorable for the accumulation of alkalies.\\nFurther than this, if irrigation is practiced during\\nthe growing season only, and this water also is\\nevaporated from the soil in addition to the natural\\nrainfall, it is plain that the amount of soluble salts\\nin the soil must increase, both on account of that\\nwhich may have been in the water applied, and that", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "Amount oj Alkali Injurious 275\\nwhich this additional water may have been instrumental\\nin producing from the soil on the spot through the\\nprocesses of weathering.\\nIndeed, the more we study and reflect upon this\\nproblem, the more we are led to fear that in all arid\\nclimates, where irrigation is practiced, it will not be\\nfound sufficient to apply simply enough water to the\\nsoil to meet the needs of the crop growing upon the\\nground at the time, but, on the contrary, there must\\nbe enough more water applied to take up and carry\\naway into drainage channels and out of the country\\nto the sea not only the soluble salts which the irriga-\\ntion waters carry, but also those which it causes to be\\nproduced from the soil aud subsoil. In other words,\\nit appears that an excess of soluble salts in a thoroughly\\nirrigated field is not only a normal but an inevitable\\ncondition, unless sufficient leaching takes place; and\\nif this is true, the sparing use of water can only\\nincrease the number of years required to bring the\\nsalts up to the danger point of concentration.\\nAMOUNT OF SOLUBLE SALTS WHICH ARE INJURIOUS\\nIN SOILS\\nStorer states that it is a matter of record that long\\nexperience in the south of France has shown that any\\nsoil which becomes visibly covered with a slight in-\\ncrusation of salt in times of drought is improper for\\ncultivation, unless special pains are taken to prevent\\nthe surface from becoming dry.\\nPlagniol insisted, in his time, that soils containing\\nmore than 2 per cent of salt are unfit for the growth", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "276 Irrigation and Drainage\\nof any other than samphire, saltwort, and the like,\\nand that even these cannot thrive when the salt\\nbecomes as high as 5 per cent.\\nDeherain concludes, from his studies in France,\\nthat while soils kept very moist may produce crops\\neven when 2 per cent of salt is present, yet if the\\nsoils dry out badly they become sterile with no more\\nthan 1 per cent present. Gasparin has maintained,\\nhowever, that while soils containing .02 per cent of\\nsalt may produce good crops of wheat, .2 per cent\\nis more than this crop can bear.\\nSpeaking, next, of the alkali salts of arid climates,\\nwe may cite some of the data procured by Hilgard in-\\nhis extended and careful studies of the alkali problems\\nof California. At their Tulare Experiment Station,\\nhe gives both the amount and the distribution of\\nsoluble salts in the surface 18 inches of soil where,\\nin one case, barley grew to a height of 4 feet, and in\\nanother the amounts of the salt were so great that\\nthis crop would not thrive. The data which we give\\nin tabular form have been read from his plotted curves,\\nhence the values must be regarded as not quite exact.\\nTable shotving amount and coinposiUon of alkali salts in parts per 100\\nTaken September, 1894, Tulare Experiment Station, California\\nGround upon which barley\\ngrew 4 feet high\\nGround upon which barley\\ndid not grow\\nDepth in Sodium\\n3-in carb ate\\nsections Na.COj\\nSodium\\nsulphate\\nNa2S04\\nCom n\\nsalt\\nNaCl\\nTotal\\nsoluble\\nsalts\\nSodium\\ncarb ate\\nNaoCOa\\nSodium\\nsulphate\\nNa-jSOi\\nCom n\\nsalt\\nNaCl\\nTotal\\nsoluble\\nsalts\\nto 3 in.\\n.008\\n.68\\n.36\\n1.2\\n.07\\n1.22\\n.68\\n2.44\\n3 to 6 in.\\n.009\\n.26\\n.07\\n.34\\n.1\\n.16\\n.1\\n.38\\n6 to 9 in.\\n.013\\n.1\\n.03\\n.168\\n.099\\n.11\\n.05\\n.28\\n9 to 12 in..\\n.024\\n.057\\n.02\\n.143\\n.099\\n.HS\\n.06\\n.334\\n12 to 15 in..\\n.038\\n.037\\n.02\\n.119\\n.14\\n.1\\n.04\\n.29\\n15 to 18 in..\\n.04\\n.02\\n.02\\n.09\\n.18\\n.06\\n.02\\n.263", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "Amoiivt of All ali Injurious\\n277\\nSodium nitrate is also given in these cases as a\\nconstituent, but as this may be regarded as a jilant-\\nfood, we have omitted it from the table. It will be\\nobserved that the total soluble salts in the surface 3\\ninches where the barley grew well was about half that\\nfound in the case where it won Id not grow, the amounts\\nin the two cases being 1.2 and 2.44 per cent of the soil.\\nThe difference bet wee q the amounts of the black alkali\\nin the two cases stands as 8 to 70, or much more.\\nReferring to the possibility of these salts interfering\\nwith plant life simply on account of their plasmolitic\\naction, it may be said that DeVries found, as repre-\\nsented in Fig. 49, that when the living cells of a plant\\nwere immersed in a 4 per cent solution of potassium\\n2 3\\nFig. 49. Effect of too strong solution of potassiiim nitrate on the\\npT otoplasm of plant cells. (After DeVries.)\\nnitrate, there was first a shrinkage in volume through\\na loss of water, as shown between 1 and 2. When\\nthe solution was given a strength of 6 per cent, then,\\nin addition to the change in volume, the protoplasmic\\nlining P began to shrink away from the cell wall h,\\nas shown at 3, and when the strength of the solution\\nwas made 10 per cent, the conditions shown in 4 were", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "278 Irrigation and Drainage\\nproduced. When such conditions as those represented\\nin 3 and 4 are set up, marked wilting must result and\\ngrowth be brought nearly or quite to a standstill.\\nIt is not possible to state with certainty what\\nstrength of salt solution existed in the soil moisture in\\nthe cases cited above, but an approximate estimate\\nmay be made. Hilgard s analyses show, in the case\\nof the sample from where barley would not grow,\\nthat the soluble alkalies amounted to 2.44 pounds per\\n100 pounds of soil. If these salts were all in solution\\nin the soil -water, and if the soil -water amounted to\\n30 per cent of the dry weight of the soil, then the\\nsalts in solution would have a strength of 8.13 per\\ncent. But if only 15 per cent of moisture existed in\\nthe soil, as might easily have been the case, and all\\nthe salts were in solution, then its strength would\\nhave been double that above, and much stronger than\\nDeVries most severe trial. It does not appear im-\\nprobable, therefore, that even were there no poisonous\\neffect exerted upon the barley by the salts in the soil,\\nthe plants could not have grown, on account of the wilt-\\ning which would have resulted from the presence of\\ntoo strong a salt solution outside the cell walls of the\\nroot -hairs in the soil.\\nCOMPOSITION OF ALKALI SALTS\\nTo show the character of the salts which accumu-\\nlate in the manner under consideration, we have\\ncomputed the mean composition from a number of\\nanalyses as given by Hilgard, and the results are\\nstated in the table which follows", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "Composition of Alkali Salts 279\\nTable showing composition of alkali salts\\nAcids and bases California Washington Montana\\nSilica (SiOa) 1.663 1.552 .42\\nPotash (K2O) 3.602 9.588 1.774\\nSodalNaoO) 40.058 45.387 30.442\\nLime (CaO) 519 .048 i.4b i\\nMagnesia (MgO) 258 .115 5.956\\nPeroxide of iron (Fe-iO:;) nv. I alu-\\nmina (AI2O3) 079 .028 .04\\nPhosphoric acid (P2O5 1.457 .81 .012\\nSulphuric acid (SO3) 18.946 2.12 44.482\\nNitric acid (NoOr.) 1.923 .000 1.074\\nCarbonic acid (CO2) 13.982 34.058 2.208\\nChlorine (CI) 7.46 1.077 5.148\\nAmmonia (NH3) 047 .000 .000\\nOrganic matter and water of crystalli-\\nzation 11.282 5.073 8.136\\n101.276 99.856 101.156\\nLess excess of oxygen corresponding\\nto CI 1.623 .238 1.166\\nTotals 99.653 99.618 99.990\\nWhen these results are computed as salts thej\\nstand, according to Hilgard, as expressed below:\\nTable shoiving composition of soluble portions of alkali salts\\nCalifoi nia Washington Montana\\nPotassium Sulphate (K2SO4) 6.796 3.715 3.774\\ncarbonate (KoCO^) 732 12.378 .000\\nSodium sulphate (Na2S04) 31.956 .000 61.432\\nnitrate (NaNOa) 3.64 .000 1.878\\ncarbonate (NasCOa) 39.413 80.053 2.94\\nchloride (NaCl) 14.703 1.913 9.864\\nphosphate (HNaoPOi) 2.273 1.943 .000\\nMagnesium sulphate (MgSOi 307 .000 21 .12\\nAmmonium carbonate (NH42CO3)... .157 .000 .000", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "280 Irrigation and Drainage\\nIt will be seen from these two tables that there\\nmay be associated with the undesirable salts quite\\nnotable quantities of others which are valuable plant-\\nfoods. This is as should be expected, for the more\\nsoluble plant -foods, as well as the salts not suitable\\nfor plant life, must be moved by the same waters,\\nand tend to collect with them.\\nHilgard points out that where the soluble phos-\\nphates and considerable quantities of humus are asso-\\nciated w^th the sodium carbonate or black alkali, it is\\noften desirable to first transform the sodium carbo-\\nnate into sodium sulphate through an application of\\nland plaster. By so doing both the humus and\\nphosphates are rendered insoluble, but not unavaila-\\nble for plant -food, hence may be retained in the soil\\nfor future use after the alkalies, which are harmful,\\nhave been washed out or otherwise disposed of. This\\nis an important suggestion to keep in mind.\\nTHE APPEARANCE OF VEGETATION ON\\nALKALI LANDS\\nWhen cultivated crops are grown upon alkali lands,\\ncharacteristic effects are produced which serve to point\\nout the difficulty with the soil and the remedy which\\nshould be applied. If the salts in the soil are not too\\nconcentrated, the crop may germinate in a perfectly\\nnormal manner, but after a time begin to languish in\\nspots, and remain dwarfed in stature or entirely die\\nout. It is very common to see a field upon which the\\ncrops present an extremely uneven stand, some areas", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "Appearance of Vegetation on Alkali Lands 281\\nbeing entirely destitute of plants, or bearing only those\\nwhich are small, while closely adjacent spots may be\\ncovered with large, vigorous, and perfectly normal\\ngrowths. Fig. 50 illustrates this feature, as it is ex-\\nhibited in the San Joaquin valley of California, and\\nFig. 51 shows essentially similar features as they de-\\nvelop on black marsh soils in Wisconsin after they have\\nbeen tile -drained. In this latter case, the crop on the\\nafflicted areas comes to an early standstill, or a plant\\nFig. 50. Vegetation on alkali lauds in California. (Hilgard.)\\nmay go through all the phases of growth, reaching\\nmaturity, but with a very dwarf habit, so that maize\\nin tassel and ear may not stand higher than 6 to 10\\ninches, while close by may stand another hill or group\\nof them where the growth has been unusually rank\\nand luxuriant. On these soils the afflicted plants pos-\\nsess a very imperfect root system, the older roots\\nturning brown, soft, and apparently decaying, while\\nnew ones form above.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "282\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nDISTRIBUTION OF ALKALIES IN THE. SOIL\\nThe position in the soil where the alkalies may be\\nfound in greatest abundance varies under different con-\\nrig. 51. Growth of maize on black mai-sh soil in Wisfon.sin.\\nditions. Where there is a large and prolonged, evapo-\\nration at the surface, the alkalies may be nearly all\\ncollected within the surface 3 or 4 inches, and hence be-\\ncome so strong as to do serious injury, when if this", "height": "3194", "width": "2005", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "Bistrihution of AUali in Soil 283\\nconcentration had been prevented no serious harm\\ncould have resulted. So, too, if the salts have been\\ngathered into a thin layer near the surface, heavy\\nrains or an application of water by irrigation may\\nmove them at once bodily and nearly completely to a\\ndepth of 1, 2 or 3 feet, varying with the amount of\\nwater applied, the capacity of the soil to store w^ater,\\nand the amount of water it contained previous to the\\napplication. Under these circumstances, it is plain\\nthat fields afflicted with alkalies may exhibit at one\\ntime the most intense symptoms of poisoning and at\\nanother be entirelj^ free from them, so far as revealed\\nby a crop upon the ground.\\nIn examining soils for alkalies, it is a matter of\\nthe utmost importance to recognize that the distribu-\\ntion of them is extremely liable to be capricious, and\\nthat it is easy to overlook their presence by stopping\\nthe sampling of the soil just short of the level at\\nwhich all of the alkalies had chanced to be concen-\\ntrated or, again, by taking a sample of the 1st, 2d\\nand 4th feet, or of the 1st, 3d and 4tli feet when, ow-\\ning to the capricious distribution, all of the salts had\\nbeen collected in the 2d or 3d foot, and thus were\\noverlooked because it may have been thought not\\nworth while to make a complete section of the soil\\nin question.\\nCONDITIONS WHICH MODIFY THE DISTRIBUTION\\nOF ALKALIES IN SOIL\\nIf the surface of the ground is kept naked and\\ncompact, so that the rate of evaporation may be", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "284 Irrigation and Drainage\\nstrong, the alkalies will necessarily be broug-ht to the\\nsurface and become concentrated there, hence in posi-\\ntion to do the greatest harm to growing crops.\\nIf thorough tillage is practiced early, so that but\\nlittle water is evaporated except that which passes\\nthrough the roots of the crop, then the salts cannot\\nbecome concentrated in a narrow zone, but, on the\\ncontrary, will be left all through the soil where the\\nroots which are taking water are distributed. In those\\ncases, therefore, where the general soil water is not\\ntoo highly concentrated to permit normal growth,\\ncrops may prosper so long as the surface is kept\\nshaded and thoroughl}^ tilled.\\nIt must be observed, however, and kept in mind,\\nthat the roots of plants cannot withdraw moisture from\\na soil without at the same time tending to concentrate\\nthe salts in solution in the zone where the roots do\\ntheir feeding hence, that if alkali waters are being\\nused for irrigation, and in the long run if the purest\\nwaters are being used under, conditions of no drainage,\\nsooner or later the soil of the root zone must become\\nso highlj charged with the alkali salts that reduced\\nyields are inevitable.\\nUSE OF LAND PLASTER TO DESTROY BLACK ALKALI\\nHilgard long since pointed out that in regions\\nwhere the water contained sulphate of lime in solu-\\ntion, there sodium carbonate was absent, or existed in\\nsuch small quantities as not to be harmful to crops, and\\nhe early saw and recommended that where fields were", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "Land Plaster for Black Alkali 285\\ntroubled with black alkali in not too large quantities,\\nlaud plaster could be used as a fertilizer, which would\\nhave the effect of changing the sodinra carbonate into\\nthe less harmful sodium sulphate, and in this way\\ntransform sterile lands into those which are capable\\nof being worked at a profit. He clearly saw, however,\\nthat such a remedy was not an absolute corrective,\\nbut rather of the nature of a substitution of a lesser\\nfor a greater evil, as, sooner or later, the sodium sul-\\nphate comes to be too strong to be endured.\\nHilgard has further pointed out that the application\\nof land plaster to a soil rich in sodium carbonate very\\ngreatly improves the texture or mechanical condition\\nof such a soil, because black alkali tends to break\\ndown the granular structure of clay soils, and thus\\npuddles them and renders them nearly uninhabitable\\nby most plants, largely on account of their bad\\nmechanical condition.\\nStill further has Hilgard pointed out that the pres-\\nence of black alkali in a soil -water tends to dissolve\\nthe huniic nitrogen and the comparatively insoluble\\nphosphates of the soil, so that if leachiug is taking\\nplace under the influence of a water containing much\\nsodium carbonate, great harm is being done by depriv-\\ning the soil of two of its most important ingredients\\nof plant -food. Hence if alkali lands are to be im-\\nproved by drainage, this should not be done until\\nsteps have been taken to first transform the sodium\\ncarbonate to the sulphate, and thus precipitate the\\nhuQiic nitrogen and the phosphate so that these may\\nbe I etained.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "286 Irrigation and Drainage\\nKINDS OF SOIL WHICH SOONEST DEVELOP ALKALI\\nWhere alkali waters are used for purposes of irri-\\ngation, and where sweet waters are being used under\\nconditions of little or no drainage, the clayey soils\\nare the ones which soonest begin to show the bad\\neffects of concentrated salts. This is so for many\\nreasons.\\nIn the first place, the soils of clayey texture, as has\\nbeen established b} experiments recorded on page 201,\\nare not as effective mulches as the sandy soils, hence,\\neven where thorough tillage and shade are resorted\\nto, there must necessarily be a larger rise of salt-\\nbearing water to the surface to produce accumulation\\nthan is the case with the coarse, sandy soils.\\nIn -the second place, when water is applied to a\\nsandy soil, not nearly as much remains adhering to\\nthe surface of the soil grains and entangled between\\nthem, so that it quickly spreads downward farther\\nbelow the surface than is the case with the clay. This\\nbeing true, it takes less water to produce effective\\ndrainage, and the roots of the crop spreading farther\\nin the sands, the salts cannot become concentrated as\\nthey may in the clays.\\nIn the third place, since more water is held in\\ncontact with the soil grains of the clays, and since\\nthe total surface for chemical action to take place upon\\nis very much larger in the clayey soils than in the\\nsands, it is plain that soluble salts, including alkalies,\\nmay form more rapidly in one case than in the other,\\nand hence, that the open, sandy soils cannot become", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "Correction of Alkali Waters 287\\nalkali lands except under conditions which are ex-\\ntremely favorable to their formation.\\nCORRECTION OF ALKALI WATERS BEFORE USE IN\\nIRRIGATION\\nIn case an irrigation water is known to contain an\\ninjurious amount of black alkali, it is possible to con-\\nvert this into the sodium sulphate by the use of land\\nplaster in the water before applying it to the field.\\nTo do this in the cases where water is stored in\\nreservoirs, it is possible to arrange cribs of uncrushed\\ngypsum through which the water flows in entering the\\nreservoir, and if this should not be sufficient to effect\\nthe whole change, other cribs could be built at other\\npoints in the reservoir and at the outlet. So, too,\\nwhere the lateral is taken to the field, it would often\\nnot be difficult to arrange so that the water flowed\\nthrough a basin, wide ditch or reservoir in which hang\\ncrates of gypsum, over which the water passes on its\\nway to the field, or the same method may be applied\\nill the larger canals.\\nIf the fields upon which alkali waters must be used\\nare heavy and especially likely to be injured bj^ the\\npuddling process, it would seem to be much the better\\nmethod to apply the corrective for black alkali to the\\nwater itself, rather than to the field, after there has\\nbeen opportunity for some damage to be done.\\nDRAINAGE THE ULTIMATE REMEDY FOR ALKALI LANDS\\nIf it is true that alkali salts are formed from the\\ndecomposition of the soil and subsoil through the ae-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "288 Irrigation and Drainage\\ntion of water and air, it is only too plain that where\\nconditions are persistently maintained which allow the 1\\nformation of the salts withont permitting them to be\\nremoved by any cause whatsoever, there must come. a\\ntime, sooner or later, when the amounts produced and\\naccumulated in the soil shall reach the degree of con-\\ncentration which is intolerable to cultivated crops.\\nUnder the natural conditions of rainy countries, there\\nis usually a sufficient amount of leaching to permit\\nthe white and black alkalies to be borne away in the\\ncountry drainage with sufficient completeness to pre-\\nvent their effects attracting general attention, and if\\nthe same processes obtained in irrigated countries, it\\nis plain that in these, too, the difficulties would not\\narise. The cou elusion is irresistible, therefore, that some\\nmethod must be devised by which, periodically at least,\\nsufficient w^ater is applied to irrigated fields to pick up\\nand cany out of the country the soluble alkali salts\\nwhich are fatal to cultivated crops.\\nIn the old-time irrigation of tlie Nile valley, the\\ngreater part of the land was under basin irrigation,\\nand thus thoroughly washed during some fifty days\\nevery year. Lands not so treated were the lighter\\nsandy soils near the Nile, protected by only slight\\nbanks from inundation, and these dykes usually gave\\nway as often as every seven or eight years, so that\\nthey, too, were occasionally thoroughly flooded. Un-\\nder this system of washing and drainage, the fields of\\nthe Nile were kept free from alkalies for thousands of\\nyears. But at the present time, when what are called\\nmore rational methods are being applied, but with no", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "Drainage the Ultimate Remedy for Alkali 289\\nattention being paid to freeing- the soil from the ac-\\ncumnlation of alkalies, these salts have been concen-\\ntrated to so serions an extent that already many acres\\nhave been abandoned.\\nThe probabilities are that long, long ago the same\\nmore rational methods now being practiced had\\nbeen tried and found inadequate or inapplicable, on\\naccount of the accumnlation of alkalies which they\\npermitted, and the old irrigators learned to be content\\nwith a system which, although more wasteful in some\\nways, still kept the dreaded alkalies under control.\\nIt is not improbable that if the full history of\\nmanj^ abandoned ancient irrigation systems could be\\nknown, it would be found that, not being able to\\ncommand water sufficient for drainage, or not appreci-\\nating its need, alkalies were allowed to accumulate\\nuntil the lands were no longer productive.\\nIt is a noteworth}^ fact that the excessive develop-\\nment of alkalies in India, as well as in Egypt and\\nCalifornia, are the results of irrigation practices\\nmodern in their origin and modes, and instituted by\\npeople lacking in the traditions of the ancient irri-\\ngators, who had worked these same lands for thousands\\nof years before. The alkali lands of today, in their\\nintense form, are of modern origin, due to practices\\nwhich are evidently inadmissible, and which, in all\\nprobability, were known to be so by the people whom\\nour modern civilization has supplanted.\\nThe subject of Drainage will be discussed in\\nPart II.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX\\nSUPPLYIJSG WATER FOB IRRIGATION\\nIt is not the purpose in this chapter, nor has it\\nbeen the purpose in this work, to discuss the larger\\nquestions of water supply for irrigation. These are\\nquite purely engineering problems, involving a mass\\nof detail and technicality which concern the agricul-\\nturist only in the final results which they bring to\\nhim hence, he is interested in them only in a\\ngeneral way.\\nWe shall aim, therefore, in dealing with the supply\\nof water to whole communities for purposes of irri-\\ngation, to present only a general idea of the systems\\nwhich have been evolved and adopted under the j\\nvar3dng conditions of different countries and climates,\\nreserving the main part of the chapter for the dis-\\ncussion in detail of the cases where water is supplied\\nby individual effort for individual use.\\nDIVERTING RIVER WATERS\\nBy far the most general method of supplying water for the 5\\nuse of large sections of country is to throw a dam across a stream,\\nand divert from the channel a portion of the river water,\\nleading it out into the district to be watered through canals\\nprovided for the purpose.\\n(290) j", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "Diverting Wafer from Streams\\n291\\nAn excellent example of such a large scale system is repre-\\nsented in Fig. 52, which shows the Sirhind canal, taken out of\\nthe Sutlej river, in the Punjab of India, at Rupar. This canal\\nwas designed to have a carrying capacity of 6,000 cubic feet\\nper second, and extends as a single main trunk 41 miles, where\\nit is bisected. Three miles further on the western trunk it is\\ndivided again, forming two canals of 100 and 125 miles respec-\\ntively, while the eastern main branch divides into three of 90, 56\\nFig. 52. Sirhind canal system, Punjab, India.\\n(Wilson, U. S. Geol. Survey.)\\nand 25 miles respectively. There are in the whole system 41 miles\\nof main canal, 503 miles of main branches, and 4,407 miles of\\nmain distributaries, supplying 800,000 acres of irrigable lands.\\nThe annual rainfall of the region in which this system has\\nbeen developed varies from 10 to 35 inches. The sytem is said\\nto have cost $7,831,000, and to have yielded in 1899 an annual\\nrevenue of 2% per cent on the cost, although less than half of\\nthe available land has yet been brought to use the water.\\nWe have already referred to the head gates of one of the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "292\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\ncanals of the Durance, and given an engraving of it in Fig. 48.\\nIn further illustration of the methods used in diverting by gravity\\nthe water of a stream for purposes of irrigation, Fig. 53 shows\\ndiagrammatically how the Kern Island canal, in California, is\\ntaken from the Kern river, together with the position of the\\nregulator, and of the waste gate by which the unused water finds\\nr^^ ^-/r i^.\\nFig. 53. Head of Kern Island canal, California.\\n(Grunsky, U. S. Geol. Survey.)\\nits way back into the channel. Figs. 54 and 55 are bird s-eye\\nviews of the same thing, showing the regulator and the waste gate.\\nIn Fig. 56 is given a nearer view, looking across the canal over\\nthe waste gate, the regulator being at the left.\\nIn aligning these canals, they ar^ ^led back from the stream\\nas far as the general fall of the valley! will permit, and in taking\\nout the laterals and distributaries, these are carried to tire highest\\nportions of the fields to be irrigated, and at the same time are", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "Diverting Water from Streams\\n293\\nheld as far as possible above the level of the surface, in order\\nthat there shall be no difficulty in taking out the water upon the\\nland to which it is to be applied.\\nIf reference is again made to Fig. 52, it will be easy to\\nFig. 54. Bird s-eye view of head of Keru Island canal, looking up stream.\\n(Grunsky, U. S. Geol. Survey.)\\nunderstand that where such vast volumes of water are taken\\nacross a country in open canals, carried as high as possible and\\neven above the surface, there must necessarily be an extensive\\nseepage into the subsoil, which in the course of time must\\ntend to raise the original ground-water level much nearer the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "294\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nsurface, and tend to develop swamps in the lowest -lying and\\nflattest sections of the area traversed.\\nIt is further clear, too, that under the conditions set up by\\nsuch a network of canals, there must be a much more rapid\\nFig. 55. Head of Keni Iskuid canal, looking down stream,\\n(Grunsky, U. S. Geol. Survey.)\\naction of water upon the subsoil to form alkalies and since,\\nwith the nearer approach of the ground water to the surface, the\\ncapillary action and evaporation must be much augmented, it\\nis plain that the deterioration of land through the increase of\\nalkalies is the tiling to be feared rather than wondered at.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "Diverting Water from Streams\\n295\\nIn laying out such a system of irrigation as the one under\\nconsideration, it thus becomes a matter of the greatest moment\\nthat proper attention be paid to drainage, and that ample pro-\\nvision be made for it. If this is not done, a relatively few\\nFig. 56. Waste gate and regiiL-tior ;u lie;iil ul Kern Island canal, looking across\\nthe canal. (Gnmsky, U. S. Geol. Survey.)\\nyears are almost certain to convert a great benefit into one of\\nthe most serious of scourges. Drinking waters are likely to\\nbecome polluted, malarial fevers prevalent, and the land unpro-\\nductive, both on account of water-logging and the excessive\\naccumulation of alkalies.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "296 Irrigcdion and Drainage\\nThe dangers in this direction will be least in countries where\\nthe natural drainage facilities are best w^here the streams, draws\\nand washes are sunk deepest below the surface of the fields\\nand where the subsoil is the most open, thus providing an easy\\nescape of the seepage waters into the natural drainage channels.\\nUnder such conditions as these, it would be only the most waste-\\nful, extravagant and inexcusable use of w^ater, with no attention\\nto proper methods of tillage, which could lead to the evils\\npointed out.\\nBut, on the other hand, in countries where the natural\\ndrainage lines are shallow and few, and where the soil and\\nsubsoil are close, it w^ill require the greatest vigilance and the\\nrarest skill and judgment to avert the evils of swamping, the\\ndevelopment of a malarial atmosphere, and the formation of\\nalkalies. If, in addition to the conditions last pointed out, the\\nirrigation water is naturally heavily charged with undesirable\\nsalts, then the situation becomes as serious as possible.\\nWhen capital, therefore, is seeking permanent investment\\nin the development of an irrigation system, the difficulties\\npointed out are matters for first and most serious consideration;\\nand when agriculturists pi opose to establish homes under such\\nsurroundings, the same serious attention should be given the\\nprobable permanency of the conditions of fruitfulness and health-\\nfulness.\\nIt sometimes happens that water for irrigation must be taken\\nfrom mountain canons and led out upon the mesas and over the\\nvalleys under great difficulties, such as tax the highest engi-\\nneering skill to its utmost to accomplish. As an illustration of\\nthis type of irrigation engineering, the case of one of the canals\\nsupplying Redlands, California, may be cited. In Fig. 57 the\\ndark line on the flank of the mountain on the right is an open\\ncanal, with ceinent masonry lining, which winds up the valley\\nuntil it can draw its supply from the Santa Ana river. Lower\\ndown the mountain valley it becomes necessary to cross the canon,\\nand this is accomplished by using the large redwood siphon rep-\\nresented in Figs. 58 and 59. This gigantic pipe has an inside\\ndiameter of 4 feet, and in one portion of its course is obliged", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "Redlands Irrigafiofi System\\n297\\nto withstand a pressure of IGO feet of water. This pipe is made\\nof selected redwood staves, 2x6 inches, with edges beveled to fit\\nclosely, and having their ends joined by a strip of metal fitting\\ntightly into a slot in the end of each stave the width of the\\nmetal strip being a little greater than the width of the stave,\\nFig. 57. ISiinta Ana canal on mountain side.\\na close joint is thus secured. The staves are bound together\\nwith iron hoops, whose distance apart is varied according to the\\npressure the pipe is required to withstand.\\nWhen the canal reaches the wash of Mill creek, it is carried\\nacross in the flume represented in Fig. 60, also made of redwood\\nstaves. Further on, as the water nears its destination, one\\nbranch discharges its water through the paved and cement- lined\\ncanal into the paved and cement-lined distributing reservoir,\\nboth shown in Fig. 61.\\nFrom the reservoir, the water is taken in a system of under-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "Fig. 58. Redwood pipe conveying water of Santa Ana canal\\ninto and out of a canon.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "Redwood Pipe Line 299\\nground cement pipes to the lands where it is to be used. These\\npipes extend beneath the surface, out of sight and out of the\\nway, ranging from 14, 12, 10 and 8 inches in diameter for the\\nmains, to 6 and 5 inches for the laterals and there were in\\n1888 some 13 miles of these pipes in the Redlands settlement.\\nIn the general system, the lands are plotted in square\\n10-acre lots, and a 5- or 6-incli lateral supplies one tier of these,\\ndelivering the water usually at the highest corner. These pipes\\nFig. 59. Pipe line curried on trestle.\\nare generally laid on the slope of the country, which one way\\nranges from 50 to 100 feet per mile, and do not carry the water\\nunder much pressure, but rather more nearly as though it were\\nrunning in open channels. The accumulation of pressure as the\\nface of the country falls is prevented by the introduction of\\nsmall concrete chambers from 5 to 6 feet square, placed at\\nfrequent intervals, and at the places of branching. As the water\\npasses along the supply pipes it enters these chambers, rising\\nuntil it falls over measuring weirs in the partition walls of the\\nchamber, and drops into other compartments from which other\\npipes lead away in their respective directions.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "Fig. 60. Redwood stave fliinic ciirried across Mill creek wash on trestle.\\nFig. 61. Cement-liued caiuil and reservoir at Kedlands, California.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "Distrihuting Hydrants\\n301\\nWhen the water reaches the iri-igator, his delivery is made\\nover a small weir, to which the water rises from below in a\\nsimilar but smaller cement chamber, two of which are repre-\\nsented in Figs. 62, 63 and 64. In Fig. 62, the water is seen\\npouring from the cement chamber or hydrant over a small weir\\ninto a distributing flume. Two other weirs in the same hydrant\\nare closed by gates, and it will l3e seen that by transferring\\ncither of the two gates to the weir now in use, the water would\\nFig. ()2. (Jeuieut hydrant, with weir and distributing flume.\\nbe turned from its present course to the one of the other two\\ndesired. In Fig. 63, the water is seen flowing from the front\\nweir, while the discharge is prevented from taking place into\\nthe compartment at the left and in the rear by the two gates\\nnow in place but in Fig. 64, the left gate has been removed\\nwithout putting it in front, as would ordinarily be the case, so\\nas to show the water pouring over that weir into its underground\\npipe for delivery in another direction.\\nThe system for supplying water for irrigation, now briefly\\ndescribed, and illustrated by Figs, 57 to 64, represents the high-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "302\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nest type of collecting and distributing systems yet devised, and\\nit is one which meets the peculiar demands brought upon it with\\nalmost ideal nicety. From the collecting reservoir, up in the\\nmountains, behind the great Bear valley dam, the water travels\\nFig. 63. Cement hydrant, with water discharging outward\\ninto distributing flume.\\nhurriedly much of the way through closed pipes of redwood,\\nsteel or cement, in which all evaporation and seepage are effec-\\ntually prevented, while for most of the balance of the distance\\nthe water glides swiftly along tight flumes and cement-lined\\nFig. 64. Same hydrant as Fig. 63, with water discharging\\nover left wier into nndergrotmd pipe.\\ncanals of nearly faultless alignment, reaching its destination with\\nso little of erosion or silting that the annual expense for mainte-\\nnance is almost a trifling matter. The dangers from alkalies are\\nreduced to the narrowest possible margin, and the swamping of", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "304 Irrigation and Drainage\\nthe land is next to impossible with any rational use of water.\\nWhen one stands upon Smiley Heights, in Redlands, and looks\\nout over such panoramas of luxuriant growth as the one repre-\\nsented in Fig. 65, the reflective mind is almost convinced that\\nhere is in reality the ultima thule in rural life.\\nThe cases now cited may suffice to illustrate the manner in\\nwhich water is diverted from streams for gigantic irrigation\\nenterprises, where the government itself does the work, as in\\nIndia where state aid supplements the united efforts of a dis-\\ntrict, as in the case of the Kern river canal, and where one or\\nmore stock companies develop the system as a means of finding\\npermanent investment for capital, as is the case with the system\\nworked out to meet the needs of the Redlands district.\\nIt is, of course, practicable for individuals to divert portions\\nof the water from streams passing through their property, pro-\\nvided the fall is such as to permit of this being done, and\\nwhere large quantities of water are to be used there is seldom a\\ncheaper or more effective method of supplying water, if only\\nthe land and the stream are properly related for it, and the\\nwater is not already held by prior rights.\\nDIVERTING UNDERGROUND WATERS\\nIn mountainous and hilly countries, where river valleys have\\nbecome deeply filled with sands and gravels, it frequently happens\\nthat much of the water of the drainage basin flows below the\\nsurface through the valley sands and gravels, the bed of the\\nchannel becoming nearly or quite dry for long distances.\\nIn such eases, where the slope of the valley is considerable,\\nand where the water has not fallen too far below the surface,\\ntunnels are occasionally driven into the sands and gravels up\\nthe valley at a small grade until the water-bearing beds have\\nrisen above the line of drift sufficiently to allow the water to\\npercolate into the tunnel and be led out upon the surface.\\nSometimes it is only necessary to dig open ditches, making them\\ndeeper up stream, to develop considerable quantities of water on\\nthe same principle.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "Diverting Underground Waters\\n305\\nThen, again, in steep valleys, where the streams carry plenty\\nof water, but too far below the surface to be diverted, it fre-\\nquently happens that at the foot of a terrace water may be\\nflowing very near the surface toward the river channel, and by\\nditching or tunneling here this may be diverted to the surface\\nwhen that in the river must be pumped.\\nAnother method of utilizing the waters which have fallen\\nbelow the surface in the valley gravels is by building what is\\ncalled a submerged daui across the valley, excavating to bed\\nFig. 66. Submerged dam at San Fernando, California.\\nrock and erecting a water-tight dam, which shall hold the under-\\nflow back until it has filled the gravels above the dam and flows\\nover it at the surface high enough to be taken away in cement\\nditches, flumes or pipes to the land it is desired to irrigate.\\nOne such submerged dam is shown in Fig. 66, built near San\\nFernando, California. It was not, however, sufficiently well built\\nto hold the water back until it could be made to overflow, and\\nthey were, in 1896, using two gasoline engines with pumps to\\nlift the water held back by the dam, instead of depending upon\\ngravity, as planned,", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "306 Irrigatio7i and Drainage\\nDIVEETING WATER BY TIDAL DAMMING\\nWhere lands bordering rivers leading to the sea lie high\\nenough above low tide to admit of adequate drainage, and at the\\nsame time below high tide level, these may be dyked off from\\nthe sea, and then, by erecting sluices controlled by gates at\\nsuitable places in the dykes, connecting with canals and dis-\\ntributaries on the land side, water may be led at will on or off\\nthe fields as the tides come or go. One of the most notable\\nexamples of this method of procuring water for irrigation is\\nat the mouth of the Santee river, in South Carolina, to which\\nreference has already been made, and a portion of which is\\nrepresented in Fig. 67.\\nIt will be readily understood that as the tide rises along the\\ncoast, the discharge of the fresh water coming down the river is\\nprevented and the channels fill with it, it being held there by\\nthe dam of salt water formed by the tidal wave. When the\\nfresh water has accumulated to a sufficient extent, the trunks\\nmay be opened and the fields flooded, or they may be kept\\nclosed and the water held off. The diverting of water from\\nrivers by tidal damming is only practicable where the river\\ncarries a sufficient volume of fresh water to prevent the salt\\nwater from ascending the channel, for were the volume small\\nthe sea would drive it back, and only salt or brackish water\\nwould be found against the dykes.\\nDIVERTING WATER BY THE POWER OF THE\\nSTREAM\\nWhere rivers run too low in their channels to permit\\nthe water being led out directly, many devices have been\\nemployed by which a portion of the water is made to drive\\nmachinery which, in turn, lifts another portion out upon the\\nland, where it may be led away. One of the oldest, commonest\\nand simplest devices used for this purpose is the undershot\\nwater-wheel, set up in the stream and carrying buckets on its", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "Tidal Irrigation\\n307\\nA\\nBOBMAY 4 CO.,ENGR S,N.Y\\nFig. 67. Section of rice fields in Sotith Carolina.\\n(U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.)\\ncircumference, which raise the water in the manner represented\\nin Fig. 15, page 76. This view was taken on the river Regnitz,\\na branch of the Main, in Bavaria, where in a distance of one", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "308 Irrigation and Drainage\\nand one-fourth miles the writer counted no less than twenty\\nsuch wheels.\\nThe wheels were 16 feet in diameter, provided with a row\\nof 24 churnlike buckets on one or both sides, emptjing their\\ncontents into a trough, from which the water was led away in\\na flume hewn from a log. At the time the view was taken,\\nthis wheel was making three revolutions per minute, and dis-\\ncharging 450 gallons, or enough to supply nearly 120 acres with\\n2 inches of water every 10 days, the water being raised 12 feet.\\nOn the Grand river, near Grand Junction, Colorado, the\\nSmith Brothers have placed two 36 -inch turbine wheels so\\nthat they drive a battery of two centrifugal pumps, one above\\nthe other, on the same 8 -inch discharge pipe, and lift water\\n82 feet, discharging it into a flume, as represented in Fig. 68,\\nFig. 68. Mouth of 8-inch discharge pipe 82 feet above Grand river,\\nGrand Junction, Colorado.\\nat the rate of 2,200 gallons per minute. The two wheels were\\ntogether rated at 90 horse-power, and were developing not far\\nfrom 54, as measured by the water lifted. They were supply-\\ning water for 80 acres of alfalfa and 120 acres of orchards,\\nworking only during the daytime, the water being carried a\\nmile in flume and ditches.\\nOther forms of water wheels, like the overshot, undershot\\nand breast wheels, are used for driving centrifugal and other\\npumps to lift water for irrigation, and in large streams, where", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "Lifting Water by Water Power\\n309\\nthere is considerable fall, large amounts of water may be\\nraised at a very small cost after the plant is once in place.\\nMr. F. H. Harvey, of Douglas, Wyoming, has set up a half-\\nbreast and undershot wheel, 10 feet in diameter and 14 feet\\nlong, between two wing-dams on a swinging frame, in such a\\nmanner as to permit it to rise and fall with the current. Being\\nconnected by means of a sprocket wheel and chain to the sta-\\ntionary driving pulley, the changes in the position of the wheel\\nwith the level of the river do not disturb the action, and the\\nFig. 69. Hydraulic ramming engine. Wilson, U. S. Geol. Survey.)\\ndevice runs night and day without attention, except for oiling,\\npumping 1,000 gallons per minute to a height of 16 feet, using\\na 3%- inch centrifugal pump, thus supplying more than 50 aere-\\ninches per day, or enough to irrigate 200 acres at the rate of\\n2.5 inches every 10 days. His plant is described as very effec-\\ntive, satisfactory and, for the amount of water supplied, cheap,\\nthe total cost being $1,200.*\\n*Bulletin No. 18, Wyoming Agr. Exp. Station.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "SIO\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nThe very large sizes of hydraulic rams may also be used\\non streams of relatively small fall for lifting water for the irri-\\ngation of small areas, especially if used in connection with\\nreservoirs. They are very simple, relatively cheap, durable, and\\nrequire but little attention. The ramming engines, Fig. 69, are\\nsimilar to the hydraulic rams, but are built larger and have\\ngreater capacities. They are more complex in structure, and\\nmore expensive. The engine represented in the figure is said to\\nbe able to elevate water to a height of 25 feet for every foot of\\nfall, or to deliver one -third of the water used in its operation at\\nFig. 70. Siphon elevator. (Wilson, U. S. Geol. Survey.)\\ntwo and one-half times the height of the fall, and one-sixth of the\\nwater at five times the height of the fall. Those having a drive\\npipe 8 inches in diameter and a delivery pipe of 4 inches are\\ncapable, under a head of 10 feet, of elevating about 6 acre- inches\\nto a height of 25 feet in 24 hours, and this will irrigate 24 acres at\\nthe rate of 2.5 inches every 10 days. Such an engine will cost\\n$500 (Wilson).\\nThe siphon elevator, represented in Fig. 70, is an appliance\\nutilizing the principle of the hydraulic ram in connection with a\\nsiphon. The amount of water lifted by this varies with the dimen-\\nsions of the appliance, the height to which the water is lifted, and\\nthe difference between the lengths of the two legs of the siphon.\\nIt can only be used where there is a dam, or similar condition,", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "utilizing Storm Waters 311\\nwhich permits a considerable difference between the long and\\nshort legs of the siphon.\\nTo start the action of the siphon, the long arm must be tilled\\nwith water then, as this descends again, more water rises\\nthrough the suction arm passing into the receiver (a) and through\\nthe check- valve (c) into the regulator (b). In passing the check-\\nvalve, the drag of the water closes it, and thus stops the current\\nbut no sooner has this occurred than the momentum of the water\\nopens the puppet valve (d), and a portion escapes into the\\nstorage tank or reservoir. While the water has been discharging\\nthrough the puppet valve and coming to rest, the fall of water\\nin the discharge arm has created a vacuum in the regulator,\\nwhich permits the atmospheric pressure on the corrugated heads\\nto force them inward and open the cheek-valve, thus starting the\\nflow again. These pulsations are very rapid, ranging from 150\\nto 400 per minute, so tliat a nearly continuous flow is maintained.\\nWilson states that these water elevators have been built with\\nsufficient capacity to deliver 8 acre -feet in 24 hours, an apparatus\\nof this capacity costing $1,200.\\nUTILIZING STORM WATERS FOR IRRIGATION\\nThere are many sections of country where the topography is\\nsuch as to permit storm waters to be caught by individual farmers\\nin reservoirs formed by cheap earth dams thrown across the\\naxis of a run, draw or ravine, and the floods produced by rains\\nheld back and used in irrigating lands below in times of drought.\\nThis is a very common practice in many parts of Europe, where\\nthe collected waters are oftenest used on meadows. Suitable\\narrangements are made for taking out the water, and a waste\\nweir is provided by which the water may escape before the height\\nof the dam has been reached.\\nWhere water is supplied to large districts, the use of dams\\nwith reservoirs is very common, especially on streams which are\\nsubject to large fluctuations in volume during the irrigation\\nseason.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "312\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nKt.-\\n4\\n4M\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094\u00e2\u0080\u0094L\\nB^HHflHjHB- ^B^^^ ^^P^fei^^l^Mdi^^\\nJ^- !i^^T ^^WB\\nmh|\\n^gimm\\nhhb\\n1^^^\\n\u00c2\u00abl\\nFig. 71. Exposiu-e of windmill which diu-ing one year pumped 79.1\\nacre-feet of water 12.85 feet high.\\nIt will frequently happen, also, that streams or rills whose\\nvolume of water is too small to be used advantageously may be\\ndammed and the water accumulated in reservoirs, and used by\\nsingle individiials or two, three or more farmers may be located\\nso as to make it mutually desirable for them to unite their efforts\\nand take advantage of small streams in this way. So, too, may\\nthe water of springs be led out to suitable places and accumulated\\nand warmed for use in irrigation.\\nWIND POWER FOR IRRIGATION\\nWhen relatively sinall areas of land are to be irrigated where\\nthe lift is not greater than 10 to 25 feet, and where pumps may\\nbe used of such forms and capacity as to economically utilize the\\nfull power the mill is capable of developing, wind power may be\\nemployed to good advantage in supplying water for irrigation.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "Wind Power for Irrigation\\n313\\nThe writer* has conducted a series of observations with a\\n16 -foot geared Aermotor windmill during one whole year, which\\nshows just how much water was lifted 12.85 feet high each hour\\nof every day under one set of conditions. The amount of the\\nwater pumped each and every hour of the day, and the number of\\nmiles of wind which passed the mill and did the work, were auto-\\nmatically recorded, giving for the first time a complete record for a\\nfull year of the amount of work one windmill did in lifting water.\\nThe mill stands on a steel tower 22 feet above the roof and\\n82 feet above the ground, as represented in Fig. 71, and lifted\\nthe water 12.85 feet from a reservoir having an area of 285\\nsquare feet, into a measuring tank holding 141.2 cubic feet,\\nwhich, when filled, emptied itself in 45 seconds back into the\\nreservoir. The number of times this measuring tank was filled\\neach hour of the day during each month of the year, and the\\nmiles of wind which did the work, are given in the table on page\\n315, and the results are shown graphically in Fig. 72. In this\\ntable the numbers at the head of the columns are the hours\\n*BulIetin 68, Wis. Agr. Exp. Station.\\n41)0\\niS\\n*7l il\\n*60o\\nUtil\\n*J0O\\nHit\\n4l\u00c2\u00bbt\\nJ ?i)\\nI3 0O\\nlilO\\nI IDD\\nIliO\\n800\\nroo\\n10 II xn\\n10\\n7 M\\ni\\n4\\ni\\n6\\n1\\ny\\nH\\nN\\nN\\n1\\nf\\nN\\ny\\nj\\nN\\nJ\\ns\\ns\\n\\\\j\\nNj\\ns,\\nS\\nFig. 72. Upper curve shows miles of wind each hour of the year. Lower curve\\nshows the number of tanks of water pumped by the same wind.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "S14\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nFig. 73.\\nA B\\nAermotof 14-inch reciprocating pump used by windmill.\\nA, pump B, piston head and suction valve.\\nof the day. The lines of numbers opposite the name of the\\nmonth express the total number of miles of wind for the hour\\nof the day at the head of the column, while the other lines ex-\\npress the number of times the tank was emptied during each hour\\nof the day. In the footings of the table, the upper line is the\\ntotal number of miles of wind during each hour of the day for the\\nfull year; the second line is the total number of tanks emptied.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "Table showing the total number of tanks of water pumped each hour of the day\\nfor each month, and the total rvind movement in miles for the same time.\\nMonth.\\nNoon\\n1.\\n2.\\n3.\\n4i\\n5.\\n6.\\n7.\\n8.\\n9.\\n10.\\n11.\\nMid-\\nnight\\nMarch..\\n4;i5.0\\n446.0\\n438\\n436.5\\n411.0\\n382.5\\n378.5\\n,365.5\\n332.0\\n323.0\\n322.0\\n298\\n319,0\\n11.?. 4\\n112.8\\nlll.\u00c2\u00ab\\n101.6\\n94.5\\n80.1\\n61.8\\n67.0\\n60.3\\n46.0\\n62.7\\n50,1\\n50,9\\nApril\\n.^.21.6\\n512.5\\n476.0\\n476.0\\n408.0\\n4 5\\n392 5\\n394.0\\n368.0\\n424.0\\n431.5\\n464\\n412,0\\n157.0\\n153.8\\n138.0\\n137.2\\n126.7\\n108.2\\n78.7\\n74.6\\n03.3\\n85,8\\n103.5\\n108.5\\n90.3\\nMay....\\n44(5..\\n453.5\\n4,37.0\\n440 5\\n411.5\\n361.0\\n346.0\\n366.5\\n378.0\\n373,0\\n375.0\\n367.0\\n342.0\\n115 G\\n122.4\\n116 2\\n106.3\\n93 8\\n77.6\\n52.7\\n66.7\\n68.9\\n68,7\\n74.5\\n72.5\\n73,9\\nJune\\n320.0\\n326 5\\n310.5\\n320,0\\n320.0\\n305.5\\n300.5\\n292.5\\n299.5\\n310,0\\n267.5\\n267.0\\n292,5\\n7, ?.4\\n78.0\\n67.5\\n66.2\\n61.8\\n38.0\\n44.0\\n48.0\\n51.0\\n51,0\\n38.0\\n47.0\\n40,0\\nJuly....\\n;r28.o\\n351 :5\\n347.5\\n351.5\\n325.5\\n306,0\\n273.0\\n253.0\\n261.5\\n276.5\\n258.0\\n228.9\\n236.5\\n75.1\\n71.7\\n64.5\\n67,7\\n57.5\\n.58.2\\n34.7\\n22.4\\n23.5\\n26,0\\n29.2\\n25.7\\n29,6\\nAug\\n354.0\\n352\\n358.0\\n354\\n326.0\\n305.0\\n282.0\\n255.5\\n241.0\\n239,0\\n247.0\\n212.0\\n270.5\\n76.0\\n79.3\\n82.9\\n75 4\\n64.4\\n54\\n35.0\\n35.0\\n34.0\\n33,0\\n34.0\\n38.0\\n36.0\\nSept....\\n339.0\\n354.0\\n362.0\\n351.0\\n331 .0\\n276\\n246.0\\n256.0\\n271.0\\n2G4.0\\n272.0\\n252.0\\n251.0\\n89.6\\n101.6\\n96 7\\n93,1\\n82.1\\n49.4\\n30.6\\n30.3\\n37.8\\n37.0\\n.^0.3\\n38,7\\n44.4\\nOct\\n392.0\\n401.0\\n389.0\\n376.0\\n359\\n31S.0\\n341.0\\n355.0\\n342.0\\n350\\n329.0\\n314.0\\n325.0\\n107.2\\n114.1\\n111 3\\n103.9\\n96 9\\n6a.\\n68.4\\n83.0\\n74 4\\n83.3\\n82.3\\n72.3\\n74,5\\nNov\\n43(3.0\\n443.0\\n439.0\\n425.0\\n38S.0\\n345\\n359,0\\n373.0\\n368.0\\n3b5-0\\n373.0\\n365.0\\n371,0\\n151.9\\nl.Tj\\n139.0\\n136.0\\n116.0\\n112.0\\n110,0\\n114.0\\n110.\\n110,0\\n100.0\\n94\\n92.0\\nDec\\n395.0\\n389.0\\n359.0\\n331.0\\n326.0\\n329.0\\n3.34.0\\n339.0\\n351.0\\n359.0\\n348.0\\n343.0\\n364,0\\n133.2\\n119.8\\n102.7\\n80\\n79.8\\n84.3\\n89.4\\n84.3\\n85.2\\n83,0\\n95.1\\n105.0\\n101,0\\nJan\\n3S8.0\\n409\\n37.6.0\\n356\\n331.0\\n317\\n352.0\\n362.0\\n326.0\\n334,0\\n325.0\\n306.0\\n330,0\\n117.5\\n126.9\\n113.7\\n91 5\\n79.1\\n77.3\\n85.2\\n86.1\\n84.4\\n76.6\\n71.8\\n73.4\\n74,1\\nFeby....\\n40(5.0\\n412.0\\n401.0\\n408.0\\n381\\n345.0\\n365,0\\n.335.0\\n347.0\\n363.0\\n368.0\\n365\\n392,0\\n119.2\\n131 1\\n48- 0.fl\\n1.35\\n122.9\\n116.4\\n103.2\\n99.8\\n102.6\\n100.9\\n108.7\\n106.3\\n109.3\\n115.1\\n4741\\n4693\\n4625.5\\n4318.0\\n4026.5\\n3969,5\\n.3977.0\\n3885.0\\n4000.6\\n3916.0\\n3816.9\\n3905.5\\n1320 1\\n134(i\\n1279.3\\n1181.8\\n1069.0\\n907.3\\n79(X3\\n814.0\\n793.7\\n809,1\\n837.7\\n834.5\\n821.8\\nCorrec n\\n95.2\\n1424.3\\n98,5 92 1\\n77 6\\n67.1\\n53.0\\n42.2\\n43.6\\n857.6\\n45.8\\n49,0\\n49,8\\n49.\\n46.1\\nTotals\\n1445.0 1371.4\\n1259.4\\n1336.1\\n960.3\\n832.5\\n839.5\\n858.1\\n887,5\\n884,0\\n867,9\\nMonth.\\n1.\\n3.\\n3.\\n4.\\n5.\\nG.\\n7.\\n8.\\n9.\\n10.\\n11.\\nTotals.\\nMarch...\\n354.5\\n344.0\\n352.0\\n347.0\\n433.0\\n331.0\\n363.5\\n383.5\\n410.0\\n427.0\\n388,0\\n8765.0\\n64.9\\n54.9\\n5S.7\\n56.9\\n53.3\\n64.8\\n75.1\\n74.0\\n85.1\\n95.3\\n84.4\\n1777,1\\nApril....\\n414.5\\n95.1\\n410.0\\n89.7\\n4OS.0\\n89 9\\n410.5\\n87.6\\n404.0\\n84.8\\n429.5\\n92.6\\n453.5\\n120.2\\n410.0\\n124.8\\n488.5\\n139.4\\n493.5\\n148.0\\n475\\n150.8\\n10417\\n2648.5\\nMay\\n334.5\\n73.4\\n3 24.5\\n68.8\\n329.5\\n65.6\\n347.5\\n77.5\\n353.5\\n78.8\\n356.0\\n76.5\\n389.5\\n89. G\\n397.0\\n104.8\\n409.5\\n102.4\\n435.5\\n96.4\\n410.0\\n89.4\\n9472\\n2035,6\\nJune\\n269.0\\n26.0\\n278.5\\n29.0\\n275.5\\n27.4\\n261,5\\n20.4\\n269.0\\n35.0\\n281.0\\n63.0\\n353.5\\n76.0\\n322.5\\n80.0\\n310.0\\n63.0\\n291.5\\n58.0\\n297.0\\n51.0\\n7149\\n1242.7\\nJuly\\n220.0\\n27.3\\n215.5\\n27.0\\n211.0\\n18.9\\n208.0\\n18.0\\n21S.0\\n21.9\\n227.0\\n27.7\\n247.5\\n37.3\\n258.0\\n37.1\\n286\\n47.9\\n311.0\\n60.1\\n319.5\\n64.0\\n6112\\n973,0\\nAugust..\\n232.0\\n220.5\\n243.5\\n273.0\\n259.0\\n275.0\\n239.0\\n269.0\\n289.5\\n306.5\\n298.0\\n6702,0\\n2G.0\\n30.0\\n37.2\\n42.2\\n31.0\\n36.0\\n44.0\\n48.0\\n57.0\\n62.0\\n60.4\\n1150,8\\nSept\\n263.0\\n44.1\\n265.5\\n45.0\\n249.5\\n43.4\\n255.0\\n61.4\\n254.0\\n45.2\\n261.0\\n52.8\\n266.0\\n49.8\\n258.0\\n53.9\\n289.0\\n62.8\\n310.0\\n73.4\\n301.0\\n75.1\\n6591\\n1378.5\\nOct\\n316.0\\n72.4\\n.309.0\\n69.2\\n307.0\\n66.1\\n284.0\\n55.0\\n265.0\\n45.7\\n2\u00c2\u00ab8.0\\n57.3\\n273.0\\n47.5\\n312.0\\n66.9\\n318.0\\n72.8\\n351.0\\n89.5\\n349.0\\n90.4\\n7934\\n1869,4\\nNov\\n.372.0\\n.388.0\\n412.0\\n408.0\\n408.0\\n416.0\\n4IG.0\\n424.0\\n448.0\\n434.0\\n438,0\\n9303,0\\n102.0\\n107.0\\n102.0\\n96.0\\n95.0\\n1(J8.0\\n126\\n129.0\\n142.9\\n148.9\\n145,6\\n2822,3\\nCec\\n37S.0\\n377.0\\n372.0\\n352\\n330.0\\n358.0\\n3.33.0\\n340.0\\n349.0\\n370.0\\n380,0\\n8557,0\\n102.0\\n104.5\\n103\\n91.6\\n85.9\\n99.9\\n83.0\\n94,1\\n99.0\\n115.2\\n110.5\\n2331,5\\nJan\\n350.^\\n3.54.0\\n334.0\\n325.0\\n339\\n348.0\\n335.0\\n365,0\\n384.0\\n389.0\\n374.0\\n8474,0\\n73 4\\n76.7\\n76.6\\n70.0\\n70.0\\n83.8\\n95.7\\n96,2\\n95.1\\n111.5\\n100.5\\n2112,7\\nEeby\\n405.0\\n117.1\\n396\\n107,9\\n419.0\\n106.5\\n397.0\\n95 2\\n384.0\\n92.3\\n383\\n97.8\\n3S4.0\\n112.1\\n373.0\\n112.7\\n390.0\\n118.6\\n382.0\\n115.5\\n348.0\\n100,0\\n9120\\n264 6.2\\nS908.5\\n3S8-i.5\\n,3^13\\n38(58.5\\n3916.5\\n3953.5\\n4058.5\\n4112.0\\n4371.5\\n4.501.0\\n4377,5\\n98905,0\\n840.7\\n809.7\\n792. 3\\n772.4\\n738.9\\n860.2\\n956.3\\n1021.5\\n1086.0\\n1173.8\\n1122,1\\n22988.0\\nCorrectio\\nn*..\\n,50.8\\n47.1\\n44.1\\n4-1.6\\n40.2\\n52.6\\n63.5\\n66.6\\n72.3\\n82.8\\n73,9\\nTotals.\\n891.5\\n856.8\\n836.4\\n814\\n779.1\\n912 8\\n1019.8\\n1088.1\\n1158.3\\n1256 6\\n1196.0\\n24433.0\\n^Approximate correction for water pumped during the time the tank was being\\nemptied.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "316\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nThe total water pumped during the year by this windmil[\\nwas enough to cover 79,1 acres 12 inches deep, thus showing an\\naverage daily rate of 2.6 acre -inches. The\\nlargest amount of water pumped on any\\nsingle day was 39,540.2 cubic feet, or a rate\\nfor 24 hours of 27.46 cubic feet per min-\\nute. There were short times occasionally,\\nhowever, when more water than this was\\npumped, but the capacity of the siphon\\nwas such as to cause it then to discharge\\ncontinuously, and thus prevent a record be-\\ning made.\\nMost of the water was lifted by two\\npumps, working singly or in combination.\\nThese were an Aermotor 14-inch reciprocat-\\ning pump, worked on a 9- inch stroke, repre-\\nsented in Fig. 73, and a Seaman Schuske\\nbucket pump, with 1 -gallon buckets, as\\nrepresented in Fig. 74. When the wind\\nwas light the mill was given the bucket\\npump, when stronger the reciprocating\\npump, and wlien strongest both pumps at\\nthe same time, and more work was ac-\\ncomplished in this way than would have\\nbeen possible with any single pump.\\n74. Bucket irriga-\\ntion pump.\\nWATER PUMPED DURING 10-DAY PERIODS\\nSince the availability of wind power for irrigation is limited\\nnot so much by the total work of the year as by the water\\nwhich may be pumped in times of special need, a clearer idea\\nof the possibilities of wind power for irrigation can be gained\\nby tabulating the work done during the year by 10-day periods.\\nThis has been done in the table which follows, but first reducing\\nthe results to a lift of 10 feet instead of 12.85 feet, the height\\nthe water was actually raised", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "Wind Power for Irrigation\\n317\\nTable sJwwing computed amount of ivater lifted 10 feet high during consecutive\\n10-day periods for one full year, expressed in acre-inches\\nFeb. 28-iIch. 10\\nJNlch. l()-20\\niMcli. 20-30\\nMc h. 80-Apr. 9.\\nApr. 9-19\\nApr. 19-29\\nApr. 29-May9..\\nMay 9-19\\nMay 19-29\\nMay 29-June8.\\nJune 8-18\\nJune lS-28\\nJune 28-July 8.\\nWater\\npumped\\nAcre-in\\n33.540\\n36.620\\n52.77\\n47.01\\n54.11\\n63.05\\n59.97\\n28.69\\n51.38\\n40.54\\n27 59\\n13.82\\n20.68\\nDATE\\nJuly 8-18\\nJuly 18-28\\nJuly 28-Aug. 7\\nAug. 7-17\\nAug. 17-27\\nAug. 27-Sept.6.\\nSept. 6-16\\nSept. 16-26\\nSept. 26-Oet. 6.\\nOct. 6-16\\nOct. 16-26\\nOct. 26-Nov. 5..\\nNov. 5-15\\nWater\\npumped\\nAcre-ln\\n21.53\\n29.73\\n9.87\\n36.26\\n20.20\\n21.27\\n18.00\\n40.42\\n23.79\\n55.07\\n18 45\\n36 71\\n49.49\\nNov. 15-25\\nNov. 25-Dee. 5\\nDec 5-15\\nDec. 15-25\\nDec. 25- J an. 4\\nJan 4-14\\nJan. 14-24\\nJan. 24- Feb. 3.\\nFeb. 3-13\\nFeb. 13-23\\nFeb. 23-28\\nWater\\npumped\\nAcre-in.\\n52.77\\n47.46\\n39.52\\n31.18\\n51.22\\n33.92\\n29.16\\n59.36\\n33.45\\n75.73\\n16.20\\nReferrin^^ to the table, it will be seen that the smallest\\namount of water pumped in any 10 days was 9.87 acre -inches,\\nthis occurring between July 28 and August 7, at a time when\\nmost water is needed. In this period there were 7 full days\\nwhen no water was pumped, all the water being raised during\\n3 days of the period.\\nThe mean amount of water pumped during the 100 days\\nfrom May 29 to September G was 24.5 acre- inches per 10 days,\\nand as this is the season in the United States when most water\\nis needed for irrigation, the figure may be taken as representing\\nthe capacity of such a pumping system. That is to say, such a\\nplant is able to supply 10 inches of water to 24.5 acres during\\n100 days when the lift is 10 feet, and to 12.25 acres where the\\nlift is 20 feet. If the crop irrigated demands 20 inches of water\\nin 100 days, then the area which could be supplied under a\\n10-foot lift would be only 12.25 acres, and under a 20-foot lift\\nonly 6.12 acres. It must be understood, however, that these\\nresults are possible only under conditions of no loss between the.\\npump and the land to which the water is applied.\\nFrom theoretical considerations and the above data, it\\nappears probable that for different sizes of wheels and for dif-\\nferent lifts, but under otherwise similar conditions, are?t\u00c2\u00a7 may\\nbe irrigated as given in the table below.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "318 Irrigation and Drainage\\nNumber of acres a first-class loindmill tnay irrigate to a depth of 10 inches\\nand 20 inches in 100 days\\nLift\\n10 feet\\nLift 15 feet\\nLift 20 feet\\nDiam. of\\nwheel\\n10 ins. pel\\n100 days\\n20 ins. per\\n100 days\\n10 ins. per\\n100 days\\n20 ins. per\\n100 days\\n10 ins. per\\n100 days\\n20 ins.\\n100 da\\n8.5 ft.\\n2.40\\n1.20\\n1.60\\n.80\\n1.20\\n.60\\n10 ft.\\n7.58\\n3.79\\n5.06\\n2.53\\n3.79\\n1.90\\n12 ft.\\n13.61\\n6.81\\n9.08\\n4.54\\n6.81\\n3.40\\n14 ft.\\n17.44\\n8.77\\n11.70\\n5.85\\n8.77\\n4.39\\n16 ft.\\n24.50\\n12.25\\n16.34\\n8.17\\n12.25\\n6.13\\nIn computing this table for other sizes of wheels, we have\\nused the ratios calculated by Wolff but as our observed work\\nis about 12 per cent less for the 16 -foot wheel than he com-\\nputes for this size, the values in the table are correspondingly\\nlower than his table would give. It is the writer s conviction,\\nhowever, that the results he has observed for the 16 -foot\\nwheel are quite as high as will be likely to be realized by\\naverage practice with the pumping devices of to-day.\\nNECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR THE HIGHEST SERVICE\\nWITH A WINDMILL\\nIn order that the largest service may be secured from a\\nwindmill, there are certain essential conditions which must be\\nobserved. First among these is a good wind exposure. It is\\nuseless to purchase a windmill and then set it up in such a\\nmanner that the wind cannot have free access to it. Strong\\ntowers, having a height of 70 to 90 feet, should usually be\\nused, and these placed where hills, groves or other obstructions\\ncannot break the .force of the wind.\\nSecond in importance to a good exposure of the mill is a\\npumping outfit thoroughly adapted to the power of the mill. It\\nshould not be so heavy as to force the mill to stand idle in winds\\nof 9 miles per hour, and yet it should be capable of utilizing\\nthe full power developed in a 25- to 30 -mile wind.\\n*A. R. Wolff, the Windmill as a Prime Mover.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "Wind Power for Irrigation 319\\nIf reciprocating pumps are used, the strokes should be made\\nas long as possible and the number not higher than 20 to 25\\nper minute, to avoid loss of energy in pounding. Suction and\\ndischarge pipes should, as a rule, be as large as the cylinder,\\nand where water is to be raised above the surface, this should\\nbe done by carrying the discharge pipe up into the tower to\\nthe necessary height to avoid the use of stuffing boxes. The\\nlarge wooden plunger rods, which displace one-half the volume\\nof the water raised with each stroke, are in the direction of\\neconomy in making the pump in a measure double-acting. If\\na screen must be used over the end of the suction pipe, it should\\nbe given large capacity, and be carefully watched, to see that\\nit does not become clogged. All valves should have large\\nports, easy action, and be tight fitting, so that every stroke,\\nwhether slow or quick, shall discharge the full capacity of the\\ncylinder.\\nThere should be two pumps of different capacities, so arranged\\nthat either may be used alone, or the two used at once, thus\\nproviding three loads, to be applied when the wind is light,\\nmedium or strong. This can readily be arranged by attaching\\nthe lighter pump directly to the mill and the larger one to a\\nwalking-beam or both may be attached to a walking-beam,\\none end of which is carried by the driving rod of the mill.\\nThe geared windmills may readily be made to work a pump\\nof the bucket type. Fig. 74, and if the buckets can be provided\\nwith valves which do not leak, a pump of large size may\\nbe used, speeded back so as to be driven by the mill in the lighter\\nwinds, and with increasing speed in the higher winds, without\\nreaching the limit at which the buckets fail to empty.\\nBut as the power of the mill increases more rapidly than\\nthe velocity of the wind, what is needed is a device which\\nis capable of increasing the load more rapidly also. Attaching\\nan additional pump secures this end, but the objection to the\\nplan is that it is not automatic, and much service must be lost\\nby the mill being either too heavily or too lightly loaded until\\nan attendant can make the change. Still, this plan is worth\\nfollowing until something better can be had.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "320 Irrigation and Drainage\\nTHE USE OF RESERVOIRS\\nTo employ wind power for irrigation to the best advantage,\\na reservoir is required in most eases. There are localities on\\nthe seashore where nearly every day a sufficient breeze springs\\nup to drive the windmill, and in such cases, if the supply of\\nwater is large, the lift small, and the demand for water moder-\\nerate, the ground for many crops may be laid out in such a\\nmanner that a system of rotation may be followed, and the\\nreservoir dispensed with but in such cases the time and\\nattention required for the distribution of the water will usually\\nbe greater than where a reservoir is used.\\nThe reservoir should be placed where it is high enough to\\nserve all the ground to which it is desired to supply water, but\\nit is very important to keep it just as low as possible, because\\nsince the economic lift of the mill is only 10 to 25 feet, every\\nfoot saved on the height of the lift into the reservoir is a large\\npercentage gained in efficiency. The elevated wooden tanks,\\nplaced on towers far above the ground to be irrigated, are very\\nexpensive in themselves, and greatly reduce the area which a\\nwindmill can irrigate.\\nIn constructing a reservoir where soil and subsoil are\\nreasonably fine and close, the first step is to remove from the\\narea all rubbish and coarse litter that may interfere with the\\nclose packing of the soil. The land upon which the walls of the\\nreservoir are to be built is then plowed, leaving a dead furrow\\nin the center, which may be filled with water until the whole\\narea is thoroughly saturated. When the water has drained\\naway sufficiently to permit of teams driving over the ground,\\nthe soil should be thoroughly trampled and puddled, after which\\ndirt from the bottom of the reservoir may be scraped on and\\ntrampled with the teams continuously and thoroughly. It is\\nrecommended as an excellent plan to maintain the sides of the\\nwalls higher than the center, but all portions nearly enough\\nhorizontal, so that water may be pumped into the furrow at\\nnight, to help in settling the material^ more closely and render\\nthe puddling more complete,", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "The Use of Reservoirs 321\\nAfter the walls have been raised to the proper height, the\\nbottom of the reservoir is plowed, harrowed fine, and the whole\\nflooded with water, if practicable, to better fit the soil for\\npuddling. In case the soil is at first too open for flooding all\\nat once, the water may be led in furrows close together, filling\\nas many at a time as the capacity of the pump will permit,\\nturning the water into others when a sufiicient saturation has\\nbeen reached. When the bottom of the reservoir has been\\nthoroughly puddled over the whole area and continuous with the\\npuddled bottom and sides of the walls, there will usually be but\\nlittle loss from seepage.\\nThe sluice for taking out water for irrigation should be laid\\nin the wall at the level of the ditch outside which carries the\\nwater to the fields or garden, but at some distance above the\\nbottom inside, so that the water may not be entirely withdrawn\\nand permit the sun to dry the soil, thus destroying the effect of\\npuddling. In cold climates, it is also important to retain enough\\nwater in the reservoir to prevent the bottom from freezing, as\\nthis may destroy the effect of puddling.\\nThe sluice should project entirely through the walls on both\\nsides, and be provided with a suitable gate or valve for closing\\nand opening it, either fully or only in part, according to the\\namount of water needed, and the dimensions should be such as to\\npermit more water to be taken out than is likely to be needed.\\nThe most thoroughly satisfactory aud permanent outlet for\\na reservoir can be provided by using wrought iron pipe of suit-\\nable size, provided with an elbow at the inside, which opens\\nupward. This may be closed by means of a plug worked by a\\nT lever or handle, keeping the threads well protected with\\ncylinder or wagon grease, to prevent rusting in.\\nOftener the sluice is made of 2-inch plank, tightly put\\ntogether and provided with a gate, as represented in Fig. 75*.\\nIn other cases, the mouth of the sluice is cut off obliquely, and\\na gate is hinged to the upper side and provided with a handle\\nreaching above water, to which a cord is attached for opening\\n*From Bulletin No. 55, Kansas Agr. Exp. Station.\\nU", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "322\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nthe gate by simply pulling upon it. This is very simple and\\neasily operated. In placing the sluice in the wall of the reser-\\nvoir, great care is needed to get the dirt thoroughly tamped and\\npuddled about it, so that water shall not follow its sides and\\ndevelop a leak.\\nTo prevent injury from waves, the walls of the reservoir\\nshould be sloping and not steeper inside than a rise of 1 in 2.\\nFig. 75. Sluice and gate for reservoir. (Kansas Agr. Exp. Station.)\\nAt the outlet ditch there should be provided an overflow weir\\nsufficiently below the top of the wall to prevent wave action\\nfrom starting a cut in the top by breaking over. A reservoir,\\ncompleted and filled with water, is represented in Fig. 76,\\nbut where these are made circular in form there must be less\\nseepage through the banks in proportion to the amount of water\\nstored, because less wall is required to enclose a given area\\nwhen this is circular.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "The Use of Reservoirs 323\\nThe amount of seepage from reservoirs must vary with the\\ncharacter of the soil, but Carpenter cites a ease where the loss\\nfrom this cause did not exceed 2 feet for a whole year, and\\nthis is satisfactorily small.\\nWhere the soil is very open and sandy, it may be necessary\\nto haul on clay or fine soil to use in puddling, or the reservoir\\nmay require covering with coal tar, asphalt or cement. These\\nFig. 76. Rectangular reservoir for windmill irrigation.\\nmaterials, however, are expensive, and usually not within the\\nreach of small irrigators.\\nThe loss of water from a reservoir by evaporation in dry,\\nwindy climates is much larger than the necessary seepage, and\\nthis can only be lessened by planting windbreaks about the\\nreservoir.\\nA circular reservoir 4 feet deep and 40 feet in diameter will\\nsupply .35 acres with 4 inches, and .69 acres with 2 inches of\\nwater. One, 100 feet in diameter and 4 feet deep will irrigate\\n4.32 acres with 2 inches of water and 2.16 acres with 4 inches,\\nwhile a reservoir 209 feet on a side and 4 feet deep will supply\\nwater enough to irrigate 12 acres with 4 inches of water, 16\\nacres with 3 inches, and 24 acres with 2 inches.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "324\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nPUMPING WATEK WITH ENGINES\\nThe amount of water whieli was pumped by a 16 -foot geared\\nwindmill with a lift of 12.85 foot has l)oen given as 79,1 aore-\\nfeet as the work of a j^ear.\\nA 2% horse -power Webster gas engine was used on the same\\npumps with which the windmill did most of its work, and with\\nthe same lift, to see what amount of water could be supplied by\\nsuch a power. During a 6-hours run the engine lifted 13,202.2\\ncubic feet 12.85 feet high, with a consumption of 458 cubic feet\\nof gas costing $1.25 per thousand, or at a rate of 95.4 cents per\\nday of 10 hours.\\nAt this rate of pumping and cost\\nfor fuel, the engine could supply in\\n100 days 50,07 acres with 12 inches\\nof water at a cost for fuel of $95.40\\nor $1.88 per acre for the season, and\\n$3.76 where 24 acre -inches of water\\nis applied.\\nOn our own place the same make\\nand size of engine as that used above,\\nand represented in Fig. 77, but using\\ngasoline at 9 cents per gallon for\\nfuel, and lifting the water against a\\nhead of 50 feet with a double-acting\\npump, discharging 75 gallons per\\nminute, the cost for a 96 -hours run\\nI was $4.95.\\nThe water pumped in this time\\nwas 432,000 gallons at the rate of\\nWebster 23^ horse-power f^^, 3914 acre-inches. In 100\\nvertical gasoline engine, n n -i j-i- tj. u\\ndays of 10 hours this plant would\\nlift, under its conditions, 001,605 cubic feet of water, or 13,81\\nacre-feet, at a cost for fuel of $51.56, thus making the experse\\n$3,73 for 12 inches in depth of water per acre, and $7.46 for 24\\ninches.\\nFig.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "Fig. 78. Persian wheel for lifting watei-. (Wilsou, U. !S. (.ieol. Survey.)\\nFig. 79. Bucket pump for use with horse power. (Wilsou, U. S. Geol. Survey.)", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "326 Irrigation and Drainage\\nSuch a pumping plant as this would easily irrigate 10 acres\\n12 inches deep and 5 acres 24 inches deep without the aid\\nof a reservoir, and with the aid of a reservoir the area could\\nbe made 15 acres or 7.5 acres, according to amount of water\\nused.\\nFor the field irrigation on the Wisconsin Agricultural Experi-\\nment Station farm, we have used an 8-horse-power portable\\nsteam engine driving a No. 4 centrifugal pump. Soft coal at\\n$4 per ton has been used for fuel, and with a lift of 26 feet,\\ndrawing the water through 110 feet of 6-inch suction pipe and\\ndischarging it through varying lengths of the same pipe up to\\n1,200 feet, the coal consumed has been at the rate of one\\nton for an average of 80,210 cubic feet, or 22.1 acre-inches.\\nAt the above rate the fuel cost of an acre -inch of water is\\n18.1 cents, making 12 inches of water amount to $2.17 per acre,\\nand 24 inches $4.34 as the cost for fuel.\\nWillcocks states that taking the mean of some 60 observa-\\ntions carefully made in the delta and Upper Egypt, the actual\\ndischarge obtained for a 4-meter lift is 480 cubic meters per\\nhorse-power per 12 hours, taking the 8-horse-power engine as\\nthe standard, and he italicizes this statement J. discharge of\\n4S0 cubic meters per nominal liorse-power per 13 hours is the mean\\nin Egypt.\\nHe also estimates the cost of working a 10 -horse-power\\nengine in the interior of Egypt as follows\\nDriver and stoker, per day 15 .73\\nOil, etc., per day 05 .24\\nCoal, away from canals per day 1.00 4.84\\nj^:, of 10 per cent per annum on cost of engine,\\nfor depreciation, repairs, etc 10 .48\\nTotal \u00c2\u00a31.30 $6.29\\nThe amount of water pumped by the 10-horse-power engine\\nto a height of 13.12 feet is 3.891 acre-feet, which from the\\nabove table makes the cost per acre -foot $1.62 where the ground\\nis covered to a depth of 12 inches, and $3.24 per acre where\\nthe depth is made 24 inches.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "MefJwds of Pumping\\n327\\nShadoof of Egypt, or Paecottah of India. (Wilson,\\nU. S. Geol. Survey.)\\nTaking an average 8-liour day for pumping, the above\\npumping plant should irrigate during a 100 -day season 259.4\\nacres to a depth of 12 inches and 129.7 acres to a depth of\\n24 inches, at a total cost for pumping of $420.23.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "328\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nTHE USE OF ANIMAL POWER FOR LIFTING WATER\\nFOR IRRIGATION\\nMany and very old are some of the devices invented to\\nutilize both human strength and that of cattle and horses.\\nFig. 78 represents the Persian wheel, very extensively used in\\nAsia Minor and in Egypt for lifting water, two cattle raising\\nas much as 2,000 cubic feet per day on low lifts. A more\\nFig. 81. Doon of India. (Wilson, U. S. Geol. Svu-vey.)\\nmodern device is represented in Fig. 79, where one horse may\\nelevate through a height of 20 feet 500 cubic feet of water per\\nhour and 5,000 per day of 10 hours, or a rate which, if followed\\nfor 100 days, would give more than 11 acres 12 inches of water\\nin depth.\\nMuch land is irrigated in India, Asia Minor and Egypt,\\nwhere the water is lifted by man-power, and Figs. 80 and 81\\nshow two of the forms of lifting devices upon which men are\\nworked. Two men, working alternately, are said to irrigate an\\nacre in 3 days with the shadoof, lifting the water about 4 to 6\\nfeet.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X\\nMETHODS OF APPLYING WATER IN IRRIGATION\\nWhen water has been provided for irrigation and\\nbrought to the field where it is to be applied, the\\nsteps which still remain to be taken are far the most\\nimportant of any in the whole enterprise, not except-\\ning those of engineering, however great, which may\\nhave been necessary in providing a water snpply\\nwhich shall be constant, ample and moderate in cost\\nfor failure in the application of water to the crop\\nmeans utter ruin for all that has gone before.\\nTo handle water on a given field so that it shall\\nbe applied at the right time, in the right amount,\\nwithout unnecessarily washing or puddling the soil or\\ninjuring the crop, requires an intimate acquaintance\\nwith the conditions, good judgment, close observation,\\nskillful manipulation, and patience, after the field has\\nbeen put into excellent shape and right here is\\nwhere a thorough understanding of the principles\\ngoverning the wetting, puddling and washing of soils,\\nand possible injury to crops as a result of irrigation,\\nbecomes a matter of the greatest moment. There is\\ngreat need of more exact scientific knowledge than we\\nnow have to guide the irrigator in his handling of\\nwater.\\n(329)", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "330 Irrigation and Drainage\\nPRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE WETTING OF SOILS\\nWhen water is applied to a soil which becomes\\nmore open in texture and coarser grained as the depth\\nbelow the surface increases, it will travel downward\\nin nearly straight lines, and will spread laterally but\\nvery little except by the relatively slow process of\\ncapillarity. This fact is forciblj^ illustrated in Fig.\\n82, where the experiment consisted in maintaining the\\nlevel of the water in a hole at the place designated by\\nthe arrow until 200 cubic feet had percolated into the\\nsoil. The heavily shaded area in the figure shows\\nthe mass of soil completely filled with water on the\\ntwo dates, October 15 and 17, while the water was\\nrunning. It w411 be seen that although the hole was\\nkept full and the water-level within 8 inches of the\\nsurface, the w^ater did not spread sidew^ays more than\\n2.5 feet until below a depth of 11 feet.\\nIf we imagine this to represent a cross -section of\\nthe soil under a water -furrow extending across a\\nfield, it will be readily seen how much w^ater would\\nbe lost by rapid percolation directly dow^nward, and\\nhow little, even after a long time, would have spread\\nlaterally to wet the field. To irrigate such soils satis-\\nfactorily and economically, the water must be spread\\nover the whole surface, or be led in furrows which\\nare near together across the field, so that the soil\\nbetween the furrows may quickly become wet.\\nWhile the water is in the furrows, it will travel\\nsideways by capillarity fastest in those soils which are\\ncoarsest, for the same reason that it flows downward", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "Principles of Wetting Soil\\n331\\nfastest namely, because the pores are largest and\\noffer less resistance to the flow. The truth of this\\nstatement will be readily apprehended by studying\\nFig. 83, which shows how greatly the diameter of the\\nSURFACE\\nFig. 82. Slow rate of lateral spread of water in soil.\\nwaterways in a soil is modified by the size and ar-\\nrangement of the soil grains. This being true, it is\\nplain that water should be moved most rapidly over\\nthe coarsest soils, in order that unnecessary waste by\\ndeep percolation may not take place.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "332\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nIf a soil decreases in fineness of texture as the\\ndepth increases, then there may be a considerable\\nlateral spreading of the water due to gravity, and\\nFig. 83. Size and arrangement of soil grains as influencing pore space\\nand capillary waterways.\\nthis, aided by capillarity, will permit the furrows to\\nbe placed farther apart and the water to be run more\\nslowly over the ground.\\nWhere a fine, loamy soil is underlaid at 3 to 5 feet\\nwith a subsoil of much finer texture, through which\\nthe water percolates slowlj-, then water may be led\\nquite rapidly through furrows some distance apart and\\nconsiderable quantities applied at once, depending\\nupon it to spread laterally by gravity, and to rise by\\ncapillarity under the spaces between the furrows, in\\nthis way wetting the larger part of the soil of the", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "Principles of Wetting Soil 333\\nfield by a sort of sub -irrigation, which should be\\nutilized to the fullest extent possible, for then the\\nintervals between irrigations may be longest and the\\nduty of water will be highest.\\nIf the soil is allowed to become very dry before\\nwatering, especially if the texture is close and the\\ngrains fine, water will percolate downward less\\nrapidly, and it will move sideways and rise under the\\ninfluence of capillaritj^ more slowly, because the air of\\nthe soil must be displaced ahead of the water.\\nA fine soil, flooded under these conditions, will\\ntake water very slowly, because the surface pores be-\\ncome filled with water, which is retained with so\\nmnch force that air bubbles cannot readily rise through\\nit, and the conditions are similar to a jug filled with\\nair bottom upwards under water, the one cannot\\nescape nor the other enter. Such soils, therefore,\\nwhich must be flooded should not be allowed to reach\\nthis dry condition. The case is not so bad when\\nfurrow -irrigation is practiced, because the water pres-\\nsure in the furrow maj- displace the air laterally\\nwhere it can escape upward between the furrows\\nunhindered by the water.\\nOn the other hand, there are conditions when it is\\ndesirable to take advantage of this hindrance of air\\nto percolation. Where a clover, alfalfa, grass or grain\\nfield must be watered by flooding, and where the head\\nof water is small, the fall slight, and the distances\\nthe water must be led long, the spreading will be\\nmuch more rapid and better when the surface soil has\\nbecome dry. Indeed we have repeatedly tried to", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "334 Irrigation and Drainage\\nwater a certain piece of land when the surface soil\\nwas yet quite moist, and found it impossible to do so\\nwith the available head, because the water would sink\\ninto the ground faster than it could be supplied but\\nby letting the soil become dryer the same head spread\\nthe water easily over the whole area, wetting it\\nevenly, though there was greater hindrance from the\\nclover having become thicker and larger.\\nIn furrow irrigation, the same principle may be\\ntaken advantage of in cases where the rows are long\\nand the head of water too small, though not to the\\nsame extent but the difference is sufficiently pro-\\nnounced to be sometimes quite helpful in open soils.\\nPRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE PUDDLING OF SOILS\\nA puddled soil is one in which the compound soil\\nkernels or crumbs have been broken down more or\\nless completely into separate grains and run together\\ninto a closely compacted mass. Such a soil may hold\\nits pores between the grains so completely filled with\\nwater until lost by evaporation that little free air\\nis present except that absorbed in the water itself. In\\nsuch a soil roots quickly suffer for lack of air, the\\nprocess of nitrification cannot go on, and, what is\\neven worse, the nitrates alreadj present in the soil\\nwhen the puddling occurred may be rapidly lost by\\nthe process of denitrification.\\nThe water -logging of a soil has the same dis-\\nastrous effects regarding the roots of plants and on\\nthe processes of nitrification and denitrification. Both", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "The Puddling of Soils 335\\nconditions should, therefore, be studiously avoided by\\nevery irrigator.\\nIf soils to be irrig ated contain black alkali, and\\nthis has been permitted to accumulate at the surface\\nduring the interval between waterings, it is evident\\nthat the flooding of such soils will redissolve the\\nalkali, and as this, in solution, tends of itself to pro-\\nduce puddling, it is evident that the irrigation of\\nsuch lands should always be done with the greatest\\ncare, in order not to complicate the difficulties of the\\ncrop by adding that of a puddled soil to the dele-\\nterious action of the carbonate of soda.\\nIt is extremely difficult to completely submerge\\na recently stirred soil of any kind without breaking\\ndown the crumb structure so essential to perfect tilth,\\nand all are familiar with the fact that there is no\\nway to so effectually compact loose soil in a trench\\nas to completely fill it with water. It is, therefore,\\nplain that soils should be watered before plowing\\nand fitting, when the running together cannot take\\nplace, rather than after the ground is seeded. Indeed,\\nwater enough should always be present in a soil at\\nseeding time, not only to germinate the crop, but to\\ncarry it well on in growth, so that if baking of the\\nsoil must take place, less harm will be done. There\\nare few soils which it would be safe to flood just\\nafter a crop like oats, wheat or barley is up, for fear\\nof packing the soil and seriously injuring the crop.\\nWhen the plants have attained some size, when\\nthe soil has gained in firmness by the natural pro-\\ncesses of settling, and when the roots have spread", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "336 Irrigation and Drainage\\nand occupied the soil, the shading, the firming and\\nthe root binding all conspire to prevent puddling\\nand baking, so that flooding may then be practiced\\nwith less danger of harm and so grass lands, alfalfa\\nand clover may always be flooded with little danger\\nof injuring the texture of fhe soil, because the exten-\\nsive root systems prevent it.\\nWheu water is applied in furrows without wash-\\ning, so that it rises and spreads through the soil\\nbetween the furrows by capillarity, it then has the\\nopposite effect from puddling, and tends rather to\\nimprove the texture by drawing the loosened soil\\ngrains together into clusters by an action of surface\\ntension like that which rolls drops of water into spheres\\non a dusty floor. As the soil crumbs become satu-\\nrated with capillary w^ater the loose dust particles which\\nhave been formed in tilling are drawn to them and\\nbound closely by the pull oc the surface film but\\nso soon as the whole soil becomes immersed in water,\\nas in the case of flooding, and as happens in the bottoms\\nof the furrows, there is then no surface tension, and\\nthe soil grains fall apart under the water of their own\\nweight, and compacting and puddling are the results.\\nIt follows, therefore, that all crops where the\\nground is not covered by them, and where cultivation\\nis resorted to to i^revent loss of water by evaporation,\\nshould so far as pi acticable be irrigated by the fur-\\nrow method and since the bottoms of the furrows\\nmust be subjected to the conditions which puddle,\\nit follows that the furrows should always be as far\\napart as other conditions will permit.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "The Washing of Soils 337\\nPRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE WASHING OF SOILS\\nOne of the commonest mistakes of beginners in\\nirrigation is the use of too large volumes of water\\nin a place and hurrying it over the ground too\\nrapidly. It must be kept ever in mind, in all sorts\\nof irrigation, that the eroding and transporting power\\nof water increases with the velocity with which it\\nmoves, but in a higher ratio to double the rate at\\nwhich water moves in a furrow or over the surface,\\nincreases its power to wash and carry the soil for-\\nward nearly fourfold.\\nIn good irrigation, the water is forced to move\\nso gently that it runs nearly or quite clear and with-\\nout washing the sides or bottom of the furrows, and\\nif one does not succeed in securing flows without\\nwashing, the only conclusion which should be drawn\\nis that the right way has not yet been learned, not\\nthat it cannot be done.\\nNaturally, the steeper the slope of the furrows\\nthe faster the water tends to run. So, too, when the\\nslope remains the same, the larger the volume of water\\nin the furrow the faster the water will flow, and these\\ntwo principles give the irrigator nearly complete con-\\ntrol of the situation.\\nIf the ground is flat and the water moves too\\nslowly, increase the amount in the furrow, and if\\nthere is not water enough to do this, decrease the\\nnumber of furrows handled at one time. If the water\\nruns too fast and washes, divide up the stream, lead-\\ning it into more furrows until the movement comes", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "338 Irrigation and Drainage\\nto be the rate which does not wash or erode. We\\nhave seen orchards in the footliills of California irri-\\ngated by carrying the water in furrows down the hill\\nwhere the slopes were too great to readily plow with\\na team and jQi it was done with such skill that no\\nappreciable wash was produced, neither did any water\\nrun to waste. Everything was adjusted with such\\nnicety that by the time the streams had reached the\\nends of the furrows the whole of the water had been\\nabsorbed by the soil. The 30 acres referred to were\\nowned and managed by a Swede, and w^ien he was\\nasked if he did not find it difficult to handle the water\\nso as not to wash his soil and waste the water on\\nthese steep hills, with no grading or terracing, the\\nreply was Easy now but was very hard when I\\ndidn t know.\\nThe most essential point in the distribution of\\nwater is to have the furrows on a nearly uniform\\nslope, so that the velocity of flow will be closely\\nuniform through their entire length. If the same\\ngrade cannot be secured throughout, jt is better to\\nchange from a steeper slope to one more flat than\\nthe reverse, because then the reduction in velocity\\nwill be partly made up by a greater depth of water\\nin the furrow on the flatter reaches.\\nFIELD IRRIGATION BY FLOODING\\nWhen large areas of land are to be irrigated ii\\nsingle blocks, there is no method of applying water\\nwhich is so economical of labor and of time as the", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "340 Irrigation and Drainage\\nsystems of flooding, whenever it is possible to estab-\\nlish and maintain the best conditions for them, and\\nthere is no other system which permits of so uni-\\nform a wetting of the surface.\\nThere are two fundamentally different systems of\\nflooding. One covers the surface of a field with a\\nthin sheet of running water, maintained until the\\ndesired saturation has been reached the other covers\\nthe surface with a sheet of standing water, which is\\nallowed to remain until the soil has absorbed enough,\\nwhen the balance is drawn off or, simply as much\\nwater as is desired is placed upon the land, and this\\nremains on the surface until it is absorbed.\\nThe two systems are used most for crops like\\nthe small grains, grasses and clovers, which closely\\ncover the ground, and where intertillage is not practiced.\\nThey are also used extensively where fields for any crop\\nmust be moistened preparatory to plowing and seeding.\\nFlooding by running water is practiced with great\\nnicety and thoroughness on large fields of 40, 80 and\\neven 160 acres in the old Union Colony at Greeley,\\nColorado. Here, usually, the natural slope of the\\ncountry is good, and a distributing ditch is carried\\nalong the highest edge of a field to be irrigated.\\nWhen the time for watering has arrived, the field is\\ndivided into lands of 60 to 120 feet by parallel fur-\\nrows, made by using a wide V-shaped plow, throwing\\nthe earth both ways, thus forming distributing fur-\\nrows, represented in Fig. 84, about 30 inches wide at\\nthe top. These furrows are made rapidly with a 3-\\nor 4 -horse team, and when a crop of grain is ready", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "Field Irrigation hy Flooding\\n341\\nto cut, a common plow is driven up one side and\\ndown the other of the furrow, thus filling it and\\nleaving the field in shape to be driven over with the\\nharvesting machine. The ridge of earth on each side\\nof the distributing furrow serves the purpose of\\nFig. 85. Canvas dam taken up.\\nborders to the lands, which prevent the return of\\nthe water to the furrows after it has been thrown\\nout by the dam, shown at the point where the man\\nstands in the cut.\\nThis dam is simply a piece of canvas tacked by\\none edge to a strip of wood 2x4 inches in thick-\\nness and 6 or 8 feet long, as seen in Fig. 85.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "342 Irrigation and Drainage\\nWhen in use, it is laid in the furrow with the canvas\\nup stream and the free edge loaded with earth to\\nhold it down, when it effectually holds back the water\\nand throws it out upon the strip to be watered.\\nWater is turned into one, two, three or more of\\nthese distributing furrows from the head ditch,\\naccording to the amount available, and when the\\nlands have become sufficiently wet as far below the\\ncanvas dams as the water will readily flow through\\nthe grain or grass, these are picked up and moved\\nfarther down and the stream again turned out.\\nWater is thus led over successive lands until the\\nwhole field has been irrigated easily, rapidly, cheaply\\nand, at the same time, well.\\nWhere crops are grown in short rotation on a\\nlarge scale, as they are at Greeley, wheat, alfalfa or\\nclover and potatoes following one another in regular\\norder, it is doubtful if a better or more satisfactory\\nsystem of irrigation can be devised than the one\\ndescribed.\\nIf the slopes of the field are steep, and especially\\nif they incline in various directions, then the small\\ngrains and grasses may sometimes be irrigated better\\nby the method rej^resented in Fig. 86, where water\\nfurrows are thrown across the surface of the slope\\nnearly along contour lines, giving them only so much\\nfall as is needed to lead the water forward.\\nThese furrows for grain fields, where they are tem-\\nporary, would be best formed with the ordinary plow,\\nat the time of seeding, and the upturned earth\\nsmoothed down, so that it may become set before the", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0370.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "Field Irrigation by Flooding\\n343\\nwater must be led across it. Where help is scarce\\nand the price of the crop small, it is often the prac-\\ntice to enter the field with the plow just before the\\nwater is to be applied, and form the furrows then.\\nIn watering by this method, the aim is to throw\\nSection ET\\nA^ _ _ J B\\nFig. 86. Flooding field on steep slopes. (Grunsky.)\\nthe water over the lower edge of the furroAv in a\\ncontinuous sheet or else at short intervals, to flow\\ndown the slope until the portion of the field within\\nreach has received what is needed. To do this,\\ncanvas dams or temporary earth dams are used, as", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0371.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "344 Irrigation and Bramage\\ndescribed above then, when the water is to be carried\\nforward, the dams are also shifted.\\nAs represented in the figure, water maj^ be carried\\ndirectly down the slope across a series of secondary\\nfurrows, as at C, D, D, D, and the main supply fur-\\nrows ma} be set one below another at such intervals\\nas the extent of the fields and the slope of the\\n.surface may demand. In the figure, a second water\\nfurrow is marked supplj and drain ditch, but if\\nthe best work is done in handling the water, there\\nshould be no surplus to drain away.\\nWhen slopes like those under consideration are\\nin permanent meadows or pastures, or if they are in\\nmeadows for three or more years, it will be best\\nusually to give more time to shaping the furrows,\\nso that washing will not occur when less attention\\nis given, and so that the mower and horse rake may\\nreadily work over and across them.\\nIn European countries, where so much labor is\\ndone by hand, little attention has been paid to\\ndeveloping systems of applying water to fields which\\nwill readily permit of the use of machinerj^ as must\\nbe the case in this country, at least for a long time\\nto come.\\nWhere grain fields are not very long, and where\\nthe slope is gentle and uniform, the water may be\\ndistributed from a single head ditch by simply mark-\\ning the field, after it has been sowed, with a tool\\nlike the corn -marker, but having runners close enough\\nto give shallow farrows every 15 or 20 inches.\\nThese shallow furrows lead the water forward in par-", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0372.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "Field Irrigation hy Hooding 345\\nallel lines from which the lateral spread may be, to\\na large extent, by capillary creeping, and they guide\\nthe flow past minor inequalities, preventing the water\\nfrom becoming concentrated so as to do injury\\nthrough increase in volume and velocity and from\\nrunning around areas, leaving them dry. This mark-\\ning is so rapidly and cheaply done, and obstructs\\nthe surface so little, that it is to be highly recom-\\nmended where applicable.\\nA corrugated roller might be used instead of the\\nsliding marker to form the water lines, but this\\nwould have no tendency to throw the kernels of grain\\nto one side, and the channels would be more obstructed\\nby the plants. Neither could so great a depth be\\nsecured, especially on heavy soils not deeply and\\nrecently worked.\\nIn the second flooding S3^stem, where the water is\\nmade to stand over the whole surface to any desired\\ndepth, the fields must be laid out in areas bounded by\\nridges or low levees, which check the flow of water\\nand hold it as in a wide and extremely shallow\\nreservoir.\\nThe size of the checks in which a field is laid out\\nwill be determined by its general slope, by the head\\nof water available, and by the height of the levees or\\ncheck ridges. It is desirable, for meadow and grain\\nirrigation, to make the checks as large as practicable\\nand at the same time to keep the ridges so low\\nas not to interfere with the movement of farm\\nmachinery over the field.\\nIf the slope of the field is 6 inches in 200 feet,", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0373.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "346 Irrigation and Drainage\\nand it is desired to place the upper edge of each\\ncheck under 2 inches of water, it would be neces-\\nsary to construct the levees, for checks 200 feet\\nsquare, about 10 or 12 inches high, because the water\\nwould be 8 inches deep on the lower edge when the\\nsurface was covered 2 inches at the higher side, and\\na margin of 2 to 4 inches is needed for safety\\nagainst the water breaking across over slight depres-\\nsions or against wave action.\\nIf the fields are to be used continuously for mead-\\nows, pastures, alfalfa, or either of these, in rotation\\nwith small grains or similar crops which may be best\\nirrigated by flooding, it will usually be desirable to\\nmake the check ridges broad and flat, so that mowers\\nand harvesters and even plows may readily move over\\nthem. They thus become permanent features of the\\nfield. If a 20-, 40- or 80-acre field is to be laid off\\nin regular checks, this would probably be most rapidly\\nand cheaply done bj^ a system of plowing in repeated\\nback -furrows until the desired height of ridges is\\nreached. The sizes of the checks would first be deter-\\nmined, and then all the ridges extending in one\\ndirection formed, first at the distance apart found\\ndesirable, after which the field would be crossed in\\nthe other direction, forming in the same manner the\\nother sides of the checks.\\nIn cases where a single plowing does not give\\nsufficient height to the ridges, and in countries\\nwhere the rainfall is sufficient to permit moderate\\ncrops to be grown without irrigation, the labor of\\nfitting the ground in this way may be made a part", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0374.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "Field Irrigation by Flooding 347\\nof the regular plowing for the crops, and permitted\\nto extend through a number of years, thus making\\nthe expense of fitting the ground for irrigation\\nmainly that of fitting the land for crops. By this\\nplan the field would be plowed in lands in one direc-\\ntion, with the back furrows always in the same place,\\nuntil the desired height is attained then these back\\nfurrows would be crossed to form the other sides of\\nthe checks, plowing in the same manner.\\nIn case the checks are large, the land between\\nthe ridges may be subdivided and plowed in the\\nordinary way, letting the back furrows and dead\\nfurrows alternate in position with the seasons, in the\\nusual manner. There will be some finishing work\\nrequired, especially where the check ridges cross one\\nanother.\\nIt is not, of course, necessary that the flooding\\nchecks shall be square. If the field has a consider-\\nable fall in one direction and little or none in the\\nother, the checks may be made much longer in the\\nnearly level direction, and thus reduce the labor and\\ninequalities in the field.\\nIn cases where the slopes are more or less undu-\\nlating, the check ridges which are horizontal will\\nnecessarily follow the course of contour lines, and\\nmay neither cross the others at right angles nor be\\nparallel with one another, but they may still be\\nformed in the same manner.\\nWhen it comes to flooding, the water may be\\ntaken from the head distributary and sent down first\\none tier of checks and then another, dropping the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0375.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "348 Irrigation and Drainage\\nwater from the first into the second and the second\\ninto the third, over one or more breaks or weirs in\\nthe dividing check ridges. If, however, the checks\\nare large or very many, this plan will be unneces-\\nsarily wasteful of water, and a better plan is to take\\nthe water down the crest between two lines of checks\\nin a secondary furrow. From this furrow the water\\nmay be turned into the check on one side and then\\non the other, flooding by pairs down the whole line.\\nIn the San Joaquin valley of California, in Kern\\ncounty, there is laid out one of the largest flooding\\nsystems in the world. Here are more than 30,000\\nacres of alfalfa in a single solid block. The slope of\\nthe country ranges from 5 feet to the mile to less\\nthan 2. Large volumes of water are at the command\\nof the company, 30 cubic feet per second, and so\\nthe checks, laid out with their level ridges on contour\\nlines, have various sizes and many shapes. The\\nlargest checks contain 200 acres, while the average is\\nabout 40. The ridges are 12 to 20 inches high, with\\na maximum width at the base of 12 to 18 feet,\\nbroadly rounded, and all covered with the growing\\nalfalfa.\\nWhere the period of rotation is short, and where\\ncrops not suited to flooding are used in the rotation,\\nthen narrower and temporary check ridges would be\\nformed for the crops to be watered in this way. The\\nsmallest ridges may be rapidly made on recently\\nplowed fields by using a V-shaped ridging scraper\\ndrawn by horses, with the open side forward. The\\nspreading wings throw the loose earth into the angle,", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0376.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "C I I D\\nFig. 87. Flooding field by rectangular checks. (Grunsky.)\\n1 \\\\z -A\\nt 1^ i\\nFig. 88. Flooding field by contour checks. (Grunsky.)", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0377.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "350 Irrigation and Drainage\\nwhere it is dropped in a continuous ridge, because a\\nportion of each plank is cut away at the vertex, thus\\nleaving an opening which passes over the gathered earth.\\nIf larger ridges are desired, a wider scraper, with wide\\nopening in the rear, may be followed by one of\\nsmaller dimensions, to complete the gathering.\\nThe mounted road grader may be used to advan-\\ntage in forming such ridges, and it would be an easy\\nmatter to construct a special tool for this purpose on\\nFig. 89. Model of flooding by checks.\\nthe principle of the road grader, but having two\\nscrapers instead of one, mounted in such manner that\\nthey could be set closer together or farther apart, as\\ndesired.\\nAfter the earth has been gathered into ridges, this\\nmay be smoothed down and rounded with a light\\nharrow, followed by a roller, if greater firmness is\\ndesired. In Figs. 87, 88 and 89 are different forms\\nof flooding checks, showing how the water may be\\nhandled in them.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0378.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "Fitting tJie Surface for Irrigation\\n351\\nFITTING THE SURFACE FOR IRRIGATION\\nWhichever system of flooding or other irrigation is\\nused, it is very important that the smaller inequalities\\nof the surface should be removed by some method of\\ngrading, in order that the water may spread uni-\\nformly, wetting the whole area. If this leveling is\\nnot done, some portions of the field will receive too\\nmuch water while other areas will receive too little or\\nnone at all, and hence yields far below the maximum\\nwill be the result.\\nVarious forms of leveling devices are in use, and\\nFig. 90 represents one of the best, made specially for\\nthis purpose, and an ordinary road grader would un-\\nquestionably form an excellent tool for doing this\\nwork.\\nThere are many forms of scrapers of simple con-\\nstruction which are improvised on the farm to meet\\nthe needs of the moment. One of these is a letter A\\nform, made of two 2x12-\\ninch plank, put together\\nso as to stand on edge\\nand be drawn over the\\nground weighted with\\nthe driver riding upon\\nit. The lower edges of\\nthe plank may be shod\\nwith strips of steel or\\nband iron, and thus made more durable and effective.\\nAnother form is represented in Fig. 91, and con-\\nsists of two side runners held together by cross-bars\\nFig. 90. Shuart laud grader.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0379.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "352\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nof strong plank, set at an angle and shod with steel,\\nas shown. This tool is much used in France and\\nItaly, and a modification of it we saw in use at\\nGrand Junction, Colorado, where a pair of low wheels\\nJH\\nU\\n3\\nM\\nFig. 91. Simple land grader.\\nwere attached to the front of the scraper on a bent\\niron axle, which could be worked by means of a lever\\nto raise or lower the scraper at will, thus causing it\\nto drop or take on dirt where desired.\\nFIELD IRRIGATION BY FURROWS\\nWhere crops like maize, sorghum and potatoes are\\ngrown in large fields, and where intertillage must be\\npracticed, it is usually best to irrigate by the furrow\\nmethod after the crop is on the ground. In countries", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0380.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "Field Irrigation hy Furrows 353\\nwhere the soil must be prepared for planting by first\\nwatering, it is very important, especially with pota-\\ntoes, that the soil should be thoroughly saturated to a\\ndepth of 4 feet before fitting the ground.\\nIf these crops are to follow clover or alfalfa, as\\nwill usually be the case, the preliminary watering may\\nbe given in the late winter or early spring by one of\\nthe flooding methods, if the ground has been fitted for\\nthat but however the saturation is accomplished, the\\nsoil should have all it will carry at the time of fitting\\nfor seed, unless natural rainfall may be depended\\nupon\\nAfter planting, frequent surface tillage to conserve\\nthe moisture should be practiced, and the crop carried\\nforward as far as possible without irrigation. The\\nharrow should follow the planter at once for both\\nmaize and potatoes, and frequently thereafter as long\\nas the crop will bear it without injury, which will be\\nafter both are well out of the ground.\\nWhere a vigorous growth of vines can be main-\\ntained by intertillage alone until they cover the\\nground and the tubers begin to set, this is by far the\\nbest practice for potatoes. So, too, is it best for\\nnearly all crops planted in rows which permit of cul-\\ntivation and it should ever be kept in mind that\\n4 feet of good soil well saturated and well cared for\\nby intertillage may easily carry 6 and even 8 inches\\nof available water, and this, under good conditions,\\nis far more effective than any which may be ap-\\nplied later.\\nWhen potatoes are ready to be laid by, the last\\nw", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0381.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0096\u00a0I\\n354 Irrigation and Drainage\\ncultivation should be with a double -wing cultivator,\\nwhich will form a furrow midway between the rows\\nand at the same time tlii ow the soil up under the\\nvines, forming a high, broad ridge of mellow soil\\nabove the roots in which the tubers may set and over\\nwhich the water should never rise. The furrows thus\\nformed fit the field for irrigation.\\nWhen the time for irrigation has arrived, which\\nshould be deferred as long as the vines continue to\\ngrow vigorously, water will be taken from the head\\nditch and subdivided between as many rows as it will\\nsupply, as represented in Figs. 92, 93 and 94, where\\nthe first one shows the canvas dam just put in place\\nin a head ditch in a field near Greeley, Colorado.\\nFig. 93 shows the irrigator, with rubber boots and\\nspade, opening the head ditch to let the water into\\nthe furrows while Fig. 94 shows the water 30 minutes\\nlater, as it is flowing between rows 40 rods long.\\nIt will be noted that the water has been let into\\nonly alternate rows, and this is a common practice\\nwhere water is scarce. It is also a frequent practice\\nwhere water must be taken in rotation and the time\\nis too short to go over the whole field. In such\\ncases, when the next turn comes the water would be\\nsent down the remaining rows.\\nVery great care is taken not to let in so much\\nwater as to fill the furrows and flood the hills, for\\nit is far better to let the water rise under the hills\\nby capillarity.\\nIn another field near the same city, two men were\\nirrigating 47 acres of potatoes planted in rows 120", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0382.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "Fig. 92. Canvas dam in place, preparatory to turning water into\\npotato rows of Fig. 94.\\nEig, 93. Opening head ditch of Fig. 92, to turn water into rows of Fig. 94.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0383.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "356\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nrods long and, from a single head ditch, sending the\\nwater the whole length. They were nominally using\\n175 Colorado inches of water, distributing it in alter-\\nnate furrows.\\nBefore going home at night they divided this head\\nbetween 40 rows which had been once irrigated,\\nFig. 94. Irrigating potato rows 40 rods long from head ditch of Fig. 92.\\ngauging the flow in each, so that, in their judgment,\\nthe lower ends of the furrows would be nearly reached\\non their return in the morning. After watering once\\nbegins, it is kept up until the crop is matured, going\\nover the field every 10 to 15 days.\\nIn the growing of potatoes by irrigation, it is a\\nmatter of the greatest importance that the ground\\nshall be kept well moistened continuously after the\\ntubers have begun to form, so that they shall be kept", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0384.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "Field Irrigation by Furrows 357\\nsteadily growing. If the ground is allowed to become\\ndry enough to check their growth and another irri-\\ngation follows, the tubers will then throw out new\\ngrowths and become irregular in form and unsalable.\\nIn Colorado the potatoes are usually planted in\\nrows 4 feet apart. This distance is much greater\\nthan is required in humid climates, and it would seem\\nthat were the same amount of seed planted upon\\nthree -fourths of the ground, or even five -eighths,\\nmaking the rows 36 inches or 30 inches apart instead\\nof 48 inches, the ground could be more thoroughly\\nwatered and larger yields per acre secured.\\nIt is certain that the practice of only watering\\nalternate rows, which is common where water is scarce,\\ndoes not permit the largest yields to be secured. It\\nhas been shown by studies in the humid climate of\\nWisconsin, and with only 30 inches between the rows,\\nas a mean of two years trials, that watering between\\nall rows gave a yield of 317.3 bushels per acre\\nwatering between alternate rows gave 277.1 bushels\\nper acre, when the natural rainfall alone gave 211.6\\nbushels per acre. That is to say, the irrigation\\nbetween all rows increased the yield over the natural\\nrainfall 105.7 bushels per acre, while irrigating between\\nalternate rows only increased the yield 65.5 bushels\\nper acre, making a difference between the two methods\\nof irrigation of 40.2 bushels of merchantable tubers\\nper acre.\\nIn these experiments the field was divided into alter-\\nnating groups, which were watered and not watered,\\nso that there were two rows in each irrigated plot", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0385.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "358 Irrigation and Drainage\\nwatered on but one side, and it was the yield from\\nthese rows which has been used in making the com-\\nparison.\\nIt was also found that the first row not irrigated\\non either side, and hence standing 45 inches from\\nthe center of the water furrow, had its jdeld increased\\nby the watering onlj- 7.9 bushels per acre. This\\nmakes it appear that were the potatoes planted in\\nrows 90 inches apart and the water applied in a single\\nfurrow between each two rows, the benefit derived\\nfrom the water would be much less.\\nIt is very clear, therefore, that in furrow irriga-\\ntion care must be taken that the water is not led\\nalong lines tpo distant from the plants which are\\nto use it.\\nWhere the water is to be allowed to run some\\ntime in individual rows, and where considerable quan-\\ntities are being handled, it will often be found desir-\\nable to take it out of the head ditch into short\\nfeeders which supply a certain number of rows, as\\nrepresented in Fig. 95, where the water in the fore-\\nground is in the head ditch, the feeder standing next\\nsending water into 8 rows of rape, 28 inches apart\\nfrom center to center, from which the first cutting\\nhas just been removed.\\nSugar beets, maize, and all field crops upon which\\nintertillage is practiced would be irrigated in a similar\\nmanner but in such close planting as that above\\non sandy loams or lighter soils, it would probably\\nbe sufficient to lead water down every other furrow,\\nkeeping the other rows under frequent flat cultivation.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0386.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "Field Irrigiation hy Furrows\\n359\\nIn Italy, where so much work is done bj^ hand, it\\nis a frequent practice to throw the field for maize\\ninto flat ridges or beds 6 feet wide with strong irri-\\ngation furrows between, planting the corn in an\\nopen broadcast manner on the beds, to be watered\\nFig. J5. Dividing water Ijetween eight rows of recently cut rape.\\nby flooding through the heavy furrows. The same\\npractice is followed to some extent for the small\\ngrains and clover also.\\nWATER MEADOWS\\nMost water-meadows are laid out with the view\\nof maintaining a continuous flow of water over the\\nwhole surface for considerable periods of time, with", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0387.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "360 Irrigation and Drainage\\nbat little personal attention. Large volumes of water\\nare usually used, and in Europe especially this is\\napplied more extensively out of the growing season\\nthan during it, or, more exactly stated, during times\\nwhen the crop is off rather than when on the\\nground.\\nReference has already been made to the water-\\nmeadows near Salisbury, England, where Fig. 16\\nshows a large part of the river Avon diverted into\\na canal to be led out for water-meadow irrigation.\\nIn Fig. 96 is represented a diagram of one of these\\nwater-meadows covering about 15 acres. The solid\\nlines are permanent distributing ditches beginning in\\nthe head distributary and ending near the river at\\nthe foot of the field. They are placed about 3 rods\\napart, upon the crests of ridges which are quite\\nsteep, sloping from 1 in 12 to 1 in 15 feet toward\\nthe dotted lines, which are permanent drainage fur-\\nrows. It is on this field that the photograph shown\\nin Fig. 17 was taken. In talking with a mead-\\nman, whose business is to water one of these meadows,\\nit appears that water has been run over them year\\nafter year for so long a period that no one knows\\nwho laid them out. The mead- man in question was\\npast sixty years of age, and both his father and\\ngrandfather had been mead -men for the same field.\\nIt is quite probable, therefore, that the steep slopes\\nnow found have been to a considerable extent a mat-\\nter of growth due to deposit of sediments in the\\ndistributaries, and to some extent to erosion along\\nthe drainage lines. The plan of this system of irri-", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0388.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "Water -Meadows\\n361\\nRation is to hold the distributaries along the crests\\nof the ridges full of water their whole length, so\\nthat it shall overflow from both sides and run down\\nFig. 96. Plan of old water-meadow, Salisbury, England.\\nthe slopes into the drainage ditches in a thin and\\neven veil and in order that this shall be realized,\\nthe distributaries are widest at the upper end, grow-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0389.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "362 Irrigation and Drainage\\ning gradually narrower toward the foot, while the\\ndrainage ways increase in width toward the foot. In\\nthe meadow in question, the measured widths and\\ndepths of the distributaries at their heads were 42\\ninches by 24 inches respectively, in all except Nos.\\n10, 11, 12 and 13, 10 and 11 being 28 by 24, 12\\nbeing 48 bj^ 24 inches, and 13 14 inches wide and\\n12 inches deep but the capacity of the drainage\\nditches was only about one -fourth that of the dis-\\ntributaries.\\nIn Italy the winter meadows, when laid out in\\nwhat is regarded as the best manner, have sloping\\nfaces not wider than 25 to 30 feet, and with the crests\\n12 inches higher than the hollows, while the lengths\\nare quite variable, depending upon the volume of\\nwater at command, but usually being 8 or 10 times\\nthe width. The distributaries have a width of 12\\ninches and a depth of 6 to 7 inches, while the drain-\\nage lines have dimensions about one -half of these.\\nIn the summer water-meadows of Italy, the sur-\\nface is much more nearly level between the distribu-\\ntaries, and often there is no intermediate drainage\\nfurrow, its function sometimes being fulfilled by a line\\nof drainage tile beneath the surface.\\nIn the Campine of Belgium, extensive sandy plains\\nhave been laid out in water-meadows, and Fig. 97\\nrepresents a small section of this system near Neer-\\npelt, where the water is distributed through canals\\non the crests of ridges, as already described, and\\nin the plan the heavy lines represent the distribu-\\ntaries, while the lighter lines represent the drainage", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0390.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0391.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "364\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nsystem. It will be seen that the land is laid out\\nso as to use the surplus drainage water over again,\\nby collecting it into a foot ditch which is extended\\nto a lower level in the field, where it becomes the\\nhead ditch, and discharges its water into another set\\nof distributaries, as represented in the plan, the over-\\nrig. 98. Model of field laid out for water-meadows, with slopes exaggerated.\\nflow water from the upper section being used upon\\nthe third or lower section. The area shown in the\\nplan is about 26 acres, the distance between the\\ndistributaries about two rods, and the crests stand\\nnearly 10 inches above the troughs. In Fig. 98, there\\nis represented a small piece of ground laid out upon\\nthis plan on a reduced scale.\\nIt will be seen that this system of irrigation not\\nonly involves a large amount of labor to fit the land,", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0392.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "Iryngation of Cranberries 365\\nbut it throws out of use a large percentage of the\\narea irrigated, while at the same time greatly inter-\\nfering with the working of the ground and harvesting\\nof the crops. Evidently the system is not well suited\\nto American conditions where machinery is to be used.\\nIn the irrigated mountain meadows, such as the\\none represented in Fig. 14, the slopes of the fields\\nare so steep that the water is usually led through\\nirregular furrows whose direction is determined by\\nthe natural configuration of the ground, and the\\npractice becomes a species of wild flooding where,\\non account of the great fall, the water is distrib-\\nuted without much labor having been expended in\\nshaping the surface.\\nIRRIGATION OF CRANBERRIES\\nCranberries are usually grown upon very level\\nlands, where the ground water is naturally at or\\nvery close to the surface. During the growing sea-\\nson, the aim is to hold the water in the ground to\\nwithin 18 or 24 inches of the surface, but on\\naccount of insect ravages and frosts, it is frequently\\nimperative that the lands shall be flooded quickly\\nto a depth of 6 to 10 inches, and the water drawn\\noff again in a short time. To prevent winter-killing,\\nit is also desirable to flood the vines and hold them\\nunder water until the danger from frost is past in\\nthe spring, and these requirements make it necessary\\nto have the marshes laid out as represented in Fig.\\n99, where blocks of land are surrounded by low", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0393.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "366\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\ndykes and wide ditches, and at the same time divided\\ninto narrow lands of 30 to 60 feet by parallel nar-\\nrower waterways, which are at once distributaries and\\ndrainage ditches, according as water is being applied\\nor removed. These minor distributaries and drainage\\nlines are made necessary chiefly by the necessity of\\nrapid and satisfactory drainage after the ground has\\ni\\nFig. 99. Plan for irrigation of cranberries.\\nbeen flooded for protection against insects or frost.\\nThe side ditches may be 3 to 5 feet wide and 2\\nto 3 feet deep, according to the size of the area\\nunder treatment, while the minor cross -ditches should\\nbe 24 to 30 inches wide and 18 to 24 inches deep.\\nThere are many localities where the land is suit-\\nable for cranberry culture, but where running water", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0394.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "Irrigation of Crmiberries\\n367\\nis not available for the purpose of irrigation. In\\nsome of these localities there are large quantities\\nof water in the ground beneath the marshes, which\\ncould be utilized if it could be lifted cheaply.\\nWhere this water need not be lifted more than 10\\nto 20 feet, and where there is an abundance of it\\nin the ground, it will often be practicable to lay\\nFig. 100. Plan for cranberry irrigation by pumping.\\nout a piece of ground in the manner represented in\\nFig. 100, with a reservoir in the center capable of\\nstoring water enough to flood the balance of the\\nground whenever desired, and then set up a wind-\\nmill of suflacient capacity to maintain this reservoir\\nfull of water, letting the surplus go to the ditches\\nif needed there, to hold the water up to the desired\\nheight for best growth.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0395.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "368 Irrigation and Drainage\\nThe object of placing the reservoir in the center\\nof the area to be controlled is to utilize the seepage\\nfrom the reservoir to hold up the ground water to\\nthe desired level more readily. A 12 -foot steel mill\\nshould readily handle 3 to 5 acres if the water\\nsupply is abundant, the ground not too porous, and\\nthe lift not more than 20 feet. But if by such an\\narrangement as this a farmer could have only two\\nacres or even one acre of cranberries under complete\\ncontrol as regards frost and insects, as an adjunct to\\nhis general farming, it would net him a handsome\\nprofit which would supplement in an important way\\nhis yearly income.\\nIt would, of course, be necessary to be able to\\ndrain the area quickly after flooding, and if facilities\\nare not the best for this, it would be possible to so\\narrange the pump that the water could be thrown\\nback into the reservoir again, and this could readily\\nbe done for small areas where an engine was used\\ninstead of a windmill for power.\\nIRRIGATION OF RICE FIELDS\\nIn the irrigation of rice fields, where this is to\\nbe done under the best conditions and where the\\nhighest quality of rice is to be produced, it is a\\nmatter of prime importance that the fields shall be\\nproperly laid out, and that an abundant supply of\\nsuitable water shall be under complete control. It\\nhas been pointed out, in discussing the duty of water\\nin rice culture, that available statistics make the", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0396.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "Bice Irrigation 369\\naverage amount used equal to a flooding of the field\\n6 inches in depth once every 10 daj^s, and since so\\nmuch water must be used on this crop, the means\\nfor handling it must be constructed with ample pro-\\nportions.\\nIn South Carolina, at the mouths of the Santee\\nriver, where the natural conditions for rice culture\\nexist in almost ideal perfection, the fields have been\\nlaid off into flooding basins, varjdng in size from\\na few acres to thirty and more. Each basin is sur-\\nrounded by a dyke, at the foot of which is a main\\ndistributing ditch 4 to 6 feet wide and 30 to 36\\ninches deep, much as has been described for cran-\\nberry irrigation, but on a larger scale, and the\\nresemblance is made still closer by the division of\\nthe fields into narrow lands 20 feet in width by\\nparallel ditches 36 inches wide and 36 inches deep,\\nwhich are at once the ultimate distributaries and\\nthe drainage channels. Trunks or sluices are pro-\\nvided controlled by semi-automatic tide gates, which\\nmay be raised at will, on the sea side, to admit\\nthe water to these ditches and flood the fields to\\nany desired depth, and then closed and the water\\nretained or the gate on the field side may be raised\\nand the water withdrawn.\\nAfter the fields have been plowed and seeded in\\nthe spring, they are flooded to -a depth of 6 inches\\nand allowed to so remain until the seed has germi-\\nnated and the first three roots formed. At this\\nstage the water is let off for three days to force\\nrooting, when flooding again occurs to overtop the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0397.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "370 Irrigation and Drainage\\nplants and be sure to submerge the highest points\\nin the field and start the rice there. This done,\\nthe water is drawn to a gauge and changed every\\nseven daj^s until the stage for dr} growth has\\narrived, after 21 days, or the fifth irrigation.\\nThe water is now held oif during 30 days and\\nthe fields are given two dry hoeings. This stirring of\\nthe surface of the rice fields appears to have two\\nimportant objects to secure: (1) to destroj weeds,\\nand (2) to so aerate the soil as to admit air to\\nthe roots and to the niter germs for the develop-\\nment of nitrates. If the soil is not stirred, the\\nplants take on a yellow color, which quickly changes\\nto a dark green after the cultivation, proving this\\ntillage very important. During this time the drj^-\\ngrowth roots are formed, which penetrate the soil\\nsufficiently to enable the plants to stand securel\\\\%\\nwhile at the same time they absorb the nitrates,\\npotash, phosphoric acid and other ash ingredients\\nrequired to mature the grain.\\nThe cultivation is made more urgent on these\\nfields because of the fine silt borne in the river\\nwater, which settles and overspreads the surface,\\nforming so impervious a film that air can only pass\\nit slowly, and if not broken would set up the pro-\\ncesses of denitrification, which in turn must check\\nthe growth of the crop and cause it to turn yelloAV.\\nAfter the dry -growth stage has been passed and\\nthe head is ready to form, the 7 -day irrigations are\\nresumed and maintained until the crop has been\\nmatured. The frequent irrigations are necessitated", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0398.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "Rice Irrigation 371\\nbecause of the tendency of the waters to become\\nstagnant and poisonous to the rice. So important is\\nthe complete removal of the stagnant water that pro-\\nvision is made at the farther corner of each field, by\\nmeans of a trunk in the dyke, to permit the water\\nwhich has been left standing in the ditches after\\ndraining to be forced out by the incoming water into\\nanother ditch leading to a canal or creek, and careful\\nwatch is kept until the yellow river water has finally\\nreached the extreme corner and forced out all of the\\nstanding water which has been bagged in the\\nditches.\\nWhen the rice crop reaches maturity and is ready\\nto harvest, a few of the topmost kernels are more\\nadvanced than the balance of the head and certain to\\nshell and fall upon the field. These tip kernels, too,\\nare liable to be red, and if allowed to germinate the\\nnext season would mature heads with kernels still\\nmore highly colored, and tend in a short time to\\ndevelop the red rice which so seriously lowers the\\ngrade and market price.\\nTo avoid the development of red rice on the\\nmarshes, it is the practice, after the harvest has been\\nremoved, to again flood the fields and germinate at\\nonce all of the shelled rice which has fallen upon the\\nground, so that the winter frosts shall kill the plants\\nand thus remove the red rice. It is stated that if the\\nseed is placed in the ground where it cannot ger-\\nminate, it may retain its vitality for five years, and\\nhence where the practice of fall flooding cannot be\\nresorted to it becomes necessary to adopt some system", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0399.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "372\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nof rotation in rice culture which shall furnish oppor-\\ntunity for all of the red rice to have been germinated\\nand killed before another crop is placed upon the\\nground, and it is the great ease with which the Caro-\\nlina planters are able to control this difficulty, and\\nthe greater cost of rotation necessitated by othe-\\nFig. 101. Plan of rice irrigation, as practiced in South Carolina.\\nconditions, which gives them one of their great\\nadvantages over other rice -growers, enabling them to\\ncommand the highest price in the markets of th\\nworld. flt\\nThe detailed method of handling water on a Caro-\\nlina rice plantation is represented in Fig. 101, w^here\\neight of the many fields shown in Fig. 67 are\\nrepresented enlarged.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0400.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "Bice Irrigation 373\\nWhen the tide falls, the gates on the inner ends of\\nthe trunks automatically close and prevent the escape\\nof the water during any desired period, while the\\ndropping of the outer gates prevents the entrance of\\nan} more water until they are again raised. To drain\\nthe fields with an outgoing tide, it is only necessary\\nto lift the inner gates and the work goes forward to\\ncompletion without further attention, so that the\\nhandling of the water both ways is extremely simple,\\neffective, and remarkably cheap.\\nThe irrigation of rice on higher lands more nearly\\nresembles the irrigation of meadows where flooding in\\nchecks is resorted to, except that here the checks are\\nfilled to a standard gauge with water, and then a slow\\nstream is kept moving into and out of them as long\\nas desired, the water usuall} entering at one corner\\nand leaving at the diagonally opposite corner. The\\ndividing ridges which form the checks have a height\\nof about two feet, and the rice fields are kept under\\nwater until the heads are formed, when the water is\\ndrawn off and let on again at short intervals until the\\nkernels are well formed, when the water is removed\\nand the fields allowed to become dry and the grain\\nmature, preparatory to harvesting.\\nORCHARD IRRIGATION\\nIn orchard irrigation, several methods of distribut-\\ning water are practiced, but there is none followed\\nso generally and with so good results as the furrow\\nmethod, represented in Fig. 102, where the water is", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0401.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0402.jp2"}, "403": {"fulltext": "Orchard Irrigation\\n375\\nbeing led through an orange orchard in an ideal\\nmanner, both as to number and size of furrows and\\nvolume of water which each is permitted to carry.\\nThe aim is to allow small streams to flow slowly\\nthrough the narrow furrows for a long time, until the\\nwater has penetrated by percolation deeply beneath the\\nsurface and at the same time has spread broadly by\\nFig. 103. Orchard irrigation, with wooden flnme in foreground.\\ncapillarity side wise under the surface mulch. In Fig.\\n103 is shown a wooden flume box, w^iich brings the\\nwater to the orchard, delivering it to the several\\nfurrows through holes in the side which are %-inch\\nto 1 inch in diameter, and which are provided with\\nwooden buttons or metal slides for regulating the\\namount of water admitted to each furrow.\\nThe appearance of the furrows after the capillary\\nspread has been considerable is represented in Fig.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0403.jp2"}, "404": {"fulltext": "Fig. 104. Capillary spreudi.ig c,f water throngh soil from wat.-r f-.rrows\\n1.1 peach orchard, Grand .limction, Colorado.\\nPig. 105. Foot ditch for one orchard and head ditch for low", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0404.jp2"}, "405": {"fulltext": "Orcliard Irrigation\\n371\\n104. When the stage of surface wetting shown by\\nthe dark margins of the furrows has been reached,\\nthe water has usually percolated to a depth of three\\nFig. 106. Lower orchard taking water from foot\\nditch of Fig. 105.\\nor more feet, and has at the same time spread later-\\nally so as to meet beneath the furrows.\\nOrchards are frequently arranged as represented in", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0405.jp2"}, "406": {"fulltext": "878\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nFig. 107. Head ditch or cement Hume for ox ange orcliard,\\nRedlands, California.\\nFigs. 105 and 106, so that tlie surplus water from the\\nfurrows in the upper one is collected in a foot ditch\\nshown in the center of Fig. 105, and redistributed in\\na second set of furrows crossing a lower level, shown\\nin Fig. 106. The water may be controlled by a simple\\ngate in a sluice-box, shown at 1, 1 in Figs. 105 and", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0406.jp2"}, "407": {"fulltext": "Orchard Irrigation\\n379\\n106, whicli permits as much water to pass from the\\nfoot ditch into the lower furrows as is desired. This\\nmethod of irrigation is always less economical of\\nwater than where the water admitted to each furrow\\nFig. 108. Large young orchard on gravelly flood plain of\\nSanta Ana river, with cement flnme.\\nis so nicely adjusted that there is no waste into a\\nfoot ditch. So, too, is there less waste land.\\nStill another method of utilizing the water which\\nmay waste at the foot of the orchard is to have there\\na strip of alfalfa, clover or grass to take this surplus\\nwith little or no attention or waste.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0407.jp2"}, "408": {"fulltext": "380\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nBut whefre cement or wooden distributing flumes,\\nsuch as are shown in Figs. 107 and 108, are used,\\nit is usually quite easy to so completely control the\\ndischarge that no waste need occur, and in cases\\nwhere water is scanty and expensive this method is\\nadopted to great advantage.\\nFig. 109. Model of orchard irrigation by ring furrows.\\nWhen the trees of an orchard are young, it is\\nquite unnecessary to irrigate the whole ground, and\\na common practice is to make a furrow around each\\ntree, as represented in Fig. 109, allowing the water\\nto flow along the single distributing furrow, sending\\nit into the side rings for 12 or 24 hours until a cone\\nof saturated soil is secured below each tree. As the", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0408.jp2"}, "409": {"fulltext": "Cultivation After Irrigation 381\\ntrees become older, the encircling furrows may be\\nmade larger, until finally it is better to lead the water\\nalong two single furrows on each side of the row,\\nas shown in Figs. 104 and 106. With increasing\\nspread of root, the number of furrows would be\\nincreased until a watering of the whole ground has\\nbecome needful.\\nCULTIVATION AFTER IRRIGATION\\nA cardinal principle in orchard irrigation should\\never be thorough, deep saturation, followed, as soon\\nas the soil will permit, with thorough cultivation, fre-\\nquently repeated. In Fig. 110 is represented an excel-\\nlent mulch- producing tool for orchard work. It is\\ndrawn by three horses can be set to run at any\\ndepth makes a clean cut of the whole soil without\\nbringing the moist portion to the surface, and is\\nprovided with a steering wheel, which permits the\\ndriver to easily throw one end of the long cutting\\nblade quickly and accurately to one side and bring it\\nclose to the trunk of a tree without driving the team\\nnear enough to endanger either the trunk or limbs.\\nAs the blade of the tool is 8 feet long, the orchard\\nmay be covered quickly with it. Smaller sizes, with\\n5 -foot blades, are also on the market in California.\\nAnother form of orchard cultivator to which fur-\\nrow plows may be attached is represented in Fig. 111.\\nOrdinary forms of cultivators must necessarily tend\\nmore to invert the soil and bring the wet portions to\\nthe air, and thus be less economical of moisture. They", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0409.jp2"}, "410": {"fulltext": "Fig. 110. Three-horse orchard cultivator used at San Jose, California.\\nFig. 111. Combined orchard cultivator and furrowing tool.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0410.jp2"}, "411": {"fulltext": "Cultivation After Jrrigatiofi 383\\nhave, however, advantages over the other form for\\ngoing over the ground the first time after irrigation,\\nwhen it is important to break the moist soil into a\\ncrumbled condition.\\nSystems of flooding are also adopted in orchard\\nirrigation, sometimes flooding the whole ground or\\nsmall checks surrounding the trees, when these are\\nyoung and the water scanty, but this method is far\\nmore wasteful of water and much more injurious to\\nthe texture of the soil, unless it is sandy. When\\nfollowing it, care must be taken to prevent water from\\ncoming against the trunks of the trees and stand-\\ning there.\\nIn humid climates, on lands where the soil will\\nnot wash badly, the methods of orchard cultivation\\npracticed in the west would give far better results\\nthan leaving them so persistently in grass, as is the\\nmore common practice. The moisture of the soil\\nshould be saved for the trees as a rule, rather than\\nused for any other crop after the trees become large.\\nSMALL -FRUIT IRRIGATION\\nIn the irrigation of strawberries, raspberries, black-\\nberries, and similar fruits, the furrow method will\\nalmost always be practiced, leading a slender stream\\nalong each side of the row and quite close to it.\\nBlackberry and raspberry roots penetrate to a suf-\\nficient depth to permit a thorough saturation of the\\nsoil and good cultivation before the berries are ready\\nto pick, so that no irrigation will be required during", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0411.jp2"}, "412": {"fulltext": "384 Irrigation and Drainage\\nthe picking. Strawberries, however, are so shallow-\\nrooted that water enough cannot be placed within\\nreach of the plants to make irrigation during the\\npicking season unnecessary. It is, therefore, a com-\\nmon practice to lay out strawberry fields in such a\\nway that the water may be led only between alternate\\nmatted rows in deep broad furrows, holding the water\\nwell up the sides so that it may better spread laterally\\nunder the plants. This practice, although not as\\neconomical of water as irrigating between every row,\\nhas the advantage of not seriously interfering with\\npicking, there being always sufficiently firm ground\\nupon which to walk.\\nGARDEN IRRIGATION\\nGarden vegetables are oftenest raised in beds and\\npatches of such small dimensions, and on soils so\\nlight and open, that the irrigation of them is accom-\\nplished most readily by methods closely allied to those\\nof flooding. A relatively large volume of water is\\nquickly brought to the point needed and applied all\\nat once, and without waiting for either percolation or\\ncapillary spreading to take place.\\nA method represented in Fig. 112 consists in lay-\\ning the ground off into beds, and getting the seed\\nplanted, when the surface is overspread with a thin\\ndressing of rather coarse litter or horse manure.\\nWater is turned into the head ditch, which is\\nchoked with a little soil or an irrigator s broad\\nhoe set so as to turn the stream between the", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0412.jp2"}, "413": {"fulltext": "Garden Irrigation\\n385\\nFig. 112. Diagram of garden beds.\\nbeds, when the irrigator dams the current at his feet\\nwith a gunny sack and with a long -handled basin\\ndextrously bales the water out as rapidly as it reaches\\nhim, dashing it over\\nthe littered surface\\nuntil, in his judgment,\\nwater enough has been\\napplied. The dam is\\nthen moved and a\\nsecond area irrigated,\\nthe operation being\\nrepeated until the\\nends of the beds have\\nbeen reached, when the head ditch is opened and\\nclosed in another place, turning the water in between\\nother beds.\\nWhen the water has had time to penetrate the\\nsoil, when the surface is beyond danger of crusting,\\nand the delicate plants have begun to emerge from\\nthe ground, the litter may be raked off. In this\\nmanner a man was observed to irrigate an area 33\\nfeet by 150 feet in one hour, using the water which\\ncould flow through a short 3-inch pipe, filling it half\\nfull, and Fig. 112 is a diagram of the beds, 15 feet\\nwide between the waterways.\\nAnother type of irrigation is shown in Fig. 113,\\nwhere the garden is ridged and furrowed every 18\\ninches. Celery is planted on one side of each ridge\\nand lettuce on the other. When irrigation is required\\nthe furrows, 6 inches deep, are flooded one at a time\\nfrom a stream led along their head, and these, when", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0413.jp2"}, "414": {"fulltext": "386\\nIrrigatwn and Drainage\\nf ig. 113. Furrow Hooding in garden.\\nquicklj^ filled, are supposed to hold sufficient water\\nfor one irrigation, enough to cover the whole ground\\n2.5 to 3 inches. In Fig. 114 is represented a cross\\nsection of the rows.\\nIn still other cases shallow basins are formed\\nabout each row of plants, as represented in Fig. 115,\\nwhere cabbages have been set. It will be noted that\\nthe basins are not only narrow but short, so that\\neach may be quickly filled,\\none after another, from a\\nf;..v.;-i..,,v.....v^..-....^.....-,,-.vf;v-/,^,;: ^i- gf^ream led along an alley\\nFig. 114. Diagram of section of rows betWCCn twO SCtS. As the\\nand furrows in Fig. 113. a i i i i\\nplants become larger the\\nridges are gradually cut down to hill the plants, and\\nthus form water furrows in their stead. This is one", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0414.jp2"}, "415": {"fulltext": "Garden Irrigation\\n387\\nmethod, as practiced by the Italian gardeners, both\\nin their native country and on tlie sandy lands at\\nOcean View, south of San Francisco.\\nIn Fig. 116 is shown another cabbage field recently\\ntransplanted by the Chinese gardeners at San Ber-\\nnardino, Cal. In this case the field is quickly and\\nroughly -ridged and then the large plants hastily set\\nlow down in one side of the ridge. After irrigation,\\nand when the water has settled away so as to permit\\nworking, a little soil from the ridge is pulled about\\nthe plants, as seen in the cut. In time the whole\\nridge has been pulled over, leaving the plants stand-\\ning in the center of the crest.\\nThe French about Paris throw their fields into\\nbroad double ridges, wide enough to carry two rows\\nFig. 115, Basin flooding of cabbage in garden of sandy soil.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0415.jp2"}, "416": {"fulltext": "388\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nof vegetables 24 inehes apart, and these are sepa-\\nrated by furrows a foot wide and 6 inches deep,\\nthrough which Avater is led for irrigation, and Fig.\\n117 is a plan of a section of the upper end of a cab-\\nbage field as laid out on the valley sands of the river\\nSeine, just outside the city walls.\\nFig. 116. Chinese method of irrigating cabbage,\\nSan Bernardino, California.\\nMelons and cucumbers are planted upon still\\nbroader beds, 6 to 8 feet wide, separated by water\\nfurrows, as represented in Fig. 118, the hills being\\nplanted near each margin of the bed and the vines\\ntrained awaj from the furrows.\\nAt Rocky Ford, Colorado, where melons are raised", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0416.jp2"}, "417": {"fulltext": "Garden Irrigation\\n389\\non a large scale, fields are furrowed every 6 feet\\nwith a double shovel plow. The seeds are plauted\\nin the edge of the ridge away from the furrows, and\\nthe soil watered through the furrow only, by lateral\\ncapillary flow, great care being taken to avoid flood-\\ning the surface. Cultivation follows each irrigation\\nafter the plants are up until the vines become too\\nlarge, but watering must be kept up about once in\\nten days until the crop is mature.\\nFig. 117. Diagram of cabbage irrigation at Gennevilliers, near Paris.\\nAnother system of irrigating gardens is repre-\\nsented in Fig. 119, where the rows are hilled, leav-\\ning shallow furrows between them, but arranged so\\nthat a stream of water can be led across the ends\\nand turned into them one by one. The water is led\\nto the lower rows down the middle furrow, and with\\na broad irrigating hoe, having a blade 12 inches", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0417.jp2"}, "418": {"fulltext": "390\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\n|Fig. 118. Irrigation of melons and encumbers by Chinese at San Bernardino.\\nlong and 10 inches deep, the soil at 1 is quickly\\nturned over to 2, to form a dam in the stream,\\nthus allowing the water to flow between the two\\nlower rows until that furrow has been filled to a\\nsufficient height. The soil from 3 is then turned\\nover to 1, thus closing 1 and allowing the water to\\nenter 3. When 3 is full the soil from 4 is brought\\nback to 5, which turns the stream in there. When\\n4 has received enough, the water is turned into 6\\nby moving the soil from there to 4. In this manner\\nthe irrigator advances from row to row until both\\nsides of the whole bed have been watered.\\nIn other cases, small or large areas of garden\\nplants are enclosed in small, shallow basins by throw-", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0418.jp2"}, "419": {"fulltext": "Oar den Irrigation\\n891\\ning up minute dyke -like ridges not more than 6\\ninches wide and 4 high. These basins may be\\narranged in a single or double chain, and the water\\nled down one side or between them. In this case,\\nagain, the watering would usually begin at the lower\\nend, and with the hoe a section of the border of a\\nbasin would be drawn out to act as a dam across\\nthe stream, as shown in Fig. 120. The soil from 1\\nrig. 119. Plan of furrow garden flooding by successive rows.\\nand 2 would be drawn around to 3, thus turning\\nthe water into both beds. When these were watered,\\nthe soil from 4 and 5 would be drawn around to\\n6, and the next two beds irrigated. In this manner\\nthe gardener advances rapidly from bed to bed with\\nbut little trouble and labor.\\nTHE IRRIGATION OF LAWNS AND PARKS\\nIt should ever be kept in mind, where shrubbery,\\ntrees and grass are grown together, as is so com-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0419.jp2"}, "420": {"fulltext": "392\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nmonly the practice in humid climates, that two crops\\nare being grown at the same time upon the land, and\\nthat under these conditions more water is demanded.\\nThe roots of shrubs and trees are more deeply placed\\nin the subsoil than are most of those which feed the\\nlawn grass, and hence all rains too light to over-\\nsaturate the surface 6 inches are practically secured\\nby the grass, and since to maintain a good lawn\\nFig. 120. Plan of basin flooding in garden irrigation.\\nrequires more water than ordinarily falls as rain,\\neven in quite humid climates, it follows that in all\\npublic parks, cemeteries and ornamental grounds about\\nhomes, there should be provided an abundant supply\\nof water for thorough irrigation.\\nIn watering lawns and parks, so much water is\\ndemanded that it ought usually to be applied by\\nsome flooding system rather than by spraying, as", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0420.jp2"}, "421": {"fulltext": "Lawn and Park Irrigation 393\\nis so commonly the practice. The truth of this\\nstatement will be readily appreciated when it is\\nobserved that in order to saturate good lawns suffi-\\nciently to force any water down where it will become\\navailable to the roots of trees and shrubbery, the\\nground must receive not less than 2 to 3 inches in\\ndepth of water. But to apply this amount with\\nspraying nozzles is impracticable.\\nIf public parks and cemeteries were more gen-\\nerally laid out with a view to thorough irrigation\\nas a part of their proper care all through the cen-\\ntral and eastern United States, not only would the\\ngrowth of shrubbery and trees be far more luxuriant\\nand satisfactory, but dry seasons would not destroy\\nthe many beautiful trees which so often succumb to\\ndrought just in their prime.\\nWherever a good well can be had with abundance\\nof water and a lift not to exceed 50 feet, a lawn of\\nhalf an acre, with its shrubbery, together with a\\nvegetable garden or fruit orchard of several acres,\\nmay easily be irrigated with a plant not costing\\nmore than $300 to $500. Such a plant is repre-\\nsented in Figs. 121 and 122. This, including well-\\nhouse, 2% horse -power gasoline engine and double-\\nacting pump, having a capacity of 80 gallons per\\nminute, with over 1,000 feet of 2 -inch distributing\\npipe and hose, cost, when put in place ready for\\nwork, $440.\\nIn the portion of this plant shown in Fig. 122,\\npart of the 2 -inch iron distributing pipe for the\\nlawn and garden, as represented at B, C and D,", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0421.jp2"}, "422": {"fulltext": "394\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nare tapped every 3 feet for short half -inch nipples\\nwith caps. With this arrangement it is easy to\\ntake ont water at any desired place, pressure being\\ni\\nFig. 121. Small gasoline pumping plant for garden and lawn irrigation.\\nmaintained in the whole system of pipes when the\\npamp is at work. The pipes for watering the lawn\\nare sunk just flush with the sod, and the nipples\\nrise obliquely upward so short a distance as not to\\ninterfere with the lawn mower. The arrows show\\nboth the slope of the lawn and the waj^ the water\\nis distributed. By opening only 7 to 10 nipples at\\na time, a large volume of water is secured, which\\nspreads readily over the surface. In the garden irri-\\ngation, 15 or 20 rows may be watered at once, and if", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0422.jp2"}, "423": {"fulltext": "Lawn and Park Irrigation\\n395\\na particular stream is a little too strong, this may\\nbe regulated by thrusting a bit of stick into the\\nnipple. For watering beds about the house, four of\\nFig. 122. Plan of lawn and garden irrigation.\\nthe nipples are made for attaching a garden hose,\\nwhich may also be used to wash windows or a car-\\nriage. Altogether, this arrangement is very simple\\nand satisfactory for a suburban or country home,", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0423.jp2"}, "424": {"fulltext": "396 Irrigation mid Drainage\\nand would answer admirably for a small market-\\ngarden, where vegetables and fruits are raised.\\nSUB -IRRIGATION\\nThis method of appljdng water consists in plac-\\ning lines of tile or perforated pipe varying dis-\\ntances below the surface of the soil, and distributing\\nwater through these instead of in furrows or by\\nmethods of flooding. This sj^stem of irrigation\\nquickly suggests itself to most thoughtful men when\\nthey first begin to handle water for irrigation, on\\naccount of the many difficulties and inconveniences\\nwhich are associated with surface watering but there\\nare several very fundamental objections to it which\\nhave usually led to its abandonment sooner or later\\nin nearly every place where tried.\\nWere it not for the objections just referred to,\\nsub -irrigation would constitute an ideal method of\\napplying water, and would be universallj practiced.\\nCould it be used, much of the expense of fitting\\nthe surface would be avoided the fields would be\\nalmost wholly unobstructed all of the ultimate dis-\\ntributaries would become permanent improvements\\nthe surface of the soil could not become puddled\\nmulches developed would not be periodically destroyed,\\nand the duty of water would be vastly increased.\\nIndeed, so many things appear to be in favor of the\\nmethod that it is only with great reluctance that it is\\nabandoned.\\nThe most insuperable difficulty with sub -irrigation", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0424.jp2"}, "425": {"fulltext": "Siih Irrigation 397\\nis that of applying sufficient water to thoroughly wet\\nthe surface, and yet those who have not tried the\\nplan feel confident that there will be a great saving\\nin this direction but the rate of capillary movement\\nof water in soil is relatively so slow, and percolation\\nso rapid in most cases, that it becomes nearly imper-\\native that water shall be placed upon the surface,\\nwhere it is most needed and is of greatest service.\\nIt has been shown under furrow irrigation, where\\nthe water is applied at the surface, that the streams\\nmust usually be led as close as every four feet, to wet\\nthe whole ground, and from this it follows that lines\\nof tile laid even closer than this would be required\\nin sub -irrigation. In Fig. 123 is shown the wetting\\nof the surface which occurred by distributing the\\nwater through 3 -inch tile placed 18 inches below the\\nsurface, in which hydrostatic pressure was maintained\\nsufficient to cause the water to rise one or two inches\\nabove the top of the ground. In this experiment\\nthe tile were arranged as represented at D, Fig.\\n124, 10 feet apart, and it will be seen that only\\nabout 3 feet in width above each line of tile has been\\nwet, and yet water enough has been applied to cover\\nthe area more than 6 inches deep. Even at C, Fig.\\n124, where the tile are only 5 feet apart, it was\\nnecessary to apply 19.68 inches of water in depth to\\ncompletely wet the surface, but in this case the sub-\\nsoil was more open than it was at D. It is plain,\\ntherefore, that in order to thoroughly wet the sur-\\nface of the ground by sub -irrigation, much more\\nwater will be required than by furrow irrigation,", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0425.jp2"}, "426": {"fulltext": "398\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nas\\nclose as 4 feet apart and very\\nunless the tile are\\nnear the surface.\\nThe second great obstacle in appl3nng sub-irriga-\\ntion is the expense required to purchase and place the\\nnecessary lines of tile. In watering strawberries,\\nFig. 123. Difficiilty of wetting surftice soil by sub-irrigation.\\nblackberries, raspberries, and other small fruits, one\\nline of tile would be required under each row. For\\norchard irrigation, two lines of tile would be needed,\\none on each side of the row when the trees are small,\\nand the number would have to be increased as the\\ntrees reached maturity, until there was at least one\\nevery 5 feet. For general field crops, the number of", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0426.jp2"}, "427": {"fulltext": "Suh Irrigation\\n399\\ntile could scarcely be less than one line every 5 feet,\\nand it would be necessary to place them at least far\\nenough below the surface not to be disturbed in\\nworking the soil in crop rotation.\\n124. Plan of fields for sub-irrigation experiments.\\nAt one cent per foot for 3 -inch drain tile, the, cost\\nfor pipe alone would be $87.12 per acre where the\\nlines are laid 5 feet apart. In addition to this ex-\\npense, there would be the cost of transportation,\\nbreakage, and laying of tile connecting with the head", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0427.jp2"}, "428": {"fulltext": "400 Irrigation and Drainage\\nditcli, and maintenance, which, in the aggregate,\\ncould not be less than $12.88 per acre when done on\\na large scale and under the most favorable conditions,\\nor a total cost of $100 per acre, at the very best\\nfigure which could be hoped for.\\nOnly in those cases where tile could be placed\\nbarely below the surface could there be as high a\\nduty of water as with furrow irrigation, and hence,\\nwhere water is high and labor cheap, the cost of water\\nwould decide against sub -irrigation.\\nWhere a field has been underdrained, as repre-\\nsented in Fig. 124, in the lower lefthand corner, it is\\neasy to introduce the irrigation water at the upper\\nend of the main, as shown at F, and allow it to set\\nback through the laterals. By forcing the water in\\nthe main to rise to the surface of the ground at G,\\nH and A before passing on to lower levels, the\\nwater in all the tile would be placed under pressure\\nwhich would force it to the top of the ground with-\\nout waiting for capillarity to bring it there. In\\nthis manner if the field were underlaid by sand at the\\nlevel of the tile, the whole area may be quickly\\nwatered, provided the main has capacity sufficient to\\ndeliver the water to all the laterals as rapidly as\\npercolation can take place from them. With the\\noutlet of the tile at E closed and water admitted to\\nthe main at both F and A, the 7,022 feet of tile took\\nwater at the rate of 48 cubic feet per minute under\\nthe 5 acres, or at the rate of 5 gallons per 100 run-\\nning feet of tile where these were placed in sand 33\\nfeet apart. During the irrigation, water was brought", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0428.jp2"}, "429": {"fulltext": "Sub Irrigation 401\\nto the surface along most of the lines of tile, as\\nrepresented by the dotted area below A. To do this\\nwork, 5.8 inches of water on the level were required,\\nbut it is quite certain that half this amount applied\\nat the surface in the proper manner would have ren-\\ndered as much service. The time required to apply\\nthe water at the surface would have been about the\\nsame, but an extra man would have been needed to\\ndistribute it, and the furrows would have to be made,\\nso that there is this labor to be offset by the cost\\nof the extra amount of water required for the sub-\\nirrigation.\\nBut it must be kept in mind that had the field\\nnot been underlaid by sand and the ground water\\nsurface near the level of the tile, and had the pressure\\nnot been held up so as to force the water to rise to\\nthe surface, these results could not have been attained\\nwith tile placed as far apart as 33 feet. The applica-\\ntion of sub -irrigation to tile -drained areas cannot,\\ntherefore, be regarded as the best method of watering\\nin any but special cases.\\nIt is quite probable that were this system of\\nirrigation to be applied to water-meadows to avoid\\nsurface ditches, or even to orchards and small fruits,\\nthere might be experienced difficulties arising from\\nthe tile becoming clogged, either from sediments\\nmoved by the water or by the growth of roots into\\nthe lines of tile.\\nWhen the difficulties which have been pointed out\\nas standing in the way of sub -irrigation are con-\\nsidered, and when it is recalled that nitrification in", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0429.jp2"}, "430": {"fulltext": "402 Irrigation and Drainage\\nmost soils can take place only near the surface, when\\nroots are better aerated there, and when here alone\\ncan germination occur, it seems plain that there can\\nbe little reason to hope much from this method of\\napplying water.\\n^Bf", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0430.jp2"}, "431": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XI\\nSEWAGE IRRIGATION\\nThe methods of distributing water in sewage irri-\\ngation are essentially the same as those already de-\\nscribed. The topography of the field to be watered\\nand the character of the soil or of the crop, will\\ndetermine which method shall be employed. It re-\\nmains here to state, from the agricultural side of the\\nsubject, under what conditions sewage irrigation may\\nbe practiced to advantage and what crops are best\\nsuited to utilize the water.\\nOBJECTS SOUGHT IN SEWAGE IRRIGATION\\nThere are two main objects sought in the use of sewage\\nin irrigation. The first and primary one is to oxidize and\\nrender innocuous the organic matter which it contains. The\\nsecondary object is to utilize this organic matter, together with\\nbe water and other fertilizers which it may contain, in the\\n^reduction of crops. Reference has already been made to this\\npoint in connection with the Craigentinny Meadows, where a\\npoor soil has been made to yield a gross income of $75 to\\nmore than $100 per acre per annum for nearly a century.\\nThe oxidation and denitrification of the organic matter borne\\nin the sewage water must be accomplished largely, if not wholly,\\nthrough the agency of fermenting germs, and this being true,\\nit is imperative that the methods of treatment shall be favor-\\nable to the activity of these forms of life.\\n(403)", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0431.jp2"}, "432": {"fulltext": "404 Irrigation and Drainage\\nCLIMATIC CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO SEWAGE\\nIRRIGATION\\nSince the fermentive processes which convert organic matter\\neither into nitric acid, which is the nitrogen supply for most\\ncultivated crops, or into free nitrogen gas can take place rap-\\nidly only under temperatures above 50\u00c2\u00b0 F., it follows that sewage\\nirrigation is best suited to warm climates, where crops may\\nbe grown the year round, and where the fermentive processes\\nwill be least cheeked by frosts. In tropical and semi-tropical\\nclimates, therefore, sewage disposal by surface irrigation may\\nbest be practiced when other needful conditions are also favor-\\nable.\\nIn cold climates, like those of the northern United States\\nand Canada, where the ground is frozen during five months or\\nmore of each year, it is plain that only about one -half of the\\nsewage water can be used in crop production, and that during\\nonly about one -half of the year can there be much oxidation\\nand denitrification of organic matter. Under these conditions,\\ntherefore, if water is applied to land one -half of it must be\\nfiltered by the soil without the concurrent purification which\\nresults from fermentation, and this being true, there can be\\nonly so much of purification as naturally results from the\\nphysical filtration and such chemical fixation as the soil may be\\ncapable of accomplishing.\\nIt is true that the purification of sewage resulting from\\nfiltration through soil is very considerable, so that if isolated\\nlands of sufficient area are selected for this purpose, the organic\\nimpurities reaching the ground water will be greatly reduced.\\nIt is also true that in cold climates fields to which no sewage\\nhas been applied during the warm season may be reserved\\nspecially for the reception of it during the winter. These soils\\nwould, therefore, be comparatively dry and capable of receiving\\n6 to 12 inches of water and of retaining it by capillarity\\nuntil warm weather could subject it to organic purification,\\nand when crops could also be made to utilize the nitrates\\ndeveloped and other fertilizers brought by the water.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0432.jp2"}, "433": {"fulltext": "Sewage Purification 405\\nTo handle the sewage in this manner, it would be needful\\nto bring it to the fields in underground conduits, and to have\\nthe lands laid out for flooding in cheeks of suitable size, sur-\\nrounded by barriers of the desired height, but the great diffi-\\nculty to be met is the amount of land needful for such a\\nsystem. Allowing 50 gallons of sewage per day per person,\\na city of 30,000 would require 828 acres to receive the sewage\\nduring 180 days if each check were to be flooded to a depth\\nof 12 inches.\\nTHE PROCESS OF SEWAGE PURIFICATION BY IRRI-\\nGATION OR INTERMITTENT FILTRATION\\nThe extremely careful and extended investigations eon-\\nducted by the State Board of Health at Lawrence, Mass., begun\\nin 1888 and still in progress, have shown that the purifying\\nof sewage as it passes slowly over the surface of sand grains\\nfreely exposed to contained air, is the result of bacterial growth,\\nand that when these germs are not present the sewage comes\\nthrough the filter as impure as it went in so far as its dangerous\\nnitrogen compounds are concerned. But if it is allowed to\\npass through slowly enough in the presence of an abundance\\nof air, the water emerges with so nearly all the nitrogen com-\\npounds converted into nitrates that it is as free from them\\nas the purest spring water.\\nThe essential condition is that an inch or two of water\\nshall be spread out over the surface of the soil grains in\\nenough of the upper soil, where free oxygen may gain access\\nto the colonies of niter -forming germs which multiply there\\nand feed upon the organic nitrogen in the water, if only\\nthere is an abundance of free oxygen to meet their other\\nneeds. When a new quantity of water is added to the soil,\\nthe purified layer is swept downward by the new supply,\\nwhich at the same time drags in after it a fresh supply of\\nair, and thus the work goes on.\\nIf the sewage water is added too rapidly, before the germs", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0433.jp2"}, "434": {"fulltext": "406 Irrigation and Drainage\\nhave completely used up the organic nitrogen, then it will be\\nonly partly purified or if the flow over the field is made con-\\ntinuous, then the supply of oxygen in the soil becomes so\\nsmall that the germs are unable to carry forward the work,\\nand organic nitrogen passes through largely unchanged and\\nliable to become the food in drinking water of other but\\ndangerous forms.\\nSOILS BEST SUITED TO SEWAGE IRRIGATION\\nIn humid climates, where the rainfall is both frequent\\nand abundant, the lighter loams and sandy soils are best\\nsuited to this type of irrigation, because upon them there is less\\ndanger of water-logging. It should be understood, however,\\nthat from the agricultural standpoint sewage may be applied\\nto any soil, provided it is not used in too large quantities or too\\ncontinuously but as the sandy soils are usually more in need\\nof artificial fertilization, and at the same time likely to be\\ndeficient in water, they are preeminently suited to this use, and\\nwill usually be chosen by city authorities when they are avail-\\nable, but simply because a smaller number of acres will answer\\nthe purpose and the cost of the plant be less.\\nThe agricultural value of sewage when properly applied to\\nland has been so thoroughly demonstrated under so many condi-\\ntions of soil and climate that there can no longer be any doubt as\\nto the desirability of its use if the expense of getting it to the\\nland were eliminated, and it would appear that lands enough in\\nthe vicinity of most cities could profitably receive and use the\\nsewage if only it were led to them.\\nDESIRABILITY OF WIDER AGRICULTURAL USE OF\\nSEWAGE IN IRRIGATION\\nIn countries like Italy, where there are extensive canal\\nsystems largely used for irrigation, it would appear that sewage\\ndisposal by irriga,tion should become the general practice, pro-", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0434.jp2"}, "435": {"fulltext": "Agricultural Use of Sewage\\n407\\nvided the canals are carrying constantly a sufficient volume of\\nwater to make the needful dilution. The disposal of the sewage\\nof the city of Milan in this manner has already been referred to\\nas extremely satisfactory from the agricultural point of view.\\nIn speaking of the opportunities for and the desirability of\\nimproving sandy lands in various parts of the eastern United\\nStates and in the South by silting, it was pointed out that many\\nFig. 125. Instruction of practical gardeners in garden irrigation.\\nhundreds of square miles of now nearly worthless lands could be\\nreclaimed by methods of irrigation, and wherever this shall be\\nundertaken the disposal of the sewage of the same sections\\nthrough the canal waters could not fail to be of great advantage\\nto the lands when applied either in winter or in summer.\\nOutside the walls of the city of Paris, on the once nearly\\nworthless gravelly sands of the Seine, is located a garden whose\\nsign is represented in Fig. 125, where, in the midst of a district", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0435.jp2"}, "436": {"fulltext": "408\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\ndevoted to sewage irrigation, an effort is being made to teach in\\na concrete way how thoroughly purified sewage water may be\\nmade by irrigation, and what luxuriant growths may spring from\\nnearly sterile sands. Fig. 126 is a view within the garden,\\nwhere grapes are growing on the left, with dwarf pears and\\napples on the right, while in the center is a trench of water\\ncress grown for market in filtered sewage, the trench being at\\nthe foot of one of the drainage lines leading the filtered water\\nFig. 126. Sewage irrigation, model garden, Paris.\\nto the Seine. So clear was this water that it had the sparkling\\nbrilliancy of that from the purest springs, and outside the\\ngarden women and children came with their buckets and filled\\nthem for use at home. Inside, the superintendent keeps a glass,\\nand insists that every visitor shall taste and convince himself\\nhow sweet and pure the water is. Here and further out, at\\nGennevilliers, the lands are laid out and divided much like\\nvillage lots, where homes, with their vegetable, fruit and flower", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0436.jp2"}, "437": {"fulltext": "Sewage for Garden Irrigation 409\\ngardens, are being established, and sewage water was handled\\nthere in 1895 by small gardeners with great skill and profit.\\nThe lands are held at $1,000 per acre, and rent at a high price.\\nThe sewage for irrigation is carried beneath the surface in\\nclosed pipes, which are provided with a system of hydrants for\\ntaking out the water where needed, and Fig. 127 shows one of\\nthese, while Fig. 128 is taken at the same place, standing at\\nthe hydrant and looking down the open ditch leading the\\nwater to gardens and orchards, where it is to be used.\\nFlowers, garden vegetables and fruits were growing upon these\\ngrounds in great luxuriance for the city markets. If such\\nresults as these can be secured in France, why should not the\\nphilanthropic zeal of Greater New York join with the capital\\nof that city and lead a portion of the water of the higher\\nlands, together with the sewage of the inland towns and cities,\\nwhich is now polluting the streams, down upon the flat New\\nJersey sands and convert them into gardens of industry and\\nplenty, where the unfortunate mothers, with their children now\\nin the dark streets, could be helped to comfortable homes sur-\\nrounded by conditions which make physical, intellectual and\\nmoral growth possible.\\nCROPS SUITED TO SEWAGE IRRIGATION\\nThere is no crop more generally grown on sewage farms\\nthan grass, which is fed green, as cited in the cities of Leith\\nand Edinburgh and at Milan as silage, as has been done at\\nCroyden and Nottingham, or made into hay, as at Preston. At\\nBlackburn and at Croyden, also, the lands are extensively pas-\\ntured, at the latter place by coach and draft horses of the city\\nfor a season, to allow their feet to recover from the jar and\\nshock of stone pavements.\\nIn England and in Italy very heavy crops of grass are\\ngrown, yielding all the way from 40 to 70 tons per acre per\\nseason. The grass most extensively grown in Europe is the\\nItalian Rye Grass, but it is not permanent, and the land must\\nbe plowed and reseeded every three or four years if heavy", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0437.jp2"}, "438": {"fulltext": "Fig. 127. Sewage hydrant at Geniievilliers.\\nj\\ni.\\ni3\\nfl\\n1\\nijj^\\nlir\\n^1\\nl^^^^^v.\\n1\\n^^iHj\\nM\\nI\\nt~-\\n1\\nH^ ^v j\\np\\nm\\nJ\\ni\\nL\\nFig. 128. Stone distributing canal leading from hydrant in Fig. 127.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0438.jp2"}, "439": {"fulltext": "Crops for Sewage Irrigation 411\\nyields are desired. On the Craigentinny Meadows, most of the\\ngrasses are the native forms, wliich soon crowd out the Rye\\nGrass if it is not reseeded.\\nBoth oats and wheat are extensively grown on sewage\\nland, but in these eases the land is usually only irrigated dur-\\ning the winter. Potatoes, turnips and mangels, as well as\\ncabbage and cauliflower, are also grown.\\nAt Croyden and Preston, potatoes are grown on a large\\nscale on winter irrigated land and the crop sold at auction\\nwhen mature at $60 to $75 per acre, the purchaser digging the\\npotatoes. Fig. 129 shows a crop of early potatoes grown at\\nCroyden which sold in July for \u00c2\u00a315 per acre, and Fig. 130 is\\na view of the cement ditch in which the water is brought to\\nthe fields from the city. When summer irrigation of potatoes\\nis practiced at Croyden, the superintendent stated that he pre-\\nferred to use the water only after it had drained from another\\nfield. He also stated that he thought the sewage water tended\\nto intensify the scab.\\nAt Nottingham, where much wheat is raised, this is grown\\non winter irrigated land, but cabbage, turnips and mangels are\\nirrigated in the summer as well as winter. The cabbages\\nraised here -are the large stock varieties, planted in rows 4\\nfeet apart with the plants 3 feet apart in the row, and\\nenormous yields are secured of the vegetables named and fed\\nto a herd of from 800 to 1,000 cows.\\nAt Gennevilliers, nearly all varieties of garden truck were\\nbeing raised with great success, and there were orchards of\\npears, prunes and apples, and vineyards of grapes, heavily\\nloaded with fruit in August of 1895. So, too, at Berlin,\\nmangels, turnips, celery, onions, parsnips, beans, cabbage and\\ncauliflower were raised on their sewage farms.\\nWhile the general practice in Europe seems to be to favor\\nsummer irrigation of grass, and winter irrigation for small\\ngrains and cultivated crops generally, it appears clear that\\nthere are few if any crops to which sewage may not be applied\\nwith great advantage if only rational practice is followed.\\nIt will be readily understood that where fertilization is the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0439.jp2"}, "440": {"fulltext": ":W?^^^- -\u00e2\u0080\u00a2-\u00e2\u0080\u00a27^^^\u00e2\u0080\u00a2v\u00e2\u0096\u00a0\\nrig. 129. Harvesting early potatoes on Croyden sewage farm, England.\\nFig. 130. Cement canal at sewage tarm, Croyden, England.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0440.jp2"}, "441": {"fulltext": "Sewage Irrigation and Healthfulness 413\\nmain object, together with the disposal of the sewage, lands\\nmay be irrigated at once after the removal of a crop, such as\\nwheat or any of the small grains, so that there may be ample\\nlatitude for distributing the water at almost any season of\\nthe year.\\nIn climates where the winters are severe, it is necessary to\\napply the sewage to land not in grass or other perennial crop,\\nas the freezing of thick coats of ice over the meadows is quite\\ncertain to greatly injure if not kill the grass. Another point\\nwhich the agriculturist should keep in mind and guard against,\\nis the application of sewage to crops in too concentrated a form,\\nand especially should it be so much diluted or strained that the\\nsludge will not collect upon the surface in sufficient quantity\\nto close up the pores of the soil and interfere with proper\\naeration.\\nINFLUENCE OF SEWAGE IRRIGATION UPON\\nTHE HEALTH\\nReference has been made to experiments and observations\\nwhich show that the feeding of grass from sewage farms to\\nmilch cows produces no injurious effects upon the milk itself.\\nThe late Colonel Waring states that the health of the people\\nliving upon the sewage lands at Gennevilliers is generally excel-\\nlent, and that even in 1882, when there was a cruel epidemic\\nof typhoid fever in Paris, there was none here. He further\\nsays If there is still room for doubt on any point, it is as\\nto the character of the few bacteria which escape the action of\\nthe process employed, and are found in the effluent. It is not\\nknown that disease germs exist among these, and it is altogether\\nprobable that they do not. So far as these organisms are\\nunderstood, it is thought that they cannot withstand the\\ndestructive activity of the oxidizing and nitrifying organisms\\nwhich are always present, and it is believed that only these\\nhardier organisms exist in the effluent of land -purification works.\\nCertain it is that no instance has been reported where con-\\ntagion was carried by such effluents, and experience at Genne-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0441.jp2"}, "442": {"fulltext": "414\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nvilliers has shown that typhoid fever and cholera, when rife in\\nParis, were completely arrested at the irrigation fields.\\nIn the Massachusetts table of comparison of the purified\\neffluent of seven sewage filters and the waters of* seven wells\\nused for drinking by many persons, it is shown that there\\nwere three and one -half times as many bacteria in the well\\nwaters as in the effluents.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0442.jp2"}, "443": {"fulltext": "Part II\\nFARM DRAINAGE\\nCHAPTER XII\\nPRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE\\nIt has been pointed out that if all of the irri-\\ngated lands of the world were brought together in\\na solid body, they would scarcely aggregate more than\\nan area 500 miles on a side, or 250,000 square miles.\\nBut Professor Shaler estimates that in the United States\\nalone, east of the 100th meridian, there are more\\nthan 100,000 square miles of swamp lands. Some of\\nthese have been reclaimed by drainage, and the great\\nmajority of them could be, if the expense of the\\nreclamation would be warranted by the returns which\\nwould follow. In the Canadas, in Europe, and in\\nother portions of the world, also, there are vast areas\\nof land, when measured in the aggregate, which\\nmust be drained before they can become agricul-\\nturally productive. Hence the principles of land drain-\\nage, like those of irrigation, must be clearly under-\\nstood by those who are concerning themselves with\\n(415)", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0443.jp2"}, "444": {"fulltext": "416 Irrigation and Drainage\\nthe great world problems of better homes and all\\nwhich these mean.\\nFurther than this, on account of the fact that a\\nlarge majority of swamp lands and lands which may\\nbe improved by drainage are not massed together, but\\nare scattered broadly in small tracts, so related to\\nthe higher and better -drained lands that these must\\noften be improved in order to work the others to\\nthe best advantage, the principles of farm drainage\\nbecome a matter of great importance to a large pro-\\nportion of the rural population, and through good\\nroads to the people of cities as well.\\nTHE NECESSITY FOR DRAINAGE\\nThe first and most fundamental necessity for land\\ndrainage, as has been pointed out in discussing\\nalkali soils, is the removal of the more soluble salts\\nformed by the decay of rock and organic matter,\\nbecause too strong a solution of salts in the soil water\\nis fatal to the growth of vegetation, and gives rise\\nto the alkali lands. So long as there is sufficient\\nleaching to hold the soluble salts down to small per-\\ncentages, so that neither plasmolytic nor toxic effects\\nresult, then the first imperative demand for thor-\\nough drainage in all soils is met.\\nThe second imperative demand for drainage is to\\nprevent a stagnation of the soil water, which means,\\nto avoid the exhaustion of oxygen from the air in\\nthe soil water and in the spaces not occupied by\\nwater, because an abundance of free oxygen in the", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0444.jp2"}, "445": {"fulltext": "Necessity for Drainage 417\\nsoil is a fundamental necessity to plant life, and\\nthorough drainage secures this.\\nThe third demand for drainage is to render the\\nsoil sufficiently firm and solid to permit the field or\\nroad to be moved over without difficulty or incon-\\nvenience. If the spaces between the soil grains are\\ncompletely filled with water, then there is no surface\\ntension, and so only a slight friction to bind the\\ngrains together, and hence they move so easily upon\\none another as to be unable to sustain much weight,\\nand the horse or wagon mires.\\nEveryone is familiar with the hard surface pos-\\nsessed by wet beach sand, from which the water has\\njust withdrawn, and how yielding it is when under\\nwater and also when it becomes dry. In the first\\ncase, the sand grains are bound together by the thin\\nfilms of water which surround them in the second\\ncase, there is no free water surface between the grains,\\nand the sand tends simply to float and so moves\\neasily while in the third case, when the sand is\\ndry, the binding water films have either drained\\naway or have been lost by evaporation, hence there\\nis nothing to hold the grains together.\\nThe hard, firm character of a clay soil when it\\nloses its moisture is due to the fact that the grains\\nare so small and so close together that the little\\nmaterial which is held in solution in the soil water\\ncements them together when dry. Were the grains\\nlarge like those of the sands, with few of the fine\\nparticles between them, the contact areas would be so\\nfew and so small that little binding could result.\\nAA", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0445.jp2"}, "446": {"fulltext": "418 Irrigation and Drainage\\nTHE DEMANDS FOR AIR IN THE SOIL\\nIt must ever be kept in mind that an abundance of\\nfree oxygen in the soil is as indispensable to the life\\nof the plant as it is to that of an animal. The\\ngerminating seeds must have it, or they rot in the\\nsoil the roots of plants must have it to enable\\nthem to do their work and the vast army of\\nsoil bacteria, which change the nitrogen of decaying\\norganic matter into nitric acid, which is the chief\\nnitrogen supply for most higher plants, must have\\nit or they cannot thrive. Again, those very impor-\\ntant germs which live on the roots of clover and\\nother allied plants, and which are the chief source\\nof the organic nitrogen of the world, must have an\\nample supply of both free oxj-gen and free nitrogen\\nin the soil, or thej^ are unable to accomplish their\\ntask.\\nAgain, there lives in all fertile soils a class of\\ngerms which have the power of breaking down\\nnitrates, or even organic matter, to supply them-\\nselves with oxygen whenever the conditions are such\\nthat the soil does not contain enough to meet their\\nneeds. But when these germs are forced to do this,\\nas happens in a water -logged or poorly drained soil,\\nthe nitrogen of the soil nitrates and of organic\\nmatter is liberated in the form of free nitrogen\\ngas, and hence the soil may thus be depleted of\\nthis most expensive ingredient of plant -food wherever\\nproper drainage does not exist.\\nFinally, many purely chemical changes taking", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0446.jp2"}, "447": {"fulltext": "Drainage Ventilates the Soil 419\\nplace in the soil, which are essential to its fer-\\ntility^ demand both free oxygen and carbon dioxide,\\nso that here is another need for good drainage, in\\norder that air may enter the ground in abundance.\\nHOW DRAINAGE VENTILATES THE SOIL\\nWhere standing water would be found in holes\\nsunk 18 to 24 inches below the surface, capillarity\\nwould hold the pores of a fine soil so nearly full\\nof water to the top of the ground that there would\\nbe little room left for air to enter but when the\\nground water is permanently lowered three or four\\nfeet, as is done by underdraining, the roots of plants\\npenetrate the soil more deeply, and, as they die and\\ndecay, leave passageways leading to the surface, into\\nand out of which the air readily moves. Earth-\\nworms, ants, and other burrowing animals penetrate\\nthe ground more deeply, and open other ventilating\\nflues of much larger magnitude than those left by\\nthe roots of plants, and so greatly increase soil ven-\\ntilation as a result of drainage.\\nThen, again, when the deeper clays dry out, as\\nthey will after underdrainage, shrinkage checks form\\nin them in great numbers, opening tiny fissures\\nthrough which the air moves more freely with every\\nchange of temperature and pressure of the atmos-\\nphere above. With the deeper and more thorough\\npenetration of soil -air, carrying with it the car-\\nbonic acid developed near the surface, there begins,\\nthrough the agency of the soil water, a solution of", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0447.jp2"}, "448": {"fulltext": "420 Irrigation and Drainage\\nthe lime which in its turn tends to force the fine\\nclay particles into larger compound clusters, thus ren-\\ndering the soil more open, and hence better drained,\\nbetter ventilated, and at the same time better and\\nmore thoroughly occupied by the roots of plants.\\nBut all of these changes, which result directly\\nfrom lowering the ground -water surface, are only\\nmeans which make underdrainage more effective in\\nventilating the soil. In an underdrained field, where\\nlines of tile are laid 3 to 4 feet deep and 50 to 100\\nfeet apart, there is provided a very effective system\\nof soil ventilation as well as of drainage for with\\nevery fall of the barometer and rise of soil tempera-\\nture, some of the deeper soil -air expands and drains\\naway through the lines of tile. Then, when the\\nbarometer rises again, or when the soil temperature\\nfalls, a volume of air equal to that which left the\\nsoil under the other conditions now enters it again,\\nnot onlj^ through the surface of the ground, but\\nalso through the tile drains. It is thus seen that\\na deep, well -laid system of tile drains permits the\\nfree oxygen of the air to reach the roots of plants\\nboth from above and below. Under these condi-\\ntions, the roots of crops are better supplied with\\noxygen nitrates develop faster and deeper in the\\nsoil there is less occasion for denitrification to set\\nin, and so larger yields result.\\nWhen deep underdrainage has permitted the roots\\nof plants to penetrate the soil from 3 to 4 feet and\\nthere withdraw moisture, this action on their part\\nbecomes a means for drawing air into the ground,", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0448.jp2"}, "449": {"fulltext": "Drainage Ventilates the Soil 421\\nboth from the surface and through the tile drains,\\nbecause the removal of the soil water by the roots\\nleaves an open space, which must be filled with air\\nso far as capillarity fails to do it with water, and\\nhence deep root feeding means deep soil ventilation.\\nThen, again, when heavy rains fall which move\\ndownward through the soil, they displace both the\\nair and the water previously there, crowding them\\nforward into the drains, and then draw in after them\\na fresh supply from above. But only on well-\\ndrained soils is this action marked and helpful.\\nA word should be said here regarding the value\\nof clover and alfalfa as soil ventilators, for by their\\nthicker, stronger roots they set the soil aside more than\\nmost other cultivated crops do, and when these roots\\ndecay the soil is left better aerated and better\\ndrained. Further than this, the roots of these legu-\\nminous plants remove from the soil both free oxygen\\nand free nitrogen, and in so far as they do this with-\\nout returning an equal volume of another gas, their\\naction tends to develop a vacuum which must be\\nfilled by bringing in a fresh supply from without.\\nTOO THOROUGH AERATION OF THE SOIL\\nThere may be too strong and rapid changes of\\nsoil-air, just as there may be too rapid and complete\\ndrainage. If the air enters a rich, damp soil too\\nrapidly, there is so strong a development of nitrates\\nthat the humus and other organic nitrogen are quickly\\nchanged into the soluble forms, and rapidly leach", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0449.jp2"}, "450": {"fulltext": "422 Irrigation and Drainage\\naway. It is in this manner that coarse, sandy soils\\nare impoverished, and their lack of productiveness\\nis often due quite as much to too thorough ventilation\\nas to too complete drainage and in handling these\\nsoils the utmost care should be exercised to keep\\nthe content of humus high, the moisture plenty, and\\nthe winds from drifting away the finest dust particles,\\nbecause all of these tend to close up the pores, giving\\nthe soil a texture which diminishes the amount of\\nventilation.\\nDRAINAGE INCREASES THE AVAILABLE SUPPLY OF\\nSOIL MOISTURE FOR CROPS\\nWhen soils are poorly drained during spring and\\nearly summer, the root system of the various crops\\nis forced to develop near the surface, and if this is\\nthe case until the demands for moisture become large,\\nthe soil in which the roots are confined becomes very\\ndry, because capillarity brings the water up from\\nbelow too slowly to meet the demand.\\nIt is a familiar fact that a damp cloth is much\\nbetter to remove water from the floor than a dry one,\\nand the same is true of soils water rises by capil-\\nlarity in them when quite moist much faster than\\nwhen they become dry, and so it is a matter of the\\ngreatest moment to keep the surface soil, beneath the\\nmulch, as damp as the best conditions for growth\\nwill permit. When the deeper soil in the spring and\\nearly summer is well drained, and the roots of the\\ncrop penetrate it, they not only find themselves closer", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0450.jp2"}, "451": {"fulltext": "Drainage Increases Available Moisture 423\\nto the ground water supply, but not so many roots\\nare forced to take the moisture near the surface, and\\nhence for this reason capillarity is better able to hold\\nthe water content up to the saturation needed.\\nWith the soil near the surface moist, where nitrates\\nare mostly formed, a better supply of these is kept\\nup, while at the same time there is moisture enough\\nto hold them in solution and to enable the roots\\nto obtain them. When other roots are deeper in the\\nground, these may chiefly draw water to meet the\\nnecessary evaporation which goes on in the leaves,\\nand thus reserve the surface moisture for developing\\nplant -food and giving it to the plant. In this way\\nit happens that crops suffer less in times of drought\\non well -drained, heavy soils than they do on the same\\nsoils not drained.\\nSOIL MADE WARMER BY DRAINAGE\\nThere is no cause so effective in maintaining a low\\ntemperature of the soil in the spring as the water\\nwhich it contains, and which may be evaporating from\\nits surface. One reason for this influence is found\\nin the fact that more heat is required to change the\\ntemperature of a pound of water one degree than the\\nsame weight of almost any other substance. Thus,\\nwhile 100 units of heat must be used to warm 100\\npounds of water from 32\u00c2\u00b0 F. to 33\u00c2\u00b0 F., only 19.09\\nunits are required to raise the temperature of the\\nsame weight of dry sand, and 22.43 units an equal\\nweight of pure clay through the same range of", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0451.jp2"}, "452": {"fulltext": "424 Irrigation and Drainage\\ntemperature. Stated in another waj^ the amount of\\nsunshine which will warm a given weight of water\\n10\u00c2\u00b0 F. will raise the temperature of an equal weight\\nof dry sand 52.38\u00c2\u00b0 F., clay 44.58\u00c2\u00b0 and humus 22.6\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt is plain, therefore, that very wet soils must warm\\nin the sun more slowly because the water which they\\ncontain tends to hold the temperature dowu.\\nThe chief cause, however, which makes a wet,\\nundrained soil colder than the better drained one, is\\nthe cooling effect which results from the more rapid\\nevaporation of water from the wetter soil surface.\\nWhen the bulb of one of two similar thermometers\\nis covered with a jacket of muslin moistened w^ith\\npure water, and the two are swung side by side in\\na dry air, it will often be observed that the bulb bear-\\ning the moist cloth will have its temperature lowered\\nas much as 20\u00c2\u00b0 F. by the cooling effect of evaporating\\nwater. So, too, when water evaporates from any sur-\\nface, no matter what, its temperature is lowered in\\nproportion to the rate at which evaporation is taking\\nplace. The teakettle boiling over the hot fire has\\nits temperature constantly held down to 212\u00c2\u00b0 by the\\nrapid evaporation of water, although the heat of the\\nfire playing upon it is very many degrees hotter.\\nIt is the same way with a wet soil through which\\nwater is continually brought to the surface as rapidly\\nas it can be evaporated in the heat of the sunshine.\\nThe loss of the water in this way necessarily holds\\nthe temperature down, and the lower the more rapidly\\nthe evaporation takes place. The following table*\\n*Tlie Soil, p. 227.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0452.jp2"}, "453": {"fulltext": "soil\\nsoil\\nence\\n66.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n54.00\u00c2\u00b0\\n12.50\u00c2\u00b0\\n70.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n58.00\u00c2\u00b0\\n12.00\u00c2\u00b0\\n50.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n44.00\u00c2\u00b0\\n6.00\u00c2\u00b0\\n55.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n50.75\u00c2\u00b0\\n4.25\u00c2\u00b0\\n47.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n44.50\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.50\u00c2\u00b0\\nImportance of Soil Warmth 425\\nshows the observed difference in temperature of a\\ndrained and an undrained soil\\nTemperature\\nCondition of Temp, of of drained of undrained Differ-\\nDate Time weather air\\nA^^ji OA 3.30 to Cloudy, with brisk f;o w\\n^P^^^24 4p^ east wind\\nAT ril9 Cloudy, with brisk (-AnOF\\nApril 25 3 30 64.0 J^\\nAr^T-n 9R 1.30 to Cloudy, rain all the 4= no w\\nApril ^b 2 p. m. forenoon\\nA T^v^i 07 1-30 to Cloudy and sunshine, ^q no t?\\nApril 27 2 p. m. wind S. W. brisk\\nAtxt^i 98 7 to Cloudy and sunshine, no p\\nThe difference in the rate of evaporation from\\nclayey soil and sandy soil, when both are well\\ndrained, will often be enough to leave the clay\\nsoil 7\u00c2\u00b0 F. colder in the surface foot and 5\u00c2\u00b0 colder\\nin the second and third feet below the surface.\\nIMPORTANCE OF SOIL WARMTH\\nEbermayer concluded from his observations that\\nrelatively little growth can take place with most cul-\\ntivated crops until after the soil temperature has\\nbeen carried above 45\u00c2\u00b0 to 48\u00c2\u00b0 F., and the maximum\\nresults are reached only after a temperature of 68\u00c2\u00b0\\nto 70\u00c2\u00b0 has been attained.\\nSachs showed that both pumpkin and tobacco\\nplants wilted, even at night and with an abundance\\nof moisture in the soil, when its temperature fell\\nmuch below 55\u00c2\u00b0 F., the osmotic pressure being then\\ntoo feeble to maintain a sufficient movement of soil\\nmoisture to keep the plant cells turgid. Phenomena", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0453.jp2"}, "454": {"fulltext": "426\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nsimilar to this are often observed early in the spring,\\nwhen leaves are just unfolding. A strong drying\\nwind on a cool day, with the soil also cold, withers\\nthe leaves much as if they had been frosted.\\nThe germination of seed is very much influenced\\nby the temperature of the soil, maize requiring 16\\ndays to appear above the ground when the soil tem-\\nperature is 60\u00c2\u00b0 F., or below, when if the warmth is\\n72\u00c2\u00b0 or above, 3 days or less will do the same work,\\nbesides giving much stronger plants. These effects\\nKg. 131. Intluenee of soil temperature on the rate of germinatiou of maize.\\nof soil temperature are clearly demonstrated in Fig.\\n131. Indeed, it will often happen that when seed\\nof rather low vitality is planted in a soil a little too\\ncold, germination will not take place at all, or if it", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0454.jp2"}, "455": {"fulltext": "Importance of Soil Warmth 427\\ndoes, the plants are so much enfeebled that only a\\nslow growth results afterward.\\nIn the early part of the season, when ground is\\nbeing fitted for seeding, it should ever be kept in\\nmind that one of the chief objects of the early and\\nthorough tillage is to develop an abundance of\\nnitrates in the soil for the use of the crop. But\\nthis is done by making the soil warmer, and by\\nintroducing an abundance of air into it when there\\nis a good supply of moisture associated with the\\nhumus upon which the niter germs feed. Thjse\\ngerms cease to develop niter from humus when the\\nsoil temperature drops to 41\u00c2\u00b0 F. the action is only\\nbarely appreciable at 54\u00c2\u00b0 F., and it reaches its maxi-\\nmum rate only at a temperature of 98\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nNow, the early, deep stirring of the soil in the\\nspring prevents the moisture from coming up from\\nbelow, and so lessens the rate of evaporation this\\nallows the soil to become warmer. Besides the heat is\\nnot conducted as rapidly downward when the soil is\\nloose this makes the stirred, well ventilated portion\\nwarmer also, so that for the germination of the seed\\nand for the development of plant -food, deep early\\ntillage is very important. It is plain, also, that the\\nwell -drained field not only can be tilled earlier and\\ndeeper, but will also have the soil warmer and richer,\\nfor the reasons just stated.\\nFor the same reason that sugar dissolves faster in\\nwarm than in cold water, so the ash ingredients of\\nplant -food are dissolved faster, and stronger solutions\\nof them are formed in the warm than in the cold", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0455.jp2"}, "456": {"fulltext": "428 Irrigation and Drainage\\nsoils, and hence land drainage may be beneficial to\\ncrop growth in this manner.\\nCONDITIONS UNDER WHICH LAND DRAINAGE\\nBECOMES DESIRABLE\\nIt must be kept ever in mind that all lands, of\\nwhatever kind, require draining, but it is extremely\\nfortunate that for most lands this is done by the\\nnatural methods of percolation and underflow of\\nground water.\\nThe cases in which it becomes desirable to supple-\\nment the methods of natural drainage fall into five\\nclasses first, those comparatively flat lands or basins\\nupon which the surface waters from surrounding\\nhigher land frequently collect second, areas border-\\ning higher lands, whose structure is such as to permit\\nthe underflow of the ground water from the adjacent\\nregions to rise from beneath, thus keeping the soil\\ntoo wet third, lands regularly inundated by the rise\\nof the tides, or which would be if not shut off by\\ndykes fourth, those extremely flat lands which are\\nunderlaid by considerable thicknesses of close, heavy\\nbeds of clay, through which water does not readily\\npercolate, and which lie very close to the surface, so\\nthat the clays become the subsoil of the fields, and\\nfifth, lands like rice -fields, water-meadows and cran-\\nberry marshes, to which water is applied by irrigation\\nin excessive quantities. It may also be found desir-\\nable on some irrigated lands to introduce drainage to\\nremove injurious salts, as described under alkalies.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0456.jp2"}, "457": {"fulltext": "Origin of Ground Water 429\\nTHE ORIGIN OF GROUND WATER AND ITS\\nRELATION TO THE SURFACE\\nTo understand the laws governing the flow of\\nwater into tile drains and ditches, it is necessary to\\nknow how the flow into streams and lakes takes\\nplace, and how the surface of the water in the\\nground is related to that in the streams and lakes\\ninto which it is continually draining.\\nThe rains which fall upon the surface tend, first\\nof all, to sink vertically downward until they reach\\nthe level at which the pores in the soil or rock are\\ncompletely filled with water. There are no soils and\\nvery few rocks through which there can be abso-\\nlutely no flow, but the downward percolation is very\\nmuch slower in some than it is in others. This\\nbeing true, everywhere beneath the land surface a\\nplace may be reached where the pores are filled with\\nwater, and the level at which this occurs is called\\nthe ground -water surface.\\nThis ground -water surface is seldom horizontal,\\nbut usually rises and falls much as does that of the\\nground above it, but with gradients less steep. In\\nFig. 132 is represented a section of land adjoining a\\nlake, where the differences in level of the surface are\\nshown by means of contour lines passing through all\\nplaces, having the height above the lake indicated by\\nthe number set in the line while in Fig. 133 the\\nsurface of the ground water for the same area is\\nalso indicated in like manner. The data for the levels\\nof the ground water were procured by sinking wells", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0457.jp2"}, "458": {"fulltext": "r5=\u00c2\u00bb-\\nFig. 132. Contours of the surface of the ground in the vicinity of a\\ntile-dr9.ined area,", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0458.jp2"}, "459": {"fulltext": "Fig. 133. Contours of the level of the ground- water surface under the\\nlocality represented in Fig. 132.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0459.jp2"}, "460": {"fulltext": "432\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nat the places designated by the small numbered cir-\\ncles.\\nReferring to the two figures, it will be observed\\nthat there is a marked tendency for the ground-\\nwater surface to stand highest where the level of the\\nfield is also highest, and that there are valleys in the\\nground -water surface beneath the valleys in the field.\\nIt will be seen that the water rises as the distance\\nfrom the lake increases, and that in places it stands\\n10 and even 20 feet higher.\\nThis distorted surface of the ground water cannot\\nbe a condition of rest, for gravity tends continually to\\nforce a flow from the higher toward the lower levels\\nalong the lines indicated by the arrows shown in Fig.\\n133. Since the further this water must, travel through\\nthe soil to reach the lake the more resistance it must\\nmeet, it is plain that a greater pressure will be re-\\nFig. 134. Diagram of lines of flow of water in the drainage of a river valley,\\nquired to overcome this resistance, and hence the\\nwater must stand higher in the ground the farther the\\ndistance to the drainage outlet. The space enclosed\\nby the rectangle in Fig. 133 is an area which required\\nunderdraining to fit it for farm crops, and the reason\\nit did is clearly shown by the contours of the two", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0460.jp2"}, "461": {"fulltext": "Movements of Ground Water 433\\nmaps and by the arrows representing the lines of\\nunderflow, which concentrate from the surrounding\\nhigher lands to pass beneath this section so near\\nthe surface that the strength of capillarity was suffi-\\ncient to over -saturate the soil above. The influence\\nof the tile drains in lowering the surface of the\\nground water is plainly shown by the distance the\\ncontours are carried back from the lake shore, as seen\\nalong the line marked tile drain.\\nIn the case of streams winding through valleys,\\nthe water comes to them at every point along their\\ncourse by slow seepage, entering the channel through\\nthe banks and bottom in the manner represented in\\nthe diagram, Fig. 134, where the heavily shaded por-\\ntion represents the soil filled with water and the lines\\nwith arrow points the direction of flow.\\nIn Fig. 135 is represented the surface of the\\nground water in the valley of the Los Angeles river,\\nCalifornia. The data for the contours were procured\\nby sinking wells at the points designated by the\\nheavy dots. From the map it is clear that the water\\nstands higher and higher above the bed of the stream\\nas the distance back increases, and that there must\\nbe a steady flow down the valley and toward the\\nriver, thus draining the surrounding country. Indeed,\\nin a distance of about 11 miles the measured growth\\nof the Los Angeles river in 1898 was 60 cubic feet of\\nwater per second, and yet no visible streams entered,\\nthe supply coming by slow seepage along the banks\\nand bottom of the entire length of the section\\nmeasured.\\nBB", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0461.jp2"}, "462": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0462.jp2"}, "463": {"fulltext": "Ground Water Gradient 435\\nIt will be clear, therefore, from the cases cited,\\nthat wherever the moving sheet of ground water ap-\\nproaches within capillary range of the surface of the\\nground, there the soil is liable to be too wet for crops\\nunless underdrained.\\nRATE AT WHICH THE GROUND -WATER SURFACE\\nRISES AWAY FROM THE DRAINAGE OUTLET\\nIn well 29 of Fig. 133, situated 150 feet from the\\nlake, the water stood 7.214 feet above the level of the\\nlake June 27, 1892, thus showing a rise of 1 foot in\\nevery 24.4 feet. At another place in the same locality,\\nbut not shown in the map, a well 1,250 feet from the\\nlake shows the ground -water surface to stand 52 feet\\nabove, thus giving a gradient of 1 foot in 24 feet.\\nLater in the season, when the ground had become\\ndryer, the gradient at well 29 became 1 foot in\\n35.86 feet.\\nBetween tile drains 33 feet apart and 4 feet deep,\\nlaid within the rectangle of Fig. 133, measurement\\nshowed the surface of the water to rise at the mean\\nrate of 1 foot in 25 feet 48 hours after a rainfall of\\n.87 inches, and the shape of the ground -water surface\\nat the time in question is represented in Fig. 137.\\nOf course, after the lapse of a longer interval of\\ntime the gradient here would have become less steep,\\njust as was the case in the other instance cited.\\nThe subsoil in which these gradients were observed\\nwas a fine sand, in some places with grains so small\\nas to approach the character of quicksand, and they", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0463.jp2"}, "464": {"fulltext": "436 Irrigation and Drainage\\nrepresent conditions which are very common in locali-\\nties where underdrainage is needed, and, therefore,\\nfurnish a good basis upon which to form a judgment\\nregarding the distance apart tile should be laid.\\nDEPTH AT WHICH DRAINS SHOULD BE LAID\\nThe depth to which water should be lowered by\\ndrainage need seldom exceed 4 feet for ordinary farm\\ncrops, and often the lowering of the water surface\\nmay be less.\\nIt should be kept in mind that the level of the\\nground water changes with the season, and that many\\nlands benefited by underdrainage are only too wet\\nearly in the spring, and if such lands are to be used\\nfor ordinary farm crops, it may only be needful to\\ndraw the water down so far as to make the surface\\ndry enough to give good working conditions for the\\nsoil. In such cases, tiles placed 2% to 3 feet deep,\\nrather than 3% to 4 feet, will usually be found suffi-\\ncient. If the tiles are placed deeper than this, not\\nonly will there be a permanent lowering of the ground\\nwater, but the low stage will be reached so much\\nearlier in the season that a smaller amount of the\\nwater flowing under the field may be used by the\\ncrop.\\nWhere fields are underlaid by sandy subsoils, it\\nis quite important not to draw the water down far\\ninto the sand, because the height to which the water\\ncan be lifted rapidly in these by capillarity is quite\\nshort. To carry the groulid- water surface below this", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0464.jp2"}, "465": {"fulltext": "Distance Betiveen Brains 437\\nlimit not only lessens the amount of underflow which\\nbecomes available to the crop, but it also diminishes\\nthe amount of the heavy summer rains which the\\ncrop may use, because when the ground water is\\ncarried too low much of the water, in times of pro-\\nlonged heavy rains, may pass below the limit of root\\nfeeding before the crop has time to avail itself of it.\\nDISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS\\nThere are three chief factors which determine the\\nproper distance between underdrains (1) the freedom\\nwith which water may flow through the subsoil\\ntoward the drains, (2) the depth at which the drains\\nare placed, and (3) the interval of time between\\nrainfalls sufficiently heavy to produce considerable\\npercolation\\nIt should be clearly understood that it is the\\ncharacter of the subsoil, rather than that of the\\nsoil, which determines the rate at which water moves\\ntoward and into the drains, and it should be further\\nunderstood that the subsoil which takes part in the\\nlateral flow of the water may be several feet, even 10\\nor more, below the level at which the drains are\\nlaid.\\n[f, for example, the field to be drained has a\\nrather close clay surface soil underlaid with two, three\\nor four feet of heavy clay, which in turn is underlaid\\nby a stratum of sand, then the movement of water\\nfrom the surface toward and into the drains will\\nbe such as is represented by the arrows in Fig.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0465.jp2"}, "466": {"fulltext": "438 Irrigation and Drainage\\n136. That is, the water moves along the line of least\\nresistance, no matter how circuitous or how long that\\nmay be.\\nWhere the cavities through which the water must\\nflow are those due to the diameter of the soil grains,\\nA, Sill- r -er/rs/z/s ^s ^i ,,t i: c 1-. 1 i i 3,\\n1\\\\N\\nFig. 136. Movements of water toward tile drains where heavy clay\\nsoils are underlaid with sand.\\nthe influence of size of grain on the rate of flow\\nis such that the amount of water passing a given\\nsection under otherwise like conditions is somewhat\\nnearly proportional to tiie squares of the diameters.\\nThis being true, if the effective diameter of the\\ngrains in the clay is .004 m.m., while that of the\\ngrains in the stratum of underlying sands is .07\\nm.m., then their squares will be .0049 and .000016\\nrespectively, in which the ratio is nearly as 300 to\\n1, so that the water would flow through the same\\nlength and section of sand about 300 times as rapidly\\nas it would through the clay.\\nIt is also true that the lengths of the soil pores\\nthrough which water flows decrease the rate in a ratio\\nnearly proportional to the lengths, so that the sand\\ncolumn in the case cited, or, what is the same thing,\\nthe distance between drains, could be 300 times as\\ngreat as with the clay and yet leave the rate of flow\\njust as rapid. It is plain, therefore, that the move-", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0466.jp2"}, "467": {"fulltext": "Distance Between Drains\\n439\\nment of the water in cases like that represented in\\nFig. 136 will be chiefly straight down through the\\nsoil and clay until the sand is reached, when the\\nmovement will be sideways toward the drains and\\nfinally upward, the water entering them chiefly from\\nthe under side. That is to say, the flow side wise\\nthrough the clay toward the drains will be very slight\\nindeed.\\nSince the resistance to flow of water increases as\\nthe soil texture becomes more close, it is clear that\\nthe more open the soil the farther apart the drains\\nmay be placed. It is common to place lines of tile\\nin underdraining varying distances apart, from 30 feet\\nto 100 and even 200 feet. The reasons for these wide\\ndifferences will be better understood after considering\\nthe way the ground -water surface changes under a\\ntile -drained field following a rain.\\nFig. 137. The observed surface of the ground water in a tile-drained field\\n48 hours after a rainfall of .87 inches.\\nIn Fig. 137 is represented the observed slope of the\\nground -water surface in a tile -drained field where\\nthe lines are placed 33 feet apart and between 3 and", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0467.jp2"}, "468": {"fulltext": "440\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\n4 feet below the surface. The conditions there shown\\nhad developed 48 hours after a rainfall of .87 inches,\\nand the facts were obtained by sinking lines of wells\\nat right angles to the drains, there being 3 wells\\nbetween each pair. It will be seen that the height of\\nthe water on the crest between the drains varies,\\nbeing much greater at 1 and 2 than elsewhere, and\\nthis is where the soil is more clayey, and so closer in\\ntexture.\\nIn Fig. 138 is represented the heights of the\\nground -water surface midway between the drains as\\nthey occurred 2 days, 2% days and 5% days after the\\nsame rain, and the differences in the steepness of the\\nslopes in the several cases should be understood as due\\nchiefly to differences in the size of the soil grains. It\\nwill be seen that after a period of nearly 6 days the\\nsurface of the ground water in the upper portion of\\nFig. 138. Changes in the level of the groundwater surface in tile-drained field.\\nthe field has become quite flat, having fallen below the\\nlevel of the drains, and the gradient being reduced\\nto 1 foot in 175 feet, while at the lower end, where\\nthe soil is heavier, the slope is still 1 in 27.\\nTaking these two cases, let it be assumed that it", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0468.jp2"}, "469": {"fulltext": "Distance Between Drains\\n441\\nis desired to place the lines of tile close enough\\ntogether, so that after 6 days following an inch of\\nrain the water shall nowhere stand within 3 feet of\\nthe surface, and that the tiles are placed 4 feet deep.\\nSince in the sandy subsoil of the upper part of the\\nFig. 139. Diagram of influence of distance between drains on\\ndepth of drainage.\\nHeld the mean gradient is 1 foot in 175, the lines\\nof tile may, under such conditions, be placed twice\\nthis distance apart, or 350 feet, for then halfway\\nbetween them the water would only stand 1 foot above\\nthe drains and hence 3 feet below the surface. But\\nin the lower part of the field, where the soil is finer\\nand where the observed mean gradient is 1 in 27,\\nthe lines of tile could only be placed 54 feet apart\\nto ensure the same conditions.\\nIt was pointed out, in connection with Fig. 133,\\nthat the slope of the ground water toward the lake\\nwas at the rate of 1 foot in 24.4 early in the season,\\nand later 1 foot in 35.86 feet, which would call for\\nplacing the lines of tile 50 to 72 feet apart. Refer-\\nring to the diagram. Fig. 139, it will be readily under-\\nstood that when there is a drain at A and C only,\\nthe soil undrained must be highest at B, but if an", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0469.jp2"}, "470": {"fulltext": "442 Irrigation and Drainage\\nintermediate line of tiles is placed at D, then the\\nhighest levels of the ground water would be found at\\nE and F, farther below the surface, leaving the field\\nbetter drained. It is very important that this prin-\\nciple be thoroughly grasped, because so many local\\nconditions affect the depth and distance apart at\\nwhich drains should be placed that no specific figures\\ncan be safely followed in all cases. It is generally\\ntrue that in loose, loamy soils, and especially if under-\\nlaid by sand, good drainage will be secured with\\ndrains 100 feet apart and 3X feet deep. On heavier\\nsoils, they must be closer, and on more open ones\\nthey may be farther apart.\\nIn regard to depths of drains, it should be under-\\nstood that the deeper they are placed the better work\\nthey do as a rule. If one soil has had its non-\\ncapillary pores emptied to a depth of 4 feet, and\\nanother one only to a depth of 2 feet, the capacity\\nof the former to store a heavy rain without over-\\nsaturation will evidently be greater than that of the\\nlatter, and hence the shallow drained fields will oftenest\\nbecome over -wet in wet seasons. But the cost of\\ndigging 4 feet is much greater than 2X feet, the\\nexpense increasing faster than in proportion to the\\ndepth.\\nIn cold climates the tiles must be placed as deep as\\n2 feet, to prevent their destruction by frost. Tiles\\nare laid at a depth of 18 inches, but the practice is\\nnot only unsafe so far as destruction of the tiles is\\nconcerned, but not half the advantage can then be\\nsecured which they are capable of giving if laid deeper.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0470.jp2"}, "471": {"fulltext": "Kinds of Drains 443\\nKINDS OF DRAINS\\nDrains are called closed or open, according as they\\nare covered or not. There are conditions under which\\nopen drains or ditches should and must be used, but\\nthe closed forms are always to be preferred where\\nthorough drainage and facility in working the land\\nare desired. In the earlier practice of underdraining,\\nbefore tiles were invented and manufactured on a\\nlarge scale, various means were adopted to provide\\nwaterways through which the water could more readily\\ndrain away from the field. An early method was to\\nplace in the bottom of a ditch bundles of faggots end\\nto end and then fill in, expecting the water to flow\\nthrough the spaces between the faggots. Three\\nslender poles were often used, one laid upon two\\nothers, thus forming a waterway or again, a single\\nlarger pole was split in two and these laid in the\\nditch side by side with the flat faces up. Two boards\\nnailed together V-shaped and laid on the bottom of\\nthe ditch formed still another method of securing\\nunderground drains with wood.\\nStones were also used in various ways for the same\\npurpose sometimes the bottom of the ditch was\\nfilled with small stones and then covered two rows\\nof flat stones placed on edge to form a V opening\\ndownward, was another common plan. Two flat\\nstones on edge, with a cover, were extensively used,\\nand some even went to the trouble of paving the\\nbottom of the ditch with flat stones and forming a\\nclosed stone drain by adding sides and top, which,", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0471.jp2"}, "472": {"fulltext": "444 Irrigation and Drainage\\nwhen well done, was permanent and effective. Square\\nblocks of peat have been grooved on one face and\\ntwo of these placed together to form a tile, thus\\nmaking a drain of another kind. Each of these\\nmethods of securing underdrainage involved much\\nlabor gave channels in which the water flowed with\\ngreat resistance clogged easily, and while beneficial\\nresults invariably followed their use, they were neither\\nwholly satisfactory nor permanent.\\nWhen the manufacture of tiles from burned clay\\nwas begun, various shapes were adopted and abandoned\\nfor the present cylindrical type, which when well\\nmade and laid, has been found entirely satisfactory\\nfor the construction of closed drains.\\nIn more recent years an effort has been made to\\nbuild a continuous line of tiles in the bottom of the\\nditch after it is dug and graded, using a concrete\\nmade from the best hydraulic cement, lime and sand^\\nThe mortar, when made, is fed through a simple\\nmachine, which determines the size and shape of the\\ntile, making it continuous, cylindrical and smooth on\\nthe inside. A trowel is used to cut the tile through\\nto near the lower side with sufficient frequency to\\npermit the necessary percolation from the soil, thus\\nsecuring a drain with all joints perfect. The system,\\nhowever, has not been sufficiently long in use to\\nenable one to say how meritorious it is.\\nOpen surface drains, where they are permanent\\nimprovements, should, if possible, be made wide and\\nwith sides so gently sloping as not to be washed, and,\\nif possible, so as to be grassed over and driveai through", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0472.jp2"}, "473": {"fulltext": "Kinds of Drains 445\\nwith mowing machine, both to keep it clean and to\\nutilize the land for hay. In many flat prairie sec-\\ntions there are runs, draws, sloughs or natural\\nwaterways, through which the surface waters find\\ntheir way, in the spring and at times of heavy rains,\\ninto drainage channels. Such drainage must usually\\nbe handled in surface drains, and even when the\\nchannel must in places have a depth of three feet,\\nit will be cheaper and far better in the long run to\\nmake them with sloping sides not steeper than 1 in\\n2, or 12 feet wide at the top. If the work is done\\nin the dry season, most of it can be accomplished\\nwith plow and scraper, and the earth moved back,\\nsmoothed down and seeded to grass so as to make\\nit permanent, easily cared for, and not a serious\\nobstruction.\\nWhere turns must be made in such drains, they\\nshould have a large curvature to prevent the water\\ncutting into the bank.\\nHOW WATER ENTERS TILE DRAINS\\nThe flow of water into the tile drains takes place\\nthrough the walls of the tiles and through the joints\\nmade by abutting the ends together. It is a common\\nimpression that considerable space should be left\\nbetween the ends of the separate tiles, in order that\\nthe water shall have opportunity to enter, and that it\\nis quite necessary that the lengths of the tile shall be\\nshort, in order that there shall be sufficient space\\nleft for the passage of the water.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0473.jp2"}, "474": {"fulltext": "446 Irrigation mid Drainage\\nThe facts are, however, that there is so ready a\\nmovement through the walls of ordinary tiles them-\\nselves, and through the joints when they are made as\\nperfect as possible, that every precaution should be\\ntaken in laying tiles to make perfect joints, in order\\nthat the silt and soil may be excluded, to prevent\\nclogging the drain.\\nA series of observations on 2 -inch Jefferson, Wis.,\\ntiles, relating to the rate of percolation through the\\npores in the walls, showed that under a pressure of\\n23.5 inches the discharge per 100 feet into the tile was\\nat the rate of 8.1 cubic feet during 24 hours. This\\noccurred when the walls were surrounded by water\\nonly. When the tiles were covered with a fine clay\\nloam, so that water had to flow through 3 inches of\\nthis soil to reach the tiles, the discharge was reduced\\nto the rate of 1.62 cubic feet per 100 feet of tile in\\n24 hours. It is plain, therefore, that with this poros-\\nity and with the openings at the joints, there is\\nample opportunity for the water to find its way into\\nthe drains after reaching them, and great pains\\nshould always be taken to make as close joints as\\npossible.\\nThe use of collars to keep sediment from entering\\nthe joints is not a good practice. They will not, as\\na rule, fit closely they tend to encourage careless\\nlaying they increase the first cost, and the soil, if\\nit works under the collars so as to fill the space, will\\nretard the entrance of water into the drain. Tile well\\nmade, with ends square and whole, if properly laid,\\nmake a sufficiently close joint.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0474.jp2"}, "475": {"fulltext": "Gradient of Brains 447\\nTHE FALL OR GRADIENT FOR DRAINS\\nIn most cases where drainage is required, the sur-\\nface of the field is so flat that it is usually desirable\\nto secure as much fall for the drains as it is prac-\\nticable to get, and so a careful study of the field\\nshould be made with a view to learning where the\\nlowest land is and along what line the greatest rate\\nof fall may be secured. This is a matter of the\\ngreatest importance, and the less the fall is the\\ngreater should be the attention given to it. If a fall\\nof 2 inches or more in 100 feet can be secured, the\\nconditions are favorable for good results. It often\\nhappens that less fall than this must be accepted, but\\nthis should be done only after careful leveling has\\nproved a greater one impracticable.\\nIt will frequently happen that the line of lowest\\nground is quite tortuous, making the distance from the\\nhighest to the lowest point greater than to follow a\\nstraight line. When this is the case, and the fall\\nvery small, it may often be desirable to dig a little\\ndeeper in places, cutting off bends, and thus increase\\nthe fall.\\nIt will generally be true, however, that the main\\ndrain should follow the lowest line in order to secure\\nas much fall for the laterals as possible, and this\\npoint is made the more important because the axis\\nof each lateral should reach the main above its center,\\nin order that water in the main shall not set back\\ninto it.\\nGreat pains should always be taken to get a per-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0475.jp2"}, "476": {"fulltext": "448\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nfectly uniform fall for the whole main or the whole\\nof any given lateral, and the greatest care should be\\nexercised to lay the tiles perfectly true to the grade\\nwhen that has been determined. When this is done,\\nthere is the least tendency for sediment to lodge and\\nclog the drain.\\nIt will not be possible in all cases to maintain a\\nconstant gradient, and when this is true it is best\\nalways to change from a less fall to one which is\\ngreater, because then any sediment which should be\\ncarried in the upper part\\nof the drain will also be\\ncarried when the fall is\\nincreased but with the\\nreverse conditions the\\nlower fall must have a\\ntendency to cause the\\ndrain to become clogged.\\nWhere a change from\\na larger fall to one less\\nmust be made, and the\\nlatter gradient is 3 inches\\nper 100 feet or less, it\\nwill usually be prudent\\nto place a silt basin where\\nthe change of grade oc-\\ncurs, as represented in\\nFig. 140. The silt basin, if the line of tiles is short\\nand small, may be made by sinking an 8-, 10- or 12-\\ninch tile below the level of the bottom of the ditch,\\nand then notching another section of the same size,\\nFig. 140. SUt basin.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0476.jp2"}, "477": {"fulltext": "Size of Tile 449\\nso that it may receive the drain from above and be-\\nlow. The sediment brought will then be dropped in\\nthe still water of the basin, and may be removed from\\ntime to time. To bring the silt basin to the top of\\nthe ground, it will be best to use one length of the\\nglazed sewer tile, because this will not be injured by\\nfreezing. Where the line of tiles is large, and much\\nsediment is likely to be moved, the silt basin should\\nbe dug larger and bricked up. Silt basins should be\\nkept covered to avoid accidents, and especially in win-\\nter, to prevent injury to the tile by freezing.\\nSIZE OF TILE TO USE\\nIt is not possible to give specific directions for\\nselecting the sizes of tiles which are best, except where\\nall the details regarding the field to be drained are\\nknown. It may be said, in general, that their capacity\\nmust be large enough to remove the excess of water\\nof the heaviest rains which fall inside of 24 to 48\\nhours, but how much this excess may be will vary\\nbetween wide limits.\\nIf the tile are 3% to 4 feet deep, and the soil has\\nbeen depleted of its moisture by a heavy crop, the\\ncases are very exceptional when even a rainfall\\nof 2.5 inches in 24 hours would produce much per-\\ncolation into the drains. It is the rains in the\\nspring of the year which will most tax the drains,\\nbut it should be understood that so long as the\\nwater is moving quite rapidly through the soil it is\\nsucking fresh air in after it, and there is little danger\\nCO", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0477.jp2"}, "478": {"fulltext": "450 Irrigation and Drainage\\nto crops, and for this reason mucli smaller tiles are\\npermissible than would otherwise be the case. It is\\nwhen the ground water in a cultivated field becomes\\nstagnant or stationarj^ that poisonous principles are\\ndeveloped and suffocation for lack of air occurs.\\nThe greater the gradient or fall of the line of\\ntiles, the greater will be its capacity and the smaller\\nit may be for a given area. The area of cross-\\nsection of tiles increases in the ratio of the squares\\nof the diameters thus for diameters of tiles of 2,\\n3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 inches, the areas will be 4, 9,\\n16, 25, 36, 49, 64^ and 81 square inches, and hence,\\nwhen running full with the same velocity, their\\ncapacities would be in the relations of the second\\nseries of numbers. The friction on the walls of the\\ntiles, and the eddies which the joints and other ine-\\nqualities tend to set up, reduce the velocity in the\\nsmall tiles more than they do in the large ones,\\nhence doubling the diameter of tiles considerably\\nmore than makes its capacity four times as great.\\nThe longer the line of tiles the less it is able to\\ndischarge when running full, but just how much the\\ncapacity is decreased by the length cannot be simply\\nor accurately stated.\\nIn speaking of the proper size of mains, C. G.\\nElliott* states For drains not more than 500 feet\\nlong, a 2 -inch tile will drain two acres. Lines more\\nthan 500 feet long should not be laid of 2 -inch\\ntiles. A 3 -inch tile will drain five acres, and should\\nnot be of greater length than 1,000 feet. A 4 -inch\\nPractical Farm Drainage, p. 57.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0478.jp2"}, "479": {"fulltext": "Size of Tile 451\\ntile will drain 12 acres a 5 -inch, 20; a 6 -inch, 40\\nand a 7 -inch tile 60 acres.\\nIn the earlier practice of underdraining with cylin-\\ndrical tiles, sizes as small as 1% inches were used for\\nthe laterals, leading the water into the mains, but the\\ngeneral tendency has been to abandon the smaller\\nsizes and to use nothing less than 3 inches in\\ndiameter, even for the laterals. The labor of making\\nthe small sizes is nearly as great as that required for\\nthose 3 inches in diameter, thus leaving the differ-\\nence in cost chieflj^ that of the extra amount of stock\\nused in the manufacture. But the 3 -inch size is so\\nmuch safer to use than the smaller ones that the\\nlatter should generally be abandoned. The most seri-\\nous objection to the small sizes is the great difficulty\\nin laying them so exactly to grade as not to have\\nthem silt up.\\nThe sizes of mains and sub -mains, the sizes of\\nlaterals, the lengths of each size used, and the dis-\\ntance between drains, can best be shown by citing a\\nspecific case where the conditions to be met have\\nbeen considered in making the selections and adjust-\\nments. The case selected was laid out under the\\nsupervision of C. G. Elliott, C. E., and is an 80 -acre\\nfarm in northern Illinois, where the soil is a deep,\\nrich, black loam, approaching muck in its lowest\\nplaces, and underlaid at a depth of 2.5 feet with a\\nyellow clay subsoil. The fall of the main drains in\\nthis case is not less than 2 inches per 100 feet, and\\nthat of the laterals is more rather than less.\\nThe diagram. Fig. 141, shows that the least distance", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0479.jp2"}, "480": {"fulltext": "452\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nbetween laterals is about 150 feet an effort was not\\nmade to secure perfect drainage, but rather so nearly\\nsufficient for ordinary crops as to make the increase\\nin yield pay a fair return for the money invested.\\nFig. 141. Drainage system of 80 acres. Double lines represent mains single\\nlines are laterals. Numbers give length of drains and diameter of tile.\\nAfter C. G. Elliott.\\nThe double lines represent the mains and sub -mains;\\nthe single lines are laterals, and the numbers of three\\nor more figures express the number of feet of each\\nsize used in the line against which they stand, while\\nthe single figures under these show the inside diame-\\nter of the tiles used.\\nIt will be seen that the main begins with 1,000\\nfeet of 7 -inch tiles, carrying the water from 80 acres\\nof flat land surrounded by comparatively level fields\\nnext follow 1,200 feet of 6 -inch tiles, then 600 feet\\nof 5 -inch, the line closing with 157 feet of 4 -inch\\ntiles into which no laterals lead.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0480.jp2"}, "481": {"fulltext": "Outlet of Drains\\n453\\nTHE OUTLET OF DRAINS\\nGreat pains should be taken to secure a clear fall\\nat the outlet of a drain, placing it, if possible, where\\nit will always be above water, as represented at A,\\nFig. 142, rather than as at B. If the outlet is beneath\\nwater, the checking of the velocity of outflow will\\ncause sediment to be thrown down, and will soon clog\\nthe main. Care should also be taken to so guard the\\noutlet from the trampling of animals that they shall\\nJVtffl .I^J iiV .i. V V ^l l f* i*^\\n^^^^B\\nE^^B\\n=--5^\\n-i.^^^^\\nll\\nFig. 142. Proper and improper outlet of drains. A, proper outlet B, improper\\noutlet C, proper junction of lateral with main D, improper junction.\\nnot break down the earth about it and against the\\neffect of winter frosts and surface rains, tending to\\nthrow earth down over the mouth.\\nIn cold climates it will not do to terminate the\\nmain with the ordinary drain tile, as the action of the\\nfrost will soon crumble it down. A common plan is\\nto make a wooden outlet, 16 feet long, out of 2 -inch\\nlumber, thus holding the tile back beneath the sur-\\nface sufficiently far to be safe against freezing. A\\nmuch better termination of the main, however, and\\none which will be permanent, is glazed sewer tile,\\nusing not less than 10 feet of it. Lap -weld iron pipes", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0481.jp2"}, "482": {"fulltext": "454\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nFig. 143. Method of connect-\\ning lateral with main drain.\\nAfter Jul. Kiihn.\\nare also used for this purpose, but a section or two of\\nthe cast iron sewer pipe of the size of the main will\\nbe found better, because more durable.\\nWhere the laterals are connected with the mains,\\nan effort should be made to introduce the branch\\nabove the axis of the main, and where there is fall\\nenough to permit of doing so the method used exten-\\nsively in Europe\\nseems to be the\\nbest. This con-\\nsists in perforating\\nthe top of the main\\nand the bottom of\\nthe end tile of the\\nlateral, placing the\\ntwo openings together, as represented in Fig. 143, but\\nfirst closing the ends of the tile with a stone and ball\\nof clay. This arrangement allows the lateral to empty\\nitself completely into the main, and prevents it from\\nbecoming clogged with sediment by the setting back\\nof water into it.\\nWhere connection is made direct with the side of\\nthe main, it should be done by approaching at an\\nangle down stream, as shown at C, Fig. 142, rather\\nthan as at D. This can be done, even if the lateral\\nis at right angles to the main, by curving the ditch\\ngently for a rod or more as the place of junction is\\napproached. With this mode of joining, the least\\ninterference is brought about when the two currents\\nunite and there is the least tendency to clog.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0482.jp2"}, "483": {"fulltext": "Obstructions to Drains\\n455\\nOBSTRUCTIONS TO DRAINS\\nIn all cases where water flows through the drain\\nduring any considerable portion of the growing season,\\ncare must be taken to avoid the presence of trees\\nFig, 144. Showing roots of European larch removed from a 6-inch tile\\ndrain, which they had effectually clogged.\\nanywhere within three or four rods of the line of tile,\\notherwise the roots will find their way into the drain\\nthrough the joints, and there branch out into a com-", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0483.jp2"}, "484": {"fulltext": "456 Irrigation and Drainage\\nplete mat of fine fibers, which will fill the whole drain\\nand by arresting the silt moving with the water, com-\\npletely closes it. In Fig. 144 are shown two bundles\\nof roots of the European larch which entered and\\ncompletely choked a 6 -inch main lying 5 feet below\\nthe surface, and where the trees were standing 15 feet\\naway from the line. There are but few trees that\\nwill grow in such places which can be trusted near\\nthe drain, but the willow, elm, larch or tamarack, and\\nsoft maple are among the worst. It should be under-\\nstood that so long as the water in the drain is flowing\\nit is highly charged with air, and trees may even bet-\\nter immerse their roots in this than in the more\\nstationary water between the soil grains, hence they\\ndo so wherever opportunity is offered, unless the water\\nshould be poisonous.\\nLAYING OUT SYSTEMS OP DRAINS\\nIn preparing to drain a piece of ground of con-\\nsiderable extent, careful study should always be given\\nto the best way of laying out the system so as^ to\\nsecure the greatest fall and the most complete drain-\\nage with the least digging and the smallest number\\nof feet of tile at the lowest cost. To do this, care\\nmust be taken to avoid laying the lines so as to\\nbring their influence within territory already sufficiently\\ndrained by another line to make the outlets and\\njunctions as few as possible to avoid the necessity\\nof the more expensive large sizes of tiles, and of dig-\\nging more deeply than is required for good drainage.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0484.jp2"}, "485": {"fulltext": "Systems of Drains\\n457\\nIn Fig. 145 are represented diagrammatically two\\nways of laying out a system of drains for the same\\npiece of land. The area drained is about 14 acres,\\nand with lines of tile laid 100 feet apart, system\\nA requires 625 feet of 4 -inch and 3,020 of 3 -inch\\ntiles, while that of B makes necessary only 550 feet\\nFig. 145. Two systems of laying out drains.\\nof 4 -inch and 2,830 feet of 3 -inch tiles to drain\\nequally well the same area.\\nWhere long lines of tile must be laid in which\\nmore than one size will be required, three systems\\nhave been adopted, that represented in A, Fig. 145,\\nalready described a second. A, Fig. 146, and a third,\\nB, in the same figure. In the case of A, Fig. 146,\\ncovering a section 2,000 feet by 900 feet above the", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0485.jp2"}, "486": {"fulltext": "458\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\n8 3\\n3 3 3\\n3 3 3\\nN\\nV\\n3 3 3\\nS\\nline a a, there would be required 9,000 feet of 3 -inch\\ntiles and 9,000 feet of 4 -inch tiles, with lines laid\\n100 feet apart but following the second system, B,\\nit would only be neces-\\nsary to lay 3,000 feet of\\n4-inch tiles, with 15,300\\nfeet of 3 -inch. At 1\\ncent per foot for 3 -inch\\nand 1.6 cents for 4 -inch\\ntile, the difference be-\\ntween the purchase price\\nof the two sets of tile\\nwould be $33 in favor\\nof the system B. The\\nsaving grows out of the\\nfact that one line of 4-\\ninch tile has ample ca-\\npacity to drain not only\\nFig. 146. Two systems of laying out drains, ^^q strilD of ffrOUUd it\\ntraverses, but at the same time to discharge the water\\ngathered by the three lines of 3 -inch tile emptying\\ninto it from the upper half of the field.\\nIt will be observed that in both diagrams the nine\\nlines of tile have been brought to one outlet in the\\nstream, rather than to make them all separate, as\\nmight be done in A, or to make three outlets, as could\\nreadily have been done in the case of B. To have\\nfinished the system with three outlets would not have\\nbeen a bad or expensive plan, but to have as many\\noutlets as there are lines of tile is not generally to\\nbe recommended.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0486.jp2"}, "487": {"fulltext": "Intercepting Underflow\\n459\\nIn actual practice, it will usually be found that no\\nsingle system, such as has been represented, can be\\nused alone, but rather a combination of them in\\nvarious ways growing out of the irregularity of slopes\\nand surface conditions.\\nINTERCEPTING THE UNDERFLOW FROM HILLSIDES\\nCases are not infrequent where seepage from the\\nhigh lands surrounding a flat area approaches so close\\nto the surface at the foot of the rising ground that a\\nsingle line of underdrains placed here at a good\\nDW\\nFig. 147. Structural conditions producing swamp lands by underflow, and\\nmethods of intercepting the underflow.\\ndepth will so completely intercept the underflow as to\\nmake little other draining needed. The structural\\nconditions which render underdrainage in such cases\\nneedful, the method of accomplishing it, and the\\nunderlying principle, are represented in Fig. 147.\\nIn this case the comparatively impervious rock\\nbottom of the valley holds up the water and forces", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0487.jp2"}, "488": {"fulltext": "460 Irrigation and Drainage\\nit to spread laterally and to underflow the low ground\\nthrough the sandy stratum covered by the closer\\ntextured layer above, and to rise up through that\\nsoil layer, both by hydrostatic pressure and by cap-\\nillarity, and thus keep it too wet for agricultural\\npurposes. But when tiles are placed at A and B,\\nat the foot of the high lands on both sides, the water\\ncan more easily escape into the drain than it can flow\\non through the sand stratum, and the result is, the\\npressure which before was forcing the water beyond\\nA to the left and beyond B to the right may now be\\nso nearly all absorbed by the flow of water into the\\ntile drains that no more water reaches the flat land\\nbetween them than is needed to meet the demands of\\nvegetation and surface evaporation. The case is\\nexactly similar to what is shown in the lower portion\\nof the diagram here it is plain that if water is\\nallowed to discharge at C and D nearly as fast as the\\npipes can bring it from the reservoir, there would\\nbe little left to pass on and escape through openings\\nbeyond, while if C and D are closed, the full pressure\\nwould operate to increase the discharge at lower\\nopenings, as at E.\\nDRAINING SINKS AND PONDS\\nIt frequently occurs that low places are entirely\\nsurrounded by such high lands as to make it diflicult\\nto provide an outlet for the surface water which col-\\nlects in them, especially during the winter and early\\nspring, keeping them too wet for agricultural purposes.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0488.jp2"}, "489": {"fulltext": "Braining Sinks and Ponds\\n461\\nWhere the water collecting in such places is\\nlargely from surface drainage, it is frequently possible\\nto reclaim them by intercepting the water and divert-\\ning it around the sink in the manner suggested in\\nFig. 148, where A B\\nrepresents a surface\\nditch taking the water\\nfrom the higher land\\nabove.\\nIt is frequently true\\nthat such low places\\nwithout natural outlets\\nare underlaid with well\\ndrained beds of coarse\\nsand and gravel, and\\nin such cases, if the\\nvolume of water is not\\nvery large and if the\\nbed of sand and gravel\\nbeneath it is thick and only 10 to 15 feet from the\\nsurface, a well sunk into the sand and gravel and\\nstoned or bricked up may serve as an outlet for under\\nor surface drains.\\nInstead of curbing the well, it may be simply filled\\nwith loose stones to within 3 feet of the surface,\\ncovering these with smaller ones and finally with\\ngravel and then sand, leaving the surface unobstructed.\\nUnless the approach to this drain is so gradual\\nthat there is no danger of fine silt being deposited over\\nit, it would be better to have this in a shallow sink\\nsurrounded by a slightly higher border, grassed over\\nFig, 148. Method of intercepting surface drain-\\nage. A, B, surface ditch.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0489.jp2"}, "490": {"fulltext": "462\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nto hold back the water and throw down the sediment\\nbefore reaching this place, as shown in Fig. 149,\\nwhere a pit has been sunk into the porous gravel\\nbelow and broadened at the surface to give more area\\nfor percolation through the finer material at the top.\\nThere are also represented lines of underdrains leading\\nto the filter outlet, which might be needed in order to\\nbring the land quickly into the best condition. If\\nnecessary, a line of such wells may be formed in a\\nsurface ditch or depression, and thus increase the\\ncapacity.\\nTHE USE OF TREES IN DRAINAGE\\nIn some instances where sinks without available\\noutlets are to be drained, and where the method\\nillustrated in Fig. 149 cannot be used, it is pos-\\nFig. 149. Method of draining sinks.\\nI\\nsible to throw up lands of higher ground with deep,\\nopen ditches between them, in the lowest portion of\\nthe sink, into which the other ground may be drained,\\nand then plant water -loving trees, like the willow or\\nlarch, on the sides of the ditches, where, by their", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0490.jp2"}, "491": {"fulltext": "Draining SinJcs and Ponds\\n463\\nrapid growth and large evaporation of moisture\\nthrough the foliage, considerable amounts of water\\nwill be removed. The most serious objection to the\\nmethod is the fact that the trees will not render their\\ngreatest service early in the season, and may not fit\\nthe ground for early crops other than grass.\\nTHE USE OF THE WINDMILL IN DRAINAGE\\nIn such places as those under consideration in the\\nlast two sections, a good windmill may be made to\\ndrain a considerable area of ground where only the\\nFig. 150. Method of draining sinks by wind power.\\nunderflow must be handled, and where the lift need\\nnot be more than 20 feet.\\nIf the water is to be raised to a level at which\\ngravity will remove it, then a sump or reservoir\\nshould be sunk in the ground as near the place where\\nthe water is to be disposed of as practicable, deep\\nenough to hold the drainage of two or three days\\nwhen, for lack of wind, the mill may be idle.\\nIn order that the mill may work during the winter\\nalso in cold climates, the pump may be placed in a", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0491.jp2"}, "492": {"fulltext": "464 Irrigation and Drainage\\nwell, as in Fig. 150, into whicli tlie main drain, A,\\ndischarges, and from whicli there is an overflow, B,\\nto the reservoir. The object of the well is to place\\nthe pump under conditions where it will not freeze in\\nthe severest weather, and thus prevent the ground from\\nbecoming over- saturated at any season. The water may\\nbe made to discharge through an under -ground drain\\nconnected directly with the pump, as at C, or a flume-\\nbox above ground may be used, as is most convenient.\\nIt might even be practicable to have this drainage\\nwater discharged into a reservoir and used for irriga-\\ntion at a lower level during the dry season of the\\nyear, or it would be practicable to discharge it into a\\nseries of tiles laid 2 feet below the surface on a\\nsection of higher ground which is naturally well\\ndrained, and thus sub -irrigate this at the same time\\nthe low place is being drained, the two systems caring\\nfor themselves continuously.\\nLANDS WHICH MUST BE SURFACE DRAINED\\nThere are many ancient lake bottoms now consti-\\ntuting wide stretches of very flat country underlaid by\\nheavy deposits of a very close lacustrian clay, through\\nwhich water percolates with extreme slowness. Such\\nlands must generally be surface drained, not only\\nbecause it is difficult to find adequate fall for proper\\noutlets for underdrains, but because the water would\\nnot reach underdrains quickly enough to meet the\\ndemands of crops unless the lines were laid closer\\ntogether than could be afforded.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0492.jp2"}, "493": {"fulltext": "Surface Drainage 465\\nEven through a clay loam* it may require 24 hours\\nfor 1.6 inches of water to percolate through a stratum\\nof soil 14 inches deep when the surface is kept under\\n2 inches of water, and since the rate of percolation is\\nsomewhat nearly proportional to the length of the\\ncolumn, 2 days would be required for the same flow\\nthrough 28 inches, and about 13 days through 15 feet,\\nthe distance the water would have to travel with\\nunderdrains placed only 30 feet apart. But the sub-\\nsoils of the lands in question are much closer than\\nthe loam cited, so that the best which has yet been\\ndone for such soils is to plow them in narrow lands,\\nwith the dead furrows extending along the slope of\\nthe fields in such a way that the excess of water may\\nbe quickly led away into the streams or open ditches.\\nIt is true that the tillage and heavy cropping of\\nsuch soils, especially during dry seasons, tend to cause\\nthe clay subsoils to shrink into cuboidal blocks, and\\nthus facilitate underdrainage but the long years\\nwhich some of those lands have been under such\\ntreatment without marked amelioration appear to\\nleave little hope of ever bringing them under thorough\\ndrainage in this way.\\nThere are other flat sections of country, with more\\nopen soils and subsoils, where sufficiently deep open\\nditches may be provided to serve as outlets for under-\\ndrains, and lands be thus thoroughly reclaimed. Such is\\nthe case in Illinois, and Fig. 151 represents six square\\nmiles of land treated in this way. In this figure the\\ndouble lines represent deep open ditches, the single lines\\n*The Soil, p. 171.\\nDD", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0493.jp2"}, "494": {"fulltext": "466\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nunderdrains, and the small squares cover 40 acres\\neach.\\nAnother drainage system of this sort in the same\\nstate is found in Mason and Tazewell counties, where\\nby a cooperative plan the open ditches have been dug\\nFig. 151. Plan of drainage of lands of the Illinois Agi-icultural Company,\\nRontoul, Illinois. After J. O. Baker. The smallest squares are 40\\nacres; double lines show open ditches; single lines are tile drains.\\nand the expense divided among the landowners in\\nproportion to the benefits derived. The work was\\nbegun in 1883, completed in 1886, and has 17.5 miles\\nof main ditch 30 to 60 feet wide at the top and 8 to 11\\nfeet deep. Leading into these mains there are five\\nlaterals 30 feet wide at the top and from 7 to 9 feet\\ndeep, the whole system embracing 70 miles of open\\nditch, excavated for the express purpose of providing\\noutlets for underdrains after the manner of Fig. 151.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0494.jp2"}, "495": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIII\\nPRACTICAL DETAILS OF UNDEBDEAINING\\nTo do the best work in underdraining requires not\\nonly a thorough knowledge of the principles, but an\\nextended practical experience in laying out systems of\\ndrains. The man who has a thorough grasp of this\\nbusiness, and is experienced in laying out work and\\nin the use of precise instruments for leveling and\\nestablishing grades, can, with the aid of eye and\\ninstruments, determine rapidly and accurately in the\\nfield the best place for the mains and sub -mains with-\\nout making a detailed survey and where large areas\\nare to be drained, especially if the fall must be small,\\nit will usually be safer, better and cheaper to employ\\nsome man of experience who can be trusted to do the\\nwork of leveling, determining grades and accurately\\nstaking out ready for the ditcher both mains and lat-\\nerals.\\nIndeed, if a considerable amount of work is to be\\ndone, it will in most cases be better and cheaper in\\nthe end to entrust the whole job to a man who makes\\nunderdraining his business, and who employs and\\nsuperintends his own crew of trained men. The mat-\\nter of ditching, even, is so much of an art that both\\nintelligence and experience are required to do it well.\\n(467)", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0495.jp2"}, "496": {"fulltext": "468 Irrigation and Drainage\\nSo true is this, that a good drainage engineer employs\\nhis men by the season or longer, if possible, and\\ndivides his work among them in such a way that each\\nman does only one kind of digging. In this way each\\none becomes an expert in his place, doing more and\\nbetter work with less effort than is possible in any\\nother way. The man who finishes the bottom of the\\nditch and the man who lays the tiles must not only\\nbe skillful, but must be thoroughly trustworthy and\\npatient, or faulty work will be done. The work\\nis often so unpleasant, defects are so easily covered\\nfrom inspection, and it will be so long before they\\ncould be discovered and the responsibility properly\\nplaced, that only men of peculiar fitness should ever\\nbe trusted with it. These men must be well paid,\\nthey must not be crowded, and there must be nothing\\nelse to take their attention. When the right sort of\\nman has been secured for this work, and has been\\ntrained to it, he is far more to be trusted than almost\\nany farmer, even for whom the work is to be done,\\nbecause the farmer will have so many other things to\\ntake his attention, and he will be so anxious to have\\nthe job off his hands, that his patience will not per-\\nmit him to take the necessary time to get every joint\\nof the 100,000 just right before it is left. Important\\ndrainage work, then, should be left to expert men\\nwherever practicable.\\nIt is very important that the farmer who has land\\nto drain should thoroughly appreciate these essential\\nconditions for safe work, not only to prevent himself\\nfrom undertaking what he cannot hope himself to do", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0496.jp2"}, "497": {"fulltext": "Drainage Levels\\n469\\nwell, but, what is more important, that he may be\\nable to recognize the essential qualities in the man\\nwho will place the tiles, and satisfy himself that he\\npossesses them.\\nIt will often happen, however, that drainage\\nexperts cannot be had, and there may be small areas\\nto drain, involving relatively but small expense,\\nwhere the farmer may do his own work or super-\\nvise it.\\nMETHODS OF DETERMINING LEVELS\\nWhere the services of a man with instruments for\\ndetermining levels for lines of drains cannot be had,\\nthere are various simple means for doing this work\\nwhich may be employed n\\nwhere great accuracy is not tjl\\nrequired, and among these\\nT^\\nperhaps the safest is the water-level,\\nrepresented in Fig. 152. This may\\nbe made of %-inch gas pipe, with two\\nelbows and a T, as shown in the sketch,\\nthe standard being sharpened by a black-\\nsmith or by inserting a wooden point.\\nIn the two elbows, which are about\\nfour feet apart, there are cemented\\nshort pieces of glass tube, or slender\\nphials, %-inch in diameter, with the\\nbottoms broken out, and provided with corks. To use\\nthe instrument, the tube is filled with water colored with\\nbluing or ink, so as to show in the two tubes of\\nglass, when the arm is horizontal. By forcing the foot\\nI\\nFig. 152.\\nConstruction\\nof a\\nwater-level.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0497.jp2"}, "498": {"fulltext": "470\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nof the instrument into the ground until it stands firmly,\\nand removing the corks, the water will come to a level\\nat once, so that if the operator stands back about\\nfour feet he may sight across the two surfaces to\\ndetermine differences of level. If one uses this instru-\\nFig. 153. Four forms of drainage levels, \u00e2\u0080\u00a2mtli target-rods.\\nment with care, avoiding too long ranges, good work\\nmay be done with it.\\nA carpenter^ s level is sometimes mounted in a\\nsimilar manner and used, but it is not as safe a\\ndevice, because the level itself is liable to be in error", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0498.jp2"}, "499": {"fulltext": "Use of Drainage Levels 471\\nand there will be errors in deciding when it is set\\nexactly, whereas the water-level can never be in error,\\nand automatically adjusts itself at once, the only\\nchances for error being in taking the sights. Other\\nforms of drainage levels are represented in Fig. 153.\\nLEVELING A FIELD\\nIf the field has but small fall, and is quite flat and\\neven, so that the inexperienced eye fails to detect the\\ndirection of greatest slope, it will usually be safest to\\ncheck it into squares of 50 or 100 feet, driving short\\nstakes at the several corners, whose elevations may\\nthen be determined. To do the leveling, set the\\ninstrument at a. Fig. 155, midway between stations\\nI-l and 1-2, having first provided a notebook, ruled\\nas indicated in the table below. Turning the level\\nfirst upon I-l, its distance below the instrument is\\nread on the target -rod held upon that stake, and\\nthe result, 4 feet, is recorded in the table in the\\ncolumn headed back-sight. The instrument is next\\ndirected to 1-2 and its distance below the level found\\nto be 3.8 feet, which shows that its elevation must be\\n4 ft.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 3.8 ft.=.2 ft.\\nabove that of station I-l. This reading of the target-\\nrod is entered in the column headed fore -sight. In\\nthe column headed Elevation the first station is\\ngiven arbitrarily a value of 10 feet, as is customary\\nto avoid minus signs, and on the same plan station", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0499.jp2"}, "500": {"fulltext": "472 Irrigation mid Drainage\\n1-2 will have an elevation of 10.2 feet, as stated in\\nthe table.\\nTable giving data obtained in leveling field, Fig. 156\\nStation\\nI-l\\n1-2\\n1-3\\n1-4\\n1-5\\n1-6\\nII-6\\nII-5\\nII-4\\nII-3\\nII-2\\nII- 1\\nIII-l\\nIII-2\\nIII -3\\nIII-4\\nIII-5\\nIII -6\\nIV-6\\nIV-5\\nThe level is now moved to h and the distance of\\n[-2 below it again measured and found to be 4.2 feet,\\nwhich is entered in the notebook under back-sight,\\nand the instrument turned upon 1-3, where the read-\\ning is found to be 4 feet, and entered in the table.\\nThe difference between the fore- and back-sights,\\nplaced in the column headed Difference, shows how\\nmuch higher one station is than another, and when\\nthe first is added to the elevation above datum, 10\\nBack-sight\\n4\\nFore-sight\\nDifference\\nElevation\\n10\\n4.2\\n3.8\\n.2\\n10.2\\n3.8\\n4\\n.2\\n10.4\\n4\\n3.6\\n.2\\n10.6\\n3.9\\n3.8\\n.2\\n10.8\\n4\\n3.7\\n.2\\n11\\n3.8\\n3.98\\n.02\\n11.02\\n3.9\\n3.995\\n.195\\n10.825\\n4\\n4.095\\n.195\\n10.63\\n4.1\\n4.19\\n.19\\n10.44\\n3.9\\n4.26\\n.16\\n10.28\\n3.8\\n3.98\\n.08\\n10.2\\n4\\n3.6\\n.2\\n10.4\\n3.9\\n3.96\\n.04\\n10.44\\n4.2\\n3.775\\n.125\\n10.565\\n4.1\\n4.045\\n.155\\n10.72\\n3.8\\n3.93\\n.17\\n10.89\\n4.1\\n3.625\\n.185\\n11.075\\n4\\n4.185\\n.085\\n11.16\\n3.84\\n.16\\n11", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0500.jp2"}, "501": {"fulltext": "Use of Drainage Levels 473\\nfeet, at station I-l, it gives 10.2 feet, or the\\nelevation of station 1-2 above the same plane The\\ndifference, .2 feet, between stations 1-2 and 1-3 added\\nto the elevation of 1-2, gives 10.4 feet, or that of\\nstation 1-3. In this manner the instrument is moved\\nforward step by step until measurements from e have\\nbeen made, when the level is next set at and back-\\nand fore-sights taken and entered, as shown in the\\ntable, so as to connect the observations of the first\\nline with those of the second line of stations\\nProceeding to g, the steps described are repeated\\nby moving back through h, i, j, k and I U m, and so\\non until the elevations of all the stations have been\\ndetermined and entered in the table. It will be\\nO- 3\\nOii^^r -pj4\\nFig. 154. Method of leveling.\\nObserved that when proceeding from higher to lower\\nlevels It IS necessary to subtract the value in the\\ncolumn of diiferences from the elevation of the station\\npreceding it, in order to obtain the elevation of the\\nstation for that difference.\\nIn Fig. 154 is shown the method of leveling\\ndescribed where the different positions of the level\\nand of the target along one line are shown in ele-\\nvation.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0501.jp2"}, "502": {"fulltext": "474\\nIrrigatiofi and Drainage\\nLOCATION OF MAIN DRAINS AND LATERALS\\nAfter the notes of the field leveling have been\\nobtained, and the elevations computed from them,\\nthese may be transferred to a diagram of the field, as\\n.ni07-5 1-11.0 2 _ fu- .U .0.:^\\n1,89 lolsSS ^1 ^8^=^\\nFig. 155. Leveling for a contour map of field to te drained.\\nin Fig. 155, where they will show at a glance the\\nslope of the surface, and where the mains must be\\nplaced in order to secure the greatest fall, both for\\nthem and for the laterals. It will be seen that station\\nVI -6 is the highest point in the field, while I-l is the", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0502.jp2"}, "503": {"fulltext": "Location of Mains and Laterals\\n475\\nlowest, and that if a straight main were laid through\\nthese two points it would be given the course along\\nwhich surface water would naturally flow, which is\\nalso the direction of steepest slope.\\nThe dotted lines in the figure are contours, or\\n\\\\.-x\\nV\\nll.tt\\nX\\n_,\\nX\\n__,\\nK\\nk.\\nlO.f\\nN.\\nX\\nkr\\nx.\\nb.\\nX\\nX\\nv\\n10.6\\nX\\nk.\\nX Xs^X; X X\\nX X\\nJ0.4\\nt\\n\\\\|,X\\n1\\n1\\n~~7^k Nv\\nX X\\n1\\nX ,N X\\n1\\n1\\nV X\\n1\\n7x X\\nXX\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\no]\\n1\\nto x*! ..i^W^\\nr-i\\no\\nO C) 1 ?S^^ 1 _*^^^^\\niHl\\nu\\n^J^^^^^^^^^^s*\\nFig. 156. Arranging drains to secure the maximum fall.\\nlines of equal elevation, and as in this case these\\nare circumferences of circles with centers at station\\nI-l, it is clear that the shortest distance between any\\ntwo contours will be measured along their radii, and\\nhence, that there also will be the greatest fall. Since\\nthe diagonal line from VI- 6 and the lines I and 1", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0503.jp2"}, "504": {"fulltext": "476 Irrigation and Drainage\\nare each a radius of a circle from the same center,\\nI-l, the fall along each will be thej same, namely, 2.4\\ninches per 100 feet hence, to drain this piece of\\nland, three mains may occupy the positions of these\\nthree lines, meeting at station I-l. But if laterals\\nare to be placed 100 feet apart, these could be given\\nabout as great a fall if they were to connect with the\\ndiagonal as a main, and take the positions indicated\\nby the two right -angle systems of lines in Fig, 155,\\nI, II, III, IV, V, representing laterals on the upper\\nside of the main, and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 on the lower. If,\\nhowever, drains were to be placed 50 feet apart, then\\nthe most rapid fall could be secured and the least\\namount of tile would be required, by arranging the\\nlaterals as shown in Fig. 156, where the same area\\nis represented with the contour lines drawn 100 feet\\napart horizontally and .2 foot vertically, as they are\\nalso in Fig. 155, and where the heavy ruling repre-\\nsents main drains and the light ones laterals.\\nSTAKING OUT DRAINS\\nWhen the location of mains and laterals has been\\ndetermined, the next step in the practical work is\\nstaking out the drains. There are various methods of\\ndoing this, but one of the best is as follows Short\\nstakes, about 8 to 10 inches long, called grade pegs,\\nare provided, and another set upon which records can\\nbe made with lead pencil, longer than the others, and\\ncalled finders. With a tape line or chain and hatchet,\\nthe work begins by laying off along the main, begin-", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0504.jp2"}, "505": {"fulltext": "Laying Out Drains 477\\nning at the outlet, intervals of 50 feet, at each of\\nwhich a grade peg is set about 12 inches to one side\\nof the center of the ditch, where they will not be\\ndisturbed, driving them down flush with the surface\\nof the ground. About 6 inches farther back from\\nthe line of the ditch a finder is also set. Sub -mains\\nand laterals are staked off in a similar manner, and\\nwhen this is done the work of leveling for digging\\nthe ditches may begin.\\nDETERMINING THE GRADE AND DEPTH OF\\nTHE DITCHES\\nThe determination of the levels of the grade pegs\\nshould begin at the outlet of the main, and proceed in\\nthe manner already described in leveling the field, enter-\\ning the figures in a table prepared in the notebook,\\nas shown below\\nTable showing field notes for determining depth of ditch and grade of drain\\nDepth of\\nStation Back-sight Fore-sight Difference Elevations Grade line ditch\\nOutlet\\n7\\n7\\n7\\n4\\n3\\n10\\n7\\n3\\n50\\n3.97\\n3.87\\n.13\\n10.13\\n7.12\\n3.01\\n100\\n4.2\\n3.83\\n.14\\n10.27\\n7.24\\n3.03\\n150\\n4.1\\n4.08\\n.12\\n10.39\\n7.36\\n3.03\\n200\\n3.95\\n3.99\\n.11\\n10.5\\n7.48\\n3.02\\n250\\n3.87\\n3.82\\n.13\\n10.63\\n7.6\\n3.03\\n300\\n4\\n3.69\\n.18\\n10.81\\n7.72\\n3.09\\n350\\n4.25\\n3.83\\n.17\\n10.98\\n7.84\\n3.14\\n400\\n4.08\\n4.1\\n.15\\n11.13\\n7.96\\n3.17\\n450\\n4.05\\n3.96\\n.12\\n11.25\\n8.08\\n3.17\\n500\\n3.97\\n3.95\\n.1\\n11.35\\n8.2\\n3.15\\n550\\n3.75\\n3.97\\n11.35\\n8.02\\n3.03\\n600\\n3.74\\n.01\\n11.36\\n8.44\\n2.92", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0505.jp2"}, "506": {"fulltext": "478\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nReferring to 157, which is a profile of the data in\\nthe table, A is the outlet of the drain; the first stake\\nset is marked 0, the second 50, etc., up to 600, the\\nnumbers expressing the number of feet from the out^\\nlet. The datum plane is chosen 10 feet below the\\noAft 250 300 \u00c2\u00bb50 400 450 500 550 600\\n50 100 150 200 r-, n r-1 r-i r-, m\\nFig. 157. Determining grade line and depth of ditch.\\nsurface of the ground, at station 0, and the ground\\nhere is 3 feet above the bottom of the drain, which\\nleaves the outlet 7 feet above datum, as stated in the\\ntable, which is also the elevation of the grade line at\\nthis place.\\nReferring to the table, in the column of elevations\\nit will be seen that the surface of the ground at 600\\nfeet from the outlet is 11.36 feet above datum plane,\\nwhile the outlet is 7 feet above, making a total fall of\\n11.36\u00e2\u0080\u00947 4.36 feet.\\nIf it is decided to give the drain a fall of .24 foot,", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0506.jp2"}, "507": {"fulltext": "Laying Out Brains 479\\nor 2.88 inches per 100 feet, it will be necessary to place\\nthe bottom of the tile, at 600 feet from the outlet,\\n6 X. 24 1.44 feet\\nhigher than the outlet; that is,\\n7+1.44 8.44 feet\\nabove datum plane but as the surface of the ground\\nat the 600 -foot station is 11.36 feet above this plane,\\nas given in the table, it is clear that the ditch must\\nbe dug at this place\\n11.36 8.44 2.92 feet\\ndeep, as written on the finder stake in Fig. 157, and\\nas given in the table of field notes in the column\\nheaded depth of ditch.\\nSince the grade line rises .24 foot per 100 feet and\\n.12 foot per 50 feet, the data in the table under\\ngrade line are obtained by adding .12 foot to 7\\nfeet, the distance of the outlet above datum, for the\\n50 -foot station twice .12 foot to the second or\\n100 -foot station, etc.\\nThe numbers in the column of differences are\\nobtained by subtracting the front -sight from the back-\\nsight, taken with each setting of the level, and these\\ndifferences, added to the height of the lower station,\\ngive the elevation of the higher station above datum\\nplane, thus:\\n4 3. 87 =.13 feet;\\nand this amount, added to the height of the back-\\nsight station, gives\\n10 +.13 10. 13 feet\\nas the elevation of the 50 -foot station, and subtract", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0507.jp2"}, "508": {"fulltext": "480 Irrigation and Drainage\\ning from this elevation that of the ^bottom of the\\nproposed ditch at this place, there is obtained\\n10.13\u00e2\u0080\u00947.12 3.01 feet,\\nor the depth which the ditch must be dug at this\\nstation, and it is the custom to write these depths on\\nthe finder stakes, to serve as the guide to the ditchers\\nin digging, as represented in Fig. 157.\\nThese values are given in feet and hundredths\\nrather than in feet and inches, because it is much\\nsimpler to make the calculations in this way. The\\ntarget -rod should be made to read in this way rather\\nthan in feet and inches, and if the farmer makes his\\nown this may readily be done by first dividing the rod\\ninto feet and then, taking a pair of dividers, set them\\nso as to space off ten equal divisions within each foot.\\nThe tenths of a foot may then be subdivided in the\\nsame manner into ten equal divisions, or hundredths\\nof a foot.\\nWhere a level without a telescope is used, the\\nmeasuring rod should be provided with a sliding\\ntarget, as shown in Figs. 153 and 158, which may be\\nmoved up and down by the target man, as directed, to\\nmark the elevation indicated by the instrument. The\\nbest target is provided with an opening in front of the\\nrod, which permits the figures to be seen at the junc-\\ntion of the cross lines of the target.\\nIn taking the elevations, the target -rod should\\nalways be set upon the grade peg, and all subsequent\\nmeasurements in digging should also be made from\\nthese pegs, which are driven in flush with the surface,", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0508.jp2"}, "509": {"fulltext": "Changing Grade 481\\nnot only that they may represent its true level, but\\nalso to avoid danger of the pegs being disturbed.\\nMORE THAN ONE GRADE ON THE SAME DRAIN\\nIt very frequently happens that the surface of the\\nland to be drained is such as to make it impracticable\\nto lay out the whole of a main or of a lateral with the\\nsame amount of fall throughout. Let it be supposed\\nthat at the end of the 600 feet represented in Fig.\\n157, the ground continued rising backward at a slower\\nrate for 500 feet more, as the figures show it had\\nbegun to do, and that in the 500 feet the rise was\\nonly six inches. In order to avoid digging too deeply\\nin some portions of the line, or of placing the tile too\\nclose to the surface at others, it is necessary to change\\nthe grade, and the new grade will be found by divid-\\ning the total fall .5 feet by 5, the number of 100 feet,\\nwhich gives .1 foot, and half this amount instead of\\n.12, is what would be added at each 50 -foot station,\\nin order to get the new grade line elevations.\\nDIGGING THE DITCH\\nIt has been pointed out that practice is required\\nin order to dig a ditch well, rapidly and easily. It is\\nfurther necessary to have suitable tools for the pur-\\npose. First in importance is the ditching spade, two\\nforms of which are represented in Fig. 158. These\\nspades have blades 18 inches long, narrower than the\\ncommon tool, and strongly curved forward, to give", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0509.jp2"}, "510": {"fulltext": "482\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\ngreater stiffness, and to permit them to be thin and light.\\nThe solid blade gives better satisfaction generally than\\nthe other form shown in the cnt.\\nBesides the spade, there must also be the tile hoe,\\nor scoop, for cleaning out and grading the bottom of\\nFig. 158. Some drainage tools.\\nthe ditch, fitting it for the tile, different widths being\\nused for different tiles, as shown in the cut. Some of\\nthese scoops are made with adjustable handles, per-\\nmitting the blade to be set at anj- desired angle, so\\nas to be used from the last spading of earth in the\\nditch or from the top.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0510.jp2"}, "511": {"fulltext": "i fl^A\\nm\\nFig. 159. Commencing n ditch.\\nFig. 160. Removing the last two spadingsfrom the ditch.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0511.jp2"}, "512": {"fulltext": "Fig. 161. Bringing the ditch to grade line with tile hoe.\\nrig. 162. Placing tile with tile hook.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0512.jp2"}, "513": {"fulltext": "Digging the Bitch 485\\nWhen digging begins, a strong line is stretched\\nabout 4 inches back from the side of the ditch and a\\nharrow cutting made, seldom necessarily more than 12\\ninches wide, as shown in Fig. 159, the effort being to\\nremove as little earth as possible. The sides are cut\\ntrue to line to begin with, and maintained so to the\\nbottom, in order that a straight bed may be finished\\nto receive the tiles. When the ditch is deeper than\\n4 feet, it is necessary to make it a little wider at the\\ntop but not much, as will be seen in Figs. 160 and 161,\\nwhere the first shows the men in line cutting a ditch\\n4.5 to 5 feet deep, while the second figure shows\\nanother man following with the tile hoe, working from\\nthe top, cleaning out the bottom and bringing it to\\ngrade line. The line which is seen in Fig. 161,\\nstretched along the ditch, is placed parallel with the\\ngrade line some whole number of feet above it, and is\\nused by the man to measure from when finishing the\\nbottom. The line is a slender but strong cord, w^hich\\nmay be stretched tightly, so as not to sag. In the\\ncase in xiuestion, the man determined his depths with\\nthe measuring rod in the foreground, his long expe-\\nrience enabling him to dispense with a sliding arm,\\nwhich is generally used, forming a right angle with\\nthe rod and long enough to reach the grade line. In\\nFig. 162, the last man is using the tile hook, shown\\nsecond from the right in Fig. 158, to lay the tile in\\nplace. This ditch, although for 6 -inch tile, laid 4.5\\nto 5 feet deep, is scarcely more than 15 inches wide at\\nthe top, as the length of the tile placed across the\\nditch for a scale shows.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0513.jp2"}, "514": {"fulltext": "486 Irrigation and Drainage\\nThese men never get into the bottom of the ditch, and\\n3^et the tile are laid with great accnracy and turned\\nabout with the hook until close fitting joints are secured.\\nIt is preferred by some to lay the tile by hand,\\nthe operator standing on the tile, which are covered\\nwith earth 4 to 6 inches deep as rapidly as placed,\\nusing the wet claj last thrown out, or some taken\\nfrom the side of the ditch, which is thoroughly\\nworked in about the tile, care beings taken not to get\\nthem out of alignment. B\\\\^ whatever method the tile\\nare laid, the greatest care must be observed in secur-\\ning close joints and in covering them, to see that\\nthey do not become displaced.\\nThe work should begin at the outlet with the la}\\ning of the main, and proceed backward to the first\\nlateral, when this should be started and the junction\\nmade at once, laying two or three tile of the lateral\\nbefore proceeding further with the main. If junction\\ntile are not used, the opening through the w^nlls for\\nthe connection is made with a small tile pick with a\\nsharp point, and great care should be taken to make\\na close connection by shaping and fitting both pieces\\ntogether and covering the joint with stiff clay, well\\npacked about, it.\\nIf for any reason the line of tile is left, as at\\nnight or over Sunday, the open upper end should be\\nplugged with a bunch of grass or covered with a\\nboard, to prevent dirt being washed into the line in\\ncase of rain. When the end of the line is reached,\\nthe opening of the last tile should be closed with a\\nbrick or stone.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0514.jp2"}, "515": {"fulltext": "Fining the Ditch\\n487\\nIt is veiy iniportjxut to get the dirt well filled in\\nabout the tile and at the same time well packed, in\\norder that large open water channels maj^ not exist\\nthrough which streams of water may flow in sufficient\\nvolume to carry silt into the tile through the joints,\\nand also in order that open channels maj^ not exist\\noutside aud under the tile along which streams may\\ngather and flow. The clay soil, usually last taken out\\nof the ditch, is the best for this purpose.\\nFig. 163. The start and finish of tile draining.\\nVarious methods of filling the ditch, after the first\\ncovering of the tile, are in use, and Fig. 163 repre-\\nsents one, where a plow is drawn by a team working", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0515.jp2"}, "516": {"fulltext": "488 Irrigation and Drainage\\non a long evener. Where a road scraper is available,\\nthis makes a good tool for finishing up with after\\nthe line is filled enough to cross with the team.\\nAnother method of filling, where the work is done by\\nhand, is to tie a rope to the handle of a broad scoop,\\nwhich is worked by a man across the ditch, while\\nanother guides the shovel as though not assisted by\\nthe man with the rope. In this way the dirt is filled\\nin rapidly.\\nStill another method is to use a team on a wide\\nboard scraper provided with handles, drawing it toward\\nthe ditch, the team being attached by means of a long\\nrope and working on the opposite side of the ditch,\\nthe filling being done by driving forward and then\\nbacking, the man holding the scraper pulling the tool\\nback.\\nWhen quicksand is encountered in laying tile, it\\nmay be necessary to brace the sides of the ditch to\\nprevent caving, when digging. This may be done by\\ndriving sticks in between two pieces of board, thus\\nholding them against the opposite sides of the\\nditch. It is occasionally true that the bottom is so\\nsoft from quicksand that the tile cannot be laid to\\ngrade, and in such cases a fence board may be\\nplaced on the bottom and the tile laid upon this.\\nIn other cases the ditch may be dug a little below\\ngrade line, and the bottom covered with clay, if that\\nis available, so as to form a foundation upon which\\nto place the tile. It will sometimes be true that a\\nquicksand spot will become sufficiently firm to lay\\nacross if it is permitted to drain three or four days,", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0516.jp2"}, "517": {"fulltext": "Cost of TJnderdraining 489\\nand the level of the ground water be thus lowered.\\nThe reason for this is that the quicksand character\\nis due to the water being forced up through the fine\\nsand, which has little adhesion between its grains,\\nand the water tends to float the sand, thus causing it\\nto run with unusual freedom but when the water is\\ngiven time to drain away, so that the sand is no\\nlonger full of it above the bottom of the ditch, it\\nbecomes firm, and the tile may then be laid.\\nCOST OF UNDERDRAINING\\nIt is not possible to give the cost of draining land\\nwithout knowing all of the details which go to make\\nup the total expense but certain general statements\\nmay be made, which will enable any one to compute\\nfor himself what the cost is likely to be.\\nIn the case represented by Figs. 159 to 163, the\\nwork was done by a professional drainage engineer at\\nan average cost of $3 per 100 feet for digging and\\nlaying the tile, and 30 cents per 100 feet for filling\\nthe ditches, thus making the labor after the tile had\\nbeen placed upon the ground $3.30 per 100 feet,\\nincluding the board of the men. The ground drained\\nin this case was such as to represent about average\\nconditions, where the spade may be readily put into the\\nsoil with the pressure of the foot, where no stones or\\nquicksands are encountered, and where the main has\\na depth of 3 to 5 feet, and the laterals an average\\ndepth of 3 feet. In the case represented in Fig. 141,\\nMr. Elliot gives the cost of the different items as\\nexpressed in the table which follows:", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0517.jp2"}, "518": {"fulltext": "490\\nIrrigation and Drainage\\nCost of main drains per 1,000 feet\\nNo. of feel\\nSize\\nDigging, laying\\nDepth Tile and filling Total\\nCost\\nper rod\\n1,000\\n7 in\\n5 ft. $60.00 $37.20 $97.20\\n$1.60\\n2,700\\nG in.\\n5 ft. 40.00 36.60 206.82\\n1.26\\n850\\n5 in.\\n4 ft. 30.00 24.20 46.07\\nCost of lateral drains\\n.89\\n8,280\\n4 in.\\n3.5 ft. $20.00 $20.00 $331.20\\n$0.66\\n7,030\\n3 in.\\nTotal.\\n3 ft 13.20 20.00 233.40\\n.55\\n$914.69\\nIt will be seen from this table that the cost of\\ndraining 80 acres, as represented in the figure, averaged\\n$11.43 per acre where everything was counted. It\\nwill be seen that the cost of mains was from two to\\nthree times as much as laterals of 3 -inch tile, and\\nhence, that the larger and longer the mains must be\\nmade the more expensive relatively the draining will be.\\nCost of ynains per 100 feet\\n5-incli\\n6 -inch\\n7- inch\\n8-ineh\\nth of ditch\\nCost of digging\\nand laying\\nCost of tile\\nCost of filling\\nditch\\nTotal cost\\nper 100 feet\\n3 feet\\n$1.50\\n$3.00\\n$0.30\\n$4.30\\n4 feet\\n2.00\\n3.00\\n.42\\n5.42\\n5 feet\\n3.00\\n3.00\\n.60\\n6.60\\n6 feet\\n4.50\\n3.00\\n.75\\n8.25\\n3 feet\\n1.50\\n4.00\\n.30\\n5.80\\n4 feet\\n2.10\\n4.00\\n.42\\n6.52\\n5 feet\\n3.00\\n4.00\\n.66\\n7.66\\n6 feet\\n5.10\\n4.00\\n.78\\n9.88\\n3 feet\\n1.80\\n6.00\\n.36\\n8.16\\n4 feet\\n2.40\\n6.00\\n.48\\n8.88\\n5 feet\\n3.00\\n6.00\\n.72\\n9.72\\n6 feet\\n5.70\\n6.00\\n.90\\n12.60\\n3 feet\\n1.92\\n8.50\\n.42\\n10.84\\n4 feet\\n2.58\\n8.50\\n.54\\n11.62\\n5 feet\\n3.90\\n8 50\\n.78\\n13.18\\n6 feet\\n6.00\\n8.50\\n1.00\\n15.52", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0518.jp2"}, "519": {"fulltext": "Peat Lands 491\\nWe quote this table regarding the cost of mains,\\nas estimated by Mr. Elliot, where the price paid for\\ngood ditchers is $2 per day; but in this estimate the\\nboard of the men is not included, neither is the cost\\nof hauling the tile from the station to the field.\\nThis same writer estimates the cost of 3 -inch lat-\\nerals, placed 3 to 3.5 feet deep, at $2 per 100 feet for\\nthe digging, lajdng and filling, and tile at the present\\nwriting would add another dollar, making $3 per 100\\nfeet, not including board or hauling the tile.\\nThe cost per acre will, of course, vary with the\\ndistance between lines of tile, and will increase very\\nnearly in proportion to the number of feet of tile\\nused.\\nPEAT LANDS\\nThere are many marshes underlaid by beds of peat\\nnot yet well rotted peat so free from silt and so\\nfibrous in texture that when dry it could be used for\\nfuel. Where fields are underlaid by such beds having\\na depth of three or more feet, they are not likelj^ to\\nbecome at once productive if well drained. On the\\nother hand, where the peat deposit is only from 6 to\\n18 inches deep, there are likely to be better returns\\nfrom thorough drainage.\\nIn the first class of cases referred to, underdrain-\\ning is not usually to be recommended as the first\\nstep toward improvement. The difficulty lies in the\\nfact that when peat beds are drained they shrink\\ngreatly in volume, thus lowering the surface in a", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0519.jp2"}, "520": {"fulltext": "492 Irrigation and Drainage\\nmarked degree, and if underdrains were laid at once,\\nthe lines of the tile would ultimately be found too\\nclose to the surface. It is, therefore, usually better\\nin such cases to drain first with open ditches, plac-\\ning them where ultimately they may be deepened\\nand converted into underdrains. The surface ditch-\\ning will dry out the marsh to a considerable extent,\\nand permit the needed decay and shrinkage of the\\npeat to take place, although several years may be\\nrequired for this.\\nIf the peat is very coarse and thick, and if little\\nvegetation grows upon it, it may be well to burn it\\nover several times when not too dry, in order to\\nincrease the silt and ash in the soil and to hasten\\nthe shrinkage. The ash thus formed will so much\\nimprove the texture of the surface as to very mate-\\nrially assist in getting a crop started upon the area.\\nIt is very important to get a crop started upon the\\nsoil as soon as practicable, because this greatly facili-\\ntates and hastens the rate of decay. This should\\nbe done, even though it may not be remunerative in\\nany other way than that of improving the texture of\\nthe soil.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0520.jp2"}, "521": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nAcre-foot, 239.\\nAcre-inch, 239.\\nAermetor, windmill, 313; pump, 316.\\nAir, in the soil, 7, 182; humidity, 40, 44,\\n50; required by clover, 49; by corn,\\n185; interfei es with percolation, 333;\\nneed of in soil, 182, 370, 418; lack of\\nin puddled soil, 334 changes in tem-\\nperature and pressure influence ven-\\ntilation, 420.\\nAlfalfa, roots, 233; irrigation, 237, 346,\\n348 utilizing waste water, 379.\\nAlgeria, irrigation, 85, 238 dvity of\\nwater in, 212; artesian wells, 85.\\nAlkali, composition, 278 accumulation,\\n223, 266, 270, 272, 274, 284; cause of in-\\njuries, 270, 416; accumulation by in-\\ntensive farming, 274, 284; amounts in-\\njurious, 275, 278; develops soonest in\\nclay soil, 286 correction by land\\nplaster, 280, 284, 287; distribution in\\nsoil, 282; influenced by tillage, 284;\\ninfluenced by roots, 284; cause of\\nabandonment of ancient irrigation\\nsystems, 289; geographical distribu-\\ntion, 272; formed by canal seepage,\\n294 soils which soonest develop\\nalkali, 286 cause of puddling, 335.\\nAlkali lands, 269, 416; alum spots, 269;\\nsoluble salts, 269, 276 character of\\nvegetation, 281; land plasters, 280, 284\\nimprovement by drainage, 223, 284,\\n288; ultimate remedy drainage, 288.\\nAlkali salts, 266; kills barley, 276; see\\nAlkali.\\nAlkali water, unsuitable for irrigation,\\n266, 284, 285; correction before use,\\n287.\\nAlum spots, 269.\\nAnimal power for irrigation, 328.\\nAnts, work in soil ventilation, 419.\\nApple, roots, 231.\\nArgentina, irrigation,^87.\\nArid climate, efficiency of rainfall, 4,\\n104; accumulation of alkalies, 272.\\nArmenia, irrigation, 84.\\nArtesian wells, in Sahara. 85; in Ha-\\nwaii, 86.\\nAssyrian irrigation, 67.\\nAustralia, irrigation, 81.\\nAustria-Hungary, irrigation, 75.\\nBaker, J. O., 466.\\nBarker, F. C, 236.\\nBarley, water used, 21, 24, 34, 46, 235\\navailable rainfall, 124 yield, 129\\nyield increased by irrigation, 110\\nsecond crop, 130, 179 number of irri-\\ngations, 235; on alkali lands, 276.\\nBarrens, 114.\\nBasin irrigation, 387, 390 Egypt, 288.\\nBavaria, irrigation, 76.\\nBear valley dam, 302.\\nBelgium, water-meadows, 362.\\nBlackberry irrigation, 383.\\nBlack marsh soil, mulches, 201 alkali,\\n269, 273; vegetation, 281.\\nBoussingault, 49.\\nBreathing of plants, 47, 182; pores, 51.\\nBucket pump, 316, 319, 325.\\nBusca canal, 210.\\nCabbage, irrigation, 387 yield in-\\ncreased by irrigation, 110; effect of\\nsupplementing rainfall in Wisconsin,\\n175.\\n(493)", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0521.jp2"}, "522": {"fulltext": "494\\nIndex\\nCanal, ancient, 67; Busea,210; Ceylon,\\n81; Doab, 80; Egj-ptian, 68; Eu-\\nphrates, 68; Forez, 72 Gattinara,\\n210; Great Imperial, 71; Ganges sys-\\ntem, 80; India, 79 Indus valley, 81;\\nIvrea, 209; West and East Jumna, 80;\\nKern Island, 292 Nahrawan and\\nDyiel, 69; Nira, 78 Santa Ana, 297;\\nSirliind,291; Soaneoircle, 80; cement,\\n300, 412 dangers, 295 sewage, 410,\\n412; stone, 410.\\nCanvas dam, 339, 341, 355.\\nCape Colony irrigation, 85.\\nCapillary spread of water, 161, 330, 375.\\nCapillarity, rate in sand and loam, 148.\\nCarbon dioxide, consumed by clover,\\n49 possible insufficiency in close\\nplanting, 185; in soil ventilation, 419;\\nconsumed by maize, 185.\\nCarpenter, L. G., water-meadows, 219;\\nseepage from reservoir, 323 water\\ndivisor, 245.\\nCatcb crops, 152.\\nCelery, irrigation, 385.\\nCeylon, irrigation, 81.\\nChecks, 345, 348, 350.\\nCheck ridges, 346, 348.\\nChild, J. T., 83.\\nChina, irrigation, 71, 82.\\nChinese irrigation, 387.\\nClay soil, develops alkali, 286.\\nClimate, arid, 4, 104; for irrigation\\npractice, 89; for sewage irrigation,\\n404; lainfall needed for humid and\\nsubhumid, 121.\\nClover, water used, 24, 34, 36, 41, 46\\nirrigation, 110, 130, 179 on sandy\\nsoil, 169.\\nColmatage, 94, 261.\\nCorn. See Maize.\\nCotton, duty of water, 211.\\nCraigentinny meadows, 16, 92, 254, 403.\\nCranberries, duty of water, 220; irriga-\\ntion, 365.\\nCranefield, F., irrigation with cold\\nwater, 251.\\nCrops, yields, 125, 126, 174, 175, 177, 179,\\n187, 190, 210 for sewage irrigation,\\n409, 411.\\nCucumbers, irrigation, 388.\\nCultivation. See Tillage.\\nCultivator, orchard, 381; potatoes, 354.\\nCroyden, sewage irrigation, 411,412, 413.\\nDam, submerged, 305; canvas, 339, 341,\\n355; Bear valley, 302; Yir weir, 78.\\nDeherain, 276.\\nDelaware river water, 252.\\nDenitrification, 334, 370; in sewage, 403;\\nlessened by drainage, 420.\\nDenmark, irrigation, 75.\\nDe Vries, 277.\\nDivisors, 244.\\nDitches, depth and grade, 477 bringing\\nto grade, 484 digging, 481 com-\\nmencing and finishing,483 filling,487.\\nDoon, for lifting water, 328.\\nDrainage, principles, 415 influence on\\nfertility, 13; remedy for alkali lands,\\n284, 288; made necessary by seepage\\nfrom canals, 295; of water-meadows,\\n360, 364; of cranberry marshes, 366,\\n368; rice fields, 369, 371; necessity,\\n416; ventilates soil, 418, 419; lessens\\ndenitrification, 420; increases avail-\\nable moisture, 13, 422 makes soil\\nwarmer, 423 where needed, 428\\nsinks and ponds, 460 intercepting\\nunderflow, 459; intercepting siirface\\nwater, 461; use of trees, 462 use of\\nwindmill, 463; levels, 470; tools, 482;\\npeat lands, 491.\\nDrainage levels, 470 use, 471, 473, 477.\\nDrainage, surface, 464, 466.\\nDrains, depth, 436, 442 distance apart,\\n437, 439 used in sub-irrigation, 400;\\nentrance of water, 438, 445 kinds,\\n443 rate of entrance of water, 446\\nuse of collars, 446 fall or gradient,\\n447 size of mains, 450, 452 size of\\nlaterals, 450, 452 outlets, 453 ob-\\nsti-uctions, 455 laying out systems,", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0522.jp2"}, "523": {"fulltext": "Index\\n495\\n456 cost, 458, 489 staking out, 476\\ndetermining depth and grade, 477\\nchanging grade, 481 in peat lands,\\n491; surface, 464, 466.\\nDrill, seed, 167.\\nDrought, frequency and length of pe-\\nriods, 106, 108, 109, 126.\\nDurance, fertility of water, 260 head-\\ngate, 263.\\nDuty of water, 212, 213, 214, 236 maxi-\\nmum, 196 least amount for paying\\ncrop, 95; average, 214 highest prob-\\nable, 198, 215; influenced by crop, 199,\\n227 influenced by soil, 200, 203 in.\\nfluenced by rainfall, 204 influenced\\ni.by stibsoil, 205; influenced by cultiva-\\ntion, 206 influenced by closeness of\\nplanting, 207; influenced by fertility,\\n207 influenced by freqiiency of wa-\\ntering, 207 in Egypt, 211 France,\\n211; Italy, 209; Spain, 211; for sugar\\ncane, 214 rice, 217; for water-mead-\\nows, 219 for cranberries, 220 in\\nsub-irrigation, 396, 400.\\nDi-y farming, western United States, 100.\\nDykes, 261, 306, 366, 369, 428 sluices\\n373.\\nEarthworms, in soil ventilation, 419.\\nEbermayer, temperature in germina-\\ntion, 248, 425.\\nEdinburgh, sewage irrigation, 92, 254,\\n403; Evening Dispatch, 257.\\nEgj-pt, irrigation, 67, 84, 260, 262, 328\\nduty of water, 211 prevention of\\nalkali, 288.\\nElliott, C. G., 450, 451, 489, 490.\\nEngland, irrigation, 76, 360, 409, 411,\\n413.\\nEuphrates, canals, 68.\\nEvaporation, from plants, 40, 42 from\\nclover field, 50; rate from soil, 98,\\n148 from rolled ground, 167 in-\\ninfluenced by windbreaks, 169\\nthrough mulches, 201.\\nFallowing, relation to soil moisture,\\n153, 162, 163, 223.\\nFertility, influenced by drainage, 13\\nby cultivation, 370 affects duty of\\nwater, 207.\\nFertilization, by irrigation, IG, 92, 2 1,\\n259.\\nFertilizers, in sewage, 404; in river wa-\\nter, 252, 253, 259, 260.\\nField irrigation, by flooding, 338, 345\\nin checks, 347, 350 by furrows, 352,\\n354, 358; sub-irrigation, 399.\\nFiltration of sewage, 404.\\nFlume box, 375.\\nFlynn, duty of water, 212.\\nFlooding, 338; dry soil, 333 danger of\\npuddling, 335; systems, 340 by run-\\nning water, 340; on steep slopes, 342;\\npermanent meadows, 344 in checks,\\n345, 347,350; preparatory to planting,\\n353; to prevent frost, 365; to destroy\\ninsects, 365; rice fields, 369; to germi-\\nnate red rice, 371; orchards, 383; gar-\\ndens, 386, 390; lawns and parks, 392.\\nFoot ditch, 378.\\nFoote, A. D., spillbox, 245.\\nForez canal, 72.\\nFrance, irrigation, |72 duty of water,\\n211; water-meadows, 219.\\nFruit, irrigation, 383.\\nFurrows, capillary spreading, 161, 330\\ndistance apart, 336 gradient, 338\\ndistributing, 340, 342.\\nFurrow irrigation, 352, 358; on sandy\\nsoil, 330 on fine soil, 332 puddles\\nsoil less, 336; on steep slopes, 338\\nfor potatoes, 354 in alternate rows,\\n354, 357 for bed flooding, 359 for\\norchards, 375; ring-furrows, 380 for\\nsmall fruits, 383 for gardens, 385,\\n387, 389 for melons, 388 requires\\nless water, 387.\\nGarden,, irrigation, 384; sewage garden,\\n407.\\nGas-engine, 324; cost of riinning, 324.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0523.jp2"}, "524": {"fulltext": "496\\nIndex\\nGasoline engine, 305, 324, 393 cost of\\nrunning, 324.\\nGasparin, ratio of grain to straw,l96\\nsalt in soil, 276.\\nGennevilliers, sewage irrigation, 389,\\n411; model gardens, 408 sewage hy-\\ndrant, 410 stone canal, 410 liealth-\\nfulness, 413.\\nGipps, F. S., 66.\\nGoff, E. S., irrigation of strawberries,\\n181; depth of roots, 231.\\nGoodale, G. A., 51.\\nGoss, Arthur, 253, 259.\\nGrade pegs, 478.\\nGrader, 350, 351, 352.\\nGrading for irrigation, 346, 348, 351.\\nGrain, ii-rigation, 340, 342, 344, 346 dry\\nfarming, 103 harrowing and rolling,\\n146 thin seeding, 163 di;ty of water,\\n198.\\nGrapes, roots, 232; frequency of irriga-\\ntion, 238.\\nGrass, observed yields, 127; on sewage\\nmeadows, 92, 409; on water-meadows,\\n219 irrigation, 340, 342, 346 in lawns\\nand parks, 392.\\nGravel, silted, 263.\\nGreeley, Colorado, irrigation of grain,\\n340 potatoes, 354.\\nGreen manure, 151.\\nGround-water, origin, 429 relation to\\nsurface, 431, 435 lines of flow, 432,\\n438 discharge into streams, 433\\ngradient, 435; changes in level, 440.\\nGrowth of river, 433.\\nGrunsky, C. E., 292, 349.\\nHall, Wm. H., 211.\\nHare, R.F., 253.\\nHarrington, M. W., 99.\\nHarvey, F. H., 309.\\nHawaii, irrigation, 86 duty of water\\nfor sugar cane, 214.\\nHay, yields, 127, 178 need for irriga-\\ntion, 128 second crop, 130, 179 duty\\nof water, 215.\\nHazzard, W. M., rice irrigation, 238.\\nHealth, influence of sewage, 256, 295,\\nHeilriegel, 96. [413.\\nHCgard, E. W., peculiarities of arid\\nsoils, 6, 229 alkali lands, 269, 276\\ncomposition of alkali salts, 278 land\\nplaster for alkali lands, 280,284; roots\\nin arid soils, 6, 229.\\nHinton, R. J., 78, 81.\\nHollis, Geo. S., 85.\\nHumidity of air, 40, 44, 50.\\nHunter, intertillage, 157. [410.\\nHydrants, distributing, 301 sewage,\\nHydraulic rams, 310.\\nInch, acre, 240; miner s, 241, [291.\\nIndia, irrigation, 77, 328; Sirhind canal.\\nInsects, destroyed by irrigation, 218, 221.\\nIntertillage, 157.\\nIrrigation culture, 66.\\nIrrigation, antiquity, 66; extent, 72; ob-\\njects, 91; climatic conditions, 89; fre-\\nquency, 107, 212, 223, 234, 236 insuf-\\nfiency of water, 117 amount of water,\\n196, 208, 212, 213, 214, 236 late crops\\ndifficult to grow without, 129 in-\\ncrease of yield in humid climates, 171;\\ncloser planting possible, 181 tillage\\nas a substitute, 117 character of\\nwater, 248 temperature, 248 num-\\nber of irrigations required, 235; fer-\\ntilizing value, 251 supplying water,\\n290 methods of application, 329\\nsewage, 403.\\nItaly, irrigation, 71, 359; duty of water,\\n209, 219 water-meadows, 219 mar-\\ncite, 219 sewage, 220.\\nIvrea canal, 209.\\nJapan, irrigation, 82.\\nJava, irrigation, 86.\\nm\\nKansas, yields of grain, 103; rainfall, v\\n103.\\nKern Island canal, 292.\\nKiihn, Jul., 454.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0524.jp2"}, "525": {"fulltext": "Index\\n497\\nLand plaster, for alkalies, 280, 284, 287.\\nLaterals, subdivision, 228; length, and\\nsize, 452 outlet, 454; jimetion, 464;\\ncost, 490.\\nLa-\\\\yn, irrigation, 391 cost of plant, 393;\\nmethod, 395.\\nLaveleye, E.,75.\\nLeaching, 222; may assist nitrification,\\n12; prevents alkali, 223, 284, 288; nec-\\nessary, 275.\\nLeveling, methods, 471,473, 477.\\nLevels, methods, 469; instruments, 470.\\nLois Weedon, system of intertillage,157.\\nLombardini, 260.\\nLombock, irrigation, 87.\\nLettuce, irrigation, 385.\\nLew Chew, irrigation, 83.\\nLoughridge, R. H., 229.\\nMadagascar, irrigation, 86.\\nMadeira, irrigation, 86.\\nMaeris, Lake, 66.\\nMains, 451, 457; size, 451; length, 452;\\ncost, 490.\\nMaize, water used, 21, 24, 38, 39, 41, 46,\\n60, 177, 234 flint and dent, 40, 184;\\nroots, 61, 160; yields and rainfall, 109;\\nyield increased by irrigation, 110, 177;\\nobserved yields, 126, 177, 190; varia-\\ntion of yield with soil moistiire, 144;\\nrain of growing season, 124 maxi-\\nmum limit of yield, 187; need for air,\\n182,185; close planting, 184,193; yields\\nwith varying closeness of planting,\\n190; duty of water, 211, 215; frequency\\nof irrigation, 235.\\nMangon, water on water-meadows, 219.\\nMarcite, 219.\\nMarkus, E., duty of water, 203.\\nMeadows, water, 16, 92, 219, 251, 359;\\nCraigentinny, 16, 92, 254, 403; English,\\n76, 360; Italian, 362; Belgian, 362;\\nmountain, 365; marcite, 219; duty of\\nwater, 219; sewage, 220, 254; mulch-\\ning, 146; irrigation, frequency, 237.\\nMeasurement of water, 239; units, 239;\\nmethods, 241; by time, 242; subdivi-\\nsion of laterals, 243 with divisors,\\n244; modules, 245.\\nMelons, irrigation, 388.\\nMilan, sewage irrigation, 220.\\nMilk, from sewage grass, 256.\\nMiner s inch, 241.\\nMississippi, annual discharge, 117.\\nModules, 245; spill-box, 245,\\nMulches, 145; of soil, 142; effectiveness\\nin ai id climates, 104; lose effective-\\nness, 145, 164; for meadows, 146; in-\\nfluence of depth, 147, 200; vary with\\nkinds of soil, 201; production after\\nirrigation, 381.\\nNeerpelt, water-meadows, 362.\\nNewell, F. H., irrigation, 88; dry farm-\\ning, 102; run-off, 119.\\nNew Jersey, water analyses, 252.\\nNew Mexico, frequency of irrigation,\\n238.\\nNile, irrigation, 67, 84, 262, 288; daily\\ndischarge, 85; delta, 68; sediment in\\nwater, 260.\\nNitrates, in artesian waters, 85 in\\nriver water, 252; in sewage, 404.\\nNitrification, in arid soils, 7; needs wa-\\nter, 11 influenced by drainage, 13,\\n420; effect of tillage, 149, 163, 165;\\nneeds oxygen, 183, 384, 370, 418.\\nNitrogen-fixing tubercles^ 233.\\nOats, water used, 21, 24, 31^ 41, 46; rain\\nof growing season, 124; yields, 126;\\nwater needed, 215.\\nOranges, frequency of irrigation, 238;\\nfurrow irrigation, 374.\\nOrchards, irrigation, 388, 373; frequency\\nof irrigation, 238; ring furrows, 880;\\ncultivator, 381; cultivation, 881, 388;\\nsub-irrigation, 398.\\nOsmotic pressure, 68.\\nPa?cottah, 327.\\nPalms, irrigation, 85.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0525.jp2"}, "526": {"fulltext": "4.98\\nIndex\\nPark irrigation, 391.\\nPeas, water used, 46.\\nPeat lands, 491; warping, 262.\\nPercolation of water, 225 through\\nsand, 113, 205; on duty of water, 203;\\nthrough shrinkage cracks, 227 into\\ntile, 446; loss, 330; rate from tile, 400.\\nPerels, E., duty of water, 203, 212.\\nPersian wheel, 325, 328.\\nPeru, irrigation, 71.\\nPhoenician irrigation, 69. [299.\\nPipe line, Redlands, 296; redwood, 298,\\nPipes for lawns, 394.\\nPJaguiol, salt in soils, 275.\\nPlant breathing, 47.\\nPlant feeding, 52, 57.\\nPlant-food, 14, 15, 93, 252, 259 developed\\nby tillage, 149; effect of fallowing,\\n154; in alkali salts, 280, 285.\\nPlant-house experiments, 18, 35, 43;\\nyields, 25, 41.\\nPlowing, fall, 131; plowing under green\\nmanure, 151; to form check ridges,\\n346.\\nPlow, for producing miilch, 149 for\\nproducing distributing fiu rows, 340,\\n342. [260.\\nPo, irrigation, 72; sediment in water.\\nPotatoes, ii-rigation, 28, 32, 35, 172, 353,\\n357, 413; water used, 30, 37, 46, 174.\\n237; yields, 110, 357; advantages of\\nirrigation in humid climates, 172\\nwatering alternate rows, 354, 357\\ndistance between rows, 357; moisture\\nin rows, 161, 200; duty of water, 215;\\nnumber of waterings, 237, 356.\\nPress drill, 167.\\nPuddling of soils, principles governing,\\n334.\\nPumping, with windmill, 313, 316; with\\nengines, 324; cost, 324, 326; for cran-\\nberries, 368 for drainage, 463.\\nPumps, with windmill, 316, 319; with\\nengines, 324, 326, 393; with water\\nwheels, 76, 306, 308, 309; with horse\\nI)Ower, 325.\\nQuicksand, 488.\\nRainfall, in arid and semi-arid climates,\\n4,6,99,101; timely, 10; of irrigated\\ncountries, 89; in Kansas, 103; fre-\\nquency in Wisconsin, 108 like\\namounts not equally effective, 101,\\n115, 204 relation to yield, 109, 125\\nconditions modifying effectiveness,\\n110; in United States, 123; in eastern\\nUnited States, 124; amount needed in\\nhumid regions, 121; of growing sea-\\nson, 124 distribution in time un-\\nfavorable to maximum yields, 125;\\nearly rains saved hj tillage, 128: af-\\nfects duty of water, 204; in Colorado,\\n236; in India, 291.\\nRamming engine, 310.\\nRape, irrigation, 359.\\nRaspberries, roots, 231; irrigation, 383;\\nsub-irrigation, 398.\\nRead, T. M., solids in river waters, 253.\\nRedlands, Cal., irrigation systems, 296.\\nRed rice, 371.\\nReservoir, distributing, 297; construc-\\ntion, 320; sluice, 321; circular, 322;\\nseepage and evaporation, 323; capac-\\nities, 323; for cranberries, 367; use in\\ndrainage, 464.\\nRice, irrigation, 368; in Italy, 210; in\\nEgypt, 211; South Carolina, 238, 266,\\n306, 369, 372; duty of water, 217; fre-\\nquency of irrigation, 238 ctiltiva-\\ntion, 370; red rice, 371; upland, 373.\\nRidge cultivation, 165.\\nRio Grande, analyses of water, 253, 259.\\nRoad grader, 350.\\nRolling in relation to soil moisture, 166;\\ncause of loss of moisture, 167.\\nRoman canals, 70.\\nRoot cap, 64.\\nRoot hairs, 55; relation to soil grains,\\n55; acid reaction, 59.\\nRoots, depth of penetration in arid-\\nsoils, 6, 229; shallow in undrained\\nsoil, 13; function, 55; absorbing sur-", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0526.jp2"}, "527": {"fulltext": "Index\\n499\\nface, 55; acid reaction, 59; extent of\\nsiu-face, 59, 61, 160 movement\\nthrough soil, 63; superficial develop-\\nment, 208; depth, 200, 227, 231; oats,\\nclover and barley, 60; maize, 61;\\npi-une, 228; apple, 229; grape, 230;\\nraspberry, 231 straAvberi-y, 232\\nalfalfa, 233. [119.\\nRun-off, Mississippi, 117; United States,\\nRye as green manure, 151.\\nRye grass, for sewage meadows, 409.\\nSachs, 55, 425.\\nSahara, irrigation, 85.\\nSalts, soluble in alkali land, 269, 276;\\ncause of injuries, 270 accumulate\\nwith intensive farming, 274; amount\\ninjurious, 275, 278.\\nSaltwirt, 276.\\nSandwich Islands, irrigation, 86; duty\\nof water, 215.\\nSand, percolation, 112, 224.\\nSandy soils, experiments, 32; texture\\nimproved by irrigation, 93, 262; re-\\ntain little water. 111, 205, 224 why\\nunproductive, 114; destructive effects\\nof winds, 168; areas suited to irriga-\\ntion, 264; fm-row irrigation, 330, 358;\\nhandling water, 331.\\nSan Joaquin valley, 4, 96, 98; flooding\\nsystem, 348.\\nScraper, ridging, 348, 351.\\nSeaman and Schuske, bucket pump, 316.\\nSecond-foot, 239.\\nSeed-bed, preparation, 150, 167.\\nSeepage, coarse soils, 203; upland rice\\ncvilture, 218 from canals, 244 from\\nreservoirs, 323.\\nSewage, dangerous nitrogen com-\\npounds, 405; agrieultui-al value, 406;\\nneed of wider agricultural use, 406,\\n409 in Italy, 406 Edinbm-gh, 403\\nMilan, 407; Paris, 407; Croyden, 411,\\n412, 413.\\nSewage effluent, purity, 414; bacteria,\\n414.\\nSewage grass, wholesomeness, 256, 413.\\nSewage irrigation, object sought, 403;\\nCraigentinny meadows, 16, 92, 254;\\nhealthfulness, 256, 405, 413; distri-\\nbution of water, 403; climatic condi-\\ntions favorable, 404; report of Mas-\\nsachusetts State Board of Health,\\n405; soils best suited, 406; oppor-\\ntvmity for in United States, 407;\\nmodel garden, 407 yield of grass, 409\\ngrasses for, 409; crops, 409, 411.\\nSewage purification, 405; by irrigation,\\n405; by filtration, 404; essential con-\\nditions, 405.\\nSewage water, 15, 92, 220, 253.\\nSiam, irrigation, 83.\\nSilt basin, 448.\\nSilting coarse soils, 93, 260, 261; oppor-\\ntunity for in United States, 264; of\\nrice fields, 370.\\nSiphon, in pipe line, 296; elevator, 310.\\nSirhind canal, 291.\\nSluice, for reservoir, 261, 321, 369.\\nSmall fruits, irrigation, 383; late plow-\\ning, 132.\\nSmith, Baird, duty of water, 209 water-\\nmeadows, 220.\\nSmith, Rev., system of intertillage, 157.\\nSmith, Brothers, irrigation plant, 308.\\nSoil, water capacity, 3, 224; texture in\\nrelation to rainfall, 3; humid and\\narid, 4; ventilation, 11, 419; water-\\nlogging, 11, 334; sandy, 32, 111, 114,\\n168, 205, 224, 264, 330, 331, 358; silt-\\ning, 93, 260, 262, 263, 264; midches,\\n201, 206; black marsh, 201, 281; pore\\nspace, 63; best temperature, 248;\\nalkali, 282; clay, 286; pviddling, prin-\\nciples governing, 334, 335 washing,\\nprinciples governing, 337 absorp-\\ntion of sewage, 404 kinds best\\nsuited to sewage irrigation, 406.\\nSoil grains, relation to root hairs, 55;\\nrelation of size to drainage, 438.\\nSoil mulches, 142; more effective in\\narid climates, 105; effectiveness, 144,", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0527.jp2"}, "528": {"fulltext": "500\\nIndex\\n201 lose effectiveness, 145 of dif-\\nfei-ent soils compared, 144, 201\\ndepth, 147, 165, 206; frequency of stir-\\nring, 164.\\nSoil moisture, advantages of abundant\\nsupply, 9; mechanism of plant sup-\\nply, 54; effect of subsoiling, 134; ef-\\nfect of fallowing, 153, 155, 162, 225; in\\npotato rows, 161; means of conserv-\\ning, 131; conservation by tillage, 164;\\ninfluence of rolling, 166; loss through\\nmulches, 144, 201; best amount, 226.\\nSoil ventilation, 419; need, 11; work of\\ncarbonic acid, 419; influence of drain-\\nage, 418; part played by roots, 420,\\n421; infliience of changing air tem-\\nperature and pressure, 420; may les-\\nsen denitrification, 420; may increase\\nnitrates, 420; may be too thorough,\\n421.\\nSoil temperature, 248, 250, 425; in-\\nfluenced by drainage, 423 importance,\\n425; influence on germination, 425;\\ninfluence of cultivation, 427.\\nSoil warmth, 425.\\nSoil water, plant-food dissolved, 14\\namount of alkalies carried, 278; stag-\\nnation prevented by drainage, 416.\\nSouth America, irrigation, 87.\\nSouth Carolina, rice irrigation, 238,\\n266, 306, 369, 372.\\nSpain, irrigation, 72, 238 duty of water,\\n211.\\nSpill-box, 245.\\nSpraying lawns, 393.\\nStrawberries, irrigation, 110, 181, 384\\nroots, 232; sub-irrigation, 398.\\nStorer, F. H., 254, 275.\\nSub-irrigation, 396; of clover, 179; ob-\\njections and difficulties in the way,\\n396, 397, 401 water-meadows, 401\\norchards and small fruits, 401 dan-\\nger of clogging tile by roots, 401\\ntime required, 401 through tile\\ndrains, 400; conditions necessary, 401;\\nan adjunct to drainage, 460.\\nSubsoil, affects duty of water, 205.\\nSubsoiling, 133 effects, 139 sugar\\ncane, irrigation, 214 duty of water,\\n215.\\nSummer fallowing, 153, 154, 163.\\nSunlight, evaporation during, 44; action\\nin plant-feeding, 49; limited in close\\nplanting, 183, 194.\\nSurface drainage, 464 examples, 466\\npeat lauds, 491.\\nSui faee tension, 57.\\nSwamp lands, 273 area in United\\nStates, 415 improved by drainage,\\n416 intercepting underflow, 459 in-\\ntercepting surface water, 461.\\nSwitzerland, irrigation, 74, 365.\\nTarget-rod, 470, 471.\\nTemperature of soil, 248 subsoil\\nchanged by rains and irrigation, 14,\\n218 reduced by close planting, 183\\nfavorable to sewage irrigation, 404.\\nTemperature of water for irrigation,\\n250.\\nTidal irrigation, 238, 261, 306, 369, 373.\\nTigris, canals, 69.\\nTile, injui-y by frost, 442 for sub-irri-\\ngation, 398, 400; size, 449, 452; laying,\\n484; in quicksand, 488.\\nTile-hook, 482.\\nTillage, extent to which it may replace\\nrain or irrigation, 117 most which\\nmay be hoped for tillage, 120 inap-\\nplicable in some cases, 127 chiefly\\nsaves early rains, 128; may do harm,\\n129 late plowing, 132 subsoiling,\\n133; earth mxilches, 142, 164, 206;\\nmulches lose in effectiveness, 145\\nharrowing and rolling, 146, 166; early\\ntillage important, 148 plow as a til-\\nlage tool, 149 intertillage, 157, 163\\nfrequency of tillage, 164, 205 depth,\\n165, 206 ridged and flat cultivation,\\n165 in rice fields, 370 after irriga-\\ntion, 381, 389 with orchard cultiva-\\ntor, 381.", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0528.jp2"}, "529": {"fulltext": "Index\\n501\\nTime as a unit for division of water,\\n242.\\nTranspiration, greatest during sun-\\nsliine, 45, 46 need of water, 50\\nmechanism, 46; metliod, 46 control\\n53.\\nTulare Exp. Station, 276.\\nTull, Jethro, system of intertillage, 157.\\nTurbine wheel, 308.\\nUnderdraining, practical details, 467\\ncost, 489; peat lands, 491.\\nUnderflow, intercepting, 459.\\nUnderground water, diverting for irri-\\ngation, 304.\\nUnits of water measurement, 239.\\nVegetables, garden irrigation, 385.\\nVentilation of soil, 419. See soil venti-\\nlation.\\nVir weir, 78.\\nVosges, water-meadows, 219.\\nWarping, 94, 261.\\nWashing of soil, principles governing,\\n337.\\nWashington, dry farming, 100; rainfall,\\n101, 204.\\nWater, apparent greater service in arid\\nclimates, 5, 104; need for nitrifica-\\ntion, 12; fertilizing value, 14, 93, 251\\n259; only one of the necessary plant\\nfoods, 15; amount used by crops, 16\\n21, 24, 30, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 46, 60, 97, 122,\\n160, 174, 177, 215; variations in amount\\nused by crops, 39; used in transpira-\\ntion, 50; action in plant feeding, 58;\\namount needed for given crop, 87;\\nleast amount for paying crop, 95; least\\namount in soil which permits growth,\\n111, 225; retained by sand, 114, 224;\\ninsufficiency for irrigation, 117; in\\nsubsoiled ground, 136; lost through\\nmulches, 142, 20] lost from wet soil,\\n148; in fallow gi ound, 155, 225; capil-\\nlary spreading, 161, 330, 377; conserved\\nby tillage, 164, 353 importance of\\namount and distribution in potato\\nculture, 172; duty, 196 (see Duty of\\nwater) amount for single irrigation,\\n222, 223, 225, 227, 234 capacity of soils,\\n224, 353; best amount for crops, 227;\\nmeasurement, 239; cold, for irriga-\\ntion, 249; value of turbid, for irriga-\\ntion, 259; alkali waters, 267, 268, 284,\\n285, 287; supplying, for irrigation, 290;\\nmethods of applying, 329; loss by per-\\ncolation, 330; rate of application, 331,\\n332, 337; depth in flooding, 346;\\namount needed for lawns and parks,\\n392 amount needed for sub-irriga-\\ntion, 397, 401.\\nWater level, 416.\\nWater-logged soil, 11, 334.\\nWater-meadows, 16, 92, 219, 251, 3.59\\nEnglish, 76, 360; use of sewage, 220,\\n254, 403, 409; frequency of irrigation,\\n237; Belgian, 362; Italian, 362; moun-\\ntain, 74, 365.\\nWater supply, for irrigation wells, 78,\\n84, 85, 86, 251, 393 from rivers, 290;\\nunderground waters, 304; lifting by\\nwater-power, 306; storm water, 311;\\nby wind power, 312; by engines, 324,\\n326; cost, 324; by animal power, 325,\\n328; for cranberries, 367.\\nWater wheels, 75, 306, 308.\\nWeiss, number of breathing pores, 51.\\nWells, for irrigation, 78, 84, 251, 393; in\\nAlgeria, 85; in Hawaii, 86; for lawns\\nand gardens, 393.\\nWheat, ratio of grain to straw, 96;\\nwater used, 97, 101, 215; intertillage,\\n158 frequency of irrigation, 235.\\nWillcocks, W., EgjT)tian irrigation, 84,\\nF 211 cost of pumping, 326.\\nWilson, H. M., area of land irrigated,\\n88; duty of water, 211; liftijig water,\\n309, 311, 325, 327.\\nWinds, lessening destructive effects,\\n168.\\nWindbreaks, 169.", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0529.jp2"}, "530": {"fulltext": "502\\nIndex\\nWindmills, conditions for highest ser-\\nvice, 318; for lifting water, 312, 316,\\n318, 367; capacity for irrigation, 318;\\nuse in drainage, 463.\\nWind power, for irrigation, 312; work\\ndone by months, 315; work done by\\n10-day periods, 316.\\nWolff, A. R., 318.\\n3477 4", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0530.jp2"}, "531": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0531.jp2"}, "532": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0532.jp2"}, "533": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0533.jp2"}, "534": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3173", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0534.jp2"}, "535": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3205", "width": "1999", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0535.jp2"}, "536": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3342", "width": "2197", "jp2-path": "irrigationdraina01king_0536.jp2"}}