{"1": {"fulltext": "LA\\nf", "height": "2823", "width": "1872", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "0\u00c2\u00b0\\nA\\nA N c _^\\n^o.\\n.r^^,.\\n0 .v^\\nV^^ c\\nxOq.", "height": "2724", "width": "1716", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "vis. s\\\\\\n^0 V", "height": "2719", "width": "1721", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "TORY\\nOF\\nEDUCATION\\nBY\\nLEVI SEELEY, Ph.D.\\nPROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY IN THE NEW JERSEY\\nSPATE NORMAL SCHOOL\\nNEW YORK-:- CINCINNATI CHICAGO\\nAMERICAN BOOK COMPANY", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "49534\\nCopyright, 1899, by\\nLEVI SEELEY.\\nHIST. OF EDUCATION.\\nW. P. I\\nTWO COPIES RECEIVED\\nSECOND COPY,", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "PREFACE\\nThe importance of a knowledge of the history of edu-\\ncation was never so fully recognized as at the present\\ntime. Normal schools and teachers colleges give this\\nsubject a prominent place in their professional courses,\\nsuperintendents require candidates for certificates to pass\\nexamination in it, and familiarity with it is an essential\\npart of the equipment of every well-informed teacher.\\nThe history of education portrays the theories and methods\\nof the past, warns of error and indicates established truth,\\nshows difficulties surmounted, and encourages the teacher\\nof to-day by examples of heroism and consecration on the\\npart of educators whose labors for their fellow-men we dis-\\ncuss. To the teacher this study is a constant help in the\\nschoolroom, the trials of which are met with the added\\nstrength and inspiration from contact with great teachers\\nof the past.\\nNo text-book can be said to contain the last word upon\\nany subject. Least of all can such a claim be made for a\\nhistory of education, which aims to trace the intellectual\\ndevelopment of the human race and to indicate the means\\nand processes of that evolution. Any individuals or factors\\nmaterially contributing thereto deserve a place in educa-\\ntional history. As to which of these factors is the most\\nimportant, that is a question of choice, upon which, doubt-\\nless, many will differ with the author. Some educators,\\nwhose claims to consideration are unquestioned, have been\\n3", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "4 PREFACE\\nreluctantly omitted on account of the limitations of this\\nwork.\\nOn the. other hand, many teachers lack time for ex-\\nhaustive study of such a subject. This book is designed\\nto furnish all the material that can be reasonably de-\\nmanded for any state, county, or city teacher s certificate.\\nIt also provides sufficient subject-matter for classes in\\nnormal schools and colleges and for reading circles. The\\nmaterial offered can be mastered in a half-year s class work,\\nbut, by using the references, a full year can be well employed.\\nFor those who desire to make a more extended study of\\nparticular topics, the author gives such authorities as years\\nof careful research have shown to be most valuable. Every\\ninvestigator knows the labor involved in finding suitable\\nmaterial. To spare the reader something of that labor,\\nthe literature is given at the beginning of each chapter.\\nBy following the collateral readings thus suggested, this\\nbook will be found suitable for the most advanced classes.\\nThe plan of references embraces three features: (i) lit-\\nerature at the beginning of each chapter (2) foot refer-\\nences to special citations and (3) a general bibliography\\nin the Appendix. In the first two, titles are sometimes\\nabbreviated because of their frequent repetition. In case\\nof doubt the reader should refer to the general bibliog-\\nraphy, in which all the authorities cited are arranged\\nalphabetically, with full titles.\\nIt is generally conceded that the plan of an historical\\nwork should be based upon the evolution of civilization.\\nIn common with other recent writers on educational his-\\ntory, the author accepts the general plan of Karl Schmidt\\nin his Geschichte der Padagogik, the most comprehen-\\nsive work on this subject that has yet appeared. But the\\nspecific plan, which involves the most important and vital", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "PREFACE 5\\ncharacteristics of this book, is the author s own. The\\ndetails of this specific plan embrace a study of the history\\nand environment, of the interna/, social, political, and reli-\\ngions conditions of the people, without which there can be\\nno accurate conception of their education.\\nOur civilization had its inception in that of ancient\\nEgypt, and thence its logical development must be traced.\\nIf desirable the teacher can omit the chapters on China,\\nIndia, Persia, and Israel. It will be found, however, that\\nthe lessons taught by these countries, though negative in\\ncharacter, are intensely interesting to students, and most\\ninstructive and impressive. These countries are also ad-\\nmirably illustrative of the plan employed in the book, and\\nthereby prepare the way for later work. That plan is\\nmore fully set forth in the Introduction, a careful study of\\nwhich is recommended to both teacher and student.\\nThe author wishes to acknowledge his appreciation of\\nthe valuable assistance in the preparation of this volume\\nrendered by Dr. EHas F. Carr and Professor W. J. Morri-\\nson, both of the New Jersey Normal School.\\nLEVI SEELEY.\\nState Normal School,\\nTrenton, N. J.\\nf", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER I\\nPAGE\\nIntroduction 15\\nI. Purpose of the history of education. 2. Plan of study. 3. The\\nstudy of great educators. 4. Modern systems of education. 5. Gen-\\neral outline.\\nCHAPTER II\\nChina 20\\nI. Geography and history. 2. The home. 3. The elementary\\nschool. 4. Higher education. 5. Degrees. 6. Examinations.\\n7. Criticism of Chinese education. 8. Confucius.\\nCHAPTER III\\nIndia 29\\nI. Geography and history. 2. The caste system. 3. The home.\\n4. The elementary school. 5. Higher education. 6. Criticism of\\nHindu education. 7. Buddha.\\nCHAPTER IV\\nPersia 36\\nI. Geography and history. 2. The home. 3. The State educa-\\ntion. 4. Criticism of Persian education. 5. Zoroaster.\\nCHAPTER V\\nThe Jews 40\\nI. Geography and history. 2. The home. 3. The Jewish school.\\n4. Esteem for the teachers. 5. The Schools of the Rabbis. 6. Criti-\\ncism of Jewish education. 7. The Talmud.\\n7", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER VI\\nPAGB\\nEgypt 46\\nI. Geography and history. 2. The caste system. 3. The home.\\n4. Education. 5. Criticism of Egyptian education. 6. General\\nsummary of oriental education.\\nCHAPTER VII\\nGreece 53\\nI. Geography and history. 2. Manners and customs. 3. The\\nOlympian games.\\nCHAPTER VIII\\nAthens 56\\nI. Historical. 2. The difference in spirit between Athens and\\nSparta. 3. The home. 4. Education. 5. Criticism of Athenian\\neducation.\\nCHAPTER IX\\nAthenian Educators 61\\nI. Socrates, life, method, death. 2. Plato, life, his Repub-\\nlic, scheme and aim of education. 3. Aristotle, life, pedagogjy,\\nestimate of him.\\nCHAPTER X\\nSparta 68\\nI. Historical. 2. The home. 3. Education. 4. Criticism of\\nSpartan education. 5. Lycurgus. 6. Pythagoras.\\nCHAPTER XI\\nRome 74\\nI. The Age of Augustus. 2. Geography and history. 3. The\\nhome. 4. Education, elementary, secondary, higher. 5. Criti-\\ncism of Roman education.\\nCHAPTER XII\\nRoman Educators .81\\nI. Cicero, life, philosophy, pedagogy. 2. Seneca, the teacher\\nof Nero, great orator, writer, etc., pedagogical writings. 3. Quin-\\ntilian, his school, his Institutes of Oratory, pedagogical prin-\\nciples.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "TABLE OF CONTENTS 9\\nCHAPTER XIII\\nPAGE\\nChristian Education Introduction 89\\nI. General view. 2. New principles introduced by Christianity.\\n3. Importance of the individual. 4. Obstacles which the early\\nChristians had to meet. 5. Slow growth of Christian education.\\nCHAPTER XIV\\nThe Great Teacher 96\\nI. Life and character. 2. Impression which Christ made 3. His\\nwork as a teacher. 4. An example of pedagogical practice.\\nCHAPTER XV\\nGeneral View of the First Period of Christian Education loi\\nI. The period covered. 2. The connection of the Church with\\neducation. 3. The monasteries. 4. Influence of the crusades.\\n5. Of the Teutonic peoples.\\nCHAPTER XVI\\nThe First Christian Schools 104\\nI. The catechumen schools. 2. Chrysostom. 3. Basil the\\nGreat. 4. The catechetical schools. 5. Clement of Alexandria.\\n6. Origen.\\nCHAPTER XVII\\nConflict between Pagan and Christian Education .111\\nI. General discussion. 2. TertuUian. 3. Saint Augustine.\\n4. Augustine s pedagogy,\\nCHAPTER XVIII\\nMonastic Education 116\\nI. Monasteries. 2. The Benedictines. 3. The seven liberal arts.\\n4. Summary of benefits conferred by the monasteries.\\nCHAPTER XIX\\nScholasticism 121\\nI. Its character. 2. Its influence. 3. Summarv of its benefits.", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "10 TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER XX\\nPAGE\\nCharlemagne 125\\nI. History, character, and purpose. 2. Personal education.\\n3. General educational plans. 4. Summary of Charlemagne s\\nwork.\\nCHAPTER XXI\\nAlfred the Great 130\\nI. History and character. 2. Educational work.\\nCHAPTER XXII\\nFeudal Education 132\\nI. Character of the knights. 2. Three periods into which their\\neducation was divided. 3. Education of women. 4. Criticism of\\nfeudal education.\\nCHAPTER XXIII\\nThe Crusades as an Educational Movement .136\\nI. Causes of the crusades. 2. The most important crusades.\\n3. Summary of their educational value.\\nCHAPTER XXIV\\nThe Rise of the Universities 139\\nI. What led to their establishment. 2. The most important\\nearly universities. 3. Their privileges. 4. Their influence.\\nCHAPTER XXV\\nMohammedan Education 143\\nI. History of Mohammedanism. 2. The five Moslem precepts.\\n3. Education. 4. What the Mohammedans accomplished for\\nscience. 5. General summary of education during the Middle\\nAges.\\nCHAPTER XXVI\\nThe Renaissance i^\\nI. The great revival. 2. Principles proclaimed. 3. The move-\\nment in Italy. 4. In Germany. 5. Summary of the benefits of the\\nRenaissance to education.\\n8\\n1", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "I\\nTABLE OF CONTENTS II\\nCHAPTER XXVII\\nPAGE\\nHumanistic Educators 155\\nI. Revival of the classics their purpose. 2. Dante. 3. Petrarch.\\n4. Boccaccio. 5. Agricola. 6. Reuchlin. 7. Erasmus. 8. Peda-\\ngogy of Erasmus.\\nCHAPTER XXVIII\\nThe Reformation as an Educational Influence .164\\nI. Conditions at the beginning of the sixteenth century. 2. The\\ninvention of printing. 3. The rulers of the leading countries.\\n4. Intellectual conditions. 5. Luther. 6. Luther s pedagogy.\\n7. Melanchthon.\\nCHAPTER XXIX\\nOther Protestant Educators 174\\nI. Sturm. 2. The Gymnasium at Strasburg. 3. The celebrated\\ncourse of study. 4. Trotzendorf. 5. Neander.\\nCHAPTER XXX\\nThe Jesuits and their Education 182\\nI. The order. 2. Loyola. 3. Growth of the society. 4. Jesuit\\neducation. 5, Use of emulation. 6. Estimate of their educational\\nwork. 7. Summary. 8. The Port Royalists.\\nCHAPTER XXXI\\nOther Educators of the Sixteenth Century 190\\nI. Roger Ascham. 2. Double translating. 3. Rabelais. 4. First\\nappearance of realism in instruction. 5. Montaigne. 6. Summary\\nof progress during the sixteenth century.\\nCHAPTER XXXII\\nEducation during the Seventeenth Century 200\\nI. Political and historical conditions. 2. The educational situa-\\ntion. 3. Compulsory education. 4. The Innovatnr", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "12\\nTABLE OF CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER XXXIII\\nEducators of the Seventeenth Century\\nI. Bacon. 2. The inductive method. 3. Ratke. 4. His peda-\\ngogy. 5. Comenius. 6. The Orbis Pictus. 7. Summary of his\\nwork. 8. Milton. 9. Locke. 10. Fenelon. 11. His pedagogy.\\n12. La Salle and the brothers of the Christian schools. 13. Sum-\\nmary of the educational progress of the seventeenth century.\\nPAGE\\n205\\nCHAPTER XXXIV\\nFrancke and the Pietists\\nI. Pietism. 2. Francke. 3. The Institutions at Halle,\\ntraining of teachers. 5. The Real-school.\\nThe\\n231\\nCHAPTER XXXV\\nGeneral View of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries\\nI. The abolition of slavery. 2. The extension of political rights.\\n3. Science as an instrument of civilization. 4. Religious freedom.\\n237\\nCHAPTER XXXVI\\nModern Educators Rousseau\\nI. Life. 2. Pedagogy. 3. The\\nEmile.\\n241\\nCHAPTER XXXVII\\nModern Educators Basedow\\nI. Life. 2. The Philanthropin. 3. Writings.\\n2SC\\nCHAPTER XXXVIII\\nModern Educators Pestalozzi\\nI. Childhood. 2. Schooling. 3. Life purpose. 4. The Chris-\\ntian ministry. 5. The law. 6. Farming. 7. Marriage. 8. At\\nNeuhof. 9. Authorship. 10. At Stanz. Ii. At Burgdorf. 12. At\\nYverdon. 13. Summary of Pestalozzi s work.\\n257", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 3\\nCHAPTER XXXIX\\nPAGE\\nModern Educators Froebel 272\\nI. Life. 2. As teacher. 3. His first school. 4. The kinder-\\ngarten. 5. The Education of Man.\\nCHAPTER XL\\nModern Educators Herbart 278\\nI. Life. 2. Experience as a tutor. 3. As a university professor.\\n4. His practice school in the university. 5. Writings. 6. His\\npedagogical work. 7. Work of modern Herbartians.\\nCHAPTER XLI\\nModern Educators Horace Mann 284\\nI. Life. 2. Work as a statesman. 3. As an educator. 4. His\\nSeventh Annual Report. 5. Love for the common schools.\\nCHAPTER XLII\\nThe School System of Germany 289\\nI. Administration. 2. School attendance. 3. The schools.\\n4. Support of schools. 5. The teachers.\\nCHAPTER XLIII\\nThe School System of France 296\\nI. Administration. 2. School attendance. 3. The schools.\\n4. Support of schools. 5. The teachers.\\nCHAPTER XLIV\\nThe School System of England 304\\nI. Administration. 2. School attendance. 3. The schools.\\n4. Support of schools. 5. The teachers.\\nCHAPTER XLV\\nThe School System of the United States 309\\nI. No national system. 2. State systems Administration.\\n3. School attendance. 4. The schools. 5. Support of schools,\\n6. The teachers.", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nCHAPTER I\\nINTRODUCTION\\nThe history of education begins with the childhood of\\nrace, and traces its intellectual development step by\\nitt;p to the present time. As such history is academic in\\ncharacter, and furnishes information concerning the edu-\\ncational systems, methods, theories, and practices of the\\npast, it should be placed early in the professional peda-\\ngogical course, to serve as the foundation for an improved\\neducational science which profits by the experience of\\nmankind. The history of education presents many of the\\ngreat problems that have interested thoughtful men, shows\\nhow some of these have been solved, and points the way\\nto the solution of others. It studies educational systems,\\nselecting the good, and rejecting the bad, and introducing\\nthe student directly to the pedagogical questions that have\\ninfluenced the world. For these reasons, the study of\\neducation should begin with its history.\\nXarl Schmidt says: The history of the world is the\\ntory of the development of the human soul. The man-\\nof this development is the same in the race as in the\\nlividual the same law, because the same divine thought,\\nes in the individual, in a people, and in humanity,\\nimanity has, as the individual, its stages of progress,\\n15", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "1 6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nand it unfolds itself in them. The individual as a child\\nis not a rational being he becomes rational. The child\\nhas not yet the mastery over himself, but his environment\\nis his master; he belongs not to himself, but to his sur-\\nroundings. TJie orietital peoples arc )the child of Jinmanity.\\nClassical antiquity represents the period of youth in\\nthe Jiistory of the world. Christ is the type of per-\\nfected majihood. The history of the individual reflects\\nand repeats the history of humanity, just as the history\\nof humanity is a reflection of the history of the Cosmos,\\nand the history of the Cosmos is an image of the life of\\nGod all history, be it that of humanity or of the indi-\\nvidual, of the starry heavens, or of the earth, is develop-\\nment of life toward God. Where there is development,\\nthere is progress. Progress in history is only the more vis-\\nible, audible, perceptible embodiment of God in humanity.\\nIn the study of the education of a people it is necessary\\nfirst to become acquainted with their social, political, and\\nreligious life. To this end a knowledge of the geography\\nand history of their country is often essential, because\\nof the influence of climate, occupation, and environment,\\nin shaping the character of a people. Examples of this\\ninfluence are not wanting. The peculiar position of the\\nPersians, surrounded on all sides by enemies, required a\\nmartial education as a preparation for defensive and offen-\\nsive measures. Physical education was dominant among\\nthe Spartans, because of serfdom which involved the abso-\\nlute control of the many by the few. No less striking are\\nthe effects of physical conditions upon all peoples in stim-\\nulating mental activity and in developing moral life, both\\nof which processes are essential to true education. The\\nintellectual product of the temperate zone differs from that\\n1 Geschichte der Padagogik, Vol. I, pp. i, 2.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "INTRO D UCT/OAT\\n17\\nof the torrid zone, the product of the country from that\\nof the large city. For these reasons stress is here laid\\nupon the geographical and historical conditions of the\\npeoples considered.\\nFor the same purpose we must study the home and the\\nfamily, the foundations upon which the educational struc-\\nture is built. The ancient Jew looked upon children as the\\ngift of God, thereby teaching the great lesson of the\\ndivine mission of children and of the parents responsi-\\nbility for their welfare. This race has never neglected\\nthe home education, even when it became necessary to\\nestablish the school. The family was the nursery of edu-\\ncation, and only when diversified duties made it no longer\\npossible to train the children properly in the home was\\nthe school established. Even then the purpose of the\\nschool was but to give expression to demands which the\\nhome created. The spirit and purpose of the education\\nof a people can be understood only when the discipline,\\nthe ideals, and the religion of the home are understood.\\nWhen we have learned the environment of a people, we\\nare ready to study their elementary education. This takes\\nus into the schoolroom, introduces us to the place where\\nthe school is held, indicates the course of study pursued,\\nthe discipline, methods of instruction, spirit and training\\nof the teacher, as well as the results obtained. After this\\nwe are ready to consider the higher education, which com-\\npletes the system and measures its efficiency.\\nAnother task demanded of the student is to draw lessons\\nfrom the educational systems studied, to note what can be\\napplied to modern conditions, and to avoid the errors of\\nthe past. The product of a method, as shown in the char-\\nacter of the people pursuing it, is of great interest in esti-\\nmating the value of a scheme of education.\\nHIST. OF ED. 2", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "1 8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nGreat movements have often been the outcome of the\\nteachings of some individual who, inspired by a new idea,\\nhas consecrated his life to it. Through such men the\\nworld receives new and mighty impulses toward its en-\\nlightenment, civilization takes vast strides in its develop-\\nment, and man approaches nearer his final emancipation.\\nConfucius, Socrates, Augustine, Charlemagne, Luther,\\nBacon, Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, are names that sug-\\ngest the uplifting of humanity and the betterment of the\\nworld. The study of the lives of these men, of their vic-\\ntories and their defeats, cannot fail to be an encouragement\\nand a suggestive lesson to teachers of all lands and all times.\\nThe history of education must therefore consider the biog-\\nraphies of such men as well as their theories and their\\nteachings.\\nFinally, modern systems of education are the outgrowth\\nof the experiences of the past. They represent the results\\nattained and indicate present educational conditions. Noth-\\ning can better summarize the total development reached,\\nor better suggest lines of future progress than a compara-\\ntive discussion of the leading school systems of the world.\\nThe last chapters of this book, therefore, are devoted to a\\nstudy of the school systems of Germany, France, England,\\nand America. These are typical, each being suggestive of\\ncertain phases of education, while one of them has largely\\ninfluenced the education of several other countries. Each^j\\nfurnishes lessons valuable to the student of history. Al-\\nthough many practices in other countries may not be\\napplicable to our conditions, the broad-minded, genuine\\npatriot will not refuse to accept sound principles and\\ngood methods from whatever source derived.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTIOM\\nGeneral Outline\\nPre-Christian Education\\nEarlier Cliristian Education\\nModern Education\\nOriental.\\nClassical\\nr China.\\nI India.\\nPersia.\\nI Israel.\\nI Egypt.\\nI Greece\\nAthens.\\nSparta.\\nI Rome.\\nr The Great Teacher.\\nMonasticism.\\nI Scholasticism.\\nCharlemagne.\\nThe Crusades.\\nThe Universities.\\nThe Renaissance.\\nThe Reformation.\\nThe Jesuits.\\nThe Sixteenth Century.\\nj The Seventeenth Century.\\nThe Eighteenth and Nineteenth Cen-\\nturies.\\nL Present School Systems.", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II\\nCHINA\\nLiterature. Martin, The Chinese Clarke, Ten Great Religions\\nHoughto7i, Women of the Orient Doolittle, Social Life of the Chi-\\nnese Johonnot, Geographical Reader Lord, Beacon Lights of History\\nBallon, Due West and Footprints of Travel Ploets, Epitome of Uni-\\nversal History Barnes, Studies in Education Stoddard^s Lectures.\\nThe civilization of the Celestial Empire has certainly\\ncontributed but little to the advancement of the world.\\nWere it not that this nation furnishes a most striking illus-\\ntration of the evils of false methods, the study of Chinese\\neducation might be omitted without loss. But a system\\nof education that produces intellectual stagnation, that\\nfails to stimulate national and individual progress, that\\nfosters narrow egotism, suggests negative lessons which\\nthe student of education will do well to heed. The result\\nin China furnishes the best argument against a method of\\ninstruction that appeals solely to the memory. This alone\\nis a sufficient reason for a study of Chinese education, aside\\nfrom its strange and unique characteristics which never\\nfail to interest the reader.\\nGeography and History. The Chinese Empire occu-\\npies a position on the eastern side of the Asiatic continent\\nwithin about the same parallels of latitude as the United\\nStates, extending from twenty degrees latitude on the south\\nto fifty-three degrees on the north. Its area is about four\\nand a quarter million square miles, being somewhat larger", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "CHINA 21\\nthan that of the United States. Its population is esti-\\nmated at about six times that of our country. It has\\nan abundance of rivers, intersected by numerous canals,\\nwhich greatly facilitate internal commerce. Many parts\\nof the country are densely populated. The people are\\nlargely engaged in agriculture. Tea and silk are the\\nchief articles of export, while rice and millet form the\\nprincipal food.\\nThe Chinese belong to the Mongolian or yellow race.\\nThey are an industrious, frugal, and temperate people,\\nthough the opium habit is very general and is disastrous\\nin its effects. Doubtless the overcrowded population,\\nwhich has driven many to live in boats and in crowded\\napartments, has had much to do in molding the Chinese\\ncharacter. They are slow to admit modern improvements,\\nbeing content with their lot and conservative in the main-\\ntenance of their customs, religion, education, and social\\npractices. Consequently they have for many centuries\\nmade but little progress. Their authentic history covers,\\naccording to extant records, a period of nearly four\\nthousand years. The government is an absolute mon-\\narchy the emperor is regarded as the father of all his\\npeople and has complete power over the lives of his\\nsubjects.\\nThe Chinese language contains no alphabet each sym-\\nbol represents a different word the substantives are in-\\ndeclinable, and the verbs are without inflection. It thus\\nbecomes necessary in mastering the language to learn\\nby rote a vast number of signs and characters, a pro-\\ndigious feat for the memory.\\nThe religion most widespread among the Chinese\\nis Buddhism (which was imported from India), though\\nancestor worship is still universal. Women are the princi-", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "22 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\npal worshipers, yet the Chinese believe that women\\nhave no souls. The belief in transmigration of souls is\\nimplicit, and this is used to keep woman in a most degraded\\ncondition. If a woman is obedient to her husband and his\\nrelatives, and is the mother of sons, she may hope to return\\nto this world, in the future, as a man, and thus have a\\nchance ultimately to reach Buddha s heaven. The belief\\nin the transmigration of souls explains the vegetarian diet\\nof the Buddhist. No zealous Buddhist will touch meat or\\neven eggs, neither will he kill the smallest insect, lest he\\nshould thus inadvertently murder a relative.^ The men\\ncare but little for any religion beyond a veneration for\\ntheir ancestors.\\nPolygamy is very generally practiced, the limit to the\\nnumber of wives being determined by the ability to support\\nthem. Women usually become more religious as they\\nadvance in years, and they spend much time in worship-\\ning in the temples. It is they who preserve the national\\nreligion and make most difficult the work of mission-\\naries.2\\nThe Home. The wife exists only for the comfort of her\\nhusband. It is her duty to serve and obey him. If she\\nabuses her husband, she receives one hundred stripes\\nbut abuse from him is not a punishable offense. Instruc-\\ntion, at home as well as at school, is confined to boys.\\nThe birth of a boy is indicated by hanging a bow and\\narrow over the door that of a girl, by a spindle and yarn.\\nIn naming the number of his children, the father counts\\nonly the boys. Boys are clothed in the finest material the\\nfamily can afford girls, in rags. Parents may destroy\\ntheir children, but only girls are ever sacrificed. The\\n1 Mrs. E. E. Baldwin, Foochow, China.\\nHoughton, Women of the Orient, p. 14.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "CHINA\\n23\\nmother can seldom read and write, her chief duty being\\nto instill into her children the two cardinal Chinese virtues\\npoliteness and obedience. The relation of parents and\\nchildren is the highest and purest representation of the\\nrelation between the Creator and the creature, and to ven-\\nerate the parents is the first and holiest of all duties,\\nhigher than the love of wife to husband, higher than the\\nreverence for the emperor therefore the emperor s father\\ncannot be his subject.\\nTo the Chinaman all other duties are included in filial\\nduties. The bringing up of the children is left almost\\nentirely to the mother. The training begins very early,\\nand greatest stress from the first is laid upon obedience.\\nDisobedience is a crime punishable by the father with\\ndeath.\\nThere are no illustrated children s books, no nursery\\nrhymes to inspire the imagination, none of the bright and\\nuseful things so necessary to a happy childhood. The\\nchild grows up with but few playthings calculated to stim-\\nulate the powers of the mind.\\nThe Elementary School. At about six or seven years\\nof age the child enters school. Sometimes a few parents\\nunite to employ a teacher for their children. The govern-\\nment has no concern for the qualifications of the teacher\\nno license to teach is required, there is no governmental\\ninspection or control, nor does the State assume any\\npart of the expense of the school. Attendance is not\\ncompulsory, and yet male education is so universal that\\nscarcely a boy can be found who does not enjoy opportuni-\\nties for education. Charity schools are furnished by the\\nwealthy for those who cannot afford to contribute toward\\nthe maintenance of a school.\\nThere are no public schoolhouses. The school is some-\\nI", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "24 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ntimes held in the temple, sometimes in the home of the\\nschoolmaster, and sometimes in the home of a wealthy\\npatron. The furniture of the schoolroom consists of an\\naltar consecrated to Confucius and the god of knowledge,\\na desk and a chair for the teacher, and the pupils desks\\nand stools, provided by the children themselves. No effort\\nis made to render the room attractive.\\nThe child is admitted the first time with much cere-\\nmony in order that the day may be one of pleasant\\nmemories. He also receives a new name, the name of\\nhis babyhood being dropped. Indeed, a change of name\\naccompanies each new epoch of his life, as the time he\\ntakes a new degree, the day of his marriage, etc. Thus\\nthe boy enters upon his new work. The first years of\\nstudy are devoted to reading, writing, and the elements\\nof arithmetic, which studies complete the education of\\nthe majority of the pupils. No effort is made to in-\\nterest the child he is simply required to memorize and\\nwrite as many as possible of the fifty thousand charac-\\nters. Not until after the names of the characters have\\nbeen learned by rote is there any effort to teach the\\nmeaning of the words which they represent. The child s\\nwriting, too, is mechanical, for the expression of thought\\nis but a secondary consideration. Thought awakening\\nis not encouraged in the Chinese course of education.\\nFear, not interest, is the motive which drives the child to\\nstudy. Memory is the chief faculty to be cultivated, and\\neach child vies with the others to make the most noise in\\nstudy.\\nThe teacher is greatly revered, only less so than the\\nfather. His discipline is rigid, the rod not being spared.\\nThere are no new methods to learn the practice to-\\nday is the same as that of hundreds of years ago it con-", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "CHINA 25\\nsists simply in hearing what the children have learned\\nby heart.\\nThe second stage of study consists of translations\\nfrom text-books and lessons in composition. This work\\nbrings some pleasure to the child, as it is a little less\\nmechanical. The third stage consists of belles-lettres\\nand essay writing. Only a few ever reach this stage,\\nand the purpose of this advanced work is not intel-\\nlectual development, or even the accumulation of knowl-\\nedge, but to prepare for a position under the govern-\\nment, which can be reached by no other means. Even\\nin these last two stages of study memory is the prin-\\ncipal faculty brought into play. Without great ex-\\nercise of this power the vast amount of material can\\nnever be mastered.\\nHigher Education. There are no high schools, but\\nmen who have taken degrees gather about them young\\nstudents, who are to devote themselves to study, and\\ngive them instruction in the Chinese classics and pre-\\npare them for the State examinations for degrees. Great\\nattention is paid to style, and in order to cultivate a\\ngood style, students are required to commit to memory\\nmany of the productions of their classical authors. They\\nwrite a great many essays and verses, which are criti-\\ncised by their teachers. The attention is confined solely\\nto the Chinese classics. The educated Chinaman is usually\\nignorant of any field of knowledge not embraced in his\\nown literature.\\nThere is in the royal library at Pekin a catalogue\\nconsisting of one hundred and twelve octavo volumes\\nof three hundred pages each, containing the titles of\\ntwelve thousand works, with short extracts of their\\ncontents. These works treat of science, medicine, as-", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "26 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ntronomy, and philosophy, while history has an especially\\nrich literature. The Chinese knew how to observe the\\nheavens four thousand years ago, and yet were unable\\nto construct a calendar without the help of the Euro-\\npeans. They invented gunpowder, the mariner s com-\\npass, porcelain, bells, playing cards, and the art of\\nprinting long before they were used in Europe, yet\\nthey lacked the ability to use these inventions as in-\\nstruments to their advancement.\\nChina is divided into provinces which are subdivided\\ninto districts. Candidates must pass three examinations\\nin their own district and those who are successful re-\\nceive the lowest degree, that of Budding Intellect.\\nMany thousands enter for this degree, but only about\\none per cent succeed in attaining it. The possession of\\nthis degree does not yet entitle the holder to a pubHc\\noffice, but most of those who have secured it become\\nteachers, physicians, lawyers, etc. Once in three years\\nthere is another examination for the second degree, called\\nDeserving of Promotion, conducted by an examiner sent\\nfrom Pekin. A third examination is also held once every\\nthree years, in Pekin, and success in this is rewarded\\nby the title Pit for Office. Holders of the last two\\ndegrees are entitled to an appointment to some office, the\\nhighest aim of a Chinaman. All of these examinations\\nare conducted with great strictness and fairness, no one\\nbeing excluded. Thus every Chinese child of ability has\\nthe opportunity to reach the highest positions in the\\ncountry.\\nThere is a still higher degree called the Forest of\\nPencils, which is open only to members of the Royal\\nAcademy, the Hanlin. The acquirement of this degree\\nis the greatest honor to be attained its possessor is", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "CHINA 27\\nhighly esteemed, and may hold the highest offices in the\\ncountry.\\nDuring the last few years, military, polytechnic, and\\nother high schools have been founded in China, and teach-\\ners from France, Germany, England, and America have\\nbeen placed in charge of them.\\nCriticism of Chinese Education. i. It is not under\\ngovernment control.\\n2. It has no interest beyond the boundaries of China,\\nand regards no literature save the Chinese classics.\\n3. It is non-progressive, having made practically no\\nimprovement for many centuries.\\n4. It cultivates memory to the neglect of the other\\npowers of the mind, and places more emphasis on the\\nacquirement of knowledge than on the development of\\nthe human faculties.\\n5. It obtains its results through fear, not by awakening\\ninterest in or love for study.\\n6. Women are not embraced in the scheme of education.\\n7. It produces a conservative, dishonest, untruthful,\\ncunning, and cowardly people.\\n8. It reaches practically all of the male sex, and there\\nis opportunity for all to rise to the highest positions of\\nhonor, but its methods are so unnatural as to awaken little\\ndesire for education on the part of the young.\\n9. Its motive is debasing to the character.\\nCONFUCIUS (B.C. 550-478)\\nThe name of Confucius is the one most revered among\\nthe Chinese. To him and his disciples are due not only\\nthe native religion, now supplanted by Buddhism, but\\nalso the language and literature. He began to teach in", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "28 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\na private school at the age of twenty-two. He rejected no\\npupil of ability and ambition, but accepted none without\\nthese qualities. He said, When I have presented one\\ncorner of a subject, and the pupil cannot make out the\\nother three, I do not repeat the lesson. The following\\nare extracts from the analects of Confucius\\n1. What you do not like when done to yourself, do\\nnot to others.\\n2. Learning without thought is labor lost thought\\nwithout learning is perilous.\\n3. To see what is right and not do it is want of\\ncourage.\\n4. Worship as if the Deity were present.\\n5. Three friendships are advantageous friendship\\nwith the upright, friendship with the sincere, and friend-\\nship with the man of observation. Three are injurious:\\nfriendship with a man of spurious airs, friendship with the\\ninsinuatingly soft, and friendship with the glib-tongued.\\n6. Shall I tell you what knowledge is When you\\nknow a thing, to hold that you know it and when you do\\nnot know a thing, to confess your ignorance.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III\\nINDIA\\nLiterature. Marslunan, History of India; Ragozin. Vedic India;\\nSpofford, Librar} of Historical Characters Butler, Land of the Veda;\\nHoughton, Women of the Orient Clarke, Ten Great Religions Johoii-\\nnot, Geographical Reader Macaiilay, Essays Ballon, Footprints of\\nTravel StoddarcVs Lectures Encyclopaedia Britannica; Arnold, Light\\nof Asia.\\nGeography and History. India lies between the sixth\\nand thirty-sixth parallels of north latitude. It is bordered\\non the north by the Himalayas and on the south by the\\nIndian ocean. The climate in general is hot, which\\nmakes the natives indolent and accounts for their lack of\\nenterprise. The country is very rich, the chief products\\nbeing wheat, cotton, rice, opium, and tea. The area is\\nabout one and a half million square miles, and the popula-\\ntion two hundred millions.\\nThe early history of India is obscure, as the Brahmans,\\nfrom religious scruples, have ever been opposed to historical\\nrecords. It is certain that there was an aboriginal race\\nwhich occupied the country from an unknown period, and\\nthat a branch of the Aryan or Indo-Germanic race came\\n1 The Aryans are supposed to have originally occupied the country east of\\nthe Caspian Sea, though some authorities locate them north of it. The\\nbranches of this race are the Hindus, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Celts, Teu-\\ntons, and Slavs. These branches are related in language and color, and the\\npeoples that find their common origin in the Aryans represent a large part of\\nthe world s enterprise and progress.\\n29", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "30 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nto India and struggled for supremacy. The Aryans suc-\\nceeded in reducing the natives to subjection or in driv-\\ning them into the mountains. The comparatively pure\\ndescendants of these races are about equal in number in\\nIndia, their mixed progeny composing the great mass of\\nthe Hindu population. The Sanskrit was their classic\\nlanguage, and the Veda their Bible.\\nThe Caste System. There are four great castes in\\nIndia\\n1. The BraJimans, or highest caste, who are the priests,\\nscholars, lawyers, physicians, teachers, etc. This order is\\nhighly reverenced by the lower castes, and its members are\\ndignified, abstemious, and sedate. Their highest ideal is\\nto bring their desires and appetites under complete con-\\ntrol. They exercise great influence in the land.^\\n2. The zvarriors, who comprise the army and the office\\nholders.\\n3. The mercJiants, mechanics, and farmers, who consti-\\ntute the bone and sinew of India.\\n4. The servants, who receive no education excepting in\\nmatters of politeness and other things connected with\\ntheir station in life.\\nEach caste must pay respect to the higher castes, and\\nassociation with persons of a lower caste is considered a\\ndegradation. The English government of India does not\\ninterfere with the caste system, but it is gradually break-\\ning down.\\nBesides the above-mentioned castes, there are trades-\\nmen s castes which have grown up as new occupations\\nhave been introduced. Thus there is a potters caste, a\\nweavers caste, a carpenters caste, etc., each son following\\nhis father s trade. This accounts for the marvelous skill\\nSee article in Johonnot s Geographical Reader, p. 197.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "INDIA\\n31\\nof the craftsmen of India in weaving carpets and fine\\nmuslins, in metal work, and other arts, workmanship\\nnot equaled anywhere else in the world.\\nBrahmanism and Mohammedanism are the chief reli-\\ngions. Buddhism overran the country in the fifth and sixth\\ncenturies B.C., but it did not seem to be suited to the Hindus,\\nand now it is found in its purity only in Ceylon. Unlike\\nthe Chinese, the Hindus are a very religious people. The\\nShastas declare that when in the presence of her husband,\\na woman must keep her eyes upon her master, and be\\nready to receive his commands. When he speaks, she\\nmust be quiet and listen to nothing besides. When he\\ncalls, she must leave everything else and attend upon him\\nalone. A woman s husband is her god, her priest, and\\nher religion. The most excellent work that she can per-\\nform is to gratify him with the strictest obedience. The\\nsystem of sale of girls at birth, for wives, of early be-\\ntrothal and marriage, of perpetual widowhood under most\\ndegrading circumstances,^ and the practice of polygamy\\nmake the condition of woman in India still worse than in\\nChina.\\nThe English now rule the country with such wisdom\\nand justice that the people are generally contented and\\nloyal. Reforms have been introduced, commerce has been\\nestablished, improvements have been made, and new life\\nhas been awakened. They have also established schools\\nand universities but as the purpose here is to give a pic-\\nA commentary on the sacred book, the Veda of the Hindus.\\nHoughton, Women of the Orient, p. 34.\\nA betrothed girl becomes a widow upon the death of her promised hus-\\nband even though she be only two or three years old and may never have\\nseen him. She must always remain a widow, and as such is constantly\\nhumiliated.\\nr", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "32 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nture of the caste education, the English system will not be\\ndescribed.\\nThe Home. Woman has no educational advantages in\\nIndia, and she is regarded more as the servant than as the\\nequal of her husband. She may never appear uninvited\\nin the presence of any man except her husband. This\\nhas worked great hardships for her, especially in cases of\\nsickness, as she can have no medical attendance unless a\\nfemale medical missionary can be reached. This fact has\\nopened a fertile field for missionary enterprise which has\\nbeen a great blessing to Hindu women.\\nA member of a caste may marry in his own or in a\\nlower caste thus the Brahman may have four wives, the\\nwarrior three, the farmer two, and the servant one.\\nParents love their children, and expect of them unques-\\ntioning obedience. Children are taught to love and honor\\ntheir teachers even more than their parents. They are\\ntaught to reverence and respect older persons under all\\ncircumstances. Contrary to the Chinese idea of educa-\\ntion, which is to prepare for this life, the Hindu idea is\\nto prepare for the future life, and children in the home,\\nfrom their earliest years, are trained with reference to\\nthis idea.\\nThe Elementary School. All teachers belong to the\\nBrahman caste. They receive no salary, depending upon\\ngifts for their support. They are mild in discipline, and\\ngenerally humane in their treatment of their pupils. The\\ninstruction is given under trees in the open air on pleasant\\ndays, and in a tent or shed when the weather is bad. In-\\nstruction is given in reading, writing, and arithmetic,\\nthough religion constitutes the principal theme. Memoriz-\\ning the holy sayings of Brahma occupies a large portion\\nof the time. While the Chinaman worships nature and", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "INDIA\\n33\\nhis ancestors, the Hmdu worships Brahma. The cultiva-\\ntion of the memory is considered important, but by no\\nmeans so essential as in the Chinese system.\\nThe reading lessons are from the Veda. In writing, the\\nchild begins by forming characters in sand with his finger\\nor a stick, then he writes upon leaves, and finally upon\\npaper, with ink. The work in arithmetic is very elemen-\\ntary, being only such as will fit the learners for practical\\nlife. Servants and girls are excluded from even this limited\\neducation.\\nM. Ida Dean says How amused you would be if you\\ncould take a peep at a school in India taught by a native\\nteacher. The school is often held in an open shed, and\\nno pains whatever is taken to keep it clean. Often the\\nrafters are festooned with cobwebs and dirt. Of furniture,\\nsave the teacher s low desk, there is none. The teacher\\nuses a grass mat, while the boys sit cross-legged on the\\nearthen floor. The teacher, in a singsong voice, reads a\\nsentence which the boys shout after him. Then another\\nsentence is read, which the pupils likewise shout in a sing-\\nsong voice, while their bodies sway to and fro. This goes\\non until sentence after sentence is memorized. No one\\nknows nor cares what he is saying. The teacher never\\nexplains. Neither teacher nor pupil is ever bothered by\\nthat troublesome and inquisitive little word zvJiyy\\nThe castes are taught separately, and especial attention\\nis given to such instruction as will fit them for their station\\nin life. The highest virtues to be cultivated are politeness,\\npatience, modesty, and truthfulness. Morning, noon, and\\nevening there are impressive religious ceremonies in the\\nschool, and the pupils must throw themselves at the feet\\nof their teacher with reverential respect. There is no\\ntheory of education among the Hindus, each teacher in-\\nHIST. OF ED. 3", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "34 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nstructing as he pleases, according to historic custom.\\nThis precludes any considerable improvement in method\\nor advance in the art of education. There is no authority\\nto decide upon qualifications of teachers, the only essential\\nrequisite being that they shall belong to the Brahman\\ncaste.\\nHigher Education. The Brahmans are the only edu-\\ncated class, although warriors attend their schools for the\\npurpose of such study as is necessary in connection with\\ntheir calling. The farmer caste, too, may attend the\\nBrahman schools to learn the studies pertaining to their\\ncaste. They pursue in their schools the study of grammar,\\nmathematics, astronomy, philosophy, medicine, law, litera-\\nture, and religion. Many of them still speak their classic\\nlanguage, the Sanskrit. As their religion is based on\\nphilosophy, this study takes precedence over all others.\\nThe Hindus are believed to have originated the\\ndecimal system of arithmetical notation which has been\\ntransmitted to us through Arabian channels.\\nThe end of Hindu wisdom is to rise above all human\\nsuffering through knowledge. Wuttke says, Christians\\npray, Thy Kingdom come the Chinese, Thy King-\\ndom remain the Hindus, Let whatever thou hast created\\npass away.\\nCriticism of Hindu Education. i. It is not universal,\\na large part of the people being excluded from its benefits.\\n2. It is based on castes and the promulgation of the fli\\ncaste system, which is baneful.\\n3. It depends too much upon the cultivation of the\\nmemory.\\n4. It has no philosophy of education, and, therefore,\\nis non-progressive.\\n1 Williams, History of Modern Education.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "INDIA 35\\n5. It does not properly honor woman, and excludes her\\nfrom its advantages.\\n6. It produces a dreamy, self-satisfied, indolent, selfish,\\nand non-progressive people.-\\n7. It makes the people self-reflective, which doubtless\\naccounts for their profound philosophical and mathematical\\ndiscoveries.\\nBUDDHA\\nBuddha lived in the first half of the sixth century B.C.\\nHe sought to overthrow Brahmanism and taught that all\\nmen are brothers, that they should show friendship, kind-\\nness, pity, and love toward their fellow-men. His religion\\nand his spirit approach nearer to Christianity than any\\nother oriental faith, and doubtless his influence was great\\nfor the uplifting of the race, though it cannot be classed\\nas technically educational. Self-denial, virtuous life,\\nsuppression of all self-seeking, love for fellow-men, said\\nhe, are cardinal virtues which bring blessedness to man-\\nkind.\\nBuddhism is a religion based on moral acts. In a cor-\\nrupted form it has many millions of adherents in China,\\nTibet, Japan, and other countries but it is found in its\\npurity only in Ceylon.\\nI", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV\\nPERSIA\\nLiterature. Benjamin, Story of Persia Ragozin, The Story of\\nMedia, Babylon, and Persia Rawlinsotu The Seventh Great Oriental\\nMonarchy Myers, Ancient History Clarke, Ten Great Religions\\nLord, Beacon Lights of History Fergiisson, History of Architecture.\\nGeography and History. Persia lies in the pathway of\\nthe great caravans which formerly carried on trade be-\\ntween Europe and India. It consists largely of a high\\nplateau, surrounded by mountains. Large parts of the\\ncountry are sandy and dry from lack of sufficient rain, and\\ntherefore are unproductive. The people are a branch of\\nthe Aryan race. They doubtless lived a nomadic life,\\nand were obliged to be ever ready to defend themselves.\\nSuccess in defense against the frequent assaults of their\\nsurrounding enemies stimulated them to become a nation\\nof warriors. This fact had much to do in shaping their\\neducation. Cyrus the Great conquered Media and brought\\nPersia to the summit of her greatness. The Persians\\nboasted that they had become great by the sword, hence\\nthey cared but little for agriculture or manufactures. They\\nlevied tribute upon the nations they had subdued. Home\\nproduction was therefore unnecessary, and they could\\ndevote all of their time to the art of war. About one\\nfourth of the population are still classed as wandering\\ntribes, and the nation is an aggregation rather than a\\nunity of peoples.\\n36", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "PERSIA\\n37\\nThe early Persians worshiped fire, and holy fires which\\nonly the Magi, or priests, were allowed to approach,\\nwere kept perpetually burning upon the mountain tops.\\nThe sun also was worshiped, the Persian kneeUng\\nwith his face toward the east at sunrise in beatific joy.\\nThis worship may have been borrowed from the Egyptians,\\nwho were conquered by the Persians, and with whom they\\nstood in close relations. In later times the religion of\\nZoroaster became the religion of the people.\\nThe Home. Wife and children were required to show\\nthe father great respect. Each morning the wife was\\nexpected to ask her husband nine times, What do yoa\\nwish me to do The teacher stood next to the father\\nin the child s esteem. The child was kept at home\\nunder the care of the mother until seven years of age.\\nAn astrologer gave him a name and outlined his future\\ndestiny by reference to the stars. It was forbidden to tell\\nhim the difference between right and wrong before his\\nfifth year. No corporal punishment was administered\\nbefore his seventh year. The mother was greatly be-\\nloved by her children, though women were excluded\\nfrom education. The position of woman was much higher\\nthan in either China or India. The chief training of chil-\\ndren in the home was physical. Throwing, running,\\narchery, riding, etc., were the principal employments of\\nchildren. Absolute truthfulness and justice were early\\ninculcated. A quick eye, a steady hand, accurate power\\nof observation, and unwavering courage were qualities\\nsought for in every child, and all of the training in the\\nhome, as well as in the later education, had for its aim the\\nacquirement of these powers. Thus children were early\\ntaught to be self-reliant and fearless.\\nThe State Education. i. Persian education was na-", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "38 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ntional in character. After the seventh year the boy was taken\\nfrom home and educated entirely by and for the State.\\nHis training in the use of arms, in riding, and in other\\nathletic exercises was continued. There were large pub-\\nlic institutions in which the boys were quartered, and\\nsimplest food and clothing were given them. Besides\\nthe training for war, they were taught religious proverbs\\nand prayers, and were led to practice truth and justice.\\nThis education continued until their fifteenth year. The\\nteachers were men who had passed their fiftieth year, and\\nwho were chosen for virtue as well as knowledge, that they\\nmight serve as models to their pupils.\\n2. The second period of education consisted of a mili-\\ntary training, which occupied the ten years between the\\nage of fifteen and twenty-five.\\n3. The final period was that of the soldier, which con-\\ntinued till the fiftieth year, when the Persian could retire\\nfrom the army with honor. The most competent were\\nretained as teachers.\\nReading and writing were taught to a limited degree,\\nbut the chief end of education was to prepare the citizen\\nfor war. The Magi were educated in astronomy, astrology,\\nand alchemy, and many of the dervishes have ever been\\nrenowned for their acuteness, sense of justice, great\\npowers of observation, and good judgment.\\nCriticism of the Persian Education. i. The State robs\\nthe family of its inherent right to educate the children.\\n2. It neglects intellectual education, giving undue\\nprominence to the physical and moral and demands too\\ngreat a part of the active life of man.\\n3. It makes the highest aim of education to prepare for\\nwar, and therefore does not cultivate the arts of peace.\\n4. It excludes woman from the benefits of education.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "PERSIA 39\\nZOROASTER\\nZoroaster, the founder of the Persian religion, was a\\ngreat teacher. The exact date of his birth is unknown, but\\nit is generally placed at about b.c. 600. The testimony of\\nancient classic literature confirms the belief that he was an\\nhistorical person. A tablet unearthed in Greece contains\\nan account of his life and his doctrines. Pliny says that he\\nlaughed on the day of his birth and that for thirty years he\\nlived in the wilderness on cheese. He was the founder of\\nthe Magi priesthood, but did not teach the worship of fire.\\nHis philosophy is dualistic. There are two spirits or\\nprinciples that rule the universe. These are Ormuzd, the\\nprinciple of light, and Ahriman, the principle of darkness.\\nThese two opposing principles are in constant conflict, each\\nstriving for the mastery. Man is the center of the conflict,\\nbut Ormuzd as his creator has the greater power over him.\\nAll influences are summoned to bring about the success of\\nthe good, and in the end it will surely prevail. No\\nremission of sin is taught, but judgment is represented as a\\nbridge over which those whose good deeds outweigh their\\nevil deeds are allowed to pass to paradise in case the evil\\ndeeds outweigh the good, the person is cast off forever\\nin case of a balance of good and evil deeds, there is\\nanother period of probation.\\nThis dualism shows itself in nature as well as in the\\nspiritual world. Order is opposed to lawlessness, truth\\nto falsehood, life to death, good to evil. It is a religion\\nin which the ideas of guilt and merit are carried out to the\\nextreme. Zoroaster believed that he was the prophet\\nchosen to promulgate these doctrines, and his influence as\\na teacher upon the Persian nation was unquestionably great.\\nPersia is now a Mohammedan country.", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V\\nTHE JEWS\\nLiterature. Hosmer, Story of the Jews Clarke, Ten Great Reli-\\ngions Durrell, New Life in Education Myers, Ancient History\\nStoddanVs Lectures Lord, Beacon Lights of History Josephus, An-\\ntiquities of the Jews Morrison, The Jews under Roman Rule Lamed,\\nHistory for Ready Reference Hegel, Philosophy of History Report of\\nthe United States Commissioner of Education, 1895.\\nGeography and History. The Jews were the ancient\\npeople of God, the chosen people, whose history is\\nrecorded in the Old Testament Scriptures. They reached\\ntheir greatest power and glory during the reigns of David\\nand Solomon, and they occupied Palestine, with Jerusalem\\nas their capital city. Within this small territory, some six\\nthousand square miles in extent, have occurred some of the\\nmost important events of history, and the Jewish race has\\nbeen the representative of God s purposes toward man.\\nThe Almighty communicated directly with his people,\\nwho were thus made acquainted with the divine will. The\\nearly Jews were nomadic in their habits, living in tents,\\nand tending their flocks. The patriarch, who was at the\\nhead of a family or tribe, made laws for the people under\\nhim and governed them according to the command of God,\\nwhose representative he was. Because God directly or\\nthrough the patriarch led and instructed the people, their\\neducation, like their government, is called tJieocratic.\\nThe Jews lost their independence b.c. 63 in becoming\\nsubject to the Romans, and in a.d. 70 Jerusalem was\\n40", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "THE JEWS 41\\ndestroyed and the Jews were dispersed. Since that time\\nthey have been wanderers on the face of the earth, and\\nthere is no part of the world where they are not to be\\nfound. They have maintained their racial characteristics\\nwith remarkable purity but their early agricultural in-\\nstinct has changed, and they have become a commercial\\npeople. This is doubtless owing to the persecutions which\\nhave almost universally followed them, making the acquire-\\nment of fixed property unsafe.\\nThe Home. The Jewish family was the purest of antiq-\\nuity. In general, monogamy was practiced, and the wife\\nwas regarded as the companion and equal of the husband.\\nChildren being accepted as the gift of God, the father\\nstood in the same relation to his children as Jehovah\\nstood to man. Therefore the father s highest aim was\\nto bring up his children in the knowledge and service\\nof the Lord. We have here the highest and best type\\nof family training to be found in history, a characteristic\\nthat still holds in Jewish families wherever they exist,\\nand that has contributed largely to the maintenance of\\nthe strong racial peculiarities of the Jews. The father\\ntaught his boys reading and writing, and the mother\\ntaught the girls household duties; but the latter were not\\nentirely excluded from intellectual training.\\nGreat attention was given to the rites and ceremonies\\nof the tabernacle and the Jewish law. History was also\\ntaught as a means of stimulating patriotism. The\\nJewish child was early made acquainted with the Scrip-\\ntures, and history, law, and prophecy became familiar\\nto every. Jew. As there were no schools, this was all\\ndone in the home by the parents. Religion was the cen-\\ntral thought of all education, and preparation for the\\nservice of the tabernacle and the worship of God was\\nI", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "42 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nearly given to every child. Thus in an atmosphere of\\nlove and piety the Jew discharged his sacred duty with\\ncare and faithfulness. Obedience to the commands of\\nparents, veneration for the aged, wholesome respect for\\ntheir ancestors, and familiarity with the Jewish law\\nwere instilled into the minds of all children. Music\\nand dancing were taught in every household, not for\\npleasure, but as a means of religious expression. By\\nprayer and holy living, by precept and example, by word\\nand deed, the father discharged the duty committed to\\nhim by God, leading his children by careful watchful-\\nness toward the ideal manhood which was revealed to him\\nby the teachings of Holy Writ.\\nThere were no castes among the Hebrews, and the same\\nkind of training was given to the children of rich and\\npoor, high and low, alike. No other race of people has\\ngiven such careful home training to its children, from\\nearliest times to the present.\\nThe Jewish School. There were no Jewish schools\\nuntil after the destruction of the nation and the loss of\\ntheir civil liberty. After the defeat at Jena the Prussians\\nturned to education as the sole means of retrieving their\\nnational greatness the same was true of the Austrians\\nafter the defeat of Sadowa, and of the French after the fall\\nof the empire at Sedan. But the Jev/ish people had set\\nthis example eighteen centuries before. Dittes says, If\\never a people has demonstrated the power of education, it\\nis the people of Israel.\\nThe rabbis required, a.d. 64, that every community\\nshould support a school, and that attendance should be\\ncompulsory. This is the first instance of compulsory edu-\\ncation on record. If a town was divided by a stream with-\\nout a connecting bridge, a school was supported in each", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "THE JEWS 43\\npart. Not more than twenty-five pupils could be as-\\nsigned to one teacher, and where the number was greater\\nan assistant was employed. If there were forty pupils,,\\nthere were two teachers. It will thus be seen that the\\nJews put into practice eighteen centuries ago a condition\\nof things which, owing to the complexity of our civiliza-\\ntion, is with us to-day largely an unrealized ideal.\\nTeachers were respected even more than parents, for\\nit was held that parents prepared their children for the\\npresent, but teachers for the future. None but mature\\nmarried men were employed as teachers. It was said\\nthat he who learns of a young master is like a man who\\neats green grapes, and drinks wine fresh from the press\\nbut he who has a master of mature years is like a man who\\neats ripe and delicious grapes, and drinks old wine.\\nThe child entered school at six. Previous to that age\\nphysical exercise and bodily growth were to be the ends\\nsought. When he enters school, says the Talmud,\\nload him like an ox. Other authorities, however, en-\\ncouraged giving him tasks according to his strength. The\\nsubjects taught were reading, writing, natural history,\\narithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. The Scriptures were\\ntaught to all the children, and all were versed in religious\\nrites.\\nThe methods were good and attractive, great effort\\nbeing made to lead the children to understand, even\\nthough it might be necessary to repeat four hundred\\ntimes. The disciphne was humane. According to the\\nTalmud, children should be punished with one hand and\\ncaressed with two. Corporal punishment was adminis-\\ntered only to children over eleven years of age.\\nThe Schools of the Rabbis. Karl Schmidt says\\nCulture in a people begins with the creation of a litera-", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "44 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nture and the use of writing. The oldest monument of\\nwriting among the Israelites is found in the tables of\\nstone containing the Ten Commandments. Moses, David,\\nSolomon, and Isaiah, and the other prophets were the\\nfounders of the Hebrew literature.\\nAmong the instrumentalities of higher education were\\nthe Schools of the Prophets, which taught philosophy,\\nmedicine, poetry, history, and law to the sons of prophets\\nand priests, and of leading families. These schools were\\ninfluential in stimulating the production of the historical,\\npoetical, and prophetic books of the Old Testament.\\nBut more important as direct means of higher education\\nwere the Schools of the Rabbis. These sprang up in\\nAlexandria, Babylon, and Jerusalem in the early centuries\\nof the Christian era. They were private institutions\\nfounded by celebrated teachers. Doubtless it was in such\\na school as this that St. Paul was brought up at the feet\\nof Gamaliel. The principal subjects studied were theology\\nand law, politics, history, mathematics and science being\\nexcluded. The collection of the sayings and discussions\\nwas begun in the second century a.d. and afterward took\\nform in the Talmud.\\nCriticism of Jewish Education. i. It exalted the\\nhome and insisted on the control of children by their\\nparents.\\n2. It gave to woman an honored place in the home.\\n3. It gave an intelligent interpretation of the school\\nand its functions. In regard to school attendance, the\\nnumber of pupils under one teacher, the respect due to\\nteachers, the course of study, and many other matters, it\\nshowed practical wisdom.\\n4. It taught obedience, patriotism, and religion.\\n5. It provided only for Jewish children.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "THE JEWS 45\\n6. It was mild and generally wise in discipline, though\\nmistaken in forbidding corporal punishment before the\\neleventh year, while admitting its use after that.\\n7. It developed an honest, intelligent, progressive, God-\\nfearing people.\\n8. It produced some of the greatest poets and historians\\nof the world.\\nTHE TALMUD\\nThis book, as we have seen, is the outgrowth of the\\ndiscussions of the rabbis, whose sayings, collected from\\nthe second to the sixth century a.d., are herein contained.\\nIt proclaims with great minuteness rules of life which the\\nfaithful Jew still rigidly observes. It has aided in per-\\npetuating Jewish laws, ceremonies, customs, and religion,\\nand has been the most potent means of preserving the na-\\ntional and racial characteristics of the Jews for nearly two\\nthousand years. Driven from one country to another, they\\nhave always carried the Talmud with them and have been\\nguided and kept united by its teachings. During the last\\nquarter of the nineteenth century the study of the Talmud\\nhas been revived, not only among the Jews, but also among\\nChristians and students of all classes.\\nEXTRACTS FROM THE TALMUD\\n1. Even if the gates of heaven are shut to prayer, they\\nare open to tears.\\n2. Teach thy tongue to say, I do not know.\\n3. If a word spoken in its time is worth one piece of\\nmoney, silence is worth two.\\n4. Thy friend has a friend, and this friend s friend has\\na friend be discreet.\\n5. The world is saved by the breath of school children.", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI\\nEGYPT\\nLiterature. Maspero, Egyptian Archaeology Wilkinson, The An-\\ncient Egyptians StoddanVs Lectures Myers, Ancient History Rout-\\nledge, The Modern Wonders of the World Johonnot, Geographical\\nReader Edwards, A Thousand Miles up the Nile Kiiox, Egypt and\\nthe Holy Land Ballon, Due West Clarke, Ten Great Religions\\nEbers, Uarda and Egyptian Princess Curtis, Nile Notes of a Howadji.\\nGeography and History. Egypt consists of a narrow\\nstrip of land about six hundred miles long, lying in the\\nnortheastern part of Africa. Its geographical importance\\nis due to the river Nile, which flows through it, and which,\\nby its annual overflow, enriches the soil, and makes one\\nof the most productive portions of the globe. For many\\ncenturies reservoirs for the storage of water in time of the\\noverflow, and irrigation canals for its later distribution,\\nhave secured the country against drought, and thus\\nabundant harvests were always assured independent\\nof the seasons and the skies. This, with the mild cHmate\\nand exceedingly rich soil, made food attainable with slight\\nlabor, furnishing an abundance, not only for its own popu-\\nlation, but making Egypt the granary of the Mediter-\\nranean countries. We learn from the Scriptures, of the\\nvisits of the sons of Jacob to Egypt to buy corn of Joseph\\nwhen famine existed in their own land. These conditions,\\nwhich made living so cheap, were doubtless the main\\ncauses of the early settlement of the valley of the Nile,\\nand the rapid increase in its population. In confirmation\\n46", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "EGYPT 47\\nof the foregoing we have the testimony of Diodorus\\nSiculus, a Greek writer, who visited PIgypt nearly two\\nthousand years ago. He tells us that the entire cost to\\nbring up a child to manhood was not more than twenty\\ndrachmas (less than four dollars of our money ).i\\nOf the antiquity of Egyptian history we have abundant\\nevidence. Swinton says, Egypt is the country in which\\nwe first find a government and political institutions\\nestablished. Egypt itself may not have been the oldest\\nnation, but Egyptian history is certainly the oldest his-\\ntory. Its mxonuments, records, and literature surpass in\\nantiquity those of Chaldea and India, the two next old-\\nest nations. 2 The records of the history of Egypt are\\nfound in abundance carved on her monuments, tombs,\\nbuildings, implements, etc. They were written in hiero-\\nglyphics, the meaning of which was unknown until the dis-\\ncovery of the Rosetta stone, which furnished the key\\nto their interpretation.\\nThe ancient Egyptians excelled in mechanics and arts.\\nIt is doubtful whether to-day we know as much of certain\\nsciences as they did four thousand years ago. Their\\napplications of mechanics, engineering, dyeing, and em-\\nbalming still remain to us lost arts. The wisdom of\\nthe Egyptians was proverbial, and the great scholars\\nof other countries made pilgrimages to Egypt to study\\nphilosophy, Hterature, law, and science.\\nThe Caste System. The caste system existed also in\\nEgypt, but in no such strict sense as in India. The first\\nand highest caste consisted of the priests, who represented\\nthe learning and wealth of the country. They owned\\n1 The student should bear in mind the fact that the purchasing power of a\\nsum equivalent to four dollars was much greater in those days than now.\\n2 Outlines of the World s History, p. 12.\\nL", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "48 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\none third of the land, upon which they paid no tax. They\\nheld all the offices, were the surveyors, engineers, teachers,\\nindeed, their caste alone furnished all the higher pro-\\nfessions. They ruled the land with an iron hand. Con-\\ncerning their influence, Swinton says, The priests were\\nthe richest, most powerful, and most influential order. It\\nmust not be supposed, however, that the modern word\\npriest gives the true idea of this caste. Its members\\nwere not limited to reUgious offices they formed an order\\ncomprising many occupations and professions. They were\\ndistributed all over the country, possessing exclusively the\\nmeans of reading and writing, and the whole stock of\\nmedical and scientific knowledge. Their ascendency, both\\ndirect and indirect, over the minds of the people was\\nimmense, for they prescribed that minute religious ritual\\nunder which the life of every Egyptian, not excepting the\\nking himself, was passed.\\nThe second caste consisted of the military class, who\\nalso belonged to the nobles. There was freer intercourse\\nbetween the two higher castes than was possible in the\\nHindu system. It was not uncommon to find brothers be-\\nlonging to different castes. Ampere found an inscription\\non a monument mentioning one son as a priest, another\\nas governor of a province, and a third as superintendent\\nof buildings. To each member of this caste was assigned\\na parcel of land (six and one half acres), which also was free\\nfrom taxation. These two higher castes were especially\\nprivileged, and the gulf between them and the lower castes\\nwas very wide.\\nThe third, or unprivileged caste was subdivided into\\nthree orders: (i) the farmers and boatmen; (2) the\\nmechanics and tradespeople; and (3) the common\\n1 Outlines of History, p. 20.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "EGYPT\\n49\\nlaborers. Between these, also, there were bonds of\\ncommon interest, though a decided difference between the\\norders was recognized.\\nThe caste system may be outlined as follows\\nI. Priests, who represented the learning and wealth and\\nruled the land.\\nI II. Soldiers, who, though lower in caste than the priests,\\nEgyptian I yet associated with them.\\nCastes. I II. Farmers and boatmen, who stood the highest in\\nrank of this caste.\\n2. Mechanics and tradespeople, who ranked next.\\nI [3. The common laborers.\\nIII.\\nThe slaves were lower than the common laborers, and\\nwere not classified among the castes. They were generally\\ncaptives taken in war. Respect and reverence for the\\nhigher castes were by no means so marked as in India,\\nand outbreaks between the various classes were common.\\nThe Home. Woman occupied a much higher plane in\\nEgypt than in China or India, though polygamy was prac-\\nticed by all classes except the priests. She was the recog-\\nnized mistress of the home, possessed some education, and\\nlargely directed the education of the children. Children\\nof wives of different castes had equal rights before the law\\nto inheritance. Great attention was paid to religious cere-\\nmonies, and the children were taught piety and obedience\\nin their early youth. They were highly regarded in the\\nEgyptian home, and were brought up in an atmosphere of\\nlove and filial respect. The day of a child s birth was\\nregarded as determining its destiny. The child was brought\\nup on the simplest food, and furnished with scanty cloth-\\ning, in order that its body might be strong and supple.\\nThe Education. The education, like that of India, was\\ny. the different castes. Priests were the only\\nHIST. OF ED. 4", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "50 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nteachers. While chief attention was given to the educa-\\ntion of boys, girls also received some instruction. The\\nprincipal subjects taught in the lowest caste were writing\\nand mathematics. Writing was practiced on the papyrus\\nleaf, an abundance of which was found along the Nile. In\\narithmetic we find an anticipation of modern principles in\\nthe concrete methods employed. Religious instruction was\\nalso given. Bodily exercise was severe, running being a\\nfavorite pastime. The expense of schooling was very small.\\nThe boy usually followed the trade of his father, though this\\nwas not an inflexible rule. The occupation he was to follow\\nhad some influence in shaping his education.\\nThe higher castes received an extensive education, in-\\ncluding a knowledge of higher mathematics, astronomy,\\nlanguage, natural science, medicine, music, engineering,\\nand religion. The annual overflow of the Nile necessitated\\nthe construction of reservoirs and irrigation canals, and\\ncaused frequent changes of boundary lines. For all\\nthis a knowledge of mathematics was necessary, and\\nthis study was therefore greatly enco.uraged. Institu-\\ntions of higher learning for the training of priests and\\nsoldiers were found at Thebes, Memphis, and Heliopolis.\\nThe Museum of Alexandria, which reached its highest\\nprosperity about the middle of the third century B.C., and\\nwhich made Alexandria the center of the learning of the\\nworld at that period, attracted philosophers and investi-\\ngators from Athens and Rome. In connection with the\\nMuseum was the celebrated Alexandrian library, which\\nwas fostered by the Ptolemies, and which contained a vast\\ncollection of books, variously estimated at from four hun-\\ndred thousand to seven hundred thousand volumes.^\\nIt must be observed that the ancient volume, or roll, contained much less\\nmatter than the modern book.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "EGYPT 51\\nCriticism of Egyptian Education. i. It was dominated\\nby the priests under the caste system, and did not recog-\\nnize equality of man.\\n2. It encouraged greater respect for woman than other\\noriental systems, but took little account of her intellectual\\ntraining.\\n3. It made use of concrete methods, at least in writing\\nand arithmetic, for the first time in history.\\n4. It was non-progressive in its elementary education,\\nthe father generally expecting his son to follow his calling.\\n5. In higher education it was justly noted, as it attracted\\nwise men from Greece and Rome to study its science and\\nphilosophy.\\nGENERAL SUMMARY OF ORIENTAL EDUCATION\\nWith the discussion of Egyptian education, the con-\\nsideration of oriental systems ceases. Concerning the\\neducation of the Phoenicians, Babylonians, and other\\noriental nations we know but little. To the Phoenicians the\\ninvention of the alphabet, glass making, and purple dyeing is\\ngenerally credited, and the knowledge of these things was\\ncommunicated to the Mediterranean nations with whom\\nthey engaged in trade. The classical countries were mate-\\nrially influenced by Egyptian culture, and the way was\\nprepared for a broader and more enlightened interpreta-\\ntion of the purpose of education, and for a more successful\\nevolution of civilization on soil better suited to that end.\\nWe may briefly summarize the lessons of oriental educa-\\ntion, as follows\\nI. The Oriental systems fostered class distinctions by\\nfurnishing but little enlightenment to the lower classes,\\nand affording superior advantages to the privileged few.", "height": "2729", "width": "1706", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "52 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\n2. They were non-progressive, for centuries witnessed\\nno improvement in methods of instruction, reached no\\nhigher ideals, and marked no advance in civilization.\\n3. They did not feel the need of trained teachers.\\n4. The importance of the individual was not appreciated,\\nand man was regarded as belonging to the State.\\n5. The end sought was good conduct, which was to be\\nattained through memorizing moral precepts. This gave\\nundue importance to the memory.\\n6. Little encouragement was given to free investigation\\nauthority of teachers and ancestral traditions were the\\nprincipal factors employed. There was therefore no stimu-\\nlus toward progress or intellectual growth.\\n7. In general, woman had no part in education,\\nbeing regarded as incapable of any considerable intellec-\\ntual development.\\n8. In China the motive of education was to prepare for\\nsuccess in this life in India, for the future Hfe in Persia,\\nto support the State in Israel, to rehabilitate the nation\\nand in Egypt, to maintain the supremacy of the priests.\\n9. In no case was the conception reached that the aim\\nof education should be to emancipate all the powers of\\nman, physical, intellectual, moral, spiritual.\\n10. Finally, we may sum up the conditions that pre-\\npared the way for classical education in the words of\\nKarl Schmidt: In Greece at last the idea of human\\nindividuality as the principal end, and not as a means to\\nthat end, was grasped. Conformable to this truth, all\\nhuman, social, and political conditions were shaped and\\neducation given its form. This idea of the emancipation\\nof the individual became established in Greece with a\\nbrilliancy which attracts attention to that land until the\\npresent time.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII\\nGREECE\\nLiterature. Davidson, Education of the Greek People; Felton,\\nAncient and Modern Greece Grote, History of Greece Curtii/s, His-\\ntory of Greece Morris, Historical Tales (Greek); Mahaffy, Old Greek\\nEducation Social Life in Greece The Greek World under Roman\\nSway Clarke, Ten Great Religions Giihl and Koner. Life of Greeks\\nand Romans Timayettis, History of Greece IVilkins, National Educa-\\ntion in Greece Lord, Beacon Lights.\\nGeography and History. Greece lies in the center of\\nthe ancient world. The numerous islands between it and\\nthe mainland of Asia made stepping-stones for the hardy\\nmariners who, filled with the spirit of adventure, pushed\\nout farther and farther from the Asiatic shores until\\nthey reached Greece the first European country to be\\nsettled. Here we find another branch of the great Aryan\\nrace.\\nThe coast is broken up by many indentations which\\nafford fine harbors and invite seafaring life. The surface\\nis mountainous, the ranges cutting the country up into\\nmany sections or states. The climate is varying, depend-\\ning upon proximity to the sea, and upon the elevation.\\nThe scenery is beautiful, and the soil in the valleys is fer-\\ntile. The productions are fruit, grain, and silk. As might\\nbe expected from the nature of the country, the people\\nshow much commercial enterprise. The area is about\\n53", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "54 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ntwenty-five thousand square miles, and the population\\nabout 2,200,000.\\nThe Greeks were a brave and ambitious people, and\\ntheir history is full of heroic deeds and stirring events.\\nThe many small states were often hostile to one another.\\nAthens and Sparta were the two most important cities.\\nAround them centered two diverse forms of civilization,\\nand in them were developed two very different standards\\nof education. It will be necessary, therefore, to discuss\\nseparately the education of these two cities. When the\\nGrecian states were united in defense, no outside power\\nwas able to conquer them but, unfortunately, jealousies\\noften arose which brought them into conflict with one\\nanother, and which finally caused the overthrow of all. In\\nart and literature Greece reached the summit of her glory\\nin Athens in the age of Pericles, the fifth century B.C. The\\nwork accomplished by Athens has been the inspiration of\\nthe world for nearly twenty-four hundred years.\\nIn government, in manners, and in customs the Greeks\\nwere very different from the oriental nations. The spirit\\nof political freedom prevailed here for the first time in the\\nhistory of the world. Doubtless the small size of the\\nstates, which were separated from each other by natural\\nboundaries, was an important factor in stimulating the\\npeople to secure and maintain this independence. Man s\\ncharacter is formed by the surroundings of his home.\\nThe beautiful valleys and mountains, the varying climate,\\nthe sea with its many islands and harbors, the soil, in\\nthe main yielding its fruit only by hard labor, were\\nelements well calculated to produce a hardy race, a\\nrace with lofty ideals, loving beauty both of mind and\\nbody.\\nThe Olympian Games. Because of their national popu-", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "GREECE 55\\nlarity and their direct influence on the education of the\\npeople, a description of the Olympian games is not out of\\nplace in a history of education. At first they were re-\\nligious in character. They were celebrated in honor of\\nZeus, at Olympia, in Elis, which became the Holy Land\\nof Greece. They took place once in four years, and this\\nperiod, called an Olympiad, furnished the basis of com-\\nputing time. The first Olympiad begins with b.c. 776.\\nAll of the states took part in these contests, and when at\\nwar, hostilities were suspended during the games, that\\nvisitors might attend them unmolested. Thus once in four\\nyears the various states of Greece were united in friendly\\ncontest and joyous festivity.\\nAt first there was only the foot race, but afterward\\nwrestling, jumping, and throwing the spear were added.\\nStill later, chariot and horse races, and contests in painting,\\nsculpture, and literature, were included. Only Greek citi-\\nzens of good moral character could enter the contests. The\\nprize, though but a simple wreath of laurel or olive, was\\nmost highly esteemed. At first spectators were attracted\\nfrom the different parts of Greece only but afterward the\\ngames became great fairs for the exchange of commodities,\\nas well as contests which attracted people from all parts of\\nEurope.\\nThe Olympian games tended to unite the people and\\ncultivate the arts of peace. They encouraged the develop-\\nment of perfect bodies, the training being designed to pro-\\nduce superior athletes. They inculcated broader views,\\nbringing together people from different parts of their own\\nland and from other lands. They incited intellectual am-\\nbition by adding in later times literary productions. They\\ncreated a manly spirit and stimulated a national patriotism.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII\\nATHENS\\nLiterature. (See general literature for Greece.) Harrison^ Story\\nof Greece Macaiilay, Essays Ctcrtins, History of Greece Davidson,\\nEducation of the Greeks Wilkms, National Education in Greece\\nFree/nan, Historical Essays.\\nHistory. The ideals of Athens educational, political,\\nand moral were in direct contrast to those of Sparta.\\nAt Athens, love of liberty, love of knowledge, and love of\\nbeauty went hand in hand. Though the body was not\\nneglected, as is proved by the beautiful types of manhood\\npreserved for us in Athenian art, the Athenians believed\\nthat the truest beauty was to be reached only by the\\ndevelopment of the mind.\\nHence Athens brought forth great men like Pericles,\\nSocrates, Plato, and Aristotle, she created a literature that\\nhas influenced the world, she developed art to its highest\\nexcellence, and gained for herself a permanent and high\\nplace in the world s history. Sparta did none of these\\nthings, therefore her ruin was sure and speedy while the\\ndecline of Athens was slow and her influence still lives.\\nThe spirit of Athens was liberty, while that of Sparta\\nwas tyranny. It is true that Athens had slaves indeed,\\nonly one fourth of the inhabitants were free but even the\\nslaves had a large share of freedom, and enjoyed some\\nmeans of education. We learn that children of the wealthy\\nwere committed to trusted slaves, called fciingos^ites. who\\nf", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "ATHENS\\n57\\nescorted them to school, instructed them in many things,\\nand had a right to punish them for disobedience. This\\ncould not have been allowed by parents with such high\\nideals had the slaves been debased as were those of Sparta.\\nIn Athens we find for the first time the democratic idea\\nof government this was by no means so completely\\nrealized as it is in modern times, especially in the western\\nworld. The Age of Pericles (b.c. 480-430) forms the\\nmost brilliant period of Athens, a period hardly surpassed\\nin some respects by any other in the world s history.\\nSolon (B.C. 638) was the great lawgiver of Athens. His\\nwise laws had much influence on the prosperity and intel-\\nlectual development of the people.\\nThe Home. In Athens the child was left with the\\nmother until the sixth or seventh year. The toys were\\ngreater in variety than with any other people of antiquity.\\nThey were much the same in character as those of modern\\ntimes, and their purpose was to amuse the children rather\\nthan to furnish a definite preparation for life, as in Persia\\nand Sparta. Play, therefore, was recognized as an im-\\nportant factor in the child s life, and the toys in use stim-\\nulated and encouraged the joyous element in the child s\\nnature. That toys are a potent influence toward healthful\\nmental and physical growth is an educational truth that\\nhas been fully recognized by us only within recent years.\\nAnd yet the Athenians appreciated it in the home, twenty-\\nfive centuries ago.\\nThe training was intellectual and humane, though strict\\nobedience was enforced. Great attention was paid to the\\nworks of the poets, selections being taught to all the chil-\\ndren. The father interested himself chiefly in the education\\nof the boys, and when he was unable to discharge this duty\\nan elderly male relative was selected as mentor, who devoted", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "58 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nhis leisure hours to such training. Little attention was\\npaid to the mental training of the girls.\\nWomen were not held in so high esteem as in Sparta,\\nnor were they as worthy of respect. The husband exer-\\ncised over his wife the same authority as over his children.\\nNeither by social position nor by intellectual attainment\\nwas she his equal. Her own chamber was the world of\\nthe Athenian woman her maids were her companions\\nhousehold duties and the preparation of clothing for her\\nfamily were her employment.\\nEducation. The father was free to choose for his\\nchildren their school and the character of their education.\\nThe State furnished gymnasia in which schools could be\\nheld, fixed the qualifications of teachers, the school hours,\\nand the number of pupils to a teacher. Once a year\\npublic examinations were held, the expense of which the\\nState defrayed. The schools were private institutions,\\nsupported by private means, though under State inspection.\\nThe teachers were philosophers or wise men, thoroughly\\ncompetent to discharge the duties of their ofhce.\\nAt six or seven years of age, the boy was sent to school\\nin charge of a pedagogue, or leader of the young,\\nusually an old and trusted slave. While not intrusted with\\nthe actual teaching of his charge, he was responsible for\\nhis morals and manners, and was allowed, as we have seen,\\nto administer punishment. The pedagogue was the con-\\nstant attendant of the boy. The character of the school\\nchosen depended upon the means of the parents.\\nThe first two years were devoted chiefly to gymnastics.\\nThe two subjects of the elementary course were gymnas-\\ntics and music, the latter term including reading and writ-\\ning. But little arithmetic was taught, as the Athenians\\nbelieved that the object of the study of arithmetic was", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "ATHENS 59\\nsimply utility, and but little arithmetic was needed for\\npractical use. Calculating boards made the reckoning\\nfor all business needs a purely mechanical process. The\\nidea of education was the development of the beaiUifiil,\\nand they held that arithmetic contributed but little to this\\nend. The works of the poets were given prominence\\nthroughout the Athenian education, and pupils were\\nrequired to commit to memory many selections. Later,\\nunder the Sophists, the study of grammar was begun.\\nChildren of the poorer classes were kept in school until\\ntheir fourteenth or fifteenth year, when they learned a\\ntrade. Those of the rich remained in school until their\\ntwentieth year. The course of study of the latter included\\nmusic, rhetoric, grammar, and philosophy. At twenty the\\nyouth s education was regarded as completed, and the\\nyoung man became a citizen. Teachers were paid fees\\nand not fixed salaries.\\nIt was the atmosphere of Athens, more than the disci-\\nphne of the school, that fostered culture and inspired\\nlearning. The aim of education was the beautiful, and\\nthe ideal was the aesthetic in mind and body.\\nCriticism of Athenian Education. i. It sought to edu-\\ncate the entire man, giving him beauty of form, keenness\\nof intellect, and nobleness of heart.\\n2. It acknowledged the right of parents to direct and\\ndetermine the education of their children.\\n3. It recognized the importance of the individual as no\\nother people had before.\\n4. Strict, but not blind, obedience was required of the\\nchildren.\\n5. It produced great men, with high moral and intel-\\nlectual ideals, but these ideals were centered in Athenian\\nculture.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "6o HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\n6. It excluded women and slaves from its benefits, and\\nwas by no means universal.\\n7. It recognized the value of play as an educational\\nforce, thereby anticipating the kindergarten.\\n8. The State exercised a certain control over the school\\nby furnishing places where it might be held, by defraying\\nthe expense of examinations, by determining the number\\nof pupils to a teacher, by fixing the limit of school hours,\\nand by deciding upon the qualifications of teachers. And\\nyet the choice of education was free, and its aim was the\\ngood of the individual and not the glory of the State.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX\\nATHENIAN EDUCATORS\\nLiterature. Bulkley, Plato s Best Thoughts Schzuegler, History of\\nPhilosophy Morris, Historical Tales Curtiiis, History of Greece\\nL(yrd, Beacon Lights Spofford, Library of Historical Characters\\nJowett, The Republic of Plato Vogel, Geschichte der Padagogik\\nEmerson, Representative Men De Qiiinccy, Plato s Republic Hegel,\\nPhilosophy of History.\\nSOCRATES (B.C. 470-399)\\nSocrates was the son of a sculptor of Athens. Though\\nhe learned his father s trade and followed it in early man-\\nhood, he relinquished it to devote himself to the study of\\nphilosophy, for which he had a natural bent. In person\\nhe was far from fulfilling the Athenian ideal of beauty,\\nbeing short of stature, corpulent, with protruding eyes,\\nupturned nose, large mouth, and thick lips. His domestic\\nlife was not happy, his wife, Xantippe, being a noted\\nshrew. His failure to provide for the material welfare of\\nhis family, though quite natural in a man to whom all\\nmaterial things seemed unessential, must have sorely tried\\nher patience. But Socrates bore her scolding with resig-\\nnation. Indeed, he seemed to regard it as furnishing an\\nopportunity to practice the philosophic patience that he\\npreached.\\nSocrates believed that he had a divine call to convince\\nmen of ignorance mistaking itself for knowledge, and by\\nso doing to promote their intellectual and moral develop-\\n61", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "62 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nmerit. Like many other philosophers, he spent his time\\nin the streets, markets, and other public places, arguing\\nwith any one who would stop to listen or converse. This\\nmanner of teaching was common in Athens, and he never\\nlacked hearers. The whole atmosphere of the classic city\\nwas charged with the spirit of intellectual activity and\\nphilosophic discussion. Socrates did not teach positive\\ndoctrines, but assumed ignorance himself, in order to con-\\nvince others of ignorance. By a series of suggestive\\nquestions he would lead his pupils or opponents into\\nadmissions which finally established the truth that Soc-\\nrates saw at the outset. This is known as the So-\\ncratic Method, or the dialectical method, and this form\\nof inductive teaching was an important contribution to\\neducation.\\nAlthough Socrates left no writings, his great pupils,\\nXenophon and Plato, have given the world a full account\\nof his teachings. Plato speaks in highest terms of his\\nmoral character, declaring that he was not of this world.\\nXenophon also adds his testimony in the following words\\nNo one ever knew of his doing or saying anything\\nprofane or unholy. Socrates believed in one Supreme\\nBeing, the intelligent Creator of the universe. He also\\nbelieved in the immortality of the soul. These doctrines\\nwere altogether contrary to Greek polytheism, the prevail-\\ning religion of Athens, and they prove him to have been\\nfar in advance of the age in which he lived. While he\\nestablished no school, Socrates nevertheless must ever rank\\nas one of the world s greatest teachers and thinkers.\\nIn his death he fully exemplified the truth of his own\\nphilosophy. He was accused of corrupting the youth and\\ndenying the deities, and was condemned to die by drink-\\ning a cup of hemlock. He calmly submitted to his fate,", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "ATHENIAN EDUCATORS 63\\nrefusing to avail himself of an opportunity to escape. Ac-\\ncording to the account given in Plato s Phaedo, he spent\\nhis last hours discussing with the friends who attended\\nhim the question of the immortality of the soul.\\nPLATO (B.C. 429-347)\\nPlato was a disciple of Socrates, and to him we are\\nchiefly indebted for an account of the teachings of his\\ngreat master. For twenty years he sat at the feet of the\\nphilosopher, and drank from the fountain of knowledge\\npossessed by that wonderful man. He also traveled in\\nother lands, particularly Egypt and Italy, in pursuit of\\nknowledge. He became one of the most remarkable\\nscholars and philosophers, not only of antiquity, but of all\\ntime. When forty years of age he founded a school at\\nAthens, though it is not as a teacher that he is chiefly\\nknown, but as a writer and sage. Plato among the\\nGreeks, like Bacon among the moderns, was the first who\\nconceived a method of knowledge. His great work is his\\nRepublic, in which he pictures the ideal State and out-\\nlines his scheme of education, which is built on ideals of\\nboth Spartan and Athenian citizenship. From Sparta comes\\nthe thought of an education which shall be controlled by\\nthe State from birth while Athens adds the aesthetical\\naspects to those purely physical.\\nIn his scheme he divided the people into the following\\nclasses\\nT The cotmnon people. They should be allowed to rise,\\nno ed;i.: tion is provided for them in his scheme.\\nuardiaits or citizens, who shall study music\\ntics. Music includes literature, that is, human\\nistinguished from scientific knowledge. Writ-", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "64 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ning and arithmetic are also included under music, the latter\\nnot being studied for practical purposes, but to develop\\nthe reason.\\n3. The rulers, who, in addition to the preceding sub-\\njects, shall study geometry, astronomy, rhetoric, and\\nphilosophy.\\nThe State is to have absolute control of every citizen\\nit shall arrange marriages, destroy weak and unpromising\\nchildren, and remove the healthy babes at birth to public\\nnurseries, where mothers may care for the children in\\ncommon, but will not recognize or take special interest in\\ntheir own children. Boys and girls are to be educated\\nalike. Great care is to be taken that nothing mean or vile\\nshall be shown to children their environments shall be\\nbeautiful and ennobling, though simple.\\nFrom birth to seven years of age the child is to have\\nplenty of physical exercise. He shall hear fairy tales and\\nselections from the poets, but careful censorship must be\\nplaced on everything presented to him. Suitable play-\\nthings are to be provided, precaution taken against fear\\nof darkness, and by gentleness combined with firmness a\\nmanly, spirit is to be produced. Beauty of mind and body\\nare to be harmoniously united.\\nFrom seven to thirteen intellectual as well as physical\\nactivity is required.\\nThe special education begins at twenty by the selection\\nof the most promising youths. At thirty another selec-\\ntion of those able to continue their education five years\\nmore is made.\\nHigher mathematics, astronomy, harmony, and science\\nconstitute the work of the first ten years, and philosophi-\\ncal study that of the last five. Fifteen years then are to\\nbe given to the service of the State, after which, at fifty,", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "A THEN/ AN ED UCA TORS\\nthe student may return to the study of philosoph t\\nthe remainder of his hfe.\\nEducation is to be compulsory, as the child belon\\nthe State and not to the parent.\\nPlato gave predominance to intellectual rather the y\\nphysical culture, as he said, If the mind be educated it\\nwill take care of the body, for the good soul improves the\\nbody, and not the good body the soul.\\nHe taught that it is the aim of education to bring all\\nof the powers of man into harmonious cooperation.\\nIt will thus be seen that Plato s scheme of education\\ncenters around the oriental idea that man belongs to\\nthe State, and the main purpose of education is to fit\\nhim to serve the State. And Plato clearly set forth\\nhow the education which he demanded should be attained,\\nand therefore he is to be remembered as originating the\\nfirst systematic scJienie of education in history.\\nARISTOTLE (b.c. 384-322)\\nAristotle was born in Stagira in Macedonia, and from\\nthis fact he is called the Stagirite. For twenty years\\nhe was a pupil of Plato, as Plato had been of Socrates.\\nAristotle was not only one of the greatest philosophers\\nthat ever lived, but he enjoyed the distinction of being\\nthe teacher and chosen counselor of Alexander the\\nGreat. Much of the greatness of the man who con-\\nquered the world and wept because there were no\\nmore worlds to conquer was due to his wise teacher.\\nAlexander loved and revered Aristotle as much as his\\nfather, declaring that he was indebted to the one for\\nliving, and to the other for living ^veliy Later in life\\nhe assisted Aristotle in founding a school at his native\\nplace, Stagira.\\nHIST. OF ED. 5", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "66 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nIt is not simply as the teacher of Alexander the\\nGreat that Aristotle is to be remembered in the history\\nof education, though that would entitle him to lasting\\nfame. After the education of Alexander was finished,\\nAristotle went to Athens, where he founded the Lyceum.\\nHere he lectured for many years, in the morning to\\nhis riper pupils on philosophical subjects, and in the\\nevening to the masses on such topics as were within\\ntheir comprehension and as would tend to elevate them.\\nHis pedagogy may be briefly outlined as follows\\n1 Education is a lifelong task, beginning at birth and\\ncontinuing till death. The first seven years are to be\\nspent in the home under the fostering care of the parents.\\nDuring this period the child is to have no severe tasks,\\nbut chief attention is to be given to physical develop-\\nment. He must learn obedience, as the first step to an\\nethical life. His food and clothing are to be simple,\\nand his toys and games of a character to stimulate\\nwholesome activity. At the age of seven he is to enter\\nupon the direct intellectual training, and nothing must\\ninterfere with this during the next seven years. From\\nfourteen to twenty-one the education is to include such\\nexercises as directly prepare for life. The diet is to\\nbe simple, the physical training severe, for the double\\npurpose of counteracting the tendencies of the ado-\\nlescent period, and of preparing for war.\\n2. Education includes the development of the body,\\nthe character, and the intellect. Courage, endurance,\\nself-denial, temperance, truthfulness, and justice are essen-\\ntial characteristics to be sought. The purpose of instruc-\\ntion is to develop the imperfect, untrained child into. the\\nwell-rounded, intelligent, and patriotic citizen.\\n3. The course of study, which begins seriously after", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "ATHENIAN EDUCATORS 6/\\nthe seventh year, includes music, gymnastics, drawing,\\ngrammar, rhetoric, and mathematics. Later, dialectics,\\nphilosophy, and political science are to be added.\\n4. Woman is to have part in education that she may\\nproperly train her children, and may, by an intelligent\\nunderstanding of the laws, uphold the State.\\n5. Aristotle considered education as the most im-\\nportant and most difficult of all problems. He based\\nhis pedagogy upon a knowledge of the individual.\\n6. His method was the analytical. He began with\\nthings and advanced from the concrete to the abstract.\\nThe foregoing will show that Aristotle began the study\\nof problems that still occupy the minds of educational\\nthinkers, after more than twenty-two centuries of search\\nfor the truth. Some of the problems he discussed have\\nfound their solution, and the seed sown by the great thinker\\nhas come to fruitage. Karl Schmidt says, Aristotle is\\nthe intellectual Alexander. Rich in experience and pro-\\nfound in speculation, he penetrates all parts of the universe\\nand seeks to reduce all realities to concepts. He is the\\nmost profound and comprehensive thinker of the pre-\\nChristian world, the Hegel of classical antiquity,\\nbecause, like Hegel, he seeks to unify all knowledge,\\nbrings together the scattered materials of the present into\\none system, constructs in a wonderful intellectual temple\\nthe psychical and physical Cosmos, the universe and God,\\nproclaims the destruction of an earlier culture epoch, and\\nsets in motion waves in the ocean of history that are\\ndestined to influence the intellectual Hfe of all centuries\\nto come. Aristotle stands for the highest intellectual\\nsummit of antiquity, the bridge which binds the Grecian\\nto the modern world, the philosophical mouthpiece and\\nthe intellectual master of twenty centuries.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X\\nSPARTA\\nLiterature. (See general literature for Greece.) Satikey, Spartan\\nand Theban Supremacies S//iit/i, History of Greece Plutarch s Lives\\nMoinbert^ Great Lives Spofford, Library of Historical Characters.\\nHistory. Sparta was the capital of Laconia, the south-\\nern province of Greece. Its inhabitants consisted of:\\n1. Citizens, composed of nine thousand families of\\nnobles, who ruled the other classes.\\n2. Perioeci}, composed of thirty thousand families of\\nfreemen who lived in the territory surrounding Sparta,\\nbut who were subject to the nobles.\\n3. Helots^ about three hundred thousand in number,\\nwho were slaves.\\nThe Perioeci and the helots, with the love of freedom\\ncharacteristic among the Greeks, chafed under their yoke\\nof subjugation, and eagerly watched for opportunities for\\nrevolt. Only by an exercise of superior force could the\\nnobles maintain their supremacy, and they were obliged to\\n1 The Perioeci (dwellers around) were the older population of the land,\\nwho inhabited the mountains and hillsides about Sparta. They were farmers,\\nand they also worked the mines and quarries, manufactured articles for the\\nSpartan market, and carried on the commerce. Though freemen, they were\\nallowed no part in the government, could not bear arms, and had to pay\\ntribute to Sparta.\\nThe Helots were probably peasants who occupied the land about Helos,\\nand, defeated in war, became Spartan subjects. They could not be sold or\\ngiven away, but belonged to the inventory of the farm.\\n68", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "SPARTA 69\\nseek by martial training the strength they lacked in num-\\nbers. Hence the education of the Spartan youth was of\\nnecessity military, and every citizen was trained to become\\na warrior.\\nThe Spartans were dignified, austere, and of few words,\\nlaconic in speech. The young were expected to be\\nsilent in the presence of their elders except when ad-\\ndressed. They were taught to give way to their seniors,\\nespecially to old men, whenever they met upon the street or\\nin a public place.\\nThe Home. The child was left in charge of the mother\\nuntil six or seven years of age. Toys inciting to warlike\\nsports were provided, and childhood was made happy. The\\nfather usually superintended the child s training, but some-\\ntimes an aged relative assumed the responsibility. The\\ntreatment was humane and intelligent. From the first the\\nchild was taught implicit obedience and modesty.\\nThe Iliad and the Odyssey have been called the Bible of\\nthe Greeks, and children early learned extracts from the\\nworks of the great poet, Homer. The Spartan mother was\\nhighly respected by her husband and her children, and she\\nwas noted for her chastity and nobility of character. She\\nentered fully into the Spartan idea, and cheerfully gave\\nher sons to her country, while she often inspired them to\\ndeeds of bravery and patriotism. The lofty and self-sacri-\\nficing patriotism of the Spartan mother is illustrated by her\\nwords upon sending her son to battle, Return either\\nwith your shield or on it!\\nIt is said that weak and unpromising children were\\neither killed as soon as they were born, or abandoned to\\nthe wild beasts upon the mountains. This was because\\nthe State would assume the training only of strong chil-\\ndren, such as were likely to make good soldiers. It is", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "70 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nprobable that many of these abandoned children were\\nrescued and reared by the lower classes, which would\\npartially account for the fierce resistance so often offered\\nby these classes to those who deprived them of liberty. If\\nsuch an inhuman practice had been encouraged by other\\nnations of the world, many of the greatest benefactors\\nof the race would have been consigned to an untimely\\ndeath, for some of the noblest men that have ever lived\\nwere weak in infancy.\\nEducation. At six or seven the boy was taken from\\nthe home, and the State had entire jurisdiction over his\\neducation. The boys were placed in groups in charge of\\nyoung men who were responsible for their education,\\nwhich was almost wholly physical. They lived on very\\nsimple food, and were often obliged to appease hunger by\\ntheft. They were taught that crime did not lie in the com-\\nmission of the offense, but in its detection. Their dress\\nfrom seven to twelve consisted of a long coat of very\\ncoarse material, the same for summer and winter. They\\nwere taught to bear blows without a murmur, and instances\\nare related of boys being whipped to death without cry-\\ning out.\\nChildren sat at table with older men and listened to\\ntheir conversation, but they were never allowed to speak\\nexcept in answer to questions. Thus they absorbed wis-\\ndom and were incited to deeds of bravery by the stories of\\nheroism related by their seniors.\\nThe State furnished barracks poorly provided with the\\ncomforts of life, in which the boys slept in severe weather\\nat other times they slept in the open air. They were\\nwholly separated from their homes, and completely under\\ncontrol of the State. The purpose was to secure strong,\\nbeautiful, and supple bodies, inured to hardship, as a", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "SPARTA 71\\npreparation for the life of the soldier. The only intellec-\\ntual education was music, which consisted in playing the\\nlyre as an accompaniment to the dance. Reading and\\nwriting were despised as being fit only for slaves.\\nAt the age of twelve the boy exchanged the long coat\\nfor the mantle, thereby entering upon manhood. From\\nthis time until the age of thirty, much the same form of\\ntraining was continued, though it became more definitely\\nmilitary. At thirty the Spartan youth became a citizen\\nand was expected to marry. Girls also received gymnas-\\ntic training, in many cases with the boys. The purpose of\\nthis was to develop strong and beautiful wives and mothers.\\nThe effect of this coeducation of the sexes was in the\\nhighest degree salutary, impurity among women being\\nunknown in Sparta. We have already noted the patriotism\\nof the Spartan mother. Woman was highly esteemed in\\nthe home. Her praises and her reproofs were alike\\nrespected, and all her opinions bore much weight.\\nCriticism of Spartan Education. i. It produced men\\nand women of beautiful physique.\\n2. It inculcated obedience, poHteness, modesty, sobriety,\\nrespect for the aged, courage, and patriotism.\\n3. It checked luxury and extravagance.\\n4. On the other hand, it gave little attention to intel-\\nlectual training, hence it produced few men of lasting\\nfame.\\n5. Its aim was martial supremacy, and this attained, the\\nState fell into a hasty decline because of the instability of\\nsuch a foundation.\\n6. It excluded a large part of the inhabitants from its\\nbenefits, only the nobles being included.\\n7. It was selfish because it trained for Sparta and not\\nfor Greece, or for humanity.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "72 HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\n8. It taught the duty of man to the State, and not the\\nduty of man to man.\\n9. It took boys at an early age away from the influences\\nof home, thus robbing the parents of the sacred preroga-\\ntive of directing the education of their offspring.\\n10. It produced men cruel in battle and revengeful in\\nvictory, men incapable of cultivating the arts of peace.\\nLYCURGUS\\nThere is so much that is mythical and uncertain con-\\ncerning Lycurgus that many have doubted whether he ever\\nlived. Curtius, however, says, There really lived in the\\nninth century B.C. a legislator of the name of Lycurgus.\\nLycurgus formed the constitution which gave Sparta its\\npeculiar institutions, and which established its place in\\nhistory. His laws were intended to check luxury and to\\ninculcate the simplest habits. Some of his important laws\\nled to the introduction of the following customs\\n1. All the men ate at common tables, fifteen at a table.\\n2. Children sat at these tables, but were required to\\nmaintain silence save when addressed. They were not\\nallowed to ask for food. The object was to teach them\\ngood manners, to inculcate implicit obedience, and to im-\\npart to them the wisdom of the Spartan fathers.\\n3. The food was of the simplest kind.\\n4. Sparta was divided into nine thousand parts, a part\\nfor each of the nine thousand citizens, or noble families.\\nThe provinces under Spartan rule were divided into thirty\\nthousand parts, a part for each Perioeci family.\\n5. Iron was made the only money, so that the people\\ncould not become rich for its great weight rendered bur-\\ndensome the possession of a considerable amount.\\n6. All children belonged to the State, to which only", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "SPARTA\\n73\\nsoldiers were valuable, therefore weak or deformed children\\nwere cast out. Marriage was also controlled by the State.\\nLycurgus exerted a great influence upon Sparta, and his\\nlaws were responsible for her peculiar political system and\\nher resulting greatness.\\nPYTHAGORAS\\nPythagoras, though not a Spartan, is associated with\\nsouthern Greece. Little is known of his early life. He\\nwas born on the island of Samos, about B.C. 582. He was\\nfamiliar with the Ionic philosophy, and probably visited\\nEgypt for study, a custom common among scholars of that\\ntime. Such a visit would in part explain his knowledge of\\nmathematics, as the Egyptians had long been masters in\\nthat science. One of his teachers was Thales, the father\\nof philosophy. The fundamental thought of the Pythag-\\norean philosophy was the idea of proportion and harmony.\\nThrough number alone, the quantitative relations of\\nthings, extension, magnitude, figure (triangular, quadran-\\ngular, cubic), combination, distance, etc., obtain their\\npeculiar character the forms and proportions of things\\ncan all be reduced to number. Therefore, it was concluded,\\nsince without form and proportion nothing can exist,\\nnumber must be the principle of things themselves, as well\\nas the order in which they manifest themselves in the\\nworld. (Schwegler s History of Philosophy.\\nWhile mathematics was the central idea of his system,\\nmedicine, physics, and philosophy were also taught in his\\nschool. He did the world great .service in the discovery\\nof the so-called Pythagorean theorem in geometry, that\\nthe square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is\\nequal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XI\\nROME\\nLiterature. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire; Bury, The Roman\\nEmpire Church, Pictures from Roman Life and Story Clarke, Ten\\nGreat Religions Gibbon, Decline and Fall of Roman Empire Lord,\\nBeacon Lights; Capes, Roman Empire; Merivale, History of the\\nRomans Shumway, A Day in Ancient Rome Moininsen, History of\\nRome Liddell, History of Rome Ploetz, Epitome of Universal His-\\ntory Gilman, Story of Rome Collins, Ancient Classics.\\nThe Age of Augustus. The history of Rome covers a\\nperiod of a thousand years. From the httle village on the\\nPalatine Hill Rome grew to be the mightiest empire of\\nthe world. The Age of Augustus represents not only\\nthe summit of military glory, but also the highest civiliza-\\ntion, and the noblest ideals of the Roman people. It was\\nthe age of Vergil, Horace, Sallust, Lucretius, and Seneca.\\nRome was at peace with the world, and therefore had time\\nto devote to art, literature and other intellectual pursuits.\\nIt was during this period that Christ was born.\\nLike Sparta, Rome for a long time maintained her\\nsupremacy by force of arms, and therefore encouraged\\nphysical education. But when she became mistress of the\\nworld, and came in contact with the culture of the Greeks,\\nshe began to feel the need of an intellectual and aesthetic\\ndevelopment. Accordingly it became the fashion to study\\nGreek, to bring teachers from Athens to Rome, and to\\nsend young men to Athens to study. The Roman Empire\\nwas therefore the medium through which Grecian culture\\n74", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "ROME 75\\nwas transmitted to the western world, and during the\\nAugustan Age the center of learning was transferred from\\nAthens to Rome.\\nGibbon says, The first seven centuries were filled with\\na rapid succession of triumphs but it was reserved for\\nAugustus to relinquish the ambitious design of subduing\\nthe whole earth, and to introduce a spirit of moderation\\ninto the public councils. The Augustan Age shows\\nRome at her best, and a study of the educational system\\nat that time will be most fruitful for the student of\\npedagogy.\\nGeography and History. We have seen that Rome\\nbegan with a small territory in the center of Italy, and\\nthat province after province was added, until in the time\\nof Augustus she ruled the world. Italy, the center of the\\nempire, has a diversified surface, a mild climate, and a\\nfertile soil. In the time of Augustus, the Roman Empire\\nembraced all of the border of the Mediterranean, extended\\nas far north as the North Sea, as far east as the Euphrates,\\nas far south as the Sahara, and west to the Atlantic.\\nWith the great Mediterranean entirely under its control,\\nincluding the seas, bays, and rivers tributary to it with\\nits rich territories and with its vast population, which\\nrepresented most of the enterprise and civilization of the\\nworld, this great empire possessed wonderful advantages\\nfor the spread of Christianity, for the dissemination of\\nintelligence, and for the improvement of the human race.\\nThe government of the Romans was generally some\\nform of republic, the people always being jealous of their\\nrights. Their religion took on gross forms of idolatry,\\nfor they readily adopted and worshiped the gods of the\\nGrecians, Egyptians, and other conquered peoples. Tem-\\n1 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. I, p. 2.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "76 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\npies to Faith, Hope, Concord, and other virtues were\\nerected and maintained. The Romans were very super-\\nstitious. These facts have a bearing upon Christian edu-\\ncation, and will explain some of the chief difficulties which\\nit had to encounter.\\nThe Home. While in Athens the father had charge of\\nthe education of the boy in his early years, in Rome that\\nduty devolved almost entirely upon the mother. In early\\nRoman history the matron was celebrated for her virtues\\nfidelity to her husband, love for her children, and queenly\\nguardianship of the sacred precincts of the home. The\\nname of the Roman matron became a synonym of all\\nthat is noble, wifely, and motherly in the home. Without\\ndoubt the character had sadly deteriorated at the period of\\nwhich we write, but there still remained with many th^^\\nlofty ideals which had been fostered in earlier times.\\nThe husband was the head of the house, but to the wife\\nwas committed the care of the children and their instruc-\\ntion for the first six or seven years of their lives. She\\ntaught them strict obedience and poUteness, and instructed\\nthem in the Twelve Tables of Roman Law.\\nThe mother also took great pains to teach her children\\ncorrect pronunciation. She taught them their letters,\\nThe Twelve Tables were formulated about B.C. 450. They constituted\\nthe code of written law, and were written or engraved on tables of wood. They\\nsettled usages long in practice, but never before written, defining the rights\\nof plebeians and patricians. They were agreed to only after ten years of dis-\\npute and mutual concession. They resembled Solon s laws, owing, doubtless,\\nto the commission which was sent to Greece to study the laws of that country.\\nThese tables were destroyed when the Gauls sacked Rome (B.C. 390), but\\ntheir contents had been widely committed to memory, and were handed down\\nfrom generation to generation. The mothers saw to it that these laws were\\nearly taught to their children, who thus came \\\\.o venerate them and to have\\nrespect for authority.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "ROME\\n77\\nfirst the name and then the form, a practice which is peda-\\ngogically false, as Quintilian pointed out. She also taught\\nthem poems from the great masters. In taking pains with\\npronunciation she prepared the way for later training in\\noratory, which was the most important study in Roman\\neducation.\\nOnly when Rome had begun to decay did mothers commit\\nthe training of their children to nurses and slaves. When\\nRome was at her best, the child grew up in an atmosphere\\nof love under direct care of the mother, who shaped his\\nmorals and guided his religious life as well as his early\\nmental development. Around the mother centered all that\\nwas ennobhng and elevating in the first seven years of the\\nchild s hfe. The father had but little to do with this\\nperiod, and did not interfere with the mother s work. His\\nduty lay in public life hers lay within the home, and\\nwell did she meet her responsibilities until the time of her\\ndebasement with all the other elements of Roman society.\\nElementary Education. At six or seven years of age\\nthe child was sent to school in charge of a slave, who car-\\nried his books and protected him from harm. This was in\\nimitation of the practice in Athens, where the pedagogue\\nperformed a like office. But the duties of the Roman slave\\ndo not seem to have been as responsible as those of the\\nAthenian pedagogue. As we have seen, in Rome the\\nmothers looked after the morals of their children with\\ngreat care, and the attendant of the child to school was\\nregarded as but little else than a servant. In some of the\\nwealthier and more aristocratic families, however, in addi-\\ntion to the slave who performed the menial duties men-\\ntioned, there was also a pedagogue who attended the youth\\nto school and to the theater, superintended his games, and,\\nin short, accompanied him wherever he went. This peda-", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "y8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ngogue was intrusted with full power to discipline and to\\ndirect the morals of his charge. In some cases several\\nboys were placed in the care of the same pedagogue.\\nOn the other hand, it often happened that a boy had a\\nwhole retinue of slaves, each having his special duty to\\nperform.\\nThe schools were in charge of literators, usually men of\\nlittle culture and no social standing. These institutions\\nwere public, though supported by private means. The\\ndiscipline was severe, strict obedience being exacted by\\nthe teacher, who made use of the rod when he thought it\\nnecessary. The subjects taught were reading, writing, and\\narithmetic. Great care was taken with pronunciation, just\\nas had been done in the early years under the mother s\\ninstruction. In writing, the characters were traced with\\nthe stylus on waxed tablets. Arithmetic was learned for\\nits utility. Indeed, the whole purpose of the schools was\\nto prepare the children for practical life. The easier poets\\nwere read, explained, and committed to memory, not so\\nmuch for their content as to fit youth for public speaking.\\nObedience, politeness, modesty, cleanliness, and respect\\nfor teachers were virtues insisted upon. These schools,\\nwhich covered the instruction of children from five to\\ntwelve years of age, did not, as already intimated, reach\\nthe very highest classes, who preferred to employ private\\ntutors.\\nSecondary Education. At twelve the boy entered a\\nschool taught by an educated man, called litcratns. Many\\nof the teachers of this class were Greeks. Here, in addition\\nto the studies of the elementary school, the pupils were\\ntaught the Greek and Latin languages and the poets,\\nhistory, oratory, philosophy, and criticism were also studied.\\nThe school of the literatiis was much better than that of", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "ROME 79\\nthe /iterator, but it reached only a limited number of the\\nRoman youth.\\nHigher Education. Upon entering his sixteenth year,\\nthe boy was inducted with ceremony into the dignity of\\nmanhood, and was clothed with the toga virilis, the\\ndress of men. He now chose his calling and began\\ndefinite preparation for it. Five vocations were open to\\nhim, namely, oratory, politics, arms, law, and agriculture.\\nThose without talent or inclination for any of the others\\ndevoted themselves to agriculture. They were taken to\\nthe farms, where they received definite instruction in the\\nprinciples and practices of this occupation. To those who\\nchose oratory, politics, or law, were assigned persons ex-\\nperienced in their respective fields, and the boys were\\ntaken to the forum, the senate, and other places where\\nthey could hear renowned orators and become familiar\\nwith public life. They had also definite instruction in\\ntheir chosen branch. Those who entered the army were\\nplaced in charge of military officers, who taught them\\nmilitary tactics and the practical duties of life in camp.\\nThese learners also gave attention to oratory and other\\nintellectual studies.\\nIt will thus appear that in their schools, as in life,\\nthe Romans were thoroughly practical. Each boy was\\ncarefully prepared for the life which he had chosen, by\\nbeing inducted into it during his school course. Cicero\\nasked the question, What have we to learn.? and\\nanswered it, To honor and strengthen the State, in order\\nthat we may become the rulers of the world. Roman\\nparents demanded that their children should be trained in\\nthe practical duties of life, in order that they might know\\nhow to become rich. Therefore all training for children\\nwas in this direction.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "8o HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nWhile this in general was the purpose of education, the\\nRomans had their ideal of what an educated man should\\nbe, and that ideal found its expression in the name of\\norator. He who was the best orator was the best educated\\nman. The schools, however, were for boys, little account\\nbeing taken of the education of girls except in house-\\nhold duties. Still, women were more respected, and had\\nwider privileges than they had before enjoyed. Most of\\nthe wealthy citizens employed Greek tutors for their sons,\\nand sought to ape Grecian manners and culture. Educa-\\ntion was completed by study in Athens and by travel\\nadvantages within reach only of the very wealthy.\\nCriticism of Roman Education. i. It took great care to\\ninstill respect for law and obedience to parental and civil\\nauthority.\\n2. It honored the home and taught respect for the\\nmother. In this, Rome took a great step in advance over\\nmany nations of antiquity.\\n3. It was not a State institution, and therefore could not\\noffer equal advantages to all.\\n4. Its end was to prepare the youth for practical life\\nand to fit him for the acquirement of wealth, rather than\\nfor the development of all the human powers.\\n5. It was superficial, and sought to apply Greek culture\\nto Roman conditions and character.\\n6. It did not take a strong hold upon the Roman people\\nso as to shape the course of the nation.\\n7. It ignored the claims of the masses, including women,\\nto equal education and equal rights.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII\\nROMAN EDUCATORS\\nLiterature. (See Literature, Chapter XI.) Forsyth^ Life of Cicero\\nSpofford, Library of Historical Characters Watson, Quintilian s Insti-\\ntutes (Pedagogy, in Blis. I II).\\nCICERO 1 (r.c. 106-43)\\nCicero was born b.c. 106, of noble parents. As a\\nboy he had the advantage of the best schools and\\nteachers that Rome could furnish. Later he studied\\nat Athens, under the greatest Greek masters, and be-\\ncame proficient in the Greek language. According to\\nthe common practice among the better classes in Rome, he\\nspent some time in travel to complete his education, visit-\\ning Egypt, Asia Minor, and other parts of the known world.\\nBut Cicero s education can hardly be said to have been\\ncompleted as long as he lived, for he remained a student\\neven in the midst of his most exacting duties of State, and\\noften employed teachers, especially in oratory. Forsyth\\nsays of him, Philosophy and oratory seem to have been\\nthe two chief objects of his study; but if of any man\\nbefore Bacon appeared that might be said which the\\ngreat master of modern philosophy claimed for himself,\\nthat he had taken all knowledge for his province, it\\nmight be truly declare of the youthful Cicero. His\\nappetite for knowled s insatiable, and his desire for\\ndistinction boundk\\nForsyth, Life uf Cicetu a very complete, just, and discrimi-\\nnating treatment i( Cicero ana i aon to the times in which he lived.\\nLife of o, VuLI, v v\\\\", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "82 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nBecoming an advocate in Rome, he devoted himself\\nchiefly to the defense of men high in position, often those\\nwho were charged with bribery, extortion, or other abuse of\\npoHtical trust. Some of his finest orations were delivered\\non these occasions. In the meantime he lost no oppor-\\ntunity to advance his own political interests. He was elected\\nto one office after another until he reached the height of\\nhis political ambition, the consulship of Rome, the loftiest\\nposition attainable by the Roman citizen. As consul he\\ndevoted himself with such zeal, integrity, and success as to\\nwin the title Father of his Country. While he held this\\noffice he exposed the conspiracy of Catiline and saved\\nRome from civil war. He conducted the office with\\nhonesty and efficiency. Indeed, at a time of great corrup-\\ntion, Cicero stands out during his entire life of nearly\\nsixty-four years as the purest patriot, the broadest-minded\\nstatesman, the noblest man of the age. His honesty in\\npublic or private life is unquestioned. Of his intellectual\\ngreatness Forsyth says, The greatness of his intellect\\ndwarfed that of every other man alive.\\nThat he was vain of his accomplishments admits of no\\ndoubt. That he also sometimes lacked moral courage\\nand was vacillating seems also true. But he was incor-\\nruptible in a corrupt age above reproach when impure\\nlife was the rule; and when treason was common, he\\nremained a firm patriot. His celebrated Philippics were\\ndelivered against practices which indicated the approach-\\ning ruin of the republic. That ruin was complete when\\nthe Second Triumvirate was formed, an event which\\nalso sealed the doom of Cicero. Upon learning that he\\nwas proscribed, Cicero attempted to escape from Italy, but\\nwas overtaken and assassinated. His head and hands\\nVol. II, p. 2iT,.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "ROMAN EDUCATORS 83\\nwere carried to Rome and presented to Antony, who gave\\nthe head to his wife, Fulvia, whose crimes Cicero had\\noften rebuked. Forsyth says, She took it, and placing\\nit on her lap, addressed it as if it were alive, in words of\\nbitter insult. She dragged out the tongue, whose sarcasms\\nshe had so often felt, and with feminine rage pierced it\\nwith her bodkin. It was then taken and nailed to the\\nrostra, together with the hands, to molder there in\\nmockery of the triumphs of his eloquence, of which that\\nspot had so often been the scene. A sadder sight was\\nnever gazed upon in Rome.\\nCicero s Pedagogy. It is not as a teacher, but as a\\nwriter, that Cicero demands a place in educational history.\\nHis writings furnish the finest examples of Latin style,\\nand his orations are studied for their classic beauty and\\nrhetorical finish. He wrote many philosophical works, in\\nwhich are set forth advanced ideas on education. Espe-\\ncially was he in advance of his age in regard to the pun-\\nishment of children. He held that corporal punishment\\nshould be resorted to only when all else has failed that\\nthe child should not be degraded in the mode of punish-\\nment; that punishment should never be administered in\\nanger, should be deferred until ample time for reflection\\nhas been allowed to both teacher and pupil and that\\nreasons for it should be given, so that, if possible, the\\nchild may be led to see the justice of the punishment\\ninflicted. The teachings of Cicero on this subject are of\\ngreat pedagogical importance, and they have at last come\\nto be recognized in the school practice of the present day.\\nWhile these were Cicero s most important pedagogical\\nteachings, he also taught many other truths valuable in\\neducation. Among them are these that education begins\\n1 Vol. II, p. 317.\\nlis", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "84 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nin childhood, and is a steady growth throughout Hfe tliat\\nmemory should be cultivated by learning extracts from\\nclassic authors that great care should be taken to make\\nthe amusements and environments of the child such as to\\nelevate and refine, as well as properly to develop its\\npowers that at the suitable time some calling should be\\nchosen for which the youth has evident fitness; that re-\\nligion is the basis of morals, therefore careful attention\\nshould be given to religious instruction.\\nSENECA (B.C. 3-A.D. 65)\\nSeneca was one of the most distinguished men that\\nRome produced. Already as a boy he showed remarkable\\ntalent, and his father furnished him the best educational\\nopportunities by placing him under the greatest masters\\nin the city. He also had the benefit of travel in Greece\\nand Egypt, after which he practiced law in Rome. The\\nstudent of education is interested in Seneca chiefly as the\\ntutor of Nero, who was committed to his charge at the age\\nof eleven. Without doubt the lad had already formed\\nvicious habits, as his teacher had great trouble in manag-\\ning him nor did Seneca eradicate those evil tendencies\\nwhich bore such terrible fruit in Nero s later years.\\nNero retained his love for his teacher for a long time,\\nkeeping him as a trusted counselor for several years.\\nSeneca drew up all of Nero s state papers, among others\\none defending the crime of matricide, Nero having put his\\nown mother to death. This brought deserved odium\\nupon Seneca s name. It indicates that he was a time-\\nserver, lacking moral independence and firmness. This\\nmay explain his failure in the training of his royal pupil.\\nNero himself wearied of his old teacher and friend, and", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "ROMAN EDUCATORS 85\\ncondemned him to death. Seneca, however, committed\\nsuicide, a mode of death quite in accord with his Stoic\\nphilosophy.\\nSeneca was the most eminent writer, rhetorician, and\\norator of his time. He anticipated many modern ethical\\nteachings, and in some of his writings we find a strong\\nreligious sentiment, quite like that of Christianity, leading\\none to think that he may have been influenced by Christ\\nand his disciples, with whom he was contemporary. On\\nthe other hand, some of his teachings are decidedly repul-\\nsive to Christianity.\\nSeneca s Pedagogy. i. Like Cicero, he believed that\\npunishment should be mild and reasonable. Who con-\\ndemns quickly, condemns willingly and who punishes too\\nmuch, punishes improperly.\\n2. The office of education is to correct the evil tenden-\\ncies in the child.\\n3. The character of each child must be studied, and\\neach individual should be developed according to his\\npeculiarities.\\n4. Do not flatter the child, but teach him truthfulness,\\nmodesty, and respect for his elders.\\n5. Take great care that the environment of the child is\\nelevating, and allow only pure and ennobling examples to\\nbe reflected before him.\\n6. Give the child but few studies, in order that he may\\nbe thorough and acquire right habits of learning.\\n7. The office of teacher is one of the most important of\\nall offices. What the teacher, who instructs us in the\\nsciences, imparts to us in noble effort and intellectual\\nculture, is worth more than he receives for, not the\\nmatter, but the trouble not the desert, but only the\\nlabor, is paid for. Such a man, who consecrates his", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "B6 HISTORY OF EDUCATIOM\\nwhole being to our good, and who awakens our dormant\\nfaculties, is deserving all the esteem that we give a benevo-\\nlent physician or our most loved and dearest kindred.\\nQUINTILIAN 1\\nNo other Roman contributed so much pedagogy to the\\nworld as Quintilian. He was born in Spain, but early\\nmoved to Rome, in order to be trained in the atmosphere\\nof culture which that city alone afforded. His education\\nwas conducted by his father, a celebrated rhetorician, to\\nwhom he owed the particular direction of his powers\\nwhich afterward made him so famous. He chose the\\nlaw as a profession, because it offered the best opportunity\\nfor the exercise of oratory. Not finding the practice of\\nlaw congenial, he soon abandoned it, and devoted his time\\nto teaching. He founded a school at Rome, and con-\\nducted it with great success for twenty years, having\\nfor pupils children from the most distinguished patrician\\nfamilies. Among these were the grandnephews of Domi-\\ntian, possible heirs to the throne. This was the best\\nschool in Rome at that time. Vespasian honored Quin-\\ntilian by creating for him a chair of rhetoric and con-\\nferring upon him the title Professor of Oratory. This\\nis the first instance in history of State endowment of\\na chair for teaching a specific subject. Royal recognition\\nwas not without effect upon the fortunes of Quintihan, as\\nit placed him in the front rank of the teachers of Rome.\\n1 Authorities differ as to the dates of Quintilian s birth and death, placing\\nhis birth at from a.d. 35 to 42, and his death from a.d. 95 to 120. Drieser,\\nwho is perhaps the best authority, places his birth at a.d. 35, but does not fix\\nthe date of his death, which, however, was probably much later than a.d. 95\\nas he lived to a ripe old age.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "ROMAN EDUCATORS 87\\nThis, together with his subject, the teaching and mastery\\nof which were considered by the Romans to be the cHmax\\nof education, enabled him to wrest supremacy from the\\nGreek teachers who so long had enjoyed a monopoly of\\nteaching in the city.\\nWhen fifty-three years of age, Quintilian retired from\\nhis school, and devoted himself to authorship. In the first\\ntwo books of his great work, Institutes of Oratory, he\\nsets forth his ideas on education. This is the most remark-\\nable treatise on education bequeathed to us by antiquity.\\nHe taught that as oratory was the climax of Roman\\neducation, especial attention should be given to it. He\\nwas not in sympathy with the prevailing use that was made\\nof oratory. Oratorical contests were frequent, and they\\nexcited popular interest. Courts, lawyers, and public\\nspeakers resorted to all the tricks of speech to win popular\\nfavor, and audiences demanded something startling, dra-\\nmatic, and unusual. Quintilian tried to stay this tide, and\\ntaught that oratory should conceal itself. He met, how-\\never, with poor success in reforming the evil.\\nQuintilian s Pedagogy. His pedagogical teachings, some\\nof which we present, are of the greatest importance.\\n1. There should be no corporal punishment, as punish-\\nment administered to slaves is not suitable for children\\nwho are to be citizens.\\n2. Nurses must be irreproachable in life and language,\\nso that children be not brought in contact with anything\\nimpure.\\n3. Amusements should be turned to account as a means\\nof education.\\n4. Teachers should be men of ability and of spotless\\ncharacter.\\nInstitutio Or a tor ia.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "88 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\n5. Children should begin early with a foreign tongue,\\nas their own language will come to them naturally in their\\nintercourse with those about them.\\n6. Education should begin with the earliest childhood.\\n7. The forms and names of the letters should be learned\\nsimultaneously, playthings being utilized to assist in this.\\n8. Care should be taken that children do not acquire a\\ndistaste for learning.\\n9. In learning to read, advance very slowly.\\n10. Writing should begin with tracing, and the copies\\nshould consist of moral precepts.\\n1 1. The individuality of the child should be studied.\\n12. Public schools are preferable to other means of edu-\\ncation, because they do not subject the child to greater\\nmoral danger, while they stimulate him by association,\\nfriendship, and example, to nobler endeavor.\\n13. Under the literatus, grammar, composition, music,\\ngeometry, astronomy, and literature are to be studied.\\n14. The climax of education should be rJictoric.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIII\\nCHRISTIAN EDUCATION\\nLiterature. Bryce, Holy Roman Empire Guisot, History of Civili-\\nzation Lord, Beacon Lights Sheppard, Fall of Rome Draper, Con-\\nflict between Religion and Science Clarke, Ten Great Religions\\nGibbon, Decline and Fall of Roman Empire Laurie, Rise of Universi-\\nties Stille, Studies in Mediaeval History Arnold, Essays in Criticism\\nLecky, History of European Morals Hegel, Philosophy of History.\\nINTRODUCTION\\nOriental civilization was based on the theory that the\\nindividual belonged to the State, and could have no interest\\nexcept that which was bound up in the interests of the\\nState. Christianity, on the other hand, taught that while\\nthe individual has duties which he owes to the State, and\\nwhile he must look to the State for his protection, and for\\nthe preservation of his material interests, he owes a higher\\nallegiance elsewhere, and no fetters can be placed on the\\naspirations or wants of his own soul. In a word, Christi-\\nanity taught the importance and worth of the individual.\\nThe great teachers, Confucius, Buddha, Socrates, Plato,\\nhad many glimpses of truth, but Christ is truth itself. He\\ndiscovered to the world the final principle of the value of\\nthe human soul, and brought to fruition the truth that all\\nmen are equal before God. This thought made human\\ndevelopment possible; a new principle was introduced", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "90 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nupon which civilization could build and advance, and im-\\nprove to the end of time. Perhaps the highest test of\\ncivilization is found in the respect shown to women.\\nMeasured by this test, the oriental nations have made but\\nlittle progress, as the position of woman with them is much\\nthe same to-day as it was centuries ago. While this is\\ntrue of each individual nation, we have found among the\\nnations themselves, as we have traced the growth of civili-\\nzation, steady improvement in the condition of woman.\\nThus, in Athens and Rome, where we find the highest\\ntypes of ancient civilization, there was also the greatest\\nrespect for woman. In no country of the East was it\\nequaled. If the Jews are mentioned as an exception, it\\nmust be admitted that the Jewish women held the highest\\nplace among those of antiquity but this tminence was\\ngiven by the Jews only to the women of their own race,\\nand was by no means universally accorded to womankind,\\nas it is by the spirit of Christianity. If we discover a\\ngreater respect for woman in Rome or Athens than in\\nChina or India, it only shows the movement of civilization\\ntoward the west.\\nThe coming of Christ marked a new era both in religion\\nand education. Let us look at some of the lessons which\\nChristianity teaches.\\nI? God is the common Father of all men. This does\\nnot limit the blessings of the world to the Jew and ex-\\nclude the Gentile. All men of whatever race or color\\nmay approach God as their Father, and all are equal in\\nhis sight. This gives hope to all, and makes possible an\\nexercise of faith in the present and in the future life.\\nIt proclaims a higher citizenship than that of the State,\\nand demands allegiance first of all to God.\\n2. The universal brotherJiood of man.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 T\\\\\\\\\\\\s principle", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "CHRISTIAN EDUCATION\\n91\\nsweeps away castes, abolishes slavery, destroys class dis-\\ntinctions, and gives equal rights to all men. It stimulates\\nlove for fellow-men, checks selfishness, promulgates peace\\nand good will, and implants the spirit of the Golden Rule\\nin the hearts of men.\\n3. Marriage is a divine rite and hnsband and zvife are\\nequal. Nothing like this teaching had been practiced in\\nthe pagan world. Woman was simply the servant, the crea-\\nture, of man. She was to do his bidding, and might\\nbe divorced for trivial cause, or for none. Man was\\nsupreme and his will was law. The home in the Christian\\nsense did not exist, because the husband and wife were\\nnot one.\\n4. CJiildren are the gift of God. This was a Jewish as\\nwell as a Christian teaching. If children are the gift of\\nGod, the power of life and death over them cannot rest\\nwith the father, as in China, Persia, or Rome. It is the\\nduty of the father to preserve them, teach them, train\\nthem for this life, and prepare them for the life to come.\\nSince the children come from God, the pious parent must\\nconsider them as a sacred trust which he does not neglect.\\nHence he must see to it that they are properly educated.\\n5. The central pedagogic trntJi of Chris fs teaching is\\nthis: All education is for the individual. Oriental edu-\\ncation had for its end the interests of the State. Christian\\neducation has for its end the interests of the individual.\\nThe State is the creature of man, and not man the creature\\nof the State. Man will create, and support, and preserve\\nthe State for his self-protection and for his own good.\\nThe highest ideal of the State is that in which the people\\nrule, that which furnishes the greatest liberty. This is\\nthe logic of Christianity, and the logical conclusion of\\neducation. It is really for the individual. The world", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "92\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nhas been slow to learn this lesson taught by Christ but\\nnow it is mastering it more thoroughly every day, as shown\\nby the more liberal forms of government, the broader in-\\nterpretation of courses of study, and the greater attention\\nto the needs of the individual child.\\nAll these teachings of Christianity have a direct educa-\\ntional meaning, and suggest lessons for all humanity. For\\nthe school is not the only contributor to the education of a\\npeople. Every truth that affects mankind, every principle\\nthat touches the home or the State, has its influence upon\\nthe hfe and character of the individual, and is, therefore,\\nan element in his education.\\nThe natural consequence of these principles is that edu-\\ncation must be universal. Every child must be fitted for\\nthe duties of life, both for his own sake and for the sake\\nof the State of which he is a part. As an individual, he\\nmust work out his destiny, and to make this possible in the\\nbroadest and best sense from the Christian standpoint both\\nmind and heart must be developed. As a member of the\\nState he must assume duties in public affairs which require\\nthe possession of superior intelligence. This is particularly\\ntrue in free governments which are the logical product of\\nthe spirit of Christianity. While the idea of universal\\neducation had its beginning with the Christian era, we\\nshall see that many centuries elapsed before it reached its\\nfulfillment. There were many serious and almost insur-\\nmountable obstacles again.st which the early Christians\\nhad to contend, and these made progress necessarily slow.\\nLet us look at some of these obstacles.\\nTheir Poverty. The early Christians were almost with-\\nout exception poor. Christ appealed to the poor and\\nlowly, and chose his disciples from among them. The\\nacknowledged followers of the Nazarene had to face", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "CHRISTIAN EDUCATION\\n93\\nconfiscation of property, persecution, death. Homeless\\nand without protection they wandered about, and had\\nneither the opportunity nor the right to acquire property.\\nThey, therefore, had little means to apply to the education\\nof their children. They could neither establish schools nor\\nemploy teachers they could give only such instruction as\\nthe limitations of their poverty, their misery, and their fear\\npermitted. Consequently, only the most meager training\\ncould be secured, and that almost wholly in religious\\nmatters.\\nTheir Own Ignorance. Chosen as they were from the\\nlowly ranks of life, many of the early Christians were\\nignorant. Most of them were servants and slaves, who\\nhad been converted from paganism, and who did not\\npossess even the rudiments of education. They had to be\\ninstructed in the rites and ceremonies of the Church, and\\nin the practices and requirements of their new belief.\\nUnlettered as they were themselves, they could scarcely\\nundertake to educate their children. It is marvelous that\\nunder these conditions any attempt was made to do it\\nyet we find that great pains were taken even in the early\\ncenturies of the Christian era to perform this duty toward\\nthose who were regarded as gifts of God and heirs of\\nsalvation.\\nTheir Small Number. Even when free from perse-\\ncution and under comparatively happy conditions, they\\nwere so scattered and so few in number, as well as\\nso poor, that to maintain schools was almost an impossi-\\nbility. They would not permit their children to attend the\\npagan schools, as they feared moral and intellectual con-\\ntamination. The only safety, especially for the converts\\nfrom paganism, was in being separate from the world\\nabout them. So where their numbers were sufficient they", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "94\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nestablished schools of their own. But in many communi-\\nties they could not do this hence they could only teach\\ntheir children at home.\\nOpposition of the Rulers. Rome ruled the world, and\\nher highways, her commerce, her military expeditions,\\nand her mighty enterprises furnished excellent means for\\nthe spread of Christianity. But while Rome had many\\nreligions, adopted from her conquered peoples, Chris-\\ntianity was so different from these that the rulers were\\nreadily brought to regard the Christians with suspicion.\\nHumility, returning good for evil, refusal to avenge, were\\ncontrary to the Roman spirit. Therefore many persecu-\\ntions followed, which disturbed the life of the Christians so\\nas to make impossible the work of educating their children.\\nLack of Christian Literature. The early Christian\\nFathers fully realized the dangers that surrounded their chil-\\ndren. To come in contact with pagan schools, or even with\\npagan literature, they felt to be dangerous. How easy\\nit would be for pagan converts to fall away, or even for\\nothers not pagan, attracted by popular influences. For\\nChristianity was not yet popular. Hence the only safety\\nof the converts lay in totally abstaining from the use of\\npagan literature. Here was introduced a discussion that\\naffected the Church and educational progress for centu-\\nries, and caused learned men when converted to abjure their\\nfavorite authors who had furnished the material for their\\neducation in their early years. Having no literature of\\ntheir own, and condemning the use of pagan literature, the\\nChristians found it hard to overcome the obstacles which\\nstood in the way of Christian education. As a result,\\nalmost the only things taught to children were certain parts\\nof the Bible, and the rites and duties of the Church.\\nOther Difficulties. New ideas do not readily take hold", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 95\\nof the world. Men naturally cling to the old and tried,\\nand are not easily turned to new thoughts and practices.\\nThe teachings of Christ were so radically new that men\\nwere slow to adopt them. Their acceptance involved a\\nchange of habit, the abandonment of customs not before\\nregarded as evil, the yielding up of social caste, the hum-\\nbling of the individual. Herein existed a most serious ob-\\nstacle to the establishment of Christian education.\\nThese are a few of the great difficulties that had to be\\nmet, many of which were not overcome for centuries. We\\nshall see, as we trace the development of education, how\\nthe new ideas which had their birth with the Christian era\\nstruggled for recognition, how they have become estab-\\nlished, how they have brought great blessings to mankind,\\nhow they have aroused ambition and awakened hope, and\\nhow they give promise of still greater advancement in\\ntimes to come. The boundless field thus opened to man-\\nkind, and the knowledge of how to enter and possess it,\\nconstitute the world s great inheritance from Christ. But\\nto know how to appreciate and use this inheritance, we\\nmust study the slow and painful growth of these new\\neducational ideals from the Christian era till the present\\ntime.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIV\\nTHE GREAT TEACHER\\nLiterature. The Bible Beec/ter, Life of Christ Hanna, Our Lord s\\nLife on Earth Geikie, Life of Christ.\\nLife and Character. Christ was born in Bethlehem,\\nspent his early life at Nazareth, entered upon his ministry\\nwhen thirty years of age, continued it for three years, and\\nwas then crucified by the Romans at the instigation of the\\nJews. These are simple facts of history corroborated by\\nboth sacred and profane writings. All agree that his was\\nthe most noble character that ever appeared on earth.\\nThe most careful study of his life for nineteen centuries,\\nby friends and enemies, by scholars and critics, by philoso-\\nphers and statesmen, by Christians and unbelievers, only\\nadds to its luster, and sustains the conviction that, though\\nhe was a man, he was also more than man. The most\\ncritical research, the most careful examination of his life,\\nhis motives, his teachings, only compel the testimony\\nthat he was without spot or blemish. The great have\\nstudied his sayings and his life, and have bowed in\\nadmiration before the sublime teachings of the Son of Man.\\nThe simple and unlettered have listened to his words\\nof truth and been comforted. Faith has been awakened,\\nhope inspired, love quickened, and man redeemed by the\\npower of the Chri.st. Millions have been influenced by the\\nsweetness and purity of his life. The spirit of Christianity\\nhas led to the founding of hospitals, asylums, and institu-\\n96", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "THE GREAT TEACHER\\n97\\ntions of mercy everywhere to the estabUshmcnt of schools\\nand colleges to th,e universal spread of education to the\\nuplifting of the individual to the furtherance of human,\\nbrotherhood and to the fostering of peace among men\\nand nations.\\nChrist produced a profound impression alike upon the\\ngreat and the small. Rousseau says of him, The life\\nand death of Jesus Christ are those of a god. Napoleon\\nsays of Christ, His birth and the story of his life the\\nprofoundness of his doctrine, which overturns all difficul-\\nties, and is their most complete solution his gospel the\\nsingularity of his mysterious being his appearance, his\\nempire, his progress through all centuries and kingdoms,\\nall this is to me a prodigy, an unfathomable mystery. I\\ndefy you to cite another life like that of Christ. It has well\\nbeen said that Christ is the God who is man, and the man\\nwho is God.\\nNor was the impression upon the lowly less profound.\\nHe called ignorant fishermen to discipleship, and by three\\nyears contact and instruction prepared them to go into\\nthe world and teach all nations. The inspiration of his\\nlife and teachings made them able to stand before kings,\\nand to confound the wisdom of the wise.\\nHis Work as a Teacher. But the question here is not\\nconcerning Christ as the founder of a religion, nor of his\\ndivine character or Hfe, but of Christ as a tcacJicr. He is\\njustly entitled to be called The Great Teacher. Karl\\nSchmidt says, By his doctrines and through his deeds,\\nin and with his entire life, is Christ the teacher and\\neducator of humanity. His method is the foundation of\\nall true teaching. Let us note some of the important\\ncharacteristics of this method.\\nI. It zvas suited to his hearers. When Christ taught\\nHIST. OF ED. 7", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "98 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nthe people he used material that they could comprehend.\\nThus, when he spoke his parable of the sower, while he\\nsat by the seaside, the multitude before him had gathered\\nfrom the villages and farms of the country round about.\\nThey therefore could thoroughly appreciate the lesson.\\nHis parable of the vineyard was doubtless suggested by\\nthe vine-clad hills of Judea, and the lessons taught were\\nmade more forcible by their suitableness. In his conver-\\nsation with the learned Nicodemus he plunged at once into\\nthe most profound doctrines, but when he talked with the\\nignorant Samaritan woman, his approach to the truth he\\nwould teach was most simple and gradual. No one ever\\nfailed to understand him, and he is a most remarkable\\nexample of the teacher suiting himself to the capacity of\\nhis pupils.\\n2. was full of illustrations. When he wished to\\nteach the evil of covetousness he told of the rich man and\\nhis barns he encouraged faithfulness by the parable of the\\ntalents he stimulated to fruit bearing by the story of the\\nfig tree he taught mercy by the account of the Good\\nSamaritan joy over repentance was illustrated by the\\nstory of the ninety and nine. And so we find that by\\nample and suitable illustration the Savior enforced the\\nsublime truths that he taught.\\n3. zvas simple and yet logical. There was no effort\\nto be philosophical, yet the teachings of Christ are full\\nof philosophy. The language used and the manner of\\nputting the truth were so simple that the ignorant man\\nand the child were never left in doubt as to his meaning.\\nNevertheless his teaching was not haphazard; it was\\nconnected and logical. It contained so much of truth, so\\nsystematically put and so much to the point in view, that,\\nwhile it appealed at once to the understanding of his", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "THE GREAT TEACHER 99\\nhearers, it also furnished material for thought for the most\\nlearned of all ages. Whether it was a parable or a story,\\nan admonition or a rebuke, a sermon or a prayer, a word\\nof comfort to the sisters of Bethany or an argument with\\nthe chief priests, a familiar conversation with his disciples\\nor a stern rebuke of the scribes and Pharisees, Christ\\nalways expressed himself with simplicity and clearness.\\n4. It drew from Nature. Christ loved to walk in the\\nfields with his disciples and draw lessons from the plants,\\nthe birds, the sowing of the farmer, the gathering of fruit\\nfrom the vineyard, the ripening harvests, and the whisper-\\ning breezes. Consider the liHes of the field how they\\ngrow; behold the fowls of the air; a sower went\\nforth to sow a certain man had a fig tree planted in\\nhis vineyard and he came and sought fruit thereon and\\nfound none lift up your eyes and look on the fields\\nfor they are white already to harvest the wind bloweth\\nwhere it listeth, these and many other texts show that\\nChrist was familiar with Nature, and loved to call upon her\\nfor illustration and example.\\n5. It elevated the truth and sought to enforce it. Christ\\ngave himself a sacrifice for the truth. He allowed no\\nthought of personal safety or success to overshadow the\\ntruth. All his words, his acts, his teachings, aimed at\\nestablishing the truth. He overthrew old systems and\\nintroduced a new spirit into the world, even the spirit\\nof truth. He was the very essence of truth, declaring\\nto Thomas, I am the way, the truth, and the life. He\\nthus gave to teachers for all time a noble example and\\nan immortal principle, vital to their success in true teach-\\ning. It is the truth that must be taught and practiced by\\nevery one worthy of the name of teacher.\\n6. It was earnest and full of sympathy. The earnest-", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "lOO HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nness of Christ aroused the populace to shout Hosanna\\nand provoked the bitter hostility of his enemies. It drew\\nmultitudes into the wilderness and attracted crowds wher-\\never he went. His sympathy went out to the people\\nas sheep having no shepherd. It led him to feed\\nthe multitude, heal the sick, raise the dead, take little\\nchildren in his arms and bless them, and weep over\\nJerusalem. He came close to the lives and hearts of\\nthose whom he instructed. This is one of the grandest\\nlessons that the Great Teacher left for teachers of all\\ntime.\\nThese are some of the chief characteristics of Christ s\\nspirit and method. He loved little children, and taught\\nhis disciples, when he had set a little child in the midst of\\nthem, Whosoever, therefore, shall humble himself as this\\nlittle child, the same is greatest in the kingdom of heaven.\\nEvery one of the principles above stated is essential to the\\nteacher, and these principles contain the sum and sub-\\nstance of all true pedagogy. Well has Karl Schmidt ex-\\npressed the truth, when he says, Christ, the perfect\\nteacher, gave by his example and by his own teaching the\\neternal principles of pedagogy.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XV\\nGENERAL VIEW OF THE FIRST PERIOD OF CHRISTIAN\\nEDUCATION\\nThis period covered the time from the birth of Christ\\ntill the Reformation. It included the early centuries of\\nstruggling Christianity, in which old customs had to be\\ncombated, and the new ideas, born with the coming of\\nthe Savior, and propagated by him and his followers,\\nwere slowly and surely to take possession of the world.\\nThese fifteen centuries embrace those known in history\\nas the Dark Ages, during which progress was in-\\ndeed slow. But when we remember the obstacles which,\\nas we have seen, were to be met, the prejudice to be\\nset aside, the great changes inaugurated, and the limited\\nmeans at command, we marvel at the great results at-\\ntained. Let us now briefly examine some of the factors\\nthat are prominent in Christian education during its\\nfirst period.\\nI. The apostles and Church Fathers zvere foremost in\\nall educational matters. These men were not simply\\nspiritual leaders they caught the spirit of the Master,\\nand sought to instruct the head as well as the heart.\\nThey established schools and themselves became teachers,\\ndirected educational movements, formed courses of study,\\nand by fostering education furthered the success and\\nperpetuity of Christianity. Men like Paul, Origen,\\nChrysostom, Basil the Great, and Augustine did much", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "102 HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\ngood, not only in building up the Church, but also in\\npromoting education, the chief handmaid of the Church.\\nIndeed, all educational progress during the early Chris-\\ntian centuries centers around the names of these men.\\n2. The CJiurch ivas the sponsor of the schools. During\\nthis long period the State had not yet assumed the obliga-\\ntion of educating her youth, and we find only rare instances\\nof the State taking any part in the training of the young.\\nNo attempt at universal education was made, and none\\ncould be made, for the Church could not furnish the\\nmeans to do it consequently nearly all educational\\neffort was directed to training the priesthood and pro-\\nviding for the perpetuity of the Church. The Church\\nwas the mother of the schools, and to her fostering\\ncare alone do we owe their establishment and main-\\ntenance during this long period. Her authority was\\nsupreme, and acknowledged by all temporal powers\\nhence the subjects studied in the schools and the per-\\nsons chosen to share the benefits of education were\\nsuch as would subserve the interests of the Church.\\n3. The monasteries rendered valuable service to educa-\\ntion. They were long the centers of learning, being the\\nonly places where schools existed. They were the re-\\npositories of valuable manuscripts, which were copied\\nwith marvelous diligence and preserved for future\\ngenerations. The monasteries adopted courses of study\\nwhich, however incomplete, were efficiently carried out,\\nand formed the basis of future courses. The influence\\nof the monasteries for many centuries was of great\\nvalue to learning.\\n4. The crusades brought netv life into education.\\nWhile the crusades were primarily religious move-\\nments, they were also educational in their results. They", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "FIRST PERIOD OF CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 103\\ninfused new life into the stagnant conditions of Europe.\\nThey aroused the people to physical and mental, as\\nwell as religious, activity. They led to the establish-\\nment of schools and universities.\\n5. The Teutonic peoples were the chief instncnient of prog-\\nress. Rome began to decline, and the Teutons of the\\nnorth, whom Rome had never been able to subjugate, be-\\ncame her conquerors. The Latin race had served a great\\npurpose in the world s history, but now a better, purer, and\\nnobler race took up the work of civilization. The physi-\\ncal and intellectual vigor of the various branches of the\\nTeutonic family, the German, the Anglo-Saxon, the\\nScandinavian, which has won for them leadership in\\nevangelization, in commerce, in educational enterprise,\\nshowed itself unmistakably during the period under dis-\\ncussion. These peoples alone were capable of assuming\\nthe ever increasing responsibilities of Christian civilization,\\nand happy was it for the cause of education that its de-\\nvelopment was so largely intrusted to the Teutons.\\nThese are the principal agencies to which were com-\\nmitted the most vital interests of humanity during the\\nfirst fifteen centuries of the Christian era. We shall see\\nthat some grave errors were made, errors that blocked\\nthe path of improvement sometimes for centuries we\\nshall find that narrowness, bigotry, prejudice, and igno-\\nrance often hindered the introduction of truth because it\\ndid not coincide with tradition we shall see how the\\nChurch assumed prerogatives that did not belong to her,\\nespecially in the field of scientific research, and thereby\\ndelayed human progress nevertheless, we shall ever\\nremain thankful to these agencies for the encouragement\\nthey gave to education, and for whatever good results they\\nwere instrumental in attaining.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVI\\nTHE FIRST CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS\\nLiterature. White, Eighteen Christian Centuries; Durrell, A New\\nLife in Education Laurie, Rise of Universities Lecky, History of\\nEuropean Morals.\\nWe have already seen that the early Christians were\\nobliged to endure great hardships and surmount great dif-\\nficulties in securing education for their children. Indeed,\\nduring the first two centuries almost all that was done was\\nto train the converts in the rites and ceremonies of the\\nChristian Church. But as they grew stronger in numbers,\\nand as persecution diminished, they could give greater at-\\ntention to education. Unwilling to make use of pagan\\nschools, which could not satisfy their chief need -to pre-\\npare for the new religion they gradually established their\\nown.\\nCatechumen Schools. The first Christian schools were\\ncatechumen schools. A catechumen was a person who de-\\nsired instruction in the new faith with a view to baptism\\nand admission into the Church. As many of the converts\\nhad been pagans, and as all were ignorant of the require-\\nments of the Church as well as of the new doctrines, such\\ninstruction was absolutely necessary. Therefore the con-\\nverts were divided into classes, at first two, later, four and\\ninstruction was given them in the rudiments of Christianity.\\nIn the beginning the catechumen schools were for adults\\n104", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "THE FIRST CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS\\n105\\nonly, but afterward children were admitted, and reading\\nand writing were taught. Previous to this change, if chil-\\ndren received any secular instruction at all, it was given\\nat their homes by parents or tutors, or in the pagan\\nschools. At the close of the second century Protogenes\\nestablished a school at Odessa, in which reading, writing,\\ntexts of Scripture, and singing of psalms were taught.\\nThis was the first Christian common school. Other schools\\nfollowed rapidly as the persecutions ceased, until Rome\\nbecame Christianized, and pagan schools gave place to\\nChristian schools throughout the empire. Two great\\nnames are closely connected with this movement.\\nCHRYSOSTOM (347-407)\\nOne of the greatest representatives of the early Christian\\nChurch interested in education was Chrysostom.^ He was\\nborn at Antioch in Syria, and educated in the pagan\\nschools, but the influence of his devout Christian mother\\nkept him true to her faith. He was noted for his elo-\\nquence, hence the name by which he is known in history,\\nfor Chrysostom means goldcn-moiitJied. John Malone says\\nof him, First of the great Christian preachers after the\\nChurch came from the caves, he was not less able as a\\nteacher. He became bishop of the Church, and was the\\ngreatest pedagogue of his time. Some of his educational\\nprinciples may be stated as follows\\n1. As Christ lowered himself to man s estate in order\\nto raise man to his estate, so the teacher must lower him-\\nself to the capacity of his pupils in order to elevate them.\\n2. Christ did not. reveal everything to his disciples,\\n1 Warner s Library of the World s Best Literature, Vol. VI, 3665. Lord,\\nBeacon Lights, Vol. L Lecture on Sacred Eloquence.\\n2 Warner s Library, Vol. VI, 3666.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "I06 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nsuggesting sometimes truths for them to discover so the\\nteacher must not do for his pupils what they can do for\\nthemselves.\\n3. The foundation of all true education is the Christian\\nlife and example therefore teachers and parents must\\nwalk circumspectly before children.\\n4. Women, especially mothers, are the natural educators\\nof children.\\n5. Religious instruction is an essential factor of the\\nschool work. It is of the highest importance that chil-\\ndren should be brought up in the nurture and admonition\\nof the Lord.\\nBASIL THE GREAT (329-379)\\nBasil the Great was born at Caesarea. He studied at\\nConstantinople and Athens, and sat at the feet of the\\ngreatest pagan philosophers and teachers of his time. He\\nwas not perverted by their teachings, but told them frankly\\nthat, though they possessed all learning, he had found\\nsomething greater than this, and that was the Christ.\\nBasil was one of the foremost Fathers of the Church, a\\ngreat writer, and a promoter of education. He was very\\nfond of classic literature, and, in face of the bitter\\nopposition of many of the Church Fathers, urged its\\nproper use in the schools. He was instrumental in found-\\ning monasteries, hospitals, orphanages, and refuges for\\nthe poor.\\nPedagogical Teachings. i. Every misdeed should be\\npunished in such a way that the punishment shall be an\\nexercise in self-command and shall tend to correct the fault.\\nFor example, if a child has lied, used profane language, or\\nbfcen quarrelsome, give him solitude and fasting. If he", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "THE FIRST CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS \\\\oj\\nis greedy and gluttonous, let him stand by and see others\\neat while he remains hungry.\\n2. Orphan children and those that are dependent should\\nbe taught in the cloister.\\n3. The Bible, with its stories, promises, history, and\\ndoctrines, should be the chief text-book.\\n4. Not only monks and priests should be allowed to\\nteach, but also the laity.\\n5. Children while still young and innocent must be\\ntaught good habits and right precepts.\\nIt is worthy of note that Chrysostom and Basil were the\\nfirst to mark out definite lines of Christian instruction.\\nDuring this period, also, the first songs of the Christian\\nChurch originated in the huts and caves of the poor.\\nThus in religious instruction and church song the founda-\\ntions of the Christian common school were laid.\\nCatechetical Schools. The principal catechetical school\\nwas established at Alexandria a.d. 181, by Pantaenus.\\nOthers were located later at Antioch, Odessa, and Nisibis.\\nThe Alexandrian school, however, was by far the most\\nimportant. Alexandria, at the close of the second century,\\nwas the seat of philosophy, as Athens had formerly been.\\nIt possessed the most important library in the world, and\\nstudents and sages from all parts of the world flocked to\\nthis place of learning. Laurie says, The great Alexander,\\nin founding Alexandria, connected Europe, Asia, and\\nAfrica, not merely by mercantile bonds, but in their intel-\\nlectual and literary life. Here arose, under the Ptolemies,\\na complete system of higher instruction, and libraries such\\nas the world had not before seen. The books were lodged\\nin the temple of Serapis, and accumulated to the number\\nof seven hundred thousand. They formed the record of all\\nhuman thought, until they fell a prey to internal civic and", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "I08 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nreligious dissensions. The Serapeum dates from B.C. 298,\\nand, after recovering from the fire of B.C. 48, it finally dis-\\nappeared about A.D. 640.\\nUnder the stimulus of these surroundings, and with such\\nan abundance of literary material at command, pagans and\\nChristians vied with each other in their search for truth.\\nBut the pagans had better schools and better means of\\npreparing themselves for intellectual combat. Christian\\nteachers were called upon to defend their faith against\\nsubtle philosophers and trained thinkers, who had had the\\nadvantage of excellent schools. In order to meet this\\napparent defect and fortify themselves against their skill-\\nful opponents, the Christians established the catechetical\\nschool at Alexandria, the most celebrated school of its\\nkind at that period. It took the name catechetical from\\nthe fact that the method of instruction was largely that of\\ncatechising, though lectures were also given. Many pagans\\nhad been converted to Christianity, and it was necessary that\\nthey should be taught the reason of their faith, in order\\nthat they might maintain their ground when they came in\\ncontact with unbelievers. This was particularly necessary,\\nif Christianity was to hold its own, in a city like Alexandria,\\nwhere so many learned men had gathered. It was also\\nnecessary for the extension of the new faith among men\\nof superior intelligence. Thus the object of the catecheti-\\ncal school was to instruct learned men in the doctrines and\\nusages of the Church, to prepare believers to meet the\\narguments of the philosophers, and to train teachers.\\nWhile it was a sort of theological school, it also taught\\nphilosophy, rhetoric, grammar, and geometry. From the\\nnature of things it will be seen that the catechetical school\\nwas for adults only, and it may be called a kind of uni-\\nversity, whose chief attention was given to the study of", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "THE FIRST CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS\\n109\\nthe Scriptures and the promulgation of religious doctrine.\\nThe catechetical school was much higher than the cate-\\nchumen school in its course of study, and in the intelligence\\nand learning of its students and professors.\\nCLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (150-220)\\nAmong the most promising of the pupils of Pantaenus\\nwas Clement of Alexandria, who was his successor in the\\ndirection of the school. Clement was brought up a pagan,\\nbut was not satisfied with the heathen religion, and made\\na; careful study of Christianity. He traveled everywhere,\\nand sought out old men who had listened to the apostles,\\nor whose parents had done so and thus he hoped to learn\\nthe truth directly. As a result of his research, he became\\nprofoundly impressed with the purity of the morals of the\\nChristians and the truth of their religion. He was a great\\nteacher as well as Father of the Church.\\nHis Pedagogy. i. Faith is the cornerstone of knowledge.\\n2. Mosaic law and heathen philosophy are not opposed\\nto each other, but simply parts of the same truth. Both\\nprepared the way for Christianity. Jewish law and Greek\\nphilosophy are steps in the development of the world\\nwhich prepare the way for revelation. Christianity is the\\nfulfillment of law and philosophy.\\n3. He brought all the speculations of the Christians and\\nthe culture of the Greeks to bear upon Christian truth, and\\nsought to harmonize the two.\\nThe teachings of Clement gain in importance when we\\nremember the bitter strife in the Church over the use of\\nclassic literature, which lasted for centuries, and the\\nscholastic movement a thousand years later, which also\\nsought to harmonize philosophy and religion.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "no HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nORIGEN (186-253)\\nOrigen was a pupil of Clement in the catechetical\\nschool at Alexandria, and became his successor. Besides\\nbeing brought up in an atmosphere of culture in his\\nnative city, and surrounded by influences that stimulated\\nintellectual growth, he was fortunate in having a man of\\nlearning for his father. From him he learned Greek, mathe-\\nmatics, grammar, rhetoric, logic, and a knowledge of the\\nHoly Scriptures. He began to teach in the catechetical\\nschool when only eighteen years of age, a remarkable\\nfact when one remembers that he had among his students\\nlearned pagan philosophers, and that it was very unusual\\nfor so young a man to be allowed to teach. He was\\nabstemious in his habits, self-sacrificing, generous, and\\nwithal consistent in his life.\\nOrigan s Pedagogy. i. Never teach pupils anything\\nthat you do not yourself practice.\\n2. The end of education is to groAv into the likeness of\\nGod.\\n3. Pupils must be taught to investigate for themselves.\\n4. The teacher must seek to correct the bad habits of\\nhis pupils, as well as to give them intellectual instruction.\\nUnder Origen, the catechetical school at Alexandria\\nreached its highest prosperity, and its decay began soon\\nafter his death. Already in the middle of the fourth\\ncentury its power and influence were practically gone.\\nNone of the other catechetical schools ever reached the\\nfame of that at Alexandria, and they, too, gradually\\ndisappeared. Indeed, as the Roman Empire became Chris-\\ntianized, and as Christians gained in education and intel-\\nligence, there was less and less occasion for the existence\\nof schools of this character.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVII\\nCONFLICT BETWEEN PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN EDUCATION\\nLiterature. Lord, Beacon Lights; Spofford, Library of Historical\\nCharacters White, Eighteen Christian Centuries Fisher, Beginnings of\\nChristianity; Draper, Conflict between Religion and Science; Brother\\nAzarias, Essays Educational.\\nGENERAL DISCUSSION\\nAs Christianity became more powerful as the Roman\\nnation privately and officially accepted the new reUgion as\\nthe bishops of the Church came more and more to be\\nrecognized as the vicegerents of Christ and the apostles\\nas the Church authorities became convinced that tolerance\\nof paganism was dangerous to believers, and irreconcilable\\nwith the principles of Christianity, as these things became\\napparent, it was seen that nothing would suffice short of\\nthe utter destruction of pagan schools. Pagan philosophy\\nand art were tolerated only as they served the Church.\\nPagan education had an earthly purpose; the new educa-\\ntion, a spiritual aim, a preparation for eternal life.\\nThe pagan temples and schools preserved the spirit of\\npaganism long after the Roman Empire had become Chris-\\ntian, and the leaders of Christianity finally became con-\\nvinced that ultimate success would be reached only when\\nthese institutions were destroyed. The conflict between\\nthese two parties was raging violently during the fifth\\ncentury and until 529, when a complete victory was gained\\nby the Christians. After 529 we have therefore only", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "112 HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\nChristian schools to consider. For the next thousand\\nyears education was entirely in the hands of the Church,\\nwhose power was not always exercised for the good of\\nhumanity, but often for the furtherance of her own ends.\\nStill, it must not be forgotten that all that was done for\\neducation was done by her, and therefore the world owes\\nher a debt of gratitude, as later pages will show. She did\\nnot undertake the education of the masses, a task that was\\nbeyond her power, and perhaps beyond the scope of her\\nvision. Yet great honor is due the Church for what was\\naccomplished in education during the Middle Ages, and to\\nher alone must be given credit for an advancement in civil-\\nization by no means small, considering the difficulties to be\\nmet and the obstacles to be overcome. During this long\\nperiod there were many bright spots in the educational\\nfirmament, many brilliant leaders of the Church who also\\nwere conspicuous educators, and many important move-\\nments toward higher civilization. An examination of this\\nperiod has led recent historians to abandon the term\\nDark Ages. A more careful study of some of these\\nleaders and the movements that they inaugurated will be\\nreserved to later pages.\\nWe shall find the spirit of the period best illustrated by a\\nstudy of two great men who are preeminent in the educa-\\ntional affairs of the time, namely, Tertullian and St.\\nAugustine.\\nTERTULLIAN (150-230) 1\\nTertullian was born at Carthage of pagan parents. He\\nwas converted to Christianity when forty years of age,\\nand by his talent, his zeal for the new religion, and his\\nfaithfulness, he rose rapidly until he became Bishop of\\n1 See Draper, Conflict between Religion and Science, p. 59,", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 113\\nCarthage. He was an orator, a writer, and a teacher.\\nHis enthusiasm as a Christian led him to condemn the\\nindolence and vice of priests, and finally to withdraw\\nfrom the Church. He joined the Montanists, a sect that\\nbelieved in personal holiness, withdrawal from the world,\\nand the speedy second advent of the Savior. Having\\nreceived a thorough training as a jurist at Rome, he\\nbecame a great controversialist.\\nHe was the founder of Christian Latin literature, being\\nbitterly opposed to everything pagan. He would use\\nnothing manufactured by the pagans, would not dress like\\nthem, nor have anything to do with their schools or writ-\\nings. This of course excluded classic literature, and was\\nin direct opposition to the teachings of the catechetical\\nschools, especially that of Alexandria. Tertullian s attempt\\nto create a literature for the schools which should take the\\nplace of classic literature, while it produced discord for\\ncenturies, and influenced other great men to follow his\\nexample, had no permanent result. Perhaps the down-\\nfall of paganism may have removed all danger to the\\nChristians from pagan philosophy and letters at all\\nevents it is certain that in later centuries the Church was\\nmost efficient in preserving them. Tertullian held that\\nphilosophy of whatever kind is dangerous, claiming that\\nit makes man arrogant, and less inclined to faith.\\nIn the fourth century the Fathers of the Church were\\nopposed to pagan literature. The Apostolic Constitu-\\ntions commanded, Refrain from all writings of the\\nheathen for what hast thou to do with strange discourses,\\nlaws, or false prophets, which, in truth, turn aside from\\nthe faith those who are weak in understanding. It was\\nurged that, As the offspring of the pagan world, if not,\\nindeed, inspired by demons, they were dangerous to the\\nHIST. OF ED. 8", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "114\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nnew faith. This introduced into education a narrow view,\\nwhich evoked many bitter discussions, and which it took\\ncenturies to eradicate.\\nST. AUGUSTINE (354-43\u00c2\u00b0)\\nAugustine was born in Numidia, Africa. His father\\nwas a pagan, and his mother a devout Christian. Augus-\\ntine grew up in the faith of neither, and in his early\\nyears seems to have had no settled belief. As a student,\\nhe was wild and profligate, though attentive to his studies.\\nHe became thoroughly versed in Greek and Latin. He\\nstudied at Carthage and later at Milan. At the latter place\\nhe made the acquaintance of St. Ambrose, Bishop of\\nMilan, who was instrumental in Augustine s conversion.\\nHis life was radically changed, and he who had been the\\nwild, careless unbeliever became the greatest of the\\nChurch Fathers. Like Tertullian, he condemned the very\\nclassic literature to which he was indebted for his intellec-\\ntual greatness. His greatest literary works are City of\\nGod and Confessions.\\nConfessions. In this work are found his chief peda-\\ngogical teachings. Karl Schmidt says, In his Confes-\\nsions he develops a complete psychology of the human\\nsoul, from which the pedagogue can learn more than from\\nmany theories of education.\\nThis work shows step by step his own development\\nfrom childhood to mature manhood, how a word, a look,\\nan act may awaken passions, and lead to evil desire, or\\nstimulate to noble deed or self-sacrificing consecration.\\nFrom his own Hfe and experiences he portrays the whole\\nnature of man. Augustine is called the St. Paul of the\\nfifth century, and he certainly was the greatest man,", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN EDUCATION\\n5\\nsince Paul, that the Church has produced. His writings\\nhave shaped the doctrines of the CathoHc Church, and he\\nis the most noted of all Catholic Fathers. We believe,\\nhowever, that some of his pedagogical teachings were\\nso erroneous that they hindered the progress of civilization\\nand injured the Church. Draper says, Augustine antag-\\nonized science and Christianity for more than fifteen cen-\\nturies. He based all teaching on antJiority rather than\\non investigation. If the Church passed upon a question,\\nreligious or scientific, her teaching was to be accepted\\nwithout question. This caused great trouble in later\\nyears, especially when scientific research proved that the\\nvoice of authority was sometimes mistaken. But we shall\\nrecur to this subject later.\\nAugustine s Pedagogy. i. All teaching is based on\\nfaith and authority.\\n2. All pagan literature must be excluded from the\\nschools.\\n3. The chief subject in the school course is history\\npursued in the narrative form.\\n4. Make abundant use of observation in instruction.\\n5. The teacher must be earnest and enthusiastic.\\nWhile the Roman Empire became officially Christian\\nin the fourth century under Constantine, it was not\\nuntil Justinian decreed the abolition of pagan schools\\nand temples, a.d. 529, that paganism, as we have\\nseen, was finally destroyed. Thus the long conflict was\\nended, and henceforth we have to do only with Chris-\\ntian education. We now enter upon the thousand years\\nof the world s history known as the Middle Ages, the\\nclose of which brings us to the Reformation.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVIII\\nMONASTIC EDUCATION\\nLiterature. Lord, Beacon Lights Lecky, History of European\\nMorals; Myers, Mediaeval and Modern History; White, Eighteen\\nChristian Centuries Draper, Conflict between Religion and Science\\nHarper, Book of Facts Mrs. Jameson, Legends of Monastic Orders.\\nMonasteries. Monasteries were established as early\\nas the third century a.d. but it was not until the sixth\\ncentury that they became powerful. The spirit of as-\\nceticism, urged by the Church as one of the most im-\\nportant virtues, took a strong hold upon the people, and\\nled many to withdraw from the world. For such the\\nfounding of monasteries became a necessity. The mon-\\nasteries were the result of the ascetic spirit, and their\\nteaching was based upon authority and not upon free in-\\nvestigation or original research. Thus there was intro-\\nduced into society and education a principle that impeded\\nprogress for a thousand years.\\nMost of the time during this period the Church held\\nsupremacy over the State with authority unquestioned.\\nThis authority was carried not only into spiritual mat-\\nters, but also into social, political, and educational affairs.\\nEverything that seemed to conflict with the Bible, or\\nwith its interpretation by the leaders of the Church,\\nwas denounced as false. Thus those who promulgated\\nany new scientific discovery that overturned the theories\\nof the past, were often condemned by the Church be-\\nne", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "MONASTIC EDUCATION\\n117\\ncause the Bible did not teach the same. It was en-\\ntirely forgotten that the Bible is a book of morals and\\nrehgion, and not a text-book of science. If this truth\\nhad been recognized, the Church would have been spared\\nmuch ridicule, and scientific research many stumbling-\\nblocks. The antagonism of the Church to investiga-\\ntions that discredited her authoritative teachings, even\\noutside of religion, retarded science for many centuries.\\nThe Benedictines. The most important monastic order\\nfrom the standpoint of education was that of the Benedic-\\ntines. St. Benedict founded the first monastery of the\\norder that bears his name Monte Cassino, near Naples,\\nin 529. It will be remembered that this is the date\\nof the abolition of pagan schools by Justinian. On the\\nsite of Monte Cassino had stood a pagan school. The\\nmonastery which supplanted it remains to the present day.\\nBenedict s two important principles to which clois-\\nters hitherto had been unaccustomed were industry and\\nstrict discipline. These principles made the Benedictine\\nthe most successful and beneficent of all monastic orders.\\nIt grew rapidly, and within one hundred years from its\\nfoundation there were more than two hundred and fifty\\nBenedictine monasteries. It is claimed that the order has\\nproduced 4600 bishops, 1600 archbishops, 200 cardinals,\\n40 popes, 50 patriarchs, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46\\nkings, 41 queens, 3600 canonized saints, and 15,700 au-\\nthors, and that prior to the French Revolution it possessed\\n37,000 cloisters. There have been times when the wealth of\\nthis order in some states comprised more than half of all\\nthe property. The Benedictine monks tilled the soil of the\\ncountry surrounding their monasteries, literally making\\nthe desert blossom as the rose. They were untiring\\nin zeal for the Church and in deeds of mercy. They", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "ii8\\nHISTORY 01 EDUCATION\\nestablished cloister schools in Italy, France, Spain, Eng-\\nland, Ireland, Germany, and Switzerland. Monte Cassino\\n(529), Italy; Canterbury (586) and Oxford (ninth cen-\\ntury), England; St. Gall (613), Switzerland; Fulda (744).\\nConstance, Hamburg, and Cologne (tenth century), Ger-\\nmany; Lyons, Tours, Paris, and Rouen (tenth century),\\nFrance Salzburg (696), Austria and many other schools\\nwere founded chiefly by the Benedictines. Among the\\nmany great teachers that they produced were Alcuin of\\nEngland, Boniface of Germany, Thomas Aquinas, Duns\\nScotus, and Abelard. It thus appears that the Benedic-\\ntine order took a deep interest in education, and their\\nwork deserves a most honorable place among the educa-\\ntional agencies of the period under discussion.\\nThe Seven Liberal Arts. We have seen that much\\nattention was always given to religious instruction in the\\nChristian schools. The Bible, the doctrines of the Church,\\nand its rites and ceremonies were at first exclusively taught.\\nBut later secular branches were introduced. These secu-\\nlar branches were known as the seven liberal arts, which\\ncomprised the following subjects\\nThe Seven\\nLiberal Arts.\\nI. Trivium\\nII. Quadrivium\\n1. Grammar.\\n2. Rhetoric.\\n3. Logic.\\n1. Arithmetic.\\n2. Music.\\n3. Geometry.\\n4. Astronomy.\\nReading and\\nWriting.\\nThis course required seven years. Latin was the only\\nlanguage used, and consequently the native tongues suf-\\n1 Laurie thinks that these names were first appropriately used about the end\\nof the fourth century.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "MONASTIC EDUCATION\\n119\\nfered. The trivhmi was the most popular course\\nsuch knowledge was considered an absolute necessity\\nfor any one making claim to culture. After completing\\nthe trivium, those who wished for higher culture studied\\nthe quadriviiim.\\nUnder the term graviniar were included reading and\\nwriting, as well as the construction and use of language.\\nIn rhetoric the works of Quintilian and Cicero were studied,\\nand sermons delivered in the churches were made to serve\\nfor a practical application of the rules. In logic the\\nworks of St. Augustine were used in the exercises of con-\\nstructing syllogisms, of disputation, and of definition. In\\naritlinietic, before the introduction of the Arabic notation,\\nnumbers were considered to have a mysterious meaning.\\nThe hands and fingers were used to indicate numbers.\\nFor example, the left hand upon the breast indicated ten\\nthousand both hands folded, one hundred thousand. For\\nthe practical purposes of life the reckoning board was\\nused. This was a board with lines drawn upon it, between\\nwhich pebbles were placed to indicate the number to be\\nexpressed. For example, the number 3146 would be in-\\ndicated as follows\\n3\\n4\\n1 1 n\\n6\\n1 1 1 1 1 1\\nMusic was designed for the church service. Knowledge\\nof music was held to be positively essential to priest and\\nteacher. Under the term imisic were also sometimes in-\\ncluded the fine arts, painting, drawing, architecture, sculp-\\nture, etc.\\nIn geometry Euclid was used. Lines, angles, surfaces,\\nand solids were studied. With geometry there seems to\\nhave been connected a meager study of geogj-apJiy. Early", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "I20 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nmaps have been found, one dating from the seventh cen-\\ntury, being in possession of St. Gall monastery. Astronomy\\nwas closely connected with astrology. Its practical appli-\\ncation was limited to the formation of the Church calendar,\\nfixing the date of Easter, etc.\\nThis celebrated course of study formed the basis of sec-\\nular instruction in the monasteries, and, indeed, in all\\nschools, for several centuries. Religious instruction al-\\nways remained a prominent feature of the work. History\\nhad no place in the curriculum.\\nSummary of Benefits conferred upon Civilization by the\\nMonasteries. i They preserved classic literature. Though\\nmany of the Church Fathers, as we have seen, were bit-\\nterly opposed to pagan literature, the monasteries copied\\nit with great industry and preserved it with care. The\\narchives of these institutions have yielded up some most\\nremarkable and valuable manuscripts that otherwise would\\nhave been lost to the world.\\n2. They kept alive the flickering flame of Christianity.\\nThe Middle Ages were indeed dark for Christianity, as\\nunbelief, ignorance, and faithlessness prevailed. But the\\nmonasteries were centers of religious interest and zeal.\\n3. They maintained educational interest during this\\nlong, dark period. We have seen that the monasteries\\ncontained the only schools. Through them the Church\\nkept up whatever educational interest survived during the\\nMiddle Ages, and her work then conserved the energies\\nemployed in later educational enterprise.\\n4. They originated a great course of study by giving to\\nthe world the seven liberal arts.\\n5. They furnished places of refuge for the oppressed.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIX\\nSCHOLASTICISM\\nLiterature. Fisher, History of the Reformation Lord, Beacon\\nLights Thalheimer, Mediaeval and Modern History Schwegler, His-\\ntory of Philosophy Seebohin, Era of the Protestant Revolution\\nHegel, Philosophy of History.\\nCoMPAYRE remarks, It has been truly said that there\\nwere three Renascences the first, which owed its begin-\\nning to Charlemagne, and whose brilliancy did not last\\nthe second, that of the twelfth century, the issue of which\\nwas Scholasticism and the third, the great Renaissance\\nof the sixteenth century, which still lasts, and which the\\nFrench Revolution has completed.\\nAs scholasticism, in a sense, was the rival of monasti-\\ncism, and as ^t covered a large part of the Middle Ages,\\nwe shall discuss it at this point. Scholasticism was a\\nmovement having for its object the harmonizing of\\nancient philosophy, especially that of Aristotle, with the\\ndoctrines of Christianity.^ It covered a period reaching\\nfrom the ninth to the fifteenth century, and displayed its\\ngreatest activity between the eleventh and thirteenth cen-\\nturies. It is called the philosophy of the Middle Ages.\\nThe term scJiolastic is also applied generally to forms of\\nreasoning which abound in subtleties. Scholasticism was a\\ndissent from the teachings of St. Augustine and the ascetics.\\nIt sought to base education on reason instead of authority,\\n1 History of Pedagogy, p. 71.\\n121", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "122 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nthus asserting a vitally different principle, which would\\ntend to change the whole spirit of education.\\nThe first prominent leader of this movement was Erigena,\\nwho lived during the ninth century, and was the most inter-\\nesting writer of the Middle Ages. He was also a great\\nteacher, and was called to give instruction at the court of\\nCharles the Bald, and afterward at Oxford. He opposed\\nthe prevailing tendencies of the monasteries to base all\\nteaching on authority, and made its foundation philosophy\\nand reason. Schwegler^ denominates Anselm (born about\\n1033) as the beginner and founder of scholasticism.\\nThus it was not till the eleventh century that there was\\ndeveloped anything that might be properly termed a Chris-\\ntian philosophy. This was the so-called scholasticism.\\nGreater than either of these was Abelard (born 1079),\\nwho by his eloquence attracted great numbers of students\\nto Paris. It is said that few teachers ever held such\\nsway as did Abelard for a time. He made Paris the cen-\\nter of the scholastic movement, attracting students from\\nall parts of the world. He did more than any of his\\npredecessors to give accepted ecclesiastical doctrines a\\nrational expression. Scholasticism influenced the estab-\\nlishment of institutions of learning in England, Germany,\\nItaly, and Spain, some of which later developed into great\\nuniversities. Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and Occam\\nmay also be mentioned as great schoolmen. Of the first\\ntwo Schwegler says,^ At the summit of scholasticism we\\nmust place the two incontestably greatest masters of the\\nscholastic art and method, Thomas Aquinas (Dominican,\\n1225-1274) and Duns Scotus (Franciscan, 1265-1308), the\\nfounders of two schools, into which after them the whole\\nscholastic theology divides itself, the former exalting the\\nHistory of Philosophy, p. i86. 2 /^/^_^ p. 185. 3 p_ 185^", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "SCHOLASTICISM\\n123\\nunderstanding (z\u00c2\u00ab/^//\u00c2\u00a3T/// and the latter the ^\\\\S\\\\.{voluntas),\\nas the highest principle, both being driven into essentially-\\ndiffering directions by this opposition of the theoretical and\\npractical. Even with this began the downfall of scholasti-\\ncism its highest point was also the turning point to its\\nself-destruction. The rationality of the dogmas, the one-\\nness of faith and knowledge, had been constantly their\\nfundamental premise but this premise fell away, and the\\nwhole basis of their metaphysics was given up in principle\\nthe moment Duns Scotus placed the problem of theology\\nin the practical. When the practical and the theoretical\\nbecame divided, and still more when thought and being\\nwere separated by nominalism, philosophy broke loose from\\ntheology and knowledge from faith. Knowledge assumed\\nits position above faith and above authority, and the reli-\\ngious consciousness broke with the traditional dogma.\\nToward the end, another thing contributed to the down-\\nfall of scholasticism. The philosophical subtleties of dis-\\ncussion made the schoolmen lose sight of the main issue,\\nand devote themselves to the most ridiculous questions.\\nKarl Schmidt 1 mentions the subjects of these discussions,\\nsome of which are as follows How many angels can\\nstand on the point of a needle Why did Adam eat\\nan apple instead of a pear.? In what language did the\\nserpent address Eve Can the rite of baptism be per-\\nformed with air, sand, or earth with beer, fish broth, or\\nrose water, as well as with water.? Of course, the dis-\\ncussion of such absurd questions does not mark the true\\nspirit of scholasticism, but only indicates its deformity in\\nits last days. That it did a great deal of good will appear\\nfrom the following summary\\nSummary of the Benefits of Scholasticism. i It at-\\n1 Geschichte der Padagogik, Vol. II, p. 263.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "124 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ntempted to harmonize philosophy with Christianity, and\\nmay be called the first Christian philosophy.\\n2. It sought to base learning on reason and investiga-\\ntion, rather than on authority. In this we find the first\\nimpulse of that movement which later led to the founding\\nof science.\\n3. Many universities were established through the scho-\\nlastic influence, notably, Paris, Heidelberg, Bologna, Prague,\\nand Vienna.\\n4. While it failed to establish them, it at least recognized\\nthe desirableness of a universal language for schools, and\\na universal church for man.\\n5. Although, with the exception of the universities which\\nit founded, its direct work in education cannot be said to\\nhave been permanent, yet it imparted fresh vigor to edu-\\ncational endeavors.\\n6. Schwegler says,^ It introduced to the world\\nanother principle than that of the old Church, the principle\\nof the thinking spirit, the self-consciousness of the reason,\\nor at least prepared the way for the victory of this princi-\\nple. Even the deformities and unfavorable side of scho-\\nlasticism, the many absurd questions upon which the\\nscholastics divided, even their thousandfold unnecessary\\nand accidental distinctions, their inquisitiveness and subtle-\\nties, all sprang from a rational principle, and grew out of\\na spirit of investigation, which could only utter itself in\\nthis way under the all-powerful ecclesiastical spirit of the\\ntime.\\nHistory of Philosophy, p. 189.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XX\\nCHARLEMAGNE\\nLiterature. Ferris, Great Leaders; Emertoti, Introduction to the\\nMiddle Ages; Guizot, History of Civilization; Wells, The Age of\\nCharlemagne Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire Church, The Begin-\\nning of the Middle Ages Lord, Beacon Lights White, Eighteen\\nChristian Centuries Laurie, Rise of the Universities Biilfinch, Legends\\nof Charlemagne Encyclopaedia Britannica, Article on Charlemagne.\\nHistory, Character, and Purpose. Charlemagne was not\\nonly the greatest ruler of the Middle Ages, but one of the\\ngreatest and wisest rulers the world has known. By birth\\nand instinct he belonged to the Teutonic race, to which, as\\nbefore stated, the world s enlightenment has been com-\\nmitted. Like Alexander the Great, Charlemagne united\\nmany peoples into one, until he ruled over the territory\\nnow included in France, Germany, parts of England,\\nAustria, and Italy, in fact, his empire comprised the\\nrichest part of central Europe. He designed to rebuild\\nthe Roman Empire, and was crowned Emperor of Rome\\nby the Pope, in the year 800. While he protected the Pope\\nand was loyal to him, he did not admit the papal supremacy\\nin matters of State.\\nTwo very important influences were wisely utilized by\\nCharlemagne in his work of civilization, namely, the politi-\\ncal ideas of the Teutons, and the adhering power of the\\nChristian church. He cherished German customs, and\\nleft, in various parts of Germany, many monuments of his\\n125", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "126 HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\nlove for that people. He was of commanding presence,\\nbeing seven feet in height, and of good proportions, blond\\nin type, and of genial manners. His real capital was at\\nAix-la-Chapelle, but Rome was a nominal capital. Bul-\\nfinch says of Charlemagne Whether we regard him as\\na warrior or legislator, as a patron of learning or as the\\ncivilizer of a barbarous nation, he is entitled to our warmest\\nadmiration. If his successors had possessed the ability,\\nenterprise, and breadth of view that characterized him,\\nthe world might never have known the period in history\\ncommonly called the Dark Ages.\\nPersonal Education. When Charlemagne, arrived at the\\nestate of manhood and ascended the throne, he was igno-\\nrant of letters and lacked any considerable intellectual\\ntraining. His education had been that of the knight who\\nbelieved that skill in the use of arms and physical prowess\\nwere of far more importance than a knowledge of letters.^\\nAfter he had come to the throne, and especially after he\\nhad conquered his foes and had leisure to study the wel-\\nfare of his people, he realized his deficiencies, and sought\\nto overcome them by diligent study.\\nHe called to his court the most learned men of the\\nworld, received personal instruction from them, and had\\nthem read to him and converse with him while at his\\nmeals. In this way he overcame, in a measure, the de-\\nfects of his early education. He thoroughly mastered\\nLatin, became familiar with Greek, and learned also gram-\\nmar, rhetoric, logic, music, astronomy, and natural his-\\ntory. He never learned to write well, owing to the late\\nperiod of life at which he began, and to the clumsiness\\nof the hand accustomed to wielding the sword rather than\\nthe pen.\\n1 See Feudal Education, Chap. XXII.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "CHARLEMAGNE\\n127\\nAmong his instructors was Almin of England, the most\\ncelebrated teacher of his time. Charlemagne established\\nthe School of the Palace, and placed Alcuin at its head.\\nHere the children of the emperor as well as his courtiers\\nwere taught. He had his own daughters learn Latin and\\nGreek. France is indebted to Alcuin for its polite learn-\\ning. Alcuin was also the counselor of the emperor in the\\neducational matters of the empire, and it was probably his\\ninfluence that led Charlemagne to adopt such broad views\\nconcerning the culture of his people.\\nGeneral Education. We have seen that the prevailing\\nidea was that education should subserve the interests of\\nthe Church. Charlemagne turned the current of thought\\ntoward the national idea. He believed in religious train-\\ning, but wanted to found a great State, and therefore in-\\nsisted that those things which encouraged intelligent\\npatriotism should be taught. He protected the Church,\\nbut insisted that the Church was subordinate to the State,\\nand that his will was law over both. Consequently he\\nrequired priests to preach in the native tongues rather\\nthan in Latin, and decreed that monasteries that would\\nnot open their doors to children for school purposes should\\nbe closed. The priests, he insisted, should be able to read\\nand write, should have a knowledge of the Holy Scriptures\\nand of the chief doctrines of the Church, and should in-\\nstruct the people in these things.\\nThe seven liberal arts formed the basis of school in-\\nstruction. Monks were not to remain in idleness and\\nignorance, but were required to teach, not only in the\\nmonasteries, but also outside of them. He also encouraged\\neducation among his nobles, and plainly intimated that\\nmerit and not noble birth would entitle them to favor.\\nCharlemagne visited the schools himself, and required the", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "128 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nbishop to report to him their condition. He thus became\\na superintendent of schools, being as familiar with the\\neducational interests of his kingdom as he was with every\\nother interest. He sought to teach first the priests and\\nnobles, and after that the masses of his people. He in-\\ntroduced the practice of compulsory education for all chil-\\ndren, and decreed that truant children be first deprived\\nof food as punishment, and if that did not suffice, that\\nthey be brought before him.\\nReading, writing, arithmetic, and singing were taught,\\nespecial attention being given to music, which was of use\\nin the church services. The Apostles Creed and the\\nLord s Prayer were also taught. In 80 1 Charlemagne\\ndecreed that women and children should receive instruc-\\ntion in the doctrines of religion, because he believed re-\\nligion to be the foundation of a civilized nation.\\nCharlemagne s career shines out in brilliant contrast with\\nthe ignorance and superstition of his age. The world was\\nnot yet ripe for his advanced ideas, hence when the work\\nlost the support of his strong personality, its effects soon\\nbecame obliterated, and a retrogression of civilization\\nresulted.\\nThe clergy, who had entertained but little sympathy for\\nthe enterprises of the emperor, soon closed the monas-\\nteries to outside students, and returned to the vicious\\npractices from which the authority and energy of Charle-\\nmagne had aroused them. His work was not wholly\\nin vain, however, for he laid the foundations of the Prussian\\nschool system.^\\nSummary of Charlemagne s Work. i. He elevated the\\nclergy by demanding greater educational qualifications of\\nthem and by insisting that they do their duty.\\n1 Professor Masius, Lectures in the University of Leipsic.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "CHARLEMAGNE 129\\n2. He gave dignity to native tongues by requiring the\\npriests to preach in the vernacular of the people, at the\\nsame time making the services of the church of more\\nuse to the people.\\n3. He opened the cloisters to the purposes of education,\\nand thereby greatly extended their usefulness.\\n4. He sought to perpetuate religion and insure the\\nstability of his empire by making education compulsory\\nand universal.\\n5. He believed in the education of women.\\n6. He laid the foundations of future school systems,\\nand indicated certain principles that are still recognized\\nas valid.\\nHIST. OF ED. 9", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXI\\nALFRED THE GREAT\\nLiterature. Fern s, Gr A\\\\ Leaders; Lord, Beacon Lights; Mom-\\nbert. Great Lives Spofford, Library of Historical Cliaracters Green,\\nHistory of the English People.\\nHistory and Character. Alfred became king of the\\nWest Saxons in 871 at the age of twenty-three. As a boy\\nhe had already shown remarkable energy and ability, and\\nas a man he more than fulfilled the promise of his early\\nyears. England was divided into several kingdoms, the\\nDanes having taken possession of the eastern part of the\\nisland. Alfred carried on war against them for many\\nyears with varying success, until he made peace by skillful\\ndiplomacy in giving them territory. He afterward showed\\nremarkable statesmanship in winning them to peaceful\\nacquiescence in his sovereignty, and thus he came to rule\\nover united England.\\nHe laid the foundation of England s naval greatness by\\nbuilding ships to defend the country against Danish pirates.\\nMany stories are told of his simplicity, his perseverance,\\nhis strategy in defeating his enemies, and the love with\\nwhich he inspired his people. Karl Schmidt says, Alfred,\\nas victor in fifty-six battles, as lawgiver, as king and sage,\\nas Christian and man, as husband and father, is rightly\\ncalled The Great.\\nHe was very methodical in his habits, and divided his\\n130", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "ALFRED THE GREAT 131\\nday into three equal parts of eight hours each eight\\nhours he gave to government, eight hours to religious\\ndevotion and study, and the other eight hours to sleep,\\nrecreation, and the recuperation of his body.\\nEducation. Alfred did not learn to read until twelve\\nyears of age. His mother then stimulated him by the\\npromise of a book to that one of her sons who should lirst\\ncommit to memory a Saxon poem. With indomitable\\nenergy he mastered reading, learned the poem, and\\nsecured the prize. Throughout his life he gave much\\nattention to literary matters. He translated many por-\\ntions of the Bible, as well as other books, into Anglo-\\nSaxon, and encouraged literary efforts in others.\\nWithout doubt the intellectual activity of Charlemagne\\nacted as a spur to Alfred s personal ambition and to his\\ndesire to elevate his people. Although he did not follow\\nthe example of Charlemagne in seeking universal educa-\\ntion for his people, he did urge that the children of every\\nfreeman should be able to read and write, and should have\\ninstruction in Latin. The distinction thus made in the\\npurposes of these two great rulers has been perpetuated\\ntill the present time, the Germans encouraging universal\\neducation, while the English have attended chiefly to the\\neducation of the higher classes. Alfred estabUshed many\\nmonasteries and made them centers of learning. It seems\\nclear that he assisted in laying the foundations from which\\nOxford University grew. He left his impress upon the\\nEnglish people as no other ruler has done, implanting\\nlove for law, justice, freedom, national honor, and the\\ndomestic virtues which characterize that nation. His\\ninfluence is felt upon English institutions to this day.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXII\\nFEUDAL EDUCATION\\nLiterature. Stille, Studies in Mediaeval History Bulfinch, Legends\\nof Charlemagne; E\u00c2\u00bbiertoit, Mediaeval Europe.\\nEmerton defines feudalism as an organization of\\nsociety based upon the absence of a strong controlling\\npoorer at the center of the State. It marks a step in the\\nreorganization of society which was slowly going forward\\nduring the Middle Ages. It was an element in the move-\\nment toward freedom, in which men of large landed pos-\\nsessions gained the allegiance of vassals by gifts of land,\\nin return for which the latter bound themselves to defend\\nthe former in case of attack. The tie by which the\\nhigher freeman bound the lower one to himself was ordi-\\nnarily a gift of the use of a certain tract of land, together\\nwith more or less extensive rights of jurisdiction over the\\ndwellers thereon. By means of this gift he secured the\\nservice of the lesser man in war, and as war was the nor-\\nmal condition of things, such service was the most valua-\\nble payment he could receive.\\nWhile it is true that the feudal lords were in many cases\\nlittle else than robber chieftains, especially in the earlier\\nhistory of the system, it would be false to history to\\npicture them in general as being of that character. The\\n1 Mediaeval Europe, p. 478. 2 p_ ^2,0.\\n132", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "FEUDAL EDUCATION\\n133\\nknights were chivalrous in battle, ever ready to fight for\\ntheir religion, as shown in the crusades, to defend the\\nweak, to show greatest respect for woman, and to main-\\ntain freedom. Fortified in an impregnable castle on\\nsome eminence, with his loyal retainers about him, the\\nfeudal baron was able to defy kings. The system marks a\\nstage in the development of civilization, and when feudal-\\nism fell into decline its purpose had been fulfilled.\\nWith such an independent manner of living, and such\\nideas of their own rights, it is not strange that the knights\\nhad a form of education peculiar to themselves, and this\\neducation is full of interest to the student. There was\\nlittle in the schooling of the monasteries that could appeal\\nto them, and their ideas of manhood were very different\\nfrom those of the ecclesiastics. Prowess in the use of\\narms, skill in horsemanship, acquaintance with the chival-\\nric forms of politeness and with knightly manners, were of\\nfar more importance to them than ability to read and write.\\nIndeed, they despised book-learning as something beneath\\ntheir own dignity, however suitable it might be for their\\nvassals. In such a school as this Charlemagne grew up.\\nIt was a school of action rather than of thought; a school\\nwhich looked to the present rather than the future.\\nThe education of the knights was in striking contrast\\nwith the prevailing modes. Instead of the seven liberal\\narts, the seven perfections of the knight were taught,\\nhorsemanship, swimming, use of bow and arrow, swords-\\nmanship, hunting, chess-playing, and verse-making. Their\\npurpose was to prepare for the activities of the life in\\nwhich their lot was cast that of the monasteries was to\\npreserve learning to fit men for the duties of the Church,\\nand to prepare them for the life to come. It must not\\nbe inferred, however, that the knight was unmindful of", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "134\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nreligion, for he was inducted into knighthood by most\\nsolemn religious ceremonies and vows.\\nThe education of the knight was divided into three\\nperiods.\\nFirst Period. The first seven years of the boy s life\\nwere spent in the home under the mother s careful direc-\\ntion. Obedience, politeness, and respect for older persons\\nwere inculcated, and stress was also laid upon religious\\ntraining. By the development of strong and healthy\\nbodies the boys were well prepared for the later educa-\\ntion upon which they entered after the seventh year.\\nSecond Period. After the seventh year the boy was\\ngenerally removed from home to the care of some friendly\\nknight, in order that he might receive a stricter training.\\nHere he remained till his fourteenth year, chiefly under the\\ncare of the lady whom he served as page. He was taught\\nmusic, poetry, chess, and some simple intellectual studies,\\nbesides the duties of knighthood, especially in relation to\\nthe treatment of women, and to courtly manners.\\nThird Period. At fourteen the boy left the service of\\nhis lady and became an esquire to the knight. He now\\nattended his master upon the chase, at tournaments, and\\nin battle. He was taught all the arts of war, of riding,\\njousting, fencing. It was necessary that he should have\\na watchful eye to avert danger, protect his master, and\\nquickly anticipate his every wish. The service of this\\nperiod completed his education, and at twenty-one he was\\nknighted with imposing ceremonies. After partaking of\\nthe sacrament, he took vows to speak the trutJi, defend the\\nweak, honor ivomanhood, and use his sword for the defense\\nof CJiristianity.\\nThis form of education was most potent in preserving\\nknighthood for several centuries and was a powerful factor", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "FEUDAL EDUCATION\\n135\\nin shaping the destinies of Europe. It was faithfulness to\\nthe vow to defend Christianity that led finally to the over-\\nthrow of chivalry, as will appear in the study of the crusades.\\nEducation of Women. The girls remained at heme and\\nwere taught the domestic arts, as well as the forms of\\netiquette which were practiced in this chivalric age, and\\nwhich the peculiar homage paid to woman made neces-\\nsary. They were also taught reading and writing, and\\nwere expected to be familiar with poetry. Daughters of\\nthe better families were sometimes collected in some\\ncastle, where a kind of school was organized, in which\\nthey were instructed in reading, writing, poetry, singing,\\nand the use of stringed instruments, religion, and some-\\ntimes in French and Latin. Among no other class during\\nthe Middle Ages was such great attention paid to the\\neducation of women. It was the duty of mothers to see\\nthat their daughters were carefully prepared to sustain the\\npecuHar dignity of feudal womanhood.\\nCriticism of Feudal Education. i It honored woman\\nand gave her the highest position afforded by any system\\nduring the Middle Ages.\\n2. It gave the world a splendid example of chivalry,\\nteaching manliness, courage, devotion to the right as it was\\nunderstood, and the espousal of the cause of the weak.\\n3. It contributed to literature through the compositions\\nof the Minnesingers.\\n4. It counteracted the ascetic tendencies of the mo-\\nnastics by encouraging an active participation in life s\\naffairs.\\n5. It restricted its advantages to the privileged class.\\n6. It despised intellectual training, while laying great\\nstress upon physical prowess.\\n7. It lacked the elements of progress.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXIII\\nTHE CRUSADES AS AN EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT\\nLiterature. Michaitd, The Crusades; Emerton, Mediaeval Europe;\\nMombert, Great Lives (see Godfrey) Myers, Mediaeval and Modern\\nHistory Gnizot, History of Civilization Lord, Beacon Lights Archer\\nand Kingsford, The Crusaders White, Eighteen Christian Centuries\\nAndrews, Institutes of General History; Ridpath, Library of Universal\\nHistory (article on the Crusades).\\nAmong the most remarkable movements that took place\\nduring the Middle Ages were the crusades. The Saracens\\nhad overrun and conquered the Holy Land, and the Chris-\\ntian nations of the west attempted to recover from the\\nhands of the infidels the soil made sacred by the life and\\ndeath of Christ. For a long time the pilgrims who made\\njourneys to the tomb of the Savior were undisturbed, as\\ntheir pilgrimages were a source of profit to the Saracens.\\nBut when the Turks gained possession of Jerusalem, they\\nbegan to persecute both the native Christians and those\\nwho came from abroad. Peter the Hermit, who had suf-\\nfered from these cruelties at Jerusalem, returned to Europe,\\nand by his crude eloquence and earnestness stirred the\\npeople almost to a frenzy. Obtaining the sanction of the\\nPope, he gathered an immense crowd of men, women, and\\nchildren, and started for the Holy Land.\\nThey encountered great hardships, many died of hun-\\nger, disease, and the hostility of the people through whose\\ncountries they passed, and the remnant who reached the\\nBosporus, were totally destroyed by Turkish soldiers.\\n136", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "CRUSADES AS AN EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT i^y\\nThe first successful crusade was organized by the feudal\\nlords, who gathered an army of six hundred thousand men\\nunder the leadership of Godfrey of Bouillon. They had\\nconnected with their army one hundred thousand splendidly\\nmounted men. After untold losses and horrors, which re-\\nduced their forces to sixty thousand men, they succeeded\\nin taking Jerusalem. They established a Latin kingdom\\nwith Godfrey at the head, and thus accomplished the pur-\\npose for which they had set out. This crusade lasted from\\n1096 to 1099.\\nFor about fifty years the Latin kingdom held its own\\nbut it was constantly harassed by the Mohammedans,\\nuntil it became necessary to organize a second crusade.\\nThe leaders in this were Conrad III. of Germany and\\nLouis Vn. of France. Jealousies soon arose between the\\nrival leaders, who cared more for personal glory than for\\nthe purpose of the crusade. As a result, only a small por-\\ntion of the three hundred thousand soldiers ever reached\\nthe Holy Land; and this crusade, which lasted from 1147\\nto 1 149, resulted in failure.\\nForty years later Saladin, a Mohammedan ruler, having\\ncaptured Jerusalem, a third crusade was organized. This\\nwas led by Richard the Lion-Hearted of England, Frederick\\nBarbarossa of Germany, and Philip Augustus of France.\\nBarbarossa went overland, but Richard and Philip, profit-\\ning by past experiences, made the journey by water, thus\\naccomplishing it with greater ease and fewer losses. The\\nrivalries between the different nationalities engaged pre-\\nvented successful warfare but a truce was made with the\\nhumane Saladin, whereby he guaranteed protection to the\\nChristians, and thus the crusade came to an end. This\\ncrusade lasted from 1 189 to 1 192.\\nSee Lessing s Nathan der Weise.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "158 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nhumanism was at first chiefly theological, and the study of\\nthe classic languages, especially Hebrew and Greek, was\\nundertaken for the purpose of better understanding the\\nHoly Scriptures. Only a few scholars, however, were in-\\nterested, and not until a violent attack was made upon\\nReuchlin, was general attention attracted.\\nAGRICOLA (1443-1485)\\nRuDOLPHUS Agricola was the first to prepare the\\nnorthern countries for the reception of the classic revival.\\nAfter studying for some time under the great Italian mas-\\nters, he returned to Germany and accepted a professorship\\nat Heidelberg, where he delivered courses of lectures on\\nthe literature of Greece and Rome. He lectured also at\\nWorms at the request of the bishop, and drew around\\nhim a large number of students in both places. Hallam\\nsays of him, No German wrote so pure a style, or pos-\\nsessed so large a portion of classic learning. He pre-\\npared the way for the introduction of humanistic teach-\\nings and some of his pupils became the great leaders of\\nthat movement among the Teutonic peoples.\\nThe testimony of Erasmus concerning Agricola is as\\nfollows There was no branch of knowledge in which\\nhe could not measure himself with the greatest masters.\\nAmong the Greeks, he was a pure Greek, among the\\nLatins a pure Roman. Even when he spoke ex\\ntempore, his speech was so perfect and so pure that one\\ncould easily believe that one heard a Roman rather than\\na German. United with his powerful eloquence was the\\nbroadest erudition. He had investigated all the mysteries\\nof philosophy, and thoroughly mastered every branch of\\nmusic. In his later years he devoted his whole soul to", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXIV\\nTHE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES\\nLiterature. Laurie, Rise of the Universities Hallain, Middle Ages\\nCuizot, History of Civilization; Paulsen, The German Universities;\\nHurst, Life and Literature in the Fatherland Brother Azarias, Essays\\nEducational.\\nWe have seen that the Church had almost entire con-\\ntrol of education during the Middle Ages. Through her\\ninfluence schools were established and maintained, learn-\\ning was preserved, and the interests of civilization were\\npromoted. She was also influential in the founding of\\nuniversities, though not to her alone were these institu-\\ntions due. Laurie says\\nNow looking first to the germ out of which the\\nuniversities grew, I think we must say that the universi-\\nties may be regarded as a natural development of the\\ncathedral and monastery schools but if we seek for an\\nexternal motive force urging men to undertake the more\\nprofound and independent study of the liberal arts, we\\n1 The cathedral schools were institutions connected with each cathedral for\\nthe purpose of training priests for their sacred office, but they were not limited\\nentirely to priests. Instructions in the seven liberal arts was imparted, and\\nalso in religion. Parochial schools were estabhshed in many places for the\\npurpose of training children in the doctrines of the Church. Thus, as early\\nas the ninth century, the Church sought to extend the benefits of education to\\nthe people as well as to the priesthood. While the parochial schools were\\nlimited in their instruction, somewhat after the manner of the early catechu-\\nmen schools, the changed conditions of Christianity permitted a much broader\\ntraining than formerly.\\n139", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "140 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ncan find it only in the Saracenic schools of Bagdad, Baby-\\nlon, Alexandria, and Cordova. The Saracens were neces-\\nsarily brought into contact with Greek literature, just\\nwhen the western Church was drifting away from it and\\nby their translations of Hippocrates, Galen, Aristotle, and\\nother Greek classics, they restored what may be quite\\naccurately called the university life of the Greeks.\\nThe first universities, however, can hardly be said to\\nhave been inspired by the influence of the Church. Nor\\ndid the State assist in their establishment, though it after-\\nward sanctioned them, and conferred upon them their\\npeculiar privileges. The first universities grew out of\\norganizations of scholars and students who joined them-\\nselves together for the purpose of study and investigation.\\nThe oldest institution of this kind was that of Salerno, Italy,\\nwhich Laurie says was a public school from a.d. 1060,\\nand a privileged school from 1 100. It taught medi-\\ncine only, and was established by a converted Jew. It\\nwas entirely independent of both Church and State, and\\nattracted students from many countries.\\nThe next university was that of Bologna, Italy. It also\\nhad only one faculty, that of law. In 1158 Frederick I.\\nrecognized the institution by giving it certain privileges.\\nIt awakened widespread interest throughout Europe, so\\nthat by the end of the twelfth century it is estimated that\\ntwelve thousand students had flocked to Bologna, most of\\nthem from foreign lands. This is an indication that the\\nrevival of learning was quite general throughout the\\nworld.\\nBut the greatest university of the Middle Ages was that\\nof Paris, which attracted at least twenty thousand stu-\\ndents. The university of Paris was evolved from a cloister\\nschool, and it always retained a strong theological ten-", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "THE RISE OE THE UNIVERSITIES 141\\ndency. Philip Augustus gave it privileges as a corpora-\\ntion, and Pope Innocent III. recognized it as a high school\\nof theology. The course of study was by no means narrow,\\nas it was held that broad knowledge was essential as a\\npreparation for theological study. Consequently it was\\nnot long before a philosophical faculty the first in his-\\ntory was added as separate from the theological faculty.\\nThe greatest name connected with the university of Paris\\nis that of Abelard. Early in the twelfth century he at-\\ntracted great numbers of students, and it was his person-\\nality that made Paris the greatest university of the Middle\\nAges.\\nThe university of Oxford, England, was founded in 1 140,\\nthat of Cambridge in 1200. The oldest German univer-\\nsity is Prague, founded in 1348. Then follow: Vienna,\\n1365; Heidelberg, 1386; Cologne,^ 1388; Erfurt,^ 1392;\\nWiirzburg, 1403; Leipsic, 1409; Rostock, 14 19; Greifs-\\nwald, 1456; Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1457; Trier, 1472;\\nTubingen, 1477; and Mainz, 1477. In France, after\\nParis, Toulouse, 1233; Orleans, Cahors, Caen, Poitiers,\\nNantes, and others during the fourteenth century. In the\\nsame century at Lund and Upsala in Sweden, Christiania\\nin Norway, and Copenhagen in Denmark. Italy, Spain,\\nEngland, Ireland, and Scotland also felt this wonderful\\nimpulse. These universities were usually modeled after\\nthat of Paris.\\nThe European universities were early granted certain\\n1 The complete university has four faculties, which embrace all human\\nknowledge. The historical order of precedence is as follows Theology\\n(1259-60), law (1271), Medicine (1274), and Arts or Philosophy (1281).\\nThe last includes all subjects not embraced in the first three. Thus all\\nbranches of science, history, language, mathematics, etc., belong to the\\nphilosophical faculty.\\n2 Laurie, Rise of the Universities. Nq longer in existence.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "142 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nprivileges, many of which are accorded to this day. In-\\ndeed, some of these privileges were assumed and allowed\\nbefore the institutions had official recognition by charter.\\nThese educational associations acquired so much influence\\nand power that princes and popes vied with each other to\\ngain favor with them by granting them special privileges.\\nOne of the most important of these is that the government\\nof the student body rests with the university faculty, both\\nas to their life in connection with the university, and also\\noutside of it. Thus to this day if a student is arrested by\\nthe police, his case is turned over to the authorities of the\\nuniversity for trial and punishment. This was an impor-\\ntant concession largely growing out of the fact that a great\\nmany of the students were citizens of other countries than\\nthat in which the university was located. It will readily\\nappear that this privilege alone would have a tendency to\\ncreate a world for university students and professors apart\\nfrom that of the citizens. Doubtless the moral tone among\\nthe former was often very low. Students took advantage\\nof the situation created by their peculiar privileges, and\\ndisregarded laws which the citizens were obliged to obey.\\nConflicts between these two classes, therefore, were fre-\\nquent and bitter.\\nThe universities stimulated a desire for learning, created\\na respect for it, and began a movement toward free inves-\\ntigation, and for the promulgation of liberal ideas, which\\ngains strength with each decade of the world s history.\\nThey have greatly contributed to the growth of knowledge,\\nto the advancement of science, and to the elevation of\\nmankind.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXV\\nMOHAMMEDAN EDUCATION\\nLiterature. Warner, Library of the World s Best Literature (see\\narticle on the Koran) Johonnot, Geographical Reader Lane-Poole,\\nStory of the Moors in Spain Lord, Beacon Lights of History Thal-\\nheimer, Mediaeval and Modern History Stille, Studies in Mediaeval\\nHistory; Irving, Maliomet and his Successors; Church, The Begin-\\nnings of the Middle Ages; Andreivs, Institutes of General History;\\nWhite, Eighteen Christian Centuries; Myers, Mediaeval and Modern\\nHistory Monibert, Great Lives Clarke, Ten Great Religions Fer-\\nris, Great Leaders Laurie, Rise of the Universities.\\nWe have thus far described the work of Christian edu-\\ncation. Parallel with this and almost entirely independent\\nof it grew the educational work of the Moslems. This was\\na very important movement most valuable to civilization.\\nHistory of Mohammedanism. Mohammedanism dates\\nfrom the time of the Hegira, or flight of Mohammed from\\nMecca, a.d. 622. From this date Moslems reckon their time,\\nas the Christian world reckons from the birth of Christ.\\nMohammed first appeared as prophet when forty years of\\nage. The religion of the Arabs was a most degraded one,\\nand there was great need of the reformation which Moham-\\nmed undertook. The prophet was not well received at first,\\nand, being obliged to flee from Mecca, he retired to a cave\\nat Medina, where he meditated and studied. It was during\\nthis retirement that he wrote the Koran, the Bible of\\nthe Mohammedans. He claimed that the angel Gabriel\\nappeared to him, giving him a new revelation, which was\\n143", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "144 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nmore significant than that of the Christians. Indeed, these\\nso-called revelations were strangely suited to the varying\\nambition of the founder of this religion. The Koran\\nteaches that as Jesus was greater than Moses, so Moham-\\nmed was greater than Jesus.\\nThere is no doubt that the new religion was an improve-\\nment upon the degraded form of worship that Mohammed\\nfound among the Arabs, or that in the beginning of his\\nactivity he did much to purify and elevate his people.\\nBut as he gained great numbers of adherents, and as he\\nacquired power, Mohammed became a warrior, and at-\\ntempted by the sword to compel belief in his doctrines.\\nMoslemism met with such wonderful success that already,\\nduring the life of Mohammed, all Arabia was conquered\\nto this belief, while his successors spread his teachings\\ninto northern Africa, western Asia, Spain, and Turkey.\\nThey carried their triumphant arms into France, until\\nthey were checked by Charles Martel they overran\\nAustria and threatened the complete subjugation of\\nsoutheastern Europe, until John Sobieski dealt them a\\ncrushing blow before the gates of Vienna, and forever\\ndestroyed their ambition for northern conquest they occu-\\npied Spain for seven hundred years, and still retain Turkey\\nas their sole European possession they have extended\\ntheir power over many parts of Asia and Africa, until now\\nthey number about two hundred million souls.\\nThe five chief Moslem precepts are\\n1. Confession of the unity of God. There is one God,\\nand Mohammed is his prophet.\\n2. Stated prayer.\\n3. Almsgiving.\\n4. The fast of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Mo-\\nhammedan year.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "MOHAMMEDAN EDUCATION 1 45\\n5. Observance of the festival of Mecca. Every Moslem\\nis expected to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in\\nhis lifetime.\\nEducation. When Mohammedanism became secure in\\nits power, it turned its attention to education. The suc-\\ncessors of Mohammed were called caliphs, and the caliphs\\nof Bagdad and Cordova rivaled each other in fostering\\nlearning. Schools were established in all large Moslem\\ncities and in many smaller towns. Their scholars trans-\\nlasted the works of Aristotle and other Greek authors.\\nThey taught mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and\\ngrammar. They originated the science of chemistry, and\\nmade great advances in the study of algebra and trigonome-\\ntry. They also measured the earth, and made catalogues\\nof the stars. Every branch of knowledge was studied, and\\nstudents were attracted from all parts of Europe to their\\nschools, especially to Cordova.\\nStudents lived in colleges with the professors, and there\\nwas an atmosphere of culture and investigation not equaled\\nin any of the Christian universities of the Middle Ages.\\nSpain reached the summit of Moslem education during\\nthe reign of King Hakem III. (961-976). This king fos-\\ntered education, being himself a man of learning. He\\nhad a private library of six hundred thousand volumes.\\nEducation was not confined simply to the higher schools\\nand universities. There were also a great many elementary\\nschools. The iirst work of these was to teach the Koran,\\nwhich was used as a reading book. The Koran gives us\\nthe most perfect picture of the oriental mind that we\\npossess. Children of the poor attended school from their\\nfifth till their eighth year, when they were allowed to go\\nto service. Children of the rich entered school at their\\nfifth year and remained till their fourteenth or fifteenth\\nHIST. OF ED. 10", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "146 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nyear. After that, if parents could afford it, boys traveled\\nuntil their twentieth year, under care of a tutor. This\\ncompleted their education. Any person could teach who\\nchose to do so, no authority fixing the qualifications of\\nteachers.\\nThe Mohammedan schools began to decline in the\\neleventh century. At the present time, but little attention\\nis paid to education in any of the countries under the sway\\nof Islam.\\nGENERAL SUMMARY OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS DURING\\nTHE MIDDLE AGES\\n1. Paganism gave way to Christianity, and the benign\\ninfluence of the latter began to be felt in the recog-\\nnition of the importance of the individual.\\n2. The Church undertook the direction of education,\\nwhich, though necessarily limited chiefly to the ec-\\nclesiastics, had also a great influence upon the masses\\nat large.\\n3. The Church Fathers were the leaders in intel-\\nlectual as well as in spiritual matters, while monks and\\npriests were the principal teachers.\\n4. The monasteries were the centers of educational\\nactivity, both in fostering scholarship and in preserving\\nclassic literature.\\n5. Secular courses of study were established, the\\nmost important being the seven liberal arts.\\n6. Education was based on authority, and free in-\\nvestigation found but little encouragement, except among\\nthe scholastics.\\n7. The State assumed no part in the training of the\\nyoung. Charlemagne s educational work is an exception", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "MOHAMMEDAN EDUCATION\\n147\\nto this rule. He asserted the prerogative of the State\\nto control education, recognized the necessity of uni-\\nversal education, and the principle of compulsory at-\\ntendance.\\n8. The crusades checked the growth of feudalism,\\naroused the intellectual as well as the spiritual energies\\nof the people, led to a broader conception of man s duty\\nto his fellow-man, and prepared the way for greater\\nreligious and political freedom.\\n9. As an important result of the stimulated educa-\\ntional activity, both among Christians and Moham-\\nmedans, many universities were founded.\\n10. The Middle Ages contributed but little to science,\\nand progress was seriously checked by the antagonism\\nof the Church to scientific investigation.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXVI\\nTHE RENAISSANCE\\nLiterature. Williams, History of Modern Education, Quick,\\nEducational Reformers Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire Andrews,\\nInstitutes of General History Fisher, History of the Reformation\\nReeve, Petrarch Symonds, Renaissance in Italy Seebohm, Era of\\nProtestant Revolution; Spofford, Library of Historical Characters;\\nHegel, Philosophy of History Draper, Intellectual Development of\\nEurope.\\nAs the fifteenth century drew to a close there were\\nunmistakable evidences of the dawn of a better day,\\nand the long period known as the Dark Ages was to\\nbe succeeded by a brighter and more glorious era. The\\nChurch no longer held undisputed sway over the con-\\nsciences, lives, and material interests of men the feudal\\nsystem had begun to disintegrate the world had been\\naroused to new enterprise by the discovery and explora-\\ntion of distant continents, by the invention of paper,\\nthe printing press, gunpowder, and the mariner s com-\\npass; the Ptolemaic system of astronomy had been\\nsuperseded by that of Copernicus the great empires\\nof the Middle Ages had decayed, and upon their ruins\\nhad been constructed smaller nationalities which spoke\\na language of their own. The period in which these\\nremarkable changes were taking place is known as\\n14S", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "THE RENAISSANCE\\n149\\nthat of the Renaissance. It cannot be confined to definite\\nchronological limits, but is the period of transition from\\none historical stage to another, in which there was a\\ngradual metamorphosis of the intellectual and moral\\nstate of Europe. The Renaissance must be viewed\\nas an internal process whereby spiritual energies latent\\nin the Middle Ages were developed into actuality and\\nformed a mental habit for the modern world. It pre-\\npared the way for the Reformation, and introduced the\\nera of wonderful progress upon which modern civiliza-\\ntion has entered. It was the rebirth (renascence) of the\\nworld.\\nThe most important instrumentality for carrying for-\\nward the great work thus inaugurated was the Teutonic\\nrace. The despised northern barbarians, who had con-\\nquered Rome, had become civilized and Christianized,\\nand were found to possess the sterling qualities which\\nmade them capable of bearing the great responsibilities of\\nprogressive civilization. The proud Roman Empire had at\\nlast succumbed to its internal weaknesses and vices, and\\nhad disappeared forever from the face of the earth.\\nWith the greater enlightenment of men had come once\\nmore an appreciation of the value of the classic languages,\\nand Greek, the language of the Eastern Empire, was no\\nlonger regarded with antipathy. The revival of learning,\\nwhich had its inception in Italy and spread northward,\\nfound its most important expression in the new interest\\nawakened in the classic languages. It is in this, the\\nso-called humanistic phase of the Renaissance, that the\\nstudent of education is chiefly interested. To this we turn\\nour attention.\\nWe have already alluded to the social conditions, the in-\\nventions, and discoveries, which prepared the way for the", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "I50 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nrevival of learning. New and powerful impulses were\\nshaping the progress of the world, and the leaders of the\\nhumanistic movement were not slow to utilize the instru-\\nments thus opportunely furnished them. Chief among\\nthese was the art of printing, which enabled them to mul-\\ntiply and distribute copies of the classics, that had been\\nconsigned to comparative oblivion.\\nAnother important element must be considered if we are\\nto understand this revival. We have seen that during the\\nMiddle Ages the ecclesiastics largely shaped the intellec-\\ntual activity of Europe, that mystery was made of science,\\nand that the authority of the Church was supreme on all\\nquestions of education as well as of religion. A new and\\nvital doctrine was taught which had much to do with the\\nintellectual and spiritual emancipation of man. This new\\ndoctrine may be stated as follows\\nMaji is a rational, volitional, self-conscious being, born with\\ncapabilities and rights to enjoy ivhatever good the world\\noffers.\\nThis doctrine, it will readily appear, is capable of being\\nperverted to an excuse for unbridled license, as was done\\nby the Italians or, rightly interpreted, of being productive\\nof great good, as in the case of the Germans.\\nAnother new doctrine taught was that there was good-\\nness in man and his works even previous to the Christian\\nera, and that a study of the writings of all who have con-\\ntributed to human progress is essential to culture, and of\\nvalue to mankind. This was an argument for the revival\\nof the study of Greek, which had for centuries been neg-\\nlected. Indeed, Gibbon tells us that in the time of Pe-\\ntrarch, No more than ten votaries of Homer could be\\nenumerated in all Italy.\\nAgain, it was held that the gates of learning must be", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "THE RENAISSANCE 151\\nopened to all and not limited to the clergy, the recluse,\\nand the sage. Intellectual culture must be offered to\\nall men, to make them better and happier, and is not to be\\nconfined to the few for the purpose of increasing their\\npower and widening the breach between the classes. The\\nRenaissance made learning popular, it created a passion\\nfor culture, it aroused and stimulated widespread desire\\nfor greater enlightenment. It restored humanity to its\\nbirthright after centuries of monasticism and scholasticism.\\nIt gave to the world the priceless treasures which had so\\nlong lain hidden and useless in the archives of the monas-\\nteries, to serve for the enlightenment of mankind.\\nWe may now turn our attention to a more detailed\\nhistory of this revival and its effect upon different peoples,\\nand to a brief study of some of its great leaders.\\nHumanism in Italy. Italy was the first to catch the\\nimpulse of humanism. Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio\\nin the fourteenth century inspired men with their new\\nideas, and set in motion influences which were attended\\nwith results often far from good. They revived the study\\nof Latin and Greek classics, extracted manuscripts from\\ntheir hidden archives, incited in society a passion for learn-\\ning, and created a popular literature in their own vernacu-\\nlar. They implanted a love of freedom of thought in the\\nItalian masses. Their enthusiasm for the new learning\\nattracted scholars from Germany, France, and other coun-\\ntries, who spread the influence in their own lands.\\nThe effect of humanism upon the Italian mind and\\nlife was pernicious in the extreme. It led to infidelity,\\nto immorality, and to a return to many pagan prac-\\ntices. This was owing to two chief causes. First, the\\ninfluence of the Church with all its existing evils, and\\nsecond, the passionate nature of the Italian people. Karl", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "152 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nSchmidt says, Humanism, but not morality, ruled in the\\nVatican. The popes encouraged art and science, and\\nsought to gather about them an atmosphere of culture\\nrather than of piety. Their frivolity served to encourage\\nloose practices, and their infidelity gave excuse for throw-\\ning off the restraints of Christianity and for the return to\\npagan license.\\nThe history of the Church at this particular period\\nshows that she had fallen into a sadly demoralized condi-\\ntion that this great institution, which had exerted such a\\nbenign and elevating influence upon mankind, and whose\\nrecord was in the main so noble, was in great need of\\nreform. In the exaltation of the intellectual the sijiritual\\nwas neglected. This was particularly true in Italy, the\\ncenter of ecclesiastical life, the home of the head of the\\nChurch. And yet, with the many monasteries and monks,\\nwith the hordes of ecclesiastics, with the vast amount of\\nproperty controlled by the Church, and with the traditions\\nof centuries acknowledging her authority, it will be seen\\nthat she possessed a power in Italy not equaled else-\\nwhere.\\nThe people interpreted the teaching of Petrarch that the\\nworld was made for man s enjoyment, as a plea for license\\nand absence of restraint. Even monks and priests, who\\nhad been held to the rigid life of the cloister, imbued with\\nthis teaching, indulged in excesses that were subversive of\\nboth morals and religion.\\nBut without doubt there was a great intellectual move-\\nment in Italy. Draper says, Between 1470 and 1500\\nmore than ten thousand editions of books and pamphlets\\nwere printed, and a majority of them in Italy, demon-\\nstrating that Italy was in the van of the intellectual move-\\nment.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "THE RENAISSANCE\\n153\\nHumanism in Germany. A far different result was\\nattained among the Teutonic peoples. The best students\\nof Germany went to Italy, and, becoming acquainted with\\nthe new education, returned to introduce it into their own\\nuniversities. Being less under the influence of the Church\\nin her decadence, and possessing the moral stabihty which\\nhad brought the Teutonic race to the front, the Germans\\nobtained good where the Italians had absorbed evil. The\\nsame principle, with different interpretation, under differ-\\nent conditions, and in different soil, brought forth far dif-\\nferent fruit. Thus Petrarch s teaching was interpreted to\\nmean that the good things of earth are not to be abused,\\nand that man s acquirements are to be consecrated to his\\nself-development and to the glory of God.\\nThe German humanists revived the study of the classics,\\nGreek, Latin, and Hebrew, until, at the beginning of the\\nsixteenth century, these languages were taught in every\\nGerman university. The Bible was studied in the original,\\nand classic writings were redeemed from obscurity, printed,\\nand given to the world. Heidelberg and Tubingen became\\ncenters of the humanistic movement, and Agricola, Reuch-\\nlin, and Erasmus were the great leaders.\\nSummary of the Influence of Humanism. i. It laid\\nthe foundation for future liberty of thought and con-\\nscience.\\n2. It revived the study of the classic languages, and\\ngave them a place in education which they still hold.\\n3. It utilized the art of printing by placing the works\\nof ancient authors in form to be used by the world.\\n4. It increased the number of students in the universi-\\nties, and stimulated intelligence among the masses.\\n5. It changed courses of study, making them more\\npractical.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "154 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\n6. It exerted an influence on schools of all kinds by\\ngiving better preparation to teachers.\\n7. It stimulated all forms of elevating activity, in\\nart, in science, in exploration, in invention.\\n8. It prepared the way for the Reformation, which\\nbroadened and perfected the work thus inaugurated.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXVII\\nHUMANISTIC EDUCATORS\\nLiterature. Spofford, Library of Historical Characters; Symonds,\\nRenaissance in Italy; Reeve, Petrarch; Macaulay, Essays; Warner,\\nLibrary of the World s Best Literature (see articles on Dante, Petrarch,\\nand Boccaccio) D Anbigne, History of the Reformation Morris, Era\\nof the Protestant Revolution Leclerc, Life of Erasmus Fisher, History\\nof the Reformation Mrs. Oliphant, Dante.\\nThe mission of the humanistic leaders was to awake\\nthe dead, for Greek had become in the fullest sense a\\ndead language, and while classic Latin was still read, its\\nspirit was not comprehended and therefore it also was\\npractically dead. We have seen that the Italians were\\nthe first to catch the inspiration of this revival, and Ger-\\nmany, France, Spain, and England were invited to her\\nfeast. The great leaders of Italy were Dante, Petrarch,\\nand Boccaccio. It is not the purpose here to discuss\\nthese men in all of their intellectual activities, but simply\\nto consider the part of their work that had a bearing on\\neducation.\\nThe Italian Humanists\\nDANTE (1265-1321)\\nDante was born and educated in Florence. He was\\nfavored with a devoted teacher, Brunetto Latini, who was\\nsaid to be a great philosopher and a consummate mas-\\nter of rhetoric, not only knowing how to speak well, but\\n155", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "156 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nto write well. Under him Dante became familiar with\\nall of the great Latin poets, with philosophy, history, and\\ntheology. Dante always spoke of his teacher with great\\naffection. Those were times of revolution and political\\ndisturbance, and Dante was readily drawn into politics.\\nThis caused his banishment and even endangered his life.\\nDante s greatest work is the Divine Comedy, which\\nhas made his name immortal. His was the first great\\nname in literature after the long dark period of the Middle\\nAges. It is said of him that he was not the restorer of\\nclassic antiquity, but one of the great prophets of that\\nrestoration. He brought the Italian language into use in\\nliterature and gave to it a dignity that it has never lost.\\nDante prepared the way for the humanistic movement and\\nwas therefore an important factor in this great revival.\\nPETRARCH (1 304-1 374)\\nThe father of Petrarch was an eminent jurist, and he\\ndesired his son to adopt his profession, but Petrarch had\\nneither taste nor capacity for Roman law. He was deter-\\nmined to be a man of letters. Like Dante, he too mixed\\nin politics, and several important diplomatic positions were\\ngiven to him. Though he succeeded in learning a little\\nGreek late in life, Petrarch was not a Greek scholar. This\\ndid not hinder him from being a warm advocate of the\\nclaims of the Greek language as an important element of a\\nliberal education. Although he possessed a manuscript of\\nHomer, Homer was dumb to him, or rather he was deaf\\nto Homer.\\nPetrarch was the real founder of humanism. Being\\nenthusiastic for the works of antiquity himself, he inspired\\nthe Italians with a remarkable zeal in the pursuit of classic\\nlore nor was his influence confined to the limits of his", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "HUMANISTIC EDUCATORS\\n157\\nnative country. He was the first to make a collection of\\nclassic works, and to bring to light the literary treasures\\nwhich the monasteries had so carefully preserved for cen-\\nturies. He inaugurated that great movement which re-\\nstored freedom, self-consciousness, and the faculty of prog-\\nress to human intellect. He recognized that the most\\nwonderful thing in the world is the human mind, the\\nemancipation of which can be brought about only through\\nits own activity. He was the first to appreciate the impor-\\ntance of Greek in human culture. Unlike Tertullian, Je-\\nrome, and Augustine, he believed that classic authors,\\ntogether with the Holy Scriptures and the writings of the\\nChurch Fathers, produce the broadest intelligence. All of\\nthese have the same purpose, and all are necessary to\\nhuman enlightenment. Petrarch broke down the unfruit-\\nful methods of the scholastics, and laid the foundations\\nupon which modern education is based namely, intellectual\\nfreedom, self-consciousness, and self-activity.\\nBOCCACCIO (1313-1375)\\nThe third of the great Italian leaders in the humanistic\\nmovement was Boccaccio. At the age of twenty-five,\\nwhile standing at the grave of Vergil, he decided to devote\\nhimself to a literary career. He admired the great work\\nof Petrarch, and was proud that, at his own expense, he\\nwas the first to have the works of Homer and other Greek\\nauthors brought to his native land that he was the first to\\ncall and support a teacher of Greek and that he was the\\nfirst among all Italians who could read Homer in the orig-\\ninal.\\nThe German Humanists\\nThe German mind is more earnest, disputative, and\\npractical than the Italian, therefore the trend of German", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "138 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nOther crusades followed from time to time for several\\ncenturies, with but little advantage gained over the condi-\\ntions granted by Saladin.\\nResults of the Crusades. This, in brief, is a historical\\naccount of the crusades.^ It remains for us to note their\\neducational value.\\n1. They drew various nations together by one common\\npurpose.\\n2. They increased the knowledge of the manners, cus-\\ntoms, culture, products, and civilization of the East.\\n3. They stirred up commerce, especially that of the\\nMediterranean, making Venice and Genoa great commer-\\ncial centers.\\n4. They broke up the power of feudalism. Lord and\\nvassal together entered upon enterprises of danger and\\nsuffering, which were great levelers of class distinction.\\nIn the enthusiasm of the holy cause, many feudal lords\\ndisposed of all their worldly possessions, and became as\\npoor as their vassals. This broke up the feudal estates.\\n5. They widened the horizon of thought, made Euro-\\npeans more liberal, and prepared the way for an intel-\\nlectual and religious revival.\\n6. They emancipated philosophy from theology. As a\\nresult of movements inaugurated by the crusades, the uni-\\nversity of Paris established the faculty of philosophy sepa-\\nrate from that of theology.\\n7. Cramer says, The crusades were a reaction of the\\nlaity against the clergy, of the senses against the spirit, of\\nsight against faith, of the deed against the word.\\n1 It would be impossible to give a full historical account of the crusades in\\na work of this kind. The reader is referred to any standard work on that\\nsubject.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "HUMANISTIC EDUCATORS 159\\nthe mastery of Hebrew and to the study of the Holy\\nScriptures. He cared but Httle for glory.\\nREUCHLIN (1455-1522)\\nReuchlin may properly be called the first great German\\nhumanist. He was educated at Freiburg, Paris, and Basel,\\nand gave especial attention to the classic studies, which\\nhad almost disappeared from the university courses in\\nGerm.any. He took his master s degree at Basel, and then\\nbegan to lecture on classical Latin and Greek. Being a\\nborn teacher, he drew about him a great number of stu-\\ndents, who became interested in classic studies. He made\\nseveral visits to Italy, where he imbibed the humanistic\\ntheories of the Italians, though he was already far ad-\\nvanced in those theories before he went to Italy. In 148 1\\nhe was appointed professor at Tubingen, which thus be-\\ncame the first German university to teach humanistic\\ndoctrines.\\nAt Linz, where he had been sent on an embassy, he\\nmade the acquaintance of the emperor s Jewish physician,\\nwith whom he began the study of Hebrew. This marks\\nan important epoch in his history, as he is best known for\\nhis Hebrew Grammar and Lexicon, published in 1506,\\nand for his championship of the Hebrew literature. Ow-\\ning to the scarcity of classic text-books, Reuchlin was\\nobliged to mark out courses for his students, and, in a\\nmeasure, to supply text-books for them. Much of his\\nwork in the university had to be dictated, and students were\\nobliged to copy their work from manuscripts. He pub-\\nlished a Latin lexicon and prepared the manuscript of a\\nGreek grammar which he never pubHshed, but from which\\ndoubtless he drew in his work with students.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "r6o HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nIn 1496 his friend Count Eberhard died, and Reuchlin s\\nenemies succeeded in alienating the new prince, so he was\\nglad to avail himself of the opportunity to go to the uni-\\nversity of Heidelberg. Here he gave chief attention to\\nHebrew.\\nWhile in Heidelberg he became involved in an unfortu-\\nnate controversy regarding Hebrew literature, a contro-\\nversy which was forced upon him. John Pfefferkorn, a\\nconverted Jew, zealous for the conversion of his race,\\nobtained an order from the emperor to confiscate and de-\\nstroy all Hebrew works which opposed the Christian faith.\\nReuchlin was appealed to as the highest authority on\\nHebrew, and he urged that, instead of destroying the lit-\\nerature, two professors should be appointed in each uni-\\nversity to teach Hebrew and thereby refute the Jewish\\ndoctors by making the students acquainted with the\\nBible. The struggle continued for years, and although\\nthe Church and even the universities were against him,\\nReuchlin was finally victorious, thereby saving a noble\\nliterature to the world. This was a great victory for\\nhumanism. A short time before his death Reuchlin re-\\nturned to Tubingen, where he closed his illustrious career\\nin 1522.\\nReuchlin was the first to introduce Greek into Germany,\\nand the first to recognize the necessity of a knowledge of\\nHebrew in interpreting the Holy Scriptures. He began\\na reform in the schools which prepared the way for a like\\nmovement in the Church, and in Luther he saw the man\\nwho was destined to carry both of these reforms to fnl^^\\nment. God be praised, said he, in Luther they\\nfound a man who will give them work enough to\\nso that they can let me, an old man, go to my re ;t\\npeace.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "HUMANISTIC EDUCATORS l6l\\nERASMUS (1467-1536)\\nErasmus was born at Rotterdam. Though not a Ger-\\nman, he belonged to the Teutonic race. He has well been\\ncalled a citizen of the world, as he lived in so many\\ncountries, and came to be the most learned man of his\\ntime. He was left an orphan at an early age, and his\\nguardians placed him in a convent. They wished to\\nmake a monk of him so that they could inherit his patri-\\nmony, but this plan was resisted by the boy for a long\\ntime. The life of the convent was very distasteful to\\nhim, and though he afterward took vows, he never was\\nin sympathy with asceticism. Possibly the corruption in\\nthe monasteries at that time may have had something to\\ndo with the repugnance of Erasmus to the monastic life.\\nHe was certainly greatly relieved when the Pope absolved\\nhim from his vows.\\nErasmus was precocious as a child, and it was early pre-\\ndicted of him that he would be a great man, a prediction\\nwhich he fully verified. Through the influence and help of\\nthe Bishop of Cambray, he was enabled to go to Paris for\\nstudy, though the means furnished were not sufficient for\\nhis support. He took pupils and gave lectures, thereby\\nsupplying the deficiency in his funds. It is recorded that,\\nin his eagerness for books, he said, When I get money, I\\nwill first buy Greek books, and then clothing. He also\\nstudied at Oxford, and afterward at Turin, where he took\\nthe degree of Doctor of Divinity. Though many high\\noffices in the Church, and many positions in universities,\\nwere offered to him, he refused them all, preferring to be\\nan independent man of letters. Erasmus was recognized\\nas the supreme literary authority of the world, and this\\nlofty position was the summit of his ambition. Nothing\\nHIST. OF ED. II", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "1 62 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ncould turn him aside from the path that led to that eminence,\\nand, once attained, nothing could attract him away from it.\\nBasel had become the center of the new printing indus-\\ntry. This led Erasmus to choose that city as his home for\\nthe latter part of his life, and here he furthered the cause\\nof humanism as no other man had done, by editing and\\ngiving to the world many of the classic treasures of the\\nmonasteries. He translated Greek works into Latin,\\nthereby making them available to the world, as Latin was\\nbetter understood than Greek. His translation of the\\nGreek Testament was his most eminent service, though\\nhis Colloquies are better known. His Praise of Folly\\nis a satirical work, in which he holds up to ridicule the\\nignorance and vice of the monks.\\nThough he never broke away from the Church, without\\ndoubt his sympathies were with the reformers. But\\nneither the persuasions nor the denunciations of Luther\\ncould bring him to take a decided stand on either side.\\nHe thought that the reform could be wrought within the\\nChurch. He accepted the dogmas of the Church, and re-\\nmained within it as long as he lived.\\nErasmus was the exact counterpart of Luther. He\\nappealed to the limited few, Luther to the masses he to\\nthe educated and higher classes, Luther to the ignorant and\\nlowly; he was a man of reflection, Luther a man of action.\\nThe apparent vacillation of Erasmus may have been due\\nto ill health, to the influence of the Pope, to the ties of the\\nChurch in which he had been reared, to the satisfaction he\\nfound in his eminent literary position, and to his dislike\\nfor controversy.\\nErasmus gives us some very valuable pedagogical teach-\\nings, which may be summed up as follows\\nPedagogy of Erasmus. i The mother is the natural", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "HUMANISTIC EDUCATORS 1 63\\neducator of the child in its early years. The mother who\\ndoes not care for the education of her children is only half\\na mother.\\n2. Until the seventh year the child should have little to\\ndo but play, in order to develop the body. It must have\\nno earnest work, but must be taught politeness.\\n3. After the seventh year earnest work must begin.\\nLatin and Greek (which should be studied together) must\\nbe taught early so that right pronunciation and a good\\nvocabulary may be attained.\\n4. The first subject to be learned is grammar. Lan-\\nguage is necessary before a knowledge of other things can\\nbe gained.\\n5. Teachers should be better trained and better paid,\\nand suitable places must be furnished for the schools.\\n6. The religious side of education must not be neg-\\nlected.\\n7. Great attention must be paid to the cultivation of the\\nmemory ia) by a proper understanding of the subject\\n{b) by logical order in thinking {c) by comparison.\\n8. As the bee collects honey from many flowers, so\\nknowledge is gathered from many sources.\\n9. The foundation of all training of children must be\\nlaid in the home. Parents should know what their chil-\\ndren ought to be taught. Above all things children must\\nbe taught to obey.\\n10. The first care with girls is to inculcate in them re-\\nligious feelings the second to protect them from contami-\\nnation the third, to guard them from idleness.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXVIII\\nTHE REFORMATION AS AN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE\\nLiterature. White, Eighteen Christian Centuries Taylor, History\\nof Germany; Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe; Giiizoi.\\nHistory of Civilization Lord, Beacon Lights Seebohm, The Protestant\\nRevolution; Fisher, History of the Reformation; Bryce, The Holy\\nRoman Empire Morris, Era of the Protestant Revolution Hurst,\\nHistory of the Reformation Lewis, History of Germany Myers.\\nMediaeval and Modern History Schiller, The Thirty Years War\\nHallam, Literary History Kiddle and Sche/n, Cyclopaedia of Edu-\\ncation Dyer, Modern Europe D^Aubigne, History of the Reforma-\\ntion Vonge, Three Centuries of Modern History Mombert, Great\\nLives.\\nHistorical Conditions. At the beginning of the six-\\nteenth century we find the stage of political, religious, and\\neducational activity transferred from the shores of the\\nMediterranean to the north of the Alps. We have seen\\nthe great work of civilization taken from the Greek and\\nLatin races and committed to the Teutonic race. We\\nhave traced the humanistic movement from its birthplace\\nin Italy to Germany, where it found a more congenial\\natmosphere and a more suitable soil. The world was ripe\\nfor a great revolution, which was destined to advance the\\ninterests of mankind with gigantic strides.\\nThe invention of printing by Gutenberg, in the middle\\nof the fifteenth century, must be mentioned as the primary\\nmaterial agency in forwarding this advance. It was said\\n164", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "THE REFORMATION 165\\nof this art that it would give the deathblow to the super-\\nstition of the Middle Ages. It multiplied readers a\\nhundredfold it stimulated authorship it revolutionized\\nliterature, because it made the preservation and dissemina-\\ntion of thought easy it was a mighty influence in bring-\\ning about universal education, a principle for which the\\nReformation stood.\\nAnother event of great importance was the discovery of\\nAmerica, which stimulated various European enterprises.\\nThus, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, the world\\nawakened from its long sleep, and educational enterprise\\nwas born anew.\\nThe German Reformation had been preceded by similar\\nmovements in other lands. Huss and Jerome of Prague,\\nin Bohemia, Wyclif in England, Zwingli in Switzerland,\\nthe Waldenses in Italy, and the Albigenses in France, had\\nraised their voices in solemn protest against the abuses of\\nthe Church, and many of the reformers had paid for\\ntheir temerity by martyrdom. But the German Reforma-\\ntion, under the leadership of Martin Luther, was destined\\nto exert a mighty influence throughout northern Europe,\\nand to set in motion impulses which were to shape all later\\nhistory.\\nThe chief rulers of Europe were Frederick the Wise of\\nSaxony, known as Luther s friend, Henry the Eighth of\\nEngland, Francis the First of France, and Charles the\\nFifth, king of Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Austria, and after-\\nward emperor of Germany. Leo the Tenth was Pope,\\nand he had great influence in temporal affairs. Emperor\\nCharles V. was the most powerful ruler of this period.\\nThough a foreigner in manners, customs, and sympathy,\\nand unacquainted with the German tongue, he became\\nemperor of Germany by bribing the electors who had a", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "1 66 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nvoice in selecting the ruler of that nation. It is said that\\nhe paid $1,500,000 to these corrupt electors, besides making\\nmany promises of future favors. He was treacherous, and\\nnever hesitated to break the most solemn pledges when his\\ninterests so demanded. Bayard Taylor says of him, His\\nelection was a crime, from the effects of which Germany\\ndid not recover for three hundred years.\\nIntellectual Conditions. These, then, were the external\\nconditions which existed at the beginning of the sixteenth\\ncentury. The Church, which had been the mother of\\nschools, had become corrupt and degenerate priests were\\nignorant and immoral and good teachers were no longer\\nto be found. Education was at such a low ebb, and the\\nadvantages offered by the schools were so poor, and of\\nsuch a doubtful character, that but few persons cared to\\navail themselves of their privileges. Even the universities\\nfailed to educate. Luther says, Is it not pitiable that a\\nboy has been obliged to study twenty years or longer to\\nlearn enough bad Latin to become a priest, and read\\nmass Again he says, Such teachers and masters we\\nhave been obliged to have everywhere, who have known\\nnothing themselves, and have been able to teach nothing\\ngood or useful.\\nThere was need, then, of reform in education as well\\nas in religion, and Luther took the burden of both upon\\nhis shoulders. As an educational reformer, he has earned\\nfor himself the world s gratitude. It must be admitted\\nthat Luther s main purpose was the reformation of the\\nChurch, and that his educational work merely grew out\\nof the need of general intelligence as a necessary ad-\\njunct to that work. Of the existing conditions, Com-\\npayre well says, With La Salle and the foundation of\\nthe Institute of the Brethren of the Christian Schools, the", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "THE REFORMATION 1 67\\nhistorian of education recognizes the Catholic origin of\\nprimary instruction in the decrees and laws of the French\\nRevolution, its lay and philosophical origin but it is to\\nthe Protestant Reformation, to Luther in the sixteenth\\ncentury, and to Comenius in the seventeenth, that must\\nbe ascribed the honor of having first organized schools for\\nthe people. In its origin, the primary school is the child\\nof Protestantism, and its cradle was the Reformation.\\nLUTHER 2 (1483-1546)\\nMartin Luther was born at Eisleben, Germany, of poor\\nand humble parents. He was brought up under the rigid\\ndiscipline of the typical German home, in which the rod\\nwas not spared. Upon this point he writes, My parents\\nseverity made me timid their sternness and the strict life\\nthey led me made me afterward go into a monastery and\\nbecome a monk. They meant well, but they did not under-\\nstand the art of adjusting their punishments.\\nWhen he was fourteen years of age, his parents, then in\\nbetter circumstances, sent him to Magdeburg to prepare\\nfor the university. But the expense being too great, he\\nwas withdrawn from this school and sent to Eisenach,\\nwhere he could live with relatives. Here he sang in the\\nstreet for alms, and his sweet voice attracted the attention\\nof Ursula Gotta, a wealthy lady, who took him to her\\nown home and gave him an excellent teacher.\\nWhen eighteen years of age he entered the university of\\n1 History of Pedagogy, p. 112.\\n2 Special reference is made to Draper, Vol. II, p. 208; D Aubigne, pp. 85,\\n598; Fisher, p. 85; Dyer, Vol. II, p. 3; Lord, Vol. Ill, p. 219; Seebohm,\\npp. 97, 103; and also to Froude, Short Studies on Great Subjects, pp. 37, 96;\\nMombert, Great Lives, p. 175; Yonge, Three Centuries of Modern His-\\ntory, p. 78.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "1 68 HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\nErfurt, then a center of humanistic learning. He made\\nmarvelous progress in his studies until he took his degree.\\nHis father had intended him for the law, but Luther de-\\ntermined to devote himself to the Church, much to his\\nfather s disappointment. Accordingly he became an\\nAugustinian monk when twenty-two years of age. Unlike\\nmany of his brethren, he kept up his studies while in the\\nmonastery, and was called to a professorship in the new\\nuniversity at Wittenberg in 1508, where he found an\\nample field for his remarkable powers. Two years later,\\nhe went as a delegate to the papal court at Rome, where\\nhis eyes were opened to the condition of the Church in her\\nholiest sanctuaries. Returning to Wittenberg, he continued\\nhis studies and his lectures, and drew about him a great\\nnumber of students. His lectures and his writings against\\nthe practices of the Church became so pronounced that he\\nwas summoned before the Diet of Worms and commanded\\nto retract. This he refused to do in the memorable words\\nHere I stand; I cannot do otherwise. God help me!\\nAmen. On his return from Worms, fearing for his safety,\\nhis friends took him prisoner and confined him in the Wart-\\nburg castle at Eisenach. During the nine months of his\\nconfinement he translated the Bible into German. Luther\\ntook great pains to make the language so pure and plain\\nthat it could be understood by the common people, to whom\\nhe appealed. He was never ashamed of his humble origin.\\nWhen he came to be the honored friend and trusted ad-\\n1 This was not the first translation of the Bible into German, but former\\ntranslations had been intended for scholars; Luther s was intended for the\\ncommon people. By the simplicity of the language used, Luther brought the\\nHoly Word within the comprehension of the masses, who were woefully igno-\\nrant. The general use of the printing press at this time made the translation\\nopportune, as it placed the Bible within the reach of all. It thus became a\\npowerful instrument for universal education.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "THE REFORMATION 1 69\\nviser of princes and kings, he was wont to say, I am a\\npeasant s son; my father, grandfather, and remote ancestors\\nwere nothing but veritable peasants.\\nThe language of Luther s translation of the Bible be-\\ncame the standard German, which was to supplant the\\nmany dialects.\\nHis great watchword was, Make the people acquainted\\nwith the Word of God. But the Bible was of little use to\\nthe masses so long as they could not read. Luther therefore\\nset himself sturdily to the improvement of the schools,\\nwhich were in a deplorable condition. He urged the prin-\\nciple of parental responsibility for the education of chil-\\ndren. Believe me, said he, it is far more important\\nthat you exercise care in training your children than that\\nyou seek indulgences, say many prayers, go much to\\nchurch, or make many vows. His pedagogy constitutes\\nthe foundation of the German common school system of\\nto-day. Luther, then, must be remembered as the great-\\nest educator of his time for two reasons.\\n1 He gave the German people a language by his transla-\\ntion of the Holy Scriptures.\\n2. He laid the foundation of the German common school\\nsystem.\\nLuther s Pedagogy. i. Parents are responsible for the\\neducation of their children.\\n2. It is the duty of the State to require regular attend-\\nance at school of every child, and the parents must be\\nheld accountable for non-attendance.\\n3. Religion is the foundation of all school instruction.\\n4. Every child must learn not only the ordinary sub-\\njects taught at school, but also the practical duties of life,\\nboys, a trade girls, housework.\\n5. Every clergyman must have pedagogical training", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "I/O\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nand experience in teaching before entering upon a\\npastorate.^\\n6. The teacher must be trained, and in that training\\nsinging is included.\\n7. Children must be taught according to nature s laws,\\nthe knowledge of the thing must precede its name.\\n8. Due respect should be shown to the office of teacher,\\nand by example and precept every teacher should be wor-\\nthy of respect.\\n9. His course of study included Latin and Greek, his-\\ntory, mathematics, singing, and physical training, besides\\nreligion.\\n10. Every school should have a library.\\n11. It is the inherent right of every child to be edu-\\ncated, and the State must provide the means to that end;\\nThe principles above stated are fundamental in the\\nGerman school systems of the present time. Religious\\ninstruction, trained teachers, compulsory and universal\\neducation, are the central principles of the schools of\\nGermany and of many other nations. Luther could not\\ngive his chief attention to education, but with deep insight\\nhe saw the necessity of it, and laid the foundations upon\\nwhich later generations have built a marvelous structure,\\ntrue to the design of its architect.\\nMELANCHTHON (1497-1560)\\nPhilipp Melanchthon was the friend, colaborer, and\\nadviser of Luther. Luther was a resolute, energetic,\\nimpulsive man Melanchthon was quiet, reserved, and\\n1 This was because the pastor had an oversight of the school, a practice\\nstill very common in Germany.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "THE REFORMATION 171\\nconciliating. There is no doubt that these two men of\\nsuch opposite dispositions exerted a salutary influence\\nupon each other, Luther stimulated and encouraged\\nMelanchthon Melanchthon checked and restrained Lu-\\nther. It is certain that each was helpful to the other,\\nand that the great cause of the Reformation, to which\\nthey mutually consecrated themselves, was furthered by\\ntheir friendship and union.\\nMelanchthon had excellent training as a boy, and early\\nshowed signs of unusual ability. At fifteen he took his\\nbachelor s degree at Heidelberg University, and when only\\neighteen years of age Erasmus said of him, What hopes\\nmay we not conceive of Philipp Melanchthon, though as\\nyet very young, almost a boy, but equally to be admired for\\nhis proficiency in both languages What quickness of inven-\\ntion What purity of diction What vastness of memory\\nWhat variety of reading What modesty and gracefulness\\nof behavior And what a princely mind!\\nAfter completing his course at Heidelberg, he went to\\nTubingen, where his studies were directed by Reuchlin, who\\nwas his kinsman. He gave public lectures at Tubingen\\non rhetoric and on various classic authors, attracting world-\\nwide attention. In 15 18 he was called to the Greek pro-\\nfessorship at Wittenberg, where he made the acquaintance\\nof Luther. Bishop Hurst says, The life of Melanchthon\\nwas now so thoroughly identified with that of Luther that\\nit is difficult to separate the two. They lived in the same\\ntown of Wittenberg. They were in constant consultation,\\neach doing what he was most able to do, and both working\\nwith unwearied zeal for the triumph of the cause to which\\nthey gave their life.\\nHis success at Wittenberg was assured from the first.\\nThough youthful in appearance, being but twenty-one", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "172 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nyears of age, his pure logic, his profound knowledge of\\nphilosophy, his familiarity with the Scriptures, his perfect\\nmastery of the classic languages, his fine diction, and his\\nbroad knowledge awoke enthusiasm at once. Wittenberg,\\npossessing two such great men as Luther and Melanchthon,\\nbecame the center of humanistic studies, not less than two\\nthousand students being attracted to its university. Me-\\nlanchthon was an inspiring teacher; among his pupils\\nwere men who afterward became leaders of thought in Ger-\\nmany, and who did much to shape the destiny of Europe.\\nPerhaps Melanchthon s greatest service to the schools\\nwas his publication of text-books, which were very much\\nneeded. He wrote a Greek grammar for boys when him-\\nself but a boy of sixteen. Grammar he defined as the\\nscience of speaking and writing correctly, a definition\\nthat has been scarcely improved upon. Ten years later\\nhis Latin grammar was published, after being tested for\\nsome years in his classes. For more than one hundred\\nyears this was the principal Latin grammar in use, and\\nthere were not less than fifty-one editions of it.\\nHe wrote also text-books on logic, rhetoric, and ethics.\\nIt will be seen that the trivium grammar, rhetoric, logic\\nfurnished the foundation of his literary activity, so far\\nas the schools are concerned. He was active also in\\nauthorship of theological works, producing the first theo-\\nlogical work of the Protestant Church, the Loci Com-\\nmunes, which Luther placed next to the Bible for\\ntheological study.\\nThe interest of Melanchthon for education made him\\nthe chief adviser and leader among the school men. His\\nadvice was constantly sought in the educational movements\\nof Germany. After visiting the schools of Saxony, he\\ndrew up the Saxony School Plan, which furnished the", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "THE REFORMATION- 173\\nbasis of various similar organizations throughout Germany.\\nThere were three fundamental principles in this system.\\n1. There must not be too many studies in the schools,\\nand Latin should be the only language taught.\\n2. There must not be too many books used.\\n3. The children should be divided into at least three\\nclasses, or grades.\\nIn the first grade, reading, writing, the Lord s Prayer,\\nthe Creed, prayers and hymns, and some Latin should\\nbe taught. In the second, the Latin grammar, Latin\\nauthors, and religion. In the third, completion of the\\ngrammar, difficult Latin authors, rhetoric, and logic.\\nWiUiams calls this Melanchthon s somewhat artless\\nideas of a proper school system, which he excuses as\\nbeing marked possibly by the crudity of a first effort at\\norganization, but more probably controlled in form by the\\nfewness of teachers in the schools of his time.\\nMelanchthon is also known as the first Protestant\\npsychologist.\\nTo sum up the educational work of Melanchthon, we\\nfind that he was a born teacher, attracting and inspiring\\nthousands of young men whom he instructed that he was\\nthe author of many text-books for the schools, and of\\ntheological works that he was an educational authority\\nthat he outlined a complete school system and that he\\nwas the adviser and friend of Luther in the work of the\\nReformation.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXIX\\nOTHER PROTESTANT EDUCATORS\\nThe educational work of Luther and Melanchthon\\nbore remarkable fruit. Luther had urged parents to\\nsee to it that their children should be educated, and had\\nappealed to magistrates to assist the Church in main-\\ntaining schools. He insisted upon compulsory educa-\\ntion in the memorable words, The authorities are bound\\nto compel their subjects to send their children to school.\\nAs a result schools were organized in Nuremberg, Frank-\\nfort, Ilfeld, Strasburg, Hamburg, Bremen, Dantzic, and\\nmany other places. Eton, Rugby, Harrow, and other\\neducational institutions were founded about this time in\\nEngland.\\nMelanchthon s course of study (Schulplan) for Saxony\\nhad appeared in 1528, and in 1558 the school law of Wiir-\\ntemberg, by far the best yet enacted, went into force.\\nOther German provinces adopted more or less efficient\\nschool systems, and for the first time in the history of\\nChristian education, the duty of the State to assume\\nthe responsibility of the education of its subjects was\\nrecognized. Out of these primitive systems have grown\\nthe completer systems of the present, after more than\\nthree centuries of experiment, study, and struggle.\\nThe Reformation taught the right of every person\\nto an education, primarily, it is true, for religious ends,\\nand it gradually came to be understood that the State\\n174", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "OTHER PROTESTANT EDUCATORS 175\\nmust assume that duty. For the Church had neither\\nthe means nor the power to accompHsh universal educa-\\ntion. But it was not till the nineteenth century that\\nthis end was reached, whereby the advantages of educa-\\ntion were offered to the child of every parent of what-\\never rank or station, and the State assumed full control\\nof the schools.\\nThis was the great work marked out by Luther and\\nMelanchthon, and their pupils and disciples carried that\\nwork to its fulfillment. Among these immediate followers\\nwe may mention Sturm, Trotzendorf, and Neander,\\nwho contributed to educational reform.\\nSTURM2 (1507-1589)\\nJohann Sturm is counted among the greatest schoolmen\\nthat the Reformation produced, though he belonged to the\\nFrench rather than the German reformers. He re-\\nceived an excellent training in the schools of Germany,\\nand completed his education at Paris, where he after-\\nward became professor of Greek. He soon gained such\\na wide reputation that when only thirty years of age he\\nwas called to the rectorship of the Gymnasium at Stras-\\nburg, a position which he held for forty-seven years,\\nand where he gained lasting fame. This fame rests\\nnot on his work as a teacher, but as an organizer and\\nan executive. Paulsen doubts his having been a great\\nteacher. He says, He was a man who gave his at-\\ntention to great things. He had his hands in universal\\npolitics he was in the service of nearly all the European\\n1 Though Sturm was not a Lutheran, he was a Protestant, being a fol-\\nlower of Calvin.\\n2 See Quick, Educational Reformers, and Williams, History of Modern\\nEducation, p. 88.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "176 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\npotentates, drawing his yearly salary from all. It is\\nnot probable that such a wonderful man was also a good\\nschoolmaster.\\nBut his great work was the organization of the Stras-\\nburg Gyumasium, especially its course of study, which\\nbecame the model for the Latin schools for many years.\\nSturm s counsel was sought by schoolmen all over\\nEurope, and he came to be the recognized leader of\\neducational forces. His school course took the boy at\\nsix years of age and provided at first a nine years\\nafterward a ten years course, ending at the sixteenth\\nyear of age. He added a five years course to this later,\\nand evidently planned to found a university.\\nSturm believed that the mother should have charge\\nof the child for the first six years of its life. In his\\nten years course he required ten years of Latin, six of\\nGreek, besides rhetoric, logic, religion, and music. He\\nintroduced the practice of translating Latin into Ger-\\nman and then translating it back into Latin. His\\ncourse took no account of German, history, mathematics,\\nor science. He thus sought to reinstate Greece and\\nRome, but entirely neglected those things which pre-\\npare for life. Williams says, With regard to Sturm s\\nGeschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts.\\nSturm s school course appeared in 1538. It was not the oldest school\\ncourse of the Protestants. The oldest school course fur a German school\\nwas prepared by Johannes Agricola and Hermann Talich in 1525 for the\\nschool at Eisleben, Luther s birthplace. Indeed, Paulsen thinks that\\nMelanchthon had a hand in its preparation. He says Geschichte des\\nGelehrten Unterrichts, p. 182), This is the oldest published school course\\nof the Reformed Church, which, if not composed by Melanchthon, was\\nwithout doubt outlined, or at least approved, by him. This was discovered\\nin 1865 by F. L. Hoffmann in the Hamburg city library.\\nSee Ascham, p. 191, and Ratke, p. 210.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "OTHER PROTESTANT EDUCATORS\\n177\\nplan of organization, it should be borne in mind that it\\nis the very earliest scheme that we have, looking to an\\nextended, systematic, well-articulated course of studies\\nfor a school of several teachers, in which is assigned\\nto each class such portion of the subject-matter of the\\ncourse of instruction as is suited to the age and stage\\nof advancement of its pupils.\\nThis course of study attracted the attention of all Europe.\\nKarl Schmidt says that in 1578 his school numbered sev-\\neral thousand students, among whom were two hundred of\\nnoble birth, twenty-four counts and barons, and three princes\\nfrom Portugal, Poland, Denmark, England, etc.\\nPaulsen, while not belittling the work of Sturm, thinks\\nthat the celebrated course has but little in it different from\\nthe courses of the Wittenberg reformers. He says, If\\nMelanchthon had had the planning of a school course for\\na large city, it would have been much the same (as Sturm s).\\nThe Saxon school plan of 1528 was effective only in small\\ncities and country places. The basis of both (Melanch-\\nthon s and Sturm s) is the same, grammar, rhetoric, dia-\\nlectics, with music and religion. In the large schools,\\nlike those of Nuremberg and Hamburg, a beginning of\\nGreek and mathematics was added.\\nSturm s course has the merit of definiteness, thorough-\\nness, and unity. There seems to be some doubt as to his\\nsuccess in carrying it out. It is certain that but fev/ stu-\\ndents completed his course compared with the number who\\nbegan it. Instead of sixty to seventy pupils in the last\\nclass, there were only nine or ten. The influence of Sturm,\\nhowever, spread not only over Germany, but also reached\\nto many other countries, and his Strasburg course of\\n1 History of Modern Education, p. 91.\\n2 Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts, p. 197.\\nHIST. OF ED. 12", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "178 HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\nstudy shaped the work in the classical schools for many\\nyears.\\nTROTZENDORF (1490-1556)\\nValentine Trotzendorf was born in poverty and beset by\\nmany difficulties in boyhood. His mother was a constant\\ninspiration to him, and when he was disposed to give up the\\nstruggle, her words, My son, stick to your school, led\\nhim to continue until he overcame the obstacles. When\\nready for the university he went to Leipsic, where he\\nstudied Greek and Latin for two years. In 1515 he be-\\ncame a teacher in a village near Leipsic, a position that\\nhe retained for three years. He then went to Wittenberg,\\nwhere he studied under Melanchthon for five years, and be-\\ncame very intimate with that great teacher. His fame as\\na teacher was made at Goldberg, where he was thirty-five\\nyears rector of a school. Like Melanchthon, he believed\\nthat the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and\\nthat the school is an adjunct of the Church. With Sturm,\\nhe laid great stress upon the classic languages, and in-\\nsisted that his pupils should speak in the Latin tongue.\\nAs a teacher he possessed remarkable power. He loved\\nto mingle with his pupils, converse with and question them,\\nand he had great skill in drawing them out. In his in-\\nstruction he employed many illustrations, and proceeded\\nfrom the concrete to the abstract.\\nHis discipline was unique and original. He introduced\\na practice before unknown, namely, that of self-govern-\\nment on the part of the students, an experiment that has\\nbeen tried in recent years with excellent results in many\\nAmerican institutions for higher learning. Trotzendorf\\nestablished a senate of twelve students, a consul, and other\\nofficers, who were made responsible for the government of", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "OTHER PROTESTANT EDUCATORS 179\\nthe school. These constituted a court of which he was\\npresident. Offenders were brought before the tribunal\\nand tried with great formality and dignity. This body\\nsentenced the culprit to such punishment as his guilt\\nmerited, the master reserving to himself the right of being\\na court of final appeal. Besides the officers above named,\\nthere were others who were in charge of the boys in their\\ndomestic relations, such as keeping guard over their\\npunctuality, table manners, diligence in study, etc. It was\\nconsidered a high honor to hold one of these offices. The\\nscheme worked well under Trotzendorf it taught self-\\ngovernment, and inculcated the spirit of freedom as well\\nas an intelligent submission to law. Trotzendorf thus gives\\nan example of school government which is quite in accord\\nwith the spirit of modern times. He also had his best\\npupils instruct the lower classes under his supervision, and\\nthus prepared them to go forth as teachers. Teachers\\nfrom his school were sought for by intelligent patrons of\\neducation in all parts of Europe.\\nNEANDER (i 525-1 595)\\nMichael Neander was another of Melanchthon s pupils\\nwho became great as a teacher. Neander was for forty-five\\nyears the sole teacher of a Latin school at Ilfeld. Though\\nhe never had many pupils, his school was pronounced by\\nMelanchthon as the best seminary in the country. He\\nwas a most successful teacher, and the students whom\\nhe sent to the university were found to possess the very\\nbest preparation, and always stood among the first. He\\nwas well versed in medicine and chemistry, and was one\\nof the best Greek and Latin scholars of his time. Con-\\ntrary to the practice of his contemporaries, he favored the\\nteaching of geography, history, and the natural sciences.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "l8o HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nHis position in regard to the sciences places him in ad-\\nvance of other educators, and in this he was a follower of\\nMelanchthon, who also believed that science should be\\ntaught.\\nNeander is celebrated also for the Greek and Latin text-\\nbooks which he wrote. Speaking of these books, Paulsen\\nsays, What he especially emphasized is as few and as\\nshort rules as possible, and these rules are to be progress-\\nive; at the proper time they are to be committed to\\nmemory. The pupil must also commit words, phrases,\\nand sentences to memory, which is equally important.\\nLastly, he gave a careful outline of the work of a boy\\nfor every year from the sixth to the eighteenth. This\\nwas especially valuable for that period when parents and\\nteachers alike had nothing to guide them except the mo-\\nnastic course of study, and when the world was giving birth\\nto new theories in education as well as in religion.\\nNeander s whole life was concentrated on the work of\\nteaching, and in the schoolroom he found his greatest joy.\\nHere, also, he made a lasting impression upon his pupils\\nand upon mankind. His father was mistaken when he\\naddressed the boy, Into a cloister with you you will\\namount to nothing in the world.\\nOther great teachers in the schools and in the univer-\\nsities carried forward the educational work begun by the\\ngreat reformers. Many cities had founded schools, and\\nseveral of the German states had established school sys-\\ntems. The educational ideas of the Protestant Reforma-\\ntion had taken deep root, and were destined to spread\\nover the whole world, gaining in force with each succeeding\\ncentury.\\nThe practical outcome of this great movement was the", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "OTHER PROTESTANT EDUCATORS i8l\\nestablishment of schools in every village in Germany\\nunder the direction of the pastor, and where he was un-\\nable to teach, under his clerk or assistant. As the chief\\npurpose was to prepare the children for entrance to the\\nchurch by confirmation, religion was the center of the\\nschool course. But reading, writing, arithmetic, and sing-\\ning were also taught.\\nThe clerk of the church gradually became the school-\\nmaster, and while the relations of these two ofhces have\\nmaterially changed, there is still a close official connection\\nbetween the two, particularly in the country. In many\\ncases the pastor is the local superintendent of the school,\\nand the teacher is the clerk and chorister of the church.\\nAs fast as Lutheran churches were organized, schools\\nwere also established in connection with them. Nor were\\nboys alone included in the work of education. Girls\\nschools were organized and an effort was made at universal\\neducation. Many provinces adopted advanced school laws,\\nand the principle of compulsory education was recognized,\\nthough by no means successfully carried out.\\nThus was born in the middle of the sixteenth century\\nthe common school, and thus was recognized the right of\\nall men to an education, and a practical illustration of the\\nmeans of securing it was given to the world.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXX\\nTHE JESUITS AND THEIR EDUCATION\\nLiterature. D)-aper, Intellectual Development of Europe Durrell,\\nA New Life in Education Dyer, Modern Europe Fisher, History\\nof the Reformation Guizot, History of Civilization Ferris, Great\\nLeaders; Lord, Beacon Lights Parki/tan, The Jesuits in North Amer-\\nica White, Eighteen Christian Centuries Quick, Educational Reform-\\ners Syvionds, Renaissance in Italy; Hughes, Loyola; Lamed, His-\\ntory for Ready Reference.\\nThe Order. The remarkable spread of Protestantism,\\nhowever, was not to go on unchallenged. Already before\\nthe rupture of the Church, the need of a better educated\\nclergy had been acknowledged. Erasmus felt this when\\nhe ridiculed the ignorance and vice of the monks and\\npriests, whose lives he so well knew. To check the growth\\nof Protestantism, to advance the interests of Catholicism,\\nand to regain the lost ground, the Pope gave his sanction\\nto the founding of the Jesuit order. Through the educa-\\ntion of the young, which the reformers had employed as\\nthe most important instrument in furthering their aims, and\\nwhich is ever recognized as the most essential principle in\\nthe permanent establishment of a new religion, the new\\norder was also to work. Not indeed with the masses and\\nwith the young children, according to the practice of\\nLuther, but with the flower of the land, with the wealthy\\nand influential, with those who were to lead and govern,\\nwith the youth who were entering manhood. We shall\\nsee that the work of the Order of Jesus was so effective", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "THE JESUITS AND THEIR EDUCATION 183\\nthat it not only checked the onward march of Protestant-\\nism, but it even restored many provinces and communities\\nto their fealty to the Catholic Church. We shall see also\\nthat it originated the most successful educational system of\\nthe sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, a\\nsystem having a definite end in view, and whose adherents,\\nby indomitable energy, by self-sacrifice, by oneness of pur-\\npose, secured remarkable success.\\nLOYOLA (1491-1556)\\nThe originator of the Jesuit order was Loyola, a Span-\\nish nobleman. While recovering from a severe wound\\nreceived in battle, he read some rehgious books which\\nmade such a profound impression upon him that he re-\\nsolved to consecrate himself to religious work. Not being\\nan educated man, he devoted some years to study, and\\nwhile at the university of Paris he gathered around him\\nother young men who also were ready to consecrate them-\\nselves to the service of God. They formed themselves\\ninto the Order of Jesus, with the avowed purpose at\\nfirst of rescuing Jerusalem from the hands of the infidels.\\nThis was not to be done by force of arms, as in case of\\nthe crusaders, but by peaceful means. This purpose was\\nabandoned, but the zealous missionary spirit of the Jesuits\\nendured. In 1540 Pope Paul III. recognized the new\\norder and gave it the sanction of the Church. The organi-\\nzation was military in character, Loyola becoming its first\\ngeneral.\\nGrowth of the Society. Its growth was remarkable\\nfrom the outset. In 1600 the order possessed 200 schools\\nin 1 710, 612 colleges, 157 boarding or normal schools, 59\\nhouses for novitiates, 340 residences, 200 missions, and 24\\nuniversities. The college at Clermont had, in 165 1, 2000", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "1 84 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nstudents, and in 1675, 3000 students. These institutions\\ncontrolled the education of the Catholic Church in all Eu-\\nrope, and many Protestant young men also were attracted\\nto the Jesuit schools by their superior teachers and their\\nthorough training.\\nThe society became so strong that successive popes\\nattempted in vain to check its power. It spread to China\\nand Hindustan, to the Indian tribes of North America,\\nand to South America. Its creed and its practices aroused\\nthe suspicion of princes and people, of many Catholics\\nas well as Protestants. The Jesuit order has been described\\nas a naked sword whose hilt is at Rome, and whose\\npoint is everywhere. In 1773 the Jesuits were in posses-\\nsion of 41 provinces, and had 22,589 members, of whom\\n11,295 were priests. Since that time many popes have\\ndenounced them, rulers have expelled them from their\\ncountries, their property and power have been taken from\\nthem, and their influence has been so checked that they are\\nno longer a danger.\\nJESUIT EDUCATION\\nUnlike the monastics, who withdrew from the world, the\\nJesuits mingled with the world they assumed no peculiari-\\nties of dress, and held themselves ready to act as mission-\\naries to the most remote parts of the world, as agents of the\\nsociety to which they so fully consecrated themselves, and\\nas teachers of youth. They established schools every-\\nwhere, and placed them in charge of teachers of remark-\\nable skill and pedagogical training. They mide no effort\\nto reach young children, their schools being designed for\\nboys not less than fourteen years of age. Primary educa-\\ntion did not enter into their scheme. They sought to", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "THE JESUITS AND THEIR EDUCATION 185\\nreach sons of princes, noblemen, and others who consti-\\ntuted the influential classes. They were justified in mak-\\ning no attempt to reach the masses by the instructions of\\ntheir founder in his Constitutions, in the following\\nwords, None of those who are employed in domestic\\nservice on account of the society ought to learn to read\\nand write, or, if they know these arts, to learn more of\\nthem. They shall not be instructed without the consent\\nof the General for it suffices for him to serve with all sim-\\nplicity and humility our Master, Jesus Christ.\\nIt is worthy of especial note that all teachers of the\\nJesuit schools were carefully trained before they were\\nallowed to give instruction. This is the first time in\\nhistory that the necessity of special preparation for\\nthe work of teaching was recognized as an essential\\nelement in the work of education, and required by any\\nsystem of schools.\\nEvery Jesuit school was divided into two departments,\\nthe lower, stadia mferiora, consisting of five classes, and\\nthe higher, studia superiora, requiring two or three years.\\nBoys were admitted to the lower course at the age of four-\\nteen, and the work consisted chiefly of the study of the\\nhumanities, while that of the advanced course embraced\\nphilosophy and theology.^ With reference to these courses\\nof study, Compayre says, Scientific studies are entirely\\nproscribed in the lower classes, and the student enters his\\nyear in philosophy, having studied only the ancient lan-\\nguages. Philosophy itself is reduced to a barren study of\\nwords, to subtle discussions, and to commentaries on\\nAristotle. Memory and syllogistic reasoning are the only\\nfaculties called into play no facts, no real inductions, no\\ncare for the observation of nature.\\n1 K. Schmidt, Vol. Ill, p. 230. 2 History of Pedagogy, p. 145.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "1 86 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nAfter the society had been in existence some forty\\nyears, Claudius Aquaviva became its General Superior.\\nHe at once began the study of the educational problem,\\nusing all the resources of his office in obtaining information,\\nand employing his executive ability in producing an im-\\nproved method of study. A committee of twelve most\\neminent churchmen was appointed in 1581 to study the\\nquestion, and three years later another commission of six,\\nrepresenting different countries, began the labor of prepar-\\ning a course of study. Their work was not completed until\\n1599, and it was called the Ratio Stiidioriim} This has\\nremained the guide of Jesuit institutions of learning till the\\npresent day.\\nEmulation as an Incentive. Emulation was employed\\nto stimulate pupils to work and to secure good conduct.\\nPrizes, decorations, rewards, titles were offered as a means\\nof attaining desired ends. This appeal to low motives\\ndevelops low ideals. The pupil was encouraged to inform\\nagainst his comrades, and was rewarded, not only for his\\nown good conduct, but for the bad conduct of his com-\\nrades if he informed against them. Such means of disci-\\npline cannot be justified on any ground.\\nWhile corporal punishment was allowed, it was generally\\nadministered by an official disciplinarian, usually some ser-\\nvant of the institution. It was seldom used, however, the\\ndiscipline being mild and humane.\\nCriticism of Jesuit Education. As to the efficiency of\\nthe instruction in the Jesuit schools, opinions widely differ.\\nBacon and Descartes indorse it in highest terms, while\\nLeibnitz, Voltaire, and others are equally strong in its con-\\ndemnation. Bacon remarks, As to whatever relates to\\n1 See Hughes s Loyola, p. 141, for full description of this work and out-\\nline of the course.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "THE JESUITS AND THEIR EDUCATION 187\\nthe instruction of the young, we must consult the schools\\nof the Jesuits, for there can be nothing that is better done.\\nLeibnitz, on the other hand, says, In the matter of edu-\\ncation, the Jesuits have remained below mediocrity. Com-\\npayre also takes the latter view in these words: They\\nwish to train amiable gentlemen, accomplished men of the\\nworld they have no conception of the training of men.\\nMr. Quick says I have said that the object which\\nthe Jesuits proposed in their teaching was not the highest\\nobject. They did not aim at developing all the faculties\\nof their pupils, but merely the receptive and reproductive\\nfaculties. When the young man had acquired a thorough\\nmastery of the Latin language for all purposes, when he\\nwas well versed in the theological and philosophical opinions\\nof his preceptors, when he was skillful in dispute, and could\\nmake a brilliant display from the resources of a well-stored\\nmemory, he had reached the highest point to which the\\nJesuits sought to lead him. Originality and independence\\nof mind, love of truth for its own sake, the power of re-\\nflecting and of forming correct judgments, were not merely\\nneglected they were suppressed by the Jesuit system.\\nSummary. Summarizing tile educational work of the\\nJesuits, the following estimate would appear to us to be\\njust:\\n1. Their educational system was by far the most efficient\\nand successful of any during the sixteenth, seventeenth,\\nand eighteenth centuries.\\n2. This, however, applies only to higher education, as\\nprimary education was neglected by them.\\n3. Their training sought to secure brilliant culture\\nrather than intellectual emancipation it appealed to the\\nmemory, and cultivated the power of subtle reasoning,\\n1 History of Pedagogy, p. 143. Educational Reformers, p. 35.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "1 88 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nbut not the whole man its aim was not freedom and the\\ndevelopment of the individual, but the advancement of\\nthe interests of the order.\\n4. They produced a course of study, the Ratio Studi-\\nonim, which lays principal stress upon the humanities and\\ntheology.\\n5. They taught the necessity of trained teachers, and\\ndeveloped a remarkable power and tact in the work of\\ninstruction and school management.\\n6. The chief means employed to secure results was\\nemulation, which is an appeal to the baser motives, and\\nis therefore to be used in a guarded manner.\\n7. They were indefatigable in missionary enterprise,\\nand zealous in the propagation of their principles, both\\nreligious and educational.\\n8. They stimulated authorship, advanced learning, and\\nproduced many great men.^\\n9. They exerted a powerful and sometimes dangerous\\ninfluence upon the social and political movements of their\\ntime.\\nTHE PORT ROYALISTS\\nOpposed to the Jesuits was another body of Catholics,\\nsometimes called Jansenists from the organizer of the move-\\nment, and sometimes Port Royalists, because their chief\\nschool was at Port Royal near Paris. Their purpose was\\nto check the progress of the Jesuits, to promote greater\\nspirituality in the Church, and to revive the pure Catholi-\\ncism of St. Augustine. Among their great leaders may be\\nmentioned Pascal, Nicole, and Launcelot. The spirit of the\\nJansenists was very different from that of the Jesuits, and\\ntheir methods were more modern. They gave preference\\n1 See Hughes, Loyola, p. 133.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "THE JESUITS AMD THEIR EDUCATION 189\\nto modern languages, made studies interesting in them-\\nselves, and sought to develop the understanding. Their\\ndiscipline was humane, but firm.\\nTheir greatest contribution to education is the phonic\\nmetJiod of spelling. They also laid stress upon the use of\\nobjects, the development of the sense perceptions, espe-\\ncially in early childhood. One of their axioms was, The\\nintelligence of childhood always being very dependent on\\nthe senses, we must, as far as possible, address our instruc-\\ntion to the senses, and cause it to reach the mind, not only\\nthrough hearing, but also through seeing. This appears\\nto be the first instance in which object teachiftg was taught\\nas a principle, a principle which Bacon, Comenius, Pesta-\\nlozzi, and Froebel worked out, and which has been one\\nof the most important factors of modern educational\\nprogress.\\nCompayre summarizes the purpose of the Jesuits and\\nthe Jansenists in these words They represent, in fact,\\ntwo opposite, and, as it were, contrary, phases of human\\nnature and of Christian spirit. For the Jesuits, education\\nis reduced to a superficial culture of the brilliant faculties\\nof the intelligence while the Jansenists, on the contraiy,\\naspire to develop the solid faculties, the judgment, and\\nthe reason.\\n1 History of Pedagogy, p. 139.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXXI\\nOTHER EDUCATORS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY\\nLiterature. H. M. Skhiner, The Schoolmaster in Literature Gill,\\nSystems of Education Quick, Educational Reformers Williams,\\nHistory of Modern Education Besant, Rabelais Monroe, Educational\\nIdeal Collins, Montaigne Emerson, Representative Men Vogel,\\nGeschichte der Padagogik Carlisle, Two Great Teachers (Ascham and\\nArnold) Brother Azarias, Essays Educational.\\nWe have thus far discussed educators who were di-\\nrectly connected with the great Protestant and Catholic\\nmovements. There were others who were more or less\\nindependent of these movements. Among these we may\\nmention Roger Ascham, Rabelais, and Montaigne.\\nASCHAM (1515-1568)\\nRoger Ascham was the most celebrated English educa-\\ntor of the sixteenth century. He was educated at Cam-\\nbridge, and studied three years in Germany. He had a\\nthorough knowledge of the classic languages. For these\\nreasons he was chosen tutor to Elizabeth, a position which\\nhe held for two years. Upon her accession to the throne,\\nAscham came to read with her several hours a day, and\\nshe retained her affection for her old teacher throughout\\nhis life.\\nHis chief literary work is his Scholemaster, which is\\nthe first educational classic in English. Dr. Johnson says\\nof this book, It contains, perhaps, the best advice that\\n190", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "OTHER EDUCATORS OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY 191\\never was given for the study of languages. This method\\nwas as follows, given in Ascham s words First, let him\\nteach the child, cheerfully and plainly, the cause and mat-\\nter of the letter (Cicero s Epistles); then, let him construe\\nit into English so oft as the child may easily carry away\\nthe understanding of it lastly, parse it over perfectly.\\nThis done, then let the child by and by both construe and\\nparse it over again so that it may appear that the child\\ndoubteth in nothing that his master has taught him before.\\nAfter this, the child must take a paper book, and sit-\\nting in some place where no man shall prompt him, by\\nhimself let him translate into English his former lesson.\\nThen showing it to his master, let the master take from\\nhim his Latin book, and pausing an hour at the least, then\\nlet the child translate his own English into Latin again in\\nanother paper book. When the child bringeth it turned\\ninto Latin, the master must compare it with Tully s book,\\nand lay them both together, and where the child doth well,\\npraise him, where amiss, point out why Tully s use is\\nbetter.\\nThus the child will easily acquire a knowledge of\\ngrammar, and also the ground of almost all the rules that\\nare so busily taught by the master, and so hardly learned\\nby the scholar in all common schools. The translation is\\nthe most common and most commendable of all other exer-\\ncises for youth most common, for all your constructions\\nin grammar schools be nothing else but translations but\\nbecause they be not double translations (as I do require),\\nthey bring forth but simple and single commodity; and\\nbecause also they lack the daily use of writing, which is\\nthe only thing that breedeth deep root, both in the wit for\\ngood understanding, and in the memory for sure keeping of\\nall that is learned most commendable also, and that by", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "192\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nthe judgment of all authors which entreat of these exer-\\ncises.\\nAscham often refers to his illustrious pupil in claim-\\ning merit for his system. He says, And a better and\\nnearer example herein may be our most noble Queen\\nElizabeth, who never took yet Greek nor Latin grammar\\nin her hand after the first decHning of a noun and a verb\\nbut only by this double translating of Demosthenes and\\nIsocrates daily, without missing, every forenoon, and Hke-\\nwise some part of Tully every afternoon, for the space of\\na year or two, hath attained to such a perfect understand-\\ning in both tongues, and to such a ready utterance of the\\nLatin, and that with such a judgment as there be few now\\nin both universities, or elsewhere in England, that be in\\nboth tongues comparable with her Majesty. Mr. Quick\\nthinks that while Ascham may have thus flattered his\\nroyal pupil, there is no doubt that she was an accom-\\nplished scholar.\\nWe have seen that Sturm made some use of double\\ntranslation, but Ascham is entitled to full credit for the\\nmethod, which he adopted from Pliny and perfected.\\nMany teachers of language since that time have employed\\nthis method with excellent results.\\nRABELAIS 2 (1483-1553)\\nThough there is some obscurity as to the exact date of\\nthe birth of Rabelais, it is generally believed that he was\\nborn the same year as Luther, 1483. He was the son of a\\nFrench innkeeper, and, after completing a classical course,\\nwas consecrated to the priesthood. His great ability and\\n1 H. M. Skinner, The Schoolmaster in Literature, p. 20.\\n2 For special reference see Besant s Rabelais.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "OTHER EDUCATORS OE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 193\\nindependent thinking, and his humanistic tendency, excited\\nthe envy of his Franciscan brethren, and he was con-\\ndemned to his cell for life on bread and water but through\\nthe influence of powerful friends he was freed and allowed\\nto go over to the Benedictines, with whom, however, he\\ndid not remain long. He became an independent preacher,\\nand as such had many friends among the reformers, chief\\namong whom was Calvin. His intimacy with Calvin led\\nthe more radical reformers to be suspicious of him, and\\nnot without reason. Walter Besant tells us that, One\\nhears he is a buffoon he is always mocking and always\\nlaughing. That is perfectly true. He laughs at the pre-\\ntensions of pope, cardinal, bishop, and priest; he laughs\\nat monkery and monks he mocks at the perpetual itera-\\ntion of litanies he laughs at the ignorance and supersti-\\ntion which he thinks are about to vanish before the new\\nday of modern learning. Nor was his sympathy with\\nthe reformers any more marked. Besant further adds,\\nIt was at that time all important that, as in England, the\\nscholars should range themselves on the Protestant side.\\nRabelais refused to do this. More, he set an example\\nwhich deterred other scholars, and kept them, in sheer\\nimpatience, in the enemy s camp.\\nThe great literary work of Rabelais is embodied in a\\nseries of chronicles, the first of which is called Gar-\\ngantua and the second, Pantagruel. It is believed\\nthat these were popular names of giants in the Middle\\nAges. In these books we find Rabelais s pedagogy. The\\ngiant Gargantua attends a school in which scholastic\\nmethods are employed. The author skillfully ridicules\\nthe methods, and shows the utter inefficiency of the\\ninstruction by contrasting the result in Gargantua and\\n1 Rabelais, p. 192. Ibid., p. I93-\\nHIST. OF ED. 13\\nt", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "194 HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\nEudemon, a page of the king. Gargantua, a man of fifty-\\nfive, is introduced to Eudemon, a boy of twelve. The former\\nis awkward, bashful, and does not know what to say, while\\nthe latter meets Gargantua cap in hand, with open coun-\\ntenance, ruddy lips, steady eyes, and with modesty be-\\ncoming a youth. In reply to* the polite and intelligent\\nconversation of the lad, Gargantua falls to crying like a\\ncow, casting down his face, and hiding it with his cap.\\nCompayre says, In these two pupils, so different in man-\\nner, Rabelais has personified two contrasted methods of\\neducation that which, by mechanical exercises of memory,\\nenfeebles and dulls the intelligence and that which, with\\nlarge grants of liberty, develops intelligences and frank\\nand open characters.\\nThe deficiencies of the old education (the scholastic)\\nbeing thus shown, Rabelais places his pupil under Ponoc-\\nrates, Eudemon s teacher, who has produced such practical\\nresults. He then opens up his system of pedagogy in the\\nplan pursued for the redemption of Gargantua.\\nRealism in Education. Compayre s estimate of this\\npedagogy is as follows The pedagogy of Rabelais is the\\nfirst appearance of what may be called realism in instruc-\\ntion, in distinction from the scholastic fornialism. The\\nauthor of Gargantua turns the mind of the young man\\ntoward objects truly worthy of occupying his attention.\\nHe catches a glimpse of the future reserved to scientific\\neducation, and to the study of nature. He invites the\\nmind, not to the labored subtleties and complicated tricks\\nwhich scholasticism had brought into fashion, but to\\nmanly efforts, and to a wide unfolding of human nature.\\nIn comparing Rabelais with Lucretius, Walter Besant\\nsays, Both, at an interval of fifteen hundred years, antici-\\n1 History of Pedagogy, p. 91.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "OTHER EDUCATORS OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY 195\\npated the nineteenth century in its restless discontent of\\nold beliefs, its fearless questioning, its advocacy of scien-\\ntific research. Compayre thinks that Rabelais is cer-\\ntainly the first, in point of time, of that grand school of\\neducators who place the sciences in the first rank among\\nthe studies of human thought. It would seem, then, that\\nthe author of Gargantua is worthy of a most honorable\\nplace among educational writers. Rabelais began a move-\\nment, which was destined to revolutionize educational\\nmethods.\\nThe educational scheme of Rabelais embraced the study\\nof letters, of nature, of science, of morals and religion, of\\nthe physical well-being, in short, of everything necessary,\\nas Herbert Spencer would say, to complete living.\\nMONTAIGNE 3 (i 533-1 592)\\nOf a very different character from Rabelais was Mon-\\ntaigne. Rabelais was radical and extravagant, Montaigne\\nconservative and discreet; Rabelais sought development\\nof all the faculties alike, Montaigne gave preference to\\nthe training of the judgment Rabelais would thoroughly\\nmaster every branch of human knowledge, Montaigne was\\ncontent to skim over the sciences. And yet, Montaigne\\nmust be recognized as an important factor in education,\\nnot only for his own teachings, but because undoubtedly\\nBacon, Locke, Rousseau, and other apostles of reform\\nwere greatly influenced by him. Bacon furthered Mon-\\ntaigne s theories concerning the importance of science, and\\nby his inductive method rendered the world a far greater\\nservice than his great French contemporary. Locke\\n1 Rabelais, p. 187. History of Pedagogy, p. 96,\\n3 See Collins, Montaigne.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "196 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nenlarged upon Montaigne s ideas of physical training.\\nRousseau accepted a vital doctrine of Montaigne in the\\nfollowing words: He (Emile) possesses a universal\\ncapacity, not in point of actual knowledge, but in the\\nfaculty of acquiring it an open, intelligent genius adapted\\nto everything, and, as Montaigne says, if not instructed,\\ncapable of receiving instruction.\\nMontaigne s father was a French nobleman, who fully\\nappreciated the responsibility laid upon him in the educa-\\ntion of his son. Doubtless his training had much to\\ndo in shaping the pedagogy of the illustrious son. It was\\nwise, mild but firm, natural, and thorough. The tutors\\nand servants who surrounded him were allowed to speak\\nonly in Latin. That tongue thus became as familiar as\\nhis native tongue. Indeed, it is said, that at the age\\nof six he was so proficient in the language of Cicero, that\\nthe best Latinists of the time feared to address him.\\nNor was his knowledge confined to Latin alone. He\\nwas instructed in modern lore as well. At the age of\\nsix he was placed in the college of Guienne, where he\\nremained seven years. His experience there, so contrary\\nto that under which he had been brought up, led him to\\nbe utterly opposed to corporal punishment. Of the\\nmethods of discipline employed in the school, he says,\\nThe discipline of most of our colleges has always dis-\\npleased me. They are veritable jails in which youth is\\nheld prisoner. The pupils are made vicious by being\\npunished before they become so. Pay a visit there when\\nthey are at their work you will hear nothing but cries,\\nchildren under execution, and masters drunk with fury.\\nWhat a mode of creating in these tender and timid souls\\nan appetite for their lessons, to conduct them to their\\ntasks with a furious countenance, rod in hand! it is an", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "OTHm EDUCATORS OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY 197\\niniquitous^ and pernicious fashion. How much more be-\\ncoming it \\\\would be to see the classroom strewed with\\nleaves and lowers than with blood-stained stumps of birch\\nrods I would have painted up there scenes of joy and\\nmerriment, Flora and the Graces, as Speusippus had his\\nschool of philosophy where they are to gain profit, there\\nlet them find happiness too. One ought to sweeten all\\nfood that is wholesome, and put bitter into what is dan-\\ngerous.\\nHere we find a strong plea for humane forms of punish-\\nment and a severe criticism of the prevailing practice of\\nflogging, a practice which did not cease until long after\\nMontaigne s time. It is an equally forcible plea for\\nbeautiful and pleasant schoolrooms, decorated with works\\nof art intended to awaken and cultivate the aesthetic\\nsense of the children, while contributing to their happi-\\nness. It has been left to the educators of the end of the\\nnineteenth century to take up and seriously act upon this\\nsuggestion made over three hundred years ago. The\\npurpose of education, said Montaigne, is the training,\\nnot of a grammarian, or a logician, but of a complete gen-\\ntleman. Education should be of a practical nature. The\\nchild must become familiar with the things about him.\\nHe must learn his own language first and then that of\\nhis neighbors, and languages should all be learned by\\nconversation.\\nA decided weakness in his system is found in his ideas\\nconcerning women. He made no provision for their edu-\\ncation, and, indeed, expressed great contempt for their abili-\\nties of either mind or heart.\\nMontaigne s chief literary work is his Essays. Com-\\npayre pronounces Montaigne s pedagogy, a pedagogy of\\n1 Collins, Montaigne, p. 14.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "198 HISTORY OJ^ EDUCATION\\ngood sense, and further adds that he has remained, after\\nthree centuries, a sure guide in the matter of intellectual\\neducation.\\nObservation and experience were to be abundantly em-\\nployed, and visits to other lands, together with intercourse\\nwith intelligent men everywhere, were to sharpen our\\nwits by rubbing them upon those of others.\\nTo sum up, we may say that the pedagogy of Montaigne\\nteaches the training and use of the senses the study of\\nscience the learning of the mother tongue first by conver-\\nsation, and then the language of our neighbors with whom\\nwe come in contact the abolition of corporal punishment,\\nand the beautifying of schoolrooms. This surely is no\\nsmall contribution to education. His definition of education\\nis worthy of note. He says, It is not the mind only, nor\\nthe body, but the whole man that is to be educated.\\nSummary of Educational Progress during the Sixteenth\\nCentury. i. Humanism had reached its climax and be-\\ngun to decline. It stimulated invention and discovery it\\nrevived classic literature and put it in such form that it\\ncould be used it emancipated the mind it prepared the\\nway for later reforms; it produced great educators such as\\nPetrarch, Erasmus, and Reuchlin.\\n2. The Reformation took up the educational work of\\nhumanism, and carried it forward. It instituted primary\\neducation, the education of the masses, compulsory edu-\\ncation and parental responsibility therefor it asserted the\\nright and duty of the State to demand and secure universal\\neducation it elevated and gave dignity to the office of\\nteacher; it formulated several school systems, and laid the\\nfoundation of the present German school system. Among\\n1 A good summary of Montaigne s educational ideas may be found in Col-\\nlins s Montaigne, p. 102.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "OTHER EDUCATORS OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY 199\\nits great educators were Luther, Melanchthon, Sturm, and\\nNeander.\\n3. The Jesuits established a remarkable system of\\nschools, noted for their thoroughness, for their singleness\\nof purpose, for their rapid growth, and for their trained\\nteachers. They gave little attention to primary education,\\nbut sought to reach the higher classes. Emulation was\\nthe principal incentive employed.\\n4. Opposed to the Jesuit education was that of the Port\\nRoyalists. They appealed to the intelligence of the chil-\\ndren and cultivated the sense-perceptions. They invented\\nthe phonic method of spelling.\\n5. Sturm s celebrated course of study was introduced\\nduring this century at Strasburg.\\n6. The method of double translations in learning a lan-\\nguage was taught by Ascham and Sturm.\\n7. In Rabelais we find the first appearance of realism,\\nwhich bore rich fruit in later scientific education.\\n8. Montaigne opposed the use of the rod, and taught\\nthat the schoolroom should be made attractive. He also\\nadvocated the study of modern languages by conversation,\\nand gave science an honorable place in the curriculum.\\nIt thus appears that the sixteenth century surpassed\\nmany previous eras in its contributions to educational\\nprogress.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXXII\\nEDUCATION DURING THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY\\nLiterature. Taylor, History of Germany Guizot, History of Civili-\\nzation; Schiller, The Thirty Years War; Dyer, Modern Europe;\\nLewis, History of Germany Macaulay, History of England.\\nPolitical and Historical Conditions. The seventeenth\\ncentury was remarkable for the wars for religious suprem-\\nacy. The Reformation had challenged the authority of\\nthe Church, aroused a questioning spirit, and instilled into\\nmen s minds a love for religious liberty. During the latter\\nhalf of the sixteenth century, Europe had swayed back and\\nforth between Protestantism and Catholicism, according as\\nsuccess in arms had favored one side or the other. The\\nspirit of Protestantism had taken possession more espe-\\ncially of the common people, who formed the bone and\\nsinew of the armies. Bitter animosities existed between\\nthe adherents of the papal church and the reformers, which\\nfound expression in bloodshed, rapine, and destruction of\\nproperty.\\nEngland was torn asunder by civil war, which resulted\\nin the death of Charles I. and the establishment of the\\nCommonwealth under Cromwell, the struggle between\\nCavalier and Roundhead, between established church and\\nPuritan, ending finally in the revolution of 1688. The\\ncountry was in a religious ferment during the greater part\\nof this century, caused by a growing jealousy for .ho", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "EDUCATION DURING SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 20 1\\nmaintenance of the principle of the right to worship God\\naccording to the dictates of one s own conscience. Nor\\nwas the struggle less virulent or disastrous in continental\\nEurope. The religioCis upheaval of the previous century\\nculminated in the terrible conflict known as the Thirty\\nYears War; this lasted from 1618 till 1648, when the\\nPeace of Westphalia secured reUgious liberty to all men.\\nNorthern Germany, Austria, France, Holland, Denmark,\\nand Sweden, as well as minor countries, were involved in\\nthis great war.\\nLet Bayard Taylor paint the result of this fearful\\nstruggle. Thirty years of war The slaughters of\\nRome s worst emperors, the persecution of the Chris-\\ntians under Nero and Diocletian, the invasions of the\\nHuns and Magyars, the long struggle of the Guelfs\\nand Ghibellines, left no such desolation behind them.\\nAt the beginning of the century, the population of\\nthe German Empire was about 30,000,000 when the\\nPeace of Westphalia was declared, it was scarcely\\nmore than 12,000,000! Electoral Saxony, alone, lost\\n900,000 lives in two years. The city of Berlin con-\\ntained but 300 citizens, the whole of the Palatinate of the\\nRhine but 200 farmers. In Hesse-Cassel, 17 cities, 47\\ncastles, and 300 villages were entirely destroyed by fire\\nthousands of villages, in all parts of the country, had but\\nfour or five families left out of hundreds, and landed prop-\\nerty sank to about one twentieth of its former value.\\nThe horses, cattle, and sheep were exterminated in many\\ndistricts, the supplies of grain were at an end, even for\\nsowing, and large cultivated tracts had relapsed into a\\nwilderness. Even orchards and vineyards had been wan-\\ntonly destroyed wherever armies had passed. So terrible\\nwas the ravage that, in a great many locahties, the same", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "202 HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\namount of population, cattle, acres of cultivated land, and\\ngeneral prosperity was not restored until the year 1848,\\ntwo centuries afterward\\nThis statement of the losses of Germany, however, was\\nbut a small part of the suffering endured. During\\nthe last ten or twelve years of the war, both Protestants\\nand Catholics vied with each other in deeds of barbarity the\\nsoldiers were nothing but highway robbers, who maimed and\\ntortured the country people to make them give up their last\\nremaining property. In the year 1637, when Ferdi-\\nnand II. died, the want was so great that men devoured\\neach other, and even hunted down human beings like deer\\nor hares, in order to feed upon them.\\nIn character, in intelligence, and in morahty, the Ger-\\nman people were set back two hundred years. All branches\\nof industry had declined, commerce had almost entirely\\nceased, literature and the arts were suppressed, and except\\nthe astronomical discoveries of Copernicus and Kepler,\\nthere was no contribution to human knowledge. Even\\nthe modern High German language, which Luther had\\nmade the classic tongue of the land, seemed to be on the\\npoint of perishing. Spaniards and Italians on the Catholic,\\nSwedes and French on the Protestant side, flooded the\\ncountry with foreign words and expressions, the use of\\nwhich soon became an affectation with the nobility, who\\ndid their best to destroy their native tongue.\\nPolitically, the change was no less disastrous. The\\nambition of the house of Hapsburg, it is true, had brought\\nits own punishment the imperial dignity was secured to\\nit, but henceforth the head of the Holy Roman Empire\\nwas not much more than a shadow. As for the mass\\nof the people, their spirit was broken for a time they\\ngave up even the longing for the rights which they had", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "EDUCATION DURING SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 203\\nlost, and taught their children abject obedience in order\\nthat they might simply live.\\nThe Educational Situation. These political conditions\\nhad a marked influence upon education. Schools were\\nabandoned, colleges gave up their charters, and people\\nwere content to allow their children to grow up in ignorance.\\nIndeed, it was not to be expected that, in the midst of their\\npoverty and sorrow, parents should care for education.\\nAnd yet, some most important and wise school laws were\\nenacted and put into force, which form the basis of the\\npresent German school system, as well as the school systems\\nof many other countries. In 161 9 the Duke of Weimar\\ndecreed that all children, girls as well as boys, should be\\nkept in school for at least six years, from six to twelve.\\nThis is the first efficient compulsory education law on record\\nintended for all classes of children.\\nBesides Weimar, Wiirtemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt, Meck-\\nlenburg, Holstein, Hesse-Cassel, and other provinces were\\nactive in school work. They organized schools, appointed\\nteachers, and formulated school regulations. In 1642,\\nDuke Ernst of Gotha adopted a new school regulation\\nwhich was a century in advance of the time, and this ac-\\ntion was taken when the Thirty Years War was at its\\nheight and in a territory sadly devastated by contending\\narmies.\\nThis law required every child to enter school at the be-\\nginning of his sixth year, and to remain in school until he\\ncould read his mother tongue, had mastered Luther s cate-\\nchism, and was well grounded in arithmetic, writing, and\\nchurch songs, A course of study was marked out, the\\nschools were graded, and methods of instruction were out-\\nlined. The greatest defect in the system was the lack of\\nHistory of Germany, p. 409.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "204 HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\ncompetent teachers. Discharged soldiers, worthless stu-\\ndents, and degraded craftsmen who could read and write,\\nand who possessed a little knowledge of music, continued\\nfor many years to be employed as schoolmasters. But little\\nprogress could be made under these adverse circumstances\\nand the only reason for encouragement was the fact that\\nthe duty of parents to keep their children at school was\\neverywhere recognized.\\nThe Innovators. We must here mention also the In-\\nnovators or Reformers, whose period of educational activ-\\nity falls chiefly within the seventeenth century. Among\\nthese appear the names of Francis Bacon, Ratke,\\nMilton, Comenius, Rollin, Fenelon, and Locke. These\\nmen started movements which revolutionized education\\nand laid the foundation of modern methods. The de-\\nmands of the Reformers are summed up by Quick as\\nfollows First, that the study of things should precede, or\\nbe united with, the study of zvords second, that knowledge\\nshould be communicated, where possible, by appeal to the\\nsenses; third, that all linguistic study should begin with that\\nof the mother tongue fourth, that Latin and Greek should\\nbe taught to such boys only as would be likely to complete\\na learned education fifth, that physical education should\\nbe attended to in all classes of society for the sake of\\nhealth, not simply with a view to gentlemanly accomplish-\\nments sixth, that a new method of teaching should be\\nadopted, framed According to nature. In another\\nchapter we shall study the life and work of some of these\\nmen.\\nQuick, Educational Reformers, p. 50.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXXIII\\nEDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY\\nLiterature. Church, Bacon Macaiilay, Essays Spofford, Library\\nof Historical Characters Lord, Beacon Lights Montagu, Life of\\nBacon Barnard, English Pedagogy Quick, Educational Reformers\\nWilliams, History of Modern Education Laurie, Life and Works of\\nComenius Comeniiis, Orbis Pictus Barnard, Journal of Education\\nMilton, Tractate on Education Pattison, Milton Fowler, Locke\\nLeitch, Practical Educationists Gill, Systems of Education Schweg-\\nler, History of Philosophy Courtney, John Locke Vogel, Geschichte\\nder Paidagogik Coinpayre, History of Pedagogy Fhielon, Education\\nof Girls.\\nBACON 1 (1561-1626)\\nBut little is known of the early years of Francis Bacon,\\nbut it is probable that he was well trained, as his father\\nwas a man of good education, and the boy was able to enter\\nCambridge when only a little over twelve years of age.\\nHis father was for many years Lord Keeper of the Seals,\\nand this brought Francis in contact with court life, where\\nhis precocity made him a favorite with the queen. He\\nthus early acquired that taste for the court, by which he\\nclimbed to the height of his ambition only to fall there-\\nfrom in ignominious defeat.\\nHe remained at Cambridge only about three years.\\nLord Macaulay sums up the result of Bacon s university\\nexperience in the following words Bacon departed,\\ncarrying with him a profound contempt for the course of\\nstudy pursued there, a fixed conviction that the system of\\n1 For special reference see Macaulay s Essays, Vols. II and III.\\n205", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "2o6 HISTORY OF EDUCATIOM\\nacademic education in England was radically vicious, a\\njust scorn for the trifles on which the followers of Aristotle\\nhad wasted their powers, and no great reverence for\\nAristotle himself.\\nSome think that thus early, while not yet fifteen years of\\nage. Bacon began to formulate that inductive system which\\nmade him a great benefactor of the human race. There\\nseems to be but little proof of this and, if it be so, he\\nlaid it aside until near the close of his life, and devoted\\nhimself to politics. After leaving Cambridge, he went\\nabroad with the English ambassador at Paris, with whom\\nhe served until the death of his father compelled his\\nreturn to England. Unexpectedly finding that his patri-\\nmony was gone, he began a career at the bar, and rose\\nstep by step, amid many discouragements, until he reached\\nthe height of his ambition, the Lord High Chancellorship\\nof the realm. In reaching this position he resorted to\\nmany of the tricks of the politician, and sacrificed his best\\nfriends to further his selfish interests. Concerning his\\nactions toward his benefactor, Essex, Macaulay says, This\\nfriend, so loved, so trusted, bore a principal part in ruining\\nthe earl s fortunes, in shedding his blood, and in blacken-\\ning his memory. But let us be just to Bacon. We believe\\nthat, to the last, he had no wish to injure Essex. Nay,\\nwe believe that he sincerely wished to serve Essex, as\\nlong as he could serve Essex without injuring himself.\\nSuch seeming mitigation of Bacon s ingratitude serves only\\nto bring the Lord Chancellor s cowardice more completely\\nto light.\\nThis lack of principle and greed for office, together with\\nthe luxurious tastes which kept Bacon constantly in debt,\\nmade him susceptible to corruption. Accordingly he ac-\\n1 Essays, Vol. Ill, p. 354. 2 Vol. Ill, p. 368.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 207\\ncepted bribes and, when exposed, his degradation from\\nthe highest office under the crown was most complete and\\nhumiliating. He was summoned before the bar of Parlia-\\nment and, finding the evidence against him complete, he\\nadmitted his guilt and pleaded for clemency. These are\\nthe words of his confession, Upon advised consideration\\nof the charges, descending into my own conscience and\\ncalling upon my memory to account so far as I am able,\\nI do plainly and ingenuously confess that I am guilty of\\ncorruption, and do renounce all defense.\\nHe was found guilty and condemned to imprisonment in\\nthe Tower during the pleasure of the king, and to a fine of\\n;^40,ooo he was forbidden ever to sit in Parliament or come\\nwithin the verge of the court, and was forever debarred\\nfrom holding office. He never paid the fine, was released\\nfrom the Tower after two days, was permitted to visit the\\ncourt, and was summoned to the meetings of Parliament.^\\nHe never, however, took any part in public affairs. The\\nking granted him a pension upon which he lived the re-\\nmainder of his days. Thus disappeared from public life\\none of England s greatest statesmen, whose political career\\nended in disgrace. But during the remaining six years of\\nhis life, he wrote his principal works, which made him\\nfamous for all time, and which mark a new era in educa-\\ntion as well as in the world s progress.\\nIn 1620 his greatest work, the Novum Organum,\\nwas published. In this appears his Inductive MetJiod, a\\ngreat educational discovery, which has been of inesti-\\nmable value to mankind. It revolutionized science, and\\nsuggested the application of the forces of nature to\\n1 For a full description of his trial consult Macaulay s Essays. Also\\nhis biographer, Montagu, whose judgment of Bacon is much milder than\\nMacaulay s.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "2o8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\nthe wants of man, thus opening to man s enterprise an\\ninimitable field for research. In the three centuries\\nsince Bacon s discovery, science has made vast strides,\\nand yet is only at the threshold of its possible develop-\\nment. The watchwords of the inductive method experi-\\nment, investigate, verify have led to the establishment\\nof laboratories, to the founding of experimenting stations,\\nand to the study of Nature herself. As Macaulay puts\\nit, Two words form the key of the Baconian doctrine,\\nUtility and Progress. Again he says, The philosophy of\\nPlato began in words and ended in words. The phi-\\nlosophy of Bacon began in observation and ended in arts.\\nMacaulay depreciates the work of Bacon, and shows\\nthat he was not the original inventor of the inductive\\nmethod, which, he says with truth, has been prac-\\nticed ever since the beginning of the world by every\\nhuman being. Nor was he the first person who\\ncorrectly analyzed that method and explained its Jises,\\nas Aristotle had done so long before. But these facts do\\nnot detract from the glory of Bacon any more than the\\ndiscovery of America by the Norsemen five hundred years\\nbefore the time of Columbus detracts from his glory.\\nThe same process of reasoning would take all credit\\nfrom every philosopher that has ever lived, for with\\nequal truth it may be said that every mental process\\nhas been practiced ever since the beginning of the\\nworld by every human being.\\nBacon s teachings resemble those of Montaigne,\\nthough Bacon s work was far more important and com-\\nplete than that of his French contemporary. His peda-\\ngogy may be summed up in these pregnant words from\\nhis own pen: A judicious blending and interchange\\n1 Essays, Vol. Ill, p. 459. 2 Vol. Ill, p. 470.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 209\\nbetween the easier and more difficult branches of learn-\\ning, adapted to the individual capabilities and to the\\nfuture occupation of pupils, will profit both the mental\\nand bodily powers, and make instruction acceptable.\\nWe find in Bacon, then, the beginning of a new era\\nin education. It remained for Comenius, Locke, Rous-\\nseau, Pestalozzi, and their compeers to apply to specific\\neducational systems the great truth contained in the in-\\nductive method and to scientists and investigators of all\\nkinds has been intrusted the mission of furthering, through\\nthis method, the marvelous scientific development which\\nhas almost re-created the world.\\nRATKEi (1571-1635)\\nPerhaps the first to urge the reforms which constitute\\nthe basis of educational theory was Ratke, a German,\\nborn In the province of Holstein. He originated a scheme\\nby which he promised to teach any language, ancient or\\nmodern, in six months. He traveled throughout Europe,\\nendeavoring to sell his discovery to princes and men of\\nlearning. Purchasers had to agree strictly to maintain the\\nsecret. Professor Williams speaks of this conduct as fol-\\nlows These were the acts of a charlatan peddling some\\nsecret quack nostrum. Mr. Quick says, He would\\nalso found a school in which all arts and sciences should\\nbe rapidly learned and advanced he would introduce, and\\npeacefully maintain throughout the continent, a uniform\\nspeech, a uniform government, and, more wonderful still,\\na uniform religion. From these modest proposals we\\nAlso Rateke, Radtke, and Ratich. Paulsen pronounces the last an\\nabominable mutilation of Latinization.\\n2 History of Modern Education, p. 141.\\nHIST. OF ED. 14", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "2IO HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\nshould naturally infer that the promiser was nothing but\\na quack of more than usual impudence but the position\\nwhich the name of Ratich holds in the history of educa-\\ntion is sufficient proof that this is by no means a complete\\nstatement of the matter.\\nMany thinkers fully beheved that the schools were in\\nbondage to the classic studies, that they did not prepare\\nfor life, and that science, which had begun to show signs\\nof awakening, should have a place in education. The ex-\\ntravagant theories of Ratke, therefore, attracted attention.\\nOpportunity was given him to put his theories into practice,\\nfirst at Augsburg, then at Kothen, and finally at Magde-\\nburg. In each instance he utterly failed, more from want\\nof tact in dealing with men, with those in authority, as\\nwell as with his teachers and pupils, than from lack of\\nsoundness in theory. Of course much of his theory was\\nworthless, especially that referring to the mastery of a lan-\\nguage in six months, and that proposing uniformity in\\nspeech, government, and religion.\\nRatke s method of teaching a language was not original\\nwith him, being similar to, though not so effective as, that\\nadvocated by Roger Ascham, more than a hundred years\\nbefore (see p. 191), and suggested first by Pliny, fifteen\\ncenturies earlier. Ratke required the pupil to go over\\nthe same matter many times, to learn the grammar in\\nconnection with translation, and finally to translate back\\ninto the original. He proposed to follow the same course\\nwith all languages, and have all grammars constructed on\\nthe same plan.\\nThe work which Ratke began was more successfully car-\\nried out by others who followed him, and thus fruit has\\nbeen borne to these new and radical ideas.\\n1 Quick, Educational Reformers, p. 51.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 21 1\\nQuick sums up Ratke s pedagogy in a few words, as\\nfollows\\n1. Everything after the order and course of nature.\\n2. One thing at a time.\\n3. One thing again and again repeated.\\n4. Nothing shall be learned by heart.\\n5. Uniformity in all things.\\n6. Knowledge of the thing itself must be given before\\nthat which refers to the thing.\\n7. Everything by experiment and analysis.\\n8. Everything without coercion that is, by gentle\\nmeans, and not by the use of the rod.\\nOthers have worked out these principles until they have\\nbecome thoroughly incorporated into every system of\\nmodern pedagogy.\\nC0MENIUS2 (1592-1670)\\nBy far the greatest educator of the seventeenth century,\\nand one of the greatest in educational history, was Johann\\nAmos Comenius. He was born in Moravia, and belonged\\nto the Protestant body known as the Moravian Brethren.\\nHis early education was neglected, a fact that was not\\nwithout its compensation, for, not beginning the study of\\nLatin until sixteen years of age, he was mature enough to\\nappreciate the defects in the prevalent method of instruc-\\ntion. One of his most valuable services to education grew\\nout of his attempt to remedy the defects thus discovered.\\nOf the schools he attended, he says, They are the\\nterror of boys, and the slaughterhouses of minds, places\\nEducational Reformers, p. 53.\\n2 Especial attention is called to Laurie s Life of Comenius. For other\\nworks, see Appendix of Bardeen s edition of Laurie s Comenius.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "212 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nwhere a hatred of books and literature is contracted,\\nwhere ten or more years are spent in learning what might\\nbe acquired in one, where what ought to be poured in\\ngently is violently forced in, and beaten in, where what\\nought to be put clearly and perspicuously is presented in\\na confused and intricate way, as if it were a collection of\\npuzzles, places where minds are fed on words.\\nIn speaking of his own experience at school, he says,\\nI was continually full of thoughts for the finding out of\\nsome means whereby more might be inflamed with the\\nlove of learning, and whereby learning itself might be\\nmade more compendious, both in the matter of charge\\nand cost, and of labor belonging thereto, that so the youth\\nmight be brought by a more easy method unto some nota-\\nble proficiency in learning.\\nThe life of Comenius, which extended over nearly eighty\\nyears, was full of vicissitudes and trials. Briefly told, it\\nis as follows He was left an orphan at an early age, had\\npoor educational advantages in childhood, began the study\\nof Latin at sixteen, and completed his studies at Heidel-\\nberg at twenty-two, having previously studied at Herborn.\\nAfter leaving the university, he was teacher of the Mora-\\nvian School at Prerau for two years, and then having been\\nordained to the ministry, became pastor of Fulnek. Here\\nhe remained for a number of years, living a happy and\\nuseful life. In the meantime, the Thirty Years War had\\nbroken out, thfe battle of Prague had been lost by the\\nProtestants, and the town of Fulnek sacked. Comenius\\nlost everything he possessed, and this misfortune was soon\\nfollowed by the death of his wife and child. After hiding\\nin the mountains for some time, he was banished from his\\nnative land, together with all the other Protestants. This\\n1 Laurie, Life of Comenius, p. 14. 2 Preface to the Prodromus.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 213\\ntook place in 1627, when Comenius was thirty-five years\\nold. Though he often longed to return to his fatherland,\\nhe was never permitted to do so.\\nHe settled in Poland, and began by the study of the\\nworks of Ratke, Bacon, and other writers to prepare him-\\nself for the great task of educational reform. Of this\\nexperience he writes, After many workings and tossings\\nof my thoughts, by reducing everything to the immovable\\nlaws of nature, I lighted upon my Didactica Magna, which\\nshows the art of readily and solidly teaching all men all\\nthings.\\nHe visited England, Sweden, and Hungary in the in-\\nterests of education, and was invited to France, but did\\nnot accept the invitation. While living at Leszno, Poland,\\nfor a second time his house was sacked and all his prop-\\nerty destroyed. Among other things, his work on Pan-\\nsophia, and his Latin-Bohemian dictionary, on which he\\nhad labored for forty years, were burned. He closed his\\ndays at Amsterdam, Holland. In addition to the great\\nhonors bestowed upon him by the various countries that\\nsought his advice on educational matters, he was made the\\nchief bishop and head of the Moravian Brethren. Raumer\\nforcibly sums up the life of Comenius as follows Come-\\nnius is a grand and venerable figure of sorrow. Though\\nwandering, persecuted, and homeless, during the terrible\\nand desolating Thirty Years War, yet he never despaired,\\nbut with enduring courage, and strong faith, labored\\nunweariedly to prepare youth by a better education for a\\nhappier future. Suspended from the ministry, as he him-\\nself tells us, and an exile, he became an apostle to the\\nChristian youth and he labored for them with a zeal and\\nlove w^orthy of the chief of the apostles.\\nRaumer, Geschichte der Piidagogik.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "214\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nPedagogical Work. The great educational works of\\nComenius are his Gate of Tongues Unlocked, the Great\\nDidactic, and his Orbis Pictus. Mr. Quick thinks that\\nthe Great Didactic contains, in the best form, the prin-\\nciples he afterward endeavored to work out in his other\\neducational writings. The services of Comenius to peda-\\ngogy, says Professor Williams, were of a threefold char-\\nacter, in each of which his merit was very great. First,\\nhe was the true originator of the principles and methods\\nof the Innovators. Second, he was a great educational\\nsystematist. Third, he was the author of improved text-\\nbooks, which were long and widely famous. This is a\\nfair summing up of the remarkable activity of this man\\nwith the exception of the first point. Montaigne, Ratke,\\nand Bacon had previously taught many of the fundamental\\ntruths which Comenius merely amplified and brought to\\npractical fruition, and he himself acknowledged the influ-\\nence of the last two men upon him. That the whole\\npurpose of the life of Comenius was far nobler than that\\nof Ratke or Bacon, there remains no room for doubt.\\nCompayre says, The character of Comenius equals his\\nintelligence. Through a thousand obstacles he devoted\\nhis long life to the work of popular instruction. With a\\ngenerous ardor he consecrated himself to infancy. He\\nwrote twenty works and taught in twenty cities. More-\\nover, he was the first to form a definite conception of what\\nthe elementary studies should be.\\nBacon gave the inspiration and Comenius worked the\\ntruth into practical form Bacon invented a new theory of\\nscientific investigation, Comenius employed that theory in\\nEducational Reformers, p. 73.\\n2 History of Modern Education, p. 151.\\nHistory of Pedagogy, p. 122.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 21 5\\neducation Bacon originated and Comenius applied. This\\ndoes not detract from the merit of Comenius any more\\nthan his work detracts from the merit of Rousseau, Pesta-\\nlozzi, or Horace Mann, all of whom gathered inspiration\\nfrom him.\\nSummary of the Work of Comenius. (i) He was the\\nauthor of the first illustrated text-book, the Orbis Pic-\\ntus. i The cost of illustrations was for a long time a\\nserious barrier to their general adoption in schoolbooks\\nbut modern inventions and improvements have removed\\nthis obstacle, and many of the text-books of to-day are\\nas valuable for their illustrations as for their text. The\\nOrbis Pictus appeared in 1658.\\n(2) In his Great Didactic, he presents a scheme for\\ngeneral organization of the school system which covers\\nthe first twenty-four years of life. It divides this time into\\nfour equal periods of six years, each as follows\\n1. bifancy, or the mother school, from birth up to six\\nyears of age.\\n2. Boyhood, the vernacular or national school, from six\\nto twelve.\\n3. Adolescence, the Gymnasium or Latin school, from\\ntwelve to eighteen.\\n4. Youth, the university (including travel), from eighteen\\nto twenty-four.\\nThe infant school should be found in every house, the\\nvernacular school in every village and community, the\\ngymnasium in every province, and the university in every\\nkingdom or large province. This scheme, with variation\\nof details, forms the basis of present school systems\\nfirst, the period in the home with the mother till six\\n1 See Orbis Pictus, edited and published by C. W. Bardeen, Syra-\\ncuse, N.Y.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "2i6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nsecond, the period of general education in the common\\nschool, from six to twelve or fourteen third, the period\\nof preparation for the professional schools, from twelve\\nor fourteen to eighteen and fourth, the professional\\nor university course, from eighteen to twenty-four. The\\nlast is usually divided into a college and a university\\ncourse.\\n(3) The educational principles of Comenius were revo-\\nlutionary as to the school practices of the time. They\\nhave come to be almost universally accepted at present.\\nWe can here state only a few of the most essential.^\\n1. If we would teach and learn surely, we must follow\\nthe order of Nature.\\n2. Let everything be presented through the senses.\\n3. Proceed from the easy to the difficult, from the\\nnear to the remote, from the general to the special, from\\nthe known to the unknown.\\n4. Make learning pleasant by the choice of suitable\\nmaterial, by not attempting too much, by the use of con-\\ncrete examples, and by the selection of that which is of\\nutility.\\n5. Fix firmly by frequent repetitions and drills.\\n6. Let all things advance by indissoluble steps, so\\nthat everything taught to-day may give firmness and\\nstability to what was taught yesterday, and point the way\\nto the work of to-morrow.\\n7. Let everything that is useless be eliminated from\\nteaching.\\n8. Learn to do by doing.\\n9. Each language should be learned separately, have\\na definite time assigned to it, be learned by use rather\\n1 Laurie s Life and Works of Comenius, p. 77,\\n2 Ibid., p. 105.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 21/\\nthan precept, that is, the practice in learning should be\\nwith familiar things, and all tongues should be learned\\nby one and the same method.\\n10. The example of well-ordered life of parents, nurses,\\nteachers, and schoolfellows is very important for children\\nbut precepts and rules of life must be added to example.\\n11. As knowledge of God is the highest of all knowl-\\nedge, the Holy Scriptures must be the alpha and omega\\nof the Christian schools.\\nComenius gives explicit directions as to methods of\\ninstruction, class management, discipline, courses of study,\\nincluding a discussion of each branch, and moral and\\nreligious teaching. He presents these directions in the\\nmost remarkable and complete series of precepts and\\nprinciples to be found in educational literature.^\\nMILTON (160S-1674)\\nJohn Milton was the most notable man who ever kept\\nschool or published a schoolbook. While his fame\\nrests on Paradise Lost and other great literary works,\\nhe deserves a place among educators for his Tractate\\non Education, and for his sympathy with educational\\nreform. He anticipated Herbert Spencer s celebrated\\ndefinition, To prepare us for complete living is the\\nfunction which education has to discharge, in the\\nfollowing words I call, therefore, a complete and\\ngenerous education that which fits a man to perform\\njustly, skillfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both\\nprivate and public, of peace and war.\\nHe criticised the schools of his time and sought to\\nFor full discussion of the pedagogical principles of Comenius, see Pro-\\nfessor Laurie s great work.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "2l8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nmake them more practical. Like the earlier Innovators,\\nand in harmony with the spirit that was rapidly grow-\\ning, he thought that too much time was given to the study\\nof Latin, and urged that science, music, physical culture,\\nand language as a means of acquiring a knowledge of use-\\nful things, should receive more attention in the schools.\\nQuick says, A protest against a purely literary education\\ncomes with tremendous force from the student who sacri-\\nficed his sight to his reading, the accomplished scholar\\nwhose Latin works were known throughout Europe, and\\nthe author of Paradise Lost.\\nMilton s experience in teaching was confined to a\\nsmall boarding school, such as those usually resorted\\nto for educating the sons of the better classes in Eng-\\nland at that time. For pupils he began with two\\nnephews, to whom were soon added a few other boys.\\nThese were sons of Milton s friends, and some of them\\ncame as boarders, others as day students. Milton seemed\\nto like the work of teaching, and it was during this\\nperiod that his Tractate was written. He probably\\ntaught school in this way for eight or nine years, and\\nthen was appointed to a small office under the govern-\\nment, which secured his living. The rest of his life\\nwas devoted chiefly to literary work.\\nMilton s Tractate. The principal lessons from this\\neducational work are embodied in the following quotation\\nThe end then of Learning is to repair the mines of our\\nfirst Parents by regaining to know God aright, and out of\\nthat knowledge to love him, and to imitate him, to be\\nlike him, as we may the nearest by possessing our souls\\nof true virtue, which being united to the heavenly grace\\nof faith makes up the highest perfection. This\\n1 Educational Reformers, p. 59. 2 Tractate, p. 3.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 219\\nrather cumbersome definition shows how fully Milton\\nwas possessed of the Puritan spirit, which then con-\\ntrolled England, and which magnified religious zeal.\\nMilton s scheme of education may be briefly summed\\nup as follows\\n1. The school premises should consist of a spacious\\nhouse with large school grounds, intended for about one\\nhundred and thirty students from twelve to twenty-one\\nyears of age, who should receive their complete second-\\nary and university education in the same school. This\\nscheme, so unique in Milton s time, is practically carried\\nout in France and the United States, where the con-\\nnection between the lower and higher schools is direct.\\nIn England, the land of its inception, and in Germany,\\nthere is no such direct articulation between the lower\\nand the higher schools.\\n2. The course of study embraces, first, the Latin gram-\\nmar, arithmetic, geometry, religion, and Greek authors to\\nbe read in translation second, Latin authors, geography,\\nnatural philosophy; third, Greek, trigonometry, intended\\nto prepare for fortification, architecture, engineering,\\nand navigation, anatomy, and medicine.\\nThis course is supposed to be completed at about the\\nage of sixteen. The harder topics now follow, together\\nwith the study of those subjects intended to teach ethical\\njudgment. Milton says, As they begin to acquire char-\\nacter, and to reason on the difference between good and\\nevil, there will be required a constant and sound in-\\ndoctrinating to set them right and firm, instructing them\\nmore amply in the knowledge of virtue and the hatred\\nof vice. Then come Greek authors, Holy Writ, poetry,\\nand at any odd hour, the Italian tongue, ethics, and\\npolitics. He is consistent with his definition of educa-", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "220 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ntion, that which fits a man to perform justly, skill-\\nfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both public\\nand private, of peace and war, when he would train\\nmen to be steadfast pillars of the State. He adds\\nin his course also the study of law, including Roman\\nedicts and English common law, a knowledge of He-\\nbrew, and possibly Syrian and Chaldaic.\\nNor were physical exercises omitted. Sword exercises,\\nwrestling, military tactics, riding, etc., were to be daily\\npracticed, each in its proper time. Finally, the young\\nman, when about twenty-three years of age, should travel\\nabroad, and thus, when mature enough to comprehend\\nthem, become acquainted with the geography, history, and\\npolitics of other countries. This was to be the final prep-\\naration for citizenship and service of country. Mr. Brown-\\ning pronounces this a magnificent and comprehensive\\nscheme. The most serious criticism of it is, that it marks\\nout much more than the average young man can accom-\\nplish.\\nLOCKEi (1632-1704)\\nJohn Locke was the son of a Puritan gentleman who\\ntook active part in the wars for religious freedom fought\\nduring the latter part of the seventeenth century. With-\\nout doubt the stirring scenes enacted and the great moral\\nmovements which occupied England had a great influence\\nupon Locke s life. He was carefully trained at home^|\\nuntil he was about fourteen years old, when he entered\\nWestminster School, a Puritan institution, where he re-\\nmained for six years. He then entered Oxford, and in\\ndue time took his bachelor s and master s des:rees. In\\n1 See Fowler s Locke. Also Quick, Compayre, and Williams.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 221\\n1660, when twenty-eight years old, he was made tutor of\\nChrist Church, Oxford, where he lectured on Greek, rhet-\\noric, and philosophy. He interested himself in theology,\\nbut never took orders and he also studied medicine and\\nfor a time practiced it. His own health was precarious, he\\nhaving suffered from chronic consumption nearly all his\\nlife. Nevertheless, he accomplished a tremendous amount\\nof work. The friendship of the Earl of Shaftesbury gave\\nLocke some political prestige. He lived in the family of\\nthat nobleman for many years, and was the tutor of his\\nson and grandson.\\nLocke s great work, on which his fame securely rests,\\nis the Essay concerning Human Understanding, which\\nstamps him as the greatest of English philosophers. This\\nappeared in 1690. His most important educational work\\nis entitled Some Thoughts concerning Education. Com-\\npayre says, From psychology to pedagogy the transition\\nis easy, and Locke had to make no great effort to become\\nan authority on education after having been an accom-\\nplished philosopher. Further, the same author says con-\\ncerning the essential principles discussed in Thoughts\\nconcerning Education, These are i, in physical educa-\\ntion, the hardening process 2, in intellectual education,\\npractical utility 3, in moral education, the principle of\\nhonor, set up as a rule for the free self-government of\\nman.\\nIn Locke, for the first time, we find a careful set of\\nrules as to the food, sleep, physical exercise, and cloth-\\ning of children. While modern science rejects some of\\nthese, most of them are regarded as sound in practice.\\nPlenty of outdoor exercise, clothing loose and not too\\nwarm, plain food with but little meat or sugar, proper\\nhours of sleep, and beds not too soft, early retiring and", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "222 HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\nrising, and cold baths, are means prescribed to harden the\\nbody and prepare it to resist the attacks of disease. A\\nsound mind in a sonnd body is the celebrated aphorism\\nwhich sums up Locke s educational theory.\\nAs to moral education, Locke declares, That which a\\ngentleman ought to desire for his son, besides the fortune\\nwhich he leaves him, is, i, virtue; 2, prudence 3, good\\nmanners; 4, instruction. In his course of study the\\nidea of utility prevails. After reading, writing, drawing,\\ngeography, and the mother tongue are mastered, Locke,\\nlike Montaigne, would teach the language of nearest\\nneighbors, and then Latin. Even the Latin tongue should\\nbe learned through use, rather than by rules of grammar\\nand by memorizing the works of classic authors.\\nWhile his system of education was planned for sons of\\ngentlemen, Locke urged the establishment of working\\nschools for children of the laboring classes. This was in\\nline with his utilitarian ideas, as the intent was not so much\\nintellectual training, as the formation of steady habits and\\nthe preparation for success in industrial pursuits. Locke s\\nplan was for a sort of manual training school, the first\\nappearance of such a project in history.\\nLocke did not believe in universal education, nor in the\\npublic school. Only gentlemen were provided for in his\\nformal scheme, and herein he followed the path marked\\nout by Alfred the Great eight hundred years before,\\nwhich England has not completely forsaken to this day.\\nSince he had done all his teaching as a private tutor in\\nthe family of a gentleman, one can easily understand his\\nadvocacy of that form of instruction for the favored few.\\nLocke s teachings in this respect are gradually losing their\\nhold even in England, the most conservative of all coun-\\ntries in educational matters, and the latest great nation", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 223\\nto accept the principle of universal education. During the\\nlast quarter of a century England has been earnestly seek-\\ning to give every child, whether of gentle or of humble\\nbirth, rich or poor, what his birthright demands, a good\\ncommon school education.\\nThe influence of Locke upon education, then, has been\\nvery great. Williams remarks that he inspired Rousseau\\nwith nearly every valuable thought which appears in the\\nbrilliant pages of his Emile. He seems himself to have\\nderived some of his most characteristic ideas from Mon-\\ntaigne, and possibly also from Rabelais. Although\\nLocke differed from other educational reformers in many\\nrespects, though he was somewhat narrow in his concep-\\ntion of education, owing to his environment, he opposed\\nthe dry formalism that characterized the educational prac-\\ntice of his time, and sought to emancipate man both\\nintellectually and physically.\\nFENELON 1 651-17 1 5)\\nF^nelon was born of noble parents in the province of\\nPerigord, France. During his early years his father at-\\ntended very carefully to his, education, and later his uncle,\\nthe Marquis de Fenelon, became his guardian. Though\\ndelicate in health, the boy showed remarkable aptness in\\nlearning. At the age of twelve he entered the college of\\nCahors, and thence went to the university of Paris. He\\nwas destined by his parents for the Church, for which, by\\nnatural temperament and pious zeal, he was well fitted.\\nHe preached at fifteen with marked success, and took up\\na theological course at St. Sulpice. At the age of twenty-\\nfour he was ordained priest. He desired to enter the\\nHistory of Modern Education, p. 181.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "224\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nmissionary field, first in Canada, and later in Greece, but\\nhad to abandon this purpose on account of ill health.\\nSaint-Simon, in his Memoires, describes Fenelon as a\\nman of striking appearance, and says, His manner alto-\\ngether corresponded to his appearance his perfect ease\\nwas infectious to others, and his conversation was stamped\\nwith the grace and good taste which are acquired by\\nhabitual intercourse with the best society and the great\\nworld.\\nFor ten years Fenelon was at the head of the convent\\nof the New Catholics, an institution which sought to reclaim\\nProtestant young women to Catholicism. In this position,\\nas well as in all his lifework, though himself an ardent\\nCatholic, Fenelon s course was so temperate and just that\\nhe won the warmest admiration even of Protestants, who\\ndid not accept his faith. Among his friends were the\\nDuke and Duchess of Beauvilliers, who had eight daugh-\\nters and several sons. At their suggestion, and for the\\npurpose of helping them in educating their daughters, he\\nwrote his first and most important educational work,\\nThe Education of Girls. Compayre pronounces this\\nthe first classical work of French pedagogy. He fur-\\nther speaks of this book as a work of gentleness and\\ngoodness, of a complaisant and amiable grace, which is\\npervaded by a spirit of progress. It appeared in\\n1687.\\nIn 1689, when thirty-eight years of age, Fenelon was\\nchosen preceptor of the grandson of Louis XIV., the young\\nDuke of Burgundy. In this position his remarkable pow-\\ners as a teacher were brought to light, and he applied the\\ntheories which he had promulgated. The young duke, who\\nwas eight years of age, was of a passionate nature, hard to\\n1 History of Pedagogy, p. 165.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 225\\ncontrol, and yet, withal, of warm-hearted impulses. It is\\nsaid that he would break the clocks which summoned\\nhim to unwelcome duty, and fly into the wildest rage with\\nthe rain which hindered some pleasure. The Telema-\\nchus of Fenelon, perhaps his greatest literary work, was\\ncomposed at this time, as were also his Dialogues of the\\nDead and his Fables. The inspiration of all these\\nworks was found in the charge committed to him that of\\nproperly instructing his royal pupil. Fenelon thus created\\nthe material through which he interested the boy and\\ntaught him the intended lessons. The Telemachus was\\ndesigned for the moral and political instruction of the\\nprince through his Dialogues of the Dead he taught\\nhistory and his Fables were composed for the purpose\\nof teaching the moral and intellectual lessons which he\\nwished to impart to his illustrious, but headstrong, pupil.\\nFenelon s success with the prince was phenomenal, as the\\ncruel and passionate boy became affectionate, docile, and\\nobedient.\\nThe success of the experiment, however, was never put\\nto the final test, as the duke died before coming to the\\nthrone. There seems to be no doubt that the cure was\\npermanent, and it is not believed that, like Nero, he would\\nhave relapsed into his former viciousness and cruelty.\\nOne naturally compares Fenelon with Seneca. To both\\nwere committed children, heirs apparent to thrones,\\nwillful, cruel, disobedient, and hard to control. In\\nSeneca s pupil the seeds of cruelty remained, to germinate\\ninto the awful tyrant in Fenelon s the evil seemed\\nto be permanently eradicated, and the result was a prince\\nwith generous impulses and noble intentions. And this\\nresult was largely owing to the difference in the teach-\\ners, Fenelon, the gentle, but firm, patient, painstaking,\\nHIST. OF ED. 15", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "226 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nconscientious man Seneca, the more brilliant, but vacillat-\\ning and timeserving sycophant.\\nFenelon s Pedagogy. i. There must be systematic care\\nof the body. Therefore regular meals and plain food,\\nplenty of sleep, exercise, etc., are essential.\\n2. All instruction must be made pleasant and interest-\\ning. Play is to be utilized in teaching. In this he antici-\\npated Froebel.\\n3. Let punishments be as light as possible. Encourage\\nchildren to be open and truthful, and do not prevent con-\\nfession by making punishments too frequent or too severe.\\nPunishment should be administered privately, as a rule,\\nand publicly only when all other means have failed.\\n4. Present the thing before its name, the idea before\\nthe word. Study things, investigate. Employ curiosity.\\nIn this he was a disciple of Bacon and Comenius, and a\\nprophet to Pestalozzi.\\n5. Allow nothing to be committed to memory that is\\nnot understood.\\n6. Girls, also, must share the benefits of education.\\nEspecial attention should be given to teaching them mod-\\nesty, gentleness, piety, household economy, the duties of\\ntheir station in life, and those of motherhood.\\n7. Morality should be taught early and by means of\\nfables, stories, and concrete examples.\\n8. Proceed from the near at hand to the remote, from\\nthe known to the unknown. Thus in language, after the\\nmother tongue, teach other living languages, and then\\nthe classics. The latter are to be learned by conversation\\nabout common objects, and by application of the rules of\\ngrammar in connection therewith. In geography and his-\\ntory one s own environment and country should be learned\\nfirst, then other countries.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 227\\n9. Example is of great importance to all periods of life,\\nbut especially to childhood. This Fenelon practically\\nillustrated by his own life and by the concrete cases which\\nhe used. Voltaire says of Fenelon, His wit was over-\\nflowing with beauty, his heart with goodness.\\nLA SALLE AND THE BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN\\nSCHOOLS 1\\nIn 1 68 1, La Salle, a devoted priest of the Catholic\\nChurch, organized the Brothers of the Christian Schools.\\nThe idea primarily was to awaken interest in elementary\\neducation. He perfected the work already done by Peter\\nFaurier, Charles Demia, and others. The method of\\ninstruction, up to this time, had been largely individual.\\nThe pupils were called up to the teacher, one by one,\\nor at most two by two, and, after the lesson had been\\nheard, they were sent back to their seats to study. La\\nSalle conceived the idea of grading together pupils of\\nthe same advancement, and teaching them simultane-\\nously, a practice now employed in primary schools\\neverywhere. It is known as the Sinmltaneous MetJiod.\\nBrother Azarias says of this method, Because we all\\nof us have been trained according to this method, and\\nsee it practiced in nearly all of our public and many\\nof our private schools throughout the land, and have\\nceased to find it a subject of wonder, we may be\\ninclined to undervalue its importance. Not so was it\\nregarded in the days of La Salle. Then a Brothers\\nSchool was looked upon with admiration. Strangers were\\nshown it as a curiosity worth visiting.\\nEspecial reference is made to Brother Azarias, Essays Educational,", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "228 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nLa Salle laid down many explicit rules concerning pun-\\nishment, methods of teaching, and school organization in\\na book called The Conduct of Schools. While modern\\ncriticism would condemn many of these rules, we think,\\nwith Compayre, that whatever the distance which sepa-\\nrates these gloomy schools from our modern ideal, from\\nthe pleasant, active, animated school, such as we conceive\\nit to-day, there is none the less obligation to do justice\\nto La Salle, to pardon him for practices which were those\\nof his time, and to admire him for the good qualities that\\nwere peculiarly his own.\\nHe established the first normal school in history at\\nRheims in 1684, thirteen years before Francke organized\\nhis teachers class at Halle, and fifty years before Hecker\\nfounded the first Prussian normal school at Stettin. La\\nSalle magnified the teacher s office, and urgently demanded\\nprofessional training for instructors of the young. Brother\\nAzarias forcibly sums up La Salle s great work in this\\nrespect as follows He is the benefactor of the modern\\nschoolmaster. He it was who raised primary teaching out\\nof the ruts of never ending routine, carried on in the midst\\nof time-honored noise and confusion, and, in giving it\\nprinciples and a method, made of it a science. He hedged\\nin the dignity of the schoolmaster. He was the first to\\nassert the exclusive right of the master to devote his whole\\ntime to his school work.\\nEducation, therefore, owes to La Salle three important\\ncontributions, (i) the Simultaneous Method of Instruc-\\ntion, whereby a number of children of the same advance-\\nment are taught together; (2) the first Normal School,\\nestablished at Rheims, France, in 1684; and (3) a dignify-\\ning of the teacher s profession by setting apart trained\\n1 History of Pedagogy, p. 276, 2 Essays Educational, p. 238.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "EDUCATORS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 229\\npersons who should give all their time to the work of\\nteaching.\\nSummary of the Educational Progress of the Seventeenth\\nCentury. i. School systems were established and com-\\npulsory attendance made efficient in Weimar, in 16 19, in\\nGotha in 1642, and in many other cities, showing a grow-\\ning recognition of the principle of universal education and\\nthe duty of the State to assume the responsibility for its\\nattainment.\\n2. A school of educators, known as the Innovators,\\nlaid emphasis on sense-realism, the study of things, the\\ncontact with nature, the education that is of practical\\nuse.\\n3. Bacon laid the foundation of all future scientific re-\\nsearch by his inductive method. This increased the riches\\nof the world beyond calculation, taught how investigation\\nis to be made, laid the foundation of modern science, and\\ngave direction to all later education.\\n4. Ratke, though erratic and vulgar, instituted whole-\\nsome reforms in the teaching of languages, and promul-\\ngated theories which, under later reformers, bore rich\\nfruitage.\\n5. Comenius, one of the greatest educators of all time,\\nproduced the first illustrated text-book, planned a general\\norganization for schools in several countries, which is the\\nbasis of present systems, and proclaimed theories which\\nare now universally accepted as the guide of modern peda-\\ngogical practice.\\n6. Milton, though primarily a literary man, lent the\\nweight of his genius and his great name to school reform.\\nHe marked out a course of study which contemplates a unity\\nof purpose from the elementary school to the university.\\n7. The great English philosopher, Locke, also found", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "230 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ntime to devote to education. His principle, A sound mind\\nin a sound body, directed attention to physical education.\\n8. In the noble French priest, Fenelon, we find an exam-\\nple of theory practically applied. He gives, also, for the\\nfirst time, a place in pedagogy to the education of girls.\\n9. In general, we find that the seventeenth century laid\\nstress upon the principle of utility, gave great impulse to\\nscience, called attention to the care of the body, decreased\\nthe influence of classic studies, brushed away the fabric\\nwhich superstition and conservatism had woven, produced\\nsome of the greatest educators that have ever lived, and\\nlaid the foundations on which modern education is built.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXXIV\\nAUGUST HERMANN FRANCKE AND THE PIETISTS (1663-1727)\\nLiterature. 7?^z\u00c2\u00ab, Encyklopadisches Handbuch Struck, Geschichte\\ndes Volkschulwesens Dyer, Modern Europe Rein, Am Ende der\\nSchulreform? Russell, German Higher Schools.\\nPIETISM\\nPietism is the name of a movement in Germany which\\nsought to revive spiritual Hfe in the Lutheran Church. In\\nthat church, religion had become purely a matter of intel-\\nlect, instead of heart. Cold formality and adherence to\\nthe letter, rather than the spirit, had taken possession of\\nthe Protestant Church. Like the Jansenists in France,\\nwho had a similar purpose with reference to the Catholic\\nChurch, and later the Methodists in England, who sought\\nto awaken religious zeal in the Church of England, the\\nPietists of Germany endeavored to vitalize religious life,\\nand to lead men away from creeds promulgated by human\\nagency, to the pure word of God. The Pietists differed\\nfrom the orthodox Lutherans not in doctrine, but in insist-\\ning on the necessity of a change of heart and a pious life,\\ninstead of mere adherence to formal doctrine.\\nThe Pietists founded the university of Halle, and this\\nremained the center of the movement until it had run its\\ncourse. Pietism had its inception during the latter part\\nof the seventeenth century, and it extended through the\\nfirst half of the eighteenth century. Its originator was\\nPhilipp Jakob Spener, a man of remarkable zeal and godly\\nlife. Though it met with bitter opposition on the part of\\n231", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "232 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nthe orthodox Lutherans, it certainly did great good, not\\nonly to its adherents, but to the Church at large, by awaken-\\ning deeper spiritual life. Its influence was also great in\\nreviving Biblical study in Germany, in improving the char-\\nacter of teachers, and in giving a spiritual direction to the\\nstudies of the schools. It has left an enduring monument\\nin the great Institutions that it founded at Halle. The\\ngreatest of the Pietists was August Hermann Francke,\\nwho is celebrated, not only as a theologian, but as a\\nphilanthropist and teacher.\\nFRANCKE 1 (1 663- 1 727)\\nFrancke s early education was conducted by private\\nteachers, though his parents, who were intelligent and\\nGod-fearing people, exerted a strong influence upon him.\\nAt thirteen he entered the highest class of the Gymnasium\\nat Gotha, where he remained for one year. Here he was\\nintroduced to the reform teachings of Ratke and Comenius.\\nTwo years later he entered the university of Erfurt as a\\nstudent of theology. He studied also at Kiel and Leipsic.\\nWhile he gave particular attention to Hebrew and Greek,\\nhe also learned French, English, and Italian. He seemed\\nto be gifted with a talent for learning languages, for during\\na short residence in Holland in later life he learned the\\nDutch language so well that he was able to preach in it.\\nUnder the instruction of a Jewish rabbi, he read the\\nHebrew Bible through seven times in one year. After\\nspending some time as teacher in a private school, he\\nreturned to Leipsic as Privat Docent in the university.\\n1 Rein s Encyklopjidisches Handbuch, Vol. II, p. 336.\\nThe Pj-ivat Docent is the first step in the professor s career in the Ger-\\nman university. He is allowed to lecture in the university, but receives no\\npay except fees from the students who hear him.\\nI", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "FRANC KE AND THE PIETISTS 233\\nHaving become acquainted with Spener and his teach-\\nings, Francke became an earnest Pietist. His success in\\nlecturing and his zeal in religious work drew around him a\\nlarge number of students. This awakened the envy of the\\nold professors of the university, and they began a persecu-\\ntion v/hich caused his dismissal. He then went to Erfurt\\nand preached with remarkable success, drawing great\\ncrowds by his earnestness and eloquence. Persecution\\nagain followed him, and he was banished from the city.\\nAbout this time the new university of Halle called\\nFrancke to the chair of Greek and oriental languages\\nand afterward to that of theology. He began his work\\nin 1692, and remained in that position for nearly thirty-six\\nyears, until his death. As this position did not furnish\\nenough to live upon, he became pastor of the church in\\nthe neighboring village of Glaucha. In his pastoral work\\nhe came in contact with poverty, drunkenness, and every\\nform of immorality. Moved with pity, he collected small\\nsums of money, which he distributed among the poor after\\ncatechising the children.\\nAt Easter, 1695, he found seven guldens ($2.80) in the\\ncollection boxes, which he declared to be A splendid cap-\\nital with which something of importance can be founded\\nI will begin a school for the poor with it. This was the\\nbeginning of the great orphan asylum at Halle,\\nan enterprise the magnitude of which we shall describe\\nlater. Without visible income, with no means at com-\\nmand, but with a sublime faith in God and humanity, and\\nan overwhelming sense of the ignorance and misery\\nof the children about him, Francke began at once the\\ngreat work nor was his faith misplaced, as the result\\nshows. He gathered together a few children and placed\\na student over them as a teacher. Soon the better class", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "234 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nof citizens took an interest, and desired him to provide a\\nschool for their children. Two rooms were rented, one\\nfor those who could not pay and the other for those who\\ncould. This was the foundation of the free school and the\\ncitizens school still connected with the Institutions. In\\nthe fall of 1695, Francke founded the orphan asylum.\\nMoney flowed in from all parts of the country as people\\nbegan to understand the great work. Francke was thus\\nable to branch out in many directions. He established a\\nPedagogium to prepare teachers for his and other schools\\nfree meals were furnished to students who devoted a\\npart of their time to teaching in the institutions separate\\nschools for boys and girls, a Gymnasiiim, a Real-school, a\\nbookbindery and printing establishment, and many other\\ninstitutions were founded.\\nThe Institutions at Halle. In a few years Francke had\\nin successful operation a marvelous system, a work founded\\nupon love of humanity and dependent upon philanthropy\\nfor its support. The results attracted attention from all\\nEurope, and students came from many lands. At the\\ndeath of Francke in the year 1727, the following report of\\nthe Institutions was sent to King Frederick William I.\\n(i) In the Pedagogism, 82 scholars, 70 teachers and other\\npersons (2) in the Latin school, 3 inspectors, 32 teachers,\\n400 pupils, and 10 servants; (3) in the common school,\\n4 inspectors, 98 male teachers, 8 female teachers, 1725 boys\\nand girls; (4) orphans, 100 boys, 34 girls, 10 overseers;\\n(5) at the free table, 225 students, 360 poor children (6)\\nemployed in the drug store, bookstore, etc., and other per-\\nsons in the establishment, 82. i This makes a total of\\nover 3200 persons instructed, sheltered, employed, or\\notherwise connected with these great Institutions. The\\n1 K. Schmidt, Geschichte der Padagogik, Vol. Ill, p. 462.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "FRANC KE AND THE PIETISTS 235\\nfoundations were so firmly laid that the progress has been\\nsteady from that time to this. At present there are no\\nless than twenty-iive different enterprises connected with\\nthe Institutions, among which may be mentioned a free\\nschool for boys, and one for girls a common school for\\nboys, and one for girls; a royal Pedagogiimi a Latin\\nschool a higher girls school a Rcal-gynuiasiuni a pre-\\nparatory school for the high school; a Real-school an\\norphan asylum for boys, and one for girls a boarding\\nhouse for students a Bible house, which has distributed\\nabout 6,500,000 Bibles and religious works; a teachers\\nseminary (normal school) for each sex a bookstore, a\\nprinting house, and a drug store.^ About 3000 children\\nreceive instruction in the various schools, and about 1 18,000\\nhave been recipients of the benefits since the Institutions\\nwere founded two hundred years ago. The cost is about\\none million marks a year, which is covered by endow-\\nments, by tuition fees, by profits from the productive de-\\npartments (bookstores, printing establishment, etc.), and\\nby moneys received from the State. Francke s idea of\\ndepending upon voluntary gifts has been abandoned.\\nAll this work is the result of the energy of a man who\\nbegan with a capital of less than three dollars, and a vast\\namount of faith to found something of importance.\\nThe Training of Teachers. While Francke s greatest\\nwork for mankind was the Institutions mentioned above,\\nwe must notice one field of his activity that is of especial\\nimportance to us, that of the training of teachers. We\\nhave seen that, on account of the scarcity of funds, he\\nwas obliged to rely upon students to do the work of in-\\nstructing the children committed to his care. The young\\ntheologians made use of this opportunity as a stepping-\\n1 See Rein, Encyklopadisches Handbuch, Vol. II, p. 348.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "2^6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nii\\nstone to their future calling, the ministry, and Francke,\u00e2\u0084\u00a2\\nperceiving this, sought to secure the most pious and gifted\\namong his theological students for this work. He also es-\\ntablished a pedagogical class {Pedagoginni). After two\\nyears membership therein, the student was allowed to teach\\nprovided he pledged himself to devote three years to teach-\\ning in the schools. This class met once a week for criticism\\nand discussion under the leadership of the inspector of the\\nschool, and the various inspectors met Francke every\\nevening for further instruction. The results soon attracted\\nwidespread notice, and created a great demand for\\nFrancke s teachers. Although this was very crude peda-\\ngogical training, it may be regarded as the inception of\\nthe normal school, which has now come to be an essential\\npart of every educational system.\\nThe Real-school. A third service is credited by many\\nto Francke, namely, the founding of the Real-school^ of\\nGermany. The best authorities give that credit to Pro-\\nfessor Erhard Weigel of Jena. Whether or not the idea\\noriginated with Francke, he was ready to accept the\\nnecessity of such a change, and founded schools for higher\\nlearning in which Greek and Latin were not required, and\\nin which more attention was given to modern languages\\nand science.\\nThe Real-school is the great rival of the Gymnasium in Germany. The\\nlatter is the old established school which bases culture on the Humanities,\\nthe classic languages, and literature. The Real-school is more modern and\\ngives greater attention to the Realities, to things of practical utility. Pre-\\ncedence is given to the modern languages, sciences, and arts. While the\\nchief purpose of the Gymnasium is to prepare for the learned professions, that\\nof the Real-school is to prepare for practical life. The relation of these two\\ninstitutions to each other and to the university led to the Berlin Conference\\nin 1890, at which it clearly appeared that the younger is outstripping the older\\nand more conservative institution. See Russell, German Higher Schools.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXXV\\nGENERAL VIEW OF THE EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH\\nCENTURIES\\nLiterature. Dyer^ Modern Europe Dnruy, The French Revolu-\\ntion Voiige, Three Centuries of Modern History Andrews, Institutes\\nof General History Lord, Beacon Lights Taylor, History of Ger-\\nmany Gicisot, History of Civilization Draper, Conflict between Re-\\nligion and Science.\\nThe history of the world since the seventeenth century-\\nhas been crowded with events, and characterized by move-\\nments of greatest moment to mankind. It is not the pur-\\npose of this work to discuss political movements, to\\nchronicle wars, or to study the great upheavals of society\\nexcept in so far as they have a direct bearing upon educa-\\ntional questions.^\\nThe political chains that fettered the nations of the\\nworld have gradually been broken until greater liberty has\\nbeen secured, a more perfect acknowledgment of the rights\\nof the individual brought about, and a more tolerant re-\\nligious spirit fostered in every civilized land. These\\nthings have exerted a tremendous force in the intellectual\\nemancipation of man. At last the long struggle of the\\ncenturies begins to bear legitimate fruit, and the supreme\\neducational purpose of Christianity, that of asserting\\nIt must be freely admitted that such influences are powerful in shaping the\\ndestiny of man. and that they have had much to do with education, as we have\\noften shown in the foregoing pages. We must, however, leave the tracing of\\nthe movements to each individual student.\\n237", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "238 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nand maintaining the importance of the individual, seems\\ndestined to complete realization. The noble truths of broth-\\nerly love, equality before God, and human rights were ob-\\nscured during the long centuries, obscured sometimes by\\nthe very institution whose chief aim is to scatter light and\\ngive gladness to men. It has remained for modern educa-\\ntion to rediscover the educational principles which the\\nGreat Teacher promulgated, and which through the strug-\\ngle of centuries failed of recognition, and bore indifferent\\nfruit.\\nAmong the many social and political changes that have\\ntaken place during the last two centuries, we may mention\\na few that have a direct influence upon education. Preced-\\ning centuries had prepared the way, had broken the\\nground and sown the seed, and now the world was ready\\nto reap an abundant harvest.\\nThe great political events of this period may be briefly\\nsummarized as follows\\n1 TJie abolition of Jumian slavery. Great Britain,\\nSpain, France, Russia, and finally our own country have\\nforever removed the shackles of the slave within their bor-\\nders. Perhaps the greatest of all emancipation acts was\\nthat of Russia, who, in 1861, without bloodshed and with-\\nout serious disturbance, by royal decree, set free forty mil-\\nlion serfs. The abolition of slavery in nearly all civilized\\ncountries is the greatest political triumph of Christian civi-\\nlization. Without this there could never have come that\\nhigher intellectual emancipation which is the aim sought\\nin all education.\\n2. The extension of political rights. This is another\\nvictory that must be credited to the period under discus-\\nsion. At the beginning of the eighteenth century there\\nwas scarcely a nation that acknowledged the right of the", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "EIGHTEENTH AND NINETEENTH CENTURIES 239\\nindividual to a part in government, or to personal freedom.\\nMen were in vassalage to their immediate lord, who, in turn,\\nwas obliged to acknowledge the divine right of the king\\nover him. With the exception of Switzerland, who for cen-\\nturies had maintained her freedom, and of England, who had\\nsecured the rights of man only by much bloodshed, there\\nwas scarcely a people in the world that possessed the right\\nof self-government. Even England had secured that right\\nonly in the latter half of the seventeenth century under the\\nleadership of Cromwell. This right she did not concede\\nto her colonies, however, until the American Revolution\\nwrested her richest dependency from her, and forever\\nestablished the principle of self-government for a sov-\\nereign people.\\nImmediately following the American Revolution came\\nthe French Revolution, which taught the Old World the\\nideas so heroically conceived, so bravely supported, and so\\nsuccessfully realized in the New World. Nor is this all.\\nThe same principle has compelled the rulers of most of the\\nEuropean nations to divide the responsibility of govern-\\nment with their subjects, and to grant their people enlarged\\npowers but little short of absolute sovereignty.\\n3. Science has been recognized as a poivcj fiil instrument\\nof civilization. Through scientific discoveries there has\\nbeen a wonderful accession to material wealth, invention\\nhas been stimulated, and progress has been made in all\\ndirections. The spirit of investigation has been fostered,\\nold theories and superstitions have been abandoned, and\\ntruth has been established upon their ruins. In this\\ndirection more has been done by science during the eight-\\neenth and nineteenth centuries than during the whole\\nprevious history of the world. Man has now become\\nmaster of heretofore unknown forces which he may utilize", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "240 HISTORY OF ED U CATION\\nas a blessing for the human race. We shall see in later\\npages that scientific investigation has become the greatest\\neducational principle of modern times.\\n4. Religious freedom lias been attained. The sixteenth\\nand seventeenth centuries witnessed many struggles for\\nreligious liberty, which resulted in no decided victory. It\\nwas not until the last two centuries that complete religious\\nfreedom was gained. Men are no longer bound to accept\\necclesiastical decrees without question, but every one may\\nweigh and consider, and freely decide for himself. Civil\\nlaw protects, civil society sustains, and public opinion\\njustifies men in the exercise of personal liberty in religious\\nmatters.\\nBy the realization of these great principles educational\\nprogress has been encouraged. The greatest obstacles\\nhave been removed, and the future opens with possibilities\\nof universal brotherhood, universal peace, and universal\\neducation.\\nIt remains for us to study some of the men who have\\ncontributed to the educational progress of the eighteenth\\nand nineteenth centuries, to trace the chief movements in\\nthe intellectual development of the race, and to examine\\nthe school systems of the representative nations of the\\nworld at the present time.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXXVI\\nMODERN EDUCATORS\\nLiterature. Graham, Rousseau Morley, Life of Rousseau Rous-\\nseau, Emile iMunroe, Educational Ideal Vogel, Geschichte der Pada-\\ngogik Quick, Educational Reformers Weir, The Key to Rousseau s\\nEmile (article in Educational Review, Vol. XVI, p. 6i) Compayre,\\nHistory of Pedagogy.\\nROUSSEAU (1 71 2-1 778)\\nJean Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzer-\\nland. His father was a watchmaker, and upon him\\ndevolved the education of the boy, as the mother died\\nin childbirth. Rousseau s father was a man of dissipated\\nhabits, careless of responsibility, and of very violent tem-\\nper. He interested himself in his son far enough to teach\\nhim to read, and supplied him with the worthless novels\\nwhich he himself was fond of reading. This unwise\\ncourse doubtless had much to do in shaping the character\\nof the boy. Probably it was the evil effects of this early\\nliterature that led Rousseau later in life to oppose teaching\\nyoung children to read. Quick says, Rousseau professed\\na hatred of books, which he said kept the student so long\\nengaged upon the thoughts of other people as to have no\\ntime to make a store of his own.\\nAbandoned by his father at the age of ten, he was taken\\ninto the family of his uncle, who apprenticed him, first to\\na notary, and afterward to an engraver. At the age of\\nHIST. OF ED. 16 241", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "242\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nsixteen he ran away, and began a life of vagabondage.\\nWhile yet a young man, he became involved in intrigues,\\nwhich, according to his own account in his Confessions,\\nwere no credit to him. Madame de Warens, a young\\nwidow with whom he lived for some years, sent him to\\nschool at St. Lazare, where he studied the classics and\\nmusic but he soon lapsed again into vagabondage. He\\npicked up a little music, and attempted to give lessons in it,\\nbut with small success. He also took a position as private\\ntutor, but he had no talent for teaching. Later in life he\\nmarried Therese le Vasseur, a woman from the common\\nranks of life. She bore him five children, all of whom\\nhe committed to foundling hospitals without means of\\nidentification. He did this because he was not willing\\nthat his own comfort or plans should be disturbed by the\\npresence of children. Rousseau had reason to regret this\\nheartless and unnatural course when, in later years, he\\nsought in vain to find some trace of his children. Cora-\\npayre says, If he loved to observe children, he observed,\\nalas, only the children of others. There is nothing sadder\\nthan that page of the Confessions, in which he relates\\nhow he often placed himself at the window to observe the\\ndismission of a school, in order to listen to the conversa-\\ntions of children as a furtive and unseen observer\\nIn 1749 Rousseau successfully competed for a prize\\noffered by the Academy of Dijon on the subject, Has the\\nrestoration of the sciences contributed to purify or to\\ncorrupt manners Rousseau entered this contest quite\\naccidentally. He saw the notice of the contest in a news-\\npaper, and decided at once to compete. Of this event he\\nsays, If ever anything resembled a sudden inspiration,\\nit was the movement which began in me as I read this,\\n1 History of Pedagogy, p. 286.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ROUSSEAU 243\\nAll at once I felt myself dazzled by a thousand sparkling\\nlights; crowds of vivid ideas thronged into my mind with\\na force and confusion which threw me into unspeakable\\nagitation I felt my head whirling in a giddiness like that\\nof intoxication. A violent palpitation oppressed me un-\\nable to walk for difficulty of breathing, I sank under one\\nof the trees of the avenue, and passed half an hour there\\nin such a condition of excitement that when I rose I saw\\nthat the front of my waistcoat was all wet with tears,\\nthough I was wholly unconscious of shedding them. Ah,\\nif I could have written the quarter of what I saw and felt\\nunder that tree, with what clearness should I have brought\\nout all the contradictions of our social system with what\\nsimplicity should I have demonstrated that man is good\\nnaturally, and that by institution only is he made bad.\\nThis essay made him famous, and its publication was the\\nbeginning of a remarkable literary career. His principal\\nliterary works are his Confessions, in which he declares\\nthat he conceals nothing concerning himself the Social\\nContract, an anti-monarchic work, which many beUeve in-\\ncited the French Revolution Heloi se, a novel over-\\nstrained in sentiment and immoral in its teachings, but\\nfull of pathos and knowledge of the human heart and\\nEmile, his greatest work, which contains his educational\\ntheories. The Emile was an epoch-making book, which\\nexcited great interest throughout Europe. It is said that\\nthe philosopher Emanuel Kant became so absorbed in\\nreading it that he forgot to take his daily walk, a habit\\nwith which nothing before had interfered.\\nPedagogy. {a) Rousseau s first principle is, Every-\\nthing is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of\\nnature everything degenerates in the hands of man.\\nIt follows, then, that education has only to prevent the", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "244\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nentrance of evil, and let nature continue the work begun.\\nIt is to be a negative, as well as a natural, process. The\\nfallacy of this principle is very forcibly shown by Vogel\\nas follows: The very first sentence of Emile, that man\\nby nature is good, is a fundamental error for by nature,\\nthat is, from birth, man is neither good nor bad, but mor-\\nally indifferent. Only when the individual possesses ma-\\nture self-consciousness does he have a correct idea of good\\nand evil. If man by nature is good, it is inexplicable how\\nevil can originate within him. External things may, indeed,\\nfurnish motives to evil, but are never in themselves evil;\\nthe evil arises rather from the conduct of the individual\\ntoward outside objects. If, then, evil does not come\\nfrom without, and is not by nature already within the\\nheart, it is impossible that there shall be such a thing as\\nevil.\\n{b) The first education is physical and it begins at birth.\\nAs the physical wants of the child are natural they should\\nbe satisfied, but the clothing should be of such character\\nas not to interfere with the perfect freedom of the body.\\nGreat care must be taken to distinguish between the real\\nwants of the child and its passing whims. To gratify the\\nlatter because of the crying of the child will tend to form\\nbad habits. In this connection may be taught the first\\nmoral lessons. It thus becomes important that the speech,\\ngestures, and expressions of the young child shall be care-\\nfully studied. This is the first suggestion of the necessity\\nfor child study. The idea was later developed by Pesta-\\nlozzi and Froebel, and is one of the most important fea-\\ntures of recent pedagogical activity.\\n{c) The child s second period begins with his ability\\n1 Geschichte der Padagogik, p. 127. See also Compayre, History of\\nPedagogy, p. 286.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ROUSSEAU 245\\nto speak and continues till the twelfth year. No attempt\\nmust be made to educate the child for his future, but he\\nmust be allowed to get the full enjoyment of childhood by\\nfreedom to play as he will. Let him run, jump, and test\\nhis strength, thereby acquiring judgment of the material\\nforces about him, and learning how to take care of him-\\nself. Leave him free to do what he will, let him have\\nwhat he wishes, but, as far as possible, he should be led\\nto depend upon himself to satisfy his wants. Give him\\nperfect freedom, for freedom is the fundamental law of\\neducation. If he disobeys, do not punish him, disobedi-\\nence works its own punishment therefore, do not com-\\nmand him. The training of the senses is the important\\nwork of this period therefore, there should be as little\\nmoral training as possible, and absolutely no religious\\ntraining. The only moral idea for the child to learn is\\nthat of ownership. He is to be prevented from vice in\\na negative manner, that is, by never being allowed to\\nmeet it. The only habit that a child should be allowed\\nto form is to contract no habit.\\nHe is to have a preceptor devoted entirely to him, not\\nto instruct or control him, but to lead him to discover and\\nexperience for himself. In regard to his intellectual in-\\nstruction, Rousseau says of Emile at twelve years of age,\\nthat he has not learned to distinguish his right hand\\nfrom his left. Books are entirely proscribed, and, indeed,\\nthey are useless to him as he cannot read the only in-\\ntellectual knowledge the child receives is that which comes\\nfrom things through his own experience.\\nThis is a brief outline of the erratic, impossible, and\\ninconsistent training that Rousseau provides for Emile\\nduring this period when the foundation of character in the\\nchild must be laid. Greard says, Rousseau goes beyond", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "246 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nprogressive education to recommend an education in frag-\\nments, so to speak, which isolates the faculties in order to\\ndevelop them one after another, which establishes an abso-\\nlute line of demarkation between the different ages, and\\nwhich ends in distinguishing three stages of progress in\\nthe soul. Rousseau s error on this point is in forgetting\\nthat the education of the child ought to prepare for the\\neducation of the young man.\\nid) The third period extends from the twelfth to the fif-\\nteenth year. It is the period of intellectual development.\\nWith no habits of thought or study, being little else than\\na robust animal, in three years Emile is to obtain all needed\\nintellectual training. True, Rousseau excludes everything\\nthat is not useful, and places limitations even on that.\\nFor example, he naturally lays great stress upon the\\nphysical sciences which are to be taught in connection\\nwith things themselves, out of doors, by travel, and in\\nactual life but he allows no history, or grammar, or an-\\ncient languages. No books are permitted save Robinson\\nCrusoe, which Rousseau finds entirely suitable for Emile.\\nA trade is to be learned during this period.\\nWhile in general we condemn Rousseau s scheme of\\neducation, there is much in his methods that is most\\nexcellent. On this point Compayre comments as follows\\nAt least in the general method which he commends,\\nRousseau makes amends for the errors in his plan of\\nstudy Do not treat the child to discourses which he\\ncannot understand. No descriptions, no eloquence, no\\nfigures of speech. Be content to present to him appro-\\npriate objects. Let us transform our sensations into ideas.\\nBut let us not jump at once from sensible to intellectual\\nobjects. Let us always proceed slowly from one sensible\\nnotion to another. In general, let us never substitute", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ROUSSEAU 247\\nthe sign for the thing, except when it is impossible\\nfor us to show the thing.\\n{e) The fourth period of education begins at fifteen, the\\nperiod of adolescence. At this time, Emilc will know\\nnothing of history, nothing of humanity, nothing of art\\nand literature, nothing of God but he will know a\\nmanual trade. Rousseau himself says, Emilc has but\\nlittle knowledge, but that which he has is really his own\\nhe knows nothing by halves. He has a mind which, if\\nnot instructed, is at least capable of being instructed.\\nThe remaining work to be done in the education of Emile\\nconsists in training the sentiments of affection, the moral\\nand the religious sentiments. The feeling of love for his\\nfellow-beings is now to be cultivated. The error of this is\\nshown by Compayre, who says, For fifteen years Rous-\\nseau leaves the heart of Emile unoccupied. Rousseau\\nmade the mistake of thinking that a child can be taught\\nto love as he is taught to read and write, and that lessons\\ncould be given to Emile in feeling just as lessons are\\ngiven to him in geometry.\\nIn morals Rousseau taught that the first duty of every\\none is to take care of himself we must love ourselves\\nfirst of all, and find our greatest interest in those things\\nthat best serve us. We must seek that which is useful\\nto us and avoid what harms us, instead of loving our\\nenemies and doing good to those that hate us, as taught\\nby Christ. We must love those who love us, while we\\nmust avoid and hate those who hate us.\\nAs to religion, Emile does not yet know at fifteen\\nthat he has a soul, and Rousseau thinks that perhaps the\\neighteenth year is still too early for him to learn that fact\\nfor, if he tries to learn it before the proper time, he runs\\nHistory of Pedagogy, p. 298.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "248 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nthe risk of never really knowing that he possesses an\\nimmortal soul. But as religion furnishes a check upon\\nthe passions, it should be taught to the boy when eighteen\\nyears of age. He is not to be instructed in the doctrines\\nof any particular sect, but should be allowed to select that\\nreligious belief which most strongly appeals to his reason.\\nModern investigation has proven the utter fallacy of Rous-\\nseau s teachings in this respect. Indeed, it seems to be\\nestabhshed that the most orthodox period of the child s\\nlife occurs before the fifteenth year, the time when Rous-\\nseau would begin his religious training. Conformable to\\nthis truth, many sects confirm children and receive them\\ninto the church at or before the fifteenth year.^\\nHaving brought Emile to the period of life at which\\nhe is to marry, Rousseau proceeds to create in Sophie\\nthe ideal wife. It is not the education of women as\\nsuch that Rousseau discusses, but their education with\\nreference to man. He says, The whole education of\\nwomen should be relative to men to please them, to\\nbe useful to them, to make themselves honored and\\nloved by them, to educate the young, to care for the\\nolder, to advise them, to console them, to make life\\nagreeable and sweet to them, these are the duties of\\nwomen in every age. Consequently the sole instruction\\nwoman needs is in household duties, in care of children,\\nin ways to add to the happiness of her husband. Her\\nown happiness or development does not enter into\\nRousseau s scheme. This is the weakest part of his\\neducational theory. The world is gradually awakening\\n1 See address of Professor Earl Barnes, Proceedings of the National\\nEducational Association for 1893, P- 765. Also article by Dr. G. Stanley\\nHall in Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. I, p. 196. Note also the religious de-\\nvelopment of Laura Bridgman.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS ROUSSEAU 249\\nto .the fact that woman s intellectual capacity is not\\ninferior to that of man, and the prejudices of ages are\\nslowly disappearing.\\nRousseau s pedagogical theories made a profound im-\\npression throughout Europe, and though often inconsist-\\nent, extravagant, and visionary, they set the world to\\nthinking of the child and his psychological development.\\nA new direction was thus given to educational theory\\nand practice, and upon this basis Pestalozzi, Froebel, and\\nother modern educators have built. Rousseau must, there-\\nfore, be reckoned among the greatest pedagogical writers of\\nmodern times. Karl Schmidt pronounces the Emile a\\nPlatonic republic of education, nevertheless, Rousseau s\\nwork is a great universal achievement, the importance of\\nwhich Goethe recognizes when he calls the book the\\nnature-gospel of education.\\n1 Geschichte der Piidagogik, Vol. Ill, p. 559.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXXVII\\nMODERN EDUCATORS {^Continued)\\nBASEDOW 1 1 723-1 790)\\n4\\nThe name of Basedow is connected with what is known\\nas the Philanthropiiiic experiment. He was born at Ham-\\nburg, his father being a wigmaker. Not being appreciated\\nin his home, the son ran away and bound himself out\\nas servant in the household of a gentleman. Through\\nthe influence of this man, who discovered his extraor-\\ndinary abilities, he was reconciled with his father, and\\nreturned home. He was sent to the Gymnasium at Ham-\\nburg, and afterward, through the assistance of friends,\\nwent to the university of Leipsic, where he studied theol-\\nogy. Here he lived a rather wild life, and upon the com-\\npletion of his studies was found too unorthodox to take\\norders. Accordingly, he became tutor (Hauslehrer) to\\nthe children of Herr von Quaalen. In this position he\\nshowed great aptitude and originality in the instruction of\\nchildren. His method of teaching included conversation,\\nadaptation of play, and use of the woods, fields, plants,\\nbirds, and other works of nature.\\nOwing to his original manner of teaching, Basedow\\nobtained the best results. In teaching Latin, for instance,\\nhe began by pointing to objects and giving their Latin\\n1 Special References, Williams, History of Modern Education Quick,\\nEducational Reformers, pp. 144, 288; Lang, Basedow (Teachers\\nManuals, No. 16).\\n250", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS BASEDOW 251\\nnames. His pupils, in a very short time, learned to speak\\nLatin almost as well as their native language. Basedow\\nhimself learned French, after the same manner, of the\\ngoverness of the house.\\nHe next became Professor of Morals and Polite Litera-\\nture at Soroe, Denmark, where his unorthodox writings\\nagain led him into trouble. He was removed to the\\nGymnasium at Altona. Rousseau s Emile produced a\\nprofound impression upon him, as it had done upon many-\\nother thinkers in Europe, and many of his theories are\\nprobably traceable to that book. Basedow was convinced\\nof the need of a radical reform in the schools of Germany,\\nand set himself the task of effecting it. Bernsdorf, the\\nDanish minister of education, became interested in his\\nwritings, and, together with several of the crowned heads\\nof Europe, assisted him in bringing out his Elementary\\nBook (Elementarbuch), which foreshadowed his plans.\\nIt was modeled after the Orbis Pictus of Comenius.\\nThe interest of these distinguished patrons shows how\\nurgent was the need of an educational reform. Basedow\\nalso made the acquaintance of the great literary men of\\nthe time, chief among whom was Goethe. In temperament\\nhe was misanthropic and peevish, owing in part, doubtless,\\nto ill health brought on by overwork and worry.\\nThe Philanthropin. Indirectly through Goethe, Prince\\nLeopold of Dessau was attracted to Basedow. The prince\\ndetermined to found an institute in which the plans of the\\ngreat educator could be carried out. The institute, called\\nthe Philanthropin, was established, and became cele-\\nbrated throughout Europe. Quick says Then, for the\\nfirst and probably for the last time, a school was started\\nin which use and wont were entirely set aside, and every-\\n1 Lang, Basedow, p. 6.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "252 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nthing done on improved principles. Such a bold enter-\\nprise attracted the attention of all interested in education,\\nfar and near but it would seem that few parents con-\\nsidered their own children vilia corpora (vile bodies), on\\nwhom experiments might be made for the public good.\\nWhen, in May, 1776, a number of schoolmasters and\\nothers collected from different parts of Germany, and even\\nfrom beyond Germany, to be present by Basedow s invita-\\ntion at an examination of the children, they found only\\nthirteen pupils in the Philanthropin, including Basedow s\\nown son and daughter.\\nThe main purpose of the Philanthropin was to give\\nBasedow an opportunity to carry out his new educational\\nideas. A prominent feature of the undertaking was that\\nit should be a model institute for the preparation of\\nteachers in the theory and practice of the new education.\\nThe institution was to be a school of true humanity. Its\\nname was to give evidence of its object the education of\\nyouth in accordance with the laws of nature and humanity.\\nIn it Basedow was to exemplify his ideas of education.\\nThe best of teachers were to be employed, the best appli-\\nances furnished, and the instruction was to be founded\\nentirely on sense-perception. The Philanthropin was\\nopened in 1774, and at once awoke universal interest.\\nBut this school, conceived in love for humanity, founded\\nwith the noblest of purposes, and exemplifying much of\\nsound educational philosophy, was destined to be short-\\nlived. It was abandoned in less than twenty years. This\\ndownfall was owing to several causes, some of which may\\nbe mentioned, i. The institution was purely secular in\\ncharacter, and the world was not yet ready for this. Parents\\nwere suspicious of a non-sectarian school, the idea of\\n1 Educational Reformers, p. 150.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 BASEDOW 253\\nwhich was so contrary to that of the traditional church-\\nschool. Hence the small number of pupils in the Philan-\\nthropm, even at the height of its prosperity under Basedow.\\n2. Altogether too many subjects were included in\\nthe course. Quick outlines the work undertaken as fol-\\nlows (i) Man. Here he would use the pictures of\\nforeigners and wild men, also a skeleton, a hand in spirits,\\nand other objects still more appropriate to a surgical\\nmuseum. (2) Animals. Only such animals are to be\\ndepicted as it is useful to know about, because there is\\nmuch that ought to be known, and a good method of in-\\nstruction must shorten rather than increase the hours of\\nstudy. Articles of commerce made from the animals may\\nalso be exhibited. (3) Trees and plants. Only the most\\nimportant are to be selected. Of these the seeds also\\nmust be shown, and cubes formed of the different woods.\\nGardeners and farmers implements are to be explained.\\n(4) Mineral and chemical substances. (5) Mathemati-\\ncal instruments for weighing and measuring also the air\\npump, siphon, and the like. The form and motion of the\\nearth are to be explained with globes and maps. (6)\\nTrades. The use of various tools is to be taught. (7)\\nHistory. This is to be illustrated by engravings of his-\\ntorical events. (8) Commerce. Samples of commodities\\nmay be produced. (9) The younger children should be\\nshown pictures of familiar objects about the house and its\\nsurroundings.\\nThere are very many suggestive ideas in Basedow s\\ncourse, which have been adopted in modern schools but\\nthe trouble was that he demanded too much, and he\\nhimself acknowledged later in life that he had exag-\\ngerated notions of the amount boys were capable of\\n1 Educational Reformers, p. 15J.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "254 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nlearning, and accordingly his curriculum was very much\\nshortened.\\n3. Another reason for the failure of the Philanthropin\\nwas Basedow s indiscriminate condemnation of everything\\nthat had been done before, and of all who failed to agree\\nwith him. This awoke the antagonism of teachers every-\\nwhere. All reformers are apt to be radical in their own\\nviews and denunciatory of the opinions of others. Had\\nthere been less to criticise in Basedow himself, he would\\ndoubtless have triumphed over all opposition. But his\\neducational theories and practices did not produce the re-\\nsults which he predicted for them, and his opponents were\\nquick to mark every weakness that his system betrayed.\\n4. More fatal still, perhaps, was the unfitness of Base-\\ndow for the directorship of the institution. He was capri-\\ncious, lacking in self-command and proper balance, visionary,\\nand often suspicious of the teachers under his direction!\\nSuch causes prevented the experiment at Dessau from\\nfulfilling the bright hopes of Basedow and the friends\\nwho assisted him in starting the enterprise.\\nBasedow retired after four years leadership, and the\\ninstitution continued for a few years with varying success,\\nunder such men as Campe, Salzmann, and Matthison.\\nYet, when the Philanthropin was closed in 1793, the\\nteachers, dispersed throughout Germany, carried the new\\ngospel wherever they went, arousing fresh interest in\\neducation and doing much for its advancement.\\nQuick thinks that Basedow s system possessed great\\nmerks for children, say, between the ages of six and\\nten. Kant was greatly disappointed at the result. Rous-\\nseau s Emile had awakened his interest in education,\\nand he looked to the experiment at Dessau for an exem-\\nplification of the new ideals. His estimate of the work", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 BASEDOW 255\\naccomplished is as follows Experience shows that often\\nin our experiments we get quite opposite results from what\\nwe had anticipated. We see, too, that since experiments\\nare necessary, it is not in the power of one generation to\\nform a complete plan of education. The only experimental\\nschool which, to some extent, made a beginning in clearing\\nthe road, was the Institute at Dessau. This praise at least\\nmust be allowed, notwithstanding the many faults which\\ncould be brought up against it faults which are sure to\\nshow themselves when we come to the results of our experi-\\nments, and which merely prove that fresh experiments\\nare necessary. It was the only school in which teachers\\nhad liberty to work according to their own methods and\\nschemes, and where they were in free communication both\\namong themselves and with all learned men throughout\\nGermany.\\nWritings. Basedow s chief educational writing is the\\nbook called the Elementary. The Book of Method\\nwas the first to appear, and was really the first part of the\\nElementary. Concerning the Book of Method, Lang\\nsays, This famous manual was undoubtedly the greatest\\nof Basedow s educational writings. It was full of\\nvaluable suggestions. It set educators to thinking, and\\nhas been a powerful motor in bringing about a change in\\nschool instruction.\\nThe Elementary, containing Basedow s complete\\nscheme of education, has been called the Orbis Pictus\\nof the eighteenth century. The general opinion is that\\nBasedow obtained the root ideas of this work from Co-\\nmenius, Locke, and Rousseau. There is but little that\\nis original in his pedagogical principles, but he made an\\neffort to carry out the progressive teachings which had\\n1 Kant, Ueber Padagogik.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "256 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nentered into the theories of advanced thinkers but had\\nnot been worked into practice. Still, the problem of\\neducation became through Basedow better understood, and\\nhe is deserving of a place among the great educators of\\nthe world for his experiment at Dessau toward the solution\\nof that problem. The experiment was crude, but it has\\nborne fruit in modern schools and their methods, in better\\nschool buildings and apparatus, in trained teachers, in\\nmilder forms of discipline, in the improved study of nature,\\nand in a broader and more philanthropic view of man s\\nduty to his fellow-man.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXXVIII\\nMODERN EDUCATORS {Conthmed)\\nPESTALOZZI (1746-1827)\\nLiterature. De Gtdmps, Pestalozzi, his Life and Works; Krusi,\\nLife, Work, and Influence of Pestalozzi Quick, Educational Reformers\\nVoji Rmtmer, Life and System of Pestalozzi Ditrrell, New Life in Edu-\\ncation Gill, Systems of Education Skinner, The Schoolmaster in\\nLiterature Barnard, Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism Vogel, Geschichte\\ndes deutschen Volksschulwesens Rein, Encyklopadisches Handbuch\\nder Padagogik.\\nJoHANN Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Zurich, Swit-\\nzerland, January 12, 1746. His father was a physician of\\ngreat intelligence, and his death before the boy reached\\nhis sixth year deprived the latter of a wise counselor. The\\ncharacter of the mother is shown by the dying appeal of\\nPestalozzi s father to his servant Babeli For God s sake\\nand in the name of mercy do not forsake my wife. When\\nI am dead she will be helpless, and my children will fall\\ninto the hands of strangers.\\nBabeli replied, I will never leave your wife, if it should\\nplease God to take you hence. I will remain with her till\\ndeath, if she wishes me to do so, a promise which she\\nfaithfully kept. Kriisi thinks that, The sacrifices of a\\nmother for her children do not show more nobility of soul\\nthan was displayed by this poor, uneducated girl, who gave\\nup all her worldly interest for a family not her own. Who\\ncan say that Pestalozzi himself was not inspired to his long\\nlife of devotion to the interests of the lowly by the unselfish\\nconsecration of this lowly woman to his family\\nHIST. OF ED. 17 257", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "258 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nPestalozzi did not care for companions of his own age.\\nHe was peculiarly a mother s boy, content to grow up\\ndreamy and impractical at her quiet hearthstone. Conse-\\nquently he was awkward and reserved, easily imposed upon,\\nand lacking in self-reHance. These qualities remained with\\nhim as long as he lived, and caused him many painful fail-\\nures. On the other hand, the pious example of his mother\\nand the tranquil hfe he led with her made the boy reflect-\\nive and imaginative, while his soul became filled with\\ngreat thoughts for the well-being of mankind. His grand-\\nfather, a country pastor, whom he often visited, by his\\nsimple, godly life exerted a great influence in shaping\\nPestalozzi s religious character.\\nSchooling. \u00e2\u0080\u0094At school he was the butt of ridicule among\\nthe scholars because of his awkwardness, his simplicity, and\\nhis ingenuousness. His comrades dubbed him Harry\\nOddity of Follyville, a nickname that carried no reproach\\nwith it, but was intended to express good-natured appreci-\\nation of his characteristics. Mr. Quick tells us that his\\ngood nature and obliging disposition gained him many\\nfriends. No doubt his friends profited from his willingness\\nto do anything for them. We find that when, on the shock\\nof an earthquake, teachers and scholars alike rushed out of\\nthe schoolhouse, Harry Oddity was the boy sent back to\\nfetch out caps and books. While not brilliant as a scholar\\nhe was by no means dull. He was more ready in grasping\\nthe content than the 7;. of the subject. Consequently all\\nthrough life he never overcame his weakness in some of\\nthe commonest requirements of education.i\\n1 In regard to the criticisms made against him at Burgdorf, Pestalozzi says\\nIt was whispered that I myself could not write, nor work accounts, nor even\\nread properly. Popular reports are not always entirely wrong. It is true I\\ncould not write, nor read, nor work accounts well.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PESTALOZZl 259\\nLife Purpose. After completing the work of the ele-\\nmentary schools, he entered the university of Zurich,\\nwhere he sustained himself with credit. Even while\\nyet a boy he joined a league of students which was\\nintended to resist injustice. Of himself and his fellow-\\nstudents, he says, We decided to live for nothing\\nbut independence, well-doing, and sacrifice for love of\\ncountry.\\nSpeaking of society as he saw it, he says, I saw\\nthe unfortunate condition of all mankind, especially of\\nmy own countrymen, in all its hollowness. I saw in-\\ndulgence despoiling the highest moral, spiritual, and\\ncivil interests, and sapping the lifeblood of our race as\\nnever before in the history of Europe. I saw finally\\nthe people of our nation steeped in poverty, misery,\\nand vmiversal want. From youth up the purpose of\\nmy life has been to secure to the poor of my country\\na happier fate by improving and simplifying their\\neducational privileges. But the only sure foundation\\nupon which we may hope to secure national culture\\nand elevate the poor is that of the home where the love\\nof father and mother is the ruling principle. Through\\nthe unselfishness, truth, strength, and purity of their\\nlove, parents kindle faith in their children. This leads\\nto that implicit obedience which is based on confidence\\nand love.\\nLove for humanity, desire to ameliorate suffering, and\\nthorough unselfishness furnished the key to Pestalozzi s\\npurpose and lifework.\\nThe Christian Ministry. It was this lofty pur-\\npose that led him first to attempt the work of the Chris-\\ntian ministry, a work which his aged grandfather\\nencouraged. But he failed in his first sermon, and at", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "26o HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nonce decided that he had mistaken his calling. Kriisi^\\nsays that he stopped short in his sermon and made\\nmistakes in the Lord s Prayer. This may have been due\\nto embarrassment, which made the young minister for-\\nget the sermon which he had been obliged to commit\\nto memory. More likely, however, it was an exalted\\nidea of the proper quahfications of a clergyman, com-\\npared with his own humble merits, which induced\\nhim to exchange the study of theology for that of\\nlaw.\\nThe Law. His motive in devoting himself to law\\nwas the same that had led him to the ministry, his\\ndesire to be a blessing to his fellow-beings. He saw the\\npeasantry cheated and imposed upon because of their\\nignorance, and determined to become their champion.\\nKriisi thinks that his study of the law must have pro-\\nduced negative results by showing him the insufficiency\\nof human legislation to do away with abuses, unless\\nsupported by principles of charity and justice. He\\ntherefore gave up this enterprise also.\\nFarming. The advice of a dying friend, Bluntschli,\\nNever embark in any operation which might become\\ndangerous to your peace of mind, because of the sim-\\nplicity and tenderness of your disposition, may have\\nhad its effect upon Pestalozzi. He now entered upon his\\nthird venture. Having induced a wealthy firm in Zurich\\nto advance him money, he bought about one hundred\\nacres of unimproved land in the canton of Aargau, where\\nhe proposed to raise madder as a means of profit.\\nOnce more his real purpose was philanthropic, as he\\nintended to show the poor peasants improved methods\\nof farming whereby they could obtain better results for\\n1 Life, Work, and Influence of Pestalozzi, p. 17.\\nJ", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PESTALOZZI 261\\ntheir labor and thereby be enabled to live more com-\\nfortably. He named the place Neuhof.\\nMarriage. At this time he had just passed his\\ntwenty-first year. We pause to mention an event that\\nhad much to do with his happiness and with his later\\nlife. He had made the acquaintance of Anna Schulthess,\\na young lady of considerable means, and sought her\\nhand in marriage. His letter to her, proposing marriage,\\nis remarkable for its frankness, for the ingenuous con-\\nfession of his own weaknesses, and for its correct\\nestimate of himself. A few quotations from this letter\\nmust suffice.^ My failings, which appear to me the\\nmost important in relation to the future, are improvi-\\ndence, want of caution, and want of that presence of\\nmind which is necessary to meet unexpected changes\\nin my future prospects. I hope, by continued exertions,\\nto overcome them but know that I still possess them\\nto a degree that does not allow me to conceal them\\nfrom the maiden I love. I am further bound\\nto confess that I shall place the duties toward my\\nfatherland in advance of those to my wife, and that,\\nalthough I mean to be a tender husband, I shall be in-\\nexorable even to the tears of my wife, if they should\\never try to detain me from performing my duties as\\na citizen, to their fullest extent. My wife shall be the\\nconfidant of my heart, the partner of all my most secret\\ncounsel. A great and holy simplicity shall reign in my\\nhouse. My dear friend, I love you so tenderly\\nand fervently that this confession has cost me much,\\nsince it may even take from me the hope of winning you.\\nAnna was not discouraged by the picture which the man\\nshe loved drew of himself, and she consented to become\\n1 Both Quick and Kriisi give this letter in full.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "262 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nhis wife. They were married in his twenty-fourth year,\\nand thus began a long period of happy wedded life that\\nextended over fifty years. Quick tells us that the fore-\\nbodings of the letter were amply realized, and yet we\\nmay well believe that Madame Pestalozzi never repented\\nof her choice.\\nNeuhof. But to return to Pestalozzi s experiment in\\nfarming, matters had not progressed well. The Zurich\\ncapitalists became suspicious, and after an investigation\\ndecided to withdraw their support, thus precipitating fail-\\nure. Of this Pestalozzi himself says, The cause of the\\nfailure of my undertaking lay essentially and exclusively in\\nmyself, and in my pronounced incapacity for every kind of\\nundertaking which requires practical ability. One cannot\\nfail to admire the energy and courage of the man, who,\\nconscious of his own weakness, still persevered in great\\nenterprises until he achieved success.\\nIt was not for himself, but for humanity, that Pestalozzi\\nlabored, and no discouragement could daunt, no failure\\ndefeat, no lack of appreciation or misunderstanding check,\\nthe ardor of his zeal for the great work that absorbed his\\nlife. Around him were men and women in poverty and\\nmisery, whose children were growing up in vice and igno-\\nrance, to perpetuate the evils under which their parents\\nsuffered. With the spirit of his divine Master, Pestalozzi\\nsought to elevate and bless those around him.\\nAccordingly, after the failure caused by the withdrawal\\nof the financial support heretofore mentioned, he started\\nagain at Neuhof, using his wife s money. He opened an\\nindustrial school for the poor, which Kriisi calls the\\nfirst school of its kind ever conceived, and the mother of\\nhundreds now existing on both sides of the Atlantic.\\nThis was in 1775. He gathered fifty children together,", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS PESTALOZZI 263\\nand fed, clothed, housed, and taught them without com-\\npensation in return for this they were to work in the\\nfields in summer and at spinning in the winter. But this\\nexperiment also was doomed to bring disappointment. The\\nchildren were lazy, shiftless, and dishonest; their work\\nwas of little use to Pestalozzi, because of their lack of\\nskill and their bad habits. They would often run away as\\nsoon as they were well fed and had a new suit of clothes.\\nParents were un appreciative and dissatisfied, demanding\\npay for the labor of their children. Was there ever a\\nmore discouraging situation than this which Pestalozzi had\\nto confront, when people demanded pay for accepting the\\nphilanthropic and unselfish measures taken for the good\\nof their children and for their own elevation\\nThis could not continue long, and in 1780 Pestalozzi was\\nobliged to close his school. He found himself badly in\\ndebt, with his wife s property gone. In trying to help beg-\\ngars, he himself had become a beggar. But even under\\nthese overwhelming misfortunes he says, My failure\\nshowed me the truth of my plans, and this has long\\nsince been verified, both in his ideas of farming and in the\\nindustrial school.\\nAuthorship. The next eighteen years, though passed\\nby Pestalozzi in extreme poverty, were not unfruitful. He\\nbegan to write pamphlets and books, the first book being,\\nThe Evening Hours of a Hermit, which appeared in\\n1780. His second book, Leonard and Gertrude, was\\npublished the year following. It created great interest\\nand brought Pestalozzi immediate fame. The government\\nof Berne presented him a gold medal, which, however, he\\nwas obliged to sell to procure the necessities of life for his\\nfamily. In Leonard and Gertrude Pestalozzi gives a\\nhomely and touching picture of life among the lowly, and", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "264 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nshows how a good woman uses her opportunities for up-\\nlifting and educating, first her own family, and then her\\nneighbors. In this work she is aided by the village school-M\\nmaster and the magistrate, who are inspired by her example\\nand leadership. Pestalozzi wrote several other books dur-\\ning this period, but none to equal Leonard and Gertrude.\\nStanz. In the meantime, the French Revolution broke\\nout, and Pestalozzi, influenced by the writings of Rousseau,\\nbecame an ardent champion of the new order of things.\\nHe seems to have acquired considerable political influence,\\nas the Directors of the Government of Switzerland thought\\nit necessary to win him to their cause by giving him a\\npolitical office. They therefore asked him what office he\\nwanted, and he replied, I want to be a schoolmaster.\\nAccordingly, when the French had pillaged the inhabitants\\nand burned their homes, Pestalozzi was sent to Stanz,\\nthe only village left in the canton of Nidwalden, to estab-\\nlish a school.^ Now for the first time he found himself in\\nthe calling for which his whole nature had yearned, for\\nwhich he was peculiarly suited, and in which he was\\ndestined to become famous.\\nAt the age of fifty-three Pestalozzi began his work at\\nStanz. The government gave him an empty convent in\\nwhich to hold his school, and, before it was ready for\\noccupancy, children flocked to it for admission. The\\ndevastation of the land by the French and the consequent\\nlack of the necessities of life among the people increased\\nthe difficulties of Pestalozzi s task. His own description\\nof the beginning of his work is full of eloquence. Speak-\\ning of the school, he says, I was among them from morn-\\ning till evening. Everything tending to benefit body and\\nsoul I administered with my own hand. Every assistance,\\n1 See Kriisi, p. 28, for an account of his appointment.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "MODERN ED UCA TORS PESTALOZZI 265\\nevery lesson they received, came from me. My hand was\\njoined to theirs, and my smile accompanied theirs. They\\nseemed out of the world and away from Stanz they were\\nwith me and I with them. We shared food and drink. I\\nhad no household, no friends, no servants around me I\\nhad only them. Was their health good, I enjoyed it with\\nthem were they sick, I stood at their side. I slept in\\ntheir midst. I was the last to go to bed and the first to\\nrise. I prayed with them, and taught them in bed till they\\nfell asleep. How true is the saying that, He lived with\\nbeggars in order that beggars might learn to live like\\nmen.\\nThus living with them, teaching them, inspiring them to\\nbe good, devoting his whole thought to their welfare, Pes-\\ntalozzi, who was described as either a good-natured fool,\\nor a poor devil, who was compelled, by indigence, to per-\\nform the menial office of schoolmaster, began a work\\nthat has revolutionized educational method.\\nBut the same discouragements that had met him at\\nNeuhof attended him at Stanz. Parents brought their\\nchildren to the asylum only to be clothed, and then re-\\nmoved them upon the slightest pretexts. Nevertheless,\\nthe work of Pestalozzi at Stanz was not a failure, though\\nthe school was rendered houseless by the French soldiers\\nin 1799, and had to be abandoned after less than five\\nmonths existence. Kriisi .comments upon this period of\\nPestalozzi s life as follows Let those who now witness\\nthe mighty changes that have taken place in education pay\\ngrateful tribute to the man who first took up arms against\\nthe hollow systems of the old school routine, and who\\nshowed the path to those delightful regions of thought,\\nin whose well-tilled soil rich harvests will ever be reaped\\nby the patient laborer.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "266 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nTo the philanthropist and friend of education, Stanz\\nwill always be a hallowed spot, exhibiting, as it does, the\\npicture of this venerable teacher sitting among the out-\\ncast children, animated by the very spirit of Christ, and\\nby a great idea which not only filled his own soul, but also\\ninspired those who witnessed his labors.\\nBurgdorf. But Stanz proved the turning point in Pes-\\ntalozzi s career. He was soon chosen assistant teacher\\nat Burgdorf. His experience at Stanz, without books and\\nwithout appliances, had compelled him to invent methods\\nof interesting the children. He was thus brought to the\\nuse of objects, and here we have the beginning of practi-\\ncal object teaching. It was not long, however, before the\\nhead master of the school became jealous of him because\\nhe secured the attention and affection of the pupils, and\\nPestalozzi s dismissal was obtained on the ground that he\\ndid not know how to read and spell correctly, a charge\\nwhich, as we have seen, was without doubt true. As to\\nhis method of teaching, Ramsauer, one of his pupils, tells\\nus that there was no regular plan, not any time-table.\\nAs Pestalozzi, in his zeal, did not tie himself to any\\nparticular time, we generally went on until eleven o clock\\nwith whatever we commenced at eight, and by ten o clock\\nhe was always tired and hoarse. We knew when it was\\neleven by the noise of the other school children in the\\nstreet, and then we usually all ran out without bidding\\ngood-by. Certainly no one will commend such school-\\nroom practice, and at first glance Pestalozzi would seem\\nto merit only censure but his enthusiasm, his zeal for the\\ngood of his fellow-beings, and his consciousness of possess-\\ning the truth triumphed over his lack of system as well\\nas over other obstacles. The school committee of Burg-\\n1 Pestalozzi, p. 36.\\nJ", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "MODERN- EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PESTALOZZI 267\\ndorf appreciated this, as is shown by their report. He\\n(Pestalozzi) has shown what powers are hidden in the\\nfeeble child, and in what manner they can be developed.\\nThe pupils have made astonishing progress in some\\nbranches, thereby proving that every child is capable of\\ndoing something if the teacher is able to draw out his\\ntalent, and awaken the powers of his mind in the order\\nof their natural development.\\nUpon his dismissal from this position he united with\\nHermann Kriisi in founding a private school. Pupils\\nincreased in numbers, and at last Pestalozzi was on the\\nroad to success as well as fame. He gathered a strong\\ncorps of teachers about him, who not only contributed to\\nthe success of the institution, but sat at the feet of their\\nrecognized master, and loyally supported his measures.\\nDuring his life at Burgdorf, he issued his work entitled\\nHow Gertrude teaches her Children (1801), in which he\\nattempts to give his system of education. A work, says\\nProfessor Hunziker,^ whose contents in no way meet the\\ndemands of the subtitle. (The full title is, How Gertrude\\nteaches her Children an Attempt to direct Mothers how\\nto teach their own Children.\\nYverdon. In 1804 Pestalozzi was obliged to vacate his\\nquarters at Burgdorf, and after some hesitation he moved\\nhis school to Yverdon, into an old fortress, which, says\\nKriisi, having stood many a siege of invading armies,\\nwas now captured by a schoolmaster and it was hence-\\nforth to become more formidable in its attack upon igno-\\nrance, than it had before been in its defense of liberty.\\nAt Yverdon Pestalozzi was enabled to carry out the prin-\\nciples of education which he had so long held, and this\\nplace must be recognized as the Mecca of Pestalozzianism.\\n1 Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik, Vol. V, p. 315.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "268 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nHis success at Burgdorf had drawn to him the attention\\nof the world, and now educators, philosophers, and\\nprinces began to study his theories, while many visited the\\ninstitution to witness its peculiar workings. Without\\ndoubt the many visitors seriously disturbed the work, as\\nPestalozzi took great pains to show what his pupils could\\ndo, especially when men of influence came. During the\\nfirst five years there was great prosperity, the number\\nof students reaching one hundred and fifty. Pestalozzi\\nusually arose at two in the morning, and commenced liter-\\nary work and his example was followed by his teachers,\\none of whom testifies, There were years in which not\\none of us was found in bed after three o clock, and sum-\\nmer and winter we worked from three to six in the\\nmorning.\\nAt first the teachers were thoroughly united, cordially\\ncarrying out the teachings of Father Pestalozzi. But\\nafter a time private ambitions and personal jealousies crept\\nin and destroyed harmony. Many of the best teachers\\nleft and the school was closed.^ In 1825, after an exist-^,\\nence of twenty years, the institute at Yverdon was aban-\\ndoned, and once more Pestalozzi saw the apparent failure\\nof his hopes. He died two years later, at the age of\\neighty-one.\\nMr. Quick comments upon this event as follows Thus\\nthe sun went down in clouds, and the old man, when he\\ndied at the age of eighty,^ in 1829,* had seen the apparent\\nfailure of all his toils. He had not, however, failed in\\nEncyklopadisches Handbuch, Vol. V, p. 319.\\n2 Kriisi, whose father was associated with Pestalozzi, gives a full account of\\nthese dissensions. He also tells many interesting incidents connected with\\nPestalozzi and his school at Yverdon, p. 45.\\nShould be eighty-one. 1827.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "MODERN- EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PESTALOZZI 269\\nreality. It has been said of him that his true function was\\nto educate ideas, not children, and when twenty years\\nlater the centenary of his birth was celebrated by school-\\nmasters, not only in his native country, but throughout\\nGermany, it was found that Pestalozzian ideas had been\\nsown, and were bearing fruit, over the greater part of\\ncentral Europe.\\nProfessor Hunziker says of Pestalozzi s influence,\\nEighty years have passed since Pestalozzi was laid in\\nthe grave. The social thinker, who pointed out the way of\\nreform for humanity in his Leonard and Gertrude, who\\nattempted to solve the enigmas and inequalities of social\\nlife in his Inquiries concerning the Course of Nature in\\nthe Development of Mankind, is almost forgotten. But\\nthe name of Pestalozzi shines brighter than ever in the\\nfield of pedagogics. In every branch of education we hear\\nthe warning cry, return to Pestalozzi Let the watchword\\nfor the future be Pestalozzi forever\\nSummary of Pestalozzi s Work. No one can study the\\nhistory of Pestalozzi without discovering the secret of his\\neducational purpose. It is revealed in every enterprise he\\nundertook, in every book he wrote, in his whole lifework.^\\nLet us briefly sum up the work he accomplished\\n1. He showed how the theories of Comenius and Rous-\\nseau could be applied. By this a decided impulse was\\ngiven to educational reform, and the way was prepared for\\nthe wonderful educational revival of the present century.\\n2. His greatest pedagogical principle is that education\\nconsists in the harmonious development of all the human\\npowers.\\n1 Educational Reformers, p. 183.\\n2 Encyklopadisches Handbuch, Vol. V, p. 320.\\n3 In him the most interesting thing is Ms N/e. Quick.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "270 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\n3. Development should follow the order of nature.\\nWhile he doubtless borrowed this thought from Rousseau,\\nunlike Rousseau he held that the order of nature requires\\nthe child to be taught with other children.\\n4. All knowledge is obtained through the senses by the\\nself-activity of the child.\\n5. Instruction should be based on observation, espe-\\ncially with young children. Hence objects must be freely\\nused. There are three classes of object lessons, those\\napplying to form, to tnimber, and to speech. Mr. Quick\\nsays, By his object lessons Pestalozzi aimed at, (l)\\nenlarging gradually the sphere of the child s intuition, that\\nis, increasing the number of objects falling under his imme-\\ndiate perception (2) impressing upon him those percep-\\ntions of which he had become conscious, with certainty,\\nclearness, and precision (3) imparting to him a compre-\\nhensive knowledge of language for the expression of\\nwhatever had become or was becoming an object of his\\nconsciousness, in consequence either of the spontaneous\\nimpulse of his own nature, or of the assistance of tuition.\\n6. The mother is the natural educator of the child in its\\nearly years. Maternal love is the first agent in educa-\\ntion through it the child is led to love and trust his\\nCreator and his Redeemer. It follows, therefore, that\\nmothers should be educated.\\n7. He illustrated his principles in his methods of in-\\nstruction. He employed the phonic method in spelling\\nmade use of objects in teaching number; graded the work\\naccording to the capacity of the children taught drawing,\\nlanguage, composition, etc., by use, thus illustrating one\\nof the aphorisms of Comenius, We learn to do by\\ndoing.\\n1 Not original with Pestalozzi, see Port Royalists.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS PESTALOZZr 27 1\\n8. But the greatest lesson that Pestalozzi taught is\\nembodied in the word love. He loved little children, he\\nloved the distressed and lowly, he loved all his fellow-men.\\nBy the spirit which actuated him, by the methods of\\ninstruction employed, by a life of disappointment and\\napparent failure, by the appreciation of his service after\\nhe had gone to his rest, by the accelerated growth of his\\nteachings throughout the world, he more closely resem-\\nbles the Great Teacher than any other man that has ever\\nlived. Dr. Harris says, He is the first teacher to an-\\nnounce convincingly the doctrine that all people should\\nbe educated, that, in fact, education is the one good gift\\nto give to all, whether rich or poor. Hence there is no\\ncharacter in educational history more worthy of study and\\nmore inspiring to the teacher than Johann Heinrich\\nPestalozzi.\\nFor statement of his principles, see Compayre, p. 438 Williams, p. 312\\nKriisi, p. 169.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXXIX\\nMODERN EDUCATORS (^Continued)\\nFROEBEL (17S2-1852)\\nLiterature. Lange, Collected Writings of F. Froebel; Kriege,\\nFriedrich Froebel; Bowen^ Froebel and Education by Self-activity;\\nHerford, The Student s Froebel Froebel, Education of Man Quick,\\nEducational Reformers Mjiiiroe, Educational Ideal; Williatns, History\\nof Modern Education; Marenholtz- Billow, Reminiscences of F. Froebel;\\nReiti, Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik.\\nFriedrich Wilhelm August Froebel was born at\\nOberweisbach, a village in the beautiful Thiiringian Forest\\nof Germany. The first ten years of his life were spent\\nat home under the instruction of his father, who was a\\nLutheran clergyman and had six villages under his pas-\\ntorate. The many cares of his office prevented the pastor\\nfrom giving his son much attention, and as the stepmother\\nneither understood the boy, nor took much interest in him,\\nhe spent most of his time in the woods, with birds and\\nflowers as his companions, and received far less rudimen-\\ntary training than most boys of his age. But at the age of\\nten an important change took place in his life. He went\\nto live with his mother s brother, who sent him to school\\nfor four years. Here he was taught the elementary\\nbranches and a little Latin. He tells us of the pro-\\nfound impression made upon him the first day of school\\nby the text of Scripture that the children repeated. It\\nwas, Seek ye first the kingdom of God. He says,\\n272", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS FROEBEL 273\\nThe verse made an impression on me like nothing\\nbefore or since. Indeed, this impression was so lively\\nand deep, that to-day every word lives fresh in my mem-\\nory with the peculiar accent with which it was spoken\\nand yet since that time nearly forty years have elapsed.\\nHis progress in the school does not seem to have been\\nvery great.\\nAt fourteen he returned to his father s home, and soon\\nthereafter was apprenticed to a forester. Here he was\\nentirely in his element, and he tells of four aspects of this\\nlife The homelier and more practical life the life spent\\nwith nature, especially forest nature the Hfe of study,\\ndevoted to mathematics and languages, for which he found\\na good supply of books ready to hand and the time spent\\nin gaining a knowledge of plants, in which he was much\\nhelped by books on botany lent him by a neighboring doc-\\ntor. But he obtained little help from the forester, so at\\nthe end of three years Froebel withdrew, and soon there-\\nafter entered the university of Jena. He seems to have\\nstudied hard during the year and a half he spent at Jena,\\nbut to have accomplished little. He became involved in\\ndebt, and was imprisoned for nine weeks in the university\\nCareer. After his liberation, he left the university.\\nAs Teacher. Meeting with little success in various\\nenterprises in which he engaged, he at last drifted to\\nFrankfurt-am-Main, where he made the acquaintance of\\nDr. Gruner, head master of the Model School. Dr. Gruner\\nquickly discovered Froebel s talent, and urged him to\\naccept a position under him as teacher. Froebel reluc-\\ntantly consented, but in speaking later of his first experi-\\n1 Bowen, Froebel, p. 11.\\n2 For a part of this debt Froebel s brother, also a student, was responsible.\\nThe amount of the debt was less than twenty-five dollars.\\nHIST. OF ED. 18", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "2/4 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nence in the schoolroom, he says, It seemed as if I had\\nfound something I had never known, but always longed\\nfor, always missed as if my life had at last discovered its\\nnative element. I felt as happy as the fish in the water,\\nthe bird in the air.\\nAlthough Froebel succeeded at once in his new profes-\\nsion, thereby justifying Dr. Gruner s opinion of him, he\\nfelt that he needed special preparation for the work of\\nteaching. Accordingly, in 1808, after two years experi-\\nence in teaching, having in the meantime visited Pestalozzi\\nat Yverdon, and having read his works, he gave up his\\nposition and joined the institute at Yverdon.\\nHe took with him three of his pupils to tutor, and it\\nthus happened, he tells us, that I was there both as\\nteacher and scholar, educator and pupil. Froebel spent\\ntwo years at Yverdon, and his testimony concerning Pesta-\\nlozzi is interesting. He says, He set one s soul on fire\\nfor a higher and nobler life, though he had not made clear\\nor sure the exact road toward it, nor indicated the means\\nwhereby to attain it. This sums up in a word the secret\\nand extent of Pestalozzi s power. Dittes thinks that the\\norigin of the kindergarten is due to the pedagogical revival\\nof Pestalozzi. Froebel himself, speaking of his experi-\\nence at Yverdon, says, I studied the boys play, the\\nwhole series of games in the open air, and learned to\\nrecognize their mighty power to awaken and to strengthen\\nthe intelligence and the soul as well as the body. Here\\nwe find the first suggestion of the kindergarten, which has\\nmade Froebel famous.\\nAfter leaving Yverdon, Froebel spent about two years\\nat the universities of Gottingen and Berlin in furthering\\nhis preparation for educational reform, to which he had\\ndevoted himself. In 181 3 war for German liberty broke", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS FRO EB EL 275\\nout, and Froebel, with many other students, enhsted. It\\nis not the purpose here to follow his fortunes as a soldier,\\nbut while in the army he made the acquaintance of two\\nyoung men who afterward became associated with him in\\neducational enterprise, Wilhelm Middendorff and Hein-\\nrich Langethal.\\nHis First School. In 1816 Froebel opened his first\\nschool at Griesheim, under the high-sounding title of Uni-\\nversal German Educational Institute. At first he had his\\nfive nephews as his only pupils. Soon after, the school\\nwas removed to Keilhau, near Rudolstadt, in the Thiirin-\\ngian Forest. Here he was joined by his old friends Mid-\\ndendorff and Langethal. This institution continued for a\\nnumber of years with some success, until 1833, when\\nFroebel removed to Burgdorf, Switzerland. The Prussian\\ngovernment, far from giving encouragement to the insti-\\ntution at Keilhau, had regarded it with suspicion. A\\ncommission was sent by the government to examine the\\ninstitution, and although the report was highly complimen-\\ntary to Froebel s work,^ the persecution did not cease. In\\n1 85 1 the government prohibited kindergartens, as forming\\na part of the Froebelian socialistic system, the aim of\\nwhich is to teach children atheism and this decree was\\nin force till 1 860\\nIndeed, to this day, Prussia does not regard the kinder-\\ngarten as an educational institution, nor does she give aid\\nto it as such. The kindergarten is officially recognized as a\\nsort of day nursery, its teachers are not licensed, hence\\nhave no official standing, and everything that pertains to\\nthe work of the elementary schools, every specific prepara-\\n1 The sole recommendation of the commission that might be interpreted as\\na criticism was that the boys should have their hair cut See Bowen s Froe-\\nbel, p. 26, for the full report of the visiting commission.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "2/6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ntion for the work of the latter, must be strictly excluded,\\nand these schools can in no way be allowed to take the\\ncharacter of institutions of learning. Especially can nei-\\nther reading nor arithmetic be allowed a place in them.\\nBut Froebel received more encouragement in Switzer-\\nland. He admitted children from four to six years of age,\\nand organized a teachers class to study his theories. Al-\\nthough Froebel did not remain long in Switzerland, that\\nland proved congenial to his ideas, and the kindergarten has\\nflourished there from his time to the present. Great credit is\\ndue to this country, which extended its hospitality to the\\ntwo great educational modern reformers, Pestalozzi and\\nFroebel\\nThe Kindergarten. Mr. Herford says of Froebel s insti-\\ntution at Burgdorf, that, Here we recognize the rise of the\\nkindergarten, not yet so named. The name came to\\nFroebel a few years later as an inspiration. He had re-\\nturned to Keilhau and opened a school in the neighboring\\ntown of Blankenburg. For a long time he had been pon-\\ndering over a suitable name for the new institution.\\nWhile taking a walk one day with Middendorff and Barof\\nto Blankenburg over the Steiger Pass, Froebel kept re-\\npeating, Oh, if I could only think of a good name for my\\nyoungest born! Blankenburg lay at our feet, and he\\nwalked moodily toward it. Suddenly he stood still as if\\nriveted to the spot, and his eyes grew wonderfully bright.\\nThen he shouted to the mountain so that it echoed to the\\nfour winds, Eureka Kindergarten shall the institute be\\ncalled\\nBut, like Pestalozzi, Froebel was wholly incapable of\\nfinancial management, and the institution at Blankendorf\\n1 Rescript from the Prussian Minister of Education, April 7, 1884.\\n3 The Student s Froebel, XV.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "MODERN- EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 FROEBEL 277\\nhad to be closed. He devoted the remainder of his life to\\nlecturing upon his theories in different parts of Germany.\\nHe appealed to mothers, and endeavored to instruct them\\nin the duty of training young children. He taught that\\nthe mother is the natural teacher of the child, and that it\\nis her duty to fit herself for the sacred responsibility that\\nGod has placed upon her. His greatest disciple among\\nwomen was Baroness Bertha von Marenholtz-Bulow, who\\nmaterially helped him while he lived, and, since his death,\\nhas published one of the best accounts of his life and work.^\\nThe Education of Man. Froebel gives his philosophy\\nof education in his Education of Man, but his most popu-\\nlar work is Songs for Mother and Nursery. His greatest\\ncontribution to the work of educational reform is the kin-\\ndergarten, an institution that has been ingrafted upon the\\nschool systems of many lands, and that is destined to be-\\ncome ever increasingly potent for good. In no country\\nin the world has the kindergarten taken so strong a\\nhold and made so great progress as in America. The\\npurpose of the kindergarten, according to Froebel him-\\nself, is, to take the oversight of children before they are\\nready for school life to exert an influence over their whole\\nbeing in correspondence with its nature to strengthen\\ntheir bodily powers to exercise their senses to employ\\nthe awakening mind to make them thoughtfully ac-\\nquainted with the world of nature and of man to guide\\ntheir heart and soul in the right direction, and to lead\\nthem to the Origin of all life, and to unison with Him.\\nIf conducted in the spirit of its originator, how is it pos-\\nsible for such an institution as the kindergarten to find\\nenemies anywhere among true educators\\nIlandbuch der Froebelischen Erziehungslehre, Reminiscences of\\nFriedrich Froebel, Child and Child-nature.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XL\\nMODERN EDUCATORS {Continued)\\nHERBART (1776-1841)\\nLiterature. De Garmo, Herbart and the Herbartians Felkin, Intro-\\nduction to Herbart Van Liew, Life of Herbart and Development of\\nhis Pedagogical Doctrines Yearbooks of the Herbart Society Lange,\\nApiDcrception Rein, Outlines of Pedagogics also, Encyklopadisches\\nHandbuch der Padagogik Willmann, Herbart spadagogische Schriften.\\nIt is probable that no system of pedagogy is attract-\\ning so much attention and awakening so much interest\\nat the present time as that of Herbart. Professor Rein\\nsays, He who nowadays will aspire to the highest ped-\\nagogical knowledge, cannot neglect to make a thorough\\nstudy of Herbart s pedagogy. Johann Friedrich Herbart\\nwas born at Oldenburg, May 4, 1776. His grandfather\\nwas rector of the Gymnasium at Oldenburg for thirty-\\nfour years his father was a high official under the govern-\\nment but his mother seems to have wielded the most\\ninfluence over him. She watched over his studies with\\ngreatest care, and, indeed, studied Greek herself to spur\\nhim on. Though gentle and mild, she was firm in disci-\\npline. The father was satisfied to leave the direction of the\\neducation of his son to her. There was, however, Uttle\\nsympathy between the father and mother, and there were\\nfrequent family dissensions, that must have had a bad in-\\nfluence on the lad. These disagreements finally led to a\\nseparation. A tutor employed for Herbart at this period\\n278", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 HERB ART 279\\ndeveloped in him a speculative tendency and taught him\\nthe power of forcible expression. Herbart learned to\\nplay on several musical instruments, and at the age of\\neleven displayed considerable talent as a pianist.\\nWhen twelve years of age he entered the Gyniiui-\\nsium at Oldenburg, and six years later completed the\\ncourse. He entered the university of Jena in 1794 and\\nbecame a student of Fichte, who was sure to inspire a young\\nman of Herbart s philosophical bent. His attention seems\\nto have been directed to educational questions, though he\\nhad not yet decided to be a teacher.^\\nAs Teacher. After three years at Jena, Herbart be-\\ncame tutor (Hauslehrer) in the family of Herr von Steiger,\\ngovernor of Interlaken. This was his only experience in\\nteaching children. Herbart s experience as a teacher,\\nsays De Garmo, would seem too small a thing to mention\\nsome two or three years in a private family in Switzerland\\nwith three children aged respectively eight, twelve, and\\nfourteen. Yet to a man who can see an oak tree in an\\nacorn, who can understand all minds from the study of\\na few, such an experience may be most fruitful. It is\\ncertain that Herbart often drew upon this experience in\\nhis later writings. While in Switzerland he visited Pesta-\\nlozzi, with whom he was deeply impressed. Opinions\\ndiffer as to the harmony of theory between Pestalozzi and\\nHerbart. Professor Rein thinks that, In the ideas of\\nPestalozzi are found the outlines of Herbart s pedagogical\\nstructure.\\nHaving decided to devote himself to academic teaching,\\nhe gave up his position in Switzerland and went to\\nBremen for further study. During the two years spent\\nProfessor Rein indicates that Herbart discussed educational questions at\\nthis period. See Encyklopadisches Handbuch, Vol. Ill, p. 468.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "28o HISTORY OF EDUCATIOIV\\nthere, he wrote several essays on educational subjects, but\\ngave his chief attention to the study of Greek and mathe-\\nmatics.\\nAs Professor. In 1802 he took the first step in his\\nacademic career as Privat Doccnt at the university of\\nGottingen. This with him was a period of great literary\\nactivity. 1 In 1809, he was called to the chair of philosophy\\nat Konigsberg once occupied by Kant. He calls this\\nthe most renowned chair of philosophy, the place which\\nwhen a boy I longed for in reverential dreams, as I\\nstudied the works of the sage of Konigsberg.\\nHis Practice School. Here he established a pedagogi-\\ncal seminary, having a practice school in which the\\nstudents instructed children under the criticism of Herbart\\nhimself. Concerning his pedagogical activity at Konigs-\\nberg, Herbart says, Among my many duties, the consider-\\nation of educational questions is of especial interest to me.\\nBut it is not enough to theorize merely there must be\\nexperiment and practice. Furthermore, I desire to extend\\nthe range of my own experience (already covering ten\\nyears) in this iield. Therefore, I have long had in mind\\nto teach daily for one hour a few selected boys in the\\npresence of such of my students as are familiar with my\\npedagogical theory. After a little, these students are to\\ntake up the work I have begun, and give instruction under\\nmy observation. In time, in this way, teachers would be\\ntrained, whose method by means of reciprocal observation\\nand discussion must be perfected. As a plan of teaching\\nis valueless without a teacher, and indeed a teacher that is\\nin sympathy with that plan, and is master of the method,\\n1 For list of works produced, see De Garmo s Herbart and the Herbar-\\ntians, p. 17.\\n2 Felkin s translation of Science of Education, p. i6.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 HERB ART 28 1\\nso perhaps a small experimental school, such as I have\\nin mind, would prepare the way for future greater under-\\ntakings. There is a word from Kant, first experimental\\nschools and then normal schools 1\\nThis was the first practice school in connection with the\\nchair of pedagogy in a university the idea, however, does\\nnot seem to have taken very deep root, as, with the excep-\\ntion of the celebrated practice school at Jena, under Pro-\\nfessor Rein, there is not one now in Germany. Most pro-\\nfessors of pedagogy conduct a Seminar, in which some\\npractice work with children is done, but none of them\\nmaintain a practice school.\\nLiterary Activity. Herbart s literary activity at Konigs-\\nberg was great. He worked out his psychological system,\\nand wrote also on philosophy, history, and pedagogy.\\nBut his greatest works in the latter field are his ABC\\nder Anschauung, and his Allgemeine Padagogik,\\nboth of which appeared while he was still at Gottingen.*\\nIn 1833, after twenty-four years in Konigsberg, he returned\\nto Gottingen, where his lifework was completed in 1841.\\nUpon his retirement from Konigsberg, the practice school\\nwas closed. Ten years later, a pupil of Herbart, Karl\\nVolkmar Stoy, established the practice school at Jena, of\\nwhich mention has already been made. Two schools of\\nHerbartians exist in Germany, the Stoy school, which\\nattempts to follow Herbart very closely, and the Ziller\\nschool, which is freer in its interpretation of him. The\\nchief exponent of the latter is Professor Wilhelm Rein of\\nWillmann s Herbart, Vol. II, p. 3.\\n2 The A B C of Observation.\\nGeneral Pedagogy.\\nThe best collection of his works is that by Willmann, Herbart s Pada-\\ngogische Schriften, which has not been translated into English.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "282 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nJena, the place which is at present the center of Herbartian\\nactivity. In America this movement is under the direction\\nof the National Herbart Society.\\nHis Pedagogical Work. Aside from the educational\\nmovements organized by Herbart and his followers, the\\ncredit is due to him of being the first to elevate pedagogy\\nto the dignity of a science. Professor Rein says, Her-\\nbart has rendered an undisputed service in that he has\\nelevated pedagogics to the rank of a science. No one has\\never repented of having become familiar with Herbart s\\nteachings, for, in any case, he has thereby added richly to\\nhis own attainments. The development of our people will\\nbe fortunate if the education of the youth shall be intrusted\\nmore and more to those who stand and work upon the lines\\nlaid down by Comenius, Pestalozzi, Herbart.\\nThe pedagogic thinking of Herbart has indeed borne\\nrich fruit in Germany. Other peoples, also, have been\\nblessed by his teachings. Thus Herbart, whose span of\\nlife did not reach to the middle of this century, lives in the\\npresent. He created the basis of a science of education,\\nwhich furnishes a safe starting point for all pedagogical\\ntheories, and which bears in itself the most fruitful germs\\nfor future development.\\nModern Herbartians have carried forward that devel-\\nopment far beyond its original outline. The terms\\nmany-sided interest, apperception, concentration,\\nculture-epochs, the formal steps of instruction, corre-\\nlation, and harmonious development, are phrases that\\nhave become common in educational literature. The limits\\nof this volume do not permit a discussion of these subjects.\\nIndeed, many of them belong more properly to the dis-\\n1 Encyklopadisches Ilandbuch der Padagogik, Vol. Ill, p. 485.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 HERB ART 283\\nciples of Herbart, rather than to Herbart himself.^ Her-\\nbart s ideal was that education should aim to produce well-\\nrounded men, fit for all the duties of life men well devel-\\noped physically, intellectually, morally, and spiritually. He\\nhimself was not one-sided, being an enthusiastic teacher\\nas well as psychologist and philosopher.\\n1 For discussion of these subjects see the Yearbooks of the Herbartian\\nSociety, and other works referred to on page 278. P or the completest list\\nof references to Herbartian literature, see Encyklopadisches Handbuch,\\nVol. Ill, p. 485.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XLI\\nMODERN EDUCATORS {Continued\\nHORACE MANN (1796- 1859)\\nLiterature. Mrs. Mary T. Mann, Life of Horace Mann Hinsdale,\\nHorace Mann; Wmship, Horace Mann, the Educator; Lang, Horace\\nMann F. W. Parker, Article in Educational Review, Vol. XII, p. 65\\nWm. T. Harris, Educational Review, Vol. XII, p. 105 Martin, Educa-\\ntion in Massachusetts.\\nColonel Parker says, It would be difficult to find a\\nchild ten years of age in our sixty-five millions who does\\nnot know of Abraham Lincoln or George Washington but\\nthe third, at least, in the list of the builders of the Ameri-\\ncan republic is not known to millions of inteUigent people.\\nWashington and Lincoln represent the highest types of\\nheroism, patriotism, and wisdom in great crises of republic-\\nbuilding Horace Mann, the quiet inner building, the soul-\\ndevelopment of the nation.\\nHorace Mann was born at Franklin, Massachusetts,\\nMay 4, 1796. Inured to the hard work of the farm, with\\nbut a few weeks schooling in the winter, never blessed\\nwith very rugged health, left at the age of thirteen by the\\ndeath of his father with the responsibiUties of a man, it is no\\nwonder that he retained only painful recollections of the\\nwhole period which ought to be, with every child, a golden\\nage to look back upon.\\n1 Educational Review, Vol. XII, p. 65.\\n2 Mrs. Mann, Life of Horace Mann, p. 10\\n284", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS MANN 285\\nWhen nearly twenty years of age, through the influence\\nof Mr. Barrett, an eccentric teacher who came to the vil-\\nlage, he decided to go to college, and in six months he\\nprepared for the sophomore class of Brown University.\\nThis preparation was a tremendous undertaking which\\nbroke down his health for life. He now had an opportu-\\nnity to satisfy the cravings for knowledge, which the\\nhardships of his early life had not been able to stifle.\\nHe was graduated with the highest honors of his class\\nand decided to study law. He spent two years at Brown\\nUniversity as tutor, meanwhile privately studying law,\\nand then resigned that position to enter the law school at\\nLitchfield, Connecticut. Two years later, at the age of\\ntwenty-seven, he was admitted to the bar.\\nAs Statesman. He was called upon to serve his state\\nin the legislature, and later as representative in Congress.^\\nThe year 1837 marks a new epoch in the educational\\nhistory of Massachusetts. Although Massachusetts had\\nhad schools for nearly two centuries, the free school had\\nbeen, to a great degree, a charity school the country over.\\nHorace Mann, like Thomas Jefferson, saw clearly\\nthat there could be no evolution of a free people without\\nintelligence and morality, and looked upon the common\\nschool as the fundamental means of development of men\\nand women who could govern themselves. He saw clearly\\nthat the whole problem of the republic which was present-\\ning itself to intelligent educated men rested upon the idea\\nof public education.\\nAs Educator. Accordingly, having secured the pas-\\nsage of a law establishing a State Board of Education,\\n1 Mr. Mann completed the term made vacant by the death of John Quincy\\nAdams, and was reelected for the two succeeding terms.\\nColonel Parker in article cited.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "286 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nMr. Mann was made its secretary at a salary of one thou-\\nsand dollars a year. To accept this work, he gave up a\\nlucrative law practice, fine prospects of political prefer-\\nment, and probable fortune, as well as professional fame.\\nHe entered upon an educational campaign full of discour-\\nagement, colossal in its undertaking, and sure to arouse\\nbitterest animosities. Of this period Colonel Parker says,\\nThe story of his early struggles in this direction has not\\nyet been written. When it is, it will reveal a profound\\ndepth of heroism rarely equaled in the history of the\\nworld. Mr. Mann visited all parts of the state, lectur-\\ning to parents and stimulating the teachers. He was often\\nreceived with coldness, sometimes with active hostility.\\nHis Annual Reports. But he persevered until the\\nwhole state was awakened. He continued in this work\\nfor twelve years, and presented its results in his An-\\nnual Reports, the most remarkable documents of Amer-\\nican educational literature.^ In the meantime, he visited\\nEurope, studied the schools, and gave the results of his\\ninvestigations in his celebrated Seventh Annual Report.\\nMr. Martin summarizes the work of Horace Mann dur-\\ning these twelve years as follows In the evolution of the\\nMassachusetts public schools during these twelve years of\\nMr. Mann s labors, statistics tell us that the appropria-\\ntions for public schools had doubled that more than two\\nmilHon dollars had been spent in providing better school-\\nhouses that the wages of men as teachers had increased\\nsixty-two per cent, of women fifty-one per cent, while the\\nwhole number of women employed as teachers had in-\\ncreased fifty-four per cent one month had been added to\\nthe average length of the schools; the ratio of private\\n1 For an analysis of these Reports, see Dr. Harris s article in Educational\\nReview, Vol. XII, p. 112.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "MODERN EDUCATORS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 MANN 287\\nschool expenditures to those of the public schools had\\ndiminished from seventy-five percent to thirty-six per cent\\nthe compensation of school committees had been made\\ncompulsory, and their supervision was more general and\\nmore constant three normal schools had been established,\\nand had sent out several hundred teachers, who were mak-\\ning themselves felt in all parts of the state.\\nLove for the Common Schools. He believed most fully\\nin the common school, declaring that, This institution\\nis the greatest discovery ever made by man. In two\\ngrand characteristic attributes, it is supereminent over all\\nothers first in its universality, for it is capacious enough\\nto receive and cherish in its parental bosom every child\\nthat comes into the world and second, in the timeliness of\\nthe aid it proffers, its early, seasonable supplies of coun-\\nsel and guidance making security antedate danger.\\nIn his first Annual Report Mr. Mann asserts that, The\\nobject of the common school system is to give to every\\nchild a free, straight, solid pathway, by which he can\\nwalk directly up from the ignorance of an infant to a\\nknowledge of the primary duties of man. Horace Mann\\ncould hardly have anticipated the kindergarten for the\\ninfant years, and the high school at the end of the course,\\nas they now stand in the common school systems of our\\ncountry. And yet, what has already been accomplished\\nin our educational scheme fulfills the prophecy implied in\\nhis words.\\nThe best known and most important of Mr. Mann s\\nwritten documents is his Seventh Annual Report, in which\\nhe gives an account of European schools. Concerning\\nthis Mr. Winship says, He had made a crisis, and his\\nSeventh Report was an immortal document opposition to\\n1 Education in Massachusetts, p. 174.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "288 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nthe normal schools was never more to be heard in the\\nland, and oral instruction, the word method, and less\\ncorporal punishment were certain to come to the Boston\\nschools. 1 l||\\nAfter severing his connection with the State Board oi\\nEducation, Mr. Mann served in Congress from 1848 to\\n1853, and was defeated in his candidacy for governor\\nof Massachusetts. At the age of fifty-six he accepted the\\npresidency of Antioch College at Yellow Springs, Ohio, a\\nposition which he held until his death in 1859. He closed\\nhis last address to the graduating class at Antioch with\\nthese noble words Be ashamed to die until yoii have won\\nsome victory for humanity^ He himself had won many\\ngreat victories for humanity, in the improvement of the\\ncommon school systems of his native country in the es-\\ntablishment of free schools in the founding of normal\\nschools where teachers might be trained in the adoption\\nof milder means of discipline; in the improvement of\\nschoolhouses in the better support of schools in better\\nmethods of instruction and in the inspiration he gave to\\nteachers for all time. Therefore he at least had no need\\nto be ashamed to die.\\n1 Horace Mann, p. 76.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XLII\\nTHE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY\\nLiterature. Parsotis, Prussian Schools through American Eyes\\nKlemni, European Schools Prince, Methods in the German Schools\\nSeeley, The German Common School System Russell, German Higher\\nSchools.\\nWe have traced the historical development of education\\nto the present time. It now remains for us to examine\\nbriefly the educational systems of a few leading countries,\\nin order that comparisons may be made, lessons drawn,\\nar d t-hp nresent condition of education clearly set forth.\\na oi. (iiscussion to be followed in each of the\\nrnnsidered will embrace, i, Administration\\nnee; 3, the Schools; 4, Support of ScJiools\\nAdministration. Each German state is independent in\\nits school system, though there are many features in com-\\nmon, and there is a mutual understanding on most educa-\\ntional questions between the various states, which makes\\ntheir systems practically uniform. The system here de-\\nscribed is that of Prussia, which, being the largest, most\\n1 It will, of course, be impossible within the limitations of this work to give\\nmore than a mere outline of these systems. The reader will find full discus-\\nsions in the works referred to in the Literature. Particular attention is called\\nto the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1896-1897,\\nVol. I, for recent data.\\nHIST. OF ED. 19 289", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "290\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nI\\npopulous, and most influential of the states comprised\\nwithin the German Empire, as well as the foremost in\\neducational development, may well be taken as a type.\\nThere is a minister of education whose jurisdiction ex-\\ntends over the whole kingdom. He represents the school\\ninterests in the imperial diet or Reichstag, listens to appeals,\\ndistributes school moneys, and is the general educational\\nexecutive officer. Each of the thirteen royal provinces has\\na school board whose presiding officer is ex officio the royal\\npresident of the province. With him are associated other\\nroyal counselors, and pedagogically trained men, school\\nsuperintendents and principals. This board consists of\\nmen of highest integrity and intelligence. Their duties\\nextend to the higher institutions of learning, and to\\ninstitutions for the unfortunate they have charge of the\\nschool finances of their provinces, adopt the school books\\nthat are used in the higher schools, and appoint teachers in\\nthe normal schools. They report annually to the minister,\\nand as much more frequently as he may require.\\nThe thirteen royal provinces are subdivided into the so-\\ncalled governments {Regier?{ngcji), of which Prussia contains\\nthirty-six. These govej-junents have an administrative school\\nboard similar to that of the province, with duties within\\ntheir territory corresponding to those of the provincial\\nboard. They come into close touch with the schools, have\\na voice in the appointment of teachers and in the selection\\nof text-books for the elementary schools. Their work\\nis especially with the common schools, while that of the\\nprovincial boards is with the higher schools.\\nThe governments are subdivided into districts. There\\nis a district school board similar to that of the larger\\nterritories mentioned, but the chief and most important\\nschool officer of the district is the school inspector. The", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY 29 1\\ndistrict inspector is always a man of pedagogical training\\nand experience. He is appointed for life and devotes his\\nwhole time to the schools in his district. His efficient and\\nwise inspection of the schools insures their success. The\\ndistrict school board erects school buildings, determines\\nthe amount of the teachers salaries, oversees their pen-\\nsions, enforces compulsory attendance laws, decides upon\\ntaxable property, fixes boundary lines, and provides for the\\nfinances.\\nFinally, there is the local school board for each separate\\nschool. These men have charge of the external matters\\nof the school such as the direct enforcement of attendance,\\nthe repairs, supplies, etc. but they may not interfere with\\nthe teacher in his work. In the country villages they have\\na voice in the choice of the teacher. The teacher may\\nappeal to them in matters that need immediate attention.\\nIn the administration of the schools men of the highest\\ncharacter are chosen without reference to their political\\nleanings. There are usually teachers among the number,\\non the principle that those who have made the most care-\\nful study of education are the most competent to admin-\\nister it.\\nSchool Attendance. Every child in normal health is\\nrequired to attend school between the ages of six and\\nfourteen for every day that the school is in session. Par-\\nents are held responsible for the attendance of their chil-\\ndren, and may be fined or imprisoned for non-fulfillment\\nof the requirements of the law. In case parents are un-\\nable to secure the attendance of their children, the latter\\nare placed in reform schools. The law is carried out with\\ngreat strictness and wonderful efficiency. For example,\\nin 1893, out of 5,299,310 children of school age in Prussia,\\nthere were only 945 unexcused absentees, that is, 2 in", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "292\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\n10,000. All parents expect their children to be in school\\nevery day, and the children grow up fully impressed with\\nthe idea that they are to attend school regularly. The chief\\nreason for the efficiency of compulsory attendance in Ger-\\nmany lies in the fact that it covers every school day, and\\ntherefore does not allow the formation of habits of truancy.\\nThe Schools. The common school (Volksschule) of-\\nGermany reaches every child, as we have seen. In vil-\\nlages the sexes are taught together but in cities they are\\ngenerally separated. The school hours are from eight to\\neleven in the forenoon, for six days in the week, and from\\ntwo to four for four days in the week, Wednesday and\\nSaturday afternoons being holidays. These hours may\\nbe varied to suit local conditions. The school is in session\\nfor about forty-two weeks each year. Each teacher is\\nrequired to give about twenty-eight hours of service per\\nweek, while the pupils must attend from sixteen hours\\n(for beginners) to twenty-eight. The schools are not yet\\nuniversally free, though many localities have made their\\nschools free, and the tendency is strong in that direction.\\nThe common school is intended for the common people,\\nand it is not followed by a high or secondary school.\\nThis is the greatest weakness of the German school\\nsystem. It perpetuates the class system, and effectually\\nprevents the child from rising above his station.\\nThe sole opportunity for the child of the lower classes\\nto receive a higher education is through the normal school,\\nand even this privilege is limited to a small number of the\\npupils who show special ability. We may mention also the\\nContinuation schools, which are held evenings and Sundays.\\nThey furnish an opportunity for the child who has com-\\npleted the common school to review his work, and also to\\nadd some subjects that will be of utility in his life work.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY 293\\nIn general, there are two classes of secondary schools,^\\nthe Gymnasium, which prepares for any of the four fac-\\nulties of the university, theology, medicine, law, and\\nphilosophy and the Realschule^ which prepares only for\\nthe last-named faculty, philosophy. The Gym^iashim is\\nvery conservative, laying principal stress upon the classics,\\nwhile the RealscJinle is more progressive, emphasizing\\nmodern languages and the sciences. Neither of these\\nschools succeeds the common school, and the boy who is to\\npursue one of these courses of study must begin at not later\\nthan nine or ten years of age.^ Thus, if a professional life\\nis chosen for a boy, he cannot attend the common school,\\nat least not for more than the first three or four years,\\nbut must be sent to one of the two classes of schools above\\nmentioned, for they alone prepare for the university, and\\nwithout a university course he cannot enter a profession.\\nThe university is the crowning institution of the German\\nschool system.\\nSupport of Schools. About one half of the expense of\\nthe schools is paid from the general state fund, one third\\nfrom local taxation, and the balance comes from income\\nfrom endowments, church funds, tuition, etc. The general\\ntendency is to make the schools free, according to the rec-\\nommendation of the minister of education, but some com-\\nmunities still continue to charge tuition. In these cases,\\nthere are poor schools for those who cannot pay tuition,\\nthus affording school privileges to all, but at the same time\\nmaking a class distinction.\\n1 In addition to the Gymnasia and the Reahchidcn, there are also the\\nProgymiiasia, the Realgymnasia, and the Prorealgymnasia, which, as their\\nnames indicate, are modified forms of the two principal types.\\n2 See footnote on p. 236 for explanation of the work of these two schools.\\n8 Russell s German Higher Schools fully describes these institutions.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "294\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nimonll\\nThe Teachers. All teachers of the Prussian common]\\nschools are normal graduates, or have had an equal peda-\\ngogic preparation. 1 Graduates of the university seldom\\nenter the common school work they teach in the secondary\\nschools, in private schools, and as tutors. The common\\nschool teachers generally come from the common schools.^.\\nIf a child shows special aptness for teaching, the attention^l\\nof the school inspector is called to him, and, with consent of\\nhis parents, he is sent to a preparatory school for three\\nyears. His work there is entirely academic in character.\\nAt seventeen he enters the normal school and has another\\nyear of academic work, after which he begins his technical\\nwork. His normal course is three years, the last year\\nbeing given almost entirely to professional work. Each\\nclass in the normal school contains from thirty to thirty-\\nsix students, thus making the total number of students in a\\nGerman normal school about one hundred. As only about\\nthirty can enter from the whole district, it will appear that\\nthe opportunities for children to extend the common school\\ncourse are very limited.\\nAfter completing the normal course, the graduate is\\nprovisionally appointed to a position for three years. He\\nis now under the oversight of his former principal, as well\\nas of the district inspector. If he proves successful in\\nteaching, he is required to pass a final examination, chiefly\\non pedagogical questions, and then has a life tenure, and\\ncan be removed only on the ground of inefficiency or im-\\nmorality. The average tenure of office with teachers is\\n1 In 1S93 there were only 241 teachers out of 71,731 in Prussia, who were\\noutside of the above requirement. These 241 were old teachers who began\\nbefore the law was so strict, and who, because of their efficiency, are retained.\\nIn a few years this band will entirely disappear, and all will be normal\\ngraduates.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY 295\\ntwenty-five years. The salary is often very low, but with\\nfree rent, fuel, and light, the schoolmaster s income is by\\nno means inadequate. His salary increases with the years\\nof service, and his prospective pension also increases year\\nby year.^\\nThe German schoolmaster is a state officer. He com-\\nmands, by virtue of his position, the respect which his\\ncharacter, his self-sacrifice, his efficiency, and the great\\nwork that he is doing deserve. It is the schoolmaster\\nthat has Avon our battles, said Von Moltke and it is he\\nthat is preparing Germany for the arts of peace as well as\\nthose of war.\\nThe Prussian school system is the most efficient in the\\nworld, at least so far as the education of the masses is con-\\ncerned. It has practically obliterated illiteracy in the king-\\ndom, more than 99^ per cent of the recruits received into\\nthe army in 1893 being able to read and write. Many\\ncountries have materially improved their school systems\\nby adopting some of the lessons taught by Prussia.\\nThe three most important features of the German school\\nsystem are\\n1 Only professionally trained teachers can be employed.\\n2. SucJi teachers are appointed to per7nanent positions.\\n3. TJie attendance of every child during the entire school\\nyear is compulsory.\\nFor full statement of salaries and pensions; see German Common School\\nSystem, pp. 172, 195. Though the German teacher s salary is much smaller\\nthan that of the average American teacher, taking into account the greater\\npurchasing power of money in Germany, the simple habits, and fewer demands\\nupon the prrse, the German teacher is fully as well off as the American.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XLIII\\nTHE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE\\nLiterature. Parsons, French Schools through American Eyes;\\nRichard, The School System of France Weigert, Die Volksschule in\\nFrankreich Sckroeder, Das Volksschulwesen Frankreichs United\\nStates Commissioner s Reports.\\nAdministration. France, like Germany, has a minister\\nof education who sits in the cabinet of the president. The\\nwork of his office is divided into three departments, higher,\\nsecondary, diXid p7 imaiy, and at the head of each there is a\\ndirector. There are two advisory bodies in charge of edu-\\ncation. One has general oversight of all the school inter-\\nests of France. The other is divided into three boards,\\nappointed by the minister himself, for supervision of the\\nthree departments above mentioned. The general board\\nconsists of sixty members, fifteen appointed by the presi-\\ndent of the republic, and the others appointed by the board\\nitself whenever vacancies occur. This body meets once a\\nyear to hear reports, to pass upon the general school policy,\\nand to legislate for the schools. Out of its membership is\\nchosen an executive committee that meets once a week,\\nand upon which devolves the chief management of educa-\\ntional affairs. This committee is answerable to the general\\nboard, to which it renders an annual report. Men of the\\nhighest character and intelligence constitute this board.\\nThe whole of France is divided into seventeen parts\\ncalled acadeviies. These divisions do not coincide with the\\n296", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE 297\\npolitical divisions, but are made merely for convenience in\\nschool administration. Each academic has a school board\\nto which is committed the general oversight of all edu-\\ncational interests within its territory, and particularly the\\ncare of the higher schools.\\nA narrower division is into dcpartcmcnts. There are\\nninety of these in France and Algiers. Each is governed\\nby an educational council which has charge of the elemen-\\ntary schools. The principal officer of a departemcnt is a\\nschool inspector, a trained educator who devotes all his\\ntime to the schools. In each departemcnt there is a normal\\nschool for each sex, though in a few instances two de-\\npartcnients combine to maintain one normal school.\\nThe departemcnt is subdivided into arrondisscmcnts.\\nEach has an executive officer and a council in close\\ntouch with the schools. Lastly there are the cantons,\\nwhose school board has direct control of each individual\\nschool.\\nIn this manner from the highest to the lowest division\\nthere are executive officers with well-defined duties\\nall working together in perfect harmony and with great\\nefficiency. Trained teachers often sit in these councils\\nas members and advisers. Thus the highest pedagog-\\nical training of the republic is utilized to obtain the\\nbest administration of the school interests.\\nSchool Attendance. School attendance is compulsory\\nupon children from six to thirteen years of age for every\\nschool day. As in Germany, the child is not compelled to\\nattend the public school, but must receive instruction for\\nthe required time and in a manner approved by the State.\\nIt is the right of the child to be educated, and the State\\nasserts its prerogative to secure that right to the child, what-\\never be the attitude of the parent. But the manner of se-", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "298 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\ncuring it is left to the parent if he chooses to exercise that\\nprivilege. Although France has had compulsory education\\nonly since 1882, the law is effective, and grows more so\\neach year. In 1895, 91 per cent of all the children of\\nschool age attended school regularly.\\nThe Schools. In the arrangement of her schools,\\nand the perfect articulation between them from the mother\\nschool to the university, France has the most perfect\\nsystem in the world. The mother schools {ecoles mater-\\nnelles) take children from two to six years of age and\\ncare for them from early morning till evening, thereby\\npermitting parents to go out to service. They combine\\nthe idea of the day nursery and the kindergarten.\\nThese schools, in communes of 2000 or more, are sup-\\nported by the State, as are other schools.\\nInstead of the mother school, sometimes the infant\\nschool {ecolc infantine) takes the child from four to\\nseven and prepares him for the primary school. This\\nschool is more nearly like the kindergarten than the\\nmother school. It is supported wholly by the State and\\nis a part of the school system, its work being entirely\\nin sympathy with that which follows. In this respect,\\nFrance has taken a more advanced step than any other\\nnation.\\nWith the lower primary school {ecole primaire ^lemen-\\ntaire), which covers the period of from six to thirteen years\\nof age, begins compulsory education. The sexes are always\\ntaught separately except in villages of less than five hun-\\ndred inhabitants. The pupils all dress in the same garb.\\nThe school is in session five days in the week, Thursdays\\nbeing free. There is no religious instruction in the schools.\\nA peculiar and very important factor is a book of regis-\\ntration for each child, in which specimens of work in each", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE 299\\nsubject are entered once a month for the whole school\\ncourse. This book is kept at the school, and furnishes an\\naccurate indication of progress to parents or inspectors.^\\nFollowing the lower primary school is the JiigJier pri-\\nmary {ecole prhnaire siiperieiire), which has two courses, one\\nfor pupils who wish to review their elementary work and\\nadd some subjects, with the view of better preparing for\\nthe ordinary walks of life and the high school course for\\nthose who wish to prepare for academic life. The former\\nis indefinite in length the latter requires five years, thus\\nbeing completed at the eighteenth year. Here appears\\nanother superiority over the German system, in which, it\\nwill be remembered, there is no connection between the\\ncommon and the high school.\\nThese high schools prepare for the normal school and\\nfor the university. There are also many other kinds of\\nschools under State support, such as technical schools,\\napprentice schools, schools of mines, etc. In the advan-\\ntages offered to young men for perfecting themselves in a\\ntrade or calling, France surpasses all other countries.\\nFinally there are the State universities, fifteen in num-\\nber, the professors of which are appointed by the State.\\nWhile the State pays all salaries, the maintenance of the\\nbuildings depends upon fees, endowments, and such local\\nsupport as is obtainable. These institutions are open to\\nstudents from the higher primary schools, thus making a\\ncomplete system from the lowest school to the highest, and\\noffering remarkable advantages to all. All degrees are\\ngiven by the State, thereby securing perfect uniformity.\\nSupport of Schools. All of the schools above men-\\ntioned, from the mother school to the university, are free.\\nSee Parsons, French Schools through American Eyes, p. 82.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "300 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nThe expenses are distributed as follows: (i) The State\\npays the salaries of all teachers, administrators, and in-\\nspectors, and all the expenses of the normal schools. Thus\\nit will be seen that the bulk of the expense of education is\\nborne by the State in general. (2) The departemcnts erect\\nthe normal school and furnish the apparatus and supplies\\nfor the same. (3) The communes pay for the needed sup-\\nplies, for the janitor, and for other local necessities of the\\nelementary schools. They may also tax themselves to\\nincrease the salaries of teachers beyond the State allow-\\nance. Each community thus has the power to decide\\nwhether it will be content with an average school, merely\\nfulfilling the State requirements, or whether it will have a\\nsuperior school taught by the best teachers obtainable.\\nThe Teachers. \u00e2\u0080\u0094There are two classes of normal schools\\nin France, the elementary, of which there are eighty-seven\\nfor men and eighty-five for women, practically one for\\neach sex in each of the departments, and the higher,\\nof which, there is one for men, one for women, and one\\nfor kindergartners. Nearly all teachers are graduates of\\nnormal schools, and as no candidates for positions are con-\\nsidered vmless they hold a normal certificate, in the near\\nfuture all the teachers of France will be professionally\\ntrained.\\nCandidates for admission to the normal school must be\\nat least sixteen years of age, of good moral character, and\\nof fair abilities. They must pledge themselves to teach for\\nnot less than ten years.^ The elementary course covers three\\nyears. After graduation, the young teacher is appointed\\nprovisionally until he has taken a final examination, which\\nmust be within ten years. If he has been successful in\\nThis is no hardship, as they fully expect to devote their lives to teaching.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE\\n301\\nthe schoolroom, as well as in this second examination, he\\nbecomes a permanent teacher, and can be removed only\\nfor immorality.\\nThe course in the advanced normal school takes three\\nor more years, depending upon the preparation with\\nwhich the candidate enters. Only those between eighteen\\nand twenty-five can be admitted. These schools train\\nprincipals, superintendents, inspectors, and teachers for\\nthe elementary normal schools. They are the model\\nschools of France, and shape the educational practice of\\nthe republic. Graduates from the elementary normal\\nschools are not debarred from entering the higher normal\\nschools thus ambitious teachers are encouraged to pre-\\npare themselves for higher work.\\nNo other country in the world does so much as France\\nto assist young teachers in their preparation. In all of\\nthe normal schools mentioned, tuition, board, room, and\\nbooks are free. And when the young teacher has been\\ngraduated, the State recognizes its own work by giving\\nhim the preference in appointments.\\nThere are five classes of teachers in the elementary\\nschools, the lowest being the fifth. The young graduate\\nteacher begins in the lowest class and works his way up.\\nThe annual salaries for the different classes are indicated\\nby the following table\\nClasses of Teachers\\nWomen\\nFifth Class\\nFourth Class\\nThird Class\\nSecond Class\\nFirst Class\\n200.00\\n$200.00\\n240.00\\n240.00\\n300.00\\n280.00\\n360.00\\n300.00\\n400.00\\n320.00", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "302\\nHISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nAdditional allowances are made in large schools, and\\nthe communes often supplement the above amounts.\\nThe annual salaries of principals are as follows\\nPrincipals\\nHigher\\nPrimary\\nBoth Sexes\\nNormal Schools\\nMen\\nWomen\\nFifth Class\\nFourth Class\\nThird Class\\nSecond Class\\nFirst Class\\n55360.00\\n400.00\\n450.00\\n500.00\\n560.00\\n1700.00\\n800.00\\n900.00\\n1000.00\\n1100.00\\nfooo.oo\\n700.00\\n800.00\\n900.00\\n1000.00\\nThe assistants in these schools receive\\nAssistants\\nHigher\\nPrimary\\nBoth Sexes\\nNormal Schools\\nWomen\\nFifth Class\\nFourth Class\\nThird Class\\nSecond Class\\nFirst Class\\n$240.00\\n280.00\\n320.00\\n380.00\\n440.00\\n15500.00\\n540.00\\n580.00\\n620.00\\n680.00\\n!S440.oo\\n480.00\\n520.00\\n560.00\\n600.00\\nIn addition to these amounts there is also a small allow-\\nance for rent.\\nAfter thirty-five years of service, the teacher may retire\\nupon three fourths of his salary as a pension.\\nWithout doubt France has outstripped all other nations\\nin educational progress during the last twenty-five years,\\nthe period in which her school system has been constructed.\\nThe three great signs of advance in French education are", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE 303\\nthe establishment of free schools (1881); compulsory educa-\\ntio7i and the secularization of the schools (1882); and the\\nrestriction of teachers to lay persons (1886).^ The strong\\nfeatures of the French school system may be stated as\\nfollows:\\n1 Completeness and harmony of the system, covering the\\nperiod from early childhood till the prescribed education is\\nfinished.\\n2. Thoroug hly trained teachers.\\n3. Tivo kinds of normal schools to meet the various\\neducational requirements of teachers.\\n4. Liberal support of schools of all kinds.\\n5. Admirable administration of the schools.\\nPrevious to this the members of religious orders could teach in the public\\nschools.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XLIV\\nTHE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND\\nLiterature. Sharpless, English Education; Craik, Education and\\nthe State Barnard, English Pedagogy Clark, The State and Educa-\\ntion Gill, Systems of Education Balfour, Educational Systems of\\nGreat Britain and Ireland United States Commissioner s Report for\\nl8q6.\\nNearly a thousand years ago Alfred the Great encour-\\naged education of the higher classes to the exclusion of\\nthe masses a principle that has governed education in\\nEngland until within recent times. Statistics taken in 1845\\nshowed that only one in six of the inhabitants could read,\\none in four write, and one in fifty cipher as far as the Rule\\nof Three. Since 1870 important changes have been made,\\nthe government has begun to give support to general\\neducation, and the number of children in the elementary\\nschools of England has increased from 1,500,000 in 1870\\nto 5,000,000 in 1895.1\\nThe principal features of the law of 1870 were (i) the\\nobligation assumed by the government to secure school\\nprovision for all children of ages 5 to 14; (2) the recogni-\\ntion or creation of local agencies (private or church\\nmanagers or elected boards) for the execution of this pur-\\npose (3) provision for securing efficient instruction by\\nmeans of an annual grant from the treasury to be distrib-\\nuted to the local managers upon the results of examina-\\ntion and inspection by government inspectors (4) the\\ncreation of a central agency to carry out the provisions on\\n1 The total enrollment in iSgGwas 5,422,989.\\n304\\n1", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND 305\\nthe part of the government and of new local agencies or\\nschool boards which every school district must elect except\\nupon satisfactory evidence that schools efficient and ade-\\nquate to the needs of the district were otherwise provided\\n(5) the admission of private and public elementary schools\\nto a share in the government grant upon the same condi-\\ntions (6) the requirements that board schools should be\\nstrictly non-sectarian and the children of private schools\\nprotected from enforced sectarian instruction by a con-\\nscience clause.\\nAdministration. Under the provisions of this law, the\\ngeneral educational interests are administered by a Com-\\nmittee of Council on Education, whose vice-president is at\\nthe head of the English school system. This committee\\ndistributes the funds and has general oversight of elemen-\\ntary education. The most important factor of the system\\nis the Royal Inspector, a trained educator placed over a\\nlimited district. He visits the schools and examines the\\npupils.\\nThe immediate care of the school is vested in a local\\nboard. In 1807, Joseph Lancaster, a Quaker, established\\nwhat are now known as the board schools, whose\\nwatchword was religious but undenominational. These\\nschools received no encouragement from the government,\\nas they represented the dissenting element. Four years\\nlater, Andrew Bell, a Churchman, founded what were called\\nthe national schools. These two organizations rivaled\\neach other in estabhshing schools over all England, but\\nboth failed to reach the masses.\\nSince the law of 1870, Parliament has not only made far\\n1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1896-1897,\\nVol. I, p. 12.\\n2 Now called voluntary schools.\\nHIST. OF ED, 20", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "3o6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nmore liberal grants for schools of both classes, but has\\nextended the influence of the local boards. The established\\npolicy is to provide schools for all children. Where one\\norganization already occupies the field its school is recog-\\nnized by the government, and the other society cannot\\nestablish a school unless two are needed. Each local\\nboard continues to manage its own school, the State giv-\\ning financial aid and exercising supervision alike in both\\ncases.\\nSchool Attendance. The school age is from five to four-\\nteen, and the local authorities are required to compel attend-\\nance for that period excepting in cases where the pupil\\nhas obtained the educational certificate of exemption,\\nwhich cannot be given before the child is eleven years of\\nage. Compulsory attendance is effective, the average at-\\ntendance in 1896 reaching nearly 85 per cent of the en-\\nrollment. England has stringent laws in regard to the\\nemployment of children in factories, mines, etc., which\\nare well enforced.\\nThe Schools. We have already mentioned the board\\nand the voluntary schools which supply the principal means\\nof elementary education. The voluntary schools are under\\nthe fostering care of the Church, and their enrollment in-\\ncludes more than half of the children. Secondary educa-\\ntion is carried on in private institutions. These are well\\nendowed and are called public schools. Among the\\nmost noted may be mentioned Rugby, Eton, Harrow,\\nWinchester, Westminster, and Shrewsbury. The univer-\\nsity has no part in the English system of public education,\\nnor is there any high school system following the elemen-\\ntary schools.\\n1 It will be seen that the term public school has a meaning in England\\nvery different from that in America.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND 307\\nSupport of Schools. The expense of the elementary\\nschools is met by parliamentary grants, by local taxes, by\\nschool pence, by endowments, and by private subscrip-\\ntions. Parliamentary grants cover about 64 per cent of\\nthe total, local taxes about 20 per cent, and the remaining\\n16 per cent is made up from the other three sources.\\nThe tendency is to increase the government grants and the\\nlocal taxes, and to abolish school pence, thereby leading\\neventually to free schools. The government grant for 1895\\nwas an increase of nearly two million pounds sterling over\\nthat of 1894, and that of 1896 was a still greater increase.\\nThe Teachers. The training of teachers is as peculiar\\nas the other features of the English system. Lancaster\\nand Bell introduced the monitorial system, by which one\\nteacher could take charge of a large school, the older\\npupils teaching the younger ones. This idea has been\\nperpetuated in the pupil teacher scheme. Children\\nthirteen or fourteen years old are apprenticed to a school\\nto assist in the work, and in return receive instruction and\\na small stipend. At eighteen they enter the teachers col-\\nlege for a two years course. They may instead at this\\ntime take an examination for the teachers certificate, and\\nif successful, they are known as assistant teachers.\\nThat the pupil teacher idea has lost its force is shown\\nby the following facts From 1876 to 1893 the increase of\\ngraduate teachers was 114 per cent, the increase of as-\\nsistant teachers 691 per cent, while there was a decrease\\nof 15 per cent in the number of pupil teachers. This\\nwould seem to indicate that England is demanding better\\nprepared teachers. The 131 teachers colleges graduate\\nabout 1900 students each year, which is about two thirds\\nof the number of teachers needed.\\nTeachers positions are practically permanent, and the", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "3o8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\nsalaries are good, being an average of $600 a year for\\nmen and $385 for women. The following table shows the\\nsalaries in London for the year 1895\\nAVERAGE SALARIES IN LONDON\\nHead Masters $1643.00\\nHead Mistresses 1179.00\\nAssistant Masters 741.00\\nAssistant Mistresses 602.00\\nThe State does not pension the teachers.\\nWhen one considers the traditions that have controlled\\nEnglish education for centuries, and recalls the conserva-\\ntism that rules English life, one can only marvel at the\\ntremendous strides taken by England during the last quar-\\nter of a century. Victor Hugo says, The English patri-\\ncian order is patrician in the absolute sense of the word.\\nNo feudal system was ever more illustrious, more terrible,\\nand more tenacious of Hfe. England has had to overcome\\nher patrician ideas in regard to education, and her growth\\nin the last twenty-five years has been more rapid and more\\neffectual than for a thousand years before. Although she\\nstill has many problems to solve, her recent educational\\nenterprise places her in the front rank among the nations\\nof the world in school matters.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XLV\\nTHE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES\\nLiterature. Boone, Education in the United States IVilliams,\\nHistory of Modern Education; Barnard, American Journal of Educa-\\ntion Horace Mann, Annual Reports United States Commissioner s\\nReports, especially that of 1896.\\nEach state in the United States has its own independent\\nsystem of education there is no national system. In 1867\\nCongress established a National Bureau of Education, the\\nfunction of which is to collect statistics and facts show-\\ning the condition and progress of education in the several\\nstates and territories, and diffuse such information respect-\\ning the organization and management of schools and school\\nsystems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of\\nthe United States in the establishment and maintenance of\\nefficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause\\nof education throughout the country. The bureau issues\\nan annual report, which is replete with information con-\\ncerning the educational interests of our own and other\\nlands.\\nThe United States government has given vast tracts of\\nthe public domain, as well as large sums of money, to the\\nvarious states, out of which have been created, in some\\ncases, large school funds which yield a permanent income.-^\\n1 In 1836 there was a large surplus in the national treasury, which, by\\nact of Congress, was ordered to be deposited with the several states, in pro-\\nportion to their representation in Congress. The amount so distributed\\nequaled about $30,000,000. Most of the states receiving this deposit set it\\naside as a permanent school fund. See Boone, History of Education in\\nthe United States, p. 91.\\n309", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "3IO HISTORY OF EDUCATION-\\nUp to 1876 the United States had granted nearly eighty-\\nmillion acres of land for educational purposes.\\nThe Bureau of Education is obliged to rely on such sta-\\ntistics as its correspondents are willing to give, yet its\\nwork has been so valuable, its information so extensive\\nand accurate, and its educational purpose so high, that cor-\\ndial cooperation is generally given. This annual report\\nis the finest issued by any nation in the world.\\nTHE STATE SYSTEMS\\nAdministration. At the head of each state school sys-\\ntem, there is an executive officer usually called the State\\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction. He is chosen for\\nfrom two to four years, sometimes by popular vote, some-\\ntimes by the joint houses of the Legislature, sometimes by\\nthe State Board of Education, and in some cases is ap-\\npointed by the governor. His duties are to make reports,\\nto examine teachers, to inspect schools, to distribute school\\nmoneys, to hear appeals in school matters, and to have\\ngeneral oversight of the educational interests of the state.\\nIn some states there is a State Board of Education that\\ncooperates with the State Superintendent. The interests\\nof education seem to be best conserved when there is a\\nnon-partisan State Board of Education, which appoints\\nthe executive officers and has general charge of the\\nschools.\\nThe second administrative unit is the county, over which\\nis placed a Superintendent of Schools. He is chosen by]\\npopular vote or is appointed by the State Board of Educa-\\ntion, and holds office generally about three years. He\\n1 See an article by M. Stevens on The National Bureau of Education, in\\nthe Neiv York School Journal, Vol. LVI, p. 743, for a full description of this)\\nbureau and its work.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES 311\\nmust visit the schools, examine teachers, hold institutes,\\ndistribute school moneys, and oversee the educational\\nwork. The number of schools under the inspection of the\\ncounty superintendent is often so great, and the territory\\nso large, that his work cannot be well done. In many\\ncases the compensation is so small that he is obliged to\\ndevote a part of his time to some other occupation. The\\nwork is of sufficient importance to demand the full time of\\na competent man and the salary ought to be proportion-\\nate to such needs.\\nThe next division is that of the township, though in\\nmost states the school district is the next unit. The so-\\ncalled township system has been adopted in several\\nstates, and recommended in others. This system has a board\\nof education which appoints teachers, purchases supplies,\\nand manages the schools of the whole township. The dis-\\ntrict system has outlived its usefulness. It maintains more\\nschools than are warranted by the small number of pupils.\\nMany of these could be abandoned in favor of better\\nschools in neighboring districts, to which the children\\ncould be sent. It often secures for its trustee a man of\\nlimited education and narrow views, who conducts the\\nschool on the cheapest plan possible, while the larger ter-\\nritory of the township furnishes better material from which\\nto choose it limits its educational plan to the most ele-\\nmentary course, whereas the township system contem-\\nplates a central high school open to all children of the\\ntownship. The township system also admits of the\\nemployment of a special school inspector or superintendent\\nif desired. In some instances, two or more townships unite\\nin the employment of such a superintendent.\\nSchool Attendance. The school age commences at from\\nfour to six and extends to from eighteen to twenty-one,", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "312 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nvarying greatly in the different states. The United States\\nCommissioner s Report now covers the period of from five\\nto eighteen. On this basis he reports that about 69 per\\ncent of the children who are of school age are enrolled in\\nthe schools, while the average attendance is about 68\\nper cent of the enrollment. This is a very low per-\\ncentage as compared with that in Germany, France, and\\nEngland. The longer period covered by us (five to eight-\\neen) thus acts unfavorably. No child should be compelled\\nto go to school before six, nor after fourteen.\\nSchool attendance in the United States is by no means\\nas regular as it should be, even during the period (six to\\nfourteen) that naturally belongs to education. To remedy\\nthis, compulsory education laws have been passed in most\\nstates. They cover periods varying from eight consecutive\\nweeks and a total of twenty weeks during the year, to\\nthe full school year. These laws are generally a dead\\nletter, partly because of their own weakness, and partly\\nbecause of the indifference of the people. Compulsory\\nattendance to be effective must cover the whole school\\nyear, and must carry a sufficient penalty for non-enforce-\\nment.\\nThe Schools. The schools of the United States may\\nbe classified as follows i the elementary school having\\nan eight years course which should be completed at four-\\nteen 2, the secondary school with a four years course that\\nfits for college or its equivalent training 3, the icnder-^\\\\\\ngraduate school or college with its four years course and\u00e2\u0084\u00a2\\nthe graduate school or university. The elementary school\\nis generally separated into primary and grammar grades, and\\nis sometimes preceded by the kindergarten. The second-\\nary school usually offers commercial or other practical\\ncourses to those who do not wish to prepare for college.\\nI", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": ".,C/// L SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES 313\\nC r\u00c2\u00ab er greatly in the scope of their work and in\\nt i .iises of instruction. Some universities open their\\nuoors to those who are not graduates of colleges. In all\\nstates the elementary and the high schools are free,\\nwhile in some the entire expense of the child s education\\nfrom kindergarten to university is defrayed by the govern-\\nment.\\nSupport of the Schools. The annual cost of the schools\\nof the country is about two hundred million dollars. About\\ntv/o thirds of this is raised by local tax, about one fifth by\\nstate tax, and the balance is derived chiefly from perma-\\nnent funds, etc. The preponderance of the local tax shows\\nthat to each community is intrusted the important matter\\nof deciding as to the quality of school it will maintain.\\nThe American people have always been liberal toward\\neducation, and no money is voted so freely by legislative\\nbodies as that necessary for the education of the young.\\nThe Teachers. There are over 400,000 teachers in the\\nUnited States, of whom about one third are men and two\\nthirds women. Only about 10 per cent of these have had\\na professional training. The average term of service is\\nfive years, and about 80,000 new teachers are needed every\\nyear. To supply this number the normal schools and\\nother institutions for training teachers are utterly inade-\\nquate, and will remain so until the average term of service\\nis lengthened.\\nThe principal institutions for training teachers are the\\nnormal school, the city training school, the pedagogical\\ndepartments of universities, and teachers training classes.\\nTo these may be added the teachers institute and the\\nsummer school, whi^^h while they stimulate and instruct\\nthe teachers, cannot give them a professional\\ntraining.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "314 HISTORY OF EDUCATION\\nThe course of the normal school usually covers three\\nyears, and embraces both the theory of education and\\npractice in teaching children. Within the last few years,\\nmany colleges have estabUshed chairs of pedagogy, but the\\nwork remains inadequate for a professional training so\\nlong as practice in teaching is not added to the require-\\nments.\\nTeachers are appointed by local boards generally for\\none year, though they often remain undisturbed year after\\nyear. The average monthly salary of men in 1896 was\\n^47.37, and of women $40.24.\\nSo long as professional training of the teacher guarantees\\nneither permanence of position nor adequate remunera-\\ntion, many men and women with ability to teach will be\\ntempted to devote their energies to other work, leaving\\nthe nation s most sacred trust, the education of its chil-\\ndren, to those who will not or cannot properly prepare them-\\nselves for that great responsibility.\\nBut there is in present tendencies no need for discour-\\nagement. Everywhere brave men and women are begin-\\nning to prepare themselves in earnest for the high calling\\nof teacher, hopeful that the future will bring them the\\nrecognition they deserve.\\nWith free schools, abler teachers, consecrated to their\\ncalling, and better courses of instruction with a people\\ngenerous in expenditures for educational purposes, a co-\\noperation of parents and teachers, and a willingness to learn\\nfrom other nations with the many educational periodicals,\\nthe pedagogical books, and teachers institutes to broaden\\nand stimulate the teacher, the friends of education in\\nAmerica may labor on assured that the new century will\\ngive abundant fruitage to the work which has so marvel-\\nously prospered in the old.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "BIBLIOGRAPHY\\nThe following works have a bearing upon some phase of the many\\ntopics considered in this book. Most of them have been mentioned in\\nabbreviated form either in the literature at the beginning of each chapter\\nor in the footnotes. They are here given with their full titles.\\nAdams, Francis. The Free School System of the United States.\\nAllen, W. F. A Short History of the Roman People.\\nAndrews, E. B. Brief Institutes of General History.\\nArcher, T. A., and Kingsford, C. L. Crusaders.\\nArnold, Edwin. The Light of Asia.\\nArnold, Matthew. Essays in Criticism.\\nArnstadt, F. a. Rabelais und sein Traite d Education.\\nFenelon.\\nAscHAM, Roger. The Scholemaster (edited by E. Arber).\\nAzarias, Brother. Essays Educational.\\nB\\nBalfour, Graham. Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland.\\nBallantine, H. Midnight Marches through Persia.\\nBallou, M. M. Due West or. Round the World in Ten Months.\\nFootprints of Travel.\\nBardeen, C. W. The Orbis Pictus of John Comenius.\\nBarnard, Henry. English Pedagogy.\\nPestalozzi and Pestalozzianism.\\nAmerican Journal of Education.\\nBarnes, Earl. Studies in Education.\\nBarrows, John Henry. World s Parliament of Religions.\\nBeecher, H. W. Life of Jesus the Christ.\\nBeeger und Leutbecher. Comenius Ausgewahlte Schriften.\\nBenjamin, S. G. W. The Story of Persia.\\nPersia and the Persians.\\n315", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "3 1 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY\\nBesant, Walter. Rabelais.\\nBoone, Richard G. Education in the United States Its History from\\nthe Earliest Settlements.\\nBORMANN, K. Padagogik fiir Volksschullehrer.\\nBowEN, H. CouRTHOPE. Frocbel and Education by Self-Activity.\\nBrooks, Phillips. Letters of Travel.\\nBrowning, Oscar. Milton s Tractate on Education.\\nBrugsch-Bey, H. History of Egypt under the Pharaohs.\\nBryce, James. The Holy Roman Empire.\\nA Short History of the Roman Empire.\\nBulfinch, T. Legends of Charlemagne.\\nBulkley, Rev. C. H. A. Plato s Best Thoughts.\\nBury, J. B. A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to\\nIrene.\\nButler, N. M. The Place of Comenius in the History of Education.\\nButler, W. Land of the Veda.\\nCapes, W. W. Roman Empire of the Second Century Age of Anto-\\nnines.\\nCarlisle, James H. Two Great Teachers Ascham and Arnold.\\nCarlyle, Thomas. French Revolution.\\nChurch, Alfred J. Pictures from Roman Life and Story.\\nPictures from Greek Life and Story.\\nChurch, R. W. The Beginnings of Middle Ages.\\nBacon.\\nClark, Henry. The State and Education.\\nClarke, James Freeman. Ten Great Religions.\\nCollins, W. Lucas. Montaigne.\\nCombe, George. Education Its Principles and Practice.\\nComenius. The Orbis Pictus.\\nGrosse Unterrichtslehre (see Zoubek).\\nCoMPAYRE, Gabriel. The History of Pedagogy (trans, by W. H.\\nPayne).\\nCourtney, W. L. John Locke.\\nCox, Sir G. W. The Crusades.\\nCraik, H. The State in Relation to Education.\\nCurtis, G. W. Nile Notes of a Howadji.\\nCurtius, Ernst. History of Greece (5 vols.).", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "BIBLIOGRAPHY 3 1 7\\nD\\nD AuBiGNE, J. H. Merle. History of the Reformation of the Sixteenth\\nCentury.\\nDavidson, Thomas. The Eckication of the Greek People and its\\nInfluence on Civilization.\\nAristotle and Ancient Educational Ideals.\\nDe Garmo, Charles. Herbart and the Herbartians.\\nDe Guimps, R. Pestalozzi, his Life and Worlcs (trans, by J. Russell).\\nDe Quincey, T. Plato s Republic.\\nDiTTES, F. Geschichte der Erzichung und des Unterrichts.\\nDooLiTTLE, Rev. J. Social Life of the Chinese.\\nDraper, John W. Conflict between Religion and Science.\\nHistory of the Intellectual Development of Europe.\\nDuRRELL, Fletcher. A New Life in Education.\\nDuRUY, Victor. History of France (trans, by Mrs. Carey).\\nA History of the Middle Ages.\\nHistory of Modern Times, from the Fall of Constantinople to the\\nFrench Revolution.\\nDyer, T. H. History of Modern Europe (3 vols.).\\nE\\nEbers, Georg. Uarda.\\nAn Egyptian Princess.\\nEducational Review.\\nEdwards, Amelia B. A Thousand Miles up the Nile.\\nEmerson, Ralph Waldo. Representative Men.\\nEmerton, E. An Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages.\\nMediaeval Europe.\\nEncyclopaedia Britannica.\\nEncyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik.\\nFelkin, Henry M. and Emmie. Herbart s Science of Education.\\nFelton, C. C. Greece, Ancient and Modern.\\nFenelon, F. Treatise on the Education of Girls.\\nFergusson, James. History of Architecture in All Countries.\\nFerris, G. T. Great Leaders.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "3i8 BIBLIOGRAPHY\\nFisher, G. P. History of the Reformation.\\nThe Beginnings of Christianity.\\nForsyth, W. Life of Cicero.\\nFowler, Thomas. Locke.\\nBacon.\\nFrazer, Robert W. British India.\\nFreeman, Edward A. Historical Essays.\\nFroebel, F. The Education of Man (trans, by W. N. Hailmann).\\nFroude, James Anthony. Short Studies on Great Subjects.\\nLife and Letters of Erasmus.\\nGeikie, C. Life of Christ.\\nGibbon, Edward. History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman\\nEmpire.\\nGill, John. Systems of Education.\\nGilman, a. Story of Rome from the Earliest Times to the End of the\\nRepublic.\\nGraham, H. G. Rousseau.\\nGreen, J. R. History of the English People (4 vols.).\\nGrote, George. History of Greece (12 vols.).\\nGuHL and Koner. The Life of Greeks and Romans. From Antique\\nMonuments.\\nGuizOT. History of Civilization (4 vols.).\\nH\\nHailmann, W. N. History of Pedagogy.\\nHallam, Henry. View of the State of Europe during the Middle\\nAges (3 vols.).\\nLiterary History of Europe.\\nHanna, William. Life of Christ.\\nHanus, Paul H. The Permanent Influence of Comenius (Ed. Review,\\nN.Y., Vol. 111,226).\\nHarper s Book of Facts (compiled by J. H. Willsey).\\nHarrison, J. H. Story of Greece.\\nHegel, G. W. F. The Philosophy of History.\\nHerbart, J. F. The Science of Education. (See Felkin.)\\nHerford, William H. The Student s Froebel.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "BIBLIOGRAPHY 3 1 9\\nHinsdale, B. A. Horace Mann.\\nHoRTON, R. F. A History of the Romans.\\nHosMER, J. K. Story of the Jews.\\nHoughton, R. C. Women of the Orient.\\nHughes, Thomas. Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits.\\nHurst, John F. A Short History of the Reformation.\\nLife and Literature in the Fatherland.\\nI\\nIrving, Washington. Mahomet and His Successors.\\nJ\\nJameson, Mrs. Anna. Legends of the Monastic Orders.\\nJohonnot, James. Geographical Reader.\\nJosEPHUS, F. The Works of.\\nJowett, B. The Republic of Plato.\\nK\\nKiddle and Schem. Cyclopaedia of Education.\\nKingsford, C. L. (See Archer.)\\nKitchin, G. W. History of France.\\nKlemm, L. R. European Schools.\\nKnox, Thomas W. The Boy Travelers in the Far East.\\nIn Egypt and the Holy Land.\\nKonigbauer, J. Geschichte der Padagogik und Methodik.\\nKriege, Matilda H. Friedrich Froebel.\\nKrusi, H. Life, Work, and Influence of Pestalozzi.\\nLabberton, R. H. New Historical Atlas and General History.\\nLane, Edward W. Account of the Manners and Customs of Modern\\nEgyptians.\\nLane-Poole, S. The Story of the Moors in Spain.\\nLang, Ossian H. Rousseau His Life, Work, and Educational Ideas.\\nBasedow: His Life and Educational Work.\\nHorace Mann.\\nLange, Wichard. Gesammelte Padagogische Schriften von F.\\nFroebel.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "220 BIBLIOGRAPHY\\nLanghorne, J. and W. Life of Plutarch.\\nLarned, J. N. History for Ready Reference (5 vols.).\\nLaurie, S. S. Rise and Early Constitution of Universities.\\nComenius His Life and Educational Works.\\nLavisse, Ernst. General View of the Political History of Europe\\n(trans, by Charles Gross).\\nLecky, W. E. H. History of European Morals (2 vols.).\\nLe Clerc. Life of Erasmus.\\nLeitch, J. MuiR. Practical Educationists and their Systems of\\nTeaching.\\nLessing, G. E. Nathan der Weise.\\nLewis, Charles T. History of Germany.\\nLiDDELL, H. G. Student s History of Rome.\\nLord, John. Beacon Lights of History.\\nM\\nMacaulay, T. B. Essays.\\nHistory of England.\\nMahaffy, J. P. Social Life in Greece.\\nOld Greek Education.\\nThe Greek World under Roman Sway.\\nMann, Mary, and George Combe Mann. The Life and Works of\\nHorace Mann.\\nEducational Writings of Horace Mann.\\nMarden, Orison Swett. Pushing to the Front.\\nMarenholtz-Bulow, Bertha von. Reminiscences of Friedrich\\nFroebel (trans, by Mary Mann).\\nMarshman, J. C. History of India.\\nMartin, G. H. Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System.\\nMartin, W. A. P. The Chinese; Their Education, Philosophy, and\\nLetters.\\nMaspero, G. Egyptian Archaeology (trang^ by Amelia B. Edwards).\\nMerivale, C. History of the Romans (7 vols.).\\nMiCHAUD, J. F. History of the Crusades (trans, by W. Robson).\\nMilton, J. Tractate on Education. (See Oscar Browning.)\\nMombert, J. L Great Lives.\\nHistory of Charles the Great (Charlemagne).\\nMommsen, Th. History of Rome.\\nMontagu, Basil. Life of Francis Bacon.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "BIBLIO GRAPHY 3 2 1\\nMORLEY, John. Life of Rousseau.\\nMorris, Charles. Historical Tales (Greek-Roman).\\nMorris, William O Connor. The French Revolution and First\\nEmpire.\\nMorrison, VV. Douglas. The Jews under Roman Rule.\\nMuNROE, James P. The Educational Ideal.\\nMyers, P. V. N. Mediaeval and Modern History.\\nAncient History.\\nN\\nNiedergesass. Geschichte der Piidagogik.\\nO\\nOliphant, Mrs. Montaigne. (See W. Lucas Collins.)\\nDante.\\nP\\nPainter, F. V. N. A History of Education.\\nParkman, Francis. The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth\\nCentury.\\nParsons, J. Russell. Prussian Schools through American Eyes.\\nFrench Schools through American Eyes.\\nPattison, Mark. Milton.\\nPaulsen, Friedrich. The German Universities Their Character\\nand Historical Development (trans, by E. D. Perry).\\nGeschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts, auf den deutschen Schulen\\nund Universitaten.\\nPloetz, Epitome of Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern History.\\nPrince, John T. Methods of Instruction, and Organization of Schools\\nin Germany.\\nQ\\n2uiCK, Robert H. Edi^tional Reformers.\\n^uintilian. Institutes of Oratory or. Education of an Orator. (See\\nWatson.)\\nR\\n^AGOZIN, Z. A. The Story of Chaldea from Earliest Time to Rise\\nof Assyria.\\nThe Story of Media, Babylon, and Persia.\\nUgozin, Mrs. J. A. The Story of Vedic India.\\nHIST. OF ED. 21", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "322\\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\\nRaumer, Karl von. Geschichte der Padagogik.\\nLife and System of Pestalozzi (trans, by Tilleard).\\nRawlinson, G. Five Great Monarchies.\\nAncient Egypt.\\nSeventh Great Oriental Monarchy.\\nReeve, Henry. Petrarch.\\nReimer, Karl. Michael de Montaigne.\\nEmil, oder Ueber die Erziehung.\\nRein, W. Am Ende der Schuh-eform?\\nEncyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik.\\nReports of the United States Commissioner of Education.\\nRichard, Ernst. The School System of France.\\nRichter, Karl. Pestalozzi.\\nA. H. Francke.\\nRidpath, J. C. Library of Universal History.\\nRousseau. Emile.\\nRoutledge. The Modern Seven Wonders of the World.\\nRussell, James E. German Higher Schools.\\nSankey, C. The Spartan and Theban Supremacies.\\nSchiller, Friedrich. History of the Thirty Years War (trans, by\\nMorrison).\\nSchmid, K. a. Encyklopadie des gesammten Erziehungs und Unter-\\nrichtswesens (ii vols.).\\nSchmidt, Karl. Geschichte der Padagogik (4 vols.) (edited by\\nWichard Lange).\\nSchneider, E., und E. von Bremen. Das Volksschulwesen im preus-\\nsischen Staate (3 vols.).\\nSchroeder, Chr. Das Volksschulwesen in Frankreich.\\nSCHWEGLER, A. A History of Philosophy (trans, by Julius H.\\nSeelye).\\nSeebohm, F. Era of the Protestant Revolution.\\nSeeley, L. Common School System of Germany.\\nSetdel, F. Froebel s Padagogische Schriften (3 vols.).\\nSharpless, Isaac. English Education in Elementary and Secondary\\nSchools.\\nSheppard, J. Y. The Fall of Rome and the Rise of New Nation-\\nalities.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "BIBLIOGRAPHY 323\\nShoup, William J. The History and Science of Education.\\nShumway. E. S. a Day in Ancient Rome.\\nSine, James. History of Germany.\\nSkinner, H. M. Tlie Schoolmaster in Literature.\\nSmith, William. History of Greece.\\nHistory of Rome.\\nSonnenschein Co. Cyclopaedia of Education.\\nSpofford, a. R. Library of Historical Characters (lo vols.).\\nSteeg, M. Jules. Emile or Concerning Education (trans, by\\nEleanor Worthington).\\nStill^, C. J. Studies in Mediaeval History.\\nStoddard, John L. Lectures on Travel.\\nStrack, K. Geschichte des deutschen Volksschulwesens.\\nSymonds, John Addington. The Renaissance in Italy.\\nTaylor, Bayard. History of Germany.\\nThalheimer, M. E. Mediaeval and Modern History.\\nTimayenis, T. T. History of Greece (2 vols.).\\nU\\nAfer, C. Introduction to the Pedagogy of Herbart.\\nUnited States Commissioner of Education Reports.\\nV\\nVan Liew, C. C. Life of Herbart, and Development of his Pedagog-\\nical Doctrines.\\nVoGEL, August. Geschichte der Padagogik als Wissenschaft.\\nW\\nWarner, Charles Dudley. Library of the World s Best Literature.\\nWatson, J. S. Quintilian s Institutes of Oratory; or, Education of\\nan Orator.\\nWeigert, Max. Die Volksschule in Frankreich.\\nWeir, Samuel. Key to Rousseau s Emile.\\nWells, C. L. The Age of Charlemagne.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "324 BIBLIOGRAPHY\\nWest, Andrew F. Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools.\\nWhite, Rev. James. The Eighteen Christian Centuries.\\nWiLKlNS, A. S. National Education in Greece in the Fourth Century\\nB.C.\\nWilkinson, Sir J. G. Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyp-\\ntians (3 vols.).\\nWilliams, Samuel G. The History of Modern Education.\\nWiLLMANN, Otto. Herbart s Padagogische Schriften (2 vols.).\\nWiNSHiP, Albert E. Horace Mann, Educator.\\nY\\nYoNGE, C. D. Three Centuries of Modern History.\\nZ\\nZouBEK, Fr. E. a. Comenius. Grosse Unterrichtslehre.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nA. B. C. der Anschauung, Herbart s, 281.\\nAbelard at University of Paris, 141.\\nBenedictine teacher, 118.\\nleader of scholasticism, 122.\\nAcademies, in French school administra-\\ntion, 296, 297.\\nAgricola, Johannes, school course of,\\n176 n.\\nAgricola, Rudolphus, father of German\\nhumanism, 153, 158.\\nlectures of, 158.\\nAhriman, principle of darkness in Per-\\nsian religion, 39.\\nAlbigenses, reformers in France, 165.\\nAlcohol, Arabians discover, 145.\\nAlcuin of England, Benedictine teacher,\\n118.\\nteacher of Charlemagne, 127.\\nAlexander the Great, pupil of Aristotle,\\n65-\\nAlexandria, catechetical school at, 107,\\n108.\\nMuseum of, 50.\\nSaracenic school at, 140.\\nschool of rabbis at, 44.\\nseat of philosophy, 107.\\nAlexandrian library fostered by the Ptole-\\nmies, 50.\\nAlfred the Great, becomes king, 130.\\ncharacter and history of, 130.\\neducation of, 131.\\nencourages education of higher classes,\\n302.\\nestablishes monasteries, 131.\\nfounds Oxford University, 131.\\ninfluence on English education, 131.\\nliterary work of, 131.\\nstatesmanship of, 130.\\nAlgebra, modern form of, 145.\\nAllgemeine Piidagogik, Herbart s, 281.\\nAmbrose, St., bishop of Milan, 114.\\nAmerica, discovery of, 165.\\nAmerican Revolution, establishes princi-\\nple of self-government, 239.\\nAnalects of Confucius, 28.\\nAnalytical method of Aristotle, 67.\\nAnatomy, in Milton s scheme of educa-\\ntion, 219.\\nAnnual Reports, Horace Mann s, 286.\\nof Bureau of Education, 310.\\nAnselm, founder of scholasticism, 122.\\nAntioch, catechetical school at, 107.\\nAntioch College, Horace Mann presi-\\ndent of, 288.\\nApostles, active in education, loi.\\nApostles Creed, taught during Charle-\\nmagne s reign, 128.\\nApostolic Constitiitum quoted, 113.\\nApprentice schools, in France, 299.\\nAquinas, Thomas, Benedictine teacher,\\n118.\\nleader of scholasticism, 122.\\nArabians, services to education, 145.\\nArchitecture, in Milton s scheme of edu-\\ncation, 219.\\nAristotle, analytical method of, 67.\\nAthenian philosopher, 56.\\ncalled the Stagirite, 65.\\npedagogy of, outlined, 66, 67.\\npupil of Plato, 65.\\nteacher of Alexander the Great, 65.\\nArithmetic, in Charlemagne s reign, 128.\\nin Chinese schools, 24.\\nin India, 32, 33.\\nin Jewish education, 43.\\nin Milton s scheme of education, 219.\\nin monastic education, 119.\\nin Roman schools, 78.\\nArrondissements, in French school sys-\\ntem, 297.\\nArt, in Athens, 56.\\nin Egypt, 47.\\nArts, seven liberal, 118, 127.\\nAryans, in Greece, 53.\\nin India, 30.\\nin Persia, 36.\\nAsceticism, influence on civilization, 116.\\nAscham, Roger, English educator, 190.\\nmethod of, 191.\\nScholcmaster, 190.\\ntutor to Elizabeth, igo.\\nAssistant teachers, 307.\\nAstrology, applications of, 120.\\nAstronomy, applications of, 120.\\nArabians services to, 145.\\nCopernican system, 148.\\n325", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "326\\nINDEX\\nAstronomy taught in Egypt, 50.\\ntaught in Mohammedan schools, 145.\\ntaught to Jews, 43.\\nAthenian education, criticism of, 59.\\nAthenian educators, 61-67.\\nAristotle, 65-67.\\nPlato, 63-65.\\nSocrates, 61, 62.\\nAthens, 56-60.\\naesthetic education in, 58, 59.\\nAristotle founds Lyceum at, 66.\\nart and literature in, 54.\\ncenter of learning, 75.\\ncontrasted with Sparta, 56.\\ncriticism of education in, 59.\\ndemocratic government in, 57.\\nhistory of, 56.\\nhome in, 57.\\nlaws of Solon, 57.\\nPericles, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, 56.\\nphilosophers from, at Museum of Alex-\\nandria, 50, 51.\\nplay important factor in child life, 57.\\nRomans study at, 74.\\nstudy of poets, 57, 59.\\ntraining of children, 57.\\nwoman s Status in, 58, 90.\\nAttendance, compulsory, in English\\nschools, 306.\\nin French schools, 297, 298.\\nin German schools, 291, 292.\\nin United States schools, 312.\\nAugustine, St., City of God, Confessions,\\n114.\\nconversion of, 114.\\ninfluence of, 18, 115.\\nlife of, 114.\\npedagogy, 115.\\nservices to education, loi.\\nworks of, used in monasteries, 119.\\nAugustus, age of, 74, 75.\\nAzarias, Brother, on La Salle, 228.\\non the Simultaneous Method, 227.\\nBabylon, Saracenic school at, 140.\\nschool of rabbis at, 44.\\nBacon, Francis, character of, 206.\\nComenius applies principles of, 214.\\ndegradation of, 207.\\nInductive Method introduced, 207, 208.\\ninfluence of, 18.\\nlife of, 205.\\nMontaigne s influence on, 195.\\nnew era in education, 209.\\nNovum Organum, \u00e2\u0096\u00a0zvj.\\nobject teaching of, 189.\\non Jesuit schools, 186, 187.\\npedagogy of, 208, 209.\\npolitical advancement of, 206.\\nBacon, Francis, reforms of, 204.\\nBagdad, caliphs foster education, 145.\\nSaracenic school at, 140.\\nBarrett, influences Horace Mann, 285.\\nBasedow, Elementary Book {^Elementar-\\nbiich), 251.\\nfailure of, 254.\\nlife of, 250.\\nmethods of teaching, 250.\\npedagogy of, 253, 255, 256.\\nPhilanthropin established, 251, 252.\\nprofessor at Soroe, 251.\\nwritings of, 255.\\nBasel, center of printing industry, 162.\\nBasil the Great, life of, 106.\\npedagogy of, 106.\\nservices to education, loi.\\nBeautifying of schoolrooms, 197, 198.\\nBell, Andrew, founds National Schools,\\n305-\\nMonitorial system of, 307.\\nBelles-Lettres, in Chinese education, 25.\\nBenedict, St., principles of, 117.\\nBenedictines, growth of, 117.\\nprinciples of, 117.\\nschools founded by, 118.\\nteachers, 118.\\nBerlin Conference, 236 71.\\nBernsdorf, Danish minister of education,\\n251.\\nBesant, Walter, on Rabelais, 193, 194,\\n195-\\nBible, only literature of early Christians,\\n95-\\nstudy of, 153.\\ntranslated by Alfred the Great, 131.\\ntranslated into German, 168.\\nBiographies of educators, 18.\\nBlankenburg, Froebel s school at, 276.\\nBluntschli, advice to Pestalozzi, 260.\\nBoard of Education in United States\\nschool system, 310, 311.\\nBoard schools, established in England,\\nSOS-\\nBoatman, third caste in Egypt, 48.\\nBoccaccio, humanistic leader of Italy, 155,\\n157-\\ninfluences of, 151.\\nBody, care of, 221, 230.\\nBologna, university established at, 124.\\nBoniface, of Germany, Benedictine\\nteacher, 118.\\nBook of Method, Basedow s, 255.\\nBooks, school, adoption of, 290.\\nBouillon, Godfrey of, leads first crusade,\\n137-\\nBrahma, Hindu worship of, 33.\\nBrahmanism, Buddha seeks to over-\\nthrow, 35.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n327\\nBrahmans, highest caste in India, 29, 30,\\n31. .32. 34.\\nmarriage of, 32.\\nBrotherhood of man, value of principle,\\n91.\\nBrothers of the Christian Schools, La\\nSalle organizes, 227.\\nBrown University, Horace Mann at,\\n285.\\nBrowning, on Milton s scheme of educa-\\ntion, 220.\\nBuddha, religion and spirit of, 35.\\nBuddhism, in China, 21, 22, 27.\\nin India, 31.\\nreligion based on moral acts, 35.\\nBudding Intellect, Chinese degree, 26.\\nBulfinch, on Charlemagne, 126.\\nBurgdorf, Froebel at, 275.\\nPestalozzi teaches at, 266.\\nBurgundy, Duke of, taught by Fenelon,\\n224, 225.\\nCaen, university at, 141.\\nCahors, university at, 141.\\nCalculating boards, in Athens, 59.\\nCaliphs, foster education, 145.\\nCambray, Bishop of, aids Erasmus, 161.\\nCambridge, University of, 141.\\nCampe, leader of Philanthropin, 254.\\nCanterbury, cloister school at, 118.\\nCantons, in French school system, 297.\\nCaste system, in Egypt, 47-49.\\nin India, 30, 32.\\nCatechetical schools, 107, 108.\\ndecay of, no.\\nCatechumen schools, of early Christians,\\n104.\\nCathedral schools, 139\\nCatholic Church. See Church.\\nCavaliers, struggle with Roundheads, 200.\\nCelestial Empire, civilization of, 20.\\nCeylon, Buddhism in, 35.\\nCharity schools, in China, 23.\\nCharlemagne, education of, 133.\\nencourages education, 127, 128.\\nhistory, character, purpose of, 125, 126.\\ninfluence of, 18.\\nSchool of Palace established, 127.\\nsummary of work of, 128, 129.\\nCharles V., of Spain, Emperor of Ger-\\nmany, 165, 166.\\nChemistry, taught in Mohammedan\\nschools, 145.\\nChildren, a sacred trust, 91.\\nhome training among early Christians,\\n94.\\namong Jews, 41, 42.\\nin Athens, 57.\\nin Egypt, 49.\\nChildren, in India, 32.\\nin Persia, 37.\\nin Rome, 76, 77.\\nin Sparta, 69.\\nweak, cast out in Sparta, 69, 73.\\nChina, 20-28.\\nbelief in transmigration of souls, 22.\\ncivilization of, 20.\\nclassics of, 25.\\nConfucius, 18, 24, 27, 28.\\nconservative character of, 21.\\ncriticism of education, 27.\\ndegrees in, 25, 26.\\nelementary schools in, 23, 25.\\nexaminations in, 26.\\ngeography and history of, 20, 21.\\ngovernment and language in, 21.\\nhigher education in, 25.\\nhome in, 22.\\nlack of toys, 23.\\nmotive for education, 52.\\nrelation of parents and children, 22, 23.\\nreligion in, 21.\\nscience and inventions in, 26.\\ntreatment of women in, 22.\\nChrist, disciples of, 92, 93.\\ninfluence of, 96, 97.\\nlife and character of, 96, 97.\\nmethods of, 97, 98.\\nnature study of, 99.\\nprinciples of, 90, 91.\\nteacher, 97-100.\\ntruth preached by, 99.\\ntype of perfect manhood, 16.\\nvalue of teachings of, 89, 95.\\nChristian education, 89-314.\\naim of, 91.\\nAlfred the Great s influence, 130, 131,\\nBasil the Great, 106, 107.\\nBenedictines, 117, 118.\\ncatechetical schools, 107.\\ncatechumen schools, 104.\\nCharlemagne, 125-129.\\nChrysostom, 105, 106.\\nchurch connection with, loi.\\nClement of Alexandria, 109.\\nconflict with pagan education, 111-115.\\ncrusades, 102, 136-138.\\ndifficulties in establishment of, 95.\\nfeudal education, 132-135.\\nfirst Christian schools, 104, 105.\\ngeneral view of, 89, loi, 103.\\nimportance of individual, 91.\\nlessons and principles of, 90, 91.\\nmonastic education, 102, 1 16-120.\\nOrigen, no.\\nSt. Augustine, 114, 115.\\nscholasticism, 121-124.\\nseven liberal arts, 119, 120.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "328\\nINDEX\\nChristian education, slow growth of, 92,\\n93. See also Renaissance, Human-\\nistic educators, Reformation, Protest-\\nant educators, Jesuits, Modern edu-\\ncators. School systems, and sixteenth,\\nseventeenth, eighteenth, and nine-\\nteenth century education.\\nTertullian, 112, 113.\\nTeutonic peoples, instrument of civili-\\nzation, 103.\\nuniversities, 139-141.\\nChristiania, university at, 141.\\nChristianity, influence of, 96, 97.\\nlessons of, 90-92.\\nSee also Christian education.\\nChrysostom, educational principles of,\\n105, 106.\\nlife of, 105.\\nservices to education, loi.\\nChurch, animosities between Catholics\\nand Protestants, 200.\\nauthority in Renaissance, 150.\\ncontrols education, 112, 139.\\ncorruption of, 151, 152, 166, 168.\\ndegradation of, 151, 152.\\ninfluence of St. Augustine s writings\\non, 115.\\nsupremacy of, 116.\\nthe mother of schools, 102.\\nChurch Fathers, direct educational move-\\nments, lOI.\\nopposed to pagan literature, 113, 120.\\nCicero, called Father of his Country,\\n82.\\ncharacter of, 82.\\ndeath ot, 82.\\neducation of, 81.\\nlife of, 81.\\npedagogy of, 83.\\nPhilippics of, 82.\\nRoman consul, 82.\\nservices to education, 83.\\nworks of, studied in monastic educa-\\ntion, 119.\\nCitizens in Sparta, 68.\\nCity of God, St. Augustine s, 114.\\nClassic languages. Humanists revive\\nstudy, 149.\\nin Trotzendorf s pedagogy, 178.\\nnew interest in, 149, 150.\\nClassic literature, revival of studv of,\\n155-157-\\nTertullian excludes, 113.\\nClement of Alexandria, pedagogy, 109.\\npupil of Pantaenus, 109.\\nteacher, 109.\\nClermont, Jesuit college of, 183.\\nClimate a factor in education, 16.\\nCloister schools established, 118.\\nClothing of children, Locke s rules re-\\ngarding, 221.\\nCoeducation, in France, 298.\\nin German villages, 292.\\nin Sparta, 71.\\nColleges, in United States school system,\\n312, 313.\\nColloquies, Erasmus s, 162.\\nCologne, cloister school at, 118.\\nuniversity of, 141.\\nComenius, Johann Amos, banished, 212.\\nDidactica Magna, 213.\\neducation of, 211, 212.\\neducational works of, 214.\\nhonors bestowed on, 213.\\ninfluence of, 18.\\ninfluence of Bacon on, 214.\\nLatin Bohemian dictionary of, 213.\\nmember of Moravian Brethren, 211.\\nobject teaching of, 189.\\nPestalozzi applies principles of, 269.\\nreforms of. 204.\\nsettles in Poland, 213.\\nsummary of his work, 215.\\ntrials of, 212.\\nCommandments, Ten, oldest writing\\namong Israelites, 44.\\nCommittee of Council on Education in\\nEngland, 305.\\nCommon schools, importance of, 287.\\nin Germany, 292.\\nin United States, 310.\\nCommonwealth, established, 200.\\nCommunes, in French education, 300.\\nCompass, invention of, 148.\\nCompayre, on Comenius, 214.\\non Jesuit schools, 185, 187.\\non Jesuits and Jansenists, 189.\\non La Salle, 228.\\non Locke, 221.\\non Montaigne s pedagogy, 198.\\non Rabelais s Gargantua, 194, 195.\\non Rousseau, 242, 246.\\non the Reformation, 166, 167.\\non the Renaissance, 121.\\nComposition, in Chinese education, 25.\\nCompulsory education, among Jews, 42.\\nCharlemagne introduces, 128.\\nin England, 306.\\nin France, 297, 298.\\nin Germany, 170, 181, 203, 291.\\nin United States, 312.\\nLuther insists on, 174.\\nPlato s scheme of, 65.\\nConduct of Schools, La Salle s, 228.\\nConfessions, Rousseau s, 242, 243.\\nCo7!fessions, St. Augustine s, 114.\\nConfucius, altar to, in Chinese school-\\nrooms, 24.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n329\\nConfucius, analects of, 28.\\ninfluence of, 18, 27.\\nConrad III., of Germany, leads second\\ncrusade, 137.\\nConstance, cloister school at, 118.\\nContinuation schools, in Germany, 292.\\nCopenhagen, university at, 141.\\nCopernicus, astronomical discoveries of,\\n148, 202.\\nCordova, caliphs of, foster education, 145.\\nSaracenic school at, 140.\\nCorporal punishment, among Jews, 43.\\nBasil the Great on, 106.\\nCicero s views regarding, 83.\\nin Jesuit schools, 186.\\nQuintilian s views regarding, 87.\\nCotta, Ursula, befriends Luther, 167.\\nCouncil, Educational, governs French\\ndepartements, 297.\\nCounty, school administration of, 310.\\nCramer, on the crusades, 138.\\nCriticism, of Athenian education, 59.\\nof Chinese education, 27.\\nof Egyptian education, 51.\\nof Feudal education, 135.\\nof Hindu education, 34, 35.\\nof Jesuit education, 1S6.\\nof Jewish education, 44, 186.\\nof Persian education, 38.\\nof Roman education, 80.\\nof Spartan education. 71.\\nCromwell, Commonwealth under, 200.\\nCrusades, influence on education, 102,\\n103, 136-138.\\nresults of, 138.\\nCurtius, quoted, 72.\\nDancing, taught among Jews, 42.\\nDante, banishment of, 156.\\nbirth of, 155.\\nDivine Comedy, 156.\\neducation of, 155, 156.\\nhumanistic leader of Italy, 155.\\ninfluence of, 151.\\nDark Ages, slow progress during, loi.\\nend of, 148.\\nDavid, founder of Hebrew literature, 44.\\nDean, M. Ida, on schools in India, 33.\\nDecimal system originated by Hindus,\\n34-\\nDe Garmo, on Herbart as a teacher, 279.\\nDegrees in China, 25, 26.\\nin French Universities, 299.\\nDemia, Charles, 227.\\nDemocratic government in Athens, 57.\\nDepartements, erect normal schools, 300.\\nin French school system, 297.\\nDervishes, in Persia, 38.\\nDescartes on Jesuit schools, i85.\\nDeserving of Promotion, Chinese degree,\\n26.\\nDessau, institute at. See Philanthropin.\\nDialectical method, of Socrates, 62.\\nDialogues of the Dead, Fenelon s, 225.\\nDidactica Magna, Comenius s, 213. See\\nGreat Didactic.\\nDiscipline, in Chinese schools, 24.\\nin Indian schools, 32.\\nin Jewish schools, 43.\\nin Roman schools, severe, 78.\\nDiscoveries, during Renaissance, 148.\\nDistrict inspector, in German schools,\\n291.\\nDistrict school board, in Germany, 290,\\n291.\\nDistrict system of education, in United\\nStates, 311.\\nDittes, quoted, 42, 274.\\nDraper, on St. Augustine, 115.\\nDrieser, on Quintilian, 86 n.\\nDualistic philosophy, of Zoroaster, 39.\\nDuns Scotus, Benedictine leader, 118.\\nleader of scholasticism, 122.\\nDyeing, in ancient Egypt, 47.\\nEarth, size of, ascertained, 145.\\nEberhard, Count, Reuchlin s friend, 159.\\nEducatio7i of Girls, Fenelon s, 224.\\nEducation of Man, Froebel s, 277.\\nEgypt, 46-52.\\nantiquity of its history, 47.\\ncaste system in, 47-49.\\ncriticism of education in, 51.\\ndyeing, embalming, etc., in, 47.\\ngeography and history of, 46, 47.\\nhigher education in, 50.\\nhome in, 49.\\ninfluence of priests in, 47, 48.\\nmechanic arts in, 47.\\nmilitary class in, 48.\\nmotive for education in, 52.\\npilgrimages to, for study, 47.\\npolygamy in, 49.\\nstatus of woman in, 49.\\nEgyptian education, criticism of, 51.\\nEighteenth century education, general\\nview of, 237-240.\\nSee also Modern educators.\\nElementary Book {Elementarbuch) Base-\\ndow s, 251, 255.\\nElementary education, among Arabians,\\n145-\\nin Athens, 58.\\nin China, 23.\\nin England, 306.\\nin France, 298, 299.\\nin Germany, 192.\\nin India, 32-34.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "330\\nINDEX\\nElementary education in Rome, 77.\\nin United States, 312.\\nneglected by Jesuits, 184, 187.\\nElizabeth, Queen, taught by Roger As-\\ncham, 190, 192.\\nEmbalming in ancient Egypt, 47.\\nEmile, Rousseau s, 243-249.\\nEmulation, as incentive in Jesuit schools,\\n186, 188.\\nEngineering, in Ancient Egypt, 47-50.\\nin Milton s scheme of education, 219.\\nEngland, administration of schools, 305.\\nattendance in schools, 306.\\neducational enterprise in, 308.\\nschool system of, 303-308.\\nsupport of schools in, 307.\\nteachers in, 307, 308.\\nEnglish rule in India, 31.\\nEnvironment, a factor in education, 16, 17.\\nErasmus, Colloquies, 162.\\ncompared with Luther, 162.\\nhumanistic leader, 153.\\nlife of, 161.\\nliterary authority of world, 162.\\non Agricola, 158.\\non Melanchthon, 171.\\npedagogy of, 162, 163.\\nPraise of Folly, 162.\\nstudies of, 161.\\ntranslation of Greek testament, 162.\\nErfurt, Francke preacher at, 233.\\nuniversity of, 141.\\nErigena, leader of scholasticism, 122.\\nprinciples of, 122.\\nErnst of Gotha, Duke, school law of, 203.\\nEssay Concerning Human Understand-\\ning, Locke s, 221.\\nEssays, Montaigne s, 198.\\nEssex, benefactor of Bacon, 206.\\nEton, college at, 174, 306.\\nEuclid, used in monastic education, 119.\\nEudemon, page in Rabelais s Gargantua,\\n194.\\nEvening Hours of a Hermit, Pestalozzi s,\\n263.\\nExaminations in Athens, 58.\\nin China, 25, 26.\\nExercise, Locke s rules regarding, 221.\\nFables, F6nelon s, 225.\\nFactory laws, in England, 306.\\nFamily, the foundation of education, 17.\\nSee Home.\\nFarmers, caste in India, 30.\\neducation of, 34.\\nthird caste in Egypt, 48.\\nFathers of church, opposed to pagan\\nliterature, 113.\\nFaurier, Peter, 227.\\nFear, motive for study in China, 24, 27.\\nFenelon, compared with Seneca, 225,\\n226.\\neducation of, 223, 224.\\nEducation of Girls, 224.\\nhead of convent of new Catholics, 224.\\npedagogy of, 226, 227.\\npreceptor of grandson of Louis XIV,\\n224.\\npriest, 224.\\nreforms of, 204.\\nworks of, 225.\\nFeudal barons, influence of, 133.\\nFeudal education, 132-135.\\ncriticism of, 135.\\nFeudalism, crusades break power of, 138.\\ndefined, 132.\\nFichte, Herbart student of, 279.\\nFinances, school, 290.\\nFit for Office, Chinese degree, 26.\\nFood of children, Locke s rules regard-\\ning, 221.\\nForest of Pencils, Chinese degree, 26.\\nFormalism in instruction, 194.\\nForsyth, on Cicero, 81, 82, 83.\\nFrance, administration of schools, 296,\\n297.\\nattendance in schools, 297.\\nmother schools in, 298.\\nnormal schools in, 297.\\nschool system, 296.\\nsupport of schools, 299, 300.\\nteachers, 300, 302.\\nFrancis I., of France, 165.\\nFrancke, August Hermann, called to\\nUniversity of Halle, 233.\\neducation of, 232.\\nfounds orphan asylum at Halle, 234.\\nInstitutions at Halle, 234, 235.\\norganizes teachers class at Halle, 228.\\nPrivat Docent at Leipsic, 232.\\nReal-school, 236.\\ntraining of teachers, 235.\\nwork among poor, 233, 234.\\nFrankfurt-am-Main, Froebel teaches in,\\n273-\\nFrederick Barbarossa of Germany, leads\\nthird crusade, 137.\\nFrederick I., recognizes university at\\nBologna, 140.\\nFree schools, established in France, 298-\\n300.\\nin Germany, 293.\\nin United States, 313.\\nFreiburg-im-Breisgau, university at, 141.\\nFrench Revolution, lessons of, 239, 264.\\nFroebel, Friedrich Wilhelm August, as\\nteacher, 273.\\nat Burgdorf, 275.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n331\\nFroebel, F. W. A., at Universities of Got-\\ntingen and Berlin, 274.\\nat Yverdon, 274.\\nEducation of Man, Songs for Mother\\na?td Nursery, 277.\\nFenelon anticipates, 226.\\nfirst school of, 275.\\ninfluence of, 18.\\nkindergarten of, 276.\\nlectures of, 277.\\nlife of, 272, 273.\\nobject teaching of, 189.\\non Pestalozzi, 274.\\nschool at Griesheim and Keilhau, 275.\\nsoldier, 275.\\nFulda, cloister school at, 118.\\nGargantua, Rabelais s, 193.\\nGate of Tongues Unlocked, Comenius s,\\n214.\\nGeography, a factor in education, 16.\\nin Milton s scheme of education, 219.\\nin monastic education, 119.\\nNeander favors study of, 179.\\nGeometry, discovery of Pythagorean\\ntheorem, 73.\\nin catechetical schools, 108.\\nin Jewish schools, 43.\\nin Milton s scheme of education, 219.\\nin monastic education, 119.\\nGermany, administration of schools, 289.\\nattendance in schools, 291.\\neffects of Thirty Years War on, 201,\\n202.\\nhumanism in, 157.\\nschool system of, 169, 199, 289-295.\\nState assumes responsibility of educa-\\ntion, 174.\\nsupport of schools, 293.\\nteachers in, 294.\\nGibbon, Edward, quoted, 75, 150.\\nGirls, education of, among Jews, 41.\\nFenelon advocates education of, 226.\\nin Athens, 58.\\nin China, 22.\\nin Egypt, 50.\\nin Rome, 80.\\nin Sparta, 71.\\nsale of, in India, 31.\\nschools for, in Germany, 181.\\nGlaucha, Francke pastor at, 233.\\nGoethe, on the Emile, 249.\\nGoldberg, Trotzendorf rector at, 178.\\nGottingen, University of, 280.\\nGovernment, adrninistrative school board\\nof, in Germany, 290.\\ndemocratic, in Athens, 57.\\nno control of schools in China, 23.\\nof Romans, 75.\\nGovernment, self, in schools, 178, 179.\\nGraduate school in United States school\\nsystem, 312.\\nGrammar, study of, begun, 59.\\nin Athenian schools, 59.\\nin catechetical schools, 108.\\nin Mohammedan schools, 145.\\nin monastic schools, 119.\\nGreard on Rousseau, 246.\\nGreat Didactic, Comenius s, 213, 214.\\norganization of school system in, 215-\\n217.\\nGreat Teacher, The. See Christ.\\nGreece, 53-55.\\nart and literature in, 54.\\nAthens and Sparta, 54.\\ngeography and history in, 53, 54.\\nmanners and customs in, 54.\\nOlympian games in, 54, 55.\\npolitical freedom in, 54.\\nGreek culture, influence on Rome, 74,\\n75, 80.\\nGreek language, importance of, in human\\nculture, 157.\\nin Milton s scheme of education, 219.\\nin pedagogy of Innovators, 204.\\nintroduced into Germany, 160.\\nReuchlin introduces study of, 160.\\nrevival of study of, 150, 151, 153.\\nstudy of, in Rome, 74.\\ntaught in Sturm s school course, 176.\\nGreek text-books, Neander s, 180.\\nGreifswald, University of, 141.\\nGriesheim, Froebel s first school at, 275.\\nGruner, Dr., head master of Model\\nSchool at Frankfurt-am-Main, 273.\\nGuienne, Montaigne studies at, 196.\\nGunpowder, invention of, 148.\\nGutenberg, invents printing, 164.\\nGymnasia, furnished by State in Athens,\\n58.\\nGymnasium, course in, 293.\\nestablished by Francke, 234.\\npurpose of, 236 n.\\nGymnastics, taught in Athens, 58.\\nin Sparta, 71.\\nHakem III., fosters education, 145.\\nHallam, on Agricola, 158.\\nHalle, Institutions at, 234.\\nPietists found university at, 231, 232.\\nteacher s class at, 228.\\nHamburg, cloister school at, 118.\\nHanlin, Royal Academy, in China, 26.\\nHarris, Dr., on Pestalozzi, 271.\\nHarrow, college at, 174, 306.\\nHebrew, revival of study, 153.\\nused in interpreting Scripture, 158,\\n160.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "332\\nINDEX\\nHebrew Grammar and Lexicon, Reuch-\\nlin s, 159.\\nHecker, founds first Prussian Normal\\nSchool, 228.\\nHegel, Aristotle compared to, 67.\\nHegira, Mohammedanism dates from,\\n143-\\nHeidelberg, center of humanistic move-\\nment, 153.\\nReuchlin at, 160.\\nUniversity of, 124, 141.\\nHeliopolis, institution for higher learning\\nat, 50.\\nHelo ise, Rousseau s, 243.\\nHelots, in Sparta, 68.\\nHerbart, Johann Friedrich, enters Gym-\\nnasium at Oldenburg, 279.\\nin Bremen and Switzerland, 279.\\nlife of, 278.\\nliterary activity of, 281.\\non importance of common schools, 287.\\npedagogy of, 282, 283.\\npractice school at Konigsberg, 280.\\nprofessor of philosophy at Konigsberg,\\n280.\\nstudent of Fichte, 279.\\nteacher in Switzerland, 279.\\nHerbartians, work of modern, 282.\\nHerford, on Froebel, 276.\\nHesse-Cassel, active in school work, 203.\\nHesse-Darmstadt, active in school work,\\n203.\\nHieroglyphics, Rosetta stone furnishes\\nkey to interpretation of, 47.\\nHigh Schools, connected with common\\nin France, 299.\\nin United States, 313.\\nHigher education, among Jews, 44.\\nin China, 25, 27.\\nin Egypt, 50.\\nin India, 34.\\nin Rome, 79.\\nHindu education, criticism of, 34, 35.\\nHindus. See India.\\nHistory, a factor in education, 16.\\nnatural, taught in Jewish schools, 43.\\nNeander favors study of, 179.\\ntaught in Roman schools, 78.\\ntaught in schools of prophets, 44.\\nHolstein, active in school work, 203.\\nHoly Land, of Greece, at Olympia, 55.\\npilgrimages to, 136.\\nHome, foundation of education, 17.\\nin Athens, 57.\\nin China, 22.\\nin Egypt, 49.\\nin India, 32.\\nin Persia, 37.\\nin Rome, 76.\\nHome, in Sparta, 69.\\nof Jews, 41.\\nHome training, among early Christians,\\n94.\\nHorace, Roman poet, 74.\\nHo2V Gertrude teaches her Children, Pes-\\ntalozzi s, 267.\\nHumanism, art of printing aids, 150.\\ndecline of, 198.\\nin Germany, 157.\\nin Italy, 149-151.\\nPetrarch founder of, 156.\\nHumanistic educators, 155-163.\\nAgricola, 158.\\nBoccaccio, 157.\\nDante, 155.\\nErasmus, 161.\\nGerman, 157-163.\\nItalian, 156, 157.\\nmission of, 155.\\nPetrarch, 156.\\nReuchlin, 159.\\nHumanities, studied in Jesuit schools, 185.\\nHunziker, Professor, on Peslalozzi, 267,\\n269.\\nHurst, Bishop, on Melanchthon, 171.\\nHuss, reformer, 165.\\nIlfeld, Neander s school at, 179.\\nIliad and Odyssey, called Bible of Greeks,\\n69.\\nIllustrated text-books, first, 215, 229.\\nIllustration, teaching by, 98.\\nIndia, 29-35.\\nBrahminism and Mohammedanism in,\\n31-\\nBuddha, 35.\\ncaste system in, 30.\\ncriticism of education in, 34.\\nelementary schools in, 32-34.\\nEnglish reforms in, 31.\\ngeography and history of, 29.\\nhigher education in, 34.\\nhome in, 32.\\nmotive for education in, 52.\\npolygamy in, 31.\\nreligious ceremonies in schools, 33.\\nschoolhouses described, 33.\\nskill of craftsmen in, 30, 31.\\nstatus of woman in, 31.\\nIndividual, education for, 91.\\nIndividuality, of children, 88.\\nInductive method; Bacon s, 207, 208, 229.\\nIndustrial School, Pestalozzi establishes,\\n262.\\nInfant school (ecole iti/antiiie) in France,\\n298.\\nInnocent III., Pope, recognizes Univer-\\nsity of Paris, 141.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n333\\nInquiries concerning Course of Nature\\nin Development of Mankind, Pesta-\\nlozzi s, 269.\\nInspector, in German schools, 290, 291.\\nRoyal, in English school system, 305.\\nbistitiites of Oratory, Quintilian s, 87.\\nInstitutions at Halle, 234.\\nInstruction, method of, in India, 33.\\nIntroduction, 15-19.\\nInventions, Chinese, 26.\\nduring Renaissance, 148.\\nIsaiah, founder of Hebrew literature, 44.\\nIsrael. See Jews.\\nItaly, humanism in, 149-151.\\nintellectual movement in, 152.\\nJansenists, introduce phonic spelling, 189.\\npurpose of, 188.\\nservices to education, 189.\\nJena, center of Herbartian activity, 279,\\n282.\\nJerome of Prague, reformer, 165.\\nJerusalem, Latin Kingdom established\\nat, 137.\\npilgrimages to, 136.\\nschool of rabbis at, 44.\\nJesuits, criticism of education, 186.\\neducation of, 184.\\nemulation as an incentive, 186.\\nfounding of order, 182, 183.\\ngrowth of society, 183.\\nLoyola, 183.\\nmilitary character of order, 183.\\nopposition of Port Royalists to, 188.\\nschool system of, 183-188, 199.\\nspread of power, 184.\\nsummary of educational work, 187, 188.\\nJews, 40-45.\\ncompulsory education among, 42.\\ncriticism of education, 44.\\neducation in home, 17.\\nesteem of teachers, 43.\\ngeography and history, 40, 41.\\nhigher education among, 44.\\nhome of, 41.\\nmission of, 40.\\nmotive for education of, 52.\\nprophets, 44.\\nreligion of, 41, 42.\\nschools of, 42.\\nschools of the prophets, 44.\\nschools of the rabbis, 44.\\nstatus of women, 41.\\nthe Talmud, 45.\\ntheocratic education of, 40.\\ntraining of children, 41, 42.\\nJohnson, Dr., on Ascham s Scholemaster,\\n190, 191.\\nJustinian, aboUshes pagan schools, 115.\\nKant, Emanhetrquoted, 254, 255, 281.\\nKeilhau, Froebel s school at, 275.\\nKepler, astronomical discoveries of, 202.\\nKindergarten, Froebel founder of, 276.\\nin Prussia, 275.\\nin Switzerland, 276.\\nin United States, 277, 312.\\nprohibited, 275.\\npurpose of, 277.\\nKnight, chivalry of, 133.\\neducation of 133.\\nseven perfections of, 133.\\nKnowledge, defined by Confucius, 28.\\nKonigsberg, Herbart teaches philosophy\\nat, 280.\\npractice school at, 281.\\nKoran, Mohammed writes, 143.\\nused as reading book, 145.\\nKriisi, Hermann, on Pestalozzi, 260, 261,\\n265, 266.\\non the sacrifices of Babeli, 257.\\nPestalozzi founds school with, 267.\\nLa Salle, Conduct of Schools 228.\\norganizes Brothers of the Christian\\nSchools, 227.\\nservices to education, 228.\\nsimultaneous method introduced, 227.\\nLaborers, third caste in Egypt, 49.\\nLancaster, Joseph, establishes Board\\nSchools, 305.\\nmonitorial system of, 307.\\nLand grants, for educational purposes,\\n310.\\nLang, on Basedow s Book of Method,\\n255-\\nLangethal, Heinrich, joins Froebel, 275.\\nLanguage, Ascham s method for study\\nof, 191.\\nclassic, see Latin, Greek, classic lan-\\nguages, double translation in teach-\\ning, 199.\\nin pedagogy of Innovators, 204.\\nmodern conversational method, 197-\\n199.\\ntaught in Egypt, 50.\\ntaught in Roman schools, 78.\\nLatin, in Locke s system of education,\\n222.\\nin Melanchthon s course, 173.\\nin Milton s pedagogy, 219.\\nin pedagogy of Innovators, 204.\\nin Sturm s school course, 176.\\nin Trotzendorf s school course, 188.\\nrevival of study, 151, 153.\\nLatin Kingdom, established at Jerusa-\\nlem, 137.\\nLatin Schools, Strasburg Gymnasium the\\nmodel for, 176.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "334\\nINDEX\\nLatin text-books, Neander s, i8o.\\nLatini, Brunetto, teacher of Dante, 155.\\nLauncelot, leader of Port Royalists, 188.\\nLaurie, S. S., quoted, 107, 139, 140.\\nLaw, in Milton s scheme of education,\\n220.\\nstudied in Egypt, 47.\\ntaught in Gymnasia, 293.\\ntaught in schools of prophets and\\nrabbis, 44.\\nLeibnitz, on Jesuit schools, 187.\\nLeipsic, University of, 141.\\nLeonard and Gertrude, Pestalozzi s, 263,\\n264.\\nLeopold of Dessau, establishes the Phi-\\nlanthropin, 251.\\nLetters, forms and names to be learned\\nsimultaneously, 88.\\nLibrary at Alexandria, 107.\\nat Pekin, 25.\\nLiterators, in charge of Roman schools,\\n78.\\nLiterature, Hebrew, 44.\\nin Athens influences world, 56.\\nlack of Christian, 94.\\nopposition to pagan, 94, 113, 115, 126.\\npilgrimages to Egypt to study, 47.\\nLiteratiis, teacher of Roman school, 78.\\nLocal school board in Germany, 291.\\nLoci Com\u00c2\u00bbtunes, Melanchthon s, 172.\\nLocke, John, education of, 220, 221.\\neducational works of, 221.\\nEssay Concerning Human Understand-\\ning, 221.\\nhis influence on education, 223.\\nMontaigne s influence on, 195, 196.\\nreforms of, 204.\\ntutor at Christ Church, 221.\\nLogic, in monastic education, iig.\\ntaught in Sturm s school course, 176.\\nLord s Prayer, taught in Charlemagne s\\nreign, 128.\\nLouis VII. of France, leads second cru-\\nsade, 137.\\nLoyola, founds Jesuit order, 183.\\nLucretius, 74.\\ncompared with Rabelais, 194, 195.\\nLund, university at, 141.\\nLuther, Martin, Augustinian monk, 168.\\ncontrasted with Erasmus, 162.\\neducational reforms of, 166.**-^\\ninfluence of, 18. j\\nlays foundation of German school sys-\\ntem, 169.\\nleader German Reformation, 165.\\nI life and struggles of, 167.\\npedagogy of, 169.\\nprofessor at Wittenberg, 168.\\nReuchlin on, 160.\\nLuther, Martin, summoned before Diet\\nof Worms. 168.\\ntranslates Bible, 168.\\nwork marked out by, 175.\\nLutheran churches, schools in connec-\\ntion with, 181.\\nLyceum at Athens, founded by Aristotle,\\n66.\\nLycurgus, influence in Sparta, 73.\\nlaws of, 72.\\nLyons, cloister school at, 118.\\nMacaulay, Lord, on Bacon, 205, 206,\\n208.\\nMagi, Persian priests, 37, 38.\\nMainz, university at, 141.\\nMalone, John, on Chrysostom, 105.\\nMann, Horace, Annual Reports, 286.\\nat Brown University, 285.\\nat Litchfield, 285.\\neducational campaign of, 286.\\nlife of, 284, 285.\\non common schools, 285.\\npresident of Antioch College, 288.\\nSecretary of State Board of Education,\\n286.\\nservices to education, 288.\\nSeventh Annual Reporl of, 286.\\nstatesman, 285, 288.\\nManual training school, Locke advo-\\ncates, 222.\\nMaps, early, 120.\\nMarenholtz-Biilovv, Bertha von, disci-\\nple of Froebel, 277.\\nMariner s compass invented, 148.\\nMarriage, Christ s teaching on, 91.\\ncontrolled by State in Sparta, 73.\\nMartel, Charles, checks Mohammedan-\\nism, 144.\\nMartial training, in Sparta, 69-71.\\nMartin, on work of Horace Mann, 286.\\nMassachusetts, new epoch in educational\\nhistory, 285-287.\\nnormal schools established in, 287.\\nMathematics, central idea of Pythago-\\nrean system, 73.\\ndiscoveries of Hindus, 35.\\ntaught in Egypt, 50.\\ntaught in Mohammedan schools, 145.\\nMatthison, leader of Philanthropin, 254.\\nMecca, Mohammed s flight from, 143.\\npilgrimages to, 145.\\nMechanics, third caste in Egypt, 47, 48.\\nthird caste in India, 30.\\nMechlenburg, active in school work, 203.\\nMedicine, in Milton s scheme of educa-\\ntion, 219.\\ntaught in Egypt, 50.\\ntaught in Gymnasium, 293.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n335\\nMedicine taught in schools of prophets,\\n44.\\nMedina, Mohammed flees to, 143.\\nMelanchthon, Philipp, colaborer of Lu-\\nther, 170, 171.\\nearly Hfe and studies of, 171.\\neducational work of, 172, 173.\\nfirst Protestant psychologist, 173.\\nGreek professor at Wittenberg, 171.\\nlectures at Tubingen, 171.\\nLoci Communes, 172.\\nSaxony school plan, 172, 173.\\nservice to schools, 172.\\ntext-books, 172.\\nwork marked out by, 175.\\nMemory, cultivation of, in Chinese edu-\\ncation, 24, 25, 27.\\nin Cicero s pedagogy, 84.\\nin F6nelon s pedagogy, 226.\\nin humanistic education, 163.\\nin India, 32-34.\\nMemphis, institution for higher learning\\nat, 50.\\nMerchants, third caste in India, 30.\\nMethodists, purpose of, 231.\\nMiddendorf, Wilhelm, joins Froebel, 275.\\nMiddle Ages, progress during, 146, 147.\\nMilitary class, in Egypt, 48.\\nMilitary schools, in China, 27.\\nMilitary training, in Persia, 38.\\nin Sparta, 69.\\nMilton, John, defines education, 217\\nreforms of, 204.\\nscheme of education, 219, 220.\\nteacher, 218.\\nTractate, 218.\\nMines, schools of, in France, 299.\\nMinister of education in France, 290,\\n296.\\nMinnesingers, compositions of, 135.\\nMissionary enterprise in India, 32.\\nModel school at Frankfurt-am-Main, 273.\\nModern educators, 241-314.\\nBasedow, 250-256.\\nFroebel, 272-277.\\nHerbart, 278-283.\\nMann, 284-288.\\nPestalozzi, 257-271.\\nRousseau, 241-249.\\nMohammed, flight of, 143.\\nprecepts of, 144, 145.\\nspread of doctrines of, 144.\\nwrites Koran, 143.\\nMohammedan education, 143-147.\\nfive Moslem precepts, 144.\\nhistory of Mohammedanism, 143-145.\\nscientific progress made, 145.\\nMohammedanism, history of, 143-145.\\nin India, 31.\\nMonasteries, Alfred the Great estab-\\nlishes, 131.\\nbenefits to civilization by, 120.\\ncenter of educational activity, 146.\\ncenter of religious interest, 120.\\npower of, 116.\\nservices to education, 102.\\nsuppress scientific discoveries, 116, 117.\\nMonastic education, 1 16-120.\\nMonitorial System, defined, 307.\\nMontaigne, education of, 196.\\nEssays, 197.\\ninfluence on Locke, 223.\\npedagogy of, 195, 197, 198.\\nMontanists, teachings of, 113.\\nMonte Cassino, monastery at, 117, 118.\\nMoravian Brethren, Comenius member\\nof, 211, 213.\\nMoravian School, Comenius teacher of,\\n212.\\nMoses founder of Hebrew literature, 44.\\nMoslemism. See Mohammedanism.\\nMother-school {ccole matenielle) in\\nFrance, 298.\\nMotive of education, among Jews, 52.\\nin Athens, 59.\\nin China, 27, 52.\\nin Egypt, 52.\\nin India, 34, 52.\\nin Persia, 38, 52.\\nin Rome, 80.\\nin Sparta, 69, 71.\\nMusic, cultivation of, among Jews, 42.\\nduring Charlemagne s reign, 128.\\nin Athens, 58, 59.\\nin Egypt, 50.\\nin monastic education, 119.\\nin Sparta, 71.\\nin Sturm s school course, 176.\\nNantes, university at, 141.\\nNapoleon, quoted, 97.\\nNational Bureau of Education, in United\\nStates, 309, 310.\\nNational Herbart Society in America,\\n282.\\nNational Schools, Andrew Bell estab-\\nlishes, 305.\\nNature study, Christ advocates, 99.\\ninductive methods lead to, 208.\\nNavigation, in Milton s scheme of edu-\\ncation, 219.\\nNeander, Michael, teacher at Ilfeld, 179.\\ntext-books of, 180.\\nNero, pupil of Seneca, 84.\\nNeuhof, Pestalozzi s experiment at, 261,\\n262.\\nNicole, leader of Port Royalists, 188.\\nNile, importance to Egypt, 46.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "336\\nINDEX\\nNile, inundations encourage mathemati-\\ncal study, 50.\\nNineteenth century education, general\\nview, 237-240. See also Modern\\nEducators and School Systems.\\nNisibis, catechetical school at, 107.\\nNitric acid discovered, 145.\\nNormal schools, in France, 297, 300,\\n301.\\nin Germany, 290, 294.\\nin Massachusetts, 287.\\nin United States, 314.\\nLa Salle establishes first, 228.\\nteachers appointed in, 290.\\nNovum Organum, Bacon s, 207.\\nObedience, cardinal Chinese virtue, 23.\\nObject teaching, beginning of, 266.\\nof Jansenists, 189.\\nPestalozzi s, 270.\\nOccam, leader of scholasticism, 122.\\nOccupation, a factor in education, 16.\\nOdessa, catechetical school at, 107.\\nfirst Christian common scliool at,\\n105.\\nOlympia, Holy Land of Greece, 55.\\nOlympiad, basis for computing time, 55.\\nOlympian games, influence and charac-\\nter of, 54, 55.\\nOrations of Cicero, 82, 83.\\nOratory, ideal of education in Rome, 77,\\n78, 80.\\nQuintilian s views regarding, 87.\\nOrbis Pictits, Comenius s first illustrated\\ntext-book, 214, 215.\\nOrder of Jesus. See Jesuits.\\nOriental civilization, basis of, 89.\\nOriental education, aim of, 91.\\nsummary of 51, 52.\\nOrigen, character of, no.\\neducation of, no.\\npedagogy of no.\\nservice to education, loi.\\nOrleans, university at, 141.\\nOrmuzd, principle of light in Persian\\nreligion, 39.\\nOrphan asylum, at Halle, founded, 233,\\n234-\\nOxford, cloister school at, 118.\\nLocke tutor at, 221.\\nUniversity of, 131, 141.\\nPagan education, conflict with Christian,\\n111-115.\\nPagan literature, opposition to, 94, 113,\\n115, 120.\\nPantaenus, establishes catechetical\\nschool, 107.\\nPantagruel, Rabelais s, 193.\\nPaper, invented, 148.\\nParadise Lost, Milton s, 217.\\nParis, cloister school at, 118.\\nuniversity at, 124, 140, 141.\\nParker, Colonel, on Horace Mann, 284,\\n286.\\nParliamentary grants for school expenses,\\n306.\\nParochial schools, 139 n.\\nPascal, leader of Port Royalists, 188.\\nPastor.superintendent of German schools,\\n181.\\nPaul, services to education, 102.\\nPaul in., Pope, recognizes Jesuits, 183.\\nPaulsen, on John Sturm, 175, 176, 177.\\non Neander s text-books, 180.\\nPedagogium, established by Francke,\\n234, 236.\\nPedagogue, duty of in Athens, 56, 58.\\nin Rome, 77.\\nPedagogy, begins with history of educa-\\ntion, 15.\\nelevated to dignity of a science, 282.\\nof Agricola, 158.\\nof Alfred the Great, 131.\\nof Aristotle, 66, 67.\\nof Ascham, 190-192.\\nof Bacon, 207-209.\\nof Basedow, 251-256.\\nof Basil the Great, 106.\\nof Benedictines, 118, 119.\\nof Boccaccio, 157.\\nof Charlemagne, 127-129,\\nof Christ, 91, 97-100.\\nof Chrysostom, 105.\\nof Cicero, 83.\\nof Clement of Alexandria, 109.\\nof Comenius, 214-217.\\nof Confucius, 28.\\nof Dante, 156.\\nof Erasmus, 162, 163.\\nof F6nelon, 226, 227.\\nof Feudalism, 132-135.\\nof Francke, 234-236.\\nof Froebel, 275-277.\\nof Herbart, 282, 283.\\nof Humanists, 153.\\nof Innovators, 204.\\nof Jesuits, 184-188.\\nof La Salle, 227, 228.\\nof Locke, 221-223.\\nof Loyola, 183.\\nof Luther, 169.\\nof Mann, 285-288.\\nof Melanchthon, 172.\\nof Milton, 218, 219.\\nof Mohammedans, 145.\\nof Montaigne, 195-198.\\nof Neander, 179-181.\\nI", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n337\\nPedagogy, of Origen, no.\\nof Peslalozzi, 269-271.\\nof Petrarch, 151.\\nof Plato, 63-65.\\nof Port Royalists, 189.\\nof Pythagoras, j s,.\\nof Quintilian, 87.\\nof Rabelais, 194, 195.\\nof Ratke, 211.\\nof Reuchlin, 160.\\nof Rousseau, 243-249.\\nof St. Augustine, 115.\\nof Scholastics, 124.\\nof Seneca, 85.\\nof Socrates, 62.\\nof Sturm, 176, 177.\\nof Tertullian, 113.\\nof Trotzendorf, 178, 179.\\nPekin, royal library at, 25.\\nPendulum, applied to reckon time, 145.\\nPensions to teachers, in England, 308.\\nin France, 302.\\nin Germany, 294.\\nPericles, Age of, 54, 57.\\nAthenian statesman, 56.\\nPerioeci, in Sparta, 68.\\nPersia, 36, 39.\\ncriticism of education, 38.\\ngeography and history, 36.\\nhome, religion in, 37.\\nmilitary education in, 16, 38.\\nmotive for education in, 52.\\nstate education in, 37, 38.\\nstatus of women in, 37.\\ntraining of children in, 37.\\nZoroaster, 39.\\nPersian education, criticism of, 38.\\nPestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, childliood\\nand character, 257, 258.\\nChristian ministry, 259.\\nfailures of, 259, 260, 262.\\nfarming, 260.\\ninfluence of, 18.\\nlaw, 260.\\nlesson of love taught by, 271.\\nmarriage, 261.\\nNeuhof, experiences at, 262.\\nobject teaching of, 189.\\npedagogy of, 269, 271.\\npurposes of, 259.\\nschool at Burgdorf, 266.\\nschool at Stanz, 264, 265.\\nschool at Yverdon, 267, 268.\\nschooling of, 258.\\nunites with Kriisi, 267.\\nwork of, 269.\\nwritings of, 263, 264.\\nPeter the Hermit, crusade of, 136.\\nPetrarch, father of humanism, 155, 156.\\nHIST. OF ED. 22\\nPetrarch, influence of, 151-153.\\nlays foundation of modern education,\\n157-\\nPfefferkorn, John, antagonism to He-\\nbrew works, 160.\\nPkaedo, Plato s, 63.\\nPhilanthropin, established, 251.\\nfailure of, 252-254.\\npurpose of, 252.\\nPhilip Augustus, of France, aids univer-\\nsity at Paris, 141.\\nleads third crusade, 137.\\nPhilippics, of Cicero, 82.\\nPhilosophical discoveries, of Hindus, 35.\\nPhilosophy, in Athens, 59.\\nin catechetical schools, 108.\\nin Egypt, 47.\\nin gymnasium, 293.\\nin Jesuit schools, 185.\\nin Mohammedan schools, 145.\\nin Roman scliools, 78.\\nin schools of prophets, 44.\\nnatural, in Milton s scheme of educa-\\ntion, 219.\\nof Christ, 98.\\nscholasticism, 124.\\nPhoenicians, invent alphabet, glass mak-\\ning, and purple dyeing, 51.\\nPhonic method of spelling, introduced,\\n189.\\nPhysical education, in Aristotle s scheme,\\n66.\\nin Athens, 58.\\nin Erasmus s scheme, 163.\\nin Fenelon s scheme, 226.\\nin Feudalism, 133, 135.\\nin Innovators scheme, 204.\\nin Locke s scheme, 221, 229.\\nin Luther s scheme, 170.\\nin Milton s scheme, 220.\\nin Persia, 38.\\nin Pestalozzi s scheme, 263.\\nin Plato s scheme, 64, 65.\\nin Rome, 77.\\nin Rousseau s scheme, 244.\\nin Sparta, 70.\\nPietism, influence of, 232.\\npurpose of, 231.\\nPlato, Athenian philosopher, 56.\\ndisciple of Socrates, 63.\\nfirst systematic scheme of education, 65.\\nfounds school at Athens, 63.\\nrepublic, 63.\\nState to have control of citizens, 64.\\ntestimony to Socrates, 62.\\nPlay, educational force in Athens, 57,\\n60.\\nin Fenelon s pedagogy, 226.\\nin Froebel s system, 274.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "338\\nINDEX\\nPoetry, in Athens, 57, 59.\\nin Roman schools, 78.\\nin schools of prophets, 44.\\nPoitiers, university at, 141.\\nPoHtical freedom of Greeks, 54.\\nPoUtical rights, extension of, 239.\\nPolygamy, in China, 22.\\nin Egypt, 49.\\nin India, 31.\\nPolytechnic schools, in China, 27.\\nPort Royalists, purpose of, 188.\\nservices to education, 199.\\nPractical training of Roman children, 79,\\nPractice school, at Jena, 281.\\nat Konigsberg, 280.\\nHerbart s, 280.\\nPrague, battle of, 212.\\nuniversity established at, 124, 141.\\nPraise of Folly, Erasmus s, 162.\\nPrerau, Moravian School at, 212.\\nPriests, influence in Egypt, 47, 48.\\nPrimary education. See Elementary Edu-\\ncation.\\nPrinting, invented, 26, 148.\\ninfluence on universal education, 150,\\n164, 165.\\nPrinting press, invented, 148.\\nPrivat Docent, in German universities,\\n232 71. 2.\\nProgymtiasia, in Germany, 292 7i.\\nPronunciation, in Roman education, 76,\\n78.\\nProphets, schools of, 44.\\nProrealgymnasia, 292\\nProtestant educators, 174-181.\\nGymnasium at Strasburg, 175.\\nMelanchthon s course of study, 174.\\nNeander, 179.\\nSturm, 175.\\nTrotzendorf, 178. See also Humanistic\\nEducators and Reformation.\\nProtestant Reformation, 165-173.\\nProtestantism, spirit of, among common\\npeople, 200.\\nspread of, checked, 182.\\nProtogenes, establishes school at Odessa,\\n105.\\nProvinces, thirteen royal, school admin-\\nistration in, 290.\\nPrussia, kindergarten in, 275, 276.\\nschool system of, 128, 289-295.\\nPsalms, translated into Anglo-Saxon, 131.\\nPtolemaic system of astronomy, 148.\\nPtolemies, found Alexandrian library, 50.\\nPublic schools, first Christian, 105, 107.\\nin England, 306.\\nin France, 298.\\nin Germany, 293.\\nin Massachusetts, 286.\\nPublic schools, in Rome, 78.\\nin United States, 313.\\nQuintilian advocates, 88.\\nPunishment, Basil the Great s views re-\\ngarding, 106.\\nCicero s views regarding, 83.\\nFenelon s views regarding, 226.\\nin Jesuit schools, 186.\\nMontaigne s views regarding, 196, 197.\\nQuintiliart s views regarding, 87.\\nSeneca s views regarding, 85.\\nSee also Corporal Punishment.\\nPupil teachers, 307.\\nPupils, number assigned to one teacher\\namong Jews, 43.\\nnumber of, fixed by State in Athens, 58.\\nPuritans, struggles with established\\nchurch, 200.\\nPythagoras, life of, 73.\\nmathematical system of, 73.\\nphilosophy of, 73.\\nQuadrivium, second course in seven\\nliberal arts, ii3, 119.\\nQuick, on Ascham, 192.\\non Basedow s system, 254.\\non demands of Reformers, 204.\\non Jesuit education, 187.\\non Milton, 218.\\non Pestalozzi, 258, 268, 269, 270.\\non Ratke, 209.\\non Rousseau s hatred of books, 241.\\non the Philanthropin, 251, 252.\\nQuintilian, education and life of, 86.\\nfounds school at Rome, 86.\\nInstitutes of Oratory, 87.\\npedagogy of, 87.\\nreceives title of Professor of Oratory, 86.\\nworks of, studied in monastic educa-\\ntion, 119.\\nRabbis, schools of, 44.\\nRabelais, compared with Lucretius, 194,\\n195-\\nfriend of Calvin, 193.\\nGargantua and Pantagruel, 193.\\ninfluence of Locke on, 223.\\nintroduces realism into education, 194.\\nlife of, 192, 193.\\npedagogy of, 194.\\nRamadan, fast of, 144.\\nRamsauer, on Pestalozzi s method of\\nteaching, 266.\\nRatio Studiorum, of Jesuits, 188.\\nRatke, method of teaching language, 209,\\n210.\\npedagogy of, 211.\\nreforms of, 204.\\nRaumer, on Comenius, 213.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n339\\nReading, in Athenian schools, 58.\\nin Chinese schools, 24.\\nin Jewish schools, 43.\\nin monastic schools, 119.\\nin Persian schools, 38.\\nin Roman schools, 78.\\nin schools of India, 32.\\nnot taught in Sparta, 71.\\ntaught during Charlemagne s reign, 128.\\ntaught by Quintilian, 88.\\nReal-school m Germany, course in, 293.\\nfounded, 236.\\nRealgymnasia, 292 n.\\nRealism, in education, 194.\\nReformation, as an educational influ-\\nence, 164-174, 199.\\nconditions at beginning of sixteenth\\ncentury, 164.\\ninstills love for religious liberty, 200.\\nintellectual conditions, 166.\\ninvention of printing, 165.\\nLuther, 167-169.\\nMelanchthon, 170-173.\\nspread of educational ideas of, 180.\\nRegistration, book of, in French schools,\\n299.\\nReichstag, school interests represented\\nin, 290.\\nRein, Professor Wilhelm, chief exponent\\nof Ziller school, 281.\\non Herbart s pedagogy, 278, 282.\\npractice school under, 281.\\nReligion, center of school course, 181.\\nChinese, 21, 28.\\nChristian. See Christianity.\\nin EgyiJt, 48, 50.\\nin India, 31, 35.\\nin Milton s scheme of education, 219.\\nin Persia, 37, 39.\\nof Jews, 41, 42, 45.\\nof Romans, 75.\\ntaught in Sturm s school course, 177.\\nReligious freedom attained, 201, 240.\\nReligious instruction, Cicero advocates,\\n84.\\nin Egypt, 50.\\nin German schools, 170.\\nRousseau s views regarding, 247, 248.\\nSee also Christian education.\\nRemoval of teachers, causes for, 294, 301.\\nRenaissance, 148-173.\\ndefined, 148, 173.\\nhumanistic movement, 149-163.\\ninfluence on Teutonic race, 149.\\ninventions and discoveries during, 149,\\nISO-\\nrevival of classics, 150.\\nuniversal education advocated, 150,\\n151-\\nReuchlin, humanistic leader, 153.\\nintroduces Greek into Germany, 160.\\nprofessor at Tubingen, 159.\\nservices to Hebrew learning, 159.\\nteacher of Melanchthon, 171.\\nRevival of learning. See Renaissance.\\nRevolution, American, lessons of, 239.\\nFrench, 239, 264.\\nof 1688, 200.\\nRheims, first normal school established\\nat, 228.\\nRhetoric, in Athenian schools, 59.\\nin catechedcal schools, 108.\\nin monastic education, 119.\\nin Sturm s school course, 176.\\nthe climax of education, 88.\\nRichard the Lion-Hearted, leads third\\ncrusade, 137.\\nRod, discipline of, in China, 24.\\nMontaigne s opposition to, 196, 197.\\nused in Roman schools, 78.\\nRollin, rciDrms of, 204.\\nRoman educators, 81-88.\\nCicero, 81-84.\\nQuindlian, 86-88.\\nSeneca, 84-86.\\nRome, 74-80.\\nAge of Augustus, 74, 75.\\nbirth of Christ, 74.\\ncriticism of education, 80.\\neducation in, 77-79.\\neducators of, 81-88.\\ngeography and history of, 75, 76.\\ngovernment in, 75.\\nhome in, 76.\\nhome training of children, 76, 77.\\ninfluence of Greek culture on, 74.\\noratory highest art in education, 77,\\n80.\\npersecution of Christians, 94.\\nphilosophers from, visit Museum of\\nAlexandria, 50, 51.\\npractical training of children, 79.\\nreligion of, 75.\\nsupremacy of, 74.\\nutility the aim of education, 79.\\nwoman s status in, go.\\nRosetta stone, furnishes key to interpre-\\ntation of hieroglyphics, 47.\\nRostock, University of, 141.\\nRote learning, in Chinese schools, 24.\\nRouen, cloister school at, 118.\\nRoundheads, struggles with cavaliers, 200.\\nRousseau, Jean Jacques, Emile, 244-248.\\ninfluenced by Montaigne, 195, 196.\\nlife of, 241, 242.\\non Christ, 97.\\non education of women, 248.\\npedagogy of, 243.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "340\\nINDEX\\nRousseau, Jean Jacques, Pestalozzi ap-\\nplies principles of, 269, 270.\\nscheme of education, as outlined in\\nEm lie, 244-248.\\nworks of, 243.\\nRugby, college founded at, 174, 306.\\nRussia, serfs freed in, 238.\\nSt. Augustine. See Augustine, St.\\nSt. (iall, cloister school at, 118, 120.\\nSaint-Simon, on P enelon, 224.\\nSaladin, captures Jerusalem, 137.\\nSalaries of teachers, in England, 308.\\nin France, 300, 302.\\nin Germany, 295.\\nin United States, 314.\\nSalerno, university at, 140.\\nSallust, Roman writer, 74.\\nSalzburg, cloister school at, 118.\\nSalzmann, leader of Philanthropin, 254.\\nSanskrit, language of India, 30, 34.\\nSaracens, conquer Holy Land, 136.\\nschools of, 140.\\nSaxony School Plan, principles of, 172,\\n173, 174, 177.\\nSchmidt, Karl, on Alfred the Great, 130.\\non Aristotle, 67.\\non corruption of the church, 151.\\non culture, 43.\\non emancipation of the individual, 52.\\non history of humanity, 15, 16.\\non Johann Sturm, 177.\\non St. Augustine s Con/essio?is, 114.\\non scholasticism, 123.\\non teachings of Jesus Christ, 97, 100.\\non the Etnile, 249.\\nScholasticism, benefits of, 123, 124.\\ndefined, 121.\\ndownfiill of, 123.\\nScholemastcr, Roger Ascham s, 190.\\nSchool attendance, in England, 306.\\nin France, 297, 298.\\nin Germany, 291, 292.\\nin United States, 311, 312.\\nSchool board, in England, 305.\\nin France, 296.\\nin Germany, 290, 291.\\nin United States, 310.\\nSchool fund in United States, 309.\\nSchool government, Trotzendorf s re-\\nforms in, 178, 179.\\nSchool hours, in Athens, 58, 60.\\nin Germany, 292.\\nSchoolhouses in India, 33.\\npublic, none in China, 23.\\nSchool inspector, in German schools, 290.\\nSchoolmaster, German, position of, 295.\\nSchool of the Palace, established,\\n127.\\nSchool pence, expense of English schools\\nmet by, 306.\\nSchool practice, Herbart s, 280.\\nSchoolroom in China, 24.\\nSchool system, Comenius s organization\\nof, 215.\\nof England, 304-308.\\nof France, 296-303.\\nof Germany, 289-295.\\nof United States, 309-314.\\nSchools, apprentice in France, 299.\\ncatechetical, 107.\\ncatechumen, 104.\\ncathedral, 139 n.\\ncharity, in China, 23.\\nchurch, 102, 181.\\ncloister, 118.\\ncommon, 78, 88, 105, 107, 181, 286,\\n287, 292, 293, 298, 313.\\nelementary. See Elementary Schools.\\nestablished in Germany, 180.\\ngraduate, in United States, 312.\\nGyuuiasium, in Germany, 293.\\nhigh. See High Schools.\\nin Athens, under state inspection, 58,\\n60.\\nindustrial, for poor, 262.\\nin/atit, in France, 298.\\nJesuit, 183-188.\\nJewish, 42.\\nmanual training, 222.\\nMohammedan, 145, 146.\\n?notkcr, in France, 298.\\nnational, in England, 305.\\nnormal. See Normal Schools.\\nof mines, in France, 299.\\nof the prophets, 44.\\nof the rabbis, 44.\\npagan, abolished, 115.\\nparochial, 139 ?i.\\nprimary, in France, 298, 299.\\npublic. See Public Schools.\\nReal, in Germany, 236, 293.\\nsecondary, in United States, 312.\\nsummer, in United States, 313.\\nsupport of, in England, 306, 307.\\nsupport of, in France, 299, 300.\\nsupport of, in Germany, 293.\\nsupport of, in United States, 313.\\nteachers salaries in. See Teaching.\\ntechnical, in France, 299.\\nundergraduate, in United States, 312.\\nvoluntary, in England, 305 n., 306.\\nSchulthess, Anna, marries Pestalozzi, 261.\\nSchwegler, on number, 73.\\non scholasticism, 122, 124.\\nScience, among ancient Egyptians, 47.\\ninstrumental in civilization, 239.\\nmonastic opposition to, 116.", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n341\\nScience, natural, Neander favors study\\nof, 179.\\nnatural, taught in Egypt, 47, 50.\\nof Chinese, 26.\\nRabelais gives first rank to, 195.\\nScientific discoveries, results of, 239.\\nScriptures, Holy, in schools, 217.\\nSecondary schools, in United States, 312.\\nSecular courses of study established, 118.\\nSelf-government of students, Trotzendorf\\nintroduces, 178, 179.\\nthe principle established, 239.\\nSeminar, in Germany, 281.\\nSeneca, compared with Fenelon, 225, 226.\\neducation of, 84.\\npedagogy of, 85.\\nreligious sentiment of, 85.\\nsuicide of, 85.\\ntutor of Xero, 84.\\nSense-realism, Innovators advocate, 224,\\n229.\\nSerapis, temple of, library in, 107, 108.\\nServants, fourth caste in India, 30.\\nmarriage of, 32.\\nSeven liberal arts, 118.\\nbasis of school instruction, 127.\\nSeventeenth century, education during,\\n200-236.\\nSeventh Annual Report of Horace Mann,\\n287.\\nShaftesbury, Earl of, friendship with\\nLocke, 221.\\nShastas, commentary on Vedas, 31.\\nShrewsbury, school at, 306.\\nSiculus Diodorus, Greek writer, 47.\\nSimultaneous method, inaugurated, 227.\\nSixteenth century, education of, 164-199.\\nSlavery, abolition of, 238.\\nSlaves, in Athens, 56.\\nin Egypt, 49.\\nin Rome, 77.\\nin Sparta, 68.\\nSleep of children, Locke s rules regard-\\ning, 221.\\nSobieski, John, checks Mohammedan\\nadvance, 144.\\nSocial Contract, Rousseau s, 243.\\nSocrates, Athenian philosopher, 56.\\ndeath of, 62, 63.\\ndialectical methods of, 62.\\ndoctrines of, 62.\\ninfluence of, 18.\\nlife and home of, 61.\\nmethods of teaching, 62.\\npersonal appearance of, 61.\\nreligious belief of, 62.\\nSolomon, founder of Hebrew literature,\\n44.\\nSolon, Athenian lawgiver, 57.\\nSome Thoughts Concerning Educatio7i,\\nLocke s, 221.\\nSongs, church, 107.\\nSojigs for Mother and Nursery Froebel s,\\n277.\\nSophists, teachers of grammar, 59.\\nSoroe, Basedow professor at, 251.\\nSparta, 68-73.\\ncoeducation in, 71.\\ncontrasted with Athens, 56.\\ncriticism of education, 71,\\nhistory of, 68.\\nhome in, 69.\\nLycurgus, 72, 73.\\nmartial training in, 69, 70, 71.\\nphysical education in, 16.\\nState control of children, 69, 70, 73.\\nstatus of woman in, 69-71.\\ntyranny, the spirit of 56.\\nSpartan education, criticism of, 71.\\nSpelling, phonic method introduced, 189.\\nSpencer, Herbert, on function of educa-\\ntion, 217.\\nSpener, Philipp Jakob, originator of Pie-\\ntism, 231.\\nStagira, Aristotle founds school at, 65.\\nStanz, Pestalozzi s school at, 264.\\nState, assumes responsibility of educa-\\ntion in Germany, 174.\\ncontrols citizens in Plato s scheme of\\neducation, 64.\\ncontrols education in Persia, 37, 38.\\ncontrols education of Spartan children,\\n70.\\ncontrols schools in Athens, 60.\\ninterest of, aim of oriental education,\\n91.\\nsupervises English schools, 306.\\nsupports schools in France, 298.\\nState Board of Education, duties of, 311.\\nestablished, 286.\\nState school system, in United States,\\n310.\\nState support of public instruction in\\nAmerican schools, 310.\\nStettin, first Prussian normal school at,\\n228.\\nStoy, Karl Volkmar, establishes practice\\nschool at Jena, 281.\\nStrasburg Gymnasium, organization of,\\n175, 176.\\nSturm, rector of, 175.\\nStudia infer iora and super iora of Jesuit\\nschools, 185.\\nSturm, Johann, education of, 175.\\ninfluence of, 177.\\nrector at Strasburg Gymnasiu7n, 175,\\n176.\\nschool course of, 176, 177.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "342\\nINDEX\\nSulphuric acid, Arabians discover, 145.\\nSummer school, in United States school\\nsystem, 313.\\nSuperintendent of schools, duties of, 310.\\n311-\\nSuperstition of Romans, 76.\\nSupport of schools, in England, 306.\\nin France, 299.\\nin Germany, 293.\\nin United States, 313.\\nSwinton, on antiquity of Egyptian history,\\n47-\\non influence of Egyptian priests, 48.\\nSwitzerland, Herbart in, 279.\\nkindergarten in, 276.\\nTalich, Hermann, school course of, 176 n.\\nTalmud, extracts from, 45, 46.\\ninfluence of, 45.\\non discipline of children, 43.\\norigin ot sayings in, 44.\\nTax for schools, in United States, 313.\\nTaylor, Bayard, on Charles V., Emperor\\nof Germany, 166.\\non Thirty Years War, 201.\\nTeachers, in Athens, 58, 59.\\nin China, 23, 24.\\nin Egypt, 49, 50.\\nin England, 235, 307.\\nin France, 300-302.\\nin Germany, 290, 291, 293, 294.\\nin India, 32, 33, 34.\\nin Jesuit schools, 185.\\nin Jewish schools, 43.\\nin Klohammedan schools, 146.\\nin Persia, 38.\\nin United States, 313.\\nprofessional training of, 163, 170, 188,\\n228, 235, 280, 294, 307, 313.\\nsalaries of, 58, 59, 286, 295, 300-302,\\n308, 313.\\ntenure of office of, 294, 302, 307,\\n314-\\nTeacher s Institute, in United States\\nschool system, 313.\\nTechnical schools, in France, 299.\\nTelcmachus, Fenelon s, 225.\\nTenure of office of teachers, in England,\\n307-\\nin France, 302.\\nin Germany, 294.\\nin United States, 314.\\nTertullian, birth of, 112.\\nconversion of, 112.\\nfounder of Christian Latin literature,\\n3-\\njoins Montanists, 113.\\nTestament, Greek, Erasmus s translation,\\n162.\\nTestament, Old, books of, stimulated by\\nprophets, 44.\\nTeutonic nations, leaders in civilization,\\n103, 149.\\nText-book, first illustrated, 215.\\nThales, father of philosophy, 73.\\nThebes, institution for higher learning\\nat, 50.\\nTheocratic education, ot Jews, 40,\\nTheology, in Gymnasium, 293.\\nin Jesuit schools, 185.\\nin schools of rabbis, 44.\\nThirty Years War, 201, 212.\\nToga virilis, when assumed, 79.\\nToulouse, university at, 141.\\nTours, cloister school at, 118.\\nTownship system of education, in United\\nStates, 311.\\nToys, lack of, in China, 23.\\nof Athenian children, 57.\\nof Persians, 57.\\nof Spartans, 69.\\nTractate on Education, Milton s, 217, 218.\\nTradesmen s castes, in India, 30.\\nTradespeople, third caste in Egypt, 48.\\nTraining school, in United States, 313.\\nTranslation, double, for language study,\\n192.\\nTransmigration of souls, Chinese belief\\nin, 22.\\nTrier, university at, 141.\\nTrigonometry, in Milton s scheme of\\neducation, 219.\\ntaught by Mohammedans, 145.\\nTrivium, first course in seven liberal arts,\\n118, 119.\\nTrotzendorf, Valentine, discipline and\\nmethods of, 178.\\nlife of, 178.\\npupil of Melanchthon, 178.\\nrector at Goldberg, 178.\\nTubingen, center of humanistic movi\\nment, 153, 159.\\nuniversity at, 141.\\nTwelve Tables, of Roman Law, 76,\\nUndergraduate school, in United States,\\n312.\\nUnderstanding, development of, 189.\\nUnited States, administration of schools,\\n310.\\nattendance in schools, 311.\\neducation in, 309-314.\\nland grants for education, 309, 310.\\nState system, 309, 310.\\nsupport of schools, 313.\\nteachers, 313, 314.\\nUniversal education, advocated by Char-\\nlemagne, 128, 131.\\nid", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n343\\nUniversal education, in German schools,\\n131, 170.\\nUniversal German Educational Institute,\\nat Griesheim, 275.\\nUniversities, established through scho-\\nlastic influence, 124.\\nin England, 306.\\nin United States, 312, 313.\\npreparation for, in Germany, 293.\\nprivileges granted to, 142. _\\nrise of, 139-142.\\nservices of, 142.\\nState, in France, 299.\\nUpsala, university at, 141.\\nVasseur, Therese le, wife of Rousseau,\\n242.\\nVeda, Bible of India, 30.\\nreading lessons from, 33.\\nVergil, Roman poet, 74.\\nVespasian, honors Quintilian, 86.\\nVienna, university established at, 124, 141.\\nVogel, on errors of llmile, 244.\\nVolksschule (common school) in Ger-\\nmany, 292.\\nVoltaire, condemns Jesuit education, 187.\\non Fenelon, 227.\\nVoluntary schools, in England, 305 n.,\\n306.\\nVon Moltke, quoted, 295.\\nWaldenses, reformers in Italy, 165.\\nWar, preparation for, chief end of edu-\\ncation in Persia, 38.\\nWarens, Madame de, befriends Rous-\\nseau, 242.\\nWarriors, education of, 34.\\nmarriage of, 32.\\nsecond caste in India, 30.\\nWeigel, Erhard, founds Real-school, 236.\\nWeimar, Duke of, law for compulsory\\neducation, 203.\\nWestminster, school at, 306.\\nWilliams, Professor, on Comenius s ser-\\nvices to pedagogy, 214.\\non Locke, 223.\\non Ratke, 209.\\non Sturm s school course, 176, 177.\\nWinchester, school at, 306.\\nWinship, Mr., on Mann s Seventh Annual\\nReport, 287, 288.\\nWittenberg, center of humanistic studies,\\n172.\\nLuther professor at, 168.\\nWomen, education of, among Jews, 41.\\neducation of, during Charlemagne s\\nreign, 128.\\neducation of, in Aristotle s scheme, 67.\\neducation of, in Athens, 60.\\neducation of, in China, 47.\\neducation of, in Egypt, 50.\\neducation of, in India, 35.\\neducation of, in Persia, 38.\\neducation of, in Rome, 80.\\neducation of, in Sparta, 71.\\neducation of, Rousseau s ideas of, 248.\\nimprovement in culture of, 90.\\nMontaigne s contempt for, 198.\\nstatus of, among Jews, 41, 44.\\nstatus of, among oriental nations, 90.\\nstatus of, in Athens, 58.\\nstatus of, in China, 22, 27.\\nstatus of, in Egypt, 49, 51.\\nstatus of, in India, 31, 32, 35.\\nstatus of, in Persia, 37.\\nstatus of, in Rome, 76.\\nstatus of, in Sparta, 69, 71.\\nWorking schools, Locke urges estab-\\nlishment of, 222.\\nWriting, during Charlemagne s reign,\\n128.\\nin Athens, 58.\\nin Chinese schools, 24.\\nin Egypt, 50.\\nin India, 32, 33.\\nin Jewish schools, 43.\\nin monastic education, 119.\\nin Persian schools, 38.\\nin Roman schools, 78.\\nneglected in Sparta, 71.\\nWiirtemberg, active in school work, 203.\\nWiirzburg, University of, 141.\\nWuttke, quoted, 34.\\nWyclif, reformer, 165.\\nXantippe, wife of Socrates, 6r.\\nXenophon, testimony to Socrates, 62.\\nYellow Springs, Antioch College at, 288.\\nYverdon, Froebel at, 274.\\nPestalozzi s school at, 267, 268.\\nZeus, Olympian festivals in honor of, 55.\\nZiller School, 281.\\nZoroaster, dualistic philosophy of, 39.\\nfounder of Persian religion, 39.\\nreligion of, in Persia, 37.\\nZwingli, Swiss reformer, 165.\\nTYPOGRAPHY BY J. S. CUSHING CO., NORWOOD, MASS.", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "Books for Teachers\\nFOR THE STUDY OF PEDAGOGY\\nCalkins s Manual of Object Teaching\\nHailmann s History of Pedagogy\\nHewett s Pedagogy for Young Teachers\\nHow to Teach (Kiddle, Harrison, and Calkins)\\nKing s School Interests and Duties\\nKriJsi s Life and Work of Pestalozzi\\nMann s School Recreations and Amusements\\nPage s Theory and Practice of Teaching\\nPalmer s Science of Education\\nPayne s School Supervision\\nPayne s Contributions to the Science of Education\\nSheldon s Lessons on Objects\\nShoup s History and Science of Education\\nSwett s Methods of Teaching\\nWhite s Elements of Pedagogy\\nWhite s School Management\\nFOR THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY\\nHalleck s Psychology and Psychic Culture\\nHewett s Psychology for Young Teachers\\nPutnam s Elementary Psychology\\nRoark s Psychology in Education\\nFOR THE TEACHER S DESK\\nSchaeffer s Bible Readings for Schools\\nEclectic Manual of Methods\\nSwett s Questions for Written Examination\\nAppletons How to Teach Writing\\nMorris s Physical Education\\nSmart s Manual of School Gymnastics\\nWhite s Oral Lessons in Number\\nDubbs s Arithmetical Problems. Teachers Edition\\nDoerner s Treasury of General Knowledge. Part I.\\nThe Same. Part II.\\nWebster s Academic Dictionary. New Edition.\\n$1.25\\n.60\\n.85\\nLOO\\n1.00\\nL20\\nLOO\\nLOO\\nLOO\\nLOO\\nL25\\n1.20\\nLOO\\n1.00\\nLOO\\nLOO\\nL25\\n.85\\n.90\\nLOO\\n.35\\n.60\\n.72\\n.50\\nLOO\\n.30\\n.60\\nLOO\\n.50\\n.65\\nL50\\nAny of the above books sent, prepaid, on receipt of the price by\\nthe Publishers\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO\\n(i6)", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "Psychology in Education\\nRoark s Psychology in Education\\nBy RuRic N. RoARK, Dean of the Department of\\nPedagogy, Kentucky State College.\\nCloth, i2mo, 312 pages $1.00\\nThis new work is designed for use as a text-book in\\nSecondary and Normal Schools, Teachers Training Classes\\nand Reading Circles. The general purpose of the book is\\nto give teachers a logical and scientific basis for their daily\\nwork in the schoolroom. The teacher will gain from it\\nknowledge for present needs, and stimulus and inspiration\\nfor further study of mind growth. While this is the special\\npurpose of the book, it contains such a clear and accurate\\nexposition of psychological facts and processes as to make\\nit an interesting work for the general reader as well as for\\nthose who have to do with schools and education.\\nIt is elementary in treatment, but every subject is\\npresented in a most thorough, logical, and psychological\\nmanner. It makes a distinct departure from the methods\\nheretofore in vogue in the treatment of Psychology and the\\napplication of its principles and processes to mind study\\nand the philosophy of teaching. It is justly regarded as\\nthe most important contribution to pedagogical science and\\nliterature in recent years, and is the only work of its kind\\nwhich brings the subject within the comprehension and\\npractical application of teachers.\\nCopies of Roark s Psychology in Education will be sent prepaid to any\\naddress, on receipt of the price, by the Publishers:\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNew York Cincinnati Chicago\\n(38)", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "Halleck s Psychology and\\nPsychic Culture\\nBy REUBEN POST HALLECK, M.A. (Yale)\\nCloth, 12mo, 368 pages. Illustrated Price, $1.25\\nThis new text-book in Psychology and Psychic Culture\\nis suitable for use in High School, Academy and College\\nclasses, being simple and elementary enough for beginners\\nand at the same time complete and comprehensive enough\\nfor advanced classes in the study. It is also well suited\\nfor private students and general readers, the subjects being\\ntreated in such an attractive manner and relieved by so\\nmany apt illustrations and examples as to fix the attention\\nand deeply impress the mind.\\nThe work includes a full statement and clear exposition\\nof the coordinate branches of the study physiological and\\nintrospective psychology. The physical basis of Psychol-\\nogy is fully recognized. Special attention is given to the\\ncultivation of the mental faculties, making the work\\npractically useful for self-improvement. The treatment\\nthroughout is singularly clear and plain and in harmony\\nwith its aims and purpose.\\nHalleck s Psychology pleases me very much. It is short, clear,\\ninteresting, and full of common sense and originality of illustration.\\nI can sincerely recommend it.\\nWILLIAM JAMES,\\nProfessor of Psychology, Harvard University,\\nCopies of Halleck s Psychology will be sent prepaid to any address on\\nreceipt of the price by the Publishers\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNew York Cincinnati Chicago\\n(42)", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "Webster s School Dictionaries\\nREVISED EDITIONS\\nWebster s School Dictionaries in their revised form constitute a\\nprogressive series, carefully graded and especially adapted for Primary\\nSchools, Common Schools, High Schools, Academies, etc. They have\\nall been thoroughly revised, entirely reset, and made to conform in all\\nessential points to the great standard authority Webster s International\\nDictionary.\\nWEBSTER S PRIMARY SCHOOL DICTIONARY 48 cents\\nContaining over 20,000 words and meanings, with over 400 illustrations.\\nWEBSTER S COMMON SCHOOL DICTIONARY 72 cents\\nContaining over 25,000 words and meanings, with over 500 illustrations.\\nWEBSTER S HIGH SCHOOL DICTIONARY 98 cents\\nContaining about 37,000 words and definitions, and an appendix giving a pronounc-\\ning vocabulary of Biblical, Classical, Mythological, Historical, and Geographical\\nproper names, with over 800 illustrations.\\nWEBSTER S ACADEMIC DICTIONARY $1.50\\nAbridged directly from the International Dictionary, and giving the orthography,\\npronunciations, definitions and synonyms of the large vocabulary of words in common\\nuse, with an appendi.x containing various useful tables, with over 800 illustrations.\\nThe Same, Indexed $1-80\\nSPECIAL EDITIONS\\nWebster s Condensed Dictionary. Cloth\\nThe Same, Indexed\\nWebster s Condensed Dictionary. Half calf\\nWebster s Handy Dictionary. Cloth\\nWebster s Pocket Dictionary. Cloth\\nIn Roan Flexible\\nIn Roan Tucks\\nWebster s American People s Dictionary and Manual 48 cents\\nWebster s Practical Dictionary. Cloth 80 cents\\nWebster s Countinghouse Dictionary. Sheep, Indexed $2.40\\n$1.44\\n1,75\\n2.40\\n15 cents\\n57 cents\\n69 cents\\n78 cents\\nCopies of any of Webster s Dictionaries will be sent prepaid to any\\naddress, on receipt of the price, by the Publishers:\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNew York Cincinnati Chicago\\n(77", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "For the Study of Literature\\nMatthews Introduction to the Study of Annerican Literature\\nBy Brander Matthews, Professor of Literature in\\nColumbia University. Clotli, i2mo, 256 pages $1.00\\nA text-book of literature on an original plan, admirably designed to\\nguide, to supplement, and to stimulate the student s reading of American\\nauthors.\\nWatkins s American Literature (Literature Primer Series).\\nBy Mildred Cabell Watkins.\\nFlexible cloth, i8mo, 224 pages 35 cents\\nA text-book of American Literature adapted to the comprehension\\nof pupils in common and graded schools.\\nBrooke s English Literature (Literature Primer Series).\\nBy the Rev. Stopford Brooke, M.A. New edition, revised\\nand corrected. Flexible cloth, i8mo, 240 pages 35 cents\\nEqually valuable as a class-book for schools or as a book of refer-\\nence for general readers.\\nSnnith s Studies in English Literature\\nBy M. W. Smith, A.M. Cloth, i2mo, 427 pages $1.20\\nContaining complete selections from Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare,\\nBacon and Milton, with a History of English Literature to the death\\nof Dryden in 1700.\\nCathcart s Literary Reader\\nBy George R. Cathcart. Cloth, leather back, i2mo,\\n541 pages $1.15\\nA manual of English literature containing typical selections from\\nthe best British and American authors, with biographical and critical\\nsketches, portraits and fac-simile autographs.\\nAnderson s Study of English Words\\nBy J. M. Anderson. Cloth, i2mo, 118 pages 40 cents\\nA summary of the most important facts of the English language,\\nwith special reference to the growth of English words.\\nKoopnnan s Mastery of Books\\nBy H. L. Koopman, Librarian of Brown University.\\nCloth, i2mo, 214 pages 90 cents\\nA guide to the selection of the best books for reading and reference.\\nCopies of any of the above books will be sent, prepaid, to any address on\\nreceipt of the price by the Publishers:\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO\\n(79)", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "Composition and Rhetoric\\nButler s School English\\nCloth, i2mo, 272 pages 75 cents\\nA brief, concise and thoroughly practical manual for use\\nin connection with the written English work of secondary\\nschools. It has been prepared specially to secure definite\\nresults in the study of English, by showing the pupil how\\nto review, criticise, and improve his own writing.\\nQuackenbos s Practical Rhetoric\\nCloth, i2mo, 477 pages $1.00\\nThis book develops, in a perfectly natural manner, the\\nlaws and principles which underlie rhetorical art, and then\\nshows their use and application in the different processes\\nand kinds of composition. It is clear, simple, and logical\\nin its treatment throughout, original in its departure from\\ntechnical rules and traditions, copiously illustrated with\\nexamples for practice, and calculated to awaken interest\\nand enthusiasm in the study. A large part of the book is\\ndevoted to instruction and practice in actual composition\\nwork, in which the pupil is encouraged to follow and apply\\ngenuine laboratory methods,\\nWaddy s Elements of Composition and Rhetoric\\nCloth, i2mo, 416 pages $1.00\\nA complete course in Composition and Rhetoric, with\\ncopious exercises in both criticism and construction. It is\\ninductive in method, lucid in style, orderly in arrangement,\\nand clear and comprehensive in treatment. Sufficiently\\nelementary for the lower grades of high school classes and\\ncomplete enough for all secondary schools.\\nCopies of the above books will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt\\nof the price, by the Publishers\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNew York Cincinnati Chicago\\n(80)", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "Eclectic English Classics\\nArnold s (Matthew) Sohrab and Rustum $0.20\\nBurke s Conciliation with the American Colonies .20\\nBurns s Poems Selections .20\\nByron s Poems Selections .25\\nCarlyle s Essay on Robert Burns .20\\nChaucer s Canterbury Tales Prologue and Knighte s Tale .25\\nColeridge s Rime of the Ancient Mariner .20\\nCooper s Pilot .40\\nDefoe s History of the Plague in London .40\\nDeQuincey s Revolt of the Tartars .20\\nDryden s Palamon and Arcite .20\\nEmerson s American Scholar, Self-Reliance, and Compensation .20\\nFranklin s Autobiography .35\\nGeorge Eliot s Silas Marner .30\\nGoldsmith s Vicar of Wakefield .35\\nGray s Poems Selections .20\\nIrving s Sketch Book Selections .20\\nTales of a Traveler .50\\nMacaulay s Second Essay on Chatham .20\\nEssay on Milton .20\\nEssay on Addison .20\\nLife of Samuel Johnson .20\\nMilton s L Allegro, II Penseroso, Comus, and Lycidas .20\\nParadise Lost\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Books I. and II 20\\nPope s Homer s Iliad, Books I., VI., XXII. and XXIV, .20\\nRape of the Lock, and Essay on Man .20\\nScott s Ivanhoe .50\\nMarmion .40\\nLady of the Lake .30\\nThe Abbot 60\\nWoodstock .60\\nShakespeare s Julius Caesar ,20\\nTwelfth Plight 20\\nMerchant of Venice .20\\nMidsummer-Night s Dream .20\\nAs You Like It .20\\nMacbeth .-20\\nHamlet .25\\nSir Roger de Coverley Papers .20\\nSouthey s Life of Nelson .40\\nTennyson s Princess .20\\nWebster s Bunker Hill Orations .20\\nWordsworth s Poems Selections .20\\nCopies setit, prepaid, to any address on receipt of the price.\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNew York Cincinnati Chicago\\n(80\\nI", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "An Introduction to the\\nStudy of American Literature\\nBRANDER MATTHEWS\\nProfessor of Literature in Columbia University\\nCloth, 12mo, 256 pages Price, $1.00\\nA text-book of literature on an original plan, and conforming with\\nthe best methods of teaching.\\nAdmirably designed to guide, to supplement, and to stimulate the\\nstudent s reading of American authors.\\nIllustrated with a fine collection of facsimile manuscripts, portraits\\nof authors, and views of their homes and birthplaces.\\nBright, clear, and fascinating, it is itself a literary work of high rank.\\nThe book consists mostly of delightfully readable and yet compre-\\nhensive little biographies of the fifteen greatest and most representative\\nAmerican writers. Each of the sketches contains a critical estimate of\\nthe author and his works, which is the more valuable coming, as it does,\\nfrom one who is himself a master. The work is rounded out by four\\ngeneral chapters which take up other prominent authors and discuss the\\nhistory and conditions of our literature as a whole and there is at the\\nend of the book a complete chronology of the best American literature\\nfrom the beginning down to 1896.\\nEach of the fifteen biographical sketches is illustrated by a fine\\nportrait of its subject and views of his birthplace or residence and in\\nsome cases of both. They are also accompanied by each author s\\nfacsimile manuscript covering one or two pages. The book contains\\nexcellent portraits of many other authors famous in American literature.\\nCopies of Brander Matthews Introduction to the Study of American\\nLiterature will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of the price,\\nby the Publishers\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNew York Cincinnati Chicago", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "N^\\n^0^-\\n-K", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": ".0 0.\\n.-0^\\n-io\\nO\\nN r.\\noo\\n.Oo", "height": "2719", "width": "1638", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "t.\\n.0^\\n-0\\n0^\\ns.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a20- -o^\\n5 S\\n.-.V\\nv^\\n.x^ *^,.*!i i;\\\\ .,x\\nV\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a25/*", "height": "2709", "width": "1686", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2781", "width": "1820", "jp2-path": "historyofducati00seel_0364.jp2"}}