{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4265", "width": "2534", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "s j*tf^ C*\\nX\\n\\\\t", "height": "4279", "width": "2330", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "o x A\\nV. 1/ A\\nsy\\nV\\nA\\n,0", "height": "4279", "width": "2330", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4279", "width": "2544", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4276", "width": "2363", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4279", "width": "2544", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "Elements of Lettering\\nPKKl ARF.I) FOR STI DEXTS\\nThe International Correspondence Schools\\nSCRANTON, PA.\\nA Treatise on the History, Classification, and Prac-\\ntical Application of the Various Styles\\nof Letters of the Alphabet\\nFIRST EDITION\\nSCRANTON\\nTHE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY\\n1899\\nU", "height": "4292", "width": "2544", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "ONE COPY RECEIVED.\\nLibrary of GongHKNI\\nOffice of ttW\\nJAN 20 1900\\nRegltUr of CopjelpfS\\n^*\\\\X p-i/oi fcw JosJ -A\\n51683\\nEntered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1899,\\nBy The Colliery Engineer Company,\\nIn the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.\\n-V\\nSECOND COPY,\\nPrinted by\\nThe Colliery Engineer Company,\\nScranton, i", "height": "4277", "width": "2661", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "PREFACE.\\nThe bound volumes of our Courses in Lettering have been\\nprepared on somewhat different lines from those of our other\\nCourses. Believing that the plates would be of more value to\\nthe student if he could handle each one separately than if they\\nwere bound together in one large volume, we have printed them\\nin folio form, with a plate on one leaf and the instructions for\\ndrawing it on the other. All the plates belonging to each\\nCourse have been placed in a handsome and durable portfolio,\\nwhich is sent to the student instead of a bound volume. The\\nstudents in those Courses that give instruction in Lettering\\nonly, receive, in addition to the plates, an Instruction Paper,\\nwith its accompanying Question Paper, entitled Elements of\\nLettering. This Paper contains the instruction necessary to\\nenable the student to properly apply his knowledge of letters\\nand their formation to suit every requirement, both in treat-\\nment and modification, and also in their various arrangement in\\nall forms of inscription and combination designs. This Paper\\ngives a complete education in the art of lettering in all its\\nbranches wherein a knowledge of colors is not necessary. The\\npresent volume contains this Instruction Paper.\\nThese Courses in Lettering have been prepared by a gentle-\\nman who has had a very wide experience in studying the origin\\nof letter formation and in teaching the art of lettering, and one\\nwho is a thorough master of the subject in all its branches.\\nGreat care has been exercised in the selection of the plates\\nP containing the various styles of the alphabet. We feel", "height": "4276", "width": "2432", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "iv PREFACE.\\nconfident that nothing equal to these plates has ever before\\nbeen published. The utmost pains have been taken to give the\\nstudent the true form of the various styles of letters shown on\\nthe plates. The Courses have been carefully arranged to meet\\nthe requirements of every one engaged in any business what-\\never that demands a knowledge of letters and their construction.\\nOnly such instruction and plates are given as have a direct\\nconnection with the particular Course selected by the student.\\nThe International Correspondence Schools.", "height": "4273", "width": "2544", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nElements of Lettering.\\nPage.\\nIntroduction 1\\nHistory of the Alphabet 2\\nGeneral Rules 10\\nMechanical and Freehand Lettering 12\\nComponent Parts of a Letter 13\\nSpacing of Letters 14\\nPunctuation IS\\nRules for Punctuation 19\\nShading 22\\nLetter-Face Lighting and Shading 25\\nThe Highlight 27\\nCutting In Letters 27\\nClassification of Letters v 29\\nOrnamental Letters 29\\nGrotesque Letters 31\\nIlluminated Capitals 32\\nEffects in Lettering 35\\nCondensing, Elongating, Telescoping, and Interlacing 35\\nOutlining and Filling In 38\\nDesigning 39\\nRibbons 40\\nPanels 42\\nInscription Designing 40\\nStencil Patterns 48\\nPurpose of Stencils 48\\nMaterial for Stencils 49", "height": "4279", "width": "2544", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "vi CONTENTS.\\nPage.\\nGeometrical Figures 52\\nTriangles 52\\nCircles 53\\nOrnamental Curves 54\\nThe Ellipse 55\\nModifications of the Fundamental Styles 56\\nMechanical Lettering 62\\nHow the Work Should be Sent 74\\nPlates 75", "height": "4279", "width": "2662", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4279", "width": "2445", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "t\\nr-\\nV s\\n*/H", "height": "4256", "width": "2692", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "Elements of Lettering", "height": "4279", "width": "2319", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "Elements of Lettering.\\nINTRODUCTION.\\n1. Purpose of TMs Course.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 It is the purpose of this\\ncourse of instruction to combine the classical with the practical\\nso as to meet the needs of all students desirous of studying the\\nesthetic and antique, as well as the plain and simple, styles of\\nlettering. The plates are therefore arranged and classified on a\\nsimple but progressive system, calculated to lead the student\\ngradually from the plain and simple to the most difficult styles,\\nbut omitting from the course all such as are obsolete or not in\\ncommon use.\\nBefore requiring the student to apply himself to a knowledge\\nof the present forms and classifications of the letters of our\\nalphabet, he should become familiar with their history and the\\nprimitive forms of writing. He should also note the important\\nnational changes that have caused a transition from one form\\ninto another, until our present advanced era has been reached\\nwith its great variety of styles, distinctively different in\\ncharacter one from another, and each arising from some\\nimportant period in the world s history in which the funda-\\nmental or parent style was closely allied to a corresponding\\nstyle of architecture.\\nIn order that the student may derive the greatest benefit from\\nthis course in lettering, he should not rest content with merely\\nreading this Instruction Paper carefully once or twice, but\\nshould study its contents carefully throughout his entire course.\\nIt is only by practice and steady progress in acquiring a knowl-\\nedge of the styles and formation of letters that the real value\\nand importance of much of the instruction given in this Paper\\ncan be rightly understood and its full meaning appreciated.\\n\u00c2\u00a71", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nHISTORY OF THE ALPHABET.\\n2. Classification. The wonderful achievements in the\\narts of printing, photo-engraving, lithography, etc. have been\\nthe means of transforming the letters of the alphabet into a\\nvariety of forms or styles, which may be classified under three\\ngeneral heads Plain, Ornamental, and Grotesque. The history\\nof our alphabet and of the forms known as the fundamental\\nstyles will be found not only of interest but also of great profit\\nto one who is to devote himself to the art of lettering. The\\ndegree of perfection attained in the alphabet, not only in\\nphonetic value, but also in simplicity and completeness, makes\\nit a monument of the intellectual advancement of the present\\nday a condition to which the people of all ages have contrib-\\nuted although the reader may never have considered its\\nsource nor the many changes necessary to its growth and per-\\nfection. The twenty-six signs, or letters, that we call the\\nalphabet are separated into two classes those representing no\\nsyllabic sounds in themselves, which are called consonants; and\\nthose possessing two or more such sounds, called vowels. The\\nlatter in some cases are scarcely more than a breath sound, but\\neach has a clear phonetic value, and fills an important place in\\nour written language. By means of other characters placed\\nabove the vowels, every word may be written to express its\\nproper sounds. We are, therefore, enjoying today the fruits of\\nthe achievements of the human intellect through forty centuries\\nof development for, in tracing the origin of the alphabet and\\nthe signs that led to its construction, we are compelled to go\\nback to the dispersion of the human race through a period of\\nover four thousand years, each epoch of which furnishes inter-\\nesting developments in the growth of our letters. It will be\\nimpossible in this short treatise to fully consider this interesting\\nhistory and growth, or give more than a passing glance at the\\nworld s primitive history although in it is to be found the\\nsource of the forms whose transitions from one system of char-\\nacters to another give us our present alphabet. Nor can we\\ndwell even on the relation these characters bear to one another.\\nThe degree of intelligence attained in each period of human", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 3\\nhistory is marked by the progress made in the methods of\\nwriting, which enabled its people to record events, impart\\nknowledge, and transmit messages to one another.\\n3 Ideograms. The Scriptures inform us that when Baby-\\nlon and Nineveh were built all people were of one language, and\\nthe similarity of the Babylonian, Egyptian, and Assyrian sign\\nlanguages gives some evidence of this fact. The descendants of\\nNoah are supposed to have occupied these localities after the\\ndispersion Shem, that of Babylon and Eastward Ham, North-\\neastern Africa and Japheth, Western Assyria and Asia Minor.\\nEach system of writing began with rude pictures of objects,\\nmore or less conventional, which gradually became the repre-\\nsentatives of words, afterwards becoming the symbols of letters,\\nor elementary sounds. We can, therefore, trace the transition\\nfrom the ideogram, or expression of thoughts by means of pic-\\ntures, to the phonogram, or expression of sounds by means of\\ndrawn or written symbols. Many ideograms are in common\\nuse at the present day, which proves that the Egyptian method\\nwas not without some merit. For instance, the sign is derived\\nfrom the monogram U. S. The barber s pole the red stripe of\\nwhich symbolizes a blood-letter (a custom of past ages)\\nthe three balls used by the pawnbroker, the American flag,\\nthe sign per cent. the algebraic signs, and many others\\nare all ideograms.\\n4. Cuneiform Writing. The letters of our alphabet are\\nthe outgrowth of the ancient Hebrew alphabet and Egyptian\\nhieroglyphics (the earliest form of writing), as well as of the\\nAssyrian cuneiform characters. In tracing to its origin the\\nform of each letter, we are surprised at the marvelous trans-\\nformations these characters have undergone before reaching\\nthe simplicity that marks their present construction. While\\nalphabetic systems have become simplified, the Chinese system,\\non the other hand, which is not alphabetic, has grown more\\nand more complicated, and affords an example of how a people,\\nisolated for four thousand years from the rest of the world,\\nwere unable to advance beyond the ancient system of ideo-\\ngraphic writing. The Chinese system is evidently the outgrowth", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "4 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 1\\nof the cuneiform characters, which are wedge-shaped, and are\\narranged in groups to express a thought. The simplicity of\\nour alphabet system compared with the Chinese may be appre-\\nciated when we consider that a boy ten years old, in an Ameri-\\ncan school, has acquired the same facility in reading and\\nwriting English that would take a Chinese student twenty- five\\nyears to accomplish in the study of Chinese characters.\\n5. The Arabic and Roman Numerals. Without a\\ngeneral knowledge of ancient history it is impossible to form a\\nclear outline of the history of writing, as one is inseparable\\nfrom the other. From the confusion of tongues to the exodus\\nof the Israelites from Egypt, a period of several centuries, we\\nknow that the three continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa\\nwere largely peopled and, though Chinese legends point to\\nperiods much earlier than this, the system by which they have\\ncome to us, being based on object pictures, produces no evi-\\ndence as to their reliability. The Hebrew writing, supposed\\nby some authorities to be the outgrowth of the so-called Semitic\\nwriting, does not owe its origin to this early period for there\\nis sufficient evidence to show that the Hebrew alphabet did not\\ncome into existence until later. In the middle of this Semitic\\nperiod, however, occurs the birth of Ishmael, from whom the\\nArabian race is descended, and to this race we are indebted for\\nour present numeral characters 1, 2, 3, etc. The system known\\nas the Roman was in use much earlier, and probably originated\\nin ideographic writing. The digits I, II, III, IIII were origi-\\nnally pictures of the fingers the V was shown by the whole\\nhand, the fingers collected and the thumb spread apart. The\\nX was expressed by both hands together, each being in the\\nposition used to indicate the V. The increase or decrease of\\nvalue was indicated by placing a digit before or after the V or\\nX. This system is still in use for certain purposes, one of\\nwhich is the numbering of the hours on the clock dial.\\n6. The Hebrew Alphabet. The progress and develop-\\nment of all systems of writing are marked by national changes,\\nand, therefore, when entering on a second historical period of\\nabout a thousand years, beginning with the exodus from Egypt", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS. OF LETTERING.\\nand reaching to the captivity of Israel and Judah, we find a\\nnation of at least 4,000,000 people leaving Egypt and afterward\\nforming a most important element of the divisions of nations\\nand one strongly influencing the many systems of writing. To\\nthis great people, it is believed, was given an alphabet, and a\\nlanguage in laws and commandments, embodying civil as well\\nas ecclesiastical polity. The purity of this alphabet has\\nremained to the present time, surviving thirty centuries, the\\nonly changes being the present Hebrew characters, which\\nassume more of the square construction than the originals.\\nFrom this nation also springs another system or alphabet that\\nof the Samaritans but before considering this let us turn our\\nattention to another country and people, the Phenicians. The\\nIsraelites occupying Palestine were neighbors of this aggressive\\nand thrifty people, and were brought into harmonious relations\\nwith them. The chief cities of Phenicia, Tyre and Sidon, were,\\nduring the reign of Solomon, maritime centers of great activity.\\nIt is assumed, therefore, that the Greek alphabet came directly\\nfrom the Hebrew and Phenician, while the Phenician in turn\\nwas evolved from the Assyrian, Egyptian, and Moabitish.\\nT. Tlie Samaritan Alphabet. We find that the Samari-\\ntan alphabet has Hebrew as a base, with a strong interspersion\\nof Assyrian and Chaldaic. Israel, about the middle of this\\nperiod, was divided into two kingdoms, the two tribes constitu-\\nting the kingdom of Judah and the ten tribes that of Israel.\\nThe latter, as well as the Egyptians and Phenicians, suf-\\nfered severely from the Assyrian and Babylonian invasions.\\nThese powerful eastern empires took captive the ten tribes of\\nIsrael, thereby causing their complete downfall and loss of\\nnational identity. The Mosaic laws prescribed that the soul\\nthat did not observe certain ceremonies after eight days would\\nbe cut off from Israel the ten tribes failed to observe these\\nceremonies as a nation, and therefore lost their indentity in the\\nHebrew family. They returned to Samaria subsequently, how-\\never, and held to a revised Pentateuch hence the lost ten tribes\\nof Israel and their relation to the Jews. Mention is made of\\nthis to assist the student in locating the origin of the Samaritan", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "6\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nalphabet, which is so made up of others that little or no\\nreference is usually made in regard to its origin, bearing as it\\ndoes so close a resemblance to the primitive Hebrew. The\\nonly examples of the earliest alphabets are to be found on\\nmonuments or tabulated inscriptions, on coins, and on frag-\\nments of utensils. Among these the principal ones during this\\nperiod are the Baal-Lebanon Bowl, 10th century B. C. the\\nFig. 1.\\nMoabite Stone, 9th century B. C. and the Siloam Inscription,\\n7th century B. C. This period closes with the captivity of the\\nremaining two tribes in Babylon 588 B. C.\\n8. The Plienician Alphabet. The Phenician, as previ-\\nously stated, is the source of our phonetic alphabet and the\\nascendency and decline of the Grecian empire and the establish-\\nment of the Roman marks another period, during which the\\nalphabet characters attained their present development, as\\nshown by the inscription on the Arch of Titus, built 70 A. P.,\\na cut of which is shown in Fig. 1. In recapitulating what has", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 7\\nthus far been stated, we have satisfactory proof that our\\nphonetic alphabet came from the Hebrew, but descended\\nthrough the Phenician branch.\\n9. The alphabet characters have slowly evolved from\\nhieroglyphic writings, first from syllabic signs, and these forms\\nmust have been developed from verbal phonograms. The\\nverbal phonograms were adopted from ideograms, which could\\nhave originated only from picture writing. Surrounded by\\nsuch advantages as the Hebrew and the Egyptian characters,\\nand all other forms of writing, it is not surprising that the\\nPhenicians should have constructed an alphabet of clear\\nphonetic value, which afterward gave birth to the classic Greek.\\nThe name of every letter of the Hebrew has a significant\\nmeaning, while the Greek names, though similar, are meaning-\\nless. For instance, the first four letters of the Hebrew and\\nGreek alphabet are as follows\\nHEBREW. GREEK.\\nAleph (ox) Alpha\\nBeth (house) Beta\\nGimel (camel) Gamma\\nDaleth (door) Delta\\n10. The Greek Alphabet. Several centuries of the\\nHebrew period elapse before the Greek alphabet becomes an\\nimportant factor in the formation of our alphabet, in fact not\\nuntil after the fall of Greece as a universal empire. But as\\nearly as 880 B. C. there came with the birth of the Greek\\nalphabet a most intellectual conception of literature, art, and\\narchitecture, of which subsequently the Latins w r ere only\\nimitators.\\n1 1 Tlie Latin Alphabet. Although the Greek alphabet\\nstill remains, evolution continues as long as the imperfect exists,\\nand with the fourth universal empire comes the Latin alphabet.\\nAs the Roman empire was composed of almost the entire\\ncivilized world, their alphabet formed the base, or w r as the\\nmother of all modern styles of writing. The Roman alphabet", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "8 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\ncharacters of the first century are practically the same as the\\nones in use today known by the name of Egyptian, Antique\\nEgyptian, and French Roman.\\n12. The Renaissance. From the beginning of the\\nChristian era there seems to have been no apparent growth of\\nthe alphabet for many centuries. The dark ages were evidently\\na germinating or budding period, and until the 15th century\\nbrings us to an era historically known as the Renaissance, or\\nrevival of art, we find no progress whatever. About the middle\\nof this century (1443) printing was invented, but it was many\\nyears before this important discovery accomplished much to\\nbenefit mankind for it must be remembered there was no cheap\\nmaterial on which to print, the parchment used to engross on\\nbeing far too expensive for the purposes of printing. The\\nprocess of printing had a very beneficial influence on the\\nmethods of writing, however, and incidentally on the alphabet\\nitself. The letters had become so elaborate by this time as to\\nappear almost like ornamental enigmas. The process of print-\\ning necessarily required for the separate types the simplest\\nforms of characters, and the printers were compelled, therefore,\\nto return to the forms used during the first century the Latin\\nand Western Roman styles were therefore used, the former\\nbeing known at the present day as Antique Egyptian and the\\nlatter as French Roman.\\n13. It should be borne in mind that ornamentation in\\nlettering such as marked the period just prior to the 15th\\ncentury is not an improvement in style. The first principles to\\nbe observed in forming letters is simplicity, as the most impor-\\ntant qualifications of the letters should be their legibility.\\nOrnamentation when resorted to is always an evidence of\\nfailure to produce the perfect letter, for if the perfect is attained\\nthe additional work is superfluous.\\n14. Results of the Renaissance. The Germans during\\nthe 15th century, then located in Northern Italy, were not slow\\nto become imbued with the spirit of this new development in\\nart, and Spain, France, England, and in fact all Europe was", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 9\\naffected by the great impulse, largely on account of the achieve-\\nments of an Italian family known as the Medici. Previous to\\nthis, the art of lettering was confined almost exclusively within\\nthe monasteries. The ecclesiastical devotees or monks were\\nskilful in the art of calligraphy, and exhibited wonderful dex-\\nterity in their work of designing and illuminating capital letters\\non their manuscripts, many of which are extant today some\\ndating back as far as the 5th or the 6th century are especially\\nclever. It is to be regretted, however, that these early monks\\npossessed a knowledge of chemicals for removing the inscrip-\\ntions from earlier manuscripts from which they copied, thereby\\ndepriving the world of records far more valuable than their\\nown. During this whole period prior to printing there were\\nmany varieties or styles of the alphabet originated. The style\\nknown at present as the Egyptian was originally known as the\\nplain Roman, or the style in which the early Greek and Latin\\nalphabets were written while the Roman letter of the present\\nday is almost identical with the Medieval Roman of the period\\nindicated by its name. The Gothic, the earliest specimen of\\nwhich dates to 1349 A. D., was possibly the next style and\\nderived its origin from the ogival or pointed arch, character-\\nistic of the Gothic style of architecture.\\n15. The Old English, 1400 A. D. (specimens of which are\\nstill in Westminster Abbey), was possibly the outgrowth of the\\n8th century Romanesque, the Old German letters following\\nclosely on the Old English. There are many of the German\\nand Italian Renaissance styles that still remain. The Script\\nwriting (the ordinary cursive kind), out of which has developed\\nthe most graceful and classic curves possible to produce, was of\\nAnglo-Saxon origin. The style known as French Roman,\\nhaving the horizontal strokes considerably narrower than the\\nvertical, the extremities of these being finished with an antique\\nspur, were of first-century origin, and were used by the Western\\nRoman provinces. The Italic script is a modern interpretation\\nof the Medieval Italian print. There are several forms of the\\nChurch Texts, which originated from the Old German as well\\nas the Old English.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "10 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\n16. Modern Styles. Of the styles of more recent date,\\nthe style known as Rund-Schrift (round-writing), which is an\\nadaptation of the German Renaissance, was the invention of a\\nGerman. Aside from this we name with much pride several\\nstyles known the world over as American writing these are\\nthe Full Block, Half Block, both plain and antique, Railroad\\nBlock, Round Full Block, Spencerian Script, and Shippers Box\\nMarking. These styles are used chiefly by letterers, while the\\nvarieties in type which are of purely American origin are so\\nnumerous that we would not attempt to classify or name them.\\nTheir form and style are peculiarly identified with printing,\\nand are seldom if ever used by letterers while to the art of\\nprinting under its many heads is due all progress made in the\\ninvention of styles of writing since the 15th century.\\nGENERAL RULES.\\n17. The few general rules following are very important to\\nthe student, and it is necessary, therefore, that they should be\\ncarefully observed and followed.\\n1. Do not attempt any form or style of letter other than the\\nstyle furnished for each lesson.\\n2. Do not allow the eye to dwell on that which is inartistic\\nfor, just as truly as u evil associations corrupt good manners,\\njust so surely does association of the eye with that which is out\\nof proportion, distorted, or irregular, leave an impression which\\nis lasting in its effect on, and by no means easy to dispel from,\\nthe mind. When the student has advanced to the study of\\ninscription designing and ornamentation, he will better appre-\\nciate the importance of this advice.\\n3. Do not become discouraged if you do not make as rapid\\nprogress as you should like to. The assertion is often made\\nthat it is not possible for one to become a master of an art\\nor profession, without a natural talent for it this may be true\\nalong some lines, but it is not true in regard to lettering,\\nespecially if behind the effort there is persistent will power and\\na patient determination to succeed. Concentration of thought\\nand constant practice must of necessity follow these qualities.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 11\\n4. Give as much time to practice as possible do not be\\nsatisfied to make a letter several times only, but practice each\\nletter until 7 ou have mastered it, and have learned perfectly\\nall the rules governing its construction in every characteristic\\nline and stroke.\\n5. Be sure you thoroughly understand all of the instruction\\npertaining to each plate before beginning to practice. Study\\nthe instructions carefully with the plate before you.\\nStrive to excel despise mediocrity.\\nThe advantages offered in this course should induce every\\nstudent to aim above a general knowledge of letters only, and\\nto seek to attain a position equal to that occupied by the few\\nthat fully understand the many forms of alphabetic characters\\nand all their applications.\\n18. Materials Required. When practicing in the eve-\\nning, use a good steady light, and place this directly in the\\nrear of the table on which you are working, and from 12 to 18\\ninches above the work, while the eyes should always be pro-\\ntected from it by means of an eye shade. The student will\\nneed the following materials\\nDrawing instruments 1 velvet rubber; 1 Faber s im-\\nDrawing board, 16 in. X 21 in. proved ink eraser\\nT square, 22 h inches i doz. sheets Whatman s drawing\\n2 triangles, 45\u00c2\u00b0 and 60\u00c2\u00b0 paper, 12 in. X 19 in. i royal\\n1 scale size\\ndoz. thumbtacks 2 red sable brushes, Nos. 3 and 4\\nDrawing pencil 1 pad ruled paper, 2 in. X 7 in.\\nIf oz. bottle waterproof drawing ink\\n19. Draftsmen and other students interested in a similar\\nclass of work will find these tools sufficient for practice and\\nspecimen work. But for the benefit of the students that wish\\nto apply a knowledge of lettering to sign painting we would\\nadvise that the practice work be done on cardboard or Manila\\npattern paper, using a camel s-hair brush, and card black, the\\npreparation of which will be given hereafter. By this process\\nthe letters can be made any size, but the plate sent in for\\ncorrection must invariably be 8J in. X 15 in., inside the border\\nlines, which are If inches from the edge of the paper.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "12 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 1\\nDEAWING THE LETTERS,\\nMECHANICAL AND FREEHAND LETTERING.\\n20. Instrumental and Freehand Drawing Defi-\\nnitions. Drawing is the art of representing objects on a\\nconvenient surface, such as paper, by means of lines or colors,\\nor both. The representation of an object in this manner is\\ncalled a drawing. If the pencil, brush, pen, or marker by\\nwhich a drawing is made, is guided wholly or partly by instru-\\nments, as, for example, by a straightedge or by compasses, the\\ndrawing is called an instrumental or mechanical drawing. If no\\ninstruments are used, the lines drawn by the free hand, and all\\ndimensions laid off by eye only, the drawing is called a free-\\nhand drawing. A preliminary rough or unfinished drawing\\nis usually called a sketch.\\n2 1 Purpose of a Drawing. The purpose of a drawing\\nis either to assist the memory or to convey to others an idea of\\nthe shape, size, combination, form, color, or appearance of some\\nobject. Drawings also aid us in perfecting ideas when we are\\ndesigning or inventing. The practice of freehand drawing\\ntrains both the hand and the eye. It enables one to estimate\\ndistances and lay them off on a drawing correctly, and to com-\\npare the relative sizes of angles, lines, and figures in general.\\nIt thus trains the hand to draw quicker and better with instru-\\nments. The ability to draw well freehand is one of the most\\nuseful of accomplishments.\\n22. There are but two plates or styles in this course that\\nare in the true sense mechanical styles, that is, made exclusively\\nwith the aid of a straightedge and other instruments. These\\nare the Full-Block Plate and the Half-Block Plate. The\\nothers are made up of straight lines and curves. These curves,\\nthough slight in many cases, are all drawn by the free use of\\nthe hand, and therefore, so long as freehand drawing enters into\\ntheir construction, we have chosen to classify them under this\\nhead. We advise the use of the straightedge, however, in", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 13\\nmaking all straight lines, whether in mechanical or freehand\\nstyles, but do not recommend the use of the compasses in\\nmaking curves in freehand letter styles, unless a perfect circle\\nis required.\\nCOMPOXEXT PAETS OF A LETTER.\\n23. Stroke. The stroke is the term applied to the width\\nbetween the outlines forming the letter when applied to\\nletters possessing more than one width between its outlines, it\\nalways refers to the greatest width, and usually the vertical\\nportion of the letter, as distinguished from the fine line.\\n24. Fine lane. The fine line is the line connecting the\\nstrokes or lines attached to them, forming a part of the letter,\\nand is usually a horizontal line.\\n25. Spur. The spur is a small projection from the\\nextremity of a letter, and exists in several varieties, according\\nto the style of letter on which it is used.\\n26. Face. The face of a letter usually includes all the\\nspace forming a rectangle enclosing the extremities of the\\nletter, but is often applied to the surface within the outline\\nof the letter.\\n27. Shade. This term is used to describe the treatment\\nor finish of a letter, and is applied to a letter to give it the\\nappearance of relief from the background also to cause one\\npart of the stroke to appear projected or depressed from\\nthe surface.\\n28. Block. This is similar to the shade in effect, and is\\nused to give a letter thickness, or, as its name expresses, to give\\nit a solid block effect, in which case the shade also is sometimes\\nused beyond the block in the form of a natural shadow.\\n29. Outline. The outline of a letter is the line that\\nforms the letter, leaving the body of the stroke open.\\n30. Width.. The width of letters always applies to the\\nspace occupied between the vertical lines to the extreme right\\nand left, and never refers to the height.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "14 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\n31. Background. The background is the surface on\\nwhich the lettering is placed it is also sometimes called the\\nground, or field.\\n32. Condensing. Condensing is a term applied to the\\ncloser spacing of the letters, or to making them narrower than\\nnormal width.\\n33. Elongating. Elongating is the term applied when\\nthe letters are drawn out to a greater width than the normal.\\nThis term should not be confused with the appearance of a con-\\ndensed letter, with the relation of its height to its width.\\n34. Cyma. The cyma is a character emplo}^ed to equalize\\nthe spacing of irregular letters by placing it where the space is\\nopen and requires something more than the plain letter to\\nmake the word appear solid. This character derives its name\\nfrom the Greek, its undulating form resembling a wave. The\\ncyma is usually attached to the letters A, L, M, W, etc. it is\\nused in but few styles of lettering, while in some styles it forms\\na part of the letter itself.\\nSPACING OF LETTERS.\\n35. Importance of Spacing. Next in importance to\\nthe formation of letters stands the art of arranging them in\\nwords in a way calculated to make the word not only legible\\nbut symmetrical this is called spacing. Nothing will destroy\\nthe harmony of a line of perfectly formed letters more effect-\\nively than a disregard of this art. Aside from a few general\\nrules, the letterer must depend on his own good judgment, and\\ncultivate the ability to proportion all spaces according to the\\ncombinations of letters. Irregular combinations occur in man} r\\nways, but true proportion must alwaj^s reign in a word accu-\\nrately spaced, so that its regularity is apparent to the eye at a\\nglance. To accomplish this, special attention must be given to\\nthe following rules\\n3G. Correct and Incorrect Spacing. Make the inter-\\nspacings equal to one another, or as nearly so as possible. To\\ndo this may require the shortening of some extended letters,\\nand the spreading apart of letters having vertical or parallel", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 15\\nlines. This is shown by Figs. 2 and 3, in which the right and\\nthe wrong spacing can be seen. The L in Fig. 2 is shortened a\\nfull stroke in width instead of one-half stroke, which is the\\nnormal width of the letter and the space between the A and\\nthe W is about one-half the width of the letter A at its base.\\nAt the top of the A is shown the cyma used to relieve the space\\nwhich cannot be equalized. The cyma is also often used in a\\nOVW LAW\\nFig. 2. Fig. 3.\\nvertical position on the L, the point almost resting on the lower\\nright-hand spur. Fig. 3 shows the effect of the rule followed by\\nsome letterers, who allow the same space between the extremities\\nof all letters, and make no allowance for unequal-sized inter-\\nspaces. The parallel strokes of the A and the W are the same\\ndistance apart as the L and the A, leaving the L full width.\\nMany such combinations occur, and unless we observe this\\nrule we may expect no better effects than in Fig. 3. Two\\nprojecting letters, either L s or T s, often occur together, as\\nin such words as millinery, butter, etc., and at the\\nsame time in connection with letters that are full face or\\noccupying full width top and bottom, as shown in Fig. 4. In\\nsuch cases the L should be made the width of the stroke\\nILLN UTTEI\\nFig. 4. Fig 5.\\nnarrower than the full- face letters, and the spaces between the\\nlatter and the right-hand letters next to them should be one-\\nhalf the width of the stroke. There should be a space of the\\nfull width of the stroke between parallel-stroke letters, as the I\\nand the L. In Fig. 5 the T s are shortened only one-half the\\nwidth of the stroke, allowing the same space between them and\\nthe letters on each side as allowed in Fig. 4 between the end of", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "16\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nthe right L and the stroke of the N. The letters, therefore,\\nwith which we shall experience the most difficulty in spacing,\\nare the slanting- stroke letters A, K, V, W, and Y and the pro-\\njecting letters F, J, L, and T.\\n37. Full Block and Roman. When spacing such\\nstyles as the Full Block and Roman observe the following\\nrules When two letters having spurs come together, as\\nleave the width of the stroke of the letter between the spurs.\\nWhen a spur and a plain-stroke letter come together, as\\nHO\\nleave 1| width of stroke between body or stroke of letters.\\nWhen two spurless letters, as\\ncome together, leave space of one stroke between them. Slant-\\ning-stroke letters, such as the W and the Y, leave the half-stroke\\nspace between the spurs, and the same space if the next letter\\nbe a spurless letter.\\n38. Egyptian, Half Block, and French Roman, The\\nEgyptian, Half Block, and French Roman can be spaced by the\\nfollowing rules Leave width of stroke between all parallel-\\nstroke letters, and one-half this width between projecting letters.\\nBetween round letters coming together on rounded sides, as\\nNOC\\nleave stroke. Between words never allow less than the space", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 17\\nof a full- sized letter, including spurs and, if possible, leave\\n1J spaces. Never allow letters to touch each other, except\\nshaded letters, and not then unless it is unavoidable. Two\\nround letters coming together, such as\\noo\\nin condensed styles, having no spurs, may be allowed to almost\\ntouch each other without having the effect of doing so while\\nsuch letters as\\nJE\\nproduce the effect of being closer together than they really are.\\n39. Care must always be exercised in selecting a style of\\nletter to suit a space as well as a word. The placing of a word\\nin a given space not appropriate to it will cause the letters to\\nbe either so separated by spaces or so condensed for want of\\nspace as to make them unsightly and difficult to read. Under\\nthe heading of Inscription Designing, the subject of the\\nSENATE\\nFig. 6.\\nselection of styles to meet all requirement is fully treated.\\nThe appearance of the spacing of letters is similar to that of a\\ncompan} T of soldiers. If a portion of the company be separated\\nby a space greater than the manual prescribes, it has the\\nappearance of a separate detachment and is noticeable at a\\nglance. In the same manner, if a word is spaced properly\\nthroughout with but one exception, it has the appearance of\\ntwo words. For example, take the word Senate shown in\\nFig. 6, where the space between the N and the A gives it the\\neffect of two words.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "18 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nPUNCTUATION\\n40. There is seldom sufficient attention paid to this impor-\\ntant subject among letterers, as may be observed on the signs\\non almost any public street.\\n41. Origin of the Apostrophe. The apostrophe is fre-\\nquently misplaced in the plural possessive case. To fully\\nunderstand the rule governing the possessive case and the\\norigin of the mark used to denote possession, we should first\\nknow that the apostrophe is used to indicate that something\\nhas been omitted. If we should look on the fly leaf of some\\nvery old book, we would see the name of the owner, John\\nSmith, and underneath, the words his book, which was\\nthe early form of expressing the possessive. Later, it became a\\ncustom to contract the name and article possessed thus,\\nJohn Smith s book and to insert the apostrophe to indi-\\ncate that the his was omitted. By bearing in mind this\\nsimple custom, one can always locate the proper place for the\\napostrophe, according to the location of the pronoun. To\\nfurther illustrate, take, for example, the words men s and\\nboys clothing. To use the method of our ancestors we\\nwould express it, men, their clothing, and boys, their cloth-\\ning. According to the rule, the apostrophe and final s\\nshould be substituted for the pronoun, making the phrase read\\nmen s and boys clothing. Thus, the letter s would not\\nbe necessary after the apostrophe in the word men s, as the\\npronoun their, which has no final s, is used; but for\\neuphony, or to obviate harshness of sound, the s is often\\nadded after many words, and also omitted from words ending\\nwith s for the same reason.\\n42. The Comma. The comma is frequently used where\\nthe period is the mark required. For instance, the words\\nJohn Smith. Law Office. make two complete and inde-\\npendent statements, and each should be terminated by a\\nperiod. However, if the words used were John Smith,\\nLawyer. the case would have been different, as there is but\\none statement, which should be terminated by the period.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 19\\nRULES FOR PUXC TrATIOX.\\n43. Period. The period is put at the end of even-\\nword, phrase, or sentence that is complete by itself, and\\nnot interrogative or exclamatory. It is also placed after\\nall abbreviations.\\nQuit yourselves like men. The M. D. addressed his letter to James\\nHoward, LL. D.\\n44. Colon. The colon is an intermediate point between\\nthe semicolon and the period, and is used as follows\\n1 After words that promise a series or statement of some-\\nthing important.\\nHis accomplishments, he said, were not many a stout heart, a firm\\nresolve, and fifty cents.\\n2. Before an important remark added to a sentence, espe-\\ncially when it sums up the sentence, or presents the meaning\\nin another form.\\nAvoid evil doers in such society an honest man may become\\nashamed of himself.\\n45. The Semicolon. The semicolon is used to separate\\nclauses that are themselves divided by the comma, or that\\nrequire a point greater than a comma and less than a colon or\\nto separate the parts of a loose series.\\nHe was courteous, not cringing, to superiors affable, not familiar, to\\nequals and kind, but not condescending or supercilious, to inferiors.\\n46. Comma. The comma is the most frequently used of\\nall the punctuation marks. The chief purposes for which it is\\nused are the following\\n1. To separate the terms of a closely related series, or two\\nsuch terms when the connective is omitted.\\nHedges, groves, gardens.\\nIt was a dark, desolate region.\\n2. To separate terms that are contrasted or otherwise dis-\\ntinguished, and terms of which a part in one might be referred\\nimproperly to the other.\\nHe is poor, but honest.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "20 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\n3. To set off a word, phrase, or clause that is parenthetic, or\\nthat comes between other parts and breaks their connection.\\nYou will then, however, be in no better condition.\\n4. To set off a modifying word, phrase, or clause that is not\\nclosely connected with what it modifies, or that is removed from\\nit by inversion.\\nBehold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and die. By\\nAmericans generally, the hero of the Battle of Manila Bay is beloved.\\n5. To set off words or phrases used independently or\\nabsolutely.\\nRistalfo, give me what is mine, and that right quickly.\\n6. To separate the predicate from its subject, when the\\nsubject is very long, and has a clause, or consists of punctu-\\nated parts.\\nThe fact that he is allowed to go unpunished, makes him more\\ninsolent than ever.\\n7. To separate clauses that are neither very closely nor very\\nloosely connected.\\nThere mountains rise, and circling rivers flow.\\n8. Short simple sentences or clauses seldom require a point\\nwithin them and phrases or clauses that stand in close connec-\\ntion with that on which they depend seldom require a point\\nbefore them.\\nTell me when it was that you saw him after he returned.\\n47. Interrogation Point. The interrogation point is\\nplaced after every complete direct question, whether it forms a\\ncomplete sentence or only a part of a sentence.\\nWhat mean st thou by that? Mend me, thou saucy fellow?\\nJulius Caesar.\\n48. Exclamation Point. The exclamation point is\\nplaced after a word, phrase, clause, or sentence that indicates\\ngreat surprise, grief, joy, or other emotion in the speaker.\\nWoe unto thee, Chorazin Woe unto thee, Bethsaida\\n49. Dash. The dash is chiefly used for the following\\npurposes", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 21\\n1. To show omission caused by interruption.\\nCassius. Yet I fear him\\nFor in the ingrafted love he bears to\\nCsesar\\nBrutus. Alas good Cassius, do not think of him.\\n2. To show emphasis or suppressed feeling, or to show an\\nunexpected turn in thought or style.\\nHeaven gives to its favorites early death.\\n3. To set off a parenthetical phrase, especially when\\nemphatic or when there are other points within it.\\nTo render the Constitution perpetual which God grant it may be\\nit is necessary that its benefits should be practically felt by all parts of\\nthe country. D. Webster.\\n4. Before echoes, or where the words that is or\\n1 l namely are understood.\\nThe four greatest names in English poetry are almost the first we\\ncome to Chaucer, Spencer, Shakespeare, and Milton.\\n50. Parenthesis. The parenthesis is used to enclose\\nsome incidental remark or explanation that breaks the regular\\nconstruction of the sentence and can be omitted without injur-\\ning the grammatical sense.\\nKnow then this truth (enough for man to know),\\nVirtue alone is happiness below. Pope.\\n51. Quotation Marks. Quotation marks are used to\\nenclose words taken from the saying or writing of another person.\\nThe doctor made the sage remark, while there s life, there s hope.\\n52. Apostrophe. The apostrophe is used to denote the\\nomission of one or more letters.\\nTis pleasant, sure, to see one s name in print\\nA book s a book, although there s nothing in t.\\nChatterton.\\n53. Hyphen. The hyphen is used (1) at the close\\nof a syllable that ends a line when the remaining part of the\\nword must be carried to the next line (2) to join the parts of\\ncompound words.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "22 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\n54. Ditto Marks. The ditto marks are used to avoid\\nthe repetition of the word or expression directly above them.\\n55. Underscore. The underscore is a line drawn under\\nwords in manuscript or copy to give them special emphasis,\\nshowing that they are to be printed in Italic or capitals, one\\nline denoting Italic, two lines denoting small capitals, and three\\nlines large capitals.\\nSHADING.\\n56. Shading on the Left Side. Shading is used to\\ncause the letter to appear in relief, and thereby take away the\\nflat or plain appearance. Shading may be placed on the top,\\nbottom, or either side of a letter, but it should at first always\\nbe placed on the bottom and left side as, for several reasons,\\nit is best not to try to shade a letter on the right side until the\\nstudent is familiar with the left, as he will use this side for all\\npractical purposes. The reasons for giving this side the prefer-\\nence are (1) Regularity and symmetry of the shade occurs\\nFig.\\nin more of the letters when shaded on the left side, such as the\\nS, E, C, R, etc. Fig. 7 illustrates this advantage, and shows the\\nsingle stroke on the left at (a), and the broken shade from the\\nstroke on the right side at (fc). (2) By shading to the left,\\nthe letterer can accomplish more in a given length of time, and\\nproduce a better effect in his work when finished. (3) The\\nmajority of strokes in shading to the left are drawn towards\\nthe letterer, while in shading on the right the brush is pushed\\nto the right, which in itself is a strong argument in favor\\nof the former.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "1\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n23\\n57. Shading should always be executed on the assumption\\nthat the light falls on the letter at an angle of 45\u00c2\u00b0. This\\nprinciple can best be shown by reference to Fig. 8. The maxi-\\nmum width of the shade occurs at a, a, midway between the two\\nlines b, 6, and then diminishes to lines b, b, where it is com-\\npleted. The tendency of the average letterer is to give too much\\nthickness where shade begins or finishes. All letters must be\\nshaded on the same angle at every point, and, after practice,\\nthis angle becomes as well established with the letterer as the\\nhorizontal or vertical lines. Every characteristic point of\\nthe letter must be shown in the shade, as at a, Fig. 9, and all\\nFig. 10.\\nmust be of equal width in all letters exGept the round charac-\\nters, whereon the shade reaches this width only at the maxi-\\nmum point of thickness in the letter.\\n58. Block Shade. There are many methods of obtain-\\ning beautiful effects in shading, which will be considered sepa-\\nrately. The block shade, as its name indicates, consists of the\\neffect of making the letter appear to have thickness. This is\\ndone by the use of two shades, the dark, or stronger, one being\\nused underneath all horizontal strokes, and the lighter tint on\\nthe side of all vertical strokes. The block shade can be placed\\non the top or right side of the letter, in which case the block,\\nas well as the letter itself, is shaded as shown in Fig. 10. Here\\nthe shade has below and to the left of the letter the appearance\\nof a cast shadow.\\n59. Cast Shadow. The cast shadow is also used in con-\\nnection with heavy-stroke letters, block shading, etc. giving the", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "24\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nletter the appearance of standing upright, either on a level or\\non a slanting surface. The top of the shade is on a line about\\none-fifth of the height of the letter below the top. The shade\\nis made on an angle of 30\u00c2\u00b0 to the left, the point resting on the\\nFig. 11.\\nlower left corner of the letter, as in Fig. 11, where (a) shows\\nthe letter with a block shade and cast shadow, and (b) shows\\nthe simple outlined letter and cast shadow. The shade is\\nsometimes used by duplicating the letter in the form of a\\nshadow cast on the background, one-fifth of the height of the\\nletter below the top, and on the same angle (45\u00c2\u00b0) as the\\nregular shade, as shown in Fig. 12.\\n60. Relief Shade. Relief shade is obtained by leaving a\\nspace between the letter and the shade on the same angle as\\nFig. 13.\\nthe shade, as shown in Fig. 13, making the space and shade of\\nuniform width. When used in connection with block shade,\\nit is often of the nature of the natural shade, and is added to\\nthe block shading without any line or space between. The", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "1\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n25\\nrelief shade when used as a natural shade on a white or tinted\\nground is made to represent the strength of the shadow cast\\nfrom an object on the ground on which the letters are placed.\\nThis shade is produced with the pen by means of lines, but\\nmore effectively by the brush and transparent color.\\nLETTER-FACE LIGHTING AND SHADING.\\n61. Importance of Subject. The treatment of the face\\nof the letter is a very important consideration. The letterer\\noften finds himself confronted with a line of extremely plain let-\\ntering that, even after it is shaded, remains flat and unsatis-\\nfactory. This effect can sometimes be overcome by the addition\\nof lights and shades placed directly on the letter face itself.\\nThe face of the letter may be variegated or blended from a light\\nto a dark shade, in which case a sharp outline must surround\\nthe entire letter, as shown in Fig. 14. Lighting and shading\\nFig. 14.\\nFig. 15.\\nFig. 16.\\nare used with best results on heavy-faced letters, as all treat-\\nment of the face of a letter by shading has the tendency to\\nconsiderably reduce the apparent width of the stroke.\\n62. Effects Produced. Another effect is produced by\\nrunning bars of color across the center of the letter, and dimin-\\nishing these bars in width to a point midway from center to top\\nand bottom, as in Fig. 15. Diminishing circles are also used on\\nletters of lighter face, such as the Roman, and can be made to\\noccupy the entire face, or, as is shown in Fig. 16, terminating at\\na given point, which must be regularly observed throughout the\\nline of letters.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "26\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\n63. Heavy Ilighlig-ht. The heavy highlight is used in\\nthe treatment of the face of the letter by making the upper half\\nof the letter a uniform tint, either by lining, as shown in\\nFig. 17, or with colors. The darker shade b is placed on the\\nlower half of the letter, allowing a highlight on this equal in\\nstrength to a, or the upper half. The highlight c on the upper\\nhalf of the letter is left white. By a combination of the shades\\nof colors many beautiful effects can be produced by this means,\\nusing such colors for a as blue, green, gray, or gold color, the\\nlast of which combines with sienna for the lower portion, and\\nwith cream color for the upper highlight. Blue or green when\\nused should have tint and shade of the same color.\\n64. Beveled Shading. Shading on the face of a letter to\\nrepresent a beveled appearance is another treatment that gives\\na line of lettering a finished and pleasing effect. In this\\nFig. 17.\\nFig. 18.\\nprocess it is necessary only to observe the rules of light and\\nshadow, as shown in Fig. 18, by shading the letter on the left\\nand bottom sides from a line drawn through the center of the\\nface of the letter. This form of shading is often used on a\\ngold or silver letter by the use of transparent colors such as\\nvarnish stained with asphaltum, which is used on gold, and\\nvarnish darkened with lampblack is used on silver letters.\\nThere are many other methods of treating the face of letters by\\nthe use of ornament, whereby it loses its identity as a plain\\nand becomes an ornamented letter.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 27\\nTHE HIGHLIGHT.\\n65. As its name indicates, the highlight is used to illumi-\\nnate or light up a letter, which it does with wonderful effect.\\nThe highlight is placed on the edge of the letter, opposite the\\nshade, or on the right and top of the strokes. It is always a\\nfine line of either gold, silver, white, or cream, according to the\\ncolor of the letter on which it is to be placed. If the letter is a\\ncolored letter, gold or silver can be used. If the letter is gold,\\nnothing will serve the purpose of a highlight so well as cream\\nor white. On silver or aluminum, white only can be used.\\nTo be most effectual this highlight must be a fine, even line.\\nThe heavy highlight is used in letter-face lighting and shading,\\nand is explained under that head.\\nCUTTING Ltf LETTERS.\\n66. Uses of Cut-In Letters. This term is applied to\\nthat style of treatment wherein the letters are drawn in outline,\\nand the background is filled in around them. In inscription\\ndesigning this method is resorted to frequently, in order to\\nFig. 19.\\nbreak the monotony of several lines of plain lettering. The\\ninsertion of a panel or ribbon, on which the letters are cut in,\\nprovides a colored background, against which the letters are\\noutlined, allowing the same color for the letters as the main\\nground of the inscription design, as shown in Fig. 19. The\\ncolor of the panel and background will govern very largely the\\ncharacter of letter to be cut in. If the general ground is white\\nor any light color, and the cutting-in, or outline, color is very\\ndark, a heavy-faced letter may be used without causing any", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "28\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nappearance of clumsiness or ill proportion. But should the\\nletters be in gold, a much lighter-faced letter would be neces-\\nsary, as the effect of the gold luster is to make the letter appear\\nlarger than it actually is. A very fine line of gold on a black\\nground can be readily distinguished even at a great distance,\\nAimm\\nFig. 20.\\nand a white letter on a blue ground can be read at a greater\\ndistance than any other combination of colors.\\n67. Points to be Observed. In the practice of cutting\\nin letters the student should begin on the plainer styles, such as\\nthe Full Block, Half Block, etc. before endeavoring to execute\\nthe Roman or Script. Fig. 19 shows the letters in outline,\\nand also with the background filled in. In order to insure\\nuniformity of width in the horizontal elements of the letters,\\nfaint lines may be drawn through the entire word by means of\\na thread or string charged with charcoal, chalk, or other material\\nthat afterwards may be readily dusted off. Cut-in letters may\\nFig. 21.\\nFig. 22.\\nusually be permitted to stand closer than other styles of work,\\nas they are seldom shaded, though when they are shaded, the\\nregular spacing should be used.\\n68. Irregular-Surface Lettering. Where letters are\\ncut in on an irregular surface, such as a ribbon, as in Fig. 20,", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "1\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n29\\nthey must be maintained at a uniform angle and not changed\\nto suit the angle of the ribbon, as at a. The importance of this\\nwill be considered more fully later on, but its connection with\\nthe subject now under discussion must not be overlooked.\\nWhen letters are cut in on an inclined panel or ribbon the let-\\nters should be maintained in a vertical position, as in Fig. 21,\\nor perpendicular to the lines of the panel, as in Fig. 22.\\nCLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS.\\nOEXAMEXTAL LETTERS.\\n69. Scope of tlie Subject.\\nalphabets in which no line\\nor curve enters that is not\\nabsolutely necessary to\\nshow their form or outline\\na line thus added may\\nplace them among the orna-\\nmental letters. Although\\nit will be impossible to go\\nover the entire ground\\ncovered by this subject,\\nthere are endless vari-\\n-The plain letters include all\\nll!!ililll!iilllil!lllililillllillil!illJlllilillllll!lli llli lli!\\nFig. 23.\\nas\\neties of ornamental letters,\\nthe styles found to be most essential will be considered. There\\nare many letters into which\\nornamental construction\\nenters but slightly, while\\nothers are composed en-\\ntirely of ornamental forms.\\nThe ornamental letters of\\nmost value to the student\\nare those on the face of\\nwhich the ornament ap-\\npears, either in the form\\nor designs in arabesque.\\nFig. 24.\\nof relief scrolls, geometrical figures", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "30\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n70. Ornamental Forms. Letters classified as ornamen-\\ntal are of so great a variety that such as are used in connection\\nwith the shade to produce\\na bent or rounded effect, as\\nshown in Figs. 23-24, might\\nbe classed with this style.\\nFig. 23 shows the ground\\nto be a plane surface and\\nthe letter bent or warped,\\nwhile Fig. 24 shows the\\nletter to be perfectly\\nstraight, and fastened with\\nscrews, while the ground has the effect of being bent or warped.\\n71. A letter that in itself is perfectly plain but surrounded\\norna-\\nFlG. 25.\\nornamentation, as shown\\ncalled\\nFig. 26.\\nmental letter also, though as a matter of fact the letter itself\\nmay be perfectly plain.\\n72. Other Forms. Other ornamental forms are as fol-\\nlows The relief- ornament letters\\nshown in Fig. 26 can be made in\\nvarious ways. The whole form\\nof the letter may be treated in\\nthis manner, as at (a), or by\\nsimply suggesting it in the middle\\nor edge of the letter, as in (6),\\n(c), and (d). A letter may be\\nplain, so far as its face is concerned, but on account of its\\nFig. 27.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING\\n31\\nform and construction it may be classified as ornamental,\\nas shown in Fig. 27.\\nThere are many forms of designs used in letter-face orna-\\nmentation, either filigree work, geometrical designs, or a com-\\nbination of both. In Fig. 28 are shown three letters of the\\nface-ornament class, the one at being decorated with filigree\\nwork, while (6) shows a geometrical design, and (c) simply\\nthe cross-line shading.\\nGROTESQUE LETTERS.\\n73. All letters, as previously stated (Art. 2), are either\\nplain, ornamental, or grotesque. The first two classes follow in\\ntheir outline construction the forms of the fundamental styles\\nand their many variations, but this third class is entirely\\ndifferent, The grotesque letters have no recognized or classical\\nform, such as would place them among\\nthe styles of the alphabet, but are made\\nby using natural objects, which are arranged\\nso as to conform to any regular or irregular\\nshape that will cause them to represent a\\nletter, and any form, therefore, is allowable\\nso long as the letter may be recognized.\\nTo accomplish this, objects such as a\\nhuman figure, a piece of rope or ribbon,\\nbroken boards, leaves, vines, and trunk of the tree, are used.\\nOf the three latter forms, the rustic letters are made. The\\nleaves, tendrils, stump, and trunk of the tree form the material\\nused for an entire alphabet, one letter of which is shown in\\nFig. 29. These letters can be made very artistic, and show\\nFig. 29.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "32\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\ngreat skill in their arrangement. And, while they may be\\npleasing to the eye, they are of no practical importance to the\\nstudent in the study of the forms of the letters, as their pro-\\nportions are purely arbitrary. Fig. 30 shows the forms of\\nsome of the grotesque letters, in which (a) is formed by a\\nhuman figure, (6) by broken boards, and (c) with a piece of\\nrope. Any alphabet may be constructed of these forms as the\\nfancy of any artist may dictate, even though he may be\\nignorant of the true form or proportion of the simplest style\\nof the alphabet.\\nILLUMINATED CAPITALS.\\n74. History and General Use. The monks of the\\nMiddle Ages were the first to make use of this art, many\\nspecimens of which would indicate that they must have spent\\ndays in designing and executing a single letter. In treating\\nthis subject here, our purpose is simply to call attention to the\\nmost simplified forms of illuminating, especially those forms\\ndesigned for the use of the average letterer. The practical use\\nof this art is now confined to lithographing, engrossing, card\\nwork, and ecclesiastical decorations. The printing and litho-\\ngraphing artists have displayed wonderful skill in recent years\\nin illuminated work, especially on show-bill designs. The use\\nof colors to light up the capital letter gives a surprising effect\\nto a complete line of lettering, and is done by a simple combi-\\nnation of designs of most harmonious colors with the letter\\nexecuted, and by using colors of striking contrast to the tints\\nused to form the background. Such colors as can be com-\\nbined to give a brilliant effect are used in the form of a plaque,", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "SI\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n33\\npart panel or both, on which the letter is brought out most con-\\nspicuously, as shown in Fig. 31. The illumination practiced\\nby engrossers is usually of such a nature as to produce a\\nfinished and pleasing effect without resorting to colors. There\\nare many ways by which this can be accomplished. One\\nmethod is simply by the use of a pen and black ink, as shown\\nin Fig. 32, outlining the letter first, then making the orna-\\nFIG. 31.\\nmentation surrounding it conform to any desired design,\\nthereby giving the letter prominence. Great care should be\\ntaken that the ornamentation is not made more pronounced\\nthan the letter, but rather that the former is used as a means to\\nbring out or illuminate the letter.\\n75. Card Work. For card work, the illuminating of capi-\\ntals gives tone and finish, and relieves a show card of extreme", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "34\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nplainness. For practical purposes, such as attractive adver-\\ntising cards, banners, etc., the illuminating of capitals will be\\nfound to hold an important place, and is coming into favor and\\nmore general use. There are also\\nmany forms and designs employed\\nas a panel, on which illuminated\\ncapitals are placed, in a solid or\\noutlined letter the outline letter,\\nhowever, being the most convenient,\\nis most frequently used, especially\\nwhen either the panel or the letter,\\nor both, are to be treated in water\\ncolors. The letter outlined is some-\\ntimes filled in with carmine or other\\nbright color, while the panel sur-\\nrounds it with a tint of cream-white, yellow, or green. Two or\\nthree shades of color are sometimes used, either variegated or in\\nthe form of line work on top of tint, as in Fig. 33.\\n76. Ecclesiastical Decorations. For ecclesiastical\\ndecorations, such as wall panels containing inscriptions, which\\nFig. 32.\\nFig.\\nare usually in the Old English, Gothic, or Church Text style of\\nletter, as well as for display mottoes in schools, halls, etc., where\\nthe Old English or other suitable lettering is used, the first", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n35\\ncapital (and sometimes all capitals) is illuminated, either on\\na panel of gold, silver, or color. In all cases the panel is made\\nFig. 34.\\nto conform in a general way to the letter, as Fig. 34 shows. If\\ngold or silver is used for a ground, the letter must be a dark\\ncolor. If a colored ground (which is preferable) is used, a\\ngold or silver letter will be\\nfound to light up with colors\\nand produce a most satis-\\nfactory result.\\n77. Heraldic Shield.\\nAn heraldic shield is often\\nbrought into use, on which the\\nilluminated capital is placed.\\nThere are many designs or\\nforms of this shield, which\\ncan be changed to suit any form of a letter, as shown in Fig. 35.\\nFig. 35.\\nEFFECTS IK LETTERING.\\nCONDEXSEfG, ELONGATING, TELESCOPING, AND\\nINTERLACING.\\n78. Condensing Eetters. In conforming letters to fill\\na required space, we are often compelled to resort to various\\nmeans of accomplishing our purpose, without making the\\ninscription appear distorted or out of proportion. When\\nthe panel or space to be lettered is much shorter than would\\nadmit of a regularly proportioned letter, we are compelled to\\nresort to the condensing of the letters, observing generally the", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "36 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\nrules of their proportionate width. All styles of letters can\\nbe condensed except Railroad Block, which was invented\\nexclusively for the opposite purpose. To illustrate more fully,\\nCOMPANY\\nFig. 36.\\nthe word Company is used to show the two forms of condensing,\\nas well as the two forms of elongating.\\n79. Example of Condensed letter. In Fig. 36 is\\nshown the condensed form, as may be seen by comparing\\nthe proportions of the letters with those of the Half Block\\nPlate. The letterer may condense\\nhis letters to the width of those of\\nFig. 36, and find they are still too\\nlarge for the required space the\\nvertical strokes can then be reduced\\nto one-half the regular width, and\\nFlG 37, the horizontal strokes maintained at\\nthe regular, or even greater, width, and less space allowed\\nbetween letters, as in Fig. 37. This reduces the word to\\nalmost one-third that of Fig. 36.\\n80. Elongating Eetters. To elongate the same word in\\nthe same style of letter, make the height, for convenience, one-\\nhalf that of Fig. 36 thus it will be observed that if this\\nelongated letter were twice the height it is in Fig. 38, it would\\nthe proportions of the\\nCOMP\\nM\\nFig. 38.\\noccupy a space almost four times that of Fig. 36. To farther\\nelongate this word, reverse the rules of Fig. 37, by reducing", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n37\\nthe horizontal strokes one-half the regular width, keeping the\\nvertical strokes regular width or these may be increased to\\ntwice their regular width if desired, also giving more space\\nbetween the letters, as shown in Fig. 39. By this means a word\\nIVI\\nFig. 39.\\n.can be made to fill a space much too long for the regular\\nproportion given this style of letter.\\n81. Telescoping:. Telescoping is not of so much prac-\\ntical advantage as condensing or elongating, and is used mostly\\nto produce a relief effect. This is done by giving the letters\\nthe appearance of overlapping one another, as shown in Fig. 40.\\nFig. 40.\\nEvery alternate letter is dropped enough below the line to\\nprevent confusion of horizontal lines and to preserve the com-\\nplete identity of each. These letters can be shaded on the\\nbackground but not on the face, as this would tend to destroy\\ntheir legibilit} T\\n82. Interlacing. Interlacing to its fullest extent enters\\ninto the construction of a monogram but the form of inter-\\nlacing at present under consideration is somewhat different,\\nand includes the interlacing of an entire word. This is very\\noften resorted to by the designer, especially in the use of\\neccentric letters, which are made to extend far beyond the\\nlimits of the fundamental styles from which they are derived,\\nas shown in Fig. 41.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "38\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nOUTLINING AND IILLIXG IX.\\n83. Water Colors. Water colors are used for all classes\\nof designing, and especially in commercial advertising work, as\\na small quantity of lithographic or printed work executed in\\nblack outline can be very economically colored or filled in with\\nwater colors by hand. A knowledge of the handling of water\\ncolors is, therefore, a necessity to the letterer. Dry color in\\npowdered form is used when large areas of blended color are\\nrequired. This is applied with a wad of cotton, with which the\\n3r^irf\\ndry color is spread^ evenly over the surface by gentle rubbing.\\nThe outline of the design is the guide for all water-color work\\nin lettering panels, floral designs, etc. The wider this outline is\\nmade, the easier will be the work of flowing the color evenly,\\nand the less the liability of running over the line the fine\\noutline, however, is used in many places, especially for\\nfloral designs, etc.\\n84. Use of Water Colors. Water colors are used to the\\nbest advantage on white show cards, having a dull finish, which\\nreadily absorb the moisture. The outline is made with the\\nglossy black to which the water color will not adhere, but flows\\nto the edge and stops. By this outline method, beautiful\\ndesigns in flowers and highly illuminated effects can be pro-\\nduced. Water colors also serve the purpose of shading or", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 39\\ntinting borders of cards outside of the fine line. For shading\\nthe letters, a brush is used that will as nearly as possible make\\nthe shade with one stroke, as water color cannot be worked over,\\nwhen once applied, without showing brush marks. Therefore,\\nthe color must be flowed on evenly with a quick, well-directed\\nstroke, using care not to apply the brush again over a shaded\\npart when the excess water has been absorbed by the card.\\nDESIGNING.\\n85. Scope and Importance. The subject of designing\\nis an almost inexhaustible one, and covers a broad field. There\\nare, however, many general rules and many commonly accepted\\nforms, which establish a foundation on which new ideas may\\nbe built. Designing will ever be an art that, aside from these\\ngeneral rules, involves the faculty for producing original con-\\nceptions or combinations which must conform to the dictates\\nor system of a recognized class or school. Very few letterers\\nare designers in the full sense of the word, and few of our best\\ndesigners are good letterers. Students in this course should\\ncultivate a knowledge of this most important subject. An\\ninscription of several lines of lettering, arranged so as to show\\nintelligence in design, proves that the letterer has accomplished\\nthat which is of as much importance as a knowledge of the\\nproper formation of letters. The first thing, therefore, is to\\nstudy the underlying principles of designing from the curve,\\nwhich forms the first departure from a plain line of letters, to\\nthe combination, pictorial, and the wide field of original designs,\\nthe possibilities of which lie beyond the limits of this Instruction\\nPaper. In showing the many ways in which curved lines are\\nused for inscriptions, we will not attempt to make lines of\\nletters, but allow the curves and straight lines to represent these.\\n86. Some Simple Combinations. In Fig. 42 is shown\\nthe combination of the plain curve and straight line. The\\nRoman letter or some light-stroke style is used on the curved-\\nline, block, or other heavy-stroke letters on the straight line.\\nThe letters on the curve must be either vertical or parallel with\\nthe radius of the curve.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "40 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 1\\nNext in importance is the compound curve, or ogee, which is\\nused when the inscription is composed of two words of about\\nequal length, as in Fig. 43. Here, two ogee curves are used\\nFig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44.\\nunder a single curve and above a straight line. Where one\\nword occurs, we use the double ogee, which is made by uniting\\ntwo ogee curves, as shown in Fig. 44.\\nIn many designs, the inclined straight lines are used, as\\nshown in (a) of Fig. 45, or diminished in width from the\\noutside to the center of the inscription, as shown in (b) of\\nthe same figure.\\nWhile these and many other lines and curves are used in\\ndesigning an inscription, several straight lines of lettering\\n(a) Fig. 45.\\nrequire a great amount of skill in equalizing and arranging\\nthem properly, even in straight lines. In such designs only\\none style of letter (but made of various sizes, as the arrange-\\nment may require) is often used throughout the inscription.\\nRIBBONS.\\n87. The Ribbon. The ribbon is used in many forms,\\nand can be made to suit almost any style of inscription by\\nfolding or extending. When folded, the part representing the\\nback of the ribbon is called the return, and must be shown by\\ncolor or shading. The ribbon is made either in a regular curve\\nor with irregular and broken edges. Fig. 46 shows the ribbon\\nin some of its many forms, of which the names of its component\\nparts are as follows a, the bow b, the broken band c, the\\nregular band r/, the returning band e, the streamer and\\nthe roll.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n41\\nThe ribbon is used also in a square or geometrical form, in\\nwhich case the graceful and natural wave does not enter, as\\nshown in Fig. 47. This form of ribbon serves its place in con-\\nventional or set designs.\\nThe ribbon is used also in the same form as the double ogee,\\nand when thus used it must be made symmetrical on both ends.\\nThe fold can also be made in middle of ogee, as shown in\\nFig. 48, without distorting its symmetrical effect, but rather\\nFig. 47.\\ngiving it ease and grace, which should always be the aim\\nof the designer.\\n88. Shading the Ribbon. In shading a ribbon, to\\nmake it appear natural always observe the law of light and\\nshade. If the light should strike on one part of the ribbon,\\nthe opposite side corresponding with it must necessarily be\\nin shadow.\\nThe study of light and shade is the first principle of design,", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "42\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nand has been considered with reference to individual letters\\nunder the head of Shading. In designing, as in drawing\\nfrom nature, strict adherence to this law is absolutely necessary,\\nas the slightest disregard of it is noticeable to the skilled eye.\\nWe have seen the advantage of shading single letters to the left,\\nand it is well to practice the shading of designs on the left also,\\nin order to avoid such mistakes as are likely to occur, by show-\\nb ing a shade on two opposite sides of an\\nobject or of several objects, when the v y are\\ncombined to form one single design.\\n89. Reflected Light. In the sha-\\nding of ribbons or any rounded object, there\\noccurs what is called the reflected light.\\nIt shows the edge or line which, without\\nthe observance of this principle, would\\notherwise be lost where the darkest shaded\\nparts come together. Fig. 49 shows this principle of reflected\\nlight, the greatest strength of the shade being somewhat removed\\nfrom the extreme edge of the object, as at a, while the shadow\\ncast by the object itself is strongest against the edge at b.\\nFig. 49.\\nPANELS.\\n90. Rectangular Panels. The panel has more forms\\nthan the ribbon, and is made to serve many purposes.\\nThe\\nFig. 50.\\nsimplest form is that of a rectangle, within which is sometimes\\ndrawn an inner panel of the same, or different, shape shown\\nin Fig. 50. The surroundings of the panel can be made either", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n43\\nsimple or elaborate, as the material at hand in this style of\\ndesign is inexhaustible. One of the many forms of the exterior\\nof the panel is such as shown in Fig. 51. This work may be\\nFig. 51.\\nso elaborated that the inner panel on which our lettering is to\\nbe placed becomes of minor importance, as shown in Fig. 52.\\nThis, of course, is not such a design as should be used to dis-\\nplay a conspicuous inscription. We must, therefore, keep in\\nFig. 52.\\nmind the fact that the inscription, if important, is of greater\\nvalue than the ornamentation, the latter being employed only\\nto embellish it, without detracting from its prominence.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "44\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\n91. Part Panels. Another form of panel is that which\\nis combined with some other design, in which the panel is not\\nin the foreground of our design, as shown in Fig. 53. When\\nthe panel is left unfinished on one end, as in Fig. 53, it is\\nknown as a part panel, and many beautiful effects can be\\nproduced by its use. In this the damask principle is used, the\\npanel being blended into the ground by means of color or with\\nthe pen. The lettering is also blended the extreme of light\\ncolor is thus contrasted against the darkest part of the panel,\\nFig. 53.\\nand the dark lettering is continued on the light ground\\noutside of the panel.\\n92. Elliptical and Round Panels. Elliptical and\\nround panels are also used and can be* made extremely orna-\\nmental. A touch of simple ornament in a design will often\\ncounterbalance a quantity of plain work, and give a general\\neffect of ornamentation throughout. Fig. 54 shows an ellip-\\ntical design, with simply a frame of ornamentation, which is\\nsufficient for the purpose of ornamenting a design when such\\nwork is placed on other plainer material in a design, it gives\\nthe whole the appearance of completeness.\\n93. Rococo Panels. Another style of panel that has\\ncome into our modern designs is the rococo panel not only is\\nthe scrollwork used for the panel itself, but it is frequently\\napplied to the embellishment of many parts of the design.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERIXG.\\n45\\nFig. bo shows one of the great variety of shapes the rococo\\npanel assumes, as this style can be made to conform to the\\nFig. 54.\\nlines of any inscription, or to form a part of nearly any\\nstyle of a design.\\nThe same style of scroll is frequently used for the purpose of\\nfilling up an open space in a design, although this is done also\\nthrough the employment of natural forms, such as palms, olive\\nor laurel branches, flow-\\ners, leaves, and conven-\\ntional objects, vases, f^^^f$%^^\\nlamps, lions, griflms, etc.\\nand, in fact, any object\\npertaining to, or in har-\\nmony with, the inscrip-\\ntion. If the inscription\\nof a design pertains to\\nmusic, the lyre may be\\nused to embellish the\\ndesign if it pertains to\\nthe trades, such tools as\\nare identified with the\\ntrades may appear in the\\ndesign. If literature or science is the subject, symbolic objects\\nFig. 55.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "46\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\ncan be used in a variety of ways. A large collection of choice\\ndesigns should always be on hand for reference, from a review\\nof which a suggestion may often be obtained that leads the\\ndesigner s thought into an original channel, which, as we have\\nstated before, is the chief aim of the designer.\\nINSCRIPTION DESIGNING.\\n94. Proportion. A piece of lettered work, no matter how\\nartistic or elaborate it may be in itself, is not satisfactory if\\nimproperly proportioned or balanced. The tendency in design-\\nPermanent\\n_ \\\\3j\\nAssociation\\nOF CHICAGO.\\nFig. 56.\\ning is to distribute the strength over the entire surface. If we\\nkeep in mind the law of art in a picture, it will help us in\\ndesigning. The foreground should be the strength of a picture,", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 47\\nthe middle distance should be the semistrength, while the distance\\nshould be indistinct. This is the key not only to successful\\ndesigning, but also to satisfactory lettering. The top and bot-\\ntom lines of the design shown in Fig. 56 are Roman the words\\npermanent and association are styles of heavier face,\\nwhile the strength of the inscription is centered in the two\\nmiddle lines. The selection of the proper style of letters to suit\\neach requirement should be carefully studied. A single word\\nor line of letters can be made of any form or style, but as soon\\nas another line is added the letterer is compelled to study their\\ncombinations, and to make their relation to each other har-\\nmonious to the eye and in proper proportion. In an inscrip-\\nFig. 57.\\ntion of several words, the most important should be displayed\\nin the most prominent style of letters, such as the Block or\\nEgyptian, while the less important should be of smaller letters,\\nand of such styles as one-stroke letter, or caps and lower case of\\nthe Roman or other styles. This rule does not interfere with\\nthe general effect produced in Fig. 56. If it should happen\\nthat the inscription cannot be made to conform to one rule in\\ndesigning, it is best to change the design accordingly. In\\nFig. 57 is shown a design of an inscription in which the first\\nand last words are most important, and from which, eight\\nwords therefore could be taken, and still in effect, the principal\\nfeature of the whole inscription would remain Brown s\\nShoes these words, therefore, should have the greatest\\nprominence by making them large and of a sol id- stroke letter.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "48 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nSTENCIL PATTERNS.\\nPURPOSE OP STENCILS.\\n95. Letter Stencils. The letterer is sometimes forced\\ninto competition with the printer, especially when handling a\\nlarge order for advertising signs the method of hand work,\\ntherefore, must be laid aside for something that will have the\\neffect of hand work, and still be accomplished with more\\nrapidity, observing, at the same time, cleanliness and finish\\nwhen the work is completed. The stencil pattern most effectu-\\nally fills this place, and is made to stencil either the letter or\\nthe background. The stencil for the former purpose is made by\\ncutting out of paper or other material the greater portion of the\\nletter, but allowing parts called ties to remain, as these tie\\nthe inside of the letter and parts likely to curl up when in use.\\nA second stencil is also required, which is laid over the work\\ndone by the first stencil when it has dried, thereby covering up\\nthe spaces left by the ties, and thus making a solid and com-\\nplete letter. The same rule is observed in regard to the cut-\\nting-in stencils, which are used to make the background, and\\nleave the letters the original color of the surface on which the\\ncolor is spread. Large ties are used for cutting-in stencils,\\nreaching from the letter to the edge of the stencil or border.\\nA second stencil, so cut as to overlap the edges of the ties, is\\nalso used, thereby completing the entire background, leaving\\nthe letter clear and distinct.\\n96. Variegated Grounds for Stenciled Letters. The\\nground having been prepared and the inscription designed,\\nthe spaces occupied by each line of letters can be blended a\\nprocess known among letterers as variegated stenciling. This is\\naccomplished by laying various colors on a ground, and blend-\\ning them together. As colors are too strong for this purpose,\\ntwo or three delicate tints are used, and are laid on hori-\\nzontally, and without regard to where the color is placed,\\nexcept where the letters show. In all cases, the selection of", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 49\\nthe tints used to variegate the letters should be governed by the\\ncolor to be used for the background, according to the rules of\\nharmony and contrast.\\nMATERIAL FOE STEXCILS.\\n97. Paper. The toughest medium- weight Manila paper\\nshould be used for stencils, oiled thoroughly with boiled linseed\\noil, and allowed to stand at least twenty-four hours before\\ncoating both sides thinly with orange shellac. If a light\\nquality of fiber board is used, no preparation is necessary. A\\nsheet of glass laid on a perfectly even table provides a surface\\non which the stencil can be cut with a good steel knife\\nsharpened to a thin point. It is well to mark the ties with\\nsome bright color, to avoid cutting through them, as a single tie\\ncut through destroys the whole stencil, and an imperfect stencil\\nwill cause more bother in its use than it is worth. It is best,\\ntherefore, never to use a patched or repaired stencil.\\n98. Tin-Foil Stencils. Tin- foil stencils for glass sign\\nprinting are designed and cut in the same way as the paper.\\nA roller only is used in operating this stencil, while either brush\\nor roller can be used with the paper stencil. A large soft\\nbrush will produce better results than a stiff brush, and be less\\nlikely to destroy the pattern. In dipping the brush in color,\\ngreat care should be used to rub it out well, so that but little\\nremains before applying to the stencil. This is the secret of\\ncleanliness in stenciling.\\n99. Cutting Stencils. Figs. 58 and 59 show one method\\nof cutting stencils. First, Fig. 58 shows the stencil that makes\\nthe letter, allowing ties to remain where most strength is needed\\nfor the preservation of the stencil. This stencil being com-\\npleted, a small triangle is cut in each corner, shown at a, called\\nthe register or guide, by which the stencil can always be placed\\nin proper position. This stencil is placed on material prepared\\nfor the No. 2 stencil, as shown in Fig. 59. Letters are either\\nmarked or stenciled with a brush, which should be almost free\\nfrom color, so that the second stencil for the ties can be cut out,", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "50\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nallowing enough lap to fully insure its covering the open space,\\nas shown in Fig. 59. Register, or guide, marks are cut in this\\nstencil also, though these marks are never used except where a\\nborder color is to be placed afterwards, and serve only for\\nFig. 59.\\na second stencil. The edge or corner of a sign will, in most\\ncases, serve as a guide in stenciling. Ties should always be cut\\nso as to do away with points or projections as well as to secure\\nstrength where needed. If these rules are not followed, serious\\ndifficulty will be experienced when using a stencil, and may\\nnecessitate the making of a new stencil before the first one has\\nbeen made to fully serve its purpose.\\n100. Background Stencils.\\nFig. 60.\\nmore strength where needed.\\nIn\\nTo make stencils for back-\\ngrounds, everything is\\nreversed from the first\\nform. The letters must\\nbe covered, and all ties\\ncut so as to keep these\\nletters w here they\\nbelong. If a border is\\nrequired, we must treat\\nit the same as a letter.\\nThe ties must be cut\\nwider on border edge,\\nas they thereby give\\nmaking this stencil it is", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 51\\nbetter to have too many ties than leave one place weak.\\nThe general tendency is to leave one or more such places\\nin this form of stencil. Fig. 60 shows two letters R, 0, and\\nthe ties necessary for strength and protection. Fig. 61 shows\\nthe No. 2 stencil, or the one to be used to cover spaces left\\nby the ties of No. 1 the parts to be cut out are represented by\\nthe shaded spaces.\\n101. Sign Stenciling. Stenciled signs are often relieved\\nby a few touches of hand work, either in outlining the letters\\nor by artistically using some bright coloring that produces the\\neffect of study and labor. This is often accomplished by shading\\nor ornamentation. For stencil work, a color must be used of a\\nslow-drying nature, otherwise the stencil will soon become\\nclogged and more liable to become broken. There is also\\ndanger of using color too thin, and thus causing it to flow\\nunderneath the edge of the letter, thereby destroying the\\ncleanliness of the work.\\n102. Cleaning* Stencils. The stencil must be cleaned\\noften when in use. Not more than five or six signs should be\\nstenciled before cleaning the stencil, which may be done by\\nlaying it face down on\\na clean board or other\\nsurface and rubbing well\\non back with a cloth\\nrolled in ball shape.\\nThe stencil must be\\nthoroughly cleaned with\\nbenzine after using, and\\nnever put away with\\nany color remaining on\\nit. This if neglected\\nwill either cause the\\nstencil to break easily, or the color to flow underneath by the\\nextra thickness of the dried color. Color left to dry on\\nthe stencil often warps it so as to render it practically useless,\\nor cause the letterer much unnecessary trouble.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "52\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nGEOMETRICAL FIGURES.\\nTRIANGLES.\\n103. Definition of Triangle. A triangle is a closed\\nfigure having three angles and three straight sides.\\n104. Isosceles Triangles. An isosceles triangle has\\ntwo equal sides and two equal angles (Fig. 62). The length of\\nFig. 62.\\nFig. 63.\\nthe third side is usually different from that of the two equal\\nsides, and is called the base. The term base is, however,\\napplied without distinction to any side on which a triangle is\\nsupposed to stand.\\n105. Altitude. Whatever side is taken as the base of a\\ntriangle, the altitude, or height, of the triangle is the perpen-\\nFlG. 64\\ndicular distance from the base to the vertex of the opposite\\nangle. That vertex is also called the apex of the triangle.\\n106. Angular Pediment. When the height of an\\nisosceles triangle is short in comparison with the base, the\\ntriangle is called an angular pediment (Fig. 63).\\n107. Gable. A gable is an isosceles triangle whose equal\\nsides differ but little from the third side (see Fig. 64). Gables,\\nhowever, may also have the shape of Fig. 65.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "1\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n53\\n108. Equilateral Triangle. An equilateral triangle\\nhas three equal sides and three angles, as in Fig. 66, which is\\nmade up of equilateral triangles.\\n109. Right- Angled Triangle. A right-angled triangle\\nis one having one right angle\\n(Fig. 67). The side opposite the\\nright angle is the longest, and is\\ncalled the hypotenuse.\\nFig. 67.\\nA triangle cannot have more than one right angle, nor more\\nthan one obtuse angle that is, if one of the angles is either\\nright or obtuse, the others must be acute.\\nCIRCLES.\\n110. Definition of Circle. A ciroie is a closed figure,\\nall the points of whose outline are at the same distance from a\\npoint within called the center (Fig. 68). The term circle is\\napplied both to the curved outline of the figure and to the\\nspace enclosed by it but the curved outline\\nis more commonly called the circumference of\\nthe circle.\\n111. Radius and Diameter. The dis-\\ntance from the center of a circle to any point\\non the circumference is called the radius of\\nthe circle.\\nA line through the center of a circle, and having its ends\\non the circumference, is called a diameter. In Fig. 69, is the\\ncenter of the circle, B, D, A, and C are radii, A B and\\nCD are diameters.\\nFig. 68", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "54\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n1\\nEvery diameter is equal to two radii, and divides the circle\\ninto two equal parts, or semicircles, and the circumference into\\ntwo semi-circumferences.\\nTwo diameters, perpendicular to each other as A B and CD,\\ndivide the circumference into four equal parts called quadrants.\\n112. A Curve. A curved line, or a curve, is a line no\\npart of which is straight it may be\\nimagined to be formed by the bending\\nof a straight line. Any portion of a\\ncurve is called an arc.\\n113. A Circular Arc. A circular\\narc is any part of a circumference.\\nCircular arcs having the same center,\\nbut different radii, are called parallel arcs.\\nThey are inside one another. They are\\nalso called concentric, which means with the same center.\\nOKNAMEXTAL CURVES.\\n114. An Ogee. An ogee is a line curved in two ways,\\nhaving, approximately, the form of the letter S, either in its\\nFig. 70.\\nFig. 71.\\nnatural position, as in Fig. 70, or turned over, as in Fig. 71.\\nThe two parts of an ogee may be circular arcs, but arcs of other\\nFig. 73.\\ncurves give a better effect,\\nand is called a swell line.\\nFig. 74.\\nFig. 72 is made up of two ogees,\\nmm", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n55\\n115. A Scroll. A scroll is a winding curve, such as\\nshown in Fig. 73.\\n116. A Loop. A loop (Fig. 74) consists of two curves\\nsimilar to the corresponding parts of right and left scrolls,\\nconnected as shown.\\nTHE ELLIPSE.\\n117. Methods of Describing* an Ellipse. There are\\nmany ways of making or describing an ellipse, some of which\\nare quite complicated. For designing purposes, exclusive of\\narchitectural work, a knowledge of two or three methods will\\nserve every purpose, and fill the needs of the average letterer\\nand designer. The simplest method is by means of two tacks\\nand a string or, if needed for landscape gardening or other\\nlarge-proportioned work, use hemp cord and nails or pegs.\\nDraw a horizontal line, and intersect equally with a vertical\\nline point off on the horizontal line the length of ellipse\\ndesired divide the horizontal line, from this point to the verti-\\ncal line, into four equal parts, and place the tack on the third\\npoint from the vertical on\\neither side place the other\\ntack also in a corresponding-\\nposition opposite place a\\nstring around both tacks,\\nand tie the ends together\\nat the point farthest from\\nthe vertical on the hori-\\nzontal line place lead pencil\\ninside and follow around,\\nand we have a perfect ellipse\\nas a result, as shown in\\nFig. 75. By moving the tacks farther away from the vertical\\nline, the ellipse is elongated, if the same string be used.\\n118. To draw the ellipse shown in Fig. 76, construct two\\nsquares, and draw lines from the corners intersecting in the cen-\\nter of each square from this point of intersection, describe the", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "5Q\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\narcs, with compass from a to b from the points c, describe\\nupper and lower lines from a to a and b to b.\\n119. Another simple form\\nFig. 76.\\nmeeting at the point b from\\nfrom a to a, top and bot-\\ntom, and the resulting\\nfigure will be an approxi-\\nmate ellipse. The ellipse\\nis sometimes spoken of as\\nan oval. This word, how-\\never, is a misnomer, as the\\noval derives its name from\\nthe Latin ovum, meaning\\nan egg, and its shape\\nis the outline of an egg.\\nNever refer to the oval there-\\nfore as an egg-shaped oval,\\nfor the statement would\\nround circle.\\nof the ellipse is made by\\ndescribing two circles, which\\ntogether form the length\\nof the ellipse, and drawing\\na horizontal line through\\nthe centers of both circles,\\nas in Fig. 77 each semi-\\ncircle is then divided into\\nthree equal parts, as at\\na, a, a, a, and a line is\\ndrawn from each through\\nthe center of each circle,\\nthis point describe the curve\\nbe equivalent to speaking of a\\nMODIFICATIONS OF THE FUNDAMENTAL STYLES.\\n120. The various styles of alphabet included in this course\\nare known as the fundamental styles, from which arise other\\nstyles that, though they resemble the above somewhat, have so\\nlittle characteristic modification that they are scarcely worth\\nour present consideration. Moreover, these alphabets are of", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 57\\nlittle advantage to the student, but to avoid the danger of con-\\nfusion, we will briefly refer to a few of the principal varieties.\\n121. Latin Roman. The characteristic feature of the\\noriginal Latin Roman alphabet was its irregularity, which is\\nplainly shown on the Arch of Titus, Fig. 1. No space is\\nallowed between the words, the separation being implied by a\\ndot on a line with the center of the letter. The tail of the R\\nand the Q often projects the full width of the letter. The\\nletter V was also employed to express the sound of U, but its\\nmodern use in that capacity by some designers is erroneous.\\nThe other sound of this character in Latin resembles that of\\nour W, having somewhat the sound of the V instead of the\\nU. Hence, the origin of the W, which is not derived from\\nU but from V, and originally written VV, expressed by two\\nseparate characters.\\n122. Ancient Roman. The Ancient Roman is the\\nprototype of our present French Roman, but in many ways is\\nso departed from in modern practice that some of the modified\\nforms of letters have become more familiar than the originals.\\nA H\\n(a)\\nFig. 78.\\nThis can be readily seen in the letter A, Fig. 78, where (a) is\\nthe original form and (b) the modification.\\n123. Antique Egyptian. There are several forms of\\neach letter of the Antique Egyptian, which if seen by the\\nstudent in connection with the regular or normal letter would\\ntend to confuse him, or at least cause him to inquire why\\nhe should observe any system or regularity of form. The law\\nof uniformity is, in lettering, what the order is in architecture\\neach must be closely followed, or to the skilled eye the work is\\nsubject to criticism. These styles, therefore, must not be con-\\nfused. If one form is adopted there must be strict adherence", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "58\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nto that form throughout the lettering of the design. This may\\nbe more clearly shown by two or three of these forms of the\\ncapital letters and their corresponding lower case. When\\nmy v the slanting stroke is\\nX\\\\ I f\\\\ I used in such letters as\\nv f V-/ I H M N and v [t also\\n4 V^l-^^V K- occurs in many of the\\nFlG 79 lower-case letters, as a, d,\\nh, m, n, and u, as the letters N, a, d, in Fig. 79, will show.\\nThe letter o is sometimes used in this style, as here shown,\\nand the letter t is crossed above the line.\\n124. Other Forms of Antique Egyptian. Another\\nform of the Antique Egyptian style is shown in the curved\\nstroke, in place of the horizontal middle stroke, of many capital\\nFig. 80.\\nFig. 81.\\nand lower-case letters, as in the E and t in Fig. 80; while a\\nchange in the spur of the horizontal strokes changes the charac-\\nter of the entire letter, as shown in the letters L and T, Fig. 81.\\nThere are many other slight departures\\nfrom the normal style, one of which occurs\\nin the middle bar of the A and H, as\\nshown in Fig. 82.\\nThere is still another form of letter that\\nbelongs to the Plain Egyptian style. This\\nform is simple in its construction, and does\\nnot bear sufficient distinction to classify it\\nwith the fundamental styles but in one respect, this form of\\nletter is closely allied to the French Roman, and the similarity\\nis shown in its having the heavy and light line, as shown\\nin Fig. 83.-\\nFig. 82.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 59\\nA few letters of this style are therefore shown to give the\\nstudent an idea of the comparative width of the stroke and\\nfine line. The latter should not exceed J- that of the stroke.\\nThere is almost unlimited license granted in forming these\\nIS\\nFig. 83.\\nletters, as shown in the two letters T and E. In making\\nthese letters never j)lace a spur on any part of the letter, as this\\nat once throws the characteristic feature of the style in favor of\\nthe French Roman and to widen the fine line to nearly that\\nof the stroke brings it within classification limits of the\\nEgyptian. Never show a suggestion of a straight line on\\nthe inside of the round letters, but always make a perfect ellipse\\nor a symmetrical curve. This letter holds an important place\\nwith our modern designers, but a knowledge of the Egyptian\\nand French Roman only is necessary to produce this modifi-\\ncation. This is likewise true of all letters used. By a thorough\\nknowledge of the few fundamental styles, the student can readily\\ntrace all variations arising from these to their parent style.\\n125. Boston Roman. The Boston Roman has a slight\\nvariation from the normal form shown in\\nPlate 14 which occurs in the spur only,\\nbut which gives it a marked difference in\\nappearance from the regular style. The\\nspur, instead of being finished on the end,\\nas shown in Plate entitled Boston Roman,\\nis cut off on an angle of about 45\u00c2\u00b0, as shown in Fig. 84.\\n126. Antique Half Block. A third style, known as the\\nAntique Half Block, has two or three varieties. Such of\\nthe capitals, as well as the small letters, as possess a middle\\nstroke have, this stroke changed to an angle of 60\u00c2\u00b0. In one", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "60 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\nvariety the short strokes of the lower-case letters are cut on the\\nsame angle as the middle stroke, as shown in Fig. 85, the angle\\nPeas Fear\\nFig. 85. Fig. 86.\\nof the s being directly opposite. Another variety of this letter\\nis the same as Fig. 85, except that the short strokes are altered\\nin appearance, and arc finished with a fine line and a dot, as\\nBeauhj\\nFig. 87.\\nshown in Fig. 86. This form of letter can be spaced more\\nclosely than the regular style used in condensed spaces, and\\nthe variety shown in Fig. 87 requires even less space than either\\nEEC\\n(a) (b) (c)\\nFig. 88.\\nof the others and, as the corners are not cut off, the letter\\npossesses a square, compact appearance, somewhat relieved of\\nseverity by the finishing of the corners with a slight spur. The", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n61\\nsame rule of formation applies to capitals as well as to lower-\\ncase letters, except the middle bars of E and F, which are\\nalways horizontal.\\n127. French. Roman. The French Roman is also in\\nturn slightly changed, giving rise to several distinct varieties, as\\nshown in Fig. 88. In the letter E, shown at (a), the only\\ndifference from the Ancient Roman style\\nis the spur that projects at a right angle\\nfrom the horizontal lines top and bottom.\\nIn the letter shown at (6) the spurs\\nare the same as at (a), except those of\\nthe main upright strokes, which are\\nfinished with a flat end. The round\\nletter of this style is shown at (c).\\n128. The Flemish.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Flemish\\nor Dutch, so closely resembling the Ger-\\nman Text, is another style that will not\\nbe considered in this course. The characteristic feature of this\\nalphabet is the diamond, dot, and plain vertical stroke and fine\\nline, as shown in Fig. 89, its other features being practically the\\nsame as the German style. In the lower-case very little change\\nFig. 89.\\nFig. 90.\\noccurs except the ball, which is added to many of the long-\\nstroke letters, as shown in the figure.\\n129. Variations. There are so many styles of letters,\\narising from some simple idea, that any student of lettering may\\napply to a fundamental style and such ideas are so numerous,\\nthat it will be impossible to call attention to more than one or\\ntwo of these in conclusion.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "62\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nThe curved stroke is one such style, and is shown by the\\nletters D, R, U, G, in Fig. 90. Another of these styles is pro-\\nTEL\\nFig. 91.\\nduced by curving the spur and horizontal strokes forming the\\nblock letters, especially the full block, as shown in Fig. 91.\\nNote. The modifications considered in the foregoing pages of this Instruc-\\ntion Paper refer to fundamental styles, many of which the student will not have\\noccasion to refer to, or make comparisons with until well advanced in Iris\\ncourse, we would advise, therefore, that a study of these variations be deferred\\nuntil the plates mentioned in this connection hare been received, and the funda-\\nmental styles have become familiar to the student.\\nMECHANICAL LETTERING.\\n130. When instruments such as the T square, triangles,\\ncompasses, etc. are used to execute lettering, it is called\\nmechanical lettering, as distinguished from freehand lettering,\\nFig. 92.\\nwhich is executed with the pen or brush, unaided by anything\\nexcept the judgment of the eye.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n63\\n131. All the instruments and materials required for this\\ncourse in lettering are mentioned in the following descriptions\\nThe drawing board should be made of well-seasoned\\nstraight- grained pine, the grain running lengthwise. For this\\ncourse, the student will need a board of about the following\\ndimensions length over all, 21 inches width, 16 inches the\\nthickness may be made about J inch. There should be two\\nend-pieces If inches wide, as shown in Fig. 92, which are fast-\\nened to the board proper by means of nails or screws. One or\\nboth of these pieces should be perfectly straight.\\nFig. 93.\\nA better board is shown in Fig. 93 here the end-pieces are\\nfastened to the board by a glued matched joint in addition to\\nthe nails or screws, and there are two cleats on the bottom\\n1 inch by inch, extending the whole width of the board.\\nThe cleats raise the board from the table and make it easier to\\nchange in position. The board is placed so that a straight end-\\npiece is at the left of the draftsman, as shown in Fig. 93.\\n132. The T square is used for drawing horizontal straight\\nlines. The head A is placed against the left-hand edge of the", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "64\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nboard, as shown in Fig. 94. The upper edge C of the blade B\\nis brought very near to the point through which it is desired to\\npass the line, so that the straight edge C of the blade may be\\na I\\nB\\n111\u00c2\u00b0\\nFig. 94.\\nused as a guide for the pen or pencil. It is evident that all\\nlines drawn in this manner will be parallel.\\nVertical lines are drawn by means of triangles. The triangles\\nmost generally used are shown in Figs. 95 and 96. Each has\\none right angle, marked 90\u00c2\u00b0 in the figures. Fig. 95 has two\\nFig. 95.\\nFig. 96.\\nangles of 45\u00c2\u00b0 each, and Fig. 96 one of 60\u00c2\u00b0 and one of 30\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThey are called Jf5\u00c2\u00b0 and 60\u00c2\u00b0 triangles, respectively. To draw a\\nvertical line, place the T square in position to draw a horizontal\\nline, and lay the triangle against it, so as to form a right angle.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n65\\nHold both T square and triangle lightly with the left hand, so\\nas to keep them from slipping, and draw the line with the pen\\nor pencil held in the right hand, and against the edge of the\\ntriangle. Fig. 97 shows the\\ntriangles and T square in\\nposition.\\n133. For drawing par-\\nallel lines that are neither\\nvertical nor horizontal, the\\nsimplest and best way,\\nwhen the lines are near\\ntogether, is to place one\\nedge of a triangle, as a b,\\nFig. 98, on the given line c d, and lay the other triangle, as B,\\nagainst one of the two edges, holding it fast with the left hand\\nthen move the triangle A along the edge of B. The edge a b will\\nbe parallel to the line c d and when the edge a b reaches the\\npoint g, through which it is desired to draw the parallel line,\\nhold both triangles stationary with the left hand, and draw the\\nline cf by passing the pencil along the edge a b. Should\\nFig. 97.\\nFig. 93.\\nthe triangle A extend too far beyond the edge of the triangle B\\nafter a number of lines have been drawn, hold A stationary with\\nthe left hand and shift B along the edge of A with the right\\nhand, and then proceed as before.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "66\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n134. A line may be drawn at right angles to another line\\nwhich is neither vertical nor horizontal, as illustrated in Fig. 99.\\nLet cd be the given line (shown at the left-hand side). Place\\none of the shorter edges, as a b, of the triangle B so that it will\\ncoincide with the line cd; then, keeping the triangle in this\\nposition, place the triangle A so that its long edge will come\\nagainst the long edge of B. Now, holding A securely in place\\nwith the left hand, slide B along the edge of A with the right\\nhand, when the lines hi, mn, etc. may be drawn perpendicular\\nto cd along the edge bf of the triangle B. The dotted lines\\nFig. 99.\\nshow the position of the triangle B when moved along the\\nedge of A.\\n135. The right-hand portion of Fig. 99 shows another\\nmethod of accomplishing the same result, and illustrates how\\nthe triangles may be used for drawing a rectangular figure,\\nwhen the sides of the figure make an angle with the T square\\nsuch that the latter cannot be used.\\nLet the side c d of the figure be given. Place the long side of\\nthe triangle B so as to coincide with the line c d, and bring the\\ntriangle A into position against the lower side of B, as shown.\\nNow, holding the triangle A in place with the left hand, revolve\\nB so that its other short edge will rest against the long edge J,", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n67\\nas shown in the clotted position at B The parallel lines ce\\nand df may now be drawn through the points e and d by sliding\\nthe triangle B on the triangle A, as described in connection\\nwith Fig. 98. Measure off the required width of the figure on\\nthe line c e, reverse the triangle B again to its original position,\\nstill holding the triangle A in a fixed position with the left\\nhand, and slide B upon A until the long edge of B passes\\nthrough e. Draw the line ef through the point e, and ef will\\nbe parallel to c d. The student should practice with his\\ntriangles before beginning drawing.\\n136. The compasses, next to the T square and triangles,\\narc used more than any other\\ninstrument. A pencil and a pen\\npoint are provided, as shown in\\nFig. 100, either of which may be\\ninserted into a socket in one leg\\nof the instrument, for the draw-\\ning of circles in pencil or ink.\\nThe other leg is fitted with a\\nneedle point, which acts as the\\ncenter about which the circle is\\ndrawn. In all good instruments,\\nthe needle point itself is a sepa-\\nrate piece of round steel wire,\\nheld in place in a socket pro-\\nvided at the end of the leg.\\nThe wire should have a square\\nshoulder at its lower end, below\\nwhich a fine, needle-like point\\nprojects. The lengthening bar, also\\nshown in the figure, is used to\\nextend the leg carrying the pen\\nand the pencil points when circles\\nof large radii are to be drawn.\\nThe joint at the top of the compasses should hold the legs\\nfirmly in any position, and at the same time should permit their\\nbeing opened or closed with one hand. The joint may be\\nFig. 100.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\ntightened or loosened by means of a screwdriver or wrench,\\nwhich accompanies the compasses.\\nIt will be noticed in Fig. 100 that each leg of the compasses\\nis jointed this is done so that the compass points may always\\nbe kept perpendicular to the paper when drawing circles, as in\\nFig. 102.\\n137. The following suggestions for handling the compasses\\nshould be carefully observed by those that are beginning the\\nsubject of drawing. Any draftsman or letterer that handles\\nhis instruments awkwardly will create a bad impression, no\\nFig. 101.\\nmatter how good a workman he may be. The tendency of all\\nbeginners is to use both hands for operating the compasses.\\nThis is to be avoided. The student should learn at the start to\\nopen and close them with one hand, holding them as shown in\\nFig. 101, with the needle-point leg resting between the thumb\\nand the fourth ringer, and the other leg between the middle\\nfinger and the forefinger. When drawing circles, hold the\\ncompasses lightly at the top between the thumb and forefinger,\\nor thumb, forefinger, and middle finger, as in Fig. 102. Another\\ncase where both hands should not be used is in locating the\\nneedle point at a point on the drawing about which the circle is\\nto be drawn, unless the left hand is used merely to steady the\\nneedle point. Hold the compasses as shown in Fig. 101, and", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "1\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n69\\nincline them until the under side of the hand rests upon the\\npaper. This will steady the hand so that the needle point can\\nbe brought to exactly the right place on the drawing. Having\\nplaced the needle at the desired point, and with it still resting\\non the paper, the pen or pencil point may be moved out or in\\nto any desired radius, as indicated in Fig. 101. When the\\nlengthening bar is used, both hands must be employed.\\n138. The compasses must be handled in such a manner\\nthat the needle point will not dig large holes in the paper.\\nFig. 102.\\nKeep the needle point adjusted so that it will be perpendicular\\nto the paper, when drawing circles, and do not bear upon it. A\\nslight pressure will be necessary on the pen or pencil point, but\\nnot on the needle point.\\n139. The dividers, shown in Fig. 103, are used for laying\\noff distances upon a drawing, or for dividing straight lines or\\ncircles into parts. The points of the dividers should be very\\nsharp, so that they will not punch holes in the paper larger", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "70 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 1\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2than is absolutely necessary to be seen. Compasses are some-\\ntimes furnished with two steel divider points, besides the pen\\nand pencil points, so that the instrument may be used either as\\ncompasses or dividers. This is the kind illustrated in Fig. 103.\\nWhen using the dividers to space a line or circle into a number\\nof equal parts, hold them at the top between the thumb and the\\nforefinger, as when using the compasses, and step off the spaces,\\nturning the instrument alternately to the right and left. If the\\nline or circle does not space exactly, vary the distance between\\nthe divider points and try again so continue until it is spaced\\nequally. When spacing in this manner, great care must be\\nexercised not to press the divider points into the paper for, if\\nFig. 103.\\nthe points enter the paper, the spacing can never be accurately\\ndone. The student should satisfy himself of the truth of this\\nstatement by actual trial.\\n140. Drawing Paper and Pencils. The drawing,\\npaper required? te this series of lessons, is Whatman s hot-\\npressed Royal, the size of which is 12 in. X 19 in. It takes ink\\nwell, and withstands considerable erasing. The paper is\\nsecured to the drawing board by means of thumbtacks. Four\\nare usually sufficient one at each corner of the sheet. Place a\\npiece of paper on the drawing board, and press a thumbtack\\nthrough one of the corners about J or f of an inch from each\\nedge. Place the T square in position for drawing a horizontal\\nline, as before explained, and straighten the paper so that its\\nupper edge will be parallel to the edge of the T-square blade.\\nPull the corner diagonally opposite that in which the thumb-\\ntack was placed, so as to stretch the paper slightly, and push in\\nanother thumbtack. Do the same with the remaining two\\ncorners. For drawing in pencil, a Dixon s Artists H pencil,\\nNo. 217 (commonly called a No. 4 Dixon s Artists may bo", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "1\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n71\\nused. The pencil should be sharpened to a medium point.\\nCut the wood away so as to leave about J or of an inch of the\\nlead projecting then finish the point by rubbing it against a\\nfine file or a piece of fine emery cloth or sandpaper that has\\nbeen fastened to a flat stick. The lead for the compasses should\\nbe sharpened to a flat or chisel-shaped point. Be sure that the\\nTig. 104.\\ncompass lead is so secured that, when circles are struck in either\\ndirection, but one line will be drawn with the same radius and center.\\n141. Inking-. For drawing ink lines other than arcs of\\ncircles, the ruling pen (or right-line pen, as it is sometimes\\ncalled) is used. It should be held as nearly perpendicular to\\nthe board as possible, with the hand in the position shown in\\nFigs. 104 and 105, bearing lightly on the T square or triangle,\\nagainst the edge of which the line is drawn. After a little\\npractice, this position will become natural, and no difficulty\\nwill be experienced.\\n142. The beginner will find that it is not always easy to\\nmake smooth lines. If the pen is held so that only one blade\\nbears on the paper when drawing, the line will almost invariably", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "72\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nbe ragged on the edge where the blade does not bear. When\\nheld at right angles to the paper, as in Fig. 105, however,\\nboth blades will rest on the paper, and if the pen is in good con-\\ndition, smooth lines will result. The pen must not be pressed\\nagainst the edge of the T square or triangle, as the blades will\\nthen close together, making the line uneven. The edge should\\nserve simply as a guide.\\nIn drawing circles with the compass pen, the same care\\nshould be taken to keep the blades perpendicular to the paper\\nFig. 105.\\nby means of the adjustment at the joint. In both the ruling\\npen and the compass pen, the width of the lines can be altered\\nby means of the screw which holds the blades together.\\n143. Drawing Ink. The ink used should be Higgins\\nwaterproof liquid India ink. A quill is attached to the cork of\\nevery bottle of this ink, by means of which the pen may be\\nfilled. Dip the quill into the ink, and then pass the end of it\\nbetween the blades of the drawing pen. Do not put too much\\nink in the pen, not more than enough to fill it for a quarter of\\nan inch along the blades, otherwise the ink is liable to drop.\\nMany draftsmen prefer to use stick India ink; and, for lettering", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 73\\npurposes, this is to be preferred to the prepared liquid ink\\nrecommended above. In case the stick ink is bought, put\\nenough water in a shallow dish (a common individual butter\\nplate will do) to make enough ink for the drawing then place\\none end of the stick in the water, and grind by giving the stick\\na circular motion. Do not bear hard upon the stick. Test the\\nink occasionally to see if it is black. Draw a fine line with the\\npen, and hold the paper in a strong light. If it shows brown\\n(or gray), grind a while longer, and test again. Keep grinding\\nuntil a fine line shows black, which will usually take from\\nfifteen minutes to half an hour, depending on the quantity of\\nwater used. The ink should always be kept well covered with a\\nflat plate of some kind, to keep out the dust and prevent evapo-\\nration. The drawing pen may be filled by dipping an ordinary\\nwriting pen into the ink and drawing it through the blades, as\\npreviously described when using the quill. If Higgins ink is\\nused, all the lines on all the drawings will be of the same color,\\nand no time will be lost in grinding. If stick ink is used, it is\\npoor economy to buy a cheap stick. A small stick of the best\\nquality, costing, say, a dollar, will last as long, perhaps, as five\\ndollars worth of liquid ink. The only reason for using liquid\\nink is that all lines are then sure to be of equal blackness, and\\ntime is saved in grinding.\\nTrouble will probably be caused by the ink drying between\\nthe blades and refusing to flow, especially when drawing fine\\nlines. The only remedy is to wipe out the pen frequently with\\na wet cloth. Do not lay the pen down for any great length of\\ntime, when it contains ink; wipe it out first. The ink may\\nsometimes be started by moistening the end of the finger and\\ntouching it to the point, or by drawing a slip of paper between\\nthe ends of the blade. Always keep the bottle corked.\\n144:. To Sharpen the Drawing- Pen. When the\\nruling, or compass, pen becomes badly worn, it must be sharp-\\nened. For this purpose a fine oilstone should be used. If an\\noilstone is to be purchased, a small, flat, close-grained stone\\nshould be obtained, those having a triangular section being\\npreferable, as the narrow edge can be used on the inside of the", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "74 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\nblades in case the latter are not made to swing apart so as to\\npermit the nse of a thicker edge.\\nThe first step in sharpening is to screw the blades together,\\nand, holding the pen perpendicular to the oilstone, to draw it\\nback and forth over the stone, changing the slope of the pen\\nfrom downward and to the right to downward and to the left\\nfor each movement of the pen to the right and left. The object\\nof this is to bring the blades to exactly the same length and\\nshape, and to round them nicely at the point.\\nThis process, of course, makes the edges even duller than\\nbefore. To sharpen, separate the points by means of the screw,\\nand rub one of the blades to and from the operator in a straight\\nline, giving the pen a slight twisting motion at the same time,\\nand holding it at an angle of about 15\u00c2\u00b0 with the face of the\\nstone. Repeat the process for the other blade. To be in good\\ncondition the edges should be fairly sharp and smooth, but not\\nsharp enough to cut the paper. All the sharpening must be done\\non the outside of the blades. The inside of the blades should be\\nrubbed on the stone only enough to remove any burr that may\\nhave been formed. Anything more than this will be likely to\\ninjure the pen. The whole operation must be done very\\ncarefully, bearing on lightly, as it is easy to spoil a pen in the\\nprocess. Examine the points frequently, and keep at work\\nuntil the pen will draw both fine lines and smooth heavy lines.\\nHOW THE WORK SHOULD BE SENT.\\n145. For the letter plates of this Course, copies of the\\nplates will be sent jo\\\\x as you need them. The tube w r e send\\nyou with this Paper should be used by you for sending us your\\ndrawing of Plate I upon finishing it. Send one plate to us at\\na time. Thus, after you finish the first plate, send it to us, and\\nthen start on the second plate. In the meantime Ave will\\nreturn the first plate to you. On your receiving back the first\\nplate from us, you should carefully note all corrections and\\nsuggestions that may be sent with it, and observe them when\\ndrawing the succeeding plates. On no account send us the\\nsecond plate until you have received the first one back. Upon", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nfinishing the second plate, send this to us and start on the third\\nplate, and in the meantime we will return the second plate to\\nyou. Do this with all the drawing plates in the Course.\\nIt is very essential that you strictly comply with these direc-\\ntions since, otherwise, it will be impossible for us to point out\\nyour mistakes to jou. This procedure should be strictly adhered\\nto while you are drawing the first plates of the Course it will\\nenable you to make rapid progress. Do not be discouraged if\\nthere are a large number of corrections on your early plates\\nwe are merely pointing out ways in which the drawing or letter-\\ning can be improved, so that your later plates may be as nearly\\nperfect as they can be made. No one can attain proficiency\\nunless the work is criticized, and we are doing our best to help\\nyou to succeed. We should not be doing our duty if we did\\nnot point out the defects. The number of corrections is no\\nindication of our appreciation of the merits of the drawing.\\nOn all plates that you send to us, write your name and\\naddress in full in lead pencil on the back of the plates. This\\nshould in no case be omitted, as delays in the return of your\\nwork will otherwise surely occur.\\nPLATES.\\n146. Preliminary Directions. The size of each plate\\nover all will be 11 in. X 18J- in. Whenever any dimensions are\\nspecified, they should be laid off as accurately as possible. All\\ndrawings should be made as neat as possible, and the penciling\\nentirely finished before inking in any part of it. The hands\\nshould be perfectly clean, and should not touch the paper\\nexcept when necessar}^. No lines should be erased except\\nwhen absolutely necessary for, whenever a line has once been\\nerased, the dirt flying around in the air and constantly falling\\non the drawing will stick to any spot where an erasure has\\nbeen made, and render it very difficult, if not impossible, to\\nentirely remove it. For this reason, all construction lines that\\nare to be removed, or that are liable to be changed, should be\\ndrawn lightly, that the finish of the paper may not be destroyed\\nwhen erasing them.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "Elements of Lettering", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "Elements of Lettering.\\n(1) (a) What name is given to the earliest form of\\nwriting? (b) By whom was it used?\\n(2) What are rustic letters?\\n(3) Name two styles of letters that came into existence\\nprior to the 15th century.\\n(4) What are illuminated letters?\\n(5) What is meant by the term elongating\\n(6) What class of people were skilful in the art of letter-\\ning during the period immediately preceding the 15th century?\\n(7) What is meant by the term interlacing?\\n(8) On what materials can transparent water color be used\\nto the best advantage?\\n(9) What is meant by a part panel\\n(10) What is the stroke of a letter?\\n(11) What is meant by the term background?\\n(12) What are cut-in letters?\\n(13) On what side of the letter should the shade be\\nplaced\\n(14) (a) W 7 hat is a background stencil (6) How\\ndoes this differ from the regular letter stencil?\\n(15) What is meant by the term telescoping?\\n(16) What two forms of numerals are used in modern\\nlettering?\\n(17) What material is most suitable for making stencil\\npatterns\\n(18) For what special class of work are tin-foil stencils\\nused\\n(19) What style of brush is best adapted for use in\\nstenciling", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n(20) What styles of letters are best adapted for illuminated\\ncapitals\\n(21) In cutting stencil patterns, what method is safest to\\nfollow in order to avoid the possibility of cutting off ties?\\n(22) How is the design for the second stencil placed on the\\nfirst to insure accuracy\\n(23) What alphabet is the mother of all modern styles\\nof writing?\\n(24) About how many signs may be stenciled before the\\nstencil pattern should be cleaned?\\n(25) On what part of the letter should the highlight be\\nplaced\\n(26) How was the letter W expressed when first intro-\\nduced into the alphabet?\\n(27) When letters are placed on an inclined panel, what\\nposition should they be given\\n(28) What is meant by the term condensing f\\n(29) What is the difference between mechanical and free-\\nhand lettering?\\n(30) What are the ties in stencil patterns?\\n(31) In what way did the invention of the printing press\\ndirectly benefit the art of writing?\\n(32) On what angle should the shade of the letter be placed?\\n(33) Of what importance is letter-face shading?\\n(34) What is the spur of a letter?\\n(35) Where would you place the possessive apostrophe in\\nthe following: Mens and Boys Clothing\\n(36) How is the block shade placed on a letter?\\n(37) How many forms has the cast shadow?\\n(38) What are the three chief classifications of letters?\\n(39) When are colors applied in their dry state?\\n(40) Name some of the styles of letters known exclusively\\nas American w r riting.\\n(41) For what purpose is the stencil pattern used?", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "Index", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nA.\\nPage.\\nAlphabet, ancient Roman, Modification\\nof 57\\nantique Egyptian, Modifica-\\ntion of 57\\nhalf block, Modifica-\\ntion of 59\\nBoston Roman. Modification\\nof 59\\nFlemish 61\\nFrench Roman, Modification\\nof 61\\nGreek 7\\nHebrew 4\\nLatin 7\\nRoman, Modification of 57\\nPhenician 6\\nSamaritan 5\\nAltitude of triangles 52\\nAncient Roman alphabet, Modification\\nof 57\\nAngular pediment 52\\nAntique Egyptian alphabet, Modification\\nof 57\\nhalf block, Modification of 59\\nApostrophe, Origin of 18\\nAppearance of spacing 17\\nArabic numerals 4\\nArc 54\\nB.\\nBackground 14\\nstencils 50\\nBeveled shading 26\\nBlock 13\\nshade 23\\nBoston Roman alphabet, Modification of 59\\nC.\\nCard work 33\\nCast shadow 23\\nCircle, Definition of 53\\nDiameter of 53\\nRadius of 53\\nCircular arc 54\\nClassification of letters 2\\n29\\nCleaning stencils 51\\nPage.\\nColon 19\\nComma 18\\n19\\nCompasses 67\\nComponent parts of a letter 13\\nCondensed letter, Example of 36\\nCondensing 14\\n35\\nConsonants 2\\nCorrect and incorrect spacing 14\\nCuneiform writing 3\\nCurve 54\\nCurves, Ornamental 54\\nCut-in letters, Points to be observed 28\\nUse of 27\\nCutting in letters 27\\nstencils 49\\nCyma 14\\nD.\\nDash 20\\nDecorations, Ecclesiastical 34\\nDefinition of circle 53\\ntriangle 52\\nDesigning inscriptions _ 46\\nScope and importance of 39\\nDiameter of circle 53\\nDitto marks 22\\nDrawing board 63\\nink 72\\npen, To sharpen 73\\nthe letters 12\\nE.\\nEcclesiastical decorations 34\\nEffects in lettering 35\\nproduced by letter-face lighting\\nand shading 25\\nEgyptian, half block, and French Roman 16\\nElements of Lettering 1\\nEllipse 55\\nElliptical and round panels 44\\nElongating 14\\n35\\nletters 36\\nEquilateral triangles 53\\nExample of condensed letter 36\\nExclamation point 20", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nF.\\nPage.\\nFace of letter, Lighting and shading 25\\nTreatment of 25\\nornamentation 31\\nFigures, Geometrical 52\\nFilling in and outlining 38\\nFine line 13\\nFlemish alphabet 61\\nForms, Ornamental 30\\nFreehand and instrumental drawing,\\nDefinitions of. 12\\nmechanical lettering 12\\nFrench Roman, Egyptian, and half block 16\\nModification of 61\\nFull block and Roman 16\\nFundamental styles 2\\nModifications of 56\\nG.\\nGable 52\\nGeneral rules 10\\nGeometrical figures 52\\nGreek alphabet 7\\nGrotesque letters 31\\nGrounds for stencil letters 48\\nVariegated 48\\nH.\\nHalf block, Egyptian, and French Roman 16\\nHeavy highlight 26\\nHebrew alphabet 4\\nHeraldic shield 35\\nHighlight 27\\nHeavy 26\\nHistory and general use of illuminated\\ncapitals 32\\nof Alphabet 2\\nHow work should be sent 74\\nHyphen 21\\nI.\\nIdeograms 3\\nIlluminated capitals. History and gen-\\neral use of 32\\nImportance and scope of designing 39\\nof spacing 14\\nIncorrect spacing 14\\nInking in 71\\nInscription designing 46\\nInstrumental and freehand drawing,\\nDefinitions of 12\\nInterlacing 35\\n37\\nInterrogation point 20\\nIrregular-surface lettering 28\\nIsosceles triangles 52\\nPage.\\nLatin alphabet 7\\nRoman alphabet, Modification of 57\\nLeft-side shading 22\\nLetter-face lighting and shading Effects\\nproduced by 25\\nornamentation 31\\nstencils 48\\nLettering Effects in 35\\nFreehand and mechanical 12\\nIrregular-surface 28\\nMechanical 62\\nplates 75\\nLetters, Classification of 29\\nComponent parts of 13\\nCondensing 35\\nCutting in 27\\nElongating 36\\nGrotesque 31\\nOrnamental 29\\nProportion of 46\\nRelief ornament 30\\nSpacing of 14\\nLighting and shading, Letter- face 25\\nLight, Reflected 42\\nLoop 55\\nM.\\nMaterial for stencils 49\\nMaterials required 11\\nMechanical and freehand lettering 12\\nlettering 62\\nstyles 12\\nMethod of describing an ellipse 55\\nModern styles 10\\nModification of ancient Roman alphabet 57\\nantique Egyptian alpha-\\nbet 57\\nhalf block 59\\nBoston Roman alphabet 59\\nFrench Roman alphabet 61\\nfundamental styles 56\\nLatin Roman alphabet... 57\\n]S T\\nNumerals, Arabic 4\\nRoman 4\\nO.\\nOld English 9\\nOrigin of the apostrophe 18\\nOrnamental curves 54\\nOrnamental forms 30\\nletters 29\\nOrnamentation, Letter-face 31\\nOutline 13\\nOutlining and filling in 38", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nPage.\\nP.\\nPanels 42\\nElliptical and round 44\\nPart 44\\nRectangular 42\\nRococo 44\\nPaper and pencils 70\\nstencils 49\\nParenthesis 21\\nPart panels 44\\nPatterns, Stencil 48\\nPediment, Angular 52\\nPencils and paper 70\\nPen. Ruling 71\\nPeriod 19\\nPhenician alphabet 6\\nPreliminary directions for lettering\\nplates 75\\nProportion of letters 46\\nPunctuation 18\\nPurpose of a drawing 12\\ncourse 1\\nstencils 48\\nQ.\\nQuotation marks 21\\nR.\\nRadius of circle 53\\nRectangular panels 42\\nReflected light 42\\nRelief-ornament letters 30\\nshade 24\\nRenaissance, Results of 8\\nRibbons 10\\nRibbon shading 41\\nRight-angled triangle 53\\nRococo panels 44\\nRoman and full block 16\\nnumerals 4\\nRound and elliptical panels 44\\nRules for punctuation 19\\nGeneral 10\\nRuling pen 71\\nS.\\nSamaritan alphabet 5\\nScope and importance of designing 39\\nScroll 55\\nSemicolon.. 19\\nSending work 74\\nShade 13\\nBlock 23\\nShade, Relief 24\\nShading 22\\nPage.\\nShading Beveled 26\\nribbons 41\\nthe left side 22\\nShadow, Cast 23\\nShield, Heraldic 35\\nShow-card work 33\\nSign stenciling 51\\nstencils 51\\nSimple combinations 39\\nSpacing, Appearance of..... 17\\nCorrect and incorrect 14\\nImportance of 14\\nof letters 14\\nSpur 13\\nStencil, Background 50\\ncutting 49\\npatterns 48\\nStenciled letters, Grounds for. 48\\nStenciling, Sign 51\\nStencils, Cleaning 51\\nMaterial for 49\\nPaper 49\\nPurpose of 48\\nTin-foil 49\\nStroke 13\\nStyles, Fundamental 2\\nMechanical 12\\nModern ]0\\nVariations of 61\\nT.\\nTelescoping 35\\n37\\nTin-foil stencils 49\\nTo sharpen drawing pen 73\\nTreatment of face of letter 25\\nTriangle, Right-angled 53\\nTriangles 52\\n64\\nAltitude of 52\\nDefinition of 52\\nEquilateral 53\\nIsosceles 52\\nT square..... 63\\nTJ.\\nUnderscore 22\\nUse of water colors 38\\nV.\\nVariations of styles 61\\nVariegated grounds 48\\nVowels 2\\nW.\\nWater colors 38\\nWidth 13", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "82 8\\ni.", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "V\\nW\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0Y\\\\\\nV*\\nsC 1\\nV-\\nL\\nv*\\nV\\nO- s \u00c2\u00bbTTy** *P\\nA\\nx\\na?\\ns N A", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "o^ X\\nX\\nb o\\nV\\nK c-\\nfe o\\\\^ *i If\\n-V\u00c2\u00bb", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4272", "width": "2411", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter01inte_0110.jp2"}}