{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3375", "width": "1955", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "I -o\\n-^c.\\nN^^\\n.-i^\\no 0^\\n.XV\\nv\\n/\\\\o\\n*^v*\\n0\\n\\\\0\u00c2\u00b0\\n..5\\n*r,\\\\ o-\\noo\\nv^\\n.^Vv\\n,V\\n-0\\n^y.\\nn^\\n-^1\\ni\\nS\\nV- v^", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "-n^.\\n^0o^\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0i^ nil\\n.V^\\nis\\nb.\\nc.0^\\nx\\n4 -r\\no\\nciv\\nt^\\ni\\nA^\\nb.\\nv., a", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "Elements of Lettering\\nAND\\nSign Painting\\ny PREPARED FOR STUDENTS OF\\nThe International Correspondence Schools\\nSCRANTON, PA.\\nA Treatise on the History, Ct^assification, and Practical\\nApplication of the Various Styles of Letters\\nOF THE Alphabet\\nalso\\nThe Latest Improved Methods and Processes Used in Sign\\nPainting, and the Handling of Colors,\\nBrushes, and Tools\\nFIRST EDITION\\nSCRANTON\\nTHE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY\\n1S99", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0080\u00a2rVVO COPIES RECEIVED,\\nLibrary of Congr9l%\\nOffice f th\u00c2\u00ab\\nJAN 20 1900\\nRegister of Copyrlglitft\\ntT3^\u00c2\u00b0\\n51369\\nEntered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1899,\\nBy The Colliery Engineer Company,\\nIn the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.\\n8E00ND OOPV.\\nPrinted by\\nThe Colliery Engineer (impany.\\nSCRANTON, Penna.\\n/V/\\n/-yk!", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "PREFACE.\\nThe bound volumes of our Courses in Lettering have been\\nprepared on somewhat different lines from those of our other\\nCourses. Believing that the plates would be of more value to\\nthe student if he could handle each one separately than if they\\nwere bound together in one large volume, we have printed them\\nin folio form, with a plate on one leaf and the instructions for\\ndrawing it on the other. All the plates belonging to each\\nCourse have been placed in a handsome and durable portfolio,\\nwhich is sent to the student instead of a bound volume. The\\nstudents in those Courses that give instruction in Sign Painting\\nreceive, in addition to the plates, two Instruction Papers, with\\ntheir accompanying Question Papers, entitled Elements of\\nLettering and Lettering and Sign Painting.\\nThe first, Elements of Lettering, contains the instruction\\nnecessary to enable the student to properly apply his knowledge\\nof letters and their formation to suit every requirement, both in\\ntreatment and modification, and also in their various arrange-\\nment in all forms of inscription and combination designs. This\\nPaper gives a complete education in the art of lettering in all\\nits branches wherein a knowledge of colors is not necessary.\\nThe second Paper, Lettering and Sign Painting, gives the\\nstudent a complete knowledge of all tools, appliances, and\\nmaterials used by the advanced sign painter. It includes also\\ninstruction in the use of the brush for all purposes, and the\\npreparation, combination, and practical application of colors to\\nall materials. It contains all the methods, processes, and\\nformulas for producing letters on such surfaces as metal and\\nglass by the use of acids, and also instruction for the prepara-\\ntion of all surfaces on which lettering is to be placed. The\\npresent volume contains these Instruction Papers.\\nThese C(jurses in Lettering have been prepared by a gentleman\\nwho has had a very wide experience in studying the origin of\\niii", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "iv PREFACE.\\nletter formation and in teaching the art of lettering, and one\\nwho is a thorough master of the subject in all its branches.\\nGreat care has been exercised in the selection of the plates\\ncontaining the various styles of the alphabet. We feel con-\\nfident that nothing equal to these plates has ever before been\\npublished. The utmost pains have been taken to give the\\nstudent the true form of the various styles of letters shown\\non the plates. The Courses have been carefully arranged to\\nmeet the requirements of every one engaged in any business\\nwhatever that demands a knowledge of letters and their\\nconstruction. Only such instruction and plates are given as\\nhave a direct connection with the particular Course selected by\\nthe student.\\nThe International Correspondence Schools.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nElements of Lettering.\\nSection. Page.\\nIntroduction 1 1\\nHistory of the Alphabet 1 2\\nGeneral Rules 1 10\\nMechanical and Freehand Lettering 1 12\\nComponent Parts of a Letter 1 13\\nSpacing of Letters 1 14\\nPunctuation 1 18\\nRules for Punctuation 1 19\\nShading 1 22\\nLetter- Face Lighting and Shading 1 25\\nThe Highlight 1 27\\nCutting In Letters 1 27\\nClassification of Letters 1 29\\nOrnamental Letters 1 29\\nGrotesque Letters 1 31\\nIlluminated Capitals 1 32\\nEffects in Lettering 1 35\\nCondensing, Elongating, Telescoping, and\\nInterlacing 1 35\\nOutlining and Filling In 1 38\\nDesigning 1 39\\nRibbons 1 40\\nPanels 1 42\\nInscription Designing 1 46\\nStencil Patterns 1 48\\nPurpose of Stencils 1 48\\nMaterial for Stencils 1 49", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "vi CONTENTS.\\nSection. Page.\\nGeometrical Figures 1 52\\nTriangles 1 52\\nCircles 1 53\\nOrnamental Curves 1 54\\nThe Ellipse 1 55\\nModifications of the Fundamental Styles 1 56\\nMechanical Lettering 1 62\\nHow the Work Should be Sent 1 74\\nPlates 1 75\\nLettering and Sign P.\\\\inting.\\nIntroduction 2 1\\nPractice and Material 2 2\\nTools Necessary 2 3\\nGeneral Tools and Appliances 2 3\\nBrushes 2 4\\nThe T Square 2 6\\nPosition of Hands 2 6\\nStriping 2 9\\nColors 2 10\\nClassification of Colors 2 10\\nHandling of Colors 2 12\\nHarmony and Contrast 2 12\\nGround Finishes 2 13\\nSmalting 2 13\\nVariegated Grounds 2 15\\nPreparation of Surfaces 2 16\\nSizes for Gilding 2 18\\nGilding Water 2 18\\nSize for Oil Gilding 2 19\\nGilding 2 21\\nGilding on Glass 2 21\\nGilding on Wood or Metal 2 23\\nPearl Filling and Etruscan Gilding 2 24\\nEmbossing 2 26\\nEmbossing on Brass Plates 2 26\\nEmbossing on Glass 2 29", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS. vii\\nSection. Page.\\nLetter Shading 2 30\\nColors Used 2 30\\nThe Preparation of Colors 2 32\\nApplication to Various Materials 2 32\\nRelief Letters 2 34\\nWood, Metal, and Glass 2 34", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "Elements of Lettering.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "Elements of Lettering.\\nixtroductio:n^.\\n1. Purpose of This Course. It is the purpose of this\\ncourse of instruction to combine the classical with the practical\\nso as to meet the needs of all students desirous of studying the\\nesthetic and antique, as well as the plain and simple, styles of\\nlettering. The plates are therefore arranged and classified on a\\nsimple but progressive system, calculated to lead the student\\ngradually from the plain and simple to the most difficult styles^\\nbut omitting from the course all such as are obsolete or not in\\ncommon use.\\nBefore requiring the student to apply himself to a knowledge\\nof the present forms and classifications of the letters of our\\nalphabet, he should become familiar with their history and the\\nprimitive forms of writing. He should also note the important\\nnational changes that have caused a transition from one form\\ninto another, until our present advanced era has been reached\\nwith its great variety of styles, distinctively different in\\ncharacter one from another, and each arising from some\\nimportant period in the world s history in which the funda-\\nmental or parent style was closely allied to a corresponding\\nstyle of architecture.\\nIn order that the student may derive the greatest benefit from\\nthis course in lettering, he should not rest content with merely\\nreading this Instruction Paper carefully once or twice, but\\nshould study its contents carefully throughout his entire course.\\nIt is only by practice and steady progress in acquiring a knowl-\\nedge of the styles and formation of letters that the real value\\nand importance of much of the instruction given in this Paper\\ncan be rightly understood and its full meaning appreciated.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. SI\\nHISTORY OF THE ALPHABET.\\n2. Classifleatioii. The wonderful achievements in the\\narts of printing, photo-engraving, hthography, etc. have been\\nthe means of transforming the letters of the alphal)et into a\\nvariety of forms or styles, which may be classified nnder three\\ngeneral heads Plain, Ornamental, and Grotesque. The history\\nof our alphabet and of the forms known as the fundamental\\nstyles will be found not only of interest but also of great profit\\nto one who is to devote himself to the art of lettering. The\\ndegree of perfection attained in the alphabet, not only in\\nphonetic value, but also in simplicity and conipleteness, makes\\nit a monument of the intellectual advancement of the present\\nday a condition to which the people of all ages have contrib-\\nuted although the reader may never have considered its\\nsource nor the many changes necessary to its growth and per-\\nfection. The twenty-six signs, or letters, that we call the\\nalphabet are separated into two classes those representing no\\nsyllabic sounds in themselves, which are called consonants and\\nthose possessing two or more such sounds, called vowels. The\\nlatter in some cases are scarcely more tlian a l)reath sound, but\\neach has a clear phonetic value, and fills an important place in\\nour written language. By means of other characters placed\\nabove the vowels, every Avord may be written to express its\\nproper sounds. We are, therefore, enjoying today the fruits of\\nthe achievements of the human intellect through forty centuries\\nof development for, in tracing the origin of the alphabet and\\nthe signs that led to its construction, Ave are compelled to go\\nback to the dispersion of the human race through a period of\\nover four thousand years, each epoch of which furnishes inter-\\nesting developments in the growth of our letters. It Avill be\\nimpossible in this short treatise to fully consider this interesting\\nhistory and groAvth, or give more than a passing glance at the\\nAvorld s primitive history although in it is to be found the\\nsource of the forms whose transitions from one system of char-\\nacters to another give us our present alphabet. Nor can Ave\\ndwell even on the relation these characters bear to one another.\\nThe degree of intelligence attained in each jieriod of Innnan", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 3\\nhistory is marked by the progress made in the methods of\\nwriting, which enabled its people to record events, impart\\nknowledge, and transmit messages to one another.\\n3. Ideograms. The Scriptures inform us that when Baby-\\nlon and Nineveh were built all people were of one language, and\\nthe similarity of the Babylonian, Egyptian, and Assyrian sign\\nlanguages gives some evidence of this fact. The descendants of\\nNoah are supposed to have occupied these localities after the\\ndispersion Shem, that of Babylon and Eastward Ham, North-\\neastern Africa and Japheth, Western Assyria and Asia Minor.\\nEach system of writing began with rude pictures of objects,\\nmore or less conventional, which gradually became the repre-\\nsentatives of words, afterwards becoming the symbols of letters,\\nor elementary sounds. We can, therefore, trace the transition\\nfrom the ideogram, or expression of thoughts by means of pic-\\ntures, to the phonogram, or expression of sounds by means of\\ndrawn or written symbols. Many ideograms are in common\\nuse at the present day, which proves that the Egyptian method\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0\\\\vas not without some merit. For instance, the sign is derived\\nfrom the monogram U. S. The barber s pole the red stripe of\\nwhich symbolizes a blood-letter (a custom of past ages)\\nthe three balls used by the pawnbroker, the American flag,\\nthe sign per cent. the algebraic signs, and many others\\nare all ideograms.\\n4. Ctmeiforni Writing. The letters of our alphabet are\\nthe outgrowth of the ancient Hebrew alphabet and Egyptian\\nhieroglyphics (the earliest form of writing), as well as of the\\nAssyrian cuneiform characters. In tracing to its origin the\\nform of each letter, we are surprised at the marvelous trans-\\nformations these characters have undergone before reaching\\nthe simplicity that marks their present construction. While\\nalphabetic systems have become simplified, the Chinese system,\\non the other hand, which is not alphabetic, has growai more\\nand more complicated, and affords an example of how a people,\\nisolated for four thousand years from the rest of the world,\\nwere unable to advance beyond the ancient system of ideo-\\ngraphic writing. The Chinese system is evidently the outgro\\\\\\\\ th", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "4 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\nof the cuneiform characters, which are wedge-shaped, and are\\narranged in groups to express a thought. The simplicity of\\nour alphabet system compared with the Chinese may be appre-\\nciated when we consider that a boy ten years old, in an Ameri-\\ncan school, has acquired the same facility in reading and\\nwriting English that would take a Chinese student twenty-five\\nyears to accomplish in the study of Chinese characters.\\n5. The Arabic and Roman IS^iimerals. Without a\\ngeneral knowledge of ancient history it is impossible to form a\\nclear outline of the history of writing, as one is inseparable\\nfrom the other. From the confusion of tongues to the exodus\\nof the Israelites from Egypt, a period of several centuries, we\\nknow that the three continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa\\nwere largely peopled and, though Chinese legends point to\\nperiods much earlier than this, the system by which they have\\ncome to us, being based on object pictures, produces no evi-\\ndence as to their reliability. The Hebrew writing, supposed\\nby some authorities to be the outgrowth of the so-called Semitic\\nwriting, does not owe its origin to this early jjeriod for there\\nis sufficient evidence to show that the Hebrew alphabet did not\\ncome into existence until later. In the middle of this Semitic\\nperiod, however, occurs the birth of Ishmael, from whom the\\nArabian race is descended, and to this race we are indebted for\\nour present numeral characters 1, 2, 3, etc. The system known\\nas the Roman was in use much earlier, and probably originated\\nin ideographic writing. The digits I, II, III, IIII were origi-\\nnally pictures of the fingers the V was shown by the wliole\\nhand, the fingers collected and the thumb spread apart. The\\nX was expressed by both hands together, each being in the\\nposition used to indicate the V. The increase or decrease of\\nvalue was indicated by placing a digit before or after the V or\\nX. This system is still in use for certain purposes, one of\\nwhich is the numbering of the hours on the clock dial.\\n6. The Hebre v Alphabet. The progress and develop-\\nment of all systems of writing are marked by national changes,\\nand, therefore, when entering on a second historical period of\\nabout a thousand years, beginning with the exodus from Egypt", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 5\\nand reaching to the captivity of Israel and Judah, we find a\\nnation of at least 4,000,000 people leaving Egypt and afterward\\nforming a most important element of the divisions of nations\\nand one strongly influencing the many systems of writing. To\\nthis great people, it is believed, was given an alphabet, and a\\nlanguage in laws and commandments, embodying civil as well\\nas ecclesiastical polity. The purity of this alphabet has\\nremained to the present time, surviving thirty centuries, the\\nonly changes being the present Hebrew characters, which\\nassume more of the square construction than the originals.\\nFrom this nation also springs another system or alphabet that\\nof the Samaritans but before considering this let us turn our\\nattention to another country and people, the Phenicians. The\\nIsraelites occupying Palestine were neighbors of this aggressive\\nand thrifty people, and were brought into harmonious relations\\nwith them. The chief cities of Phenicia, Tyre and Sidon, were,\\nduring the reign of Solomon, maritime centers of great activity.\\nIt is assumed, therefore, that the Greek alphabet came directly\\nfrom the Hebrew and Phenician, while the Phenician in turn\\nwas evolved from the Assyrian, Egyptian, and Moabitish.\\n7. Tlie Samaritan Alphabet. We find that the Samari-\\ntan alphabet has Hebrew as a base, with a strong interspersion\\nof Assyrian and Chaldaic. Israel, about the middle of this\\nperiod, was divided into two kingdoms, the two tribes constitu-\\nting the kingdom of Judah and the ten tribes that of Israel.\\nThe latter, as well as the Egyptians and Phenicians, suf-\\nfered severely from the Assyrian and Babylonian invasions.\\nThese powerful eastern empires took captive the ten tribes of\\nIsrael, thereby causing their complete downfall and loss of\\nnational identity. The Mosaic laws prescribed that the soul\\nthat did not observe certain ceremonies after eight days would\\nbe cut off from Israel the ten tribes failed to observe these\\nceremonies as a nation, and therefore lost their indentity in the\\nHebrew family. They returned to Samaria subsequently, how-\\never, and held to a revised Pentateuch hence the lost ten tribes\\nof Israel and their relation to the Jews. Mention is made of\\nthis to assist the student in locating the origin of the Samaritan", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "6\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nSI\\nalphabet, which is so made up of others tjiat little or no\\nreference is usually made in regard to its origin, bearing as it\\ndoes so close a resemblance to the primitive Hebrew. The\\nonly examples of the earliest alphabets are to be found on\\nmonuments or tabulated inscriptions, on coins, and on frag-\\nments of utensils. Among these the principal ones during this\\nperiod are the Baal-Lebanon Bowl, 10th century B. C. the\\nFl(i. 1.\\nMoabite Stone, 9th centur}^ B. C. and the Siloam Inscription,\\n7th century B. C. This period closes with the captivity of the\\nremaining two tribes in Babylon 588 B. C.\\n8. The Phenlciaii Alphabet. The Phenician, as previ-\\nously stated, is the source of our phonetic alphabet and the\\nascendency and decline of the Grecian empire and the establish-\\nment of the Roman marks another period, during which the\\nalphabet characters attained their present development, as\\nshown by the inscription on the Arch of Titus, built 70 A. D.,\\na cut of which is shown in Fig. L In recapitulating what has", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 7\\nthus far been stated, we have satisfactory proof that our\\nphonetic alphabet came from the Hebrew, but descended\\nthrough the Phenician branch.\\n9. The alphabet characters have slowly evolved from\\nhieroglyphic writings, first from syllabic signs, and these forms\\nmust have been developed from verbal phonograms. The\\nverbal phonograms were adopted from ideograms, which could\\nhave originated only from picture writing. Surrounded by\\nsuch advantages as the Hebrew and the Egyptian characters,\\nand all other forms of writing, it is not surprising that the\\nPhenicians should have constructed an alphabet of clear\\nphonetic value, Avhich afterward gave birth to the classic Greek.\\nThe name of every letter of the Hebrew has a significant\\nmeaning, while the Greek names, though similar, are meaning-\\nless. For instance, the first four letters of the Hebrew and\\nGreek alphabet are as follows\\nAleph (ox) Alpha\\nBeth (house) Beta\\nGimel (camel) Gamma\\nDaleth (door) Delta\\n10. The Greek Alphabet. Several centuries of the\\nHebrew period elapse before the Greek alphabet becomes an\\nimportant factor in the formation of our alphabet, in fact not\\nuntil after the fall of Greece as a universal empire. But as\\nearly as 880 B. C. there came with the birth of the Greek\\nalphabet a most intellectual conception of literature, art, and\\narchitecture, of which subsequently the Latins Avere only\\nimitators.\\n1 1 Tlie Latin Alphabet. Although the Greek alphabet\\nstill remains, evolution continues as long as the imperfect exists,\\nand with the fourth universal empire comes the Latin alphabet.\\nAs the Roman empire was composed of almost the entire\\ncivilized world, their alphabet formed tlie base, or was the\\nmother of all modern styles of writing. The Roman alphabet", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\ncharacters of the first century are practically the same as the\\nones in use today known by the name of Egyptian, Antique\\nEgyptian, and French Roman.\\n12. The Renaissance. From the beginning of the\\nChristian era there seems to have been no apparent growth of\\nthe alphabet for many centuries. The dark ages were evidently\\na germinating or budding period, and until the loth century\\nbrings us to an era historically known as the Renaissance, or\\nrevival of art, we find no progress whatever. About the middle\\nof this century (1443) printing was invented, but it was many\\nyears before this important discovery accomplished much to\\nbenefit mankind for it must be remembered there was no cheap\\nmaterial on which to print, the parchment used to engross on\\nbeing far too expensive for the purposes of printing. The\\nprocess of printing had a very beneficial influence on the\\nmethods of writing, however, and incidentally on the alphabet\\nitself. The letters had become so elaborate by this time as to\\nappear almost like ornamental enigmas. The process of print-\\ning necessarily required for the separate types the simplest\\nforms of characters, and the printers were compelled, therefore,\\nto return to the forms used during the first century the Latin\\nand Western Roman styles were therefore used, the former\\nbeing known at the present day as Antique Egyptian and the\\nlatter as French Roman.\\n13. It should he borne in mind that ornamentation in\\nlettering such as marked the period just prior to the 15th\\ncentury is not an improvement in style. The first principles to\\nbe observed in forming letters is simplicity, as the most impor-\\ntant qualifications of the letters should be their legibility.\\nOrnamentation when resorted to is always an evidence of\\nfailure to produce the perfect letter, for if the perfect is attained\\nthe additional work is superfluous.\\n14. Results of tlie Renaissance. The Germans during\\nthe 15th century, then located in Northern Italy, were not slow\\nto become imbued with the spirit of this new development in\\nart, and Spain, France, England, and in fact all Europe was", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 9\\naffected by the great impulse, largely on account of the achieve-\\nments of an Italian family known as the Medici. Previous to\\nthis, the art of lettering was confined almost exclusively within\\nthe monasteries. The ecclesiastical devotees or monks were\\nskilful in the art of calligraphy, and exhibited wonderful dex-\\nterity in their work of designing and illuminating capital letters\\non their manuscripts, many of which are extant today some\\ndating back as far as the 5th or the 6th century are especially\\nclever. It is to be regretted, however, that these early monks\\npossessed a knowledge of chemicals for removing the inscrip-\\ntions from earlier manuscripts from which they copied, thereby\\ndepriving the world of records far more valuable than their\\nown. During this whole period prior to printing there were\\nmany varieties or styles of the alphabet originated. The style\\nknown at present as the Egyptian was originally known as the\\nplain Roman, or the style in which the early Greek and Latin\\nalphabets were written while the Roman letter of the present\\nday is almost identical with the Medieval Roman of the period\\nindicated by its name. The Gothic, the earliest specimen of\\nwhich dates to 1349 A. D. was possibly the next style and\\nderived its origin from the ogival or pointed arch, character-\\nistic of the Gothic style of architecture.\\n15. The Old English, 1400 A. D. (specimens of which are\\nstill in Westminster Abbey), was possibly the outgrowth of the\\n8th centur} Romanesque, the Old German letters following\\nclosely on the Old English. There are many of the German\\nand Italian Renaissance styles that still remain. The Script\\nwriting (the ordinary cursive kind), out of which has developed\\nthe most graceful and classic curves possible to produce, was of\\nAnglo-Saxon origin. The style known as French Roman,\\nhaving the horizontal strokes considerably narrower than the\\nvertical, the extremities of these being finished with an antique\\nspur, were of first-century origin, and were used by the Western\\nRoman provinces. The Italic script is a modern interpretation\\nof the Medieval Italian print. There are several forms of the\\nChurch Texts, which originated from the Old German as well\\nas the Old English.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "10 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\n16. Modern Styles. Of the styles of more recent date,\\nthe style known as Rund-Schrift (round-writing), which is an\\nadaptation of the Gernjan Renaissance, was the invention of a\\nGerman. Aside from this we name with much pride several\\nstyles known the world over as American writing these are\\nthe Full Block, Half Block, both plain and antique, Railroad\\nBlock, Round Full Block, Spencerian Script, and Shippers Box\\nMarking. These styles are used chiefly by letterers, while the\\nvarieties in type which are of purely American origin are so\\nnumerous that we Avould not attempt to classify or name them.\\nTheir form and style are peculiarly identified with printing,\\nand are seldom if ever used by letterers while to the art of\\nprinting under its many heads is due all progress made in the\\ninvention of styles of writing since the 15th centur}\\nGENERAL RUEES.\\n17. The few general rules following are very important to\\nthe student, and it is necessary, therefore, that they should be\\ncarefully observed and followed.\\n1. Do not attempt any form or style of letter other than the\\nstyle furnished for each lesson.\\n2. Do not allow the eye to dwell on that which is inartistic\\nfor, just as truly as evil associations corrupt good manners,\\njust so surely does association of the eye with that which is out\\nof proportion, distorted, or irregular, leave an impression which\\nis lasting in its eflfect on, and by no means easy to dispel from,\\nthe mind. When the student has advanced to the study of\\ninscription designing and ornamentation, he will better appre-\\nciate the importance of this advice.\\n3. Do not become discouraged if you do not make as rapid\\nprogress as you should like to. The assertion is often made\\nthat it is not possible for one to become a master of an art\\nor profession, without a natural talent for it this may be true\\nalong some lines, but it is not true in regard to lettering,\\nespecially if behind the effort there is persistent will power and\\na patient determination to succeed. Concentration of thought\\nand constant practice must of necessity follow these qualities.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 11\\n4. Give as much time to practice as possible do not be\\nsatisfied to make a letter several times only, but practice each\\nletter until 3^ou have mastered it, and have learned perfectly\\nall the rules governing its construction in every characteristic\\nline and stroke.\\n5. Be sure you thoroughly understand all of the instruction\\npertaining to each plate before beginning to practice. Study\\nthe instructions carefully with the plate before you.\\nStrive to excel despise mediocrit}\\nThe advantages offered in this course should induce every\\nstudent to aim above a general knowledge of letters only, and\\nto seek to attain a position equal to that occupied by the few\\nthat fully understand the many forms of alphabetic characters\\nand all their applications.\\n18. Materials Required. When practicing in the eve-\\nning, use a good steady light, and place this directly in the\\nrear of the table on which you are working, and from 12 to 18\\ninches above the w^ork, while the eyes should always be pro-\\ntected from it by means of an eye shade. The student will\\nneed the following materials\\nDrawing instruments 1 velvet rubber; 1 Faber s im-\\nDrawing board, 16 in. X 21 in. proved ink eraser\\nT square, 222 inclies J doz. sheets Whatman s drawing\\n2 triangles, 45\u00c2\u00b0 and 60\u00c2\u00b0 paper, 12 in. X 19 in.; A royal\\n1 scale size\\n2 doz. thumbtacks 2 red sable brushes, Nos. 3 and 4\\nDrawing pencil 1 pad ruled paper, 2 in. X 7 in.\\nIfoz. bottle waterproof drawing ink\\n19. Draftsmen and other students interested in a similar\\nclass of work will find these tools sufficient for practice and\\nspecimen work. But for the benefit of the students that wish\\nto apply a knowledge of lettering to sign painting we would\\nadvise that the practice work be done on cardboard or Manila\\npattern paper, using a camel s-hair brush, and card black, the\\npreparation of Avhich will be given hereafter. By this process\\nthe letters can be made any size, but the plate sent in for\\ncorrection must invariably be 8^ in. X 15 in., inside the border\\nlines, which are 1^ inches from the edge of the paper.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "12 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. S 1\\nDBAWIKG THE LETTERS.\\nMECIIANICAI. AIN^D FREEHAlVr) EETTERI:N^G.\\n20. Instrumental and Freehand Drawing; Defi-\\nnitions. Drawing is the art of representing objects on a\\nconvenient surface, such as paper, by means of lines or colors,\\nor both. The representation of an object in this manner is\\ncalled a draiving. If the pencil, brush, pen, or marker by\\nwhich a drawing is made, is guided wholly or partly by instru-\\nments, as, for example, by a straightedge or by compasses, the\\ndrawing is called an instrumental or mechanical drawing. If no\\ninstruments are used, the lines drawn by the free hand, and all\\ndimensions laid off by eye only, the drawing is called a free-\\nhand drawing. A preliminary rough or unfinished drawing\\nis usually called a sketch.\\n2 1 Purpose of a Drawing. The purpose of a drawing\\nis either to assist the memory or to convey to others an idea of\\nthe shape, size, combination, form, color, or appearance of some\\nobject. Drawings also aid us in perfecting ideas when we are\\ndesigning or inventing. The practice of freehand drawing\\ntrains both the hand and the eye. It enables one to estimate\\ndistances and lay them off on a drawing correctly, and to com-\\npare the relative sizes of angles, lines, and figures in general.\\nIt thus trains the hand to draw quicker and better with instru-\\nments. The ability to draw well freehand is one of the ]nost\\nuseful of accomplishments.\\n22. There are but two plates or styles in this course that\\nare in the true sense mechanical styles, that is, made exclusively\\nwith the aid of a straightedge and other instruments. These\\nare the Full-Block Plate and the Half- Block Plate. The\\nothers are made up of straight lines and curves. These curves,\\nthough slight in many cases, are all drawn by the free use of\\nthe hand, and therefore, so long as freehand drawing enters into\\ntheir construction, we have chosen to classify them under this\\nhead. We advise the use of the straightedge, however, in", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 13\\nmaking all straight lines, whether in mechanical or freelmnd\\nstyles, but do not recommend the use of the compasses in\\nmaking curves in freehand letter styles, unless a perfect circle\\nis required.\\nCOMPOXEXT PARTS OF A LETTER.\\n23. Stroke. The stroke is the term applied to the width\\nbetween the outlines forming the letter when applied to\\nletters possessing more, than one width between its outlines, it\\nalways refers to the greatest width, and usually the vertical\\nportion of the letter, as distinguished from the fine line.\\n24. Fine liine. The fine line is the line connecting the\\nstrokes or lines attached to them, forming a part of the letter,\\nand is usually a horizontal line.\\n25. Spur. The spur is a small projection from the\\nextremity of a letter, and exists in several varieties, according\\nto the style of letter on which it is used.\\n26. Face. The face of a letter usually includes all the\\nspace forming a rectangle enclosing the extremities of the\\nletter, but is often applied to the surface within the outline\\nof the letter.\\n27. Shade. This term is used to describe the treatment\\nor finish of a letter, and is apj^lied to a letter to give it the\\nappearance of relief from the background also to cause one\\npart of the stroke to appear projected or depressed from\\nthe surface.\\n28. Block. This is similar to the shade in effect, and is\\nused to give a letter thickness, or, as its name expresses, to give\\nit a solid block effect, in -which case the shade also is sometimes\\nused beyond the block in the form of a natural shadow.\\n29. Outline. The outline of a letter is the line that\\nforms the letter, leaving the body of the stroke open.\\n30. Width. The width of letters always applies to the\\nspace occupied between the vertical lines to the extreme right\\nand left, and never refers to the height.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "14 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\n31. Background. The background is the surface on\\nwhich the lettering is placed it is also sometimes called the\\nground, or Jield.\\n32. Condensing. Condensing is a term applied to the\\ncloser spacing of the letters, or to making them narrower than\\nnormal width.\\n33. Elongating. Elongating is the term applied when\\nthe letters are draAvn out to a greater Avidth than the normal.\\nThis term should not be confvised with the appearance of a con-\\ndensed letter, with the relation of its height to its width.\\n34. C.vnia. The cyma is a character employed to equalize\\nthe spacing of irregular letters by placing it where the space is\\nopen and requires something more than the plain letter to\\nmake the word appear solid. This character derives its name\\nfrom the Greek, its undulating form resembling a wave. The\\ncyma is usually attached to the letters A, L, M, W, etc. it is\\nused in but few styles of lettering, while in some styles it forms\\na part of the letter itself.\\nSPACING OF LETTERS.\\n35. Importance of Spacing. Next in importance to\\nthe formation of letters stands the art of arranging them in\\nwords in a way calculated to make the word not onl}^ legible\\nbut symmetrical this is called spacing. Nothing will destroy\\nthe harmony of a line of perfectly formed letters more effect-\\nively than a disregard of this art. Aside from a few general\\nrules, the letterer must depend on his own good judgment, and\\ncultivate the ability to proportion all spaces according to the\\ncoml)inations of letters. Irregular combinations occur in many\\nways, but true proportion must always reign in a word accu-\\nrately spaced, so that its regularity is apparent to the eye at a\\nglance. To accomplish this, special attention must be given to\\nthe following rules\\n36. Correct and Incorrect Spacing. Make the inter-\\nspacings equal to one another, or as nearly so as possible. To\\ndo this may require the shortening of some extended letters,\\nand the spreading apart of letters having vertical or parallel", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 15\\nlines. This is shown by Figs. 2 and 3, in which the right and\\nthe wrong spacing can be seen. The L in Fig. 2 is shortened a\\nfull stroke in width instead of one-half stroke, which is the\\nnormal width of the letter and the space between the A and\\nthe W is about one-half the width of the letter A at its base.\\nAt the top of the A is shown the cyma used to relieve the space\\nwhich cannot be equalized. The cyma is also often used in a\\nTAW LAW\\nFig. 2. Fig. 3.\\nvertical position on the L, the point almost resting on the lower\\nright-hand spur. Fig. 3 shows the effect of the rule followed by\\nsome letterers, who allow the same space between the extremities\\nof all letters, and make no allowance for unequal-sized inter-\\nspaces. The parallel strokes of the A and the W are the same\\ndistance apart as the L and the A, leaving the L full width.\\nMany such combinations occur, and unless we observe this\\nrule we may expect no better effects than in Fig. 3. Two\\nprojecting letters, either L s or T s, often occur together, as\\nin such words as millinery, butter, etc., and at the\\nsame time in connection with letters that are full face or\\noccupying full width top and bottom, as shown in Fig. 4. In\\nsuch cases the L should be made the width of the stroke\\nILLN UTTEI\\nFig. 4. Fig 5.\\nnarrower than the full-face letters, and the spaces between the\\nlatter and the right-hand letters next to them should be one-\\nhalf the width of the stroke. There should be a space of the\\nfull width of the stroke between parallel-stroke letters, as the I\\nand the L. In Fig. 5 the T s are shortened only one-half the\\nwidth of the stroke, allowing the same space between them and\\nthe letters on each side as allowed in Fig. 4 between the end of", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "16\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nthe right L and the stroke of the N. The letters, therefore,\\nwith which we shall experience the most difficulty in spacing,\\nare the slanting- stroke letters A, K, V, W, and Y and the pro-\\njecting letters F, J, L, and T.\\n37. Full Block and Roman. When spacing such\\nstyles as the Full Block and Roman observe the following\\nrules When two letters having spurs come together, as\\nleave the Avidth of the stroke of the letter between the spurs.\\nWhen a spur and a plain-stroke letter come together, as\\nHO\\nleave H width of stroke between body or stroke of letters.\\nWhen two spurless letters, as\\ncome together, leave space of one stroke 1)etween them. Slant-\\ning-stroke letters, such as the W and the Y, leave the half-nStroke\\nspace between the spurs, and the same space if the next letter\\nbe a spurless letter.\\n38. Egyptian, Half Block, and Frencli Roman. The\\nEgyptian, Half Block, and French Roman can be spaced by the\\nfollowing rules Leave width of stroke between all parallel-\\nstroke letters, and one-half this width between projecting letters.\\nBetween round letters coming together on rounded sides, as\\nNOC\\nleave J stroke. Between words never allow less than the space", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 17\\nof a full-sized letter, including spurs and, if possible, leave\\nli spaces. Never allow letters to touch each other, except\\nshaded letters, and not then unless it is unavoidable. Two\\nround letters coming together, such as\\n00\\nin condensed styles, having no spurs, may be allowed to almost\\ntouch each other without having the effect of doing so while\\nsuch letters as\\nJE\\nproduce the effect of being closer together than they really are.\\n39. Care must always be exercised in selecting a style of\\nletter to suit a space as well as a word. The placing of a word\\nin a given space not appropriate to it will cause the letters to\\nbe either so separated by spaces or so condensed for want of\\nspace as to make them unsightly and difficult to read. Under\\nthe heading of Inscription Designing, the subject of the\\nSENATE\\nselection of styles to meet all requirement is fully treated.\\nThe appearance of the spacing of letters is similar to that of a\\ncompany of soldiers. If a portion of the company be separated\\nby a space greater than the manual prescribes, it has the\\nappearance of a separate detachment and is noticeable at a\\nglance. In the same manner, if a word is spaced properly\\nthroughout with but one exception, it has the appearance of\\ntwo words. For example, take the word Semite shown in\\nFig. 6, where the space between the N and the A gives it the\\neffect of two words.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "18 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nPUNCTtJATIOX.\\n40. There is seldom sufficient attention paid to this impor-\\ntant subject among letterers, as may be observed on the signs\\non ahnost any pubhc street.\\n41. Origin of the Aposti-oplie. The apostrophe is fre-\\nquently misplaced in the plural possessive case. To fully\\nunderstand the rule governing the possessive case and the\\norigin of the mark used to denote possession, we should first\\nknow that the apostrophe is used to indicate that something\\nhas been omitted. If we should look on the fly leaf of some\\nvery old book, we would see the name of the owner, John\\nSmith, and underneath, the words his book, which was\\nthe early form of expressing the possessive. Later, it became a\\ncustom to contract the name and article possessed thus,\\nJohn Smith s book and to insert the apostrophe to indi-\\ncate that the his was omitted. By bearing in mind this\\nsimple custom, one can always locate the proper place for the\\napostrophe, according to the location of the pronoun. To\\nfurther illustrate, take, for example, the words men s and\\nboys clothing. To use the method of our ancestors we\\nwould express it, men, their clothing, and boys, their cloth-\\ning. According to the rule, the apostrophe and final s\\nshould be substitvited for the pronoun, making the phrase read\\nmen s and boys clothing. Thus, the letter s would not\\nbe necessary after the apostrophe in the word men s, as the\\npronoun their, which has no final s, is used; but for\\neuphony, or to obviate harshness of sound, the s is often\\nadded after many words, and also omitted from words ending\\nwith s for the same reason.\\n42. The Comma. The comma is frequently used where\\nthe period is the mark required. For instance, the words\\nJohn Smith. Law Office. make two complete and inde-\\npendent statements, and each should be terminated I)} a\\nperiod. However, if the words used were John Smith,\\nLawj^er. the case would have been different, as there is but\\none statement, which should be terminated by the period.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 19\\nRULES FOR PUXCTUATIOX.\\n43. Period. The period is put at the end of every\\nword, phrase, or sentence that is complete by itself, and\\nnot interrogative or exclamatory. It is also placed after\\nall abbreviations.\\nQuit yourselves like meu. The M. D. addressed his letter to James\\nHoward, LL. D.\\n44. Colon. The colon is an intermediate point between\\nthe semicolon and the period, and is used as follows\\nL After words that promise a series or statement of some-\\nthing important.\\nHis accomplishments, he said, were not many a stout heart, a firm\\nresolve, and fifty cents.\\n2. Before an important remark added to a sentence, espe-\\ncially when it sums up the sentence, or presents the meaning\\nin another form.\\nAvoid evil doers in such society an honest man may become\\nashamed of himself.\\n45. The Semicolon. The semicolon is used to separate\\nclauses that are themselves divided l)y the comma, or that\\nrequire a point greater than a comma and less than a colon or\\nto separate the parts of a loose series.\\nHe was courteous, not cringing, to superiors affable, not familiar, to\\nequals and kind, but not condescending or supercilious, to inferiors.\\n46. Comma. The comma is the most frequently used of\\nall the punctuation marks. The chief purposes for which it is\\nused are the following\\n1. To separate the terms of a closely related series, or two\\nsuch terms when the connective is omitted.\\nHedges, groves, gardens.\\nIt was a dark, desolate region.\\n2. To separate terms that are contrasted or otherwise dis-\\ntinguished, and terms of which a part in one might be referred\\nimproperly to the other.\\nHe is poor, but honest.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "20 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\n3. To set. off word, phrase, or clause that is parenthetic, or\\nthat comes between other parts and breaks their connection.\\nYou will then, however, be in no better condition.\\n4. To set off a modifying word, phrase, or clause that is not\\nclosely connected with what it modifies, or that is removed from\\nit by inversion.\\nBehold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and die. By\\nAmericans generally, the liero of the Battle of Manila Bay is beloved.\\n5. To set off words or phrases used independently or\\nabsolutely.\\nRistalfo, give me what is mine, and that right quickly.\\n6. To separate the predicate from its subject, when the\\nsubject is very long, and has a clause, or consists of punctu-\\nated parts.\\nThe fact that he is allowed to go unpunished, makes him more\\ninsolent than ever.\\n7. To separate clauses that are neither very closely nor very\\nloosely connected.\\nThere mountains rise, and circling rivers flow.\\n8. Short simple sentences or clauses seldom require a point\\nwithin them and phrases or clauses that stand in close connec-\\ntion with that on which they depend seldom require a i3oint\\nbefore them.\\nTell me when it was that you saw him after he returned.\\n47. Interrogation Point. The interrogation point is\\nplaced after every complete direct question, whether it forms a\\ncomplete sentence or only a part of a sentence.\\nWhat mean st thou by that? Mend me, thou saucy fellow?\\nJulius Grsar.\\n48. Exclamation Point. The exclamation point is\\nplaced after a word, phrase, clause, or sentence that indicates\\ngreat surprise, grief, joy, or other emotion in the speaker.\\nWoe unto thee, Chorazin Woe unto thee, Bethsaida\\n49. Dasli. The dash is chiefly used for the following\\npurposes", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 21\\n1. To show omission caused by interruption.\\nCassius. Yet I fear him\\nFor in the ingrafted love he bears to\\nCaesar\\nBrutus. Alas good Cassius, do not think of him.\\n2. To show emphasis or suppressed feeling, or to show an\\nunexpected turn in thought or style.\\nHeaven gives to its favorites early death.\\n3. To set off a parenthetical phrase, especially when\\nemphatic or when there are other points within it.\\nTo render the Constitution perpetual which God grant it may be\\nit is necessary that its benefits should be practically felt by all parts of\\nthe country. D. Webster.\\n4. Before echoes, or where the words that is or\\nnamely are understood.\\nThe four greatest names in English poetry are almost the first we\\ncome to Chaucer, Spencer, Shakespeare, and Milton.\\n50. Parentliesis. The parenthesis is used to enclose\\nsome incidental remark or explanation that breaks the regular\\nconstruction of the sentence and can be omitted without injur-\\ning the grammatical sense.\\nKnow then this truth (enough for man to know),\\nVirtue alone is happiness below. Pojic.\\n51. Qiiotatioii Marks. Quotation marks are used to\\nenclose words taken from the saying or writing of another person.\\nThe doctor made the sage remark, while there s life, there s hope.\\n52. Apostrophe. The apostrophe is used to denote the\\nomission of one or more letters.\\nTis pleasant, sure, to see one s name in print\\nA book s a book, although there s nothing in t.\\nCliatterton.\\n53. Hyphen. The hyphen is used (1) at the close\\nof a syllable that ends a line when the remaining part of the\\nword must be carried to the next line (2) to join the parts of\\ncompound words.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "22\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n54. Ditto Marks. The ditto marks are used to avoid\\nthe repetition of the word or expression directly above them.\\n55. Underscore. The underscore is a line drawn under\\nwords in manuscript or copy to give them special emphasis,\\nshowing that they are to be printed in Italic or capitals, one\\nline denoting Italic, two lines denoting small capitals, and three\\nlines large capitals.\\nSHADING.\\n56. Sliacling on the Ijeft Side. Shading is used to\\ncause the letter to appear in relief, and thereby take away the\\nflat or plain appearance. Shading may be placed on the top,\\nbottom, or either side of a letter, but it should at first always\\nbe placed on the bottom and left side as, for several reasons,\\nit is best not to try to shade a letter on the right side until the\\nstudent is familiar with the left, as he will use this side for all\\npractical purposes. The reasons for giving this side the prefer-\\nence are (1) Regularity and symmetry of the shade occurs\\nFig. 7.\\nFig. 8.\\nin more of the letters when shaded on the left side, such as the\\nS, E, C, R, etc. Fig. 7 illustrates this advantage, and shows the\\nsingle stroke on the left at (a), and the broken shade from the\\nstroke on the right side at (b). (2) By shading to the left,\\nthe letterer can accomplish more in a given length of time, and\\nproduce a better effect in his work when finished. (3) The\\nmajority of strokes in shading to the left are drawn towards\\nthe letterer, while in shading on the right the brush is j^ushed\\nto the right, Avhich in itself is a strong argument in favor\\nof the former.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "1\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n23\\n5T. Shading should always be executed on the assumption\\nthat the light falls on the letter at an angle of 45\u00c2\u00b0. This\\nprinciple can best be shown by reference to Fig. 8. The maxi-\\nmum width of the shade occurs at a, a, midway between the two\\nlines b, b, and then diminishes to lines 6, b, where it is com-\\npleted. The tendency of the average letterer is to give too much\\nthickness where shade begins or finishes. All letters must be\\nshaded on the same angle at every point, and, after practice,\\nthis angle becomes as well established with the letterer as the\\nhorizontal or vertical lines. Every characteristic point of\\nthe letter must be shown in the shade, as at a, Fig. 9, and all\\nFig. 9.\\nFig. 10.\\nmust be of equal widtli in all letters except the round charac-\\nters, whereon the shade reaches this width only at the maxi-\\nmum i^oint of thickness in the letter.\\n58. Block Shade. There are many methods of obtain-\\ning beautiful effects in shading, which will be considered sepa-\\nrately. The block shade, as its name indicates, consists of the\\neffect of making the letter appear to have thickness. This is\\ndone by the use of two shades, the dark, or stronger, one being\\nused underneath all horizontal strokes, and the lighter tint on\\nthe side of all vertical strokes. The block shade can be placed\\non the top or right side of the letter, in which case the block,\\nas well as the letter itself, is shaded as shown in Fig. 10. Here\\nthe shade has below and to the left of the letter the appearance\\nof a cast shadow.\\n59. Cast Shado^v. The cast shadow is also used in con-\\nnection with heavy-stroke letters, Ijlock shading, etc. giving the", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "24\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nletter the appearance of standing upright, either on a level or\\non a slanting surface. The top of the shade is on a line about\\none-fifth of the height of the letter below the top. The shade\\nis made on an angle of 30\u00c2\u00b0 to the left, the point resting on the\\nFig. 11.\\nlower left corner of the letter, as in Fig. 11, where (a) shows\\nthe letter with a block shade and cast shadow, and (6) shows\\nthe simple outlined letter and cast shadow. The shade is\\nsometimes used l;)y duplicating the letter in the form of a\\nshadow cast on the background, one-fifth of the height of the\\nletter below the top, and on the same angle (45\u00c2\u00b0) as the\\nregular shade, as shown in Fio-. 12.\\n60. Relief Shade. Relief shade is obtained by leaving a\\nspace between the letter and the shade on the same angle as\\nFig. 12.\\nFig. 13.\\nthe shade, as shown in Fig. 13, making the space and shade of\\nuniform width. When used in connection with block shade,\\nit is often of the nature of the natural shade, and is added to\\nthe block shading without any line or space between. The", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n25\\nrelief shade when used as a natural shade on a white or tinted\\nground is made to represent the strength of the shadow cast\\nfrom an object on the ground on which the letters are placed.\\nThis shade is produced with the pen by means of lines, but\\nmore effectively by the brush and transparent color.\\nLETTER-FACE I.IGHTI:N^G AND SHADING.\\n61. Importance of Subject. The treatment of the face\\nof the letter is a very important consideration. The letterer\\noften finds himself confronted with a line of extremel} plain let-\\ntering that, even after it is shaded, remains flat and unsatis-\\nfactory. This effect can sometimes be overcome by the addition\\nof lights and shades placed directly on the letter face itself.\\nThe face of the letter may be variegated or blended from a light\\nto a dark shade, in which case a sharp outline must surround\\nthe entire letter, as shown in Fig. 14. Lighting and shading\\nFig. 14.\\nFig. 15.\\nFig. 16.\\nare used with best results on heavy-faced letters, as all treat-\\nment of the face of a letter by shading has the tendency to\\nconsiderably reduce the apparent width of the stroke.\\n62. Effects Produced. Another effect is produced by\\nrunning bars of color across the center of the letter, and dimin-\\nishing these bars in width to a point midway from center to top\\nand bottom, as in Fig. 15. Diminishing circles are also used on\\nletters of lighter face, such as the Roman, and can be made to\\noccupy the entire face, or, as is shown in Fig. 16, terminating at\\na given point, which must be regularly observed throughout the\\nline of letters.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "26\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nSI\\n63. Heavy Iligliliglit. The heavy highlight is used in\\nthe treatment of the face of the letter by making the upper half\\nof the letter a uniform tint, either by lining, as shown in\\nFig. 17, or with colors. The darker shade b is placed on the\\nlower half of the letter, allowing a highlight on this equal in\\nstrength to a, or the upper half. The highlight c on the upper\\nhalf of the letter is left white. By a combination of the shades\\nof colors many beautiful effects can be produced by this means,\\nusing such colors for a as blue, green, gray, or gold color, the\\nlast of which combines with sienna for the lower portion, and\\nwith cream color for the upper highlight. Blue or green when\\nused should have tint and shade of the same color.\\n64. Beveled Shading. Shading on the face of a letter to\\nrepresent a beveled appearance is another treatment that gives\\na line of lettering a finished and pleasing effect. In this\\nFig. 17.\\nFig. 18.\\nprocess it is necessary only to observe the rules of light and\\nshadow, as shown in Fig. IS, by shading the letter on the left\\nand bottom sides from a line drawn through the center of the\\nface of the letter. This form of shading is often used on a\\ngold or silver letter by the use of transparent colors such as\\nvarnish stained with asphaltum, which is used on gold, and\\nvarnish darkened with lampblack is used on silver letters.\\nThere are many other methods of treating the face of letters by\\nthe use of ornament, whereby it loses its identity as a plain\\nand becomes an ornamented letter.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n27\\nTHE HIGHLIGHT.\\n65. As its name indicates, the highlight is used to illumi-\\nnate or light up a letter, which it does with wonderful effect.\\nThe highlight is placed on the edge of the letter, opposite the\\nshade, or on the right and top of the strokes. It is always a\\nfine line of either gold, silver, white, or cream, according to the\\ncolor of the letter on which it is to be placed. If the letter is a\\ncolored letter, gold or silver can be used. If the letter is gold,\\nnothing will serve the purpose of a highlight so well as cream\\nor white. On silver or aluminum, white only can be used.\\nTo be most effectual this highlight must be a fine, even line.\\nThe heavy highlight is used in letter-face lighting and shading,\\nand is explained under that head.\\nCUTTIIS^G IN I.ETTERS.\\nGG, Uses of Cut-in iietters. This term is applied to\\nthat style of treatment wherein the letters are drawn in outline,\\nand the background is filled in around them. In inscription\\ndesigning this method is resorted to frequently, in order to\\nFig. 19.\\nbreak the monotony of several lines of plain lettering. The\\ninsertion of a panel or ribbon, on which the letters are cut in,\\nprovides a colored background, against which the letters are\\noutlined, allowing the same color for the letters as the main\\nground of the inscription design, as shown in Fig. 19. The\\ncolor of the panel and background will govern very largely the\\ncharacter of letter to be cut in. If the general ground is white\\nor any light color, and the cutting-in, or outline, color is very\\ndark, a heavy-faced letter may be used without causing any", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "28\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nappearance of clumsiness or ill proportion. But should the\\nletters be in gold, a much lighter-faced letter would be neces-\\nsary^, as the effect of the gold luster is to make the letter appear\\nlarger than it actually is. A very fine line of gold on a black\\nground can be readily distinguished even at a great distance,\\nand a white letter on a blue ground can be read at a greater\\ndistance than any other combination of colors.\\n67. Points to be Observed. In the practice of cutting\\nin letters the student should begin on the plainer styles, such as\\nthe Full Block, Half Block, etc., before endeavoring to execute\\nthe Roman or Script. Fig. 19 shows the letters in outline,\\nand also with the background filled in. In order to insure\\nuniformity of width in the horizontal elements of the letters,\\nfaint lines may be drawn through the entire word by means of\\na thread or string charged with charcoal, chalk, or other material\\nthat afterwards may be readily dusted off. Cut-in letters may\\nFig. 21.\\nFig. 22.\\nusually be permitted to stand closer than other styles of work,\\nas they are seldom shaded, though when they are shaded, the\\nregular spacing should be used.\\n68. Irregiilar-Sxirface Ijettering-.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 AMiere letters are\\ncut in on an irregular surface, such as a ribbon, as in Fig. 20,", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n29\\nthey must be maintained at a uniform angle and not changed\\nto suit the angle of the ribbon, as at a. The importance of this\\nwill be considered more fully later on, but its connection with\\nthe subject now under discussion must not be overlooked.\\nAMien letters are cut in on an inclined panel or ribbon the let-\\nters should be maintained in a vertical position, as in Fig. 21,\\nor perpendicular to the lines of the panel, as in Fig. 22,\\nCliASSinCATIOK OF LETTERS.\\nORXAMEXTAL LETTERS.\\n69. Scope of the Subject. The plain letters include all\\nalphabets in which no line\\nor curve enters that is not\\nabsolutely necessary to\\nshow their form or outline\\na line thus added may\\nplace them among the orna-\\nmental letters. Although\\nit will be impossible to go\\nover the entire ground\\ncovered by this subject,\\nas there are endless vari-\\neties of ornamental letters,\\nthe styles found to be most essential will be considered. There\\n^^6 many letters into which\\nornamental construction\\nenters but slightly, while\\nothers are composed en-\\ntirely of ornamental forms.\\nThe ornamental letters of\\nmost value to the student\\nare those on the face of\\nwhich the ornament ap-\\npears, either in the form\\nof relief scrolls, geometrical figures, or designs in arabesque.\\nFig. 23.\\nFig. 24.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "30\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\n^^e-p\\n70. Ornamental Forms. Letters classified as ornamen-\\ntal are of so great a variety that such as are used in connection\\nwith the shade to produce\\na bent or rounded effect, as\\nshown in Figs. 23-24, might\\nbe classed with this style.\\nFig. 23 shows the ground\\nto be a plane surface and\\nthe letter bent or warped,\\nwhile Fig. 24 shows the\\nletter to be perfectly\\nstraight, and fastened with\\nscrews, while the ground has the effect of being bent or warped.\\n71. A letter that in itself is perfectly plain but surrounded\\nby ornamentation, as shown in Fig. 25, is called an orna-\\nmental letter also, though as a matter of fact the letter itself\\nmay be perfectly plain.\\n72. Other Forms. Other ornamental forms are as fol-\\nlows The relief-ornament letters\\nshown in Fig. 26 can be made in\\nvarious ways. The whole form\\nof the letter may be treated in\\nthis manner, as at (a), or by\\nsimply suggesting it in the middle\\nor edge of the letter, as in (h),\\n(c), and (f/). A letter may be\\nplain, so far as its face is concerned, but on account of its\\nFig. 27.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n;i\\nform and construction it may be classified as ornamental,\\nas shown in Fig. 27.\\nThere are many forms of designs used in letter-face orna-\\nmentation, either filigree work, geometrical designs, or a com-\\nbination of both. In Fig. 28 are shown three letters of the\\nface-ornament class, the one at (a) being decorated with filigree\\nwork, while (b) shows a geometrical design, and (c) simply\\ntlie cross-line shading.\\nGROTESQUE LETTERS.\\n73. All letters, as previously stated (Art. 2), are either\\nplain, ornamental, or grotesque. The first two classes follow in\\ntheir outline construction the forms of the fundamental styles\\nand their many variations, but this third class is entirely\\ndifferent. The grotesque letters have no recognized or classical\\nform, such as would place them among\\nthe styles of the alphabet, but are made\\nby using natural objects, which are arranged\\nso as to conform to anj^ regular or irregular\\nshape that will cause them to represent a\\nletter, and any form, therefore, is allowable\\nso long as the letter may be recognized.\\nTo accomplish this, objects such as a\\nhuman figure, a piece of rope or ribbon,\\nl)roken boards, leaves, vines, and trunk of the tree, are used.\\nOf the three latter forms, the rustic letters are made. The\\nleaves, tendrils, stump, and trunk of the tree form the material\\nused for an entire alphabet, one letter of which is shown in\\nFig. 29. These letters can l)e made very artistic, and show\\nFig. 29.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "32\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n1\\ngreat skill in their arrangement. And, while they may be\\npleasing to the eye, they are of no practical importance to the\\nstudent in the study of the forms of the letters, as their pro-\\nportions are purely arbitrary. Fig. 30 shows the forms of\\n^^7^\\nW\\nFig. 30.\\nsome of the grotesque letters, in which (a) is formed by a\\nhuman figure, (6) by broken boards, and (c) with a piece of\\nrope. Any alphabet may be constructed of these forms as the\\nfancy of any artist may dictate, even though he may be\\nignorant of the true form or proportion of the simplest style\\nof the alphabet.\\nILLITMIXATED C^XJ ITALS.\\n74. History and General Use. The monks of the\\nMiddle Ages were the first to make use of this art, many\\nsjjecimens of Avhich Avould indicate that they must have spent\\ndays in designing and executing a single letter. In treating\\nthis subject here, our purpose is simply to call attention to the\\nmost simi^litied forms of illuminating, especially those forms\\ndesigned for the use of the average letterer. The practical use\\nof this art is now confined to lithographing, engrossing, card\\nwork, and ecclesiastical decorations. The printing and litho-\\ngraphing artists have displayed wonderful skill in recent years\\nin illuminated work, especially on show-bill designs. The use\\nof colors to light up the capital letter gives a surprising effect\\nto a complete line of lettering, and is done by a simple combi-\\nnation of designs of most harmonious colors with the letter\\nexecuted, and by using colors of striking contrast to the tints\\nused to form the background. Such colors as can be com-\\nbined to give a brilliant effect are used in the form of a plaque.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "i^l\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n33\\npart panel or both, on which the letter is brought out most con-\\nsj^icuously, as shown in Fig. 31. The illumination practiced\\nby engrossers is usually of such a nature as to produce a\\nfinished and pleasing effect without resorting to colors. There\\nare many ways by which tliis can be accomplished. One\\nmethod is simply by the use of a pen and black ink, as shown\\nin Fig. 32, outlining the letter first, then making the orna-\\nFlG. 31.\\nmentation surrounding it conform to any desired design,\\nthereby giving the letter prominence. Great care should be\\ntaken that the ornamentation is not made more pronounced\\nthan the letter, but rather tliat the former is used as a means to\\nbring out or illuminate the letter.\\n75. Card Work. For card work, the illuminating of capi-\\ntals gives tone and finish, and relieves a shoAV card of extreme", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "34\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nplainness. For practical purposes, such as attractive adver-\\ntising cards, banners, etc., the illuminating of capitals will be\\nfound to hold an important place, and is coming into favor and\\nmore general use. There are also\\nmany forms and designs employed\\nas a panel, on which illuminated\\ncapitals are placed, in a solid or\\noutlined letter the outline letter,\\nhowever, being the most convenient,\\nis most frequently used, especially\\nwhen either the panel or the letter,\\nor both, are to be treated in water\\ncolors. The letter outlined is some-\\ntimes filled in with carmine or other\\nbright color, Avhile the panel sur-\\nrounds it with a tint of cream-white, yelloAV, or green. Two or\\nthree shades of color are sometimes used, either variegated or in\\nthe form of line work on top of tint, as in Fig. 33.\\n7(5. Ecclesiastical Decorations. For ecclesiastical\\ndecorations, such as wall j^anels containing inscriptions, wbich\\nare usually in the Old English, Gothic, or Church Text style of\\nletter, as Avell as for display mottoes in schools, halls, etc., where\\nthe Old English or other suitable lettering is used, the first", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "81\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n35\\ncapital (and sometimes all capitals) is illuminated, either on\\na panel of gold, silver, or color. In all cases the panel is made\\nFig. 34.\\nto conform in a general way to the letter, as Fig. 34 shows. If\\ngold or silver is used for a ground, the letter must be a dark\\ncolor. If a colored ground (which is preferable) is used, a\\ngold or silver letter will be\\nfound to light up with colors\\nand produce a most satis-\\nfac tory result.\\n77. Heraldic Sliield.\\nAn heraldic shield is often\\nIn-ought into use, on which the\\nilluminated capital is placed.\\nThere are many designs or\\nforms of this shield, which\\ncan be changed to suit any form of a letter, as shown in Fig. 35.\\nFlu. 35.\\nEFFECTS IX EETTERIJ^G.\\nCONDENSING. KLONGATING, TELESCOPING, AND\\nINTERLACING.\\n78. Condensing Xjetters. In conforming letters to till\\na required space, we are often compelled to resort to various\\nmeans of accomplishing our purpose, without making the\\ninscription appear distorted or out of proportion, ^^l^en\\nthe panel or space to be lettered is much shorter than would\\nadmit of a regularly proportioned letter, we are compelled to\\nresort to the condensing of the letters, observing generally the", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "36 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. S 1\\nrules of their proportionate width. All styles of letters can\\nbe condensed except Railroad Block, which Avas invented\\nexclusively for the opposite purpose. To illustrate more fully,\\nCOMPANY\\nthe word Company is used to show the two forms of condensing,\\nas well as the two forms of elongating.\\n79. Example of Condensed tietter. In Fig. 36 is\\nshown the condensed form, as may l)e seen by comparing\\nthe proportions of the letters with those of the Half Block\\nPlate. The letterer may condense\\nhis letters to the width of those of\\nFig. 36, and find they are still too\\nlarge for the required space the\\nvertical strokes can then he reduced\\nto one-half the regular width, and\\nthe horizontal strokes maintained at\\nthe regular, or even greater, width, and less space allowed\\nbetween letters, as in Fig. 37. This reduces the word to\\nalmost one-third that of Fig. 36.\\n80. Elongating Letters. To elongate the same word in\\nthe same style of letter, make the height, for convenience, one-\\nhalf that of Fig. 36 thus it will be observed that if this\\nelongated letter were twice the height it is in Fig. 38, it would\\nthe proportions of the\\nCOMP\\nM\\nFig. RS.\\noccupy a space almost four times that of Fig. 36. To further\\nelongate this word, reverse the rules of Fig. 37, by reducing", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n37\\nthe horizontal strokes one-half the regular width, keeping the\\nvertical strokes regular width or these may be increased to\\ntwice their regular width if desired, also giving more space\\netween the letters, as sliown in Fig. 39. By this means a word\\nIVI\\nFig. 30.\\ncan be made to fill a space much too long for the regular\\nproportion given this style of letter.\\n81. Telescoping. Telescoping is not of so much prac-\\ntical advantage as condensing or elongating, and is used mostly\\nto produce a relief effect. This is done by giving the letters\\nthe appearance of overlapping one another, as shown in Fig. 40,\\nFig. 40.\\nEvery alternate letter is dropped enough below the line to\\nprevent confusion of horizontal lines and to preserve the com-\\nplete identity of each. These letters can be shaded on the\\nliackground but not on the face, as this would tend to destroy\\ntheir legibilit}\\n82. Interlacing. Interlacing to its fullest extent enters\\ninto the construction of a monogram but the ionn of inter-\\nlacing at present under consideration is somewhat different,\\nand includes the interlacing of an entire word. This is very\\noften resorted to by the designer, especially in the use of\\neccentric letters, which are made to extend far beyond the\\nlimits of the fundamental styles from which they are derived,\\nas shown in Fig. 4L", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "38\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nOrTLIXI]VG AXD FILLIXG IX.\\n83. Water Colors. Water colors are used for all classes\\nof designing, and especially in commercial advertising work, as\\na small quantity of lithographic or printed work executed in\\nblack outline can be very economically colored or filled in with\\nwater colors by hand. A knowledge of the handling of water\\ncolors is, therefore, a necessity to the letterer. Dry color in\\npowdered form is used when large areas of blended color are\\nrequired. This is applied with a wad of cotton, with which the\\n3r^irf\\ndry color is spread evenly over the surface by gentle rubbing.\\nThe outline of the design is the guide for all water-color work\\nin lettering panels, floral designs, etc. The wider this outline is\\nmade, the easier will be the work of flowing the color evenl}^\\nand the less the liability of running over the line the fine\\noutline, however, is used in many places, especially for\\nfloral designs, etc.\\n84. Use of AYater Colors. Water colors are used to the\\nbest advantage on white show cards, having a dull finish, which\\nreadily absorb the moisture. The outline is made with the\\nglossy black to which the water color will not adhere, but flows\\nto the edge and stops. By this outline niethod, beautiful\\ndesigns in flowers and highly illuminated effects can be pro-\\nduced. Water colors also serve the purpose of shading or", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 39\\ntinting borders of cards outside of the fine line. For shading\\nthe letters, a brush is used that will as nearly as possible make\\nthe shade Avith one stroke, as water color cannot be worked over,\\nwhen once applied, without showing brush marks. Therefore,\\nthe color must be flowed on evenly with a quick, well-directed\\nstroke, using care not to apply the brush again over a shaded\\npart when the excess water has been absorbed by the card.\\n85. Scope and Impoi-tance. The subject of designing\\nis an almost inexhaustible one, and covers a broad field. There\\nare, however, many general rules and many commonly accepted\\nforms, which establish a foundation on which new ideas ma}\\nbe built. Designing will ever be an art that, aside from these\\ngeneral rules, involves the faculty for producing original con-\\nceptions or combinations which must conform to the dictates\\nor system of a recognized class or school. Very few letterers\\nare designers in the full sense of the word, and few of our best\\ndesigners are good letterers. Students in this course should\\ncultivate a knowledge of this most important subject. An\\ninscription of several lines of lettering, arranged so as to show\\nintelligence in design, proves that the letterer has accomplished\\nthat which is of as much importance as a knowledge of the\\nproper formation of letters. The first thing, therefore, is to\\nstudy the underlying principles of designing from the curve,\\nwhich forms the first departure from a plain line of letters, to\\nthe combination, pictorial, and the wide field of original designs,\\nthe possibilities of which lie beyond the limits of this Instruction\\nPaper. In showing the many Avays in which curved lines are\\nused for inscriptions, we will not attempt to make lines of\\nletters, but allow the curves and straight lines to represent these.\\n86. Some Simple Combinations. In Fig. 42 is shown\\nthe combination of the plain curve and straight line. The\\nRoman letter or some light-stroke style is used on the curved-\\nline, block, or other heavy-stroke letters on the straight line.\\nThe letters on the curve must be either vertical or parallel with\\nthe radius of the curve.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "40 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 1\\nNext in importance is the compound curve, or ogee, which is\\nused when the inscription is composed of two words of about\\nequal length, as in Fig. 43. Here, two ogee curves are used\\nFig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44.\\nunder a single curve and above a straight line. Where one\\nword occurs, we use the double ogee, which is made by uniting\\ntwo ogee curves, as shown in Fig. 44.\\nIn many designs, the inclined straight lines are used, as\\nshown in (a) of Fig. 45, or diminished in widtli from the\\noutside to the center of the inscription, as shown in (b) of\\nthe same figure.\\nWhile these and many other lines and curves are used in\\ndesigning an inscription, several straight lines of lettering\\nin) Fig. 45. (b)\\nrequire a great amount of skill in equalizing and arranging\\nthem properly, even in straight lines. In such designs only\\none style of letter (but made of various sizes, as the arrange-\\nment may require) is often used throughout the inscription.\\nKIBBONS.\\n87. The Ribbon. The ril)bon is used in many forms,\\nand can be made to suit almost any style of inscription by\\nfolding or extending. When folded, the part representing the\\nback of the rilibon is called the return, and must be shown by\\ncolor or shading. The ribbon is made either in a regular curve\\nor with irregular and broken edges. Fig. 46 shows the ribbon\\nin some of its many forms, of which the names of its component\\nparts are as follows a, the bow b, the broken band c, the\\nregular band d, the returning band e, the streamer and\\nthe roll.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "^1\\nELEMENTS OP LETTERING.\\n41\\nThe ribbon is used also in a square or geometrical form, in\\nwliich case the graceful and natural Avave does not enter, as\\nshown in Fig. 47. This form of ribbon serves its place in con-\\nventional or set designs.\\nThe ribbon is used also in the same form as the double ogee,\\nand when thus used it must be made symmetrical on both ends.\\nThe fold can also be made in middle of ogee, as shown in\\nFig. 48, without distorting its symmetrical effect, but rather\\ngiving it ease and grace, which sliould always be the aim\\nof the designer.\\n88. Shading the Ribbon. In shading a ribbon, to\\nmake it appear natural always observe the law of light and\\nshade. If the light should strike on one part of the ribbon,\\nthe opposite side corres])onding with it must necessarily be\\nin shadow.\\nThe study of light and shade is the first princi]de of design,", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "42\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nand has been considered with reference to individual letters\\nunder the head of Shading. In designing, as in drawing\\nfrom nature, strict adherence to this law is absolutel}^ necessary,\\nas the slightest disregard of it is noticeable to the skilled eye.\\nWe have seen the advantage of shading single letters to the left,\\nand it is well to practice the shading of designs on the left also,\\nin order to avoid such mistakes as are likely to occur, by show-\\ning a shade on two opposite sides of an\\nobject or of several objects, when they are\\nmm- combined to form one single design.\\n89. Reflected Light. In the sha-\\nding of ribbons or any rounded object, there\\noccurs what is called the reflected light.\\nIt shows the edge or line which, without\\nthe observance of this principle, would\\notherwise be lost where the darkest shaded\\nparts conie together. Fig. 49 shows this principle of reflected\\nliglit, the greatest strength of the shade being somewhat removed\\nfrom the extreme edge of the object, as at while the shadow\\ncast by the object itself is strongest against the edge at h.\\nFic. -JO.\\nPAXET^S.\\n90. Heetangiilar Panels. The panel has more forms\\ntlian tlie ril^bon, and is made to serve many puri)Oses. The\\n[Di\\n~v^\\nFir.. 50.\\nsimplest form is that of a rectangle, within which is sometimes\\ndrawn an inner panel of the same, or different, shape shown\\nin Fig. 50. The surroundings of the panel can be made either", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n43\\nsimple or elaborate, as the material at hand in this style of\\ndesign is inexhaustible. One of the many forms of the exterior\\nof the panel is such as shown in Fig. 5L This work may be\\nFig. 51.\\nso elaborated that the inner panel on which our lettering is to\\nbe placed becomes of minor importance, as shown in Fig. 52.\\nThis, of course, is not such a design as should be used to dis-\\nplay a conspicuous inscription. We must, therefore, keep in\\nFig. 52.\\nmind the fact that the inscription, if important, is of greater\\nvalue than the ornamentation, the latter being employed only\\nto embellii^h it, without detracting from its prominence.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "44\\nELEMENTS OP LETTERING.\\n1\\n91. Part Panels. Another form of panel is that which\\nis combined with some other design, in which the panel is not\\nin the foreground of our design, as shown in Fig. 53. When\\nthe panel is left unfinished on one end, as in Fig. 53, it is\\nknown as a part panel, and many beautiful effects can be\\nproduced by its use. In this the damask principle is used, the\\npanel being blended into the ground by means of color or with\\nthe pen. The lettering is also blended the extreme of light\\ncolor is thus contrasted against the darkest part of the panel.\\nFig. 53.\\nand the dark lettering is continued on the light ground\\noutside of the panel.\\n92. Elliptical and lloiiiid Panels. Elliptical and\\nround panels are also used and can 1)e made extremely orna-\\nmental. A touch of simple ornament in a design will often\\ncounterbalance a quantity of plain work, and give a general\\neffect of ornamentation throughout. Fig. 54 shows an ellip-\\ntical design, with simply a frame of ornamentation, which is\\nsufiicient for the purpose of ornamenting a design when such\\nwork is placed on other plainer material in a design, it gives\\nthe whole the appearance of completeness.\\n93. Rococo Panels. Another style of panel that has\\ncome into our modern designs is the rococo panel not only is\\nthe scrollwork used for the panel itself, but it is frequently\\napplied to the embellishment of many parts of the design.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n45\\nFig. 55 shows one of the great variety of shapes the rococo\\npanel assumes, as this style can be made to conform to the\\nFig. 54.\\nlines of any inscription, or to form a part of nearly any\\nstyle of a design.\\nThe same style of scroll is frequently used for the purpose of\\nfilling up an open space in a design, although this is done also\\nthrough the employment of natural forms, such as palms, olive\\nor laurel branches, flow-\\ners, leaves, and conven-\\ntional objects, vases,\\nlamps, lions, griffins, etc.\\nand, in fact, any object\\npertaining to, or in har-\\nmony with, the inscrip-\\ntion. If the inscription\\nof a design pertains to\\nmusic, the lyre may be\\nused to embellish the\\ndesign if it pertains to\\nthe trades, such tools as\\nare identified with the\\ntrades may appear in the\\ndesign. If literature or science is the subject, symbolic objects\\nFig. 55.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "46\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\ncan be used in a variety of ways. A large collection of choice\\ndesigns should always be on hand for reference, from a review\\nof which a suggestion may often be obtained that leads the\\ndesigner s thought into an original channel, which, as we have\\nstated before, is the chief aim of the designer.\\nINSCRIPTION DESIGNING.\\n94. Proportion. A piece of lettered work, no matter how\\nartistic or elaborate it may be in itself, is not satisfactory if\\nimjiroperly proportioned or balanced. The tendency in design-\\nPermanent\\nAssociation\\nOF CHICAGO.\\ning is to distribute the strength over the entire surface. If we\\nkeep in mind tbe law of art in a picture, it will help us in\\ndesigning. The foreground should l;)e the strength of a picture,", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 47\\nthe middle distance should be the semistrength, while the distance\\nshould be indistinct. This is the key not only to successful\\ndesigning, but also to satisfactory lettering. The top and bot-\\ntom lines of the design shown in Fig. 56 are Roman the words\\npermanent and association are styles of heavier face,\\nwhile the strength of the inscription is centered in the two\\nmiddle lines. The selection of the proper style of letters to suit\\neach requirement should be carefully studied. A single word\\nor line of letters can be made of any form or st3de, but as soon\\nas another line is added the letterer is compelled to study their\\ncombinations, and to make their relation to each other har-\\nmonious to the eye and in proper proportion. In an inscrip-\\nc.;^^@^o\\nFINE\\nFig. 57.\\ntion of several words, the most important should be displayed\\nin the most prominent style of letters, such as the Block or\\nEgyptian, while the less important should be of smaller letters,\\nand of such styles as one-stroke letter, or caps and lower case of\\nthe Roman or other styles. This rule does not interfere with\\nthe general effect produced in Fig. 56. If it should happen\\nthat the inscription cannot be made to conform to one rule in\\ndesigning, it is best to change the design accordingly. In\\nFig. 57 is shown a design of an inscription in which the first\\nand last words are most important, and from which eight\\nwords therefore could be taken, and still in effect, the principal\\nfeature of the whole inscription would remain Brown s\\nShoes these words, therefore, should have the greatest\\nprominence liy making them large and of a solid-stroke letter.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "48 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nSTE:N^CII. PATTERIS^S.\\nPLTRPOSE OF STEXCILS.\\n95. Hietter Stencils. The letterer is sometimes forced\\ninto competition with tlie printer, especially when handling a\\nlarge order for advertising signs the method of hand work,\\ntherefore, must be laid aside for something that will have the\\neffect of hand work, and still be accomplished with more\\nrapidity, observing, at the same time, cleanliness and finish\\nwhen the work is completed. The stencil pattern most effectu-\\nally fills this place, and is made to stencil either the letter or\\nthe background. The stencil for the former purpose is made by\\ncutting out of paper or other material the greater portion of the\\nletter, but allowing parts called t/es to remain, as these tie\\nthe inside of the letter and parts likely to curl uj) when in use.\\nA second stencil is also required, which is laid over the work\\ndone by the first stencil when it has dried, thereby covering up\\nthe spaces left by the ties, and thus making a solid and com-\\nplete letter. The same rule is observed in regard to the cut-\\nting-in stencils, which are used to make the background, and\\nleave the letters the original color of the surface on which the\\ncolor is spread. Large ties are used for cutting-in stencils,\\nreaching from the letter to the edge of the stencil or border.\\nA second stencil, so cut as to overlap the edges of the ties, is\\nalso used, thereby completing the entire background, leaving\\nthe letter clear and distinct.\\n96. Variegated Groiiiitls for Stenciled Ijetters. The\\nground having been prepared and the inscription designed,\\nthe spaces occupied by each line of letters can be blended a\\nprocess known among letterers as variegated stenciling. This is\\naccomplished by laying various colors on a ground, and blend-\\ning them together. As colors are too strong for this jiurpose,\\ntwo or three delicate tints are used, and are laid on hori-\\nzontally, and without regard to where the color is placed,\\nexcept where the letters show. In all cases, the selection of", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 49\\nthe tints used to variegate the letters should be governed by the\\ncolor to be used for the background, according to the rules of\\nharmony and contrast.\\nMATERIAL FOR STEXCILS.\\n97. Paper. The toughest medium-weight Manila paper\\nshould be used for stencils, oiled thoroughly with boiled linseed\\noil, and allowed to stand at least twenty-four hours before\\ncoating both side s thinly Avith orange shellac. If a light\\nquality of fiber board is used, no preparation is necessary. A\\nsheet of glass laid on a perfectly even table provides a surface\\non which the stencil can be cut with a good steel knife\\nsharpened to a thin point. It is well to mark the ties with\\nsome bright color, to avoid cutting through them, as a single tie\\ncut through destroys the whole stencil, and an imperfect stencil\\nwill cause more bother in its use than it is Avorth. It is best,\\ntherefore, never to use a patched or repaired stencil.\\n98. Tin-Foil Stencils. Tin-foil stencils for glass sign\\nprinting are designed and cut in the same Avay as the paper.\\nA roller only is used in operating this stencil, Avhile either brush\\nor roller can be used Avith the paper stencil. A large soft\\nbrush Avill produce better results than a stiff brush, and be less\\nlikely to destroy the pattern. In dipping the brush in color,\\ngreat care should be used to rub it out Avell, so that but little\\nremains before applying to the stencil. This is the secret of\\ncleanliness in stenciling.\\n99. Cutting Stencils. Figs. 58 and 59 show one method\\nof cutting stencils. First, Fig. 58 shows the stencil that makes\\nthe letter, allowing ties to remain where most strength is needed\\nfor the preservation of the stencil. This stencil being com-\\npleted, a small triangle is cut in each corner, shown at a, called\\nthe register, or guide, by Avhich the stencil can always be placed\\nin proper position. This stencil is placed on material prepared\\nfor the No. 2 stencil, as shown in Fig. 59. Letters are either\\nmarked or stenciled with a brush, which should be almost free\\nfrom color, so that the second stencil for the ties can be cut out.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "50\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nallowing enough lap to fully insure its covering the open space,\\nas shown in Fig. 59. Register, or guide, marks are cut in this\\nstencil also, though these marks are never used except where a\\nborder color is to be placed afterwards, and serve only for\\nFig. rs.\\nFig. 59.\\na second stencil. The edge or corner of a sign will, in most\\ncases, serve as a guide in stenciling. Ties should always be cut\\nso as to do away with jDoints or projections as well as to secure\\nstrength where n-^-eded. If these rules are not followed, serious\\ndifficulty will be experienced when using a stencil, and may\\nnecessitate the making of a new stencil before the first one has\\nbeen made to fully serve its purpose.\\n100. Backgroxincl Stencils\\nTo make stencils for back-\\ngrounds, everything is\\nreversed from the first\\nform. The letters must\\nbe covered, and all ties\\ncut so as to keep these\\nletters av h e r e they\\nbelong. If a border is\\nrequired, we must treat\\nit the same as a letter.\\nThe ties must be cut\\nwider on border edge,\\nas they thereby give\\nmore strength where needed. In making this stencil it is", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 51\\nbetter to have too many ties than leave one place weak.\\nThe general tendency is to leave one or more such places\\nin this form of stencil. Fig. 60 shows two letters R, O, and\\nthe ties necessary for strength and protection. Fig. 61 shows\\nthe No. 2 stencil, or the one to be used to cover spaces left\\nby the ties of No. 1 the j^arts to be cut out are represented by\\nthe shaded spaces.\\n101. Sign Stenciling. Stenciled signs are often relieved\\nby a few touches of hand work, either in outlining the letters\\nor by artistically using some bright coloring that produces the\\neffect of study and labor. This is often accomj^lished by shading\\nor ornamentation. For stencil work, a color must be used of a\\nslow-drying nature, otherwise the stencil will soon become\\nclogged and more liable to become broken. There is also\\ndanger of using color too thin, and thus causing it to flow\\nunderneath the edge of the letter, thereby destroying the\\ncleanliness of the work.\\n102. Cleaning Stencils. The stencil must be cleaned\\noften when in use. Not more than five or six signs should be\\nstenciled before cleaning the stencil, which may be done by\\nlaying it face down on\\na clean board or other vr \u00e2\u0080\u0094j V~^il V i ||7\\nsurface and rubbing well V\u00e2\u0080\u0094 i^M _\\non back with a cloth L.,\\nrolled in ball shajje. I I\\nThe stencil must be j\\nthoroughly cleaned with i i\\nbenzine after using, and r j\\nnever put away with i ,,,n,,:,, ,uM;\\nany color remaining on lllllllllllilllllllillll\\nit. This if neglected\\nwill either cause the\\nstencil to break easily, or the color to flow underneath by the\\nextra thickness of the dried color. Color left to dry on\\nthe stencil often warps it so as to render it practically useless,\\nor cause the letterer much unnecessarv trouble.\\nFig. ni.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "52\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nGEOMETRICAI. FIGURES.\\nTRIAXGLES.\\n103, Definition of Triangle. A triangle is a closed\\nfigure having three angles and three straight sides.\\n104. Isosceles Ti-iangles. An isosceles triangle has\\ntwo equal sides and two equal angles (Fig. 62). The length of\\nFig. 62.\\nFig. 63.\\nthe third side is usually different from that of the two equal\\nsides, and is called the base. The term base is, however,\\napplied without distinction to any side on which a triangle is\\nsupposed to stand.\\n105. Altitixde. Whatever side is taken as the base of a\\ntriangle, the altitude, or height, of the triangle is the perpen-\\nFiG. 64. Fig. 65.\\ndicular distance from the base to the vertex of the opposite\\nangle. That vertex is also called the apex of the triangle.\\n106. Angular Pediment. AVhen the height of an\\nisosceles triangle is short in comparison with the base, the\\ntriangle is called an angular pediment (Fig. 63).\\n107. Gable. A gable is an isosceles triangle whose equal\\nsides differ but little from the third side (see Fig. 64). Gables,\\nhowever, may also have the shape of Fig. 65.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "1\\nelp:ments of lettering.\\n53\\n108. Equilateral Triangle. An equilateral triangle\\nlias three equal sides and three angles, as in Fig. 66, which is\\nmade up of equilateral triangles.\\n109. llig-ht-Ang-lecl Triangle. A right-angled triangle\\nis one having one right angle\\n(Fig. 67). The side ojiposite the\\nright angle is the longest, and is\\ncalled the Jujpotenuse.\\nFig. 66.\\nFig. 67.\\nA triangle cannot have more than one right angle, nor more\\nthan one obtuse angle that is, if one of the angles is either\\nright or obtuse, the others must be acute.\\nCIRCLES.\\n110. Definition of Circle. A circje is a closed figure,\\nall the points of whose outline are at the same distance from a\\npoint Avithin called the center (Fig. 68). The term circle is\\napplied both to the curved outline of the figure and to the\\nspace enclosed by it but the curved outline\\nis more commonly called the circumference of\\nX\\nthe circle.\\ny\\nFig. 68\\n111. Radius and Diameter. The dis-\\ntance from the center of a circle to any point\\non the circumference is called the radius of\\nthe circle.\\nA line through the center of a circle, and having its ends\\non the circumference, is called a diameter. In Fig. 69, is the\\ncenter of the circle, OB, D, A, and C are radii, A B and\\nCD are diameters.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "54\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nEvery diameter is equal to two radii, and divides the circle\\ninto two equal parts, or semicircles, and the circumference into\\ntwo semi-circumferences.\\nTwo diameters, perpendicular to each other as A B and CD,\\ndivide the circumference into four equal parts called quadrants.\\n112, A Curve. A curved line, or a curve, is a line no\\npart of which is straight it may be\\nimagined to be formed by the bending\\nof a straight line. Any portion of a\\ncurve is called an arc.\\n113. A Circular Arc. A circular\\narc is any part of a circumference.\\nCircular arcs having the same center,\\nInit different radii, are called parallel arcs.\\nThey are inside one another. They are\\nalso called concentric^ wliich means with the same center.\\nORNAMENTAL CURVES.\\n114. All Ogee. An ogee is a line curved in two ways,\\nhaving, approximately, the form of the letter S, either in its\\nFig. 70.\\nFig. 71,\\nnatural position, as in Fig. 70, or turned over, as in Fig. 71.\\nThe two parts of an ogee may be circular arcs, but arcs of other\\ncurves give a better effect,\\nand is called a swell line.\\nFig. 74.\\nFig. 72 is made up of two ogees,", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "1 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 55\\n115. A Scroll. A scroll is a winding curve, such as\\nshown in Fig. 73.\\nIIG. A i/oop. A loop (Fig. 74) consists of two curves\\nsimilar to the corresponding parts of right and left scrolls,\\nconnected as shown.\\nTHE ELLIPSE.\\nIIT. Methods of Describing an Ellipse. There are\\nmany ways of making or describing an ellipse, some of which\\nare quite complicated. For designing purposes, exclusive of\\narchitectural work, a knowledge of two or three methods will\\nserve every purpose, and fill the needs of the average letterer\\nand designer. The simplest method is by means of two tacks\\nand a string or, if needed for landscape gardening or other\\nlarge-proportioned work, use hemp cord and nails or pegs.\\nDraw a horizontal line, and intersect equally with a vertical\\nline point off on the horizontal line the length of ellipse\\ndesired divide the horizontal line, from this point to the verti-\\ncal line, into four equal parts, and place the tack on the third\\npoint from the vertical on\\neither side place the other\\ntack also in a corresponding\\nposition opposite place a\\nstring arovmd both tacks,\\nand tie the ends together\\nat the point farthest from\\nthe vertical on the hori-\\nzontal line place lead pencil\\ninside and follow around,\\nand we have a perfect ellipse\\nFig. 75.\\nas a result, as shown in\\nFig. 75. By moving the tacks farther away from the vertical\\nline, the ellipse is elongated, if the same string he used.\\n118. To draw the ellipse shown in Fig. 76, construct two\\nsquares, and draw lines from the corners intersecting in the cen-\\nter of each square from this point of intersection, describe the", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "56\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n^1\\nFig. 7G.\\narcs, with compass from a to b from the points c, describe\\nupper and lower hnes from a to a and b to b.\\n119. Another simple form of the ellipse is made by\\ndescril:)ing two circles, which\\ntogether form the length\\nof the ellipse, and drawing\\na horizontal line through\\nthe centers of both circles,\\nas in Fig. 77 each semi-\\ncircle is then divided into\\nthree equal i^arts, as at\\na, a, a, a, and a line is\\ndrawn from each through\\nthe center of each circle,\\nmeeting at the point b from this point describe the curve\\nfrom a to a, top and bot-\\ntom, and the resulting\\nfigure will be an apj^roxi-\\nmate ellipse. The ellipse\\nis sometimes spoken of as\\nan oval. This word, how-\\never, is a misnomer, as the\\noval derives its name from\\nthe Latin ovum, meaning\\nan egg, and its shape\\nis the outline of an egg.\\nNever refer to the oval there-\\nfore as an egg-shaped oval,\\nfor the statement would be equivalent to speaking of a\\nround circle.\\nmodificatio:ns of the fuxdame:ntal styi.es.\\n120. The various styles of alphabet included in this course\\nare known as the fundamental styles, from which arise other\\nstyles that, though they resemble the above somewhat, have so\\nlittle characteristic modification that they are scarcely worth\\nour present consideration. Moreover, these alphabets are of", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 57\\nlittle advantage to the student, but to avoid the danger of con-\\nfusion, we will briefly refer to a few of the principal varieties.\\n121. Ijatin Roman.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The characteristic feature of the\\noriginal Latin Roman alphabet was its irregularit} which is\\nplainly shown on the Arch of Titus, Fig. 1. No space is\\nallowed between the words, the separation being implied by a\\ndot on a line with the center of the letter. The tail of the R\\nand the Q often projects the full width of the letter. The\\nletter V was also employed to express the sound of U, but its\\nmodern use in that capacity by some designers is erroneous.\\nThe other sound of this character in Latin resembles that of\\nour W, having somewhat the sound of the V instead of the\\nLT. Hence, the origin of the W, which is not derived from\\nL^ but from V, and originally written VV, expressed by two\\nseparate characters.\\n122. Ancient Roman. The Ancient Roman is the\\nprototype of our present French Roman, but in many ways is\\nso departed from in modern practice that some of the modified\\nforms of letters have become more familiar than the originals.\\nA H\\n(a) 0\\nFig. 78.\\nThis can 1)6 readily seen in the letter A, Fig. 78, Avhere (a) is\\nthe original form and (h) the modification.\\n123. Antique Egyptian. There are several forms of\\neach letter of the Antique Egyptian, which if seen by the\\nstudent in connection with the regular or normal letter would\\ntend to confuse him, or at least cause him to inquire why\\nhe should observe any system or regularity of form. The law\\nof uniformity is, in lettering, what the order is in architecture\\neach must be closely followed, or to the skilled eye the work is\\nsul^ject to criticism. These styles, therefore, must not be con-\\nfused. If one form is adopted there must be strict adherence", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "58\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nto that form throughout the lettering of the design. This may\\nbe more clearly shown by two or three of these forms of the\\ncapital letters and their corresponding lower case. When\\nthe slanting stroke is\\nI /^STl letters as\\nM f A Vj I H, M, N, and V, it also\\n^^^1- ^^1- V occurs in many of the\\n^i\u00c2\u00b0- 9- lower-case letters, as a, d,\\nh, m, n, and u, as the letters N, a, d, in Fig. 79, will show.\\nThe letter o is sometimes used in this style, as here shown,\\nand the letter t is crossed above the line.\\n124. Otlier Forins of Antique Egyptian. Another\\nform of the Antique Egyptian style is shown in the curved\\nstroke, in jilace of the horizontal middle stroke, of many capital\\nFig. so.\\nFig. 81.\\nand lower-case letters, as in the E and t in Fig. 80; while a\\nchange in the spur of the horizontal strokes changes the charac-\\nter of the entire letter, as shown in the letters L and T, Fig. 8L\\nThere are many other slight departures\\nfrom the normal style, one of which occurs\\nin the middle bar of the A and H, as\\nshown in Fig. 82.\\nThere is still another form of letter that\\nbelongs to the Plain Egyptian style. This\\nform is simple in its construction, and does\\nnot bear sufficient distinction to classify it\\nwith the fundamental styles but in one respect, this form of\\nletter is closely alhed to the French Roman, and the similarity\\nis shown in its having the heavy and light line, as shown\\nin Fig. 83.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 59\\nA few letters of this style are therefore shown to give the\\nstudent an idea of the comparative width of the stroke and\\nfine line. The latter should not exceed that of the stroke.\\nThere is almost unlimited license granted in forming these\\nFig. 83.\\nletters, as shown in the two letters T and E. In making\\nthese letters never j^lace a spur on any part of the letter, as this\\nat once throws the characteristic feature of the style in favor of\\nthe French Roman and to widen the fine line to nearl}^ that\\nof the stroke brings it within classification limits of the\\nEgyptian. Never show a suggestion of a straight line on\\nthe inside of the round letters, but always make a perfect ellipse\\nor a symmetrical curve. This letter holds an important place\\nwith our modern designers, but a knowledge of the Egyptian\\nand French Roman only is necessary to produce this modifi-\\ncation. This is likewise true of all letters used. By a thorough\\nknowledge of the few fundamental styles, the student can readily\\ntrace all variations arising from these to their parent style.\\n125. Boston Roman. The Boston Roman has a slight\\nvariation from the normal form shown in\\nPlate 14 Avhich occurs in the spur only,\\nbut Avhich gives it a marked difference in\\nappearance from the regular style. The\\nspur, instead of being finished on the end,\\nas shown in Plate entitled Boston Roman,\\nis cut off on an angle of about 45\u00c2\u00b0, as shown in Fig. 84.\\n126. Antique Half Block. A third style, known as the\\nAntique Half Block, has two or three varieties. Such of\\nthe capitals, as Avell as the small letters, as possess a middle\\nstroke have this stroke changed to an angle of 60\u00c2\u00b0. In one", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "60\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nvariety the short strokes of the lower-case letters are cut on the\\nsame angle as the middle stroke, as phown in Fig. -So, the angle\\nPeas Fear\\nFig. 85.\\nFig. 86.\\nof the s being directly opposite. Another variety of this letter\\nis the same as Fig. 85, except that the short strokes are altered\\nin appearance, and arc finished with a fine line and a dot, as\\nBeauti]\\nFig. S7.\\nshown in Fig. 86. This form of letter can be spaced more\\nclosely than the regular style used in condensed spaces, and\\nthe variety shown in Fig. 87 recjuires even less space than either\\nEEC\\n(a)\\n(b)\\nFig. 81\\nCc;\\nof the others and, as the corners are not cut off, tlie letter\\npossesses a square, compact appearance, somewhat relieved of\\nseverity by the finishing of the corners with a slight spur. The", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n61\\nsame rule of formation applies to capitals as Avell as to lower-\\ncase letters, except the middle bars of E and F, which are\\nalways horizontal.\\n127. French Roman. The French Roman is also in\\nturn slightly changed, giving rise to several distinct varieties, as\\nshown in Fig. 88. In the letter E, shown at (a), the only\\ndifference from the Ancient Roman style\\nis the spur that projects at a right angle\\nfrom the horizontal lines top and bottom.\\nIn the letter shown at (b) the spurs\\nare the same as at (a), except those of\\nthe main upright strokes, which are\\nfinished with a flat end. The round\\nletter of this style is shown at (c).\\n128. The Flemish.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Flemish\\nor Dutch, so closely resembling the Ger-\\nman Text, is another style that will not\\nbe considered in this course. The characteristic feature of this\\nalphabet is the diamond, dot, and plain vertical stroke and fine\\nline, as shown in Fig. 89, its other features being practically the\\nsame as the German style. In the lower-case very little change\\nFig. 89.\\nFig. 90.-\\noccurs except the ball, which is added to many of the long-\\nstroke letters, as shown in the figure.\\n129. Variations. There are so many styles of letters,\\narising from some simple idea, that any student of lettering may\\napply to a fundamental style and such ideas are so numerous,\\nthat it will be impossible to call attention to more than one or\\ntwo of these in conclusion.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "62\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nThe curved stroke is one such style, and is shown by the\\nletters D, R, U, G, in Fie;. 90. Another of these styles is pro-\\nTEL\\nFig. 91.\\nduced l^y curving the spur and horizontal strokes forming the\\nblock letters, especially the full block, as shown in Fig. 9L\\nNote. The modifications considcnd in the foregoing pages of this Instruc-\\ntion Paper refer to fundamental sttjli^, iiKt n ij of which the student will not have\\noccasion to refer to, or mahe comparisons with until well advanced in his\\ncourse, we woidd advise, therefore, that a study of these variations be deferred\\nuntil the plates mentioned in this connection hare been received, and the funda-\\nmental styles hare become familiar to the student.\\nmecha:nical lettering.\\n130. When instruments such as the T square, triangles,\\ncompasses, etc. are used to execute lettering, it is called\\nmechanical lettering, as distinguished from freehand lettering,\\n^^m; l\u00c2\u00bb\u00c2\u00bb\\nFig. 92.\\nwhich is executed with the pen or brush, unaided by anything\\nexcept the judgment of the eye.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n63\\n131. All the instruments and materials required for this\\ncourse in lettering are mentioned in the following descriptions\\nThe dra^ving board should be made of well-seasoned\\nstraight-grained inne, the grain running lengthwise. For this\\ncourse, the student Avill need a board of about the following\\ndimensions length over all, 21 inches width, 16 inches the\\nthickness may be made about -i inch. There should be two\\nend-pieces If inches wide, as shown in Fig. 92, which are fast-\\nened to the board proper by means of nails or screws. One or\\nboth of these pieces should be perfectly straight.\\nFig. 93.\\nA better board is shown in Fig. 93 here the end-pieces are\\nfastened to the board by a glued matched joint in addition to\\nthe nails or screws, and there are two cleats on the bottom\\n1 inch by inch, extending the whole width of the board.\\nThe cleats raise the board from the table and make it easier to\\nchange in position. The board is placed so that a straight end-\\npiece is at the left of the draftsman, as shown in Fig. 93.\\n132. The T square is used for drawing horizontal straight\\nlines. The head A is placed against the left-hand edge of the", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "64\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nboard, as shown in Fig. 94. The upper edge G of the blade B\\nis brought very near to the point through which it is desired to\\npass the hne, so that the straight edge C of the blade may be\\nC\\nB\\nFig. 94.\\nused as a guide for the pen or pencil. It is evident that all\\nlines drawn in this manner Avill be parallel.\\nVertical lines are drawn by means of triangles. The triangles\\nmost generally used are shown in Figs. 95 and 96. Each has\\none right angle, marked 90\u00c2\u00b0 in the figures. Fig. 95 has two\\nFiu. 95.\\nangles of 45\u00c2\u00b0 each, and Fig. 96 one of 60\u00c2\u00b0 and one of 30\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThey are called 4-5\u00c2\u00b0 and 60\u00c2\u00b0 triangles, respectively. To draw a\\nvertical line, place the T square in position to draw a horizontal\\nline, and lay the triangle against it, so as to form a right angle.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n65\\nHold both T square and triangle lightly with the left hand, so\\nas to keep them from slipping, and draw the line with the pen\\nor pencil held in the right hand, and against the edge of the\\ntriangle. Fig. 97 shows the\\nIt IlltJilo ojll\\ntriangles and T square m\\nposition.\\n133. For drawing par-\\nallel lines that are neither\\nvertical nor horizontal, the\\nsimplest and best way,\\nwhen the lines are near\\ntogether, is to place one\\nedge of a triangle, as ah,\\nFig. 98, on the given line cd, and lay the other triangle, as B,\\nagainst one of the two edges, holding it fast with the left hand\\nthen move the triangle A along the edge of B. The edge a b will\\nbe parallel to the line cd and when the edge ab reaches the\\npoint g, through which it is desired to draw the parallel line,\\nhold both triangles stationary with the left hand, and draw the\\nline cf by passing the pencil along the edge ab. Should\\nFig. 98.\\nthe triangle A extend too far beyond the edge of the triangle B\\nafter a number of lines have been drawn, hold vl stationary with\\nthe left hand and shift B along the edge of A with the right\\nhand, and then proceed as before.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "66\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\n134. A line may be drawn at right angles to another line\\nwhich is neither vertical nor horizontal, as illustrated in Fig. 99.\\nLet cd be the given line (shown at the left-hand side). Place\\none of the shorter edges, as ab, of the triangle B so that it will\\ncoincide Avith the line cd; then, keeping the triangle in this\\nposition, place the triangle A so that its long edge will come\\nagainst the long edge of B. Now, holding A securely in place\\nwith the left hand, slide B along the edge of A with the right\\nhand, when the lines h i, m n, etc. may be drawn perpendicular\\nto cd along the edge bf of the triangle B. The dotted lines\\nFig. 99.\\nshow the position of the triangle B when moved along the\\nedge of ^4.\\n135. The right-hand portion of Fig. 99 shows another\\nmethod of accomplishing the same result, and illustrates how\\nthe triangles may be used for drawing a rectangular figure,\\nwhen the sides of the figure make an angle with the T square\\nsuch that the latter cannot be used.\\nLet the side cd of the figure be given. Place the long side of\\nthe triangle B so as to coincide with the line cd, and bring the\\ntriangle A into position against the lower side of B, as shown.\\nNow, holding the triangle A in place with the left hand, revolve\\nB so that its other short edge will rest against the long edge A,", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "SI\\nELExMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n67\\nas shoAvu in the dotted i30sition at B The parallel lines ce\\nand (If may now be drawn through the points c and d by sliding\\nthe triangle B on the triangle A, as described in connection\\nwith Fig. 98. Measure off the required width of the figure on\\nthe line ce, reverse the triangle B again to its original position,\\nstill holding the triangle A in a fixed position with the left\\nhand, and slide B upon A until the long edge of B passes\\nthrough e. Draw the line ef through the point e, and ef will\\nbe parallel to cd. The student should practice with his\\ntriangles before beginning drawing.\\n136. The comijasses, next to the T square and triangles,\\narc used more than any other\\ninstrument. A pencil and a pen\\npoint are provided, as shown in\\nFig. 100, either of which may be\\ninserted into a socket in one leg\\nof the instrument, for the draw-\\ning of circles in pencil or ink.\\nThe other leg is fitted with a\\nneedle point, which acts as the\\ncenter al:)Out which the circle is\\ndrawn. In all good instruments,\\nthe needle point itself is a sepa-\\nrate piece of round steel wire,\\nheld in place in a socket pro-\\nvided at the end of the leg.\\nThe wire should have a square\\nshoulder at its lower end, below\\nwhich a fine, needle-like point\\nprojects. The lengthening bar, also\\nshown in the figure, is used to\\nextend the leg carrying the pen\\nand the pencil points when circles\\nof large radii are to be drawn.\\nThe joint at the top of the compasses should hold tlie legs\\nfirmly in any position, and at the same time should permit their\\nbeing opened, or closed with one hand. The joint may be", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "68\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\ntightened or loosened by means of a screwdriver or wrench,\\nwhich accompanies the compasses.\\nIt will be noticed in Fig. 100 that each leg of the compasses\\nis jointed this is done so that the compass points may always\\nbe kept perpendicular to the paper when drawing circles, as in\\nFig. 102.\\n137. The following suggestions for handling the compasses\\nshould be carefully observed by those that are beginning the\\nsubject of drawing. Any draftsman or letterer that handles\\nhis instruments awkwardly will create a bad impression, no\\nFig. 101.\\nmatter how good a workman he may be. The tendency of all\\nbeginners is to use both hands for operating the compasses.\\nThis is to be avoided. The student should learn at the start to\\nopen and close them with one hand, holding them as shown in\\nFig. 101, with the needle-point leg resting between the thumb\\nand the fourth finger, and the other leg between the middle\\nfinger and the forefinger. When drawing circles, hold the\\ncompasses lightly at the top between the thumb and forefinger,\\nor thumb, forefinger, and middle finger, as in Fig. 102. Another\\ncase where both hands should not be used is in locating the\\nneedle point at a point on the drawing about which the circle is\\nto be drawn, unless the left hand is used merely to steady the\\nneedle point. Hold the compasses as shown in Fig. 101, and", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nG9\\nincline them until the under side of the hand rests upon the\\npaper. This will steady the hand so that the needle point can\\nbe brought to exactly the right place on the drawing. Having\\njilaced the needle at the desired point, and with it still resting\\non the paper, the pen or pencil point may be moved out or in\\nto any desired radius, as indicated in Fig. lOL When the\\nlengthening bar is used, both hands must be employed.\\n138. The compasses must be handled in such a manner\\nthat the needle point will not dig large holes in the paper.\\nFig 102.\\nKeep the needle point adjusted so that it will be perpendicular\\nto the paper, when drawing circles, and do not bear upon it. A\\nslight pressure will be necessary on the pen or pencil point, hut\\nnot on the needle lioint.\\n139. The dividers, shown in Fig. 103, are used for laying\\noff distances upon a drawing, or for dividing straight lines or\\ncircles into parts. The points of the dividers should be very\\nsharp, so that they will not punch holes in the paper larger", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "70 ELExMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\nthan is absolutely necessary to be seen. Compasses are some-\\ntimes furnished with two steel divider points, besides the pen\\nand pencil points, so that the instrument may be used either as\\ncompasses or dividers. This is the kind illustrated in Fig. 103.\\nWhen using the dividers to space a line or circle into a number\\nof equal parts, hold them at the top between the thumb and the\\nforefinger, as when using the compasses, and step off the spaces,\\nturning the instrument alternately to the right and left. If the\\nline or circle does not space exactly, vary the distance between\\nthe divider points and try again so continue until it is spaced\\nequally. When spacing in tliis manner, great care must be\\nexercii-ed not to press the divider points into the paper for, if\\nFk.. 103.\\nthe points enter the paper, the spacing can never be accurately\\ndone. The student should satisfy himself of the truth of this\\nstatement by actual trial.\\n140. Drawing Paper and Pencils. The drawing\\npaper required for this series of lessons is Whatman s hot-\\npressed Royal, the size of which is 12 in. X 19 in. It takes ink\\nwell, and withstands considerable erasing. The paper is\\nsecured to the drawing board by means of thumbtacks. Four\\nare usually sufficient one at each corner of the sheet. Place a\\npiece of paper on the drawing .board, and press a thumbtack\\nthrough one of the corners about or f of an inch from each\\nedge. Place the T square in position for drawing a horizontal\\nline, as before explained, and straighten the paper so that its\\nupper edge wall be parallel to the edge of the T-square blade.\\nPull the corner diagonally opposite that in which the thumb-\\ntack was placed, so as to stretch the paper shghtly, and push in\\nanother thumbtack. Do the same with the remaining two\\ncorners. For drawing in pencil, a Dixon s Artists H pencil,\\nNo. 217 (commonly called a No. 4 Dixon s Artists may hv.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "1\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n71\\nused. The pencil should be sharpened to a medium point.\\nCut the wood away so as to leave about J or f of an inch of the\\nlead projecting then finish the point by rubbing it against a\\nfine file or a piece of fine emery cloth or sandpaper that has\\nbeen fastened to a flat stick. The lead for the compasses should\\nbe sharpened to a flat or chisel-shaped point. Be sure that the\\ncompass lead is so secured that, tvhcn circles are struck in either\\ndirection, but one line will he draivn with the same radius and center.\\n141. Inking-. For draAving ink lines other than arcs of\\ncircles, the x-nling- pen (or right-line pen, as it is sometimes\\ncalled) is used. It should be held as nearly perpendicular to\\nthe board as possible, Avith the hand in the position shown in\\nFigs. 104 and 105, bearing lightly on the T square or triangle,\\nagainst the edge of which the line is drawn. After a little\\npractice, this position will become natural, and no difficulty\\nwill be experienced.\\n142. The beginner will find that it is not always easy to\\nmake smooth lines. If the pen is held so that only one blade\\nbears on the paper when drawing, the line will almost invariably", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "72\\nELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\n\u00c2\u00a71\\nbe ragged on the edge where the blade does not bear. When\\nheld at right angles to the paper, as in Fig. 105, however,\\nboth blades will rest on the paper, and if the pen is in good con-\\ndition, smooth lines will result. The pen must not be pressed\\nagainst the edge of the T square or triangle, as the blades will\\nthen close together, making the line uneven. The edge should\\nserve simply as a guide.\\nIn drawing circles with the compass pen, the same care\\nshould be taken to keep the blades perpendicular to the paper\\nFig. 105.\\nby means of the adjustment at the joint. In botli the ruling\\npen and tlie compass pen, the width of tlie lines can be altered\\nby means of the screw which holds the blades together.\\n143. Drawing- Ink. The ink used should be Higgins\\nwaterproof liquid India ink. A quill is attached to the cork of\\nevery bottle of this ink, by means of Avhich the pen may be\\nfilled. Dip the quill into the ink, and then pass the end of it\\nbetween the blades of the drawing pen. Do not put too much\\nink in the pen, not more than enough to fill it for a quarter of\\nan inch along the blades, otherwise the ink is lia1)le to drop.\\nMany draftsmen prefer to use stick India ink and, for lettering", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. 73\\npurposes, this is to be preferred to the prepared liquid ink\\nrecommended above. In case the stick ink is bought, put\\nenough water in a shallow dish (a common individual butter\\nplate will do) to make enough ink for the drawing then place\\none end of the stick in the water, and grind by giving the stick\\na circular motion. Do not bear hard upon the stick. Test the\\nink occasionally to see if it is black. Draw a fine line with the\\npen, and hold the paper in a strong light. If it shows brown\\n(or gra}^), grind a while longer, and test again. Keep grinding\\nuntil a fine line shows hiaclx., which will usually take from\\nfifteen minutes to half an hour, depending on the quantity of\\nwater used. The ink should always be kept well covered with a\\nflat plate of some kind, to keep out the dust and prevent evapo-\\nration. The drawing pen may be filled by dipping an ordinary\\nwriting pen into the ink and drawing it through the blades, as\\npreviously described when using the quill. If Higgins ink is\\nused, all the lines on all the drawings will be of the same color,\\nand no time will be lost in grinding. If stick ink is used, it is\\npoor economy to buy a cheap stick. A small stick of the best\\nquality, costing, say, a dollar, will last as long, perhaps, as five\\ndollars worth of liquid ink. The only reason for using liquid\\nink is that all lines are then sure to be of equal blackness, and\\ntime is saved in grinding.\\nTrouble will probably be caused by the ink drying between\\nthe blades and refusing to flow, especially when drawing fine\\nlines. The only remedy is to wipe out the pen frequently with\\na wet cloth. Do not lay the pen down for any great length of\\ntime, when it contains ink wipe it out first. The ink may\\nsometimes be started by moistening the end of the finger and\\ntouching it to the point, or by drawing a slip of paper between\\nthe ends of the blade. Always keep the bottle corked.\\n144. To Sharpen the Drawing Pen. When the\\nruling, or compass, pen becomes badly worn, it must be sharp-\\nened. For this purpose a fine oilstone should be used. If an\\noilstone is to be purchased, a small, flat, close-grained stone\\nshould be obtained, those having a triangular section being\\npreferable, as the narrow edge can be used on the inside of the", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "74 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. \u00c2\u00a71\\nblades in case the latter are not made to swing apart so as to\\npermit the use of a thicker edge.\\nThe first step in sharpening is to screw the blades together,\\nand, holding the pen perpendicular to the oilstone, to draw it\\nback and forth over the stone, changing the slope of the pen\\nfrom downward and to the right to downward and to the left\\nfor each movement of the pen to the right and left. The object\\nof this is to bring the blades to exactly the same length and\\nshape, and to round them nicely at the point.\\nThis process, of course, makes the edges even duller than\\nbefore. To sharpen, separate the points by means of the screw,\\nand rub one of the blades to and from the operator in a straight\\nline, giving the pen a slight twisting motion at the same time,\\nand holding it at an angle of about 15\u00c2\u00b0 with the face of the\\nstone. Repeat the process for the other blade. To be in good\\ncondition the edges should be fairly sharp and smooth, but not\\nsharp enough to cut the paper. All the sharpening must be done\\non the outside of the blades. The inside of the blades should be\\nrubbed on the stone only enough to remove any burr that may\\nhave been formed. Anything more than this will be likely to\\ninjure the pen. The whole operation must be done very\\ncarefully, bearing on lightly, as it is easy to spoil a pen in the\\nprocess. Examine the points frequently, and keep at work\\nuntil the pen Avill draw both fine lines and smooth heavy lines.\\nHOW THE WORK SHOULD BE SENT.\\n145. For the letter plates of this Course, copies of the\\nplates will be sent you as j ou need them. The tube we send\\nyou with this Paper should be used by you for sending us your\\ndrawing of Plate I upon finishing it. Send one plate to us at\\na time. Thus, after you finish the first plate, send it to us, and\\nthen start on the second plate. In the meantime Ave will\\nreturn the first plate to you. On your receiving back the first\\nplate from us, you should carefully note all corrections and\\nsuggestions that may he sent with it, and observe them when\\ndrawing the succeeding plates. On no account send us the\\nsecond plate until you have received the first one back. L^pon", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a71 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.\\nfinishing the second plate, send this to lis and start on the third\\nplate, and in the meantime we will return the second plate to\\nyou. Do this with all the drawing plates in the Course.\\nIt is very essential that you strictly comply with these direc-\\ntions since, otherwise, it will be impossible for us to point out\\nyour mistakes to j^ou. This procedure should be strictly adhered\\nto while you are drawing the first plates of the Course it will\\nenable you to make rapid progress. Do not be discouraged if\\nthere are a large number of corrections on your early plates\\nwe are merely pointing out ways in which the drawing or letter-\\ning can be improved, so that j^our later plates may be as nearly\\nperfect as they can be made. No one can attain proficiency\\nunless the work is criticized, and we are doing our best to help\\nyou to succeed. We should not be doing our duty if we did\\nnot point out the defects. The number of corrections is no\\nindication of our appreciation of the merits of the drawing.\\nOn all plates that you send to us, write your name and\\naddress in full in lead pencil on the back of the plates. This\\nshould in no case be omitted, as delays in the return of your\\nwork will otherwise surely occur.\\nPLATES.\\n146. Preliminary Directions. The size of each plate\\nover all will be 1\\\\\\\\ in. X 18;^ in. Whenever any dimensions are\\nspecified, they should be laid off as accurately as possible. All\\ndrawings should be made as neat as possible, and the penciling\\nentirely finished l)efore inking in any part of it. The hands\\nshould be perfectly clean, and should not touch the paper\\nexcept when necessary. No lines should be erased except\\nwhen absolutely necessary for, whenever a line has once been\\nerased, the dirt flying around in the air and constantly falling\\non the drawing will stick to any spot where an erasure has\\nbeen made, and render it very difficult, if not impossible, to\\nentirely remove it. For this reason, all construction lines that\\nare to be removed, or that are liable to be changed, should be\\ndrawn lightly, that the finish of the paper may not be destroyed\\nwhen erasing them,", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "Lettering\\n-AND-\\nSign Painting.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "Lettering and Sign Painting.\\nixteoditctio:n^.\\n1. Scope of Subject.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Sign painting does not consist\\nmerely of painting letters on sign boards or windows, but\\nincludes all classes of work, from the plain black lettering on\\nthe glass of an office door to the most artistic pictorial designs\\nused on banners and other elaborate gold and silver signs.\\nThe sign painter must also be prepared to execute all manner\\nof designs for the carver and stone cutter, and even portraiture\\nenters into his industr} for such purposes as campaign and\\nsociety banners.\\n2. Qualiflcatious Necessary. The sign painter should\\nbe a master of the art of designing, for, as we have already\\nstated, under this head is embraced a general knowledge of all\\nthat is considered artistic. He should be thoroughly familiar\\nwith the use of colors, having due regard for their harmony and\\ncontrast, and also the many effects that can be produced by\\ntheir unlimited combinations he should also be familiar with\\nthe result of applying one color over another, when one has\\nbeen prepared so as to dry slowly, and the other prepared to\\ndry quickly and with the results produced by the varied\\npreparation of the priming, groundwork, and finishing coats,\\nthe mixing of colors for certain backgrounds, or the treatment\\nof the material on which he is to letter. These and a great\\nmany other subjects, which constantly arise, must be met and\\nfully understood, to fulfil the demands made on the successful\\nand up-to-date sign painter.\\n3. Experience and Tlieory. While theoretical knowl-\\nedge is the basis of all proficiency in the arts, yet much remains\\nto be learned from experience. The physician is graduated\\nfrom his college with a full knowledge of his profession, but his\\n\u00c2\u00a72", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\nyear or two of hospital service is incumbent on him before he\\nis fully qualified to engage in private practice. We have\\ntherefore given in the Elements of Lettering the knowledge\\nnecessary to qualify the student that desires to become a\\npractical letterer. But the instruction contained in the follow-\\ning pages is of such a practical nature as to advance him in\\nlettering so that he may enter the sign shop beyond the year\\nor two of servitude required, and, by a complete knowledge of\\nthe methods and formulas employed, be fitted to become at\\nonce of practical assistance to his employer.\\nPRACTICE AXD MATERIAL.\\n4. Brush AVork. It is necessary that the student\\ndesiring to apply his knowledge of lettering especially to sign\\npainting should become accustomed to the use of the brush\\nand paint, by confining his practice to these materials as much\\nas possible. It is only by constant practice that the hand\\nbecomes skilled in the use of the brush in forming straight\\nlines and curves with accuracy, in order to give to each letter\\nits proportionate Avidth and uniform stroke.\\n5. Brushes Required. The brushes for practice work\\nshould be as follows the small brush, capable of making a\\nletter from 3 to 6 inches in height, having a quill y^^- inch in\\ndiameter, and hair f inch long and the large brush, with a\\nquill I inch in diameter, and hair inch long. Cut off\\nlength of quill, after softening in warm water to prevent it from\\nsplitting. This will allow the handle (which must be carefully\\nfitted in quill) to turn freely in the fingers without touching\\nthe quill with the ends of the fingers, which Avould, on account\\nof the imperfect quill, roll unevenly in the fingers and thus\\ndestroy a perfect line or curve. The brush should be cleaned\\nin turpentine before, as well as after, using and, to prevent\\nit from drying or hardening when not in use, it should be\\ndipped in kerosene oil after cleaning.\\n6. Card Black. -The color known among letterers as\\ncard black will be found to be a good preparation for practice", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING.\\nwork. This color flows freely from the brush, is an intense\\nblack, and dries with a glossy surface a few moments after\\nthe application. It may be prepared by the student as follows\\nUse a vessel that will hold at least pint in this put coach\\nblack (ground in japan), in bulk, equal to a large English\\nwalnut add three times this quantity of best asphaltum,\\nalso about a tablespoonful of best coach japan. Stir until\\nthoroughly mixed, and thin this with a small quantity of\\nturj^entine until it becomes equal to the consistency of cream,\\nor so that it will flow freely from the brush. Put this mixture\\nin a large-neck bottle with screw-cap or cork top. This should\\nalways be well shaken before it is used. Another preparation\\nknown as Letterine is also an excellent mixture.\\n7. Papei*. The light Manila paper, white cardboard, or\\nthe ordinary white flat papers will serve the purpose for\\npractice work. With the exception of cardboard, these should\\nbe securely fastened to the drafting table before beginning\\nto practice.\\nMETHODS USED IX SIGN PAi:N^TrNG.\\nTOOLS :n ecessary.\\nGEKERAL, TOOLS AND APPLIANCES.\\n8. Principal Tools ISfecessary. The principal tools\\nnecessary for sign painting and lettering are the T square,\\nboxwood square, the compass with pencil attachment, straight-\\nedge, yardstick, 30\u00c2\u00b0 and 45\u00c2\u00b0 triangles, easel, and drafting table.\\nWith these tools, one is prepared to letter all ordinary signs\\nthat may be executed within the shop while those on the\\nsides of buildings, too high to be reached with an ordinary\\nladder, require the use of a swing scaffold, tackle blocks, and\\nropes. Trestle horses and plank are also used for work above\\nthe reach of the step-ladder. The T square with swivel top and\\nthumbscrew can be adjusted to any angle, and will be found a\\nvery useful tool. Three compasses, at least, should be used", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "4 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\nthe largest (the wood compass) should be capable of an expan-\\nsion of 3 feet. The sign easel should be made of extra-heavy\\nmaterial, as the weight put Upon it is sometimes very heavy.\\nThe drafting table should be constructed high enough to avoid\\nthe necessity of the letterer getting into a stooping position\\nwhen working. This table should be built 3 feet 2 inches high\\nin front, and with the view of the letterer always standing up\\nwhile working on it. For close work, which can be done as\\nwell, or better, while sitting, a lower table should be used,\\nadjusted accordingly in either case the incline should not\\nexceed 6 inches rise in 20 inches width.\\n9. Improvised Appliances. There are many tools and\\ncontrivances used in a sign shop that an inventive brain can\\nalways improvise, such as the arm rest, which is a strip about\\n3 inches wide by 1 inch thick, with blocks underneath each\\nend, thick enough to raise this rest above the sign on which the\\nletterer is working the adjustable frame, on which cloth signs\\nare stretched while being lettered, which is a frame usually\\nfastened at each corner by setscrews the glass sign racks, used\\nto hold glass signs and insure their safety during the process\\nof lettering or the adjustable frame used to hold finished\\nwork, etc. The ordinary tools necessary in a sign shop, such\\nas palette knives, palettes, etc. are too well understood to need\\nany description. A solid table, with a firm, level top, about\\n18 in. X 24 in., covered with plate glass, will be found very\\nuseful in mixing colors if made light and portable, this can\\nbe used conveniently by placing it beside the work on which\\nthe letterer may be engaged.\\nBRUSHES.\\n10. Caniel s-Haii* Bi uslies. We will first consider the\\nbrushes to be used for lettering. Of those used exclusively for\\nthis purpose, the most connnon variety is the ordinary camel s-\\nhair brush. These are the least expensive, and range in size\\nfrom the 5-inch, known as No. 7, to the swan quill, which is\\nthe most stocky quill brush in use for lettering. The goose", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a72 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 5\\nqnills are made in four sizes, Nos. 7, 5, 3, 1. No. 1 is a l-inch\\n(|uill v. ith hair 1^ inches long.\\n11. Ox-Hair Writers. The ox-hair writers are\\nsimilar to the camel s hair in size and numbers, but are harder\\nto breik in, or bring into perfect working order, and are\\nused to best advantage in heavy color, such as white lead.\\n12. Superfine Bro wn-Sable Writers. The superfine\\nbrown sable writers are also of four sizes. Their numbers are\\n1, 4, 6, 8, and their lengths correspond with the camel s-hair\\nbrushes. These will be found excellent brushes, and when\\nthoroughly broken in will give good service while the camel s\\nhair are unreliable in lasting equality, but serve the purpose\\nwhere the brown sable are of no use. This is especially true\\nwhen used for lettering on japanned tins, glass, or other\\nsmooth surfaces.\\n13. Retl-Sable Bruslies. For lettering in water colors\\nas well as oil, the long-handled red-sable brushes are preferable.\\nThese range in sizes numbered from 1 to 12, successively. The\\nhair of No. 1 is inch long, while that of No. 12 is -fg- inch\\nlong. These brushes are well made, and generally give satis-\\nfaction. The flat red-sable brushes are chisel-shaped, and for\\nuse in making a letter, such as the Old English, will be found\\nof great advantage.\\n14. Swan Quill. The swan quill (camel s hair) referred\\nto, will be found invaluable, both in lettering and striping, on\\naccount of the great amount of color it can be made to retain.\\nThese brushes are used with light flowing color only, and to use\\nthem in any color made with white lead would ruin them at\\nonce. They are made especially for sign painters, in two sizes,\\nf inch and 1 inch long, and one size made for carriage stripers\\nis 2 inches long.\\n15. Other Bruslies. The fitch and bristle varnish\\nbrushes are used for lettering on cloth signs, and other large\\nletters and, on account of their size and chisel shape, can be\\nused with great rapidity, and will give the work an appearance\\nof neatness and cleanliness. The only other brushes used by", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "6 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING.\\nthe sign painter are the pound brush, which is necessary to coat\\nsign boards or other plain surfaces the round and flat sash\\ntools the fitch, or fiat bristle brush and the flat hearh-hair\\nbrush (made exclusively for varnishing purposes). These\\nconstitute all the brushes required for sign painting and letter-\\ning, except the round duster, the several varieties of gilding\\nbrushes, blenders, stipplers, etc.\\nTHE T SQUARE.\\n16. On all signs having either a square top or bottom, the\\nT square can be used, not only for marking out the letters, but\\nalso for guiding the hand in using the brush, though to accom-\\nplish this perfectly requires much practice. It will be advisable,\\ntherefore, that the student take pains to acquire this method,\\nand become accustomed to the position of the hand, and the\\nmanner in which the brush should be held. Fig. 1 shows this\\nposition. The brush is held between the thumb and the first\\nfinger, the handle pointing towards the letterer, allowing the\\nthree fingers to guide the hand along the edge of the T-square\\nblade. The left hand is used to secure the square in position,\\neither by holding it firmly at the head when working on a\\nnarrow sign, or at the end of the blade when working on\\na wide sign, which will prevent the square from slipping if the\\nforefinger is rested against the bottom of the sign board as\\nshown. By the use of the T square and this method of striping,\\nthe letterer can draw all vertical and angle lines, having first,\\nby the same method, striped all horizontal lines, using a\\nstraightedge for this purpose instead of the T square, but main-\\ntaining the same position of the hand and brush. The block,\\nhalf- block, and all straight-line letters of any style can be made\\nwith great rapidity in this manner.\\nPOSITIO^V^ OF IIAIS^DS.\\n17. The left hand should rest in an easy position, project-\\ning the little finger, to steady it this also gives a greater scope\\nin making a stroke. The right hand should rest comfortably", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING.\\non the left, and be arranged in such a manner that the little\\nfinger of the right will come between the thumb and the\\nforefinger of the left hand, holding the brush in the same\\nposition as in writing, as shown in Fig. 2.\\n18. Although this may seem somewhat awkward at first, it\\nwill be found, on practicing- a little, that it is the most natural\\nand comfortable position, as well as the one by which the best\\nAvork can be accomplished. It allows perfect freedom of the\\nhand in making all strokes of the letter, giving a greater scope\\nin making large letters than any other position or method it\\nFig. 2.\\nalso forms a rest, giving the letterer entire control over his\\nbrush. By constant practice, a perfectly straight line may be\\ndrawn with the brush, either vertically or horizontally. When\\nmaking letters under 1 inch in height, it is best to use but one\\nhand in the position used while writing and a red-sable brush,\\nfrom No. 1 to 5, according to the size of letter, will be found to\\nfill the requirements for small lettering.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a72\\nLETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING.\\nSTRIPIXG.\\n19. There are but two methods of striping with a brush,\\nboth of which are employed by the sign painter. The first of\\nthese, and the one most generally used, is shown in Fig. 1. By\\nthis method, the brush is drawn over the surface, spreading its\\nhairs somewhat, and touching with almost the entire brush\\nlength, the letterer at the same time being careful to keep the\\nwidth uniform. In some cases, when striping by this method,\\nFig. 3.\\nit is necessary only to observe the line made by the ))rush on\\none side, as in lettering or striping to the edge of the letter.\\nThis system the carriage painter uses exclusively, and for a\\nbrush he uses the one known as the swoi-d pencil, a long\\nflat brush with which he can make the stripe called the fine\\nline, which is almost a hair line.\\n20. To accomplish the same results, the sign painter\\nemploys an entirely different method, producing equally as\\nfine and perfect a stripe, but using the point of the lettering\\nbrush, or pencil, called also the writer, by holding the brush at", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "10 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\na right angle with the surface on which he is working, and\\nallowing the fingers to guide the hand. The brush used for\\nthis method must be one that is either drawn to a slight\\nchisel-shaped end, and turned edgewise to produce the finest\\nline possible, or one that possesses a good point, which will not\\nallow any of the hairs to spread while using.\\n21. Great care should be used in the selection of brushes\\nfor any class of work, either lettering or striping. Fig. 3 shows\\nthe other method of striping referred to. It will be good\\npractice for the student to lay a straightedge on a sheet of\\ncardboard, and draw the fine line, by observing the position\\nshown in Fig. 3, until the perfectly straight hair line has been\\nmastered. This will require considerable practice. Use the\\nsame brush, well filled with water or oil color, and practice the\\nbroad stripe by the method shown in Fig. 1. The brush for\\nthis purpose should be rather large, as a small one will not\\nspread the color to the full width of the stripe desired. The\\neffort to accomplish this by means of a brush that is too small\\nwill cause an irregular or wavy stripe while the large\\nbrush will make the broad stripe with the hair in its normal\\nposition, and no great pressure, therefore, is required.\\nCOLORS.\\nCLASSIFICATION OF COLORS.\\n22. Tlie Primar.Y, Secondary, and Neutral Colors.\\nColors are divided into three classes, namely primary, sec-\\nondary, and neutral. The semineutral, holding a place between\\nthe secondary and the neutral, is classed with the latter.\\nThe primary colors are red, yellow, and blue. By a mixture\\nof any two of these the secondary colors can be produced and,\\nby the addition of white and black in combination with the\\nprimary or secondary colors, all neutral colors, shades, and\\ntints are produced. A combination of red and yellow pro-\\nduces the secondary orange. A combination of yellow and\\nblue produces green. A combination of red and blue produces\\npurple. The union of black and white produces lead color.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a72 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 11\\nA combination of the three primary colors produces a neiUral\\ncolor, by using a proper quantity of each in proportion to its\\nstrength. A combination of the three primary in unequal\\nproj)ortions produces colors known as tertiary colors.\\n23. Color. The trade term color always refers to any\\nmixture that will produce each separate hue by compounding\\nthe primary and secondary colors while the spectrum shades of\\nthe colors always refer to the blending of the primary and\\nsecondary colors, in the following order red, orange, yellow,\\ngreen, blue, indigo, and violet. These colors make twenty-\\none distinct shades.\\n24. Producing Sliades. The various shades of a color\\nare formed by mixing a strong primary or secondary color with\\nwhite, making several shades of different strength until the\\ncolor has become indistinct, when it is termed a tint. A com-\\nbination of red and green produces brown. Of this color there\\nare many shades. The burnt and raw umber, and burnt and\\nraw sienna, when in their natural, or raw, state are brown\\npigments, but, by chemical treatment, the burnt, or darker,\\nshade of each is produced.\\n25. Semlneutral Colors. Brown, gray, and maroon,\\nalso the color produced by mixing blue and green neutrally,\\ngive rise to the other classification, called the semineiUral colors.\\nFrom the six principal colors come the great variety of colors\\ninto which each principal color is subdivided.\\n26. Warm and Cold Colors. Colors are in harmony\\nwith each other when they partake of the same general effect,\\nsuch as the chrome yellow and sienna, chrome yellow and\\number, or such colors or tints partaking of the red or yellow,\\ncalled warm colors, or those of the opposite nature, which\\npartake of gray, lead color, green, blue, etc. producing colors or\\ntints that are called cold in their effect or tone.\\n27. Contrast. Colors are in contrast when warm and\\ncold colors are used in connection with each other, although\\nall such colors may not be so used without producing a hetero-\\ngeneous effect, as certain shades of red and green, blue and green,", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "12 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\nblue and red, etc. are most discordant to the eye when placed\\nclose together. Coloring, therefore, is a study that can be accom-\\nplished only by close observation and experiment. Just as the\\nprofessional musician produces some combined sounds that\\nthrill us, so the professional colorist produces effects that are\\nbeyond the comprehension of the unskilled. More particularly\\nis this true of the coloring displayed by the artist that imitates\\nnature. He may, by the art of coloring, not only deceive the\\neye but produce combinations that will be most pleasing to it.\\nHANDLIlSrG OF COI.ORS.\\nITARMO Y AXD CONTRAST.\\n28. Scope of Subject. The handling of colors, in the\\nfull sense of the word, does not mean simply the knowledge of\\nthe many ways colors can best be applied to a surface, but\\ninvolves a knowledge of the nature of the colors themselves, the\\neffect of the elements on each, and the relation they bear to one\\nanother. This relation in colors classifies them as either\\nharmonizing or contrasting with one another. A colorist should\\nunderstand the result and drying effects of placing one mixture\\non another, each having as a base an entirely different medium\\nor liquid. All of these details must be considered by the\\npainter, and many annoyances and serious complications can be\\navoided by bearing in mind the following important instructions.\\n29. The Di-ying Qualities of Colors. Colors mixed\\nwith slow-drying liquids, such as oils or varnishes, can be\\ncovered with a coat of the same color, when the first is dry,\\neven though quite tacky. But to cover this surface, if not\\nperfectly dry, with a color mixed with some quick-drying japan\\nor varnish, will produce a crackled, pebbled, or uneven surface\\nwhen it does chy. One color should be perfectly dry, therefore,\\nbefore another is applied. The same result will be produced\\nshould a slow-drying color be placed over a quick, if the first\\ncoat is not perfectly dry before the second is applied. This\\ncan easily be understood, as the quick color possesses a", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 13\\ncontracting or shrinking character in drying, while the slow\\ncolor, mixed with oil or varnish, is of a flowing or expanding\\nnature. As the under color continues to dry out after being\\ncovered over, its contraction causes the result described above.\\n30. Durability. Colors mixed with the best coach varnish\\nwill stand longer when exposed to the weather than when mixed\\nwith any other material, and raw or boiled linseed oil stands\\nnext in value for the same purpose but japan or turpentine as\\na mixture will produce colors with little durability. English\\nvermilion is a color that cannot be used for outside purposes\\nwith any assurance of its remaining long or holding its original\\nbrilliancy. This color is a pigment of mercury and sulphur,\\nand when exposed to the elements bleaches out to a dull pink,\\nabout the strength of flesh color. The American, or aniline,\\nvermilion is one of the many products of coal tar, and its effect\\nis directly opposite to the English vermilion, for after exposure\\nto the elements this vermilion turns a very dark brown. These\\neffects may be somewhat compensated by mixing the two\\ntogether in relative proportions to render them neutral, but at\\nbest the color is not one to be used freely for outside work.\\n31. Lampblack will outwear all colors. It is often seen on\\nsigns that have stood many years of exposure, where the black\\nhas remained with a good surface, while the three or four coats\\nof ground color have entirely disappeared, together with por-\\ntions of the weather-beaten wood, giving the sign an embossed\\nappearance. Blues as a rule are not lasting, while all other\\ncolors may be considered of about equal durability.\\nGROUND FIJ^ISHES.\\nSMAIiTIXG.\\n32. Preparation. Smalting consists of covering over a.\\nfreshly painted surface with fine sand that has been dyed a\\nsuitable color. This process, though simple, is of the greatest\\nimportance to the sign painter, as he can thereby produce a\\nground that gives a most finished appearance to his work,", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "14 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\ncausing rough or uneven sign boards to present a smooth sur-\\nface. The success of snmlting depends largely on the color\\nupon which the smalt is to be placed. This color is called the\\ncutting-in color, and should always be mixed fresh and\\nprepared as follows The best refined lampblack is mixed with\\nboiled linseed oil, and ground on a marble or plate-glass table,\\nwith a palette knife, until all lumps and specks have disappeared.\\nThe mixture should be thick enough to grind easily, and not\\nflow or spread out on the table surface. To each half cup of\\ncolor, add a lump of white lead equal in size to an English\\nwalnut, and add to this equal parts of boiled oil and coach\\nja2:)an, so as to give the mixture a consistency that will allow it\\nto flow freely from the brush, but still retain a good body.\\nThis mixture can be used for black, blue, or dark-green smalt\\nwithout changing. For brown smalt, twice the quantity of\\nwhite lead should be added, colored strongly with Indian red.\\nFor light-green smalt, green or yellow should be used in place\\nof Indian red.\\n33. Metliocl of Application. After the letters are cut\\nin on the sign, this color is spread evenly over the ground,\\ncare being exercised not to allow any ridges of color to form\\nat the edge of the Ijrush. A small pencil brush can be used\\nto cut in the letters, no matter how large they may be, and\\na flat soft brush is afterwards used for filling in the back-\\nground, the latter varying in size according to the sign. After\\nthe sign is filled in, strips of Manila paper or enamel cloth\\nare spread on the table or floor, and the sign is so laid over\\nthem that one edge is on the paper ^or cloth. The smalt is\\nthen sifted on evenly over the entire surface through a small-\\nmesh wire sieve. After remaining a few moments, all the sur-\\nplus smalt is removed by tipping the sign edgewise and shaking\\nthe smalt on the paper.\\nBlack smalt is used more than any other color, but is more\\nlikely to show defects. The use of smalt that has been kept in\\na damp place for some time without first drying thoroughly,\\nwill cause streaks of gray to appear in the finished sign, for\\nwhich there is no remedy. In smalting, care should always be", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a72 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 15\\nexercised not to cover the sign thickly enough to break the\\nedge of the letter by its weight, when the surplus is tipped\\nor thrown off.\\nThe edge or band of a smalted sign should invariably be\\npainted with colors mixed with varnish, giving a glossy finish\\nto it. Black is usually used for this purpose, especially on\\nsigns smalted with black or dark blue.\\n34. Flock. On signs exposed to the weather, smalt is the\\nonly material that can be used for this purpose. For inside\\nsigns, however, a material known as flock is used; this is\\na ground cloth that can be obtained in several colors, although\\nthe maroon and black are most commonly used. Flock is\\napplied to signs in the same manner as smalt, but the cutting- in\\ncolor on which the maroon is placed must be made to match\\nthe color of the flock as nearly as possible.\\nVARIEGATED GROUXDS.\\n35. Variegated grounds are often used on large advertising\\nsigns, as well as on many kinds of stenciled signs. The color of\\nthe background when the sign is finished must govern the\\nselection of the variegating colors. If the ground when finished\\nis to be blue, cream and lemon tints, with possibly a touch of\\nsienna or orange, may be used. If the ground is to be black,\\ntwo or three shades of green, or, in fact, almost any color can be\\nused. A maroon ground, with a variegated blue letter, makes a\\nmost pleasing combination.\\n36. Two coats of white lead are applied to the ground\\nbefore the variegating colors are applied, and then three colors\\nare laid on lengthwise of the line to be lettered, giving equal\\nsurface to each color. The top is white, the bottom is a\\nmedium shade of the variegating color, and the intermediate\\nshade is placed between these, and is then blended where the\\ncolors come together, beginning with the lightest. When\\nthe sign is cut in and finished, each letter will appear as\\nthough it were shaded separately.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "]6 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\nPREPARATION OF SITRPACES.\\n37. Foundation AYork.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 There are many kinds of sur-\\nfaces to be dealt with in lettering, for the letterer may be called\\non to place letters upon any solid material known. A sign\\nboard when first turned over to the sign painter from the sign\\ncarpenter may possess solid knots or streaks of pitch, either of\\nwhich will show through man}^ coats of color unless their\\npenetrating quality is destroyed. This is done with orange\\nshellac, applied after the board has been thoroughly dusted off.\\nWhen the shellac is dry, the sign is ready for the first coat of\\nl^aint, called the priming coat. This must invariably be white\\nlead mixed with boiled linseed oil only. When this has been\\ndried and the board has been run over lightly Avith sandpaper\\nand dusted, all nail holes or other defects are filled with putty,\\nafter which the second coat is applied, and should be mixed\\nwith one-fourth turpentine to three-fourths boiled oil. This\\ncoat is sandpapered also, and the third, or finishing, coat is\\nthen applied, which is a mixture quite reversed from that used\\nfor the second coat. The third coat should consist of about\\ntwo-thirds turpentine to one- third boiled oil, and will insure a\\nflat- or dull-finished surface to work on.\\n38. Defects.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 A glossy surface might cause trouble, if\\nallowed to stand some time before being lettered, as the placing\\nof one oil color upon another is liable to cause the second one\\nto creep, that is, to leave the ground surface, causing large or\\nsmall pitted spots to appear. This may be avoided by\\nrubbing the surface with curled hair, or with pumice stone\\nand water, or by dusting a small quantity of whiting over it.\\nWhite enameled oilcloth is used extensively for lettering pur-\\nposes to insure against the above difficulty, benzine or\\nturpentine should be rubbed on the surface with cotton cloth\\nor batting.\\n39. French Enamel WMte Finisli. If a French\\nenamel white finish is desired, the sign should be painted\\nevenly with two coats as above, but the third coat should be of\\nwhite rough stuff, applied as paint. This should be rubbed\\ndown to a smooth surface with white i)umice stone and water", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a72 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 17\\nthe day following its application. Three coats of I ough stuff\\nare necessary, one each day, repeating the rubbing process after\\neach. For finishing this surface, equal parts of Florence and\\nzinc white are mixed in special light rubbing varnish, prepared\\nespecially for white. One coat of this mixture is applied, and\\nthe day following is again rubbed with the groiind pumice. If\\nnot evenly covered, a second coat of the zinc and Florence white\\nis necessary and also another rubbing, after which one coat of\\nlight English finishing varnish, colored well with the zinc and\\nFlorence white, is flowed on, enough only of the white being\\nused to change the color of the varnish, but not enough to make\\nit a solid color.\\n40. Carriag-e- or Piano-Body Finish. To make a\\ncarriage- or piano- body finish, the sign is painted with two\\ncoats of lead, as previously directed, adding black enough to\\nproduce a lead color, after which the surface is given a coat of\\nordinary rough stuff the following day. After this has\\nremained twenty-four hours it is rubbed with lump pumice and\\nwater. To insure a j)erfect surface, at least four coats of rough\\nstuff should be applied (one each day), after which the sign is\\nready for the finishing coats. If a black finish is desired, the\\nsurface is given a coat of coach black ground in japan. This\\nis followed with two coats of rubbing varnish, colored well with\\nblack, each coat being rubbed with ground pumice and water\\n(using the curled hair for the rubbing). One coat of best\\ncoach finishing varnish is then flowed on in a room of high\\ntemperature and free from dust or draft. When the sign is\\ndry, it possesses the finest finish possible to produce, if the\\nwork has been properly done. Should any color other than\\nblack be desired, the color may be substituted in place of the\\nblack on the first coat after the rough stuff, and rubbing varnish\\nshould be colored accordingly. This process can be used on\\nall sheet-metal or iron surfaces, on which the roughness may be\\novercome by filling well with a putty made of white lead and\\nwhiting laid on with a wide-l)lade putty knife.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a041. Frosting on Glass. This is a process by which\\nlettering is made to show in a conspicuous manner, and also", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "18 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\nserves the purpose of a door transparency, or it is often placed\\non windows opening into a hall or area. By the nse of sour\\nbeer and Epsom salt, a frosting may be produced that closely\\nresembles the fantastic marking of the natural frost on the\\nwindow pane but the frosting usually applied by the sign\\npainter is produced by the use of sugar of lead (in tube) or\\nwhite lead. The former, having less body (or substance), is\\nmade to imitate more closely the frosting produced by the\\nsand-blast pr-ocess, and is applied with a brush as thin and\\nevenly as possible, and stippled with a brush made especially\\nfor this purpose, or with a pad of unsized cotton cloth filled\\nwith cotton batting. White lead used for this purpose should\\nbe mixed with 2 parts boiled oil to 1 part turpentine, and\\napplied in the same way as sugar of lead. When it is desired\\nto show the lettering most prominently, the white lead is used, it\\nbeing when applied opaque, and much whiter than sugar of lead.\\nSIZES FOR GILDING.\\ngil,lh:n^g water.\\n42. In the preparation of size for gilding on glass, the\\ngreatest care must be observed to avoid the existence of the\\nsmallest particle of oil in the vessel in which it is made. In\\nfact, the most scru^julous cleanliness is necessary throughout\\nthe preparation of the size, as the faintest trace of any foreign\\nmatter will materially injure the gilding.\\nSize for glass gilding is prepared by dissolving, in a pint of\\npure water, a piece of Russian isinglass about the size of a\\nsilver dime. The vessel containing the water is then placed\\nover a gas stove, coal fire, or other device that will heat it\\nrapidly to the boiling point. After boiling about thirty seconds\\nit is removed from the fire, and allowed to cool it should then\\nbe strained through a perfectly clean piece of muslin, after\\nwhich it is ready for use. This gilding water or size must be\\nprepared fresh every day, as it is practically useless after\\ntwenty-four hours, and should always be made with distilled,\\nrain, or melted-ice water, the first being preferred.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a72 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 19\\nSIZE FOR OIL GILDING.\\n43. Sizes for gilding on wood or metal are of two kinds,\\nknown as slow size and quick size. The former is used when\\nthe sign or surface to be gilded is large, and will require con-\\nsiderable time to complete the gilding while the latter is used\\non small zinc or japanned iron signs, where the letters are small\\nand the entire gilding can be completed in from one to five hours.\\n44. Slow Size. Slow size is made from boiled linseed\\noil. The oil is allowed to stand in a warm place until it is of\\nabout the consistency of molasses, and is then called fat oil.\\nEqual quantities of fresh boiled oil and coachmakers japan are\\nmixed together this mixture and the fat oil are then united\\nin equal proportions, together with a sufl cient quantity of\\nchrome yellow to render it easily seen during its application to\\nthe surface to be gilded. These, when thoroughly stirred\\ntogether, will form a size that will stand from fifteen to twenty-\\nfour hours. The drying qualities of the slow size are influenced\\nby the temperature in which it is allowed to stand.\\n45. Use of Slow Size. In using this slow size, it must\\nnot be allowed to flow thickly over the surface, but should be\\nbrushed out evenly to cover the entire surface, to which it is\\napplied to an even depth. If one part is more thickly coated\\nthan another, it will not dry to the surface of the sign, and will\\nafterward break through the gilding when the surplus gold leaf\\nis being removed, or when the gold is burnished. This size will\\nkeep ready for use for a long period if placed in a corked bottle\\nor tightly capped jar.\\n46. Quick Size. Quick size is made in several ways,\\naccording to the length of time required for it to dry. This is\\nof course governed largely by the amount of work ahead of the\\nletterer to be gilded. About 30 drops of boiled oil added to\\nounce of Hedden Wheeler s japan gold size will prepare a\\nsize that will dry in about two hours. This can be made\\n(juicker drying by reducing the quantity of oil. But to add\\noil in excess of the quantity prescribed above will produce an", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "20 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\nunreliable mixture, so that another preparation is necessary for\\nslower size. The above size should be colored with a little\\norange or lemon chrome yellowy well mixed together on a glass\\nsurface by the use of a palette knife.\\n47. A Medium-Slow Size. Another size that Avill stand\\nlonger than the above is prepared by stirring, in ounce of\\ncoach finishing varnish, about 30 drops of coachmakers japan.\\nThis will stand four or five hours. In all work of importance\\nit is advisable to test the size upon a piece of the material to be\\ngilded, in order that the length of time it will stand may be\\naccurately known. Different surfaces require different sizes.\\nSome work requires a size that will stand for twenty-four hours,\\nwhile on another material it should be ready to gild in three\\nhours or sooner. The reason for this is that slow size cannot\\nbe made to produce an even or sharp edge on smooth surfaces.\\nThis size may be preserved in a tight jar in the same manner\\nas the one previously described, though it has a much stronger\\ntendency to become thickened. Better work can be produced\\nwith quick size, freshly prepared, as it not only flows from the\\nbrush more freely, but is also more reliable in drying. Either\\nof the foregoing quick sizes may be thinned, if necessary, with\\na little turpentine, but too much turpentine will destroy the\\nluster of the gold.\\n48. Proper Materials ]S ecessary. It will be observed,\\nb} one familiar with the action of the elements on certain\\ncolors, that size used for signs on the exterior of buildings will\\nshow the effect of the elements very soon after its exposure to\\nthe weather, if it has been improperly prepared. A common\\nmistake is the use of yellow size for aluminum leaf or bronze,\\nwhich is likely to show through the face of this metal. Size\\nfor such materials should be made with about 2 ounces of\\nlight coach varnish, to which is added a piece of pure white\\nlead as large as an English walnut, and about a spoonful oi\\njapan gold size and the same quantity of turpentine. The leaf\\nor bronze should be applied while the size holds a strong tacky\\nsurface, and is just dry enough so that bronze will not show an\\nuneven surface when applied. The bronze must always be put", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a72 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 21\\non the surface in large quantities, with a chamois-skin pad filled\\nwith cotton. If used too sparingly, the surface will present a\\nclouded appearance, which cannot be overcome or remedied.\\n49. The size for gold bronze should be the same as that\\nused for gold leaf, but colored with lemon chrome yellow.\\nFor copper bronze, use orange chrome, darkened with a little\\nIndian red, which produces a color resembling somewhat the\\ncopper bronze.\\nGILDING.\\nGILDIXG OX GLASS.\\n50. Gold Leaf. The gold leaf used for this purpose\\nshould be of the best quality. The gold beater usually pre-\\npares two grades of leaf that used for this purpose is not\\nbeaten as thin as the ordinary leaf used on wood. The thin\\nleaf will break easily in the process of laying on glass, not\\nonly causing considerable annoyance, but also involving\\nextra expense. It is therefore desirable that the leaf made\\nespecially for this purpose should be obtained direct from\\nthe manufacturer.\\n51. Tools and Materials Necessary. To lay gold leaf\\non glass several things are necessary first^ the tip, which is a\\nlong-hair brush, capable of holding a full-sized leaf of gold\\nsecond, the gilding brush, which is a soft camel s-hair brush,\\nabout 1^ inches wide and third, a handful of soft well-carded\\ncotton batting for rubbing the gold. Tlie tip will not pick up\\nthe leaf from the book unless prepared first to do so. This is\\ndone by drawing the tip across the head, at the same time\\npressing the hair of the tip so as to allow some of the\\nnatural oil of the human hair to adhere to it. Gold leaf being\\nextremely sensitive to the touch, the most trifling amount of\\nadhesive is all that is necessary, as too much will give rise to\\nserious trouble by causing the leaf to adhere to the tip too\\npersistently, or by the oil coming in contact with the surface\\nof the glass, and destroying the luster of the gold, or even by", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "22 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\npreventing it from adhering to the glass at all. Gold leaf is\\nver}^ frail material to handle, and therefore great caution is\\nnecessary in its application.\\n52. Method of Procedure. The design or inscription\\nto ))e gilded is placed on the reverse side of the glass hy means\\nof a perforated pattern, through which whiting is pounced, thus\\nshowing the outline of the letters or parts to be gilded or the\\ndesign may be marked out with ordinary white chalk or the\\nlithographer s black crayon pencil, which Avill readily leave a\\nmark on a glass surface. The surface on which the gilding is to\\nbe done must be perfectly cleaned by removing all possibility of\\noil or even finger marks. The book of gold leaf is laid on a flat\\nsurface, with the opening toward the right. One leaf of the\\nbook is folded back and creased with the left hand, thus\\nexposing the gold. The cutting of the leaf is then accomplished\\nwith the little-finger nail of the right hand, by running the\\nnail along on the gold, using the folded book leaf for a guide.\\nThe piece of gold so cut is picked up with the tip (which is\\nheld in the hand during the cutting process) and laid on the\\nglass lightly, after having first covered the part to receive the\\ngold with a copious coat of the size, the preparation of which\\nis treated under heading Gilding Water. The brush used\\nin the size is usually a l-|-inch flat camel s-h air. All letters\\nshould be covered with a liberal supply of gold leaf, allowing\\nit to overlap the marking. When the size under the gold is\\nperfectly dry, the surface should be well rubbed with cotton\\nbatting, which will remove all scrap leaf that has not adhered\\nor that has overlapped, and will expose to view any spaces or\\nparts that have not been properly covered. The size is then\\nflowed all over the work (beginning at the bottom), and gold\\nis laid on all spaces that have not been previously covered.\\nWhen this is dry, a second rubbing with the cotton will remove\\nthe surplus. A third or fourth washing of size does no harm\\nto the gold, and when diluted with warm water, produces a\\nbrilliant burnished effect.\\n53. Sheet-Glass Signs. if gilding has been done on a\\nsheet of glass to be used for a framed sign, the pattern must", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a72 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 23\\nagain be pounced with whiting over the gold leaf, which\\nfurnishes a guide, showing the place occupied by the letters.\\nTo prepare a paint to letter over gold leaf on a window that is\\nexposed to frost (the great enemy of window gilding), a slow-\\ndrying varnish, colored well with lemon or orange chrome\\nyellow, should be used, and when dry the gold leaf extending\\nbeyond the letters can be cleaned off easily with water, a little\\nwhiting, and cotton batting. For a backing or lettering color\\nfor framed glass signs, a quick-drying varnish or asphaltum\\nblack can be used. As these signs are not exposed to the\\nelements, almost any color can be used on them. A color is\\npreferaljle, however, that is made the shade of the gold leaf, and\\nthat will not be seen when the sign is finished, should any\\nsmall cracks or spots have been left in the gilding that would\\nbe considered too small to regild.\\nGILDING OX WOOD OR METAL.\\n54. Metliod. of Procedure. Having considered the use\\nof the tip and handling of gold leaf for gilding on glass, we will\\nnow consider its application to a wood or metal surface.\\nThe manner in which the gold is laid on these materials\\ndiffers. The slow^ size will allow us to cover the whole sign\\nwith gold leaf, before rubbing down to a burnished surface\\nand, if the letters are large enough to take the whole leaf with-\\nout much waste, the letters can be gilded from the book Avithout\\nthe use of the tip, by turning the leaf back and placing the\\nbook face downwards on the size, rolling the leaf on gradually,\\nso as not to Ijreak it. When the. sign is entirely covered, a 2-inch\\nbear s-hair brush is used to remove the surplus, and the whole\\ngilded surface is well rubbed. This will take the superfluous\\nscrap, carrying it along the letters, filling in all cracks or small\\nspots that may have been overlooked, and, if these are not too\\nlarge, will not show when the gold is burnished. After rubbing\\nwith the brush, a handful of cotton batting should be used, and\\nthe gold rubbed with this until no laps or spots are seen.\\n55. Gilding on Quick Size. To gild on quick size, gild\\nthe first two letters rapidly, rubbing down the first letter only j", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "24 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\nproceed immediately to gild the third, afterwards rubbing down\\nthe second, and so on until the sign is gilded. The reason for\\ndoing this is that, if the gold were allowed to remain too long\\non quick size before burnishing, it would have a wrinkled\\nappearance, caused by the action of the size while drying, and\\nthereby drawing the gold, which is prevented when the surface\\nis covered evenly with gold and burnished. Aluminum leaf,\\nwhich is considerably tougher than gold leaf, can be applied on\\nseveral letters before burnishing.\\n56. Outside Gilding. For outside gilding, or gilding\\nin places where the wind is strong enough to prevent both the\\nuse of the tip and the process of gilding from the book, another\\nmethod is followed. This is accomplished by cutting wax\\npaper in sheets large enough to leave a margin of inch beyond\\nthe edge of the gold leaf, which is applied to the wax paper by\\ncarefully laying the wax paper on it and pressing it evenly.\\nThe waxed gold leaf is then placed in an empty book and is\\nready for use. The size being more tacky than the wax surface\\nof the paper, the leaf of gold will leave the paper and adhere to\\nthe size by pressing the waxed leaf with the hand. After the\\nletters have been entirely covered, they should be rubbed down\\nas described, using the bear s-hair rubbing brush and cotton\\nbatting, as in other gilding.\\nPEARL riT.LIXCi AXD ETRUSC-^VX GILDIXG.\\n57. Pcai l Filling-. The pearl filling often seen in the\\nmost elaborate window lettering is not in such general use\\ntoday as in former years, as it has been supplanted somewhat\\nby the Etruscan gilding, which consists of a dull or chased\\nfilling within an outline of bright gold. The material used for\\npearl filling must be the best quality mother of pearl in\\nperfectly flat and thin pieces, and applied after the letters are\\ngilded, shaded, and otherwise finished. The open strokes of\\nthe letters are coated with a light-colored coach varnish (to\\nwhich a few drops of japan gold size have been added), over-\\nlapping the edge of the strokes, but without covering the shade.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a72 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 25\\nespecially if the shade is of semitransparent colors. The\\nvarnish is then allowed to stand a few moments until it will\\ntake the pearl without danger of slipping. The pieces are then\\nfitted to fill the space within the letters as nearly as possible.\\nAfter one letter is covered, and before beginning on another,\\nwell-crumpled tin-foil is taken and covered over the entire\\nback of the letters, and is pressed in well with the fingers, so as\\nto force the foil in contact with the varnished surface of the\\nglass. Do not finish more than one or two letters at a time,\\nunless, however, there is positive surety of the drying qualities\\nof the varnish. The tin-foil filling gives the appearance of a\\nsolid pearl letter.\\n58. Etruscan Gilding. The Etruscan gilding produces\\na chased-gold or silver effect, and is accomplished by a simpler\\nmethod than the foregoing. There have been many kinds of\\nsize suggested for this purpose, but the one producing the best\\nresults is sour beer, although either glucose water that has been\\nallowed to stand some time, or a few drops of turpentine in\\nordinary gilding water may be used. The beer size is applied\\nin the same manner as regular gilding water size, but the gilding\\nmust not be rubbed with cotton. To cover all places that may\\nhave been left in the first gilding, the part already gilded is\\ncovered with a second application of the beer size after the\\nformer has thoroughly dried, and any open spaces are then\\ngilded over. When dry, this should be painted over with a\\nvarnish color, somewhat of the same shade as the gold.\\n59. Finishing Coat. All lettering on glass should be\\nwell backed with a varnish color as a finishing coat, both to\\nprotect it from frost and from the wear caused by cleaning the\\nglass. It is impossible to protect lettering on glass from even-\\ntually peeling off, especially when certain conditions obtain\\nbut with extra caution, window-glass lettering may be made to\\nstand for years. A coat of best coach varnish, overlapping the\\nedge of the letters about y^ of an inch on the clear glass, will\\nprevent frost from penetrating underneath the edge of the\\nletters, and thus hastening their tendency to peel.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "26 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\nEMBOSSII^G.\\nEMBOSSING OX BRASS PLATES.\\n60. Imijortance. This work requires a greater amount\\nof caution than any other branch of sign painting. Not only-\\nare the materials expensive and mistakes costly, but the chem-\\nicals with which the work is done are dangerous, and any\\nimproper use of them would be likely to impair the health or\\neven destroy the eyes of the operator. Embossing on brass\\nincludes not only the preparation of the plate, but the etching\\nand finishing of the brass. The best grade of engraving brass\\nis required for this process, and gauge No. 16 is the thickness\\nin most frequent use. This is y^ of an inch thick. The plate\\nmust be well buffed before lettering. The design should be\\nmade on medium-thick Manila pattern paper, and transferred\\nto the brass plate by means of carbon transfer paper. After\\nthe design is transferred on to the plate, it is ready to cut in,\\npreparatory to the etching process.\\n61. Material Used for Resisting Acid. Asphaltum\\nblack is used to protect the plate while in the acid bath, and\\nmust be applied with an even, solid surface, and not thinned\\nmore than is absolutely necessary. Use only the best quality\\nof asphaltum, and thin with equal parts of coachmakers japan\\nand coach finishing varnish. The letters and other designs are\\ncut in with this color, leaving the letter and stripes clear. The\\nentire sign is then covered evenly to the edge, and allowed to\\ndry twenty-four hours at least. The marks made by the\\ntracing should then be removed with water. A new cotton\\ncloth is then used to rub the entire surface, which is done to\\ndestroy the glossy surface of the first coat, in order that the\\nsecond may be seen, after, which a second coat of the asphaltum\\nis applied with care, to keep as close to the edge of the first one\\nas possible. The second coat is allowed to stand forty-eight\\nhours, after which the sign is ready for the etching bath.\\nA coating of beeswax is also used as a resist, and is applied\\nto the brass, silver, or white-metal plate when hot. When this\\nmaterial is used, the design is traced through it on the surface", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a72\\nLETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING.\\n27\\nof the metal by means of a stylus. The wax is used only\\nwhen a line etching is desired, and is therefore more especially\\nadapted to small work, on which the letters are of miniature size.\\n62. Etching. The etching should be done in a room set\\napart for this exclusive purpose, as the fumes and gases given\\noff during the process are extremely unwholesome, and in fact\\nvery poisonous, and should never be inhaled. The sign to be\\netched is laid on a table, the top of which has been rendered\\nperfectly level, and over it is suspended a funnel-shaped hood,\\nto collect the fumes and carry them off to the outside air or to\\na chimney flue. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 4, where\\nh is the etching table under the hood a. At c is shown the\\nvent that carries off the obnoxious vapors.\\n63. Beeswax Dam. The sign is now prepared by bank-\\ning up the edges with beeswax, all around the four sides, so as\\nto give it the form of a shallow tray. The beeswax is prepared\\nby melting together over a slow fire pound of beeswax and\\nh pound of rosin, and adding about 3 fluid ounces of boiled oil.\\nWhen thoroughly melted, this mixture is poured into a vessel\\nof cold water, and is then ready for use. Should the mixture\\nbecome too hard, by standing, to work easily (it should be\\nabout the consistency of putty), it may be remelted and a little\\nmore oil added.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "28 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING.\\n64. Use of tlie Acids. Within the rim of wax, and over\\nthe entire surface of the sign, a mixture of 1 part nitric acid\\nto 2 parts water is now poured to a depth of about J inch.\\nThe Uquid will immediately begin to effervesce, and strong\\npungent fumes of a yellowish color Avill rise from the surface.\\nThe hood should now be adjusted to receive and carry off these\\nfumes, and the action of the acid be permitted to continue until\\nthe letters are eaten into the plate about -g^ to -^j of an\\ninch, according to the depth desired. The depth of the letters\\nmay be determined by feeling their edges with a pointed tool of\\nany kind, tbough care must be exercised not to scratch the\\nasi)halt surface.\\nShould the action of the fluid for any reason be too slow, it\\nmay be hastened b}- pouring a small quantity of the pure acid\\non the surface of the plate, and stirring it around carefull^Mvith\\na whisk broom, or, if too strong, the acid may be diluted with\\nwater. Strong acid has a tendency to undercut the letters and\\ndestroy the sharj^ness of their edges. The etching, therefore,\\nshould not be done too quickly, for it should take three or four\\nhours for the acid to eat the brass, to a proper depth.\\n65. Cleaning tlie Plate. After the etching is complete,\\nthe plate is removed from the table, the acid is poured off (by\\nbreaking a small piece of the wax dam out of the end), and the\\nwhole plate thoroughly washed in cold water. The bath tray,\\npreviously prepared, is usually built of wood it should be\\nlarge enough to receive the entire plate, and deep enough to\\nhold 3 or 4 inches of water. The wax is then removed from\\nthe edges and saved for future use, and the asphalt coating\\nwiped off after it has been thoroughly softened with turpentine.\\nShould there be any slight imperfections in the surface of the\\nplate, due to the action of the acid through an exposed place in\\nthe asphaltum, they can easily be removed (if they are not\\nmore than surface marks) on an ordinary buffing machine.\\nGG. Filling.^The etched letters are usually filled with\\nblack japan, which is afterward baked until it has the appear-\\nance of a vitreous mixture. This, however, is a separate business,\\nand outside the province of the letterer. The etched letters are", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 29\\nsometimes filled by the letterer with gutta percha or a black\\nmade with patent dryer, though the results are not as good as\\nwith the other material. Gutta-percha filling is made and\\napplied as follows Take equal parts gutta percha and\\nasphaltum, and melt together in an iron pot, with about one-\\nquarter their bulk of finely powdered gum shellac, and while\\nthe mixture is still hot it is penciled in the letters. Should a\\nred or blue filling be required, the asphaltum can be replaced\\nwith vermilion or cobalt blue, according to the one required.\\nEMBOSSIXG ON GLASS.\\n67. Bifluoric Acid. The preliminary details and\\narrangements for embossing on glass are precisely the same\\nas previously described for etching brass, with the exception\\nof the acid. Bifluoric acid is an intensely corrosive compound\\nthat will dissolve every glassy substance it comes in contact\\nwith. It is usually put up in lead or rubber flasks, and can\\nbe purchased only in the original packages. For use, the acid\\nis diluted to the proportion of 2 parts acid to 3 parts water,\\nthough, if this is not strong enough, the proportion of acid may\\nbe increased. If the etching fluid is too strong, the edges of\\nthe letter will be undercut and the plate destroyed. The object\\nof glass embossing in lettering is to show a richness in gilding\\nby contrast. This is accomplished by gilding the etched letter\\nand surrounding the edge so as to show an outline of bright\\ngold. The gilding on the etched center of the letter is mottled,\\nand shows the thickness of the etching, presenting a decidedly\\nrich effect, especially when designs are executed with the pencil\\nbrush within the outline of the letter.\\n68. Testing tlie Acid. The strength of the acid may\\nbe tested, in order to know when the sign is etched to a proper\\ndepth, by the use of the same sharp tool as before, which must\\nbe used with great care, however, as a slight scratch on the\\nedge of the letter or surface of asphaltum would show the effect\\nof the acid after the sign is finished. It is not necessary that\\netching on glass should \\\\m of greater depth than will show the", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "30 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\nedge of the letter and produce tlie mottled effect. This acid\\nis removed in the same manner as the nitric acid, and the\\nasphaltum dissolved with turpentine, after which the plate is\\nwell cleaned with whiting and water, and the embossed glass sign\\nis ready for the finishing process, or the gilding and coloring.\\nIt is always desirable that the best results may be obtained\\nand, to insure this, the time should not be considered lost in\\ntesting the strength of the acid on various glass surfaces. Plate\\nglass offers less resistance to the acid than sheet or crown glass.\\nThe acid is influenced, therefore, by the metallic oxide con-\\ntained in the glass.\\nIjEtter shading.\\nCOLORS USED.\\n69. Combinations in Shading. There is a great\\nvariety of methods by which the shading may be added to a\\nletter by the use of colors. A law exists in nature that is very\\nforcibly shown in combining colors when shading, and this\\nmust be regarded, or the work will not produce satisfactory\\nresults. A color apparently of a suitable shade when mixing,\\nif placed on a black ground, will appear many shades lighter\\nand the reverse is likewise true. If the same color be placed\\non a white ground, it appears many shades darker. Letter\\nshading may consist of several shades of one color, or several\\ndistinct colors may be used together, either blended or separated\\nby outline.\\n70. Transparent Shading-. This method is of service\\nto the letterer, in that it both saves time and gives most satis-\\nfactory results. A transparent shading mixture is made by\\nstirring a few drops of well-ground black in a medium-drying\\nvarnish, adding also a few drops of turpentine. This mixture\\nforms a shade for all light colors and tints, and, if properly\\napplied, produces what is known as the natural shade, or the\\nsame strength and shade as would be cast from a projected\\nobject on the same ground.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING.\\n31\\n71. Glaze Shading. Transparent shade is used in the\\nform of a glaze shade on such colors as vermilion, green, blue,\\nyellow, etc. by adding a color corresponding with that with\\nwhich it is combined. For example, the glaze shade applied\\non vermilion should l)e\\nmixed with carmine (in\\ntube). For green or blue,\\nPrussian or some other\\nstrong blue is used, and\\nsienna on yellow, etc. The\\nglaze shade is always\\nplaced on another shade\\nwhen the latter is thor-\\noughly dry, and covers one-\\nhalf of this nearest the let-\\nter, as shown in Fig. 5 at c\\nand\\n72. Tlie Double\\nShade. This is also illus-\\ntrated in Fig. 5, in which a\\nshows the black line used to divide the shades h shows\\nthe block, usually some bright color, as vermilion, blue, etc., on\\nwhich the glaze shade c is placed d and e represent some\\nneutral color, as gray, brown, etc., of which e is the transparent\\nshade while is the natural\\nshade on the ground color,\\nmade with the same as e, but\\ngiving an entirely different\\nshade.\\n73 The S p e c t r 11 m\\nShade. This is produced by\\nblending shades together, and\\nits use is confined almost\\nexclusively to the gilded and\\nsilvered letters on glass, although the same colors cannot be\\nused on both. The natural color of the gold is warm, and\\ntherefore harmonizes with almost every color while the silver\\nFig. 5.\\nFl... 6.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "32 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\nis cold in tone, and suitable colors to combine with it must\\ntherefore be selected. Five colors are usually blended, when\\nvermilion is used for the spectrum shade, as follows 1 cream\\n(2) lemon yellow (3) orange (4) vermilion (5) carmine.\\nIn all other cases, four shades of one color are used. In Fig. 6\\nis shown the proper position the four shades should occupy.\\nIt will be observed that the darkest shade If. comes against\\n1 the lightest which is usually a tint of the color, while 2\\nand 3 are equally divided in strength between these extremes.\\nThe shades always occujiy the same relative position shown,\\nexcept on letters having a horizontal stroke, in which case but\\ntwo colors, 3 and are used underneath these strokes.\\nTHE PRKPARATIOX OF COTjORS.\\nAPPLIC ATIOX TO VARIOVS MATERIALS.\\n74. Proper Use of Mixtures. Much rapidity is gained\\nin lettering by a knowledge of the color, or combination of\\ncolors, that can be used to the best advantage on a particular\\nmaterial. Suppose, for example, we have an elaborate silk\\nbanner on which a design is to be executed unless the proper\\nmixture were used, the oil or other medium would be absorbed\\nby the silk and so spread as to ruin the material at once. This\\ncondition may arise in the use of colors and their application\\nto the many materials, where a successful design will depend\\non the kind of mixture used.\\n75. Lettering on Cotton Sheeting. Cotton sheeting\\nmust be wet before being lettered, and while quite damp the\\nlettering may be applied. Color for this purpose can be mixed\\nwith equal parts of boiled oil and japan, and thinned with\\nturpentine. A 1-inch flat varnish brush will be found conve-\\nnient in order to spread the color on the cloth with great\\nrapidity, if the letters are large and for small letters the\\ncamel s-hair swan quill is used. Shading colors thinned well\\nwith turpentine can, without danger of spreading, be applied\\nwhen the cloth is almost dry.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a72 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. 33\\n76. Cardboard and Enamel Clotla. Cardboard must\\nalways be lettered with water color or card black. Enamel\\ncloth will also take this latter color, and it will be found to be\\nthe only color that can be used on this material with absolute\\ncertainty that it will not creep.\\n77. Silk. On silk, different preparations must be used\\nunder different circumstances for instance, if the design is in\\nthe form of a large panel on which a picture is to be painted,\\na paint must be used that will render the material pliable. An\\noutline of hard-drying color ma)^ be used, and the center of the\\ndesign filled in with any oil color to which has been added\\nmelted beeswax to the amount of one-fifth of the color. Ordi-\\nnary orange shellac is used for a lettering preparation, and will\\nbe found a very reliable one. The shellec is used clear, but\\nnot too thin, though when too thick to flow easily from the\\nbrush it may be diluted with alcohol. Letters on silk must\\nhave two or three coats of this, according to the grain of the\\nmaterial, before it is ready to size for gilding, otherwise the size\\nwill not bear out, and the gold will appear mottled. Another\\npreparation for the same purpose is the clear asphaltum, which\\nshould be thinned out with gold-size, japan, and a few drops of\\nturpentine this will be found much better to use on close-\\ngrained silk than the shellac. All shading colors used on\\nsilk or satin should be mixed with naphtha to prevent them\\nfrom spreading.\\n78. Black-Surface Cai-dboard. On black-surface card-\\nboard, the white used for lettering should be water color, which\\ncan be mixed by filling a tumbler two-thirds full of zinc\\nwhite, and adding enough water to dissolve it, and, when\\nwell mixed, about a tablespoonful of mucilage. This should\\nbe well stirred and allowed to stand a day or so before\\nusing, then thinned to flowing consistency and kept in an\\nair-tight jar. Either Florentine white or Krenmitz white\\n(unsized) will be found to be an excellent color al^o, but\\nthese must be mixed with a little mucilage to keep the color\\nfrom ruljbing when dry.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "34 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\n79. Glass. For glass, the color used mostly is black,\\nepecially for outlining, shading, and lettering. To mix this\\ncolor, use dry lampblack, best quality, grind thoroughly with a\\npalette knife, and add only best coach varnish. Thin with\\nequal parts of coach varnish and turpentine. Dry colors mixed\\nwith water and glue are used for temporary lettering on window\\nglass. Many beautiful effects are produced by their use, as\\nthey flow freely and dry quickly.\\n80. Brick or Stone Panels. For lettering on brick or\\nstone panels, the white lead should be mixed with nothing but\\nboiled oil. The black used is lampblack of an inferior grade,\\nas it will answer for this purpose as well as the best quality.\\nMix the lampblack, boiled oil, and a cupful of japan to a\\ngallon of color.\\n81. Plastered Surfaces. For lettering on plastered sur-\\nfaces, a light flowing color, such as the card black, will cover\\nthe surface and will not spread or run. If colors are desired,\\nmix them thick with coach varnish, and thin freely with tur-\\npentine. These colors will dry flat (or without a gloss). If\\noil colors were used on this surface, the oil would flow from\\nthe color into the white plaster and show a yellow line sur-\\nrounding the letter. The nature of the mediums, regarding\\ntheir drying qualities and the application of colors, is there-\\nfore a constant study with the sign painter, and requires his\\ncareful consideration.\\nREIilEF LETTERS.\\nTTOOD, METAL, AXD GLASS.\\n82. Wooden Letters. Relief letters are those that are\\nraised above the sign surface, and are usually made of wood,\\nunless the sign plate itself is of metal, in which case the letters\\nare of brass cast from wooden patterns. The manufacture of\\nwooden letters is such a simple matter that many sign painters\\nundertake the whole process. The outline of the letter is\\ndrawn with coach black on thin Manila paper which is glued", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING.\\n35\\non the surface of the lumber and then sawed out, and only the\\nbest kiln-dried pine plank should be used. The edges may\\nthen be beveled or rounded as desired. If the latter, the onl}^\\ntools necessary are a chisel and a rasp to round the letters, after\\nwhich they should be finished by using very coarse sandpaper,\\nand a smooth surface is then ji reduced with fine sandpaper.\\n83. Ijarge AVooden Ijetters. Large wooden letters used\\non the roof of buildings or other elevated places are made and\\nput up so as to stand out in relief against the sky, and conse-\\nquently must be much larger than they actually appear from\\nthe ground. These letters, although reaching in some cases a\\nheight of 8 or 10 feet, are simply constructed and easily put in\\nplace. They are usually\\nmade of 1^- or l^inch\\nlumber, which must be\\nwell seasoned, and each\\nstroke of the letter mor-\\ntised and tenoned to\\ngive strength, as shown\\non edge of letter in\\nFig, 7. At least two\\nangle irons should be\\nused on the bottom of\\neach letter, of sufficient\\nFig. 7.\\nlength to raise the letter\\nfrom the roof, and two round braces behind the size of the\\nlatter would vary according to the size of the letter. A ^-inch\\nrod, extending over all the letters, is fastened on the tops\\nby means of staples, and protects all single-stroke letters, such\\nas the I, J, L, etc. and gives the whole sign sufficient strength\\nand stiffness to withstand a violent wind storm. These letters,\\nin order to show to the best advantage, should always be painted\\nblack, and the irons lead color.\\n84. Metal Letters. The metal letters, usually fastened\\non the brass or white-metal sign plates, are cast from wooden\\npatterns, as before stated, and are afterwards filed, buffed, and\\nplated with gold or nickel, to protect them from the weather.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "36 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING.\\nThey are fastened on the plates with screws, holes for which are\\ndrilled in the center of the letter and through the sign plate.\\nTo locate the points for the holes, the letters are carefully\\nplaced on the plate where desired, and whiting is dusted around\\nthe edges, thus outlining each letter. Two holes are drilled\\nthrough the plate in the center of the space covered by the\\nletter, after which the letter is again placed on the plate, to\\nlocate exactly the space where holes are to be drilled in the\\nletter. The letters are then drilled, tapped, and screwed on\\nfrom the back of plate.\\n85. Compo Signs. Compo signs, the letters of which are\\nalso in relief, are molded signs made by pressing a wooden-\\npattern design into compost, or composition, which maybe\\neither the material used for stucco work (a sized plaster) or the\\ncompo used in the manufacture of picture-frame moldings.\\nThese signs when colored are made very attractive, especially\\nfor advertising purposes.\\n86. Wire Signs. Wire signs may also be of an artistic\\ndesign, the character of which will depend entirely on the shape\\nof the framework. Ribbons and panels can be fastened back\\nto back on wirework, and such a sign will not catch the wind,\\nand may be made to read from two opposite directions.\\n87. Gas-Pipe Frame Signs. The gas-pipe frame signs,\\ngenerally used in London, England, are easily constructed, and\\nfor advertising purposes are valuable, as they can be read\\nseveral miles away. The size of this style of sign is limited\\nonly by the amount of the roof surface to which the braces or\\nwire can be fastened. The frame may be the extreme width of\\nthe building, as the wires or braces are fastened in two opposite\\ndirections only. The letters are of wood, and are hung\\nbetween the sections of the frame, as shown in Fig. 8. This\\nsketch shows a sign 45 feet in width by 36 feet in height (the\\naverage length of the gas pipe is 15 feet), made to read from\\none direction only. A wire brace extends from every inter-\\nsection of gas pipe to a staple in the roof or wall.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING.\\n37\\n88. Advertising Signs on Brick Walls. These some-\\ntimes reach immense proportions. It is not unusual to see the\\nsign painter begin his design at any part of the work, as\\nthe panel may be a hundred feet or more in length or height.\\nThe work is executed, therefore, from a miniature design or\\nscale, which in this case could be either -g- or inch to the foot\\nand to insure against mistakes it is divided into blocks 10 feet\\nFig. 8.\\nsquare, and lined off on the sketch with red ink. Two or three\\nplumb-lines dropped from the roof of the building from points\\n10 feet apart, with tapes tied around them at every 10 feet of\\ntheir length, will locate each square on the building, and work\\ncan be carried out with as much certainty, at any part of the\\ndesign, as though the whole sign were but 10 feet square.\\n89. Transparent Signs. Electric lighting has done\\nmuch to develop this branch of sign painting, and signs that\\nwould otherwise be unseen after dark can be so arranged as to\\nserve the twofold purpose of advertising and illuminating.\\nThe materials usually employed for transparent signs are\\ncommon sheeting, white Holland shade cloth, and frosted and\\nstained glass. Many beautiful designs are made of the stained\\nglass, framed in sheet metal surrounded with scrolled ironwork.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "38 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\n90. Unlimited Glass Signs. It is not an uncommon\\nthing in Europe to see the name of some periodical, or of a\\nbusiness firm, stretched across a three- or four-story building,\\ncovering almost the entire front and reaching from the lower\\nleft corner above the store front to the roof. This style of sign\\nis usually constructed of the heavy-line script letter, and is\\nmade of any rough lumber, of uniform thickness, sawed to the\\ndesign required. The whole design is firmly secured together,\\nand opal glass is cut to cover the face, after first coating the\\nwood with white lead. The opal glass is fitted so as not to\\nleave too wide an opening where joined, nor to project beyond\\nthe edge. The sign is then covered along the edge with zinc,\\nfirmly tacked or nailed, and turned over on the face in the\\nform of a half-round molding, which serves to hold the opal\\nglass in position.\\n91. Hanging the Sign. The value of a sign depends on\\nits finished appearance when placed in position on the outside\\nor inside of a building, and the sign painter should not allow\\nhis artistic taste or ability to cease with the production of a\\npiece of work that may indicate his skilled eye and hand but\\nhe should study the relation of his sign to its surroundings, and\\narrange its final fastenings accordingly. These should, first of\\nall, be the securest possible, and be capable of resisting the\\nseverest windstorms, but they may also be attached without\\ncausing the legibility of the sign to be impaired or its neatness\\nmarred. Therefore, in hanging signs, do not allow the work or\\ntrappings used to show more than is absolutely necessary, unless\\nthey are of an ornamental nature. Architectural ironwork is\\nused for swinging signs, either as an ornamental crane, or in\\nscrollwork conforming to some characteristic design, such as a\\nheraldic shield or panel.", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "Elements OF Lettering.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "Elements of Lettering.\\n(1) {a) What name is given to the earliest foi-ni of\\nwriting? By whom was it used?\\n(2) Wliat are rustic letters?\\n(8) Name two styles of letters that came into existence\\nprior to the 15th century.\\n(4) What are illuminated letters?\\n(5) W^hat is meant by the term elongatin!/ f\\n(0) What class of people were skilful in the art of letter-\\ning during the period immediately preceding the 15th century?\\n(7) What is meant by the term iiiterlarivy\\n(8) On what materials can transparent water color be used\\nto the best advantage?\\n(9) What is meant by a part panel\\n(10) What is the stroke of a letter?\\n(11) What is meant by the term hdclqiromid?\\n(12) Wh at are cut-in 1 et ters\\n(13) On what side of the letter slK)uld the shade be\\nl)laced\\n(14) (a) What is a background stencil (6) How\\ndoes this dili er from the regular letter stencil?\\n(15) What is meant by the term telescopiny f\\n(16) What two forms of numerals are used in modern\\nlettering?\\n(17) What njaterial is most suitable foi making stencil\\npatterns\\n(18) For what special class of wcrrk are tin-foil stencils\\nused\\n(19) What style of brush is best adapted for use in\\nstenciling?", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "2 ELEMENTS OF LETTERING. i^ 1\\n(20) What styles of letters are best adapted for illunnuated\\ncapitals\\n(21) In cutting stencil patterns, what method is safest to\\nfollow in order to avoid the possibility of cutting off ties?\\n(22) How is the design for the second stencil placed on the\\ntirst to insure accuracy\\n(23) \\\\V hat alphal)et is the mother of all modern styles\\nof writing?\\n(24) About how many signs may be stenciled before the\\nstencil pattern should be cleaned\\n(25) On what ])art of the letter should the highlight be\\nplaced\\n(26) How was the letter W expressed when first intro-\\nduced into the alphal)et?\\n(27) When letters are placed on an inclined panel, what\\nposition should they be given\\n(28) What is meant by tlie term condeii^iny f\\n(29) What is the difference between mechanical and free-\\nhand lettering\\n(30) What are the ties in stencil patterns?\\n(31) In what way did the invention of the pi inting press\\ndirectly benefit the art of writing?\\n(32) On what angle shoidd the shade of the letter l)e placed?\\n(33) Of what importance is letter^face shading?\\n(34) What is the spur of a letter?\\n(35) Where would you ])lace tlie possessive aj)ostrophe in\\nthe following: Mens and Boys Clothing\\n(36) How is the block shade placed on a letter?\\n(37) How many forms has the cast shadow?\\n(38) A\\\\ hat are the three chief classifications of letters?\\n(39) When are colors applied in their dry state?\\n(40) Name some of the styles of letters known exclusively\\nas American writing.\\n(41) For what })urpose is the stencil pattern used?", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "Lettering\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2AND-\\nSign Painting.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "Lettering and Sign Painting.\\n(1) At what angle should a lettering table be inclined?\\n(2) Of what material are transparent signs usually made?\\n(3) How is a design transferred to a brass plate for the\\npurpose of embossing?\\n(4) For what purpose are large wooden letters used?\\n(5) How are parts of the brass plate protected where it\\nis to be left unetched?\\n(6) How are aluminum and gold bronze applied to a sized\\nsurface\\n(7) What is a neutral color?\\n(8) What is the priming coatf\\n(9) What acid is used for etching brass plates?\\n(10) For what purpose are metal letters used?\\n(11) (a) How many compasses are necessary for use in\\nsign painting? (6) Describe the largest.\\n(12) What is flock f\\n(13) In making letters one inch or under, what brush\\nshould be used?\\n(14) What are the primary colors?\\n(15) What is the principal use of the T square in sign\\npainting\\n22", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "2 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\n(16) What is the cause of a color creeping after being\\napplied\\n(17) How can a wire sign projecting from a building be\\nmade to read from opposite directions?\\n(IS) What should be the height of a lettering table?\\n(19) What name is given to the long-hair l)rush used to\\npick up the gold leaf?\\n(20) Describe the transparent shade.\\n(21) How is the penetrating qualit}^ of pitch destroyed\\nin pine sign boards?\\n(22) What gauge of engraving brass is generally used for\\nthe embossing process?\\n(28) From what oil is slow size made?\\n(24) How is gold leaf prepared for use where the wind\\nis too strong to use the tip?\\n(2-5) How should lettering brushes be preserved from\\ndrying or hardening?\\n(26) What are compo signs?\\n(27) What two general kinds of size are used for gilding\\non wood or metal?\\n(28) What is meant l)y the term tint\\n(29) What is the most durable color when exposed to the\\nelements?\\n(30) What is used as a backing for pearl filling to produce\\na solid letter?\\n(31) What are the principal classes into which colors\\nare divided\\n(32) What mixtures should be used for lettering on\\ncardboard", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a72 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING.\\n(33) What size is used for Etruscan gilding?\\n(34) What is the spectrum shade?\\n(35) When are colors in harmony in their combination?\\n(36) What color is used in the mixture of size for gold?\\n(37) What are rehef letters?\\n(38) How is the asphaltum coating removed after the brass\\nplate is taken from the etching bath?\\n(39) What is a secondary color?\\n(40) What is meant by the term cold color?\\n(41) How many brushes are recommended as necessary\\nfor practice work?\\n(42) What acid is used for embossing on glass?\\n(43) When are colors said to be in contrast\\n(44) To what depth should the letters be etched in glass?\\n(45) (a) What is a xhade of a color? (b) How may\\nthis be produced?\\n(46) How should cotton cloth be prepared l)efore letters\\nare applied?\\n(47) What is meant by the term itkirm color f\\n(48) What materials are used to fill letters etched in\\nbrass plates?\\n(49) On what colors is the glaze shade used?\\n(50) In embossed work, to what depth should the acid\\nbe allowed to eat the brass plate?\\n(51) What would be the result if a coat of paint were\\nplaced over another before the first dried, one being a slow-\\ndrying and the other a (juick-drying mixture?", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "4 LETTERING AND SIGN PAINTING. \u00c2\u00a72\\n(52) What adhesive material is used in the preparation\\nof gilding water size?\\n(53) Name two semineutral colors.\\n(54) How many methods are there of striping liy means\\nof a lettering brush\\n(55) When is frosting on glass used as a ground for\\nlettering\\n(56) What is considered the least durable color?\\n(57) How is a design that is to be gilded placed on a\\nwindow glass?\\n(58) What is the best protection against frost that may\\nbe applied to a finished letter on glass?\\n(59) What is maltf\\n(60) What mixture of colors produces purple?", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "Index.", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nSec.\\nPage\\nAcid, Bifluoric 2\\n29\\nTestiugof 2\\n29\\nMaterial used for resisting 2\\n26\\nUse of 2\\nIS\\nAlphabet, ancient Roman, Modifi-\\ncation of 1\\nril\\nantique Egyptian, Modi-\\nfication of 1\\n57\\nhalf block. Mod-\\nification of 1\\n59\\nBoston Roman, Modifica-\\ncation of 1\\n59\\nFlemish 1\\n61\\nFrench Roman, Modifi-\\ncation of 1\\n61\\nGreek 1\\n7\\nHebrew 1\\n4\\nLatin 1\\n7\\nRoman, Modifica-\\n57\\nPhenician 1\\n6\\nSamaritan 1\\n6\\nAltitude of triangles 1\\n52\\nAncient Roman alphabet, Modifica-\\ntion of 1\\n57\\nAngular pediment 1\\n52\\nAntique Egyptian alphabet, Modifl-\\n57\\nhalf block. Modification of 1\\n59\\nApostrojihe, Origin of 1\\n18\\nAppearance of spacing 1\\n17\\n4\\nArc 1\\n54\\nB.\\nBackground 1\\n14\\nstencils 1\\n50\\nBeeswaxdam 2\\n27\\nBeveled shading 1\\n26\\nBifluoric acid 2\\n29\\nBlack cardboard. Lettering on 2\\n33\\nBlock 1\\n13\\nshade 1\\n23\\nBoston Roman alphabet. Modifica-\\ntion of 1\\n59\\nBrass, Etching 2\\n27\\nSee.\\nBrass plate embossing 2\\nBrick or stone panels, Lettering on 2\\nBrushes, Camel s-hair 2\\nRed-sable 2\\nrequired 2\\nSwan-quill 2\\nBrush work 2\\nC\\nCamel s-hair brushes 2\\nCard black 2\\nCardboard, Lettering on 2\\nCard work\\nCarriage- or piano-body finish\\nCast shadow\\nCircle, Diameter of\\nRadius of..\\nCircles\\nCircular arc\\nClassification of colors\\nletters\\nCleaning stencils\\nthe plate\\nColon\\nColors, Classification of\\nDrying qualities of\\nDurability of\\nHandling of\\nNeutral\\nPreparation of\\nPrimary\\nSecondary\\nSemineutral\\nWarm and cold\\nComma\\nCompasses\\nComponent parts of a letter\\nCompo signs\\nCondensed letter. Example of\\nCondensing\\nContrast\\naiad harmony\\nCorrect and incorrect spacing\\nCuneiform writing\\nPage.\\n26\\n34\\n4\\n5\\n2\\n4\\n2\\n33\\n33\\n17\\n23\\n53\\n53\\n53\\n54\\n10\\n2\\n29\\n51\\n28\\n19\\n10\\n12\\n13\\n12\\n10\\n32\\n10\\n10\\n11\\n11\\n18\\n19\\n67\\n13\\n36\\n36\\n14\\n35\\n11\\n12\\n14\\n3", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n,Scc.\\nCurve 1\\nCut-in letters, Points to be observed 1\\nUse of 1\\nCutting stencils 1\\nCyma 1\\nD.\\nDam, Beeswax 2\\nDash 1\\nDecorations, Ecclesiastical 1\\nDefects of surface 2\\n1\\n1\\nDefinition of circle\\ntriangle\\nDesigning inscriptions 1\\nScope and importance of 1\\nDiameter of circle 1\\nDitto marks 1\\nDouble shade 2\\nDrawing board 1\\nink 1\\npen, To sharpen 1\\nthe letters 1\\nDrying qualities of colors 2\\nDurability of colors 2\\nE.\\nEcclesiastical decorations 1\\nEffects in lettering 1\\nproduced by letter-face light-\\ning and shading 1\\nEgyptian, half block, and French\\nRoman 1\\nEllipse 1\\nElliptical and round panels 1\\nElongating 1\\n1\\nKmbossing brass plates 2\\non glass 2\\nEnamel white finish 2\\nEnameled cloth, Lettering on 2\\nEnglish, Old 1\\nEquilateral triangles 1\\nEtching brass 2\\nEtruscan gilding 2\\nExample of condensed letter 1\\nExclamation point 1\\nExperience and theory 2\\nPage.\\n54\\n28\\n27\\n49\\n14\\nF.\\nFace 1\\nof letter, Lighting and shading 1\\nTreatment of 1\\nornamentation 1\\nFigures, Geometrical 1\\nFilling etched letters 2\\nin and outlining 1\\n16\\n55\\n44\\n14\\n35\\n26\\n29\\n16\\n33\\n9\\n53\\n27\\n25\\n36\\n20\\n1\\nSec. Pagi\\nFine line 1 13\\nFinish, Carriage- or piano-body 2 17\\nFinishing coat 2 25\\nFlemish alphabet 1 61\\nFlock 2 15\\nForms, Ornamental 1 30\\nFoundation work 2 16\\nFreehand and instrumental draw-\\ning. Definitions of 1 12\\nmechanical letter-\\ning 1 12\\nFrench enamel white finish 2 16\\nFrench Roman, Egyptian, and half\\nblock 1\\nModification of 1\\nFrosting on glass 2\\nFull block and Roman 1\\nFundamental styles 1\\nModifications of 1\\nG.\\nGable 1\\nGas-pipe signs 2\\nGeneral rules 1\\n(reometrical figures 1\\nGilding 2\\nEtruscan 2\\nMaterials necessary for 2\\nMethod of procedure 2\\non glass 2\\nwood or metal 2\\nOutside 2\\nsize 2\\nwater 2\\n(ilass, Embossing on 2\\nFrosting on 2\\nGilding on 2\\nLettering on 2\\nsigns. Unlimited 2\\nGlaze shading 2\\nGold leaf 2\\nGreek alphabet 1\\nGrotesque letters 1\\nGround finishes 2\\nGrounds for stenciled letters 1\\nVariegated 1\\n2\\nII.\\nHalf block, Egyptian, and French\\nRoman 1\\nHandling of colors 2\\nHands, Position of 2\\nHanging a sign 2\\nHarmony and contrast 2\\nHeavy highlight I\\n21\\n25\\n21\\n23\\n21\\n23\\n24\\n18\\n18\\n29\\n17\\n21\\n34\\n38\\n31\\n21\\n7\\n31\\n13\\n48\\n48\\n15", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nSec. P(ujc.\\nHebrew alphabet 1 4\\nHeraldic shield 1 35\\nHighlight 1 27\\nHeavy 1 26\\nHistory and general use of illumi-\\nnated capitals 1 32\\nof alphabet 1 2\\nHow work should be sent. 1 74\\nHyphen 1 21\\nIdeograms 1\\nIlluminated capitals, History and\\ngeneral use of 1\\nImportance and scope of designing 1\\nof spacing 1\\nImprovised appliances for sign\\npainting 2\\nIncorrect spacing 1\\nInking in 1\\nInscription designing 1\\nInstrumental and freehand draw-\\ning, Definitions of 1\\nInterlacing 1\\n1\\nInterrogation point 1\\nIrregular-surface lettering 1\\nIsosceles triangles 1\\nL.\\nLatin alphabet 1 7\\nRoman alphabet, Modifica-\\ntion of 1 57\\nLeft-side shading 1 22\\nLetter-face lighting and shading,\\nEffects produced by 1 25\\nornamentation 1 31\\nLetter shading 2 30\\nstencils 1 48\\nLettering, Effects in 1 35\\nFreehand and mechan-\\nical 1 12\\nIrregular-surface 1 28\\nMechanical 1 62\\non black cardboard 2 33\\nbrick and stone panels 2 34\\ncardboard 2 33\\ncotton sheeting 2 32\\nenameled cloth 2 33\\nglass 2 34\\nplastered surfaces 2 34\\nplates 1 75\\nsilk 2 33\\nLetters, Classification of 1 29\\nSec. Pac/e.\\nLetters, Component parts of 1 18\\nCondensing 1 35\\nCutting in 1 27\\nElongating I 36\\nGrotesque 1 31\\nMetal 2 35\\nOrnamental... 1 29\\nProportion of 1 46\\nRelief 2 34\\nornament 1 30\\nSpacing of I 14\\nWooden 2 34\\nLighting and shading. Letter-face 1 25\\nLight, Reflected 1 42\\nLoop 1 .55\\nM.\\nMarks, Ditto\\nQuotation\\nMaterial for stencils\\nnecessary for gilding\\nMaterials used for re-iisting acid\\nMechanical and freehand lettering\\nlettering\\nstyles\\nMedium-slow size 2\\nMetal, Gilding on 2\\nletters 2\\nMethod of applying smalt 2\\ndescribing an ellipse\\nMethods used in sign painting\\nModern styles\\nModification of Ancient Roman\\nalphabet\\nModifications of antique Egyptian\\nalphabet\\nhalf block\\nBoston Roman\\nalphabet\\nFrench Roman\\nalphabet\\nfundamental styles\\nLatin Roman\\nalphabet 1\\nN.\\nNeutral colors\\nNumerals, Arabic\\nRoman\\nOil gilding. Size for\\nOld English\\nOrigin of the apostrophe\\nOrnamental curves", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nSee. Page.\\nOrnamental forms 1\\nletters 1\\nOrnamentation, Letter-face 1\\nOutlining and filling in 1\\nOutside gilding 2\\n(!)x-hair writers 2\\nPanels\\nElliptical and round\\nPart.\\nRectangular\\nRococo\\nPaper\\nand pencils\\nstencils\\nParenthesis\\nPart panels\\nPatterns, Stencil\\nPearl filling\\nPediment, Angular\\nPencils and paper\\nPen, Ruling\\nPeriod\\nPhenician alphabet\\nPlastered surfaces, Lettering on 2\\nPosition of hands 2\\nPractice and material 2\\nPreliminary directions for lettering\\nplates 1\\nPreparation of colors 2\\nsurfaces 2\\nPrimary colors 2\\nProportion of letters 1\\nPunctuation 1\\nPurpose of a drawing 1\\nstencils 1\\nQ.\\nQualifications necessary for sign\\npainting 2\\nQuick size 2\\nQuotation marks 1\\nR.\\nRadius of circle 1\\nRectangular panels 1\\nRed-sable brushes 2\\nReflected light 1\\nRelief letters 2\\nornament letters 1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\nshade\\nRenaissance\\nResults of\\nRibbons\\nRight angled triangle\\nRococo panels\\n30\\n29\\n31\\n38\\n24\\n5\\n42\\n44\\n44\\n42\\n44\\n3\\n70\\n49\\n21\\n44\\n48\\n24\\n52\\n70\\n71\\n19\\n6\\n34\\n6\\n2\\n75\\n32\\n16\\n10\\n46\\n18\\n12\\n48\\n40\\n53\\n44\\nSec.\\nRoman and full block 1\\nnumerals 1\\nRound and elliptical panels 1\\nRules for punctuation 1\\nGeneral 1\\nRuling pen 1\\ns.\\nSamaritan alphabet\\nScope and importance of designing\\nof sign painting\\nScroll\\nSecondary colors\\nSemicolon\\nSemineutral colors\\nSending work\\nShade\\nBlock\\nRelief\\nShades\\nShading\\nBeveled 1\\nGlaze 2\\nletters 2\\nribbons 1\\nthe left side 1\\nTransparent 2\\nShadow, Cast 1\\nSheet-glass signs 2\\nSheeting, Lettering on 2\\nShield, Heraldic 1\\nSliow-card work 1\\nSign painting, Improvised appli-\\nances 2\\nMethods used in 2\\nQualifications nec-\\nessary 2\\nScope of subject 2\\ntools 2\\n1\\n1\\nSigns, Compo 2\\nGas-pipe 2\\non brick walls 2\\nSheet-glass 2\\nTransparent 2\\nWire 2\\nSilk, Lettering on 2\\nSimple combinations 1\\nSize for gilding 2\\noil gilding 2\\nMedium-slow 2\\nQuick 2\\nSlow size 2\\nSmalting, Method of application 2\\nSpacing, Appearance of 1\\nstenciling\\nstencils\\nPage.\\n16\\n4\\n44\\n19\\n10\\n71\\n5\\n39\\n1\\n55\\n10\\n19\\n11\\n74\\n13\\n23\\n24\\n11\\n22\\n26\\n31\\n30\\n41\\n22\\n30\\n23\\n22\\n32\\n35\\n33\\n4\\n3\\n1\\n1\\n3\\n51\\n51\\n36\\n36\\n37\\n22\\n37\\n36\\n33\\n39\\n18\\n19\\n20\\n19\\n19\\n14\\n17", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nSpacing, Correct and incorrect\\nImportance of\\nof letters\\nSpur\\nStencil, Background\\ncutting\\npatterns\\nsigns\\nStenciled letters, Grounds for\\nStencils, Cleaning\\nMaterials for\\nPaper\\nPurpose of\\nTin-foil\\nStriping\\nStroke\\nStyles, Fundamental\\nMechanical\\nModern\\nVariations of\\nSuperfine brown-sable writers.\\nSurface, Defects of\\nPreparation of\\nSwan-quill brushes\\nT.\\nTelescoping\\nPuqe.\\n14\\n14\\n14\\n13\\n50\\n49\\n48\\n51\\n48\\n51\\n49\\n49\\n48\\n49\\n9\\n13\\n2\\n12\\n10\\n()1\\n5\\n16\\n16\\n5\\n1\\n1\\nTesting bifluoric acid 2\\nTin-foil stencils 1\\nTools necessary for sign painting 2\\nTo sharpen drawing pen 1\\nTransparent shading 2\\nsigns 2\\nTreatment of face of letter\\nTriangle, Right-angled\\nTriangles\\nAltitude of\\nDefinition of\\nEquilateral\\nIsosceles\\nT square\\nUnder core\\nUnlimited glass signs\\nUse of acids\\nthe comma\\nwater colors\\nVariations of styles\\nVariegated grounds\\nSec. Page.\\n25\\n53\\n52\\n64\\n52\\n52\\n53\\n52\\n63\\n6\\nVowels\\n1 61\\n1 48\\n2 15\\n1 2\\nWarm and cold colors 2 11\\nWater colors 1 38\\nWhite finish, French enamel 2 16\\nWidth 1 13\\nWire signs 2 36\\nWooden letters 2 34\\nWood or metal. Gilding on 2 23\\nWriters, Ox-hair 2 5\\nSuperfine brown-sable 2 5", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "o\\nn\\nA-^\\n(k", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0096\u00a0J\\n.0-\\nc^^\\ncP\\\\o-\\nV\\n^c*,\\ns\\n.i^L\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2^-t\\nxO\\nhc^\\n-P\\nX\\n0\\nC;\\nO,\\nS^%.\\n1^\\n.,0-\\n,0 o\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2A,\\n,V\\n..x^", "height": "3281", "width": "1931", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "x^^\\ny-^^.\\nx^^^.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0x^-\\nS^%.\\n^0 0_\\n^o ^C^\\n1 --f\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2A 5^\\nx^ -^c.\\nx^^^.\\nc-\\n.r-\\nv^\\nv-^-\\n;-.v.^^^.^^", "height": "3244", "width": "1834", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "iliiii^\\nIf ItSd\\nm\\nI MMiViV\\nm-\\nmmm", "height": "3394", "width": "2109", "jp2-path": "elementsofletter00inte_0162.jp2"}}