{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3818", "width": "2658", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "d*\\n1 0? ..i\\nJP\\nv\\nV V\\n;y w; :v^v .n\u00c2\u00ab\\n*J\\nF\\nfr\\ns^/^ 3\\n*o c\u00c2\u00a3\\n*q c?\\no*\\no\u00c2\u00b0 v oN c\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^O 0^\\n0^\\noo^", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "c\u00c2\u00b0 N c ^6\\n^-\u00e2\u0080\u00a27c.-,V M, V^^\\n0*\\niV\\nV*\u00c2\u00bb\u00c2\u00ab\u00c2\u00bb\\ni-.\\nf", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nITS GROWTH AND HEALTH IN EDUCATION", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR\\nTHE STUDY OF CHILDREN AND THEIR SCHOOL TRAINING.\\n$1.00. The Macmillan Company, New York.\\nMENTAL FACULTY: A Course of Lectures on the Growth and Means\\nof Training the Mental Faculty. Delivered in the University of Cam-\\nbridge. 90 cents. Cambridge: at the University Press. The Mac-\\nmillan Company, New York.\\nTHE ANATOMY OF MOVEMENT: A Treatise on the Action of Nerve-\\nCentres and Modes of Growth. Three Lectures delivered at the Royal\\nCollege of Surgeons. Cr. 8vo, cloth.\\nINTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES\\nPHYSICAL EXPRESSION: Its Modes and Principles.\\nREPORT ON THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE MENTAL AND\\nPHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF CHILDHOOD, with particular refer-\\nence to those of Defective Constitution; also containing Recommenda-\\ntions as to Education and Training. Published by the Committee, 72\\nMargaret Street, London, W.\\nA Bibliography of Reports, Lectures, and Papers relating to the Scientific\\nStudy of Children, with reference numbers, is given on page 217.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM\\nOF THE CHILD\\nIts Growth and Health in Education\\nI\\nBY\\nFRANCIS WARNER, M.D. (Lond.)\\nF.R.C.R, F.R.C.S. (Eng.)\\nPHYSICIAN TO AND LECTURER AT THE LONDON HOSPITAL, ETC.\\nAUTHOR OF THE STUDY OF CHILDREN AND THEIR\\nSCHOOL TRAINING, ETC.\\nNefo gorfc\\nTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY\\nLONDON MACMILLAN CO., Ltd.\\nIQOO\\n/III rights reserved", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "TWO COPIES\\nLibrary\\nOffice\\nJAN\\nRegister of Copyright*\\n538\\nCopyright, 1900,\\nBy THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.\\nSECOND COPY,\\nJ. S. Cushing Co. Berwick Smith\\nNorwood Mass. U.S.A.", "height": "3498", "width": "2413", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "PREFACE\\nAt the close of the nineteenth century, as we review\\nthe progress that has occurred in the conditions of\\nsocial life and the trend of public opinion and thought,\\nwe cannot fail to be impressed with the greater refine-\\nment and humanity in the management of children,\\nand the increasing appreciation of the real value of\\nthe mental aspects of life. Most of the great achieve-\\nments of this century have resulted from the increase\\nof exact knowledge and the application of scientific\\nprinciples to the objects to be obtained. Perhaps in\\nno branch of study has more activity been displayed\\nthan in that which concerns mind. Especially has\\nmuch been accomplished in that part of this study\\nwhich deals with the evolution of brain action as ob-\\nserved in the child. Recent advances in this direction\\nhave made it possible and desirable to adapt those\\nmethods to child-study which have been employed\\nin physics, biology, natural history, and medicine i.e.\\nmethods of observation, description, and inference. I\\nthink there are a great number of readers and students\\nwho desire to obtain a real grasp of the great problems\\nconcerning the relation of mind and body in the child,", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "vi PREFACE\\nand following scientific principles are willing to work\\ndiligently to the attainment of that end. For this\\npurpose they must know what to look at and what to\\nlook for in the child, as facts to be studied and aids\\nto sound conclusions. Many students feel the need\\nof knowing more of the character and significance of\\nthe phenomena they observe, which are often obscure\\nin their origin, and desire to understand more about\\nwhat they can see as definite facts. They desire\\nand rightly desire to understand something of the\\nmental attitude of their pupil corresponding to some\\ndistinct visible act. And, certainly, not to follow the\\nworkings of the child s brain, is to risk losing oppor-\\ntunities of rendering assistance in the formation of\\ncharacter, and may lead to grave mistakes in edu-\\ncation.\\nThis book is addressed to that large body of earnest\\nworkers for the welfare of children which is seeking\\nfor knowledge of facts and principles in harmony with\\nthe best wisdom attainable as to the mind and body\\nof the child. To you who are engaged in this study\\nscientific methods will afford something permanent in\\nyour work an inquiry followed out with intelligent\\npurpose will give experience grounded on a sure basis.\\nDignity and success are added to the duties of caring\\nfor children by some employment of scientific methods\\nof gaining knowledge. A mere rule of thumb expe-\\nrience, valuable as the outcome of dealing directly with", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "PREFACE Vll\\nindividual children, may be rendered doubly useful\\nwhen directed by a deeper scientific knowledge, such\\nas will place the phenomena of child life in their proper\\nplace among the facts of nature, and show how far it\\nis wise to adjust environment to the child.\\nThe study of children, and a knowledge of the ner-\\nvous system of the child and of the best means of\\npromoting its health and training, concern parents,\\nteachers, and members of the medical profession, each\\nin their several relations. I trust that this work may\\nlead to the harmonious action of all three classes in\\neducation, and in scientific study.\\nChildren are here for the most part described in\\nrelation to the school and to education rather than\\nto the family. Individual children are described, as\\nwell as natural groups and their peculiarities, much\\nstress being laid upon the study of observations. While\\nthus adapting the work to the needs of teachers in day-\\nschools and boarding establishments, it has been neces-\\nsary to touch upon many considerations of hygiene in\\nsuch matters the advice and assistance of the physi-\\ncian is often necessary. In addressing this book to\\nteachers I have endeavoured to indicate distinctly where\\nhelp is required from medical science; as the oppor-\\ntunities for useful advice from the medical profession\\nincrease, it is necessary that there should be a common\\nunderstanding as to the terms to be used in the descrip-\\ntion of the conditions of childhood. For these pur-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "Vlll PREFACE\\nposes we must practise methods of observing children\\nand making scientific inferences from what we see.\\nMany medical men are now concerned with school\\nwork as managers or medical officers, or in other ways\\nintimately associated with the care of children and their\\neducation. It appeared convenient to adopt the plan\\nof addressing teachers rather than parents and medical\\nmen. Not to* burden the reader with technical matters\\nof purely scientific and medical interest, references are\\ngiven to reports and papers previously published, some\\nof them statistical in character, which afford further\\nexplanation of the diagnosis, as well as methods of\\ntreatment, which could not be given in the compass of\\nthis volume.\\nMental study, pursued in a scientific spirit, must be\\nfounded on observations, and inferences drawn from\\nthem, as to the modes of brain action corresponding\\nwith those observations. In a former volume I have\\ndealt at length with the methods of observing children\\nhere the experience gained is put before the reader\\nwith ample references to the observations on which it\\nis founded. Still the student should learn to observe\\nand describe what he sees for himself; otherwise he\\nmay simply receive dogmatic instruction, and fail to\\nacquire progress in scientific thought and practice.\\nGeneral modes of brain action, indicated by visible\\nmovements, may easily be perceived, and their obser-\\nvation recorded in accurate detail. Methods of classi-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "PREFACE IX\\nfying observations will be readily appreciated by the\\nstudent of natural history these classified observations\\namount to scientific descriptions of children, and we\\nare thus enabled to follow with accuracy the mental\\nconditions produced successively under the influence of\\neducation. As we- proceed by the methods employed\\nin science and in clinical medicine, the need of mental\\nas well as physical hygiene in the training of children\\nwill become apparent. Passing under consideration\\nthe stages of evolution in the child from infancy to\\nadolescence, we shall by employing these means obtain\\ninsight into the proper management and training of\\nchildren.\\nMy thanks are due to Dr. Wm. B. Dove for much\\nassistance in correcting proofs and in preparing the\\nindex.\\nF. W.\\n5 Prince of Wales Terrace,\\nKensington, London, W.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER I\\nPAGE\\nIntroductory i\\nThe child at home and in school. Responsibilities toward\\nchildren and in learning to understand them. The student of\\nchildhood should follow the methods of natural history; brain\\nchanges are thus observed, while class management is facilitated.\\nThe antecedents and surroundings of children. Growth of brain\\nnecessitates feeding and training. Brain the physical basis of\\nmind, its cultivation. Hygiene, circulation, training; the brain\\nreacts on bodily health. Impressions received upon the brain\\nunder guidance, stage by stage. School hygiene, mental and phys-\\nical. School aspect of childhood, constant observation necessary.\\nChild-study leads to descriptions of boys and girls. Delicacy and\\nmental dulness. Accurate observation guides training. Relation\\nof physiognomy to brain and mental ability. Training brain\\naction should precede instruction and bear on the future. Exam-\\nples. Physical exercises without use of words. Order of sensory\\nimpressions retained, their discrimination and comparison. Prepa-\\nration for other studies. Examples. Means of controlling the\\nchild, imitation. Rapid inference from observation of the child.\\nImitation of the teacher s weariness. Control of the school.\\nMental hygiene, faults of children studied. Examples. Brain\\ntraining in infancy and early childhood. Spontaneity trained stage\\nby stage. Impressions associated with words. Mental compari-\\nson. Moral training. Previous training employed in teaching.\\nThe concrete aim in education.\\nCHAPTER II\\nThe Brain and Body in Infancy and Early Childhood 23\\nHome life. The infant at birth, spontaneity of movement,\\nstrength of muscles, the limbs bent. Photograph of a baby.\\nSleep, habits, rapid growth of brain. The brain, its parts or nerve\\nxi", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "Xll CONTENTS\\nPAGE\\ncentres. Their separate action and interaction on one another.\\nAction indicated by movements. Brain needs nourishment and\\nstimulation. The infant s head. The fontanelle, its pulsation,\\nbrain circulation, growth of head. The chest and lungs. Teeth-\\ning. Child at twelve months, care and training habits. The\\nyoung child, spontaneity needs guidance, aptitudes of brain.\\nSchool age, self-control, memory, mental method. Reversion to\\nchildishness. Limits of power of the child s brain. Examples.\\nThe child should be childlike for his age. All mental action\\nexpressed by movement. General character of brain action.\\nSpontaneity motor and mental, it may be subnormal, deficient,\\nexcessive, or repetitive. Examples. Impressionability, its evo-\\nlution expressed in many ways. Inhibition of movement lead-\\ning to regulated action, the pause before action. Examples.\\nAttention. Control through the senses. Guidance with partial\\ninhibition of spontaneity. Imitation at sight. Examples. Con-\\ntrol through muscle sense, its importance in hands and eye move-\\nments. Feeling of muscles in tension, in estimating weights, in\\nnumber, and in proportion. Examples. Compound brain action.\\nInteraction of nerve centres and final response. Examples. In\\nsimple imitation no interaction of the brain centres. Habits\\nevolved by training. Retentiveness shown in acquired habits and\\nmemory, it leads to voluntary power, and is due to formation of\\nnerve paths in brain. Coordinated action, movements in a series\\ncontrolled through the senses. Brain centres become connected\\nby nerve paths in practice. Examples in infant and child. Spon-\\ntaneity coordinated indicates dawning mental faculty. Spreading\\narea of movement. Examples. A storm of passion, tricks and\\nhabits, stammering. Emotion fatigues brain. Response of the\\nbrain seen in movement. Pause between sensory stimulus and\\nresponse, brain action in interval may correspond to thinking, it\\nmay be prolonged. General modes of brain action more readily\\nappreciated than detailed signs. Description of a bright and\\nhealthy boy.\\nCHAPTER III\\nThe Child at School 48\\nThe child entering school. Scientific observation leads the\\nteacher to inferences and experience. Reports on 100,000 chil-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS Xlll\\nPAGE\\ndren. What to look at and what to look for. Methods of obser-\\nvation. The face and forehead. Nerve signs. Frontal muscles,\\ncorrugators, eyelids. The mouth, grinning, smiling. Expression\\nof face. Eye movements. Attitudes and movements of the hand,\\nas an indication of brain state, method of observation. Weak\\nhand balance, seen in sleep. Nervous hand balance. Finger\\naction, its brain significance, finger twitches. The spine, lordo-\\nsis. Conditions associated with nerve signs, their varying\\nsignificance and connection with mental dulness. The basis of\\nphysiological psychology. Observation should guide training.\\nPhysiognomy and development of body, body and brain co-related.\\nThe head of the infant. The features, method of observation.\\nThe nose, mouth, eye openings. The palate. Growth and weight.\\nHealthy spontaneity of brain and mental aptitude form a basis for\\ntraining. Cultivation of impressionability and control through the\\nsenses, method of training, impressions before names. Examples.\\nCulture of the senses. Training by muscle sense differs from\\ndrilling the muscles. Advantages of drill. Number and propor-\\ntion felt. Impressions useful in later teaching. Evolution stage\\nby stage. Establishment of nerve paths under training. The\\nphysiological law. Memory evolved. Coordination cultivated by\\nexactness in training. Spreading brain action, fatigue, laughter,\\nhappiness. Response and expression. Simple imitation and\\nhigher forms of response due to interaction among brain centres\\nin mental action. Vocabulary used in expression, response without\\nwords. Untruthfulness and epilepsy. Brain training and mental\\nhygiene. Impressions implanted before thought can be arranged\\nin words. Spontaneity and control lead to coordinated action.\\nAll teaching should be on a system preparing for the future.\\nCHAPTER IV\\nObservation, Description, and Classification of Children\\nin School 73\\nObservation of movements in children. Examples. Move-\\nments classified without describing their cause. Uniform move-\\nments, tricks and habits. Examples. Some replacing spontaneity,\\nothers of low type. Increasing area of movements, laughter,\\nemotion. Lessening movement. Attention, subsidence of emotion,\\nsleepiness. Coordinated movements. Examples. Incoordinated", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "XIV CONTENTS\\nPAGE\\neye movements. Drill. Cricket. Nutrition of the body, signs of\\nhealth. Testing sight and hearing. A well-made child described.\\nNormal and subnormal characters indicated by signs observed.\\nChild-study requires serious thought, self-training, and devotion\\nto duty. Dr. Stanley Hall on natural history and child-study,\\ntheir uses. Camper, an artist s description of joyfulness. Sir C.\\nBell s description of laughter. Mental irritability described.\\nMetaphysical speculations. Subnormal nerve signs. Conditions\\nof body to be observed. Schedule, a child of nervous type.\\nCHAPTER V\\nEvolution of the Child and his Brain Power 94\\nThe brain centres, analogy to soldiers under discipline. Evolu-\\ntion in families and in the child. Laughter and emotion indicate\\nspreading brain action. Mental evolution. Observe and infer for\\nyourselves. Natural history and child-study. Unifort7ily repeated\\ngrowth. Number of parts growing, increasing or diminishing.\\nCoordinate action. Mimosa. Similar action in brain. Plant\\ngrown in poor soil. Reversion to childishness. Brain evolution.\\nAnalogy of brain centres and a regiment. Brain action here\\nstudied and metaphysics omitted. Mental action is expressed by\\nmovement. Time expressed by the hands of a clock. Scientific\\nstudy of mental action. Nerve mechanism for thoughts. The\\npause of inhibition. Imitation in speech. Observation and infer-\\nence. Thought as represented in the brain. Analogy of brain\\naction to an army or a telephone system. Formation of nerve\\npaths corresponds to coordination. Impressionability. Examples.\\nInhibition. Examples. Coordinated action. Examples. Com-\\npound brain action. Examples. Words retained in order.\\nSpeech taught. Brain action corresponding to thought, its anal-\\nogy in army organisation. Method in teaching. The untrained\\nbrain is liable to disorder.\\nCHAPTER VI\\nPhysical Care of the Child; Hygiene and Feeding .117\\nHealth of body and brain. Delicate children need training.\\nInteraction of the organs and the brain, good circulation. Brain\\nregulates the organs of body. The blood, food and digestion.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS XV\\nPAGE\\nInteraction of conditions in the body. Weariness, its causes.\\nCare of the body, the child s duties. Unconsciousness of body.\\nClothing and dress. School time-table. Sleeping rooms. The\\nchild in sleep, brain circulation, awakening. Amount of sleep\\nand work. Dormitory cubicles. Toilet and cleanliness. Care\\nof eyes and sight training. Print of books. Light in room. The\\nschoolroom. Oxygen and pure air, its temperature. School\\ndesks, method of writing. Dr. Hartwell on physical training.\\nDietary, superintendence of meals. Lunch in high schools. Dr.\\nC. Dukes on dietary. Economical feeding. The matron s duties.\\nStudents at college, exercise and health culture. Health statistics\\nof women students. Health capacity for duties in after life.\\nCHAPTER VII\\nThe Training and Teaching of Young Children .140\\nTraining differs from teaching. Words do not always convey\\nthoughts, useful words. Impressions associated with names. Physi-\\nology of physical exercises, nerve paths formed. Imitation of\\nmovements train coordination, but do not make thoughts. Hand\\nexercises, method of procedure. Teacher controls the brain.\\nEye movements, their use in later teaching. Examples. Brain\\nimpressions produced analogous to mental action. Muscle sense\\nemployed in training. Muscle action impresses the brain and\\nforms new nerve paths. Accurate exercises produce fatigue.\\nSchool experience in coordinated exercises, they brighten the\\nchildren. Dr. Hartwell on physical training. Brain centres\\nadapted to mental processes. Brain impressions produced first\\nand understood later. Teaching colours. Discrimination and\\nchoice. Value of fixed impressions and memory. Standard of\\nweights and measurements, comparison of area, volume, size.\\nOrder in teaching stage by stage. Agreement and difference,\\nthe characters compared, colour, weight, etc.\\nCHAPTER VIII\\nAdvancing School Method and Teaching .159\\nThe pupil at school. Teaching numbers by movements. Im-\\npressions associated with names. Many kinds of impressions\\nproduced simultaneously must afterward be separated. Demon-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "xvi CONTENTS\\nstration before explanation. Principles taught and demonstrated\\nafterward. Classes of impressions formed stage by stage. Teach-\\ning the form of a card, the previous training required. Observa-\\ntion and comparison. Coordinated teaching. Impressions and\\ncomparison without words. Examples. Learning the clock and\\nsense of time. Names for objects and abstract ideas. Language\\nfor expression. Ideas of causation, antecedents, and sequents.\\nCommon mistakes. Brain impressions must be separated and\\nclassified in making comparison. Some spontaneity of brain must\\nbe allowed. Question time. Geographical distance taught.\\nEnlarging and limiting range of thought. Mental impressions\\nguided in teaching. Teaching natural history. Memory of direc-\\ntions or method. Parsing trains scientific analysis. Coordinated\\nmethod. Mental analysis trained by observation. Schedule used\\nin studying natural history directs observation. Examples of\\nspecimens observed.\\nCHAPTER IX\\nThe Nerve Centres in Infancy, School Life, and Adoles-\\ncence; their Health and Training .174\\nThe infant brain grows rapidly, its pulsations can be felt.\\nValue of play and child society. Preparing for scKool. Impres-\\nsions better than verbal explanation. Good brain training pre-\\nvents mental confusion. Spontaneous thinking. Children s\\ncriticisms of teacher. Indications of mental aptitude. Sponta-\\nneity- the basis of mental power. Infant s brain action described.\\nThe school child must pause to think. Cultivating attention\\nthrough eye and ear, effects of previous training. Mental fatigue,\\nits causes and expression. Means of prevention. Value of work\\nnot proportional to the fatigue. Effective training saves brain\\nwear. Lonesome children often tired. Memoranda help memory.\\nAttention is spontaneity controlled. Example. Coordinated cell\\naction in plants. Causes of inattention, spreading action, eye\\nmovements, deafness and eye defects, rapid heart action, delayed\\nexpression. Memory mechanical like a phonograph. Too many\\nfixed impressions lessen free mental power. Examples. Impres-\\nsionability without retentiveness. Reception and reproduction of\\nimpressions, verbal memory. Interaction of impressions and ad-\\nhesiveness. Memory of physical exercises. Rearrangement of", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS XV11\\nprevious impressions. Systematic classification. Trains of thought.\\nLearning facts, adhesion of ideas. Analysis and analogy. Social\\nmemory. Forgetfulness. Mental confusion from want of clear\\nimpressions. Reversion to childishness due to lowered brain\\nnutrition. Spontaneous return of trains of thought, dreams,\\ndelirium. Replacement of thoughts implies dissolution of nerve\\npaths.\\nCHAPTER X\\nMental Hygiene and Voluntary Mental Power .194\\nPhysiology of mental action inferred from expression. Hygiene,\\nphysical and mental. Mental aptitude, each indication to be cul-\\ntivated individually and collectively. Mental hygiene as a science.\\nVoluntary power, consciousness not admitted as the cause. Analy-\\nsis of voluntary action, motor and mental. Its connection with\\nantecedents and dependence on the general characters of the\\nbrain. Spontaneity. Impressionability. Inhibition, concentrated\\nattention. Dominant ideas. Suppressing outside thoughts fa-\\ntigues. Control through the senses and muscles must be precise\\nin early training. Previous impressions revive in order under\\ndirection or a dominant idea. Directions in teaching, if retained,\\naid voluntary thinking. Example. Established modes of brain\\naction, methods of procedure. Voluntary action in home lessons.\\nCoordination of brain from previous training aids volition.\\nSpreading brain action may increase thinking, or interfere.\\nExamples. Response may be delayed, but voluntary. Evolution\\nof voluntary power stage by stage. Complex actions in harmony\\nwith the environment. Modes of brain action contributory to\\nvolition. Choice and comparison. Established modes of action.\\nExamples. Voluntary acts independent of outside stimulus. Co-\\nordinated action without control. Intelligence indicated in the\\norder of expressing thoughts. Examples. Voluntary obedience\\nat home and in school. Example. Experience and training.\\nVolition traced in modes of brain action. Well-established mental\\nimpressions interact under influence of environment. Examples.\\nVoluntary power to be cultivated systematically. Spreading brain\\naction may interfere. Health and volition. Involuntary move-\\nments. Voluntary thought without expression. Experience gained\\nin school life.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "THE\\nNERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nc\\nCHAPTER I\\nIntroductory\\nThe children are the mainspring of life and interest\\nin the home and in the school their demands are\\nmany and urgent, raising feelings in us of affection,\\nand many thoughts as to their well-being in childhood\\nand in the future they awaken a sense of our re-\\nsponsibility towards the individual child, as well as to\\nothers, in as far as his future life and action may\\ndepend upon the wisdom and acquired experience\\nwhich we bring to bear on his health and training.\\nSuch responsibilities begin in the family, where\\nothers besides the parents have an interest in the\\nchild, and duties to perform towards him. The well-\\ntrained infant is likely to become an apt infant-school\\npupil; and so throughout the early years, stage by\\nstage, the child forms a centre of interest and duty\\nin many and varied aspects.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "2 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nStill, it is a fact that children bring troubles to those\\naround them, and much weariness in labouring for their\\nwelfare. Such feelings should, in response, awaken\\nyour efforts and the desire for further knowledge of\\nchild-life, and of understanding the dawn of mental\\naptitudes, which sometimes appear conflicting as seen\\nin the child s feelings and modes of response towards\\nthose around. Such facts, if looked at without under-\\nstanding, are apt to lead to regrettable mistakes. Why\\ndoes the infant cry What does he want Only our\\nobservation and experience can give an answer. So in\\nthe infant school, Why will not the children stand\\nstill? We shall see further on that spontaneous\\nmovements indicate the most hopeful conditions of\\nthe brain for the future. 1\\nTo the question, Why does not the child under-\\nstand what I say it may be replied that perhaps\\nyour words raise no impressions in his mind because\\nthe necessary training has not yet been received.\\nTo trace out the meaning and the origin of our diffi-\\nculties in dealing with children will give a new pleasure\\nto the work, and enable us to plan in our own minds what\\nto do, adding an intelligent interest to daily duties in the\\ncare of children of any age. (See Chapter VII., p. 147.)\\nThe student of childhood has a large field of observa-\\ntion open to him. To know the mind of the child, and\\nto trace out its developing faculties, necessitates much\\n1 Mental Faculty, pp. 24 and 68. The Macmillan Company.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 3\\nattention to child-study; and this, I think, should com-\\nmence with observation of the child after the methods\\nof natural history; describing what we see, classify-\\ning our observations, and making inferences as tp what\\nis going on in the body and in the brain of the child\\nbefore us. This power you will attain for yourselves\\nby practice, with some understanding of what is occur-\\nring in the brain of the child before you, while you\\nlearn to adapt your methods in training to the condi-\\ntions of the child and your own aims for his wel-\\nfare.\\nThe class teacher, with his pupils before him, can\\nlook at each, and if he knows what to look for, he will\\nbe able to follow the changing brain moods of the pupil,\\nwatching the impressions the pupil receives from in-\\nstruction, their interaction, and the final outcome in\\nexpressing mental abilities or faults. 1\\nThe principal of the school needs to know each pupil\\nsufficiently for the purpose of classification, and must\\nreadily appreciate character and mental abilities or dis-\\nabilities. Such rapid .observation affords a basis of\\nreasonable knowledge, which, when combined with\\nexperience, will suggest the best means of meeting\\nthe difficulties that arise with every child.\\nThe training of a child, the management of a class,\\nand the arrangement and control of a school demand\\nknowledge of the individual pupils and the formation\\n1 Reference 49.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "4 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nof a rapid opinion of each from observation with infer-\\nences founded thereon. The conditions of each child,\\nnot merely the rules of the school, should help in form-\\ning a judgment of conduct. Does the pupil forget the\\nlesson he learnt over night, or bring up a sum very\\nincorrectly worked out, it is necessary and very inter-\\nesting to analyse and follow out the causes of the\\nsuccess or failure; the faults may be in the child s\\nbrain while doing the work, as well as those due to\\nwant of accurate impressions received in previous\\ntraining. (See Chapter X.) If you study brain action\\nas well as the mind, you may observe what goes on\\nin the child while under your guidance, and also when\\nhe is alone and self -controlled in his work. Child-study\\nwill give an interest to the life of the teacher who trains\\nhimself to observe and intelligently traces out what takes\\nplace in the pupil. This will add power and dignity to\\nhis work.\\nIn caring for the young you should never fail to\\nconsider the antecedents and the consequences of the\\npresent surroundings of the children the past tells\\nupon the present, and the present controls the future\\nas is commonly said, the child is the father of\\nthe man.\\nA healthy brain in a healthy body is what we want\\nto cultivate in the child (see Chapter IX.); the brain\\nand the body are mutually dependent on one another,\\n1 Effects of overcrowding, etc. References 10-12.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "BRAIN HEALTH 5\\nand without the health of each, mental power and\\nactivity will run low. The brain is the physical basis,\\nor seat of mental action such as is expressed in gesture,\\nmovement, or by spoken or written words further, the\\naction of the brain gives vitality to the body, con-\\ntrolling its nutrition as well as the processes of diges-\\ntion, respiration, and circulation. Thus, a healthy\\ncondition of the blood demands proper feeding and\\ndigestion, while for its purity it requires oxidation (see\\nChapter VI., p. 127); exercise with walks and play in\\nthe sunshine quickens a healthy circulation, both in the\\nbody and the brain, supplying them with the neces-\\nsary food and oxygen light and well-ventilated rooms\\nbeing necessary for the same reason. (See Chapter\\nVI. p. 122.) Physical exercises, drill, and gymnastics\\naid development of the chest and lungs; also tending\\nto strengthen the growth of the heart. The brain acts\\nupon the body; its disorderly action may cause dys-\\npepsia, palpitation, and breathlessness liability to\\nnervous disorders often results from want of early\\ndiscipline in well-regulated modes of brain action, and\\ntraining in those systematic modes of mental procedure\\nwhich might save the child from too much emotion\\nfollowed by fatigue and exhaustion. The young per-\\nson who is allowed to grow up without good and\\nestablished habits, is liable at adolescence to excite-\\nment, emotion, restlessness, and is apt to suffer from\\nconsequent palpitation, dyspepsia, and prostration,", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "6 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nwhich early and continuous culture might do much\\nto prevent. 1\\nThe brain receives impressions through the senses,\\nwhile other activities in it appear to be spontaneous.\\nIn training and in teaching we endeavour to produce\\nimpressions in the brain some directing, guiding, and\\ncontrolling the natural spontaneous activities, while\\nothers are designed to produce the special action which\\nwe wish. When showing an object, you may make\\nthe child look at it, and feel it, both as to its size\\nand its weight thus impressions are produced in his\\nbrain. When he asks What is it? you couple the\\nname with what he sees then as he feels the weight,\\nyou name that impression as heavy. Such training\\nby physical impressions should, I think, precede any\\nattempt in giving descriptions and making compari-\\nsons impressions must be received accurately in the\\nbrain before they can be compared. The child can\\nassociate heavy with the feeling of an iron weight\\nin his hand, and light with the feeling of an empty\\npill box. Later on, after he has gained experience, he\\nwill be able to compare the weight and the box.\\nThese considerations as to the relations between\\nmental action and the brain on the one hand, and the\\nbody on the other, lead me to speak of the Hygiene\\nof School Life in its physical and mental aspects;\\nthese subjects will be dealt with in later chapters.\\n1 Reference 27.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL HYGIENE 7\\nSchool Hygiene is generally understood to describe\\nthe means of cultivating bodily health, and avoiding\\nthe illnesses and diseases common during the period\\nof childhood, especially those that are preventable,\\nsuch as diphtheria and the infectious fevers. Mental\\nHygiene can hardly be said to be established as a\\nscience, yet many facts have been accumulated avail-\\nable for the purpose. 1\\nThe school aspect of childhood is naturally that of\\nsuccess in acquiring knowledge, and learning the sub-\\njects taught; while the development of brain power\\nand character is also aimed at. Other aspects of\\nchildhood may also be kept in view; child-study will\\nthrow much light upon educational problems and ques-\\ntions that sometimes arise, as between the home and\\nthe school. 2 Teachers see the child in the school in\\nthe morning, fresh and active, when he may be quick,\\neager, and conscientious in work the parents see him\\nat night, tired, peevish, and fretful, as well as disin-\\nclined for either food or rest. Observation might soon\\nshow at what period in the day fatigue signs com-\\nmence, when, though mental work continues under\\nthe stimulus of school surroundings, the brain nutrition\\nbegins to decline. The brain is a sensitive organ, it\\nperforms much work in the body it is dependent for\\n1 Reference 9, Milroy Lectures, and 48.\\n2 See author s Study of Children, Chapter XIII. The Macmillan\\nCompany.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "8 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nhealthy power upon the food it receives through the\\nblood, and becomes fatigued after receiving many im-\\npressions continuously through the hours of work\\nthis will be described further in the next chapter.\\nA child sometimes looks full under the eyes, with\\na lack of expression and lassitude on entering the\\nschoolroom, signs which may pass off during a healthy,\\nwell-regulated day s work and play, while inquiry shows\\nunhygienic surroundings in the home life. 1 Some physi-\\ncians have said that all young children are delicate\\nthey speak from experience limited to their patients;\\nsome head-mistresses have said that girls can study\\nas hard as boys inquiry, founded on observation,\\ndemonstrates that delicate or ill-developed girls are\\nmore apt to suffer in health from adverse circum-\\nstances than boys similarly constituted. 2\\nChild-study, leading to description of the children\\nas we see them, enables us to make classifications in\\nmany groups according to the purpose in view. We\\nmay take a group of children all found to be delicate,\\nand study their brain conditions as described, and their\\nmental aptitudes. One hundred children may be se-\\nlected as dull or below the average in mental ability 3\\nresults of observation will show a certain proportion\\n1 Reference 29.\\n2 See The Study of Children and their School Training, p. 245.\\nThe Macmillan Company.\\n8 References 15, 41.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "CHILD-STUDY 9\\nwho are also delicate, especially among the girls;\\nfurther, it will be seen that most of these children\\npresent irregularities in movement and action, which\\ncan be removed by good training with the probability\\nof improvement in mental ability. Many causes of\\nmental dulness are removable. Many varieties of\\nchildren will be met with, and may be described, either\\nas to their mental abilities, or as to the points ob-\\nserved in their health, physiognomy, development,\\nand the nerve signs seen in the movements, which in-\\ndicate the action of the brain. When a child is\\nobserved and studied in each of these ways, a descrip-\\ntion is obtained, showing much of the visible indica-\\ntions of the state of the brain and its mental functions. 1\\nTraining is a responsible work each child should be\\nknown to the teacher as an object of study. The action\\nseen in a child may admit of different interpretations\\nhis movements may be due to much spontaneity, or to\\nthe restlessness of fatigue. The practice of accurate\\nand scientific observation is a responsibility and a duty.\\nWhen the teacher knows what to look at, and what to\\nlook for, a rapid and correct opinion will be formed in\\nclass work; whereas sometimes regrettable mistakes\\nresult from guessing as to why a pupil does not do\\nwhat we think right. Points for observation in children\\nwill be given in Chapters II., III.\\nIt will thus be found often not always that the\\n1 Reference 32.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "10 THE NERVOUS* SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nboy with ill-moulded features, and small eyes and\\nmouth, who is slow and inexact in his movements and\\nresponse, is also usually dull in mental work. 1 The girl\\nsmall in build and in head, with good features, change-\\nful expression, and quick response in movement, is\\nusually bright in class but apt to be delicate, and often\\ndisabled. The types and varieties of children are end-\\nless, yet all need care and training hence child-study\\nis essential to the teacher, that he may understand the\\npupil before him, and do his best according to experi-\\nence. 2 In the same class one pupil must be urged to\\nquicker response another to be more deliberate and\\nto pause to think a third to look before he speaks.\\nTraining and guiding brain action and mental action\\nshould precede instruction, and is the principal object\\nto be aimed at in the earliest years. I here distinguish\\nbetween training and instruction, or teaching. We\\ntrain the pupil to look at objects, to make a choice of\\none, to feel it both as to its weight and its size we make\\nhim feel it in various ways thus producing impres-\\nsions on his brain. We teach him the numerals, and\\ntrain him to count objects as he looks at or touches\\nthem, before teaching the use of figures for numbers.\\nWe train the child to feel weights, i oz., 2 oz., 4 oz., and\\nteach him the number which expresses each weight we\\nmake him feel the 2 oz., then the 4 oz., and teach him\\nthat the latter is twice the former weight later he is\\n1 See School World, Macmillan. Reference 47. 2 Reference 8.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "PHYSICAL EXERCISES II\\ntaught multiplication, proportion, and other modes of\\ncomparison. (See Chapter VII. p. 155, and X., p. 199.)\\nAll training should bear on the future, and be con-\\nducted stage by stage, with the object of educating\\nbrain action and its faculties for mental work. Much\\nof this training may be effected without many words\\nwhereas knowledge is generally imparted to the child\\nby verbal teaching, when each word must be understood\\nbefore accuracy in mental training can follow.\\nWe all know that physical exercises, marching, organ-\\nized movements, and games are useful in training young\\nchildren they influence the brain action by guidance.\\nThese exercises are not said to give knowledge or to be\\nunderstood by the children, although they are acted out\\nand remembered, becoming more exact by practice and\\nmore readily performed with less guidance but one ad-\\nvantage of physical exercises in brain training is that they\\ncan be employed before words of direction are under-\\nstood by the pupil. With nervous children it is some-\\ntimes useful just to get them to perform the exercise\\nand make the movements required, so avoiding all\\nchance of exciting the child by talking much to him. 1\\nTraining is needed to cultivate the general character\\nof brain action, bringing its spontaneity under tempo-\\nrary control (inhibition, see Chapter II.), producing\\nrepetition of action with some accuracy (retentiveness or\\nmemory), and imitation of the teacher. Training is also\\n1 Reference 27.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "12 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nnecessary to enable the pupil to retain and reproduce\\nhis impressions in their order; that is to say, they\\nshould easily hang together or become coupled in the\\norder in which they were received, such as repeating a\\nseries of acts as taught, and in naming objects in the\\norder in which they were seen. He should learn to dis-\\ntinguish what he sees from what he feels colour, size,\\nas apart from weight, length as apart from bigness.\\nLater on he should be trained to remember, and sub-\\nsequently to name and compare, lengths, sizes, and\\nweights. All this makes a basis for understanding arith-\\nmetic hereafter. (See Chapters VII., p. 146, IX., p. 180.)\\nAll children need cultivation of good speech and pro-\\nnunciation for this purpose the child must learn early\\nto look steadily at the action of the teacher s mouth,\\nin making elementary sounds and in articulation.\\nTo understand and remember a map, the pupil must\\nlook all round the outline, along the course of the\\nrivers, and at the points which represent the site of\\ntowns. He must associate looking up the map with\\nNorth, looking to the right with East etc. The\\nproportion in distance between the dots representing\\ntowns, and lengths of portions of the coast, or boundary\\nlines, can only be appreciated and remembered after\\ntraining and practice.\\nObservation of the individual pupil should precede\\nand accompany his training 1 if young, and full of\\n1 School World. Reference 45.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "TRAINING THE CHILD 1 3\\nspontaneity, as yet uncontrolled, you want to know\\nwhether he is best guided by the spoken words of\\ndirection, or through your gestures, pointing, and\\nimitation; for children vary much in these particu-\\nlars. He will stand and move as he sees you do,\\nand look towards what is pointed out, and then name\\nit as he looks at your face. He will examine objects\\nor count them as he sees you do, and in feeling them,\\nreceive impressions of length, size, weight, by his\\nsenses and the muscle-sense of which I shall have a\\ngreat deal to say. Though there be much restless-\\nness, and a tendency to chatter, he may imitate your\\nquiet action; if he never pauses to think, you may\\narrest his spontaneity, momentarily after a question,\\nby your attitude before allowing a reply. When the\\nsum in addition is inaccurate, 1 see whether the diffi-\\nculty arises (i) in looking accurately at the figures\\nin the column or (2) in adding the units, or (3) in\\nsetting down the total and carrying these are three\\ndifferent brain processes. (See Chapter IX., p. 184.)\\nObserve any signs of extra brain action or superfluous\\nmovements the while do his fingers twitch on the\\npen, do the muscles of his face work; are the eyes\\nmoved regularly is the tongue protruded at each fresh\\neffort are any signs of fatigue to be seen All\\nthese manifestations will be described in a later\\nchapter.\\n1 See Study of Children, Case 2.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "14 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nClass training calls for rapid observation and infer-\\nence; a mode of action often spreads quickly among\\nchildren, especially laughter among those somewhat\\nof the nervous type, by imitation. The teacher s\\naction, modes of expression, and method in work, im-\\npart training and knowledge to the pupils at the\\nsame time an efficient teacher receives, it may be un-\\nconsciously, many impressions from the class with\\nwhich she is in sympathy favourable impressions may\\neven be imitated by the teacher from her pupils.\\nThus, the teacher controls the class, and the children\\nreact upon the teacher. This adds much to the\\nmoral responsibilities of class teaching. I have often\\nseen the signs of fatigue, attitudes and indications of\\nlassitude, imitated by boys and girls from a teacher\\nwho might by a voluntary effort avoid any expres-\\nsion of weariness, just as any tendency to impatient\\nwords and gestures is suppressed voluntarily.\\nControl of the school demands that the principal\\nshould be possessed of experience with a large grasp\\nof the objects of education, and the abilities and dis-\\nabilities of children no aspect of childhood should be\\nunobserved by the manager 1 for, except where the\\nschool is a small one and the pupils are selected as\\nsuitable to its constitution, the requirements of all sorts\\nand conditions of children call for due consideration.\\nThe Hygiene of the schoolroom forms an important\\n1 Reference 50.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "MENTAL HYGIENE 1 5\\nitem in management, of which some details will be ex-\\nplained later on in Chapter VI.\\nIt is mainly of Mental Hygiene, as dealing with the\\nmental abilities and disabilities, that I now propose to\\nspeak in relation to school management; because this\\nmay, I think, assist in bringing together the class\\nteacher and the principal in the work of organising\\nthe classes and the school. 1 A pupil good at class\\nexercises in reading, history, mental arithmetic, and\\ngeography may be most inaccurate in transcription\\nand spelling consultation might show that he has\\ngood mental power and memory, but that he is short-\\nsighted; or more likely inexact in eye-fixation, so that\\nhe does not see words exactly. This is a common\\ncause of such difficulties, needing eye-drill, of which\\nI shall speak presently. If the school is a mixed one\\nreceiving boys and girls, some rules of discipline can-\\nnot wisely be enforced in all cases while the boy with\\nheadaches and sleeplessness or debility may stand some\\nstrain, there is apt to be more danger under these con-\\nditions for the girl, if required to work beyond her\\nstrength. 2 Here observation and experience will indi-\\ncate the exceptional cases where rules would be wisely\\nrelaxed. Organisation of the classes may include\\npupils of about equal age and mental ability; they\\n1 Reference 49.\\n2 Recurrent headaches. See British Medical Journal, 1879, Dec. 6,\\nand Brain, 1880, Part XL, and Reference 51.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "1 6 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nwill, however, vary much in disposition and methods\\nof work. This is probably for good. Children of the\\nnervous type are gregarious it is well that they should\\nassociate with others of more stolid type, and, it may\\nbe, slower in mental action. The class may show a\\ntendency for too much laughter, a spirit of criticism\\nof the teacher, in which the pupils emulate one another,\\nsome display of vanity or other form of emotion; too\\nmuch harmony from mutual imitation, calling for the\\nassociation with children of more varied type. Some\\nchild-faults are difficult to understand. A boy secretes\\nthings belonging to another, he does not use them,\\nand when detected denies the act; such cases some-\\ntimes depend upon petit mal or slight epileptic\\nattacks the family history will probably afford some\\nexplanation. Mental confusion is often caused by the\\noccurrence of spontaneous thoughts, and these are\\nfrequently accompanied by spontaneous movements\\nwhich you can observe the brain then needs training\\nto more methodical action. Mental confusion may be\\ndue to many other causes, which we shall consider\\npresently.\\nCultivation of healthy mental habits should begin\\nearly in training the brain, before the use of words\\nall that makes for the health of the body, aids growth\\nand future power of the brain air, light, feeding, and\\npersonal comfort in the surroundings. General liveli-\\nness and healthy spontaneity may be encouraged by", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "TRAINING THE INFANT \\\\J\\nmanagement of the infant, while regularity in the times\\nof attention to all his wants, and the times for sleep\\nand out-door airings, prepare him for methodical occu-\\npations later on. Early training of speech, commencing\\nwith the elementary vocal sounds, may be tried in the\\nsecond year. The little child must be made to look\\nat your face, and particularly at the mouth as you\\nmake the sounds he is to imitate; then any power\\nacquired in fixing his eyes on an object for a moment\\nenables baby to see the mouth in movement, which he\\npartially imitates; this action in his brain becomes\\ncoupled with the impression of the sound heard, and\\nthe expression of the face seen. The baby grasps\\nobjects with either hand, and with the two together;\\nthings that are heavy soon fall, thus he receives many\\nimpressions on his brain produced by sight, sound, and\\nfeeling, such as are afterwards employed in making\\ncomparison. He may soon be controlled in imitating\\nsome of your movements, though spontaneity continues\\nmarked the while in parts not thus engaged. Any\\nattempt at control is very likely to be followed by\\nsome spreading action, as, a smile in the face, or move-\\nments in the hands and feet; at sight of you as you\\nspeak he may move all over.\\nIn the child s third year you acquire more control\\nover his brain action he has more power, and holds\\nup his head and puts forward his hand and moves it\\nup and down as you do, once, twice, three times.\\nc", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "1 8 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nHis movements at first will not exactly resemble yours\\nin the regularity of time or degree of action only in\\nnumber. You need not try to teach the numerals as\\nnames but even thus early you may produce impres-\\nsions on his brain for a moment or two, which will\\nbe useful afterwards in training him to count. So also\\ncolours may be shown without being named, his brain\\nis impressed through his eyes, but we do not want yet\\nto elicit any choice, comparison, or expression. (See\\nChapter X., p. 205.) We do not require many names\\nfor things or for expression, rather a few terms for\\ndirection and control, such as sleep, when he is laid\\nin bed comfortably; quiet, as he sees you are still;\\ngood, when you are able to smile at him.\\nStill much remains to be attempted in training be-\\nfore the regular occupations and teaching of the\\nkindergarten or infant school commence; spontaneous\\nactivity should be increasing, leading to many impres-\\nsions as the eyes are directed to objects, things are\\nfelt having size and weight, actions in other persons\\nare seen, and many words are heard. Moreover, such\\nspontaneity indicates the activity of the brain which\\nwill shortly become capable for the expression of\\norganised thought. In advancing the training afforded,\\nstage by stage, exactness in action as to time, some-\\ntimes uniformly repeated, at other times varied, brings\\nthe brain under control through the senses, leading to\\nthe growth of those characters of brain action which", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "IMPRESSIONS AND WORDS 1 9\\nare necessary to mental processes, as will be further\\nexplained. The child s brain is thus prepared to per-\\nform the actions that are required when teaching him.\\nAs the child grows, many impressions may be pro-\\nduced and associated with words terms are wanted,\\navailable as directions for acts: sit, stand, throw\\nthe ball names of colours, and the feelings associated\\nwith light, heavy, short, long, etc. Also as\\nto movements of the eyes and hands, up, down,\\nright, left, and in many other matters; as you pro-\\nnounce a word the child tends to repeat it. (See\\nChapter VIII., p. 170.) Training should precede in-\\nstruction, but needs to be continued along with it, as\\ncontrolling brain growth and organisation, and producing\\nthe impressions dealt with in teaching. Thus training\\nin regular and uniform hand movements forms a basis\\nupon which you proceed to teach the numerals in\\ncounting, and makes the child feel that ten movements\\nare greater or more than one. So, training to move\\nhis eyes and to count enables him to count at sight,\\nwhile the use of numbers as expressed by the numerals\\ngradually becomes familiar and understood before\\nfigures are used as symbols in arithmetic. Again,\\ntraining the pupil to feel weights in his hand enables\\nyou to impress their significance; and he feels ten\\ntimes the pull from the ten-ounce weight succeeding\\nthat of one ounce. Later on he can understand that\\n4 ounces of tea weigh twice the 2-ounce weight.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "20 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nWhen a child has been practised in some of the uses\\nof numerals, he may learn to make choice of one object\\nfrom among many one marble taken from a basket-\\nful simply because he is directed to take one. He\\nshould acquire methodical habits in procedure say\\na method in examining any object he is directed to\\nobserve; you can point to the parts of it, then make\\nhim do the same. Take a post card and point to each\\ncorner, let him pass his finger along the top from cor-\\nner to corner, then down the side, moving at the same\\nrate he will have felt the ratio though he may not\\nbe able to express it; he may say, top longer. He\\ncannot express the length of the top and the sides by\\nnumbers till he has learned a standard of measurement\\nthis requires experience and practice. (See Chapter\\nVIII., p. 160.) In a lesson on the daisy flower there are\\nmany parts to look at, and the proportions of the green\\nbracts, the white florets, and the little central yellow\\nones have to be described. All the training previously\\ngiven will help in part to prepare the pupil for further\\nteaching; so you progress stage by stage. I think\\nthat, in early years at least, we should produce many\\nimpressions on the brain such as I have shown we can\\ncontrol, and then couple them with words in teaching,\\nand bring them into new relations under further in-\\nstruction. Such training will assist the class work in\\nreading, arithmetic, and geography.\\nThe advancing pupil must often be taught by the", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "VERBAL TEACHING 21\\nuse of words, not thus directly connected with impres-\\nsions which you can make on his brain. In moral\\ntraining you may teach the precept, Those who are\\ngood will be happy the boy will learn this as he\\nwrites it in his copybook and remember the words;\\nonly his subsequent impressions from experience will\\nmake him really accept its truth.\\nAs another example, All things tend to fall down.\\nThis statement may easily be explained when the child\\nknows the meaning of up, down, and falling.\\nMany observations will agree in showing that things\\nwhen unsupported do fall; the reason of this or the\\nexplanation of the fact will not be understood till\\nmuch knowledge and experience have been acquired.\\nThus verbal impressions established early may gather\\nstrength with experience, or it may be that subsequent\\nimpressions will modify early teachings. It is some-\\nthing to the advantage of the child to have such early\\ntraining as helps to connect or arrange his experi-\\nences, which may change in subsequent periods of life\\nin school days he may not think that the good boys\\nhave the best time, with manhood s riper experience\\nhe may be convinced the other way.\\nThus it comes about that knowledge is largely\\nfounded on observation and experience, but equally\\nimportant is the share that is due to method as im-\\nplanted by training and teaching.\\nIt is very desirable that the teacher should form a", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "22 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\ndefinite idea of the purpose of his labours, and, in the\\ndetail, form a concrete conception of his aims in an\\nindividual lesson, their connections and uses. Each\\nlesson should afford some exercise in training the\\nmental faculties for future use, as well as in employing\\nthose previously established as a means of implanting\\nknowledge and experience.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II\\nThe Brain and Body in Infancy and Early\\nChildhood\\nMany conditions leading to success or failure in the\\noutcome of the later educational years depend upon\\nthe care bestowed during infancy and early childhood.\\nI speak now of the first seven years of life as includ-\\ning the period of the nursery and home-training, rather\\nthan that of the school it should, however, be distinctly\\nunderstood that there is no such epochal period in\\nNature, but growth and development in some direction\\nor other occur continuously, though not uniformly the\\nage period mentioned is convenient for description, but\\nis in no way apart from the responsibilities of later life.\\nIn infancy growth and development occur rapidly.\\nDuring the first twelve months the head increases from\\na circumference of fifteen inches at birth, to nineteen\\ninches while the brain thus grows rapidly, there is a\\nproportional evolution of faculty, mostly displayed in\\nthe movements and action of the child. Spontaneous\\nand almost unceasing movements of the body charac-\\nterise this period of great brain growth, while the body\\nincreases in weight from seven pounds to twenty\\npounds in the first year.\\n23", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "24 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nThe infant at birth is not impressionable through the\\nsenses the most marked characteristics you will ob-\\nserve are the considerable strength of the muscles, and\\nthe amount of spontaneous bodily movement alternat-\\ning with sleep. The strength of the muscles is shown\\nin grasping your fingers; this may be so firm as to\\nenable you to raise the infant s body so that it is sus-\\npended as he clings to your hands. The limbs are at\\nfirst mostly kept flexed or doubled up, any attempt to\\nstraighten them out, as at the elbow, is strongly re-\\nsisted. The elbows are mostly kept bent, the thighs are\\nfolded up towards the body, and the knees bent also\\nsuch postures alternate with stretching out of the limbs\\nand movements of the toes. These postures return in\\nstates of childishness. (See Chapter V. p. 101.) The\\nmuscles of the back, however, are weak when the child\\nis placed in a sitting position the spine bows backwards,\\nand the head cannot be held erect. With increasing\\nstrength and development the limbs straighten out, the\\nhead is held erect and is moved about, while later on\\nthe back assumes the curves of the adult.\\nWhen movement is observed but does not appear to\\nbe controlled in any way through the senses, it may be\\ncalled spontaneous, as being due only to the activity or\\nvivacity of the brain it is originated in the child s brain,\\nnot excited from the outside. Spontaneous movement\\nis seen at the earliest stages of infancy and continues\\nas characteristic of brain action in early years this is", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "SHOWING SIMULTANEOUS MOVEMENT OF THE LITTLE FINGER\\nAND THE LITTLE TOE ON THE SAME SIDE", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "THE INFANT 2$\\nmost marked in the small parts of the body, the fingers\\nand toes all may open out together, or one digit at a\\ntime. 1\\nThe photograph shows the little finger and toe on\\nthe left side moving outwards as the child bent forward,\\nlooking at its father s foot. I shall have much to say\\nabout this spontaneity, and the brain conditions which\\nit indicates.\\nIn early days short intervals of wakefulness alternate\\nwith periods of sleep. In sleep the eyelids close and\\nmovement subsides except as to quiet breathing. If\\nyou gently raise the eyelids you will see the pupils\\nminutely contracted, while the eyeballs may be moving\\nseparately, showing brain in activity. 2 The brain is not\\nacting in sending out force to the muscles during sleep,\\ncirculation of the blood through the brain continues, as\\nyou may know by feeling the brain pulsate at the top\\nof the head, quiet nutrition of the substance of the\\nbrain goes on this is indicated by the infant s liveli-\\nness when he awakes refreshed.\\nThe infant needs training even from the moment of\\nbirth. Habits of regularity in the times of feeding\\nand sleeping and in bodily requirements may be\\nestablished and lay a foundation for acquiring further\\ncharacter, while towards the end of the first year\\n1 Tracings of the movements in Anatomy of Movement, p. 4. Appa-\\nratus used in taking tracings described in Physical Expression, p. 348.\\n2 British Medical Journal, 1877, March 10th.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "26 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nexpression may be elicited and new lines of action may-\\nbe formed by control through sight and sound the\\nchild hears, sees, and feels. The great increase of\\nbrain growth calls for health culture; judicious feed-\\ning, light, cleanliness, good ventilation of the sleeping\\nrooms, and out of door promenades all are necessary\\nto healthy growth and the formation of the faculties\\nto be trained in the second and succeeding years.\\nThe brain is an organ of the body, just as the heart\\nis the parts of the brain can act separately and per-\\nform different functions. One portion of the brain, or\\nnerve centre, as it is called, may to a great extent act\\nindependently of other parts, while the various centres\\nmay act upon one another. It has been established by\\nexperiment that excitation of a particular brain area\\nmay cause contraction of a certain group of muscles,\\nand thus produce a special movement, which is then an\\nindication of the nerve centre acting. The brain is the\\nprincipal organ producing the movements you see in\\nthe child.\\nThe brain, like all living things, needs a supply\\nof nourishment while stimulation by sight and sound,\\nviz., by what is seen and heard, is necessary for the\\nhealthy development of its functions.\\nYou cannot see the child s brain, but you may care-\\nfully examine the head which contains it take every\\nopportunity of doing so, and notice the signs of activity\\nin the body at the same time. The head at birth", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION IN BRAIN 27\\nmeasures 13.95 inches in circumference in the male,\\nand 13.57 inches in the female. The fontanelle is\\na soft spot at the top of the head where you can\\nfeel the pulsations of the brain as it receives blood from\\nthe heart through the arteries you will not be able to\\nfeel this fontanelle when the child has reached school\\nage. The soft spot is a space between the bones of the\\nforehead and those forming the sides of the brain\\ncase it is closed in by a membrane and covered by the\\nscalp the surface here should be gently convex, not\\nflat or sunken in, but continuing the general rotundity\\nof the head. In an infant five or six months old\\nyou will feel pulsation, due to the amount of blood\\npumped into the brain, which swells up this pulsation\\nis also to be felt during sleep, showing that circulation\\nin the brain continues during rest. When the infant\\nis weak or ill the fontanelle sinks in from feebleness\\nof the circulation in the brain, and at the same time\\nspontaneity of movement subsides, the child is too\\nmotionless. A good circulation in the brain is nec-\\nessary to its activity. Besides the pulsation in the\\nhead due to the heart-beats, you may feel extra rising\\nof the fontanelle with each act of breathing, while when\\nthe baby cries and gets red in the face, it swells up\\nfrom the extra blood in the brain. Full movements\\nof the chest, as well as the heart-beats, promote brain\\ncirculation. The fontanelle gradually closes up by the\\ngrowth of the bones around it. It is largest at about", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "28 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nthe seventh month and is not to be felt after the first\\nyear.\\nThe head enlarges with brain growth, its circumfer-\\nence increasing to 19 inches at the end of twelve\\nmonths. The brain at birth weighs 11.67 ounces in\\nmales and 10 ounces in females, and at from six to\\ntwelve months it weighs 27.40 ounces in males, 25.70\\nounces in females. 1 In this rapid growth of the brain\\nduring the first year you see the way in which care\\nfor the health of the infant prepares the material\\nstructures upon which the benefits of training and\\neducation are to be implanted.\\nYou should also look at the chest of the infant, and\\nthe movements of breathing. The chest is the cavity\\ncontaining the lungs and the heart; it is formed by\\nthe ribs, which are attached to the spine behind and\\nto the breast-bone (sternum) in front. The movements\\nof breathing expand the chest and draw air into the\\nlungs through the nose. In form the chest is slightly\\nconical, smallest at the collar bones, with its largest\\ncircumference towards the middle of the body. There\\nshould be no flatness at the sides, nor any sinking in\\nof the walls at any point as the breath is drawn in.\\nThe average girth of the chest is at birth 13.25 (males)\\nand 12.65 (females) in inches; at five years, 21.40\\ninches; at seven years, 22.54 inches. 2\\n1 Tables of brain weights, see Study of Children, p. 33.\\na Further account, see op. cit. t Chapter II,", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "GROWTH OF CHILD 29\\nThe lungs are the organs used in oxygenating the\\nblood which circulates through them; their full ex-\\npansion during early life is important, and like the\\nbrain they grow rapidly. The average weight of the\\nlungs at birth is about 2.7 ounces, and at five to seven\\nyears about 9 ounces.\\nAt about the ninth month teething begins the pro-\\ncess may give much trouble. When commencing\\npractice I carried and used a gum-lancet, but experi-\\nence showed me that most of the disorders attending\\nthis period are due to want of proper hygienic care,\\nor bad feeding and the use of starchy foods, as well\\nas other preventable causes. 1\\nTowards the end of the first year, the child will\\nbegin to imitate action in other persons, and to some\\nextent becomes controllable, so that he may be trained\\nto make some of the elementary sounds of speech and\\nthe movements used in walking of course without\\nallowing him to rest his weight on his feet.\\nThroughout childhood, habits need training much\\nmay be done with the infant by regularity in the time\\nfor all things, and also in attention to health, in feed-\\ning, cleanliness, good ventilation, light, and daily\\npromenades. The brain grows and the lungs grow as\\nwell as the body and the bones the child may easily\\nbe spoilt in the first year from want of attention to\\nthe health of the body and the brain. Regularity in\\n1 See Study of Children, Chapter XII.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "30 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nfeeding has much to do with promoting proper diges-\\ntion and establishing good habits; meals should be\\nsupplied at stated intervals feeding the infant because\\nhe cries is a bad habit, easily encouraged. Uniform\\ntimes for lying down and for airing out of doors, as\\nwell as for playing with his mother, help to form good\\nhabits in the child.\\nGeneral playfulness and liveliness may be encouraged\\nby talking to the child he will play with toys, which\\nshould be few and selected, he will grasp them, transfer\\nthem from one hand to the other, or seize them with\\nboth hands, generally conveying all things to his\\nmouth, though objects are soon dropped.\\nThe infant develops into the young pupil; spon-\\ntaneous brain action is abundant as expressed in much\\nmovement and in chattering there is also some\\ncapacity for control through the senses, guidance of\\naction under verbal direction, and, what is most im-\\nportant to early training, growth of the faculty of\\nimitation.\\nThese characters of the brain all demand cultivation\\nand training, they interact on one another and each\\nhas its place in the development of mental faculty\\nand capacity for instruction. Retentiveness of im-\\npressions and the modes of their interaction or mem-\\nory come later. It will now be found that the larger\\nbrained children have more aptitude, while those\\nwith little heads are more delicate. The very quiet", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "CONTROL OF THE CHILD 3 1\\nchild may be good and give but little trouble the\\nstronger child has so much spontaneity that, till con-\\ntrollable and capable of guidance, his activities may\\ninterfere with good order and quietness still the con-\\ndition is hopeful.\\nIn the years of school life the acquired power of\\nself-control under guidance of impressions received in\\ntraining, with memory for modes of procedure, direc-\\ntions, and principles previously taught, together with\\nexperience, gained and retained, give some intellectual\\nability, and begin to build up a basis of character\\nwhich has been developed stage by stage, leading to\\ncapacity for duties in voluntary action or obedience,\\nand to consideration of circumstances and the well-\\nbeing of other persons.\\nWe shall see examples of such activities when de-\\nscribing the general character of brain action, and in\\nsome brain moods and their reversion to a childish\\nstatus in school children.\\nIt is useful to separate what it is actually in our\\npower to do with the infant and the child, from what\\nwe try to make his brain perform. We can, as shown,\\ndo much to encourage regular times of sleep we\\ncannot make the child rest. We can prevent him\\nfrom injuring himself with unsafe objects, but cannot\\nmake him feed himself till he has acquired coordi-\\nnated movements we cannot make him walk, but\\ncan direct the movements of his limbs or prevent him", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "32 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nfrom walking. We can guide the pupil s hand in\\ndrawing or writing, or we may attempt to get his brain\\nto do as we do in imitating our movements for physical\\nexercises. At all stages the child should be childlike\\nfor his age; we do not wish him to be precocious.\\nThe rapidly developing brain is here our chief\\nconcern, and will now be described in speaking of the\\ngeneral character of brain action.\\nThe condition, status, and working capacity of the\\nbrain may be early observed and described by care-\\nfully noting the expression, movement, balance of the\\nbody and its parts, and the response in action elicited\\nthrough the senses. These are the direct outcome\\nand signs of action occurring in the parts of the nerve\\nsystem (the nerve centres). It must be remembered\\nthat all mental action is expressed by movement and\\nits results; whether it be spoken or written words, in\\naction and in doing things, or by gestures and facial\\nexpression. 1\\nOn these matters I have written recently in School\\nWorld 12, and am indebted to the Editor for per-\\nmission to quote from these articles.\\nThe general characters of brain action may be de-\\nscribed under ten headings; some only will be seen in\\nearly infancy, others evolve later, but all will need\\ncultivation.\\n1 Reference 2.\\n2 School World January to April, 1899. Macmillan Co.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "CHARACTERS OF BRAIN ACTION 33\\n(1) Spontaneity in brain action for movement is\\ncharacteristic of the infant, and is proportioned to the\\ncirculation as felt at the fontanelle. You see spon-\\ntaneity in the child when you observe changeful ex-\\npression on his face or smiling about the mouth\\nspreading upwards around the eyes to the forehead,\\napparently of self-contained origin, not stimulated by\\nwhat he sees or hears at the time. The eyes may\\nturn to either side without being directed to you or\\nany particular object, the movements may be up and\\ndown, as is often seen when thinking. The hands\\nmay show much spontaneity of finger movements,\\neither as they hang by the sides, or when held out\\nstraight in front, on direction to do so. The feet may\\nbe shifted, the shoulders shrugged, and the head\\nturned about without apparent cause other than spon-\\ntaneous restlessness. There may be also spontaneous\\nor uncontrolled utterances. All these movements\\nrepresent healthy activity in the young brain, as long\\nas the spontaneity is controllable each act seen\\ncorresponds to the action of some brain centre.\\nSpontaneity in movement lessens at seven or eight\\nyears of age as coordinated action gradually increases\\ntowards adolescence; while in mental action spon-\\ntaneity remains till the brain degenerates. 1\\nMany thoughts in children s minds appear to arise\\n1 Muscular movements in man, and their evolution in the infant. Jour-\\nnal of Mental Science, London, April, 1889.\\nD", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "34 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nspontaneously imaginations, such as building up\\nfairy stories, imaginary conversations, the doings of\\ndolls and animals; thoughts in great part, at least,\\nnot controlled by what is heard or seen around. So\\nin adult life; we think many thoughts other than those\\ndirectly due to impressions of what we see and hear,\\nthoughts arise in the mind (or in the brain) indepen-\\ndently of the senses. This faculty of self-contained or\\nspontaneous thinking lasts later in the life of the brain\\nthan the spontaneous vivacity of movement in the body.\\nThe adult is quieter in action than the child, but per-\\nhaps more self-originated thoughts arise in the mind,\\nsuch as ideas of philosophy and those expressed in\\npoetry.\\nSpontaneous action may be subnormal it is lost\\nin illness, and is often absent in the child with a\\ndeficient brain. In chorea, or St. Vitus s dance, it is\\nexcessive, also in some brain conditions of reversion of\\nchildishness, the fidgetiness of fatigue, and in irritable\\npeevishness. Spontaneous movement may be uni-\\nformly repetitive, seen in fixed habits, frowning, grin-\\nning, grimaces, and other subnormal action that will\\nbe described in the next chapter. In any case, each\\nspontaneous movement as you see it, is due to, and indi-\\ncates, discharge of nerve force from a nerve centre or\\nportion of the brain. 1\\n(2) Impressionability of the brain is not marked in\\n1 See Diagram of Brain, Study of Children, p. 37.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "IMPRESSIONABILITY AND INHIBITION 35\\nthe infant at birth, and there appears then to be no\\ncontrol through sight or hearing; it is, however, af-\\nfected by warmth, and by cold as well as hunger,\\nwhich cause crying. When three or four months\\nold a marked impression may be produced by sight\\nand sound in momentarily inhibiting movement while\\nlater, such stimulation and inhibition is followed by\\ncontrollable action. The child devoid of impression-\\nability is ineducable, and those without sight, or deaf,\\nare at a great disadvantage from absence of such\\npaths for brain guidance. Much will be said here-\\nafter as to different modes of producing impression\\non the brain, and the interaction of impressions in\\nvarious ways. Impressionability may be indicated\\nby any of the remaining general characters. (3-10.)\\n(3) Inhibition of movement 1 is seen in the infant of\\nfour or five months, when spontaneous action is mo-\\nmentarily arrested under the stimulus of some sight\\nor sound; this may be followed by reappearance of\\nmovement as before, even if the stimulus continues,\\nor it may be succeeded by some new line of action.\\nThe baby s fingers may simply keep still for a few\\nseconds, or, the hand may move towards the object\\nseen, while the fingers then grasp it such prehen-\\nsile act is called a coordinated (or regulated) move-\\nment.\\n1 The study of cerebral inhibition, Brain, 1888, XLIII., Macmillan;\\nand Journal of Mental Science, 1889, with tracing.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "36 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nAction such as I have just described corresponds\\nto the first mental attitude of attention. I hope the\\nreader will look for himself at some infants, and\\nnotice this most interesting and important sign of\\ndawning mental power.\\nYou ask the pupil a question he pauses a moment,\\nand is still if he answers in reply to your direction\\nyou know that some brain process of thinking occurred\\nduring the period of inhibition.\\nThe pause period does not then mean absence of\\nbrain activity as in sleep but a new kind of action\\namong the brain centres. The mere arrest of move-\\nment in young children is not necessarily attention\\nthey may stand still without either thinking or mov-\\ning. The faculty of inhibition of movement becomes\\nrapidly manifested under good training.\\n(4) Control through the senses. In the infant, con-\\ntrol by sight and by sound are seen in any coordinate\\naction following; such as grasping an object within\\nview, or turning his head to the speaker but at this\\nstage, control is very temporary. When you are\\nable to arrest spontaneous movements of fidgetiness\\nyou have clearly produced some impression on the\\nchild but unless more than this is effected, it can\\nhardly be said- that you have controlled the brain.\\nYou wish to guide the child, and to train new and use-\\nful action in harmony with the surroundings, and to\\nenable him to do as others do and to think as you", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "MUSCLE SENSE 37\\nthink. Such control of the brain may be established\\nthrough sight and hearing. The effects of control\\nare seen in action adapted by what the child hears,\\nor what he sees in objects or the written page. Control,\\nlike all means of training, is usually in part an inhibition\\n(or partial arrest) of spontaneity when you get the\\ncontrolled action wanted, there may still be some\\nspontaneity accompanying it. If the pupil responds\\nto you, perhaps it does not matter if he fidgets, and\\nmoves his hands while so doing; you guide and con-\\ntrol spontaneous action without subduing it. Control\\nof brain action, or, the discipline of class, is sometimes\\nbetter effected through sight than by hearing; when\\nthe child is restless on being spoken to he may quietly\\nobey your looks or gesture. Imitation is a form of\\ncontrol mainly effected by sight, especially at sight of\\naction in the teacher or in classmates.\\n(5) Control through muscle-sense. The literature of\\neducation contains many references to training the\\nhand and the eye and the senses, as well as to the\\nimportance of exercising the muscles in drill, gym-\\nnastics, and games. I do not think that the control\\nof the brain by impressions received from the muscles\\nor muscle sense has been sufficiently considered as\\na means of brain training and a method of use in edu-\\ncating mental ability. (See Chapter VII., p. 145.)\\nMuscle sense in movement may produce impressions\\non the brain as in a hand and finger action when", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "38 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nfeeling the size and dimensions of an object, or in\\nmoving the hand to point out objects and parts of\\nthem. Any action in movement is caused by the con-\\ntraction of muscles, which not only produce what we\\nsee, but also send stimulus up to the brain and pro-\\nduce an impression on it. Movements of the eyes in\\ncounting, or in following the outline of a map, or the\\nfigure drawn on the blackboard, thus produce impres-\\nsions by muscle sense.\\nMuscle sense in tension is another means of con-\\ntrolling the brain and producing impressions. The\\ntension or strain in a muscle when contracting and\\novercoming a resistance is felt by the brain this\\noccurs when a weight is held in the hand, the muscle\\nsense in tension being affected in proportion to the\\nweight. Exercise in thus appreciating weights by feel-\\ning them is most useful in training the pupil to\\nunderstand addition and proportion, which he\\nmay thus be made to feel.\\nIt is not easy to test muscle sense till some means\\nof expression has been acquired by the child. This\\nfaculty is indicated in the pupil who counts objects or\\nmarks on the blackboard either at sight, by moving\\nhis eyes (by use of the muscles of the eye-balls) or his\\nfingers in pointing or again as he counts on his own\\nfingers, bending them one after another also in meas-\\nuring distance or dimensions by sight or feeling. Both\\nthe size and the weight of objects are thus estimated", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "BRAIN CENTRES INTERACTING 39\\nby muscle sense, while weight can be discriminated\\nfrom size after practice.\\n(6) Compound brain action, or compound cerebration,\\nis a most interesting process to watch in the young\\nchild; as this faculty develops, it begins to afford the\\nbasis of brain action leading to mental power. An\\nimpression made on the brain through the senses may\\nstimulate two or three nerve centres, which, after send-\\ning out nerve currents, may become quiescent and\\nrest again. The centres thus secondarily stimulated\\nmay act in similar manner, becoming quiet in their\\nturn thus there is not an ever increasing amount of\\nbrain action but the first group of nerve centres stim-\\nulates the second, and the second acts on the third,\\nso that finally an adapted action in movement or\\nexpression results.\\nThis is very analogous to a trained set of impres-\\nsions or thoughts, as a process established in the\\nbrain, where the question or direction leads to\\nthoughts arising in order, during a pause the final\\nresult being expressed in response. The pupil, who\\nhas previously been taught, is told to examine a seed-\\nling pea that has been sprouted in damp moss he\\nholds it and removes the case with a needle, divides\\nits parts, the two cotyledons, the stem and the root,\\nfinally placing each part in order on a card. Here\\none act follows another in the order taught; centre\\nafter centre in his brain acts and then rests if every-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "40 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nthing is attempted at once the object is smashed. Thus\\na series of acts is performed one after another in order,\\ninvolving the fingers and eyes of the child the whole\\naction followed a very slight stimulus viz., the verbal\\ndirection of the teacher. So a hand exercise learnt\\nmay be repeated, act after act, without confusion or\\nguidance.\\nIn such examples of compound cerebration there is\\ninteraction of parts of the brain on one another,\\nwhether under continued guidance, or following a\\nsimpler direction and the results of former training. 1\\nInteraction of one brain centre upon another may be\\ninferred when the expression seen differs greatly from\\nthe sensory impression which it follows, but at the same\\ntime is clearly adapted by it. When the child simply\\nimitates your movements, each separate act is guided by\\nsight, there is no necessary interaction among the\\ncentres when the exercise is repeated from memory,\\nthe centres react on one another in the repeated order.\\nThis process of compound action among brain centres\\nis not observed in the young infant, it is only developed\\ngradually, and built up in the child as the faculty of\\nretentiveness grows and is cultivated. Habits and\\nmodes of procedure in action are established by train-\\ning, and thoughts are learnt in order as taught this is\\nphysiologically represented in the brain by established\\nmodes of order in action.\\n1 References 2 and 6.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "BRAIN IMPRESSIONS RETAINED 4 1\\n(7) Retentiveness in the brain is shown by movements\\nwhen a physical exercise is readily repeated in each\\nact of a series, and in orderly habits carried out punctu-\\nally also in a series of words or thoughts remembered.\\nIt is probable that retention of the arrangements in the\\nbrain centres, both for series of movements and\\nthoughts, depends upon similar physiological conditions\\nviz., the establishment of nerve paths between the\\ncentres, by which nerve currents pass from one to the\\nother in order, calling them into successive activity.\\nRetention of the terms of direction used in control-\\nling a child, coupled with the action intended, is im-\\nportant; the words of command should be uniformly\\nused, and heard distinctly, to be followed by the action\\ndirected. In this way terms of direction become useful\\nmeans of self-contained control, in cultivating voluntary\\npower later on. Retentiveness much depends upon the\\ndistinct and definite or accurate reception of the impres-\\nsion to be retained. If the child is to remember where to\\nfind his books, he should look at them and see them in\\ntheir place, when he has put them there if he is to\\nremember the order of the numerals he must hear\\neach word distinctly and, better, feel movements for\\neach number named. Retentiveness is not seen in the\\nearliest infant stages it may be cultivated in the child\\nby regularity in habits and in the order of doing things.\\nRetentiveness may lead to persistence in doing some-\\nthing, or continuing to do it too long. When a class of", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "42 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nchildren are told to hold out hands, some persist in doing\\nso after the rest have dropped theirs thus the action in\\nthe brain is retained.\\nMemory is a form of brain retentiveness both for\\nwords and action thus the teacher draws a map on\\nthe blackboard and points out the site of the principal\\ntowns, while the pupils reproduce the map at home.\\n(8) Coordinated action. As to movement, this implies\\nregulation of each act in the series of movements\\nbrought about at first by control through the senses.\\nYou throw a ball at a boy he catches it and throws it\\nback the sight of you and then of the ball quickly\\nadvancing so determines the order of his brain centres\\nin producing his movements that this well coordinated\\naction follows. Practice makes him more apt in catch-\\ning the ball, the nerve mechanism for executing the\\nrequired action works more and more accurately this\\nrapid advance in coordinated ability is a good indica-\\ntion for future mental capacity.\\nIn training this faculty of coordination under guid-\\nance, the nerve centres exercised thereby become\\ngradually connected by nerve paths, so that the action\\nis easily and accurately repeated or, as we say here,\\ncompound cerebration is built up, and the action called\\nfor may follow a simple direction. Impressions on the\\nbrain and thoughts may be similarly coordinated\\nwhen you point out the parts of an object two or three\\ntimes over, the child looking at each in succession will", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "EXPRESSION OF EMOTION 43\\nat last remember all that has been shown him. Co-\\nordinated action, when often repeated, tends to be\\nretained, but at first it will be accompanied in expres-\\nsion by some spontaneous movements in a young child\\nstill, if effectual control is established, that is all that\\nwe need look for.\\nIn the infant, a little after inhibition is first observed\\nthat is, about the fifth month coordinated action is\\nseen, when at sight of an object the hand is moved\\ntowards it and the fingers, first opening, then grasp it.\\nIt is here that spontaneity, controlled and regulated,\\nleads on to the more precise coordinated action. We\\nthus see that inhibition, succeeded by some coordina-\\ntion of movement becoming gradually more exact, leads\\non to the retention of order in action among the nerve\\ncentres, and the dawning signs of compound cerebration,\\nindicating faculty for intelligence. 1\\n(9) Spreading area of movement. Visible action may\\nspread without control, or as the result of stimulus by\\nsight, sound, or feeling. A smile may spread in the\\nface, following some spontaneous thought; this may\\npass on to widening of the mouth, half closure of\\nthe eyes, turning of the head, and movements of the\\nhands and fingers till, in a burst of laughter, the whole\\nbody seems to take part. When the child is told to\\nmake a calculation in mental arithmetic, the tongue may\\nbe protruded, then the eyebrows contracted, the head\\n1 Reference 5.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "44 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nand eyes turned upwards, while movements are also\\nseen about the mouth and lips. When a child s finger\\nis hurt, the angles of the mouth become depressed and\\nits line arched downwards, the brows knit, and the\\nforehead crumpled, with the eyelids closed; while the\\nfingers are much moved and the respirations disturbed,\\nthe child growing red in the face finally his closed fists\\nare pressed to his eyes and he cries aloud. So, in a\\nstorm of passion, the boy turns his head and eyes\\ntowards a schoolfellow, the canine tooth on that side\\nis uncovered, the eyelids are retracted, a conflict of\\nmuscular action about the mouth may cause the lips to\\ntwitch. Breathing quickens, the face, at first pale, now\\nflushes, the chest is fixed, the fists clenched, and he hits\\nout. In other instances, in place of rapidly spreading\\narea of movement seen in expression of emotion, a\\nuniform trick or habit is observed accompanying any\\nmental effort the tongue may be protruded when the\\nchild is spoken to the head moved to one side, some\\nuniform grimace may be seen, or the feet may be\\nshifted. Stammering is a spreading muscular spasm\\nattendant on pronouncing certain sounds. 1\\nIn all cases the spreading area of movement ob-\\nserved indicates a nerve centre discharging its nerve\\ncurrents to more than one brain centre, and then not\\nresting so that the nerve currents become reinforced\\nor strengthened as they pass from one nerve cell to an-\\n1 Study of Children, pp. 95, 115, 117.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "EXPRESSION BY MOVEMENT 45\\nother over a widening area of the brain, finally proceed-\\ning to the muscles which produce the movements seen\\nas expressing the brain action occurring in emotion.\\nThis represents a superfluity of brain action in move-\\nment.\\n(10) Response of the brain to some stimulus is seen\\nin the movement following an impression through the\\nsenses. An object comes within view of the infant\\nthe act of seizing it which follows shows early re-\\nsponse in his brain, producing the movement. It has\\nalready been said there may be a pause between the\\nsensory stimulus and its expression you may observe\\nan interval between the eyes turning to the object, and\\nits being grasped. When a question is asked, there\\nis an interval before the reply, if thinking takes\\nplace; the brain-processes corresponding to thoughts\\noccupy time. The response, either in movement or\\nany mode of expression, may be delayed.\\nThus modes of brain action indicated by movements\\nwhich you may observe, have been described as repre-\\nsenting different kinds of action among the brain\\ncentres, which will be found to correspond with various\\nmental states, affording faculties, all of which need\\ncultivation and training. It was convenient thus to\\ncommence with some description of the brain in\\ninfancy and childhood, by speaking of the kinds or\\nclasses of action, instead of giving detailed signs be-\\ncause, as each class is expressed in many ways, they", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "46 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nmust be more or less familiar to you from associating\\nwith children, and some points referable to each class\\nmay have previously attracted your attention, so that\\nyou can recognise their place in this classification. A\\ncase is here given in illustration\\nA Bright, Healthy Boy Ten Years Old\\ni Spontaneity. Playful. Expression bright, often changing\\neyes much moved. No frowning. Finger movements.\\nTalkative.\\n2. Impressionability. Looks at what is shown him, quiet\\nwhen spoken to, and looks at teacher. Generally\\nobedient.\\n3. Inhibition. Is quiet when called upon in class after a\\nshort pause replies to question put, then looks at others\\nin class. He stops to think.\\n4. Control. When looking about, is better controlled by\\na gesture than a word. Prompt in physical exercises.\\nAnswers something to each question.\\n5. Muscle sense. Expresses fairly the weight of coins felt;\\ncan compare lengths at sight well, and count objects.\\nGood at games.\\n6. Compound cerebration. Free hand exercises performed\\nunder guidance or without it. His thoughts are be-\\ncoming orderly and systematic.\\n7. Retentiveness. Each of his movements and their order\\nexact in physical exercises. Good memory for vocabu-\\nlary and poetry.\\n8. Coordination. His movements are well regulated and\\norderly so are his thoughts for subjects he has been\\ntaught, as rules of arithmetic.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "A BRIGHT BOY 47\\n9. Spreading action. Seen in his playfulness after school\\nin fidgeting during lesson. He asks questions not\\nappropriate to the lesson sometimes.\\n10. Response delayed. Interval between question and an-\\nswer becomes longer when fatigued; also when he is\\nslow in thinking out the reply.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III\\nThe Child at School\\nWhen the pupil is received into the school his\\nproper class place may be wisely determined by some\\nobservation of the child, as well as a brief mental ex-\\namination. It is in the observation of the general char-\\nacters of brain action, as described in the last chapter,\\nthat a rapid judgment may best be formed as a first\\naid in school classification. To determine the indi-\\nvidual status of the child, including his abilities and\\nspecial needs in training, detailed points must be de-\\nscribed, such as will afford indications of the manage-\\nment wanted in class training; it will be seen in the\\nnext chapter that the class teacher may obtain much\\nhelp in understanding his pupil from a detailed descrip-\\ntion this serves to guide his own further observations\\nand experience. When the children in a class are\\nknown in this way, observations will soon accumulate,\\nand experience will be gained for the establishment\\nof a Mental Hygiene, and also in employing the prin-\\nciples of physiological mental science as an aid to\\neducational methods. In subsequently studying the\\nrecords thus obtained, and the various faculties making\\n4 8", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "OBSERVATION OF CHILDREN 49\\nup the sum of the brain capacity of children, we shall\\nsee the needs of infancy preparing for childhood, and\\nof the child developing to adolescence and manhood\\nor womanhood.\\nThe results of my observations of one hundred\\nthousand children in schools have been analysed and\\nclassed in various ways 2 they are always grouped as\\nboys and girls separately, so that differences and resem-\\nblances among them may become apparent they have\\nalso, as far as possible, been arranged in age-groups,\\nto show the progress that occurs during school life.\\nThus a basis of facts has been provided for the sci-\\nentific study of the mental and physical conditions of\\nchildhood. 2\\nIn observing the child, you must know what to look\\nat and what to look for after a time you will learn,\\nfrom what you see, to make correct inferences as to the\\nconditions and the changes occurring in the brain of the\\nchild before you. Much help in this work will be de-\\nrived from methodical procedure and description of the\\nfacts seen. When making your observations, do not\\ntalk to the child or touch him, but let him stand quietly\\nas you look at him point by point. To do this conven-\\niently it is necessary to prevent the child from looking\\nat you, while examining his head and face if you hold\\n1 Report on the Scientific Study of the Mental and Physical Conditions\\nof Childhood. The Macmillan Company.\\n2 For statistical analysis see References 15, 41.\\nE", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "50 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nup a small object in your hand, just telling him to look\\nat it, this fixes his eyes, and he does not see you as you\\nlook at him.\\nNow proceed to examine his face part by part. The\\nface may be described in three zones, the forehead\\nabove the eyebrows, the eyelids, and the parts around\\nthem, then the lower part of the face, including the\\ncheek-bones and the nostrils, with the region around the\\nmouth, each area presents points for observation.\\nThe child s forehead should be generally smooth and\\nplacid, corresponding to quiet brain action, and a men-\\ntal status neither wholly uncontrolled nor too much\\nstimulated. There are two pairs of muscles in the fore-\\nhead, the one placed vertically under the skin so that\\nby their contraction they make horizontal creases, the\\nother is placed horizontally between the eyebrows,\\ndrawing them together in action. 1\\nThe frontal muscles acting, cause frowning, with\\nhorizontal furrows of the forehead this may accompany\\na discontented mental state or an unoccupied attitude.\\nThe sign is often repeated as a habit. It is much more\\nfrequently seen in boys than in girls, and is most com-\\nmon in those with any degree of brain defect.\\nThe corrugator muscles knit the eyebrows, drawing\\nthem together, thus producing vertical furrows. This\\nmay be seen under mental stress, or in a class engaged\\nin mental arithmetic. It may also occur together with\\n1 Drawing of muscles of face. See Study of Children, p. 21.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "THE MOUTH SMILING 5 1\\nhorizontal frowning, causing a bad scowling expression\\nin the face.\\nThe orbiculares oculi form a pair of circular mus-\\ncles surrounding the eyelids and closing them they\\nalso give good tone to the lower lids in a lively child,\\nand shapeliness, while in smiling they make folds in the\\nskin. In fatigue, and the debility accompanying head-\\naches, these muscles lose their tone, the face looks\\nfull and baggy about the eyes, the muscle is lax, and\\nthe shapeliness of the lower lid is lost. 1\\nThe mouth. In the lower part of the face the\\nmouth and the parts around it are the principal seat of\\nexpression. The mouth, when quiet, should be closed,\\nbreath being drawn in through the nose but some\\nchildren cannot breathe without opening the mouth.\\nThis is a matter calling for medical treatment. The line\\nof the mouth is naturally nearly straight, but the angles\\nmay be drawn upwards or downwards.\\nGrinning and over-smiling consists in an upward and\\noutward movement of the corners of the mouth, widen-\\ning the opening and making creases in the face running\\nfrom the nostrils to the angles of the mouth. Similar\\naction occurs in healthy laughter, which spreads to the\\neyelids. In conditions of pain the angles of the mouth\\nare drawn down so also at the commencement of cry-\\ning and other spreading movements. In the state of\\npassion the canine tooth on one side may be uncovered.\\n1 Reference 28.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "52 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nExpression in the face as a whole is one of the best\\nsigns of the mental status of the child. A bright,\\nlively, changeful expression indicates spontaneity, and\\nis a hopeful sign of mental aptitude, while a spreading\\nsmile about the mouth to the eyelids shows brain ac-\\ntivity, and may indicate mental action which the pupil\\ncannot express in words.\\nThe absence of facial expression is a marked sign of\\na dull brain without spontaneous activity this may be\\nseen in fatigue, or day by day in an exhausted child. 1\\nThe face may bear a good general expression, and in\\naddition show any of the signs described; conversely,\\nthese signs may be seen in a face devoid of general\\nexpression. 2\\nIn looking at the face you see the eyes i.e. the eye-\\nballs the muscles that move them have special nerves\\ncoming direct from the brain, apart from the nerves\\nto the muscles of the face eye-movements should\\ntherefore be observed apart from action in the face,\\nand are very interesting as signs of brain action.\\nEye-movements may show much spontaneity, turning\\nevery way, though most frequently in a horizontal di-\\nrection, leading to but vague impressions at sight,\\nthough many objects may be seen. Some children\\nlook about, and at the words in the book, by moving the\\nhead only, not turning the eyes at all. Try how the\\nchild follows your finger as you move it, whether by\\ni See Study of Children, Case 21. 2 Reference 4.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "OBSERVING A CHILD 53\\nmoving his eyes or his head test a]so his power to fix\\nthe eyes well on what *he is told to look at. Irregular\\neye movements interfere with learning geometry. (See\\nChapter IX., p. 180.)\\nThe hand in its attitudes, the movements of its parts,\\nand its ability to perform many actions is almost as\\ngood an index of the brain as the face. 1 In order that\\nyou may observe the effects of the action of the brain\\non the hand it must be free to move within your view\\nneither hidden behind the child s back, nor resting on\\nthe table, but held out and balanced as the muscles\\nmove it under the control of the brain.\\nLet the child stand; tell him to hold out his hands\\nin front with the palms down, and show him the action\\nmomentarily. In a well-trained active child response\\nfollows the arms are raised to the level of the shoul-\\nders and horizontal, straight at the elbow, the arms\\nbeing parallel to one another, and the distance of the\\nchest apart. The hands and fingers should balance\\nstraight at the wrists and knuckles all parts with the\\nfingers and the thumb in the same plane, so that a card\\nplaced on the back of the hand is touched by each\\ndigit. This shows a normal or good balance among\\nthe brain centres, well coordinated by training. As\\nthe balance depends upon a uniform action of certain\\nbrain centres, you should not make the child hold out\\nhis hand thus for more than half a minute at most;\\n1 References 3, 9, 16.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "54 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nthe attitude is tiring, like any persistent uniform\\nmental effort.\\nThe weak hand balance shows a marked difference\\nfrom the straight attitude this may occur in different\\ndegrees. The wrist droops, the bones of the palm of\\nthe hand are somewhat folded together, while the\\nthumb drops and all the fingers are slightly bent. All\\nthis shows less action in the muscles, and less force\\nproduced in the brain centres which make them act.\\nIf you get the child to look at your straight balanced\\nhand and imitate it, you control his brain attitude to\\nbe more like yours; as he sees your hand, his brain\\ncentres begin to act and balance as yours do, and the\\nhand straightens up. Thus you influence the brain\\nof the child through his eyes by sight of your hand,\\ncontrolling his brain centres all this you may observe\\nas the hand straightens in imitation of your action.\\nIf you gently raise the arm of a child in sleep, the\\nhand falls into the weak or drooping attitude, which\\nis characteristic of a brain state not sending out force.\\nThe weak hand balance is seen in those who are list-\\nless, careless, or tired; it is common to observe the\\nposture more marked on the left side and also to find\\nthat a child, when directed to hold out his hand, keeps\\nthe left at a lower level than the right, whereas both\\nshould be at the same level.\\nThe nervous hand balance is a modification of the\\nposture last described, and like it may be seen in vary-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "BALANCE OF HAND 55\\ning degree. The wrist droops, the palm is folded or\\ncontracted together and looks narrow, arched on the\\ntop and hollow on the under surface the thumb is\\nbent back and each finger is bent back at the knuckle-\\njoint. This attitude, like the weak hand, is often more\\nmarked on the left side. You will not see this in the\\nrestful conditions of sleep; it indicates some degree of\\nweakness, together with some overaction or excitability\\nof the brain centres.\\nThe nervous hand balance is common among nervous\\nchildren and adults those who sleep badly, suffer from\\nheadaches, often with capricious or voracious appe-\\ntites and disturbance of digestion, and vague debility\\nwithout disease. 1 This sign does not indicate a state\\nof brain inactivity like the weak hand rather weak-\\nness with excitability, such as characterises the condi-\\ntion of St. Vitus s dance it is not usually accompanied\\nby mental dulness of brain.\\nThe fingers can move separately, each act being due\\nto the activity in a brain centre thus the parts of the\\nhand move separately, indicating brain action in writ-\\ning, or express thoughts in drawing, or produce music\\non the instrument in each case the centres for finger\\nmovements are guided by sight. Finger movements\\nindicate the brain state.\\nFinger twitches. When the hand is held out for\\nyou to look at, if the fingers touch one another they\\n1 Reference 32.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "56 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\ngive mutual support, and you will probably see no\\nmovement therefore take care to see the fingers sepa-\\nrated or spread out, when they ought to be straight and\\nsteady.\\nYou may, however, see twitches of one or more\\nfingers; these may be either up and down (flexor-\\nextensor) or lateral, the latter are more common in\\nnervous mental conditions. Finger twitches often ac-\\ncompany the nervous hand posture in weak con-\\nditions.\\nThe spine is a column composed of many small\\nbones, and is capable of being bent in various direc-\\ntions postures of the spine should be noted. 1 If a\\nchild when at his desk constantly bends to one side,\\nmaking one shoulder higher than the other, some\\nlateral curvature of the spine is likely to follow stoop-\\ning and bending the back in reading or writing may\\nbe due to short sight, requiring the use of spectacles.\\nAs the child stands, the shoulders should be at an equal\\nheight, with the head erect when the hands are held\\nout quietly in front, there is no alteration in the outline\\nand curves of the back resulting from the action if the\\nchild is strong.\\nLordosis. When the hands are held out, the action\\nmay result in arching forward of the lower part of the\\nspine at the loins while the upper part between the\\nshoulders is thrown back. This is best seen in a profile\\n1 See Drawing, Study of Children, p. 23.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "NERVE SIGNS\\n57\\nview of the child, and is due to weakness of the muscles\\nof the back, and commonly accompanies a state of\\ndebility. An energetic child will often shoot forward\\nhis hands, especially if the fists are closed, arching the\\nback at the same time the energy of such action\\nshows the absence of weakness, while the exercise can\\nbe more quietly repeated without movement of the spine.\\nOther nerve signs I have described elsewhere, 1 only\\nrepeating here those that are most obvious and easily\\nobserved, specially selecting such as should attract\\nyour attention as being points which may guide class\\ntraining, and adapt it to promote mental abilities and\\nremove the brain disabilities indicated by these sub-\\nnormal nerve signs. If the child does not stand\\nstraight and move the eyes well, these form matters\\nfor attention in the exercises used. My chief purpose\\nis that your method in training should be guided by\\nyour own observations of the pupils in the class. (See\\nChapter VII., examples.)\\nA few remarks may be useful as to the relations\\nbetween the general characters of brain action and the\\nindividual nerve signs, which have not always the same\\nsignificance, just as the meaning of words varies ac-\\ncording to the connections in which they are employed.\\nThus frontals overacting is usually a sign of\\nspontaneous action in the nerve centre producing it.\\n(i) In as far as you cannot control the movement,\\n1 See Author s Study of Children.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "58 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nthis sign also shows want of impressionability, (2) and\\nincapacity for quiet coordinated action. (8) It may\\nappear as part of a spreading area of action in the\\nface, (9) in stammering or in full laughter.\\nCorrugation most often belongs to the class of\\nspreading action (9), as indicating a (useless) overflow\\nof nerve energy accompanying some mental act but\\nit may also occur apparently as a spontaneous action (1).\\nSmiling, after a pause occupied in thinking, is\\nsometimes the first indication that a reply has been\\narranged in the brain. Grinning, as a uniform re-\\npeated spontaneous movement, in the absence of con-\\ntrollability or the signs of compound cerebration, shows\\nmarked dulness of brain or deficiency. 1\\nEye-movements may show spontaneity, and yet be\\ncontrollable through sight or by the word of direction\\nthey may produce impressions on the brain by muscle\\nsense, as those corresponding to number, dimension, or\\nsize. (See Chapters VII., p. 145 IX., pp. 180, 185.)\\nNerve signs are often associated with one another\\nin the same child and form points for describing his\\nbrain status. Their individual value has to some\\nextent been determined by working out their co-rela-\\ntion with mental dulness and other conditions as re-\\ncorded in the notes of the cases. Thus: 2\\n1 References 17, 20, 21, 22.\\n2 See Report on Scientific Study on Children, The Macmillan Com-\\npany, 1895, PP\u00c2\u00ab 7 2 anc 104-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "CO-RELATIONS OF NERVE SIGNS 59\\nOf 715 boys 504 girls with the weak hand balance,\\n40 per cent boys, 35.3 per cent girls, were reported\\nas dull or backward.\\nOf 550 boys 516 girls with the nervous hand bal-\\nance 34.3 per cent boys, 32.9 per cent girls, were\\nreported as dull or backward.\\nOf 1322 boys 294 girls, with frontals overacting, 41.4\\nper cent boys, and 46.2 per cent girls, were reported\\nas dull or backward.\\nIt is thus seen that these sub-normal nerve signs are\\nassociated with brain conditions causing mental dul-\\nness, and that, consequently, training ought to be di-\\nrected to prevent or remove such in detail. In this\\nthe class teacher will be guided by observation. (See\\nmistakes in arithmetic. Chapter IX., p. 185.)\\nFurther these nerve signs, and the signs of the\\ngeneral characters of brain action in a child afford a\\nbasis for the study of physiological psychology we\\nwant to know the process going on in his brain which\\ncorresponds to mental acts and expression, so that\\nobservation may guide us in tracing out what occurs\\nwhen using methods of teaching and in seeing, where\\ndifficulties arise, how training may be employed to\\nremove them and promote orderly action in thinking\\nand learning. (See Chapter VII.)\\nThe constitution or make of the child, as well as\\nhis healthiness, depend largely upon his development.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "60 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nPhysiognomy, as well as anthropometry, or measure-\\nment of the parts of the body and their comparison,\\ntell us much as to the development of the child, whether\\nnormal or otherwise. When the body is well developed\\nthere is a great probability of a healthy active brain\\naccompanying; the two conditions are corelated, but\\ntheir coexistence in an individual child is not to be\\nassumed without observation of the signs of brain ac-\\ntion, normal in kind, according to the age of the child.\\nPhysiognomy depends upon the proportions which\\nproduce the form of the individual features, and their\\nrelations in growth; a well-made body with well-pro-\\nportioned head and features, generally has a well-\\nbalanced nerve system and is well nourished and\\nhealthy. 1\\nThe head of the infant has been sufficiently described\\nin Chapter II. At seven years of age the circumfer-\\nence should have grown to 20 or 21 inches, while\\nthe average weight of brain has reached to over 40\\nounces the weight of the adult brain being 50 ounces\\nin males and 45 ounces in females.\\nA head of 19 inches in circumference at seven\\nyears is small; the volume or content of the head is\\na matter of great importance. Most forms of ill-\\nshapen heads, as well as other defects in develop-\\nment, are more frequent in boys, but the small head\\nis an exception as being far more common in girls,\\n1 Reference 42.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "OBSERVING THE FACE 6 1\\nwho often tend to be delicate, though of average men-\\ntal ability. The forehead should neither bulge forward\\nnor recede from the vertical plane, the bones should\\nbe smooth without any ridging or lumpiness among\\nsubnormal conditions, the forehead may be contracted\\nand shallow each defect has a significance. The\\nhead is the principal indication of a well-developed\\nchild; other physiognomical signs vary in value as\\nindications of the probable brain status. Further\\npoints for observation I quote from my article in\\nSchool World?\\nThe features should be well moulded individually\\nand proportioned to one another in place of this\\nthey may be coarse, or, while no one feature is ill-\\nformed in its parts, they may be disproportioned, the\\nnose small, but the face large and rounded. The\\nparts of each feature and their proportions should be\\nobserved in particular the absence of any normal\\npart of a feature should be noted as is so common\\nin the ears, where the rim is often deficient. 2\\nLooking at the face, observe each feature separately.\\nCompare the two sides, looking for symmetry of devel-\\nopment. Carry your eyes to each ear in turn they\\nshould be of similar size and form, with the margin\\nslightly curved over, and the pleat of the ear (antihelix)\\nprojecting in front of the rim well developed, causing\\nthe ear to lie flat against the head in its proper posi-\\n1 School World, March, 1899. 2 Reference 23.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "62 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\ntion. The pleat of the ear may be absent, or the rim\\nmay be imperfectly developed, the whole ear being\\nlarge and outstanding concave in form and red or\\nbluish. This is common among boys, much less fre-\\nquent in girls; the defect is not associated with dull\\nhearing.\\nThe nose is seldom quite symmetrical its bony\\nbridge has no forward growth in infancy, but develops\\nout later, say by seven years it may remain broad,\\nflat, and thick in growth, with tipping of the end of\\nthe nose upwards, the nostrils perhaps being small.\\nSuch children are apt to be mouth breathers/ the\\nnasal passages and the mouth may both be small;\\nthis may lead to acquired causes of deafness.\\nThe mouth in quiescence should be of good size\\nit is seldom too large the common reference to a\\nlarge mouth is due to the frequency of grinning, which\\nwidens the mouth in action, accompanying brain\\ndeficiency. A small mouth, though the feature may\\nbe admired as artistic, is a subnormal condition fre-\\nquently associated with a narrow palate and with\\nsmall eye-openings.\\nThe eye-openings (palpebral fissures). The open-\\nings between the lids where the eyeballs are seen\\nshould be sufficiently large in proportion to the\\nother features, and the axis drawn from the inner to\\nthe outer angle should be horizontal. These open-\\nings may be narrow or too small, the transverse axis", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT 63\\nmay slope downwards, as in Polynesians and other\\ntribes. Small eye-openings, accompanied by a small\\nmouth, produce a blank, featureless physiognomy.\\nThe palate. If you look at the roof of the mouth\\nyou see the bony palate its size and form are impor-\\ntant indications of the developmental constitution of\\nthe individual, second in importance only to the head\\nor cranium. There should be sufficient width or space\\nbetween the teeth, rounded in front, while in the ver-\\ntical direction (vertical plane) it is a bowed rather\\nthan a Gothic arch. The palate may be narrow, or\\ncontracted laterally, and more or less sharply pointed\\nanteriorly, it may also be highly arched or vaulted in\\nthe vertical plane; each of these deviations in form\\nis subnormal. If the palate is narrow, the teeth are\\nusually crowded in front all forms of defect in the\\nform of the palate (except when fissured or cleft) are\\nconsistent with fair speech.\\nThe growth of the child may be measured by his\\nheight, and compared with the normal for the age as\\nshown in Standard Tables, 1 the weight of the body\\nmay usefully be added to the description. There\\nappears to be a larger proportion of small girls than\\nboys the same rule applies to children under weight.\\nHaving described points for your observation of the\\nchild at school age, it remains that I should indicate\\ntheir bearing on mental and physical hygiene and on\\n!See Study of Children, p. 31.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "64 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nyour care and training. We have seen that spontaneity\\nof brain action is the great characteristic of early days\\nthis affords a basis for cultivating coordinated action\\nunder control, thus preparing the young brain for the\\nwork of childhood and the responsibilities of ado-\\nlescence. The child in school becomes an object\\nfor observation to the student; while the teacher has\\nthe labour of training the general characters of brain\\naction, adapting his methods of instruction to the\\npupil s mental capacities as they are evolved and\\ncultivated.\\nHealthiness is necessary to spontaneity and mental\\nbrightness; it must be remembered throughout the\\nschool life that the brain needs to be nourished during\\nits rapid growth and development, as well as later,\\nwhen evolving further faculties and retaining many\\nimpressions.\\nImpressionability is increased by practice things\\nseen and sounds heard, which do not at first attract\\nthe attention and produce any apparent impression,\\nmay do so later on if persistently followed up. Dr.\\nG. Shuttleworth 2 says A very impassive, imbecile\\nchild is so inert as not to put up its hands to protect its\\nface against a bean-bag thrown at it by the teacher\\ngradually, however, the instinct of self-preservation\\nasserts itself so far as to ward off the missile.\\n1 Mentally-Deficient Children, G. E. Shuttleworth. Lewis and Co.,\\nLondon.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "EARLY CONTROL OF CHILD 65\\nControl through the senses is cultivated by practice;\\nwe can make impressions on the child s brain by caus-\\ning him to see, to hear, and to feel. In training, stage\\nby stage, we should plan our methods so that the early\\nimpressions made in the brain are such as will be\\nuseful at more advanced stages this is true economy,\\nand will make later teaching easier. It seems to me\\nthat, as far as possible, early impressions should be\\nproduced without the use of words, in an arranged\\norder on a fixed plan, which can be repeated afterwards\\nthese impressions can be revived and connected with\\nnames, when terms have been taught. If you wish to\\nimpress the colours on a child, show them one at a\\ntime with a slight interval between each colour with\\nno particular form is best torn pieces of paper of\\nthe true colour, not painted toys. The pupil can\\nafterwards learn to pronounce the names, red, blue,\\nyellow, as he looks at your face then couple sight\\nwith the term thus you make impressions by sight,\\nthen give words, and proceed stage by stage without\\na chance for confusion to occur. As a means towards\\ncontrol through the senses, the sense organs them-\\nselves need healthy exercise town children do not\\nget the same opportunities as those in the country for\\nseeing distant objects, still they may be made to look\\nup a straight street, or at the clouds, the setting sun,\\nthe moon, and the stars. There is a muscular appa-\\nratus in the eyeball which is exercised by vision at", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "66 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nvarying distances it contracts on looking at near\\nobjects and relaxes for distance, when the pupil of\\nthe eye expands also. Soldiers are thus trained to\\nestimate distance at sight. Hearing may be trained\\nin listening for distant sounds and the notes of the\\nbirds, while musical sounds and singing may help.\\nImpressions by muscle sense call for careful con-\\nsideration. While much attention is given in early\\nschool days to training through the eye and the ear,\\nit seems that too little care is bestowed on the value\\nof training the brain by impressions produced on it\\nthrough the muscles. This is totally different from\\nexercising the muscles for the purpose of making\\nthem grow big and strong. When, in the drilling\\nclass, the child performs exercises with the fists closed,\\nraising the arms over his head, or again, touches his\\nknees, and then quietly straightens his back, the mus-\\ncles themselves are brought strongly into action, and\\ntheir strength is increased by such exercises. Drilling\\nthe muscles promotes their healthy growth, and to\\nsome extent improves the brain it makes the bones\\ngrow, strengthens the joints, expands the chest, leads\\nto expansion of the lungs and fuller breathing power,\\nwhile strengthening the heart. Physical exercises give\\na good carriage and gait to the children, with some\\ngrace in movement; the muscular activity promotes\\ngrowth of body in girls and boys, if the body is\\nhealthy.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "MUSCLE SENSE TRAINED 67\\nApart from the physical exercises adapted to cause\\ngrowth in the body, the muscles may be used like the\\nsense organs, as the means. of producing impressions\\non the brain which will be of much use subsequently\\nin training mental processes. The strain on a muscle\\nis felt; place a weight in the hand, it makes a pull\\nupon the muscles of the arm which is felt by the child.\\nPlace in his hand in succession metal weights of one\\nounce, two, four, eiglit ounces, the strain produced by\\neach is proportionate to the weights. Ifi 1 1 1\\nounces are added to his hand, the addition of weight\\nis felt. When it is the degree of muscle strain you\\nwant to use as a means of brain impression, see that\\nthe hand is held out free from the desk; it may be\\nmoved up and down with the fingers open, so that\\nthe size shall not be felt at the same time by the\\nfingers and so make a second kind of impression. In\\nthis way the child may be made to feel the addition\\nof weights or impressions which are proportional, be-\\nfore he has any words to use for addition or com-\\nparison. If you cause the child to make one movement\\nof his hand and drop it, then ten similar movements\\nregularly in succession, the impression upon the brain\\ncentres is greater in the latter case. Control through\\nthe senses should begin in the first year; in com-\\nmencing, such control should be very temporary, as\\nthe attention is momentarily attracted; still, in the\\nplay of infancy some impressions are produced on", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "68 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nthe brain, even if not retained. So it is in later evo-\\nlution, impressions are produced, but may be transient\\ntraining is effected, but its outcome and benefits are\\nnot seen till a later stage.\\nThus evolution comes about stage by stage; spon-\\ntaneity at birth is soon accompanied by some impres-\\nsionability, and a little later by control in temporary\\ninhibition of movement, which soon leads on to action\\ncoordinated through the senses, and this, when retained,\\nbrings the child a long way towards mental develop-\\nment.\\nCompound brain action implies the establishment of\\nnerve paths between various brain centres. The physi-\\nological law appears to be that impressions produced\\nin the brain at one and the same time, or in immediate\\nsuccession so that the two or more brain centres\\nare coactive tend to become connected by nerve\\npaths, or are so far united as to be easily brought\\ninto reactivity in the same order as that in which they\\nwere produced. Modes of movement imitated in re-\\npeated exercises become more exact with practice, till\\nthey can be reproduced alone without guidance when\\nonce started the nerve centres producing the move-\\nment have grown together. Words heard in a certain\\norder the letters of the alphabet, the numerals, or\\na verse of poetry, are retained as impressions on the\\nbrain and reproduced in order. Established compound\\nbrain action gives retentiveness, not only for a word", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "FORMATION OF NERVE PATHS 69\\nor an act; impressions retained among the nerve\\ncentres establish arrangements for series of move-\\nments and sequences of acts. Thus your training,\\nand all that the child sees and hears, produce impres-\\nsions in his brain which may come into action later\\non habits are formed, trains of thought are implanted,\\nand the child growing up begins to do and think as\\nhe has been trained and taught.\\nCoordinated action controlled in each movement or\\nact is brought about through the senses if uniformly\\nrepeated, this tends to establish a mode of action in\\nthe brain. Hence the importance of exactness in all\\nyou do in training the child, and the advisability of\\nforming an idea of what you want to accomplish.\\nControl of the brain centres inhibits their spontaneous\\naction, causing them to act in certain new relations\\nof time or degree further; as I have said, there is\\nevidence that nerve paths from centre to centre are\\nformed the while. Producing coordinated action is a\\ndelicate process in brain culture it should not be long\\ncontinued at one time without allowing intervals for\\nthe return of some healthy spontaneity. (See further,\\nChapter V., p. 105.)\\nSpreading area of brain action seen in facial ex-\\npression often accompanies mental action. Knitting\\nthe eyebrows may indicate mental stress or confusion\\nfrowning (frontals overacting) as a uniformly repeated\\naction when the child is spoken to, or occurring spon-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "70 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\ntaneously, may indicate weariness, or either too much\\nor too little stimulation of the brain. In fatigue and\\nweariness, spreading movement is seen in fidgetiness,\\nand a tendency to chatter which may sometimes be\\nmet by a change of occupation. 1 Laughter has been\\ndescribed as a spreading area of movement; I think\\nit may be allowed and employed usefully to remove\\nbrain impressions when a new line of action is wanted.\\nAfter making an absurd mistake, due to mental con-\\nfusion, if the pupil will laugh with you not you at\\nhim his face may grow cheerful as he tries again.\\nSpreading movement in the young child is seen in\\nhis spontaneity and in the signs of happiness. 2\\nResponse and expression it is always important to\\nobserve. Response may be similar to the stimulus,\\nas in imitation of your movements, or repetition of\\nyour words action similar to yours, as expressed,\\nnaturally tends to occur in the brain of the pupil, if\\nit does not always take place that is to say, the same\\ncentres in the child s brain are stimulated as those\\nactive in your head in giving the direction. Higher\\nforms of response in mental action are due to inter-\\naction of the primary impression, or direction, with\\nmany previous brain impressions implanted by teach-\\ning. You ask where he has been during the holi-\\n1 See Muscular Movements in Man, Journal of Mental Science, 1889,\\nApril, Paragraph 38.\\n2 Physical expression. See Illustrations 49-45.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "TRAINING AND BRAIN HEALTH 7 1\\ndays? Impressions of what he has seen revive to\\nactivity and are expressed in his reponse. As regards\\nverbal response this must necessarily be limited by\\nthe vocabulary acquired, and the correct association of\\nimpressions with the terms of expression. Response\\nin facial expression is most likely to be true, as when\\nthe child looks happy and says he knows his lesson,\\nthough he cannot repeat it. I once had to see a\\nboy who went to school, where he looked distressed,\\nand gave a message that he was to return home as\\nhis baby brother was dead. This was totally without\\nfoundation, he had no brother. This child often had\\nillusions and saw what existed only in his brain; he\\nsoon after became subject to epileptic fits.\\nResponse may be delayed with too long an interval\\nbetween the question and the answer sometimes, how-\\never, a question is answered several minutes after the\\nquestion showing that processes of thought have\\noccurred in the interval.\\nTraining the general characters of brain action is\\na first step in mental hygiene towards developing the\\nfaculties in the child s brain which are to be acted on\\nby your teaching at the same time evolution of\\nhealthy action is encouraged and employed which ren-\\nders the brain less liable to nerve storms in the form of\\nemotion, nervousness, headaches, and other distressing\\nconditions. 1 There is a useless waste of brain power\\n1 Reference 27.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "72 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nin the child when endeavours are made to correct and\\narrange thoughts that have only been partially formed\\nin the brain still, this seems often to be attempted too\\nearly by the employment of verbal instruction, and neg-\\nlecting to train by impressions through the senses and\\nby muscle sense. All fundamental impressions, such as\\ncolours, numbers, proportion, size, and notions of time\\nand weight, need to be produced by impressions\\non the brain before comparisons can properly be under-\\nstood or expressed.\\nSpontaneity should be cultivated, as well as impres-\\nsionability and the control of brain action. Control\\nand attempts to produce coordinated action must be\\narranged on a fixed plan, that the present training may\\nprepare for advancement, and provide those impressions\\nin the brain which will be employed in teaching later\\non. The school superintendent who forms a concrete\\nidea of the instruction the child should receive in suc-\\nceeding stages of education will analyse the advancing\\nstages, and take care to arrange that the preliminary\\ntraining needed is afforded at the right time. Thus\\ntraining should be adapted to afford future capacity for\\nlearning, while teaching may be carefully arranged to\\nexercise and employ the capacities already acquired.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV\\nObservation, Description, and Classification of\\nChildren in School\\nAfter giving some general account of childhood and\\nthe means of study here followed, I proceed to explain\\nwhat may be observed in infancy and early childhood\\nas indicative of the general characters of brain activity\\neach such character may in part be indicated by points\\nseen, or nerve signs particulars for observation of the\\nbody, signs of development, health, and growth have\\nalso been mentioned.\\nAs you watch children in school you will see many\\nkinds of movement which you cannot at once readily\\nclass as nerve signs, or under the headings of the gen-\\neral Character of brain activity described in Chapter II.,\\nbecause to some extent these are arranged in relation to\\nthe environment. As an aid in rapid observation, you\\nwill need terms of description simply implying what\\nyou see before you at the moment, without stopping to\\nnotice the conditions producing action.\\nWhen you see the eyes move to one corner of the\\nroom, you may notice the fact without looking for a\\ncause indicating it as spontaneous or not. If the feet\\nare shifted and make a noise, you can look and see\\n73", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "fa THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nwhether this is part of a spreading area of movement\\npassing over the face, the eyes, and also the fingers.\\nShould twitching movements of the fingers guiding the\\npen attract your attention, glancing at the child s face,\\nyou may see ripples about the mouth suggesting\\nlaughter or, on the other hand, twitching of the eye-\\nbrows, rapid winking of the eyelids, and a flushed\\nface, expressive of some excitement or mental confusion\\nmay be observed. In such cases you may not have\\ntime to investigate further, and will be obliged to act\\nwithout knowing the origin of what you see. Shrug-\\nging of the shoulders when spoken to, and often re-\\npeated, may be a spontaneous movement, or an\\nindication of mental status still it should be noted. A\\nsuccession of movements in physical exercises may be\\nwell coordinated in character as seen but this may be\\neither from imitation of the other children in the class,\\nor really due to established brain impressions produced\\nby practice. Closed eyelids may mean stopping to\\nthink, or going to sleep.\\nMovements may be classed without reference to their\\ncause. Four classes of movements will now be de-\\nscribed as apart from the modes of brain action which\\nthey indicate, and without reference to their causation.\\nThis will aid our descriptions of children as we see\\nthem. You must be familiar with what to observe, if\\nyou wish to know the children and their varying modes\\nof brain action as you may learn to see them. Thus", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "MOVEMENTS CLASSIFIED 75\\ni. Uniformly repeated series of movements.\\n2. Augmenting or increasing series of movements.\\n3. Lessening or diminishing series of movements.\\n4. Coordinated or regulated series of movements.\\nEach of these modes of movement has been men-\\ntioned in describing the general character of brain\\naction; examples with reference to what has already\\nbeen said will make you familiar with the points to\\nlook for, and give them a further significance when\\nyou recognise them in the children you observe.\\n(1) In uniform movements the same parts of the\\nbody move in the same way over and over again\\nthis is often seen in tricks or habits such as turn-\\ning the head frequently to the same shoulder\\nnodding the head, or turning it from side to side in\\nspeaking; raising the forearm towards the forehead\\nas if saluting; protruding the tongue when asked a\\nquestion. Some of the subnormal nerve signs de-\\nscribed are uniformly repeated movements, such as\\nhorizontal frowning (frontal muscles overacting), re-\\npeated knitting of the eyebrows (corrugation), and\\ngrinning, which is sometimes one sided. Tapping\\nwith the foot on the floor swinging the knee drum-\\nming with the fingers on the table; twisting the\\nthumbs when unoccupied or tearing up a piece of\\npaper while talking, are other examples of uniformly\\nrepeated movement. Some of these habits indicate", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "J6 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nspontaneity with lack of control while, inasmuch as\\nthey are persistent, they show retentiveness, but of\\na low type, and want of coordination in brain action.\\nSometimes they replace spreading movement.\\n(2) In an augmenting series of movements fresh\\nparts come into action as it spreads, the number of\\nparts seen moving increases. Laughter usually begins\\nabout the mouth and spreads upwards but when mak-\\ning observations on children under restraint in schools,\\nI have seen the first indications in twitching fingers,\\nspreading later to the face. A smiling expression of\\npleasure may, I think, commence in the forehead. A\\nquick, jerking set of movements may be seen when a\\nnervous child is startled on being suddenly spoken to\\nthe shoulders and arms being jerked so that the\\nhands are (involuntarily) pushed forwards, and may\\ndisplace things from the desk then the head may be\\nturned, the eyes moved every way, and twitching may\\nspread from the mouth to the fingers. Spreading\\nmovement in passion I have sufficiently described\\n(Chapter II., p. 44); the same occurs with display of\\nmost of the emotions, and is seen markedly in joy when\\nthe child skips with happiness (see Chapter V., p. 96).\\nStammering consists in a spreading spasm, seen in the\\nlips, tongue, and forehead.\\n(3) A lessening series of movements is seen when\\nquietness replaces the natural spontaneity of action in\\nmany parts of the body before class work, subsiding", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "MOVEMENT AND EXPRESSION JJ\\ngradually to the attitude of attention; or, at the end\\nof the day, as activity decreases, talkativeness lessen-\\ning, expression lessening, and the eyelids closing in\\nrestfulness and then sleep. An increasing mode of\\nmovement seen previously in passion, joy, emotion,\\nat length gradually subsides to a moderate degree of\\nquietness, or it may be to the stillness of exhaustion\\nwithout movement. Well controlled and coordinated\\naction (voluntarily) lessens after continued persistence,\\ncontinuing in fewer parts, which may move more\\nslowly. Thus expression may begin to fade from the\\nface, the eyes move less frequently to the book, and\\nits pages are hardly turned over. The previously\\nincreasing area of spasm in stammering subsides on\\nrelaxing effort, leaving the forehead, then the mouth\\nand tongue are relaxed to quietness. In the child\\nrecovering from chorea, the area of movements\\nlessens as health improves.\\n(4) A coordinated series of movements indicates\\nmuch that we desire to see in the child. Such a\\nmode of movement has a special character dependent\\nupon the time and degree of each component act.\\nWhen playing a scale of music the fingers are directed\\nby the printed exercise, and move in an arranged\\norder. You may make similar movements of hands\\nand fingers before a class of children, as an exercise\\nfor their imitation and practice. Coordinated move-\\nments of the hands and fingers are seen in drawing", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "yS THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nand writing, and in manipulative work, where each\\nmovement is prearranged just as the notes arrange\\nthe hand movements for the music scale. This is\\npractised in sloyd work accurately performed, and in\\nthe occupations of the Kindergarten. All these con-\\ntrolled actions in young children are likely to be ac-\\ncompanied by some spontaneity in movement of the\\nhead, eyes, and fingers, while still the major part of\\nthe work represents coordinated action.\\nEye-movements are often incoordinated, wandering,\\nnot exactly directed to what is pointed out, or towards\\nwhat the child is told to look at.\\nFacial and mouth movements are coordinated in\\nspeech with those of the tongue, both when sounds are\\ntaught and when syllables are formed into articulate\\nwords; expression in the face is similarly controlled\\nby sight in imitation of the teacher. Marching, and\\nthe exercises of drill show movements of the legs and\\narms coordinated with the action of the muscles of the\\nspine. and head.\\nIt will occur to you that coordinated action is the\\nessential feature of good games. In the cricket field\\nthe boys stand straight and easy ready for the play,\\nthe bowler ready, and the batsman prepared to hit and\\nrun. Action in the batsman is coordinated by sight\\nof the flying ball, and as he runs by seeing the fields-\\nmen. The boys who are fielding are regulated in\\naction by sight of one another and of the ball. In", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "COORDINATED ACTION 79\\nearliest infancy we do not see coordinated action, this\\nis a later development spreading area of movement\\noccurs earlier. Coordinated action is opposed to some\\nof the subnormal nerve signs described, and forms the\\nbest means for their removal.\\nWhen speaking of evolution in nature in the next\\nchapter it will be shown that modes of growth are\\ncommonly seen in living things occurring uniformly in\\nrepetition of parts in augmentation or diminution of\\nliving parts, and also, in action coordinated by the\\nenvironment. This is one indication that the scientific\\nprinciples employed in studying living objects and the\\nmethods of natural history may be applied to the\\nstudy of action and mind in the child. 1\\nPoints of several kinds have now been given for use\\nin observing and describing a child as you may see\\nhim in school it remains to say something about\\nhealth and nutrition, as well as the examination of the\\nsenses, which should form a part of your description.\\nIn Chapter V. I shall more particularly describe the\\nprocesses inferred to occur in the brain of the child\\nunder observation, showing something of their con-\\nnection with indications of mental processes, and the\\nabilities and disabilities of children as we find them;\\nthus we shall gradually proceed to describe all we can\\nof the child as we see him in being.\\n1 See Anatomy of Movement A Treatise on Action of Nerve-centres\\nand Modes of Growth. The Macmillan Company.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "80 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nSpeaking generally, the weight and the height,\\nwith the chest girth, are sufficient indications of good\\ngrowth, and to this may be added some measurements\\nof the head. Children may be fat in face, but other-\\nwise thin this is frequently the case with nervous\\nchildren the body may be large and heavy, with low\\nnerve-muscular power on the other hand, some children\\nare thin, but wiry, and really strong.\\nNutrition in the body may be judged by fulness of\\nthe face and cheeks, or plumpness, and by the muscular\\ndevelopment of the arms and legs as seen and felt.\\nThe colour of the face and lips should also be noticed.\\nThe skin should be both clean and clear from sores\\nand abrasions about the angles of the mouth or nose,\\nwhile the hands are free from cracks and chilblains\\nthe nails are also worth inspection there should be no\\nenlargement of glands under the jaw or in the neck.\\nLooking at the eyes, they should be clear and bright,\\nas well as free from all discharge; on gently depressing\\nthe lower lid with your finger, its inner lining is seen\\npale and clean in good health.\\nA momentary inspection of the mouth will enable\\nyou to view the palate and see its form the condition\\nof the teeth is noteworthy; while the tonsils are seen\\non each side of the throat in front of the soft palate,\\nwhich rises as you make the child say Ah\\nSight may be tested by using printed test type, which\\nshould be provided in every school, and kept clean and", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "DESCRIPTION OF CHILDREN 8 1\\nused in a good light test each eye separately for near\\nand for distant vision.\\nHearing you may test with your watch, noting the\\ndistance as measured by a tape at which it is heard\\nwith each ear. Your voice is a better test, and has\\nthe advantage that you can make him repeat what you\\nsay; whispered speech should be heard at twenty-five\\nfeet. Test each ear separately, and do not let the child\\nsee your face, or he may read what you say from your\\nlips.\\nIn proceeding to record a description of your ob-\\nservations, it is important to arrange the points seen\\nas to their kind or significance this may conveniently\\nbegin by describing the body as in the form or chart\\nused here. Such description of the child as we see\\nhim in action, together with an account of his school\\ncharacter, renders it possible to discuss the points of\\nthe case from several positions.\\nMany children are described in The Study of Chil-\\ndren and their School Training the form of chart\\nhere employed I first used in my articles in School\\nWorld.\\nA Child Well Developed in Body and Brain: Much\\nSpontaneity, but it is under Control\\nAge last birthday. 8 years. Name. C (boy)\\nA. Body development, features, etc.\\nHead. Normal in form and proportions.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "82 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nFace. Good, well-proportioned features all of sufficient\\nsize.\\nEars. Average all parts developed.\\nNose. Normal.\\nPalate. Sufficiently wide good teeth\\nGrowth. Height, 48-L inches. Body and limbs well\\nproportioned\\nB. Nerve signs postures, movements, action.\\nGeneral balance of body. Stands well and straight, full\\nof healthy spontaneity, head and eyes turn every-\\nwhere, especially to teacher and the objects on the\\ntable.\\nExpression. Lively, looks pleased and interested. Fore-\\nhead smooth.\\nOrbicularis oculi. Good tone in face about eyes; in-\\ncreased when he smiles.\\nEye-movements. Turn well to fix on teacher s hand\\nwhen imitating movements.\\nHead balance. Held well up.\\nHands. Held out straight in prompt response, the\\nfingers move a little. After hands have been kept\\nout half a minute the head droops to the right, but is\\nquickly erect again when hands are put down. Imita-\\ntion of finger movements fairly accurate response\\nquick.\\nIndications of modes of brain action.\\nSpontaneity. Up to average for age good tone of face,\\nand is always ready for action or to make some\\nreply.\\nImpressionability. Present in a degree indicating that he\\nwill probably develop good capacity for control through\\nhis senses and in coordination.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "A HEALTHY CHILD 83\\nInhibition. Is generally quiet during class, and attentive\\nafter work is fresh and full of play and talk.\\nControl through senses. Action fairly accurate as con-\\ntrolled by sight of what he looks at.\\nMuscular sense. Can distinguish the weight of seeds\\nalso makes measurement at sight fairly well; counts\\nobjects accurately.\\nCompound cerebration. Not very successful in manipu-\\nlation, except under guidance.\\nRetentiveness. He evidently remembers some of the\\npoints he has been taught, and performs his physical\\nexercises better than last year. His thoughts do not\\nfollow in as good order as his movements.\\nCoordination. Imitates manual exercise, with fair accu-\\nracy as to the fingers moving not quite correct in time\\nof action.\\nSpreading area. No habitually repeated overaction.\\nWhen a little fatigued, his head droops.\\nResponse delayed. When he answers a question, his reply\\nis prompt, whether correct or not there is very little\\npause for thinking. His replies come out like reflex\\nactions rather than as resulting from a train of thought\\nwhich occupies some interval.\\nPhysical health and nutrition. Healthy and well. Weight,\\n55 lbs., average.\\nSchool report. A very bright but mischievous boy, is liked\\nby his schoolmates. Fairly attentive and interested in\\nhis lessons reads well, and answers very promptly.\\nObserver s report on child. A well-made healthy child,\\nwith good brain activity. The healthy spontaneity of\\nchildhood is well marked this is easily controlled\\nthrough eyes or ears, and resumed in a healthy manner", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "84 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nwhen control is removed. There was no excess of extra\\nmovement accompanying his action, but as fatigue com-\\nmenced from the strain of holding out his hands, the head\\nbegan to droop.\\nA normal, or healthy, well-made child is known by\\nthe development and proportioning of his head and\\nfeatures, and other points which have been sufficiently\\ndescribed to enable you, after some practice, to recog-\\nnise any subnormal conditions by their contrast with\\nthe normal.\\nThe nerve signs, individually and collectively, indi-\\ncate, like the hands of a clock, what is going on in-\\nside the child s head; that is to say, the present\\nworking condition of his brain. They may vary on\\ndifferent occasions and under different circumstances,\\njust as mental status may vary.\\nWe must exert our minds in studying the children s\\nbrains. It is true that the child tends to imitate your\\nexpression, but your thoughts are not his thoughts,\\nthe modes of thinking differ; he has not yet acquired\\nyour mental faculties and experience he is childlike,\\nand must be observed carefully if you wish to study\\nhis brain action. Observe him under different circum-\\nstances, when he is attentive, and when he is disen-\\ngaged and does not see you, in the schoolroom and\\nin the playground, so you will be able to recognise\\nthe general indications of his brain in action, as apart\\nfrom detailed nerve signs seen in class or otherwise.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "NATURE-STUDY AND CHILD-STUDY 85\\nIn the teacher s mind the best interests of the\\nchildren should stand before his own even the\\nnatural desire for self -culture in the higher branches\\nof learning ought not to lead him to spend his time\\nto the disadvantage of his class in undue devotion to\\nprivate study, leading to fatigue. I have seen a school-\\nmaster, exhausted by night study when working for\\na B. A. degree, whose pupils in class all imitated the\\nsigns of his fatigue and lassitude.\\nYou must train yourselves by constant practice to\\nbecome good observers. Dr. Stanley Hall and other\\nleaders in child-study have urged that teachers should\\nobserve the children after the methods of natural\\nhistory to this you add the contents of their minds\\nin each case, and thus obtain a fuller knowledge of\\nthe mental action accompanying what you see and\\nhear. The child in mind and body is a part of\\nnature s work. 1\\nI am here endeavouring to show you what to look\\nat and what to look for, as well as to supply the\\nmeans of description. If you will look out for each\\npoint and there are plenty of examples in any\\nschool you will acquire useful knowledge that will\\nenable you to draw rapid inferences, and lead to a\\nripened experience of great value throughout life.\\nThe methods of study here employed will enable\\n1 See author s Mental Faculty, Chapter I. The Macmillan Com-\\npany.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "86 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nyou to give scientific descriptions of your children\\nfounded on observation, indicating what you really\\nsee as signs of their happiness, peevishness, fatigue,\\nor nervousness. These methods will further enable\\nyou to grasp a high ideal of the teacher s work, as\\nyou trace out the modes of brain action indicated by\\nthe various mental states of the pupils, and learn to\\nunderstand their relations to one another and how to\\ndeal with them. In your methods of observation and\\nstudy my experience may afford some help your\\nmethods of management in school must be guided by\\nyour own minds and personal study.\\nPierre Camper (1792) wrote as an artist, and de-\\nscribes joy and laughter. He says In complacency,\\nfriendly greetings, and tacit joy, the angles of the\\nmouth must never be drawn up alone, without the\\ntokens of an incipient smile. He thus refers to the\\ngentle spread of movement seen in the face, while\\nthe increased spreading action in laughter is further\\nindicated. In laughter all the effects produced by\\nthe former affection are greatly increased, and others\\nare superadded. The whole countenance inclines\\nforwards, but without the attention being fixed upon\\nany determinate object. The muscles around the eye-\\nlids are contracted, producing wrinkles and folds around\\nthe eyes. The lips are opened, and the teeth, particu-\\nlarly the upper, are made to appear; small wrinkles\\narise at the corners of the mouth and the cheeks become", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "ARTISTS DESCRIBE EXPRESSION 8?\\nfuller. Sir Charles Bell writes: 1 I hope my reader\\nconsents to believe that the capacity of expression is\\nbestowed as a boon, a mark of superior intelligence,\\nand a source of enjoyment; and that its very nature is\\nto excite sympathy; that it radiates, and is understood\\nby all; that it is the bond of the human family.\\nObserve the conditions of a man convulsed with laugh-\\nter, and consider what are the organs or system of\\nparts affected. He draws a full breath, and throws it\\nout in interrupted, short, and audible cachinnations the\\nmuscles of his throat, neck, and chest are agitated. He\\nholds his sides, and, from the violent agitation, he is\\nincapable of a voluntary act. To such expressions\\nof joy in the child may be added movements of the\\nshoulders, which are drawn up and down, as well as\\nopening and closing the fingers and movements of the\\nwhole body by the feet, accompanied by shouting. You\\nthus see much spontaneity, while impressionability is\\nonly momentary, not producing control, and all artificial\\nmanner is lost (no compound cerebral action) there is\\na wide-spreading area of action and no delay to such\\nimpressions as the child receives through his senses.\\nMovements are anything but uniform, they tend to\\nincrease, as in all expression of emotion ultimately\\nsubsiding and become controlled or coordinated again,\\nwhen the movements are slower with some pauses.\\nIrritability and peevishness are generally accompa-\\n1 Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression, third edition, 1844.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "88 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nnied by the signs of fatigue; the natural expression\\nof the face is partially lost, there is often fulness under\\nthe eyes and frowning, with pursing or contraction of\\nthe mouth, which is the opposite to the expression of\\njoyfulness. Such spontaneity as exists is neither con-\\ntrollable nor capable of inhibition; this is partly shown\\nin disjointed utterances. All established manners\\n(modes of compound cerebration) are for the time lost,\\nwhile impressions by sight or sound lead to short,\\njerky, spreading movements. A touch on the shoulders\\nmakes him wriggle his head turns away from his\\nfood he makes no response in words to a question\\nor inquiry, no normal reactions occur. The child\\nshould be judged at his best, and not when fatigued\\nand irritable.\\nCamper, in referring to the descriptions of expression\\nby many authors, says, I think justly, that they have\\nusually either confined themselves to appearances or\\nhave reasoned metaphysically concerning the opera-\\ntions of the mind, without attending to the physical\\ncauses of the changes produced by these operations;\\nbut in my opinion speculations concerning the manner\\nof the soul s working or concerning the seat of the soul\\nare of no use to the artist. These belong to meta-\\nphysicians, who, by the way, lose themselves in a laby-\\nrinth of terms, or words with no definite meaning, without\\nhaving in the least explained the action of this immortal\\nprinciple upon the compound and mortal frame.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "CULTURE OF BRAIN ACTION 89\\nA careful and detailed study of the points observed\\nin cases of brain disorder and in children of mental\\ndeficiency, in contrast with those well developed, bright,\\nand active, enabled me to define the subnormal nerve\\nsigns described in Chapter III. Thus a number of\\npoints for observation are presented, each of which\\nwhen seen has some significance. The signs indicating\\nbrain disorderliness you want to replace by training the\\ngeneral characters of good modes of brain action. Thus\\nyou cultivate the excessive spontaneity of restlessness\\nor emotion to become action controlled by guidance,\\nand try to replace the spreading activity of fidgetiness\\nby organised work, and by games the confusion aris-\\ning from seeing, hearing, and feeling at the same time,\\nyou remove by methodical procedure in looking care-\\nfully, attending to what may be felt in handling objects,\\nand in hearing distinctly what is said. (Example in\\nChapter VIIL, p. 103.)\\nMeans are afforded for describing your observations,\\nwhich indicate physical conditions of the body the\\ndevelopmental signs and the nutrition of the body;\\nwhile the state of brain action will afford much in-\\nformation as to some causes of mental dulness and the\\ndirections in which you may most effectively try to\\nremove them. It is quite possible, as experience has\\nshown, to discriminate in a school the children whose\\nbrains are disorderly and untrained, by observing them\\nwithout asking the questions necessary for a purely", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "90 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nmental examination nearly all the dull and backward\\npupils may be thus grouped quickly as needing your\\nfurther attention in training, while those well built, with\\ngood and healthy brains, are discriminated at the same\\ntime. Thus for the purposes of school management\\nand classification you can obtain records of the chil-\\ndren with nervous disturbance or incoordination and\\ndefective response, as well as those pale, thin, or deli-\\ncate. Facts thus accumulated, and inferences drawn\\nfrom them, will afford you a sound experience that\\nis why you will, I think, find it both interesting and\\nuseful to study children after the methods of natural\\nhistory. 1\\nA Child of Nervous Type\\nAge last birthday 14 years. Name. (girl).\\nA. Body development, features, etc.\\nHead. Of good volume and well shaped, circumference,\\n21.5 inches. Forehead broad and high.\\nFace. Features in good proportion. Eye-openings and\\nmouth of sufficient size.\\nEars. Well made in rim and pleat of the ear, alike on\\neither side.\\nNose. Normal, breathes with lips closed.\\nPalate. Sufficiently wide good teeth, not crowded.\\nGrowth. Height, 60.5 inches (average for age, 60.32\\ninches). The body well proportioned, hands and feet\\nrather small.\\n1 See Reports, References 1, yj, 44.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "A NERVOUS CHILD 9 1\\nB. Nerve signs postures, movements, action.\\nGeneral balance of body. Does not stand straight or\\nkeep quite still. Shoulders not at same level. Feet\\nunequally planted.\\nExpression. Bright and changeful; a spreading smile\\noften seen, and sometimes twitching of the mouth.\\nOrbicularis oculi. Want of good tone about the lower eye-\\nlids, but this disappears when interested and in smiling.\\nEye-movements. Can fix eyes well, but they often\\nwander when not directed.\\nHead balance. Head not bent down, but often falls a\\nlittle to one side or is turned about.\\nHands. Held out promptly in response, the left a little\\nlower than the right, while neither is on a level with\\nthe shoulder. Each balances in the nervous pos-\\nture, especially the left this becomes more marked\\nif the effort is maintained; there are twitchings of the\\nfingers. This action is accompanied by some bending\\nof the lower part of the spine, while the shoulders are\\nthrown back. Response is prompt, action is quick\\nand well imitated from others, but is often accompanied\\nby some extra movements besides those under control.\\nIndications of modes of brain action.\\nSpontaneity. Fidgets while standing, feet shuffle, fingers\\ntwitch. The head is often turned about, the eyes\\nwander, she smiles frequently, and is active in play.\\nImpressionability. Quick to receive all impressions\\nlooks at every one who speaks in the class; is not\\nalways completely under control.\\nInhibition. While prompt to stand when directed, there\\nremains some fidgeting of the hands with the dress\\nor hair she is never quite still.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "92 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nControl through senses. Good capacity, but sometimes\\nlistens and looks about instead of seeing the black-\\nboard or map demonstration. At times starts and\\nfidgets when spoken to.\\nMuscle sense. Appreciates and compares weights in the\\nhands well knows coins by feeling them. Estimates\\ndimensions better by feeling with the hands than at\\nsight.\\nCompound cerebration. Physical exercises well per-\\nformed; can lead the class without being guided.\\nProceeds systematically to examine and describe a\\nflower as previously taught. Generally repeats a lesson\\ncorrectly.\\nRetentiveness. Memory really good but forgets where\\nto find things from not looking to see when putting them\\naway can retain facts learnt, but does not always use\\nthem aright.\\nCoordination. Imitates hand movements well, but is\\nnot quite accurate. Such action is often accompanied\\nby some extra movements. Speaks well; good at\\ngames.\\nSpreading area. Extra movements with the pen seen\\nbefore writing, while at times the fingers twitch on the\\npen. The head often turns upward while thinking or\\nis held on one side when speaking, or when the hands\\nare held out. She tends to laughter and talkativeness.\\nSometimes there is confusion in replies; facts of\\nhistory are remembered but given in the wrong places.\\nResponse. Quick both in action and in words generally\\nwithout a pause for thinking.\\nC. Physical Health and Nutrition. Not pale, but a little thin\\nfor her stature weight, 98 lbs. Average weight for age", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "A NERVOUS CHILD 93\\nis 100.32 lbs., but the child is a little above the average\\nheight further, she has probably not yet completed her\\ngrowth which last year increased by 1.75 inches as\\nagainst an average of 1.57 for her age, while weight\\nincreased only 8 lbs. as compared with the average which\\nis 9.14 lbs.\\nSchool Report. In disposition affectionate, sometimes\\nloses self-control, becoming emotional and passionate.\\nObserver s Report on the Child. This girl is well developed\\nin head and features, as well as in bodily growth. There\\nis a little asymmetry in nerve-muscular action some\\ntendency to spreading activity in the brain, both for\\nmovement and thoughts, and as this is not always under\\ncontrol we see what are commonly called some signs of\\nthe nervous type.\\nMental capacity, as is usual with these children, is quick\\nand the memory retentive, but expression is not always\\nexact.\\nShe is a little pale and under weight general health culture\\ntogether with continued training are needed. Her con-\\ndition is hopeful, but she might easily be spoilt, becom-\\ning anaemic and dyspeptic if health is not cared for, or\\nneurotic and excitable and hysterical if not properly con-\\ntrolled during the next two or three years while under\\nbad hygienic conditions some permanent ill health is\\nlikely to arise.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V\\nEvolution of the Child and his Brain Power\\nThe child grows, whether he be trained and edu-\\ncated or not; the brain grows with the body, and some\\nof the characters of brain action will develop, pro-\\nducing either good, bad, or indifferent work and\\ncharacter in the future. The mode of evolution much\\ndepends upon home life and the care taken in school.\\nIt is too often supposed that the brain acts well\\nor badly, is fatigued, excited, or sleepy, as a whole\\nthus assuming that all its parts are in the same con-\\ndition. Your understanding of the brain in action,\\nas inferred from what you see in the child, will be\\ngreatly aided by constantly bearing in mind that the\\nbits of brain or brain centres, as we call them\\nact more or less separately, as well as in collective\\ngroups. Thus, the brain, as a whole, may be com-\\npared to a regiment of soldiers on review; each\\nman, company, and battalion, has orders to carry\\nout; the men in the company act together, their\\nunited action being directed by the officers, and the\\nwhole manoeuvre by the colonel of the regiment, who\\nreceives his orders from the War Department. It is\\nessential to remember this separate action of the\\n94", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "THE CHILDREN OF A FAMILY 95\\nbrain centres when trying to understand the general\\ncharacters of brain action indicated by your observa-\\ntions. The brain is an aggregation of nerve centres,\\nmuch of whose action is expressed by the movements\\nthey produce and which we see while further modes\\nof their interaction among the nerve centres may be\\ninferred from observation.\\nIt is now commonly accepted knowledge that some\\nkind of evolution occurs in nature, generally to the\\nimprovement of the race; the same is seen in fami-\\nlies, and with the advancement of a child if placed\\nunder favourable circumstances, so that happily the\\nchildren often attain to a higher physical and mental\\nstandard of development than their parents. We\\nusually see the children in a family bearing a strong\\nresemblance to one or other parent in some points;\\nat the same time there are often marked differences\\nin the characters of the members of the same family,\\nwith improvement upon their inheritance in some par-\\nticulars. It results, that in a family, as in a school,\\nmany varieties of children may be seen, differing in type\\nof features, in health, and in their brain characteristics.\\nAgain, the individual child changes much as age\\nprogresses, and his brain faculties evolve character\\nis formed under training and guidance, the natural\\ntendencies may be developed or in part suppressed,\\nand mental character thus improved.\\nPhysiological terms of description in child-study en-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "96 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nable us to appreciate resemblances and differences;\\nmental status may thus be compared and traced in\\nevolution from childhood to manhood sometimes\\nwith periods of reversion to childishness.\\nDoes laughter express joy, and crying pain or\\nsorrow? We see that laughter indicates a spreading\\nmode of brain action so does crying, as the emotional\\nstorm spreads hence the kinship between laughing\\nand crying; the one may pass on to the other in the ex-\\npression of emotion. (See Chapter III., p. 51.) Among\\nchildren too much similarity in manners and in expres-\\nsion may result from a limited experience, that is,\\nfrom too little freedom; this dwarfs the evolution of\\nindividuality. Insufficient control by varied surround-\\nings leads to the formation of but little of the real\\ncharacter, which results from many experiences re-\\nceived and retained. Mental evolution is seen in the\\nacquisition of knowledge and fixed trains of thought,\\nas also in retention of the impressions necessary for\\ncomparison, and the terms employed in description\\nand as aids to memory these impressions interact\\nin the brain.\\nI hope the reader has seen for himself many of the\\nfacts that may be easily observed in the movements and\\nresponse of the child this will prepare the way for a\\nready appreciation of what has here to be explained as\\nto the evolution of mental powers, as far as they can be\\ntraced among the nerve centres of the brain.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "GROWTH AND MOVEMENT 97\\nThe principles of evolution as the methods of nature\\nled me to look for a classification of processes of growth\\nthat might be arranged in the same manner as for\\nmovements, and the modes of brain action correspond-\\ning to mental expression it seemed probable that all\\nmodes of evolution would have some resemblances.\\nThe study of observations in plants and animals\\nshowed me that there are many points of analogy be-\\ntween growth and movement, which throw light upon\\nthe understanding of each. 1 In child-study you will\\nsoon be convinced that healthy growth of the head and\\nbody are usual accompaniments of good brain power\\nseen in movement and response.\\nThese principles of natural history may be applied\\nby way of illustration to the description of movements,\\narranged in four classes, as given in Chapter IV.\\nEach class of modes in growth among the parts and\\nstructures of plants as here given has its analogy in the\\nclasses of movements before described.\\nUniformly repeated growth resembles uniform re-\\npeated movement in the order of the events occurring\\nwith but little variety. Look at a young sprig of ivy\\ngrowing on a smooth wall; leaf after leaf has grown\\nsimilar in shape and in size, each leaf arises at equal\\ndistances apart this looks simple as compared with the\\ndevelopmental growth of buds and flowers. Nodding\\n1 See Author s Anatomy of Movement a Treatise on the Action of\\nNerve-centres and Modes of Growth. The Macmillan Company.\\nH", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "98 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nthe head repeatedly is a simple movement when com-\\npared with writing a letter.\\nAn increasing number of parts growing is seen in the\\ndevelopment of a chestnut bud where the inner scales\\ngrow longer, the axis elongates, leaves are formed, and\\nfinally a number of flowers are produced. The new\\nshoot bearing flowers is a wonderful development from\\nthe bud, with many new parts compared with the ivy\\nsprig it is complex, owing to the number of new parts\\nthat have grown in various forms. A greater amount\\nof nourishment is used in the shoot producing leaves\\nand flowers than in the twig that grows only a few sim-\\nple leaves. Any increasing amount of movement in\\nthe child is due to a spreading area of brain action, and\\nindicates an expenditure of its force.\\nA diminishing number of parts is found in the butter-\\ncup flower as time goes on the yellow petals fall, then\\nthe green sepals that enveloped the bud before opening;\\nthe little stalked stamens fall off, leaving only the parts\\nin the centre (carpels) which form the fruit and contain\\nthe seeds that result as the outcome of flowering the\\nparts that have been useful disappear and leave the\\nperfected fruit. In the child we have seen examples\\nof much movement subsiding when there has been a\\ndisplay of emotion but little effect in the brain remains\\nexcept some fatigue, from the large area or number oi\\nparts that have acted. After the performance of a well-\\nregulated exercise, the quieter action following is at-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "THE SENSITIVE PLANT 99\\ntended by a more perfected organisation in the brain, of\\nuse in future action.\\nCoordinate action is seen in the movements that\\noccur in the leaf of the sensitive plant {Mimosa pudica).\\nWhen the plant is in its natural state and in the light\\nthe leaflets are expanded horizontally but after a touch\\nthey become folded, and at length the main stalk is de-\\npressed, so that the entire leaf falls down. If two leaf-\\nlets at the extremity are touched they fold upwards, and\\na similar movement takes place down the stalk to its\\nbase, and then spreads to adjacent stalks, each succes-\\nsive pair of leaflets becoming folded in order. Thus you\\nsee coordinated series of acts, started by a slight touch\\nbut passing in a regular order, owing to the structure\\nof the leaf in which the cells producing movement\\nare specially connected with one another. In darkness\\na similar kind of movement occurs, with the result\\nthat the leaves are protected from being chilled at\\nnight.\\nYou see how modes of growth may be uniformly re-\\npeated, they may spread, diminish, or be controlled by\\ncircumstances, and so become adapted to the environ-\\nment this is analogous to what we saw in movement,\\nwhich may indicate brain action recurring in the same\\narea, spreading, diminishing, or controlled by sight or\\nsound.\\nYou must ever bear in mind that each movement in\\nthe child indicates action in a nerve centre while a", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "100 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nseries of movements expresses the action of a group\\nor series of centres, so we can trace out the modes of\\nbrain action and their characters by observing classes\\nof movements.\\nFurther illustrations of this subject I have given in\\nmy former works 2 with catalogues of a museum de-\\nmonstrating some of the principles of natural history as\\nthey may be applied to the study of the brain and the\\nbody of the child.\\nHaving spoken of natural history as illustrating the\\nprinciples of evolution, I will give a few illustrations of\\nreversion to earlier conditions. Some seedlings of the\\nMimosa pndica or the sensitive plant, were potted off\\ninto different earths and sands. Those planted in a\\nsoil of two parts of decayed vegetable mould to one of\\nsand grew more vigorously both in height and foliage\\nthan the others; and after two months growth they\\nwere much less sensitive than others planted in two-\\nthirds of silver sand and only one-third of leaf mould.\\nOne or two plants were grown entirely in silver sand.\\nThese showed extreme sensitiveness to the slightest\\ntouch even a breath of air, or the slightest jerk of\\nthe pot in which they grew, caused all the foliage to\\nshut up. It also appears that the plants may become\\naccustomed to a weak stimulus. Thus, Desfontaines\\ncarried with him a sensitive plant in a coach, the jolt-\\ning of which caused the leaves to close, but ere long the\\n1 See Author s Anatomy of Movement, Mental Faculty.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "REVERSION TO CHILDISHNESS IOI\\nplant became accustomed to the motion and the leaves\\nexpanded. 1\\nHere are facts worth remembering. They may help\\nto show you how best to care for the bodies and brains\\nof children who are overmobile and sensitive they\\nmust be properly fed, and under a wise training they\\nmay become accustomed to the trials and joltings of\\ndaily life.\\nReversion to childish modes of action is not uncom-\\nmon these may be seen in the attitudes and gestures\\nof the body, such as hanging the head as if too heavy\\nto support, in place of keeping it erect bent knees and\\nelbows in listless attitude like the position of the limbs\\nof the infant (see Chapter II., p. 24), also in the closed\\nhands in place of fingers open and ready for action.\\nChildish reversion is seen in spontaneity, not impres-\\nsionable, but tending to spread, especially when accom-\\npanying indications of lowered nutrition. This is\\ncharacteristic of exhausted and nervous children, also\\nof those untrained to self-control and regulated habits.\\nI have referred very briefly to some facts in natural\\nhistory illustrating principles to be used in studying the\\nevolution of brain power, and now proceed to speak of\\nchanges which appear to take place among the nerve\\ncentres in the development of mental processes, so that\\nyou may acquire some understanding as to what occurs\\nin the heads of the children.\\n1 Balfour, Class Book of Botany, 1871, p. 496,", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "102 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nWe have seen that spontaneity may be temporarily\\narrested and then replaced by a new coordinated action\\nthe child when spoken to stops fidgeting, thinks, and\\nthen does as directed. (See Chapter II., pp. 36, 39.)\\nWe cannot admit in physiology that this is produced\\nby the will or the mind, but must infer that it indicates\\nan arrangement among the brain centres, through which\\nthey become united by nerve paths. The brain centres,\\nthough they can act separately, may become united by\\nthe formation of nerve paths between them so as to\\nbe readily called into coaction, corresponding to mental\\naction or its expression larger groups may be so con-\\nnected as to act in unison, or in a series one after the\\nother in an established order (coordinated action).\\nThus the pupil repeats the words of the lesson he has\\nlearned. The action of a single centre, or of a group\\narranged as a series, may be started by a slight impres-\\nsion, the sight of an object or a gesture, or the sound\\nof a word of direction. (See Training, Chapter VII.,\\nP- 143.)\\nLet me refer to the analogy -between the brain\\nwith its parts or nerve centres, and the regiment of\\nsoldiers on review. The men have previously been\\ndrilled in squads, and trained to act together as one\\ngroup many such groups move separately when the\\nformation of the company changes. The squad cor-\\nresponds, in our analogy, to a group of nerve cells\\nunited by nerve paths, resulting from repeatedly act-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "METAPHYSICS AND PSYCHOLOGY 103\\ning together. The command of the colonel commu-\\nnicated to the officer of one squad is passed on to\\nthe rest, or given to each separately, by an aide-de-\\ncamp, so that two or more squads act together, or\\nthey may fire alternately.\\nRegimental formations may be prepared without\\nfiring, or a spreading line of fire may be ordered.\\nThe nerve centres may be arranged by new nerve\\npaths, while the child is listening attentively. Ex-\\npression comes later, when he repeats what he has\\nbeen taught. In battle, if panic or loss of the\\nofficers of the army dissolves the organisation, each\\nman acts alone and spontaneously, and disorder or con-\\nfusion result.\\nThe metaphysical side of psychology I must leave\\nalone, while directing your attention to evidence ob-\\ntained by scientific observation of the facts expres-\\ning the modes of brain action essential to thought\\nand its expression. 1\\nAll expression of mental action is by movement.\\nWe do not know in what way consciousness and\\nmind are connected with the brain and body; still it\\nis true that all mental action in one person is ex-\\npressed to another only by some form of movement.\\nThus, we express our thoughts in the movements of\\narticulation, in speech, by facial expression and gesture,\\n1 References 6, 14; and Journal of Mental Science, London, April,", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "104 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nor by the written words produced by movements of\\nthe fingers as guided by the brain. In each case it\\nis the nerve-muscular mechanism that indicates or ex-\\npresses the thoughts arising in the mind; it is the\\nbrain centres, acting on the muscles of the body and\\nlimbs, that convey to another person the thinkings\\nthat occur. Movements produced by the muscles are\\nthus indices of what goes on among the brain cen-\\ntres that produce them; still, the processes of think-\\ning can go on in the brain without being expressed. 1\\nThe hands of a clock indicate the time as we see\\nthem move; the clockworks produce the movements,\\nand these will go on just as well if the hands are\\nremoved, only we cannot read the time then it is\\nthe clockworks that keep the time, and the hands\\nthat express it visibly. We mostly study our clocks\\nby observing the movements of the hands, but the\\nclockmaker is able to look at and understand the\\nworks.\\nIn employing scientific methods for studying men-\\ntal action, as it occurs in the brain, we observe move-\\nments and class them as already explained (see\\nChapter IV., 75), and describe them then, just as in\\nother scientific research, we proceed to draw infer-\\nences from observations, and formulate a working\\nhypothesis as to modes of mental action in the\\nbrain.\\n1 See Proceedings of Congress of Education, Chicago. Reference 34.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "NERVE MECHANISM FOR THOUGHT 105\\nIt is probable that the nerve mechanism for thought\\nis the highest set of nerve centres in the brain these\\nare connected in structure with the lower centres, and\\nfinally with the muscles that produce the movements\\nof the limbs and parts of the body. Thus the nerve-\\nmuscular system produces action, such as is commonly\\ncalled voluntary. I desire to explain the corelation\\nof mental action with other natural processes, and to\\ntrace out the effects of conditions around the child in so\\nfar as concerns us in dealing with training and educa-\\ntion not as a means of explaining what mind con-\\nsists of, which we do not know. The study of mental\\naction in the brain thus becomes a study of physiologi-\\ncal processes hence, I employ methods similar to those\\nused in observing specimens in natural history show-\\ning growth and movement. 1\\nWe have seen in the evolution of the infant that a\\npause in spontaneous movement after an impression by\\nlight or sound may be followed by a new coordinated\\nact. We infer that during the pause or inhibition of\\nmovement, the brain centres are united by temporary\\nnerve paths, and thus prepared to act in a series pro-\\nducing the action seen. This is the sort of action\\noccurring in the brain of the pupil during quiet atten-\\ntion, in looking or listening, rather should I say the\\nperiod of orderly preparation of nerve cells by the light\\nor sound. (See Chapter III., p. 69.)\\n1 References 5, 14; Journal of Mental Science, April, 1889.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "106 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nIn training the pupil to imitate your pronunciation of\\na word you make him look at you the child then\\nmakes movements similar to those of your lips and\\nface.\\nWe infer that, as the result of the impression by sight,\\nthe same centres that are active with you are acting in\\nhis brain. Further, after repeating the word a few\\ntimes, if the child can say it without guidance, we infer\\nthat the brain centres for that word have become con-\\nnected by nerve paths, so that the syllables are pro-\\nnounced and the impression in the brain is retained.\\nAnalogous brain organisation is built up by physical\\nexercises in imitation of the teacher, thus making the\\nbrain grow apt for connected mental action. In such\\ntraining, action becomes more exact by practice, then\\nquicker finally it can be produced by the child without\\nyour guidance, simply on directing the pupil to do so.\\nWe do not see this coordination or brain evolution in\\nthe very young infant, in the imbecile, or in the sick\\nchild. 1\\nFrom the study of numerous observations and infer-\\nences drawn from many and varied facts, I was led to\\nconclude that a thought, or mental act as it occurs in\\nthe brain, is there represented by the activity of a cer-\\ntain group of nerve cells (diatactic union) 2 the brain\\ncentres forming the group acting in a definite order as\\n1 References 29, 52.\\n2 See Mental Faculty, Chapter III.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "NERVE PATHS IN THE BRAIN 107\\ndetermined by the nerve paths formed between them by\\nsensory impressions.\\nIt is here suggested that a mental act is due to the\\nfunction of certain brain cells, temporarily connected\\nfor the action on another occasion different arrange-\\nments may be formed among the same nerve cells, and\\na different kind of mental act result. Thus the brain\\ncells become temporarily connected by nerve paths, lead-\\ning from one to another, which are formed by impres-\\nsions received in the brain through the senses and by\\nmuscle sense (see Chapter II., 37). The arrangement\\nof the brain cells (diatactic action) for this kind of\\nconcerted action occurs during the pause or period\\nof inhibition of movements, to which I have often re-\\nferred, as corresponding to attention or the period of\\nthinking. Training as described in Chapter VII. makes\\nthe brain centres apt for this kind of action.\\nIn illustration* let me again refer to the analogy of\\nbrain action and the organisation in an army. In order\\nto achieve a certain object the colonel orders a com-\\npany of men to make a particular movement in concert\\non another occasion the same men may be arranged in\\ndifferent divisions to execute a further purpose.\\nIn a city possessed of a good telephonic system,\\nsix merchants may be placed in communication by\\nan arrangement of the electrical wires; at another\\ntime five bankers may consult and act together, if\\nthe arrangement of the wires is adapted by the", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "108 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nsuperintendent of telephones who receives an order\\nto do so. The city is then roughly analogous to the\\nbrain. The telephones represent brain centres, the\\norder given to the superintendent corresponds to sen-\\nsory impressions. These orders result in certain tele-\\nphones being temporarily connected by electrical wires\\nwhich bring them into communication these wires\\nare analogous to the nerve paths formed between the\\nbrain centres. The nerve centres, by the formation\\nof nerve paths, are prepared to act in unison and in\\nharmony with the impression that controls them.\\nIn considering mental acts as represented by the\\ncorresponding physiological action of brain centres,\\nwe study what may be inferred to occur in the\\nbrain from visible expression in the child. Coordi-\\nnated movement indicates nerve centres acting in a\\ncertain order under control; if this is repeated with-\\nout help or guidance, we infer that training has\\nalready established some new nerve paths in the brain.\\nIt was desirable in Chapter III. to describe the\\ngeneral characters of brain actions separately; these,\\nhowever, often occur together in varying degree un-\\nder different circumstances, and thus become com-\\nponents of a mode of brain action as seen in a\\nchild a few examples will illustrate this.\\nImpressionability of the brain is shown in various\\nways, sometimes by arresting action, or in a higher\\nform by guiding it.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "BOYS IN THE PLAYGROUND 109\\nImpressionability to the sound of the school bell\\nis seen together with coordinated action, as the boys\\nput their tops into their pockets and run indoors.\\nSome of the boys, however, look up to see if the\\nmaster is coming, and then go on with their play;\\nhere the first impression is followed by action, while\\nthe second impression removes the stimulus of the\\nfirst. Other boys get off to a corner of the play-\\nground where they may not be seen. This is a kind\\nof coordinated action that should not take place.\\nSome children simply stand still and do nothing\\nwhen they hear the bell; the impression produces\\ninhibition only. A deaf boy continues to spin his\\ntop as before; he does not hear the bell. One boy\\nmakes grimaces, stamps on the ground, throws down\\nhis top, picks it up again, drops it into his pocket,\\nand finally goes into school the impression by sound\\nleads to extra movements with a spreading area of\\nbrain activity followed by coordinated action.\\nInhibition of movements may occur with or without\\nattention. A pupil is looking all over the room, both\\nhis hands and fingers moving also. Teacher says,\\nLook at this flower as I show its parts, and name\\nthem. His eyes are fixed on the specimen and his\\nmovements stop, there is inhibition of movement for\\nthe time; we infer that his brain action was arrested\\nonly as to movement and not for mental process,\\nbecause he can subsequently repeat the names of the", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "IIO THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nparts of the flower as taught; inhibition of move-\\nment accompanied an act of attention. Another\\nchild, when told to look at the specimen, looks at\\nthe teacher only, and keeps still; afterwards he can\\ngive no answer. His impressionability is shown by\\ninhibition of spontaneous movements, but his brain\\ncentres were not controlled by the teaching given,\\nand no mental action follows. Another pupil when\\ntold to examine a flower looks at it quietly for a\\nmoment, thinking what to do, then separates and\\narranges its parts. Temporary inhibition leads to co-\\nordinated action.\\nThe pupil, if sufficiently educated, when he has\\narranged his specimen on a card, will proceed to\\nwrite the names of each part and compare them.\\nThis shows quiet coordinated action with retentive-\\nness of names and their association with objects\\nsight of his specimen leads to mental comparisons\\nand description.\\nCo drdinated action produced through the senses in\\ntraining a child possessed of the faculty of memory\\nor retentiveness leads to the establishment of the\\nnerve arrangements in his brain for many modes of\\ncomplex action. Practice makes him more apt in per-\\nforming difficult exercises, whether they be in move-\\nment or mental in character.\\nA child hears his father s footstep and runs to\\nmeet him, smiling, gesticulating, and making glad", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "COORDINATION IN GAMES III\\nsounds this shows coordinated action with extra\\nmovements. Another man s footstep does not pro-\\nduce the same result we infer that the child knows\\nthe sound of his father s walk on many previous\\noccasions that particular sound has been heard, and\\nsuch impressions have been retained. Our know-\\nledge enables us to infer that this particular sound\\nhas produced nerve paths in his brain, associating it\\nwith many previous impressions. Vocal impressions\\nmay produce analogous results. It is seen in this\\nexample that extra movements may accompany co-\\nordinated action usually, however, coordination ne-\\ncessitates some diminution of spontaneity. Thus, a\\nyoung child out for a walk in the fields runs here\\nand there, shouts, and moves his arms much, occasion-\\nally stopping at sight of a flower to pick it. When\\nyou call him, he is quieter and runs to you.\\nInhibition, coordinated action, and retentiveness are\\ncultivated by practice. In the cricket field the boys\\nstand straight and motionless, ready for fielding the\\nbowler, ready with his ball the batsman, prepared\\nto hit and run. Action in the batsman is regulated\\nby sight of the flying ball, and as he runs, by the\\nmen fielding. The fielders are controlled in action\\nby the sight of one another, and of the ball. Good\\nplay is only gained by practice.\\nCompound brain action, or preparation to perform a\\ncertain set of actions one after another in due order,", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "112 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nis only evolved gradually after much training; cul-\\nture in various kinds of coordinated action at length\\nrenders the brain apt for such acquired functions.\\nAs an illustration, give the child two beans, telling\\nhim to measure and compare them. He takes one\\nand holds it lengthways between his finger and\\nthumb, looking at it from end to end. Then he\\nholds it flatways and looks at its breadth finally he\\nholds it from side to side. Again, he takes two\\nbeans, one between the finger and thumb of either\\nhand, then places them across one another and looks\\nat them. At last he says, the bean is longer than it\\nis broad, and the breadth greater than the thickness.\\nImpressions derived from previous teaching arise to\\nactivity in his brain in due order, they interact on\\none another, leading to expression in action and words.\\nAs an illustration of more advanced mental power\\nand memory, dependent on retentiveness of modes of\\ncompound brain action, let me give you one more\\nexample A boy is told to draw a map of the\\nUnited States; he proceeds quietly to rule on the\\npaper the lines of latitude and longitude; then draws\\nin the boundary lines, the rivers, and marks the\\ntowns, writing in their names. As you watch him\\nyou see a long series of complex movements of his\\nhand and fingers, which result in a sketch of the\\nmap asked for. The boy s brain has been trained to\\nreceive impressions and retain them in order, with", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "BRAIN RETENTIVENESS AND MEMORY 1 13\\nnerve paths among the groups of nerve cells, analo-\\ngous to the wires between the telephones, so that\\nwhen directed to draw the map he proceeds to do so\\nfrom memory.\\nRetentiveness of brain impressions and their asso-\\nciation gives the power of memory as the mental\\nfaculties are evolved. A child who cuts his finger\\nwith a knife feels the pain, he sees the blood and\\nthe knife another time he avoids the knife. The\\nboy bitten by a dog is afterwards frightened at the\\nsight of a dog. A child who has been run over and\\nhurt shows signs of fear when crossing a crowded\\nroad as long as the brain impression produced by\\nthe accident remains. Thus in the progress of life\\na child learns and retains much from his experience.\\nCompound brain action is a most interesting process\\nin the evolution of the child (see Chapter II., p. 39).\\nWhen he does as you tell him and repeats a lesson\\nfrom memory it is possible to trace what occurs the\\ncentres corresponding to each word having been im-\\npressed previously in a certain order, we infer that\\nthey have been connected by nerve paths, and are\\nreactive in expression one after another. The lesson\\nmay have been learned and then forgotten, or the im-\\npress of a word here and there in the series may\\nhave faded if you supply this, he goes on again to the\\nend. Of course, this process as described is merely\\nrepetition without any added brain action for thought.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "114 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nI have spoken of impressions in the brain corre-\\nsponding to movements and words it is generally ac-\\ncepted that words may correspond to (or be coupled\\nwith) thoughts, while the thoughts are expressed by\\nwords.\\nWords are produced in writing or speaking by fine\\nand coordinated movements of the fingers, or the\\nmouth and tongue, etc. Like all other movements,\\nspeech can be taught the impression of a sound on\\na child s brain may form a centre for the word\\namong the nerve cells and a meaning may afterwards\\ngrow up around it. You may teach the word, give\\nan impression, and couple the word and sensory im-\\npression. You may teach the word heavy, then\\nproduce tension on the muscles of the hand by\\nweights, and, again, couple the term heavy with\\nthe feeling of weight.\\nI believe that a thought corresponds in the brain\\nto the formation of a group of nerve cells by nerve\\npaths proceeding between them, thus constructing a\\nnew nerve centre out of, or among, existing nerve\\ncells. In analogy to the army, it is as though the\\nhealthy, active soldiers of the regiment were stand-\\ning at ease the command of the officer of the first\\nsquad calls them to attention it inhibits their talk-\\ning and laughing, they make their proper formation\\nthey are now ready to act in unison, to make a new\\nformation, or respond to command. The word of", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "METHODICAL TRAINING 115\\ncommand controls them they may remain quiescent\\nor express their force in firing (see Voluntary Action,\\nChapter X., p. 199).\\nOrder and method in training and teaching aids evo-\\nlution of the brain in the child disconnected teaching\\nand verbal instruction without previous preparation\\nleads to mental confusion and weakness. It is not in\\naccordance with good method to teach addition till the\\nchild can count objects, or proportion before he can\\nappreciate the relative degree of his impressions. Com-\\nparison cannot be made without separation or abstraction\\nof the impressions to be contrasted from the mass of\\nimpressions received; and this mental process is ac-\\nquired only after methodical training. The pupil who\\nhas examined peas and beans must learn to separate\\nhis impressions of weight from those of colour, or of\\ndimensions, before making comparisons and giving de-\\nscriptions. He will then be able to compare the peas\\nand beans as to their colour and their weight respec-\\ntively while he may proceed to compare the dimen-\\nsions of the bean.\\nThe child grows and the brain grows during school\\ndays, so that nearly the full weight of brain is attained\\nby twenty years of age. The brain organisation and\\ncondition need training during this period; if educa-\\ntion be neglected, as the bulk of brain increases some\\nparts are left incoordinated and too ready for the dis-\\nplay of nerve storms, emotion, and hysteria.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "Il6 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nIt is true that the surroundings of nature in the coun-\\ntry, and occupations in social life without artificial edu-\\ncation for the children, may produce fair mental ability;\\nbut this is at least leaving much to chance circum-\\nstances. To let the child s brain grow without bringing\\nit under control is analogous to enlisting a number of\\nmen untrained in military discipline, then calling them\\nan army, and expecting them to confront the dangers\\nof battle with success.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI\\nPhysical Care of the Child Hygiene and Feeding\\nA body healthy in its organs and parts, including, of\\ncourse, the brain, is essential to the healthiness of the\\nlife of the child, and requires constant thoughtful atten-\\ntion at each stage and in the daily hours of education.\\nIt may be convenient to speak of bodily health and\\nbrain healthiness separately; but they do not stand\\napart, each reacts on the other. The brain is depend-\\nent upon the body and its organs for a good supply of\\nnourishing, pure blood the brain acts upon all parts of\\nthe body, the heart and the organs of breathing and\\nof digestion.\\nThus delicate children need brain training adapted to\\ntheir individualities, not only that they may have well-\\nformed and balanced minds, but also, in order that the\\nbrain may be cultivated as far as possible, to act regu-\\nlarly in controlling the bodily health. 1 Loafing is not\\ngood for either brain or body untrained emotional dis-\\nturbance upsets digestion habitual slowness of action\\nleaves the circulation sluggish mental excitement dis-\\nturbs many of the organs. The training of a delicate\\n1 References 27, 28.\\n117", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "Il8 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nchild should not be neglected, but adapted to the special\\nrequirements of the case.\\nLet me explain a general principle in physiology as\\nto the control exercised by the organs of the body upon\\none another. Physical exercise quickens the heart s\\naction, thus increasing the circulation in the brain and\\npromoting its healthy activity. The sudden call to re-\\npeat a lesson in class may excite the brain and produce\\nsuch disturbed action of the heart as to quicken the\\npulse beats and interfere with the brain circulation,\\nleading to mental confusion. Again, words of reproof\\nfrom the teacher may produce a state of mental excite-\\nment, while this brain disturbance (spreading action)\\nexcites the heart and so disturbs the circulation then\\nsleeplessness at night may follow. The heart acts on\\nthe brain, and the brain reacts upon the working of the\\nheart.\\nIt is said the healthy body helps to make a\\nhealthy brain it is also true that a well-regulated\\nbrain helps to keep the rest of the body in good\\nhealth. Healthy lungs and good breathing afford a\\nsupply of pure blood to the brain. Emotion and ex-\\ncitement disturb breathing the movements of the\\nchest become quick but shallow, and the circulation\\nis impeded careful training may render the child\\nless emotional, and less liable to this cause of brain\\ndisturbance. Food and a good digestion are neces-\\nsary to produce a proper quality of the blood regu-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "THE BRAIN AND DIGESTION Iig\\nlated control of the brain promotes good digestion.\\nWhere you have seen that the child s school work\\nis unsatisfactory as the result of some form of indi-\\ngestion, it is useful to remember that good digestion\\nis promoted by a proper mental control of the brain,\\nregulated in all good habits. Nervous dyspepsia, as\\nit is often called, may sometimes be prevented or re-\\nmoved by regulation of the occupations and the work\\nof the day, together with punctuality as to the hours\\nof sleep.\\nThese facts are true they may seem paradoxical I\\nspeak of them here because I think you should un-\\nderstand every side of this question in all instances,\\nas bearing on the responsible care of the child s well-\\nbeing in every aspect of the case.\\nThe child may be cross and peevish as the result\\nof illness, or want of food and rest. He may be\\nout of health with low power of digestion and want\\nof proper sleep, resulting from lack of occupation\\nand interests, together with habits of getting what-\\never he wants and eating whatever he fancies such\\nbad training necessarily leads to ill health and peevish-\\nness.\\nWhen a child is fidgety and shows signs of fatigue,\\nit is desirable to try and find out the true cause.\\nWeariness from real work may thus lead to fidgeti-\\nness on the other hand, exhaustion may result from\\nspontaneous, or self-originated, uncontrolled, thinking", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "120 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nand imagining, such as is not uncommon among\\nlonely children at home. In some cases this cause\\nof weariness and fatigue may be removed by wisely\\nregulated school training and occupation in system-\\natic habits of work. The child will not eat his meals,\\nis talkative, and looks at everything but his food\\nshowing overmobility and the signs of nervousness,\\nwhile lacking in healthy strength and energy through\\ninsufficient nourishment. When possible make him\\neat, even if his dinner occupies an hour of your\\ntime. Some children do not go to bed at their\\nproper time, because they do not sleep that is bad\\nmanagement, and often the child is too tired to sleep\\nwell the next night.\\nThus, conditions of the body act on the brain,\\nand the brain reacts on the general healthiness and\\nnutrition of the child. The points here touched upon\\nare sometimes neglected, thus leading to confusion in\\nmanagement; while in some instances the child is\\nexpected to correct his own faults, although he has\\nnot been controlled by those whose duty it is to train\\nhim and to try to understand his difficulties and his\\ncharacter. The care of the child s body is our busi-\\nness he needs at first to be trained by what is done for\\nhim, and taught good habits, eating properly what is\\ngiven to him, keeping his hands clean, changing boots\\nwhen wet, and many other necessary habits in personal\\nhygiene which he can learn to do for himself. Except", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "CLOTHING AND DRESS 121\\nin such duties and habits, the less the child is con-\\nscious of his own body the better, especially as to\\npains, appetite, irritability of the skin and throat, or\\ndress, etc. what he sees and hears should occupy his\\nattention rather than his own sensations.\\nClothing should be adapted so as not to interfere\\nwith free movements of the limbs and the chest,\\navoiding either a collar that rubs the neck, or a\\nband that constricts the waist; Woollen garments next\\nto the skin are much to be preferred, and help to\\nprevent catarrhs in winter; it is equally important\\nthat they should be made high at the neck, with the\\nobject of keeping a uniform layer of air around the\\nbody and limbs. Boots should allow movements of\\nthe toes, which if unconfined tend to healthy spon-\\ntaneous movements such as are seen in the infant,\\nbut too little in the feet of adults; care should also\\nbe taken that boots do not press on the instep, which\\nmay lead to flat foot and loss of all gracefulness\\nin walking, and even lameness in after years. Dress,\\nwhile suited to the family of which the child is a\\nmember, should not be such as to attract the atten-\\ntion of the child or of others. Perhaps a school cap\\nor badge helps to promote a feeling of comradeship\\nas belonging to a corporate body, whose honour must\\nbe maintained by proper conduct outside the school.\\nDress may be well arranged without being costly,\\nand should be adapted to its uses; while boys, in", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "122 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nparticular, need to be encouraged to keep their\\nclothes clean.\\nOne important consideration in school management\\nmust be a time table, and a plan of the day s oc-\\ncupations, arranged for each class to some extent\\naccording to the ages of the pupils. We have to\\nkeep the child growing in body and brain by feed-\\ning and culture; work, play, and sleep have to\\nbe arranged for, and fill up a large portion of\\nthe curriculum, each item of which bears on the\\nothers. Sleep concerns the health of both body and\\nbrain. Sleeping rooms should be well aired during\\nthe day, and ventilated at night by a partially\\nopened window a night passed in a close atmos-\\nphere poisons the lungs and the brain, becoming a\\nfertile source of fatigue, headaches, ill health, and\\nanaemia. (See Chapter I., p. 5.) Dark blinds aid sleep\\nthe drawing up of these in the morning is a better\\nmanner of awakening the child than knocking at the\\ndoor or calling him light gradually recalls the brain\\nto its daily activities.\\nAs you look at a child in sleep, while as yet there is\\nno light shining on him, and no sounds impressing\\nhearing, the body is motionless except for the move-\\nments of breathing. The brain centres are quietly and\\nuniformly nourished by the blood circulating among\\nthem. As sounds begin in the house some movements\\nmay occur during sleep, showing that some nerve", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "SLEEP AND AWAKING 1 23\\ncentres are being stimulated. When light is admitted\\nat the window, the eyelids are first screwed together,\\nthen opened stretching movements are seen, the limbs\\nare moved, the child sits up and begins to talk the\\nwhole brain is now awake and ready for the activities\\nof the day. A gradual method of arousing from sleep\\nis better than a sudden noise the brain should be al-\\nlowed a few minutes for recovering its full activity and\\nfor restoration of the full circulation of blood which this\\nnecessitates. With children who are at all delicate the\\nprocess of arousing should be gradual, let the child sit\\nup in bed and get fully awake before jumping out; to\\nstartle a child on awaking sometimes does harm. A\\ncold bath assures full wakefulness it helps to stimulate\\nthe breathing and establish a good circulation.\\nIt is hardly possible to say how many hours sleep an\\nindividual child requires, but the method of sleeping\\nshould be looked to. Means should be taken to ascer-\\ntain whether the child soon falls asleep cold feet delay\\nrest, a bed too warmly clothed may lead to restlessness,\\nthinking and imagining may keep off sleep. For the\\nhabitually bad sleeper a glass of milk and a biscuit may\\nbe provided.\\nThe following table drawn up by Dr. Clement Dukes 1\\nexpresses his experience as to the amount of sleep re-\\nquired by children\\n1 Remedies of the Needless Injury to Children. Messrs. Rivington,\\nLondon.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "124 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nAs Work and Sleep. should be allotted\\nAge.\\nHours of Work\\nper Week.\\nHours of Sleep\\nper Night.\\nChildren between 5-6\\nu a\\n6-7\\na a\\n7-8\\na tt\\n8-9\\nPupils between\\n8-10\\nit a\\nIO-II\\ntt a\\n11-12\\ntt tt\\n12-14\\ntt a\\n14-15\\ntt tt\\n15-17\\na tt\\n17-19\\n9\\n12\\nIS\\n20\\n25\\n30\\n35\\n40\\n45\\n50\\n13*\\n13\\n12\\nII|\\nII\\n10\\n9\\\\\\n9\\nThis includes time devoted to study and chapel on Sun-\\nday some will think the hours of work rather long.\\nIn the boarding school the arrangement of dormi-\\ntories demands attention. Cubicles are favoured by\\nmany as a proper arrangement; this plan, however,\\npresents grave objections. As to the desirability of par-\\ntial isolation as a means of providing some privacy, any\\nschoolmaster or mistress can form an opinion but there\\nare distinct sanitary disadvantages which must follow\\nsuch a system. No fair circulation of air can occur\\naround the bed, while draughts are not prevented.\\nWooden partitions cause further difficulty as to keeping\\nthe floor clean in a limited space. A bath should be\\nused daily cold in summer, tepid in winter; when this is\\nimpracticable, at least the body should be washed.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "HEALTH OF EYES AND SIGHT 125\\nBesides attention to toilet, and cleaning the teeth,\\nthe eyes, ears, and nose, the child should be trained to\\ntake a few deep breaths on rising in the morning full\\nexpansion of the chest helps to restore a quicker circu-\\nlation in the brain, which is lowered during the hours\\nof sleep.\\nHealthiness of the eyes must be cared for, in the\\nfirst place, by keeping them clean and bathing with\\nwater in washing; all discharge from the lids or\\nsoreness of the margins specially require care in\\nthis matter. Any discharge from the eyes seen in\\nschool should not be removed with the pocket hand-\\nkerchief, but with a piece of lint or cotton wool,\\nwhich should afterwards be burnt. 1 Practice in dis-\\ntant vision is useful, especially for children in towns\\nthis relaxes the muscular apparatus inside the eye-\\nball, and gives the eyes healthy exercise. Let the\\nchild look up the street, watch a horse till out of\\nsight, look at distant spires or tall buildings, or up\\nto the sky and see the clouds or the sunset glows.\\nIn the country the flight of birds, distant hedges\\nand trees, or the course of the river may be fol-\\nlowed, while the stars are seen at night. Among\\nobjects to look at let me mention the good effects of\\ncasts of statuary, busts, and full figures which should\\nadorn the schoolhouse as well as the college. Pic-\\n1 See Study of Children, Chapter XII., on Health Management in\\nSchool.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "126 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\ntures and wall drawings give colour as well as form;\\nwith large figure photographs the eyes in following\\nthe lines of the face and the features receive train-\\ning of real value things of beauty train the sight\\nas well as the taste.\\nSmall-typed books, especially stories badly printed\\non cheap paper, tend to hurt the eyes by producing\\nvery indistinct impressions. The book should be held\\nsteady in reading, and the body quiet do not let\\nthe child read in a rocking chair at home.\\nIn school there should be plenty of light to each\\ndesk; indirect sunlight is best, and where possible\\nthe light should fall from a window on the left-hand\\nside so as not to throw a shadow of the pen on the\\nletters written. At night a shaded lamp is prefer-\\nable to a candle, but the rest of the room should\\nnot be left in darkness. The eyes should not feel\\nfatigued with reading; the child ought not to be\\ndirectly conscious of his eyes, any more than of his\\nhands and stomach muscular and even brain fatigue\\nin moderate degree may be healthy, but eye fatigue\\nmeans something wrong.\\nThe schoolroom as a place of education should be\\nadapted to the purposes of child growth and brain\\nculture under healthful conditions, among which light,\\nair, and cleanliness are primary necessities. Of lighting\\nI have already spoken let me add, the windows should\\nbe cleaned every week. The air of the room needs", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "OXYGEN AND THE BRAIN 127\\nto be changed frequently; organic matter breathed\\nout from the lungs is highly poisonous, this becomes\\ndiffused through the room so that the whole atmos-\\nphere needs to be changed frequently by partially\\nopening the windows, which should be thrown widely\\nopen during the intervals of school work. Lamps and\\nthe fire help to consume the oxygen in the room, but\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2it is the human lungs that mostly vitiate the atmosphere\\nand render it harmful to the body and the brain.\\nA healthy condition of the blood demands proper\\nfeeding and digestion, while for its purity fresh air\\nand oxygen are needed in abundance.\\nOxygen is necessary to almost all forms of living\\nthings even the lowest forms of animal life, such as\\namoebae, lose their activity and life when deprived of\\noxygen. Brain cells and other tissues of the body\\nare as sensitive as these amoebae the energy they dis-\\nplay depends upon temporary storage of oxygen, which\\nwhen again set free produces force. Oxygen is also\\nstored in the blood in the tissues and in the muscles\\nthe red substance of the blood (haemoglobin) readily\\nabsorbs oxygen in the lungs, while the circulation of\\nthe blood carries it to the brain, the muscles, and all\\nparts of the body; in so doing it aids processes of\\ndigestion and assimilation. Pure air containing oxy-\\ngen, as it passes over the surface of the body and\\nthrough the nose, promotes health hence the impor-\\ntance of a clean skin. Plants kept in rooms need to", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "128 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nhave their leaves washed that they may absorb gases\\nfrom the air. The atmosphere of a room may become\\npoisonous, not only from the amount of oxygen which\\nis being consumed or used up, but also from the accu-\\nmulation of waste materials thrown off by the breath,\\nwhich when re-breathed from the air poison the blood\\nand the brain.\\nAs to the temperature of the room Dr. Burnham 1\\nsays In this country [America] it seems necessary to\\nhave the temperature of the schoolroom nearly 70 F.\\nIt should never exceed this and with adequate ventila-\\ntion may be less. I have often found schoolrooms\\ntoo hot and enervating when above 62 F. Plants\\ngrown at too high a temperature become delicate with\\ninsufficient light and air they become ill proportioned,\\nlong in the stem, with small, pale leaves they produce\\nflowers, but the plant loses stamina, and the power of\\nresisting adverse circumstances is lessened. Let the\\npupils see plants growing healthily in the schoolroom,\\nkept clean, watered, placed in the light, and well aired\\ndaily. Thus the children may learn something of\\npractical hygiene, as they see how we keep plants\\ngrowing and healthy.\\nMuch has been written as to the construction of\\nthe best form of school-desks. When these are provided,\\nit remains for the class teacher to see that they are\\nproperly used by the pupils.\\n1 Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1892, p. 31.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL DESKS AND WRITING 129\\nThe following practical directions are given by Mr.\\nPriestley Smith i 1\\nThe pupil must have a comfortable seat with a\\nsupport for the lower part of his back. He must\\nwork at a sloping desk, not a flat table. He must be\\nso placed that there is plenty of light upon his work,\\nand that he is not dazzled by light in his eyes. His\\nbooks must be printed in good, large, clear type, so\\nthat he may be able to read them without the slightest\\ndifficulty at the proper distance. He must be accus-\\ntomed to read with the book propped well up in front\\nof him, so that he may not need to stoop over it. He\\nmust be taught to write sitting square to the desk and\\nupright, not twisted to one side and bending over it.\\nThese things must be attended to at home as well as\\nat school.\\nIf the pupil is allowed to place the copy book on\\nwhich he is writing a few inches to the right of the\\nmedium plane of his body, the head is turned to the\\nright, the left shoulder is raised, while the right sinks,\\nand the spine is bent to the left. The body becomes\\nfatigued with this strain and the right eye is brought\\nnearer to the paper than the left; this helps to de-\\nvelop unequal sight in the two eyes, and short sight,\\nwhich may be avoided by a good position. For this\\nreason the written lines should not be too long while\\n1 Eyesight and How We Lose It. Hamilton, Adams Co., London.\\nK", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "130 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nto carry into effect a good position in writing the\\nvertical script has been introduced. 1\\nThe objects to be gained by physical training are\\nadmirably described by Dr. Edward H. Hartwell; 2 he\\nsays Speaking broadly, the muscular and nervous\\ntissues, well termed the master tissues, constitute the\\nexecutive or working mechanism of the body; and the\\nchief function of all the other tissues of the body is to\\nserve either as their purveyors or scavengers. The\\nstructural integrity and functional power of the pur-\\nveyor and scavenger tissues are indirectly promoted by\\nmuscular activity; but the most important effects of\\nmuscular exercise are, (i) the attainment or mainten-\\nance of normal size and strength by the master tissues,\\nand, (2) the acquirement of correct and economical\\nhabits of neuro-muscular action. The ends of physical\\ntraining, then, are hygienic on the one hand, and educa-\\ntional on the other. No comprehensive system of phys-\\nical training can be considered safe or rational in\\nwhich these ends are not clearly recognised and intelli-\\ngently provided for through the adaption of its exer-\\ncises to the varied and varying wants and requirements\\nof the individuals to be trained, in respect to their sex,\\nage, strength, mental capacity, and calling in life. The\\nresults which should be secured by such a system are\\nbriefly these erect and graceful carriage of the head\\n1 See Dr. Burnham, op. cit.\\n2 Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, December, 1891.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "DIETARY AND SCHOOL MEALS 131\\nand trunk; a broad and capacious chest in which the\\nheart and the lungs, developed to their normal size and\\nstrength, shall have free, full, and regular play square\\nshoulders; a straight back; fully developed and well-\\nrounded limbs, and the power to execute with ease,\\nprecision, and economy exercises of strength, speed, and\\nskill in ordinary gymnastic and athletic feats.\\nPhysical exercises designed to train brain action and\\nevolve its mental powers I have sufficiently dealt with\\nin other chapters (Chapter VII., p. 145).\\nThe desideratum of physical culture for girls and\\nboys is to attain the highest degree of healthy growth\\nand development of brain and body that may be possi-\\nble during the period of school life.\\nIt is impossible to carry out such an ideal without\\nattention to diet and the proper arrangement of meals.\\nThe dietary needed will be much the same in the school\\nand in the family school meals form a not unimpor-\\ntant part of the duties and responsibilities of the man-\\nagement, and of the members of the teaching staff.\\nThe dining hall and the luncheon room afford oppor-\\ntunities for social and moral training, as apart from the\\nschoolroom and playground. Initial ideas of thrift,\\nself-help, and kindness to a neighbour find play in fol-\\nlowing the rule Waste nothing, either by broken\\npieces or by eating too much and picking out the best.\\nNever let the stronger child pick and choose at meals\\nit is well that sufficient supervision should be kept over", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "132 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nmanners at table to assure that the food is eaten by\\neach child, and neither shirked nor wasted, while suffi-\\ncient quantity is supplied to those who need it the\\nmost. In some schools lunch is provided, and the chil-\\ndren go home to dinner after morning work; this is\\nusually the case in the English high schools for girls.\\nWhen the luncheon room is a buffet, and each pupil\\ncan buy what she likes for her money, the girl may\\nselect bun and lemonade or fruit only most need at\\nleast bread and butter with milk. The meal is not a\\nluxury, but a necessity for brain growth, especially\\nfor such as do not eat good breakfasts. It would be\\nbetter for the parents to arrange what the child shall\\nhave as adapted to the home meals. Let there be pro-\\nvided two sandwiches and milk, bread and but-\\nter with milk or cup of chocolate, bread and stewed\\nfruit, biscuits with milk, or gingerbread. When\\nwork goes on from 9.30 a.m. to 1 p.m., the brain cannot\\nprofit by the stimulus and the training it receives if the\\nsupply of food to the stomach has not been replenished\\nsince the previous day. Ex nihilo nihil fit. It is\\nlike growing a plant in poor soil; it becomes thin and\\nweedy from the want of assimilated material. The\\nbrain is a structure made up of nerve cells and nerve\\nfibres which cannot retain impressions and perform\\nwork without food for their nutrition. Some children\\nmust be taught that it is their duty to eat that they may\\nlive and work.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "BREAKFAST AND LUNCHEON\\n133\\nAt meals the food should be varied, sufficient in\\nquantity, good of its kind, and distributed according\\nto the needs, not simply the inclinations, of each indi-\\nvidual when meals are monotonous, children will leave\\ntheir food even if hungry. The food should be prop-\\nerly selected, well cooked, and efficiently served.\\nThe meals should be planned; if breakfast is at 8\\na.m., the last substantial meal having been made at 1.30\\np.m. the previous day, the supply of nourishment in\\nthe body is exhausted; every child should begin the\\nday with a good breakfast. In girls high schools\\nmost of the work is done between 9.30 and 1 o clock;\\nbreakfast is a necessary preparation for such an amount\\nof work. If lessons are prepared before breakfast, at\\nleast bread and butter and a cup of hot coffee should\\nbe provided on rising.\\nDr. Clement Dukes 1 gives the following as suitable\\nbreakfast dietary\\nSunday. Sausages, broiled ham and eggs.\\nMonday. Dried fish, steak.\\nTuesday. Porridge, eggs buttered.\\nWednesday. Pressed beef, brawn.\\nThursday. Porridge, dried fish.\\nFriday. Cold ham, bacon.\\nSaturday. Porridge, fresh fish.\\nBread and butter with milk should be unstinted coffee\\nwith half milk may be substituted for older children.\\n1 The Essential of School Diet. Perceval and Co., London, 1891.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "134 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nSugar or salt at choice should be supplied with the\\nporridge. Dinner, whether taken at home or at school,\\nshould always be the best meal of the day well cooked,\\ncarefully served, and punctual each item is important\\nto promote good digestion.\\nI quote from Dr. Dukes s Dinner Dietary, which\\nhe gives at length\\nSunday. White soup, cold roast beef, potatoes, salads,\\npickles or beet-root, fresh fruit, pies, whatever is in season.\\nMonday. Roast shoulder of mutton, onion sauce, potatoes,\\nmould of cornflour with jam, cheese.\\nTuesday. Clear soup with vegetables, roast fillet of veal, or\\nboiled leg of mutton, potatoes, greens, plum pudding and sweet\\nsauce.\\nWednesday. Roast sirloin of beef or curried rabbits, pota-\\ntoes, cauliflowers, batter pudding, cheese.\\nThursday. Mutton broth with rice and vegetables, quarter\\nof lamb, potatoes, peas, baked apple puddings.\\nFriday. Roast loin of pork or boiled salt beef, potatoes,\\ncarrots, turnips, onions, cabinet pudding or baked rice, cheese.\\nSaturday. Pea soup, roast leg of mutton or Irish stew,\\npotatoes, parsnips, boiled marmalade puddings.\\nA variety is here given the details should be changed\\neach week.\\nFor the older children at least, who work in the\\nmorning and afternoon, with some preparation of\\nlessons in the evening, a substantial tea at 6 p.m. is\\nnecessary. Bread in plenty, with jam, marmalade,\\nhoney, treacle, and watercress. Milk can be given, or,", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "EVENING MEALS; ECONOMIC FEEDING 135\\nif preferred, cocoa. Tea and coffee should not be com-\\nmenced early, and in any case much milk should be\\ntaken. Girls and boys who are delicate, or bad eaters,\\nand those growing fast, may require in addition, egg,\\nfish, or cutlet. After evening work, bread and butter\\nor biscuits with milk, or milk pudding, may be\\ntaken if desired. The child should not go to bed\\nhungry. I have spoken somewhat fully of dietaries\\nbecause in my experience many children whether liv-\\ning at home with their parents who are both able and\\ndesirous to do the best for them, or those at boarding\\nschool often take insufficient food for their healthy\\ngrowth and brain activity. Children vary much in\\nappetite, and the same boy or girl at different periods\\nof life may change; while some are so foolish as\\nto refrain from eating because they fear to grow\\nfat.\\nWith some families food is insufficient from lack\\nof means still, cheap food is not always economical,\\nand selected good food may be inexpensive. Bread\\nmade of brown flower goes farther in nutrition than\\nwhite bread. No pieces should be wasted. Good mar-\\ngarine or dripping may well replace butter. Bread\\nshould be unstinted the crust is twenty-five per cent\\nmore nourishing than the crumb bread should never\\nbe used till the second day. Milk costs money, but it\\nis very necessary for children it should be carefully\\nprotected from dust and dirt, being received in a re-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "136 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\ncently scalded jug and covered with a sheet of clean\\npaper to keep out dust, which so soon spoils it.\\nFat food is necessary; it may be provided in the\\nform of bacon, butter, dripping, margarine, or as suet\\npudding with treacle or sugar. Sugar taken with food,\\nnot as sweets, is a useful heat former, and aids brain\\nnutrition. Porridge for breakfast, taken with sugar\\nor salt, is wholesome and nourishing; the oatmeal\\nshould be put to soak over night so as to be softened\\nby the morning then twenty minutes boiling is suffi-\\ncient for thorough cooking. Cheese taken at dinner in\\nsmall quantities is to be recommended.\\nIn every boarding school, and with advantage in the\\nday school also, a matron should superintend the diets\\nand be present at meals to see to the proper distribution\\nof the food. It is an advantage that a superintendent\\nwho knows the children, and any with ailments or in-\\ndispositions, should see that they get and take their\\nnecessary food. The matron knows the child with\\nconstant catarrh, and takes care both that in the cloak\\nroom the stockings are changed when damp, and in\\nthe dining room that the fat of the meat is eaten.\\nWith students who have the advantage of college life\\nafter the years spent at school, the continued care of\\nhealth becomes a personal duty which should not be\\nneglected in any of the items that have been indicated.\\nYoung men and women whose occupations are largely\\nsedentary should be enabled and encouraged to take", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "STUDENTS AT COLLEGE 1 37\\nexercise out of doors for at least two hours every day.\\nDaily and regular recreation of mind with active bod-\\nily exercise is necessary to assure that degree of con-\\ntinued physical health without which a career of useful,\\nsocial employment after college life and graduation can-\\nnot reasonably be expected. All the powers of the body\\nand the brain need exercise to keep up perfect health\\nand its probable maintenance in future years.\\nIt must be remembered that those who have been\\nhealthy and strong during school years may manifest\\nthe tendency of their inheritance, for good or bad,\\nduring the years spent at college, and the reasonable\\ncare of health is a duty resting on every student.\\nSome inherit a tendency to gout, asthma, recurrent\\nheadaches, dyspepsia, and consumption, all of which\\nare apt to develop after adolescence wilful disregard\\nof personal health while engaged in study is a reckless\\ndisregard of the future.\\nPerhaps advice as to the need of exercise is more\\nnecessary for women students than for men when the\\nconditions of living are unhygienic the power of resist-\\nance and capacity for recovering health is usually less\\nin women than in men. (See Chapter XIII. The\\nStudy of Children. It is not enough to sit out of\\ndoors with a book active exercise should be taken in\\nlawn tennis, walking, cycling, or on horseback.\\nThere can be no doubt as to the advantages that\\nhave resulted from providing higher educational ad-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "138\\nTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nvantages for women their successes at college and the\\nuniversities seem to be established. There are, how-\\never, other aspects of the case, which, although they\\nmay concern a minority, are still very important to in-\\ndividuals. If a student s life is desirable for some\\nwomen, there are others who not only fail to derive\\nbenefit therefrom, but receive harm from the necessary\\nstrains incurred there is apparently more difficulty in\\nrecovering from injured health among women than\\nmen. The following health statistics of women at\\ncollege were collected by Mrs. Henry Sidgwick 2\\nAt ages 3\\n-8 years.\\nAt ages 8-\\n14 years.\\nAt ages 14-18 years.\\nAmerican.\\nEnglish.\\nAmerican.\\nEnglish.\\nAmerican.\\nEnglish.\\nPer cent in excellent\\nor good health\\nPer cent in fair health\\nPer cent in poor or\\nindifferent health\\n76.74\\nI.84\\n21.42\\n71-45\\n16.98\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a257\\n73-33\\n2.98\\n23.69\\n67.09\\n22.78\\nIO.13\\n61.97\\n27.14\\nIO.89\\nIOO.OO\\n100.00\\n100.00\\nIOO.OO\\nIOO.OO\\nAnaemia with neurosis, the outcome of neglect of\\nhealth-care, is apt to become confirmed as a form of ner-\\nvous dyspepsia such as has incapacitated many women,\\notherwise intellectually fitted, for a useful business or\\nprofessional life.\\n1 Health Statistics of Women Students of Cambridge and Oxford,\\n1890. University Press, England. Also quoted in Report of Commis-\\nsioner of Education, Washington, 1 891-1892, Vol. II.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "BREAKDOWN AT COLLEGE\\nAverage Age at entering College Life\\n139\\nAmerican 18.35 years.\\nEnglish 21.9 years.\\nAmerican.\\nEnglish.\\nPer cent in excellent or good health\\nPer cent in fair health\\n78.16\\nI.98\\n19.86\\n68.20\\n22.08\\nPer cent in poor or indifferent health\\n9.72\\nIOO.OO\\n100.00\\nI cannot draw any definite conclusions from these\\nstatistics the proportion of English students returned\\nas of fair or indifferent health is much higher than\\naccording to my own observations of one hundred\\nthousand children seen in English schools, mostly of\\nthe poorer social class. 1\\nBreakdown of the brain power and mental disabil-\\nties in college life and during the early years of the\\nbusiness life of young men, and of women in their\\ndomestic cares or occupations, not uncommonly result\\nfrom want of previous training to bear hard work and\\nmental strains. It therefore appears useful in the\\nstudy of education to trace the physical causes of\\nmental abilities and disabilities, which should be fol-\\nlowed out in all their details as a basis of mental\\nhygiene.\\n1 See Report on the Scientific Study of the Mental and Physical Con-\\nditions of Childhood, based on one hundred thousand children observed\\nindividually in schools, by the author. The Macmillan Company.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII\\nThe Training and Teaching of Young Children\\nI draw some distinction between training and teach-\\ning, using these terms for methods, not totally distinct\\nand separate, but rather separated as having different\\nobjects in view. Training is intended to get the brain\\nready or prepared to benefit by the methods of instruc-\\ntion and learning. The child must be trained to speak\\nbefore there is much value in what he says; he should\\nbe trained to see colours before you teach the colours\\nof flowers, and the natural history of their varieties.\\nThe child should be familiar with numbers before em-\\nploying symbols to represent them in arithmetic. You\\nshould train the child to move his eyes up and down\\nregularly, as in looking at points or lines on the black-\\nboard, before expecting him to add a column of figures,\\nor set down a sum on the slate. It is necessary the\\nchild should understand that looking up the map is\\ntowards the north, and turning his eyes to the right\\nof the map is looking east.\\nOne difference between training and teaching is that\\nin many ways the child may be trained by impressions\\nreceived without the use of words, and before these are\\nunderstood. Training the brain may precede teaching\\n140", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "EARLY VOCABULARY 141\\nwith the young child the nerve system may be brought\\nunder some control before any attempt is made to im-\\nplant definite knowledge.\\nIt is doubtful whether some of the words early ac-\\nquired correspond in the child s mind with any fixed\\nideas or thoughts for instance, he may say as words\\nthing, gas, time, wood, soft, ten, good, as words without\\nmeaning. Names may, however, be associated early\\nwith things seen, and a little later with actions. Thus,\\nmother, dinner, sugar, bath, as terms, represent some-\\nthing to the child so do going to bed, walking, sit-\\nting still, etc.\\nIn training we produce many sensory impressions,\\nand subsequently connect them with names.\\nThe child is shown a book and made to look at it;\\nthen you teach the word book as he looks at you,\\nafterwards making him say the name as he looks at the\\nvolume. He sees the object, learns the name, then the\\nsight and the sound become associated in his head thus\\nyou proceed stage by stage in early training so as to be\\nsure that each impression wanted is formed in his brain.\\nHe will subsequently see many books differing in size\\nand in the colour of the covers, but he can connect the\\ncommon name book with each of them. Through-\\nout your training spontaneity of action should be en-\\ncouraged, while cultivating action through the senses\\nand by muscle sense, so as to bring his brain under\\ncontrol.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "142 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nTraining in any physical action produces temporary\\ncontrol of the nerve centres, and exercises the healthy\\nbrain in the quick formation of impressions through\\nthe senses much may be done early in brain training\\nby exercises in following a moving object with the eyes,\\nand in imitating movements made with the hands and the\\nfingers. In such exercises, if repeated at intervals, the\\nbrain centres that have been thus frequently caused to\\nact in harmony become connected by new nerve paths\\nevery fresh nerve path formed adds to the development\\nof brain power. When the child rests, those nerve cells\\nthat were caused to act in unison may again act sepa-\\nrately and spontaneously; still they remain more con-\\ntrollable either for repetition of the former exercise or\\nfor further action while under training the brain cen-\\ntres grow more apt for mental expression and accurate\\ncontrol through the senses. In the primeval forest it\\nis impossible to move freely from place to place but\\nas paths are cleared it becomes more and more possible\\nto move between different points, and as these paths\\nare worn smooth by use it becomes easy to travel in\\nany direction they may take.\\nThe inborn faculty of imitation is the physiological\\ncharacter of the brain of which you will first take ad-\\nvantage in training.\\nI do not think that imitation of your movements\\ntends to raise any particular thought in the young\\nchild this has advantages. Training can begin before", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "COORDINATED HAND EXERCISES 1 43\\nthoughts occur or are implanted some children think\\ntoo much and yet need training. These exercises train\\ncoordinated brain action and cultivate capacity for con-\\nnected thinking, but they do not appear to stimulate\\nthoughts. 1\\nHand exercises are useful means of training the\\nchild s brain, causing his nerve centres to act in the\\nsame manner as those of his teacher; good modes of\\naction, accurate and orderly (coordinated), may thus be\\ncultivated. Let the pupil stand in front of you try to\\nget him to look at your hand as you hold it out, and\\nthen accurately respond to each movement your fin-\\ngers make. Your movements should be slow and care-\\nfully made, so that they may be distinctly seen by the\\nchild and exactly repeated, corresponding in action\\nboth as to the fingers moved and as to the direction\\nand quickness of each act performed. Careful observa-\\ntion and attention is required here, just as in learning\\nanything else; this teaching should be precise and\\naccurate, not merely a suggestion of action. The\\npupil must not look at your face, but watch your hand\\nand fingers do not talk, then, but train him to respond\\nto your movements through using his eyes only, and\\nget what you want done in silence if you talk he will\\nlook at your face. If you cannot get the child to fix\\nhis eyes on your hand as he stands in front of you, pro-\\nvide a looking-glass in which the pupil can see your\\n1 Reference 54, on training children mentally feeble.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "144 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nright hand while you stand on his left side, so that your\\nface is not reflected in the mirror. Begin by holding\\nout a straight balanced hand with the fingers sepa-\\nrated; see that each finger is straight and the thumb\\nnot drooped. This will require practice, for it corre-\\nsponds to an attitude of attention. The pupil should\\nthen produce this posture exactly and move his fingers\\nas you do, dropping his hand when you drop yours.\\nNow for some more advanced exercises I will name the\\ndigits thus A, the thumb B, the index finger C, the\\nmiddle finger D, the ring finger E, the little finger.\\nMake the following movements with your hand, sep-\\narately, slowly one after another, at equal intervals of\\ntime, so that the pupil can see them individually and\\nreproduce each movement himself, bending or moving\\neach finger respectively to the same degree as yours\\nExercise I. A, bend thumb; A and B; A, B, and\\nC; B, C, D, E.\\nExercise II. Bend A, B, C, D, E, together; A, E;\\nE only.\\nExercise III. B, index finger, moved from side to\\nside without bending it up or down.\\nExercise IV. A, bend thumb B, moved from side to\\nside C, bend and straighten E, lit-\\ntle finger, moved from side to side.\\nThese exercises can be enlarged upon and varied to\\nany extent. It is well after each exercise to let the", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "EXERCISES FOR HANDS AND EYES 1 45\\narm drop and the nerve centres rest before commenc-\\ning another exercise bring the hand up to the straight\\nbalance. 1\\nMovements and the corresponding nerve centres are\\nthus temporarily coordinated by sight only; sight of\\nyour hand controls the brain action, and this is indi-\\ncated by action in the child s hand. This kind of\\ntraining will be useful in preparing the pupil to learn\\nnumbers, after the numerals have been acquired as\\nwords. After practice in such coordinated movements\\nthe series may be made more complex and both hands\\nemployed, either together or alternately, or with the\\nfeet and legs. Exercises several times repeated be-\\ncome retained in the brain or learned, so that they are\\nrepeated without any further guidance from the teacher\\nand simply on the direction to make such an exercise\\nas you name; this is much like learning a scale in\\nmusic. This established mode of (compound) brain\\naction indicates the formation of nerve paths connect-\\ning the nerve centres whose action you coordinated\\nthrough sight.\\nI have several times referred to the importance of eye-\\nmovements (see Chapters III., p. 58 IX., pp. 180, 185);\\nthey need to be cultivated in brain training that their\\nnerve centres may become controllable both by sight\\nand by sound. Make the child move his eyes by fixing\\nhis sight on a small object held in your hand or fastened\\n1 Reference 37. Evidence as to physical training.\\nL", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "146 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nat the end of a pointer let him follow it with his eyes\\nwithout moving his head. Children move their eyes\\nreadily in following the light reflected from a hand\\nmirror as it passes over the walls and the ceiling. In\\nball play, the eyes move in following the object;\\ncricket cultivates rapid eye-movements, and practice\\nmakes an apt cricketer. Remember also what was said\\nas to the advantages of cultivating distant vision. (See\\nChapter III., p. 66.)\\nMovements of both the hands and the eyes, after\\nthey have been acquired as described, may be con-\\ntrolled through the ear. The child will point or turn\\nhis eyes as told, to the right or to the left, up or down,\\nbut before this you must use words and teaching\\nthrough the ear. Hand and eye movements, when\\nwell under control, are useful for producing the brain\\nimpressions needed in teaching such varied subjects\\nas numbers and arithmetic, estimation of dimensions,\\narea and volume, height and distance, as well as geog-\\nraphy. (See Chapters I., p. 9; IX., p. 180.) If the\\npupil s eyes move from one object to another, he re-\\nceives impressions from his eye-movements (muscle\\nsense) as well as by sight, or if his hand points to them\\nin succession his muscles impress each movement.\\nWhen teaching the child to copy a drawing, say of a\\nhouse, you control his finger movements by sight; he\\nmust look at the length of the line representing the\\nheight of the house before he draws it, and move his", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "EARLY TRAINING USED IN TEACHING\\n147\\neyes up and down in making the line with his pencil.\\nSuch movements he may practise from you before\\nusing the pencil thus he learns to imitate your action,\\nthen copies the drawing. In such instruction you will\\naim at getting some control over the child s brain,\\nneither checking all his spontaneous movements nor\\nexpecting accuracy at first. When the boy measures\\nthe top and the sides of a card at sight he does so\\nby movement of his eyes from one corner to the other,\\nand receives a different degree of impression in each\\ncase by muscle sense. Vertical, horizontal, and\\nsloping are terms or words (sounds) that we con-\\nnect with direction, and must be coupled in the child s\\nbrain with impressions of eye-movements so also the\\npoints of the compass as seen on the map. Later on\\nwe shall see that much is learned by the degree or\\namount of muscle movements as well as their number,\\nand that many impressions are thus received on the\\nbrain which are employed in teaching comparison and\\nproportion. To get the eye and hand movements well\\nunder your control, and the impressions thus received\\nby the brain retained in their order, does much to\\ncultivate mental aptitude and prepare the way for\\nfurther instruction. Such teaching does not require\\nmuch use of words; you will proceed stage by stage\\nin your work each acquirement prepares the brain\\nfor training under guidance in the future.\\nSuch training as I have described though it be", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "148 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\ncalled physical is adapted to produce brain impres-\\nsions very analogous to mental action, while the em-\\nployment of words is hardly necessary.\\nMuscle sense is an important source of brain impres-\\nsions that I must dwell upon particularly as the use-\\nfulness of this sense does not appear to have attracted\\nsufficient attention hitherto in educational methods.\\n(See Chapter II., p. 37.) The muscles produce all the\\nmovements you see every movement results from\\nthe action of a nerve-muscular apparatus, whether\\nit be gesture, speech, or writing. The nerve centre\\nstimulates the muscle to contract; the muscle then\\nsends up an impression to the brain; this stimulus\\nresults either from the muscle contracting and short-\\nening (producing movement), or from its tension and\\nbeing pulled upon (as by a weight in the hand). With\\nyour eyes shut you know when you move your hand,\\nyou can touch your eye or nose, you can count your\\nmovements, say in what direction your hand moves,\\nand whether quickly or slowly. Further, if you press\\na finger on the table, you know whether you are press-\\ning lightly or hard if weights are placed in your\\nhands you can tell which is the heavier. In the kind\\nof exercises described you do much to train the brain\\nthrough the employment of muscle sense in move-\\nment you may exercise muscle sense in tension by\\nuse of weights placed in the hands. In this mode of\\nphysical training you will have the means of acting", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "EXERCISE OF MUSCLE SENSE 1 49\\non the child s brain, whether he has mental faculty or\\nnot the power to deal with him and produce impres-\\nsions is in your hands, you can make him do some\\nthings and feel some impressions. This concerns your\\nwork with a very young child or a pupil lacking in\\nmental ability. 1 If you cannot at first teach him names,\\nreading, and writing, you have here a form of training\\nthat can be employed. If the child is very dull he\\nmay be unable at first to reproduce your movements\\nwith the same accuracy as another child still you\\ncan train his muscle sense, and as this improves, the\\nbrain centres become more fully organised by the\\npractice, while new nerve paths are formed among\\nthem, so that your patient, persistent, intelligent ef-\\nforts lead to good results, and the dull children may\\nbe greatly brightened.\\nThis training in movements may be called physi-\\ncal training, but as shown, it is adapted to produce\\nbrain impressions very analogous to mental action,\\nthough the employment of words is not necessary.\\nIt is, however, very fatiguing and cannot be long con-\\ntinued like drill on this ground, and for other reasons,\\nit seems to me that such physical brain training should\\nbe conducted by the class teacher in very short lessons,\\nsay of five minutes at most, while drilling is perhaps\\nleft to a special teacher devoted to the work. The\\nobject of the kind of brain training I urge is to give\\n1 Deficient children. See References 17, 20, 21, 22, and 44.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "150 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\ncapacity for future instruction the class teacher should\\nthen be familiar with this as well as the other sub-\\njects to be taught hereafter, and include all the train-\\ning that is wanted for the next stage of class teaching.\\nFurther, the conduct of training in imitation of action\\naccustoms the pupils to their teacher, and is likely to\\nlead to harmonious understanding of one another.\\nWhere the subjects of class instruction are reading,\\nwriting, arithmetic up to addition, with the use of\\nmaps, the pupils need previous brain training in look-\\ning at and seeing, in ringer movements, and in ap-\\npreciation of numbers, etc.\\nThe mistress of a school had learned something about\\nthe observation of nerve signs in children, and their\\nassociation with brain conditions causing mental dul-\\nness this she explained to the other teachers of the\\nstaff. The children in a very dull class were then\\nobserved, and it was found that nearly all showed some\\nsubnormal nerve signs (see Chapter III.); the pupils\\nin a bright class were also observed, and very few were\\nhere found with any defects in movement or in expres-\\nsion. The teachers determined to endeavour by their\\ntraining to improve the hand balance, finger action,\\nand eye-movements of the dull children. Their efforts\\nresulted in this three months later most of the dullards\\nhad been so much brightened in their general brain\\npower that they were removed to the upper class. 1\\n1 Reference 54.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "GYMNASTIC EXERCISES 151\\nPreparatory training does not necessarily produce\\nimmediate results in mental power; it has, however,\\nbeen shown by experience that the well-trained child\\nacquires knowledge more easily and accurately after\\na period of preliminary training.\\nDr. Hartwell speaks of exercises of the coarse\\nadjustments of the body, in contrast with quickness\\nand accuracy of eye and hand movements; it is on\\nthe latter I have mainly dwelt as a means of training\\nintellectual capacity. Dr. Hartwell says In gen-\\neral, we may say, that the Grecian gymnastics and\\nathletics, and the martial exercises of the ancient\\nand mediaeval Gauls and Teutons, were of a char-\\nacter to affect chiefly the fundamental or earliest de-\\nveloped neuro-muscular mechanisms which constitute\\nthe coarse adjustment of the body. The more mas-\\nsive bodily virtues of strength, endurance, and speed\\nare promoted by popular sports whereas dexterity,\\naddress, sleight-of-hand, quickness and accuracy of eye\\nand hand, require more specialised and complicated\\nforms of exercise for their development. In other\\nwords, British sports are insufficient for the purpose\\nof giving a complete training to the fundamental and\\naccessory groups of muscles, and require to be sup-\\nplemented by such drill as is afforded by the sys-\\ntematic gymnastics of the Swedes and Germans. For\\npurely educational ends no system of physical training\\n1 Dr. Hartwell, op. cit. y 1892.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "152 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nhas yet been devised which is equal to the Swedish\\nschool gymnastics. American physical training will\\nremain a thing of shreds and patches, unless the pro-\\nmoters and governors of our educational institutions\\nshall set themselves to learn and to apply the teach-\\ning of science and experience with regard to the\\nnature, scope, and results of physical education.\\nTo what are here described as British sports and\\nSwedish gymnastics, which exercise the body and the\\nmuscles, I have added and here present for your use\\nexercises in movements and through the senses which\\nafford brain training adapted to evolve the child s\\nmental powers and healthiness.\\nIt is necessary to train the brain centres for the\\npurpose of rendering them apt for mental processes.\\nAccurate impressions are essential; these must be\\noften repeated, in order that they may be exactly re-\\ntained in the brain this is true both for a set of\\nmovements and in learning to pronounce words. The\\nexactness of the impressions made on the brain is a\\nphysiological matter; it is much under the control of\\nthe teacher, whose method is to produce impressions\\none at a time, by sight, then through the ear, and\\nothers by feeling (muscle sense). The understanding\\nof the impressions received is something occurring in\\nthe pupil s brain it is an interaction among the nerve\\ncentres which we should not attempt to produce till\\nwe know by response in the child or other reason-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "IMPRESSIONS WITHOUT UNDERSTANDING 153\\nable evidence that the primary impressions have\\nbeen received and retained.\\nNeither movements in physical training, nor the\\nwords the child is taught to pronounce, have a mean-\\ning connected with them in his mind at first. Exact-\\nness and retentiveness of impressions by sight, sound,\\nand feeling must be produced first, then these may\\nbe coupled in repetition thus in brain action the\\nnerve centres become connected by the formation\\nof nerve paths among them; understanding comes\\nlater, and probably corresponds to some gently spread-\\ning area of the brain in action, so that this should not\\nbe attempted till the primary impressions themselves\\nare retained and accurate. (See Chapter VIII., p. 164.)\\nRed, white, blue, may be produced as primary sight\\nimpressions red, white, blue, may then be\\npronounced as words in repetition each colour and\\nname may be coupled by association, a sight impres-\\nsion with each term. At another lesson each sight\\nimpression may be coupled with the term colour,\\nred colour, white colour, blue colour. Then\\ncolour seen may be abstracted from the teaching,\\nand applied to the discrimination and description of\\ncoloured objects, red, white, and blue flowers. This\\nis why I prefer teaching colour with pieces of paper,\\netc., not coloured objects of special form, so that the\\ncolour seen may form the impression alone, and on\\nother occasions may be abstracted from among many", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "154 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nimpressions received by sight. Children are often\\nconfused in expressing their early impressions, they\\nwill name sounds as light or dark, or objects as large\\nor heavy, indiscriminately; the pupil cannot classify\\nhis sensory impressions till he has received and re-\\ntained many results of his training, coupled with\\nnames for expression.\\nDiscrimination and choice indicate interaction among\\nthe nerve centres of the child s brain, and form an\\nelementary mode of mental action worth training. A\\nvery young child without the use of words may make\\nchoice between objects and colours seen, or respond\\nmore readily to certain sounds. He may select from\\nobjects before him a bright sovereign in preference to\\na dull farthing, even if after taking it up he only puts\\nit in his mouth. Such discrimination and choice is\\na very rudimentary preparation for making compari-\\nsons, and precedes the faculty for judging of similarity\\nor difference among sensory impressions. The dis-\\ncrimination and retention of sensory impressions under\\nguidance lead to experience which forms an intelli-\\ngent basis of choice when two objects are seen, two\\nsight impressions are produced in the brain, and the\\nstronger is expressed in action. Training in making\\na choice is an early method of cultivating the child s\\ncharacter in ability to make up his mind at once. A\\nyoung child when asked, Shall I read to you just\\nsays yes or no, or cannot decide. In an older", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "TEACHING COMPARISON 1 55\\nchild experience helps him to decide former impres-\\nsions arise in connection with reading it means keep-\\ning quiet and not going out to play. Training in\\nmaking a choice is an aid to cultivating voluntary\\npower, after some experience has been acquired under\\nguidance. (See Chapter X., p. 205.)\\nIn brain training a fixed set of impressions united\\nto act in a certain order is often required each should\\nbe accurate, and the whole series well retained, ready\\nfor reactivity. This may be cultivated in repeated\\nphysical exercises, or by words first taught separately,\\nthen repeated in a certain order. Thus, the letters of\\nthe alphabet separately, then in their order or, more\\nusefully, the elementary sounds may be taught. The\\nuse of numerals is so necessary in teaching that I think\\nthey should be taught early as an order of words\\namong older children verses may be learned.\\nA fixed set of impressions in the brain of the child\\nis needed when you try to cultivate the faculty of\\ncomparison, and the expression of addition or pro-\\nportion. In training the child, a mental standard of\\nweight may be established by placing one ounce, two,\\nthree, and so on up to ten ounces in his hand in succes-\\nsion, thus producing proportional strains on the muscles,\\nas described in Chapter II., and impressions of\\ncorresponding degree in his brain will be retained\\nafter practice. (See Chapter X., p. 199, on Volun-\\ntary Power.) The feeling of each weight may then be", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "156 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nassociated with the numerals thus he learns to appre-\\nciate and express an ounce, two ounces, etc. The pupil\\nlearns weights as he learns other things, by impression\\nthrough the senses he learns colour by sight, num-\\nbers by movement of his hands and eyes, weight and\\nproportional weights by the sense of the muscle strain.\\nIn such a lesson it is useful to teach that you are\\nweighing by and by, after experience, the abstract\\nidea of weight and pressure will be understood by\\nthe child. Weight, as apart from dimensions, is im-\\npressed by using iron weights in which size and\\nweight are directly proportional, in contrast with\\nempty or weighted pill boxes. I think weighing in\\nthe hands gives better early training than the use of\\nscales.\\nMeasurement of length can be taught by movements\\nof the head and the eyes. Give the child sticks one\\ninch, two, five inches long make him look at each in\\nturn from end to end, then feel the length with his\\nfingers each length may afterwards be expressed by a\\nnumber. Such training by employing muscle sense is\\nuseful in teaching dimensions, area, volume, and pro-\\nportion sensory impressions are here produced by\\nmuscular movements, not by muscle strain (see Chap-\\nter II., p. 37); this is less easy to control, hence I think\\nthe use of weights the best means for early training\\nin comparison.\\nIn training the brain you thus proceed to teach the", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "TRAINING STAGE BY STAGE 1 57\\nnames of the numerals, and repeat them in order\\nthen establish a mental standard of weight, and a\\nstandard of measurement, employing the numerals for\\nexpression. All this helps to produce fixed and accu-\\nrate impressions on the brain, which will be employed\\nin their revived activity when teaching comparison and\\nproportion, as well as the use of symbols, which facili-\\ntate calculations as much as words aid connected think-\\ning and expression.\\nTraining must proceed stage by stage. The pupil\\ncan feel the greater strain of four ounces in his hand\\nafter the two ounce weight, and learn to express this\\nas the greater weight before he names the weights\\nit is but little good for him to name the weight before\\nhe has felt it. Again, the pupil can say which stick\\nlooks and feels longer, before he can estimate the\\nlength and express it, which needs more practice.\\nElementary training in mental processes a little more\\nadvanced may be used in comparison as to agree-\\nment or difference, in any such lesson impressions\\npreviously made in the brain are compared under guid-\\nance. The teacher should carefully consider some\\none point for comparison, it may be weight, length,\\nsize, or colour. Each of these characters should have\\nbeen taught previously by many examples where the\\nsensory impression has been associated in the teach-\\ning with terms of description; it is thus our business\\nto trace out and study the impressions produced in", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "158 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\ngood training, and not to be satisfied with a con-\\nnected train of ideas in our own minds which are to\\nbe implanted in the child s brain by the use of words\\nonly.\\nThus objects such as flowers may be compared as\\nto colour; this must follow teaching of the colours\\nand their names; it is also necessary that the child\\nshould know that the term colour includes red, white,\\nand blue. From among many coloured flowers the\\npupil is guided to select those of the same colour.\\nWeights felt are alike or unlike the sticks felt and\\nseen are of the same length or different; the feeling\\nof two series of movements made with the hand are\\nalike, or one series is greater and more frequent than\\nthe other.\\nA further stage is to discriminate size from weight,\\nas by the use of weighted pill boxes to aid abstraction\\nand appreciation of the characters compared, lessons in\\nnumber, weight, length, and colour should at first be\\nshort say ten minutes. This kind of training by\\nsensory impressions is necessary before we have any\\nright to expect the pupil to understand the teaching\\nof equal quantities, addition, proportion as taught by\\nthe use of figures, or description of form and shape.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII\\nAdvancing School Method and Teaching\\nThe child on entering school is placed under a new-\\nset of circumstances adapted both for teaching and\\ntraining. One very important element in school life is\\nthat children tend to imitate one another and do as\\nothers do, each boy looks at the others as well as at\\nhis teacher, for children are mostly gregarious and\\nsocial in their habits. The children show spontaneity\\nyou want to cultivate attention and mental aptitude\\nfor instruction; if the child be already trained to sit\\ntolerably still, while his movements of hands and eyes\\nare controllable, you proceed to produce new brain\\nimpressions and couple them with names, accompanied\\nby your directions which guide him. Show a piece of\\nred paper, make him look at it, and then look at you\\nas you pronounce the word red while he repeats\\nthe word in imitation. He gains a new impression, that\\nof the word, then sight of the paper and sound of\\nthe word are coupled in his brain by seeing and\\nhearing at the same time.\\nMake him hold out his hand and move the fingers\\nA, B, C, D, E, one at a time in succession, and again\\nall together then, dropping his hand, look at you while\\nJ 59", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "160 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nyou say and he pronounces the word five. 1 Make\\nhim turn his eyes to five similar objects at equal dis-\\ntances apart, then look at you and say five thus in\\neach case you make five impressions by muscle sense\\nand teach the numeral. Put an ounce weight in his\\nhand, add others up to five ounces, and make him say\\nfive he feels by his muscles the strain added by\\neach weight, and feels the five heavier than the one.\\nThe impressions made have to be associated with\\nterms of expression such as describe what is seen,\\nfelt, or heard the names of things and of actions as\\nwell as of mental processes must be learnt; for in-\\nstance, book, colour, weight, addition, etc.,\\nand these must be clearly and separately appreciated\\nby the pupil.\\nYou may find it best with most children to let them\\nget a number of different kinds of impressions at the\\nsame time, as when the child sees, feels, handles an\\nobject while you name it; he will then at some sub-\\nsequent period have to separate and classify these differ-\\nent impressions when learning to make comparisons.\\nYou may think it convenient first to demonstrate\\nwhat you have to show without full explanation, and\\ndescribe it afterwards fully. Sometimes, as with\\nadvanced pupils, you may prefer to describe what\\nyou have to teach, and the general principles to be\\nillustrated, and demonstrate your facts or experiments\\n1 See Notation of Finger Exercises, p. 105.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "DEMONSTRATION AND TEACHING l6l\\nafterwards. 1 I have found this the better plan for\\ngaining the attention of a class in chemistry.\\nWith a difficult child, however, I have found it\\nnecessary to produce impressions one at a time, or\\nsingly, as explained in Chapter VII., p. 153.\\nYou cannot teach much about length till the pupil\\ncan use numbers you cannot usefully teach him to\\nmeasure lengths in inches till he knows the inch as\\na standard of measurement. I think you will find\\nhe can compare lengths before he can express them\\nin words, and that is a true mental act. Take a plain\\ncard 1x2 and pin it to the blackboard to be looked\\nat as you point direct the pupil to look along the top,\\nsee that his eyes move, then let him look away and\\nagain receive a fresh impression of the side of the\\ncard looking from the top corner downward. The\\nchild will soon appreciate the different amount or\\ndegree of his impressions in the two eye-movements;\\nlater on, when he has acquired a standard of meas-\\nurement, he will be able to make comparison and ex-\\npress the ratio. Thus the child becomes ready to learn\\nhow to describe the form of the card by its proportion,\\nand to recognise its shape as oblong.\\nThis kind of analysis as to the brain action in a pupil\\nshows us that in early training sensory impressions\\nmust precede teaching thus\\n1 See Catalogue of Examples in Natural History, Mental Faculty,\\npp. 166-212.\\nM", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "1 62 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\n1. Names of the numerals in their fixed order, as\\nheard (auditory impressions).\\n2. Numbers in their order of degree as felt in move-\\nments, and numbers of weights (felt by muscle sense).\\n3. Standard of measurements, associated with terms\\nfor expression.\\n4. Standard of weights and the terms of expres-\\nsion.\\n5. He must be taught by practice to associate men-\\ntally the terms describing measurement and weight\\nwith the impressions he has previously felt and re-\\ntained; as one inch, two ounces, four ounces, the\\nlatter being greater.\\n6. The pupil must also be taught the terms of direc-\\ntion as used in teaching connected with the mental\\nprocesses required of him. He must understand what\\nis meant by counting, adding, comparing.\\nIn a simple act of comparison of the length of two\\nlines at sight, the brain processes appear to be as\\nfollows\\n1. Acts of observation, turning the eyes and seeing,\\nproduce sensory impressions by sight and by muscle\\nsense.\\n2. Under your direction to compare the measure-\\nments there arise in the pupil s brain (a) the standard\\nof measure, and (b) the numerals as to means of ex-\\npression.\\n3. A judgment is formed and expressed; this is a", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "IMPRESSIONS AND COORDINATED TEACHING 163\\nmental act; it differs from the impressions received,\\nand is due to interaction among brain centres.\\n4. We see plainly, then, that the direction given\\nis necessary to the formation of this act of judg-\\nment.\\nIt is our business to trace out and study the impres-\\nsions produced in good coordinated teaching.\\nImpressions on the brain can be made without the\\nuse of words but the words employed in giving direc-\\ntions must be carefully taught. With weights in either\\nhand the child does feel the strain of each the degree\\nof each impression is not the same. He can be taught\\nto express comparison in terms of greater, less\\nso with comparison and expression of lengths. Here\\nhe compares real impressions received, and so learns\\nto understand comparison of quantity when using fig-\\nures in arithmetic. Length felt by finger movement\\nproduces an impression on the brain such lengths\\nmay be equal, or one may be longer. It is often very\\ninteresting to study the methods of teaching a very\\ndull pupil. A child mentally deficient or backward is\\noften so slow in all mental processes that it is easier\\nto follow these in detail than in a brighter and quicker\\nchild the methods of his intelligence may be almost\\ninfantile, and like those of a child only just learning\\nto speak but if the dull boy has speech we may follow\\nout the slow working of his mind more readily than in\\nthe little child. I took a boy, mentally defective, who", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "1 64 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nhad been trained as I have explained, and showed him\\na horseshoe he looked at it well. Without speaking I\\nguided his finger, moving it slowly and uniformly from\\nend to end outside the curve, then let his arm hang\\nlimp by his side. Again, I guided his finger from end\\nto end inside, and then let his arm hang down. When\\nasked, What can you say he replied, It is rough.\\nWhat else? He said nothing. Desiring to abstract\\nin his brain the feeling of the surface from the length\\nof movement, I said, Do as I do, moving my finger\\nin the air slowly, as when following the convexity of\\nthe horseshoe, and again, after an instant, moved as\\nwhen tracing the inside of the shoe. What can you\\nsay? He replied, Round. What length? A\\nsmile spread in his face, and he replied, Longer out-\\nside than in it is bent. Asked, If I straighten it\\nout as a straight bar, how long will it be top and bot-\\ntom at the same time moving my finger as if along\\nthe top and bottom of a bar. He replied, Same top\\nand bottom but the pause during thought was long,\\nand his features worked the while.\\nThe appreciation of time needs to be taught by im-\\npressions received. The same boy had just learnt to\\nread the time from the clock he knew the sight and\\nnames of the figures on the clock face, and could tell\\nthe time exactly. He knew that there are twenty-four\\nhours in the day, and sixty minutes in an hour. He\\ncould not tell me how long lessons lasted in the morn-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "APPRECIATING TIME 1 65\\ning, but said, Ten to twelve; after being directed\\nto count, he said, Two hours.\\nAsked, How long are you at dinner he said, I\\ndon t know. Wishing to produce some impressions of\\ntime in action, I made him move his head, then his hand,\\nin following my movements, first slowly but uniformly,\\nthen more rapidly expression was then easily elicited,\\nThat is quick movement. After such exercises in\\nappreciating time he told me that he was in school two\\nhours in the morning, and after a pause added, and half\\nan hour at dinner, showing that he understood what was\\nasked for. I think that boy could be taught impressions\\nof time as Well as the clock, and suggested to make him\\nrun half a minute, one minute, then ten minutes, etc.\\nThe child of school age should know all the objects\\nin the room and be able to name them it is also\\nnecessary as school work becomes a more serious mat-\\nter that definite ideas should be conveyed by what is\\nsaid, as well as lines of conduct, such as kindness,\\nobedience, justice, punctuality, as abstract terms under-\\nstood and associated with modes of action.\\nAt seven years of age a trained child should already\\nbe possessed of a vocabulary available for expressing\\nthought and mental action, and for giving descriptions\\nand replies to questions. The acquisition of words is\\nfurther necessary that he may become amenable to\\nguidance and the words of direction and teaching em-\\nployed. Language is one of the greatest possessions", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "1 66 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nof man; training the child in the proper use of words\\neffects much by imparting thoughts to the mind.\\nI think ideas of causation may be taught early. In\\ntraining observation, the pupil must be practised in\\nnoting the order of events in time; you can teach\\nwhat happens and what follows without giving expla-\\nnations. The sunlight comes upon the garden in the\\nmorning, then the flowers open; the light reaches the\\nplant near the window, next day the stem is bent\\ntowards the light the bee visits the flower, then gets\\nthe honey. These events can be shown or taught\\nwithout explanations, which cannot be understood by\\nyoung children but they should not be taught in\\nschool that the flowers open to meet the sun, that\\nthe plant bends towards the light because it needs it,\\nor that the bee knows he can get honey from the\\nflower. Sunlight reaches the flowers before they\\nopen unequal growth in the two sides of the stem,\\nresulting from the action of light, is the mechanism\\nwhich produces the bending; while it has been shown\\nthat the colour of the flowers controls the flight of the\\nbee. 1\\nIt is important in teaching to train the pupils to\\nseparate their observations or brain impressions, as we\\nknow this process is necessary to classification and\\ncomparison. If a number of objects are seen and\\n1 For examples, see Anatomy of Movement, pp. 78 to 84. The\\nMacmillan Company.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "COMPARISON OF MEASUREMENTS 1 67\\nfelt they may be classed as to weight, measurement,\\ndimensions, and proportion, or as to colour, etc. Length\\nand breadth as two measurements may be compared;\\nbut size and weight have no common unit for com-\\nparison. For this reason in early training only one\\nclass of sensory impressions should be produced at a\\ntime as far as possible. At first the pupil must be\\nguided as to what to compare the points for compari-\\nson should be arranged in classes and their proportion\\nstudied. In other words, the child must know what\\nto look at and be guided as to what to look for; he\\nis taught to look at the two ends of the bean and\\nmeasure their distance apart, then to look at the sides\\nand to measure the breadth, then to make comparison\\nof his impressions of length and breadth, which are\\nsensory impressions by feeling, but not each of the\\nsame degree the length is greater.\\nThroughout your teaching some amount of sponta-\\nneous brain activity, both in movement of the body and\\nin thought, should be encouraged and cultivated, as\\nwell as controlled. The teaching should be stage by\\nstage. First for the purpose of producing impressions\\non the brain, then to connect and guide action result-\\ning, it is useful to allow some question time for the\\npupils spontaneous inquiries. Words must be used in\\nteaching, and as far as possible they should be associ-\\nated with definite impressions and thoughts. Geog-\\nraphy is associated with the earth and the conditions", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "1 68 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nof its surface all the world over not only with maps\\nand towns. I have spoken before of teaching from\\nmaps models are also most useful. After teaching the\\nclass from the map that London is five hundred miles\\nfrom Aberdeen, a pupil may ask, How far is five hun-\\ndred miles Remind him how long it took, and how\\nhe felt, after walking to a place five miles away then\\nr\\ntell him to think of walking five hundred miles. Thus\\nthoughts are separated from the sensory impressions\\nthat primarily produce them, and being still retained,\\ncan be employed and directed by the use of words;\\ndistance can be appreciated by employing a fixed stan-\\ndard of distance, and the comparison of numbers.\\nIn the study of history and geography it is neces-\\nsary, from time to time, to extend the field of thought\\nand the number of known facts under consideration, so\\nthat general views may be formed of historical periods,\\nor of the physical and climatic conditions of a country\\nas well as in studying the causes of events through\\nperiods of time. On the other hand, it is often desira-\\nble to make a detailed study of a short historical\\nperiod with a few historical characters or of some\\none mountain range or river valley; or some other\\nselected subject for detailed study. In preparation\\nfor such mental processes the brain must have many\\nimpressions stored up and connected with terms of\\nexpression, all retained and ready for reactivity and\\nrearrangement under the guidance of teaching, as re-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "ENLARGING THE FIELD OF THOUGHT 169\\nlations among them are successively pointed out. The\\nmind should be well stored with observations and facts,\\nwhich can be studied in many ways.\\nTraining for this kind of mental aptitude in enlarg-\\ning and limiting the field of thought may be practised\\nwhen teaching the observation of objects which pro-\\nduce sensory impressions under your guidance and\\ncontrol. When making the child select one object\\nfrom among many you control his field of observation,\\nand limit his thoughts to that one specimen. It is\\nperhaps more difficult to extend his range of thought\\nsufficiently to include what is not within his sight. The\\ncapacity to think of many things at one time, or, on\\nthe other hand, to limit thought, is an important mental\\nhabit this is necessary for students of natural history,\\nwho must follow numerous examples when collecting\\nthe experience required for large conceptions or gener-\\nalisations. When you demonstrate a growing seedling\\nplant as an object in teaching, the pupil should at first\\nlimit his observation to what he sees; looking at the\\nroot, the stem, the leaves, and their parts then he may\\nmake comparisons among his observations. After this\\nthe pupil must be led to enlarge his subject of thought,\\nand include the water as a part of the food material of\\nthe plant, and the light which stimulates and controls\\nthe growth of the plant structure.\\nAgain, when you demonstrate that light causes\\nbending of the head of the plant, the pupil must for", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "170 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nthe time limit his attention to the stem and observe\\nits two sides, noting that the side towards the light\\nis concave and shorter. Thus he learns that light\\nlessens the growth of the stem on the side that is\\nilluminated. In this way the mechanism of growth,\\nthe food supply, the effects of light, all become grad-\\nually familiar to the mind of the pupil further, he is\\nthus trained in his brain action, and in mental habits\\nuseful in studying other subjects. 1\\nMemory or retentiveness of the directions, and the\\nmeans of guidance given in teaching, form methodi-\\ncal modes of procedure and principles of thought.\\nWe do not teach logic to children, but your teaching\\nshould be according to the principles of logic, con-\\nducted stage by stage. In the study of both science\\nand language the methodical order of procedure in\\nanalysis and classification needs to be firmly retained\\nin memory; either subject of study may afford such\\nbrain training as gives mental aptitude for the other.\\nParsing is a useful preparation for the systematic\\ndescription of natural objects some form of schedule\\nis useful in teaching natural history, and practice in\\nemploying it will prepare the pupil s faculties for the\\ngrammatical analysis of verbs, nouns, and adjectives.\\nModes of guidance, directions, the means of expres-\\nsion, as well as judgments previously formed and re-\\n1 Examples. See Mental Faculty, Catalogue of a Museum of Natural\\nHistory, pp. 163-212. The Macmillan Company.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "TRAINING THE BRAIN AND MIND 171\\ntained, may be revived, then rearranged, and thus lead\\nto the acquisition of fresh knowledge such modes of\\nmental action are called into play in teaching geom-\\netry.\\nThe methods of education should be coordinated;\\nthe modes of brain action employed in analysing\\nwords may be previously exercised in analysing ob-\\njects estimation of proportional weights felt in the\\nhands prepares the way for understanding proportion\\nas expressed by lines or figures the habit of observ-\\ning each part of an object and then comparing them\\nleads to observing proportion in growth, and clears the\\nway for understanding the effects of light, heat, and\\ngravitation as they respectively affect the growth of\\nplants.\\nThus, after early training in cultivation of the gen-\\neral characters of brain action described in Chapter\\nII., mental training in school may proceed to exercise\\nchoice and discrimination. The faculty of observation\\nand separation of qualities observed in objects, fol-\\nlowed by their analysis and classification, prepares the\\nway for the formation of generalisations which form\\nknowledge of wide application.\\nHabits of mental analysis may be trained by accu-\\nracy in methodical observation let the pupil begin\\nearly to look at one thing at a time, then at its\\nparts, and later at the relations of many things and\\nevents to one another. This will exercise some of", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "172\\nTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nthe modes of brain action that are employed in the\\nanalysis of languages I have found through an ex-\\nperience of many years, that students well educated\\nin languages are more easily trained than others as\\nobservers in science and in medicine.\\nA schedule may be used for the purpose of direct-\\ning the pupil when studying natural history.\\nSensory impressions.\\nObservation of the still\\nobject.\\nMental action.\\nMental comparison\\nof:\\nEnlarging field of\\nthought and obser-\\nvation of external\\nagents.\\nObserving and study-\\ning growth and action\\nin the living object.\\nin\\no\\no\\nu\\no\\nu\\no\\n1\\no\\nV\\no\\n73\\n!E\\na\\nO\\nJ?\\nO\\nS\\nS\\nV\\nu\\ntn\\na\\no\\nu\\nIE*\\no\\no\\nCO\\nin\\n.2\\nJ-l\\nu\\ns\\nu\\nEJ\\ncti\\n0)\\n2\\n.2\\no\\no\\nu\\n.2\\nJ-l\\n^3 t/i\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2r* rt\\n*l\\ne o\\ns\\n(1) M\\n3 C\\n\u00c2\u00ab5\\nC\\ns\\nV\\nl-l\\nc/i\\na\\n71.\\no,\\non\\nO\\nO\\nM\\nC/3\\no\\n75\\n1\\n6\\na,\\nS\\nu\\nH\\n73\\no\\nu\\nSt)\\na\\na\\n.2\\nH\\no\\na,\\no\\n5-1\\nPh\\n.2\\no\\n.s\\nc\\n.2\\no\\nPh\\nO\\nu\\nPw\\nd\\n.2\\n*h\\n3\\na5\\na.\\na;\\n73\\nu\\nci\\nOh\\nd\\nin\\n.5\\nC\\n.2\\no\\nto\\nC\\n.2\\no\\nOh\\nO\\n%H\\nOh\\no\\n73\\na\\no\\nU\\nThis schedule directs the pupil to observe in a\\nmethodical manner so that he may first receive sen-\\nsory impressions by sight and feeling in his observa-\\ntions. Next, processes of thought and the methodical\\ninteraction of the impressions received are guided,\\nleading to mental comparison. The field of thought\\nand observation is now extended, by the directions to\\ninclude the conditions around and the action of ex-\\nternal agents. Finally, the schedule directs observ-\\ning and studying living action under the effects of", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "NATURAL HISTORY 1 73\\nthe environment,- and exercises all the mental powers\\nof the pupil.\\nSpace will not allow me to enter into the details\\nof systematic teaching here. I present this plan of\\nschedule in illustration of modes of study that I have\\nfollowed, and which you may use in child-study. 1\\nA few examples will be given\\nSpecimen I. Peas are inanimate or still objects let\\nthe pupil select one, then measure it every way with\\nhis fingers and feel its weight. All measurements\\nare the same, it presents no separate parts.\\nSpecimen II. Take a French bean, there are two\\nends, two surfaces, and the margin it is longer than\\nbroad, and broader than thick, thus it is longer than\\nthick. It is heavier than a pea.\\nSpecimen III. A seedling pea sprouted in damp\\nmoss; it has grown and shows new parts. There is\\na seed case, and inside there are two cotyledons also\\nthe root and the stem. Measurement and compari-\\nson show the root longer than the stem, the cotyle-\\ndons have not grown; the stem is arched, the con-\\ncave side is shorter.\\n1 See author s Mental Faculty. The Macmillan Company.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX\\nThe Nerve Centres in Infancy, School Life, and\\nAdolescence; their Health and Training\\nThe nerve system of the child is growing rapidly\\nduring the early years. Much depends upon the care\\ntaken to nourish the brain and cultivate it during the\\nperiods of development, as they pass from stage to\\nstage, through infancy and childhood up to adolescence.\\nRemember always that the brain grows with the body,\\nthe well-being of the child depends on each, the body\\nand the brain react upon one another in promoting\\ngrowth and healthiness while the brain health may be\\ncultivated through the senses by controlling the influ-\\nences that act upon the child from without. The brain\\nis not only growing, it develops as a leaf bud develops\\nnew parts are forming, it receives many impressions\\nwhich effect results in building up its structure and\\norganisation. Whether at home, or in the school, or in\\nthe streets, traces of the brain activities effected\\nthrough the hours of each day are in part retained and\\nthe education received good or bad lays a founda-\\ntion for the future response of the brain under various\\ncircumstances.\\nIn healthy infancy spontaneity and frequent spread-\\n*74", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "SPONTANEITY AND PLAY 1 75\\ning movements, representing activity in the brain, are\\nto be encouraged by at times playing with the baby.\\nWatch the growth of the head and the soft fontanelle,\\nwhere you feel the brain pulsating with each beat of\\nthe heart if this fails then there is something wrong\\nwith the child s health, due to defective feeding, mis-\\nmanagement, or other cause, and the brain becomes less\\nactive in growth and movements. Brain healthiness is\\npromoted by encouraging its natural modes of activity,\\nand equally by such organised occupations of children\\nas cause a healthy interaction among the nerve centres.\\nWhen the child enters school there is a great change in\\nhis environment. It becomes necessary to train the\\nchild that he may learn, also to produce capacity for\\ncoordinated action, that under control impressions may\\nbe produced, retained, and repeated in due order.\\nSpeech and retentiveness must be cultivated. Allow\\nthe child ample time for spontaneous play. Children\\nare naturally sociable and like one another s society;\\nthey also like to be guided, if it is done wisely the\\nchild gets tired of being left too much alone.\\nDo not expect the child to do more either in the kind\\nor in the quantity of work than his present capacity\\nallows; you should therefore analyse the occupations\\nand the methods of teaching you propose to use, so as\\nto proceed stage by stage with your training and teach-\\ning. Take as an example School Shop, from an educa-\\ntional point of view do not expect the pupil to know", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "176 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nhow to buy with real money till he knows the coins and\\nunderstands that they have a real value. He should\\nlearn about money stage by stage for this purpose he\\nmust be trained to look at and name colours, to feel\\nand compare weights, to measure size with his fingers,\\nand to feel the margins and the surface of the coins as\\nwell as to look at them. He must learn to separate\\nwhat he sees from what he feels, and to distinguish\\nweight from size. It is not easy at first to make a\\nchild understand that a parcel containing a pound of\\ntea weighs as much as a pound weight of iron that he\\nfeels in his hand he gains the knowledge by experi-\\nence, perhaps verbal explanations do not help him\\ngreatly. Much previous training in the general charac-\\nters of brain action is needed here -to prepare the child\\nfor mental processes acting regularly, without disorder\\nor extra work other than that called for by the guidance\\nof your directions if previous brain training has been\\nneglected, mental confusion (not understanding) is likely\\nsoon to weary his brain.\\nWe all want our mental processes to be accurate, and\\nthe methods of teaching should be exact, but not too\\nmechanical. Let there be a plan of procedure but while\\ntraining the brain through sensory impressions, whether\\nfor movements, the use of words, or in comparing and\\nthinking, let there be some opportunity the while for\\nspontaneous action and thought. A little extra move-\\nment, or a few extra thoughts not quite under guidance,", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "MENTAL APTITUDE iyy\\nmay do no harm, but lead to a better understanding\\nthey need not always be suppressed; they are like\\nthe spreading area of facial expression of intelligence,\\ngentle and undefmable, that may be seen when a\\nquestion is asked and understood, pleasing to look at,\\nand it may be more indicative of attention and ap-\\npreciation than any response in words. Thus, while\\ntraining the brain by sensory impressions for modes of\\nmotor action, use of words, etc., let there be some op-\\nportunities for spontaneous action of the nerve centres.\\nChildren will talk at home of their difficulties in class,\\nthe points they do not understand, and what they say\\nwas not explained to them, saying how they wanted\\nto ask questions; sometimes the pupils criticise the\\nteacher and the teaching, and complain that they are\\ntold they ought to understand. It would be interest-\\ning if intelligent persons could describe their own early\\ndifficulties and analyse them, so as to see what was\\nlacking whether their teacher tried to connect ideas\\nthat did not exist in their heads, or used words that\\nhad no meaning to them at the time.\\nMental aptitude, or the potentialities for mental\\ntraining, are indicated in a child in whom we observe\\nspontaneity of action, easily controlled through the\\nsenses and regulated by impressions received; spon-\\ntaneity of movement, liveliness in facial expression,\\ntalkativeness, with capacity to follow organised games\\nand occupations, are all hopeful signs.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "178 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nSpontaneous brain action is the basis of mental\\npower. In the infant at birth, as in the adult during\\nquiescent states, the respiratory movements occur in\\na uniform series. While the child is awake spontane-\\nous movements are seen in the limbs, especially in\\nthe small parts, the fingers and toes, but they occur\\nin no apparent order, and are not uniform in char-\\nacter further, they are not controlled by the senses.\\nSpreading area of brain action is seen in movements\\nwhen the child cries. When three months old some\\ncontrol of these movements may be seen as the child\\nis impressed by sight or sound this is the earliest\\nmanifestation of potentiality for mental action; still,\\nthere is no delayed expression of impressions received\\nand no act of choice is observed.\\nAt birth no signs of mental attention are seen\\nthe infant shows many spontaneous movements corre-\\nsponding to spontaneous action in many brain centres,\\nbut these are not controllable through the senses.\\nLater in the evolution of the infant this spontaneity\\nmay be momentarily arrested by impressions received\\nthrough the organs of sense. Show the infant a\\ncoloured object and coordinated action follows spon-\\ntaneity of movement is quelled for a few seconds,\\nthen the object is grasped by a prehensile action.\\nDuring the period of quiescence there is said to be\\nan act of attention followed by adapted action. The\\nbrain processes during the quiescence appear to be", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "THE GROWTH OF ATTENTION 1 79\\nreadjustments of the brain centres which are ex-\\npressed by the adapted act of prehension. The physi-\\nologist cannot admit that the will thus arranges the\\nbrain this act of attention results from the sight of\\nthe object. The brain conditions necessary to an act\\nof attention are (1) healthiness in the general char-\\nacters of the brain, (2) spontaneity, and (3) control of\\nthe brain by impressions through the senses, as shown\\nby inhibition and the coordinated action following.\\nAttention, as a physiological process, is inferred to\\nbe action among the brain centres, and may occur\\nwith or without subsequent expression.\\nThe school child must be tolerably quiet before he\\nwill think connectedly. A pause for thought is re-\\nquired in thinking over the answer to a question;\\nthere may be an expression indicating understanding\\nwithout any verbal response. Sometimes attention is\\nbest arrested by sight only; other children may be\\nmore easily impressed by hearing the spoken word.\\nIn cultivating the faculty of attention we need\\nspontaneity in the brain as the foundation of mental\\npower; we must produce some impression on the\\nbrain, and for the sake of exactness and simplicity\\nin training a slight impression through one sense\\norgan only is at first advisable this is especially the\\ncase with difficult children. The impress must be\\ndistinctly produced before a full act of attention can\\nfollow the object must be looked at for some sec-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "l8o THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nonds before it is completely seen, as, for example,\\nthe figure in a proposition of Euclid hence, irregular\\neye-movements may interfere with attention. (See\\nChapter II., p. 33.) An excess of spontaneous brain\\naction and any spreading area of activity, such as\\ncorresponds to a number of disconnected thoughts,\\nmay be indicated by a number of extra movements,\\nor fidgeting, with vague disjointed response in place\\nof the signs of attention. This is often observable\\nwith the signs of fatigue in restless movements of\\nthe eyes, the fingers, and the feet.\\nThe subject of mental fatigue has been investigated\\nby many accurate observers on experimental lines.\\nAt one period a great deal was said on over\\npressure, sometimes, I venture to think, without suf-\\nficient analysis of the many causes which may pro-\\nduce exhaustion. Weariness may be due to many\\ncircumstances much might be said as to the effects\\nof muscular exercise, ventilation, diet, conditions of\\nthe blood and of the circulation, etc. (See Chap-\\nter VI., p. 120.) But I wish here to keep as closely as\\npossible to the consideration of brain conditions lead-\\ning to fatigue and exhaustion. The signs of brain\\nfatigue are easily observable in the movement and\\nbalance of the parts of the body, especially as seen\\nin the face, the eyes, and in finger action. When\\nthe brain is fatigued, the force expended in move-\\nments is small in amount, and the total number of", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "BRAIN FATIGUE l8l\\nmovements may be lessened; while action in the\\nchild is less easily and regularly controlled through\\nthe senses. At the same time a certain number of\\nirregular movements, spontaneous, or not stimulated\\nby your directions, may occur, suggesting that the\\nfatigued child is reduced to a more childish condi-\\ntion of spontaneity than when his brain is fresh and\\nhealthy thus the eyes may often move in the hori-\\nzontal direction uncontrolled -by sight or sound, or\\nthe fingers may twitch as he holds his pen, or when\\nthe hands are held out and he fidgets without doing\\nhis work. Loss of force or nerve tone is indicated\\nby the lessening of facial expression, fulness or baggi-\\nness under the eyes, to which may be added spon-\\ntaneous knitting of the eyebrows (corrugation). The\\nhands when held out free in front are usually at an\\nunequal level and the fingers droop, while the head\\nmay drop to one side and the shoulders be unequally\\nbalanced. In such a child all movement in response\\nis slow and inaccurate, as well as the speech and the\\nsigns of mental action.\\nThe chief means of preventing exhaustion lie in the\\nearly recognition of the signs of fatigue. The indica-\\ntions of commencing brain fatigue may appear, either\\nin slowness and inaccuracy of mental response, or in\\nthe physical signs seen in the face and in movements\\nas described. It is quite possible for a trained pupil\\nshowing considerable signs of brain fatigue to continue", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "1 82 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\ngood mental work, as, for instance, during an ex-\\namination, but there is peril in prolonged periods\\nof brain fatigue without recreation. I will not say\\nthat fatigue is always to be avoided but the day s\\nfatigue should be recruited by the night s rest.\\nThe term mental fatigue is used to express the\\namount of brain energy spent in mental processes.\\nFatigue results from work done among the brain cells\\nthus, if the pupil hears, understands, and retains im-\\npressions from your teaching, or when he works out\\na sum or writes an essay, work is performed by the\\nbrain centres as each mental act is performed. The\\nphysiological energy spent among the nerve cells can-\\nnot be estimated by the value which we, as educated\\npersons, put upon the usefulness of the action.\\nIt may be doubted whether we can determine the\\nquantity of mental action occurring in a given time,\\nor whether any unit for quantitative comparison exists\\nthis cannot be represented by the value of the work\\ndone. It is only the portion of mental action which is\\nexpressed that we can estimate quantitatively, not the\\nquantity of brain action many thoughts may arise\\nand be inhibited in the brain and so not expressed\\nin some difficult processes of thinking this occurs to a\\nlarge extent, especially in original work and in thinking\\nout cause and effect, or in seeking illustrative exam-\\nples. The time and the order of succession and coup-\\nling of mental acts has more to do with the character", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "MENTAL EXHAUSTION 1 83\\nof mental processes than the quantity of brain energy-\\nexpended.\\nThoughts of real value, like actions, depend on their\\ncoordination by circumstances, not upon the degree of\\nbrain work expended. Estimation of the value of in-\\ntellectual acts differs in the child and adult so greatly\\nas to make comparison difficult; they may, however,\\nbe more easily contrasted in the child the impressions\\nretained are less exact than in the adult, while spon-\\ntaneity is more abundant, and may interfere with any\\nestablished order of thoughts. Spontaneous thoughts\\nmean brain work and add to mental fatigue. Effective\\ntraining tends to lessen fatigue and strengthens the\\nbrain for future work. Children who have but few\\nestablished modes of thought, but many spontaneous\\nthinkings, may become exhausted by their own im-\\naginations this not uncommonly occurs with lonely,\\nunoccupied children.\\nA boy who has not acquired the habit of keeping\\na memorandum of the lessons to be prepared at home\\nis worried from having forgotten some of the books\\nwanted; his master does not trouble his memory, but\\nkeeps a memorandum of the class subjects for each\\nday. The boy may think the most about the lessons,\\nbut the master is more methodical, and gives the pupil\\nan imposition to quicken his memory. I think the\\ngirls in English high schools have too many written-\\nout exercises to do at home,", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "1 84 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nFrom the point of view of mental hygiene, attention\\nand mental confusion may be contrasted, together with\\nthe means of cultivating the former and avoiding the\\nlatter.\\nIn making observations for the purpose of deter-\\nmining the modes of brain action corresponding to a\\nmental act of attention, we must directly observe the\\nmotor expressions in the child.\\nSpontaneous movement is equally characteristic of\\nyoung animals and young children. A dog going out\\nfor a walk with his master evinces his joy in spon-\\ntaneity by running in the field and making ever wider\\ncircles or ellipses he may return to his master and\\nthen recommence his career, till, seeing a cow, he barks\\nat her, but is again recalled by his master s voice\\nat length he runs at the cow and teases her.\\nSpontaneous action is here the primary mode of\\nenergy displayed, it becomes controlled and coordinated\\npartly by the master s voice, in part by sight of the cow;\\nthese controlling forces act in different proportion.\\nSimilar spontaneous action in the cellular structure\\nof plants produces those organised movements which\\nminister to the needs of seedlings. Charles Darwin has\\ndescribed the movements of the root of a seedling\\nwandering in ellipses, though slowly as compared with\\nspontaneous movement in a child. If the root presses\\nagainst a stone the apex moves away from the ob-\\nstruction, but bends towards any crevice in the soil and", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "MENTAL CONFUSION 1 85\\ninto the dampest parts. The little root is constantly\\nmoving, and is sensitive to touch and to dampness,\\nwhich guide its action to its advantage by controlling\\nspontaneous action in its cell growth. (See Darwin on\\nMovements of Plants, pp. 420, 427.)\\nThe modes of brain action may not be sufficiently\\nwell balanced, or proportioned, at the stage of evolu-\\ntion of the child, to allow of uniform or prolonged\\nattention. A pupil may at times show marked mental\\nconfusion and make an absurd reply to a question.\\nThis may arise from several causes.\\n1. When a spreading area of spontaneous action in\\nthe brain is indicated by fidgeting while the child turns\\nhis head and his fingers twitch, he may ejaculate words\\nirrelevant to your question yet thoughts may be aris-\\ning, though not under your direction still, all thinkings\\nare of value. Such spreading and spontaneous brain\\naction should not be entirely suppressed, but show that\\nfurther training is needed.\\n2. Eye-movements must be educated in order that\\nthe impressions received by the brain may be exact.\\nWhen a child is working an addition sum, as the eyes\\nmove to successive figures in a column an extra or lat-\\neral eye-movement may bring into view the wrong fig-\\nure and lead to confusion. (Training eye-movements,\\nsee Chapter VII., p. 145.)\\n3. In reading, eye-movements may similarly bring\\nthe wrong line into view.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "1 86 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\n4. In writing, the pupil may copy the line above in\\nplace of continuing his exercise.\\n5. Confusion may arise from the question being\\nonly partially heard, as from deafness if the child be\\nalso short sighted his difficulties are greatly increased\\nin receiving teaching by demonstration.\\n6. Rapid action of the heart with a quick pulse is\\ncommon in nervous children, and may be accompanied\\nby other conditions of importance to health. Such dis-\\nturbance of the circulation may produce marked mental\\nconfusion. 1\\n7. Sometimes an answer is irrelevant to the ques-\\ntion put, yet contains the reply to a former question,\\nas to which a train of thought has continued. Such\\ndelayed expression of thought is not a mindless condi-\\ntion, but shows an untrained mode of mental action.\\nBrain training may do much to prevent mental confu-\\nsion and increase the power of attention.\\nMemory depends upon reactivity of the impressions\\npreviously made upon the brain, these impressions re-\\nturning in activity as a series in the same order as that\\nin which they were produced originally. Thus, the\\nchild, when directed to do so, repeats the numerals in\\ntheir order of succession as previously taught. This\\nas a matter of physiological action depends upon\\nthe (cohesion) exactness of the impressions retained,\\nand upon the adhesion of those impressions, so that\\nReferences 34, 35.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "FIXED MENTAL IMPRESSIONS 1 87\\nenergy flows along the prearranged nerve paths from\\nthe brain centre stimulated by your direction to re-\\npeat the lesson, to those centres which were im-\\npressed in succession by previous teaching. Such\\nforms of speech and of memory remind us of the exact\\nreproduction of a speech on a phonograph, where the\\ndents made on the wax are retained, and reproduce in\\ntheir former order the vibrations causing sound, without\\nvibration or adaptability no interaction occurs among\\nthe impressions on the wax.\\nOvertaxing the memory and producing too many\\nfixed impressions may to a certain extent lessen mental\\nadaptability, and while fixing a certain number of ideas\\nlimit free mental power. The same thing is seen in re-\\ngard to movements military drill produces precision\\nand quickness for some kinds of action, rather than\\nadaptiveness and grace of movement under varying\\ncircumstances.\\nA boy when riding is thrown from his horse; a per-\\nmanent mental impression remains, and ever after re-\\ncurs at the sight of his saddle-horse such impression\\ndid not occur on commencing his ride before the acci-\\ndent. This exemplifies a very firm act of the memory.\\nA strong mental impression may be made without any\\naccompanying outward expression at the time. Take\\nan example a man is told that he cannot live another\\nyear on account of some disease. He may sit quite\\nstill as he is told this and make no reply, but the care-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "1 88 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nful observer may see his face grow pale, the respirations\\nquickened and the brows knit, possibly with some de-\\npression of the angles of the mouth at the thought of\\nmental distress and suffering to come. His subsequent\\nacts, rather than his present expression, will indicate the\\nstrength of the impression made.\\nImpressionability is not quite the same thing as mem-\\nory. A reflex action results from some external stim-\\nulus, an impression is produced at the moment, but this\\nis not necessarily retained. A sudden flash of light\\ncauses reflex contraction of the pupil and closure of\\nthe eyelids; but the impression is not registered in\\nthe brain and remembered.\\nAt least two different kinds of mental activity are\\ncalled memory (i) the simple reception and re-\\ntention of an impression, almost without any interac-\\ntion among brain centres resulting (2) a more active\\nprocess in the brain involving both the retention of\\nimpressions and their interaction, while certain es-\\ntablished modes of brain action supervene correspond-\\ning to fixed principles and directions of thought. This\\nimplies much the same kind of mental action as what\\nis called adhesiveness by Prof. A. Bain. In the\\nsimplest act of memory a sensory impress produces\\na simple reflex mechanism a question is asked, the\\nanswer as formerly taught is repeated the object is\\nseen, then named. This is often called verbal memory.\\nThis simple form of memory as a mode of brain", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "CULTIVATION OF MEMORY 1 89\\naction may be cultivated in physical exercises in imi-\\ntation of your movements the series is learned by prac-\\ntice, and soon becomes repeated with exactness. (See\\nChapter VII.) In such training it is of course neces-\\nsary to use the same precision and accuracy in the\\norder of repetition as you would employ in teaching\\nby words. This mode of memory differs from those\\nrequired in advanced mental processes, where it is\\nnecessary to call up fixed modes of brain action previ-\\nously established, and arrange impressions received\\nby observation on a fixed plan. Thus the use of the\\nnumerals and the methods of counting being estab-\\nlished among the acquired brain processes, compari-\\nsons may be made and proportions described by the\\nuse of numbers. Objects may be classed according\\nto the number of their parts and as to their propor-\\ntions after the methods used in systematic botany. 1\\nThe higher forms of memory for trains of thought\\nand reasoning demand, among other qualities, the\\nsimpler forms of memory.\\nDifferent modes of cultivating memory are required\\naccording to the pupil s stage of mental development\\nsometimes simple means must be used for implant-\\ning knowledge of the facts learned, while others in-\\ncrease the natural retention and adhesiveness of brain\\nimpressions and lead to memory for associated ideas,\\nor, as we may say, a series of mental acts. Thus the\\n1 See Catalogue of Examples, Mental Faculty, pp. 163-212.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "I QO THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nmental power of memory may be acquired both to\\nretain impressions in the brain, and also to compare\\nthese memories one with another, and class them ac-\\ncording to their resemblances and differences. The\\nmental processes of analysis and analogy may then\\nbe performed among impressions remembered.\\nIn social life, faces are remembered and associated\\nwith a conversation a boy seeing his master may\\nremember some forgotten duty the surgeon recog-\\nnises a patient by the scar left after operation, and\\nrecalls all the details of the case. Some persons can\\nremember trains of argument better than isolated\\nfacts and names.\\nDefect of memory or forgetfulness may be due to\\nthe causes of mental confusion. The original im-\\npressions may not have been sufficiently clear and\\nexact then it may be well in training to produce\\nanalogous impressions through the eye, the ear, and\\nby muscle sense. Thus each numeral may be taught\\nas a word separately, while the child looking at your\\nface imitates your pronunciation then appreciation\\nof number may be taught by seeing together a number\\nof objects corresponding to the numeral, as beads\\nupon a frame and again by hand movements in\\npointing with the finger, or by eye-movements as in\\ncounting at sight several objects placed some distance\\napart. After this the numerals may be repeated in\\norder and thus connected as a series.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "REVERSION AND CHILDISHNESS 191\\nReversion to childish states of brain and break-\\ndown in mental health under stress of circumstances\\nmay produce grave mental disabilities. 1 The general\\ncharacters of the brain are very different in the degree\\nof their development in infancy and at ten years of\\nage during infancy spontaneity in movement is the\\nchief characteristic. This mode of brain action be-\\ncomes gradually organised under good training so that\\nits functions are adapted by impressions through the\\nsenses. In the adult, spontaneity of the brain cen-\\ntres during health is expressed rather in thoughts\\nthan in movements, and much of the motor action\\nis seen in small movements, well controlled as in\\nthe tongue and face in speaking, and the fingers in\\nwriting, each expressing mental action. If we look\\nat examples in the stages of infancy, early youth,\\nand full development, we should find movement dis-\\nplayed at each successive stage, but with some differ-\\nences in the proportion of motor action to the amount\\nof brain energy expended in the process of thought (psy-\\nchosis) this proportion represents an interesting and\\nimportant change of function during brain evolution.\\nReversion among animals and plants is the ten-\\ndency sometimes manifested to assume the modes of\\ngrowth or habits of some ancestor such reversions\\nare especially apt to occur under conditions of low\\nhealth and diminished nutrition.\\n1 Reference 49.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "192 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nIn school children and in adults reversion to a\\nchildish condition is not uncommon. After mental\\nfatigue and when needing food, a child may become\\nalmost infantile in his peevishness and irritability with\\nwant of capacity for control his utterances are dis-\\njointed, his movements fidgety, and sometimes hardly\\nenough under control even to take his meal. (See Chap-\\nter V., p. 101.) The child presents much spontaneous\\nincoordinated movement like a baby, and is not guided\\nby his surroundings, and therefore is inharmonious with\\nhis environment. Rest, feeding, and sleep recreate his\\nbrain power and restore a placid and active mental\\nstatus.\\nReversion occurs in mental action when a former\\nthought or series of thoughts arises; old thoughts\\nrevert to activity in dreams, in delirium, as wild\\nthoughts which rush through the brain in times of\\nweakness. Return of thoughts depends upon the reac-\\ntivity of certain brain centres; the process of recalling\\nthoughts has been considered in speaking of voluntary\\npower.\\nThe reactivity of past thoughts is by no means sim-\\nply due to spontaneous action in the brain. Sight of\\ncertain objects, old letters, written words, and books\\nmay revive former thoughts, long absent.\\nThoughts altogether spontaneous resemble the\\nmodes of brain action evinced in spontaneous bodily\\nmovements, such as are seen in the poorly nourished", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "MENTAL REVERSION 1 93\\nbrain of the patient ill with fever, who in his delirium\\nejaculates words and picks the bedclothes with his\\nfingers. 1\\nThe revival of former thoughts often replaces the\\nactivity of those of recent date this corresponds to the\\ninactivity of recent impressions, or, it may be, to their\\ndissolution. Replacement of thoughts implies proba-\\nbly in many instances dissolution of existing unions of\\nnerve cells, the nerve paths which connected them hav-\\ning disappeared, thus setting the nerve cells free to\\nenter into new combinations. In a brain with healthy\\nactivity, reversion of spontaneity during a period of\\nrest may lead to the dissolution of a line of thoughts,\\nresulting in greater freedom either for the reception of\\nnew impressions or the revival of former ones. The\\nwriter lays aside his work and observes those around\\nhim, or joins in general conversation.\\n1 Reversion in illness. See Anatomy of Movement, Chapter III.\\no", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X\\nMental Hygiene and Voluntary Mental Power\\nMental action as a physiological process occurring in\\nthe brain (psychosis) is known to us only by inference\\nfrom our observation of its expression. We all know\\nthat mental action may take place without immediate\\nexpression; we believe that many thoughts occur in\\nchildren s heads that are not expressed; hence much\\ntrouble has been taken by many workers in child-\\nstudy to get at the contents of their minds. Mental\\nprocesses leading to expression are capable of ob-\\nservation we find in childhood mental healthiness\\nand aptitude or mental disorderliness and inaptitude.\\nThese subjects for inquiry may be pursued on the\\nprinciples laid down in studying the visible characters\\nof brain action, and afford a basis of mental hygiene\\nwhich may be followed after the methods of other\\nnatural sciences by observation, description, analysis,\\nand inference, leading to generalisations from experi-\\nence. (See Chapter V., p. 103.)\\nA large field for observation and study is thus\\nopened up as supplemental and co-relative to the\\nphysiological aspect of mental training and school\\nlife while school hygiene, in its purely physical as-\\n194", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "MENTAL APTITUDE 1 95\\npects, deals with health culture and the prevention of\\ndisease. Among other sections of mental hygiene 1\\nwe may study\\nMental aptitudes and mental disabilities or causes\\nof mental dulness in children. (See Chapter III.)\\nMental weariness and brain fatigue.\\nMental confusion and observed concomitant condi-\\ntions. (See Chapter I., p. 15.)\\nDefects of memory and the means of removing\\nthem.\\nReversion in mental status and childish faults. (See\\nChapter IX., p. 191.)\\nMental breakdown at adolescence, and its connec-\\ntion with previous training.\\nMental aptitude, or the capacity for mental training,\\nis indicated in a child in whom we observe spontaneity\\nof action easily controlled through the senses and regu-\\nlated by impressions received; much spontaneous ac-\\ntion, liveliness of facial expression, talkativeness, with\\ncapacity to follow organised games and occupations,\\nare hopeful signs. When these are accompanied by\\ngood imitative power in action and in speech, with\\nretention of what has been acquired, and increasingly\\nexact repetition after practice, the indications of edu-\\ncable brain power are distinctly present. The culti-\\nvation of each individual sign of such aptitude, first\\n1 I here quote from my recent article contributed to the Lancet.\\nLondon, April 29, 1899.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "196 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nseparately, then collectively, may be advisable this is\\nspecially the case where one item is deficient, as, for\\nexample, where some form of spontaneity is not easily\\ncoordinated, it may be restless eye-movements or finger\\ntwitches, which lead to incorrect observation and poor\\nmanipulative ability. These points I have described\\nin detail. (See Chapter III.)\\nMental hygiene, as a science, demands some know-\\nledge of the physiological action occurring in the brain\\nduring various mental processes, as well as appreciation\\nof the general status of the pupil s brain in which such\\naction is observed. The special modes of action ob-\\nserved may be satisfactory or disorderly while, the\\nstatus of his brain is indicated by its general characters\\nas being normal or subnormal.\\nWill and the power of volition are foundations of\\ncharacter. The term voluntary power is conven-\\nient as a label for a certain kind of action of which we\\nall know something. As I do not admit, for the pur-\\nposes of scientific investigation, that consciousness and\\nvolition are causes of visible action, it will be necessary\\nto trace the processes occurring in the brain (psychosis)\\ncorresponding to what is commonly and conveniently\\ntermed voluntary power or action, and also to study\\nand become familiar with their modes of expression.\\nVarious modes of voluntary action may be analysed\\nas to their expression, and the brain action correspond-\\ning may be inferred. Actions admitted to be volun-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "VOLUNTARY POWER 1 97\\ntary may be contrasted with others which are clearly\\ninvoluntary. Examples of children may be considered\\nin whom volitional power is seen, and contrasted with\\nothers in whom it is absent or but slightly marked.\\nVoluntary action may be motor or mental the child\\nmay do something to please you, or he may keep quiet\\nfor a minute to think what he ought to do next and\\nhow to set about it. When a physical excercise is per-\\nformed as a series of movements, following a command\\nbut without further direction, motor voluntary action is\\nseen. When the pupil reads his lesson, persistently\\nsuppressing all thoughts that arise other than those\\nguided by the book, voluntary mental power is exerted.\\nThe boy may think out some reason why in his head,\\nwithout looking at book or paper and without visible\\nexpression in action.\\nVoluntary action is mostly an expression of antece-\\ndent brain impressions reviving to activity and interact-\\ning among themselves, independent of present guidance.\\nIt seems to depend upon brain organisation, evolved or\\nbuilt up by training, as well as upon some spontaneity\\nthere is a revival to an active state of previous impres-\\nsions acquired which become arranged in an orderly man-\\nner, and interact and control one another after modes\\npreviously established. (See Chapter VIII., p. 171.)\\nVoluntary power is in great part dependent upon the\\ngeneral characters of brain action previously acquired,\\nas well as upon experience. (See Chapter II.)", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "1 98 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nSpontaneity plays a part in voluntary action occur-\\nring independently of present stimulation or guidance,\\nactivity in the brain centres originates the action with-\\nout impress through the senses. The boy, having com-\\npleted his exercise, gets up, without direction, and puts\\naway his books. Again, spontaneity may interfere with\\nwhat we call voluntary action, seen in extra movements\\nand fidgetiness, or disconnected thoughts arise in the\\nbrain through the want of control and guidance.\\nImpressionability of the brain in various forms is\\nnecessary to the acquisition of voluntary power; but,\\nduring purely voluntary thought, it is the interaction\\ngoing on among the brain centres, independent of ex-\\nternal stimulus, that characterises the mode of action.\\nIn fact, if there be much impression by the environ-\\nment, this is opposed to purely voluntary self-control.\\nInhibition. We speak of concentrating the atten-\\ntion in voluntary thinking. Among other points this\\nsignifies inhibition of spontaneous movements as well\\nas thoughts arising which are not connected with (ad-\\nherent to) those in the direct line of thought. This\\ninhibition in physiological action is produced by the\\nactivity of the brain centres corresponding to a domi-\\nnant established principle, or a previous direction. In-\\nhibition is the faculty continuously exerted by the\\nprimary impression or direction of thought in prevent-\\ning action of the brain centres arising spontaneously\\nfrom sending out force to the muscles producing ex-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "BRAIN ACTION AND VOLITION 1 99\\npression. Then the centres act among themselves by\\ntheir nerve paths, and those that have often been con-\\nnected before are reassociated as formerly; thoughts\\nbecome arranged and connected, making a plan for\\naction. The child is quiet for a moment, thinking out\\nhis sentence, then he writes it down during thought,\\ncertain nerve centres become temporarily connected for\\naction in a certain order and remain active, while the\\nothers, not stimulated by the dominant idea, subside\\ninto inactivity. Exercise of the will in suppressing\\nspontaneous thoughts that arise leads after a time to\\nthe visible signs of fatigue, showing that the mental\\neffort corresponds to physical brain action. Once ac-\\nquired, the habit of inhibition by the employment of\\nestablished principles and directions saves much fatigue\\nin the future. (See Chapter VII., p. 155.)\\nControl through the senses and by muscle sense in\\ntraining does much to cultivate voluntary power. The\\nimpressions made on the brain must be definite and\\nexact, not merely the impress of words. Directions\\n(verbal) should be precise, and where possible should\\ncorrespond to and be coupled with physical impres-\\nsions; thus they become more permanent than direc-\\ntions merely verbal. For the purpose of cultivating\\nvoluntary power in estimating proportion and in-\\ndirectly the value of things training should be prac-\\ntised with weights in the hands, say, one-half, one, two\\nounces, and the names and numbers expressing these", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "200 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nweights should be connected with the proportion of\\nmuscle tension resulting from holding them thus pro-\\nportional impressions are received in the pupil s brain,\\nand a standard for comparison is impressed and retained\\nwhich may revive in voluntary action. (See Chapter\\nVII., p. 155.) A scale or standard of measurement may\\nbe established in the brain by practice in estimating the\\nlength of horizontal lines drawn on the blackboard and\\nothers placed vertically by means of the eye-movements\\nor the length of sticks by measurement with the hands.\\nIn each case physical effects of proportional action are\\nproduced which may be coupled with terms of expres-\\nsion, and used in forming a voluntary judgment in other\\nmatters.\\nSome faculty for voluntary processes of thought and\\ncomparison is thus implanted in the child s brain. Many\\nof the modes of action that need training through sen-\\nsory impressions might be described. The results of\\ntraining, when established, easily revive to activity, fol-\\nlowing a single dominant thought or direction from the\\nteacher. The directions employed in previous teach-\\ning, if firmly retained after practice, may, like physical\\nimpressions, be easily revived to activity, and take\\npart in brain action during processes of voluntary or\\nself-contained thinking.\\nThus the brain, acting under a single direction or\\ndominant thought, and without receiving present im-\\npressions from without, may be the seat of reviving", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "MENTAL HABITS 201\\nsensory impressions coupled in succession with the\\nterms of direction the nerve centres in the brain that\\nhave been trained or coordinated react one after an-\\nother, and they become arranged in order for expres-\\nsion. After thinking what to do, or what to write, a\\nlong series of connected acts or a written paragraph\\nmay follow. This result can only be obtained after\\ntraining and practice.\\nEstablished modes of brain action are needed, such\\nas methods of procedure, e.g. methods of examining\\nflowers as taught by the use of a schedule (see Chapter\\nVIII., p. 172); the use of numbers to be coupled with\\nthings or acts; modes of noting and describing the\\norder of events and their sequences standards of com-\\nparison and expression for numbers, weight, measure-\\nment of length, surface, volume modes of estimating\\nratio and proportion, and their expression.\\nAll these modes of action in the brain come into\\nuseful employment. Voluntary action in home lessons\\nis not necessarily produced under immediate and pres-\\nent continued guidance of a teacher, as it is in class\\nteaching. Preparation work affords some opportunity\\nfor spontaneity the inaccuracies may show the teacher\\nin what particulars the class teaching has failed with\\nthe individual pupil to produce one particular mode\\nof procedure. In so far as the pupil s action is self-\\ncontained, and not dependent upon guidance, it is\\nspontaneous while, as the result of previous training,", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "202 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nbrain organisation has been built up and leads to the\\naction of one established act or mode of procedure\\nafter another.\\nCoordination. I think it will be found by teachers\\nthat the pupils well trained in all the general char-\\nacters of brain action, by means of physical exercises\\nand in particular in coordinated movements, acquire\\nthe modes of voluntary power better and more easily\\nthan others in whom such training has been neglected.\\nFrom what has been said it follows that class work\\nunder guidance trains method and gives exactness;\\nwhile voluntary work at home cultivates the coordi-\\nnation of spontaneous mental activity. Voluntary co-\\nordinated action has a foundation in spontaneity trained\\nto orderly procedure.\\nSpreading brain action may interfere with steady\\nvolitional power. A butterfly comes in at the window,\\nthe sight controls all the boy s action as he chases it.\\nThe impression of want of food is felt, and the lesson\\nis forgotten. The thought of the playground occurs,\\nand the game is followed in imagination. But spread-\\ning brain action may be started by some portion of\\nthe lesson. When writing the description of a pea-\\nflower, in place of following the directions of the\\nschedule the child may think, Why do insects visit\\nthe flowers then he thinks of the butterflies and\\nhow they fly, and that the wings of the insect look\\nlike the alae of the (papilionaceous) flower, so he loses", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "WANDERING THOUGHTS 203\\ntime and does not write a good exercise but he\\nthinks.\\nSuch wandering thoughts in the pupil are not well\\ncoordinated voluntary action but if this spreading\\narea of thought can be guided, the process may be-\\ncome useful. The boy at his Euclid may give a\\ndifferent demonstration to that he has been taught.\\nSpreading area of thought is necessary in finding an\\nillustrative example for an essay; many arise, one is\\nselected as being in harmony with the subject in\\nhand.\\nResponse may be delayed, yet the action may be\\nvoluntary; the fact of an interval between direction\\nand response, when the action required is complicated\\nand in no way a repetition of the direction, may be\\nlooked upon as a voluntary intelligent act. Direc-\\ntion dissect the parts of that plant and arrange them\\nfor demonstration. There may be an interval during\\nthe period of thinking how to begin then the work pro-\\nceeds stage by stage without further guidance and is\\nrecognised as intelligent and voluntary.\\nWe may now briefly trace the evolution of the\\nsigns of voluntary power from infancy. At birth the\\ninfant does not show evidence of voluntary power\\ncertain reflex actions occur, and a spreading area of\\nmovement is seen in crying; spontaneous movements\\nindicate much separate action of the various brain\\ncentres, with but little impressionability and little", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "204 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\npower of control. At about four months old sensory\\nimpressions are followed by momentary inhibition of\\nmovement, and a little later, such control is followed\\nby some coordinated act, as the object shown is\\ngrasped. As yet we see no indication of anything\\nthat can properly be called a voluntary action depend-\\ning upon the interaction of impressions received.\\nA few months later, but before the acquisition of\\nspeech, choice may be made between two objects pre-\\nsented; one only is taken hold of, or if both are\\ngrasped, one is dropped, and the other retained. One\\nimpression by sight proves stronger than the other;\\nthis is perhaps the earliest kind of action that can be\\ntermed voluntary there is interaction among the brain\\ncentres, and the stronger impression is expressed in\\naction.\\nVarious kinds of action in a child are characterised\\nas voluntary, such as action following a word of com-\\nmand complex series of acts adapted by the environ-\\nment, and therefore in harmony with it, controlled\\nthrough the eye, the ear, or by the muscle sense;\\nalso well-adapted speech. Volitional action usually\\ndepends upon antecedent impressions, associated and\\nadherent, as well as upon some spontaneity bringing\\nthem into activity.\\nMany modes of brain action are contributory to vol-\\nuntary power following experience and practice in trac-\\ning out the order of observations and events, or the", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "OBSERVATION AND COMPARISON 205\\ncause and effect. In such mental processes there is\\ninteraction among brain centres, not under present\\nguidance from the outside, yet capable of impressiona-\\nbility. Many brain impressions spontaneously recur-\\nring to an active condition become arranged and\\nrearranged according to their adhesiveness, as in pro-\\ncesses of comparison and classification.\\nChoice and comparison are examples of voluntary\\npower; the former is simple, the latter needs cultiva-\\ntion in many ways, each of which must be trained.\\n(See Chapters I., p. 14; VII., p. 155.) Simple compari-\\nson may be made as to agreement or difference, among\\nobjects seen or others previously observed, in the degree\\nof the weight of each, in the impressions received (by\\nmuscle sense) in measurement in either case it is\\nthe impressions made in the pupil s brain that are\\ncompared, and these, when revived to activity, may\\nlead to comparison and an expression of proportion,\\nas he writes a description of what he has seen and\\nwhat he thinks. In teaching habits of observation,\\neach physical impression made through the senses\\nshould be exact and definite. The pupil s description\\nof his observations in class may be written as a home\\nlesson there will be a pause sometimes in his writing,\\nfor the revival of the impressions previously received\\nmistakes may occur from not having received firm im-\\npressions in class coupled with the terms of descrip-\\ntion. These periods of stopping to think may be too", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "206 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nprolonged; both physical and mental training may\\nquicken all the general modes of brain action, and\\nimprove the mental processes.\\nThe general modes of brain action all come into\\nplay in establishing voluntary power they interact in\\nvarious ways. In the school child who has acquired\\norderly habits under training, certain modes of action\\nare established; groups of brain centres have been so\\nfar connected by nerve paths that they tend to act in\\na fixed order.\\nCommon examples of established modes of action\\nmay be mentioned the salute on meeting teacher is\\nan acquired habit; names of classmates are known;\\nthe numerals and the methods of counting have been\\nlearned; experience has been gained of a bad mark\\nfor late attendance; the names and sight of buns and\\ncake for lunch have been retained. The boy enter-\\ning the schoolroom before work begins recognises\\nthe master, then proceeds to count his fellow pupils\\npresent by their names without giving expression,\\nnames the rest to himself as being likely to receive\\na bad mark, thinks of his lunch and selects cake for\\nhis penny. Former impressions interact with those\\nproduced through his senses in such voluntary think-\\ning as is indicated.\\nThe voluntary character of action does not so much\\ndepend upon the order of acts and thoughts, and\\ntheir arrangement, as upon their independence of", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "VOLUNTARY ACTION AND THOUGHT 207\\npresent stimulus or guidance from the outside vol-\\nuntary thoughts may be sequential or disconnected,\\nbut are usually related to certain antecedents.\\nCoordinated action is characterised by relations in\\nthe time and order of individual acts, and the degree\\nof each act being in due proportion this may take\\nplace under control of the present environment or be\\nestablished as a fixed mode of brain action following\\nfrom practice.\\nIntellectual action is indicated mainly by the order\\nin which the thoughts are expressed. Voluntary in-\\ntellectual power is the highest attainment to be culti-\\nvated.\\nWe speak of (1) voluntary motor action, (2) volun-\\ntary thinking without expression, (3) voluntary thought\\nand its expression. In giving illustrations each mode\\nof voluntary power may be exemplified, as they are\\nmuch associated.\\nDirect the child to write a description of what he\\ndid during the previous day. He sits down to his\\nwork and remains quiet for a while, thinking the im-\\npression of the direction is followed in his brain ac-\\ntion by revival of the visual and auditory impressions\\npreviously received; these, then, adhere in the order\\nof their succession, showing that the order of their\\nreception was retained. Many points which produced\\nbut little impression are omitted from his description,\\nsuch as getting up and going to bed. His own", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "208 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nthoughts are hardly indicated, school teaching is not\\nreferred to; but points in home life and at play, as\\nwell as what he saw in the streets and the shops,\\nare described.\\nIt may be said that obedience should be voluntary\\nand prompt; perhaps it is more prompt in school,\\nand though less exact and quick, more voluntary in\\nthe home.\\nA boy after school is asked to go skating. The\\nword skating is followed in his mental action by the\\nrevived activity of impressions formerly made in his\\nbrain also other impressions experienced revive the\\ndirection of his father to come straight home after\\nschool; the impression of the dinner which will not\\nwait for him, and the story book at home all these\\nimpressions become active; father s directions, dinner,\\nstory book, adhere as a series in his brain, together\\nwith a former experience of the ice breaking on the\\npond. Experience aids voluntary power. Impres-\\nsions (verbal) of the abstract principles of obedience\\nand duty do not arise till, after walking home, he sees\\nhis mother. The boy s conduct, which we call volun-\\ntary, depended upon many previous impressions re-\\nvived in his brain which recurred in a series, as the\\neffect of training these controlled his action when no\\nwords of direction were heard.\\nVoluntary action, as thus illustrated, occurs in the\\nhealthy brain which, under experience and training,", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "IMPRESS OF VERBAL DIRECTIONS 209\\nhas received and retained a number of fixed impres-\\nsions, but they must be definite physical impressions,\\nnot merely produced by words. These are repre-\\nsented in the brain by groups of nerve cells tending\\nto act together (diatactic unions), and they are con-\\nnected by nerve paths with other such groups, so that\\nenergy habitually tends to flow in fixed directions,\\neven when no sensory stimulus is acting. It is mainly\\nthe interaction of such groups of nerve cells formed\\nby sensory impressions that leads to the earlier mani-\\nfestations of voluntary power.\\nI cannot define volition and will in physio-\\nlogical terms, but we may trace the modes of brain\\naction which lead to voluntary power and thought.\\nThe general characters of healthy brain action all\\nhelp groups of brain cells in the highest parts of\\nthe brain (the cortex) in their activity correspond to\\nthoughts; these when active may be coordinated or\\ncontrolled by sight and by the sound of words previ-\\nously familiar.\\nImpressions thus arising spontaneously, or produced\\nthrough the senses on the brain, may adhere by the\\nformation of nerve paths, so as to occur after practice\\nin the order in which they were established.\\nThe impressions made by your directions, often re-\\npeated, may similarly revive and become connected\\nin the child s head, and guide his thinking when he\\nis alone. Capacity for choice, mental comparison, and", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "210 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nestablished modes of (logical) thinking may evolve in\\nsuch processes. Thus spontaneity may bring into ac-\\ntivity former deeply implanted impressions and guide\\nthoughts aright. On the other hand, if no impres-\\nsions have been firmly fixed in previous teaching,\\nspontaneity may upset all loosely connected thoughts,\\nand nothing that can be called voluntary power is\\nmanifested. The best lines of voluntary power follow\\nfrom well-established mental impressions interacting\\nunder the influence of the environment.\\nTake the case of preparation of lessons at home for\\nthe next day; it seems to me that they should be\\ntaught in class and expressed in the home work, to\\nexercise voluntary power and allow of some exercise\\nof spontaneity. In class discipline the work is done\\nunder the teacher s observation and guidance at\\nhome the child works alone, or at any rate it is to be\\nhoped in quietness, with the help of a time-table and\\nthe directions previously received, so that self-guid-\\nance comes into play.\\nTraining is effected by producing impressions on\\nthe nerve centres of the brain through the senses;\\nvarious concomitants may result from your endeav-\\nours, the mental processes you produce may be exact\\nbut accompanied by extra brain action, or the pupil s\\nresponse may be a simple reproduction of what he\\nhad heard before, in place of showing voluntary brain\\npower. It is desirable to know the general characters", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "SENSORY IMPRESSIONS AND VOLITION 21 1\\nof the brain upon which you propose to act and to\\nwatch the processes that occur in it, not only the\\neffects produced by the teaching in ourselves. You\\nneed to cultivate various capacities in the pupil s\\nbrain, giving facility to the nerve centres for interac-\\ntion and adhesion under the influence of a fixed direc-\\ntion, also for the reactivity of former directions\\nreceived and retained, which reviving assist the brain\\nprocesses. Systematic teaching, long continued, tends\\nto cultivate certain forms of self-government or vol-\\nuntary power.\\nIn cultivating voluntary power distinct sensory im-\\npressions are to be produced by various adaptations\\nof your method. The order of associated impressions\\nis important, and tends to be retained in the brain,\\nwhile it is strengthened by repetition coordination\\ntrained by physical exercises will cultivate this men-\\ntal faculty. Associated impressions when firmly re-\\ntained revive in the same connection as a form of\\nself-contained action. Retention of the order in which\\nthe pupil has made his observations has much to do\\nwith his logical thinking, and understanding antece-\\ndents and sequents, or cause and effect. Retention\\nof the order of the numerals and of the weights com-\\npared and expressed by use of the numerals is neces-\\nsary to mental estimation of weight, bulk, mass of\\nobjects, and also to appreciation of the probable value\\nof quantities of materials seen. The money values", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "212 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nof one pound of tea and ten pounds are in direct\\nproportion to the weight of the shillings expended in\\ntheir purchase.\\nSpreading brain area and excess of spontaneity\\nneed control in voluntary action inhibition of spon-\\ntaneous thought as a self-contained power is culti-\\nvated by temporary inhibition of movements in\\nphysical training, which is best brought about by ac-\\ntion imitated from the teacher in momentary quiet-\\nness. In voluntary power wandering thoughts can\\nbe controlled by recalling directions given, or the\\ndominant thought of the exercise in hand, as during\\nhome lessons.\\nSome children are quick mentally, but scatter-\\nbrained, others are plodding and slow in response.\\nIn some, will power is naturally strong with persist-\\nent self-contained purpose while others are docile,\\nbut seem to have no fixed ideas some reproduce\\nknowledge acquired like a phonograph without any\\napparent effort, or any secondary thoughts arising.\\nIntellectual faculty is not necessarily accompanied\\nby self-determination, and voluntary action may\\nbecome almost automatic from constant repetition.\\nVoluntary power is not one brain faculty, but is\\nbased on many faculties which need to be balanced\\nin training. The child first learns to make a choice;\\nthen we see indications of brain impressions retained,\\nand established modes of brain action while princi-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "SELF-CONTROL AND HEALTH 213\\npies in thought become evolved, with capacity to\\nrecall and retain previous directions in a certain\\norder.\\nCultivate the habit of suppressing spontaneous\\nthoughts not associated with the dominant work in\\nhand, while connecting such as arise in harmony with\\nthe direction received and previous training and ex-\\nperience; this may be educated by training the gen-\\neral characters of brain action already described, and\\nbuild up a voluntary power of use in the duties of\\nlife.\\nVolitional power varies with physical health. A\\ngood state of general health raises will power; low\\ndiet lessens it. A slight degree of lowered nutrition\\nimpairs voluntary strength; so may mental fatigue, in\\nwhich condition spontaneity is apt to supersede it,\\nand if exhaustion supervenes, coordination both men-\\ntal and motor may be replaced by much disorderliness\\nof brain function.\\nVoluntary action, when it is independent of strong\\nstimulation, is mainly due to the experience of past im-\\npressions in the brain if these are but few, volitional\\npower is low and quickly fades. A strong exercise of\\nthe will in concentrating attention and in acting on\\nfixed principles, even against the distractions of cir-\\ncumstances, involves an amount of real brain effort\\nwhich can produce the visible signs of fatigue.\\nAction resulting from strong present stimulation is", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "214 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHILD\\nsometimes called voluntary a moth settles on the\\npaper as I write, I carry it to the window and set it\\nfree, at once it flies back to the lighted lamp and gets\\nburned. It was not the moth s will, but the light of the\\nlamp that controlled the movements. Certain move-\\nments are classed as voluntary it may be remarked\\nthat growth is never said to be voluntary, not even\\nwhen its results are as wonderful as those producing\\nthe most complex actions seen in seedling plants. 1\\nCertain classes of movements are not called voluntary,\\nsuch as\\ni. Acts performed during sleep or when other in-\\ndications of absence of consciousness are observed.\\n2. Simple reflex actions as closure of the eyelids\\nwhen the eyeball is touched. Such acts are uniformly\\nrepeated on stimulation, without signs of interaction\\namong the brain centres. (See Chapter IV., p. 75.)\\n3. Respiratory movements when uniform, as in\\nquiet breathing, are not voluntary, but these may be\\nquickened and altered in their rhythm under emotion.\\n4. Uniformly repeated movement, such as walking,\\nwhich is continued under the control of muscle sense\\nwithout much guidance through the senses.\\n5. Speech, when merely ejaculatory and discon-\\nnected, as in delirium.\\n6. Movements that appear to be spontaneous,\\n1 See Anatomy of Movement and Modes of Growth, Chapter II.\\nThe Macmillan Company", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "OBEDIENCE AND ORIGINALITY 21 5\\nneither resulting from past impressions reviving to\\nactivity nor controlled by present sensory stimulation,\\nsuch as those of earliest infancy. (See Reversion of\\nSpontaneity, Chapter IX., p. 191.)\\nIn some children, who may be said to be well trained\\nand obedient, voluntary power is not what it should be\\nit may be prompt, accurate, uniform upon similar occa-\\nsions, yet so far mechanical that the individual child is\\nobviously deficient in adaptiveness and want of true\\nself-reliance. Certain fixed modes of brain action have\\nbeen established and retained the pupil does as he\\nhas been taught to do under certain circumstances\\napparently voluntarily, at any rate without much guid-\\nance, yet under a new set of circumstances he is help-\\nless and has but little power to act for himself. Such a\\nchild is wanting in spontaneity and originality through\\nhaving been too much trained in one direction, leaving\\nhim with too little experience of the circumstances of\\nlife, and but little freedom of thought, thus suppress-\\ning what is healthy in free and spontaneous thinking.\\nRemember that voluntary mental action may occur\\nand thoughts be correctly formed in the mind without\\nthe power of expressing them. This is often found to\\nbe the case in children of the nervous type, and in\\npupils not sufficiently acquainted with the use of lan-\\nguage for expression.\\nA varied environment, and circumstances affording\\nopportunities for doing right or wrong in the tempta-", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "2l6 SCHOOL LIFE\\ntions of school days take their part in developing char-\\nacter, and afford scope for the good influences that the\\nboys and girls in school may exert over one another.\\nThe ideas of honour among schoolmates in play are just\\nas important as the principles taught in class. At the\\nboarding school half holidays out of bounds, and the\\nholidays spent at home, show much of the effects of\\ntraining and teaching exemplified in conduct when free\\nfrom restraint.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "BIBLIOGRAPHY\\nPublished Reports. Lectures and Papers by the Author relating\\nto the Scientific Study of Children, as referred to in the\\nText.\\nFor Contributions published 1877 to 1890, see Author s Mental\\nFaculty, Pages 213-215.\\nREF. NO.\\n1. 1889. Report of the Royal Commission on the Blind, the Deaf\\nand Dumb, etc. Vol. III., pp. 698-700. Evidence\\non Weak-minded Children in Public Elementary\\nSchools.\\nDictionary of Mental Science. Edited by Dr. Hack\\nTuke.\\n2. Article: Movements as signs of mental action.\\n3. Article: Postures and muscular balance of the body\\nindicative of mental status.\\n4. Article Facial expression.\\n5. Article: Evolution of mental faculty.\\n6. Article Psychosis the neural acts corresponding to\\nmental phenomena.\\n7. 1890. Development in relation to brain and nutrition. British\\nMedical Journal, August 23.\\n8. 1890-91. Report on the Physical and Mental condition of\\nfifty thousand children seen in 106 Schools in\\nLondon. Report of Commissioner of Education,\\nWashington, Chap. XXX.\\n9. 1892. Abstracts of the Milroy Lectures; delivered at the\\n217", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "2l8 BIBLIOGRAPHY\\nRoyal College of Physicians, London. On an\\nInquiry as to the physical and mental condition\\nof School Children. Lancet and British Medi-\\ncal Journal, March.\\n10. 1892. Transactions International Congress of Hygie?ie and\\nDe?nography, .London. On the Physical condi-\\ntion of children seen in Schools, and the local\\ndistribution of defective development. Section\\nDemography.\\nn. On the Scientific observation and study of children\\nin schools, and the classes into which they may be\\ngrouped. Section Childhood and School Life.\\n12. 1892. On the physical condition of children with ref-\\nerence to the effect of buildings. Transactions\\nSatiitary Institute, London, Vol. XIII.\\n13. 1892. A study of the brain and its mental action; with\\ninferences as to the nature of certain mental pro-\\ncesses. Medical Magazi?ze, London, July.\\n14. 1893. Neural action corresponding to the Mental functions\\nof the Brain. Journal of Merit al Science, London,\\nJanuary.\\n15. 1893. Results of an inquiry as to the physical and mental\\nconditions of Fifty thousand children seen in 106\\nschools with tables. Journal of Royal Statis-\\ntical Society, February.\\nReports of a Conwiittee of the British Association\\nappointed to investigate Physical and Mental de-\\nviations from the normal among children in Public\\nElementary Schools.\\n16. 1893. The signs observed and their numerical distribution\\nalso their distribution in groups.\\n17. 1894. Dull children and others defective in mental status,\\nwith recommendations and a form of Certificate.\\nA statistical statement of the cases and their dis-\\ntribution under Ages and School Standards.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "BIBLIOGRAPHY 219\\nREF. NO.\\n18. 1895. Showing distribution of defects among the Nation-\\nalities and Social Classes England. Also per-\\ncentage distribution on the numbers seen and\\nnumbers noted.\\n19. 1896. Tables showing distribution of groups of children\\namong the Nationalities and Social classes\\narranged under Ages and School Standards.\\n20. 1897. Catalogue of 1120 Exceptional Children 1 who re-\\nquire special care. Arranged in thirty-four groups\\ndistributed under Ages and School Standards.\\n21. 1898. Exceptional Children as above showing corelations\\nof the main classes of defect in Age groups.\\n22. 1899. Exceptional Children showing the proportion of the\\nPrimary groups to the Compound groups expressed\\nin percentages and distributed in Age groups.\\n23. 1894. Deviations from normal development among fifty thou-\\nsand children, and their relations with brain dis-\\norderliness, mental dulness, and low nutrition.\\nJournal of Anthropological Institute, London,\\nFebruary.\\n24. 1894. Observation and study of movement and mental status\\nin children. Proceedings of the Internalio?ial Con-\\ngress of Education, Chicago.\\n25. 1894. Lecture on Physical signs of nerve derangement. Clini-\\ncal Journal, London, June.\\n26. 1894. Report of Committee on Children. Giving definition\\nof signs or abnormal points observed in fifty thou-\\nsand children. British Medical Journal, July 28.\\nInternational Clinics. Lippincott Co, Phila-\\ndelphia.\\n27. 1894. Delicate children and their management. Vol. III.\\n28. 1895. Brain disorder in School children. Vol. II., Fifth\\nSeries.\\n29. 1896. The Signs to observe in the brain disorders of chil-\\ndren. Vol. II., Sixth Series.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "220\\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\\n30. 1897.\\n31. 1897.\\n32. 1898.\\n33- 1898.\\n34. 1899.\\n35. 1895.\\n36. 1896.\\n37- 1896.\\n38. 1896.\\n39-\\n4.0.\\nThe nature and treatment of Chorea in its various\\ntypes. Vol. I., Seventh Series.\\nCongenital defect of the heart and other parts;\\nprognosis and treatment. Vol. III., Seventh\\nSeries.\\nPhysical signs in examination of brain cases. Vol.\\nIII., Eighth Series.\\nThe value of venesection in certain cases of heart\\nfailure. Vol. IV., Seventh Series.\\nDisturbed circulation of the brain. Vol. III., Ninth\\nSeries.\\nLecture on Heart disease and the Brain. Clinical\\nJournal, London, January.\\nReport of the Departme?ztal Committee appointed by\\nthe Local Government Board to inquire as to\\nEducation of Children under Poor Law Guardians\\nin London.\\nEvidence as to conditions of the children and those\\nfeeble-minded. Vol. II., pp. 14-21.\\nReport of the Departmental Co?nmittee appointed by\\nthe Hojne Office on Reformatory and Industrial\\nSchools.\\nEvidence as to conditions of the children and recom-\\nmendations. Vol. II., pp. 1011-1020.\\nEighth Internatio7ial Congress of Hygiene and Demog-\\nraphy, Budapest.\\nReport of the Committee on Mental and physical\\nconditions of children, appointed by the Seventh\\nCongress. Transactions, Vol. III., p. 304.\\nDemonstration of children under observation. Trans-\\nactions, Vol. III., p. 396.\\nA method of observing and reporting on mental and\\nphysical conditions of children. Transactions,^ o\\\\.\\nII., p. 621.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "BIBLIOGRAPHY 221\\n41. 1896. Mental and physical conditions among fifty thousand\\nchildren seen 1 892-1 894 and the methods of study-\\ning recorded observations, with special reference\\nto the determination of the causes of mental dul-\\nlness and other defects. Journal of Royal Statis-\\ntical Society, March.\\n42. 1897. On the relations between bodily development, nutrition,\\nand brain conditions in their pathological aspects.\\nTram -actions Royal Medico -Chirurgical Society,\\nLondon.\\n43. 1897. On mental and physical feebleness, with analysis of\\ncases. Lancet, London, February 6.\\n44. 1898. Report of the Departmetital Committee appoiiited by\\nthe Education Department as to Defective and\\nEpileptic Children.\\nEvidence as to the feeble-minded, Medical advice\\nand Statistics. Vol. II., pp. 25-39.\\n1899. School World. Macmillan Co.\\n45. Physical observation of the boys and girls in school.\\nJanuary.\\n46. Points for description in observing boys and girls in\\nSchool life. February.\\n47. Physiognomical signs, indicating development normal\\nor subnormal in boys and girls. March.\\n48. Propositions concerning boys and girls in School\\nLife. April.\\n49. 1899. The mental abilities and disabilities of children. Read\\nbefore the Childhood Society, London. Lancet,\\nApril 29.\\n1899. Cyclopedia of the Diseases of Children. Keating.\\nVol. V.\\n50. Scientific study of the mental and physical conditions\\nof childhood based upon the examination of one\\nhundred thousand children.\\n51. Neural and mental disorders in children.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "222 BIBLIOGRAPHY\\nTwentieth Century Medicine. Neural and mental de-\\nfects in childhood.\\nClifford Allbutt s System of Medicine. Dull, Delicate,\\nand Nervous Children.\\nInternational Congress of Women, London. Trans-\\nactio7is. Teaching children mentally or physically\\ndefective.\\nREF.\\nNO.\\n52.\\nI899.\\n53-\\nI899.\\n54-\\nI899.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nAccuracy, in modes of action, 143.\\nAct, of attention, 179.\\nAction, see Movements.\\ncompound, of brain, 39, 40.\\ncoordinated, 207.\\ncoordinated by sight, 145.\\ncoordinated through the senses,\\n68.\\nin cell growth, controlled, 185.\\nneuro-muscular, 130.\\nspontaneous, see Spontaneous ac-\\ntion.\\nActs, not voluntary, 214, 215.\\nAddition, 115.\\ncause of difficulty in, 13.\\nmuscle sense in, 38.\\nAdhesiveness, a form of mental action,\\n188.\\nAdolescence, excitement at, 5.\\npreparation for, 49.\\nAdverse circumstances, 8.\\nAge, average, for college, 139.\\nAge groups, 49.\\nAir, 16.\\npure, 127,\\nAmaebae and oxygen, 127.\\nAnaemia, 122.\\nAnalogy, of brain and army, 102, 107.\\nof growth and movement, 97.\\nof telephone system and brain,\\n107.\\nAnger, see Passion.\\nAntecedents, of a child, 4.\\nAnthropometry, 60.\\nand development, 60.\\nAntihelix, see Pleat of ear.\\nAppetite, capricious, 55.\\nvoracious, 55.\\nAptitude, mental, 177.\\nAptitude, with large brain, 30.\\nArithmetic, to addition, 150.\\nAspects of childhood, 5.\\nof teacher and physician, 8.\\nAssimilation, 127.\\nAssociated ideas, memory of, 189.\\nAthletics, Grecian, 151.\\nAtmosphere in class-room, 127.\\nAttention, faculty of, 179.\\nfirst sign of, 35, 36.\\nmental, 178.\\nnot prolonged, 185.\\nAwakening, gradual, 123.\\nBaby, spreading movement in, 175.\\nBack bent, 56.\\nin infant, 24.\\nBack straight, 130.\\nBain, Professor A., 188.\\nBalance, see Postures.\\nof hand, 53.\\nof hand in sleep, 54.\\nof hand, nervous, 55.\\nof hand, straight, 53.\\nof hand, weak, 54.\\nBasis of character, 32.\\nfor arithmetic, 12.\\nBath, cold, 123.\\nBeautiful objects, value of, 126.\\nBell, Sir Charles, description of laugh-\\nter, 87.\\nBlood and digestion, 5.\\nBlood and oxygen, 5.\\nBodily development and brain activity,\\n60.\\nBody and brain, 3.\\nBook, position of, 129.\\nBooks, small type, 126.\\nBoots, 121.\\n223", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "224\\nINDEX\\nBotanical methods, 9.\\nBrain, action on other organs, 117.\\nand blood supply, 117.\\nand inheritance, 95.\\nand muscular exercise, 4.\\nand respiration, 4, 5.\\ncentres act separately, 94.\\ncontrolling nutrition, 4, 5.\\ngood and bad habits, effect on, 4.\\ngrowth of, 23, 28.\\nnutrition and stimulation necessary,\\n26.\\nreaction on nutrition, 120.\\nrelation to digestion, 5.\\nstatus normal, 196.\\nstatus of, 32.\\nstatus subnormal, 196.\\ntraining of, 117.\\ntypes of, in family, 95.\\nweight, 28.\\nBrain action, and attention, 184.\\napart from mind, 4.\\ncharacters of, examples, 108, 109.\\ncompound, 111.\\ndisorderly, 89.\\ngeneral characters of, 32, 73.\\ngood modes of, 89.\\nnot balanced, 185.\\nphysical and mental effort, 199.\\nsuperfluous, signs of, 13.\\nvarieties of, 33-46.\\nBrain cells, coordinated by sight, 209.\\nBrain centres, and nerve paths, 68.\\ninteraction of, 188-205.\\npreadjustment of, 179.\\nBrain evolution, influence of home life\\non, 94.\\ninfluence of school life on, 94.\\nin nature, 95.\\nBrain moods, changing, 3.\\noutcome of expressing abilities or\\nfaults, 3.\\nBrain power, evolution of, 94.\\nBrain processes, in comparison, 162,\\n163.\\nBrain pulsation, 175.\\nBrain states, and subnormal nerve\\nsigns, 59.\\nBrain weight, adults, 60.\\nat seventh year, 60.\\nBrain weight at twentieth year, 115.\\nBreakfast dietary, 133.\\nBurnham, Dr., 128.\\nBusts, 125.\\nCamper, Pierre, on expression, 86, 88.\\nCanine tooth, uncovered on one side\\nin grinning, 51.\\nCarriage, graceful, 130.\\nCase, illustrative, 46, 47.\\nCatarrh, and fat, 136.\\nCausation, ideas of, 166.\\nCentres, interaction of, 198.\\nreassociation of, 199.\\nCharacter and training, 95.\\nChart, for description of child, 79, 80.\\nof child of nervous type, 90-93.\\nChest, capacious, 131.\\ndescription of, 28.\\nmeasurements of, 28.\\nChild, at school, description of, 48.\\nclothing of, 121.\\ncross, 119.\\nevolution of, 94.\\ngood habits in, 120.\\nin sleep, 122.\\nnervous type of, description, 90-93.\\nsensations of, 121.\\ntired, 6.\\nwaking up, 122, 123.\\nChildish brain states, reversion to, 191.\\nChildish condition, reversion to, 192.\\nChildlike for age, 32.\\nChildren, lonely, 120.\\nof town, distant vision in, 65.\\nsociability of, 175.\\nsocial habits of, 159.\\nChild study, 194.\\nessential to teacher, 9.\\nmethods of, 9.\\nnatural history methods adopted\\nfor, 2, 3.\\nChoice, 154.\\nChorea, or St. Virus s dance, 77.\\nCirculation sluggish, 117.\\nCircumference of head, 60.\\nClassification of children, 73.\\nClothing, of child, 121.\\nwoollen, 121.\\nColour, apart from weight, p.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n225\\nColour without form, 65.\\nCommand, words of, 41.\\nCompound brain action, 111.\\nand coordinated action, 42.\\ncoordinated action, description of,\\n39, 68, 69.\\nComradeship, 121.\\nConditions, observed with mental con-\\nfusion, 195.\\nConduct, 216.\\nexamples, 165.\\nConfusion, and methodical training, 89,\\nConsciousness, 196.\\nContinuous culture, value of, 5.\\nContinuous growth and development,\\n23-\\nControl, followed by spreading action,\\n17-\\nimproved by practice, 65.\\nthrough muscle sense, 37.\\nthrough senses, 65, 199.\\nthrough sight and hearing, 37.\\nCoordinated action, 69, 102, no, 175.\\nand compound cerebration, 42.\\nand environment, 207.\\nand mental capacity, 42.\\nappearance in infant, 43.\\ndescription, 42.\\nexamples, 42.\\nnot produced for long, 69.\\nCoordinated acts, spontaneity inter-\\nvening, 69.\\nCoordinated exercises, importance of,\\n69.\\nCoordination and spontaneity, in.\\nand voluntary power, 202.\\nCopy book in writing, 129.\\nCorrugation, 58.\\nCorrugator muscles, 50.\\nCortex, brain cells in, 209.\\nCounting, on fingers, 38.\\nCricket, and brain training, n 1.\\nCubicles, 124.\\nCulture and growth, 122.\\nCurriculum, 122.\\nDarwin, Charles, 184.\\nDeafness and mental confusion, 186.\\nDebility, hand balance in, 55.\\nDelicacy, with small brain, 30.\\nQ\\nDelirium, 192, 193.\\nDescription, detailed, importance of, 48.\\nof children, 73.\\nDesfontaines, 100.\\nDevelopmental signs, 89.\\nDiatactic union, 209.\\nillustration of, 107, 108.\\nincreased by training, 107.\\nof nerve cells, 106, 107.\\nDiet, 131.\\nDietary, breakfast, 133.\\nDietary, see Dinner.\\nDifficulties and training, 59.\\nin class, 177.\\nDigestion and brain, 118.\\nDinner, dietary, 134.\\nDirections, precise, 199.\\nterms of, 162, 163.\\nDistance and time, 168.\\nDistinction between training and teach-\\ning, 10.\\nDominant idea, 199.\\nDormitories, 124.\\nDress, not conspicuous, 121.\\nDrill, advantages of, 66.\\nDrilling and physical brain training,\\n149.\\nDukes, Dr. Clement, 123.\\nDull pupils, 90.\\nEar, description of, 61.\\nEarly training, aims of, 20.\\nElementary vocal sounds, 16.\\nEmotion, 71.\\nEmotions, 115.\\nparts moved in, 76.\\nspreading area, 45.\\nEnvironment, 73, 173.\\nand series of acts, 204.\\ninfluence of, on thought, 210.\\nimpression by, 198.\\nEpilepsy, 16.\\npetit mal, 16.\\nEstablished modes of brain action, 201.\\nEvolution, 68.\\nExactness in training, 69.\\nExample, imitation of fatigue, 14.\\nof act of memory, 187.\\nof coordinated action, 99.\\nof faults of children, 16.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "226\\nINDEX\\nExample of strong impression without\\noutward expression, 187.\\nExcitement, mental, 117.\\nExercise, 136, 137.\\nExhaustion, and brain action, 213.\\nand muscular exercise, 180.\\ncauses of, 180.\\nfrom bad ventilation, 180.\\nof brain, signs of, 180, 181.\\nExpansion of chest, 125.\\nExpression, absence of, 52.\\nand brain activity, 52.\\nand eye movements, 52.\\nand fatigue, 52.\\nas a whole, 52.\\nCamper, on, 86.\\nSir Charles Bell, on, 87.\\nEyes, 78.\\nhealth of, 125.\\nsmall, 9.\\nEyeball, accommodation in, 65, 66.\\nin sleep, movements of, 25.\\nEye drill, 15.\\nEye fixation, in speech, 16.\\nin spelling, 14.\\nEye movements and addition, 185.\\nand proportion, 200.\\ndegree of, felt, 147.\\nexpression, 52.\\nimpressions of, 147.\\nin reading, 185.\\nin writing, 186.\\nirregular so interfere with attention,\\n180.\\nirregularity in, 53.\\nspontaneity in, 52.\\nspontaneous, yet controllable, 58.\\ntraining of, important, 145.\\nFace, description in detail, 49.\\nof child, 50.\\nFaculty, mental, 149.\\nFailure, causes of, 4.\\nFat and catarrh, 136.\\nFatigue, 122.\\nFatigue, and expression, 52.\\nand fidgetiness, 119.\\nand loss of appetite, 120.\\nand mental effort, 199.\\nearly recognition of, 181, 182.\\nFatigue, -in master, 85.\\nirregular movements in, 181.\\nmental, 180.\\nof brain, 94.\\nof eyes, 126.\\nrestlessness of, confounded with\\nspontaneity, 9.\\nFeatures, absence of normal parts, 61.\\ncoarse, 61.\\nsymmetry of, 61.\\nwell-moulded, 61.\\nFeeding, 16, 117.\\ndefective, effect on fontanelle, 175.\\nregularity in, 29, 30.\\nFemale, brain weight, 60.\\nFinger movements and brain state, 55.\\nFinger twitches, 55, 56.\\nFirst year, control by sight and sound,\\n26.\\ngreat brain growth in, 26.\\nimitation commences, 29.\\nFixed habits, 34.\\nFlat foot, 121.\\nFlexion of limbs, at birth, 24.\\nFontanelle, closure of, 28.\\ndepressed, 175.\\ndescription of, 27.\\nin disease, 27.\\nin health, 27.\\npulsation in, 175.\\nshape, 27.\\nsize of, 28.\\nFood, and brain, 118.\\narticles of, 133-136.\\nForehead, signs in, 61.\\nFrontal muscles, 50.\\nFrontals, overacting, 57, 58.\\nFrowning, 34, 50, 69.\\nmuscles used, 50.\\nuniform repetition, 69.\\nFurrows on brow, see Frontal muscles.\\nGeography, study of, 168.\\nGirls, delicate, 8.\\nill-developed, 8.\\nGlands, enlarged, 78.\\nGregarious habits of nervous children,\\n15-\\nGrimaces, 34.\\nGrinning, 34.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n227\\nGrinning, and brain deficiency, 58.\\nas a habit, 8.\\ndescription, 51.\\nunilateral, 51.\\nGrowth, analogy to movements, 97.\\nand movement, 97.\\ncontinuous, 23.\\ncoordinated action in, 99.\\ndiminishing number of parts grow-\\ning, 98.\\nincreasing number of parts grow-\\ning, 98.\\nmeasurement of, 63.\\nrapidity of, in early life, 23.\\nuniformly repeated, 97.\\nGuessing, 9.\\nGymnastics, German and Swedish, 151,\\n152.\\nHabits, good and regular, 120.\\nlack of good, 5.\\nmental, healthy, 16.\\nneed of training, 29.\\nHall, Dr. Stanley, 85.\\nHand, as index of brain, 53.\\nof child in sleep, 54.\\npostures of, 53-56.\\nHand balance {see Posture), 53.\\nnervous, 54, 55.\\nweak, 54.\\nHand exercises, accuracy in, 143.\\ndescribed, 144, 145.\\nuseful means of training, 143.\\nHands, coordinated action of, 53.\\nheld out, 53.\\nheld out at same level, 54.\\nHartwell, Dr. E. H., 130, 151.\\nHead, at birth, 27.\\ncircumference at different ages, 23.\\nmeasurement, 27, 28.\\nsmall, 60.\\nHeads, small, leading to delicacy,\\n3\u00c2\u00b0-\\nHeadache, 122.\\nand orbicular muscles, 51.\\nHeadaches, 71.\\nHealth statistics, 138.\\nHealthiness, 64.\\nHealthy brain in healthy body, 4.\\nHearing, testing of, 79.\\nHigh School girls, English, too much\\nwritten home work, 183.\\nHistory, study of, 168.\\nHome training, 23.\\nHome work, see High School girls.\\nHonour, ideas of, 216.\\nHours of sleep and work, table of, 124.\\nHygiene, 117.\\nmental, 7, 48, 139.\\nof school life, physical and mental\\naspects of, 6.\\npersonal, 120.\\nHysteria, 115.\\nIdeas of honour, 216.\\nIllusions, example of, 71.\\nImaginations, 34.\\nImagining uncontrolled, 119.\\nImbecile, 64.\\nand coordination, 106.\\nImitation, 142.\\nfaculty of, important, 30.\\nof fatigue, 14.\\nof signs of fatigue in teacher, 10, 12.\\nof teacher, 13.\\nImposition, 183.\\nImpressed, by hearing, 179.\\nby sight, 179.\\nImpressionability, described, 34, 35.\\ndistinct from memory, 188.\\nexample of, 64.\\nincreased by practice, 64.\\nindicated, no.\\npresent, 35.\\nImpressions, analogous, 190.\\nauditory, 162.\\nby muscle sense, 66, 162.\\ncohesion of, 186.\\ncompound, 205.\\ndistinctness necessary, 211.\\nearly, and words, 65.\\nfixed set of, 154.\\nfollowed by mental processes, which\\nare retained adhesiveness, 188.\\nfrom environment, 198.\\nfundamental, 72.\\nin order, 68, 211.\\nof measurement and weight, 162.\\non brain by sight, sound, and\\nfeeling, 16.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "228\\nINDEX\\nImpressions produced singly, 161.\\nretained in order, 112.\\nrevised, 200, 201.\\nsensory, 177.\\nsimple reception of, 188.\\nvocal, in.\\nwithout use of words, examples,\\n163, 164.\\nInfant, and coordination, 106.\\nat birth, 24.\\nlimbs flexed, 24.\\nmuscles, strength of, 24.\\nInhibition, by established principles,\\n199.\\nby stimulus, 35.\\ndate of appearance, 35.\\ndefined, 198.\\nof movement, 35, 68.\\nInstep, and boots, 121.\\nInstruction, 64.\\nshould be preceded by training,\\n10.\\nIntellectual action, 207.\\nInteraction among nerve centres, 152,\\nI7S-\\nInterest, added to teacher s daily\\nduties, 2.\\nIrritability, 87.\\nJoy, increasing movements in, jj.\\nKindergarten, hand movements in, 78.\\nKinds of movements, not nerve signs,\\n73-\\nKnuckles, 58.\\nLatitude, 112.\\nLaughing, akin to crying, 96.\\nLaughter, as an aid in teaching, 70.\\ndescription, 87.\\nLength, apart from bigness, 9.\\nLengths, compared, 161.\\nLessening series of movements, exam-\\nples, 75.\\nLessons, duration of, 158.\\nLight, 16.\\nin class-room, 126.\\nto awake child, 122.\\nLimbs, of infant at birth, 24.\\nLiterature, of education, 37.\\nLiveliness, should be encouraged, 30.\\nLoafing, 117.\\nLongitude, and eye-movements, 112.\\nLordosis, 56-57.\\nLunch, 132.\\nLungs, description, 29.\\nMale, brain weight, in, 60.\\nManifestation, earliest, of mental power,\\n178.\\nManners, 132.\\nMap, 112.\\nMargarine, 135.\\nMaster tissues, 130.\\nsize and strength of, 130.\\nMeals, tea, 134, 135.\\ntimes for, 133.\\nMechanism, nerve muscular, 104.\\nMemory, 42, 113, 170.\\nand physical exercises, 188, 189.\\ndefects of, 190, 195.\\nkinds of, 188.\\nof associated ideas, 189.\\nreactivity of impressions, 186.\\nMental action, 32, 194.\\nexpressed by, 103.\\nexpressed by movement, 32.\\nexpression of, 194.\\nhow expressed, 4.\\nquantity in given time, 182.\\nMental acts, series of, 189.\\nMental analysis, 171.\\nMental aptitude, 177.\\nin a child, 195.\\nMental attention, signs of, 178.\\nMental breakdown, at adolescence, 195.\\nMental confusion, 176.\\nand concomitant conditions, 195.\\nand deafness, 186.\\nand memory, 190.\\nbrain training in, 186.\\ncauses of, 185.\\nquick pulse in, 186.\\nMental disorderliness, 194.\\nMental effort, and fatigue, 199.\\nMental evolution, 96.\\nMental faculty, 149.\\nMental habits, healthy, 16.\\nMental hygiene, 48, 139, 184, 194.\\nsections of, 195.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n229\\nMental processes, accuracy needful,\\n176.\\nacting regularly, 176.\\nof analysis, 190.\\ntraining in, 157.\\nMental status, reversion in, 195.\\nvariable, 84.\\nMental training, in choice, 171.\\nMilitary drill, producing precision,\\n187.\\nMimosa pudica, 99.\\nMind, 102.\\nModes of brain action, fixed, 189.\\nMoney, knowledge of, 176.\\nMonth the fifth, inhibition, 35.\\nMouth, 51.\\nasymmetrical action, snarling, 51.\\nsmall, 9.\\nMovements, augmenting series of, 76.\\nclasses of, 74, 75.\\ncoordinated series of, jj, 78.\\nextra, accompanying mental act felt\\nby child, 43, 44.\\nin newly born, 24.\\nirregularity in, 8.\\nlessening series of, 76, 77.\\nof hand, in counting regular and\\nuniform, 18.\\noriginated in brain, 24.\\nrespiratory, 178.\\nspontaneous (see Spontaneous\\nmovements), hopeful, 2.\\nMovements, spontaneous, in small\\nparts, 178.\\nof toes, 121.\\nspreading, in baby, 175.\\nMovements, trained, mental ability\\nimproved, 8.\\nuniform series, 75.\\nMuscles, as sense organs, 67.\\nfrontal, 50.\\nMuscles of back, weak in infant, 24.\\nMuscles, strain on, 67.\\nMuscle sense, 141.\\nexamples of, 148.\\nimpressions by, 66.\\nin movement, 37.\\nin tension, 38, 148.\\nMuscle tension, and weight proportion,\\n200.\\nNails, 78.\\nNatural history, methods of study,\\nexamples, 173.\\nschedule, 72.\\nNerve cells, 113.\\ngrouped, 106, 209.\\nNerve centres, 26, 94, 95.\\nfor thought, 105.\\nhealth and training of, 174 et seq.\\nin action, 26.\\nin adolescence, 174 et seq.\\nin infancy, 174.\\nin school life, 174 et seq.\\ninteraction among, 175.\\nspontaneous action of, 177.\\nNerve paths, 41, 113, 142.\\nand brain centres, 68.\\nprearranged, 187.\\ntemporary, 105.\\nNerve signs, 73.\\nand dulness, statistics, 59.\\nco-relation with dulness, 58, 59.\\nin eye-movements, 57.\\nin face, 49-52.\\nin hands and fingers, 54-56.\\nin spine, 56, 57.\\nmay vary, 84.\\nsubnormal, 75.\\nsubnormal, associated with brain\\nstates, 59.\\nNerve storms, 115.\\nNerve tone, signs of loss of, 181.\\nNervous dyspepsia, 119.\\nNervousness, 71.\\nNervous type, 215.\\ndescribed, 90, 93.\\nNormal child, 84.\\nNose, growth of, 61.\\nNostrils, small, 62.\\nNumbers, teaching of, 159, 160.\\nuse of, 201.\\nNumerals, order of, 211.\\nuse of, 189.\\nNursery, 23.\\nNutrition, 78, 89.\\nObedience, 208.\\nObservation, after methods of natural\\nhistory, 3.\\nof body of child, 73.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "230\\nINDEX\\nObservation of character of brain\\naction, 48.\\nof children, 73.\\npoints to observe, 73, 74.\\nOccupation, lack of, 119.\\nOrbiculares oculi, muscles for closing\\neyelids, 51.\\ntone of, 51.\\nOrderly habits, 206.\\nOrgans, control exerted on one an-\\nother, 118.\\nOrganic matter breathed out, poison-\\nous, 127.\\nOrganised work and games, value of,\\n89.\\nOrigin of difficulties, 2.\\nOriginality, wanting, 215.\\nOvermobility, 120.\\nOvertaxing the memory, 187.\\nOxygen, in class-room, 127.\\nPalate, 63.\\nas indication of development, 63.\\nPalpitation and disorderly brain action,\\n5-\\nParsing, 170.\\nPassion, storm of, 44.\\nPeevishness, 87, 88.\\nPhonograph, 187.\\nPhotograph of baby, 25.\\nPhysical exercises, 130.\\nand memory, 188, 189.\\ngive good carriage and gait, 66.\\none advantage of, n.\\nPhysical training, duration of lesson,\\n149.\\nends aimed at in, 130.\\nquickens thought, 206.\\nPhysiognomy, 60.\\nand nerve system, 60.\\nand proportions, 60.\\nas an indication of development, 60.\\nPhysiological law of impression, 68.\\nPhysiological terms of description, value\\nof, 95, 96.\\nPlants, and movement, 97.\\nleaves of, need washing, 128.\\nPlay of infancy, impressions produced,\\n67, 68.\\nPlayfulness, importance of, 30.\\nPleasure in teacher s work, 2.\\nPleat of ear, 61, 62.\\nPost card, for examination by child, 20.\\nPostures, of infant at birth, 24.\\nof hand, or balance, 53-56.\\nPractice of finger exercises, 144.\\nPrecept, 21.\\ntruth of, modified by experience,\\n20, 21.\\nPrehensile act in infant, 35.\\nPrehension, act of, 178, 179.\\nPrincipal, of school, 14.\\nknowledge of each pupil necessary\\nto, 3.\\nProportion, and eye-movements, 200.\\nestimation of, in length, 199.\\nestimation of, in weight, 199.\\nin arithmetic, 115.\\nmuscle sense in, 38.\\nProportions and physiognomy, 60.\\nProstration at adolescence, 5.\\nPsychology, physiological, 59.\\nPsychosis, 184, 191.\\nPulse, quick, in mental confusion, 186.\\nPunctuality, in feeding, 119.\\nin hours of sleep, 119.\\nPupil, and teacher, 109.\\nof eye, contraction of, 188.\\nPupils of eyes in sleep, 25.\\nRapid observation, necessary in class\\ntraining, 14.\\nterms of description needed for, 73.\\nRatio, 161.\\nReading, 20, 150.\\nRecovering from chorea, movements\\nlessen, jy.\\nRegiment of soldiers, and brain cen-\\ntres, 94.\\nanalogy to brain, 102.\\nRegularity in times for sleep and airing\\nof child, 16.\\nRepetition of action with accuracy-\\nretentiveness, 11.\\nReport of 100,000 children, see Refer-\\nences, 15, 41.\\nRespiratory movements, see Move-\\nments.\\nResponse, 70, 71.\\nappearance in infant, 45.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n231\\nResponse delayed, 9, 71, 203.\\nof brain, 45, 174.\\nquick, 9.\\nvague, 180.\\nverbal, 179\\nResponsibilities, in family, 1.\\ntoward individual child, 1.\\nRestlessness, 89.\\nRestraint, freedom from, 216.\\nRetention of impressions, 41.\\nRetentiveness, 41.\\nand memory, 42, 113.\\nand numerals, 41.\\ncultivated, 175.\\ndepends on, 41.\\nfor movements, 41.\\nfor thought, 41.\\nlow type of, 76.\\nReversion, and lowered nutrition, 101.\\nand nutrition, in lower animals, 191.\\nin attitudes, 101.\\nin brain states, 191.\\nin mental status, 195.\\nRevival of former thoughts, 193.\\nRim of ear, 60.\\nRooms for sleeping, 122.\\nSchedule for examining natural objects,\\n171.\\nSchool desks, 128.\\nSchoolhouse, 125.\\nSchool hygiene, 194, 195.\\nSchool life, hygiene of, 6.\\ntemptations of, 215.\\nSchool shop, 175.\\nScientific description of children, 73.\\nScientific principles, applied to study\\nof mind, 79.\\nSecond year, speech begun, 16.\\nSedentary occupation and exercise,\\nI3 6 I 37-\\nSeedling plant, 169.\\nfood of, 169.\\nSelf-help, 131.\\nSelf-reliance, 215.\\nSense, organs of, 178.\\nSense organs, exercise of, 65.\\nSeries of movements, augmenting, 75.\\ncoordinated, 75.\\nlessening, 75.\\nSeries of movements, 75.\\nuniformly repeated, 75.\\nSeventh year, circumference of head,\\n60.\\nvocabulary, 165, 166.\\nShort sight, 186.\\nShuttleworth, Dr. G. E., 64.\\nSick child, and coordination, 106.\\nSidgwick, Mrs. William H., 138.\\nSight, testing of, 78, 79.\\nSize, estimation of {see Muscle sense),\\n38.\\nfelt, 10.\\nSize of object, apart from weight, 9.\\nSkin, clear from cracks, etc., 80.\\nSleep and waking of child, 122, 123.\\nSleep, circulation during, 25.\\neyeballs movements of, 25.\\nhours of, 124.\\ninfant in, 25.\\npupils in, 25.\\nSlowness of action, and circulation, 117.\\nSloyd work, 78.\\nSmiling, 58.\\nSmith, Priestley, school desks, 129.\\nSounds, elementary vocal, 16.\\nSpasm and stammering, 76.\\nSpeech, cultured, 175.\\nSpelling, 15.\\nSpine, curvature of, from bending at\\ndesks, 56.\\ndescription of, 56.\\npostures of, 56.\\nSpontaneity, 64, 195.\\nand brain activity, 175.\\nand voluntary action, 198.\\narrested 178.\\ndescribed, 32.\\nencouraged, 72, 167.\\nin mental action, 33.\\nin movement, 33.\\nin young animals, 184.\\nof plants in growth, 184.\\nwanting, 215.\\nSpontaneity, with impressionability, 68.\\nSpontaneous action, excessive, 34.\\nsubnormal, 34.\\nuniformly repetitive, 34.\\nSpontaneous activities, 6.\\nimpressions controlling them, 6.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "232\\nINDEX\\nSpontaneous brain action, basis of\\nmental power, 178.\\nSpontaneous imagining, 119.\\nSpontaneous movement, chattering, 30.\\nindicates hopeful condition of brain,\\n2.\\ninhibited, no.\\nin small parts, 178.\\nof toes, 121.\\nSpontaneous thinking stories, doings\\nof animals, conversations, 32,\\n33-\\nSpontaneous thoughts, inhibition of,\\n212, 213.\\nSpreading action, following first at-\\ntempts at control, 16.\\nSpreading area, 185.\\nand emotion, 45.\\nof brain action, 69.\\nof movement, examples, 43, 44.\\nstammering, 44.\\nSpreading brain action, example, 202.\\nSpreading movements, in baby, 175.\\nSpreading spasm (see Stammering,\\netc.) 76.\\nStammering, 44, 76.\\nStandard of measurements, 162.\\nweights, 162.\\nStarchy foods, 29.\\nStatistics, health of women in college\\nlife, 138.\\nStatuary, 125.\\nStatus of child, 48.\\nStealing and epilepsy, 16.\\nSternum, 28.\\nStrength, speed, and skill, exercise of,\\nneeded, 131.\\nStrong stimulus, 214.\\nStudy of children, natural history\\nmethods adopted, 85.\\nSt. Vitus s dance, 55.\\nSubnormal action, 34.\\nSubnormal nerve signs, examples, 75.\\nSuccess and failure, causes of, to be\\nworked out, 4.\\nSuperfluity of brain action, 44, 45.\\nSuperintendent of school, 72.\\nSwedish and German gymnastics, 151,\\n152.\\nSymmetry of development, 61.\\nTable of work and sleep, for age, 124.\\nTeacher in class, relation to pupils, 3,\\n109.\\nTeaching and training, distinction, 10.\\nTeaching, of names, 160.\\nof numerals, 159, 160.\\nof weights, 160.\\nsystematic, 211.\\nTeeth, 78.\\ncleaning of, 125.\\nTeething, 29.\\nTemperature, of class-room, 128.\\nTest type, 80.\\nTeutons and Gauls, martial exercise\\nof, 151.\\nThinking, occurring during inhibition,\\n36.\\nself-contained, 200.\\nThought and interaction of centres,\\n198.\\nThoughts, independent of senses, 34.\\npower of expressing them, lacking,\\n215.\\nreactivity of, 192, 193.\\nspontaneous, suppressed, 199.\\nspreading area of, example, 203.\\nvalue, depends on, 183.\\nThrift, ideas of, 130.\\nTime and distance, 168.\\nTime, appreciation of, 164, 165.\\nTime for play, 175.\\nTired child, described, 6. See also\\nChild.\\nToes of infant, movements of, 24.\\nTongue protruded, 43.\\nTonsils, 78, 80.\\nTraining, 65, 72, 140.\\nand character, 69.\\nand difficulties, 59.\\nand future learning, 72.\\nand teaching, distinction, 10.\\nTraining general characters of brain\\naction, 71.\\nTraining hand exercises, 143.\\nTraining in making choice, 171.\\nin mental processes, 157.\\nin separating observations, 166, 167.\\nTraining, method in, 115.\\nneed of, from birth, 25.\\nof eye-movements, 140.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n233\\nTraining, preceding teaching, 10, 140,\\n141.\\nwithout use of words, n.\\nTranscription, 15.\\nTricks or habits, 75.\\nTwitches of fingers, 55.\\nTwitching of fingers holding pen, 74.\\nUncontrolled thinking, causes exhaus-\\ntion, 120.\\nUnderstanding of what is occurring in\\nchild s brain, 3.\\nUniform grinning and mental defi-\\nciency, 58.\\nUniform mental effort tiring, 54.\\nUniformly repeated growth, example,\\n97-\\nUniformly repeated movements, ex-\\namples, 75.\\nVaried environment, 215, 216.\\nVentilation, 122.\\nand exhaustion, 180.\\nVerbal memory, 188.\\nVertical script, 130.\\nVisible indications of brain state ob-\\ntained by careful observation, 9.\\nVision, distant, practice in, 125.\\nVitality given to body by brain, 5.\\nVivacity of brain in infant, 24.\\nVivacity of movement, 34.\\nVocabulary at seventh year, 165.\\nVocal impressions, 111.\\nVolition, 196.\\nVolitional action, 204.\\nand antecedent impressions, 204.\\nVolitional power and good health, 213.\\nand low diet, 213.\\nVolume of head, good, 90.\\nVoluntary action, 205, 209.\\nspontaneity in, 198.\\nVoluntary power, 196.\\nVoluntary power and comparison, 205.\\nand control, 199.\\nat birth, 203.\\nat four months, 204.\\nchoice, 204, 205.\\nevolution of, 203.\\nmechanical, 215.\\nmental, 197.\\nmodes of brain action leading to,\\n209.\\nmotor, 197.\\nVoluntary thoughts, 207.\\nWar Department, 94.\\nWarmth and cold affects infant, 35.\\nWaste of brain power, 72.\\nWater cress, 134.\\nWeakness of back muscles, 24.\\nWeighing, 156.\\nWeight, 38.\\nestimate of, see Muscle sense.\\nfelt, 10.\\nof child, increase in first year, 23.\\nWeighted pill boxes, for testing, 158.\\nWeights, appreciated, 38.\\nand muscle tension, 200.\\norder of, 211.\\nteaching of, 160.\\nWell-being of children, 1.\\nWhat to look at and for, know-\\nledge of, necessary, 9.\\nWhispered speech and hearing, 81.\\nWindows, 126.\\nWoollen clothes, 121.\\nWords, employment in training, 146,\\n148.\\nWork, hours of, table, 124.\\nWorking hypothesis, 104.\\nWrists, 58.\\nWriting, 150.\\nYear, second, speech commenced in, 16.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "THE STUDY OF CHILDREN\\nAND\\nTHEIR SCHOOL TRAINING.\\nFRANCIS WARNER, M.D. (Lond.),\\nF.R.C.P., F.R.C.S. (Eng.),\\nPhysician to the London Hospital Lecturer on Therapeutics and on Botany at the\\nLondon Hospital College Formerly Httnterian Professor of Anatomy\\nand Physiology in the Royal College of Surgeons of England.\\ni2mo. Cloth. Price $1.00, net.\\nNOTICES.\\nThis is a volume singularly clear and exact in its expression and definite in its\\ngeneralization, the first really scientific monograph on child study that we have in any\\nlanguage. We believe that the publication of this volume will exert a profound and far-\\nreaching influence for good in aiding teachers and parents in doing the best that can be\\ndone with children in various phases in life. Journal of Pedagogy.\\nI am greatly pleased with the book, and I believe it will be of marked benefit to\\nteachers in all grades of educational work. I trust it may find its way into the hands\\nof a great many teachers and parents, for I feel it is of genuine merit, combining scien-\\ntific and practical qualities in a happy manner. Prof. M. V. O Shea, University of\\nWisconsin.\\nI regard this volume as one of the very best contributions yet made on the subject\\nof Child Study. J. M. Greenwood, Supt. of City Schools, Kansas City, Mo.\\nThis book seems to us an extremely suggestive and important one for teachers and\\nparents; and being simply written, and free from technicalities, it may be understood\\nand applied with ease by any reader. The Dial.\\nThe physical side of child development which has been frequently ignored is here\\npresented in a very forcible and practical manner. The book will be most valuable\\nto Kindergartners, and to all, mothers and teachers and students, who are interested in\\nchild study. Miss Hilda Johnson, President of Kindergarten Union, N. Y.\\nCity.\\nThe Study of Children is a most valuable book that should have a very large cir-\\nculation. Parents will find it most helpful, for it contains a mass of the most valuable\\nmaterial dealing with the health and training of children. It is an original, strong, and\\nthoroughly satisfactory work. Boston Saturday Evening Gazette.\\nThere is no better statement than is here given of the way to study a child. Dr.\\nWarner tells what to look foivand what to look at. Journal of Education.\\nThis book is indispensable to the teachers library and is full of information for\\nthose who are engaged in directing education, philanthropy, social settlement work, as\\nwell as any student of mental development. Child Study Monthly.\\nThe Study of Children and their School Training is one of the most valuable con-\\ntributions yet made to the literature of scientific education. It contains information\\nof interest to all who are intelligently awake to the progress of educational movement and\\nother forms of social work connected with mental science. Phila. Evening Tele-\\ngraph.\\nTHE MACM1LLAN COMPANY,\\n66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "A COURSE OF LECTURES\\nON THE\\nGROWTH AND MEANS OF TRAINING\\nTHE\\nMENTAL FACULTY.\\nDELIVERED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.\\nBY\\nFRANCIS WARNER, M.D. (Lond.),\\nF.R.C.P., F.R.C.S. (Eng.),\\nPhysician to the London Hospital; Lecturer on Therapeutics and on Botany at the\\nLondon Hospital College Formerly Hunterian Professor of Anatomy\\nand Physiology in the Royal College of Surgeons of England.\\ni2mo. Cloth. Price, 90 cents, net.\\nNOTICES.\\nIt is original, thorough, systematic, and wonderfully suggestive.\\nEvery superintendent should study this book. Few works have\\nappeared lately which treat the subject under consideration with\\nsuch originality, vigor, or good sense. Education.\\nA valuable little treatise on the physiological signs of mental\\nlife in children, and on the right way to observe these signs and\\nclassify pupils accordingly. The book has great originality,\\nand though somewhat clumsily put together, it should be very help-\\nful to the teacher on a side of his work much neglected by the\\nordinary treatises on pedagogy. 11 Literary World.\\nThe eminence and experience of the author, and the years of\\ncareful study he has devoted to this and kindred subjects, are a\\nsufficient guarantee for the value of the book but those who are\\nfortunate enough to examine it will find their expectations more than\\nfulfilled. A great deal may be learned from these lec.-.es,\\nand we strongly commend them to our readers. Canada Educa-\\ntional Journal.\\nTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY,\\n66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "^c? r\\nV** ^v-. V", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "u:\\nG\u00c2\u00b0 v\\ns rS 1\\n,v\\n,0 Y o f v*.\\n*b\\nHi.\\nV\\n.0.\\nV. v\\nv\\nv v\\nV\\nV\\nv v\\n%J\\nf6", "height": "3369", "width": "2157", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3810", "width": "2447", "jp2-path": "nervoussystemof00warn_0264.jp2"}}