{"1": {"fulltext": "piWsicioff\\nBRIEFER COURSE\\nCOLTON", "height": "3589", "width": "2536", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\nd? To\\nChap..... Copyright No.\\nShelf.j.C.1.5\\nM\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.", "height": "3352", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3352", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3352", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3352", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF HAND\\nSHOWING SHOT CARRIED FOR TWENTY YEARS\\n(From Recreation, by permission oi G. O. Shields.)", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "BRIEFER COURSE\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nILLUSTRATED BY EXPERIMENT\\nBY\\nBUEL P. COLTON, A.M.\\nAUTHOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL AND DESCRIPTIVE\\nPRACTICAL ZOOLOGY AND PROFESSOR OF NATURAL\\nSCIENCE IN THE ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL\\nUNIVERSITY\\n-o^c\\nBOSTON, U.S.A.\\nD. C. HEATH CO., PUBLISHERS\\n1900", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "TWO COPIES RECE1VEI3.\\nOfffse of H(,\\n**S**t*r of Copyrt^f^\\n54864\\nCopyright, 1899,\\nBy BUEL P. COLTON.\\nS CONB COPY,\\nJ Ovva... V\\nNortoaoti ^frrss\\nJ. S. Cushing Co. Berwick Smith\\nNorwood Mass. U.S.A.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "PREFACE.\\nThe author s Experimental and Descriptive Physiol-\\nogy has been adopted by a large number of schools and\\ncolleges. But there are many schools in which, owing to\\nthe youth of the pupils, the shortness of the time allotted to\\nthe subject, or the meagerness of laboratory- facilities, such\\na rigorous course cannot be taken. For such schools this\\nsimpler book is written. While it contains considerably\\nless experiment and dissection than the larger book, it is\\nstill based upon experimental work. No teaching of physi-\\nology is worthy of the name unless it rests upon experi-\\nment, observation, and dissection. The ridiculous answers\\nof the pupil who has learned mere book physiology\\nfurnish the standard jest of the educational journal. Try-\\ning to teach physiology without experiment is not only in\\nopposition to modern views of pedagogy and psychology,\\nbut it is equally at variance with the common sense of the\\nbusiness man s view. Such teaching is a mere mummery\\nof words it teaches neither how to know nor to do.\\nIn fitting this work for the less mature mind, special\\nattention has been paid to conciseness and brevity of state-\\nment and to clearness of exposition. Sentences and para-\\nln", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "iv PREFACE.\\ngraphs have been made short chapters are short, with\\ndefinite summaries appended.\\nFunction, rather than structure, has been made promi-\\nnent. Only so much of anatomy as is really needed to\\nunderstand the working of the organs has been introduced.\\nThe experimental work and directions for dissection, as\\nwell as some of the more difficult points, have been put in\\nsmaller type, so they may more readily be omitted where\\nit is not possible to complete all the work in the given\\ntime.\\nAlthough hygiene has been given a prominent place,\\nyet it may be claimed that when the pupil is well grounded\\nin the functions of the different organs, from observational\\nand experimental work, many of the rules of hygiene will\\nreadily occur to him as natural inferences. When other\\nrules for the preservation of health, which might not occur\\nto him, are suggested, he will see their significance because\\nhe understands the underlying principle and he not only\\ncan, but will, obey the rule better because he sees reason\\nin it, and does not follow it blindly as an arbitrary law\\nthrust upon him. Questions are given, at the end of each\\nchapter, to test the pupil s knowledge of principles by\\napplication to new cases.\\nSome of the more desirable reforms in nomenclature have\\nbeen adopted among these are the use of the terms ante-\\nrior, meaning toward the head posterior, in the opposite\\ndirection dorsal, toward the back ventral, toward the\\nregion of the belly. These terms, used instead of up", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "PREFACE. V\\nand down, front and back, will do away with\\nmuch confusion, especially since we are obliged to use the\\nstructure of horizontal-bodied animals to illustrate human\\nanatomy. Many Latin terms, such as vena cava should\\nbe replaced by English, as cava! vein. Postcaval vein and\\nprecaval vein are easier and better than vena cava infe-\\nrior and vena cava superior. In many cases the\\nEnglish plural may well replace the Greek or Latin form,\\nas gang/ion, plural ganglions. Blood tube is better than\\nbloodvessel. The best authorities say spinal bulb in-\\nstead of the long medulla oblongata. Food tube is\\nsimpler than alimentary canal, especially as the tube is\\nnot canal-like. The rib-bearing vertebras are thoracic, and\\nare no more dorsal than the other parts of the spinal\\ncolumn.\\nEffort has been made to lay stress on the more impor-\\ntant topics, and the skeleton is relegated to a subsidiary\\nplace, as a knowledge of it has so little to do with practical\\nhygiene. The heart and the stomach receive full treat-\\nment, while matters of such slight importance as the hair\\nand nails are briefly dismissed.\\nThe order of topics is the result of long experience.\\nFor many years the author has sought to find the most\\nnatural sequence of subjects, so that, as the work pro-\\ngressed, the pupil would find the way best prepared for\\nhim. Without claiming that this is the best sequence, the\\nwriter is sure that it is the path of least resistance.\\nThe subject of Alcohol has been treated in full com-", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "Vl PREFACE.\\npliance with the law. Copious quotations have been taken\\nfrom the best authorities on this subject. The same\\nhigh-grade illustrations have been used that brought such\\nfavorable comment on the earlier work.\\nThis briefer edition has, too, the full benefit of the\\ncriticism of the eminent authorities whose names are listed\\nin the larger work.\\nTO THE TEACHER.\\nFor any practical work in physiology it is very desirable\\nto have a room furnished with tables and supplied with\\nwater.\\nEach pupil should make full notes and drawings of the\\nwork done and the organs studied and dissected. Only by\\nso doing will he firmly fix and retain what he gathers from\\nday to day.\\nIn the larger work by the author are many experiments\\nand dissections given in full which are here omitted in\\norder to present a briefer course. In the larger work there\\nis also given a list of books Avhich are most helpful in\\nteaching physiology.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nCHAPTER I.\\nPAGE\\nIntroduction i\\nHealth. Care of the Body. Hygiene. Physiology. Organ. Func-\\ntion. Anatomy. Tissues. Cells. Physiological Division of Labor.\\nCHARTER II.\\nMotion 7\\nMotion Necessary to Life. Experiments with our Muscles. Action\\nof Muscle. Structure of Muscle. Connective Tissue. Laws of\\nMuscle Action. Flexors and Extensors. Symmetry. Muscles and\\nBones. Levers. Locomotion. Uses of Bones.\\nCHARTER III.\\nThe Ceneral Functions of the Nervous System Sensation\\nand Motion 24\\nMuscles controlled by Nerves. Voluntary and Involuntary Motion.\\nThe Spinal Cord. The Spinal Nerves. Structure of Nerves.\\nFunction of Nerves. Structure of the Spinal Cord. Ganglions.\\nReflex Action of the Spinal Cord. Reflex Action of the Spinal\\nCord in the Frog. Function of the Nerve Roots. Importance of\\nReflex Action. Inhibition. Nature of a Nervous Impulse. Har-\\nmony in Muscle Action. Nerves depend on Blood Supply.\\nCHAPTER IV.\\nCirculation of the Blood 39\\nThe Blood and its Work. The Rate of the Heart Beat. Position\\nand Size of the Heart. The Valves of the Heart. The Blood\\nTubes Connected with the Heart. The Action of the Heart. Work\\nand Rest of the Heart. Action of the Large Arteries. Variation\\nin Blood Supply. Plain Muscle Fibers in the Walls of the Arteries.\\nvii", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "viii CONTENTS.\\nPAGE\\nCirculation of Blood in the Web of the Frog s Foot. Blood Flow in\\nthe Capillaries. The Veins. The Valves in the Veins. Effect of\\nPressure on the Veins. Rate of Blood Flow. Nourishment of the\\nWalls of the Heart. Effect of Gravity on Circulation.\\nCHAPTER V.\\nControl of Circulation. The Blood and the Lymph 64\\nThe Effect of Emotions on Circulation. Rhythmic Action of the\\nHeart. Nerve Control of the Heart. Sympathetic Nervous System.\\nThe Vagus Nerve. Inhibition. Vaso-motor Nerves. Blushing.\\nRegulation of the Size of the Arteries. Effect of Exercise on the\\nSize of the Arteries. Effects of Alcohol on Circulation. The\\nBlood. The Corpuscles of the Blood. The Plasma. Hemoglobin.\\nCoagulation of Blood. Fibrin. Amount of Blood. Distribution of\\nBlood. The Lymph Spaces. Lymph Tubes. Lymphatic Glands.\\nFlow of Lymph. Massage. Transfusion of Blood.\\nCHAPTER VI.\\nRespiration 84\\nThe Close Relation between Circulation and Respiration. Organs\\nof Respiration. Structure of the Lungs. The Windpipe. Cilia.\\nThe Pleura. The Diaphragm. Action of the Diaphragm. Move-\\nments of Respiration. Forces of Inspiration. Resistances to Inspi-\\nration. Elastic Reactions of Expiration. Forced Respiration. Rate\\nof Respiration. Modifications of Respiration. Lung Capacity.\\nHygiene of Respiration. Breathing through the Mouth. Control\\nof Respiration. Chemistry of Respiration. Composition of the\\nAir. Exchanges between the Air and the Blood in the Lungs.\\nOxyhemoglobin. The Gases in the Blood. Production of Heat\\nand Motion in the Body. Oxidation of Live Tissues. Body and\\nLocomotive Compared. Storage of Oxygen in the Tissues. Re-\\nbreathing Air.\\nCHAPTER VII.\\nVentilation and Heating. Dust and Bacteria 114\\nNeed of Ventilation. Grates. Principles of Ventilation. Stoves.\\nFurnaces. Foul-air Shafts and Fans. Steam and Hot-water\\nHeating. Direct and Indirect Heating. Dead Dust. Sources of\\nDust. Live Dust. Consumption. Disease Germs. Bacteria. How\\nto avoid Dust. Sweeping. Contagious Diseases. Putrefaction.\\nPreservation of Foods. Need of Removal of Waste.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS. IX\\nCHAPTER VIII.\\nPAGE\\nExcretion 130\\nThe Skin throws off Perspiration. The Structure of the Skin. The\\nEpidermis. Color of the Skin. The Dermis. Sweat Glands. Es-\\nsentials of a Gland. Blood Supply of Glands. Oil Glands.\\nComposition of Sweat. Amount of Perspiration. Functions of the\\nSkin. Regulation of Bodily Temperature by the Skin. Distribu-\\ntion of Heat in the Body. Regulation of Bodily Temperature by\\nFood and Clothing. The Kidneys. Work of the Kidneys. Rela-\\ntion of the Skin and Kidneys.\\nCHAPTER IX.\\nFoods and Cooking ..-_... 144\\nNecessity of Food. Food Defined. Foodstuffs. Proteids. Impor-\\ntance of Proteids. Meat. Fish. Eggs. Milk. Cheese. Vege-\\ntable Proteids. Carbohydrates. Grains. Wheat. Corn. Rice.\\nOats. Potatoes. Vegetables. Fruits. Water. Impurities in\\nWater. Typhoid Fever. Ice-water. Boiling Water. Salts.\\nNecessity of a Mixed Diet. Effects of Cold on Appetite for Fats.\\nVegetarians. Tea. Coffee. Beef Tea. Cooking. Soups.\\nCHAPTER X.\\nThe Digestive System 159\\nThe Object of Food. The Digestive Tube. Organs of Digestion.\\nThe Mouth. The Teeth Kinds, Structure, Arrangement. Care\\nof the Teeth. Salivary Glands. Action of Salivary Glands. Saliva\\nand its Uses. Mucus and Mucous Glands. The Pharynx. Swal-\\nlowing. The Gullet. The Structure of the Stomach. Gastric\\nGlands. Blood Supply of the Stomach. Stomach Digestion.\\nChurning Action of the Stomach. Time of Stomach Digestion.\\nChyme. Absorption from the Stomach. The Intestine. The\\nLiver. The Pancreas. Bile. Pancreatic Juice. The Portal Circu-\\nlation. Functions of the Bile. Work of the Pancreatic juice.\\nIntestinal Juice.\\nCHAPTER XL\\nAbsorption Digestion Completed 181\\nAbsorption. Villi. Routes of Different Foods after Absorption. Dif-\\nfusion and Osmosis. Absorption a Vital Process. The Lacteals\\nand the Lymphatics. Outline of Digestion. The Colon. Work\\nof the Large Intestine. Constipation. Laxative and Constipating", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "X CONTENTS.\\nPAGE\\nFoods. Hygiene of Digestion. Deliberation in Eating. Thorough\\nMastication. Effects of Repose on Digestion. Conversation at\\nMeals. Value of Soups and Desserts. Hot Drink at Meals. Time\\nof Meals. Eating between Meals. Amount of Food Needed.\\nErrors in Diet.\\nCHAPTER XII.\\nNutrition 195\\nLedger Account of the Body and its Organs. Blood a Mixture of\\nGood and Bad. Action of Diseased Kidneys. Blood Stream like\\nWater Pipes and Sewer Combined. A Living Eddy. Importance\\nof Renewal of Blood and Lymph. Fat as a Tissue. Hibernation.\\nRespiration and Oxidation of Candle. Glycogen. Muscular Exer-\\ntion and Excretion of Urea. Metabolism. Indestructibility of\\nMatter. Indestructibility of Force. Utilization of Energy in the\\nBody and in Machines. Correlation and Conservation of Energy.\\nCHAPTER XIII.\\nAlcohol 208\\nAlcohol and Crime. Alcohol and Energy. Alcohol and Heat. Alco-\\nhol and Muscular Energy. Arctic Explorers. Alcohol and Train-\\ning. Stimulants. Narcotiqs. Temperance Drinks. Testimony of\\nPhysiologists. Testimony of Army Officers. Testimony of a Natu-\\nralist. Physiological Effects of Alcohol.\\nCHAPTER XIV.\\nExercise and Bathing 226\\nHow Exercise is Beneficial. Exercise for General Health. Nature s\\nRewards and Punishments. Exercise prolongs Life. Choice of\\nExercise. Games of School Children. Tennis. Baseball and\\nFootball. Boxing. Bicycling. Exercise for Middle-aged Men.\\nTaking Cold. Diarrhea. Bathing. Cold Baths. Bath Mits. Time\\nfor Bathing. Warm Baths vs. Cold Baths. Exercise Arterial Mus-\\ncles. Habit of Cold Bathing acquired gradually.\\nCHAPTER XV.\\nThe Brain 235\\nThe Coverings of the Brain. Parts of the Brain. The Cerebrum.\\nThe Cerebellum. The Spinal Bulb. Brain of a Cat or Rabbit.\\nCranial Nerves and their Functions. Hemispheres of the Cerebrum.\\nBrain Convolutions and Intelligence. Gray and White Matter of\\nthe Brain. Neuroglia. Functions of the Cerebrum. Pigeon\\nwith Cerebrum Removed. Functions of Cerebral Cortex. Center", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS. xi\\nPAGE\\nof Sensations itself Insensible. Crossed Control of the Body. Lo-\\ncation of Brain Functions. Left Hemisphere better Developed.\\nLocation of Sensation Centers. Brain Work and Brain Rest.\\nSleeplessness. Fatigue. Control of Mind. Habit of Resting the\\nBrain. Nervous Tissues least Affected by Starvation. Blood Supply\\nof the Brain. Fainting. Apoplexy. Meningitis. The Water\\nCushion of the Brain. Relative Activity of Gray and White Matter.\\nCHAPTER XVI.\\nEffects of Alcohol on the Nervous System 250\\nThe Chief Effect of Alcohol is on the Nervous System. Inebriety re-\\ngarded as a Disease. Moral Deterioration produced by Alcohol.\\nNarcotics. Opium. Cocaine. Chloral Hydrate. Chloroform.\\nTobacco. Cigarette Smoking.\\nCHAPTER XVII.\\nGeneral Considerations concerning the Nervous System 261\\nNerve Stimuli. Kinds of Nerve Stimuli. Essential Similarity of All\\nNerve Fibers. Relation of Stimulus and Sensation. Reaction\\nTime. Reflex Action. Connection of Brain Centers. Nature of\\nSensation. Subjective Sensations. The Relative Nature of Sensa-\\ntion. Induction Currents used in Physiological Experiments.\\nDreams. Lingering Effect of Sensations. Habits are Acquired\\nReflex Actions. Usefulness of Resting. Nervous System vs. Tele-\\ngraph System. Efferent Currents. Afferent Currents.\\nCHAPTER XVIII.\\nThe General Senses 271\\nThe Body a Collection of Organs. Influence from the External World.\\nClassification of the Senses. General Sensations and Special Senses.\\nThe Muscular Sense. Importance of Muscular Sense. Dependence\\nof Sight on Muscular Sense and Touch. Pain. Pain a General\\nSense. Extent of Pain. Use of Pain. Hunger and Thirst.\\nCHAPTER XIX.\\nThe Special Senses Touch and Temperature Sense 27S\\nWhat we learn tjy Touching Objects. Cutaneous Sensations. Nerve\\nEndings in the Skin. Touch Corpuscles. Touch the most General\\nof the Senses. Pressure Sense. Local Sign. Test by Compass\\nPoints. Reference of Sensation to the Region of the Nerve End-\\nings. Temperature Sense.", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "XU CONTENTS.\\nCHAPTER XX.\\nPAGE\\nThe Sense of Sight 285\\nProtection of the Eye. The Lacrymal Secretion. External Parts of\\nthe Eye. The Conjunctiva. Muscles of the Eyeball. Movements\\nof the Eye. Coats of the Eye. The Sclerotic Coat. The Choroid\\nCoat. The Retina. The Cornea. The Iris. The Pupil. Regula-\\ntion of the Amount of Light admitted into the Eye. The Refract-\\ning Media of the Eye. The Aqueous Humor. The Vitreous Humor.\\nThe Crystalline Lens. The Lens Capsule. The Hyaloid Mem-\\nbrane. The Ciliary Muscle. Inversion of the Image. Adjustment\\nfor Distance. Action of the Ciliary Muscle. Defects of Eyesight.\\nStructure of the Retina. Importance of the Retina. The Blind\\nSpot. The Optic Nerve not Sensitive to Light. Sympathy between\\nthe Eyes. Pain in the Eyes. Color Sensations. Color Blindness.\\nStereoscopic Vision. After-images. Care of the Eyes.\\nCHAPTER XXI.\\nTaste, Smell, and Hearing 301\\nUses of the Sense of Taste. The Papilke. Nerve Supply of the\\nTongue. Solution Necessary for Tasting. Flavors. Effect of\\nTemperature on Taste. The Sense of Smell. Why we Sniff. The\\nSense of Hearing. The External Ear. The Tympanum. The\\nMiddle Ear. The Eustachian Tube. The Internal Ear. The Pro-\\nduction of Sound. The Equilibrium Sense. The Care of the Ear.\\nThe Use of the Ears.\\nCHAPTER XXII.\\nThe Voice 3\u00c2\u00b09\\nThe Ear and the Voice. What we can learn from our own Throats.\\nThe Vocal Cords. Reenforcement of Sound. Pitch and Voice.\\nVoice and Speech. Vowels and Consonants. Difference between\\nVoices. Hoarseness. Whispering. Culture of the Voice.\\nCHAPTER XXIII.\\nAccidents. What to do till the Doctor Comes 314\\nHow to stop Flow of Blood from Arteries. Bleeding from the Upper\\nArm. Bleeding from the Neck. Wounds in the Thigh. Bleeding\\nfrom Veins. Hemorrhage of the Lungs or Stomach. Bleeding from\\nthe Nose. Treatment of Burns. Danger from Burning Clothing.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS. xiii\\nPAGE\\nTreatment of Fainting. Broken Bones. Sunstroke. Treatment of\\nthe Drowned. Swimming. Suffocation in Wells. Bites of Cats,\\nDogs, etc. Wounds from Thorns, Rusty Nails, etc. Snake Bites.\\nPoisons and their Antidotes. Poison Ivy. The Sick-room. Qual-\\nities of the Nurse. Care of the Sick.\\nCHAPTER XXIV.\\nThe Skeleton 330\\nAxial Skeleton. Appendicular Skeleton. Uses of the Bones. Study\\nof a Vertebra. Table of the Bones. The Spinal Column. Articu-\\nlations of a Vertebra. The Cervical Vertebras. Atlas and Axis.\\nThe Thoracic Vertebras. The Lumbar Vertebras. The Sacrum and\\nthe Coccyx. Flexibility of the Spinal Column. Curves of the Spinal\\nColumn. Cavities of the Skeleton. Pronation and Supination.\\nWeight of the Bones. Microscopic Structure of Bone. Classifica-\\ntion of Joints. Sprains and Dislocations.\\nCHAPTER XXV.\\nThe Muscles 341\\nThe Number of Muscles. The Arrangement of Muscles. Forms of\\nMuscles. Names of Muscles. Peculiar Muscles. Heart Muscle.\\nThree kinds of Muscular Fiber Compared. Each Fiber a Cell.\\nMuscles of Expression. Muscles and Fat. Convulsions. Rigor\\nMortis. Some Prominent Muscles. Sculpture and Anatomy.\\nAppendix 347\\nAntidotes. Disinfectants. Vital Statistics.\\nGlossary 360\\nIndex 371", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "PHYSIOLOGY,\\nCHAPTER I.\\nINTRODUCTION.\\nHealth. Is it not a splendid thing to be well and\\nstrong? To be full of bounding health? To feel one s\\nlife in every limb\\nWho does not desire to prolong, so far as possible, this\\ncondition characteristic of youth\\nNatural and Artificial Modes of Life. An animal\\nliving in a state of nature may keep well and live its\\nnatural period of life without knowing anything about the\\nlaws of health. But as students or indoor workers, many\\nof us lead a sedentary life we are not natural, but often\\nhighly artificial, in Our mode of living. We move about\\nbut little, whereas the animal abounds in motion. We\\nconcentrate energy upon mental effort, thus diverting a\\nlarge share of our sum total of energy away from the pro-\\ncess of nutrition. We often shut ourselves in rooms nearly\\nair-tight. We eat poorly chosen and ill-prepared food.\\nWe devour it hastily, often when we are not in fit con-\\ndition to take food. In short, we frequently disobey the\\nlaws of Nature. Now, Nature punishes every violation of\\nher laws. She never forgives, never forgets.\\n1", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "PHYSIOLOGY.\\nValue of Knowledge.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The out-of-door worker may\\nnot suffer so much from ignorance in these matters.\\nFrom the character of his occupation, he is, to a certain\\nextent, obliged to obey Nature. He gets enough fresh\\nair. His bodily exertion generally brings a hearty appe-\\ntite, vigorous digestion, active circulation of the blood.\\nStill, he would greatly profit by knowing something of the\\nnature of his food, its wholesomeness or unwholesomeness.\\nThe fact that he has fair health is no proof that he always\\ndoes the best thing. His natural mode of life may keep\\nhim in tolerably good condition in spite of his violation of\\ncertain laws; but he could undoubtedly learn how to\\neconomize in the purchase, preparation, and proper com-\\nbination of foods.\\nImportance of the Care of the Body. Any machine\\nof man s invention must be kept in good running order if\\nwe would have it do good work, or last long. We must\\nkeep a machine clean, well oiled, and not overtax it. Are\\nnot our bodies worth equal care If some part of a ma-\\nchine is broken, we may replace it at moderate expense;\\nbut none of the vital organs can be replaced. We may\\nget a new mainspring for a watch, but we cannot obtain a\\nnew stomach or lungs.\\nIts Admirable Mechanism. Aside from the above\\nconsiderations the human body is worthy of study for its\\nown sake. Viewed simply as a mechanism, it is wonder-\\nful. Each organ is so well adapted to its work, and all\\nthe organs work so harmoniously through their connection\\nand control by the nervous system, that we never cease to\\nadmire it. We admire a doll, or other toy, so ingeniously\\nconstructed that it can move its eyes or walk a short time\\nafter being wound up. But this live mechanism, which is", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "INTR OD UCTIOiV. 3\\nself-winding, self -regulating, self-repairing, self -directing,\\namazes us.\\nHygiene. We take up the study of the human body\\nmainly that we may learn how to preserve health the\\nscience of health is hygiene.\\nPhysiology. In order to keep the various organs in\\ngood order we must know what their natural work is, and\\nhow they do it the science of the action of the body and\\nits parts is physiology.\\nOrgan. Any part, or member, of the body, which has\\na special work to do, is called an organ, as the hand, the\\neye, or the stomach.\\nFunction. The work, or action, of each organ is\\nits function.\\nAnatomy. In order to understand the working of\\neach organ it is usually necessary to know something\\nof its construction the science of structure is anatomy.\\nWe do not need to go far into anatomy to obtain a fair\\nknowledge of the manner in which our organs do their\\nwork. The surgeon, of course, must be able to locate\\naccurately the various blood tubes, nerves, muscles, etc.\\nWe need to know only the general structure of the body\\nand, more in detail, some of the more important organs,\\nsuch as the heart, the lungs, the larynx, the eye, etc.\\nIt is fortunate for us that these organs in the sheep, pig,\\nand cow are so nearly like our own that they serve\\nadmirably to enable us to understand ourselves.\\nTissues. Every organ is composed of several different\\nkinds of material. For instance, in a slice across a ham\\nwe see the skin on the outside, then fat, lean, and bone.", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "4 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nThese primary building materials of the body we call\\ntissues. A tissue may be defined as an aggregation of\\nsimilar cells devoted to a common work.\\nCells. The whole body is made up of small parts\\ncalled cells, comparable to the bricks in a house. These\\ncells are of various shapes in the different tissues.\\nIn the more active tissues the cells are alive, and each\\ncell may be compared to the ameba, a little mass of living\\njelly-like substance called protoplasm. The ameba is a\\nprotozoan often found in the slime at bottom of stagnant\\nwater. Within this is a small, rounded part called the\\nnucleus. Most of the cells of the body differ from\\nthe ameba in having a distinct\\nouter covering or cell wall. A grape\\nserves very well to show what a cell\\nis like. The whole body is built up\\nNucleus of cells, few of them large enough\\nFig. 1. Epithelial ceils from to be seen by the naked eye.\\nthe mside of the cheek. Although the cells are closely\\npacked together, each cell leads, in one sense, an inde-\\npendent life. But all work together to maintain the life\\nof the body. The cell is like the individual in a com-\\nmunity. Each lives primarily for itself, yet all work\\ntogether for the good of the whole.\\nEpithelial Cells from the Inside of the Cheek. With the blade of\\na very dull knife, or the handle of a scalpel, gently scrape the inside of\\nthe cheek. Place a little of the white scraping on a slide in a drop\\nof water, cover with a cover slip, and examine under a quarter-inch\\nobjective. Many cells will be seen, some of them showing nuclei.\\nCompare these cells with the accompanying figure.\\nThe Physiological Division of Labor. We are aware\\nof the advantages of division of labor in a community. If", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION. 5\\neach person learns to do one thing well, all together work\\neconomically for the common good, time is saved, and\\nbetter goods are produced. In the body there is a division\\nof labor similar to that of a community. Each organ has\\nits own work to do, and all work together for the common\\nwelfare. The cells of each tissue have certain properties\\nand peculiarities of form differing from the form and\\nproperties of the cells of any other tissue. While the\\ngeneral structure of all cells is essentially the same, and\\nwhile they all have certain properties in common, each has\\nsome one kind of work that it can do well, and to which\\nwork it devotes itself. The nerve cells receive impressions\\nfrom the outer world, carry nervous impulses, and control\\nthe various activities of the body. The muscle cells have\\nas their work the production of motion. All the cells\\nmust take food for themselves and grow. Each has a\\nbirth, life, and death, as each individual in a community\\nof men and as the community endures, while the indi-\\nvidual members are continually changing, so, in the body,\\nwhile the form remains about the same from year to year,\\nthe cells are continually changing, some dying, and others\\ntaking their places.\\nIn an animal of a single cell, like the ameba, the one\\ncell must do everything for itself. The higher animals all\\nbegin their individual life as an egg, which is, in fact, a\\nsingle minute cell. This grows and divides, forming two\\ncells. By repeated division there accumulates a mass\\nof cells. These take on the arrangement peculiar to the\\nkind of animal from which the egg came. But as the cells\\nincrease in number one group of cells takes up one part\\nof the work of the body, other cells another part of the\\nwork, and so on.\\nIn studying history (sociology) we have to deal with the", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "6 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nindividual, the community, the state, and the nation. The\\ncell is an individual, the community is a tissue, the state is\\nan organ, and the nation is one body.\\nLet us proceed to study the nature of the individual cell,\\nand the combined actions of these individuals in that com-\\nmunity called the human body.\\nSummary. I. Health is essential to comfort and efficiency in\\nwork.\\n2. Our artificial mode of life is at variance with nature s laws.\\n3. Only by obeying the laws of nature can we preserve health.\\n4. We should learn these laws of nature from the advice and ex-\\nperience of others, and not by the expensive process of suffering from\\ndisobedience.\\n5. Anatomy is the science of structure. Human anatomy is the\\nscience of the structure of the human body.\\n6. Physiology is the science of function.\\n7. Hygiene is the art of preserving health.\\n8. Cells are the units of structure in the body.\\n9. A tissue is a group of similar cells having a single function.\\n10. An organ is a part having a special work or function. The\\norgans work together for the common good of the whole organism.\\nThis working together results in\\n1 1 The physiological division of labor, in which each organ works\\nfor all the others, and is dependent on all the other organs.\\nQuestions. 1. What are some of the ways in which we most fre-\\nquently violate the laws of health\\n2. Name the more important organs of the body and their functions.\\n3. Name the different tissues of one of these organs.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II.\\nMOTION.\\nMotion and Life. Motion is the most manifest sign of\\nlife. While we are sitting still, as we say, there are fre-\\nquent slight motions of the head, body, and limbs. Even\\nduring sleep the movements of breathing may be seen\\nthe hand laid upon the chest may feel the beating of the\\nheart, and the finger detect the pulse in a number of\\nplaces.\\nWe must move to get our food, or at least to eat and\\ndigest it. Motion is necessary for breathing, for circu-\\nlating the blood, for getting rid of wastes. We often move\\nto avoid injury.\\nMotion is necessary for seeing we must turn the face\\ntoward the object we move the eyeballs within the eye\\nare motions to regulate the amount of light admitted, and\\nto adapt the eye for seeing at different distances.\\nIn feeling, we put forth the hand to touch the object.\\nIn tasting, we touch the tongue to the object. In smelling,\\nwe sniff and sniffing is a respiratory motion. In hearing\\nand in speech there is also motion.\\nHow are all these motions produced\\nExperiments with the Muscles in our own Bodies. i. Clasp\\nthe front of the right upper arm draw up the forearm strongly\\nand as far as possible. Note what changes are felt in the biceps\\nmuscle.\\n2. Repeat the experiment, and with the thumb and finger feel the\\ncord, or tendon, at the lower end of the muscle, just within the angle of\\nthe elbow.", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "8 PHYSIOLOGY.\\n3. Place a weight in the hand, and repeat the act, noting the con-\\ndition of the muscle during the experiment also note the condition\\nof the tendon.\\n4. Span the muscle, placing the tips of the fingers in the angle of\\nthe elbow, and the tip of the thumb as far as you can up the arm again\\nbend the arm. What change in the muscle does this show Any\\nmuscle that bends a limb, as does the biceps, is called a flexor muscle.\\n5. Clasp the back of the right upper arm; forcibly straighten the\\narm. The muscle lying along the back of the arm is the triceps muscle.\\nIt is called an extensor muscle because it extends, or straightens, the\\narm.\\n6. Clasp the upper side of the right forearm near the elbow\\nclench the right hand quickly and forcibly repeat rapidly.\\n7. Notice the thick mass of muscle at the base of the thumb;\\npinch the forefinger and thumb strongly together. What changes can\\nbe seen and felt\\n8. Place the hand on the outside of the shoulder; raise the arm to\\na horizontal position; repeat with a weight in the hand.\\nFig. 2. The Shortening and Thickening of the Biceps Muscle in raising the\\nForearm.\\n9. Stand erect with the heels close to each other, but not quite\\ntouching let the arms hang freely by the sides rise on tiptoes,\\nwithout moving otherwise repeat ten times.\\n10. Place the tips of the fingers on the angles of the lower jaw;\\nshut the teeth firmly on a piece of rubber, and note the bulging of the\\nmasseter muscles.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "MOTION. 9\\n11. Press the ringers on the temples again shut the jaw firmly, and\\nfeel the action of the temporal muscles.\\n12. Make a narrow band of paper that will snugly fit the forearm\\nwhen the hand is open now clench the fist strongly.\\n13. With a tape measure take the circumference of the upper arm\\nwhen the arm hangs free again when the forearm is strongly flexed.\\n14. In the same way measure the forearm when the hand is open,\\nand when the hand is clenched.\\nBy these experiments we learn that when a muscle works it becomes\\nshorter, thicker, and harder.\\nNerves and Muscles of a Rabbit s Leg. In the hind leg of a\\nrabbit the sciatic nerve may be found by separating two large\\nmuscles on the sides of the thigh, beginning behind the knee joint.\\nThe shape and connections of the muscles may be learned, and also\\nthe distribution of the nerve.\\nThe Action of Muscle. The action of muscle is always\\na pull. The muscle shortens, at the same time thick-\\nening and hardening. These changes in muscle are\\nroughly shown in the preceding experiments of feeling\\nthe arm during its action. But the isolated calf muscle of\\nthe frog may be made to prove the characteristic changes\\nwith great clearness.\\nAction of Frog s Muscle. A frog may be killed painlessly by put-\\nting a teaspoonful of ether into a fruit jar of water, immersing the frog\\nand capping the jar. When the frog becomes motionless, its head\\nshould be cut off and a wire run down the spinal column to destroy the\\nspinal cord. After cutting the skin around the base of one thigh the\\nskin may easily be stripped from the whole hind limb. If the muscles\\non the back of the thigh be gently separated there will be found a white\\nthread running lengthwise, the sciatic nerve. It should be severed\\nnear the hip and carefully turned down upon the calf muscle. It should\\nnot be pinched or dragged. The muscles of the thigh should now all\\nbe cut away, being careful not to sever the nerve near the knee. The\\nhip joint should be unjointed. With the handle of the scalpel the calf\\nmuscle should be separated from the shin bone, and just below the\\nknee the shin bone and all the muscles except the calf muscle severed.", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "IO\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nIf now the heel cord be cut off below the heel there will remain such a\\npreparation as is represented in the accompanying figure, consisting of\\nthe thigh bone with the calf muscle hanging from it, and the sciatic\\nSHORTENED\\nELONGATED\\nFig. 3. Action of the Calf Muscle of the Frog, showing the Relations of the\\nSciatic Nerve.\\nnerve still connected with the calf muscle. This may be supported by\\nholding the end of the thigh bone in a clamp on a retort stand. A\\nOrigin\\nBundle of Muscle Fibers\\nI\\nMuscle Sheath\\nCROSS SECTION\\nTendon\\nInsertion\\nLONGITUDINAL SECTION\\nlight weight should be attached to\\nthe heel cord. The muscle and\\nnerve should be moistened with\\nwater containing a little salt. On\\npinching the free end of the nerve,\\nor cutting off the least bit with\\nscissors, the muscle will be made\\nto act. The shortening and thick-\\nening will be plainly seen, and\\nby taking it between the thumb\\nand finger the hardening may be\\nfelt.\\nFig. 4. The Structure of Muscle.\\nStructure of Muscle.\\nChipped beef shows well\\nthe structure of muscle. The", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "MOTION.\\nII\\nwhite network is the connective tissue. In the meshes\\nis the red muscular tissue. The partitions which run all\\nthrough the muscle are continuous with the muscle sheath,\\nand both are continuous with the tendons at the ends of\\nthe muscle. In fresh muscle the sheath and the parti-\\ntions are nearly transparent, and are not easily seen.\\nWhen the meat is cooked or salted the connective tissue\\nbecomes white and opaque.\\nMicroscopic Structure of Muscle. In frog s or rabbit s\\nobserve the thin, transparent membrane covering the muscle, the\\nsheath. With forceps tear away part of the\\nmuscle sheath. Tear the muscle to pieces,\\nand note its fibrous structure. A shred of\\nmuscle may be mounted in a drop of nor-\\nmal saline solution on a slide, and exam-\\nined with low power of the microscope. If\\nexamined with a higher power the cross-\\nmarkings, or striations, will be seen. Such\\nmuscle is called striated or striped muscle.\\nAll of the muscles used in ordinary motions\\nare of this kind.\\nmuscle\\nmuscle\\nFig. 5. Two Muscular Fibers\\nshowing the Terminations of\\nthe Nerves-\\nEffects of Cooking Muscle. In\\nwell-cooked corned beef the connec-\\ntive tissue is thoroughly softened,\\nand the muscle fibers are easily separated. Thorough\\ncooking, especially slow boiling, will soften the connective\\ntissue, and may render palatable meat that, cooked other-\\nwise, would be exceedingly tough on account of the large\\namount of connective tissue.\\nImitation of Structure of Muscle. A good way to\\nrepresent the structure of muscle is to take a number of\\npieces of red cord to represent the muscle fibers. Wrap\\neach in white tissue paper this represents the individual", "height": "3444", "width": "2370", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "12 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nfiber sheath. Lay a number of these side by side wrap\\nall in a common sheath let the tissue paper project be-\\nyond the threads, and here compress it into a compact\\ncylinder this last corresponds to the tendon.\\nConnective Tissue the Skeleton of Muscle. If all\\nthe muscular tissue were removed from a muscle, the\\nsheaths and partitions would remain, just as they do in a\\nsqueezed lemon or orange. The connective tissue forms\\na framework for all the soft tissues of the body, and if\\ntheir working cells were removed, the connective tissue\\nwould remain, and show more or less completely the form\\nof the part. Connective tissue, therefore, may be called\\nthe skeleton of the soft tissues. Muscle consists, then,\\nessentially of a collection of soft, transparent tubes, filled\\nwith the semi-fluid muscle substance. By scraping the\\nsurface of a steak with a dull knife the muscle substance\\nmay be obtained, leaving the connective tissue. This is a\\ngood way to get the nutritious part of beef for an invalid.\\nImportance of Muscles. The different materials of\\nwhich the body is built up are called tissues. Thus we\\nfind muscular tissue, bony tissue, nervous tissue, etc. The\\nmuscles make up nearly half of the weight of the body.\\nThis fact of itself should lead us to consider the muscles\\nof high importance. Add to this the facts above noted,\\nthat the muscles are so largely concerned in the nutrition\\nof the body, the chief agents for its protection, essential\\nfor the reception of ideas, and absolutely indispensable for\\nthe expression of ideas, and we can see the reason for\\nbeginning the study of physiology with the examination\\nof the muscles and their action.\\nLaws of Muscle Action. The chief characteristic of\\nmuscle is its ability to shorten incidentally, it at the", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "MOTION. 1 3\\nsame time thickens and hardens. But it does its work by\\nshortening, pulling on the bones by means of the strong,\\ninelastic tendons, thus producing motion. The action of\\nthe muscle as a whole is the result of the characteristics\\nof the cells of which it is composed. The individual cells\\nand fibers shorten, and their combined action is seen in\\nthe muscular movement.\\nExtent of Muscle Shortening. A muscle, may be\\nmade to shorten one third of its length, but probably\\nnever shortens that much in the living body.\\nDuration of Muscle Shortening. A muscle cannot be\\nkept shortened for any great length of time. If one holds\\nhis arm out horizontally as long as possible he soon feels\\nfatigue, later pain, and he may feel soreness in the muscle\\nfor several days. The law of muscle action is to alternate\\nperiods of rest with periods of action. In many exercises,\\nas in walking, the limbs act alternately, one resting or\\nrecovering position while the other works.\\nAlternate Action of Flexors and Extensors. If we\\nconsider the biceps and triceps of the arm, we see that\\nthey are compelled to act alternately if they would do\\neffective work. They might both shorten at the same\\ntime, and are made to do so in such an attempt as that\\nof holding the arm rigidly bent at a right angle as, for\\ninstance, in wrestling square hold, in which case one\\nwishes to prevent his opponent from either pushing or\\npulling him. But while the two muscles act, no motion is\\nproduced. When the flexor shortens, the extensor length-\\nens, and vice versa.\\nNormal Condition of Muscle. The muscles are always\\nslightly stretched, as shown by the fact that when a cut\\nis made into a muscle the wound gapes open the tension", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "14 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nof the muscle is further shown by the fact that when a\\nbone is broken, as in the upper arm or thigh, the ends\\nof the bones slip by each other, and the limb has to be\\nstrongly stretched to bring the ends back together. Mus-\\ncles act better when slightly stretched, and probably need\\na slight resistant action of the opponent muscle.\\nSymmetrical Development of the Muscles. The mus-\\ncles of the two sides of the body are the same in number\\nand arrangement. At birth they are probably about equal\\nin size, weight, and strength. Most persons early become\\nright-handed, and the greater use of the right hand and\\nshoulder makes the muscles of this side larger and heavier.\\nThe muscles pulling on the bones slightly modify tKem\\nin shape. The whole body may become noticeably un-\\nsymmetrical. Most persons step harder on one foot than\\nthe other, as shown by the sound of the footstep, and as\\nshown by the constant wearing of one shoe sole or heel\\nfaster than the other. In many persons one shoulder is\\nhabitually carried higher than the other. Symmetrical\\ndevelopment should be carefully sought, and any tendency\\nto a one-sided development should, so far as possible, be\\navoided. We should use the left hand more. There are\\nmany advantages in being able to use either hand. In\\ncarving, in shaving, in bandaging, in administering medicine,\\nit may be necessary to use the left hand skillfully. The\\npianist and the harpist use the two hands about equally,\\nwhile the violinist puts much more skill into his left hand.\\nTrainers of athletes often begin by developing the left\\nside of the body till it equals the right in size and strength.\\nMuscles the Source of Strength. Our strength de-\\npends on our muscles. It is a fine thing to have strong,\\nwell-developed muscles, not only because they give beauty", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "MOTION. 1 5\\nof form, but because extra strength and endurance may\\nbe needed in case of accident, to save one s own life or that\\nof others. In a case of fire the ability to climb, to go up\\nor down a rope hand over hand, may be all important.\\nAny one s life may depend on his ability to run far and\\nswiftly, to swim, to jump, or to lift a heavy weight.\\nSkeletal Muscles. When we look at the skinned car-\\ncass of an animal in the market, we observe that the mus-\\ncles almost completely cover the bones. Those which are\\nattached to the bones are called skeletal muscles. They act\\nupon them as levers, giving to motion strength, quickness,\\nand precision. Without bones our motions would be like\\nthose of an earthworm or slug, slow and uncertain. The\\nmuscles, acting through the bones, can lift a weight that\\nwould crush the muscles if laid directly upon them, while\\na bone, able to support a heavy weight without being\\ncrushed, has no power in itself. The muscles have active\\nstrength, the bones have passive strength.\\nRelation of the Muscles and the Bones. Suspend the skeleton\\nfrom the ceiling in the most open space in the room. Let the pupils\\nstudy it not to learn the names of all the bones, but to get a general\\nidea of the forms and relations of the parts. It is well to have the\\nskeleton constantly at hand, to show the location of the various organs\\nas they are taken up. If possible, supply the class with separate bones\\nfrom another skeleton, and let the pupils place each separate bone\\nalongside the corresponding one in the complete skeleton.\\nPass to the skeleton, and locate the biceps muscle. After examining\\nFig. 2, show the points of its origin and insertion. Feel the biceps\\nof your arm. Note that its thickest part is opposite the most slender\\npart of the bone. But at the enlarged end of the bone the muscle has\\nnarrowed to a slender tendon, which passes over the joint to be attached\\nto the next bone, thus giving more slenderness, flexibility, and freedom\\nof motion to the joint. The muscle which closes the mouth, as in\\npursing up the lips, is not attached to any bone, but in shortening\\nreduces the aperture.", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "1 6 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nFlexion of the Forearm. Take the bones of the arm that are\\narticulated (if there is not an artificial hinge at the elbow, one can\\nreadily be made of wire) put a strong rubber band in place of the\\nbiceps muscle fasten this to the head of the humerus by cords, and\\nby the lower end to the radius, where the rough place, an inch or so\\nfrom the elbow joint, shows the insertion of the tendon. Have the\\nrubber stretched so that when not held it will flex the forearm. This\\nwill serve to show the action of the biceps, though we must be careful\\nto bear in mind that the muscle does not pull the arm up because it has\\nbeen stretched, as is the case with the rubber. In the case of the\\nmuscle, we know that the live muscle has the power of shortening when\\nstimulated, and in this respect is totally unlike the rubber. The live\\ncells, or units, act in concert.\\nLevers. The essentials of a lever are the point about\\nwhich the lever turns, called the fulcrum, the place where\\nthe power is applied, called the power, and the part to be\\nmoved, called the weight. In the body, the fulcrum is\\nsome joint, the power is the place where the muscle is\\nattached, and the weight is the part to be moved.\\nKinds of Levers. In flexing the forearm, the weight\\nis the hand or the hand and what is in it the fulcrum is\\nthe elbow joint; and the power is the point where the\\ntendon of the biceps is attached to the radius. This kind\\nof a lever is what the books call a lever of the third class.\\nThe triceps, on the back of the arm, pulls on the projection\\nof the ulna (the inner bone of the forearm when the palm\\nis up), back of the elbow. The elbow is here, also, the\\nfulcrum, and the hand (or the object to be pushed by the\\nhand) is the weight. This kind of lever, where the fulcrum\\nis between the power and the weight, is called a lever of the\\nfirst class. In raising the weight of the body, by stand-\\ning on tiptoe, we use a lever of the second class. Here\\nthe ball of the foot is the fulcrum. The weight is the\\nweight of the whole body, resting on the ankle joint, while", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "MOTION.\\ni;\\nthe power is the calf muscle. We may find many exam-\\nples of levers in the body if we look for them.\\n(1) Tapping on Floor. (2) Rising on Toe. (3) Lifting Weight.\\nFig. 6. Three Kinds of Levers as shown by the Foot.\\nP Power. W Weight. F Fulcrum.\\nKinds of Levers shown by the Foot. The different\\nclasses of levers may be further illustrated by different\\nmotions of the foot. In tapping the toes on the floor\\nwhile the heel is lifted, or in pressing down the ball of the\\nfoot while running the treadle of a sewing machine, we\\nhave an example of a first-class lever. In raising the\\nweight of the body on tiptoes, or as the foot is used in\\ntaking each step, the foot is used as a lever of the second\\nclass. When one lifts a weight with the toes, the foot is\\nused as a lever of the third class. These three classes of\\nlevers are illustrated in the accompanying figures.\\nAdvantages and Disadvantages of Levers in the Body. The\\naction of the bones of the forearm as a lever may perhaps be better\\nunderstood by the following considerations If the arm consisted\\nmerely of the biceps, suspended from the shoulder, it is evident that\\nits only action would be a straight pull. Suppose the biceps, thus\\nhanging alone from the shoulder, had a hook at its lower end, it could,\\nwhen it shortened, lift a weight just as far as it shortened, and no", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "PHYSIOLOGY.\\nfarther. It could not swing the weight outward, or push it upward.\\nBut from the way in which the biceps is attached to the forearm, when\\nthe muscle shortens an inch it may move the hand a foot. Of course\\nthe hand moves much faster, and we have a great gain in speed by\\nreason of this lever arrangement. But we cannot lift so heavy a weight\\nat this faster rate, as we could at the\\nelbow. For instance, suppose one were\\nto carry a heavy basket with a bail\\nhandle by slipping the arm through\\nthe bail up to the elbow. Now, it is\\nevident that the biceps is supporting\\nthe weight. If it is as heavy as can be\\nheld here, we know that we could not\\nhold the same weight in the hand with\\nthe elbow bent at a right angle.\\n/M\\nArticular Extremity\\nMedullary Cavity\\nSpongy Bone\\nArticular Extremity\\nFig. 7. Longitudinal Section of\\nFemur.\\nStudy of One of the Long Bones.\\nFor this, take, preferably, a femur\\nor a humerus. Let us suppose we have\\na femur.\\ni. Observe its shape, cylindrical,\\nsomewhat curved, enlarged at the ends.\\n2. The ends have smooth places,\\nwhere they fitted other bones.\\n3. Along the sides, especially near\\nthe ends, are ridges and projections,\\nwhere the muscles were attached.\\n4. There are small holes in the\\nbone, where blood tubes passed in and\\nout.\\n5. Saw a femur in two, lengthwise,\\nand make a drawing showing\\n(a) The central marrow cavity.\\n(fr) The spongy extremities, noting especially the directions of the\\nbony plates and fibers.\\n6. Observe the width of the lower end of the femur, where it rests\\non the tibia. Suppose these two bones were as narrow at their ends,\\nwhere they meet to form the knee joint, as they are at their centers,\\nwhat kind of a joint would they make Illustrate by piling up a num-", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "MOTION.\\nber of spools on end the column is more lightened than it is weak-\\nened by the hollowing out of the sides of each spool. And the central\\nhollow of the spool does not greatly weaken it. A given weight of\\nmaterial has more strength when in the form of a hollow cylinder. The\\nbones combine well two very desirable quali-\\nties, lightness and strength. If in our col-\\numn of spools we place a wide rubber band\\naround the junction of two spools, we have\\nsomething very similar to the capsular liga-\\nment, which surrounds the joints.\\nJoints. The ends of the bones, where\\nthey fit together in the joints, are covered\\nwith a layer of smooth, elastic, whitish or\\ntransparent cartilage. The motion in the\\njoints is made still more easy by the synovia,\\nresembling white of egg. The ends of the\\nbones are held together by tough bands and\\ncords of ligament, a form of connective\\ntissue very much like tendon. Bones are\\nclosely covered by a tough coat of connective\\ntissue called the periosteum.\\nAll these structures can easily be found\\nby dissecting a sheep shank gotten from the\\nbutcher, or in the hind leg of a rabbit.\\nLocomotion. Locomotion is mov-\\ning from place to place and should\\nbe distinguished from mere motion.\\nBy continuing such observations as\\nwe made when we began to study\\nour motions, we can analyze and\\nunderstand many of the common\\nmovements which we habitually\\nmake.\\nStanding. Although we are not ordinarily conscious of\\nthe fact, when we are standing still we are using many\\nmuscles. The accompanying figure illustrates how some", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "20 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nof the muscles act in keeping the body upright. Our\\nweight, or, we would better say, the force of gravity, is\\ncontinually trying to pull us down to the ground. The\\njoints are all freely movable, and hence as soon as the\\nmuscles cease to act properly, in balancing against each\\nother, we lose our equilibrium, and fall if we do not\\nquickly regain it.\\nWalking. In walking, we lean forward, and if we take\\nno further action we fall. But we keep one foot on the\\nground, pushing the body forward, while the other leg is\\nflexed and carried forward to save us from the fall. We\\ncatch the body on this foot, and repeat the action. To\\nshow how we are really repeatedly falling and catching\\nourselves, recall how likely one is to fall if some obstacle\\nis placed in the way of the foot as it moves forward to\\ncatch the weight of the body.\\nRunning. In running, the action is more vigorous.\\nThe propulsion by the rear leg is now greater. It gives\\nsuch a push as to make the body clear the ground, whereas\\nin walking, the rear foot is not lifted till the front foot\\ntouches the ground. But in running there is a time when\\nboth feet are off the ground.\\nLocomotion by Reaction. Take two broomsticks and place them\\ncrosswise under the ends of a board. Run along the board. This\\nshows that the direct effort in running is to push one s support from\\nunder him. When a horse plunges forward in the mud, he only thrusts\\nhis feet farther into the mud. Our effort in progression is primarily to\\npush the earth out from under us, and it is by reaction that we go\\nforward. It is the same problem with the fish swimming forward by\\nstriking backward and sideways against the water, and with the bird\\nbeating downward and backward upon the air.\\nBones combine Lightness and Strength. The mus-\\ncles, then, make use of the bones as levers. We carry", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "MOTION. 21\\nthese levers with us all the time. Hence the desirability\\nof having them as light as is consistent with the requisite\\ndegree of strength. The body follows the same law of\\nmechanics that we use outside of the body. A hollow\\npillar or hollow tube has a greater strength than, the same\\namount of material in the form of a solid cylinder. The\\nlong bones of the limbs are hollow, and near their ends,\\nwhere we have found that they need to be enlarged, we\\nfind a spongy structure, where lightness and strength are\\nsecured by the interlacing fibers and plates of bony\\nmaterial.\\nUses of Bones. The part that the bones play is of a\\npassive nature they support the tissues, protect some\\nparts, and serve as levers on which the muscles act. We\\nmay not call the bones dead tissues, for they receive blood\\nand grow. But the active muscles use them as a man uses\\na crowbar, as a mere tool. It will therefore be more\\ninteresting to return to the muscles, and learn the causes\\nand conditions of their activity.\\nWhat makes Complex Muscular Action Harmoni-\\nous. Have you ever seen two persons, each using the\\nright hand, try to sew, one holding the cloth, the other\\nusing the needle Would they get along well Suppose\\none were to hold the needle, and the other were to try to\\nthread it, each using one hand Why is it that the right\\nhands of two persons cannot work so well together as the\\nright and left hands of one person What connection is\\nthere between the two, that one knows just what the other\\nis doing and when it does it Why can two individuals\\nnever, with any amount of practice, work so in unity as the\\nparts of the individual", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "22 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nLet us seek the answers to these questions in the follow-\\ning lessons.\\nReading. How to Get Strong and How to Stay So,\\nBlaikie Sound Bodies for Our Boys and Girls, Blaikie\\nPhysiology of Bodily Exercise, Lagrange.\\nSummary. i Motion is involved in nearly every activity of the\\nbody.\\n2. The action of muscle is a shortening, accompanied by a thick-\\nening and hardening.\\n3. Muscle consists of fibers with a connective tissue sheath for\\neach fiber, bundle of fibers, and for the muscle as a whole.\\n4. The skeletal muscle fibers are striated.\\n5. The muscles make about half the body s weight.\\n6. Muscles may shorten one third their length.\\n7. They cannot remain shortened long at a time.\\n8. The muscles should be developed symmetrically.\\n9. In the limbs the muscles are fusiform and have their greatest\\ndiameter opposite the central, or narrower, portions of the bones, con-\\ncealing the fact that the bones are largest at the ends, as is so manifest\\nin the skeleton.\\n10. The bones serve as levers by which the muscles exert their\\nforce.\\n1 1 The bones of the limbs are hollow cylinders combining lightness\\nand strength.\\n12. The joints have a smooth motion due to the cartilage and\\nsynovia.\\n13. Locomotion is brought about by reaction.\\nQuestions. 1. What effect is produced by carrying a heavy satchel\\nfor a long distance without resting?\\n2. Which is more tiresome, standing still or walking? Why?\\n3. When the boy, who thinks he can strike a hard blow, says,\\nFeel my muscle, does he usually call attention to the muscle used in\\nstriking?\\n4. Find other examples of levers in the body.\\n5. Find examples of the three kinds of levers, not in the body,\\nwhich we use often.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "MOTION. 23\\n6. Why is it easier to sit with one leg crossed over the other?\\n7. What is the effect on muscles of light clothing?\\n8. How may the arms be used to illustrate the three kinds of\\nlevers\\n9. Analyze and explain jumping, hopping, etc.\\n10. What is curvature of the spine How caused and how\\navoided\\n1 1 What makes people bow-legged\\n12. Why are the sides of the body often sore after walking on icy\\npavements", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III.\\nTHE GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nSENSATION AND MOTION.\\nWhat makes Muscles Shorten We have seen that\\nthe muscles have the power of shortening that in shorten-\\ning they act on the bones as levers to produce our varied\\nmotions. What makes the muscles shorten\\nVoluntary and Involuntary Motions. Some motions\\nwe will to make. We will to sit, to stand, to walk, to run,\\nor to stretch out the hand. Such motions, originating in\\na brain activity, are called Voluntary. Other motions are\\nInvoluntary. The will does not control the heart beat.\\nMost persons cannot keep from winking when a quick\\nmotion is made toward the face, even if they know they\\nwill not be hit. But all of these motions, whether volun-\\ntary or involuntary, are dependent upon the nervous\\nsystem.\\nThe Cerebro-spinal Nervous System. This consists\\nof the brain, the spinal cord, and the spinal nerves. The\\nbrain will be described later.\\nThe Spinal Cord. The spinal cord is a cylindrical\\nbody extending from the brain along the cavity of the\\nspinal column. Its diameter is not uniform throughout.\\nBetween the shoulders is an enlargement called the cer-\\nvical enlargement, where the large nerves are given off to\\n24", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\n2$\\nFig. 9. Diagram showing Arrangement of Nervous System,", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "26 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nthe arms. In the region of the loins is the lumbar enlarge-\\nment, where the nerves are given off to supply the poste-\\nrior limbs. The cord is not so long as the cavity of the\\nspinal column, and the space posterior to the cord is occu-\\npied by the nerves extending to the posterior limbs, and\\nthese nerves are given off at a very sharp angle, and con-\\ntinue backward for some distance before they emerge\\nfrom the cavity of the spinal column. But in the region\\nof the shoulders the nerves spring off at about a right\\nangle with the cord. The outside of the cord is white, but\\nthe central portion consists of what is called gray matter.\\nThe white portion is made up of fibers, but the gray matter\\nconsists of nerve cells as well.\\nThe Spinal Nerves. These are given off in pairs from\\nthe sides of the spinal cord, passing out between the suc-\\ncessive vertebrae. In the regions of the shoulders and\\nloins the spinal nerves are large, as they supply the large\\nmuscles of the limbs but in the middle of the back, where\\nonly the muscles of the body wall are supplied, the nerves\\nare small. We have thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves.\\nThe Roots of the Spinal Nerves. Each spinal nerve\\narises by two roots, one nearer the back, called the dorsal\\nroot, the other nearer the ventral surface, the ventral root.\\nThese two roots soon unite to form one spinal nerve.\\nThe Ganglion of the Dorsal Root. On the dorsal\\nroot, just before it unites with the ventral root, is a swell-\\ning, the ganglion of the dorsal root. Like all ganglions, it\\nis largely made up of nerve cells, being a center of con-\\ntrol rather than a means of communication.\\nThe Cerebro-spinal Nervous System of the Rabbit or Cat. It\\nwill prove helpful at this point to examine the nervous system of a", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM. 2 J\\nrabbit. The animal may be killed painlessly by shutting it in a tight\\nbox with a sponge holding a teaspoonful of chloroform or ether. The\\nsmaller the box, the less anesthetic necessary. A large glass jar inverted\\nover the animal is convenient.\\nFor a support, nail a foot of two-by-four scantling edgewise to a base\\nboard. Lay the animal on this and tack out the feet. Slit and pull\\naside the skin from the nose along the back to the base of the tail.\\nRemove the muscle along the sides of the back and neck. Between\\nthe skull and the first vertebra is a space; covered by a thin membrane.\\nThis may be cut through with scissors. Then bone forceps may be\\nemployed by inserting the point of a blade on each side of the cord and\\ncutting through the bone. In this way the whole of the dorsal portion\\nof the spinal column may be removed, exposing the spinal cord through-\\nout its entire length. With care the nerves and their roots may be\\nfound. The nerves extending to the anterior limbs are easily traced,\\nbut for the nerves to the posterior limbs more work is needed.\\nStructure of Nerves. When we trace the sciatic nerve\\noutward, we find that it is continually subdividing. This\\ndivision continues until the branches are too small to be\\nseen by the naked eye. Microscopic examination shows\\nthat a nerve is made up of a great number of fibers bound\\ntogether in a common sheath of connective tissue, as is\\nthe case with muscle. When the nerve divides there is\\nordinarily no true branching or, forking, but certain of\\nthe fibers simply separate from the rest, as in the separa-\\ntion of the fibers in floss silk.\\nStructure of a Nerve Fiber. A single nerve fiber is\\ntoo small to be seen by the naked eye, being only about\\none two-thousandth of an inch in diameter. It consists of\\nthe following parts\\ni. The Axis Cylinder, a central strand, or core, of semi-\\ntransparent, gray material.\\n2. The Medullary Sheath is a layer of white, oily\\nmaterial around the axis cylinder.", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "28 PHYSIOLOGY.\\n3. The Nerve Fiber Sheath is a thin, transparent outer\\nsheath of connective tissue.\\nFunction of Nerve Fibers. The sole function of the\\nnerve fiber is to convey nerve impulses. The nerve im-\\npulse passes along the axis cylinder as an electric current\\npasses along an insulated wire.\\nNerve Fiber Sheath\\nI \u00e2\u0080\u00a2\u00e2\u0096\u00a0\u00c2\u00a7*SB^3SM Axis Cylinder\\nMedullary Sheath\\nFig. 10- Structure of a Nerve Fiber.\\nGray Nerve Fibers. In the sympathetic nerves there\\nare many fibers which have no medullary sheath, but con-\\nsist simply of the axis cylinder and the nerve-fiber sheath.\\nThese are called gray nerve fibers.\\nCross-section of the Spinal Cord. If a thin slice of\\nthe spinal cord be made as shown in Fig. 11, it will be\\nseen that the central part is darker in color than the outer\\npart. The central part is known as the gray matter, in\\ndistinction from the rest, which is called the white matter.\\nThe white matter of the nervous system is made up of\\nnerve fibers whose structure and use we have just con-\\nsidered. But the gray matter has a different structure and\\na different function. Instead of being made up mainly of\\nfibers it is composed of cells, one of the forms of which is\\nrepresented in Fig. 12. Some of the branches of these\\ncells are continued, and become the axis cylinders of nerves,\\nand it is believed that every nerve fiber begins as a branch\\nof some nerve cell. One of the best places to see these\\nnerve cells is in the gray matter of the spinal cord, near", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\n29\\nthe place where the ventral root of the spinal nerve arises.\\nThis part of the gray matter is called the ventral horn of\\nthe gray matter. If this portion be examined under a\\nmoderately high power of the microscope, there may be\\nseen a number of cells with radiating branches.\\nDorsal Septum\\nDorsal or Sensor\\nRoot 7/4\\nGanglion\\nVentral or Motor Root\\nFig. 1 1. Cross-section of Spinal Cord.\\nFunctions of the Spinal Cord. The spinal cord has\\ntwo main functions\\n1. Its conducting power, by means of the white fibers\\nwhich make up the outer part of the cord. These fibers\\nmay be regarded as connecting the gray matter of the\\nbrain with all parts of the body.\\n2. The gray matter is the center of the reflex actions of\\nthe cord.\\nGanglia. Masses of nerve cells make up nerve centers,\\nor ganglia, such as are on the dorsal roots of the spinal\\nnerves. These also would show under the microscope\\nthat their chief constituent is a collection of nerve cells\\nwhich give off one or more branches.", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "30\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nThe gray matter of the spinal cord is considered a col-\\nlection of ganglions. We see that the outer layer of the\\nbrain is grayish in color. Within is white matter, consist-\\ning of nerve fibers that connect the cells of the gray layer\\nFig. 12. A Large Nerve Cell from the Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord.\\nwith the various parts of the body through the base of the\\nbrain, the spinal cord, and spinal nerves.\\nNo Sensation without the Brain. After a fowl s head is cut off it\\nflops around for some time, and it may even jump clear from the\\nground. If one takes hold of its feet to pick it up, it may begin to\\nstruggle as if it were trying to escape.\\nNow, we know that the bird cannot feel anything after its head is\\ncut off, because the body is completely separated from the brain, which\\nis the center of sensation. So with the frog. After its head is cut\\noff, it cannot feel anything.\\nReflex Action of the Spinal Cord of the Frog. A frog may be\\nkilled as directed on p. 9. Cut off its head and suspend the body\\nfrom any convenient support, such as the ring of a retort stand.\\n1. On pinching the toes the foot will be drawn up.\\n2. The sciatic nerve should now be severed as before directed\\n(p. 9). At the instant of cutting the nerve the muscles below will\\ntwitch, because the nerve fibers running to them are stimulated.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "NER VO US SYSTEM.\\n31\\n3. If the toes are again pinched, it is found that the uninjured leg\\nwill draw up, but not the one whose sciatic nerve has been severed.\\n4. If a wire be run down the spinal cavity, the spinal cord will be\\ndestroyed, and during the operation the uninjured leg will act spas-\\nmodically, because the nerve fibers going to its muscles from the cord\\nare stimulated.\\n5. Pinching the toes no longer gives response, because the cord,\\nwhich acted as the center of this reflex action, is destroyed.\\nThe Gray Matter of the Cord the Center of Reflex\\nAction. In simple sensation of touch, pressure on the\\nAfferent Dorsal Root\\nSensor Fiber\\nMuscle\\nMotor Fiber\\nEfferent\\nVentral Root\\nFig. 13. Diagram of Reflex Action of the Spinal Cord.\\n(After Landois and Stirling.)\\ntoes starts a nerve current or nerve impulse which runs up\\nto the brain. The sensation is in the brain, but is referred\\nto the foot. Hence we should be careful not to speak of\\na sensation being carried. In voluntary muscular action\\nthe impulse starts from the brain, goes to the muscles, and\\nmakes them shorten or relax.\\nBut in reflex action the current runs up the nerve to the\\nspinal cord. The gray matter of the central part of the\\ncord receives the message, and sends back a nerve impulse\\nto the muscles to make them shorten and pull the foot\\naway from the source of injury.", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "32 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nThe Parts Essential to Reflex Action of the Spinal\\nCord\\ni. A sensitive surface (the skin, for instance).\\n2. Afferent nerve fibers.\\n3. A nerve cell, or cells, in the center of the spinal cord.\\n4. Efferent nerve fibers.\\n5. Working organ, as muscle or gland.\\nPhases of Reflex Action. In the above experiment\\non the frog the steps in order were\\n1. Stimulation of the nerve endings in the skin of the\\ntoe.\\n2. Passage of a nerve impulse up the afferent fibers to\\nthe spinal cord.\\nNerve-Cell\\nAfferent Fiber\\nSkin\\nW~ Muscle\\nFig. 14. Scheme of Reflex Arc\\n3. Reception of the impulse by a cell, or cells, of the\\ngray matter in the cord.\\n4. Sending back a nerve impulse\\n5. Along an efferent fiber, or fibers, to\\n6. Muscles which shorten and move the foot.\\nImportance of Reflex Action. It is important that\\nwe understand the nature of reflex action, for very many\\nof the processes of the body are regulated by it. Not\\nonly the more manifest motions, such as winking when", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM. 33\\nanything comes quickly toward the eye, dodging, jumping\\nwhen suddenly touched by anything hot or when pricked\\nby a pin, but also the adjustments of the essential processes\\nof life, circulation, respiration, and digestion, are brought\\nabout through reflex action.\\nDestination of Nerve Fibers. The sciatic nerve is\\ncomposed of many fibers. If this nerve is traced outward,\\nit is found to be continually subdividing, and sending small\\nbranches to the muscles, and finally in the muscles one\\nfine nerve fiber goes to each muscle fiber. (See Fig. 13.)\\nMany fibers go on past the muscles to the skin. We can\\nfeel in any part of the skin, and we can tell just where we\\nare touched. These fibers from the skin, then, carry\\nnerve impulses inward, as those going to the muscles\\ncarry impulses outward.\\nNerve Roots and their Functions. Experiments on\\nthe lower animals, and accidents in the case of man, show\\nthat all the fibers of the nerves that carry currents to the\\nmuscles pass out from the spinal cord into the ventral\\nroot, and that all the fibers that carry currents inward\\nenter the spinal cord through the dorsal root. Hence, the\\ndorsal root is often called the afferent root, and the ventral\\nthe efferent root. Since ingoing impulses produce sensa-\\ntion, the dorsal root is called the sensory root, while the\\nventral root, carrying currents outward to produce motion,\\nis called the motor root.\\nEffect of Stimulating a Spinal Nerve. Experiments\\nhave shown that if, in an uninjured animal, a nerve, or\\nmore properly a nerve trunk, as the sciatic nerve, be\\nstimulated, for instance, by a suitable electric shock, two\\neffects are produced first, motion in the parts whose", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "34 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nmuscles are supplied by the nerve second, sensation,\\nwhich is referred to the parts of the skin supplied by the\\nbranches of the nerve.\\nEffect of Severing a Spinal Nerve. If, instead of simply stimu-\\nlating the nerve, the nerve is severed, the same two effects will be pro-\\nduced. After severing the nerve, if we stimulate the end of the nerve\\nstill connected with the limb, we get action of the muscles in that limb.\\nIf we stimulate the end of the nerve connected with the body, a sensa-\\ntion will be produced, and this sensation will be referred to the parts\\nfrom which the nerve fibers arise, probably in the skin of the limb.\\nEffect of Stimulating the Ends of Severed Nerve Roots. If we\\nnow turn to the roots of the nerve, and make similar experiments, we\\nobtain the following results Stimulating the dorsal root causes sensa-\\ntion referred to some outer surface, and no other effect is noticed.\\nCutting the dorsal root also causes sensation. Stimulating the end of\\nthis root still connected with the spinal cord causes sensation but\\nstimulating the end of the root connected with the nerve gives no\\nappreciable result.\\nStimulating or cutting the ventral root causes motion in the parts\\nwhose muscles are supplied by fibers from this root. After severing\\nthis root, if the end connected with the spinal cord be stimulated, no\\neffect is noticed but stimulating the end still connected with the nerve\\nis followed by shortening of the muscles supplied.\\nEffect of Severing All the Spinal Nerves. Severing\\nall the spinal nerves destroys all power of sensation and\\nvoluntary motion in all parts of the body except the head.\\nAfter severing all the dorsal roots, no sensation would be\\nproduced by stimulating any part of the body, and after\\nsevering all the ventral roots no act of the will can cause\\nany of the muscles of the body to act. Severing all the\\nnerves, or severing all the roots, cuts off all communication\\nof the brain with the body, and so far as motion and sensa-\\ntion in the body generally are concerned, has the same\\neffect as severing the spinal cord below the head.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM. 35\\nCramp. Cramp is a spasmodic shortening of the\\nmuscles, attended with pain.\\nTetanus. Tetanus (or locked jaw) is a spasmodic and\\ncontinuous shortening of the muscles, causing rigidity of\\nthe parts they supply. It is due to the disordered and\\nexcessive stimulation of the muscles through the nerves.\\nCrossing of the Fibers from the Brain to the Spinal\\nCord. Both the brain and the spinal cord consist of two\\nlateral halves connected by cross fibers. Each half of the\\nbrain is connected with the opposite half of the body.\\nThis is accomplished by the crossing of the fibers. The\\nfibers that carry nerve impulses outward are now known\\nto cross as they leave the brain, at the very beginning of\\nthe spinal cord, in the part known as the spinal bulb.\\nThe sensations arising from touching anything with the\\nright hand, therefore, are in the left half of the brain, and\\nthe right half of the brain controls the left hand.\\nVoluntary Interference with Reflex Actions. We\\nhave seen that the jerking of the hand away from a hot\\nobject is due to reflex action of the spinal cord. One\\nmight, by a powerful effort of the will, keep the hand on\\nan object that is hot enough to burn the skin. One may\\ncommand the foot to remain quiet when it is tickled but\\nas soon as the person is asleep, the same stimulations\\nwould be followed by the reflex actions such as we have\\nconsidered.\\nIn these cases of interference it is understood that the\\nbrain sends a nerve impulse down to the centers of the\\nreflex action, and stops or diminishes their operation.\\nThis retarding influence of a group of cells is called inhi-\\nbition. It is not always due to voluntary interference,\\nbut may be due to reflex interference, as we may see later.", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "36 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nThe Nature of a Nervous Impulse. Of the nature\\nof a nerve impulse we know but little. It is convenient\\nto compare the nervous system, with its conducting fibers\\nand central ganglia, to a telegraph system. And electric-\\nity is the most convenient stimulus for exciting nerve im-\\npulses. Yet a nerve impulse is very different from an\\nelectric current. A nerve fiber is a poor conductor of\\nelectricity. An electric current may travel along a copper\\nwire at the rate of between 100,000 and 200,000 miles a\\nsecond, while a nerve impulse in a motor nerve travels\\nonly 170 feet in a second.\\nTransmission of Motor Impulses. When a motor fiber is stimu-\\nlated in the middle of its course we observe only one effect, the\\nshortening of the muscle at its lower end. But there is every reason\\nto believe that the nerve current, or impulse, runs along the nerve in\\nboth directions from its starting point. But while the action of the\\nmuscle at the peripheral extremity manifests the existence of the cur-\\nrent, there is nothing at the central extremity to give such evidence.\\nTransmission of Sensory Impulses. Similarly, when a sensor\\nnerve fiber is stimulated at some intermediate point, we have a sensa-\\ntion in the brain due to the current brought by the afferent fiber, and\\nwhich we refer to the outer end of the nerve fiber. Probably a nerve\\nimpulse passed from the point of stimulation to the outer end of the\\nfiber but as there is nothing at the outer end of the nerve fiber to\\ninterpret it, we get no evidence of such impulse except by refined\\nphysiological tests.\\nHarmony in Muscle Action. In throwing a stone a\\nnumber of muscles are used. Each one of these must\\nshorten in the right way and at the right time or the throw\\nwill not be accurate. Each muscle shortens under the\\ninfluence of a nerve impulse started by the brain and\\nbrought by a motor nerve. If any muscle shortens an\\ninstant too soon, or a little too strongly, the stone goes to", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM. 37\\none side. In a tune on a piano we know that the right\\nkeys must be struck that each must be struck at the right\\ntime, with the proper degree of force, and held for the\\nright length of time, or we have discord instead of har-\\nmony. What the player is to the instrument, the brain\\nis to the body.\\nTemporary Loss of Muscular Power. It may have\\nhappened to you that after sitting long in one position you\\nattempted to stand, but found that you could not do so.\\nOne leg failed to act at the bidding of your will. When\\nthe foot is asleep we get little sensation from it we\\nhardly know whether it is touching the floor or not. Press-\\ning on it with the other foot causes no pain. _\\nWe try to stand when the foot is asleep, but we are\\nunable to do so. The brain starts the nerve currents, and\\nthey run along the nerve as far as the compressed part\\nhere they stop. They cannot reach the muscles of the\\nleg below. Hence the muscles do not shorten, and we\\ndo not rise, no matter how strongly we will to do so.\\nWhy is it that the nerves and muscles thus sometimes\\nlose their ability to perform their natural activities\\nDependence of Nerves and Muscles. This has been\\nexplained by saying that owing to external pressure, the\\nnerve has temporarily lost its power of conducting nerve\\ncurrents. But what beside the nerve has been com-\\npressed What process in the limb has been interfered\\nwith by the pressure due to the position in which one has\\nbeen sitting or lying What is the temperature of the\\nbenumbed limb\\nOn what are the nerves and muscles so dependent for\\nthe maintenance of their activity", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "38 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nReading. Power through Repose, Call The Technique\\nof Rest, Brackett Muscles and Nerves, Rosenthal.\\nSummary I Motions are voluntary or involuntary, but all are\\nunder control of the nervous system.\\n2. The cerebro-spinal nervous system consists of the brain, the\\nspinal cord, and the spinal nerves.\\n3. Each spinal nerve has two roots: the dorsal, which is afferent\\nand sensory the ventral, which is efferent and motor.\\n4. A ganglion is a nerve center largely composed of nerve cells.\\n5. Nerves are made up of nerve fibers.\\n6. A nerve fiber consists of the central core (or axis cylinder),\\nwhich conducts the nerve impulse, the medullary sheath, and, outside,\\nthe nerve-fiber sheath.\\n7. The spinal cord has in its outer part white nerve fibers, in its\\ncenter gray nerve cells.\\n8. These cells are branched, and at least one branch becomes the\\naxis cylinder of a nerve fiber.\\n9. The gray matter of the cord is the center of the reflex action.\\n10. The nerve fibers from each half of the brain connect with the\\nopposite half of the body.\\n11. The nervous system is comparable to a telegraph system.\\nQuestions. 1 Name as many involuntary motions as you know.\\n2. What other cases of reflex action do you know\\n3. The story is told of a young Roman (Mucius Scaevola) that to\\nshow his fortitude he thrust his hand into the fire and held it there\\nuntil it was destroyed. What physiological action does this illustrate\\n4. Why is a man partially paralyzed when he has broken his neck\\nor back\\n5. How does the nervous system differ from a telegraph system?", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV.\\nCIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.\\nThe Blood and its Work. We know that if any animal\\nis bled freely, it soon becomes weak, then unconscious, and\\nsoon dies, if the escape of blood be not stopped.\\nWe observe the natural difference in color of different\\nparts of our bodies for instance, the lips and cheeks.\\nWe often note varying color, as in blushing and pallor.\\nWe wish to understand these differences and changes\\nalso to know what to do in case of fainting or bleeding\\nfrom wounds. We may prolong and make more useful\\nour own lives and those of others by knowing, in a practical\\nway, something about the causes, prevention, and remedies\\nof the colds, congestions, and inflammations to which we\\nare subject.\\nNearly every part of the body bleeds when cut. There\\nis no bleeding when we trim the nails or cut the hair, and\\nthe outer skin has no blood in it. But the inner skin, and\\nalmost every tissue within it, if pierced even by the finest\\nneedle, yields blood. We see a little blood oozing from\\nthe surface of a fresh steak or roast.\\nWhat kind of a substance is the blood Is it uniformly\\ndistributed through the tissues, like water soaked up into a\\ncloth, or is it in distinct cavities Why is it so essential to\\nlife How does it do its work\\nThe Rate of the Heart Beat. The heart beats about\\nseventy-two times a minute in men in women, about\\n39", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "40 PHYSIOLOGY.\\neighty. At birth the rate is from one hundred and thirty\\nto one hundred and forty, and gradually decreases till\\nabout the age of twenty, when the average of seventy-two\\nis reached. This rate holds till old age, when it increases.\\nThe rate is increased by muscular activity, food, external\\nheat, internal heat (fever), pain, and mental excitement.\\nMusic accelerates the pulse rate. The pulse rate varies\\nduring the twenty-four hours, being lowest during the\\nnight, and highest about 1 1 a.m. Certain diseases increase\\nthe frequency of the pulse. Some drugs quicken the\\npulse rate, and others diminish it.\\nThe Heart Beat and the Pulse. i The heart beat, felt at the left\\nof the breast bone.\\n2. The pulse, felt at the wrist and at various parts of the body.\\nPerhaps the most convenient place to study it is at the temple. Lay\\nthe forefinger lightly along the cheek just in front of the ear. Count\\nthe pulsations for a minute.\\nLet one or two pupils who are quick at figures step to the blackboard\\nand put down the number of pulsations of each pupil, and divide by the\\nnumber thus reporting, to get the average.\\ni. Let all in the class count the pulse while sitting. Probably it\\nwill be best to discard the first trial, as there are likely to be several\\nfailures from one cause or another. Then, too, there is usually a slight\\nexcitement at the beginning of a wholly new experiment. Get the aver-\\nage of the class.\\n2. Find the pulse while sitting; rise quickly, and immediately begin\\nto count the pulse. Compare with the pulse as taken while sitting.\\n3. Compare the pulse before and after meals.\\n4. With the thumb and finger lightly clasp the windpipe, well back.\\nThe pulse in the carotid arteries will be felt.\\nThe Position of the Heart. The base of the heart is\\nin the center of the chest, just back of the breast bone, but\\nthe apex points downward and to the left.\\nThe Covering of the Heart. The heart is inclosed in\\na loosely fitting membranous bag, the pericardium. Within", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 4 1\\nthe pericardium and around the heart is a small quantity\\nof liquid, called the pericardial fluid.\\nThe Size of the Heart. A person s heart is about the\\nsize of his clenched hand.\\nThe External Features of the Heart. The heart is\\ncone-shaped and the bulk of it is made up of the ventricles,\\nthe auricles being two ear-like flaps at the base, one on\\neach side. There is a deep notch between the auricles\\nand the ventricles. The line of division between the two\\nventricles is marked by a groove, which runs obliquely\\nalong the ventral surface. In this groove are blood tubes\\nand usually considerable fat.\\nThe Internal Structure of the Heart. The two halves\\nof the heart are completely separated from one another\\nby a partition. Each half, in turn, has valves which,\\npart of the time, separate the cavity of each auricle (at\\nthe base) from the cavity of the corresponding ventricle\\n(at the apex).\\nThe Valves of the Heart. Between the auricles and\\nthe ventricles are curtain-like valves, whose upper edges\\nare attached to the inner surface of the walls at the upper\\nmargin of the ventricle. These flaps are somewhat tri-\\nangular, and have strong white, tendinous cords extending\\nfrom their edges and under surfaces to the walls of the\\nventricle below. In the right half of the heart there are\\nthree flaps, and this valve is called the tricuspid valve. In\\nthe left side there are two flaps, which, together, constitute\\nthe mitral valve. In the resting heart these flaps hang\\ndown along the walls of the ventricles so that on opening\\nthe heart one would see only a single cavity in each half\\nof the heart.", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "42 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nThe Semilunar Valves.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 From the base of the right\\nventricle arises the pulmonary artery. Within its base,\\njust as it leaves the ventricle, are three pocket-like valves,\\nlike patch-pockets. They are in a circle, with their edges\\ntouching, and thus surround the opening, with their\\nmouths opening away from the heart. A similar set of\\nvalves are within the base of the aorta, which arises from\\nthe left ventricle. Both these sets of valves are called\\nsemilunar valves.\\nDissection of the Heart. No description (nor even figures) can\\ngive a clear idea of the heart. A good model will be of some assist-\\nance. But the heart itself should be examined carefully and then dis-\\nsected. The heart and lungs of a sheep should be obtained (ask the\\nbutcher to save the pluck/ i.e. the heart and lungs taken out together).\\nThe relations of the heart to the lungs and other organs should first\\nbe studied, and then the pericardium opened. Observe the outside of\\nthe heart, and then cut the heart open to see the points given in the\\nabove description. After the heart is severed from the lungs the auri-\\ncles may be cut off; then, by pouring water into the ventricle, the\\naction of the valves between the auricles and the ventricles will be\\nseen. Pressing on the outer surface of the right ventricle will make\\nthe water escape through the pulmonary artery. If this be split open,\\nthe semilunar valves at its base may be found.\\nThe Blood Tubes connecting the Heart with Other\\nOrgans. The aorta (the largest artery in the body)\\narises from the base of the left ventricle, and supplies\\nwith blood every organ of the body except the lungs.\\nThe pulmonary artery springs from the base of the right\\nventricle and sends blood to the right and left lungs.\\nTwo large veins enter the right auricle, the precaval vein\\nfrom the anterior regions of the body and the postcaval\\nvein brings blood from all the organs of the posterior por-\\ntions of the body. The pulmonary veins return the blood\\nfrom the lungs to the left auricle, two from each lung.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.\\n43", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "44\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nX External Jugular Vein\\nInternal Jugular Vein\\n2 Subclavian Artery\\nb Subclavian Vein\\n1 Carotid Artery\\ni Aorta\\nIII Precaval Vein\\nIV Postcaval Vein\\nC Gastric Artery\\nJ Splenic Artery\\n1 Hepatic Artery\\nI Pancreatic Artery\\ng Renal Veins\\n5 Renal Arteries\\n7 Iliac Arteries\\ni Iliac Veins\\nFig- 16. Distribution of Arteries and Veins.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.\\n45\\nThe Distribution of the Arteries and Veins. The\\norgans of the body receive a supply of blood in propor-\\ntion to their size and activity. The artery supplying the\\nblood and the vein which returns it usually lie side by side\\n(see Fig. 16). The larger arteries are usually deep-seated\\nand in protected places.\\nDemonstration of the Action of the Heart. The heart may be\\nmounted as shown in Fig. 17, and its action illustrated by compressing\\nthe ventricles with both hands. Instead of the apparatus here shown\\ntwo retort stands may be used, though not so convenient.\\nCapillaries\\nof the Body\\nFig. 17. Demonstration of the Action of the Heart (Heart Diagrammatic).\\nThe Action of the Heart. The heart consists of\\nmuscle fibers so arranged that they form a thick-walled\\nbag, which stands expanded when the muscles relax. But\\nwhen the fibers shorten the whole heart contracts, and the", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "46 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ncavity is much reduced in size, if not entirely obliterated,\\nand the blood is forced out.\\nThe complete action of the heart consists of three parts,\\nthe contraction of the auricles, the contraction of the\\nventricles, and the pause.\\nThe Pause. During the pause the blood is steadily\\npouring into the auricles into the right auricle from the\\ncaval veins, into the left auricle from the pulmonary veins.\\nAt this time the curtain-like valves between the auricles\\nand the ventricles are open, and their flaps hang loosely\\nbeside the walls of the ventricles. The blood, therefore,\\nas it passes into the auricles, passes on into the ventricles.\\nAs the ventricle fills, the valves float up, as seen in the\\nexperiment of pouring water into the ventricle.\\nThe Contraction of the Auricle. When the ventricle\\nis full, but not stretched, and the auricle partly full, the\\nauricle suddenly contracts, thus forcing more blood into\\nthe ventricle, and distending it. At the same time the\\nvalves, which were already nearly closed, are tightly closed\\nby the pressure of the blood which is forced up behind\\nthem. The flaps of the valves are kept from going up too\\nfar by the tendinous cords and by the papillary muscles to\\nwhich the cords are attached.\\nThe Contraction of the Ventricle. Next comes the\\ncontraction of the ventricle, slower, but more powerful\\nthan that of the auricle. As the walls of the ventricle are\\ndrawn together, the blood is subjected to pressure. It\\ncannot go back into the auricles, for the more it presses\\nagainst the valves, the more tightly they are closed. The\\nsemilunar valves are closed by back pressure in the aorta\\nand pulmonary artery. But the pressure of the blood in\\nthe ventricles is so much greater that the semilunar valves", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.\\n47\\nare forced open, and nearly all the blood is driven out of\\nthe ventricles from the right ventricle into the pulmonary\\nartery, and from the left ventricle into the aorta.\\nWhile the ventricles are contracting and forcing their\\nblood out, the auricles are slowly filling by the steady\\ninflow through the veins.\\nSystole and Diastole. The contraction of the heart is\\ncalled the systole, and its dilation the diastole.\\nDilation of the Ventricle. As soon as the ventricle\\nhas completed its contraction it dilates, and most of the\\nblood that has accumulated in the auricle simply falls into\\nthe ventricle. The dilating ventricle exerts a slight suc-\\ntion, so the blood is in part drawn into the ventricle. Dur-\\ning the remainder of the pause the blood accumulates in\\nAuricle\\nDiagram of the Heart, showing the Action of the Valves.\\nthe auricle and ventricle till the auricle again contracts and\\nthe cycle is repeated. This is true of both halves of the\\nheart, which work simultaneously, the right heart pumping\\ndark blood while the left heart pumps bright blood. The\\nleft ventricle is thicker walled and stronger than the right.", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "48 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nWork and Rest of the Heart. The time taken by the\\ndifferent parts of the heart beat are about as follows The\\nauricle contracts about one eighth of the time and rests\\nthe other seven eighths. The ventricle contracts about\\nthree eighths of the time and dilates during about five\\neighths. If we suppose the whole period of the heart beat\\nto be twenty-four hours (instead of eight tenths of a sec-\\nond), we can more easily see how much of the time the\\nheart is actually at work, and how much of the time the\\nheart is resting.\\nAuricle contracting (working) of the time 3 h., resting 21 h.\\nVentricle contracting (working) f of the time 9 h., resting 15 h.\\nNo part of the heart, therefore, is working longer than a\\nman would who only works nine hours a day. Some ob-\\nservers state that the resting period is even greater than\\nthese figures would show.\\nSince the contraction of the ventricles immediately fol-\\nlows that of the auricles, one half of the time is occupied\\nby the whole contraction of the heart, and during half the\\ntime the whole heart is resting. This is different from our\\nusual statements regarding the work of the heart. We\\nhear it said that the heart never rests. Its work and rest\\nfollow each other at such short intervals that we do not\\nappreciate the interval of rest that comes between the suc-\\ncessive impulses that we feel. Suppose a policeman had\\nthe power of sleeping at will, and that he slept thirty min-\\nutes of each hour, and that in the remaining thirty minutes\\nhe made the rounds of a block. If we saw him passing\\nregularly once an hour, every hour of the twenty-four, we\\nmight suppose that he did not sleep at all during the entire\\ntime. This ratio of work and rest is fairly constant in\\nthe varying rates of heart beat.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.\\n49\\nThe Beat of the Heart. The apex of the heart is\\nalways in contact with the chest wall. Consequently, it\\nnever strikes it. At each beat it pushes hard against the\\nchest wall. This push may be felt and seen, and is called\\nthe heart beat.\\nThe Sounds of the Heart. There are two sounds of\\nthe heart\\ni. A short, sharp sound made by the closing of the semi-\\nlunar valves.\\n2. Just preceding this sound a longer, duller sound may\\nbe heard during the contraction of the ventricles. This is\\nsupposed to be due to the vibrations of the walls of the\\nventricles and of the large valves.\\nAction of the Large Arteries. The large arteries\\nhave in their walls a yellow elastic tissue. When the\\nblood is forced into them, they are stretched. As soon as\\nthe ventricle ceases to contract,\\nand sends no more blood into\\nthe arteries, they stretch back.\\nWe should not say contract, for\\nit is simply an elastic reaction.\\nAs the artery reacts it presses on\\nthe blood, and hence the blood\\ntries to escape in every possible\\nway. It cannot go back, for it\\nfills the pockets of the semilunar\\nvalves, and closes them with a\\nclick. A rapid wave is sent for-\\nward that gives the pulse, and a slower but still rapid\\nstream flows along the arteries, through the pulmonary\\nartery to the lungs, and through the aorta and its branches\\nto all the other parts of the body.\\nNucleus\\nIsc ated Fibers\\nFibers Joined\\nFig. 19. Plain (Unstriated) Muscu-\\nlar Fibers from the Bladder.", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "5o\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nThe elastic reaction of the arteries thus helps to make\\nsteady the flow of blood, which is intermittent as it leaves\\nthe heart. The medium-sized arteries also have elastic\\ntissue in their walls, and regulate the blood flow in the\\nsame way.\\nVariation of the Amount of Blood Needed. Each\\norgan requires a supply of blood in proportion to its\\nactivity. An actively working organ, like the brain, de-\\nmands much more blood than bone, practically inactive.\\nFurther, working tissues, such as the brain and muscles,\\nneed a great deal more blood while they are at work than\\nwhen they are resting. An organ needing a constant large\\nsupply of blood might secure this by having a large artery.\\nBut how can the supply be regulated so that an organ\\nmay receive, now more, now less, according to its needs\\nPlain Muscle Fibers in the Walls of the Arteries.\\nThis is regulated by the medium-sized and small arteries\\nEndotheliu\\nMuscle Fiber\\nFig. 20. Plain Muscle Fiber. Isolated and in Wall of Artery.\\nleading to the parts. In the walls of these arteries are\\nmuscle fibers of a different kind from those of the skele-", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 5 I\\nton. These fibers are spindle-shaped cells, as shown in\\nFig. 19, with a nucleus near the center, and do not have\\nthe cross-markings of the fibers of the skeletal muscles\\nthey are in consequence called nonstriated, smooth, or\\nplain muscle fibers. They are arranged circularly in the\\nwalls of the arteries. These fibers have, in common with\\nall muscle fibers, the power of shortening. When they\\nshorten they reduce the size of the artery, and, there-\\nfore, for the time, less blood can flow through the\\nartery. When the muscle fibers cease to shorten, the\\nartery widens, and allows more blood to pass through it.\\nIllustration of the Action of Muscles in Arterial Walls. To\\nillustrate the action of the muscles in the walls of an artery, let the\\nwater run through a hose or large\\nrubber tube. Now, if a row of per- m~n\u00c2\u00bb\\nsons take hold of this tube, the grip Endothelium iO-l\\nof their hands is like that of the mm^m\\nmuscles. When the hands tighten internal Elastic -fll iPi\\ntheir grip, the caliber of the hose La y er I\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ~^fk\\nor tube is diminished, and less water mBSMSk\\nis allowed to flow through it. When\\nthe hands relax, the tube, being\\nelastic, allows more liquid to flow Jl^ IllilPWlId\\nthrough it. lilv\\nIllustration of a Small Artery. ^rS6^v^5a K\\nTo represent a small artery, take The Outer IfMfc 1^jj|\\na small, thin-walled rubber tube and Coat\\nwind a red thread around it. Now, aKHiiUlin\\nif the thread could be made to Fig- 21. Coats of a Small Artery.\\nshorten, it would diminish the cali-\\nber of the tube. The representation would be more exact if the thread\\nwere cut into many short pieces, and if each piece were thicker in\\nthe middle, and were then glued to the tube. If the whole were\\ncovered by a layer of tissue paper, the structure of the artery would be\\nroughly represented.\\nCircular Mus-\\ncle Fibers", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "52\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nPlain and Striated Muscle Fibers Compared. These plain mus-\\ncle fibers are further like those of the skeletal muscles in that they are\\nunder the control of the nerves, but they are involuntary in their action.\\nARTERY\\nFig. 22. Part of Frog s Web (low magnifying power).\\nWe cannot interfere with the action of these muscles, no matter how\\nstrongly we may will to do so. Without our thinking about it, more", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.\\n53\\nblood goes to the muscles of the legs when we walk, more to the brain\\nwhen we are studying, to the digestive organs after eating, etc. The\\nWalls of Capillaries\\nTissues of Web\\nFig. 23- Part of Frog s Web (highly magnified).\\nplain muscle fibers shorten at a much slower rate than the striated\\nfibers. They are also slower in relaxing. Since the plain muscles are\\nusually found in the walls of hollow organs such as the heart, blood", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "54\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\ntubes, digestive tube, etc., they are sometimes called visceral muscles in\\ndistinction from the skeletal muscles.\\nThe Circulation of Blood in the Web of a Frog s Foot. For this\\nget a frog with a pale web. Take a piece of shingle six inches long\\nand three inches wide. Cut a round hole, half an inch in diameter,\\nnear one end of it. Wrap the frog in a wet cloth, with one leg project-\\ning, and tie it, thus wrapped, to the shingle. Tie threads around two\\nof the toes, and stretch the web, but not too tightly, over the hole.\\nKeep the web moist. Place the shingle firmly on the stage of a micro-\\nscope. Examine first with a low power. The large tubes which grow\\nsmaller by subdivision are arteries. The large tubes which are\\nformed by the union of smaller ones are\\nthe veins. The finer tubes, forming a net-\\nwork in every direction, are the capillaries.\\nThey receive the blood from the arteries\\nand pass it on to the veins.\\nPut on a higher power, a one-fifth or\\none-sixth objective. It may now be seen\\nthat the colored corpuscles float more in\\nthe center of the stream, and with a steady\\nmotion, while the colorless corpuscles keep\\nclose to the walls of the capillary, and seem\\nto adhere to them, advancing with a hesi-\\ntant motion, seeming to roll along against\\nthe wall of the capillary.\\nClose your eyes for a moment, and re-\\nflect that in all the active tissues of your\\nbody for example, the muscles, brain, and\\ndigestive organs there is a similar net-\\nwork of fine tubes with a current of blood\\nrunning through them. The current is not so rapid as it seems, for the\\nmicroscope magnifies the rate of flow as well as the size of the cor-\\npuscles. The blood really is moving slowly in the capillaries, and it is\\nvery important that it should be so, for in the capillaries the work of\\nthe blood is done. Part of the liquid of the blood soaks through the\\nthin walls of the capillaries, and nourishes the surrounding tissues. All\\nthe other parts of the circulatory system exist for the purpose of send-\\ning a continuous, slow, and steady stream of blood through the\\ncapillaries. (See pages 72 and 73.)\\nFig. 24. Capillary Blood\\nTubes of Muscle.", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.\\n55\\nFig- 25. Cross-section of Small Artery\\nand Vein.\\nThe Blood Flow in the Capillaries. The arteries\\ndivide and subdivide, and become capillaries, which have\\nconnecting branches, form-\\ning a close network of tiny\\nthin-walled tubes. These\\npenetrate nearly every tis-\\nsue of the body. The blood\\ncannot do its full work till it\\nis in the tissues, and to reach\\nthe tissues it must soak\\nthrough the walls of the\\ncapillaries. The work of\\nthe heart and arteries is to\\nkeep a steady flow of blood\\nthrough the capillaries, that the tissues may be constantly\\nsupplied.\\nHow is it that the jerky action of the heart, at each\\ncontraction sending a jet of\\nblood into the arteries,\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nshown by a spurt when an\\nartery is severed, and also\\nindicated by the intermit-\\ntent pulse, how is this\\nintermittent flow converted\\ninto the steady, uniform\\ncurrent that we have seen\\nin the capillaries\\nExperiments illustrating the\\nBlood Flow in the Capillaries.\\nA few experiments may make this\\nmatter more clear.\\nMaterial i A common rubber syringe.\\n2. A glass tube three feet long and seven sixteenths of an inch\\noutside diameter.\\nFig. 26.\\nLongitudinal Section\\nCapillaries, composed of a single\\nlayer of cells.", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "$6 PHYSIOLOGY.\\n3. Four inches of the same size glass tubing, for making connec-\\ntions.\\n4. Several nozzles, made of the same size glass tubing, all fine, but\\nof varying degrees of fineness.\\n5. India-rubber tubing, twelve feet, three eighths of an inch inside\\ndiameter. This should be black, pure gum, rubber which is more\\nhighly elastic than the other kinds.\\n6. Three feet of rubber tubing, same size as above.\\n7. Four inches of white rubber tubing, same size as above, for\\nmaking connections.\\nIn all the experiments, have one of the students assist by holding\\nthe outlet tube, so that (1) all the members of the class may see the\\nstream, and (2) that the stream may be suitably directed, as into a pail\\nor sink.\\nCount aloud, to mark the exact time of each compression of the\\nbulb, so the students can compare this with the time and duration of\\nthe jets of water.\\nBe very careful to use perfectly clean water, as any fine particles of\\nsediment drawn into the tube are likely to clog the fine outlet of the\\nnozzle. And it is well to take the further precaution not to let the\\nsupply tube touch the bottom of the water-supply dish, as some fine\\nsediment may get in in spite of previous care.\\nExperiment i Remove the nozzle of the syringe, and put in its\\nplace the long glass tube. Work the syringe, and note that the jet is\\njerky, following each contraction of the bulb.\\nExperiment 2. Substitute the rubber tube, three feet long, for\\nthe glass tube. On working the bulb the stream will be found inter-\\nmittent.\\nExperiment 3. Take off the rubber tube and replace the glass\\ntube, adding the nozzle. Here the pressure will be so great that it is\\nlikely to push off the nozzle unless the assistant holds it firmly. It\\ncould be tied on, but this takes more time. On working the bulb,\\ngreater effort must be made on account of the resistance caused by the\\nnarrower outlet.\\nExperiment 4. Once more substitute the rubber tube, this time\\nwith a glass nozzle in its end. Now, on working the bulb, resistance\\nwill be felt, and the stream will be constant, or nearly so, and will con-\\ntinue for some time when the bulb is no longer worked. This is be-\\ncause the rubber has been stretched, chiefly laterally, and is now", "height": "3545", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.\\n57\\nstretching back. 1 That is, by the elastic reaction of the rubber tube\\nthe jerky action of the bulb is converted into the steady flow that we\\nsee. In the first experiment we had a rigid tube and practically no\\nresistance. In the second, although the tube was elastic, there was no\\nresistance, so the elasticity was not brought into play. In the third,\\nthere was resistance, but the tube was inelastic. In the fourth, the\\nresistance brought into play the elasticity of the rubber tube, and the\\nelastic reaction of the tube continues (so to speak) the action of the bulb\\nbetween two successive strokes. In this experiment the pulse can be\\nfelt in the tube.\\nThe Veins. The capillaries, after penetrating the tis-\\nsues, reunite to form small veins, which in turn reunite\\nto form larger ones, till finally two great veins, the caval\\nveins, precaval and postcaval, return the blood to the\\nheart. The veins, like the arteries, are smooth inside and\\nelastic (though less elastic than the arteries). They are\\nthinner than the arteries, and, in consequence, collapse\\nwhen the blood flows out of them, whereas the larger\\narteries stand open, after they are emptied of blood.\\nThe Valves in the Veins. The only valves in the arte-\\nries are those which we have seen at the beginning of the\\naorta and pulmonary artery.\\nMany of the veins have\\nsimilar pocket-like valves,\\nthough less strong than\\nthose of the arteries. They\\nare usually in pairs, but some-\\ntimes single or in threes. It\\nis important to note that they\\nall have the mouths of the\\npockets toward the heart, so\\nthat- the blood flows freely\\ntoward the heart, but is prevented from flowing the other\\nway on account of the filling of the valves by the reflow\\nVein laid\\nopen\\nfc?C7\\nkr^r?\\nOps\\nShut\\nFig. 27. Venous Valves.", "height": "3508", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "58 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nof the blood stream. When the blood is flowing through\\nthe veins toward the heart the valves lie against the walls\\nof the veins.\\nThe valves are most numerous in the medium-sized veins,\\nand especially in the veins of the extremities more abun-\\ndant in the leg than in the arm. Valves are absent from the\\ncaval and some other veins, and from the very small veins.\\nIllustration of Venous Valves. Make a cloth tube (or take the\\nlining of a boy s coat sleeve) and sew three patch-pockets on the in-\\nside, in a circle, i.e. with edges touching each other. Make the pockets\\na little full. Pour sand, shot, or grain through the sleeve first in\\none direction and then in the other.\\nEvidences of Valves in our Veins. With the forefinger stroke\\none of the veins on the hand or wrist toward the tips of the fingers.\\nThe veins swell out. The blood meets resistance in the valves of the\\nvein. Their location may be determined by their bulging out during\\nthe experiment.\\nStroke a vein toward the body, and the blood is pushed along with-\\nout resistance.\\nLet the left hand hang by the side. Note the large vein along the\\nthumb side of the wrist. Place the tip of the second finger on this\\nvein just above the base of the thumb. Now, while pressing firmly\\nwith the tip of the second finger, let the forefinger, with moderate\\npressure, stroke the vein up the wrist. It may be seen that the blood\\nis pushed on freely, but comes back only part way. It stops where it\\nreaches the valves, filling the vein full to this point, but leaving it col-\\nlapsed beyond, as shown by the groove. Remove the second finger,\\nand the vein immediately fills from the side nearer the tip of the fingers.\\nThese experiments show that the blood in the veins moves freely\\ntoward the body, but cannot flow outward to the extremities.\\nDissection of the Valves in a Vein. The valves may be seen by\\ndissecting out the jugular vein (or any other large superficial vein) of a\\ncat, dog, or rabbit. Split the vein and pin it out on a board.\\nEffect of Pressure on the Veins. Since the valves in\\nthe veins open toward the heart, any intermittent pressure\\non the veins helps to push the blood on toward the heart.", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION- OF THE BLOOD. 59\\nThe valves are most numerous in the superficial veins and\\nthose of the muscles. The pressure of the muscles during\\ntheir action (thickening while shortening) produces pres-\\nsure on the veins and as the muscles act for a short time\\nonly, and then relax, this alternate compression and release\\naids very considerably in moving the blood on toward the\\nheart. It is worthy of remark that this effect is more\\npronounced at the time the muscles need the most active\\ncirculation namely when they are in action, and are using\\nthe most blood. The heart has power enough to pump\\nthe blood clear around from each ventricle to the auricle\\nof the other side of the heart but this outside aid comes\\nin good play to relieve the heart at a time when it has an\\nunusual amount of work to do, as when one is using a\\nlarge number of muscles vigorously.\\nEvery active muscle is a throbbing heart, squeezing\\nits blood tubes empty while in motion, and relaxing so\\nas to allow them to fill up anew.\\nRate of Blood Flow in the Arteries, Capillaries, and\\nVeins. The blood flows most rapidly in the arteries,\\nslowest in the capillaries. Why is this\\nWhen an artery divides, the two branches taken together\\nare larger than the one artery that divided to form them.\\nStated more exactly, the sum of the areas of the cross-\\nsections of the branches is greater than the area of the\\ncross-section before branching. Hence as the blood flows\\non it is continually entering wider and wider channels\\nand we are told that the united cross-section of all the\\ncapillaries fed by the aorta is several hundred times that\\nof the aorta itself.\\nThe Flow of the Blood compared with the Current of\\na Stream. If we walk along a stream, we see that the", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "6o\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nchannel varies considerably in width and depth. Where\\nthe channel is large, whether from increased width or depth,\\nthere the current is slower, but wherever the channel is\\nreduced, the current is more rapid. So the stream in\\nthe relatively narrow artery is swift. In the capillaries,\\nPulmonary Vein\\nLeft Auricle\\nLeft Ventricle\\nDigestive Tube\\nPulmonary Artery\\nLymph Vein\\nFig. 28. Plan of Circulation. (Dorsal View.)\\nalthough any individual channel is small, these channels\\nall together are wide the result is the same whether a\\nriver widens out into a single lake, or divides into a great\\nnumber of channels running past innumerable islands,", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 6l\\nAll the tissues of the body may be regarded as so many\\nislands lying between the capillary streams.\\nThe Blood Flow in the Veins. When the blood re-\\ncollects in the veins it is entering narrower channels, and\\nits rate is quickened but as the veins are wider than the\\narteries, the stream does not enter the heart with the veloc-\\nity with which it left that organ. The veins hold more\\nblood than the arteries, and in dissecting the cat or rabbit\\nit will be noticed that the arteries are emptied of blood;\\nthat the tissues of most of the organs are fairly free from\\nblood; but that the great veins, such as the caval veins,\\nare full.\\nBlood Tubes compared to Two Funnels. If the blood\\ntubes leaving the heart could all be united, they would be\\nbest represented by a funnel with its tube connected with\\nthe heart. If another funnel were placed with its mouth\\nto the mouth of the first, their point of union, the widest\\npoint, would represent the capillaries and if the second\\nfunnel had a wider tube than the first, it would fairly rep-\\nresent the veins which return the blood to the heart.\\nNourishment of the Walls of the Heart and Blood\\nTubes. The cardiac (coronary) arteries spring from the\\naorta just above the semilunar valves, and send blood into\\nthe muscular walls of the heart and these arteries, like\\nothers, divide, forming capillaries, through which the heart\\nmuscle is nourished. The cardiac veins return the blood\\nto the right auricle.\\nInfluence of Gravity on Circulation. Although the\\nheart pumps the blood around through the body inde-\\npendent of the force of gravity, yet the circulation is influ-\\nenced by this force. For instance, a person who has", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "62 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nfainted should be laid flat on his back, that the heart may-\\nmore easily drive blood to the brain. Many persons go to\\nsleep more readily while sitting than while lying down.\\nA sore hand feels less pain if held up, as in a sling, than\\nwhen hanging by the side, and a sprained ankle does\\nbetter rested on a chair, as less blood flows to it. Nearly\\nevery one has noted the pain following the pressure of\\nblood when a sore hand, or foot, is suddenly lowered.\\nExperiments illustrating the Effect of Gravity on Circulation.\\nLet all the pupils in the class stand. Let one arm hang freely by the\\nside. Hold the other arm straight up as far as the clothing will readily\\npermit. Observe\\ni. The difference in the color of the two hands.\\n2. The difference in fullness, both in the feeling of fullness and in\\nthe prominence of the veins.\\n3. The difference in temperature place the backs of the hands\\nagainst the cheeks.\\nThe position largely determines the amount of blood in the hand,\\nand the amount of blood determines the temperature, the size, and the\\ncolor.\\nSummary. 1. The heart beats about seventy-two times a minute.\\n2. The pulse is a wave running along an artery.\\n3. The pulse varies with age, health, food, etc.\\n4. The heart has two main cavities, one in each half of the heart,\\nand two independent streams are flowing through it.\\n5. Valves allow the blood to flow through the heart in one direc-\\ntion, but prevent a reversal of the current.\\n6. The heart is a hollow muscle, and by contraction forces the\\nblood out into the arteries.\\nj. The heart works rather less than half the time.\\n8. The large arteries, by elastic reaction, push the blood on while\\nthe heart is resting.\\n9. Circular muscle fibers in the walls of the medium-sized arteries\\nregulate the blood supply to the organs.\\n10. In the arteries the blood flow is rapid and intermittent, in the\\ncapillaries slow and constant.", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION- OF THE BLOOD. 63\\n11. The thin walls of the capillaries allow the liquid part of the\\nblood to soak out and nourish the tissues, and to soak back into the\\ncapillaries bearing waste matter.\\n12. The veins are thin walled, and collapse when empty, while the\\narteries are thick walled, and stand open when empty of blood.\\n13. Arteries carry blood from the heart, while veins carry it toward\\nthe heart.\\n14. The veins have valves which allow the blood to pass toward\\nthe heart, but not away from it.\\n15. Any intermittent pressure on the veins aids the blood flow.\\n16. The blood flow is most rapid in the arteries, slower in the veins,\\nslowest in the capillaries.\\n17. Gravity influences circulation.\\nQuestions. 1. Why do the large arteries lie deep?\\n2. In which direction should the limbs be stroked to promote circu-\\nlation?\\n3. How does slapping the hands around the body warm the fingers?\\n4. How can a horse or a cow be comfortable with the head down\\nfor a long time?\\n5 Why are the walls of the left ventricle thicker than those of the\\nrisht", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V.\\nCONTROL OF CIRCULATION. THE BLOOD AND\\nTHE LYMPH.\\nThe Effect of the Emotions on Circulation. In our\\nevery-day experience we have evidence of the control of\\nthe heart and blood tubes by the nervous system. We know\\nthat certain emotions affect the circulation of the blood\\nfor instance, blushing and pallor. Certain emotions may\\nalso quicken or retard the action of the heart. Excessive\\ngrief or joy has produced sudden death by stopping the\\nbeat of the heart.\\nLet us look a little more closely at that part of the\\nnervous system that has such intimate relation to the\\nblood system.\\nThe Rhythmic Action of the Heart. In the first\\nplace, the action of the heart is automatic. The heart of\\nthe frog continues to beat a long time after it is removed\\nfrom the body. This is regarded by many as due to the\\naction of certain ganglia imbedded in the walls of the\\nheart, especially in the auricles while others say that\\nsince the ventricle, in which no ganglia have been found,\\nmay beat independently of the auricles, rhythmic contrac-\\ntion is characteristic of heart muscle, and that we are, at\\npresent, unable to explain it.\\nBut while the impulses that originate the action of the\\nheart arise within the heart itself, still the beat of the heart\\nis constantly modified by nerve impulses reaching it from\\nwithout.\\n6 4", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "Carotid Plexus\\nPharyngeal Branches\\nCardiac Branches\\nDeep Cardiac Plexus\\nSuperficial Cardiac Plexus\\nSolar Plexus\\nAortic Plexus\\nLumbar Ganglia\\nFig. 29. Vertical Section of Body, showing Sympathetic Nerves and Ganglia of Right\\nSide and their Connection with the Cerebro-spinal Nerves.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "66\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nSources of the Heart s Nerve Supply. The heart re-\\nceives its nerves from two sources, the sympathetic system\\nand the vagus (or pneumogastric) nerves.\\nThe Sympathetic Nervous System. The sympathetic\\nnervous system consists of two rows of ganglia in the body\\ncavity, one along each side\\nOf the Spinal COlumn, re- Sympathetic Nerve Chains\\nceiving branches from the\\nspinal nerves, and sending\\nbranches to all the\\ninternal organs of\\nthe body, the\\nheart and lungs in\\nthe thorax, and the\\nstomach, intestines, and the\\nother organs of the abdomi-\\nnal cavity. In many places\\nthese nerves form a thick\\nnetwork called a plexus.\\nOne very large plexus is on the dorsal surface of the\\nstomach, and is called\\nspinal cord the solar plexus.\\nFig. 30. Relation of Spinal Cord and\\nSympathetic Nervous System (Diagram).\\nSympathetic\\nGanglion\\nThe Vagus Nerves.\\nThe vagus nerves\\nare a pair of the cranial\\nnerves arising from the\\nsides of the spinal bulb\\nand passing downward,\\nthey give branches to\\nthe pharynx, the gullet,\\nthe stomach, the larynx, the windpipe, the lungs, and the\\nheart. Now, whatever other function the vagus nerves\\nFig. 31. Ideal Cross-section of the Nervous\\nSystem. (After Landois and Stirling.)", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "CONTROL OF THE CIRCULATION. 67\\nmay have, they seem to have the power of retarding, or\\nstopping altogether, the beat of the heart and stimulation\\nof the vagus nerves may make the heart pause in a relaxed\\ncondition. Other nerves may quicken the heart beat, but\\nthe vagi are regarded as a break on the heart s action.\\nInhibition. This is a case of inhibition. It is well\\nknown that a severe blow over the stomach may cause one\\nto faint by stopping the heart. This\\nis due to reflex inhibition of the heart.\\nThe blow sends a nerve impulse by\\nfibers of the sympathetic system to B^gi\\nthe center in the spinal bulb, and\\nthence an impulse is taken by the\\nvagus nerves to stop the heart.\\nVaso-constrictor Nerves. In an\\nexperiment with the rabbit s ^mmSS^M\\near it has been shown that M^^S^Xi\\nLungs fluB^iA Kl\\nstimulating the sympathetic\\nnerve in the neck causes the\\near to become pale. This is Heart-\\ndue to the constriction of the\\narteries of the ear, because Liver...\\nthe nerves have made the\\nmuscle fibers of these arteries stomach\\nshorten. Such nerve fibers\\nare called constrictors, or vaso-con-\\nstrictors. They run in the sympa-\\nthetic nerve, but have their origin\\nand center in the spinal bulb. Fig. 32. Diagram of vagus\\nNerve.\\nVaso-dilator Nerves. Other fibers\\nmay cause the opposite effect, namely, dilation, and are\\ntherefore called vaso-dilators. Examples of these may be", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "68 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nfound running to the arteries of the limbs. When the\\nmuscles of any organ, say the legs, act, they need a greater\\nsupply of blood. Now, at the same time that nerve im-\\npulses are sent to the muscles of the legs to make the\\nmuscles shorten, impulses are sent along other fibers of\\nthe same nerves to make the arteries dilate, and allow\\nmore blood to flow to these muscles.\\nVaso-motor Nerves. The vaso-constrictor and the\\nvaso-dilator nerves taken together are called vaso-motor\\nnerves.\\nCenters of Control of Circulation. The centers of\\ncontrol of the blood tubes are in the cerebro-spinal nervous\\nsystem. There is no evidence that the sympathetic gan-\\nglia are centers of reflex action.\\nBlushing. How is it that the face sometimes flushes\\nso suddenly Because of some emotion, you say. But\\nhow does the emotion bring this about We have already\\nlearned about the muscles in the wall of the arteries. We\\nare now prepared to understand that in the normal condi-\\ntion nervous impulses are acting on these muscles, keeping\\nthem partly shortened, and so keeping the arteries of a\\nmoderate size. Under the influence of certain emotions,\\nthe caliber of the arteries is suddenly enlarged, and hence\\nthe change in color.\\nThe Regulation of the Size of the Arteries. Through\\nthe sympathetic system the blood supply of all the organs\\nof the body is regulated. Any organ needing more blood\\nsends a message (nerve impulse) to some nerve center, and\\nin response nerve impulses are sent to the muscle fibers of\\nthe supplying artery, and the amount of blood sent to that\\norgan is regulated. For instance, a piece of ice is laid", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "CONTROL OF THE CIRCULATION:\\n6 9\\nupon the skin of the hand. The part becomes pale, as\\nthe arteries have become narrowed. If this action be con-\\ntinued, there may set in a decided reaction, and the part\\nbecome more red than usual, when the reaction has\\nwidened the artery more than it was\\nbefore the constriction.\\nEffect of Exercise on the Size of the\\nArteries. As there is only a certain\\namount of blood in the body, it is evi-\\ndent that if one organ receives\\nan extra supply, some other Sympathetic\\norgan or organs must, for the Ganglions\\ntime, receive less. For in-\\nstance, one begins to walk vigorously.\\nThe large muscles of the lower limbs\\nand trunk become active, and they need\\nmore blood. They therefore send mes-\\nsages to some nerve center (probably in\\nthe spinal cord), and by reflex action the\\narteries supplying the lower limbs are\\nwidened, and these muscles receive more\\nblood. But these muscles make up a\\nvery considerable part of the weight and\\nbulk of the body. While in action they\\ntake the lion s share of the blood. The\\nbrain, at such a time, would receive less,\\nand it would be folly to expect the brain\\nto work at its full capacity while the\\nblood was called away to other organs.\\nm\\nFig. 33. Ventral View\\nof Spinal Cord with\\nSympathetic Gang-\\nlions of One Side-\\nRegulation of the Effects of Exercise. When we ex-\\nercise vigorously, the heart beats faster, and this of itself\\nwould tend to increase the blood supply to all organs.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "70 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nBut this mechanism for widening the channel leading to\\nthe working organs, while the arteries to the other organs\\nare made smaller, or at least are not enlarged, solves the\\nproblem of supplying each part according to a greatly\\nvarying need, while not sending too much to a part not\\nneeding it.\\nEFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON THE CIRCULATION.\\nAlcohol stimulates the heart, producing increased force\\nand rapidity of the cardiac beat. It thus tends to increase\\nthe blood pressure by acting on the heart, and to increase\\nthe flow of blood from the arteries into the veins. The\\neffect on the blood pressure is, however, partly counter-\\nacted by a coincident dilatation of the blood vessels of the\\nskin, which thus become flushed, and tends to produce\\nmore sensible perspiration. Treatise on Hygiene, Ste-\\nvenson and Murphy.\\nThe warm and flushed condition of the skin which\\nfollows the drinking of alcoholic fluids is probably, in a\\nsimilar manner, the result of an inhibition of that part\\nof the vaso-motor center which governs the cutaneous\\narteries. Foster.\\nThe control of the muscles in the walls of the arteries\\nbeing thus interfered with, the circular muscles are no\\nlonger made to shorten, and the artery dilates, thus allow-\\ning more blood to flow into it.\\nWe may thus account for the flushing of the skin of the\\nface, which in many individuals quickly betrays indulgence\\nin alcoholic drink. If this flushing is too often repeated,\\nthe arteries gradually lose tone, and the condition be-\\ncomes permanent. The circulation in the whites of the\\neyes may be affected, making them bloodshot.", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "CONTROL OF THE CIRCULATION. J I\\nSimilar congestion occurs in the mucous membrane of\\nthe stomach from the presence of alcohol, which may\\nbecome a permanent inflammation followed in time by\\nvery extensive changes in appearance and function. It\\nis said that most of the alcohol swallowed is absorbed\\ndirectly from the stomach, and hence the intestines are\\nnot so .directly affected.\\nGood authorities state that alcohol arrests the develop-\\nment of the corpuscles. It diminishes the size, alters the\\nform, and reduces the number of the corpuscles. Since\\nthe work of the blood corpuscles is so important this\\nreduction in their number and efficiency must very\\nappreciably affect the nutrition of the body as a whole.\\nWhen the blood is out of order the body is out of order.\\nThe Blood. The blood is composed of a clear liquid,\\nthe plasma, and the blood cells, or corpuscles. In a drop\\nof blood under the microscope the plasma occupies the\\nclear spaces between the corpuscles. The corpuscles\\nmake up one third of the bulk of the blood, and the\\nplasma two thirds.\\nMicroscopic Examination of the Blood. To get a drop of blood\\nfrom the finger, wind a cord around the finger, beginning at the base,\\ndrawing the cord moderately tight, until the last joint is reached. By\\nthis time the end of the finger is usually well distended with blood.\\nWith a clean needle make a quick, sharp, light puncture near the base\\nof the nail this ordinarily brings a small amount of blood. Put a\\nsmall drop on each of several slides and quickly cover with coverslips.\\nExamine with a high power.\\nThe Colored Corpuscles. These are often called the\\nred corpuscles. But while in the mass they give the\\nblood a red appearance, individually they are faint yellow-\\nish red. In shape they are seen to be circular disks, hol-\\nlowed on each side like a sunken biscuit. As they are", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "72\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nhollowed on both sides they are more accurately described\\nas biconcave. These corpuscles tend to gather side by\\nside, in rolls, like coins. They are cells without nuclei.\\nThe Colorless Corpuscles. In the open spaces be-\\ntween the rolls of colored corpuscles may occasionally\\nbe found some spherical corpuscles. They are usually\\nWhite Corpuscles\\nWhite Corpuscle\\nRed Corpuscles\\nin Rolls\\nMODERATELY MAGNIFIED\\nFig. 34. Red and White Corpuscles of the Blood.\\ncalled the white corpuscles, but are better designated as\\nthe colorless corpuscles, since the others have only a slight\\ncolor, and these have none. They usually have a dotted\\nappearance. It is not so easy to distinguish the two kinds\\nof corpuscles as it is in the case of the frog s blood, for the\\ntwo kinds are more nearly of the same size in the human", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "I\\nCONTROL OF THE CIRCULATION. 73\\nblood and, further, when the colored .corpuscles of human\\nblood are seen flatwise they present a circular outline, while\\nthe frog s colored corpuscles are elliptical. But with a\\nlittle study the two may be distinguished. As in the frog s\\nblood, the colorless corpuscles have ameboid movements,\\nthough they are not very marked unless the blood be\\nwarmed to about the temperature of the human body.\\nFlexibility and Elasticity of the Corpuscles. It will\\nbe well here to examine again the frog s web. (See p. 54.)\\nIt will occasionally be seen that when one of the colored\\ncorpuscles is pressed against an angle at the forking of\\nthe blood stream, it is sometimes bent, and that as soon as\\nthe pressure is discontinued the corpuscle springs back to\\nits former shape, showing that it is elastic.\\nFrog s Blood. A drop of frog s blood, mounted as the human blood\\nwas, will be helpful, as there is a very decided difference in the size and\\nshape of the colored and colorless corpuscles. Further, the colorless\\ncorpuscles of the frog will show ameboid movements, i.e. slow changes\\nof form, if watched a while.\\nThe Plasma. The plasma consists chiefly of water,\\nhaving in solution various salts, including common salt\\nit also contains the nourishing materials for the tissues.\\nThese nourishing materials, obtained from the food by\\ndigestion, consist chiefly of proteids, fats, and sugar. The\\nplasma also contains waste matters, from the working\\ntissues, on their way out of the body. How the food is pre-\\npared for the building of tissue, and how the waste matter\\nis removed from the body, we shall study a little later.\\nThe Color of Blood. The difference in color of an in-\\ndividual corpuscle and the blood in the mass may be better\\nunderstood by comparing it with something that we see\\nmore frequently. A tumbler of currant jelly has a rich,", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "74 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nred color, but a thin layer of the same jelly, as when one\\ntakes a spoonful on a plate, has a pale color, more yellow-\\nish. The colorless plasma with the colored bodies in it\\nmay be compared to a glass dish filled with cranberries\\nand water.\\nHemoglobin. The coloring matter in the blood, then,\\nis wholly in the colored corpuscles. Examination of these\\ncorpuscles shows that their color is due to a substance\\ncalled hemoglobin. There is a small amount of iron in\\nthe hemoglobin, and the presence of this small quantity\\nof iron appears to be essential to give the blood its color.\\nWhen we come to the study of respiration we shall see\\nthat the hemoglobin in the corpuscles is the chief agent in\\npicking up the oxygen from the air in the lungs and carry-\\ning it to the tissues in the body.\\nThe Coagulation of Blood. When the blood escapes\\nfrom its natural channels it usually changes from a liquid\\nto a jelly-like condition. This is known as coagulation.\\nIt is due to the formation of threads of fibrin from the\\nplasma. These threads of fibrin entangle and inclose the\\ncorpuscles, and the two constitute the clot, or coagulum, as\\nit is more technically termed. The liquid that afterward\\nseparates from the clot is the serum, and differs from the\\nplasma only in the removal of the fibrin, which is exceed-\\ningly small in quantity, though of great importance in its\\naction. Many experiments have been made, and much\\nhas been written about the coagulation of the blood, and\\nperhaps its real cause is not yet clear. But we know that\\nthe coagulation often serves to stop the flow of blood from\\nwounds, and this is its main use.\\nFibrin. If freshly drawn blood be stirred rapidly with\\na bundle of wires (perhaps the most convenient stirrer is", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "CONTROL OF THE CIRCULATION. 75\\na little roll of wire screen), there will soon collect on the\\nwires a stringy substance. Thorough washing will soon\\nleave this colorless. It is fibrin. If the stirring has been\\ndone thoroughly, the blood will no longer clot, no matter\\nhow long it may stand.\\nLiquid Blood and Coagulated Blood. The following\\nscheme shows the difference between the liquid blood and\\nthe coagulated blood\\nf T-,, Serum\\nJ Plasma 4\\nLiquid Blood j Flbrm clot Coagulated Blood.\\nCorpuscles J J\\nAmount of Blood. The blood constitutes about one\\nthirteenth of the weight of the body. In a body weighing\\none hundred and fifty pounds this would be about six\\nquarts.\\nChemical Reaction of Blood. Blood is alkaline.\\nSpecific Gravity of Blood. Blood is somewhat heavier\\nthan water, owing to the salts and other matters dissolved\\nin it.\\nQuantity of Blood in Different Organs (approximately).\\n1. One fourth is in the heart and the larger arteries\\nand veins (including those of the lungs).\\n2. One fourth in the liver.\\n3. One fourth in the skeletal muscles.\\n4. One fourth in the other organs.\\nThe Lymph Spaces. We have seen that the capillaries\\nhave very thin walls. Through their walls part of the\\nplasma of the blood soaks out, and is then called lymph.\\nIt passes into irregular cavities in the tissue called lympJi\\nspaces. Most of these lymph spaces are minute chinks or", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "76 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ncrevices in the connective tissues of the different parts of\\nthe body.\\nThe Lymph Tubes. Opening out of the lymph spaces\\nare irregular passage ways called lymph capillaries, and\\nthese lymph capillaries are continuous with thin-walled\\ntubes, the lymph tubes. These lymph tubes might be\\ncalled the lymph veins, since they join still larger tubes,\\nclosely set with valves, similar to those of the veins. But,\\nunlike the blood veins, the lymph veins do not gradually\\nincrease in size by confluence. They suddenly form a\\nlarge tube, the receptacle of the chyle, beginning in the\\nupper part of the abdomen. This tube soon narrows and\\npasses through the diaphragm, close to the spinal column,\\nand up along the column near the aorta, and empties into\\nthe veins of the neck at the junction of the left jugular\\nand left subclavian veins. This tube is the thoracic duct,\\nor the main lympli duct. It has numerous valves, and,\\nlike some of the smaller lymph veins, it presents a beaded\\nappearance, due to the filling and bulging out of the valves.\\nIn the right side of the neck is a short right lymph duct\\nwhich receives lymph from the right side of the head,\\nneck, and thorax, and from the right arm. The lymph\\ntubes, as a whole, are usually called the lymphatics.\\nLymph Spaces in the Frog. In dissecting the frog, the looseness\\nof the skin is very noticeable. The large spaces under the skin are\\nlymph spaces. Sometimes considerable lymph is found here, so that\\nin holding up a frog the sagging of the skin from the weight of the\\nlymph may be easily seen.\\nValves at the Mouth of the Lymph Tubes. There\\nare valves where these lymph ducts empty into the veins\\nwhich prevent any reflow of liquid into the ducts, but allow\\nthe lymph to pass freely into the veins.", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "CONTROL OF THE CIRCULATION. 77\\nMuscle Fibers in the Walls of the Lymph Tubes.\\nThere are plain muscle fibers in the walls of the lymph\\nducts.\\nLymphatic Glands. In its course the lymph passes\\nthrough many kernel-like masses, the lymphatic glands.\\nLymph contains corpuscles which are considered identical\\nwith the colorless blood corpuscles. It is thought that\\nthese corpuscles are formed in the lymphatic glands.\\nThe Flow of Lymph. The flow of lymph is partly\\ndue to the blood pressure in the capillaries this pressure\\nis caused by the heart. (In the frog there are two small\\nhearts, not, however, near the blood-pumping heart,\\nand these pump the lymph along.) In our bodies the flow\\nof lymph is largely aided by any pressure that may be\\nbrought to bear on the lymph veins for, on account of\\nthe valves, as in the blood veins, any pressure must push\\nthe liquid toward the heart. Thus the action of the mus-\\ncles in the limbs, in the chest, in the abdomen, in the\\nmovements of breathing, and in the bending of the body,\\netc., all help in this flow, which is always, probably, very\\nmuch slower than that in the blood veins.\\nRelations of Blood Flow and Lymph Flow. It will\\nnow be seen that while the blood leaves the left ventricle\\nby one tube, the aorta, it returns to the right auricle, not\\nmerely by the two caval veins, but that a part of the blood\\n(i.e. of the liquid part of it) does not return by blood veins,\\nbut having left the blood system proper through the thin\\nwalls of the capillaries, it is brought back to the heart by\\nthe lymph veins, which, however, join the blood veins just\\nbefore they empty into the heart. There is, in other\\nwords, only one set of distributing tubes, but there are two\\nsets of collecting or returning tubes.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "78\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nRight Lymph Vein\\nRight Subclavian\\nVein\\nPrecaval Vein\\nPostcaval Vein\\nMain Lymph Vein\\n(Thoracic Duct)\\nLymphCapillaries\\nBlood Capillaries\\nFig. 35. Diagram of the Circulation of Blood and Lymph (Dorsal View).", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "CONTROL OF THE CIRCULATION.\\n79\\nLymph\\nCapillary _\\nThe Lymph. Lymph is a clear liquid. (Chyle and\\nthe lacteals will be considered when we study digestion.)\\nIt is more watery than the blood plasma, but contains a\\nshare of all its nutritious substances. Lymph may be\\ndenned as diluted blood minus red corpuscles. The\\nblood proper never reaches the tissues.\\nThe Cells of the Body live in Lymph. The cells\\nof the tissues are bathed in the lymph which fills the\\nspaces in the connective\\ntissue (and we have seen\\nthat the connective tissue\\npervades nearly all the tis-\\nsues of the body), as water\\nmay fill the spaces left\\nbetween stones built into\\na wall. The cells get all\\ntheir nourishment from the\\nlymph, and into the lymph\\nthey throw all their waste\\nmatter. Each cell may be\\ncompared to an individual\\nameba, which lives in\\nwater, and takes all its\\nnourishment from that\\nwater, and throws all its\\nwaste product into the\\nsame water. As water is\\nthe medium in which the\\nameba lives, so we may say lymph is the medium in\\nwhich the cells of the body live.\\nCells of the Body Aquatic. The cells of the body,\\ni.e. all the active, working cells, may, therefore, be said\\nOxygen\\nWater\\nOther\\nWastes\\nFig. 36. Relation of Blood and Muscle.\\n(Lymph being Middleman.)", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "80 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nto live an aquatic life, and only dead cells, as of hair,\\nepidermis, etc., live in air. We might also say that not\\nonly the human body, but all animal life is aquatic.\\nImportance of Lymph. We can see that the move-\\nment and renewal of lymph are as necessary as the circu-\\nlation of the blood itself is, in fact, the most important\\npart of it.\\nLymph Cavities or Serous Cavities. We have noticed\\nthe pericardial liquid. There is also a small quantity of\\nsimilar liquid around the lungs in the pleural cavities, and\\nin the abdominal or peritoneal cavity, around the digestive\\norgans also in the cavities of the brain. The liquid in\\neach case is lymph, and these cavities, often called serous\\ncavities, are lymph cavities. They communicate with the\\nlymph tubes.\\nDropsy. In health the amount of the liquid in these\\ncavities is small, but in certain disorders it may accumu-\\nlate. In general, such affections are called dropsy.\\nThe lymph may also accumulate in the tissues of the\\nextremities, causing swelling of the limbs.\\nVariation in the Composition of Lymph. It is evi-\\ndent that the materials needed by the cells of the different\\ntissues are not the same. So, as one tissue takes certain\\nmaterials and another tissue others, it is clear that the\\nlymph will not be of quite the same composition in the\\ndifferent parts of the body. This difference is further\\ndue to the difference in the waste products thrown out\\nby the different cells. Hence the composition of the\\nblood varies considerably in different regions. But the\\nlymph from all the tissues unites with the blood from all\\nthe tissues in the right heart, and on their way to it in the", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "CONTROL OF THE CIRCULATION. 8 1\\nlarger veins. So the constant slight differences in com-\\nposition of the blood and lymph in the various tissues are\\ncounterbalanced by the mingling of the currents from\\nthese various parts in the large arteries and veins.\\nThe Spleen. The function, or functions, of the spleen are not well\\nunderstood. It is believed to have something to do with the renova-\\ntion of the blood, perhaps forming colorless corpuscles and destroying\\ncolored corpuscles. At any rate, the physiologists generally call it a\\nblood gland. It is unlike true glands in that it has no duct, and forms\\nno secretion to be poured into any cavity, like the glands of excretion\\nand secretion. It has been found, in the case of accidents to man, and\\nby experiment on the lower animals, that life may continue after this\\norgan has been removed.\\nMassage. A system of pressing, rubbing, and knead-\\ning the muscles is known as massage. It helps the flow\\nof the blood and lymph, thus aiding in washing out the\\nwaste products from the muscles and other parts of the\\nbody that are to be reached by pressure. We have seen\\nthat one of the benefits of exercise is to promote the cir-\\nculation of the blood and of the lymph, and so to help\\nget rid of the waste matters that are produced by the\\nactivity of the various organs. Many invalids cannot take\\nactive exercise. So this passive exercise may very fairly\\ntake its place, and assist in the nutrition of the tissue by\\naccelerating the flow of blood and lymph, bringing new\\nnourishment and carrying away wastes. For students\\nwho do not take sufficient exercise it is a good thing to\\nrub the body thoroughly and briskly, not only after a\\nbath, but often with the hands or with a dry towel.\\nTransfusion of Blood. Transfusion of blood is the transfer of\\nblood from the blood vessels of one animal to those of another. Trans-\\nfusion may be direct or immediate, as when the blood vessels of the\\ntwo animals are connected by tubing so that the blood passes from one\\nto the other without exposure to the air in indirect or mediate trans-", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "82 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nfusion the blood is first drawn into a receptacle. In indirect transfusion\\nthe blood is often defibrinated before transference. The blood may be\\nintroduced either into an artery or a vein if into a vein it is sent in\\nthe direction of the natural flow, i.e. toward the heart if into an artery,\\nin either direction. Soon after the discovery of the circulation of the\\nblood the operation of transfusion began to be practiced, and high\\nhopes were indulged in as to its value. But it was soon found to be\\nattended by so much danger that it is now seldom used. It is resorted\\nto (i) after great loss of blood, (2) after some forms of poisoning part\\nof the blood is withdrawn and replaced by fresh blood, and (3) in\\ncertain disordered conditions of the blood. The chief dangers are (1)\\nthe introduction of air which forms minute bubbles and stops the blood-\\nflow in the capillaries, (2) the introduction sometimes causes coagula-\\ntion within the blood vessels, and (3) the serum of the introduced\\nblood sometimes destroys the corpuscles of the blood to which it is\\nadded. In the earlier practice lamb s blood was employed, but now\\nwhen transfusion is practiced on man only human blood is used. It\\nhas been found safer and better after great loss of blood from hemor-\\nrhage, to introduce a salt solution of about the natural degree of salt-\\nness of the blood this restores the normal volume of circulating liquid,\\nand avoids most of the dangers except that of introducing air. The\\nnumerous fatal results of this operation have shown that it should not\\nbe resorted to except in cases of extreme necessity.\\nFor directions about stopping the flow of blood from\\nwounds see Chapter XXIII. and the books named below.\\nReading. Prompt Aid to the Injured, Doty; Emer-\\ngencies, Dulles Emergencies, Howe First Aid to the\\nInjured, Lawless; First Aid to the Injured, Morton; First\\nAid in Illness and Injury, Pilcher Sickness and Accidents,\\nCurran.\\nWhat other process keeps pace with the coursing of the\\nblood through the body, being its running mate, so to\\nspeak\\nSummary. 1 Blushing, and other variations in blood supply, are\\nunder the control of the sympathetic nervous system.\\n2. The sympathetic nervous system consists of two rows of ganglia", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "CONTROL OF THE CIRCULATION. 83\\nin the body cavity near the spinal column, with fibers running to the\\ninternal organs. It is also connected with the cerebro-spinal nervous\\nsystem.\\n3. The heart beat is automatic and rhythmic.\\n4. The heart beat is regulated by the sympathetic nervous system\\nand by the vagus nerves.\\n5. The blood consists of a liquid, the plasma, in which float the\\ncolored and colorless corpuscles.\\n6. When blood is shed it coagulates, tending to check its own\\nescape.\\n7. Lymph is like the blood diluted and lacking the colored cor-\\npuscles.\\n8. A set of lymph tubes conveys the lymph into the veins to join\\nthe flow toward the heart.\\n9. In its course the lymph passes through the lymphatic glands.\\nQuestions. 1. What makes the hands grow red and puff up on\\nsitting in a warm room after snow balling\\n2. How is a mustard plaster effective?\\n3. Why does light exercise before retiring promote sleep?\\n4. Why are the feet often cold after studying?\\n5. How does the application of ice, or cold water, relieve head-\\nache\\n6. Why should the clothing be changed after getting wet?\\n7. What is the meaning of humor, in the expressions good-\\nhumored, bad-humored Have these expressions a real physio-\\nlogical significance?", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI.\\nRESPIRATION.\\nThe Close Relation between Circulation and Respira-\\ntion. Is it not a very striking fact that we take one\\nbreath for every four heart beats That whatever quick-\\nens the breathing also quickens the heart, so that the two\\nalways keep in al-\\nmost the same ratio\\nLet us learn what\\nare the many inti-\\nmate relations of\\nthe blood pump and\\nthe air pump, the\\nblood system and\\nthe air system, of\\nCirculation and Res-\\npiration.\\nThe Organs of\\nRespiration.\\ni The lungs and\\nair tubes.\\n2. The structures\\nwhich increase and diminish the size of the chest, princi-\\npally the diaphragm, and the muscles acting on the ribs.\\nThe Parts of the Lungs. i. The Air Vesicles, an\\nimmense number of small sacs, which communicate with\\n8 4\\nFig. 37. The Trachea and Bronchial Tubes, showing\\nTwo Clusters (Alveoli)) of Air Vesicles.", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION.\\n85\\n3. Left Auriculo-Verrtricular Orifice\\n4. Right Auriculo-Ventricular Orifice\\nThe heavy black line between the heart and the liver represents the diaphragm.\\n1. Pulmonary Orifice\\n2. Aortic Orifice\\nFig. 38. Front View of the Thorax. The Ribs and Sternum are represented in\\nRelation to the Lungs, Heart, and other Internal Organs.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "86\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nthe outer air by the bronchial twigs, the bronchi, and the\\ntrachea.\\n2. The Pulmonary Capillaries, forming a thick network\\naround and between the air sacs. These capillaries receive\\ntheir blood from the pulmonary artery, and return it to the\\nheart by the pulmonary veins.\\nElastic Tissue in the Lungs. The air vesicles, with\\ntheir supplying air tubes and their surrounding blood tubes,\\nare bound together by elastic tissue, which fills up most of\\nthe intervening space.\\nThe Windpipe or Trachea. The windpipe has in its\\nwalls C-shaped cartilages, with the open part of the C\\non the dorsal surface. These cartilages continue in the\\nbronchi, and so on until in the smaller twigs they finally\\ndisappear. The cartilages are held together, and the\\ndorsal gap of the cartilages (the gap would be like that of\\na series of horseshoes piled one on top of another) bridged,\\nby tough fibrous tissue, with much elastic tissue, and\\nwith plain muscle fibers the plain muscle fibers are very\\nabundant in the smaller air tubes.\\nThe Mucous Membrane. The lining of the trachea\\nis a mucous mem-\\nbrane. It pours\\nout on its surface\\na substance some-\\nwhat like white of\\negg, called mucus.\\nThis keeps the air\\nFig. 39. Ciliated Cells lining the Air Tubes (x 300). catches\\nparticles of dust that are in the inspired air. There is a\\nconstant slow current of mucus toward the throat, whence\\nit is, from time to time, hawked up.\\nCilia-\\nCell-\\nNucleus--", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION.\\n*7\\nCilia. This current of mucus is caused by the cilia\\nprojecting from the lining cells of the trachea. They are\\nlittle hairlike projections, in countless numbers, like a field\\nof grass, each stalk having the power of bending back and\\nforth, making a quick stroke toward the throat, then a\\nslower recover stroke. Thus the united wavelike action\\nof the myriads of lashing cilia paddles the mucus head-\\nward. It is a very common error to suppose that the cilia\\nproduce air currents. This is not their function, and it\\ncan readily be seen that they cannot create currents of air,\\nas they are wholly submerged, like grass growing on the\\nbottom of a shallow pond of slimy water.\\nLocation of Mucous Membrane. All the cavities and\\npassages in the body to which the air has access, such as\\nthe digestive and respiratory passages, etc., are lined by\\nmucous membrane (not all\\nCiliated). Trachea\\nThe out-\\nThe Pleura.-\\nside of each\\nlung is cov-\\nered by a thin\\nadherent mem-\\nbrane, the pleu-\\nra, which com-\\npletely invests\\nit, except at the root of\\nthe lung, where the bron-\\nchus and blood tubes\\nenter. Here the pleura\\nPleural Space\\n(Exaggerated)\\nChest Wal\\nPleura\\nChest\\nWall\\nFig. 40. Diagram of the Lungs and Pleurae.\\nturns toward and adheres to the inner wall of the chest,\\nforming its lining (still called the pleura), and below passes\\nover the anterior surface of the diaphragm. The lung is", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "88 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nthus free, except at its root, where the air and blood tubes\\nenter. A very small quantity of liquid moistens the con-\\ntiguous surfaces of the pleurae on the outside of the lung\\nand the inside of the chest wall, so they move easily one\\nupon the other during respiration. As the lungs are\\nalways distended enough to fill the chest cavity, these two\\nsurfaces are always in contact. In pleurisy (inflammation\\nof the pleurae) pain is felt in breathing from friction or\\nadhesion of these surfaces.\\nImportant Facts concerning Respiration. In study-\\ning respiration, let us constantly keep in mind these\\nfacts\\ni. The lungs are highly elastic, and\\n2. Highly porous, each air vesicle being in direct com-\\nmunication with the outer air by means of\\n3. Air tubes that always stand open\\n4. And are always moist internally.\\n5. The pulmonary capillaries closely invest each air\\nvesicle.\\n6. The lungs are always expanded enough to fill all\\nthe space in the chest not occupied by other organs, and\\n7. Freely movable, except at the place of entrance of\\nthe bronchi and blood tubes.\\n8. The smooth, moist pleurae.\\nThe Diaphragm. The diaphragm is a thin muscle\\nmaking a complete partition between the abdominal cavity\\nand the chest cavity. It is convex anteriorly, concave pos-\\nteriorly its ventral border is attached to the inside of the\\nchest wall about opposite the lower end of the breast bone,\\nthence obliquely along the border of the ribs (as felt in\\nfront), and the dorsal attachment is posterior to the ventral", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 89\\nattachment. Its general position is shown in Figs. 38, 40,\\nand 43.\\nTo show the Action of the Diaphragm and Lungs. Material.\\nBell jar with stopper, sheet of rubber large enough to cover the mouth\\nof the jar, toy rubber balloon, cork (rubber preferred), glass tube, strong\\nrubber band (such as boys use for slung shots), marble.\\nTriangularis Sterni\\nInternal Mammary Vessels\\nPleura\\nPuimonalis\\nLeft Phrenic\\nNerve\\neura Costalis\\nMediastinum j Sy m P a ^tic Nerve\\nThoracic Duct\\nVena Azygos Major I p osterior\\nleumogastric Nerves\\nFig. 41. A Transverse Section of the Thorax, showing the Relative Position of the\\nViscera and Reflections of the Pleurae.\\nPreparation. Lay the marble on the center of the sheet of rub-\\nber, double the rubber over it, stretching the rubber strongly over the\\nmarble, and tie the marble firmly in its place. Stretch the sheet of\\nrubber over the mouth of the jar with the projection made by the marble\\non the outside, and fasten with rubber band. Bore a hole in the cork,", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "90 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nand fix the glass tube snugly in it, so that the lower end of the tube will\\nextend about half-way down the jar. Tie the balloon on the lower end\\nof the glass tube.\\nExperiment i. Inflate the balloon. Consider that it requires\\nsome expenditure of energy to do this. When the mouth is taken away\\nfrom the tube the balloon immediately collapses.\\nExperiment 2. Insert the balloon and tube into the jar, but do\\nnot cork, and repeat Experiment 1. The same results as before are\\nnoticed, and it will further be seen, or rather heard and felt, that when\\nthe balloon is inflated some air comes out of the jar around the tube,\\nand when the balloon collapses air again enters the jar.\\nExperiment 3. Again inflate the balloon, and while it is inflated\\ntightly cork the jar. If all the parts fit well, the balloon should now\\nremain inflated. This may at first seem strange, as the mouth is taken\\naway from the tube, and the tube left entirely open to the air. But it\\nwill be seen that to just the extent that the balloon contracts, so much\\nmore space is left in the jar outside the balloon. This means diminished\\npressure, and the pressure of the outer air presses the diaphragm up,\\nand keeps the balloon partly distended, maintaining equilibrium.\\nExperiment 4. Pull the diaphragm down, using the marble as a\\nhandle. This shows the expansion of the lung by the pressure of the\\nexternal air when more space is given by the depression of the dia-\\nphragm. On releasing the diaphragm, it springs upward, and the\\nballoon becomes reduced in size, driving out part of the air that was in\\nit. This shows how expiration is accomplished, so far as the diaphragm\\nis concerned.\\nIf a bell jar be not at hand, a lamp chimney or a quart bottle may be\\nused, after cutting off the bottom, as follows File a deep notch across\\nnear the bottom heat an iron rod, and apply the end of it to one end\\nof the notch, and slowly draw the rod around to the other end of the\\nnotch (the rod may need to be reheated). After cracking off the bot-\\ntom of the jar, file the edges so they will not cut the rubber.\\nLet each pupil make a drawing, showing the position of the parts in\\ninspiration and in expiration.\\nIllustration of the Minute Anatomy of the Lung. To illustrate\\nthe minute anatomy of the lung, take a rubber balloon, a glass tube,\\ntwo rubber tubes, one dyed red, the other blue, a bag of netting, with\\none side dyed red and the other side blue. Tie the balloon on the end\\nof the glass tube, slip the bag of netting over the balloon and tie it,", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION.\\n91\\nwith the ends of the rubber tubes on the corresponding sides of the\\nbag. Slip a short piece of the rubber tube on the end of the glass\\ntube, and when the balloon is inflated shut the air in by means of a\\nBRONCHIAL TUBE.\\nFig. 42. Minute Structure of the Lungs, showing Air Vesicles\\nand Capillaries.\\npinchcock. The balloon represents an air vesicle, the glass tube a\\nbronchial twig, the blue tube a subdivision of the pulmonary artery,\\nthe netting the capillaries around the vesicle, and the red tube one of\\nthe branches of the pulmonary veins.\\nThe Movements of Respiration. The process of res-\\npiration consists of two acts, inspiration and expiration.\\nTwo Active Forces in Inspiration. In inspiration\\nthe principal active forces in the body are, first, the dia-\\nphragm and, second, the muscles which elevate the ribs.\\nWork of the Diaphragm in Inspiration. The dia-\\nphragm is a muscle, and when its fibers shorten, the dia-\\nphragm is pulled down. In moving down it presses on\\nthe abdominal organs, and makes the abdomen protrude\\nlaterally and ventrally. This lowering of the diaphragm\\nincreases the space in the chest the air already in the", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "92\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nchest expands to fill this greater space. When expanded\\nit exerts less pressure than before, and the air outside,\\nhaving greater pressure, enters till equilibrium is produced.\\nThe air enters through the trachea, presses on the inside\\nof the elastic lungs, and makes their bases extend, follow-\\ning the diaphragm in its descent. The bases of the lungs\\nremain in contact with the upper surface of the diaphragm\\nall the time.\\nincreased Air\\nSpace\\nInspiration Expiration\\nFig-. 43. Diagrammatic Sections of the Body in Inspiration and Expiration.\\nWork of the Chest Walls in Inspiration. Certain\\nmuscles of the chest wall elevate the ribs and breast bone.\\nThis act widens the chest, and the air, as before, presses\\nin through the open trachea, and keeps the sides of the\\nlungs in contact with the inner surfaces of the chest walls.\\nEffort required in Depressing the Diaphragm.\\nInspiration requires considerable effort, because the dia-", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. 93\\nphragm in its descent presses upon the elastic organs of\\nthe abdomen (stomach, liver, etc.), and these organs, in\\nturn, are pressed against the elastic walls of the abdomen.\\nIt is somewhat like pressing a pillow down into a rubber\\nbag; the pillow springs up as soon as the pressure is\\nstopped, because of its own elasticity as well as that of the\\nbag. Therefore, as soon as the diaphragm relaxes, the\\nelastic walls of the abdomen retreat, and the abdominal\\norgans rise to their former place.\\nEffort Required in raising the Ribs. When the ribs\\nare elevated, the cartilages which connect the ventral ends\\nof the bony parts of the ribs with the breast bone are\\nslightly bent. When the muscles relax, the elasticity of\\nthe rib cartilages helps to bring the ribs back to their\\nformer position, thus reducing the chest to its former\\nwidth.\\nExpiration Easy. Thus we see why expiration is easy\\nin fact, does itself (in ordinary respiration) by elastic\\nreactions. But inspiration is harder than it would be if it\\nwere not for the fact that the descent of the diaphragm\\nmeets resistance, and the ribs, in rising, have to overcome\\nresistance in bending the costal cartilages, and in raising\\nthe weight of the chest walls and shoulders.\\nPotential Energy stored in a Door Spring. When\\none opens a door that has a spring to shut it, he has to\\nexpend more energy to open the door than he would if he\\ndid not have to bend (twist or compress) the spring at the\\nsame time. But no effort is needed to shut the door. The\\ndoor was opened and shut at the same time i.e. when\\nthe door was opened force was stored in the spring (in the\\nform of what is called potential energy), and this stored\\nenergy shuts the door while we pass on. We can better", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "94 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nafford to employ more energy while opening the door than\\nto take the extra time to shut it. If, then, a door with such\\nspring were fastened open, it might remain. open for a long\\ntime. When released it flies shut. If one, in this case,\\nasks, Who shut the door? the answer is, The person\\nwho opened it.\\nThe Storing of Energy during Inspiration. So in\\nthe act of inspiration we perform a double work in storing\\nenergy by which the expiration is performed without active\\nmuscular effort.\\nReview of Forces of Respiration\\nFORCES OF INSPIRATION.\\n1. Depression of the diaphragm.\\n2. Muscles elevating the ribs.\\n3. Pressure of the external air.\\nRESISTANCES TO INSPIRATION.\\n1. Compression of the abdominal organs and stretching\\nabdominal walls.\\n2. Bending the rib cartilages and lifting the chest.\\n3. Stretching the lungs.\\nELASTIC REACTIONS OF EXPIRATION.\\n1. Elastic reaction of the abdominal walls and contents.\\n2. Elastic reaction of the rib cartilages.\\n3. Elastic reaction of the lungs.\\nForced Respiration. Thus far we have been speaking\\nof ordinary respiration. In forced respiration, as in shout-\\ning, many muscles are brought into play to expel the air\\nrapidly and forcibly. In such an act as coughing there is\\nvigorous action of the abdominal muscles.", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. 95\\nAbdominal and Thoracic Respiration. The main part\\nof respiration is performed by the diaphragm, and the more\\ncommon mode of respiration is therefore called abdominal\\nor diaphragmatic respiration. In women of the civilized\\nraces respiration is more largely accomplished by the action\\nof the thoracic muscles, and is called thoracic or costal res-\\npiration. In children the respiration is of the abdominal\\ntype.\\nThe Rate of Respiration. The rate of respiration in\\nthe adult varies from sixteen to twenty-four per minute,\\nthe average being about seventeen times a minute about\\none respiration for every four heart beats. Light is favor-\\nable to respiratory activity. The rate is affected by the\\nposition of the body, state of activity, temperature, diges-\\ntion, emotions, age, disease, etc. Ordinary inspiration\\ntakes slightly less time than expiration.\\nModifications of Respiration. Coughing is a forcible expiration,\\nusually directed through the mouth, and for the purpose of getting rid\\nof some foreign substance, or caused by irritation. In sneezing there is\\nfirst a deep inspiration, and then the current of air is forced out, chiefly\\nthrough the nose. Sneezing may be prevented by pressing firmly on\\nthe upper lip. Crying, laughing, sobbing, are modifications of respira-\\ntion connected with certain emotions. Yawning and sighing are deeper\\nbreathings, caused by ennui, depressing emotions, or a deficient ventila-\\ntion. Hiccuping is sudden inspiration, produced by spasmodic action\\nof the diaphragm, accompanied by sudden closure of the glottis, and is\\noften caused by some disorder of stomach digestion. Snoring is caused\\nby breathing through the mouth and setting the soft palate into vibra-\\ntion. Sniffing is sudden inspiration the diaphragm is suddenly pulled\\ndown, the air in the nasal cavity is thus drawn downward, and the air\\nwe wish to test, or the odor we wish to inhale, is thus drawn into the\\nupper nasal cavities whereas in ordinary inspiration most of the air\\npasses along the lower part of the nasal passage. In hawking, the air\\nis forced out through the narrowed passage between the root of the\\ntongue and the soft palate to remove mucus. Gargling is forcing air up", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "9 6\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nthrough liquid held between the tongue and the soft palate. Panting,\\nwhistling, blowing, spitting, sucking, and drinking are also modifica-\\ntions of respiration. In case of choking it is well to hold the head for-\\nI CO\\n5\\nCo CQ\\nCO J\u00c2\u00bb\\nCO\\nCOMPLEMENTAL AIR.\\n120 CUBIC INCHES.\\nAIR\\nTHAT CAN BE BUT SELDOM IS TAKEN\\nIN.\\nTIDAL AIR.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 20 to 30 Cubic Inches Air Taker\\ni in\\nand Sent out at Each Breath.\\nRESERVE AIR.\\n100 CUBIC INCHES.\\nAIR\\nTHAT CAN BE BUT IS SELDOM DRIVEN\\nOUT.\\nRESIDUAL AIR.\\n100 CUBIC INCHES.\\nAIR THAT CANNOT BE DRIVEN OUT.\\nS -5\\n-b\\n-5\\n1-8\\nFig. 44. Diagram of Lung Capacity.\\nward, and perhaps downward. A smart slap between the shoulders\\nsometimes helps dislodge anything stuck in the throat, and it may be\\nnecessary, in addition, to hold a child with its head downward.", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. 97\\nCapacity of the Lungs. Have the class stand, and each pupil raise\\nhis right hand.\\ni. Tidal Air. Let all breathe together, at the ordinary rate and\\ndepth, and let the hand rise about three inches during inspiration, and\\nfall again during expiration. The amount of air taken in at an ordinary\\nbreath is from 20 to 30 cubic inches, or about a pint. This is called\\ntidal air.\\n2. Complemental Air. As before, let the hand go up and down\\nwith the breathing, but at the end of the third inspiration, instead of\\nstopping with the usual amount, keep on breathing in as much as pos-\\nsible, letting the hand rise accordingly. This air that can be taken in\\nabove the ordinary breath is called the complemental air, and it is\\nestimated to be, on the average, about 120 cubic inches.\\n3. Reserve Air. Begin as before, and at what would be the end\\nof the third expiration continue to drive out as much air as possible,\\nindicating the degree by correspondingly lowering the hand. This air\\nthat can be breathed out beyond the ordinary expiration is called the\\nreserve air, and is reckoned at about 100 cubic inches.\\n4. Residual Air. The air cannot all be breathed out. The re-\\nmainder is called the residual air, and is computed to be about 100\\ncubic inches.\\nThe Vital Capacity. All the air that can be breathed out after a\\nfull inspiration, i.e. the sum of the complemental, tidal, and reserve\\nair, would be about 240 to 250 cubic inches, and is called the vital\\ncapacity. Of course these figures represent only the average of cer-\\ntain experiments and observations. By practice any one can con-\\nsiderably increase his vital capacity.\\nA Test of the Capacity of the Lungs. A simple method of\\nmeasuring these stages of respiration is to take a gallon bottle and\\nfirst carefully graduate it to pints by pouring in water and marking on\\nthe outside with a file. Then invert the bottle in a trough of water,\\nand inhale from it by means of a rubber tube. Or fill the bottle, in-\\nvert in water, and exhale into it.\\nHygiene of Breathing. Those persons who take con-\\nstant exercise in the open air are likely not to suffer much\\nfrom deficient respiration. But persons following seden-", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "98 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ntary occupations, such as that of the student, not calling\\nfor deep breathing (and often the air taken in is of poor\\nquality), need to pay especial attention to the matter.\\nBreathing through the Mouth. We should breathe\\nthrough the nose, and not through the mouth. The nasal\\npassages are fitted for the introduction of the air (i) by\\nbeing narrow, but of large area; (2) by having their lining\\nmembranes richly supplied with blood; (3) by the abun-\\ndant secretion of mucus by this membrane. The air,\\ncoming through this narrow channel, is warmed, and a\\nlarge part of any dust it may contain is caught by the\\nsticky mucus that covers all the walls of this passageway.\\nIf we breathe through the mouth (especially out of doors\\nin cold weather), the air may not be sufficiently warmed\\nbefore entering the lungs, and much more dust would be\\ncarried into the lungs. Then, too, the air has a drying\\neffect on the throat, whereas the mucus of the nasal pas-\\nsages will moisten the air as it enters. The cilia, which\\nextend from most of the cells lining the respiratory pas-\\nsages, are constantly causing the mucus to slowly flow\\ntoward the external opening, so a good share of the dust\\nis gotten rid of. A further advantage of breathing through\\nthe nose is that we detect odors, and can thus judge of the\\nquality of the air.\\nBreathing and Circulation. The fact has been noted\\nthat breathing directly aids the circulation of the blood.\\nThis is due to the way air pressure is made to affect the\\nlarge veins. Breathing also may very considerably aid\\nthe flow of lymph. Every deep inspiration brings pres-\\nsure to bear on the main lymph duct as the diaphragm\\ndescends. Every forced expiration has the same effect.\\nWe must keep in mind that the tissues are fed directly by", "height": "3536", "width": "2416", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. 99\\nthe lymph that surrounds them that while the lymph is\\ncontinually fed by the blood, there is not a great pressure\\ngiven in this way. The lymph stream is largely depend-\\nent on the pressure of the surrounding organs. When\\none takes a good deal of muscular exercise the lymph is\\nrenewed with rapidity enough to supply the tissues with\\nfood, and to carry away their wastes. But in those who\\nsit quiet a large share of the day, taking no more exercise\\nthan is necessary to take them to and from their places\\nof business, the lymph becomes too nearly stagnant, the\\ntissues are not well nourished, and the whole body suffers.\\nDeep Breathing. It is a grateful relief to the whole\\nsystem to stand, stretch, inhale deeply and slowly several\\ntimes, and to repeat this every hour or so. Every one en-\\ngaged in office work or studying should form this habit,\\nespecially if he does not give an hour daily to exercise in\\na gymnasium, or otherwise.\\nRespiratory Sounds. During respiration sounds are\\nproduced by which the skilled physician can tell much as\\nto the condition of the respiratory organs.\\nThe Control of Respiration. Breathing is an involun-\\ntary act/ Still we can modify it. We can hold the breath\\nfor a time but it is stated that one cannot hold the breath\\nlong enough to produce death by suffocation.\\nThe muscles of respiration are under the control of\\nj nerves. The center of respiratory control is believed to\\nbe in the lower portion of the spinal bulb. This respira-\\nJ tory center is one of the most vital points in the body, for\\nif it is destroyed, breathing is completely stopped, and\\ndeath ensues. This center is affected by the condition of\\nthe blood. For instance, if the blood going to this center\\nhas not enough oxygen, the center hastens the process", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "100 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nof breathing by nerve impulses sent to the muscles of\\nrespiration.\\nThe Control of the Diaphragm. The diaphragm is\\nunder the control of the phrenic nerves, which arise from\\nthe third, fourth, and fifth cervical nerves. If the neck is\\nbroken above the point where these nerves are given off,\\ndeath almost always immediately follows, because the con-\\nnection of the respiratory center and the diaphragm is\\nbroken.\\nComposition of Dry Air (by volume)\\nOxygen 21.00\\nNitrogen 79.00\\nCarbon Dioxid .04\\n100.04\\nExperiments illustrating the Chemistry of Respiration. Ex-\\nperiment 1 If a piece of phosphorus be burned under a fruit jar\\ninverted and with the mouth under water (for directions consult any\\nchemistry), the oxygen will be consumed and water will enter part way\\nto take its place. The remainder is nitrogen.\\nExperiment 2. If a burning taper be lowered into this nitrogen,\\nthe flame will be extinguished.\\nExperiment 3. If a chemical laboratory is at hand, some carbon\\ndioxid should be generated and tested to show that it extinguishes\\nflame.\\nExperiment 4. Lime water is the test of carbon dioxid, and may\\neasily be prepared by putting a piece of quicklime the size of a hen s\\negg into a quart of water.\\nExperiment 5. Pour a little clear lime water into a jar contain-\\ning carbon dioxid, and on shaking the contents the lime water will be\\nrendered milky.\\nExperiment 6. By means of a tube (a straw will serve) breathe\\nthrough a small quantity of lime water to show that there is carbon\\ndioxid in the expired breath.\\nExperiment 7. If a jar be inverted over a lighted taper, the flame\\nwill soon be extinguished. Test the gas with lime water to see that\\ncarbon dioxid is produced by a burning candle.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. 1 01\\nExperiment 8. By holding a clean, cold tumbler over a burning\\ntaper it will be seen that water vapor is produced by the burning.\\nExperiment 9. Breathing into a clean, cold tumbler shows that\\nwater is produced also in the process of respiration.\\nExperiment 10. A very brilliant experiment and one that is very\\ninstructive at this point is to burn a watch spring in oxygen. In this\\nprocess the oxygen unites with the iron, forming iron oxid.\\nExperiment i i. If a piece of watch spring be placed in water, it\\nwill soon rust. Rust is also an iron oxid, only the process is slow,\\ninstead of rapid as in the case of combustion, and just as much heat is\\ngiven off, but not much at any given instant.\\nExperiment 12. If a short piece of magnesium ribbon can be\\nobtained, it may be burned in the presence of the class, though it is not\\nwell to look long at the excessively strong white light.\\nExperiment 13. Magnesium will also rust in water, forming a\\nwhite rust, or magnesium oxid, as in burning.\\nExperiment 14. If a jar be filled with the slowly expired breath,\\ncapped tightly, and set in a warm place it will acquire a bad odor.\\nExperiment 15. Hold a thermometer at arm s length. It indi-\\ncates the temperature of the air of the air that you are breathing in.\\nBreathe for a few minutes upon the bulb of the thermometer, and the\\nfact is clearly shown that the air we breathe out is much warmer than\\nthe air that we breathe in.\\nExperiment 16. With a pair of bellows force the air of the room\\nthrough a small quantity of lime water. By continuing this process a\\nlong time it may be shown that there is carbon dioxid in the air, but not\\nnearly so much as in the expired breath.\\nResult of Experiments. These experiments show that\\nbreathed air has gained\\n1. Heat.\\n2. Water vapor.\\n3. Carbon dioxid.\\n4. Waste products, or impurities, having no definite\\nname, because not well known, highly putrescible, often\\ncalled by the general name of", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "102 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nAMOUNT OF CARBON\\nDIOXID\\nIN\\nINSPIRED AIR. EXPIRED AIR.\\nIN 10,000 VOLUMES. 4 400\\ni Represented by Large Square.) (Small Square.) (Medium Square).\\nPER CENT. .04\\nCOMMON FRACTION\\n1 X\\n2500 25\\nHhhiiiillllllli\\n20 100\\nFig. 45. Amount of Carbon Dioxid in Inspired and Expired Air.\\nThe Composition of Inspired and Expired Air.\\nOxygen. Nitrogen. Carbon Dioxid.\\nInspired air 21 79 .04\\nExpired air 16 79 4.00\\nWhile the amount of nitrogen remains about the same,\\nsome oxygen has disappeared, and its place is taken by\\ncarbon dioxid, while the amount of carbon dioxid has in-\\ncreased a hundred-fold.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION.\\n103\\nExchanges between the Air and the Blood in the\\nLungs. Whatever the air coming from the lungs con-\\ntains that was not in the air entering them, it has taken\\nfrom the blood, and what the air has lost it has given to\\nthe blood. The air in the air vesicle is separated from the\\nBRONCHIAL TUBE\\nFROM PULMONARY ARTERY\\nTO PULMONARY VEIN\\n\u00c2\u00b0A PILLAR^\\nFig. 46. Exchanges between the Air and the Blood in the Lungs.\\nblood in the pulmonary capillaries only by the thin wall of\\nthe air vesicle and the thin capillary wall. Carbon dioxid,\\nwater, and other waste matters pass from the blood through\\nthis thin partition into the air vesicle, to be sent out by\\nlater expiration. Oxygen from the air in the vesicle passes", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "104 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nthrough these layers into the plasma, and most of it is\\nquickly picked up by the colored corpuscles. The colored\\ncorpuscles are the carriers of oxygen.\\nHemoglobin and Oxyhemoglobin. As has already\\nbeen stated, the hemoglobin in the colored corpuscles has\\nan affinity for oxygen. Hemoglobin is of a dark color,\\nand gives the dark color to the blood which enters the\\nlungs. When oxygen unites with the hemoglobin it forms\\noxyhemoglobin, which is of a bright red color. Hence\\nthe change in the color of the blood in the lungs from a\\ndark bluish red to a bright scarlet. This bright blood is\\nusually called arterial, and the dark venous but it\\nmust be remembered that the blood in the pulmonary\\nartery is dark, and in the pulmonary veins bright.\\nAmount of Oxygen Used. We take into the blood\\nonly about one fourth of the oxygen of the air that passes\\nthrough the lungs. In like manner the blood, passing\\nthrough the tissues, gives up to those tissues (in ordinary\\ncircumstances) only about half the oxygen it contains (per-\\nhaps holding the remainder as a reserve).\\nThe Gases in the Blood. If a quart of blood be placed\\nunder the receiver, and the air exhausted, it will be found\\nthat the blood contained about three fifths of a quart of\\ngas. This gas is a mixture of oxygen, carbon dioxid, and\\nnitrogen, and the proportions vary according to the kind\\nof blood taken. If from the left heart, or pulmonary veins,\\nthere will be more oxygen and less carbon dioxid if from\\nthe right heart, pulmonary artery, or caval veins, there\\nwill be less oxygen and more carbon dioxid. Oxyhemo-\\nglobin blood arterial blood contains about one fifth its\\nvolume of oxygen. Hemoglobin blood venous blood\\ncontains about one tenth its volume of oxygen. Oxy-", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION.\\n105\\nhemoglobin blood holds about two fifths its bulk of carbon\\ndioxid, while hemoglobin blood has nearly one half its\\nbulk of carbon dioxid.\\nTHE GASES IN THE BLOOD.\\nFrom 100 volumes of\\nOxyhemoglobin (arterial) blood\\nHemoglobin (venous) blood\\nMay be obtained\\nOxygen. Carbon dioxid. Nitrogen.\\n20 vols. 40 vols. 1 to 2 vols.\\n10 vols. 46vols. ito2vols.\\nIllustration of the Changes in the Color of the Blood. The\\nchanges that take place in the color of the blood, both in the lungs\\nand in the tissues of the other parts of the body, may be illustrated as\\nVEIN*\\nFig. 47.\\nfollows Prepare a heart as directed on page 45. Use for the liquid a\\nstrong solution of litmus, neutralized or slightly alkaline place in the\\nthroat of each funnel a small sponge. Saturate with ammonia the\\nsponge in the funnel representing the capillaries of the body, and", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "106 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nsaturate with hydrochloric acid the one in the funnel representing the\\ncapillaries of the lungs.\\nNow, on working the heart the liquid will change from red to blue\\nin the funnel representing the body, and from blue to red in the funnel\\nrepresenting the lungs.\\nAnatomically there are two lungs, and the heart lies between them\\nphysiologically, the lungs form a single organ, which is interposed be-\\ntween the two hearts. Wilder.\\nThe Changes in the Blood. -What does the blood do\\nwith the oxygen that it gets in the lungs, and where did it\\nget the carbon dioxid and other impurities that it brings\\nto the lungs Let us follow the blood and see. From\\nthe pulmonary veins the blood goes to the left heart, and\\nis pumped to all the tissues except the lungs. Let us\\nfollow a branch of the aorta that leads to a muscle.\\nThe Production of Heat and Motion in the Body.\\nWhen a muscle works it becomes warmer. This has been\\nrepeatedly proved by experiment. We know that we feel\\nwarmer when we exercise. We know that the blood is\\nflowing more rapidly through the muscle when it is at\\nwork. This more rapid stream brings the muscle more\\noxygen. This it needs, for the heat of the muscle is pro-\\nduced by the oxidation of substance in the muscle. We\\nhave seen that the oxidation of iron produces heat, and it\\nis the oxidation of the materials in the candle that enable\\nit to give out heat. But our bodies do not give out the\\nintense heat of a burning candle, nor do they produce\\nlight, as is the case with the oxidation of iron and magne-\\nsium when those metals are burned. The slow oxidation\\nof the metals, in the presence of moisture, is more like\\nthe oxidations in our bodies. It is by the oxidations of\\nthe muscle (or substance in it) that the muscles produce\\nheat and that form of energy which gives motion. In the", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. 107\\ncase of the rusting of the metals there is as much heat pro-\\nduced as when they are burned, but the heat is so slowly\\ngenerated that it is given off about as fast as it is pro-\\nduced, and we do not notice it. The oxidation produces\\nthe waste matters, just as the burning of the various\\nsubstances produces waste.\\nOxidation of Live Tissues and Dead Matter. In our\\nexperiments with oxygen we see that substances which\\nburn in air will burn still more actively in oxygen. But\\nwe must not infer from this that in our bodies the oxida-\\ntion of the tissues would be faster in pure oxygen. This\\nis not the case. The tissues take as much oxygen as they\\nneed (if they can get it), and they will not take any more\\nthan they need, no matter how much is offered them. It\\ndoes not injure the body, nor any part of it, to breathe\\npure oxygen. It does not make one feverish, it does not\\nproduce any more heat, nor make one live faster. This\\npoint should be specially noticed, as it was formerly sup-\\nposed that the oxidation of the tissues of the body was\\njust like any combustion of dead material. But the tissues\\nare alive. They know their own needs. Each cell takes\\nwhat it requires and no more, just as it does of food\\nbrought to it by the blood. The amount of oxygen pres-\\nent does not determine the degree of muscular activity,\\nbut the degree of muscular activity determines the amount\\nof oxygen consumed.\\nIncreased Blood Flow is the Result of Exercise.\\nWhen we exercise, the muscles need more oxygen. They\\nalso need to have removed the waste matters that they are\\nso rapidly producing at this time. How is the oxygen\\nbrought and the waste removed By the blood, you\\nanswer. True but what makes the blood come and", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "108 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ngo faster at this time By reflex action, you reply. The\\nmuscles send a message to a nerve center, and this nerve\\ncenter sends back a message to the blood tubes, making\\nthem widen, and the heart also may be made to beat\\nfaster. But would it do any good to have the blood flow\\nthrough the muscles faster, if it could not bring more oxy-\\ngen, and take away and get rid of more wastes You\\nwill say no. To give the extra oxygen, and take out the\\ncarbon dioxid, the lungs cannot, of themselves, take in and\\nsend out air. The work of pumping air depends on the\\nmuscles of respiration, the diaphragm, and the muscles\\nthat elevate the ribs. These will not work faster unless\\nthey are ordered to do so. A message must be sent to\\nthese telling of the need in the muscles that we are con-\\nsidering, say one of the large muscles of the lower limbs.\\nThus, by a series of reflex actions, all these processes are\\nkept in harmonious relation to each other. It must be\\nborne in mind that increased blood flow is the conse-\\nquence, and not the cause, of the increased activity of the\\ntissues.\\nTemperature of the Body. Insert the bulb of a thermometer into\\nthe mouth, and keep it there three or four minutes to find the tempera-\\nture of the inside of the body. For this it is better to use a clinical\\nthermometer, if one can be obtained. The average temperature of the\\ntissues within the body is about 98. 5 F.\\nHow the Body is like a Stove. The body may be\\ncompared to a stove. Into one we put fuel and produce\\nheat. In the other we get heat from food.\\nHow the Body differs from a Stove. But the body is\\nnot like the stove in burning the fuel (food) directly. The\\nfood is first made into tissues, or storage compounds in\\nthe tissues. It is as though we were to build a stove", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. 109\\nentirely of coal, and then start a fire in it. In that case it\\nwould produce heat not merely by burning in one place\\nwithin, but would be burning throughout the whole of its\\nsubstance. This is the case with the body.\\nOxidation in Tissue the Source of Heat in the Body.\\nWe have seen that the muscles constitute nearly half of\\nthe weight of the body. We know, too, that they are more\\nactive than most of the tissues. We would now naturally\\ninfer, as indeed is the fact, that they are the chief source\\nof the heat produced in our bodies.\\nThe tissues of the body are oxidizing all the time. But\\nwhen they are in vigorous action they oxidize very much\\nmore rapidly.\\nNext to the muscles, in importance as a heat producer,\\nis the liver, which is the largest gland in the body, and, as\\nwe shall soon see, one of the most active. The blood, as\\nit leaves the liver by the hepatic vein, is hotter than\\nanywhere else in the body.\\nHow the Body is like a Locomotive. But it will be\\nbetter to compare the body to a locomotive, as we produce\\nnot only heat, but motion as well.\\nIf a visitor from another planet, unfamiliar with such\\ncreatures as we are, were to observe closely a man and a\\nlocomotive, he would see several points in common\\n1. Both are warm.\\n2. Both move.\\n3. Both use fuel (food or coal).\\n4. Both take in air, and (if it were a winter day)\\n5. Both give off smoke (which is essentially the same\\nin the two, carbon dioxid and water vapor being the chief\\nconstituents).", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "HO PHYSIOLOGY.\\nHow the Body differs from a Locomotive. By a\\ncloser examination he would find out some of the differ-\\nences that we have noticed\\ni. That the body does not get hot enough to burn; i.e.\\nthe oxidation is relatively slow, and is not combustion.\\n2. That the oxidation of the body never produces light.\\n3. That the oxidation here is always in the presence of\\nmoisture.\\nThe Amount of Carbon Dioxid given off. When the\\nbreath is held for some time, the carbon dioxid in the ex-\\npired air may reach 7 or 8 per cent. During violent\\nexercise the amount of carbon dioxid given off may be\\nfrom two to two and a half times as much as when we are\\nat rest. The amount of carbon dioxid given off is in-\\ncreased in cold weather, and by taking food, and decreased\\nfrom one fifth to one fourth during sleep. Oxygen is\\ncarried chiefly in the corpuscles, but the carbon dioxid is\\ncarried in both plasma and corpuscles.\\nStorage of Oxygen in the Tissues. The activity of the tissues\\nfrom their oxidation does not necessarily mean that the oxidation is\\ndirect that is, that the oxygen is used as soon as it is brought to the\\ntissue. For instance, in the muscles it is believed that the oxygen is\\nstored in some form, probably in combination, so that it can be used\\nwhen needed, perhaps much more rapidly than could be supplied by the\\nrespiration at the time. If we study the chemistry of explosion, we\\nlearn that it is a very rapid combustion. In the explosives are ma-\\nterials that unite instantaneously, instead of slowly burning, as in the\\ncase of ordinary combustibles.\\nThe Action of Muscles like an Explosion. Now, many physiolo-\\ngists hold that a sort of explosive compound is formed in the muscles,\\nand that when the muscle acts it does so as the result of the explosion,\\nso to speak, of this material. And, to carry out the figure, the nerve is\\ncompared to the match that ignites the explosive. A little heat is\\nenough to cause the most violent explosion. So the force that passes", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. Ill\\nalong a nerve fiber is slight. But it rouses a great amount of energy\\nthat lay dormant iii the muscle. It would seem to have touched off 1\\na lot of explosive material that was already there, rather than merely\\nstarted an action that depends on the comparatively slow process of\\nrespiration at the time. We cannot follow this theory farther, as it\\ntakes us too deep into the study of chemistry in its most difficult\\nbranch, physiological chemistry.\\nSummary of Respiration. The tissues need oxygen\\nair is pumped into the lungs this air gives oxygen to the\\nblood the blood carries it to the tissues.\\nIn oxidizing, the tissues produce energy (heat and mo-\\ntion) and give off waste matter (water, carbon dioxid, etc.);\\nthese the blood carries to the lungs, the lungs give them\\nto the air, and the air carries them out of the body.\\nThe pumping of the air in and out may be called me-\\nchanical respiration. The changes between the air and\\nthe blood in the lungs we will call the ventilation of the\\nblood, and the interaction of the blood and the tissues\\nthe real, or internal respiration.\\nThe Two Breaths. Every time you breathe you\\nbreathe two different breaths you take in one, you give\\nout another. The composition of these two breaths is\\ndifferent. Their effects are different. The breath which\\nhas been breathed out must not be breathed in again.\\nKingsley.\\nBreathing Expired Air. The air in the vesicles re-\\nceives from the blood carbon dioxid, water vapor, and\\nother impurities above mentioned. It has been believed\\nfor a number of years that the organic impurities consti-\\ntute the most dangerous element in expired air. Carbon\\ndioxid, though to some extent a. poison, is not very injuri-\\nous in such quantities as ordinarily exist in the air, even in\\npoorly ventilated rooms while the headache and drowsi-", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "112 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nness that one experiences in a close room where there are\\na number of people is due to the reabsorption of these or-\\nganic matters. It is not due to lack of oxygen, for the\\noxygen may be reduced to 13 per cent without causing\\ndiscomfort. A person may breathe air containing 1 per\\ncent of carbon dioxid, with a corresponding reduction of\\noxygen, when the carbon dioxid is generated by ordinary\\nchemical processes (as in a small room with a large kero-\\nsene lamp, or a gasoline stove); but air having 1 per\\ncent of carbon dioxid produced by breathing is highly in-\\njurious, because it contains the organic impurities above\\nnoted, and the term crowd poison has been employed\\nfor this material. Later investigators, however, maintain\\nthat there is nothing injurious in the freshly expired breath.\\nSummary. 1. In the lungs the air and blood are brought very\\nclose together, only the wall of the capillary and that of the air vesicle\\nintervening.\\n2. Through these two layers oxygen passes from the air vesicle\\ninto the blood. Carbon dioxid, water vapor, and other wastes pass\\nfrom the blood into the air vesicle.\\n3. The mucous membrane of the air passages secretes mucus\\nwhich is driven toward the nostrils by the cilia.\\n4. The chest is lengthened by the depression of the diaphragm,\\nand widened by the elevation of the ribs, giving greater space, which is\\nfilled by external air expanding the lungs.\\n5. Inspiration acts in opposition to resistances, whose elastic re-\\naction performs ordinary expiration without active effort.\\n6. There are four heart beats for each respiration.\\n7. The lungs are never emptied.\\n8. Respiratory capacity may be increased by exercise and practice.\\n9. Respiration is controlled by the nervous system the respiratory\\ncenter is in the spinal bulb.\\n10. Internal respiration is an oxidation in the tissues, illustrated by\\nthe rusting- of moist iron.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. 1 1 3\\nn. In passing through the lungs air loses oxygen, and gains water,\\ncarbon dioxid, and other wastes.\\n12. Oxygen is carried chiefly by the colored corpuscles of the blood\\nit unites with hemoglobin in the corpuscles, forming oxyhemoglobin,\\nand gives the blood its bright scarlet color.\\n13. The energy of heat and motion in the body results from the\\noxidations in the tissues.\\n14. Air once breathed is unwholesome. The air of living and sleep-\\ning rooms needs constant renewal.\\nQuestions. 1 Is it a good thing to see how long one can hold his\\nbreath\\n2. Should the head be covered by bedclothes\\n3. What are the lights in an animal\\n4. How is respiration affected by a stooping posture\\n5. In what part of the lungs is the best air Where the worst\\n6. Can you explain how respiration affects circulation\\n7. Is it easy to determine by the color of blood flowing from a\\nwound whether it is arterial or venous Why\\n8. Of what advantage is it that the cartilages of the windpipe are\\nC-shaped and not complete rings\\n9. How is it that in respiration 5 per cent of the oxygen disappears\\nwhile only 4 per cent of carbon dioxid appears in its place in the ex-\\npired breath (See p. 102.)", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII.\\nVENTILATION AND HEATING DUST AND BACTERIA.\\nNeed of Proper Ventilation. When one is actively\\nexercising his muscles he may keep warm outdoors through\\nour winter days. For the heat of the body depends on its\\ninternal fires, the oxidation of its tissues. But if we are\\ninactive, these fires burn feebly, and we need outside heat.\\nWhile air is free, it really costs a good deal of money to\\nhave it properly warmed.\\nA Lack of Effective Systems of Ventilation. Lung\\ndiseases are rare in the regions where the windows and\\ndoors may be kept open most of the days of the year. It\\nis from shutting ourselves in so closely that we suffer.\\nThis is especially true where many people are housed in a\\ncomparatively small space, as in many public buildings.\\nBut in our private dwellings, even when the owners are\\namply able to secure the most sanatory appliances, defec-\\ntive apparatus is often put in. Any system that docs not\\nprovide for a constant renewal of the air is defective.\\nGrates as Heaters and Ventilators. Grates will aid\\nlargely in renewing the air. Although in themselves they\\nmerely have provision for sending radiant heat out into the\\nroom and much air up the chimney, yet, without any\\nspecial provision for inlet of air to the room, they draw air\\nin through every crack and crevice. It would probably be\\nvery much better to have special ducts for the admission\\n114", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "VENTILATION AND HEATING. I I 5\\nof air, which is suitably warmed while on its way into the\\nroom, and to make the doors shut snugly, and to have\\ndouble windows, as then both the admission of fresh air\\nand the regulation of heat will be better secured. But\\nit is a serious question whether, with all our modern ap-\\npliances, conveniences, and luxuries, we have better air\\nin our houses, and take cold less frequently, than our\\nancestors who depended more on the fireplace, even if\\nthey did roast on one side while they froze on the other.\\nFireplaces are expensive as mere heaters, but they are\\nexcellent ventilators.\\nVentilating Flues around a Smoke Flue. If small\\nventilating flues could be built around the flue of the main\\nheating apparatus, and connected with the various rooms\\nof the house, air could be drawn from these rooms by\\nascending currents created by the heat of the central smoke\\nflue. Such flues surrounding smoke flues, would have the\\nadded advantage of protecting the house from fire through\\nthe too common defective flue.\\nThe General Principles of Ventilation. Of the forces\\nthat operate to renew the air two are natural, diffusion\\nand the wind and two are artificial, warm air shafts and\\nfan systems.\\nDiffusion. Gases tend to mix. We know that if a\\nbottle containing an odorous substance be opened in\\na room where there are no air currents the odor tends to\\nspread equally through the room. So if a person is in\\none corner of a large room, where there are no inlets\\nor outlets, and no currents, as he uses the oxygen immedi-\\nately around him, the oxygen farther away will diffuse\\ntoward him so that he will continue to get oxygen till the\\namount of oxygen in the room is nearly exhausted. So,", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "IIO PHYSIOLOGY.\\ntoo, the gases that he breathes out will not remain confined\\nto the space directly about him, but will spread nearly\\nevenly throughout the room. The same takes place in the\\nopen air, without wind. So, then, if the windows and\\ndoors are open, the air of the room will, by diffusion, be\\nrenewed.\\nWind. Motion of the air renews faster than mere dif-\\nfusion. Strong wind forces its way through the cracks\\naround windows, and when windows are open on opposite\\nsides of a room there is usually enough breeze to renew the\\nair. But during the greater part of the year this cannot be\\ndone.\\nArtificial Renewal of the Air. The renewal of the\\nair in most cases depends on the fact that heated air rises.\\nHeat expands air. It is then lighter, bulk for bulk, than\\ncooler air. The heavier surrounding air presses the lighter\\nair upward. If there are outlets above and below, the\\nheavier, colder air will press in at any opening left below,\\nand push the lighter, warmer air out above.\\nThe Common Stove. In the case of the common stove\\nwe very well know that there are currents of heated air\\nrising above the stove. Children make whirligigs and\\nvarious toys to place in these up-currents above stoves.\\nAir is, at the same time, flowing toward the stove along\\nthe floor and lower part of the room. Cold air can usually\\nbe detected entering around the windows and doors, which\\npresses downward and toward the source of heat. The\\nstove does not do much to renew the air in the room\\nexcept in this general way some heated air escapes at\\nopenings in the upper part of the room, and some is passed\\nout through the stove, taken in as a draft. But in the", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "VENTILATION AND HEATING. llj\\nmain, the action of the heat of the stove is to make a\\ncurrent of warm air up from the stove, which current\\npasses along the ceiling to the more distant corners of the\\nroom, then descends, joining the cold air, and repeating\\nthe round.\\nA Stove and Jacket. In some cases a jacket is placed\\naround a stove, and a duct from the outer air connects\\nwith the lower part of the space inside of the jacket and\\noutside of the stove. Then as the air heated by the stove\\nrises, fresh air is drawn in from outside to be warmed.\\nIn this case the direct heat from the stove is shut off from\\nthe room. Heat radiates in straight lines. When one\\nholds out his hands beside a stove the heat he receives is\\nradiant heat. Most of the heat from a grate is radiant\\nheat. But in a jacketed stove the heating by air currents\\nis called heating by convection.\\nThe Furnace. Now a furnace is practically a jacketed\\nstove (almost always placed in a basement). Furnaces\\nhave this good feature that they are all the time sending\\nfresh air into a room.\\nFoul-air Shafts and Fans. Although in private dwell-\\nings heated by furnaces there is no special provision for\\nthe escape of foul air, there is ordinarily sufficient renewal\\nof the air. But in public buildings there should be escape\\nflues for foul air.\\nFrequently a large foul-air shaft is built in some central\\npart of the building, and a small stove placed in it to create\\na sufficient up-current. In many public buildings the cur-\\nrents created by heat are insufficient to renew the air\\nproperly. Fans are used, which force the air, properly\\nheated, into the room.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "118 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nDirect Heating. In heating by steam or hot water, if\\nthe radiators are placed in the room they give direct or\\nradiant heat. This system is called direct heating. In\\nitself it has no provision for renewing the air. It gives\\ndirect heat, and produces air currents within the room\\nand any change in the air is wholly incidental, from escape\\nof heated air in the upper parts of the room and corre-\\nsponding suction of outside air through such openings as\\nthe carpenters have left below.\\nIndirect Heating. In indirect heating, coils of steam\\nor hot-water pipes are placed in air shafts which lead up\\nto the rooms above, and also have ducts to the outside.\\nAs the air is heated by the heat of the pipes it rises into\\nthe rooms above, and fresh, cold air presses in through the\\nducts, to be, in turn, heated and sent up. If there is at\\nthe same time a proper escape for the foul air, this makes\\nan excellent system.\\nA Combination of Direct and Indirect Heating. In\\nmany situations the direct and indirect may be advan-\\ntageously combined. Where there is a grate in a room, it\\nserves very well as a foul-air shaft, especially when there\\nis a fire in the grate. It is well to have the flue from the\\ngrate in the same chimney with that from the smoke pipe,\\nas then the heat from the smoke will cause a constant up-\\ndraft in the grate flue, whether there is a fire going in the\\ngrate or not.\\nWith a grate, in private houses, there is ordinarily no\\nneed of other foul-air shaft for any room. But it is very\\ndesirable to have at least some indirect heat, so that\\nthe fresh air introduced will be sufficiently heated.\\nIf the introduction of air is thus provided for, it is then\\nsafe to put on double windows and make the cracks around", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "DUST AND BACTERIA. 1 1.9\\nthe door very tight. Without any special provision for the\\nrenewal of the air these cracks are the means of safety.\\nIn houses heated by furnaces, steam, or hot water, the\\nfloor is likely to be warmer from the escape of heat from\\nthe heater itself, and from pipes or air ducts under the\\nfloor.\\nDouble Windows. There is a very common misunder-\\nstanding as to the cold felt near a window in cold weather.\\nIt seems that air is entering but a little reflection will\\nshow that even if the window were air-tight this effect\\nwould be produced, for the air near the window is cooled\\nby losing heat to the outer air. The air next to the win-\\ndow, thus cooled, is heavier, and falls to the floor and if\\nthere is any source of heat in the room, this cold air will\\npass along the floor to that source of heat, up from the\\nheating body to the ceiling, and across the ceiling, and so\\non around again. There may thus be currents without\\nany appreciable change in the quality of the air. It is\\neconomy to use double windows and prevent the loss of\\nheat through the glass. So both economy and comfort\\nsuggest to us that we reduce as much as possible cracks\\naround doors and windows, use double windows, make ves-\\ntibules at entrances, and build special ducts by which fresh\\nair may enter, and heat it properly on its way in.\\nDEAD DUST.\\nThe Air is washed by Rain or Snow. Every one\\nwill recall how delightfully refreshing the air is after a rain\\nor a snowstorm. This is not due merely to the fact that\\nthe air is cool. It is clean because it has been washed.\\nThe rain and snow absorb a considerable amount of the\\nvarious impure gases that are in the air. But raindrops", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "120 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nand snowflakes bring down with them many particles of\\ndust that were floating in the air. Take some of the snow\\nthat has fallen in a town. It looks pure in its almost\\ndazzling whiteness. But melt some of it, and you will\\nusually find a decided tinge darkening the water, showing\\nthat as the flakes sifted down through the air they caught\\nmyriads of particles of dust.\\nThe Sources of Dust. Where soft coal is used to any\\nlarge extent it is one abundant source of this dust. In\\nsummer dust has many sources. The dust that blows into\\nyour face, and perhaps into your mouth, may be made of\\ndry soil. Take a dry clod and drop it it falls quickly to\\nthe ground. Pulverize it in your hand before dropping it,\\nand considerable of it floats in the air for some time. Any\\nsubstance that is easily dried and pulverized may form\\npart of the common dust. The dust that you wipe from\\nyour eye, or is caught by the mucus of the nasal passages,\\nmay, instead of being made of clean soil, be from the\\nexcreta of horses, decayed leaves, wood, grass, etc. In-\\ndoors we are constantly making dust by wearing out our\\nclothes. Many of the tiny particles that we see floating in\\nthe sunbeams are bits of cotton or woolen fibers. Shake\\nany garment in a beam of light to see how much, and how\\neasily, dust is given off. The worn-off particles of our\\nshoes, books, floors, all contribute to the ever-present\\ndust.\\nThe Effect of Dust on the Lungs. Now, this dust (so\\nfar as it is mere dead, dry matter, not considering it as a\\npoison) is irritating to the lungs and respiratory passages.\\nThere is provision, as we have seen, for catching and\\ngetting rid of a good deal of it.\\nBut still much is taken into the lungs. Examination", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "DUST AND BACTERIA. 121\\nshows that the lungs have many black specks from parti-\\ncles of carbon, etc., that have become lodged, and are of\\nno benefit, to say the least.\\nLIVE DUST.\\nComposition of Live Dust. Bad as this dead dust is,\\nthe injury from it is slight compared to that from live dust.\\nWe know that certain seeds float in the air, carried along\\nby the wind. But these are comparatively heavy, and soon\\nsink to the ground.\\nWe all know pollen. At certain seasons it forms, in the\\nvicinity of cornfields, for instance, a considerable part of\\nthe dust. This is alive. It will grow if it falls on the\\nright kind of a surface, the stigma of the right plant at the\\nright time. Such dust will not grow in our bodies. We\\ndo not furnish a soil in which it can grow. It merely adds\\nto the amount of irritating dust.\\nPuffballs and Molds. We have seen puffballs give\\noff a cloud of dust when they are crushed. This dust is\\ncomposed of live spores that will grow in suitable places\\nand conditions. So, too, from a patch of mold, when\\nbrushed, we often see a little cloud of dust. These are a\\nfew instances of kinds of living dust that simply act on us\\nlike so much dead matter.\\nYeast. If we set a tumbler of cider on a table in a\\nwarm room, in a few days it ferments. This is due to\\nyeast that has gotten into it. Boil the cider to kill any\\nyeast that is already in it, and cork it securely so that air\\ncannot get at it, and it will not ferment. Dried yeast\\ngerms float in the air, settle into this exposed cider, and\\ncause it to ferment. Cider is a good soil for yeast.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "122 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nDisease Germs. But there are floating in the air many\\nkinds of spores that may grow in our bodies. We know\\nthat many of our contagious diseases are due to the growth\\nin our bodies of some of these spores. Our bodies are a\\ngood soil for certain germs. The germs that cause con-\\nsumption, typhoid fever, Asiatic cholera, erysipelas, diph-\\ntheria, and some forms of blood poisoning are well known.\\nMicroscopists know them when they see them as readily\\nas we know peas from beans. And it is proved beyond\\nall doubt that these germs get into our bodies by being\\nbreathed in, or by being eaten in food, or in drinking\\nwater, or by introduction into the blood in wounds. We\\nhave reason to believe that smallpox, yellow fever, measles,\\nand scarlatina are caused by germs, but these diseases have\\nnot been studied so successfully.\\nHow to avoid Germs. How can we avoid or get rid\\nof dusts of these kinds To exterminate any plant, we\\ntry to keep the seeds from ripening, and to kill all that do\\nripen. Let us take a case that, while not pleasant to con-\\ntemplate, is too terribly true to allow of being called an\\nimagined case.\\nThe Danger from Consumption. A consumptive ex-\\npectorates on the pavement. In this sputum are probably\\nhundreds, if not thousands, of germs known as bacilli\\n{Bacillus tuberculosis). They are alive. Now, so long as\\nthey remain on the pavement they do no harm. The\\nsputum dries. But the bacilli are not killed by drying.\\nWith other dry material from the pavement they form\\npart of the common dust. Any one of us may breathe\\nsome of this kind of matter any day, for there are persons\\nafflicted with this dreaded disease in every community.\\nOur bodies furnish the very best soil for the germs. We", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "DUST AND BACTERIA.\\n123\\nillus of Diphtheria (x iOOO)\\nBacillus of Tuberculosis (x 1000)\\nBacillus of Typhoid Fever (x 1200)\\nBacillus of Typhoid Fever (x 1200)\\nshowing flagella\\nBacillus (Spirillum) of Asiatic Choli\\nBacillus of Hog Cholera (x 1000)\\nFig- 48. Types of Bacilli, showing Morphologic Characters and A\\nrrangement.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "124 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ndo not need to go into the street to be exposed. Who\\nknows what he brings into the house adhering to his\\nclothing These germs may be brought into the most\\ncleanly houses in this way, or by the wind.\\nHow to avoid the Danger. Now, of course, all such\\nmaterial known to be highly dangerous ought to be de-\\nstroyed. If those suffering from such diseases were care-\\nful to burn all such matter, most of the seeds of this disease\\nWould be killed. Thus in time we might stamp out the\\ndisease, as a scourge of Canada thistles. But so long as\\npeople expectorate upon the floors and pavements it will\\nbe difficult to prevent the spread of such germ diseases-\\nIn hospitals such matters are now looked after with the\\ngreatest care, and in private houses where there is intelli-\\ngence on these subjects. And it is encouraging to note\\nthe awakening of the public to the significance of the teach-\\nings of modern science on this subject, as shown by the\\nfact that many of the railroad and street car companies\\nnow prohibit spitting on the floors of cars, not merely be-\\ncause it is uncleanly, but on the express ground that it is a\\nmeans of spreading infectious diseases.\\nBacteria. These disease germs are the smallest and\\nsimplest of living things. They are plants and while all\\nof them that are well known have their scientific names,\\njust as the larger plants have, they are all included in one\\ngeneral group designated as bacteria.\\nHow to avoid Dust. We need to learn a good deal\\nmore about avoiding and destroying dust, and the things\\nthat make dust.\\nTowns and cities need more sprinkling to keep the dust\\ndown. Much more of the refuse and street sweepings and", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "DUST AND BACTERIA. 125\\ncleanings ought to be burned. The dust of a house should\\nalways be burned, as we know not what germs of disease\\nmay be in it. If we burn it, we shall surely not have to\\nsweep up that dust again. If we send it out of doors it\\nmay come back, and we may have to handle it again and\\nagain.\\nSweeping and Dusting. So far as possible let us avoid\\nthings that make dust. When we sweep a carpet, a con-\\nsiderable share of the dust comes from the carpet itself,\\nespecially if the carpet is old. Curtains and tapestries of\\nnearly all sorts not only hold dust, but contribute a good\\ndeal to it. Those who write on such subjects recommend\\nhard wood floors with rugs instead of carpets. The rugs\\ncan be taken out of doors and shaken, and the floors wiped\\nwith a moist cloth, so that little dust is left floating in the\\nair of the room. Compare this with the condition that\\nholds after the ordinary sweeping of a carpeted room with\\nthe common broom. The dust fills the air, only to settle\\nback on the floor and furniture. Then comes the whisk\\nbroom, the so-called dusting. Well, it is dusting It fills\\nthe air once more with dust. But do we get rid of it\\nWiping off the dust with a moist cloth takes most of it\\naway on the cloth. For those who cannot have hard wood\\nfloors a most excellent substitute (and in some respects\\nbetter) is oilcloth or linoleum.\\nSweeping the Sick Room. The improved carpet\\nsweepers are not only convenient, but sanatory. Many a\\nwell-meaning person will sweep a carpet in a sick room\\nwith an ordinary broom when the patient is suffering from\\nlung disease, thoughtless of the fact that a little dust in\\nsight, and perhaps on the shoes, is of much less signifi-\\ncance than dust in the air we breathe. No one likes dust", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "126 PHYSIOLOGY.\\non the floor, but better a thousand times there than in our\\nlungs.\\nLung Diseases. Statistics seem to show that one\\nseventh of the deaths among the civilized races is due to\\nlung diseases. The best authorities are now agreed that\\nconsumption is not hereditary. But it appears that there\\nmay be inherited a tendency to this disease, so that, if ex-\\nposed, such persons are more likely to contract the disease\\nthan those not so predisposed.\\nProbably anything that lowers the general vitality makes\\nthe system more ready to succumb to any of these con-\\ntagious diseases. We have all noticed what a difference\\nthere is among individuals in the readiness with which they\\ncatch contagious diseases.\\nDestruction of Germs by Colorless Corpuscles. It is\\nbelieved by some physiologists that the colorless blood\\ncorpuscles may take these germs of disease into their sub-\\nstance, and destroy or change them so that the disease is\\nwarded off. In other words, they may be compared to a\\ncat that catches and eats the mice which invade a house.\\nHow to ward off Contagious Diseases. A good gen-\\neral condition of the body helps greatly to ward off dis-\\neases of this nature. A cheerful condition of mind and\\nbody should be cultivated. In times of widespread con-\\ntagious disease, if one is terrified into the belief that he is\\ngoing to have the disease, he is more likely to take it.\\nThorough cleanliness, plenty of direct sunshine, care in\\ndiet, and the keeping of the body in good tone, all these\\nreduce the chances of taking contagious diseases.\\nAn open-air life, abundant nutritious food, and freedom\\nfrom anxiety are probably the best restoratives for incipient\\nconsumption.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "DUST AND BACTERIA. 127\\nThe Bacteria of Putrefaction. Besides the disease-\\nproducing bacteria, there are others that cause decay and\\nputrefaction of various kinds. They cause our richer foods\\nto spoil, milk to turn sour, butter to become rancid, etc.\\nWhile these bacteria do not cause disease in the human\\nbody, they often make food poisonous. The cases fre-\\nquently reported of poisoning from eating ice cream,\\ncheese, sausage, etc., are in many cases due to bacteria in\\nthem. We should, in the first place, be careful to get\\ngood, fresh material. In the second place, it should be so\\nkept as to prevent the introduction and development of\\nbacteria in it. Bacteria need heat for their growth (as we\\nso well know is the case with the higher plants). They\\nalso need moisture.\\nThe Preservation of Foods. So our principal modes\\nof keeping foods from spoiling are to keep them in a cold\\nplace, or to dry them. Or we heat them, and shut them\\naway from the air, as in our various modes of canning and\\npreserving foods. Salting and smokingjneats, etc., preserve\\nthem by preventing the growth of bacteria. Cold does\\nnot usually kill bacteria. So milk that has been kept in a\\nrefrigerator, and that seems sweet, may have in it a stock\\nof bacteria, and after we drink the milk the heat of our\\nbodies favors their development. There are now known\\nways of killing the bacteria in milk and other liquids, known\\nas sterilizing, that make us safe from this danger.\\nAlthough the main subject of this chapter is air and\\nventilation, it has been thought best to touch briefly the\\nsubject of bacteria in food, as the bacteria are so widely\\ndisseminated by the air. One of the earlier and still in-\\nteresting works on this subject is Tyndall s Floating Matter\\nof the Air.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "128 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nBut let us now turn from the air and respiration to\\nanother, yet closely allied subject.\\nThe Need of the Removal of Waste. When we\\nawaken on a cold winter morning we are likely to find that\\nthe fire in our hard coal stove has burned low. Not enough\\nheat is given out. What is the trouble Is it merely that\\nmore coal is needed We put another hod of coal in the\\nmagazine (though some usually remains). Does this bring\\nthe desired result No. We open the draft. Is this suffi-\\ncient It is not, We must shake down the grate and\\nclean out the clinkers. The removal of waste is often\\nmore necessary than the addition of a fresh supply of ma-\\nterial. It is often a more serious matter to have the waste\\npipe leading to the sewer clogged than to have the water\\nsupply cut off. It is often more to be desired that the\\ngarbage cart take away decaying matter than that the\\nbread wagon arrive. The demands of nature for the ex-\\npulsion of excreta are imperative, while we can withstand\\nthe cravings of hunger for a while. So we shall turn our\\nattention for the present to the immediate demand for the\\nremoval of wastes, and later consider the equally impor-\\ntant, but less importunate, question of supply and renewal\\nReading. (i) Bacteria, (2) Dust and Its Dangers,\\n(3) Drinking Water and Ice Supplies, Prudden Ventila-\\ntion and Warming of School Buildings, Morrison; Sanitary\\nConditions of ScJwolJiouses, Lincoln (American Public\\nHealth Association); Disinfection, Sternberg (American\\nPublic Health Association) Micro-Organisms and Disease,\\nKlein The Wilderness Cure, Marc Cook.\\nSummary. 1. Lung diseases usually accompany close confine-\\nment, but are rare with those living in the open air.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "DUST AND BACTERIA. 1 29\\n2. Air in rooms needs constant renewal.\\n3. Grates are good ventilators, but not economical heaters. Grates\\nheat very unevenly.\\n4. Stoves are economical heaters, but poor ventilators. Stove heat\\nis also very uneven\\n5. All crowded rooms, as schoolrooms and churches, need special\\ninlets for fresh air and outlets for foul air.\\n6. The most common means of withdrawing the air is by foul-air\\nshafts. Heat is the force relied on, but the removal of foul air is usually\\ninadequate, on account of the slowness of the current or the narrowness\\nof the outlet, or both combined.\\n7. Fans are much more certain to be effectual.\\n8. Steam and hot water may heat directly (by radiation) or indi-\\nrectly (placed in flues). A combination of direct and indirect heating\\nfavors economy and efficiency.\\n9. Dust as mere dry dead matter is irritating.\\n10. Disease germs may form part of the dust of the air.\\n1 1 Most of our contagious diseases are known to be due to bacteria.\\n12. Burning is the surest method of destroying germs.\\n13. Carpets, tapestries, and cloth-upholstered furniture add largely\\nto the dust in houses,\\n14. Putrefaction is caused by bacteria.\\n15. Preservation of food depends on destroying, or excluding, or\\nretarding the growth of the bacteria of putrefaction.\\nQuestions. 1 How can we renew the air of a room without having\\nunpleasant drafts\\n2. Should bedroom windows be open at night? Is night air bad?\\n3. What dangers in the use of hard coal?\\n4. Should there be a damper in the smoke pipe of a hard coal\\nstove?\\n5. What do miners mean by choke damp\\n6. What is hay fever? Asthma? Bronchitis? Pneumonia?\\n7. Compare stove and furnace heating.\\n8. Compare heating by steam and by hot water.\\n9. Is the air in the mountains or on the seashore better than else-\\nwhere\\n10. W T hat regions are recommended for consumptives Why?", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII.\\nEXCRETION.\\nTHE SKIN AND ITS FUNCTIONS.\\nThe Skin throws off Perspiration. The energies of\\nthe body heat and motion are produced by the oxida-\\ntion in its tissues.\\ni\\nSweat Pore\\nDuring this process\\nwaste products are\\nformed, which if\\nretained in the\\nbody would cause\\nvery injurious\\neffects.\\nHow does the\\nbody get rid of\\nthese substances\\nWe have learned\\nthat the lungs\\nthrow off carbon\\ndioxid, water, and\\ncertain putrescible\\norganic matter.\\nThe skin is constantly throwing off wastes, collectively\\ncalled sweat, or perspiration.\\nThe Structure of the Skin. The skin has two layers,\\nthe inner, or dermis, and the outer, or epidermis. A\\nbruise often loosens or breaks off a piece of the epidermis,\\n130\\nHair\\nBulb\\nFig. 49. Vertical Section of the Skin.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "EXCRETION\\n131\\nbut seldom removes the dermis. The epidermis is thick\\nover the palms of the hands and soles of the feet else\\nwhere it is thin. Not often seeing the whole thickness of\\nthe skin, we do not easily obtain an idea of its real thick-\\nness. The skin constitutes about one-fifteenth of the\\nbody s weight, and if tanned makes a moderately firm and\\nthick leather very much resembling the pigskin used for\\ncovering footballs, striking bags, etc.\\nMouth of Sweat Duct\\nHorny Epider-\\nSoft Layer\\nIk\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Papilla\\nArtery\\nFig- 50. Sect\\nion of Epidermis, showing Papilia. (Highly\\nDermis\\nmagnified.)\\nThe Epidermis. -The epidermis consists of many\\nlayers of cells packed closely together. The deepest cells\\nmay be compared to grapes with their cell walls plumply", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "132 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nfilled out by the liquids of the cell. Suppose, for the\\ninner layer, grapes set on end, and so closely packed\\ntogether as to press each other into elongated prisms.\\nThen layers less closely pressed, more nearly spherical;\\nthen layers of cells with less liquid in them, and somewhat\\nshrunken, like raisins; then still dryer cells, flattened\\nparallel with the surface of the skin and last, in the outer\\npart, layers of cell walls, dry and empty, pressed flat like\\nempty grapeskins. The flat cell walls come off in flakes\\n(called dandruff from the scalp) from all the surface of\\nthe skin, and new cells are continually formed in the\\ndeeper layers.\\nThe Color of the Skin. The pigment, which gives\\ncolor to the skin, lies in the deeper layers of the epidermis.\\nIn albinos this is wanting in persons with a fair skin it\\nis small in amount, in dark skins more abundant. Where\\nthe pigment is irregularly scattered it causes freckles, etc.\\nA Blister. A blister is caused by separating the outer,\\nharder layer of the epidermis from the inner, softer, darker\\nlayer of the epidermis, as shown at B in Fig. 49. Serum,\\nor blood, fills the space between the separated layers.\\nThe Dermis. The dermis consists chiefly of tough\\ninterlacing fibers. Hence the strength and durability of\\nleather, which is the dermis preserved and prepared. The\\nepidermis is usually removed in tanning. The dermis is\\nrichly supplied with blood capillaries and lymph capillaries,\\nbut the epidermis has neither.\\nPapillae. The outer surface of the dermis has numer-\\nous conical elevations. Over most of the skin there is no\\nevidence of these papillae, as the epidermis envelops them.\\nBut on the palm and sole the papillae are in rows, and\\nthese rows are indicated by the fine ridges.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "EXCRETION.\\n133\\nHairs and Nails. Hairs and nails are outgrowths of\\nthe epidermis. Their deeper parts are embedded in the\\ndermis, through which, from the blood, they derive their\\nnourishment. Like the epidermis, they are dead in the\\noutermost part, and are supplied by growth from beneath.\\nExamination of the Skin with a Lens. Place a linen tester, or\\ngood pocket lens, on the palm of the hand, and note the openings of\\nthe ducts of the sweat glands, or sweat pores. Count the pores within\\nthe square shown. Measure this square, and then estimate the number\\nof sweat glands to a square inch of the palm.\\nEpithelium or Epidermis\\nBlood\\nTube\\nSimple Gland\\nCompound Glands\\nFig. 51. Evolution of Glands. (After Landois and Stirling.)\\nThe Sweat Glands. The sweat glands are minute\\ntubes whose inner ends are closed, and whose outer ends\\nopen upon the surface of the skin. The tube going\\ninward pursues a corkscrew-like course through the epi-\\ndermis, then becomes straighter, and, having passed", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "134 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nthrough the dermis, is coiled up in a ball in the connective\\ntissue lying just underneath the inner skin. The cells\\nforming the walls of the coiled part differ from those of\\nthe duct, or straighter part of the tube. As the blood\\nflows around the coil it gives off lymph, and from the\\nlymph the cells of the gland take certain waste matters,\\nwhich are passed out to the surface of the skin. There is\\nalso some muscular tissue around the walls of the gland.\\nModel of a Sweat Gland. Take a small rubber tube a foot long\\nclose one end tie the half with the closed end into a globular knot\\naround and between the coils place a network of red cord to represent\\nthe blood capillaries, as there is a rich supply of these blood tubes\\naround the coil.\\nThe Essential Features of a Gland. i. Cells lining\\na cavity, the cells having the power of taking something\\nfrom the blood (or lymph).\\n2. Blood supply or lymph supply.\\n3. A duct or tube to pour out on some surface the\\nliquid taken from the lymph.\\n4. Nerves to the cells by which their action is controlled.\\n5. (Probably) Special nerve centers controlling the\\nvarious glands. The cells of the glands in many cases\\nso alter the substances taken from the blood that what is\\nproduced by the gland differs from anything found in the\\nblood. The gland may be said to manufacture the liquid.\\nThe Relation between Glands and the Blood\\nSupply. The sweat glands, like all glands, are largely\\ndependent on the amount of bloody supply. In exercising,\\nthe skin is usually redder from the greater blood supply,\\nand at the same time the glands are more active for,\\nduring exercise, and immediately after it, there is more\\nwaste matter to be thrown out. But the activity of the\\ngland is not a mere filtering process, due to the greater", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "EXCRETION. 135\\nblood pressure. There may be a cold sweat i.e. when\\nthe skin is pale. Here is evidence that the activity of the\\nglands is, primarily, due to the nerve impulses from some\\nnerve center to the gland cells.\\nSweat Glands are Simple and Excretory. The sweat\\nglands rid the body of certain waste matters that can no\\nlonger be used. They are excretory glands. In structure\\nthey are simple glands.\\nDistribution of Sweat Glands. The sweat glands are\\nthickly distributed over the whole surface of the body,\\nbut are especially numerous and large on the palms of the\\nhands and the soles of the feet. In the armpits the glands\\nare very large.\\nThe Oil Glands. The oil glands of the skin are dis-\\ntributed over all the surface except the palms of the hands\\nand soles of the feet. The oily matter is usually poured\\nout around the hairs as they emerge from the skin. It\\nserves to oil the hair and the skin, and keep them from\\nbecoming; too dry.\\nComposition of Sweat. Sweat is mostly water; about\\none per cent is solid matter, including salt and certain\\nmatters which, like the organic waste matter from the\\nlungs, easily putrefy, and some oily matter from the oil\\nglands of the skin.\\nExperiment to show Insensible Perspiration. Thrust the hand\\ninto a glass jar, preferably a jar that has been in a cool place. Note\\nthe moisture that soon gathers on the inside of the jar from the insen-\\nsible sweat of the hand. A common fruit jar will do for a small hand,\\nbut a candy jar is better, having a larger mouth and clear glass.\\nKinds of Perspiration. Ordinarily the sweat is evapo-\\nrated as fast as it is poured out in distinction from this\\ninsensible perspiration, there is the so-called sensible per-", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "136 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nspiration when it accumulates enough to be perceptible.\\nThese are not two distinct kinds of sweat, but it is con-\\nvenient to distinguish between the perceptible and the\\nimperceptible. Sweat varies greatly in its wateriness, and\\nhence in the relative amount of solid matter contained.\\nThe Amount of Perspiration. There is about one\\nquart in twenty-four hours. It varies with:\\n1. Temperature, dryness, and rate of renewal of air.\\n2. Condition of the blood; e.g. if watery from drinking\\nmuch water.\\n3. Muscular exercise.\\n4. Certain drugs some exciting perspiration, e.g.\\ncamphor others diminishing it, e.g. belladonna.\\n5. The nerves exercise great influence on the activity of\\nthe cells of the gland.\\nThe Functions of the Skin.\\n1 Protective.\\nExcretory.\\nAbsorptive.\\nSensory organ of touch.\\nHeat-regulating.\\nNext to its excretion, the heat regulation by the skin is\\nthe most important for our present consideration.\\nRegulation of the Temperature of the Body by the\\nSkin. It is a striking fact that, except in disease, the\\ntemperature of the body varies only a little from 98. 5 F.\\nin summer and winter, during exercise and rest. The rate\\nof heat production varies greatly. The rate of giving off\\nheat must therefore vary accordingly.\\nThe Body gives off Heat. In considering the regula-\\ntion of the body s temperature, we must bear in mind that\\nthe body is surrounded by air almost always considerably", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "EXCRETION. 137\\ncooler than itself. The body is, therefore, almost always\\ngiving; off heat. Our clothes do not warm us we warm\\nthem, and they keep us from warming the air too fast\\ni.e. keep us from losing too much heat. Indoor heat in\\nwinter in the cooler parts of the United States is kept\\nat about 70 F. by artificial heat. This air does not warm\\nus. We, being about 30 F. warmer, are warming it.\\nWays of Giving off Heat. The skin gives off heat by\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\n1. Radiation: heat is given off in every direction.\\n2. Conduction whatever we touch that is cooler than\\nour bodies is warmed. We warm chairs, clothing, etc.\\n3. Convection the air in contact with the skin is warmed\\nand rises. Our bodily heat is thus carried off by convection.\\n4. Evaporation the evaporation of the sweat is a much\\nmore important factor in heat regulation. Any liquid, in\\nevaporating, absorbs heat. The cooling effect of alcohol\\nor ether on the skin is due to the fact that heat is taken\\nfrom the body-in converting the liquid into a gas.\\nExperiments in Evaporation. Let the teacher, with a medicine\\ndropper, place a drop of alcohol, ether, or cologne on the back of the\\nhand of each pupil. Notice two facts: (1) It produces a cooling\\neffect. (2) The liquid soon disappears. To prove that it is not\\nmerely that the liquid is cool, try the following Tie a piece of cheese\\ncloth around the bulb of a thermometer dip the bulb into a dish of\\nalcohol or ether, and note its temperature (if these are not at hand,\\ngasoline serves very well, or even water, though the evaporation is\\nslower) then lift the bulb out of the liquid, and note any change in\\ntemperature. The evaporation of the liquid takes heat from the bulb,\\nand causes the thermometer to register a lower temperature. We\\nsponge the face and hands of a feverish patient to reduce the amount of\\nheat. We sprinkle the floor in hot weather, and, by the absorption\\nof heat in evaporating the water, cool the air of the room.\\nHeat and Exercise. When we exercise, we produce\\nmore heat we sweat more more heat is taken from the", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "13^ PHYSIOLOGY.\\nbody to evaporate this sweat. If we are not exercising,\\nand are in cooler air, we sweat less, and less heat is given\\noff. So the temperature of the body is kept uniform.\\nThis should also be observed When we exercise, more\\nblood is in the skin, and more heat is given off in the\\nother ways mentioned when we exercise less, the skin,\\nespecially in a cool air, becomes paler; i.e. has less\\nblood in it, and heat is economized.\\nDistribution of Heat in the Body. If more heat is\\nproduced in one part of the body than in the others, the\\ncirculation of the blood tends to equalize the temperatures\\nof the different parts. So, too, if one part is cooled,\\nthat is, is losing heat faster than the others, the blood\\nbrings heat from other organs to that part.\\nFor instance, if one holds his hands in the snow, or puts\\na piece of ice on his wrist, the whole blood stream is\\naffected. So if the hands and the feet are exposed to the\\ncold, it may do little good to have the rest of the body\\ncovered. A pair of wristers and a pair of leggings may\\noften add more to one s comfort than a heavy overcoat.\\nRegulation of Bodily Temperature by Food and\\nClothing. When subject to the influence of cold we eat\\nmore we choose more heat-producing foods, as fatty food-\\nstuffs we take more vigorous exercise we put on more\\nclothing, and especially of the non-conducting kinds,\\nwoolens. In warmer weather we eat less fatty matter,\\nwear less clothing, and are less disposed to exercise\\nactively we fan ourselves to help get rid of heat we\\ntake ices and cold drinks. For most persons it seems\\nbetter to wear woolen most of the time, as even in summer\\nwe are subject to sudden changes in the air, and with such\\ncovering one is less likely to take cold.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "EXCRETION. 1 39\\nThe Effect of Wet Clothing. In getting the clothing\\nwet, the greater loss of heat is not from the coolness of\\nthe water, but the loss of heat in evaporating the water\\nfrom the clothing and this goes on for a long time. Of\\ncourse it is desirable to put on dry clothing as soon as\\npossible but a person in good health is not likely to take\\ncold, except in very cold weather, if he continues active\\nexercise till he can change the wet garments for dry ones.\\nChildren do not often take cold from wading in water so\\nlong as they are barefooted but if the shoes and stock-\\nings are wet, they are likely to take cold.\\nSunshine. For good health we need sunshine. We\\nhave sunlight indoors, but so do many plants that drag\\nout a sickly existence. We need direct sunlight (not too\\nhot), and many an invalid has been cured by sunbaths.\\nPart of the beneficial effects of sea bathing is due to sun-\\nshine. It is a good thing that it is now the fashion to take\\na vacation and become well tanned. One of the benefits of\\nthe resorts of Colorado (in addition to the climate s mild-\\nness) is that there are very few cloudy days during the year.\\nTHE KIDNEYS.\\nThe Work of the Kidneys. One important part of the\\nwork of the lungs, as we have seen, is to throw out carbon\\ndioxid. The skin also throws off certain wastes. The kid-\\nneys have the special task of excreting a waste product of\\nthe body called urea. Urea is the nitrogen-containing waste.\\nThe Parts- of the Kidney. The kidneys are attached to the dorsal\\nwall of the abdominal cavity. The depression in the kidney correspond-\\ning to the stem scar on a bean is called the hilum. From the hilum\\nissues a white tube, the ureter, which conveys the urine to the bladder.\\nThe Blood Supply of the Kidneys. Entering the kidney along-\\nside the ureter is the renal artery, a branch of the aorta, and from near", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "140\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nthe same point the renal vein returns the blood from the kidneys, and\\npours it into the postcaval vein. Through the kidneys is pouring a\\ncontinuous stream of blood, varying in amount at different times and\\nin different conditions. The kidney receives a very large amount of\\nblood for its size, as compared with other organs. The flow to it is\\nmade easy by the fact that the renal arteries are relatively wide and\\nshort, and take the blood directly from the main current of the aorta.\\nThe blood leaving the kidney, especially when in full activity, is still\\nbright red it is probably the purest blood in the body.\\nUrine. From the kidney, through the ureter, urine is continually\\npassing to the bladder. Urine is mostly water containing urea, salt, and\\nvarious other substances in small amounts. Urea is a waste matter\\nbrought in the blood. If the kidneys are stopped in their action, urea\\naccumulates in the blood, and death soon results to just the degree that\\nthe kidneys fail in performing their duty, just so far must the body suffer.\\nMicroscopic Structure of the Kidney. \u00e2\u0080\u0094If microscopic sections of\\nthe kidney are at hand they should be examined but the kidney is so\\ncomplicated in structure that a\\nUrinary Cone diagram is needed in connection\\nwith the sections and the de-\\nscriptions. The unit of struc-\\nture in the kidney is a tube which\\ntakes material from adjacent\\nblood capillaries. The relation\\nof the capillaries to the tube is\\npeculiar. The inner end of the\\ntube is enlarged into a ball this\\nball is deeply depressed opposite\\nthe point where the tube leaves\\nit. Into this depres-\\nsion is fitted a globu-\\nR v n al lar tuft of capillaries.\\nVein r\\nThe arrangement may\\nbe illustrated by the\\ncommon toy known as the cup\\nand ball. The handle of the\\ncup should be hollow to repre-\\nsent the tube the cup should be double walled, the space between\\nthe inner and outer layers continuous with the hollow of the handle.,\\nCavity of\\nKidney\\nig- 52. Cross Section of Kidney.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "EXCRETION.\\n141\\nInstead of a solid ball held by one string, there should be a yarn ball\\nwith two large strings attached to one side, one representing the artery,\\nthe other the vein the yarn ball represents the dense cluster of capil-\\nlaries.\\nAnother Illustration. A still better illustration of the urinary tube\\nand capsule may be made thus Take a thistle tube (used in the chem-\\nical laboratory), let down into its bulb a rubber balloon or bag of sheet\\nrubber or cloth, fastening the margin around the rim of the bulb put\\na little ball of red yarn in the depression of the bag hanging in the\\nbulb have two ends of the yarn projecting to represent the artery\\nentering and the vein leaving the capsule. The vein, soon after it\\nemerges, breaks up into another set of capillaries which extend around\\nthe tube. A number of these primary tubes unite, and many of the\\ncommon ducts open at the apex of each of the urinary pyramids,\\nemptying their secretion into the cavity of the kidney. As the blood\\nflows through the tuft of capillaries in the capsule at the end of the\\ntube, a large amount of water,\\nUrinary Tube\\ntogether with salt and some\\nother substances, pass through\\nthe thin partition into the\\ncavity of the capsule, and\\nthence down the tube. The\\nwalls of the tube are thicker\\nthan, and its cells are different\\nfrom, those of the capsule.\\nThese cells take the urea and\\nsome other substances\\nfrom the blood, and\\npass them into the tube\\nto join the more watery\\nmaterial from the capsule.\\nComparison of the Skin\\nand the Kidneys. The urinary Tube\\nkidneys, then, are not Very Fig. 53. Urinary Cone Enlarged. (Diagram.)\\ndifferent from the skin.\\nImagine a piece of skin rolled up with the outer surface of\\nthe skin turned inward. Its glands then would pour their\\nArtery", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "142 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nsecretion into a cavity where it might accumulate, instead\\nof evaporating as fast as it is poured out. Of course the\\nkidneys have a somewhat different work from the skin,\\nbut in its general plan of working we might say they\\nare skin turned outside in. The kidney unit (the tubular\\ngland) has branches i.e. is compound. The kidney is a\\ncompound gland of excretion, internal in position. Both\\nskin and kidneys excrete a large amount of water, with\\nsalt and some other matter in common.\\nRelation between the Work of the Kidneys and that\\nof Skin. There is a very immediate relation between\\nthe work of the kidneys and that of the skin. In warm\\nweather, and when exercising actively, we perspire freely,\\nand the amount of urine is reduced when we exercise\\nless, and especially in cold weather, we perspire less, and\\nthe urine is more abundant. Cold drives the blood from\\nthe surface. Consequently more blood goes to the kidneys\\n(as well as to the other internal organs), and they throw\\noff much more water, though probably little if any more\\nurea. The average daily amount of urine is about three\\npints. The quantity is increased by high blood pressure,\\ncopious drinking, by cold air (driving the blood from the\\nskin), nitrogenous food, certain drugs, etc. It is dimin-\\nished by a lowered blood pressure, profuse -sweating,\\ndiarrhea, non-nitrogenous food, and some diseases of the\\nkidneys, etc.\\nWhat is the effect of all the processes thus far studied\\non the weight of the body\\nReading. The Skin and Its Troubles, D. Appleton\\nCo.\\nSummary. i. The skin throws off sweat, which is water contain-\\ning waste matter.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "EXCRETION-. 143\\n2. The tubular sweat glands take the wastes from the lymph which\\nsoaks out through the walls of the capillaries in the skin.\\n3. The activity of the glands is under control of nerves and nerve\\ncenters, as is also the supply of blood to the skin.\\n4. The amount of sweat depends on temperature, exercise, amount\\nof liquid food taken, drugs, etc.\\n5. The temperature of the body is regulated chiefly by the evapora-\\ntion of sweat.\\n6. In cold weather we eat more of heat-producing foods, such as\\nfats.\\n7. The kidneys excrete urea, a nitrogen-containing waste.\\n8. There is an intimate relation between the workings of the lungs,\\nskin, and kidneys.\\nQuestions. 1. Does cutting hair make it grow faster\\n2. Do cows, dogs, and cats sweat\\n3. Why is thirst relieved by immersion, even in salt water\\n4. Why should clothing worn during the day be removed at night\\n5. How does the body lose heat, except by the skin\\n6. Why should the blood still be red after passing through the\\nkidney\\n7. What is skin grafting\\n8. Why is it considered a good sign when the skin becomes moist\\nduring a fever\\n9. Can food, medicine, or poison be absorbed through the skin", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX.\\nFOODS AND COOKING.\\nNecessity of Food. Thus far we have been studying\\nprocesses by which the body s weight is reduced. We\\nhave studied the oxidation in the tissues and the removal\\nof the wastes. Unless the tissues receive a corresponding\\nsupply the heat and energy of the body cannot long be\\nmaintained.\\nFood Defined. All substances that go to make up the\\ntissues or produce energy are foods. Certain substances\\nthat do not become part of any tissues, nor in themselves\\nproduce energy, are useful in aiding the processes going\\non in the body. These may be called accessory foods, e.g.\\ncondiments; some accessory foods, such as coffee, seem. to\\nretard the waste of tissues.\\nFoods and Foodstuffs. Most of our articles of food\\nconsist of two or more different kinds of materials. For\\ninstance, milk consists (i) chiefly of water in this are (2)\\nthe substance that makes cheese (casein); (3) cream, from\\nwhich we get butter (fat) (4) sugar, which gives milk a\\nsweet taste; (5) salts, such as common salt, lime salts,\\netc. These different materials are foodstuffs. We have\\nmany kinds of foods, but few foodstuffs, which we find\\noccurring over and over again, in various forms, in the\\nnumerous things we eat.\\n144", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 145\\nKinds of Foodstuffs.\\n1. Proteids (example, casein). 4. Water.\\n2. Fats. 5. Salts.\\n3. Carbohydrates (example, sugar). 6. Oxygen.\\nOxygen is by some authors called a food, but it is more\\nconvenient to treat of it elsewhere.\\nThe Proteids. The chief substance in the white of an\\negg is albumen, a typical proteid. Of the many proteids\\nsome of the more commonly known are casein (the curd of\\nmilk), gluten (in grains), legumin (in peas and beans),\\nfibrin (in blood), myosin (in muscles). Gelatin (obtained\\nfrom connective tissue and bones by prolonged boiling)\\ndiffers considerably from the proteids in composition, but\\nmay be counted in with them. It is less valuable as a\\nfood than the true proteids, although in certain circum-\\nstances more desirable from the fact that it is very easily\\ndigested.\\nCharacteristics of Proteids. The proteids are\\n1. Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, a\\nlittle sulphur, and, in some, traces of phosphorus.\\n2. Jelly-like, and do not easily diffuse through animal\\nmembranes (a characteristic to be kept in mind when\\nstudying digestion).\\n3. Coagulable (usually) by heat, acids, alcohol, etc.\\n4. Easily putrefy when moist and warm.\\nImportance of Proteids. The proteids are of special\\nimportance as foods because the most active tissues, muscle,\\nnerve, and gland, and the most important liquids of the\\nbody, e.g. blood and lymph, have proteid as a chief con-\\nstituent. Proteid food, therefore, must be taken to make\\ngood the losses of these tissues during their oxidations.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "1^.6 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nProteid-containing Foods. The principal proteid-\\ncontaining foods are lean meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese,\\nand some seeds which abound in the vegetable proteids.\\nMeat. Lean meat has about twenty per cent of pro-\\nteid, the rest being chiefly water. Beef and mutton are\\nmore easily digested than veal and pork. It is better to\\nbuy meat from a very fat animal than from a lean one, for,\\nalthough there is slightly less proteid in the meat from a\\nfat animal, this loss is more than made up by the addition\\nof fat, which takes the place of water in the meat from a\\nlean animal. There is more nourishment in a round steak\\nthan in tenderloin.\\nFish. Fish, when fresh, is a good food. Although,\\nas a rule, salted meats are less easily digested than fresh,\\nsalted codfish is a nourishing and economical food.\\nEggs. Eggs contain considerable proteid, but their\\nvalue as food has been overrated. The yolk has a large\\namount of fat. Although the egg has all the material\\nneeded to form a chick, it is not a perfect food for man.\\nMilk. Milk, as we have seen, is an ideal food in that\\nit contains all the kinds of foodstuffs, and in the right pro-\\nportion for the young mammal. But the proportions are\\nnot right for the adult. An adult would need four quarts\\nand a half daily, and then he would not get enough carbo-\\nhydrates (represented in milk by the sugar). The oily\\nmaterial in milk is in the form of minute globules, which\\ncan easily be seen under the microscope. Each of these\\noil droplets is supposed to be surrounded by a thin en-\\nvelope of albuminous matter, by means of which it is\\nenabled to remain suspended for some time instead of\\nrising quickly to the surface. Such a mixture of oil in a", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 147\\nliquid is called an emulsion. When cream is churned the\\nalbuminous covering is removed and the butter gathers.\\nCheese. Cheese is very rich in proteid, much more so\\nthan lean meat. Yet, as it is rather difficult of digestion,\\nwe do not use it largely as food we regard it more as a\\nluxury, while in many parts of Europe it is largely used as\\nfood, taking the place of meat. It is a cheap food, and\\nmight well be used more extensively, especially by laboring\\nmen. When taken with milk it is said to be more readily\\ndigested.\\nVegetable Proteids. Peas and beans (dried) contain\\nas much proteid (legumin) as meat, and all the cereals\\ncontain some proteid (gluten).\\nFats. Fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and\\noxygen. The oxygen is small in amount, so these foods\\nyield a great amount of energy by the oxidation of their\\ncarbon (forming carbon dioxid) and hydrogen (forming\\nwater). The fats most used are animal fats, including\\nbutter. But some vegetable oils, such as olive and cotton-\\nseed oils, are used.\\nThe Carbohydrates. Starch and sugar are the chief\\ncarbohydrates. Starch is used in larger quantity than any\\nother foodstuff except water. Sugar is usually regarded\\nas a luxury, yet it is an important food. It is quickly\\nabsorbed.\\nCarbohydrate-containing Foods. The principal car-\\nbohydrate-containing foods are the grains, vegetables, and\\nfruits.\\nThe Grains. The most important grains are wheat,\\ncorn, rice, oats, rye, and barley.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "148 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nWheat. Wheat furnishes the principal breadstuff\\namong the more civilized nations. It is especially\\nadapted to the temperate zones. Taking into consid-\\neration its composition, digestibility, and other charac-\\nteristics, it is the most desirable of all the grains for\\ncivilized man.\\nWheat Flour. In ordinary white flour nearly all the\\ngluten has been removed with the bran or middlings.\\nWhile wheat or bread made from the whole grain of the\\nwheat may support life, one would starve if he attempted\\nto live on common white bread alone. It is almost en-\\ntirely starch. In the entire wheat flour it is claimed\\nthat all the gluten is retained, only the very thin outer\\nhusk of the grain being removed. It does not make so\\nwhite a flour, but it is better adapted to use as a food. If\\nwe use white bread, having thrown away the nitrogenous\\npart of the wheat, we need to take more proteid from\\nother sources than if we used the entire wheat flour. This\\nis not economy. And it is claimed that the entire wheat\\nbread is more wholesome as well as more nutritious. The\\npart thrown away has in it phosphates as well as the nitrog-\\nenous material. This flour is ground fine so that it has\\nnot the coarse particles which are in Graham flour, and\\nwhich are a source of irritation to the mucous coat of the\\ndigestive tube in some persons.\\nCorn. Corn is one of the most nutritious of the grains.\\nProfessor W. O. Atwater, one of the best authorities in\\nthe world on the subject of foods, says that, for a given\\namount of money, more nutriment can be obtained in corn\\nmeal than in any other food known. Corn is said to fur-\\nnish food to a larger part of the human race than any\\nother grain except rice.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 149\\nRice. Rice forms a larger part of human food than\\nthe product of any other plant, being often an almost ex-\\nclusive diet in India, China, and the Malayan islands.\\nRice has a larger proportion of starch, and less of fats\\nand albuminoids, than the other grains. It is best adapted\\nfor the food of warm climates.\\nOats. This grain was first used as food for man by\\nthe Scotch, but the use has extended and become preva-\\nlent in this country. In point of nutrition it is ranked\\nhigher by some than ordinary grades of wheat flour.\\nRye. Rye grows farther north than other grains, and is largely\\nused for bread in Russia and parts of Germany. It is a valuable food,\\nthough less nutritious and less digestible than the corresponding prepa-\\nrations of wheat.\\nBarley. This grain has wide range of cultivation, and, while in-\\nferior to wheat, is considerably used where other grains cannot be\\nraised.\\nPotatoes. Potatoes contain about twenty per cent\\nstarch, two per cent of proteid, and no fat, the remainder\\nbeing chiefly water, with some useful salts, especially\\npotash salts. In spite of its relatively low food value, the\\npotato is our most useful vegetable on account of its\\nabundance, the ease with which it can be preserved, its\\nmild flavor, and the readiness and the variety of ways\\nin which it can be cooked.\\nOther Vegetables. The chief nutrient in vegetables\\nis starch, though in many the starch is present in small\\namounts. The salts and acids present are of value, and\\ncare should be observed not to remove too much of these\\nsalts in cooking. The fibrous matter, cellulose, while in-\\ndigestible, is of value in adding bulk to the mass of food\\nto be digested. Formerly sailors were subject to scurvy", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "150 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nthis is now attributed to a diet of fat and salt meat, to the\\nexclusion of fresh vegetables, vegetable acids, etc. The\\ndisease is avoided by a greater use of vegetables, lime\\njuice, etc.\\nFruits. Many of the fruits, such as bananas and\\napples, have considerable starch and sugar. But the\\nfruits are probably more useful to us on account of their\\nflavor, due to aromatic bodies, and to their salts and the\\npeculiar fruit acids.\\nWater. Water constitutes about two thirds of the\\nentire weight of the body. It constitutes the bulk of the\\nliquids we have studied, blood, lymph, sweat, saliva, bile,\\netc. Water is the solvent and carrier of all the material\\nof the body. Hence we need a large amount of it; of\\ncourse we must remember that we get a good deal of water\\nin most of our solid foods.\\nRain Water. Water, as it comes from the clouds, is\\npure. After enough rain has fallen to wash the air, rain\\nwater is pure, and if caught on a clean roof (especially a\\nslate roof) and kept in a clean cistern, it is good drinking\\nwater.\\nWell Water. Falling upon the earth, the rain water\\nsoaks down until stopped by some impervious layer, such\\nas clay. This water is the supply of our wells and springs.\\nIt always has more or less earthy matter in solution, and\\nis therefore more or less hard. Unless a large amount\\nof mineral matter or some special material is dissolved in\\nit, it is, ordinarily, good drinking water. Such water is\\nnot pure, in the strict sense of the word, but is pure for\\ndrinking purposes.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "FOODS. I 5 1\\nImpurities in Water. The great source of danger is\\nfrom what are called organic impurities. Bacteria will\\nnot live and grow in pure water. They must have some-\\nthing on which to feed and grow. But in water contain-\\ning a large amount of decaying animal or vegetable matter\\nthey are likely to abound. And the most dangerous\\nsources of contamination are cesspools and sewers. Water\\nmay be contaminated by such material and not have bac-\\nteria in it, but is very likely to harbor such foes.\\nContamination from Cesspools. The ordinary cess-\\npool is a grave source of danger. Because the well may\\nbe on higher ground than the cesspool does not give as-\\nsurance that the water may not be polluted. Often when\\nthe surface of the ground slopes in one direction, the strata\\nunderneath may slope in just the opposite direction, and\\nthe well may be the reservoir into which the cesspool is\\ndrained.\\nGood authorities say that a cesspool should not be\\nallowed within a hundred feet of a well.\\nAbolish the Cesspool. But it is better and safer to\\nhave no cesspool. Where a sewer system is not to be\\nhad, it is better to allow no great accumulation of such\\nmaterial. A deep pit in which a quantity of semiliquid\\nmatter gathers is not only a nuisance, but a source of\\ndanger. Privies should have a very shallow pit, or none,\\nand should be cleaned often. There should be a little\\ndust sprinkled in each day, and occasionally some chlorid\\nof lime or sulphate of iron.\\nTyphoid Fever. Typhoid fever is now known to be\\nusually caused by drinking water. The dejecta of some\\none who has had the disease find their way into the source\\nof the drinking water. In many cases this has been clearly", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "152 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nproved. Of course the dejecta of all such patients should\\nbe either destroyed or thoroughly disinfected.\\nIce Water. Although bacteria will not develop in a\\ncold place, they are not killed when water freezes, as was\\nformerly supposed. Further, ice, in forming, does not\\nthrow out all the impurities, as was formerly stated. So\\nit is not safe to drink water formed from melted ice unless\\nthe water of which that ice was made was good water.\\nThe ice taken from ponds is not safe. If ice is made\\nartificially from suitable drinking water, of course the\\nmelted product will be essentially unchanged so far as the\\ncomposition is concerned. Water may be cooled by plac-\\ning any ice around it, and we may have the desired tem-\\nperature without any admixture of a dangerous element.\\nBoiling Water. When one cannot get good drinking\\nwater, or when away from home where the water is of\\ndoubtful purity, it is better to boil the water before using\\nit, either as a drink or in preparations of food that are not\\nto be thoroughly cooked. It seems to be proved that it\\nis better to heat the water twice nearly to the boiling point\\nthan to boil hard once only. The first heating may start\\nthe resistant germs into more active life, causing them to\\nsprout (so to speak), and a second heating several hours\\nlater may easily kill them whereas it has been proved\\nthat one hard boiling will not always kill the germs.\\nCautions as to Drinking Water. Or if one uses tea\\nand coffee, it is safer to content one s self with these, and\\nnot drink much water till that which is safe, as from deep\\nwells, can be obtained.\\nIn hot weather, and especially for those who are engaged\\nin hard work, it has been found that a little oatmeal\\nstirred in the water is beneficial.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 153\\nWhen overheated, avoid drinking much cold water. Re-\\npeatedly rinse the mouth with cool water, and swallow very\\nlittle. This is the way trainers manage a horse at a race,\\nand it is sensible to treat a man as carefully.\\nSalts. Salts include many substances besides common\\nsalt. They aid in the solution of various substances during\\ndigestion and in other processes. We cannot live without\\nsalt.\\nLime in the form of calcium phosphate and calcium car-\\nbonate is essential, especially in the bones and teeth. Iron\\nis associated with hemoglobin.\\nNecessity of a Mixed Diet. Our experience, together\\nwith the results of the experiments on animals, teaches\\nthat we could not live long if fed on any one class of\\nfoodstuffs alone. We must take a representative of each\\nof the groups. We have noticed that most of our foods\\nalready contain more than one foodstuff. We so combine\\nthem as to get suitable proportions. Thus we eat bread\\nand butter (a small amount of fat with a large quantity of\\nstarch and a little gluten), meat and potato, crackers and\\ncheese, pork and beans, egg on toast, bread and milk, rice\\nand fowl, macaroni and cheese they go well together\\nchiefly because they are complementary.\\nDisadvantages of a One-sided Diet. In order to get\\nenough nitrogen from bread alone, one would have to eat\\nabout four pounds a day meanwhile twice as much car-\\nbon as is needed would be taken, thus throwing an undue\\namount of work upon the digestive organs. Again, one\\nwould need to consume about six pounds of meat to get the\\nrequisite amount of carbon, and six times as much nitro-\\ngen as is needed would be taken to get rid of this extra\\nnitrogen would severely tax the kidneys and liver.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "154 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nEffect of Cold on Appetite for Fats. In cold climates\\na large amount of fat is consumed, while in the tropics\\nstarch is the chief food. Our appetites call for more of the\\nfatty foods during the winter season.\\nProper Diet. While common experience has led people\\nto adopt a mixed diet, the proportions of the different food-\\nstuffs is not always what it should be. The proportions\\nof the foodstuffs (exclusive of water) may be roughly stated\\nas about I part of proteid, I part of fat, 3 parts of carbo-\\nhydrates. But this will vary somewhat with the amount\\nof work done, and other varying conditions.\\nVegetarians. The so-called vegetarians recognize\\nthe need of proteid food, and most of them seek proteid in\\neggs, milk, and cheese. But these are animal products,\\nand the name vegetarian is inconsistent. They are\\nmerely anti-meat eaters. If they do actually succeed\\nin getting enough proteids from the legumes and the\\ngrains, the complete digestion of which is difficult, they\\nare, as Professor Martin says, to be congratulated on having\\ndigestive powers that can stand such a strain. That we\\nare adapted for using flesh as part of our food is indicated\\nin at least two anatomical features: (1) we have canine\\nteeth, though not so fully developed as in the carnivora\\n(2) the intestine in carnivora is very short, that of the\\nherbivora very long, but in man intermediate. Neverthe-\\nless, it is undoubtedly true that many persons eat too much\\nmeat.\\nTea. Tea owes its stimulating effects to a substance\\ncalled thein. This is a stimulant to the nervous system,\\nbut if not too strong is not followed by a subsequent\\ndepression. Tea that is too strong is likely to produce\\nnervousness and dyspepsia. Boiling the tea leaves also", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 155\\nbrings out the tannic acid that they contain, and produces\\nbad effects.\\nCoffee. Coffee owes its stimulating effect to a sub-\\nstance called caffcin, which is considered identical with\\nthein. Coffee acts as a restorative after hard labor, seem-\\ning to retard the wastes of the tissues and food. It is used\\nin the army (also in penitentiaries), not as a luxury, but as\\na matter of economy in the matter of food supply. Coffee,\\nused to excess, frequently causes palpitation of the heart.\\nMalted Milk. Malted and peptonized milk makes a\\nvaluable drink for invalids and dyspeptics.\\nCocoa and Chocolate.^ Cocoa contains a stimulant\\ncalled tlieobromin. But unlike tea and coffee, cocoa and\\nthe preparation from cocoa known as chocolate are true\\nfoods by virtue of the fat contained.\\nBeef Tea. Beef tea and various beef extracts are very\\nbeneficial. There is not enough nourishment in them to\\nmaintain strength without other food. Their nutritive\\nvalue has been somewhat overestimated. Their value is\\nprobably much more in their stimulating than in their\\nnourishing effect. But many of the soups and drinks\\nmade from these preparations are very beneficial. They\\nrefresh the tired system wonderfully. If the man who\\nfeels fagged out and takes a drink of liquor to brace\\nhim up, as he says, were to take a cup of hot bouillon, he\\nwould find himself braced up for the time, without any bad\\nreaction, or permanent injury to the system, which follow\\nthe use of alcohol.\\nCooking. Cooking is designed to make food more\\npalatable and more digestible. Some foods, such as eggs,", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "156 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nare as digestible before they are cooked as after, often more\\nso, as they are very frequently badly cooked. But many\\nfoods in the raw state are unattractive, or even repellent,\\nwhereas cooking usually develops an agreeable odor and\\ntaste. Cooking should soften the harder and tougher tis-\\nsues, such as cellulose in vegetables, and the connective\\ntissue of animal foods. Cooking starch causes the starch\\ngrains to swell and burst, and makes the starch much more\\ndigestible.\\nMaking Soup. If meat be cut into small pieces and\\nput into cold water, and the water gradually warmed, the\\nsoluble material of the meat may be extracted, and this is\\nthe principle followed in making soups.\\nBoiling Meat. But if we wish to cook the meat itself,\\nthe juices should be retained instead of withdrawn. For\\nthis purpose boiling water is poured over the meat to co-\\nagulate the outer layer, and prevent the extraction of the\\njuices.\\nBaking, Roasting, and Broiling. The same principle\\napplies to baking, roasting, and broiling. The outside is\\nsubjected to high heat at the beginning of the cooking,\\nwhich forms a layer nearly impervious to the nutritious\\nmaterial inside. In these modes of cooking it is very de-\\nsirable to reduce the heat applied after the first few min-\\nutes, so that the interior may be more gradually cooked\\nthis is, perhaps, especially true in broiling.\\nFrying. Frying, as ordinarily done, is not a good\\nmode of cooking in fact, is often very bad, as the food is\\nfrequently penetrated by fat and rendered very indigestible.\\nBut true frying, that is, by immersion in boiling fat, is a", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 157\\ngood mode of cooking. This coagulates the albuminous\\nsubstance on the outside, keeps in the nutritious juices,\\nand prevents soaking with the fat. Often the food to be\\nthus cooked is first coated with white of Qgg, which is\\nvery quickly coagulated, and helps form a protecting out-\\nside crust.\\nReading. Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking,\\nAbel (Public Health Association); The Science of Nutri-\\ntion and the Art of Cooking, Atkinson Chemistry of\\nCookery, Williams Chemistry of Foods and Nutrition,\\nAtwater (Century Magazine, 1887-88; also Department\\nof Agriculture); Eating for Strength, Holbrook; Foods,\\nSmith Philosophy of Eating, Bellows Handbook of In-\\nvalid Cooking, Boland.\\nSummary. 1 Food builds tissue and maintains energy.\\n2. The simpler constituents of foods are called foodstuffs.\\n3. The foodstuffs are water, salts, proteids, carbohydrates, and fats.\\n4. Water is essential to life, making two thirds of our weight.\\n5. Salts are essential to life.\\n6. The chief proteids are lean meat, eggs, cheese, gluten, etc.\\n7. The chief carbohydrates are starch and sugar, derived from the\\ngrains, vegetables, and fruits.\\n8. Fats and oils are obtained from plants and animals.\\n9. The chief source of impurity in water is from bacteria, which\\nthrive when decaying animal and vegetable matter are present.\\n10. Boiling water may destroy these germs of disease.\\n1 1 Ice water is not a wholesome drink.\\n12. A mixed diet is necessary, as no one food contains all the\\nneeded material in the right proportions to maintain life well.\\n13. Tea and coffee are slightly stimulating, but, if used moderately,\\nordinarily without any bad reaction.\\n14. Cooking is to make food more palatable and digestible.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "158 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nQuestions. i Which class of foodstuffs is most expensive\\nWhy\\n2. Make a list of all the common foods, naming the foodstuffs in\\nthem.\\n3. Why do we not eat buckwheat cakes and sirup in summer\\n4. At what price are eggs an expensive food\\n5. How do flour and potatoes compare in economy at ordinary\\nprices\\n6. Why are foreigners prejudiced against corn\\n7. Why is broiling better than frying\\n8. Why do Englishmen in India so generally suffer from liver\\ncomplaint", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X.\\nTHE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.\\nThe Object of Food. The tissues are worn out by their\\noxidations. They are built up again by the blood, and\\nthe blood is renewed by the food.\\nAll food must be reduced to the liquid condition, if it\\nis not already liquid.\\nThe Digestive Tube. The chief organ in this work\\nof liquefying the food is the digestive tube, or alimentary\\ncanal, as it is called. As the food passes through the\\ndigestive tube it is subjected to various mechanical and\\nchemical processes which liquefy it and bring it into such\\na condition that it can be absorbed through the mucous\\nlining of the digestive tube and passed into the blood.\\nThe Work of the Digestive Tube. To take a special\\ninstance, a muscle is in part worn out by the oxidation\\nduring its activity to replace the loss suppose we take\\na piece of steak. We cannot substitute this directly in\\nthe place of the worn-out tissue. In digesting the steak\\nwe must tear it all to pieces, and reduce it to a liquid form\\nby the action of the teeth and by the various liquids from\\nthe glands along the digestive tube. In short, the muscle,\\nas such, must be thoroughly destroyed in the liquid pro-\\nduced by the digestion of the beef there is no trace what-\\never of the structure of the beef. But the blood, taking\\nthis material, builds muscle which can hardly, if at all, be\\ndistinguished from the original beef.\\nJ 59", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "160 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nIf the food taken be all ready to build tissue, for exam-\\nple, certain forms of sugar, liquid, soluble, and of the\\nproper chemical composition, it will not need to go through\\nthese changes.\\nIn order to understand the process of digestion let us\\nfirst turn our attention to the anatomy of the organs of\\ndigestion.\\nThe Organs of Digestion. The organs of digestion\\nare the digestive tube and the accessory parts, the masti-\\ncatory organs, the glands in, and alongside of, the walls\\nof the tube,\\nThe parts of the digestive tube are the mouth, the\\npharynx, the gullet (or esophagus), the stomach, the small\\nintestine, the large intestine.\\nBrief Description of the Digestive Organs. At the\\nback of the mouth may be seen the soft palate with the\\ncylindrical uvula hanging from its center. Beyond this\\nis the cavity of the pharynx, which narrows below into\\nthe gullet, a red-walled, muscular tube, extending along\\nthe dorsal side of the windpipe, and close to the spinal\\ncolumn. It extends the length of the thorax, and then\\npasses through the diaphragm and widens into the stomach,\\nat the upper left end of the latter. The stomach is some-\\nwhat pear-shaped, with the larger end to the left. At the\\nright end it tapers into the small intestine, the first foot\\nor so of which is called the duodenum. Then comes a\\nlong coil of the small intestine, which joins the shorter\\nlarge intestine, ending in the rectum. Just below the\\ndiaphragm is the dark-colored liver, overlapping a large\\nportion of the stomach. Between two of the lobes of the\\nliver is the bile sac whose duct enters the duodenum a\\nshort distance from the stomach. The pancreas is a pink-", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.\\n161\\nish organ of irregular shape lying along the stomach and\\nduodenum. Its duct enters the duodenum at the same\\npoint as the bile duct. The intestine is held in place by\\nthe mesentery, a thin fold of transparent membrane folded\\nclosely around it, and supported from the dorsal wall of\\nthe abdominal cavity. Between the two layers of the\\nmesentery are the branches of the artery supplying the\\nwalls of the intestines, and the veins that convey the ab-\\nsorbed food from the intestine to the liver.\\nDigestive Organs of a Cat or Rabbit. The digestive organs will\\nbe much better understood if a cat or rabbit be dissected, as the organs\\nhave essentially the same form and relations. The animal may be\\nkilled by putting it in a tight box, or under a washbowl with a small\\nsponge holding a tablespoonful of ether or chloroform. It may then\\nbe opened by a slit along the middle line of the ventral surface, from\\nthe chin to the pelvis. The diaphragm should be noted as forming\\na partition between the cavity of the chest and that of the abdomen.\\nTo Illustrate the Mesen-\\ntery. To illustrate the rela-\\ntion of the mesentery to the\\nintestine, suspend the arm in\\na sling made of a handkerchief;\\npress the two thicknesses of\\nthe cloth together just above\\nthe arm to represent the two\\nlayers of the mesentery.\\nModel of Intestine and\\nMesentery. A more com-\\nplete representation may be\\nmade as follows Material\\npiece of large (one inch or more\\nin diameter) rubber tubing,\\neight inches long sheet of\\nthin white court plaster, six inches by twelve inches red, blue, and\\nwhite cord. Lay the tube across the middle of the court plaster; gum\\nthe plaster snugly around the tube between the two adjacent layers\\nFig. 54. Cross-section of Abdomen.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "162 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nof the court plaster, where the}- meet after passing around the tube,\\nlay the three kinds of cord, each frayed out at one end, the frayed ends\\nresting upon the tube. Moisten the court plaster and press the layers\\nfirmly together. The court plaster should now adhere so closely to\\nthe tube as hardly to be seen, and the two layers should seem as one,\\nin which appear the cords representing the arteries, veins, and lacteals.\\nThe Mouth. In studying the mouth and contained\\norgans, the student should not content himself with mere\\nreading, but should carefully examine his own mouth\\ncavity by means of a hand glass. We are apt to think\\nof the mouth as a cavity of considerable size, as indeed\\nit is when fully opened but we are not so likely to think\\nhow completely the cavity is obliterated when the mouth\\nis closed. If one notes the sensations from the mouth\\nwhen it is closed, he will perceive that the tongue almost\\nentirely fills the space, touching the roof of the mouth, and\\nthe teeth in front and at the sides.\\nThe Tongue. The tongue consists chiefly of muscles,\\nextending in different directions, thus giving the tongue\\na variety of motions. The tongue is the chief organ of\\ntaste, and is therefore (with the sense of smell) the gate-\\nkeeper of the digestive tube. The tongue has also a keen\\nsense of touch (the keenest of any part of the body), and\\nso is useful in detecting and removing any food particles\\nthat may remain on the teeth after a meal. During\\nmastication the tongue, with the lips and cheek, keep the\\nfood between the teeth. When the morsel of food is\\nsufficiently masticated, the tongue pushes it back into the\\npharynx to be swallowed.\\nThe Teeth. The teacher can usually obtain a lot of\\nteeth from the dentist for the asking. These should be\\ncleaned before using them in the class. Use pearline", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.\\n163\\nor any washing soda. If there be enough time, let each\\npupil make a drawing of one of each of the four kinds of\\nteeth and it would be well to draw both a front (outer\\nsurface) and a side view (surface adjacent to another\\ntooth) of each of the four kinds.\\nLongitudinal Section\\nEnamel\\nA Pulp Cavity\\nDentine\\nCement\\nSide View\\nRoot\\nFace View\\nCrown\\nNeck\\nHole for Blood Tubes and Nerves\\nFig. 55. Parts of a Tooth. (Incisor.)\\nExternal Features of a Tooth. Examine one of the\\nfront teeth. It has the following parts\\n1. The crown, the part that is above the gum.\\n2. The root, the part that was buried beneath the gum.\\n3. The neck, a more or less constricted part, dividing\\nthe crown from the root it is normally at about the sur-\\nface of the gum.\\n4. A hole at the tip of the root.\\nTo make a Section of a Tooth. Let each pupil prepare a longi-\\ntudinal section of a tooth as follows Imbed a tooth in a little sealing\\nwax on the end of a spool, cork, or block of wood. With a grindstone\\ngrind away one half, showing the pulp cavity to the tip of the root as\\nin Fig. 55. Make a drawing of the surface thus exposed, naming the\\nparts. If human teeth cannot be obtained, almost any kind will serve.\\nLet each pupil keep his preparation.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "1 64 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nStructure of a Tooth. i The pulp cavity, communi-\\ncating with a hole in the tip of the root, through which\\nthe nerve and blood tube entered.\\n2. The bulk of the tooth is made up of a substance\\ncalled dentine (ivory).\\n3. The crown of the tooth has a covering of enamel, a\\nvery hard substance.\\n4. The root is covered with a bony substance called\\ncement.\\nThe Kinds of Teeth and their Arrangement, Begin-\\nning at the middle of the front of the mouth, there are (in\\nthe normal adult) eight teeth in each half jaw two in-\\ncisors, one canine, two bicuspids (or premolars), and three\\nmolars.\\nDental Formula. The kinds and arrangement of teeth\\nare often expressed by a dental formula, in which the nu-\\nmerators indicate the upper jaw and the denominators the\\nlower, thus If, C\\\\, PM-f, M| (for one side of the head).\\nIncisors. The crown of an incisor is chisel shaped;\\nbut the root is flattened in the opposite direction, i.e. at\\nright angles to the jaw, instead of parallel to it, as is the\\ncase with the crown. Look at a skull from which the\\nteeth have been extracted in order to see the cavities into\\nwhich the teeth fitted.\\nCanines. The canine tooth has a conical crown, and a\\nlonger root than the incisor.\\nBicuspids. The bicuspid has two points.\\nMolars. The molar has a cuboidal crown, and usually\\ntwo or three roots.\\nThe Milk Teeth. The thirty-two teeth of the perma-\\nnent set were preceded by a temporary set of twenty milk", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 1 65\\nteeth. Because the first set is temporary it should not\\ntherefore be neglected. Cavities in these should be filled\\nand the teeth kept clean. Before the temporary set has\\ngone the first of the permanent set appear. The first of\\nKINDS OF TEETH Upper TIME OF APPEARANCE\\nIncisors s*^*^*^! 7t Month\\nTEMPORARY SET\\nUpper\\nlnc,sors 7th Year\\n8th\\nCamne ^^m^^L^^K ,lth\\nBicuspids i SMM HH -J 9th\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a010th\\n6th\\nMolars ;-^B UPHsShH 12th\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a224th\\nLower\\nPERMANENT SET\\nFig. 56. TEETH: Kinds, Arrangements, and Times of Appearance.\\nthese, often called the six-year molars, are just back of\\nthe hindermost milk molars. These should receive\\nespecial care, as they will never be replaced. Any begin-\\nning of decay in them ought to receive prompt attention.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "1 66 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nThe Care of the Teeth. The teeth need careful atten-\\ntion. They should be thoroughly brushed at least twice a\\nday, on rising and on going to bed. It would be better to\\nclean them after each meal also. If a tooth powder, recom-\\nmended by a reliable dentist, is not used, a good white\\ncastile soap will serve well. It is better to use tepid water.\\nIf the teeth are not thoroughly cleansed the particles of\\nfood which remain will soon begin to decay. This decay\\nis caused by the growth of germs, usually some kind of\\nbacteria, and the decay thus begun is likely to develop\\nacids which attack the limy material of which the teeth are\\ncomposed. When it is necessary to take acid medicines,\\ncare should be taken not to let them come in contact with\\nthe teeth. Sweet substances are very likely to decompose\\nand form acids so we must clean the teeth after eating\\ncandies. Toothpicks are useful in removing the larger\\nparticles. But in using toothpicks care should be taken\\nnot to dislodge fillings. The teeth should be examined\\ntwice a year by a dentist, and any cavities promptly filled.\\nThe Salivary Glands. The salivary glands make the\\nsaliva and pour it into the mouth. There are three pair of\\nsalivary glands the parotid, just back of the angle of the\\njaw, under the ear its duct runs forward under the skin\\nof the cheek, and opens on the inside of the cheek opposite\\nthe second molar of the upper jaw. The submaxillary\\ngland lies under the angle of the jaw its duct opens under\\nthe tongue near the front of the mouth. The sublingual\\ngland is in front of the submaxillary and empties near the\\nsame place as the submaxillary.\\nDissection of the Salivary Glands. The salivary glands of a\\nrabbit or cat may be found near the base of the ear and under the angle\\nof the jaw by removing the skin from the side of the head and neck.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.\\n167\\nSalivary Ducts in Our Mouths. If the inside of one s cheek be\\nexamined by the use of a hand mirror, the opening of the duct from the\\nparotid gland may be seen opposite the second molar of the upper jaw.\\nIt usually looks like a pink and white spot, resembling a wound of a\\nbee sting. Sometimes saliva may be seen issuing from it.\\nAction of the Salivary Glands. The salivary glands\\npour into the mouth a liquid which they manufacture from\\nmaterials taken from the blood. In structure the gland\\nmay be compared to a bunch of grapes, the grapes repre-\\nsenting the little cavities, with a wall of ceils that make\\nMucous Membrane\\nDuct of Gland\\nSecreting Cells\\nFig. 57. Diagram of a Salivary Gland. vAfter Landois and Stirling,)\\nthe saliva. From these cavities the liquid passes into the\\nindividual duct, represented by the stem of a single grape\\nmany of these unite to form the main stem, which corre-\\nsponds to the main duct. A rich network of capillaries\\nsurrounds the gland when the gland is at work it receives\\nmore blood the liquid part of the blood (plasma) soaks\\nout through the capillary walls and surrounds the gland\\nit is now called lymph from the lymph the gland directly\\nobtains its material.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "168 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nNerve Control of Salivary Glands. The glands are\\ndoubly dependent on nerve control\\n1. Through the control of the arterial muscles by the\\nnerves the amount of blood sent to the glands is regulated.\\n2. Nerves also go to the cells of the gland to control\\ntheir activity. When we taste, smell, see, or even when\\nwe think of, some delicious food the mouth may water,\\nas we say, i.e. the salivary glands are, by reflex action,\\nstimulated to activity on the other hand, some emotions,\\nsuch as fear, check the flow of saliva.\\nSaliva and its Uses. \u00e2\u0080\u0094The saliva is mostly water, and,\\nwhen we are not eating, serves to keep the mouth moist.\\nThe water of the saliva soaks the food during mastication\\nand helps the process of grinding it enables us to taste\\nby dissolving any food that is soluble it further enables\\nus to swallow what would otherwise be a dry powder.\\nThe special element of the saliva, ptyalin, has the power\\nof changing starch to sugar.\\nAmount of Saliva. The amount of saliva secreted\\ndaily is estimated at three pints. Of course the glands\\nshould be allowed to rest between meals. The habit of\\nchewing gum, though supposed to aid digestion, undoubt-\\nedly does far more harm than good. During the resting\\nperiod the glands accumulate material for the active work\\nof secretion, for there is no sac in which to store the\\nsaliva, and it must be made as fast as it is needed.\\nCharacter of Salivary Ferment. The character of\\naction of salivary ferment is further defined by experi-\\nments showing: i, that it is destroyed by boiling; 2, that\\nits action is delayed or suspended at a low temperature,\\nmost pronounced at about body temperature (37 C);\\n3, that it acts best in a neutral or in a faintly alkaline", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "THE DIGEST/VE SYSTEM. 1 69\\nmedium, not at all in an acid medium, or in too strong an\\nalkaline medium 4, that it has almost indefinite power,\\nif the product of its own action (sugar) is not suffered to\\naccumulate. In all these respects, with the exception\\nof the third, the salivary ferment resembles ferments in\\ngeneral, which are destroyed by heat, delayed by cold,\\nand are limited in their action only by the accumulated\\nproduct of such action. Waller.\\nEnzymes. Ptyalin is a type of a group of bodies\\ncalled unorganized ferments, or enzymes. These ferments\\nare the agents that produce the peculiar chemical changes\\nthat are the chief part of digestion.\\nMucous Glands and Mucus. Besides the salivary\\nglands, there are great numbers of simple glands in the\\nmucous membrane lining the mouth. These secrete a\\nglairy substance called mucus.\\nExperiments with Digestive Liquids. It may be proved by\\nexperiment that saliva turns starch to grape sugar in an alkaline solu-\\ntion and at the proper temperature. Also that pepsin dissolves proteids\\nin an acid (hydrochloric) at the right temperature. The proteid is\\nturned to peptone, and becomes soluble and diffusible, capable of\\nabsorption through the walls of the stomach and intestine. We find\\nthat the different elements of the pancreatic juice can, in alkaline solu-\\ntion, and at the right temperature, emulsify fats, turn proteid to pep-\\ntone, and convert starch into grape sugar.\\nThe Pharynx. The cavity back of the mouth, beyond\\nthe soft palate, is the pharynx. The pharynx is a funnel-\\nshaped cavity, communicating above with the passages\\nfrom the nostrils in front it opens into the mouth below\\nit connects with the windpipe, through the glottis, and\\nwith the gullet, which, as we have seen, lies just back of\\nthe windpipe.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "i ;o\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nPosition of Organs during Respiration. In quiet\\nrespiration the tongue nearly fills the mouth. The base\\nof the tongue is nearly covered by the soft palate, which\\ncurves downward from the hard palate, and by the epi-\\nglottis projecting upward from below. The glottis is\\nopen and the gullet is closed. Air enters the nostrils,\\npasses along the nasal passages above the hard palate,\\nback of the soft palate and epiglottis, through the open\\nglottis into the windpipe, and on to the lungs.\\nHard Palate\\nEustachian Tube\\nSoft Palate, Down\\nPharynx\\nEpiglottis, Raised\\nFig. 58. Diagram, showing the Positions of the Organs of the Mouth and\\nThroat during Breathing.\\nThe Process of Swallowing. When the morsel of\\nfood is ready to be swallowed the tongue pushes it back\\ninto the pharynx the soft palate is raised to shut off the\\npassage into the nasal cavity the larynx is pulled upward\\nand forward the epiglottis is pulled down over the glottis,\\nor opening of the windpipe and the base of the tongue\\nextends back over the epiglottis thus the air passages,\\nabove and below, are shut off, and the food passes over\\nthe epiglottis into the gullet. The muscles of the pharynx", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.\\n171\\nalso do their part in pushing the food along. As soon as\\nthe food has passed over the epiglottis, the epiglottis rises\\nto its upright position, and the soft palate drops back to\\nits place, leaving the air passages again open.\\nBreathing and Swallowing. It is to be observed that\\nthe food tube and the air tube cross, and that the pharynx\\nis their crossing. As we are swallowing only a small\\npart of the time, the passageway naturally stands open to\\nthe air and when we swallow, the parts are, by muscular\\nEustachian Tube\\nSoft Palate, Raised\\nFood\\nEpiglottis. Down\\nGullet, Open\\nGlottis, Closed\\nFig. 59. Diagram, showing the Positions of the Organs of the Mouth and\\nThroat during Swallowing.\\neffort, temporarily adjusted for this work. There is a\\nspring switch (to borrow a term from the railway) which\\nkeeps the track open for the air, which is all the time\\npassing but when the food comes along, the switch must\\nbe held open for it until it has passed.\\nStructure and Action of the Gullet. \u00e2\u0080\u0094The gullet has\\nan outer muscular coat and an inner mucous coat. The", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "172 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nmuscular coat has two layers, an inner with circularly\\narranged fibers, and an outer layer with longitudinally\\narranged fibers. When the food enters the gullet the\\nmuscle fibers, especially the circular fibers, shorten, and\\nby a wave-like action push the mass rapidly along into the\\nstomach. The first part of swallowing is voluntary but\\nafter the bolus has entered the gullet the action is involun-\\ntary. The mucous lining of the gullet has many mucous\\nglands which lubricate the passageway by the mucus which\\nthey secrete.\\nIllustration of Passage through the Gullet. The passage of the\\nfood through the gullet may be illustrated as follows Let several per-\\nsons hold a large rubber tube with their hands in contact. Put an egg-\\nshaped piece of wet soap in the tube. The first hand is shut and\\npushes the soap along into the part of the tube held by the next hand\\nthis hand now compresses the tube, while the first hand remains clinched\\nand so, in turn, the object is pushed the whole length of the tube.\\nThe Stomach. Just beyond the diaphragm the diges-\\ntive tube widens suddenly, forming the stomach; the\\nstomach is an oval sac lying just beneath the diaphragm,\\nwith the large end to the left and the small end to the\\nright. The smaller end, by narrowing, becomes the small\\nintestine. When the stomach is empty it collapses, as its\\nwalls are soft and flexible. When distended it may hold\\nthree pints, or when abnormally distended even more.\\nThe Coats of the Stomach. The stomach and intestines have four\\ncoats, in the following order, beginning at the outside the peritoneum,\\nthe muscular, the submucous, and the mucous coats. The muscular\\ncoat of the stomach consists of three layers, distinguished by the\\narrangement of the fibers, a circular layer, a longitudinal layer, and an\\noblique layer. The mucous lining is somewhat loosely attached to\\nthe muscular coat by the intervening submucous coat, and when the\\nstomach collapses the mucous coat is thrown into folds, usually running\\nlengthwise.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.\\n173\\nThe Gastric Glands. In the inner surface of the\\nmucous membrane are many holes. These are the mouths\\nof the ducts of the gastric glands. If a duct is traced\\ninward, it is found to divide into several branches, usually\\ntwo or three. These gastric glands vary somewhat in their\\nstructure in different parts of the stomach.\\nThe Gastric Juice. The liquid secreted by the differ-\\nent glands also varies considerably, but the liquid as a\\nwhole is called the gastric juice. The gastric juice is\\nGULLET\\nFig. 60. Longitudinal Section of Stomach, showing Gastric Glands in Position.\\n(Dorsal View. Mucous Coat Unduly Thickened.)\\nchiefly water, containing a ferment, or enzyme, called\\npepsin, and a small amount of acid. The amount of\\ngastric juice secreted daily has been estimated at from\\nfive to ten quarts. Of course, we must bear in mind that\\nnearly all of this is again absorbed from the digestive tube,\\nand is not a permanent loss to the body.\\nBlood Supply of the Stomach. The mucous mem-\\nbrane is abundantly supplied with blood tubes, but\\nduring the time of its rest the blood flow here is", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "174\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nMouth of Gland\\nEpithelium\\ndiminished, and the membrane is comparatively pale.\\nBut as soon as food is introduced into the stomach the\\nblood flow is greatly increased, and the mucous membrane\\nbecomes red. This blood supply gives the glands the ma-\\nterials with which they manufacture the gastric juice. At\\nthe same time the cells of\\nthe glands are stimulated\\nto action, and the secre-\\ntion is poured out rapidly.\\nThe alkaline saliva also\\naids in stimulating the\\nsecretion of the gastric\\njuice.\\nThe Work of the\\nGastric Juice. The spe-\\ncial work of the gastric\\njuice is accomplished by\\nthe pepsin, aided by the\\nacid these convert pro-\\nteids into a soluble substance, called peptone, which can\\nbe absorbed through the walls of the digestive tube into\\nthe blood.\\nRennet and Rennin. Rennet, used in cheese making, is a familiar\\nsubstance obtained from the fourth stomach of the calf. When milk\\nenters the stomach it is curdled that is, the casein previously dissolved\\nin the liquid milk is coagulated. This curdling, or coagulation, is at-\\ntributed to a ferment in the gastric juice called rennin, and it seems to\\nbe entirely distinct from pepsin.\\nChurning Action of the Stomach. At the same time\\nall the food is soaked by the gastric juice, the process being\\ngreatly assisted by the churning motion of the stomach\\ncaused by the action of the muscular coat. The food is\\nthus gradually reduced to a pulpy mass called chyme.\\nConnective Tissue\\nFig. 61 Three Glands of the Stomach\\nCardiac Part.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 175\\nDuring the first part of digestion in the stomach the thick\\nring of circular fibers called the pylorus (gatekeeper) around\\nthe opening of the stomach into the intestine keeps the\\npassage nearly closed, leaving a small orifice for liquids\\nonly. But as the food is reduced to the proper condition\\nthe pyloric muscles relax and allow the chyme to pass into\\nthe intestine. And at last any indigestible substances are\\nusually allowed to pass.\\nSphincter Muscles. Such rings of muscular fibers,\\nguarding openings, are called sphincter muscles. There\\nis a similar one at the anal opening.\\nTime of Stomach Digestion. The time required for\\nthe digestion of any ordinary meal is from three to four\\nhours, though this may be much longer if very indigestible\\nsubstances have been eaten, or if the condition of the body\\nor mind is such as to retard the process of digestion.\\nAbsorption from the Stomach. Some parts of the\\nfood that are already digested, or such matters as are sol-\\nuble, e.g. water containing sugar, peptone, salts, etc., may\\nbe absorbed immediately through the walls of the mouth\\nand stomach into the blood capillaries. Recent experiments\\nshow that the amount of absorption from the stomach is\\nmuch less than was formerly supposed water, for instance,\\nwhen taken alone, is practically not absorbed at all in the\\nstomach. As soon as water is introduced into the stomach\\nit begins to pass out into the intestine, being forced out in\\na series of spurts by the contractions of the stomach.\\nChyme. The rest of the food, now called chyme, is\\npassed on into the small intestine. It is acid, and in a\\nliquid or semiliquid condition. Chyme, as it enters the\\nintestine, is a mixture of digested, partly digested, and un-", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "176\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\ngastric juice.\\ndigested materials. Some of the starch has been changed\\nto sugar, but only a small part, owing to the short time of\\nmastication. The bulk of the starch is unchanged. Some\\nof the proteid is already changed to peptone. Part is still\\nproteid, while part is in an intermediate stage between\\nproteid and peptone. Fat is essentially unchanged, but is\\nmelted by the heat of the mouth and stomach, and is more\\nor less divided into small drops by mastication and the\\nmovements of the stomach. For instance, in eating bread\\nand butter, the melting butter will be finely mixed with the\\nbread as it is chewed. The water in the chyme was partly\\ntaken as such, and partly derived from the saliva and\\nThere are also present ptyalin, pepsin,\\nmucus, salts, and some indigesti-\\nble substances. At intervals the\\nsphincter muscles of the pylorus\\nrelax, and the contractions of the\\nstomach send the liquid mixture\\ninto the intestines by spurts.\\nThe Intestine. The small in-\\ntestine has essentially the same\\nstructure as the parts of the diges-\\ntive tube already studied, namely,\\na mucous lining beset with an im-\\nmense number of tubular glands,\\ncalled intestinal glands. These\\nsecrete a liquid collectively called the intestinal juice, whose\\nexact work is not well known, but which may be said to\\ncomplete the work of the other secretions. The intestine\\nhas also a muscular coat with circular and longitudinal\\nfibers. And the muscular coat does the same work of\\nmixing the juices with the food and of moving it along.\\nFig. 62. Horizontal Section\\nthrough the Mucous Membrane of\\nthe Intestine, showing Intestinal\\nGlands in Transverse Section.\\n(Highly Magnified.)", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.\\n^77\\nBile and Pancreatic Juice. Soon after the chyme\\nenters the small intestine it has poured upon it two liquids,\\nwhich enter the intestine in one common stream these\\nare the bile and the pancreatic juice. These juices come\\nfrom two large compound glands, the liver and pancreas,\\nFig. 63. Diagram of Portal Circulation.\\nthat lie close to the stomach. Their ducts join before they\\nenter the intestine into which these juices are emptied a\\nfew inches beyond the stomach.\\nThe Portal Circulation. The liver receives blood\\nfrom two sources, a branch of the aorta and the portal\\nvein. The portal vein is formed by the union of veins\\nfrom the stomach, intestine, pancreas, and spleen. Unlike", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "178 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nother veins, the portal vein divides and subdivides, forming\\ncapillaries which ramify through the liver. The blood is\\nagain collected by veins, forming the hepatic vein which\\nempties into the postcaval vein close to the diaphragm.\\nFrom the blood the liver manufactures at least two impor-\\ntant substances, the bile and liver starch, or glycogen.\\nFunctions of Bile. The bile is secreted all the time,\\nbut more actively during digestion. The part made while\\ndigestion is not going on is stored in the bile sac. The\\nfunctions of the bile are still poorly understood. But the\\nfollowing are believed to be a part of its work:\\n1. It is believed to aid in emulsifying the fats.\\n2. It is supposed to aid in the absorption of fat.\\n3. The bile, to a certain extent, is waste matter so the\\nliver is an organ of excretion as well as an organ of secretion.\\n4. It is found that if, for any cause, the bile is prevented\\nfrom entering the intestine, constipation follows, and the\\ncontents of the large intestine have a much more fetid\\nodor than usual. The bile itself readily putrefies hence\\nit is concluded that the bile has no positive antiseptic\\nproperties, but in some indirect way retards putrefaction.\\nThe liver, from its size, ought certainly to be of great\\nimportance in the body it is the largest gland in the\\nbody, and receives one fourth of the blood.\\nThe Work of the Pancreatic Juice. The pancreatic\\njuice acts on all the principal classes of foodstuffs\\n1. A ferment in it called amylopsin acts on starches,\\nchanging them to sugar, even more energetically than the\\nptyalin of the saliva.\\n2. Another constituent of pancreatic juice is trypsin\\nlike the pepsin of gastric juice, this ferment has the power\\nof changing proteids to peptones.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 1 79\\n3. The pancreatic juice also acts on the fats in two\\nways\\n(a) It emulsifies them, i.e. the fat is divided into exceed-\\ningly fine drops, each enveloped in a coating of albuminous\\nsubstance. An emulsion can be made artificially by shak-\\ning together water, oil, and white of egg. The shaking\\nbreaks the oil into fine drops, which would soon gather\\nagain if no other substance were present but it is sup-\\nposed that the albumen forms a thin coating around each\\ndroplet, enabling it to remain distinct in the liquid.\\n(b) The fats are also acted on chemically by steapsin,\\nanother ferment of the pancreatic juice they are decom-\\nposed with the formation of free fatty acids, and thus\\nmore fully prepared to be absorbed and to build up the\\ntissues. These free fatty acids aid in the work of emulsi-\\nfying the rest of the fat.\\nReview of Digestive Liquids. Saliva acts only on\\nstarch, gastric juice on proteids, bile on fats, whereas\\npancreatic juice acts on all three, and, probably, more\\nenergetically than the above-named liquids.\\nIntestinal Juice. \u00e2\u0080\u0094The intestinal juice contains a fer-\\nment, called invertin, which changes cane sugar to dextrose\\nwhich is a variety\\nof grape sugar. vm.-J^X* Mg\\nAcids and Al-\\nGlands\\n12\\nili\\nkalies in Diges- \u00c2\u00b0Sr f\\ntion. The bile\\nand the pancreatic intestinal Gianc s\\njuice are alkaline,\\nFig. 64. Mucous Membrane of Small Intestine\\nand overcome the\\nacidity of the chyme, as the acidity of the gastric juice\\nin the stomach overcame the alkalinity of the saliva.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "180 PHYSIOLOGY.,\\nSummary. i. The chief work in digestion is to render the food\\nliquid, soluble, and in condition to be absorbed and become part of the\\nblood.\\n2. The digestive system consists of a long tube, through which\\nthe food passes, being subjected to mechanical and chemical processes\\nto liquefy and otherwise make the food ready to become blood.\\n3. The teeth grind the food.\\n4. The food is soaked and acted on by the saliva, gastric juice,\\nintestinal juice, bile, and pancreatic juice.\\n5. These liquids are formed from the blood by glands. A gland\\nis a structure, usually tubular or saclike, surrounded by capillaries,\\nwhich give off lymph around the gland. The gland cells take part\\nof the lymph and form the secretion, which is usually poured out\\non a surface by means of a narrow tube, or duct.\\n6. The salivary glands, pancreas, and liver are compound glands.\\nThe gastric and intestinal glands are simple.\\n7. The first part of swallowing is voluntary. Through the gullet\\nthe food is pushed by the shortening of the circular muscle fibers.\\n8. The liver receives blood from the hepatic artery and from\\nthe portal vein, but is drained by one vein, the hepatic, which empties\\ninto the postcaval vein.\\n9. Saliva acts only on starch, gastric juice on proteids, bile on\\nfats pancreatic juice acts on all three of these foodstuffs.\\nQuestions. 1. Why does the physician examine the tongue of his\\npatient\\n2. What is the mumps 1\\n3. Why is one more likely to choke if he thinks about the process\\nof swallowing?\\n4. What are the peculiarities of a cow s stomach\\n5. What is the meaning of biliousness?\\n6. Why is there a difference in the length of the intestine in a cat\\nand a sheep?\\n7. What is colic?", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XL\\nABSORPTION DIGESTION COMPLETED.\\nAbsorption. The mucous membrane of the small\\nintestine is thrown into ridges, but, unlike those of the\\nstomach, they\\n1 Caval Veins\\nrun transversely.\\nAgain, while the\\nfolds in the lining\\nof the stomach\\nL y!?P h U \u00c2\u00a5A Hepatic\\nare temporary, Duct ts Vein\\nthese are perm a- II MmH^K\\nnent. They serve\\nto increase the\\nsurface of the lin- Lymph W\\\\v\\ning, and to retard\\nthe paSSage Of the Mesenteric ....--H\\\\ VI\\nr Lvmoh Ve ns I J r Mesenteric\\nfood material, and (Fats) jlf (d J-Vv B Veins\\nK i/^ f I I (Albumen\\nso to aid the pro- I n-^d r-tfJ U Sugar)\\nLacteals /f \\\\IL\\ncess of digestion M\\\\ t\\nand of absorption. f^.\\nVilli. Fur-\\nther, the surface\\nof the mucous\\nv r -t. Fig. 65. Plan of Absorption.\\nmembrane ot the\\nsmall intestine is thickly beset with little cylindrical pro-\\njections, like the pile on velvet. These projections are\\n181", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "1 82 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ncalled villi (singular, villus). The villi greatly increase\\nthe absorbing surface of the small intestine. In each\\nvillus is a network of blood capillaries, and the beginning\\nof lymphatic capillaries called lacteals.\\nRoutes of Different Foods after Absorption. In the\\nvilli the largest part of the work of absorption is done.\\nThe fats are absorbed by the lymph capillaries, or lacteals,\\nand the rest of the foods by the blood capillaries. It\\nshould be carefully noted that nearly all of the foods but\\nthe fats go at once to the liver, through the portal vein\\nbut the fats are carried by the main lymph duct (the\\nthoracic duct) to be emptied into the subclavian vein in\\nthe neck hence do not directly pass through the liver.\\nDiffusion, Osmosis, and Dialysis. If a solution of salt and one\\nof sugar are brought into contact, they will gradually mix by diffusion.\\nIf these two solutions are separated by parchment, they will still diffuse\\nthrough the membrane and mingle. This is osmosis. Since substances\\ndiffer in the readiness with which they pass through a membrane, they\\nmay be thus separated. Such separation is dialysis, and the membrane\\nis called a dialyzing membrane. In the digestive tube the mucous\\nmembrane represents the dialyzing membrane with blood or lymph on\\none side, and the contents of the digestive tube on the other. Soluble\\nmaterials, such as peptones, sugars, etc., pass through the mucous\\nmembrane into the blood.\\nAbsorption a Vital Process. The process of osmosis,\\nand to a lesser extent of filtration and imbibition, as they\\nare known to occur outside the body, were supposed to\\naccount for the absorption of all the soluble products.\\nThis belief has now given way, in large part, to newer\\nviews, according to which the living epithelial cells take\\nan active part in absorption, acting under laws peculiar to\\nthem as living substances, and different from the laws of\\ndiffusion, nitration, etc., established for dead membranes.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "ABSORPTION\u00e2\u0080\u0094 DIGESTION COMPLETED.\\n183\\nUnlike sugars and peptones, fats are absorbed chiefly\\nin a solid form that is, in an emulsified condition.\\nThere can be no question, in this case, of osmosis. It has\\nbeen shown by nearly all recent work that the immediate\\nagents in the absorption of fats are again the epithelial\\ncells of the villi of the small intestine. The fat droplets\\nRight Lymph Vein\\nJunction of Thoracic\\nDuct with Left Sub-\\nclavian Vein\\nMain Lymph Vein\\n(Thoracic Duct)\\n.Lymphatic Glands\\nFig, 66. Lymph Veins Lymphatics. (Ventral View.)\\nare taken up by these cells, and can be seen microscopically\\nafter digestion in the act of passing, or rather of being\\npassed, through the cell substance. The epithelial cells,\\nin other words, ingest the fat particles lying against their", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "1 84\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nfree ends, and then pass them slowly through their cyto-\\nplasm into the substance of the villus. Howell.\\nThe Lacteals and Lymphatics. While the main work\\nof the lymphatics, as we have seen, is the carrying of\\nlymph from the tissues of the body generally to empty into\\nthe veins of the neck, the lymphatics of the intestines\\nhave another important function. They absorb and carry\\nthe fatty portions of the digested food into the general\\ncirculation. During most of the time the thoracic duct\\nand the lymphatics of the intestines would hardly be\\nnoticed because they *are filled with the clear lymph. But\\nafter absorption of fatty matter they are filled with a white\\nliquid, called chyle, and are easily seen.\\nTo show the Thoracic Duct and Lacteals. To show the thoracic\\nduct feed a kitten or puppy on rich milk, and after two or three hours\\nkill it as directed on page 27. As soon as you are sure it is dead,\\nJ I\\nLacteal with Valves Capillaries Muscles Epithelium\\nFig. 67. Elements entering into the Structure of a Villus.\\nopen the abdominal cavity and spread out the mesentery. The white\\nlacteals, filled with chyle, will be seen radiating through the mesentery.\\nPress on some of these, and it will be seen that they are thin tubes\\nfilled with a white liquid. They converge toward the place of attach-\\nment of the mesentery to the dorsal part of the abdomen. On the\\ndorsal wall of the abdomen, just posterior to the diaphragm, the recep-", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "ABSORPTION\u00e2\u0080\u0094 DIGESTION COMPLETED.\\n185\\ntacle of the chyle, or the beginning of the main lymph vein (thoracic\\nduct), should be found. Trace it anteriorly through the chest along-\\nside the aorta to its mouth, near the junction of the left subclavian and\\njugular veins.\\nAction of the Villi. In each villus there are plain\\nmuscle fibers. When these shorten they squeeze the\\nchyle, that has already been absorbed, into the lymph\\ntubes of the wall of the intestines, and on into the main\\nEpithelial Covering\\nLacteal\\nLongitudinal Mus-\\nr Fibers\\nFig. 68. Intestinal Villus.\\nlymph duct. The chyle cannot return to the lacteal when\\nthe muscles relax, on account of the valves, similar to\\nthose of the veins, in the lacteal at the base of the villus.\\nThen, when the muscles relax, the lacteal is empty, and\\nready to absorb more of the emulsified fat that we call\\nchyle.\\nReview of the Digestive Tube. The whole digestive\\ntube may be briefly and roughly described as a muscular\\ntube of varying diameter, lined by mucous membrane.\\nThe muscular coat propels the contents and mixes them\\nwith liquids the mucous coat is beset with glands, making\\nliquids, some of which merely soak the food, others act\\non it chemically, while mucus serves to lubricate the sur-\\nface. It seems that these myriads of simple glands are\\nnot enough, so several large compound glands lie along-\\nside the food tube and empty their secretions into it by", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "i86\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nducts these supplementary glands are the salivary glands,\\nthe pancreas, and the liver.\\nLength of the Intestine. The length of the small\\nintestine is about twenty-five feet, and of the large intestine\\nSublingual\\nSalivary Gland\\nMesenteric.\\nVein\\nIntestine\\nFig. 69. Diagram of the Organs concerned in the Conversion of Food into Blood.\\nfive or six feet. The large intestine is not a direct con-\\ntinuation of the small; that is, the small intestine opens\\nat a right angle into the large near the beginning of the\\nlatter, so that there is a short blind end called the cecum.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "ABSORPTION\u00e2\u0080\u0094 DIGESTION COMPLETED.\\n87\\nIn some animals this is large and has considerable length,\\nbut in man it is very short. It seems to have been longer\\nin man s ancestors, for there is a closed prolongation of\\nthe cecum, the vermiform appendix. This appendix is\\nfrequently the seat of serious or fatal inflammation, called\\nappendicitis.\\nPARTS\\nOF\\nDIGESTIVE\\nTUBE.\\nMECHANI-\\nCAL PRO-\\nCESSES.\\nGLANDS.\\nLIQ-\\nUIDS.\\nCHEMICAL\\nCHANGE.\\nABSORPTION.\\nMaterial\\nBy\\nMouth.\\nCutting\\nand\\nGrinding.\\nSalivary.\\nSaliva.\\nStarch\\nto\\nSugar.\\nPharynx.\\nRaising Soft\\nPalate.\\nDepressing\\nEpiglottis.\\nGullet.\\nFood carried\\nto Stomach.\\nMucous.\\nMucus.\\nStomach.\\nChurning\\nand\\nMixing.\\nGastric.\\nGastric\\nJuice.\\nProteid\\nto\\nPeptone.\\nWater. 1\\nSalts. 1\\nSugars. 1\\nPeptones. J\\nBlood\\nCapillaries.\\nSmall\\nIntestine.\\nMixing\\nand\\nMoving\\nFood.\\nLiver.\\nPancreas.\\nIntestinal.\\nBile.\\nPancreatic\\nJuice.\\nIntestinal\\nJuice.\\nf Starch to Sugar.\\nJ Proteid to Peptone.\\nF Emulsified.\\n1 Decomposed.\\nWater. 1\\nSalts. 1\\nSugar.\\nPeptone. J\\nFats.\\nBlood\\nCapillaries.\\nLacteals.\\nLarge\\nIntestine.\\nFood\\nForced on.\\nMucous.\\nMucus.\\nWater.\\nFig. 70- Outline of Digestion.\\nThe Colon. The small intestine joins the large near\\nthe lower right side of the abdomen. The main part of\\nthe large intestine is called the colon. It runs upward\\n(ascending colon), crosses over to the left side (transverse", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "1 88 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ncolon), and descends the left side (descending colon), and,\\nafter curving somewhat like a letter S (sigmoid flexure),\\nterminates in the rectum. It is well to know the course of\\nthe lower bowel, as pressure may be so applied as to push\\nthe contents along in case the bowels become torpid.\\nThe Work of the Large Intestine. Most of the ab-\\nsorption is accomplished in the small intestine but as the\\nfood passes on into the large intestine the work of digestion\\nand of absorption are carried somewhat farther. If the\\nresidue be not soon expelled, there may be absorption of\\nsome of the results of putrefactive changes, and a sort of\\ngeneral poisoning of the whole body. Hence the great\\nimportance of regularly and thoroughly emptying the\\nlower bowel. The matter thus expelled is largely made\\nup of indigestible material, with some real waste substances.\\nTaking up again our comparison of the body and a\\nfurnace, we see that the feces are not true waste products,\\nbut are rather clinkers, or material that has not been\\nburned or oxidized in the body. The real wastes of the\\nbody are the carbon dioxid, urea, water, etc., that are\\nthrown off by the lungs, kidneys, and skin.\\nConstipation. This is a very common disorder, and the evils at-\\ntendant upon it are many. Of course, if any trouble is long continued\\nor severe, a physician should be consulted. But it is well known that\\ncertain foods tend to bring on such a condition, and that other foods\\nhave the opposite tendency. Thus, cracked wheat and oatmeal are\\ngenerally considered as somewhat laxative in their effects. The fruits\\ngenerally are laxative. The coarse particles of graham flour are irri-\\ntating to the mucous lining of the stomach and intestines, and for many\\npersons serve well to stimulate the action of the bowels. But in many\\npersons the mucous coat is so sensitive that it cannot bear such irrita-\\ntion. For these the entire wheat flour may serve the same purpose.\\nOf course each person finds out by his own experience what is best for\\nhim, and no rules can be laid down that will apply to all cases. But it", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "ABSORPTION\u00e2\u0080\u0094 DIGESTION COMPLETED.\\n189\\nmay be well to know what is the usual effect of some of the common\\narticles of food, as perhaps some persons may habitually partake of cer-\\ntain articles and do not suspect that they are the cause of the trouble.\\nThe following list is taken from Stockham s Tokology\\nLAXATIVE.\\nRolled and cracked wheat bread,\\ngems, biscuit, griddlecakes.\\nCrackers and mush from flour of\\nthe entire wheat and graham\\nflour.\\nGranula.\\nBran gruel and jelly.\\nFruit puddings.\\nFruit pies.\\nAll fresh acid fruits, including\\ntropical fruits, like bananas,\\noranges, lemons, etc.\\nDried fruits.\\nFrench prunes and prunellas,\\neaten raw.\\nStewed dried fruits containing\\nhydrocyanic acid, of which\\npeaches, plums, and prunes are\\nthe best.\\nNew Orleans molasses.\\nRhubarb.\\nOnions.\\nCelery.\\nTomatoes.\\nCabbage, raw.\\nCorn.\\nSquash.\\nCauliflower.\\nGreen peas.\\nSpinach.\\nBeets, etc,\\nLiver.\\nOysters.\\nWild game.\\nCONSTIPATING.\\nHot bread.\\nWhite bread.\\nWhite crackers.\\nBlack pepper and spices.\\nPastry made of white flour and\\nlard.\\nBread, rolls, dumplings, etc., made\\nwith baking powder.\\nCake.\\nAll custard puddings.\\nSalted meats.\\nSalted fish.\\nDried meats.\\nDried fish.\\nSmoked meats.\\nPoultry.\\nCheese.\\nChocolate.\\nCocoa.\\nBoiled milk.\\nTea.\\nCoffee.\\nCoffee made of wheat, corn, bar-\\nley, toast, etc.\\nBeans (dried).\\nPotatoes.\\nFarina.\\nSago.\\nStarch.\\nTapioca.\\nRice.\\nRaspberries.\\nBlackberries.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "190 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nHygiene of Digestion. A prime requisite for a good\\ndigestion is a tranquil condition of the whole body,\\nespecially of the nervous system. We see that the blood\\nmust be massed in the digestive organs at the time of\\ndigestion. As there is a limited amount of blood in the\\nbody, it is evident that if more is sent to one part, other\\nparts must at the time receive less. If we try to study\\nhard immediately after eating, we are calling the blood\\naway from the organs of digestion, and to that extent in-\\nterfering with the process of digestion. If we exercise\\nthe muscles too vigorously soon after eating, we call the\\nblood to the muscles, and so call it away from the stomach\\nand intestines. If, after prolonged study, one is unable to\\nobtain sleep, it may sometimes be efficacious and very de-\\nsirable to eat a little of some very simple food for the pur-\\npose of drawing off the blood to the stomach, and thus\\nrelieving the brain. A little muscular exercise may ac-\\ncomplish the same result, or a footbath may be employed.\\nFor many persons it would probably be better to take a\\nsimple lunch than to go to. bed hungry, although one\\nshould be careful not to abuse the stomach.\\nIt is exceedingly difficult to lay down general rules in\\nregard to diet. To a certain extent each person must be\\na law unto himself, for what agrees well with one may act\\nalmost as a poison to another. Moderation should always\\nbe observed, especially in taking foods to which we are\\nnot accustomed.\\nSolid Foods digest Slowly. Suppose one were to sit\\ndown to eat dinner when ravenously hungry. If in such a\\ncondition one begins with solid food, he is likely to eat too\\nfast. Hunger is a demand of the system for food. It\\ntakes some time for solid food to go through all the pro-", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "ABSORPTION\u00e2\u0080\u0094 DIGESTION COMPLETED. 191\\ncesses of digestion, and be absorbed into the system and\\nappease hunger.\\nValue of Soup. But if a soup be first taken, which is\\nreadily absorbed, the demand of the system will begin to\\nbe met, and there will not be the same tendency to rapid\\neating. Further, a warm soup stimulates the blood flow\\nin the mucous membrane, and thus prepares for more\\nthorough digestion. It is more easy after a soup to\\ndeliberately masticate the solid portion of a meal.\\nDesserts. Dessert and sweatmeats, following a meal,\\nare often very helpful by further stimulating the secretion\\nof the glands. Nuts, which are not very digestible, are\\nbeneficial if eaten sparingly. The agreeable taste stimu-\\nlates the salivary glands, and the alkalinity of the saliva\\nstimulates the gastric glands to increased activity. The\\nsame may be said of cheese.\\nCheese is a surly elf.\\nDigesting all things but itself.\\nPie. The average pie needs some extra help for its\\ndigestion. Donoghue, formerly champion long-distance\\nskater, when asked if he dieted in preparation for a race,\\nsaid he avoided pastry. If the vigorous digestion of a\\nman skating for hours daily in zero weather cannot profit-\\nably manage pie, how in the case of sedentary persons\\nIf pie is eaten, it should be masticated with very great\\nthoroughness. Undoubtedly most persons would be better\\noff if they did not eat puddings and pastries. Fruit is\\nbest taken before meals, especially before breakfast.\\nHot Drink at Meals. Hot drink, with a meal, whether\\nit be tea or coffee, or simply hot water, is usually bene-\\nficial especially to a weak digestion when taken before\\nmeals.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "192 PHYSIOLOGY.,\\nThe Bad Effects of Imperfect Mastication. if we\\nswallow food before it is thoroughly ground and mixed\\nwith the saliva, the stomach and other parts of the diges-\\ntive organs will require much more time to reduce the\\nfood to a liquid form. Further, when eating hastily, we\\nare very apt to eat too much. Thus we may give the\\nstomach a double amount of material to handle, and the\\nmaterial may not be half so well prepared as it should\\nbe. The work thus thrown upon the stomach may easily\\nbe made fourfold. Of course the organs suffer, and,\\nsooner or later, if this treatment is continued, they must\\nbreak down.\\nEffect of Repose on Digestion. Not only mastication,\\nbut the whole process of digestion, goes on better when\\nthe body and mind are at rest and in a peaceful and con-\\ntented condition, as not only the salivary glands, but all\\nthe glands, are under the control of the nervous system,\\nand are greatly influenced by the condition of the body.\\nDuring a meal, and for a short time before and after, all\\nthoughts of one s occupation, and especially all anxiety,\\nshould be absolutely dismissed from the mind. For those\\nwhose digestion is not strong, it is especially desirable to\\nsecure a period of rest after each meal, taking a lounge\\nor easy-chair, closing the eyes, and, as nearly as possible,\\nclosing the mind for some, even a short nap is very\\nhelpful.\\nConversation at Meals. During a meal there should\\nbe conversation on topics of general interest. Chatted\\nfood is already half digested.\\nDeliberation in Eating. It is said that the people of\\nthe United States are nervous, and eat, as they do nearly\\neverything, hastily. Deliberation in eating adds to dignity", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "ABSORPTION\u00e2\u0080\u0094 DIGESTION COMPLETED. 1 93\\nas well as health, and properly may be considered an\\nevidence of culture.\\nTime of Eating. Probably our almost universal custom\\nof three meals a day, resulting from experience, is well\\nadapted to the needs of our people. Theoretically the\\nchief meal should be near the middle of the day, as is the\\ncustom in the country; for the bodily powers are higher\\nthan later in the day. But for city people, and others who\\nare very busy in the middle of the day, it is undoubtedly\\nbetter to take the chief meal after the rush of the day s\\nwork is over, when there is time for a deliberate meal and\\nwhen the mind is free from business cares. For many, too,\\nthis is the only time when the whole family can leisurely\\nmeet at the table.\\nEating between Meals. The stomach should have\\ntime to rest and prepare for the work of digesting another\\nmeal. Many find two meals a day sufficient. There are\\nsome persons, however, for whom it would be better to\\nhave more meals, with less food at each meal. Meals\\nshould be regular.\\nAmount of Food Needed. This varies greatly with the\\nindividual, age, the kind and amount of labor, etc., so that\\nno very helpful rule can be given. Each person rifust find\\nby experience what is best for himself. It is the opinion\\nof many leading physicians that the majority of man-\\nkind eat too much. The fasting enjoined upon some is\\nundoubtedly hygienic and it would be a valuable lesson\\nfor more persons to experiment in the line of fasting.\\nErrors of Diet. Sir Henry Thompson, one of the\\nforemost authorities in the world on the subject of foods,\\nsays I have come to the conclusion that more than half", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "194 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nof the disease which embitters the middle and latter part\\nof life is due to avoidable errors of diet and that more\\nmischief, in the form of actual disease, of impaired vigor,\\nand of shortened life, accrues to civilized man from\\nerroneous habits of eating than from the habitual use of\\nalcoholic drink, considerable as I know that evil to be.\\nReading. Disorders of Digestion, Brunton Indiges-\\ntion and Biliousness, Fothergill A Plea for a Simpler\\nLife, Keith.\\nSummary. i The hairlike villi lining the small intestine absorb\\nthe liquefied food.\\n2. Sugars and peptones are carried away by the blood capillaries\\nand pass through the liver, but the fats are taken by the lacteals into\\nthe lymph stream to join the blood in the subclavian vein.\\n3. Digestion is greatly influenced by the condition of the nervous\\nsystem.\\n4. Mastication should be thorough.\\n5. Chat at meals is hygienic.\\n6. Rest after meals.\\n7. Soups and desserts have a physiological justification, though the\\nlatter often become harmful.\\n8. There is a great amount of suffering from intemperance in eating\\nas well as in drinking.\\nQuestions. 1 What foods are absorbed most quickly\\n2. Is appendicitis more common than formerly\\n3. What is the meaning of laugh and grow fat", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII.\\nNUTRITION.\\nLedger Account of the Body and its Organs. Through\\nthe digestive tube and lungs the body receives additions,\\nand there is a corresponding loss through the lungs, skin,\\nkidneys, and intestines. So a ledger account might be\\nkept with the body, and it should balance in the long run,\\nsince in adult life the weight remains practically constant.\\nSo we might take a single organ, say the liver, and\\nbalance its accounts. It receives a large amount of blood.\\nTo offset what it takes from the blood, it gives to the\\nintestines a large quantity of bile, and to the blood it gives\\nglycogen.\\nIt is especially interesting to note the losses and gains\\nof the blood as it passes through the various organs of the\\nbody. A river, flowing past one State after another, will\\ntake some of the soil of each and deposit some of its\\nmuddy particles on the banks of each State. Of course,\\nthe blood is unlike the river, in that it empties into itself\\ni.e. it is truly a circulation. The blood takes something\\nfrom, and gives something to, each organ as it flows\\nthrough it. From the intestine the blood gets the chief\\npart of its new material in the newly digested food. To\\nthe muscles the blood gives nutritive material and oxygen,\\nand receives water, carbon dioxid, and other waste matters.\\nThe account would be similar with the brain. In the skin\\nand the kidneys the blood has great losses and little gains.\\n195", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "196\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nThe accompanying diagrams may help in presenting\\nthe main points in the blood circuit, and the losses and\\ngains in its course.\\nBlood a Mixture of Good and Bad. In the common\\nblood streams are combined the good and the bad. The\\nCapillaries\\nVein\\nArtery..\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nArtery\\nVein\\nCapillaries\\nFig. 71. Diagram of the Heart and Blood Tubes (Dorsal View).\\nnewly digested food is received into a current of impure\\nblood in the postcaval vein. The blood from the kidneys,\\nprobably the purest blood in the body, joins the same\\nimpure stream. From the aorta, red blood, usually called", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION.\\n197\\npure the same kind that goes to the brain is sent\\nto the kidneys and to the skin to be purified. Yet, as this\\nmixed blood flows through each organ, that organ, so long\\nas it is in health, takes from it only what it should take.\\nLung Capillaries\\nPulmonary Vein\\nLeft Auricle\\nLeft Ventricle\\nAorta\\nBody Capillaries\\nFig. 72. Diagram of the Circulation, representing the Right and Left Halves separated\\n(as they are in reality), showing that the Blood makes but One Circuit.\\nAction of Diseased Kidneys. The kidney takes,\\nduring health, only the waste matters, leaving the valuable\\nnourishing material. But, in disease, the kidneys may", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "198\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nLUNG\\nPULMONARY VEIN\\nLEFT AURICLE\\nLEFT VENTRICLE\\nPULMONARY ARTERY\\nIGHT VENTRICLE\\nAURICLE\\nFig. 73. Diagram of the Circulation of the Blood.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION. 199\\ntake out some of the most valuable portions of the nutri-\\nment. Suppose that in a mill, a workman, whose business\\nis to shovel out wastes, becomes crazy, and shovels wheat\\nor flour out of the mill into the stream below. The dis-\\neased kidney may be said to have become crazy, and in\\nthe disease called diabetes throws out sugar, and in\\nalbuminuria excretes albumen.\\nBlood Streams like Water Pipes and Sewer Combined.\\nIt is as though the water supply of a city house was taken\\nfrom the sewer each organ needing a supply of building\\nmaterial acts like a filter, taking from the blood what it\\nneeds, paying no attention to the impurities present, and the\\norgans of excretion select the impurities, allowing the useful\\nsubstances to pass on to the places where they are needed.\\nA Living Eddy. Huxley has very aptly compared the\\nbody to an eddy, whose form remains the same, but whose\\nparticles are ever changing.\\nTo put the matter in the most general shape, the body\\nof the organism is a sort of focus to which certain material\\nparticles converge, in which they move for a time, and\\nfrom which they are expelled in new combinations.\\nThe parallel between a whirlpool in a stream and a\\nliving being, which has often been drawn, is as just as\\nit is striking. The whirlpool is permanent, but the par-\\nticles of water which constitute it are incessantly changing.\\nThose which enter it on the one side are whirled around\\nand temporarily constitute a part of its individuality; as\\nthey leave it on the other side, their places are made good\\nby new comers.\\nThose who have seen the wonderful whirlpool, three\\nmiles below the Falls of Niagara, will not have forgotten\\nthe heaped-up wave which tumbles and tosses, a very", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "200 PHYSIOLOGY..\\nembodiment of restless energy, where the swift stream\\nhurrying from the falls is compelled to make a sudden\\nturn toward Lake Ontario.\\nHowever changeful in the contour of its crest, this\\nwave has been visible, approximately in the same place\\nand with the same general form, for centuries past. Seen\\nfrom a mile off, it would appear to be a stationary hillock\\nof water. Viewed closely, it is a typical expression of the\\nconflicting impulses generated by a swift rush of material\\nparticles.\\nNow, with all our appliances, we cannot get within\\na good many miles, so to speak, of the living organism.\\nIf we could, we should see that it was nothing but the\\nconstant form of a similar turmoil of material molecules,\\nwhich are constantly flowing into the organism on the\\none side and streaming out on the other.\\nImportance of Renewal of Blood and Lymph. It\\nwill be well here to recall some facts noted in connection\\nwith the study of the blood and lymph. We then learned\\nthat the lymph (the supply and renewal of which depends\\nupon the blood) surrounds the individual cells which make\\nup the tissues of the body and that, to a certain extent,\\nevery cell lives an independent life, each taking its nourish-\\nment directly from the lymph around it. The importance\\nof an abundant supply of good lymph is now more ap-\\nparent. If digestion is not good, or the food be insufficient\\nor of poor quality (whether naturally or from being badly\\ncooked), good blood cannot be made, and the lymph will\\nnot be good. The cells are more or less starved, or\\npoisoned if wastes are not properly removed, and the gen-\\neral tone of the body will soon be lowered for the health\\nof the body as a whole depends on the average condition", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION. 201\\nof the cells composing the body, just as the condition of\\nany community depends on the average condition of the\\nindividuals of that community.\\nFat as a Tissue. As a tissue fat serves as a stored-up\\nfood. The camel s hump is a well-known instance. In\\nsome of the savage races fat is stored in a very similar\\nhump. But in most persons it is distributed more evenly\\nover the body, though there is a tendency to deposit rather\\nmore over the abdomen. A fat person can endure starva-\\ntion longer, other things being equal, than a thin person.\\nA layer of fat under the skin serves also as a heat saver.\\nHibernation. Hibernating animals are fat when they enter upon\\ntheir winter sleep, but are lean when they come out in the spring.\\nRemaining inactive they have produced very little energy, their only\\nmotions being a slow and feeble breathing and a correspondingly\\nreduced heart beat. They have consumed the fat, using it mainly in\\nmaintaining the necessary heat. In short, they have burned their fat\\nto keep them warm.\\nThe Hibernation of a Bear. In one of Captain Mayne Reid s\\nstories {The Plant Hunters) we are told how the hunters followed a\\nbear into a cave. At the innermost end of this very long cave they\\nfinally killed the bear. Just at this time they find that their candles\\nare all burned out, and they are left in complete darkness, lost in the\\nbowels of the earth. Failing to grope their way out, they are at last\\ndriven to this expedient With what combustibles they can gather\\ntogether, including their gunstocks and some of the fat of the bear,\\nthey melt some of the fat, they use the gun barrels for molds, take\\nstrips of their clothing for wicks, and make two long candles. With\\nthese they finally light their way out to the upper world.\\nRespiration and Oxidation of Candle. Now we have seen that\\nwhen we burn a tallow candle one of the chief products of the combus-\\ntion is carbon dioxid. Another product of the burning is common\\nwater. If, then, these hunters had left this bear to his winter s nap, he\\nwould have consumed this fat in the slow process of breathing, and\\nit would have given off the same products, as we have proved that two\\nof the waste matters of the expired breath are carbon dioxid and water.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "202 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nGlycogen. As stated above, glycogen is formed in the\\nliver. This is indicated by the fact that there is more\\nsugar in the blood in the hepatic vein than in the portal\\nvein, except during digestion. Glycogen is formed by and\\nstored in the liver, and is doled out to the tissues. That\\nmuscles use sugar in their action is indicated in the fact\\nthat the arteries bring to the muscles more sugar than is\\ncarried away from them by the veins. As fat is a reserve\\nfood, so glycogen serves as a temporary carbohydrate re-\\nserve.\\nNutrition. All the changes that take place between\\nthe reception of food and the excretion of waste are\\nVEGETAL \u00c2\u00abP,\\nPROTOPLASM\\nINORGANIC WORLD\\nFig. 74. Animal and Vegetable Protoplasm.\\nincluded under the term nutrition. The materials taken\\nas food are usually more complex and unstable, the waste\\nproducts more simple and stable; just as the products of\\ncombustion are, as a rule, simpler and more stable than\\nfuels. In both combustion and the processes of nutrition\\nthe final result is oxidation, more or less direct.\\nMuscular Exertion and Excretion of Urea. Since\\nmuscles are the engines of motion, and also are largely\\ncomposed of proteid (nitrogen-containing) material, we\\nwould naturally expect that increased muscular exertion\\nwould increase the excretion of urea (the only nitrogen-", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION.\\n203\\ncontaining waste). But experiment shows that increased\\nmuscular action, such as mountain climbing, hardly in-\\ncreases the amount of urea excreted. Such work, how-\\never, does largely increase the amount of carbon dioxid\\nexcreted. It is thought, therefore, that our energy is\\nlargely derived from carbohydrate foods and fats, and this\\nview is strengthened by the fact that our beasts of burden\\ndepend chiefly on carbohydrate foods.\\nANIMAL FOOD\\nVEGETABLE FOOD\\nPLANT\\nINORGANIC (MINERAL) MATTER\\nFig. 75. Life Processes.\\nWhile increased muscular action does not very per-\\nceptibly increase the amount of urea excreted, an addition\\nto the amount of proteid food taken does increase the\\namount of urea.\\nMetabolism. The building-up or constructive pro-\\ncesses are included under anabolism, while katabolism\\ndesignates the tearing down or destructive processes. All\\nthe processes of nutrition, both of building up and tearing\\ndown, are included in the term metabolism.\\nThe Indestructibility of Matter. We are agreed that\\nwe cannot destroy matter. We may demolish a house, but\\nthe material is all there. We may burn it, but if we could\\ngather the ashes and that part of the smoke and gases", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "204 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nfurnished by the material of the house, the weight would\\nall be recovered.\\nIn the continual wasting away of our bodies there is no\\nreal loss of matter. Our weight is reduced, but the wastes\\nare still part of the earth or air, and are used again. For\\ninstance, a particle of carbon in the carbon dioxid of the\\nexpired breath may be taken in through a blade of grass in\\nan adjoining field. A cow may eat the grass, and we may\\nsoon take the very same particle of carbon in the flesh or\\nmilk of the cow. Or the carbon may be taken by that\\nkind of grass called wheat, and become part of the seed\\nor grain of wheat, and be made into flour and be eaten as\\nbread, and be part of us once more. Or this particle of\\ncarbon might be carried by the winds to Florida or Cali-\\nfornia, and become part of an orange, and come again to\\nmake part of our bodies. Thus there is a ceaseless round\\nof matter into and out of our bodies. The plants furnish\\nfood for us, and we help to make food for them by the\\nwastes of our substance. No one has a monopoly of any\\nportion of matter it is now ours, now some one else s. A\\nparticle may pass from one animal to another animal, as\\nwhen we eat flesh or other animal food. But more often\\nthe wastes of our bodies go to make part of the air or the\\nsoil, and are then taken by some plant before again becom-\\ning part of our tissues. But we are as unable to destroy\\nmatter as we are to create it.\\nThe Indestructibility of Force. So with energy. We\\ncannot create it and we cannot destroy it. We derive our\\nenergy from the food we eat. And this food we get\\ndirectly or indirectly from the vegetable kingdom.\\nAn engine gets energy from the combustion of fuel. In\\nthe growth of the plant under the influence of sunlight the", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION.\\n205\\nplant has stored energy. Now that the wood or coal are\\nburned the energy is given out, primarily as heat. But we\\nmay convert the heat into electricity, the electricity into\\nlight, or back again into heat if we wish. We get our\\nenergy from food as the engine gets its energy from fuel.\\nThis is saying nothing against the superiority of the\\nhuman body, and is not in the least degrading. We are\\nN H\\nN H.\\nSolar Energy\\n777T^ N\\nEnergy originally obtained from the sun radiated\\nby the animal (chiefly) into space as heat, and\\nthereby becoming ultimately unavailable\\nFig. 76. Relation of Plants and Animals.\\nself-maintaining, self-directing, growing, living machines.\\nStill, starvation soon puts an end to our ability to produce\\nenergy of any kind.\\nThe Utilization of Energy in the Body and in\\nMachines. Now, it is a well-recognized fact that in very\\nmany machines only the smaller part of the energy is\\ndirected to the end sought. Take a common candle. We\\nwish to get light from it. But most of the energy of the\\ncandle is devoted to making heat, which in this case we do\\nnot desire. In many machines there is great loss from\\nfriction, from radiating heat, etc. Physiologists tell us that\\nthe human body utilizes a larger portion of its energy than", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "206 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nmost machines. While energy may fail to be used for the\\ndesired purpose, it is never destroyed nor really lost.\\nCORRELATION AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGV.\\ni. The Correlation of Energy. All kinds of energy\\nare so related to one another that energy of any kind can\\nbe transformed into energy of any other kind.\\n2. The Conservation of Energy. When one form of\\nenergy disappears, an exact equivalent of another form\\nof energy always takes its place, so that the sum total of\\nenergy is unchanged.\\nThese two principles constitute the corner stone of phys-\\nical science, and must be learned and kept in mind if we\\nwould understand the actions of our bodies, and our rela-\\ntions to the surrounding parts of the world and the universe\\nin which we live and of which we must consider ourselves\\na part.\\nReading. Foods and Dietaries, Burnet Diet in Rela-\\ntion to Age and Activity, Thompson.\\nSummary. i The blood flow is a true circulation that is, the\\nblood moves in a circuit, being more or less altered by every organ it\\npasses through.\\n2. The body is an eddy into which particles are constantly entering,\\nforming part of it a while, and then passing out.\\n3. Fat as tissue is stored food, and consequently stored energy.\\n4. Glycogen is a carbohydrate reserve stored temporarily in the\\nliver.\\n5. Nutrition includes all the processes of the body from the time\\nmatter enters as food until it leaves as waste matter.\\n6. The building-up processes of the body are called Anabolism, the\\ntearing down are Katabolism, and both of these are included under\\nMetabolism.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION. 207\\n7. We can create neither matter nor force, but are dependent on\\nfood as the engine is dependent on fuel.\\n8. We are dependent on the green plants for our food.\\n9. The animal body utilizes more of the energy contained in food\\nthan the engine utilizes from fuel.\\nQuestions. 1 Why is it that some persons eat a large amount of\\nfood yet remain thin\\n2. What is meant by lymphatic temperament 1\\n3. Classify the organs shown in Fig. 73 according to their functions.\\n4. What animal is most thoroughly protected from cold by an\\nenvelope of fat\\n5. How are plants and animals dependent one on the other", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIII.\\nALCOHOL.\\nAlcohol. Alcohol is not a food. But because it is\\ntaken into the digestive tube, and produces its effects,\\nprimarily, through the digestive system, it is here pre-\\nsented.\\nIf we eat a sufficient amount of bread to-day, we do\\nnot crave a larger amount to-morrow; but the appetite\\nfor alcohol grows the law of its use is the law of in-\\ncrease, until the terrible alcohol habit is formed.\\nAlcohol and Crime. Aside from the fearful effects\\nof the habitual use of alcohol upon the individual himself,\\nstatistics show that a large share of the poverty and crime\\nin the world is due to its use. Nearly every child has\\nknown of the effects in the family of some drunkard, how\\nthe father is feared, how all are ashamed of him, how\\nthe children are poorly clothed, often not sent to school,\\nbecause not sufficiently supplied with clothes and books\\nall these, and the dirt and misery so well known in so\\nmany cases, are a sufficient warning not to make the\\nslightest beginning of this habit. History is full of ac-\\ncounts of men who thought they could stop when they\\nchose the grip of the alcohol habit is almost as relentless\\nas the grip of death. There is one safe rule Touch not,\\ntaste not, handle not.\\nAlcohol and Energy. Some of the best authorities\\nstate that alcohol, taken in small doses, is oxidized in the\\n208", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL. 209\\nbody, producing energy but they do not class it with\\nfoods, nor do they recommend its use.\\nAlcohol and Heat. As to its power to produce heat,\\nthe fact is that, as ordinarily taken, alcohol lowers the tem-\\nperature of the body. It is well known that the face is\\nflushed as the result of taking alcoholic drink. This means\\nthat more blood has been sent to the skin. That sending\\nof blood to the skin gives a sensation of heat we feel hot\\nwhen the skin is flushed from other cause, as some emotion.\\nBut if the temperature of the body be taken at the time\\nwhen the body feels warm, in each case it may be found\\nthat the temperature is actually lowered and we can see\\nthe reason for this, for the more blood there is in the skin,\\nthe more heat will be given off, and thus the amount of\\nheat in the body diminished.\\nAlcohol and Muscular Energy. Neither does alcohol\\nas usually taken increase the energy of the body so far\\nas muscular work is concerned. Experience shows that\\nmen can endure more cold and more hard labor without\\nalcohol than with it. This has been repeatedly proved\\nin arctic expeditions, in the army and navy, during the\\nhardships and exposures of forced marches and depriva-\\ntions in all climates.\\nDanger in Drinking Alcohol in Cold Climates.\\nEspecially if one is to be exposed to severe cold is it\\ndangerous to take alcoholic drink many a member of\\nexploring parties has lost his life by disobeying this rule.\\nAlcohol and Training. It is a significant fact that\\nmen training for athletic contests (no matter what their\\nordinary habits or principles) let alcoholic drinks alone.\\nOne of the famous pugilists said I m no teetotaler, but", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "210 PHYSIOLOGY,\\nwhen I have business on hand, there s nothing like water\\nand dumb-bells.\\nAlcohol as a Stimulant. Alcohol is a typical stimu-\\nlant it acts as a whip, causing a temporary acceleration\\nof physiological activity. Such acceleration must subse-\\nquently be paid for, the extra expenditure brought about\\nby alcohol entailing diminished capacity for further exer-\\ntion. Alcohol is thus of service only for emergencies of\\nshort duration; it is eminently harmful when prolonged\\nexertion and endurance are required. Like all rapid\\nstimulants, alcohol is in large doses a direct depressant.\\nWaller.\\nAlcohol as a Narcotic. Many prefer to call alcohol\\na narcotic. In large doses it seems to paralyze the mech-\\nanism regulating the caliber of the arteries hence the\\nflushing above noted.\\nAlcohol and Water. Alcohol has a strong affinity for\\nwater, and extracts it from tissues. When we preserve\\nanimal tissue in alcohol, the alcohol abstracts the water,\\nthus hardening and preserving the substance.\\nAlcohol a Poisonous Drug. Alcohol should be classed\\nwith the poisonous drugs (e.g. arsenic, chloroform, bella-\\ndonna, strychnin, etc.), the exact nature of whose effects\\nit is exceedingly difficult to determine. We do know that\\nthey are very dangerous substances and there is one rule\\nthat will apply to them all Never use them except under\\nthe advice of a physician.\\nThe Effects of Drinking Alcohol. The most serious\\nand widespread derangement of the natural taste is that\\ncaused by alcoholic drinks. Alcohol has been demon-\\nstrated to be a poison. Its continued use, even in what", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL. 211\\nis called moderate quantities, will pave the way for many\\ndiseases, some of which are sure to overtake those who\\nhave the habit of using drinks with alcohol in them.\\nExamples of the effect of the excessive use of alcoholic\\ndrinks are numerous and revolting enough in most com-\\nmunities to make the strongest appeals against their use.\\nWhen it is seen that by the use of alcohol an intelli-\\ngent man may act without reason that a kind-hearted\\nman may become brutal to his most loved friends that\\nit may cause an honorable man to become a dishonorable\\none that it may make a noble nature become one with the\\nmost depraved of tastes when its use has over and over\\nagain been the cause of disappointment, of intense suffer-\\ning, and of crime, it would seem that vastly stronger\\nreasons existed against its use than the mere fact that\\nsome slight changes in the tissues occur which might pos-\\nsibly be demonstrated. It is to avoid these serious results\\nthat the use of alcohol is to be shunned, and not simply\\nto avoid a differently shaped liver.\\nThe physiological effects of poisons are generally much\\ngreater than the visible changes which they produce in\\nthe tissues would lead us to expect. Indeed, such effects\\ncan seldom be detected by changes seen in the tissue cells.\\nStrychnin produces powerful spasms which end in\\ndeath. It acts, it is said, on the spinal cord, but it would\\nbe hard to show any changes that it produces in the cells.\\nAnd a knowledge of the changes it produces in the cells\\ncould not make us fear the poison any more than we do,\\nwho know that it results in suffering and death. Jenkins.\\nTemperance Drinks.- Many well-meaning persons use\\nthe various preparations called root beers, perhaps with-\\nout realizing that most, if not all, contain yeast, and in", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "212 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ntheir preparation undergo fermentation, producing alcohol,\\nthough not ordinarily in large amounts. By giving such\\ndrinks (often called temperance drinks to children, an\\nappetite for alcohol may be cultivated and the beginning\\nof a terrible habit made. (And it may be well here to note\\nthe real meaning of the word habit, that which holds its.)\\nCider. Nor is it advisable to keep cider about a house\\nwhere there are children. It is perfectly sweet, you\\nsay. Yes, but unless it is all soon consumed it will fer-\\nment. It is unwise, to say the least, to put temptation\\nin the way of those whose habits are not formed.\\nSTIMULANTS.\\n[William H. Howell, Ph.D., M.D., Professor of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University,\\nAmerican Text-Book of Physiology.}\\nThe well-known stimulating effect of alcohol, tea,\\ncoffee, etc., is probably due to a specific action on the\\nnervous system whereby the irritability of the tissue is\\nincreased. The physiological effect of tea, coffee, and\\nchocolate is due to the alkaloid caffeine (trimethyl xanthin)\\nand theobromine (dimethyl xanthin). In small doses these\\nsubstances are oxidized in the body and yield a correspond-\\ning amount of energy, but their value from this standpoint\\nis altogether unimportant compared with their action as\\nstimulants. Alcohol also, when not taken in too large\\nquantities, may be oxidized in the body, and furnish a not\\ninconsiderable amount of energy. It is, however, a matter\\nof controversy at present whether alcohol in small doses\\ncan be considered a true foodstuff, capable of serving as a\\ndirect source of energy, and of replacing a corresponding\\namount of fats or of carbohydrates in the daily diet. The\\nevidence is partly for and partly against such a use of al-", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL. 213\\ncohol. For example, Reichert finds that moderate doses\\nof alcohol given to a dog do not affect the heat production\\nof the body as measured by a calorimeter. Since the alco-\\nhol is completely, or nearly completely, oxidized in the\\nbody, and gives off considerable heat in the process, the\\nfact that the total heat production remains unaltered in-\\ndicates that the oxidation of the alcohol protects an iso-\\ndynamic amount of proteid or non-proteid material in the\\nbody from consumption, thus acting as a foodstuff capable\\nof replacing other elements of the food. On the contrary,\\nMiura has arrived at exactly opposite results in a series of\\nexperiments made by another method. In these experi-\\nments Miura brought himself into a condition of nitrogen\\nequilibrium upon a mixed diet. Then for a certain period\\na portion of the carbohydrates was omitted from the diet,\\nand its place substituted by an isodynamic amount of\\nalcohol. The result was a loss of proteid from the body,\\nshowing that the alcohol had not protected the proteid\\ntissue as it should have done if it acts as a food. In a\\nthird period the old diet was resumed, and after nitrogen\\nequilibrium had again been established, the same propor-\\ntion of carbohydrate was omitted from the diet, but alcohol\\nwas not substituted. When the diet was poor in proteid\\nit was found that less proteid was lost from the body when\\nthe alcohol was omitted than when it was used, indicating\\nthat, so far from protecting the tissues of the body by its\\noxidation, the alcohol exercised a directly injurious effect\\nupon proteid consumption. Numerous other researches\\nmight be quoted to show that the effect of moderate quan-\\ntities of alcohol upon body metabolism is not yet satisfac-\\ntorily understood. Before making any positive statements\\nas to the details of its action, it is wise, therefore, to wait\\nuntil reliable experimental results have accumulated. The", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "214 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nspecific action of alcohol on the heart, stomach, and other\\norgans has been investigated more or less completely, but\\nthe literature is too great and the results are too uncertain\\nto permit any resume to be given here. When alcohol is\\ntaken in excess it produces the familiar symptoms of in-\\ntoxication, which may pass subsequently into a condition\\nof stupor or even death, provided the quantity taken is\\nsufficiently great. So, also, the long-continued use of\\nalcohol in large quantities is known to produce serious\\nlesions of the stomach, liver, nerves, blood vessels, and\\nother organs. The effect of alcohol upon the body evi-\\ndently varies greatly with the quantity used. It may\\nperhaps be said with safety that in small quantities it is\\nbeneficial, or at least not injurious, barring the danger of\\nacquiring an alcohol habit, while in large quantities it is\\ndirectly injurious to various tissues.\\n[From Thompson s Practical Dietetics.}\\nthe following general propositions comprise the\\nbelief of many authorities who have devoted careful re-\\nsearch to this exceedingly important topic\\ni. The use of alcohol in any shape is wholly unneces-\\nsary for the use of the human organism in health. It does\\nnot exist as a natural product. The very lowest types of\\nman Australian and many Polynesian savages know\\nnothing of it, and drink only water and fresh fruit juice,\\nsuch as that of the cocoanut, although they speedily\\nacquire a fondness for alcohol when it is given them.\\n2. A large number of persons are undoubtedly better\\nwithout alcohol, and may prolong their lives by total ab-\\nstinence.\\n3. The lifelong use of alcohol in moderation, as an\\noccasional beverage with meals, does not necessarily", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL. 21$\\nshorten the duration of life or induce disease in some\\npersons, while in others it undoubtedly produces gradual\\nand permanent changes, chiefly of a cirrhotic character, in\\nthe blood vessels and viscera, such as the liver and kidneys.\\nThese alterations, which may be slow and subtile in char-\\nacter, may not in themselves materially impair the health\\nor cause an ultimately fatal result, but they tend to weaken\\nvital organs and produce a condition of premature senility\\nso that if the patient be overtaken by any severe disease,\\nas, for example, by an acute infection like pneumonia, or\\na chronic one like pulmonary tuberculosis, the resistance\\nof the body to the force of the disease is materially im-\\npaired, and the danger to the patient is seriously enhanced.\\n4. There are many persons whose constitutional in-\\nheritance is such that they should be particularly warned\\nagainst the use of alcohol, and in some such cases, as, for\\nexample, among those who are subjects of well-marked\\ngouty diathesis, it is better that the use of alcohol should\\nbe imperatively forbidden.\\n5. The abuse of alcoholic stimulation is invariably\\ninjurious, although the extent to which evil influences\\nbecome manifest depends upon the constitution of the\\nindividual, in connection with the two factors of heredity\\nand environment.\\n6. There are a number of diseases in which the tem-\\nporary use of alcohol is of positive service, and there are a\\nnumber of cases in which it becomes a necessity in order\\nto prolong life.\\n7. In many cases of malnutrition and malassimilation\\nof food, alcohol is itself a food, and its consumption under\\nproper direction results in an increase of body weight and\\nstrength, and improvement of functional activity. These\\nresults are accomplished in part through the action of the", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "2l6 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nalcohol as a definite food, and in part through its remark-\\nable effect in force production. The latter is due to its\\nown direct combustion, by which in chronic diseases and\\nin critical, acute, and exhausting affections it spares that\\nof the tissues of the body.\\nAlthough alcohol is such a strong force producer and\\nheat generator, its effect in this direction is very soon\\ncounterbalanced by its stronger influence in lowering the\\ngeneral tone of the nervous system, and in producing\\npositive degeneration in the tissues. In the condition of\\nhealth more food is usually eaten and more force is devel-\\noped than is actually necessary for the body, and there is\\nconstantly a reserve supply of energy on hand which may\\nbe utilized for any extraordinary exertion, and hence the\\nconstant use of alcohol as a food or stimulant in health is\\nboth unnecessary and unadvisable. When alcohol is con-\\nsumed in health in addition to a normal or excessive quan-\\ntity of solid food, by its more ready combustion it prevents\\nthe complete oxidation of the latter, and favors the accu-\\nmulation of suboxidized waste products, which are always\\nharmful in the system. Excesses in eating are thus doubly\\naggravated by the effects of alcohol. It is the almost uni-\\nversal testimony of army surgeons, and the experience of\\nthose who, like Greely, Stanley, and others, have led long\\nand perilous exploring expeditions involving great fatigue\\nand unusual endurance, that muscular overwork and cli-\\nmatic hardships are much better endured if alcohol is\\nentirely abstained from.\\nIt has always been found in armies that when good\\nfood was at hand the issue of alcohol with the regular\\nration produced an increased percentage of sick days and\\nof incapacity for work. Colonel Alfred A. Woodhull,\\nsurgeon United States army, writes me in regard to this", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL. 21 7\\nmatter I do not think that any of our medical officers\\nwould seriously advocate the issue of alcohol as a measure\\nof health, but I believe that its habitual use during the\\nRebellion was prohibited for reasons of discipline, while it\\nstill might have been occasionally issued as if for health.\\nOn the rare occasions when it might serve a good purpose,\\nas a temporary stimulant after a long and wet march, the\\nwagons would be in the rear, owing to the same conditions\\nthat fatigued the men.\\nWhile all this applies to prolonged effort of any kind,\\nand to conditions where other food can be obtained and\\nassimilated, it does not detract from the fact that alcohol\\nis a most helpful food and stimulant in emergencies, when\\nother food cannot be had, or when the body is temporarily\\nendangered from acute disease and the higher rate of\\ncombustion in fever, or from failure to assimilate other\\nnourishment.\\nCaptain Woodruff, assistant surgeon United States\\narmy, says Spirits can never be used in the army as a\\nregular issue the practice is thoroughly vicious, and was\\nvirtually abandoned sixty years ago. On extraordinary\\noccasions of great fatigue they are allowable in modera-\\ntion. Under such temporary stimulation the men will\\nbrace up and perform the necessary work of making earth-\\nworks, etc., when without it they would be too exhausted\\nto do anything. Without such stimulation a man is not\\nworth much after he has made a forced march of forty\\nmiles.\\nThe problem whether the world as a whole is better or\\nworse for the existence of alcohol, aside from all ethical\\nquestions, and viewed merely from the scientific standpoint\\nof the influence of alcohol upon mortality, is difficult of\\nsolution for to offset the numerous cases of fatal alcohol-", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "218 PHYSIOLOGY,\\nism, and the still larger number of cases of diseases which\\nwould not presumably be fatal without the existing condi-\\ntion of chronic alcoholic poisoning of the system, are very\\nmany cases among both infants and adults in which life is\\nundoubtedly saved by the prompt resort to this food and\\nstimulant, and its energetic use. So long as man is ex-\\nposed to hardships and conditions arising from improper\\nand deficient food supply, as well as to the numerous in-\\nfectious diseases to which he is heir, alcohol must still be\\nregarded rather as a blessing than a curse for there is no\\nform of stimulant and food combined, or stimulant alone,\\nwhich, taken all in all, can be so completely relied upon in\\ncases of emergency. Alcohol, when taken alone, will pro-\\nlong life beyond the period at which it terminates from\\nstarvation.\\nBEVERAGES CONTAINING ALCOHOL.\\n[Rohe, Text-Book of Hygicnc.~\\\\\\nThe physiological action of alcohol has been pretty\\nfully worked out by Binz and his pupils and by other ex-\\nperimenters. From these researches it appears that the\\nfirst effect of taking alcohol, sufficiently diluted, into the\\nstomach is to increase the flow of saliva and gastric juice.\\nThis effect is probably reflex, and results from a stimula-\\ntion of nerve terminations in the stomach. The alcohol is\\nrapidly absorbed, and is carried in the blood, without un-\\ndergoing chemical change, to the nervous centers, lungs,\\nand tissues generally. In the brain the alcohol probably\\nenters into combination with the nervous tissue, modifying\\nthe normal activity of the various centers, either increasing\\nthe activity, if the alcohol is in small quantity (stimulating\\neffect), or diminishing it, if in larger quantity (depressing", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL. 219\\neffect), or entirely suspending the activity of the centers\\nif in sufficiently large quantity (paralyzing effect).\\nAlcohol stimulates the vasodilator nerves, causing dila-\\ntation of the smaller vessels in consequence of this the\\nblood is largely sent to the periphery of the body, the\\nblood pressure diminishes, and heat radiation is increased.\\nAt the same time a portion of the alcohol is used up in the\\nproduction of animal heat, thus economizing the expendi-\\nture of fats and proteids, and acting as a true respiratory\\nfood. Alcohol does not contribute nutritive material to\\nthe body it only permits that which is stored up to be\\nsaved for other uses, by furnishing easily oxidizable (com-\\nbustible) material for carrying on the respiratory process\\nand supplying animal heat.\\nDuring the use of alcohol the excretion of urea is\\ndiminished. This shows that waste of tissue is retarded\\nin the body.\\nRegarding the statement of some authorities that alco-\\nhol does not undergo any change in the body, but is ex-\\ncreted unchanged, Binz asserts that alcohol appears in the\\nurine only when exceptionally large quantities have been\\ntaken, and then in very small proportion. It is not excreted\\nby the lungs, the peculiar odor of the breath being due not\\nto the alcohol, but to the volatile aromatic ether, which is\\noxidized with greater difficulty, and so escapes unchanged.\\nWhile alcohol produces subjectively an agreeable sen-\\nsation of warmth in the stomach and on the surface of the\\nbody, the bodily temperature is not raised. The subjective\\nsensation is due to the dilatation of the blood vessels and\\nthe sudden hyperemia of those parts.\\nDuring fevers and other exhausting diseases alcohol is in-\\nvaluable to prevent waste of tissue and sustain the strength.\\nIt does not act merely as a stimulant to the circulation and", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "220 PHYSIOLOGY,\\nnervous system, but, as above pointed out, saves the more\\nstable compounds by furnishing a readily oxidizable res-\\npiratory food.\\nWhen taken in small doses by healthy persons alcohol\\ndiminishes the temperature by increasing heat radiation.\\nWhen large quantities are taken the bodily temperature is\\nreduced by diminishing heat production, as well as by in-\\ncreased radiation. This is shown in the condition known\\nas dead-drunkenness, in which the temperature is some-\\ntimes depressed as much as 20 degrees F. below the\\nnormal. Cases in which the temperature sank to 75 de-\\ngrees, 78.8 degrees, and 83 degrees F. have been reported,\\nwith recovery in all cases.\\nThe constant use of alcohol produces in all the organs\\nan excess of connective tissue, followed by fatty degenera-\\ntion and the condition known as cirrhosis. The organs\\nmost frequently affected are the stomach, liver, and kid-\\nneys. Serious pathological alterations also occur in the\\ncirculatory, respiratory, and nervous systems.\\nAlcohol is not necessary to persons in good health.\\nProbably most persons, regardless of their state of health,\\ndo better without it. Its habitual use, in the form of\\nstrong liquors, is to be unreservedly condemned. The\\nlighter wines and malt liquors, if obtained pure, may be\\nconsumed in moderate quantities without ill effects. Even\\nin these forms, however, the use of alcohol should be dis-\\ncouraged, or perhaps prohibited, in the young.\\nNeither in hot nor in cold climates is alcohol necessary\\nto the preservation of health, and its moderate use even\\nproduces more injury than benefit. The polar voyager\\nand the East Indian merchant are alike better off without\\nalcohol than with it.\\nIt has long been a prevalent belief that the use of", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL. 221\\nalcohol enables persons to withstand fatigue better than\\nwhere no alcohol is used. A large amount of concurrent\\ntestimony absolutely negatives this belief.\\nThe predisposition to many diseases is greatly in-\\ncreased by the habitual use of alcohol. Sunstroke, the\\nacute infectious diseases, and many local organic affec-\\ntions, attack, by preference, the intemperate. A recent\\ncollective investigation by the British Medical Association\\nbrought out the fact that croupous pneumonia is vastly\\nmore fatal among the intemperate than among those who\\nabstained from the use of alcoholic liquors.\\nTestimony of a Naturalist. W. T. Hornaday, author\\nof Tivo Years in the Jungle, who has had years of ex-\\nperience as collector in many lands, has the following to\\nsay as to the use of alcoholic drink While a traveler or\\nhunter should never drink brandy or whisky as a bever-\\nage, it is a most excellent thing to have in many cases of\\nsickness or accident, when a powerful stimulant is neces-\\nsary. Above all things, however, which go farthest toward\\npreserving the life of the traveler against diseases and\\ndeath by accident, and which every naturalist especially\\nshould take with him wherever he goes, are habits of strict\\ntemperance. In the tropics nothing is so deadly as the\\ndrinking habit, for it speedily paves the way to various\\nkinds of disease which are always charged to the account\\nof the accursed climate. If a temperate man falls ill\\nor meets with an accident, his system responds so readily\\nto remedies and moderate stimulants that his chances of\\nrecovery are a hundred per cent better than those of the\\nman whose constitution has been undermined by strong\\ndrink. There are plenty of men who will say that in the\\ntropics a little liquor is necessary, a good thing, etc.; but", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "222 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nlet me tell you it is no such thing, and if necessary I could\\npile up a mountain of evidence to prove it. The records\\nshow most conclusively that it is the men who totally\\nabstain from the use of spirits as a beverage who last\\nlongest, have the least sickness, and do the most and best\\nwork. As a general rule, an energetic brandy drinker in\\nthe jungle is not worth his salt, and as a companion in a\\nserious undertaking, is not even to be regarded as a pos-\\nsible candidate. These statements are made, with no\\nthought of sermonizing, simply as practical advice to\\ncollectors.\\n[Halliburton, Text-Book of Chemical Physiology and Pathology.\\nAlcohol. Small quantities of the alcohol taken leave\\nthe body by the breath and urine as such, the greater\\namount is decomposed into simpler products (acetic, oxalic,\\ncarbonic acids, and water); the formation of these must\\ngive rise to a certain amount of bodily heat. It has been\\ncalculated that a man can burn off in his body two ounces\\nof absolute alcohol daily. Alcohol is thus, within narrow\\nlimits, a food. It, however, lessens proteid metabolism by\\nabout six per cent, and thus ultimately leads to a diminution\\nof the heat produced in the body. It is, moreover, a very\\nuneconomical food much more nutriment would have\\nbeen obtainable from the barley or the grapes from which\\nit was made. The value of alcohol used within moderate\\nlimits is not as a food, but as a stimulant not only to\\ndigestion, but to the heart and brain.\\n[M Kendrick, Text-Book of Physiology.]\\nWith regard to alcohol, its exact influence, when taken\\nin moderation by those who use it as an article of diet,\\ncannot be precisely stated. It has been asserted by\\nseveral observers that alcohol is eliminated from the body", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL. 223\\nas alcohol by the various excretory channels. The evi-\\ndence of this is doubtful, and it is probable that it is split\\nup into simpler compounds. A small part of the\\nalcohol ingested no doubt is exhaled by the mucous mem-\\nbrane of the lungs and by the kidneys. The odor of the\\nbreath depends on the elimination of oxidation products,\\nsuch as fusel oil. If oxidized even to a small extent, and\\nthe evidence, as already indicated, points to the oxidation\\nof by far the larger proportion of it (95 per cent), alcohol\\nmust be regarded, in the scientific sense, as a food. No\\ndoubt also its ingestion diminishes the metabolism of pro-\\nteids to the extent of about 6 per cent, as shown by the\\ndiminished excretion of urea. Its oxidation will also be\\nattended by the production of heat but as, on the other\\nhand, it lessens the production of heat by interfering with\\nthe metabolism in proteid tissues, and also by diminishing\\nthe oxidation of carbohydrates and fats, the final result\\nis an actual diminution of bodily temperature. While,\\ntherefore, alcohol must be classed technically as a food,\\nit is in many respects an unsuitable food, and its place can\\nbe taken with great advantage by other substances. In\\nsmall doses it acts as a local excitant of the digestive\\nmucous membrane, and afterwards as a diffusible stimu-\\nlant upon the circulation and central nervous system. In\\nsome cases it may aid the digestive process, but in a state\\nof health it is not only not required, but its use, except in\\nsmall doses, is positively prejudicial.\\nPhysiological Effects of Alcohol. These various au-\\nthorities have thus been freely quoted, to show that while\\nthere is considerable divergence of opinion in regard to\\nsome of the physiological effects of alcohol, they are sub-\\nstantially agreed as to the following points", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "224 PHYSIOLOGY.\\n1. Alcohol is not needed in health.\\n2. While technically it may be called a food, practically\\nit is a. poison, and its use is dangerous.\\nThe danger is especially great where there is a latent\\nhereditary tendency to inebriety or insanity. The danger\\nis also very great when the disease for which alcohol is\\nprescribed is accompanied by melancholy and depression.\\nMany individuals, on finding a drug which exhilarates and\\nbanishes the weight of oppression by which they are borne\\ndown are tempted beyond their power of resistance, even\\nthough the reaction brings, them into a worse condition\\nthan the one from which they sought relief.\\nThe Danger of using Alcohol. The pressure of modern\\nlife, and the intensity of the struggle for a living, brings\\nabout a condition of nervous strain that is fraught with\\ngreat danger. Every thinking man should see that to use\\nalcoholic drink for the relief of such a condition is like\\nventuring out in a boat above the Falls of Niagara, he\\nknows not when the rushing, mighty power will gain the\\nmastery and dash him to destruction.\\nReading. The Temperance Teachings of Science, Pal-\\nmer The Foundation of Death, a Study of the Drink\\nQuestion, Gustafson.\\nSummary. I. Alcohol is a very dangerous drug and should be\\nused only when prescribed by a physician.\\n2. Athletes avoid alcohol when training.\\n3. A large per cent of crime is due to alcohol.\\n4. On account of its rapid absorption alcohol is a quick recupera-\\ntive after collapse.\\n5. In small amounts alcohol is oxidized in the body, producing\\nenergy.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL. 225\\n6. Alcohol usually lowers the temperature of the body through the\\nincreased skin circulation.\\n7. It is especially dangerous to take alcoholic drink when exposed\\nto severe cold, as in arctic explorations.\\n8. In the army alcoholic drink as a regular ration did more harm\\nthan good hence was discontinued.\\n9. More hard work can be endured without alcohol than with it.\\n10. The precise effects of alcohol are hard to determine. But every-\\nbody knows that its effects are generally bad.\\nQuestions. 1. Why do some persons think that alcoholic drink\\nmakes them warmer\\n2. What do statistics show as to expectation of life among\\nabstainers and alcohol users", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIV.\\nEXERCISE AND BATHING\\nHow Exercise is Beneficial. The full significance of\\nthe benefits of muscular exercise could not be understood\\nwhen we studied the muscles, and before we had studied\\nthe blood and its work in the tissues of the body generally.\\nNow we can comprehend how exercise stimulates the cells\\nto activity, renews the lymph around the cells both by\\nquickening the blood flow and by pressure on the lymph\\ntubes how the glands of excretion are set to work more\\nactively, and the more rapid blood stream brings away the\\nmaterial to be thrown out.\\nExercise for General Health. Exercise is not merely\\nfor the muscles. It quickens the action of the whole body\\nby increasing cell activity. It helps clean out the system\\nand clear the brain as well. We read Blaikie s admira-\\nble book, How to Get Strong, and learn not merely to\\nstrengthen the muscles, but how to get strong to do the\\nwork we have to do daily, how to feel well every day, how\\nnot only to do our work, but to do it gladly, and with a\\nlittle extra good cheer that may radiate from us and in-\\nspire others. We have no right and no need to carry the\\nsour visage of a devitalized body. Good health is attain-\\nable, and ought to be attained, by nearly all. Attention\\nmust be paid to the laws of our being. It takes some\\neffort, mental as well as physical, to adopt and observe\\n226", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "EXERCISE AND BATHING. 22/\\nregular hours for exercise and relaxation and to be careful\\nin diet.\\nNature s Rewards and Punishments. But nature\\nrewards for obedience by the delight of a healthy body\\nand she never forgets and never forgives, nor fails to pun-\\nish every violation of every one of her laws. Nature makes\\nno threats beforehand. She does not even tell us her\\nrules. But we may find what they are by careful obser-\\nvation.\\nExercise prolongs Life. Many men would live longer,\\nfeel vastly better, and do greater good in the world if they\\nwould take regular and systematic exercise or recreation\\n(and this should be, literally, re-creation). It is a short-\\nsighted policy to say, I cannot afford the time. Not to\\ntake time for exercise is to mortgage one s future. Lord\\nDerby says, He who does not take time for exercise will\\nhave to take time for illness. The latter half of every\\nperson s life ought in many respects to be by far the most\\nproductive of good. But many cut off this half, or render\\nit less productive through breaking down in health as a\\nconsequence of violating the laws of hygiene. Thus one\\ndefeats his own ends in life, and robs the world of the debt\\nhe owes it, that of returning to it, in his riper years, some-\\nthing for the help it gave to him in his early years while\\nhe had not yet reached the fullest mental maturity. It is\\nsad enough that so magnificent a structure as the human\\nbody must perish and become part of the common clay.\\nBut it is infinitely more sad to think that it has not fulfilled\\nits purpose when the end comes in what should be mid-\\ncareer. Each of us should leave the world better than he\\nfound it, and our ability and opportunities for doing this\\nincrease as we reach middle life.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "228 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nForms of Exercise. In selecting the kind of exercise\\nthe old lines fit well\\nIn whatever you sweat, indulge your taste\\nThe toil you hate fatigues you soon.\\nAnd scarce improves your limbs. 1\\nOf course this does not mean that a boy should refuse\\nto saw wood because he dislikes it, and spend all his time\\nplaying ball. But for older persons, especially those of\\nsedentary occupation, exercise that exhilarates is far more\\nbeneficial than that which is not enjoyed. One may take\\na walk and carry all his cares and anxieties with him, but\\nhe is not likely to think of such matters when playing\\ntennis with a good opponent. Whether it be horseback\\nriding, cycling, boxing, boating, skating, or other form of\\nexercise, choose, whenever a choice is possible, that which\\nyou thoroughly enjoy. Exercise should be taken out\\ndoors whenever possible. The gymnasium is a substitute\\nin bad weather.\\nGames of School Children. Most of the games of\\nschool children are excellent kinds of exercise. Cases\\nhave been reported of injury from excessive skipping the\\nrope. But in moderate degree it is a good exercise. Tag,\\nsnowballing, racing, the various games of ball, jumping,\\nhopping, and other games may be played on the school\\ngrounds.\\nTennis. Tennis is a fine game, and suitable for girls\\nas well as boys. It has the great advantage over baseball\\nthat it does not require a large ground (which often means\\ngoing some distance from the school grounds or from\\nhome). Two can make up a game, and a little time can\\nbe better utilized than with the games requiring more\\nplayers. The exercise, too, is more evenly distributed.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "EXERCISE AND BATHING 229\\nThere is no long waiting, as in some games, but a constant\\ninterchange of play, active but not severe, with practically\\nno danger of injury.\\nBaseball and Football. For those who can pursue\\nthe more vigorous games of baseball and football they are\\nadmirable, and should not be objected to because occa-\\nsional injury comes from them. No vigorous exercise is\\nwholly unattended by risk, though it is usually slight when\\nthe proper care is used. All these games calling for great\\nactivity and strength develop manly qualities in boys, and\\ndo much to make them active, fearless men, men who in\\ntime of danger have not only strength and endurance, but\\nwell-trained muscles, cool heads, and brave hearts, men\\nwho know what to do and how to do it in an accident, as\\nat fires, upsetting of boats, etc. A few strong, cool-headed\\nmen, by their presence of mind, often stop a panic and\\nsave many lives when there is an alarm of fire, which often\\nproves false. The Duke of Wellington said that it was\\non the football fields of Eton and Rugby that the battle\\nof Waterloo was won.\\nBoxing. Boxing is a splendid exercise. It calls into\\nplay nearly every muscle of the body. Many pieces of\\napparatus in a gymnasium are for the especial purpose\\nof working certain muscles. But a pair of boxing gloves\\nmay be said to contain a whole gymnasium. Many kinds\\nof work in a gymnasium are likely to be overdone, espe-\\ncially if not under the direct supervision of a good director.\\nOne may overlift or overstrain himself. But in boxing\\nthere is little tendency in this direction. Boxing makes\\none quick on his feet, trains to quick movements of the\\narms, trains the eye, keeps the body in an erect position,\\nand especially develops the muscles of the legs and back.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "230 PHYSIOLOGY\\nBoxing brings out the chest and shoulders. It develops\\nthe wind, and keeps one in constant action. It teaches\\ncontrol of the temper more than almost any form of exer-\\ncise. It develops a degree of self-reliance that is worth\\nmuch. Instead of developing a tendency to become in-\\nvolved in quarrels, it prevents getting into such disgraceful\\naffairs. The man who knows that he can defend himself\\nwhen it becomes necessary is far less likely to pay serious\\nattention to idle bluster and slight provocation than one\\nnot so trained. And it may prove valuable to know how\\nto defend one s self from the attack of a ruffian, or bully,\\nor drunken brute, or other infuriated animal. The cool-\\nness of head, the quick judgment, and prompt action of\\na trained boxer frequently saves one from serious injury,\\nand adds not a little to personal comfort. Like tennis,\\nboxing calls for little apparatus, little space, and only two\\npersons. In many places where ordinary gymnasium\\nwork is out of the question, boxing is available. It is\\nindeed a manly art, and the doctrine taught in Tom\\nBrown s School Days at Rugby is as wholesome as can be\\ngiven to boys to make them strong and active, to give\\nthem physical and moral health.\\nBicycling. This is an excellent exercise, as it is in\\nthe open air and exhilarating. There is danger of over-\\nexertion, and it is bad for one to yield to the temptation\\nto make long runs. There is danger of overtaxing the\\nheart. The handle bar should be adjusted to allow a\\nfairly upright position. The saddle should be such as not\\nto sustain the weight on the perineum.\\nExercise for Middle-aged Men. For men in middle life, in most\\ncases, milder exercises are preferable, such as shooting, fishing, and\\nhorseback riding. Every person should have some form of exercise\\nthat takes him into the open air daily. The English are more given", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "EXERCISE AND BATHING. 231\\nto their constitutionals than their American cousins, and are the\\nbetter for it. Doubtless if we paid more attention to these matters,\\nwe should lose something of our national reputation as a nervous\\npeople. 11 English women are noted walkers, and do not seem to pride\\nthemselves on the smallness of their feet. The signs of the times\\nwould appear to show that we are improving in this respect. Probably\\nAmericans make too much use of street cars. Walking is the cheapest\\nexercise, and every one can afford to take it. For those who can\\nafford it horseback riding is admirable. As Dr. Holmes expressed it,\\nsaddle leather is in some respects even preferable to sole leather\\nthe principal objection to it is of a financial character. 1 Lord Palmer-\\nston said the outside of a horse is the best thing for the inside of\\na man. 11 Perhaps livery bills would prove cheaper and more agreeable\\nthan doctors 1 bills.\\nTaking Cold. So long as one is actively exercising,\\nhe is not likely to take cold. But if one rests in a cool\\nplace, especially when he is warm, he is, as we all too well\\nknow, likely to take cold. As we saw when we were\\nstudying the circulation of the blood, the application of\\ncold to the skin causes the arteries (through reflex action)\\nto become smaller. Thus when resting in a cool place the\\nskin becomes pale and cold.\\nDuring a cold there is fever. The regulation of the\\nheat by the skin is interfered with. At the same time it\\nis often noticeable that the urine is more abundant than\\nusual. As cold may lead to fatal lung disease, so it may\\nbe the beginning of some disease of the kidneys that may,\\nin the end, bring fatal results.\\nDiarrhea. Diarrhea, which is a catarrhal condition of the intes-\\ntine, may follow, or be associated with, a cold, and as a result of this\\nthe process of absorption is often largely checked. There is a great\\nincrease in the secretion of mucus by the mucous glands in the intes-\\ntinal wall. As the various liquids of digestion are all taken from the\\nblood, it is evident that if some returns are not soon made, the system\\nmast become bankrupt. It is, then, more easy to understand the ex-", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "232 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ncessive weakness and feeling of utter prostration that we experience\\nduring an acute attack of diarrhea. We can now understand where all\\nthe material comes from to make the profuse discharges, especially\\nafter we have ceased eating for some time.\\nIt is a significant fact that diarrhea is usually called summer com-\\nplaint. 1 During the warm summer nights we are tempted to go to\\nsleep with very little covering over our bodies. But it almost always\\ngrows cool before morning. The common summer diarrhea is, in\\nmany cases, due to bacteria taken in food but, on the other hand, may\\nbe simply a cold in the bowels. 11\\nBathing. One purpose of bathing is to cleanse the\\nskin. For this purpose warm water is best, and it is de-\\nsirable to use soap, especially on those parts which are\\nespecially exposed to contamination, such as the hands,\\nthe feet, the armpits, and groins.\\nCold Baths. Another important function of bathing\\nis to act as a systemic tonic. For this purpose cold bath-\\ning is better, but this should not be too long continued,\\nand must be followed by brisk friction to give the skin a\\nruddy glow. For this kind of bath a tub is not necessary,\\nand hardly desirable. The water may be quickly applied\\nby means of a sponge, and the body thoroughly rubbed\\nwith a coarse towel. The whole process should be com-\\npleted very quickly, especially if the room be not warm.\\nBath Mits. Instead of the sponge and the ordinary\\nform of towel, it may be found more convenient to use\\nbath mits made of Turkish toweling. These are easily\\nmade, and are somewhat more convenient, as thus friction\\nmay be more readily applied than with a towel, which is\\napt to slip in the hand. The two hands may be used at\\nthe same time, and the whole time of the bath need not\\nexceed two or three minutes. At the beginning of a bath,\\ncold water should be applied to the head and face.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "EXERCISE AND BATHING. 233\\nTime for Bathing. For students, or others who do\\nnot take a great deal of vigorous exercise, which keeps\\nthe skin active, this means of keeping the skin active is\\nespecially valuable. The use of warm water for cleansing\\nseems best adapted (for busy people) to the time of going\\nto bed. But the best time for the cool bath is on getting\\nup in the morning.\\nWarm Baths vs. Cold Baths. Prolonged warm baths\\nare debilitating, and probably increase a tendency to take\\ncold, whereas cold bathing is one of the very best means\\nof fortifying against cold, and especially against the ten-\\ndency to take cold on slight exposure. For most persons\\na cool sponge bath, on rising, will act as a most excellent\\ntonic but if it seems to produce neuralgia, it should be\\nused with caution.\\nExercise of Arterial Muscles. We have learned that\\nthe blood supply to any organ is regulated by the action\\nof the plain muscle fibers in the walls of the small arter-\\nies. Now, when we are subject to changes in temperature\\nthese muscles get exercise, and one writer has well called\\nthe cold bath the gymnastics of the plain muscle fibers,\\nand we can understand how the system can be trained to\\nadjust itself to cold, and enabled to avoid taking cold\\nso frequently.\\nHabit of Cold Bathing acquired Gradually. There\\nare undoubtedly many persons who do not profit by cold\\nbathing, but probably many of these would soon adapt\\nthemselves to it by beginning with tepid water and gradu-\\nally using cooler. To stand stripped in a cold room, of\\ncourse, is not a safe thing to do. And the great secret of\\nthe benefit that may be expected from the operation, as\\nmost people are situated, is to be very brisk, the whole", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "234 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nprocess occupying only a few minutes. Many are opposed\\nto cold sponge bathing, and condemn it without reserve,\\nwhen, probably, they have never really given it a fair trial.\\nLet it be repeated, with emphasis, that for students it is\\none of the very best means of preserving health.\\nReading. Baths and Bathing (Health Primers, D.\\nAppleton Co.).\\nSummary. i. Exercise stimulates the activity of all the organs,\\nby promoting cell activity and assisting excretion.\\n2. Exercise should be in the open air as much as possible.\\n3. Exercise is more beneficial when it exhilarates.\\n4. Exercise should be taken regularly.\\n5. Warm baths are best for cleansing, and a good time is at bed-\\ntime.\\n6 Cold baths stimulate the circulation of blood in the skin, and\\nserve as a tonic to the whole system. Just after rising is a good time\\nfor the cold bath.\\n7. The cold bath fortifies against taking cold.\\nQuestions. 1. Should exercise be carried to the point of fatigue\\n2. How can one avoid taking cold after exercise\\n3. Do girls need exercise as much as boys\\n4. What is the condition of the body during a ;i cold\\n5. How may a cold be caused\\n6. How may a cold be cured\\n7. How may a cold be prevented\\n8. Why do some persons take cold so much more readily than\\nothers\\n9. Why does the same person take cold more readily at one time\\nthan at another\\n10. How often should a person bathe\\n1 1 What hour is best for sea bathing Why", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XV.\\nTHE BRAIN.\\nThe muscles are the executive organs but the seat\\nof the will is the brain.\\nIf models of the brain can be obtained, they should\\nbe carefully studied. If not, the accompanying figures\\nmay be used in their stead.\\nThe Coverings of the Brain. There are two readily\\ndistinguishable coats of the brain, the dura mater, a tough\\nmembrane, adhering more or less closely to the inside\\nof the skull and the pia mater, next to the brain, a much\\nthinner membrane, traversed by blood tubes, and dipping\\ndown into the grooves between the convolutions of the\\ncerebrum.\\nThe Parts of the Brain. The larger and upper part\\nof the brain is the cerebrum below and back of this is\\nthe smaller cerebellum the part of the spinal cord within\\nthe cranium is generally reckoned as part of the brain.\\nThe Cerebrum. The cerebrum consists of two lateral\\nhemispheres, separated by a deep median groove. The\\nsurface of the cerebrum is in irregular ridges, the con-\\nvolutions. The outside of the brain consists of gray\\nmatter, whereas the outside of the spinal cord is white.\\nThe inner part of the brain is white, and the two halves\\nare connected by a broad band of white matter, which\\nconsists of many white fibers.\\n2 35", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "236 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nThe Cerebellum. The cerebellum is much smaller\\nthan the cerebrum, and has fine transverse ridges and\\ngrooves in place of the convolutions of the cerebrum. It\\nis also of a deeper color, a reddish gray. The cerebrum\\noverlaps the cerebellum so that the latter could not be\\nseen from above if the whole brain were laid bare. But\\nin the lower animals the parts of the brain are more in\\na series, one behind the other, and in a line with the\\nspinal cord.\\nThe Spinal Bulb. The enlarged beginning of the\\nspinal cord, often called the medulla oblongata, is the\\nspinal bulb. It is white like the rest of the cord.\\nThe Brain of a Cat or Rabbit. The brain of a cat or rabbit may\\nbe exposed by first mounting the specimen as directed for showing the\\nspinal cord (see p. 27). After removing the skin from the upper part\\nof the head, the bone should be cut away between the eyes with a pair of\\nbone forceps. Cautiously working backward, the whole of the brain\\nmay be unroofed. Great care must be exercised, for here we have one\\nof the softest tissues of the body lying very closely beneath one of the\\nhardest. It is possible to do this with a strong knife, but the bone\\nforceps save a great deal of hard work. The bone must be broken\\naway bit by bit. To remove the brain, it will be necessary to cut\\nthrough the tough dura mater that covers it.\\nRemoving this, there will be found an inner covering, the pia mater,\\na membrane richly supplied with blood tubes, from which the brain\\ngets its nourishment. After the dura mater has been removed, the\\nanterior end of the brain may be gently lifted with the handle of the\\nscalpel and the under surface studied, following the description of\\nthe cranial nerves.\\nPreservation of the Brain. The brain may be studied while it\\nis fresh, but it is more easily handled after it has been hardened.. Lay\\nthe brain in weak alcohol about 25 per cent. It should rest on a layer\\nof cotton, otherwise it may be very much flattened by its own weight.\\nLater transfer it to 50 per cent alcohol, and then to 75 per cent. When\\nit is well hardened, it may be sliced with a sharp scalpel as directed.\\nA better and quicker method is to use a solution of alcohol and forma-", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "THE BRAIN 237\\nlin as follows 95 per cent alcohol, 60 parts 2 per cent formol, 40\\nparts. The liquid need not be changed if used in sufficient volume.\\nThe Brain of the Rabbit {Alcoholic Specimen). The brain of\\na cat or dog is better, being larger. Take a brain well hardened, and\\nreview the parts as named above. It is very desirable to have a speci-\\nmen in which the arteries have been injected.\\n1. Press down the cerebellum to see the deep groove between it and\\nthe cerebrum. The thin membrane covering the brain and dipping\\ninto the groove is the pia mater.\\n2. Press down the spinal bulb and tear away the pia mater where\\nit passes from the cerebellum to the spinal bulb. Note, between the\\nbulb and the cerebellum, a space covered by a thin membrane. Cut\\nthrough this membrane the cavity is the fourth ventricle of the brain.\\nObserve the two ridges bounding the sides of the fourth ventricle. At\\nthe point of their divergence, observe the opening of the ce?itral canal\\nof the spinal cord.\\n3. Gently separate the cerebral hemispheres, and note the trans-\\nverse band of white fibers connecting them.\\n4. Examine the under surface of the brain, and find the roots of the\\ncranial nerve.\\nThe Cranial Nerves and their Functions. i. The\\nolfactory lobes extend forward under the fore part of the\\ncerebral hemispheres. They are the nerves of smell.\\n2. The optic neives, or nerves of sight, join each other\\nbefore reaching the brain. Only the first and second pairs\\nof cranial nerves directly enter the cerebrum.\\n3. Back of the optic nerves, near the middle line, is the\\nthird pair of nerves. The third, fourth, and sixth pairs\\nof cranial nerves control the muscles of the eyeballs.\\n4. The fourth pair extend up on each side into the\\ngroove between the cerebrum and the cerebellum.\\n5. Back of these is the larger fifth pair, the trigeminal.\\nThis pair supplies part of the face, and sends branches to\\nthe teeth. It is the nerve affected in neuralgia of the\\nface. Besides being the nerve of sensation for most of the", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "2 3 8\\nPHYSIOLOGY,\\nhead and face, this nerve has motor fibers which control\\nthe muscles of mastication. Unlike the other cranial\\nnerves, the trigeminal resembles the spinal nerves in\\nhaving two roots, one sensory, the other motor.\\nOptic 2\\n(Sight)\\n5, Trigeminal\\n(Face\\nSensation)\\nHypoglossal,\\n12 (Tongue\\nMotor)\\nSpinal\\nAccessory\\nFig. 77. The Base of the Brain, showing the Origin of the Cranial Nerves.\\n6. Back of and inside of the fifth pair is the sixth pair.\\n7. The nerves of the seventh pair are larger, and are\\nfarther back and outward. These are the facial nerves,\\nand control the muscles of the face and the facial expres-\\nsion.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "THE BRAIN.\\n239\\n8. Close to the seventh are the eighth, or auditory\\nnerves.\\n9. The ninth, tenth, and eleventh arise close together,\\nfarther back and well up on the sides of the spinal bulb.\\nThe ninth supplies the back of the tongue and the pharynx,\\nand is called the glosso-pJiaryngeal nerve. It gives the\\nsense of taste from the base of the tongue.\\nCerebrum\\nSpinal Bulb\\nFig. 78. Vertical Section of Brain.\\n10. The tenth pair, or vagus nerves pass down out of\\nthe brain cavity, give off branches to the pharynx and\\nlarynx, and are distributed to the heart, lungs, and stomach.\\nThe vagus nerves are so widely distributed that their func-\\ntions cannot be briefly stated.\\n11. The eleventh pair arise in part from the spinal\\ncord outside of the cranial cavity, enter the skull, and pass", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "240 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nout again to supply certain muscles of the neck and\\nshoulders.\\n12. The last pair of cranial nerves, the twelfth, arise\\nnear the middle line of the spinal bulb. This pair supply\\nthe muscles of the tongue, and are called the hypoglossal\\nnerves.\\nBrain composed of Two Hemispheres. It will be\\nobserved that the brain, like the spinal cord, consists of\\ntwo lateral parts. Cutting sections of the brain length-\\nwise and crosswise shows that the outer part is made up\\nof gray matter and the inner part of white matter. The\\ngray matter is composed of cells essentially similar to those\\nof the spinal cord, while the white\\nmatter of the inner part is composed\\nof white fibers like those of the outer\\npart of the spinal cord, or like the\\nnerves.\\nBrain Convolutions and Intelli-\\nFig. 79. Pyramidal Nerve gence. The brain of the rabbit has\\nSayM^orfhTBmin fewer convolutions than that of the\\ncat, and is nearly smooth. In gen-\\neral, the lower animals have fewer convolutions, and the\\nlower races of mankind have smoother brains than the\\nhigher races. In the earlier stages of development man s\\nbrain is smoother, but with growth the convolutions\\nappear, and increase in number with the growth of the\\nbrain. As we know that intelligent action depends on\\nthe gray matter of the surface of the brain, we infer that\\nto accommodate its increase in the brain case it is thrown\\ninto folds, as the surface of the lining of the intestines is\\nincreased by folds and villi.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "THE BRAIN.\\n241\\nGray and White Matter of the Brain. The gray\\nmatter of the convolutions of the adult human brain is\\nabout one fifth of an inch thick, the larger part of the\\nbrain consisting of the white matter. Sections will show\\nthat there are several masses of gray matter in the brain\\ndeeper than the con-\\nvolutions. These\\nare the ganglia of\\nthe brain. The\\nwhite fibers inside\\nthe bram connect\\nthe gray matter of\\nthe convolutions\\nand these ganglia\\nwith all parts of\\nthe body through\\nthe spinal cord.\\nGanglia\\nCerebrur\\nCerebellum\\n80. Diagram of the Brain, showing the Spinal\\nCord, Ganglia, and Course of the Fibers.\\nNeuroglia. The brain consists of nerve cells and nerve\\nfibers, bound together and supported by a form of connec-\\ntive tissue called neuroglia.\\nThe Cerebrum and its Functions. If the cerebral\\nhemispheres are removed from a frog, he will sit up about\\nas before, but seems to pay little attention to what is going\\non around him. If placed on his back, he will turn over\\nand sit up. If pinched, he may jump away, and may show\\nthat he can see by avoiding anything that may come in his\\nway. If placed in the water, he will swim, and if he swims\\nagainst anything that he can climb upon, will do so and\\nremain quiet. If placed on a board, and the board be\\nslowly tilted, he will move along and keep his equilibrium,\\nclimbing over the end of the board if necessary to keep his\\nbalance. If left alone, he will not move, but will die in", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "242\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nhis tracks, though he will eat food if it is put in his mouth.\\nHe seems to have lost the power of willing to do anything,\\nor what we call the power of volition. He originates no\\naction.\\nA Pigeon with Cerebrum Removed. A pigeon with\\nits cerebrum removed acts in about the same way. It\\nremains quiet, stupid, paying no attention to ordinary\\nhearA I\\nLUNGS Y\\nSTOMACH J\\nLIVER J\\nSpinal Nerve\\n2d Spinal Nerve\\nFig. 81. Diagram of the Cranial Nerves and Sense Organs.\\nevents. A sudden loud noise may cause it to start. If its\\ntail be pulled, it moves forward to regain its balance. If\\nthrown in the air, it flies for a distance. It swallows food\\nplaced in its mouth, but would starve surrounded by food.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "THE BRAIN. 243\\nPlaced on its back, it will right itself, but it does not show\\nthe usual degree of intelligence and will power.\\nFunction of the Cerebral Cortex. Experimentally,\\nwe learn that after the removal of the cortex (gray matter)\\nan intelligent animal is reduced to the state of a non-intelli-\\ngent automaton, responding indeed to stimuli, internal as\\nwell as external, but failing to interpret the significance of\\npresent events in accordance with bygone experience. A\\nbrainless dog is stupid he may see a bone in front of his\\neyes without showing signs that he knows the meaning of\\na bone or the use to which it may be put he may hear the\\ncrack of a whip, but he no longer shows signs of fear,\\nfor he does not remember its sting his former purposeful\\nbehavior has entirely disappeared in short, he has lost\\nmemory and* judgment. Waller.\\nThe Center of Sensations itself Insensible. The\\ngray matter of the outside of the brain is the central organ\\nof intelligent sensation and motion. The functions of voli-\\ntion, of consciousness, of intelligence, seem to reside in, or\\nrather to depend upon the activities of, the cells of the\\ngray matter of the convolutions of the cerebrum. This we\\nhave learned from experiments on the lower animals, and\\nfrom accidents and disease in the case of man. All sensa-\\ntion seems to be in the gray matter of the convolutions of\\nthe cerebrum, and yet it is itself insensible it may be cut\\nand cause no sensation. But when the nerve impulses\\nfrom the various parts of the body reach the gray matter\\nof the cerebrum they rouse the cells here to an activity\\nthat gives us what we call sensation. It is never a sensa-\\ntion until it reaches this part and is properly interpreted.\\nCrossed Control of the Body. While each hemisphere\\nmainly controls the muscles of the opposite half of the", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "244\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nbody, it also, in part, has control of its own side. Paralysis\\nof one side (hemiplegia) is due to injury of the opposite\\ncerebral hemisphere.\\nLocation of Brain Functions. Much has been learned\\nof late years as to the location of special functions in the\\nbrain. Many of the motor centers have been determined\\nCENTRAL FISSURE\\nMOTOR AREA\\nFISSURE OF SILVIUS\\nFig. 82. Location of Brain Functions.\\nin the following manner In some of the lower animals\\nthe brain has been exposed, and on stimulating certain\\nportions with an electric current the movements that fol-\\nlowed were noted. In monkeys, particular movements\\nof the arm, forearm, hand, and thumb can be produced by\\nexcitation of particular spots, almost as regularly as definite\\nnotes can be sounded on a piano by touching particular", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "THE BRAIN. 245\\nkeys. In the case of man we infer that there is a similar\\nlocation, and many cases of accident and disease have\\nhelped in locating the functions. But these areas are not\\nsharply defined.\\nLeft Hemisphere Better Developed. The speech\\ncenter is in the left hemisphere; the right eye and ear,\\nwhich connect with the left brain, are better developed\\nthan the left, and in general the left hemisphere seems\\nsuperior (in right-handed persons) to the right.\\nLocation of Centers of Sensation. It is not so easy\\nto locate the centers of sensation as those for motion. For\\nwe can see the resulting motion, but a sensation can only\\nbe felt by the individual in whom it occurs. Still, some of\\nthe sensation centers have been located, and it is likely\\nthat in time we shall know much more on this subject.\\nThe accompanying diagram shows some of these centers.\\nThe Functions of the Cerebellum. The cerebellum\\nis the center for regulating the actions of the skeletal mus-\\ncles. When we walk or run, or even stand still, a number\\nof muscles must act, and act in concert. The nerve im-\\npulses originate in the cerebrum, but the cerebellum is the\\ncenter for harmonizing the action of these various muscles,\\nor coordinating them. When the cerebellum has been re-\\nmoved from a pigeon the bird flutters, and, while possess-\\ning the power to move, does not seem capable of any\\nregular and orderly movement. There is no loss of intelli-\\ngence, no paralysis. Of course, in this experiment there\\nis great disturbance of the system, and perhaps too much\\nis inferred from it.\\nFunctions of the Spinal Bulb. The spinal bulb is the\\nconnection between the spinal cord and the brain. The", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "246 PHYSIOLOGY,\\nbulb may be said to be that part of the spinal cord which\\nis within the cranium. It is enlarged, hence its name,\\nspinal bulb. From it arise all the cranial nerves except\\nthe first five pairs. The spinal bulb is also the center for\\nthe control of respiration, of circulation, of deglutition, and\\nperhaps for many other processes.\\nBrain Work and Brain Rest. Sleep is not merely\\nrest for the body it should be complete rest for the brain.\\nIn so far as there are dreams, it would seem to indicate a\\npartial activity that is, incomplete rest. The brain worker\\nespecially needs plenty of sleep excellent authorities say\\nat least eight or nine hours. The brain, like the muscles,\\nneeds exercise, and it also needs regular periods of rest.\\nIf a nerve cell is not kept active by the passage of nerve\\nimpulses through it, it usually atrophies, and may de-\\ngenerate.\\nSleeplessness. Intense brain work, without sufficient\\nsleep, is likely to lead to sleeplessness, as when one has\\nsome subject of special study in hand and either will not\\nor cannot throw it off. Perhaps inventors are as prone to\\nthis sort of trouble as any one class of men. Keeping the\\nblood continually in the brain, or in any organ, is likely to\\nlead to a permanent congestion or inflammation that may\\ncause serious, if not fatal, results.\\nFatigue. It is stated that brain workers need more\\nsleep than those who work chiefly with the muscles. Fa-\\ntigue of the voluntary muscles is much more a matter of\\nnervous than of muscular origin. When one is completely\\ntired out, as he would say, if his mind can be aroused,\\nas by some excitement, he will be found able to expend a\\ngood deal more muscular energy. So, too, many persons\\nof slight muscular build, but of great will power, are", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "THE BRAIN. 247\\nable to do more work with the muscles than others with\\nlarger muscles and less will. During fatigue the cell bodies\\nare found to decrease in size, but there is no discernible\\nchange in nerve fibers as a result of fatigue.\\nControl of Mind. But the brain worker should not\\nonly be able to sleep regularly and long enough he ought\\nto be able to throw off his mind any subject, and take rest\\nwhile he is awake. If one allows himself to think about\\nmental work while eating, the process of digestion will not\\ngo on well.\\nHabit of Resting the Brain. The student should ac-\\nquire the power and cultivate the habit of having, so far\\nas possible, regular hours for work, and of completely\\nthrowing aside his work and worry at stated times. In\\nseeking recreation it is well to choose that which will\\nnecessitate giving the attention to something entirely dif-\\nferent from the daily work. For this reason chess may\\nbe no real recreation for the student, while a game of\\ntennis, boxing, or other competitive exercise is likely to\\naccomplish this very desirable object. A walk may put\\nthe muscles into play, but if the mind is still intent upon\\nthe line of work maintained throughout the day, the exercise\\nmay j^rove of little benefit. He may return more tired\\nthan when he set out. The exhilaration of horseback rid-\\ning may prove far better, though perhaps involving much\\nless muscular exertion.\\nNervous Tissue least affected by Starvation. It is\\nworthy of note that in fasting the nervous tissue is less\\nreduced than any other tissue, being scarcely diminished\\nby complete starvation.\\nBlood Supply of the Brain. Blood is supplied to the\\nbrain throuo;h four arteries the rig-fit and left internal", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "248 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ncarotid arteries, and the right and left vertebral arteries.\\nThese arteries are so connected by cross-branches that\\nif any three of them should be compressed, or the blood\\nflow in them otherwise stopped, the fourth would still be\\nable to give the brain blood enough for its work. When\\nthe brain is more active it receives a larger supply of\\nblood. During sleep it is paler.\\nFainting. If the supply of blood to the brain is shut\\noff, unconsciousness quickly follows. In the ordinary\\nfaint the blood supply has been reduced, owing to the\\ndiminution of the blood pressure or heart s force. It may\\nbe due to inhibition of the heart from some emotion, or\\nbad odor, as in a close room severe pain may be the\\ncause a blow over the pit of the stomach may stop the\\nheart by reflex action. Fresh air should be supplied,\\nand the body laid flat on the back. This position makes\\nit easier for the blood to reach the brain and restore\\nconsciousness. Smelling salts (or ammonia) may stimu-\\nlate respiration and circulation. Sprinkling a little cold\\nwater on the face may have the same effect, but it is\\nnot necessary to pour a large quantity of water over the\\nperson. Rubbing the limbs toward the heart promotes\\nthe flow of blood, and tends to start the heart to activity.\\nApoplexy. Apoplexy is caused by rupture of a blood\\ntube and the formation of a clot that presses on the brain.\\nMeningitis. Meningitis is an inflammation of the\\nmembranes immediately surrounding the brain or spinal\\ncord or both.\\nThe Water Cushion of the Brain. Between the coats\\nsurrounding the brain and spinal cord there is a layer of\\nliquid, comparable to that around the heart or lungs.\\nWhen an undue amount of blood is sent to the brain,", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "THE BRAIN. 249\\nit is supposed that part of the cerebrospinal fluid is\\npressed out into the spinal cavity, thus relieving the pres-\\nsure in the brain cavity.\\nRelative Activity of Gray and White Matter. The\\ngray matter is, physiologically, more active than the white,\\nand in keeping with this is the fact that the capillary\\nnetwork is closer in the gray matter than in the white.\\nThis is true of the spinal cord as well as of the brain.\\nReading. Brain-work and Over-work, Wood The\\nBrain and its Functions, Luys.\\nSummary. 1 The outside of the brain consists of gray matter,\\nthe inside of white matter.\\n2. The twelve pairs of cranial nerves are distributed to the head,\\nwith the exception of the tenth and part of the eleventh.\\n3. The cranial nerves include all the special senses but that of\\ntouch.\\n4. Each hemisphere of the brain is connected with, and has chief\\ncontrol of, the opposite half of the body.\\n5. The gray matter of the cerebrum is the seat of the will, sensation,\\nthought, and emotion.\\n6. The cerebellum regulates voluntary motion.\\n7. Many of the cerebral functions have been located.\\n8. The brain needs rest. In sleep less blood flows through the\\nbrain.\\n9. Work reduces the size of nerve cells. During rest they increase\\nagain.\\nQuestions. 1. Is there any special reason why the speech cen-\\nter should be in the left cerebral hemisphere\\n2. Why does a light lunch sometimes enable one to go to sleep\\nafter mental work\\n3. Why is it uncomfortable to hold the head down\\n4. How does the nervous system resemble a telegraph system In\\nwhat respects are the two unlike\\n5. Name some remedies for sleeplessness.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVI.\\nEFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\n[Treatise on Hygiene, Stevenson and Murphy.]\\nThe physiological effects of alcohol which have been\\nconsidered are quite subsidiary to its effects on the central\\nnervous system, as there is no doubt that it is for this\\neffect on the brain that alcoholic beverages are so univer-\\nsally taken by mankind. The first effect that alcohol has\\non the brain is that of a stimulant, and it probably acts as\\nsuch in two ways namely, by increasing the circulation\\nof blood through the brain, which is thus roused to greater\\nvigor, and by directly stimulating the nerve cells of the\\nnerve centers. This stimulating effect is observed chiefly\\nafter medium or dietetic doses, and its result is seen in\\nmany individuals by an increase of mental and bodily\\nactivity, and of acuteness of perception by the special\\nsenses. This beneficial physiological effect is, however,\\nsoon replaced by poisonous symptoms if the dietetic doses\\nare too often repeated, or a large quantity of alcohol is\\ntaken at once for alcohol then becomes a depressant and\\nparalyzer of the central nervous system, and symptoms\\nof intoxication appear. This depressant effect is, as Brun-\\nton points out, one of progressive paralysis. The higher\\ncenters of the brain are first affected, then the lower.\\nThe perceptive centers are paralyzed, so that correct\\njudgment is no longer possible, while the emotions are\\nuncontrolled and thrown out of working gear, fits of bois-\\nterous hilarity and of emotional depression being common\\n250", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON NERVOUS SYSTEM. 25 1\\nsymptoms. Speech becomes disordered, and symptoms\\nof incoordination, due probably to an effect on the cere-\\nbellum, appear. The respiratory center in the medulla\\nthen becomes affected, and at this stage there is coma\\nwith stertorous breathing, while the action of the heart\\nstill continues, even after respiration has stopped. There\\ncan be no question that alcohol taken in sufficient quanti-\\nties to depress the higher centers of the brain does an\\ninfinite amount of harm.\\nDr. Crothers, author of Diseases of Inebriety, says, I\\nhave often been made impatient in listening to the lecturer\\npresenting the scientific aspects of the alcohol question\\nto an audience, to see him illustrate extensively with\\ncharts, and spend hours to show the effects of alcohol\\nupon the coats of the stomach, and upon the structure of\\nthe liver and the kidneys, and never allude once to the\\nbrain when the fact is, alcohol s principal effect is upon\\nthis organ, and the functions of this organ so far transcend\\nthe functions of all the others, that I might say, there is\\nno comparison.\\nSome authors hold that the alterations in the tissues by\\nalcoholic drinks result from the injury to the nerve centers\\nthat preside over these tissues for their nutrition depends\\nnot merely on the direct effect of the blood and lymph\\nsupply, but also upon the direct influences of the nerve\\ncenters they even go so far as to maintain that there is a\\nspecial set of nerve fibers devoted to the control of the\\nnutrition of the cells, and these nerve fibers they call\\ntrophic nerves or trophic fibers.\\nIt is clear that the nervous centers, independently of\\nthe ill effects on their nutrition by the blood changes,\\nhave a certain chemical attraction for alcohol, which\\naccordingly is found in their tissue. Crothers.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "252 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nDr. Crothers, in common with many physicians, regards\\ninebriety as a disease.\\nDr. Clum in his work entitled Inebriety, its Causes, its\\nResults, its Remedy, says The most important part of\\nman is his nervous system the cerebrospinal, sympathetic,\\nand vasomotor being intimately interwoven and connected,\\ncomposing the whole. The great nervous center, the brain,\\nwith its hemispheres, its gray and white matter, is the\\nmost complex of all complexities. The nerve fibers not\\nonly connect every cell with every other cell, but unite all\\nnervous structures into one, making the entire body a\\ncomplete whole, and forming close and direct sympathy\\nbetween the intellect and the physical organization.\\nThe mind and body are so intimately connected that\\nexhausting excess of either acts and reacts on the other.\\nExcessive work, either intellectual or physical, the sudden\\nloss of property, intense disappointment, great trouble, un-\\nrequited affections, etc., may impart a shock to the senses\\nthrough the mind, which, extending to the molecules of\\nthe brain, disturbs their normal action and a sufferer\\nthus worn and debilitated with the cares of life, with an\\nenfeebled will power, the result of nervous exhaustion,\\nexperiences a craving for some form of stimulant to brace\\nhim up. He is on the verge of inebriety, or of insanity,\\nor both, and if he indulges in alcoholic beverages he\\nbecomes an inebriate. Any disease inherited or acquired,\\nacting either directly or indirectly upon the nervous system,\\nmay act as the predisposing, exciting, or complicating and\\nprotracting cause of alcoholic inebriety.\\nInebriety is often, too often, observed to flourish in\\nthe richest and most promising soil. The clergyman, the\\nlawyer, the editor, the student, and all others who use\\ntheir intellectual faculties to excess, as well as the mechanic,", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON NERVOUS SYSTEM. 253\\nthe laborer, and those who excessively exert their physical\\nsystem, have unnatural longings for something to restore\\nthe exhausted energies of mind and body.\\nThe excessive worry of one man, the exhausting ex-\\ncesses of another, and the overwork of others, lead to\\norganic lesions and nervous defects, and the disease\\ninebriety, an ungovernable craving for alcoholic drinks, is\\nthe result.\\nWhen a man drinks to excess, even though forced to\\ndo so by a diseased nervous system, Christian communities\\nusually brand him as a criminal, as an outcast, and say,\\n1 We have no sympathy for you stop drinking and be a\\nman, when in reality the man should be cared for, and\\ntreated as other diseased human beings. The fact that the\\ndesire for alcoholic drinks is often a disease which may be\\neither inherited or acquired is overlooked by those who\\ncondemn the drunkard. Our ancestors have for ages been\\naddicted to habits of intoxication, and we, their descend-\\nants, are tainted with the disease inebriety.\\nMORAL DETERIORATION PRODUCED BY ALCOHOL.\\n[Professor H. Newell Martin.]\\nOne result of a single dose of alcohol is that the con-\\ntrol of the will over the actions and emotions is temporarily\\nenfeebled the slightly tipsy man laughs and talks loudly,\\nsays and does rash things, is enraged or delighted without\\ndue cause. If the amount of alcohol be increased, further\\ndiminution of will power is indicated by loss of control\\nover the muscles. Excessive habitual use of alcohol\\nresults in permanent overexcitement of the emotional\\nnature, and enfeeblement of the will the man s highly\\nemotional state exposes him to special temptations, to", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "254 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nexcesses of all kinds, and his weakened will decreases the\\npower of resistance the final outcome is a degraded\\nmoral condition. He who was prompt in the performance\\nof duty begins to shirk that which is irksome, energy gives\\nplace to indifference, truthfulness to lying, integrity to\\ndishonesty for even with the best intentions in making-\\npromises or pledges there is no strength of will to keep\\nthem. In forfeiting the respect of others, respect for self\\nis lost and character is overthrown. Meanwhile the pas-\\nsion for drink grows absorbing no sacrifice is too costly\\nwhich secures it. Swift and swifter is now the downward\\nprogress. A mere sot, the man becomes regardless of\\nevery duty, and even incapacitated for any which momen-\\ntary shame may make him desire to perform.\\nFor such a one there is but one hope, confinement\\nin an asylum, where, if not too late, the diseased craving\\nfor drink may be gradually overcome, the prostrated will\\nregain its ascendency, and the man at last gain the victory\\nover the brute\\nNARCOTICS.\\nDefinitions of Narcotics. Gould s Dictionary of Medi-\\ncine, one of the very best authorities, thus defines narcotic\\nA drug that produces narcosis and narcosis, as the\\ndeadening of pain, or the production of incomplete or com-\\nplete anesthesia by the use of narcotic agents, such as the\\nuse of anesthetics, opium, and other drugs. It is common,\\nhowever, to treat of chloroform, ether, chloral hydrate, etc.,\\nin a group by themselves under the designation Anesthetics.\\nThe Century Dictionary thus defines narcotic A sub-\\nstance which directly induces sleep, allaying sensibility and\\nblunting the senses, and which, in large quantities, pro-\\nduces narcotism or complete insensibility. Opium, Canna-", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL OX NERVOUS SYSTEM. 255\\nbis Indica, hyoscyamus, stramonium, and belladonna are\\nthe chief narcotics, of which opium is the most typical.\\nDirect narcotics either produce some specific effect\\nupon the cerebral gray matter, or have a very decided\\naction on the blood supply of the brain.\\nSome authorities class alcohol with the narcotics.\\nOPIUM.\\nOpium. Opium is the dried and thickened juice of the\\nhead, or capsule, of a species of poppy. Incisions are\\nmade in the partially ripened heads the milky juice ex-\\nudes after about twenty-four hours the partially dried\\nand thickened material is scraped off with a dull knife.\\nMost of the opium comes to this country from Smyrna,\\nwith a smaller quantity from Constantinople. As gathered\\nit is a reddish brown, sticky substance of peculiar odor.\\nIt is soluble in water, alcohol, and dilute acids, to all of\\nwhich it gives a deep brown color. It is a very complex\\nsubstance, but the chief constituent is morphia, or mor-\\nphine, to which the properties of opium are due. One\\nfourth of a grain of morphine is equal to a grain of opium\\nof the average strength. Opium was known to the\\nGreeks, but was not much used before the seventeenth\\ncentury at present it is the most important of all medi-\\ncines, and its applications the most multifarious, the chief\\nof them being for the relief of pain and the production of\\nsleep. Its habitual use is disastrous and difficult to break\\nup. It is classed as a stimulant narcotic, acting almost\\nexclusively on the central nervous system when taken in-\\nternally in large quantities it is a powerful narcotic poison,\\nresulting in a coma characterized by great contraction of\\nthe pupils, insensibility, and death. Century Dictionary.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "256 PHYSIOLOGY..\\nProperties and Uses of Opium. The United States\\nDispensatory makes the following statements as to its\\nmedical properties and uses Opium is a stimulant nar-\\ncotic. Taken by a healthy person in a moderate dose, it\\nincreases the force, fullness, and frequency of the pulse,\\naugments the temperature of the skin, invigorates the\\nmuscular system, quickens the senses, animates the spirits,\\nand gives new energy to the intellectual faculties. Its op-\\neration, while thus extending to all parts of the system, is\\ndirected with peculiar force to the brain, the functions of\\nwhich it excites sometimes even to intoxication or delirium.\\nIn a short time this excitation subsides a calmness of the\\ncorporeal actions, and a delightful placidity of mind suc-\\nceed and the individual, insensible to painful impressions,\\nforgetting all sources of care and anxiety, submits himself\\nto a current of undefined and unconnected but pleasing\\nfancies, and is conscious of no other feeling than that of a\\nquiet and vague enjoyment. At the end of half an hour\\nor an hour from the administration of the narcotic, all con-\\nsciousness is lost in sleep. The soporific effect, after hav-\\ning continued for eight or ten hours, goes off, and is often\\nsucceeded by more or less nausea, headache, tremors, and\\nother symptoms of diminished or irregular nervous action,\\nwhich soon yield to the recuperative energies of the sys-\\ntem, and, unless the dose is frequently repeated, and the\\npowers of nature worn out by overexcitement, no injurious\\nconsequences ultimately result. Such is the obvious oper-\\nation of opium when moderately taken but other effects,\\nvery important in a remedial point of view, are also ex-\\nperienced. All the secretions, with the exception of that\\nfrom the skin, are in general either suspended or dimin-\\nished the peristaltic motion of the bowels is lessened\\npain and inordinate muscular contraction, if present, are", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON NERVOUS SYSTEM. 257\\nallayed and general nervous irritation is composed, if not\\nentirely relieved.\\nCocaine. Cocaine is an alkaloid extract of a shrub\\nnative to the Andes. It is much used by the natives for\\nsustenance during long journeys. It is a cerebral stimu-\\nlant, developing a remarkable power of enduring hunger\\nand fatigue. Its effects are similar to those of coffee, but\\nare more intense. Large doses have a narcotic effect and\\ncause hallucinations. Its long-continued use is followed\\nby insomnia, decay of moral and intellectual power, ema-\\nciation, and death. Locally, it is a powerful anesthetic in\\na limited area of surface, hence is valuable for minor sur-\\ngical operations.\\nChloral Hydrate. This drug is frequently, but incor-\\nrectly, called chloral. It is a powerful hypnotic, anti-\\nspasmodic, and depressant to the brain and spinal nerve\\ncenters, and, to a limited extent, is an anesthetic. It is\\nvery useful in fevers accompanied by cerebral excitement,\\nand in convulsions. Its hypnotic effects have led to its\\nuse by individuals without a physician s prescription, and\\noften with fatal results. No drugs of this class should be\\nused except under the advice of a physician.\\nChloroform. In a similar way this anesthetic, whose\\ndiscovery is one of the greatest importance in modern sur-\\ngery, is abused for the sake of its effect on the system,\\nand the hold such a habit gets over the user is similar to\\nthat of the alcohol or opium habit.\\nThe Use of Narcotics. The use of anesthetics and\\nnarcotics may all be said to be typified by the use of alco-\\nhol. Not that they are all stimulants, though many of\\nthem are, in small doses, or in the earlier stages of their", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "258 PHYSIOLOGY.\\neffects. They all act on the nervous system. They pro-\\nduce a pleasurable effect or they bring relief from pain.\\nThe use of many of them is begun during illness, when\\nthey are administered to relieve pain, as in neuralgia.\\nThe habit, once formed, is hard to break. Others, having\\nheard of the soothing effects of these drugs, are unwise\\nenough to experiment on themselves. Only the confes-\\nsions of such victims, and the degrading effects on char-\\nacter, show how powerful is the sway which this class of\\ndrugs gains over those who yield to their influence. Let\\nno one flatter himself that he has a strong will and can\\ncontrol himself. The history of their use is ever the\\nsame. They enslave. They destroy.\\nTobacco. The use of tobacco is needless. Man gets\\nalong well enough without it. It is injurious to many. It\\nis an expensive habit. Many a man spends enough on\\ntobacco to send a boy through college. With the excellent\\ncheap printing of to-day, many of the very best books may\\nbe bought for the money that is paid for as many cigars.\\nEven for those who can abundantly afford it, it seems ex-\\ntremely selfish, when it is needless, and there is so much\\ngood that might be done with the money. Another very\\nselfish feature is that so many men do not seem to con-\\nsider the fact that the air is public property, and they\\nhave no right to fill the air with any gas or smoke that is\\noffensive to others. Very likely many men derive great\\ncomfort from the use of tobacco after they have once\\nformed the habit, but most of these were made sick in\\nlearning, showing that the use is unnatural.\\nNicotine. The active material in tobacco is a sub-\\nstance called nicotine. It is a violent poison. A drop of\\nit in concentrated form will kill a dog.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON NERVOUS SYSTEM. 259\\nGeneral Effects of Tobacco on the System. Tobacco\\nusually diminishes the natural appetite for food and inter-\\nferes with digestion. It often affects the stomach and\\ninduces a craving for alcoholic drink. The eyes are fre-\\nquently affected. Smoking often irritates the mouth and\\nthroat sufficiently to make the voice husky. The heart\\nalso is very frequently affected, the beat becoming un-\\nsteady. The muscles are in some cases weakened and\\naffected by trembling.\\nCigarette Smoking. It seems to be clearly proved\\nthat cigarette smoking is very injurious, especially to boys.\\nAnd if men smoke cigars, the example is set for the boys\\nto smoke cigarettes. Some of the cigarettes are said to\\nbe steeped in preparations of opium, so that the use of\\ncigarettes is often subjecting the user, not only to the\\ntyranny of tobacco, but that of opium as well.\\nPerhaps Robinson Crusoe might have been excused for\\nusing tobacco, having no one to save money for, no unfor-\\ntunates to aid, no children to educate, no one to whom he\\nmight set a bad example, no one whose breath of air he\\ncould contaminate, no one to smell his breath, no one to\\nsee the offensive results. But a man, living in the society\\nof so many to whom this habit, in all its features, is so\\ndisgusting and in every way offensive, ought seriously to\\nconsider whether he is doing 1 ight in continuing such a\\npractice.\\nMany boys seem to think it is manly they wish to do\\nas others do. It is not manly to imitate any one. Do\\nnothing simply because some one else does it. To do this\\nis to be a slave, to be led. And one bad feature of the\\ntobacco habit is that one makes himself a slave to the\\nweed. For, like other narcotics, it has a powerful in-", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "260 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nfluence on the system, and the habit, once formed, is hard\\nto break.\\nHow many men have been heard to say, I wish I had\\nnever formed the habit.\\nHas any one in middle or later life ever been heard to\\nsay, I wish I had formed this habit\\nReading. The Nature and Effects of Alcohol and Nar-\\ncotics, Luce Diseases of Inebriety, Cr others Inebriety, its\\nCauses, its Results, its Remedy, Clum Inebriety, Palmer.\\nSummary. i. The most important physiological effects of alcohol\\nare on the nervous system.\\n2. Many physicians regard inebriety as a disease.\\n3. The use of alcohol weakens the will power.\\n4. Narcotics produce anesthesia, or loss of feeling.\\n5. Hence narcotics are useful in deadening pain, but their use is\\ndangerous.\\n6. Opium is one of the most widely used of the narcotics.\\n7. Tobacco is needless and in many cases harmful.\\n8. Cigarette smoking is very injurious, especially to the young.\\nQuestions. 1 Why is cigarette smoking more injurious than\\ncigar smoking\\n2. How does the opium habit often begin", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVII.\\nGENERAL CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THE NERVOUS\\nSYSTEM.\\nNerve Stimuli. Natural nerve impulses that run out-\\nward are ordinarily started by the action of some nerve\\ncell or cells, as from the gray matter of the brain or of\\nthe spinal cord.\\nNerve impulses coming inward may be started in sev-\\neral ways. Ordinarily by some one of a few forces that\\nare capable of affecting the nerve endings. Mechanical\\nforce, as pressure, acts on the nerve endings of the skin,\\nand starts nerve impulses which are carried to the brain\\nand rouse certain cells to activity, and give us the sensa-\\ntion of touch. The vibrations known as light excite the\\nspecial nerve endings in the retina, but affect no other\\nnerve endings. Sound is appreciated only by the endings\\nof the auditory nerve. Certain gases or fine particles\\naffect the olfactory nerve endings, and certain substances\\nmay give the sense of taste by acting on the ends of nerves\\nin the mouth. Different nerves, then, are adapted to re-\\nceiving impressions from the action of different forces.\\nKinds of Nerve Stimuli. There are four kinds of\\nnerve stimuli, electrical, mechanical, thermal, and chemi-\\ncal. In experiment, electricity is usually the best stimulus\\nmechanical stimuli, as used in the experiments with the\\nmuscle-nerve preparation from the frog, by cutting or\\npinching the nerve, may be employed heat, as in touch-\\n261", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "262 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ning the nerve with a hot wire, or holding a hot wire near\\nthe nerve, may be used as a stimulus chemical stimuli, as\\nacids, strong salt solution, etc., may also be used.\\nEssential Similarity of All Nerve Fibers. It is to be\\nnoted that while special stimuli act on specially modified\\nnerve endings, all nerve fibers are essentially alike, and\\nthe nerve impulse, however started, is probably the same\\nkind of force. For instance, cutting the optic nerve, or\\nsevere shock, as a blow on the head, causes a sensation of\\nlight not quite so definite, but essentially the same as\\nthough light had acted on the retina, and thus started the\\nnerve impulse, instead of a mechanical stimulus acting on\\nthe nerve fibers between the retina and the brain.\\nRelation of Stimulus and Sensation. If we apply a\\nstimulus of a given intensity, as of an electric current,\\nwhose intensity can be measured, it causes a sensation of\\na certain degree. Doubling the stimulus, or increasing it\\nby a definite amount, does not increase the intensity of the\\nsensation to the same degree. The sensations do not\\nincrease at the same rate as the stimuli. To increase the\\nsensations arithmetically, the stimuli must increase geo-\\nmetrically.\\nReaction Time. Reaction time is the time between\\nthe application of a stimulus and the signal given as a\\nresponse to show that the stimulus has been felt. Thus\\na blindfolded person gives a signal as soon as he is touched.\\nThis interval between the stimulus and response varies\\nwith the individual, mode of stimulation, health, attention,\\netc. It is from one tenth to one fifth of a second is short-\\nest for touch longer for sight than for hearing. The total\\nreaction time is occupied by (i) the time of conducting\\nthe nerve impulse to the brain, (2) the time occupied in", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM IN GENERAL. 263\\nthe cerebral cortex in the perception of the sensation\\nand the formation of the volition, (3) the time of conduct-\\ning the motor impulse and giving the signal. The greater\\npart is in the middle interval, i.e. the central elaboration,\\nduring which the entering impression gives rise to an out-\\ngoing impulse.\\nReflex Action. In a previous diagram of reflex action,\\na single cell was represented as receiving the afferent im-\\nNerve Cells connected by Interlacing Nerve Network\\nAfferent Nerve Fiber Efferent Nerve Fiber\\nSensory ?l\\\\ ^pgJMuscle\\nEpithelium\\nFig. 83. Diagram of Reflex Action.\\npulse and sending out an efferent one. It is more proba-\\nble that at least two cells are concerned in such an act, one\\nreceiving the incoming impulse, and influencing, by means\\nof fine connecting branches, a second cell which sends out\\nthe motor impulse, as shown in Fig. 83.\\nConnection of Brain Centers. We have seen that the\\nbrain functions are more or less localized. We also know\\nthat the cortex receives impressions through the channels", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "264\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nWriting\\nof the different sense organs, and we can respond through\\nvarious channels, speech, writing, facial expression, etc.\\nWe would therefore expect, theoretically, that the various\\nparts of the cortex of the brain are connected. As a\\nmatter of fact, we\\nfind anatomically\\nthat this is the\\ncase. Not only\\nare the cells of\\nSpeech the gra y mat _\\nter connected\\nwith the various\\nparts of the body,\\nbut cells of differ-\\nent parts of the\\ncortex are in com-\\nmunication with\\neach other by what\\nare called as-\\nsociation fibers.\\nThus a sensation\\nroused in one part\\nof the brain gives\\nrise to the sending\\nout of an impulse\\nfrom another part\\nrig 84. Connection of Brain Centers by Association _ L\\nFibers. (After Landois and Stirling.) of the brain tO\\n(The dotted lines from the hand, mouth, and eye rep- produce the re-\\nresent afferent fibers from the skin, muscles, and joints\\nof the hand, lips, orbit, etc.) SponSC\\nThe Nature of Sensation. Of the real nature of sen-\\nsation we know but little. Like consciousness, we call it\\na condition of the gray matter of the cerebral convolutions.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM IN GENERAL. 265\\nPerhaps the most practical definition of sensation that we\\ncan give is that it is the interpretation that the cells of\\nthe gray matter of tJie brain give to the 7terve impulses\\nthat come from without. This will apply to ordinary sen-\\nsations.\\nSubjective Sensations. But sensations may be subjec-\\ntive that is, they may exist without any corresponding\\nexternal exciting cause. For some unexplained reason the\\ncells of the brain are active, and their activity, however\\ncaused, constitutes what we call a sensation. Certain\\ndrugs, such as hashish, may excite an unusual degree of\\ncerebral activity. Here the action is roused through af-\\nferent nerves, but through unusual channels that is, the\\nsubject sees, but not through the nerves of sight. Many\\nhallucinations are explainable to a certain degree others\\nwe cannot account for.\\nThe Relative Nature of Sensations. If one hand be\\nheld in a basin of hot water and the other in a basin of\\ncold water, and then the two be suddenly plunged into\\na third basin containing tepid water, a sensation of cold will\\nbe received from the hand that was in the hot water, while\\nthe hand from the cold water will feel heat. Sensations\\ndepend on comparison and contrast. After listening to\\nlow sounds, a sudden loud noise is painful and after hear-\\ning loud noises, it is difficult to detect slight sounds. We\\nhardly notice the gradual fading of the light at sunset.\\nAnd the nose does not usually detect the slow fouling of\\nthe air in a room but let one come in from the fresh out-\\nside air, and the contrast is striking. A constant current\\nof electricity usually causes a muscular contraction at the\\ntime the current enters the muscle and at the time when\\nthe current is stopped, that is, at the making and the", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "266 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nbreaking of the current; but the muscle ordinarily re-\\nmains inactive while the current is passing.\\nInduction Current used in Physiological Experiment. The in-\\nterrupted current, or induction current, is therefore commonly employed\\nas a stimulus in physiological experiment. A sudden change seems\\nto be requisite for producing the nerve impulse necessary to rouse\\na sensation in ordinary circumstances. Pressure may be applied so\\ngradually that we fail to notice it. The art of the pickpocket, of the\\nventriloquist, of the sleight-of-hand performer, depends largely on this\\nfact. Attention is called to something else, and the work is either\\nquickly done when attention is completely absorbed on something else,\\nor the act is so gradual that no sudden change is noted. In smelling\\nit is often necessary to sniff; the sudden rush of particles of air bearing\\nthe odorous particles against the surface bearing the nerve endings\\nseems to be necessary.\\nDreams. Dreams, due to more or less perfect brain activity, are\\noften traceable to nerve impulses brought from the digestive tract, from\\nthe respiratory organs, from the skin (heat and cold and pressure),\\nfrom sound, from any internal organ, according to the condition of the\\nblood, pressure, etc. It seems to be well settled that dreams seeming\\nto cover long periods of time really take place in a very short space of\\ntime, just as sometimes during waking hours thoughts fly through the\\nmind in countless numbers and with incredible swiftness.\\nIgnoring Nerve Currents. Do we have dreams when we recall\\nnone? Without attempting to answer this question it is well to note\\nthat the brain undoubtedly is constantly receiving nerve currents to\\nwhich it pays no heed, or at least of which we are not conscious.\\nFor instance, our clothing is touching nearly the whole of the surface\\nof our bodies, and, plainly, the surfaces thus touched are affected.\\nUndoubtedly currents go to the brain, but as they are of no significance\\nin ordinary circumstances, we learn to disregard them. If a savage\\nwere suddenly clothed as fully as we are, he would, for a long time,\\nbe continually conscious of the fact.\\nJudgment. In what is called Aristotle s experiment,\\nthe experimenter crosses the first and second finger, and\\nfeels an object with the fingers thus crossed and eyes shut.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM IN GENERAL. 267\\nIf a marble be rolled about by the two fingers thus crossed,\\nit seems to be two. Here we use judgment with the sen-\\nsation. Ordinarily, we could not feel, at the same time,\\none simple solid object with the outside of the first and the\\ninside of the second finger. This illustrates how we are\\nconstantly using our judgment in interpreting our sen-\\nsations. We see few things as they are in themselves.\\nWe see nearly everything in the light of past experiences.\\nLingering Effect of Sensations. We have noted the lingering\\neffects of sensations, how sights and sounds linger and are fused one\\nwith the other. So we get continuous light from a series of flashes\\nif they follow each other in sufficiently rapid succession, and continu-\\nous sound from a series of sounds that would be heard separately if\\nthey are more than about a sixteenth of a second apart. So with\\ntouch, if the finger be held against the teeth of a revolving wheel, if\\nthe wheel revolve slowly, the touch of each tooth may be felt, but when\\nit whirls more rapidly the sensation becomes that of continuous pres-\\nsure. Experience and experiment both go to show that probably\\nnothing is wholly forgotten. Whatever acts upon a cell of nervous\\nmatter makes its mark. It may become dim, but it is never completely\\nobliterated. The testimony of persons rescued from drowning, and other\\nsimilar experiences, goes to show that the record was yet in the mind.\\nWe may fail to recollect, but we ever remember.\\nHabits are Acquired Reflex Actions. The work of\\nthe spinal cord is that of a subordinate officer, whose duty\\nis to relieve his superior, the brain, of many small tasks,\\nand to afford him relief from having all the details con-\\nstantly on his mind. If we learn to do many things me-\\nchanically, we save the effort of doing them by conscious\\neffort and act of will. Whatever we do for the first time\\nrequires careful attention. To learn any new muscular\\naction, such as a new step in marching, fingering a musical\\ninstrument, or typewriting, requires effort they produce\\nmore or less fatigue. Subsequent effort in doing the same", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "268 PHYSIOLOGY,\\nthing is very much less, showing that, in many cases,\\nfatigue is. mental rather than muscular. What we do from\\nhabit, and cheerfully, is easily done. Hence the desira-\\nbility of forming good habits, that we may, without un-\\nnecessary effort, that is, without loss of energy, do\\nwhat is needed for our well-being.\\nFatigue from Standing. We are not conscious of\\nexpending energy in standing until we begin to be weary\\nbut the fact that a blow on the head causes one to fall\\nreveals the fact that the brain is constantly sending mes-\\nsages to the muscles to make them act. The shock of the\\nblow has stopped the sending forth of these messages, and\\nso the body is no longer supported. None of the muscles\\nthat support the body have been injured or even touched.\\nThe Usefulness of Resting. We have, in youth, such\\na boundless store of energy that we do not sufficiently\\nconsider these matters. But if one wishes to follow the\\nintellectual life long and successfully, he must learn to\\neconomize energy, and to direct his forces into useful\\nchannels. And one important part of this knowledge is\\nlearning how to rest. It is an art that very few have well\\nlearned.\\nNervous System compared to a Telegraph System.\\nThe brain is like a telegraph office in both receiving and\\nsending out messages. Unlike the telegraph office, it has\\none set of fibers to bring currents in (afferent), and another\\nto carry currents outward (efferent).\\nEfferent Currents. We have concerned ourselves thus\\nfar chiefly with efferent nerve fibers and efferent currents.\\nThese efferent currents are sent mainly to muscles, to\\nmake them shorten or to relax, or to gland cells, to control", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM IN GENERAE 269\\ntheir activity. The only other efferent currents, so far\\nas known, are those which possibly go to the cells of\\nthe. tissues to regulate their nutrition or their heat pro-\\nduction.\\nHaving given so much attention to the outgo of nerve\\nimpulses, let us ask the question, What about the in-\\ncoming nerve currents\\nAfferent Currents. All life long the never-ceasing\\nchanges of the external world continually break as waves\\non the peripheral endings of the afferent nerves all life\\nlong nervous impulses, now more, now fewer, are continu-\\nally sweeping inward toward the center and the nervous\\nmetabolism, which is the basis of nervous action, must be\\nat least as largely dependent on these influences from\\nwithout as on the mere chemical supply furnished by the\\nblood. We must regard the supereminent activity of the\\ncortex and the characters of the processes taking place in\\nit as due not so much to the intrinsic chemical nature of\\nthe nervous substance, which is built up into the cortical\\ngray matter, as to the fact that impulses are continually\\nstreaming into it from all parts of the body that almost\\nall influences brought to bear on the body make themselves\\nfelt by it. To put the matter in a bald way we may ask\\nthe question, What would happen in the cortex if, its or-\\ndinary nutritive supply remaining as before, it were cut\\nadrift from afferent impulses of all kinds We can hardly\\ndoubt but that volitional and other psychical processes\\nwould soon come to a standstill, and consciousness vanish.\\nThis is, indeed, roughly indicated by the remarkable case\\nof a patient whose almost only communication with the\\nexternal world was by means of one eye, he being blind in\\nthe other eye, deaf of both ears, and suffering from gen-", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "270 PHYSIOLOGY,\\neral anesthesia. Whenever the sound eye was closed he\\nwent to sleep. Foster.\\nLet us turn from the consideration of outgoing, or\\nefferent, nerve impulses and their resulting action to the\\nincoming, or afferent, nerve impulses and the activity\\nwhich they rouse in the gray matter of the cerebrum\\nsensation.\\nReading. Wear and Tear, Mitchell Power through\\nRepose, Call; Technique of Rest, Brackett.\\nSummary, i Nerves may be stimulated by mechanical force,\\nchemical action, heat, and electricity.\\n2. Electricity is the most convenient nerve stimulus for physiological\\nexperiment. The induction current is usually employed.\\n3. To increase sensations arithmetically stimuli must increase geo-\\nmetrically.\\n4. Reaction time is the interval between the application of a stimu-\\nlus and the response.\\n5. Sensations are relative.\\n6. Habits are acquired reflex actions.\\n7. The nervous system is unlike the telegraph system in using one\\nset of fibers for receiving and another for sending messages.\\nQuestions. 1. Is the difference in reaction time in individuals\\nof any significance\\n2. Why are slight wounds in a battle often unperceived", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVIII.\\nTHE GENERAL SENSES.\\nThe Body a Collection of Organs. We have been\\nconsidering the body as a collection of organs working\\ntogether to serve the brain, the mechanism through which\\nthe mind operates.\\nWe have especially studied the muscles as the only\\nmeans by which the mind manifests itself to the outer\\nworld.\\nInfluences from the External World. But how much\\nmind would we have if we did not receive something from\\nthe outer world Read the story of Kaspar Hauser. We\\nare continually getting knowledge of the outer world and\\nof the condition of our own bodies through the afferent\\nnerves. We may never know fully what consciousness and\\nthought are, but we can understand that to the brain are\\ncontinually streaming nerve impulses that convey messages\\nwhich the brain more or less completely interprets.\\nClassification of the Senses. These incoming currents\\npass along myriads of nerve fibers. But the nerve fibers\\nare all essentially alike. And the kinds of sensations that\\nthese currents arouse in the brain are but few. It is diffi-\\ncult to classify the senses, but it will serve our convenience\\nto divide them into two groups.\\nGeneral Sensations and Special Senses. In distinc-\\ntion from the special senses, sight, hearing, etc., are the\\n271", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "272 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ngeneral sensations already referred to, such as hunger,\\nthirst, fatigue, nausea, satiety, faintness, etc. They are\\noften called common sensations, and Martin designates\\nthem as sensations which we do not mentally attribute to\\nthe properties of external objects, but to the conditions of\\nour own bodies.\\nGeneral Sensations. Nerve endings in different parts\\nof the body may be affected by the blood and the lymph,\\nand give us sensations of comfort, discomfort, restlessness,\\nfatigue, faintness, etc. These are called general sensa-\\ntions. They are probably due to the condition of the\\nblood, or to the condition of nutrition of the various parts\\nof the body. Thus after muscular exercise the muscles are\\nacid in their reaction, while they are alkaline after resting\\nafter exercise carbon dioxid accumulates in them to a cer-\\ntain extent. Hunger and thirst come on after abstinence\\nfrom food and drink, or after work exhausting the tissues.\\nThe presence of the various waste products, or the condi-\\ntion of the cells as the result of their activity, acting\\nthrough the nerve endings in the tissues, keep the nerve\\ncenters informed as to the condition of the parts of the body.\\nIf these conditions are extreme, we may have definable sen-\\nsations, but ordinarily the sensations are of an undefmable\\nsort which we designate as general sensations.\\nThe Muscular Sense. As an example, we will take\\nthe case of estimating the weight of an object by holding\\nit in the hand. Our estimate is thought by some to be the\\nresult of (i) direct consciousness of the degree of effort\\nput forth but probably it is (2) a sensation, or complex of\\nsensations, aroused by nerve impulses from the organs\\nused. There are afferent nerve fibers with endings in\\n(1) the skin, (2) the muscles and tendons, (3) the joints.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "THE GENERAL SENSES. 273\\nIn extending the arm and moving it up and down, all three\\nof these sets of nerve endings are probably stimulated, and\\nimpulses thence conveyed to the brain.\\nMuscular Sense and General Sensibility. It is a\\nmatter of doubt whether or not the impulses from the\\nmuscles are predominant, and consequently whether the\\nterm muscular sense is the most appropriate. Peculiar\\nnerve endings have been found in the tendons, and the\\njoints are believed to have an especially rich nerve supply.\\nIt is not necessary that we actively use the muscles to have\\nsensations of this kind. In passive moments, as the rais-\\ning of the arm by another person, we have a sense of\\nposition of the parts, a considerable share of which is\\nprobably due to the tension of the skin and changes in the\\njoints. There is, of course, some tension of the muscle,\\neven in this passive movement, that might affect nerve\\nendings in it. The muscular sense is closely related to the\\ngeneral sensibility already mentioned, if not a modified\\nform of it.\\nImportance of Muscular Sense. It is difficult to real-\\nize the importance of this sense in our daily experience.\\nWe probably underestimate it, and attribute to sight too\\nmuch of our knowledge of the external world. The funda-\\nmental facts concerning the objects about us are not ob-\\ntained through sight alone. Such knowledge is based on\\ncomplex judgments concerning the meaning of auditory\\nand visual phenomena, according as they have, in past ex-\\nperience, been interpreted by tactile and muscular percep-\\ntions. That is, when reduced to its simplest terms our\\nmost practical and important knowledge of the world is\\nthe outgrowth of tactile and muscular perceptions by and", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "274 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nwith them all other sense perceptions have been corrected\\nand compared.\\nDependence of Sight on Muscular Sense and Touch.\\nAn illustration of the assistance which touch and the mus-\\ncular sense give to the sense of sight is furnished in the\\ncase of a boy who had been blind from birth, and received\\nsight at the age of twelve years by means of a surgical\\noperation. At first he could not distinguish a globe from\\na circular card of the same color until he had touched them.\\nHe knew the peculiar features of the dog and the cat by\\nfeeling, but not by sight. Happening one day to pick up\\nthe cat he recognized for the first time the connection be-\\ntween the new sense of sight and the old familiar ones of\\ntouch and the muscular sense. On putting the cat down\\nhe said, So, puss, I shall know you next time.\\nPain. When a heavy weight is laid on the hand it may\\ncause pain. It would at first seem that the ordinary pres-\\nsure sense, when unduly exaggerated, becomes pain. But\\nthere seem good reasons for considering pain as a distinct\\nsense from that of touch intensified. It is thought that\\nthere are, throughout all parts of the body, nerves of com-\\nmon sensibility or general sensibility, which keep the\\nnerve centers informed as to the condition of all the various\\ntissues, and that ordinarily we have no sensation resulting\\nfrom the impulses to use the language of the psycholo-\\ngist, they do not rise above the threshold of conscious-\\nness. They may have some influence in adjusting the\\naction of the different parts. We have seen how the blood-\\nflow to any part is continually adjusted without our know-\\ning anything about it. But we are usually more or less\\nconscious of the general condition of the body. We call\\nby the name of common sensations such feelings as", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "THE GENERAL SENSES. 275\\nhunger, thirst, nausea, fatigue, depression, melancholy,\\nrestlessness, such as many experience preceding a thun-\\nderstorm, the feeling of general discomfort known as\\nmalaise, and its opposite, the feeling of general well being.\\nThe body seems to have a set of nerves to give information\\nas to the state of nutrition of the body, and as to its condi-\\ntion generally. These nerves, when the system is dis-\\nordered in any part, may bring messages that cause intense\\npain. Of course, they are warnings (they are more than\\nmere warnings probably if the earlier indications of simple\\ndiscomfort had been heeded the later more emphatic mes-\\nsages of pain would not have been necessary). These mes-\\nsages of pain demand attention.\\nThe Extent of Pain. In reference to pain in the skin,\\nit is held that the skin, too, has its nerves of general sensi-\\nbility, and that these are distinct from those of touch and\\ntemperature sense. That when they are unduly stimulated\\nthey give rise to painful sensations. It is to be noted that\\nthe internal organs are ordinarily devoid of feeling, and\\nthat the skin is especially sensitive. The skin senses stand\\nguard at the outposts, so to speak, of the body s camp, and\\ngive warning of approaching danger. No enemy may\\nenter without being discovered by these keen sentinels,\\nand the alarm is given. If it is not heeded, great harm\\nmay follow. And it is a comfort to know that the more\\nsevere wounds do not cause pain in proportion to their\\nextent. When a person says his lungs are sore the\\npain is usually in the muscles of the chest from coughing.\\nWhile there may be acute pain from the lungs, as in pleu-\\nrisy, there is often deep-seated lung disease without pain\\nfrom the lungs themselves. The muscles of the chest and\\nback may be strained by lifting, and the soreness is erro-", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "276 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nneously attributed to the lungs or kidneys. Hence there\\nis frequently a wholly needless apprehension of deep-\\nseated disorder, whereas in reality there is merely a strain\\nof superficial muscles. In amputating a limb the chief\\npain is in cutting through the skin. Some excellent\\nauthorities still hold the view that pain is merely the\\nresult of intensifying any of the simple sensations but it\\nis generally held that it results from the excessive stimula-\\ntion of the nerves of general sensibility as Foster puts it,\\nthe constantly smouldering embers of common sensibility\\nmay be at any moment fanned into the flame of pain.\\nPain a General Sense. In the real special senses,\\nsight, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and temperature sense,\\nwe refer the sensation to some external object, whereas\\ngeneral sensations are subjective, referred to our bodies.\\nOrdinarily we do not localize the common sensations, and\\na further indication of the relationship of pain and general\\nsensation is in the lack of complete localization of pain.\\nSlight pain, especially in the skin, may be closely located,\\nbut severe pain tends to become indefinite and diffuse.\\nSo we may class both the muscular sense and pain with\\nthe general rather than with the special senses.\\nHunger and Thirst. The cause of these sensations in\\na healthy body is plainly the need of food and water\\nthroughout the system generally. The sensation of thirst\\nmanifests itself in the throat, and the longing may be tem-\\nporarily relieved by merely moistening the throat. So\\nhunger may, for the time, be appeased by filling the stom-\\nach with indigestible material. But the sensation soon\\nreturns. The system has a crying need, and it is not to be\\nput off by any such frauds. That these sensations are\\nreally demands made by the body as a whole may be", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "THE GENERAL SENSES. 2*]J\\nshown by the fact that they are permanently relieved by\\nintroducing food and water into the body (by the rectum,\\nfor instance), in which case the throat and stomach have\\nnothing given them directly. Since, however, food and\\ndrink naturally enter by the throat and stomach, the\\nmucous membrane of these organs has become spokes-\\nman of the body for its demands.\\nReading. Pain, Corning.\\nSummary. i Brain action depends, in the long run, upon im-\\npulses from without. If we had no impressions, we could have no\\nexpressions.\\n2. General sensations are referred to our bodies and their condition\\nspecial sensations are regarded as attributes of external objects.\\n3. The u muscular sense 11 probably depends chiefly on impulses\\nfrom the tendons and joints.\\n4. The muscular sense is necessary for the full interpretation of\\nsight. It enables us to judge of the degree of effort put forth or force\\nresisted.\\n5. Pain is a general sensation. It is a warning the cry of a senti-\\nnel that an enemy has passed the picket line.\\n6. Hunger and thirst indicate the need of food and drink. They are\\nlocal signals of a general want.\\nQuestions. 1. If we had no sense of pain, what might result?\\n2. If we pass by a meal time without eating, why does the sense of\\nhunger disappear?", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIX.\\nTHE SPECIAL SENSES TOUCH AND TEMPERATURE\\nSENSE.\\nWhat we learn by touching Objects. Let one person\\nrest the hand flat on the table, palm upward, and close the\\neyes. An object placed on the palm, by another person,\\nmay give rise to various sensations, so that it may be\\ndescribed as rough or smooth, light or heavy, hot or cold,\\nwet or dry, etc. If the object is very heavy or very hot, it\\nmay cause pain. If now the thumb and fingers are raised\\nand applied to the object, more definite information will be\\ngained as to its shape, size, surface, etc. Now raise the\\nobject in the hand, and further appreciation will be gained\\nas to its weight.\\nThese experiments show that several sensations are in-\\nvolved in the handling .of objects, and that the knowledge\\nso gained is complex.\\nCutaneous Sensations. The sensations from the ob-\\njects resting on the skin of the passive hand may, proba-\\nbly, all be referred to impressions made on nerve endings\\nin the skin, and are called cutaneous sensations. They\\ninclude: (i) the pressure sense, or touch proper, (2) the\\ntemperature sense, and (3) pain.\\nNerve Endings in the Skin. The skin consists of\\ntwo layers, the epidermis and the dermis. We need now\\nto recall those conical elevations of the dermis that we call\\n278", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 279\\npapillae. In these papillae are certain important nerve\\nendings. There are several kinds of nerve endings in the\\nskin and underneath it that receive the impressions which,\\ncarried to the brain, give us sensations of touch (and allied\\nsensations to be considered soon). Pressure on the skin\\naffects these nerve endings, and\\nstarts impulses that pass along the ^r^\\nsensor fibers to some nerve center, r\\nprobably in the spinal cord, spinal\\nbulb, or brain. Igf 7 S 1 Fibers\\nTouch Corpuscles. These\\ntouch corpuscles are not re-\\ngarded as essential for producing\\nthe sensation of touch, but some\\nnerve endings in the skin do seem\\nnecessary for if a nerve fiber be\\n_ J Fig. 85. Papilla of Skin with\\ntouched, not at the end, but some- Touch corpuscle.\\nwhere along its course, we get, not\\na sensation of touch, but a sensation of pain. Except in\\nthe mouth and nose, we get little, if any, sense of touch\\nfrom any organ but the skin. The lining of the digestive\\ntube and the internal organs generally are devoid of this\\nsense.\\nThe Sense of Touch. Of the special senses the most\\ngeneral is that of touch. Seeing and hearing, taste and\\nsmell, belong to very limited parts of the outside of the\\nbody, but we have the power of feeling all over the surface\\nof the body.\\nTouch the most General of the Special Senses.\\nNot only is the sense of touch the most general in being\\ndistributed over the whole of the body, but it is the most\\nwidely distributed sense throughout the animal kingdom.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "280 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nAs we descend the animal scale we find many of the lower\\nanimals lacking some of the senses that we possess. In\\nmany of the simpler forms of animal life there is no evi-\\ndence of a sense of hearing, and it is extremely likely that\\nif they have taste and smell, these senses are in a very\\nrudimentary state of development. But in all these forms\\nit is believed that feeling exists. Contact of their exte-\\nrior with foreign objects is so often immediately followed\\nby action that little doubt remains about their having the\\nsense of touch. Even ameba may have, in a rudimentary\\nstate, the power to distinguish light, to taste, and to hear.\\nStill we have little or no evidence on these points, while\\nwe are pretty sure that it feels.\\nThe Pressure Sense. The sense of touch, proper, is\\nstrictly a pressure sense. If we test the skin to find what\\nregions are able to detect the least pressure, it is found\\nthat the forehead is most sensitive, and nearly equally so\\nare the temples, back of the hand, and forearm.\\nAbility to detect Differences of Pressure. The\\nability to detect differences of pressure is tested by finding\\nwhat is the least addition to a weight required to make it\\nseem heavier. For instance, if a weight of 1 1 grains is\\njust perceptibly heavier than one of 10 grains, it does not\\nfollow that i grain added to a weight of ioo grains will\\ngive any palpable increase. To ioo grains must be added\\n10 grains before additional pressure is felt; that is, what-\\never the weight, there must be the same ratio of increase\\nto increase the sensation. This is part of the law, already\\nstated, of the relation of stimulus and sensation. The law\\nis true only in a general way and will not apply in extreme\\ncases. It is stated that the forehead, the lips, and temples\\nappreciate an increase of one fortieth to one thirtieth of the", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 28 1\\nweight estimated, while the skin of the head, the fingers,\\nand the forearm require an increase of one twentieth to\\none tenth for its perception.\\nAfter-Pressure. The lingering effect of pressure, or\\nafter-pressure, may be noticed after taking off a tight hat,\\nskate strap, shoe, or glove.\\nLocal Sign. If a point of the skin is touched, certain\\ntactile corpuscles are irritated these, in turn, set up im-\\npulses in sensory nerve fibers, and these impulses are car-\\nried by the fibers, first to the spinal cord, and then to the\\nbrain, where the fibers end in ganglionic masses in the\\ngray matter of the cerebral cortex. There are thus pro-\\njected, as it were, on the cortex of the brain, tactile centers\\nfor the hind leg, fore leg, neck, eye, ear, trunk, etc. and\\nit follows that each point of the skin has a corresponding\\npoint in the cerebral cortex. Thus for each stimulation of\\na point of the cerebral cortex there is a local sign, and so\\nwe localize tactile impressions.\\nAccuracy in locating Touch Sensations. The accu-\\nracy varies, and is ordinarily keenest where the nerves are\\nmost numerous. Where the sense of locality seems to be\\nimproved by cultivation, this appears to be due to keener\\ndiscrimination in the brain cells, and not to changes in the\\nnerves or nerve endings. This is indicated in the fact that\\nif the fingers of one hand become more discriminating by\\npractice, it will be found that the fingers of the other hand,\\nwithout special training, are also improved.\\nTest by Compass Points. The delicacy of localizing\\ntouch is usually tested in this way. The blunted points of\\na light pair of compasses are allowed to rest gently on the\\nskin of various parts of the body. If the two points are", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "282 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nvery close together, they will he felt as one pressure. That\\npart which can best distinguish, as two points of touch,\\nthese blunt points, is considered the most sensitive. By\\nthis test the tip of the tongue is the most sensitive, being\\nable to distinguish, as two separate points of contact, the\\ntips of the compasses when only one twenty-fifth part of\\nan inch apart. Following is the order of degrees of sen-\\nsitiveness tip of tongue, tips of fingers, lip, tip of nose,\\neyelid, cheek, forehead, knee, neck; while the middle of\\nthe back seems least sensitive, the two points not produc-\\ning two distinct sensations until they are more than two\\nand a half inches apart. In general those parts which are\\nmost used, and those parts which are more freely movable,\\nare most sensitive for instance, the knee is much more\\nsensitive than the middle of the thigh or the middle of the\\nleg, and the elbow than the middle of the arm or forearm.\\nIf the compass points, about half an inch apart, be passed\\nfrom the palm to the tips of the fingers, it will at first seem\\none line gradually separating into two diverging ones,\\nowing to the keener localizing power as the finger tips are\\napproached.\\nReference of Sensation to the Region of Nerve End-\\nings. If the funny bone, or crazy bone, be hit, i.e.\\nif the ulnar nerve be bruised against the bone, sharp pain\\nmay be felt in the wrist and hand, and soreness of these\\nparts may be felt for days, though they are not in the\\nleast injured, but only the nerve at the elbow. The cur-\\nrents along this nerve rouse sensation that we have learned\\nto localize at the endings of the nerve fibers. So, too,\\nafter amputation of a hand or foot, there may for years\\nbe sensations referred to the missing member, probably\\ndue to irritation of the nerves of the stump. There is,", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "THE TEMPERATURE SENSE. 283\\nthen, no certainty of getting rid of a corn by ampu-\\ntating a toe.\\nThe Temperature Sense. Many cases are on record\\nin which, from accident or disease, the pressure sense was\\nlost and the temperature sense retained, or vice versa.\\nSuch facts have led to the belief that the temperature\\nsense is distinct from that of touch, and has its own nerve\\nfibers and nerve endings.\\nTwo Sets of Nerve Fibers for Distinguishing Heat and\\nCold. Since heat and cold are only differences in the\\ndegree of heat, we would expect both of these kinds of\\nimpressions to be received through one set of nerves.\\nThere seems, however, to be good evidence of two sets of\\nnerve fibers, one for heat and the other for cold. In the com-\\nmon experience of the foot going to sleep by pressure\\non the sciatic nerve, or the arm from compression of the\\nbrachial nerve, the skin may be found, at a certain stage,\\nto be only slightly sensitive to warmth, while distinctly\\nsensitive to cold. In some diseases of the spinal cord the\\nskin may be affected by warmth, but not by cold. The\\nsensations of cold and pressure seem to be usually lost\\nor retained together, while those of warmth and pain\\nhave a similar connection. But more accurate results are\\nobtained by touching the skin with a blunt metal pencil,\\nwarmed or cooled.\\nWarm Spots and Cold Spots. If this be applied at\\nregular close intervals, it is found that some places feel the\\nwarm point, while others feel the cold. In this way the\\nskin has been mapped out into warm spots (warmth-\\nperceiving spots) and cold spots (cold-perceiving spots),\\nand still other areas seem not sensitive to temperature.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "284 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nHeat or cold, if applied directly to a nerve trunk, does not\\nrouse sensations of temperature, but, if strong enough,\\nproduces pain. If the elbow be dipped into water at the\\nfreezing point, a sensation not of cold but of pain is caused,\\nand is felt in the hand. Heat and cold are not felt in the\\ndigestive tube except at or near the openings. If very hot\\nliquid be swallowed, it may cause pain in the gullet and\\nstomach. If a considerable quantity of warm liquid be\\ntaken, it may give a feeling of warmth from its effect on\\nthe skin of the abdomen, by conduction of heat outward.\\nAs with other senses, a sudden change in the degree of\\nthe stimulus is more certain to rouse sensation than a\\ngradual change.\\nReading. The Five Senses of Man, Bernstein.\\nSummary. 1 The cutaneous sensations are touch proper, tem-\\nperature sense, and pain.\\n2. There are touch corpuscles in the papillae of the dermis.\\n3. Touch is the most general of the senses, both in its extent in our\\nbodies, and in the number of animals possessing it.\\n4. Touch proper, or pressure sense, is tested by discrimination of\\nadditional pressure.\\n5. Touch localization is tested by discrimination as to the distance\\nof two points of contact.\\n6. Temperature is discerned by a special set of nerve fibers.\\n7. Touch and muscular sense are necessary adjuncts of sight to give\\ncorrect perceptions of size and form.\\nQuestions. 1. What is the explanation of tickling\\n2. Where does the change occur by which we become more dis-\\ncriminating in the sense of touch\\n3. Why does an emotion, such as shame, make one feel hot", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XX.\\nTHE SENSE OF SIGHT.\\nThe Sense of Sight. In the fable of the blind man\\ncarrying the lame man whose eyes were good, we have an\\nillustration of the dependence of the various organs on\\neach other. We have considered how all our knowledge,\\nboth of the condition of our bodies and of the external\\nworld, comes through the nervous system. Now, so far\\nas the senses we have studied are concerned, we learn\\nalmost nothing of the external world except from actual\\ncontact. But sight reveals objects at a distance. With-\\nout the eye the body is comparatively helpless. The lame\\nman that the body carries is a slight burden in comparison\\nwith the assistance which he renders. We can well afford\\nto carry with us all the time two of these lame men to\\nkeep posted as to the objects beyond our reach. Of course\\ntouch is a great aid to our interpretations of what we see.\\nBut sight is evidently the main avenue of knowledge, the\\nroyal road along which come the messages which bring us\\nthe most news, which give us the keenest delight which\\nmakes us aware of most that we know of this world, and\\nthe only means of knowing that there are other worlds\\nthan the one we inhabit.\\nProtection of the Eye. The eye is set well back in\\nits socket and guarded by three projecting bony promi-\\nnences, the brow, cheek bone, and the bridge of the nose.\\nIt is further protected by the eyelids and eyelashes.\\n285", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "286 PHYSIOLOGY\\nThe Lacrymal Secretion. The lacrymal gland, or\\ntear gland, is just above the outer angle of the eye, and\\npours its secretion over the eyeball in weeping, or when\\nthere is need of an unusual supply of tears. The lids\\nserve as curtains to admit or shut out light, and, by wink-\\ning, wash the eye with their own secretion, a fluid mixture\\nof salt water and mucus. It is as though a man were\\nkept all the time in front of a plate-glass window, with\\nwater and rubber scraper, to keep it clean and bright.\\nThe lacrymal secretion is, ordinarily, carried off as fast as\\nit is made, by two ducts beginning at the inner angle of\\nthe eye, one on each lid these two ducts soon unite and\\nempty by one outlet into the nasal cavity. If these ducts\\nare stopped, or if the secretion be formed very rapidly,\\nthe liquid overflows on the face as tears.\\nThe External Parts of the Eye. The white of the\\neye is the sclerotic coat. It has blood tubes, but ordina-\\nrily they are not conspicuous. The front part of the eye-\\nball is covered with the cornea. This is transparent, and\\nthe color of the iris shows through the cornea. In the\\ncenter of the iris is the hole, or pupil, by which light enters\\nthe interior of the eye.\\nThe Conjunctiva. The front of the eyeball is covered\\nby a thin, transparent, mucous membrane, the conjunctiva,\\nwhich turns back and lines the inside of the eyelids. It is\\nhighly sensitive.\\nThe Muscles of the Eyeball. There are six muscles which move\\nthe eyeball, four straight muscles (the recti) and two oblique. The\\nfour straight muscles arise from the deepest part of the eye socket and\\npass forward to be attached to the top, bottom, and sides of the ball.\\nWhere they are attached, they are flattened out like straps. The in-\\nferior oblique arises from the inner front part of the orbit and passes\\noutward to attach to the under surface of the eyeball. The superior", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 287\\noblique arises, like the recti, at the deeper part of the eye socket and\\npasses forward through a fibro-cartilaginous loop or pulley near the\\ninner, upper angle of the orbit, and then runs outward and is attached\\nto the upper surface of the eyeball.\\nMovements of the Eye. These six pairs of muscles move the\\neyes to right and left, up and down, and give rotary movements.\\nNormally the two eyes move in the same direction at the same time,\\nthough in looking at near objects the two eyes both point inward, so\\nthat one appears cross-eyed, and in looking at an object that is moving\\naway from one, the eyes are gradually diverging, though this is slight.\\nDissection of an Eye. The muscles and external parts of the eye\\nmay readily be seen by examining the eye of a rabbit in its natural\\nposition and then dissecting it out. A beef eye should be obtained\\nfrom the butcher and the structure of the eye learned by following the\\ndescription below.\\nThe Coats of the Eye. There are three coats, the outer\\nor sclerotic, the middle or choroid, and the inner called the\\nretina.\\nThe Sclerotic Coat. This is of a dull white color, con-\\nstituting the white of the eye. It is thick and tough,\\nholding all the contained parts firmly and furnishing suffi-\\ncient strength for the attachment of the muscles that move\\nthe eyeball.\\nThe Choroid Coat. The middle layer of the eye coat\\nis the choroid. It is thinner than the sclerotic and of much\\nmore delicate structure. It is permeated by blood tubes,\\nand has an inner lining of dark color to prevent the reflec-\\ntion of light in the eye, just as most optical instruments\\nare painted black on the inside.\\nThe Retina. The retina is a continuation and expan-\\nsion of the optic nerve and forms an inner coat that lines\\nall but the anterior part of the eye. It is a thin, translu-\\ncent film, somewhat like the film that forms over the white", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "288\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nof an egg when it is first dropped into hot water. It is\\nexceedingly delicate and easily torn. The retina is the\\nonly part of the eye that is sensitive to light, and on it the\\nimages must be formed to produce distinct vision.\\nThe Cornea. The clear front part of the eye is the\\ncornea. It is a continuation of the sclerotic coat and is\\nCiliary Muscie\\nOptic Nerve Choroid\\nFig 86. Horizontal Section of Right Eye.\\nmore bulging than the rest of the front of the eye, as can\\nbe seen by taking a side view of the eye, or by noticing\\nsome one who closes the eyelids and rolls the eyes about.\\nThe Iris. This is the part that gives the color to the\\neye, or if the pigment that gives the color is lacking, the\\nblood gives the pink color seen in albinos. The iris is a\\nforward continuation of the choroid coat.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 289\\nThe Pupil. Most of the light that passes through the\\ntransparent cornea is stopped by the opaque iris. But in\\nthe center of the iris is a round hole through which light\\nenters the interior of the eye. The pupil looks dark be-\\ncause it is the only opening into a dark room.\\nRegulation of the Amount of Light admitted into the Eye.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nHold a hand glass between the face and a well-lighted window. Note\\nthe size of the pupils. Quickly turn toward the darkest part of the\\nroom. We see, what we have all noticed in watching the eyes of a cat,\\nthat when subject to a bright light the pupil is small, but with less light\\nthe pupil is larger. The iris has circular muscle fibers that reduce the\\npupil when there is too much light for the eye, and when the light is\\nfeeble the pupil opens wider.\\nThe Refracting Media of the Eye. The media that\\nrefract the rays of light to form the images on the retina\\nare the cornea, the aqueous humor, the crystalline lens, and\\nthe vitreous humor. The cornea has already been described.\\nThe Aqueous Humor. In looking at the entire eye it\\nis not easy to realize that there is a space between the cor-\\nnea and the iris. In this space is the clear, watery aque-\\nous humor.\\nThe Vitreous Humor. All but the front part of the\\nspace within the coats of the eye is filled with a clear,\\njellylike substance, the vitreous humor.\\nThe Crystalline Lens. Just back of the iris is a double-\\nconvex lens, clear as crystal, and of about the consistency\\nof a gumdrop. It is less convex on the front surface.\\nThe Lens Capsule. The lens is completely enveloped\\nin a thin, transparent membrane called the lens capsule.\\nThe Hyaloid Membrane. A thin membrane, the hya-\\nloid membrane, lines the inner surface of the retina. As\\nit continues forward toward the lens capsule it is called\\nthe suspensory ligament.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "2go PHYSIOLOGY.\\nThe Ciliary Muscle. Arising from the sclerotic coat,\\njust within the outer border of the iris, is the ciliary muscle.\\nIt is inserted in the margin of the lens capsule by means\\nof fibrous strands that form an intimate part of the capsule.\\nExperiment with Lens to show Inversion of Image. Take a\\ndouble-convex lens, two ot which are in the common tripod lens, 1 or\\nFig. 87. The Formation of an Image on the Retina.\\nany hand magnifier. Hold this up in front 01 a window and catch the\\ninverted image oi the window on a piece ot paper held back of the lens.\\nThis illustrates how the image oi an external object is formed by the\\ncrystalline lens upon the retina ot the eye. If two lenses of different\\nthickness can be obtained, it will be seen that the thicker lens (if both\\nhave the same diameter) will make an image closer to the lens than the\\nthinner one.\\nExperiments to illustrate the Adjustment for Distance. (i) Stick\\na pin at each end of a book cover. Hold the book at about the usual\\ndistance for reading, so that the two pins are in a line with the eye.\\nLook closely at the nearer pin, and the second pin will appear indistinct.\\nNow look closely at the head of the farther pin. The nearer one may\\nbe seen, but not sharply. (2) Hold the tip of a pencil in a line with any\\nobject, say a picture, on a wall opposite. In looking at the tip of the\\npencil the picture is dim. Now look by the pencil at the picture, and\\nthe point of the pencil will be blurred.\\nAdjustment of the Lens for Seeing at Different Dis-\\ntances. If we look up from a book we are reading, we\\ndo not realize that any change is necessary in the eye for\\nus to see a distant object. But the above experiments\\nprove that we cannot, at the same time, see distinctly a\\nnear and a distant object. When the photographer places\\nhis camera, he moves the ground-glass plate back and forth\\ntill the image is distinctly formed on the plate. We cannot", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "THE SENSE OF SIGHT.\\n291\\nmove the retina back and forth, so we change the shape of\\nthe lens. When we look at a near object the lens becomes\\nthicker, and when we look at a distant object the lens be-\\ncomes less thick. This adjustment is called accommodation.\\nCILIARY MUSCLE\\nFAR NEAR CILIARY PROCESS\\nFig. 88. A Diagram to illustrate Accommodation.\\nAction of the Ciliary Muscle. In looking at a near object, the\\nciliary muscle pulls on the hyaloid membrane, and draws it forward\\n(since the muscle is fastened at the point where the iris joins the\\ncornea). When the hyaloid membrane is pulled forward, the lens is\\nreleased from pressure that was given it by the lens capsule. Now the\\nlens becomes thicker because it is elastic, and when it is not subject to\\npressure it tends to become relatively thick. When we look at a dis-\\ntant object the muscle relaxes, and the capsule presses on the front of\\nthe lens and flattens it, thus adjusting for far sight. It should be\\nnoted that adjustment for near sight is brought about by muscular\\neffort, hence is fatiguing whereas adjustment for far sight is accom-\\nplished mechanically, without effort.\\n(2) Near-sighted Eye. (i) Normal Eye. (3) Far-sighted Eye.\\nFig. 89. Defects in Eyesight.\\nDefects of Eyesight. In old age the lens usually be-\\ncomes less elastic, and cannot adjust for near sight. Since", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "292\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nit is unable to grow more convex, artificial lenses (eye-\\nglasses) may be used to enable one to see near objects\\nclearly. Most elderly people see fairly well at a distance,\\nbut use glasses for reading or any close work. In near-\\nsighted eyes, the eyeball is often too long from front to\\nback, so the rays meet in front of the retina. Concave\\nglasses remedy this defect. The eye may also be too\\nshort (far-sighted) and need convex glasses. The refract-\\ning surfaces (cornea and lens) may be unequally curved,\\ncausing astigmatism. For most of these defects the\\noculist can supply suitable glasses.\\nInner or Vitreous Surface\\nInternal Limiting Layer\\nLayer of Nerve Fibers\\nLayer of Nerve Cells\\nInner Molecular Layer\\nInner Nuclear Layer\\nOuter Molecular Layer\\nOuter Nuclear Layer\\nExternal Limiting Layer\\nLayer of Rods and Cones\\nLayer of Pigment Cells\\nOuter or Choroid Surface\\nFig. 90. Diagrammatic Section of the Human Retina. (Waller.)\\nThe Structure of the Retina. The retina is very complicated in\\nits structure. No less than eight layers have been distinguished, as\\nshown in Fig. 90. Of these layers the outermost, the layer of the rods\\nand cones, is the one directly concerned in appreciating the differences\\nin the vibrations of the light. The rays of light pass through the", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 293\\nretina, and produce their effect on the rods and cones which constitute\\nthe outer (back) layer and the nerve impulses aroused by the light\\nmust return through the thickness of the retina to be conveyed along\\nthe nerve fibers of the innermost layer of the retina to the optic nerve.\\nImportance of the Retina. The chief structure in the\\neye is the retina. Without this all else is useless. If\\nlight of sufficient strength falls on the retina, it stimulates\\nelements in the outer layer (rods and cones), and the nerve\\nimpulses, thus started, pass along the fibers of the optic\\nnerve to the brain, and we have the sensation of sight.\\nBut in order to see anything distinctly, the light must fall\\non the retina in such a way as to form a distinct image of\\nthat object. If the lens be removed, or becomes opaque,\\nas in cataract, we fail to see distinctly, though we may\\ndiscern light from darkness. The other parts of the eye\\nexist to form images on the retina. The cornea, lens, and\\nthe aqueous and vitreous humors are the parts directly con-\\ncerned in forming the images. Light from an object passes\\nthrough the cornea, aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous\\nhumor, and the rays are so refracted as to form an inverted\\nimage. If this image falls on a good retina, we see well.\\nThe Blind Spot. The retina is much more complicated than any\\nof the other nerve endings. Light must fall on these special structures\\nto have any effect. Falling on the optic nerve itself has no effect in\\ngiving a sensation of light. And if the light falls on the spot where\\nthe optic nerve enters the eyeball we see nothing. Hence, this spot is\\ncalled the blind spot.\\nExperiment illustrating the Blind Spot. At the left (as looked\\nat by the class) of a long blackboard make a bright circular spot, three\\ninches in diameter, with white or yellow crayon. Beginning at the-\\nright of this write the figures 1, 2, 3, etc., along the whole length of the\\nboard, about eight inches apart. Let each pupil close the right eye and\\nlook at the bright spot. Then let each read the figures, passing slowly\\nfrom one to another in order, at the same time noticing whether the\\nbright spot can be seen. To succeed in this the eye must not be allowed", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "294 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nto waver. Have the pupils tell when the bright spot disappears, then\\nread on, and note when the SDOt reappears.\\nAnother Experiment. In this experiment shut the right eye, and\\nbe careful not to let the left eye waver.\\n5+c Read this line slowly. Can you see the star all the time If the\\nstar does not disappear before reaching the end of the line, let the eye\\ntravel on across the right-hand page, or hold the book nearer the face.\\nIn the human eye the optic nerve enters the eye not in the center, but\\nnearer the nose, so that in turning the left eye toward the right at the\\nproper angle, the image of the star falls upon the spot where the optic\\nnerve enters. As this spot is insensitive to light, the star no longer\\nappears.\\nThe Optic Nerve not Sensitive. The optic nerve,\\nwhile capable of carrying nerve impulses that cause sensa-\\ntions of light, is not itself sensitive to light. If the optic\\nnerve be cut, it does not give pain, but gives the sensation\\nof a flash of light.\\nSympathy between the Two Eyes. While most of\\nthe fibers from each optic nerve cross to the other side of\\nthe brain, some fibers go to the same side of the brain.\\nWe can therefore better understand the close sympathy\\nthat we know exists between the two eyes.\\nPain in the Eyes. Pain, felt in the eyes, comes from\\nimpulses conveyed, not by the optic nerve, but by a branch\\nof the fifth pair of nerves (the nerves of sensation for most\\nof the face).\\nColor Sensations. The difference in colors is due to the differ-\\nences in the rapidity of the vibrations of the waves of light, as in sound\\ndifferences in the rapidity of the vibrations of the sound waves cause\\n-the various degrees of pitch. Many interesting experiments may be\\nmade with color sensation, most of which are difficult of explanation.\\nFasten a bright red wafer or seal on a white card. Look intently at\\nthe center of the red spot till the eye is tired. Then quickly look at\\na point in the white surface. What color appears This may be\\nrepeated with other colors.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 295\\nColor Blindness. It is found that some persons can-\\nnot distinguish certain colors. Blindness to red and green\\nare most common. This is a matter of importance among\\nrailroad men and sailors where it is necessary to distinguish\\nred and green signals.\\nStereoscopic Vision. In looking at an object with one\\neye more is seen to the side of that eye, while the other\\neye sees more of the other side, considerable of the object\\nbeing seen with both eyes. The effects produced on the\\ntwo eyes are united, and so we better see objects as solids.\\nThis is what is termed stereoscopic or binocular vision.\\nDuration of Impressions of Light. Most boys have amused them-\\nselves around a bonfire by whirling a stick with a glowing coal on its\\nend. The continuous circle of light thus produced indicates that the\\nimpression of light remains for a time, in this case until the stick com-\\npletes the circle, giving a continuous line of light. Or when riding in a\\ncarriage the spokes of the wheels blur together because the impression\\nof each lingers till another has taken its place.\\nAfter-images. But if we shut the eyes quickly, we may keep dis-\\ntinct the impression of the last positions, and so see them distinct from\\neach other. Better still, shut the eyes while looking at the wheel, then\\nopen and shut them as quickly as possible.\\nAgain, if one looks at a bright lamp and then closes the eyes, there\\nmay remain the same appearance as when we looked at the object\\nitself. This is called the Positive After-image. Or sometimes, espe-\\ncially after looking long at a bright light, we may, on closing the eyes\\nor looking away, see a dark spot of the same shape as the bright one we\\nlooked at. This is called the Negative After-image.\\nTHE CARE OF THE EYES.\\nI. Objectionable Light. In reading we wish light\\nfrom the printed page. Hence we should avoid light\\nentering the eye from any other source at this time. While\\nreading, then, do not face a window, another light, a mirror,", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "296 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nor white wall, if it can be avoided. White walls are likely\\nto injure the eyes. Choose a dark color for a covering for\\na reading table. Sewing against the background of a white\\napron has worked serious harm. Direct sunshine very\\nnear the book or table is likely to do harm.\\n2. Position in Reference to Light. Preferably have\\nthe light from behind and above. Many authors say from\\nthe left, or over the left shoulder. In writing with the\\nusual slant of the letters this may be desirable. But ver-\\ntical writing is now strongly advocated, as it enables one\\nto sit erect, and have the light from above and equally for\\nthe two eyes. Sitting under and a little forward of a hang-\\ning lamp will thus give the light equally to the two eyes\\nand send no light direct into the face. In reading by day-\\nlight avoid cross-lights so far as possible.\\n3. Electric Light. The incandescent electric light\\nhas an advantage in being readily lighted, without matches,\\nand in giving out little heat but owing to its irregular\\nillumination (due to the shadow cast by the wire or fila-\\nment), it is not well suited for study or other near work.\\nFor this purpose an Argand gas or kerosene burner is\\nmuch to be preferred, since it throws a soft, uniform, and\\nagreeable light upon the work.\\n4. Reading Outdoors. Reading out-of-doors is likely\\nto injure the eyes, especially when lying down. To try to\\nread while lying in a hammock is bad in many ways. Too\\nmuch light directly enters the eye, and often too little falls\\nupon the printed page.\\n5. Reading Heavy Books. Do not hold the book or\\nwork nearer the eyes than is necessary. So far as possible\\navoid continuous reading in large or heavy books by arti-", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 297\\nficial light. Such books being hard to hold, the elbows\\ngradually settle down against the sides of the body, and\\nthus the book is held too close to the eyes, or at a bad\\nangle, or the body assumes a bad position.\\n6. Resting the Eyes. Frequently rest the eyes by\\nlooking up and away from the work, especially at some\\ndistant object. One may rest the eyes while thinking over\\neach page or paragraph, and thus really gain time instead\\nof losing it.\\n7. Strength of Light. Have light that is strong\\nenough. Remember that the law of the intensity of light\\nas affected by distance is that at twice the distance the\\nlight is only one fourth as strong. Reading just before\\nsunset is not wise. One is often tempted to go on, not\\nnoticing the gradual diminution of light.\\n8. Evening Reading. In all ways endeavor to favor\\nthe eyes by doing the most difficult reading by daylight,\\nand saving the better print and the books that are easier\\nto hold for work by artificial light. Writing is usually\\nmuch more trying to the eyes than reading. By carefully\\nplanning his work the student may economize eyesight,\\nand it is desirable that persons blessed with good eyes\\nshould be careful, as well as those who have a natural\\nweakness in the eyes. It often results that those inherit-\\ning weak organs, by taking proper care, may outlast and\\ndo more and better work than those naturally stronger,\\nbut who, through carelessness, injure organs by improper\\nuse or wrong use (ab-use).\\n9. Artificial Light in the Morning. Reading before\\nbreakfast by artificial light is usually bad.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "298 PHYSIOLOGY.\\n10. Reading during Convalescence. Many eyes are\\nruined during convalescence. At this time the whole sys-\\ntem is often weak including the eyes. Still, there is a\\nstrong temptation to read, perhaps to while away the time,\\nperhaps to make up for lost time in school work. This is\\na time when a friend may show his friendship.\\n11. Irritation of the Eyes. If one finds himself rub-\\nbing his eyes, it is a clear sign that they are irritated. It\\nmay be time to stop reading. At any rate, one should find\\nthe cause, and not proceed with the work unless the irrita-\\ntion ceases. If any foreign object, as a cinder, lodges in\\nthe eye, it is better not to rub the eye, but to draw the lid\\naway from the eyeball and wink repeatedly the increased\\nflow of tears may dissolve and wash the matter out. To\\nrelieve the feeling that something must be done it may be\\nwell to rub the other eye, but of course this gives no posi-\\ntive relief to the affected eye. If it be a sharp cornered\\ncinder, rubbing may merely serve to fix it more firmly in\\nthe conjunctiva. If it does not soon come out, the lid may\\nbe rolled up over a pencil, taking hold of the lashes or the\\nedge of the lid. The point of a blunt lead pencil is a con-\\nvenient and safe instrument with which to remove the par-\\nticle. Sometimes being out in the wind (especially if un-\\nused to it), together with bright sunlight, may irritate the\\neyes. If after such exposure one finds lamplight irritating,\\nhe will do well to go to bed early, or remain in a dark\\nroom.\\n12. Keep the Eyes Clean. Be careful to keep the\\neyes clean. Do not rub the eye s with the fingers. Aside\\nfrom consideration of rules of etiquette, there is danger of\\nintroducing foreign matter that may be very harmful. It\\nis very desirable that each person have his individual face", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 299\\ntowel. By not observing this rule certain contagious dis-\\neases of the eyes often spread rapidly.\\n13. Consult a Reliable Oculist. If there is any con\\ntinuous trouble with the eyes, consult a reliable oculist.\\nMany headaches are due to eye-strain, the real cause being\\nunsuspected. If a child has frequent headaches, it is well\\nto have the eyes examined. Many persons injure their\\neyes by not wearing suitable glasses. On the other hand,\\ndo not buy glasses of peddlers nor of any but reliable\\nspecialists. One may ruin the eyes by wearing glasses\\nwhen they are not needed. Sight is priceless.\\nReading. Sight, Le Conte.\\nSummary. 1. Sight, like hearing, acts through space, outstripping\\nthe contact senses of touch, taste, and smell.\\n2. The eye is protected by its bony surroundings, lids, lashes, tears,\\nsensitiveness of the conjunctiva, etc.\\n3. The eye is moved by muscles under nerve control.\\n4. The eye has three coats sclerotic, choroid, and retina.\\n5. The pupil is a hole in the iris, and varies in size to regulate the\\namount of light admitted.\\n6. The refracting media of the eye are the cornea, aqueous humor,\\nlens, and vitreous humor.\\n7. These refracting media form an inverted image on the retina.\\nThe eye is a camera, darkened on the inside.\\n8. The ciliary muscle, acting on the elastic lens, adjusts the lens\\nfor seeing at different distances.\\n9. Suitable lenses overcome many of the defects in eyesight.\\n10. The retina is an expansion of the optic nerve, and is exceed-\\ningly complicated in its structure.\\n1 1 The blind spot is the place where the optic nerve enters the eye.\\n12. The optic nerve is insensitive to light, but injury to it causes\\nsensations of light.\\n13. Most of the fibers of the optic nerve cross to the other half of\\nthe brain, but some do not cross.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "300 PHYSIOLOGY.\\n14. Color is due to difference in the rapidity of vibration in the\\nwaves of light.\\n15. Some eyes do not distinguish these differences and are color\\nblind.\\n16. Pain in the eyes comes through the fifth pair of nerves, not\\nthrough the optic nerves.\\n17. Binocular vision makes objects stand out more distinctly as\\nsolid bodies.\\n18. Impressions of light linger, making after-images.\\n19. Defects in eyesight are much more common among civilized\\nmen than with the uncivilized men or animals.\\n20. The care of the eyes must be made a subject of study and care-\\nful thought by all reading people.\\nQuestions. 1. What is the position of the eyeballs during sleep?\\n2. What is u cataract\\n3. What is the cause of double vision\\n4. Why does the well eye sympathize with the affected one?\\n5. Why does looking at a bright light often cause a person to\\nsneeze?\\n6. Why is weeping associated with grief\\n7. What is the condition of one who is cross-eyed\\n8. Compare the pupils of a man, a cat, and a cow.\\n9. Does the color of the eye have any relation to the strength of\\neyesight?\\n10. Why is one blinded on entering a bright room from the dark?\\n11. Why is one going from a bright room into the dark unable to\\nsee at first, but gradually sees more distinctly\\n12. Why can one not see well when the eye waters\\n13. If each eye has a blind spot, why are there not blank spaces in\\nthe field of vision?\\n14. What advantage has a stereoscopic view over a single view?\\nHow are stereoscopic views made?\\n15. Should the lights which illumine a pulpit or platform be so\\nplaced that they can shine into the eyes of the congregation? How\\nshould they be arranged?", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXL\\nTASTE, SMELL, AND HEARING.\\nUses of the Sense of Taste. The sense of taste helps\\nus in judging of the fitness of anything that presents itself\\nas a candidate for election as food. By reflex action the\\ntaste of agreeable substances aids in digestion by stimulat-\\ning the glands, especially the salivary glands.\\nThe Papillae. The surface of the tongue is covered\\nwith papillae. These are of three kinds. Most numerous\\nPapillae\\nGlossopharyngeal\\nNerve 9th\\nGustatory Branch of Fifth Nerve\\nFig. 91. Diagram of Tongue, showing Nerves and Papillae.\\nare the filiform papillae, slender, cylindrical projections.\\nLike the papillae of the skin, they seem to be organs of\\ntouch. Scattered among the filiform papillae are small,\\nbright red spots which, on examination, are found to be\\nshaped somewhat like a mushroom, the fungiform papillae.\\nNear the base of the tongue are about a dozen larger pa-\\n301", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "302 PHYSIOLOGY.\\npillae, arranged like a letter V with its apex toward the base\\nof the tongue. These are the circumvallate papillae, each\\nhaving around it a deep circular furrow.\\nThe Nerve Supply of the Tongue. On the sides of\\nthis furrow are small oval bodies, called taste buds, con-\\nnected with the ends of the nerves of taste. The nerves\\nof taste are the glosso-pharyngeal, or ninth cranial nerves,\\ndistributed to the back part of the tongue, and a branch of\\nthe fifth pair of nerves, the gustatory, to the front part.\\nAlthough we ordinarily speak of an article of food as\\npalatable, or unpalatable, the sense of taste in the\\npalate is only feebly developed. The tip of the tongue\\nseems to be most sensitive to sweets and salines, the back\\npart to bitters, and the sides to acids.\\nSolution Necessary for Tasting. Substances must be\\ndissolved before they can be tasted. If the tongue be\\nwiped dry, and a few grains of salt or sugar be placed on\\nit, the taste will not be perceived for a little time. Insol-\\nuble substances give no taste.\\nFlavors. What we call flavors affect us more through\\nthe sense of smell than through taste. If the nose be held\\nshut, and we are careful about breathing, a piece of onion\\nplaced on the tongue does not produce what we usually\\ncall the taste of the onion. We may thus get rid of the\\ndisagreeable part of taking certain medicines. Let the\\nstudent experiment with various substances as above in-\\ndicated.\\nEffect of Temperature on Taste. It is said that the\\ntemperature of about 40 F. is most favorable for tasting,\\nand after rinsing the mouth with very hot or very cold\\nwater, such bitter substances as quinine will have only a\\ntrace of their usual taste.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "TASTE, SMELL, AND HEARING.\\n303\\nOlfactory Bull\\nOlfactory Nerves.\\nBranches of\\nFifth Nerve\\nTurbinated Bones\\nThe Sense of Smell. The sense of odor gives us\\ninformation as to the quality of food and drink, and more\\nespecially as to the quality of the air we breathe. Hence\\nwe find the organ placed at the opening of the respiratory\\npassages, and in close proximity to the organs devoted to\\ntaste. Taste is at the gateway of the alimentary canal,\\njust as smell is the sentinel of the respiratory tract; and\\njust as taste, when combined with smell to give the sen-\\nsation we call\\nflavor, influ-\\nences the di-\\ngestive pro-\\ncess, and is\\ninfluenced by\\nit, so smell\\ninfluences the\\nrespiratory process. The\\npresence of odors influ-\\nences both the amplitude\\nand the number of the\\nrespiratory movements.\\nThus the smell of winter-\\ngreen notably increases the\\nrespiratory work, next comes ylang-ylang, and last rose-\\nmary. The breathing of a fine odor is therefore not only\\na pleasure, but it increases the amplitude of the respira-\\ntory movements. Just as taste and flavor influence nutri-\\ntion by affecting the digestive process, and as the sight of\\nagreeable or beautiful objects, and the hearing of melo-\\ndious and harmonious sounds react on the body and help\\nphysiological well-being, so the odors of the country, or\\neven those of the perfumer, play a beneficent role in the\\neconomy of life. M Kendrick and Snodgrass.\\nFig. 92.\\nNerves of the Outer Wall of the\\nNasal Cavity.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "304 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nWhy we Sniff. In quiet breathing the air passes\\nalong the lower air passages just above the hard palate.\\nThe true olfactory passages are higher, but still in com-\\nmunication with this lower passage. When we wish to\\ntest the quality of the air, we sniff, that is, make a sudden\\ninspiration by jerking the diaphragm down, and air from\\nthe outside then rushes into these upper nasal passages,\\nover the walls of which the nerves of smell, the olfactory\\nnerves, are spread in the mucous membrane. The sudden\\nrush of air against this membrane seems to aid greatly in\\ndetecting the odor. The nerves have peculiar endings,\\nand it is not known just how the substances produce their\\neffect. The substances must be in a very finely divided\\nstate, probably gaseous. The mucous membrane is sup-\\nplied with mucus, and the odorous substance, probably, is\\nfirst dissolved in the mucus. The lower, or respiratory,\\npassages have a more abundant blood supply, and are\\nredder than the upper. In inflammation, owing to their\\nnarrowness, the passages, especially the upper, are often\\nclosed by contact of the opposite sides. Substances like\\nammonia have no odor, but excite the tactile nerves. They\\nare often spoken of as having a pungent odor, but are\\nsimply irritants.\\nThe Sense of Hearing. The ear passages are inclosed\\nby the hard bones of the head. The ear is, in consequence,\\ndifficult to dissect. It is very desirable to have a model\\nof the ear. The ear may be dissected in a cat or rabbit by\\nfollowing the accompanying description. It will take time\\nand patience to trace all the parts.\\nThe Parts of the Ear. The ear is a much more com-\\nplicated organ than would naturally be supposed. The\\nparts of the ear are the external, the middle, and the in-\\nternal ear.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "TASTE, SMELL, AND HEARING.\\n305\\nThe External Ear. The external ear gathers the\\nsound waves, and directs them into the opening of the ear,\\nbut the loss of the external ear does not seriously interfere\\nwith hearing. The passage leading inward from the ear\\nextends about an inch, and is then completely shut off\\nfrom the cavities beyond by a thin membranous partition,\\nthe tympanic membrane or drum skin. The skin of the\\nStirrup An\\nSemicircular Canals\\nCOCHLEA\\nEUSTACHIAN.JUBE\\nPHARYNX\\nFig. 93. Diagram of the Ear.\\near dips into and lines the external tube, and continues as\\na very thin layer over the membrane of the tympanum.\\nThe auditory meatus, as this passageway is called, is\\nguarded by hairs, and is further protected by wax secreted\\nby glands of the lining.\\nThe Middle Ear. Beyond the membrane of the tym-\\npanum is a cavity called the middle ear. Extending across\\nthe cavity of the middle ear is a chain of very small bones,\\nthe hammer, anvil, and stirrup, the hammer being attached", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "306 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nto the inner surface of the membrane of the tympanum,\\nand the stirrup being fastened by its base to the wall of\\nthe internal ear.\\nThe Eustachian Tube. The middle ear communicates\\nwith the pharnyx by means of a narrow tube called the\\neustachian tube. It admits air to equalize the pressure on\\nthe two sides of the tympanic membrane. This tube is\\nprobably closed most of the time, but opens when we\\nswallow.\\nThe Internal Ear. The internal ear consists of several\\ncomplicated cavities and tubes which contain a liquid in\\nwhich rest the nerves. The principal cavity is the cochlea,\\nor snail-shell cavity, in which the nerve endings are con-\\nnected with an exceedingly complicated apparatus.\\nThe Production of Sound. Sound waves set the drum\\nskin or membrane of the tympanum in vibration; the\\nvibrations are conveyed by the chain of bones across\\nthe middle ear to the liquid of the inner ear. Through the\\ncomplicated apparatus of the snail shell the vibrations of\\nthe liquid are made to start nerve impulses in the fibers of\\nthe auditory nerve, and when these nerve impulses are\\nrightly received and interpreted by the brain, we have a\\nsensation called sound.\\nThe Equilibrium Sense. Probably most of the senses contribute\\nto the maintaining of the equilibrium of the body by giving information\\nas to position, motion, etc., especially sight and the muscular sense.\\nOnly that part of the auditory nerve which is distributed in the\\nsnail shell of the ear is now supposed to have to do with hearing.\\nIt is no longer believed that the semicircular canals are concerned with\\nthe process of hearing. There seems to be good evidence that the\\nsemicircular canals inform us as to changes of the position of the body,\\nand they are regarded as the seat of an equilibrium sense. 11 The fact\\nthat one of these canals is horizontal, and that the two vertical canals", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "TASTE, SMELL, AND HEARLNG. 307\\nare at right angles to each other, strengthens this belief. It is thought\\nthat each of these canals detects movements in its own plane. The\\nexperiment has been made of placing a man on a table that easily\\nturned with the eyes shut the subject could usually detect fairly well\\nthe changes of position from rotation of the table. What is known on\\nthe subject comes partly from observation in cases where these parts\\nare diseased (which, in itself, does not cause loss of hearing), and by\\noperating on lower animals in both of these lines of observation\\ninjury to these parts appears to be followed by dizziness, loss of power\\nto maintain equilibrium, etc.\\nThe Care of the Ear. In cleaning the ear no hard\\nsubstance should be used; even the finger nail is likely to\\ndo harm. A moistened cloth should be used. If this is\\nnot sufficient, a physician should be consulted. In wash-\\ning the ear it should be thoroughly dried before being\\nexposed to a wind, especially a cold wind. The rapid\\nevaporation may cool the parts so rapidly as to cause\\ntrouble. It is not well to stuff the ears with cotton. If\\nthere is any trouble with the hearing, of course a physician\\nshould be consulted without delay.\\nColds and Deafness. A cold often produces inflam-\\nmation of the mucous membrane of the pharnyx. This\\ninflammation may extend along the eustachian tube to the\\nmiddle ear and affect the hearing.\\nThe Use of the Ears. The existence of an organ of\\nhearing implies the existence of what Why have we\\nthese organs of hearing Is it merely a means of protec-\\ntion Is it that we may enjoy the music of nature, such\\nas the songs of birds Is there not one sound that makes\\nsweeter music than the most gifted of feathered songsters,\\nsurpassing all the instruments of man s device, even the\\nviolin, with its almost human flexibility and range of\\nexpression", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "308 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nWhat sound communicates to us the most of thought\\nand sympathy\\nWhat sound was it Robinson Crusoe, in his dreary soli-\\ntude, most longed to hear\\nReading. The Physiology of the Senses, M Kendrick\\nand Snodgrass.\\nSummary. i Taste enables us to judge of the quality of food,\\nand it indirectly influences digestion.\\n2. The tongue has two nerves of taste, the fifth pair of cranial nerves\\nsupplying the front, and the ninth pair the base.\\n3. So-called flavors affect the sense of smell more than that of taste.\\n4. The sense of smell tests food and air.\\n5. Agreeable odors promote respiration.\\n6. The ear consists of the outer, middle, and inner ear. In the inner\\near are the endings of the auditory nerve.\\n7. The semicircular canals have to do with a sense of equilibrium\\nand not with hearing.\\n8. Colds and catarrh often seriously affect hearing.\\nQuestions. 1. How may the sense of taste be blunted\\n2. What is the effect of inhaling menthol\\n3. Does a person who is deaf in one ear hear half as well as\\nbefore\\n4. Which of the senses goes to sleep first when we go to bed\\n5. In what order do the other senses go to sleep\\n6. In what order do the senses waken in the morning", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXII.\\nTHE VOICE.\\nThe Ear and the Voice. The delicate mechanism and\\ncapabilities of the ear are fully matched by the fine adjust-\\nment and range of the voice. The organ of the voice is\\nwell worthy of study, if we look at it merely as a most\\ningenious contrivance, to say nothing of its importance to\\nus as a means of expressing thought.\\nWhat we can learn from Our Own Throats. We can learn a\\nlittle from the observation of our own mouths and throats. The pro-\\njection of the throat known as Adam s Apple is one angle of the\\nThyroid cartilage. A ridge may be felt running downward from the\\nprojecting angle. Above the Adam s apple a depression may be felt.\\nPress the tip of the finger lightly into this depression and perform the\\nact of swallowing. It will be noted that the Adam s apple is drawn up-\\nward and closer to the bone above the depression. This bone is the\\nHyoid bone it is connected with the larynx below the base of the\\ntongue. Below the thyroid cartilage another cartilage may be felt,\\nthe Cricoid cartilage. Below this is the windpipe with its rings of\\ncartilage. The general form of the whole larynx may be felt in a per-\\nson not overburdened with fat.\\nBy depressing the tongue and looking into the mouth the tip of the\\nepiglottis may possibly be seen at the base of the tongue. Beyond\\nthese points we cannot learn much without dissection. A small mirror\\nset obliquely on a handle (like those used by dentists) may be inserted\\nthrough the mouth so that the larynx can be seen from above. But\\nthe meaning of what would be thus seen would not be very clear with-\\nout a careful dissection of the larynx.\\nThe Vocal Cords. The vocal cords are not very appro-\\npriately named. They are mere ridges projecting from\\n309", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "3io\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nthe sides of the larynx. Under the covering of mucous\\nmembrane are ligaments and muscles that may be stretched\\nto various degrees and placed in different positions, accord-\\ning to the sound that is to be produced.\\nThe Position of the Vocal Cords. While we are\\nquietly breathing, the vocal cords, or bands, lie back, like\\nlow ridges, against the side of the larynx, and offer nearly\\nthe whole channel of the larynx for the free passage of air\\nEpiglottis\\nBase of Tongue\\nHyoid Bone\\nFalse Vocal Cord\\nVentricle\\nVocal Cord\\nCartilage\\nRIGHT TO LEFT MEDIAN\\nFig. 94. Longitudinal Sections of the Larynx.\\nfor breathing purposes. But when we wish to produce\\nvocal sound, the vocal cords are made to stand out farther\\nfrom the side walls, and interfere with the free passage of\\nthe air. In examining the larynx, it is seen that the vocal\\ncords are attached close to each other in front, but that at\\nthe back of the larynx they diverge widely (in the position\\nof rest), forming a letter V, with the angle of the V in\\nfront, just back of Adam s apple. When changes in the\\nvoice or in breathing are being made, the white glistening", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "THE VOICE, 311\\ntfocal cords may be seen to come together or to go apart\\nlike the blades of a pair of scissors. In a high note the\\ncords are close together and nearly parallel. As the air\\nis forced past the approximated edges of the vocal cords,\\nthey are set in vibration, and produce the sound called the\\nvoice.\\nIllustration of the Vocal Cords. The principle of the action of\\nthe vocal cords can be illustrated by the common toy known as the\\nsqueaking balloon, or squawker. Here the air is driven out past a\\nband of rubber stretched across the inner end of the tube. If instead\\nGlottis Narrowed, High Note Glottis Wider, Quiet Breathing\\nFig. 95. The Larynx, as seen by Means of the Laryngoscope, in Different\\nConditions of the Glottis.\\nof one band with both edges free, we were to tie on the inner end of\\nthe tube two bands of rubber, each covering the outer edge of the tube,\\nleaving the inner edge of the rubber free, and with the two bands touch-\\ning at one end and considerably separated at the other end, we would\\nhave a pretty fair resemblance to the larynx.\\nReenf or cement of Vocal Sound. As in many musical\\ninstruments, the vibrations of the membrane alone would\\nbe too feeble to have much effect. In the violin, piano,\\ndrum, etc., the vibrations are reenforced by the vibration\\nof a body of air contained within. So here the vibrations\\nof the cords are reenforced and modified by the air spaces\\nabove.\\nLoudness of Voice. The loudness of the voice depends\\non the force with which the air is driven past the cords,", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "312 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ntogether with the size and condition of the cords them-\\nselves.\\nPitch of Voice. Pitch depends on the rapidity of the\\nvibrations, which is determined by the length of the cords\\nand their tension. Other things being equal, the size of\\nthe larynx would determine the pitch.\\nVoice and Speech. The larynx by itself produces\\nvocal sound merely. In speech the sounds produced in\\nthe larynx are much modified by the lips, tongue, teeth,\\ncheeks, etc. We have voice as soon as born, but we only\\ngradually acquire the power of speech. Mammals, birds,\\nand some of the lower vertebrates have voices, but they\\nhave not speech. This distinguishes man from the ani-\\nmals below him, though perhaps some of the higher apes\\nhave speech in a slight degree. Dogs can express their\\nwants by barking, growling, snarling, etc., but it is mostly\\nby their tone, with their attitudes, and a slight facial\\nexpression (as in snarling).\\nVowels and Consonants. By various positions of the tongue and\\norgans of the throat we make the different vowel sounds. In the con-\\nsonants we more or less shut off (for the time) the passage of air, and\\nso stop, or modify, the sound. This is hardly the place to study and\\nanalyze the sounds of our spoken language, yet it may be found profita-\\nble to watch the different organs as each sound is produced for when\\nthe structure and relation of the different parts concerned in the pro-\\nduction of these sounds are better known, the definitions and state-\\nments of the books will be much more fully understood.\\nDifferences between Voices. Since no two throats\\nare exactly alike, no two voices sound just the same. The\\nsize and shape of the pharynx, the shapes and positions of\\nthe teeth, lips, the condition of the mucous membrane of\\nthe passages generally, all affect the sound, and give it its\\nquality, by which we distinguish one voice from another,", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "the voice:. 313\\neven if they are in the same pitch and have the same\\ndegree of loudness.\\nChange of Voice. At about the age of fourteen a boy s larynx\\nincreases in size and the voice changes, becoming deeper and heavier.\\nDuring the change the falsetto often breaks in upon the ordinary voice,\\nthe voice being said to crack. 11\\nHoarseness. If the mucous membrane covering the vocal cords is\\ninflamed, or covered with too much mucous, hoarseness is likely to\\nresult.\\nWhispering. As in the animal we have voice without speech, so\\nin whispering we have speech without voice that is, there is no vocali-\\nzation. The organs of speech so modify the aspiration as to produce\\nspeech. There is no true voice.\\nCulture of the Voice. The voice and speech are\\nvery susceptible of culture, and nearly all voices may im-\\nprove by proper cultivation. A cultivated voice and care-\\nful, distinct speech are very desirable accomplishments,\\nand are not nearly so common as they ought to be. We\\ndelight in fine singing, and many strive to cultivate this\\nart but not so many try to learn to talk so that it is a\\npleasure to hear the spoken sound.\\nReading. The Throat and the Voice, Cohen.\\nSummary. 1. The larynx is very complicated. Various muscles\\nmove the cartilages and vary the length and tension of the vocal cords,\\nand thus produce the varying degrees of pitch.\\n2. The vocal cords are not simple cords, but are band-like ridges\\non the sides of the larynx.\\n3. The higher animals have voice but not speech.\\n4. Whispering is speech without voice.\\n5. The larynx is affected by colds and catarrh.\\nQuestions. 1. Why does one become hoarse from hearing others\\nshouting?\\n2. What is ventriloquism?", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXIII.\\nACCIDENTS.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 WHAT TO DO TILL THE DOCTOR COMES.\\nHow to Stop Flow of Blood from Arteries.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In case\\nof bleeding from an artery the blood comes in jets. Pres-\\nsure should be applied between the cut and the heart. To\\nknow where to apply the pressure, study of the course of\\nthe main arteries should be made. By studying Fig. 16\\nit will be seen that the arteries to the arms pass down the\\ninside of the upper arm. Here they come near the sur-\\nface. At the elbow the artery is near the skin in the\\nangle of the elbow. The artery which makes the pulse at\\nthe wrist is well known. By putting a baseball under the\\narmpit and pressing the arm down firmly, the artery may\\nbe compressed.\\nBleeding from the Upper Arm. In case of a deep\\ncut in the lower part of the arm, a handkerchief should\\nhave a knot tied in it, and the knot placed over the artery\\nthat is, on the inside of the arm just below the armpit.\\nPass the handkerchief around the arm and tie it loosely.\\nThen run a stick through it, and twist till the knot is drawn\\ntightly against the artery. Instead of a knot, a potato, or\\nanything else to make a firm lump, may be used. (See\\nFigs. 1 6 and 35.)\\nBleeding from the Neck. In studying the pulse, we\\nfound the Carotid artery in the neck. If a deep cut has\\nbeen made in the upper part of the neck, it might be pos-\\nsible to stop the flow by compressing the artery lower\\ndown the neck.\\n314", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "ACCIDENTS. 315\\nWounds in the Thigh. The femoral artery comes\\nnear the surface in the groin. Pressure may be applied\\nhere in the same way to stop bleeding from a cut farther\\ndown the thigh. In the angle back of the knee, pressure\\nmay compress the artery supplying the leg.\\nIn case of severe wounds, pressure should be applied\\nimmediately to the wound. Sometimes it is well to make\\na plug of cloth and press upon the cut.\\nBleeding from Veins. In case of bleeding from veins,\\nholding the part up may check the flow. If necessary to\\napply pressure, it should be beyond the cut, instead of\\nbetween it and the heart, as in the case of the artery.\\nHemorrhage of the Lungs or Stomach. Blood from\\nthe lungs is bright, frothy, and salty; from the stomach\\nis dark and sour. In case of bleeding from the lungs or\\nstomach, let the person rest quietly on a lounge or easy-\\nchair. Give him some bits of ice to swallow.\\nBleeding from the Nose. N.osebleed may sometimes\\nbe stopped by pressing firmly at the base of the nose.\\nDo not lean forward, as this position aids the flow. Sit\\nup, and hold up the head, and hold a cloth under the nose.\\nApply cold water or ice to the nose and to the back of the\\nneck. If this does not stop it, inject cold water, with a\\nlittle salt or soda in it, into the nose. Often the flow may\\nbe stopped by pressing firmly on the upper lip at the sides\\nof the nose. If these attempts fail, a long strip of cloth\\nmay be used to plug the nostril, pushing the cloth in a\\nlittle at a time, and leaving the ends so it can be pulled\\nout. This should not be removed till a long time after the\\nflow is checked, as it may start the bleeding afresh. After\\nan attack of this kind avoid blowing the nose, as this often\\nstarts bleeding again.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "316 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nTreatment of Burns. Plunge the burned part into\\ncold water. As soon as possible apply a solution of cook-\\ning soda (a tablespoonful of bicarbonate of soda to a tea-\\ncup of water) or lay a wet cloth on the burned part and\\nput the soda on the cloth. Afterwards apply vaseline,\\nand renew the vaseline till the wound is healed.\\nA mixture of equal parts of sweet oil and limewater\\nmakes a good liniment for dressing burns. Flour thickly\\napplied gives relief, but is objectionable because it is hard\\nto remove without taking the skin off with it.\\nDanger from Burning Clothing. If the clothing takes\\nfire, there is added to the danger of burning the body, the\\nfurther risk of inhaling the flame and heated air. It is\\nbest to lie down and roll or wrap the body in any cloths\\nat hand, rugs, shawls, etc. Running serves to fan the\\nflames. Hence, if a person whose clothing is on fire is\\nseen to be thoroughly frightened, and to have lost presence\\nof mind and be starting to run, the best thing to do usually\\nis to grasp and try to throw him to the ground, putting a\\nwrap of some kind around the body at the same time if\\npossible. Rolling on the ground or floor in itself would\\nvery likely put out a small flame.\\nTreatment of Fainting. Lay the body flat on the\\nback. Keep the crowd away, and give plenty of fresh air.\\nLoosen the clothing about the neck and waist. Sprinkle\\ncold water on the face, but do not drench the body with a\\nquantity of water. Apply smelling salts (ammonia) to the\\nnostrils rub the limbs toward the body. If these reme-\\ndies do not soon restore consciousness, send for a physician.\\nA faint is not usually a serious matter. Bad ventilation,\\ndisagreeable odors, or even the oversweet odors of such\\nflowers as the tuberose, may cause fainting.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "ACCIDENTS. 317\\nBroken Bones. Keep the patient as quiet as possible\\ntill the physician arrives. There need be no anxiety if the\\nphysician is delayed, as ordinarily no harm comes from\\nwaiting. If there is inflammation, cold water may be\\napplied. Cooling applications are desirable in case of\\nsevere bruises. If it is necessary to carry the patient, lay\\nhim on a board, or at least keep the injured part as quiet\\nas possible a cane or umbrella may be tied alongside a leg,\\nand supported by a pillow or a coat. Sometimes the sharp\\nends of the bones may cut the flesh or even blood tubes.\\nSunstroke. Lay the patient in the shade and pour\\ncold water over the head.\\nFig. 96. Resuscitation from Drowning. (Lincoln, 3 Figures.)\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Position 1\\nTREATMENT OF THE DROWNED.\\n{As given by the Michigan Board of Health.*)\\nRule i. Remove all obstructions to breathing. Instantly\\nloosen or cut apart all neck and waist bands turn the", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "318 PHYSIOLOGY.\\npatient on his face, with the head down hill stand astride\\nthe hips with your face toward his head, and, locking your\\nfingers together under his belly, raise the body as high as\\nyou can without lifting the forehead off the ground (Fig.\\n96, Position 1), and give the body a smart jerk to remove\\nmucus from the throat and water from the windpipe hold\\nthe body suspended long enough to count slowly, one,\\ni^w\\nFig. 97- Resuscitation from Drowning.\\n(Position 2.)\\ntwo, three, four, five, repeating the jerk more gently two\\nor three times.\\nRule 2. Place the patient on the ground face down-\\nward, and, maintaining all the while your position astride\\nthe body, grasp the points of the shoulders by the clothing,\\nor, if the body is naked, thrust your fingers into the arm-\\npits, clasping your thumbs over the points of the shoulders,\\nand raise the chest as high as you can (Fig. 97, Position 2)", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "ACCIDENTS. 319\\nwithout lifting the head quite off the ground, and hold it\\nlong enough to count slowly one, two, three. Replace\\nhim on the ground, with his forehead on his flexed arm, the\\nneck straightened out, and the mouth and nose free. Place\\nyour elbows against your knees, and your hands upon the\\nsides of his chest (Fig. 98, Position 3) over the lower ribs,\\nand press downward and inward with increasing force long\\nFig. 98- Resuscitation from Drowning.\\n(Position 3.)\\nenough to count slowly one, two. Then suddenly let go,\\ngrasp the shoulders as before, and raise the chest (Position\\n2), then press upon the ribs, etc. (Position 3). These al-\\nternate movements should be repeated ten or fifteen times\\na minute for an hour at least, unless breathing is restored\\nsooner. Use the same regularity as in natural breathing.\\nRule 3. After breathing has commenced, restore the\\nanimal heat. Wrap him in warm blankets, apply bottles", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "320 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nof hot water, hot bricks, or anything to restore heat. Warm\\nthe head nearly as fast as the body lest convulsions come on.\\nRubbing the body with warm cloths or the hand, and slap-\\nping the fleshy parts, may assist to restore warmth, and\\nalso the breathing. If the patient can surely swallow, give\\nhot coffee, tea, milk, or a little hot sling. Give spirits\\nsparingly, lest they produce depression. Place the patient\\nin a warm bed, and give him plenty of fresh air keep him\\nquiet.\\nBEWARE\\nAvoid Delay. A moment may turn the scale for life\\nor death. Dry ground, shelter, warmth, stimulants, etc.,\\nat this moment are nothing artificial breathing is\\neverything is the one remedy all others are sec-\\nondary.\\nDo not stop to remove wet clothing. Precious time is\\nwasted, and the patient may be fatally chilled by the ex-\\nposure of the naked body, even in summer.\\nFirst restore Breathing. Give all your attention and\\neffort to restore breathing by forcing air into, and out of,\\nthe lungs. If the breathing has just ceased, a smart slap\\non the face or a vigorous twist of the hair will sometimes\\nstart it again, and may be tried incidentally.\\nBefore natural breathing is fully restored, do not let the\\npatient lie on his back unless some person holds his tongue\\nforward. The tongue by falling backward may close the\\nwindpipe and cause fatal choking.\\nPrevent friends from crowding around the patient and\\nexcluding the fresh air also from trying to give stimulants\\nbefore the patient can swallow. The first causes suffoca-\\ntion the second, fatal choking.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "ACCIDENTS. 321\\nDo not give up too soon you are working for life.\\nAny time within two hours you may be on the very\\nthreshold of success without there being any sign of it.\\nLearn to Swim. Of course, persons who cannot swim\\nwell ought not to go out in a boat without taking along\\nsome sort of a float that may serve as a life-preserver.\\nSome of the rubber cushions serve well for this.\\nEvery father neglects his duty if he does not teach his\\nchildren, girls as well as boys, to swim and to float. One\\ncool, trained person may save the lives of a whole boat\\nload.\\nWhen a Boat Upsets. In case an ordinary rowboat is\\noverturned, one should not attempt to climb into it or upon\\nit. It takes very little to float a person in water, as the\\nbody is only a little heavier than water in fact, if a person\\nfills the lungs and lies back in the water his face and nose\\nwill keep above water, and a person (at any rate without\\nclothing) can float in this way for some time if he breathes\\nlightly. The trouble is that the person tries to lift the\\nwhole head out of the water. The dog and such animals,\\nwhen swimming, have little out of the water but the tip of\\nthe nose and a little of the top of the head. If we could\\nlearn something from them it would be a good thing. The\\neasiest way to float is on the back. Few persons have\\nbeen taught these facts, and most of those who have\\nlearned them lose their presence of mind, and waste their\\nbreath and strength in wild and fruitless splashing. If a\\nboat be overturned, those who can swim should help those\\nwho cannot to get hold of the edge of the boat, but not\\npermit them to climb upon it. A small plank will float a\\nperson if he will not try to lift much of his body out of the\\nwater.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "322 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nSuffocation in Wells. Persons are sometimes suffo-\\ncated by carbon dioxid in wells and cisterns. Before going\\ndown into a well, it is a safe precaution to lower a lighted\\ncandle. If this is extinguished, a warning is given. If a\\nsecond person goes down after one who has become un-\\nconscious, great care must be taken that two lives are not\\nlost. A rope should be firmly tied about the body, a hook,\\nattached to another rope, taken to catch into the clothing\\nof the first, and the rescuer should be lowered quickly and\\nbrought up immediately. A small rope or large cord\\nmight be carried, by pulling which the signal is given to\\npull up.\\nIn resuscitating from carbon dioxid suffocation use the\\nsame method as after drowning, except the first part, which\\nis to remove water from the windpipe, etc.\\nPoisons and their Antidotes. Several of the common\\ndrugs and remedies kept about the house are more or less\\npoisonous. The proper antidote for each should be known\\nand kept at hand. In the first place, all such materials\\nshould be kept locked up so they will not be taken by\\nchildren, or by mistake, as in the haste of getting medicine\\nin the night. Again, all grown persons in the family\\nshould be instructed as to the effects of each poison, and\\ntaught its antidote. As soon as any new poisonous drug\\nis bought, it should be made a point to read up about it,\\nand procure an antidote. Every one should know that\\nstrychnin causes spasms, that opium brings on stupor,\\nwith contracted pupils, etc.\\nObjects of Treatment. Treatment aims at three things,\\n(i) to get rid of the poison, (2) to neutralize what remains\\nand prevent further action, (3) to remedy the effects already\\nproduced.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "ACC /DENTS. 32 3\\ni. Mustard a Common Emetic. The most common\\nemetic is mustard a tablespoonful in a cup of warm water\\ngive half of it, following with free drinking of warm water,\\nthen give the rest of the mustard. Do not wait for it to\\ndissolve, but stir quickly and give at once. Provoke vom-\\niting by tickling the throat with a feather or with the\\nfinger. If the- mouth of the patient cannot readily be\\nopened, insert the thumbs inside the cheeks and back of\\nthe teeth. If mustard is not at hand, a strong solution of\\ntable salt will serve. In a few cases, such as poisoning by\\nammonia, lye, etc., it is considered best not to administer\\nan emetic, but to try to neutralize the effect.\\n2. Neutralize the Poison. To neutralize a poison this\\ngeneral rule should be known an alkali may be neutral-\\nized by an acid, and vice versa. For example, lye with\\nvinegar, carbolic acid with whiting or magnesia, etc. Some\\nacids and alkalis are always about a house.\\n3. Give Something Soothing. After any irritant poi-\\nson some mild and soothing substance should be given,\\nwhite-of-egg, milk, mucilage and water, flour and water,\\ngruel, olive, or castor-oil. These materials are partly for\\nneutralizing the poison, and are also soothing in their\\neffect. If a patient is drowsy, some stimulant may be\\ngiven, as strong coffee (after opium). Of course a physi-\\ncian should be sent for immediately, as the after-treatment\\nis of great importance.\\nThe tables of Poisons, their Symptoms, Antidotes, and\\nTreatment, in the appendix, are taken from the excellent\\nText-Book of Nursing by Clara Weeks-Shaw.\\nWounds from Thorns, Rusty Nails. Promote bleed-\\ning by rubbing and pressing the wound and bathing with", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "324 PH. 1 r S/OL O G Y.\\nwarm water. Or suck the wound. This tends to remove\\nany injurious matter. Apply poultices.\\nBites of Cats, Dogs, etc. If the animal is rabid (mad),\\nsuck the wound and cauterize quickly. A poker or nail\\nheated red hot is best for cauterizing. If one cannot do\\nthis promptly, get lunar caustic with which to cauterize\\nstrong acid or alkali, or a coal of fire, may be applied at\\nonce to the wound the coal on a cigar may be used. Do\\nnot kill the animal if there is doubt. Keep it confined,\\nand if it proves a false alarm much anxiety will be saved.\\nSnake Bites. Apply ligatures around the part between\\nit and the heart. Suck the wound (there is no danger\\nin this if there are no sores or cracks in the skin of the\\nmouth venom is not a stomach poison, though, of course,\\nit should not be swallowed). Then apply caustics, or a\\nlive coal. Have the patient drink freely of whiskey or\\nbrandy. If ammonia water is at hand, add five teaspoon-\\nfuls to each pint of liquor.\\nAmmonium carbonate, ten per cent solution, is also\\nhighly recommended. A teaspoonful dose should be\\ngiven immediately, and repeated twice at intervals of ten\\nminutes.\\nBee Stings. Apply soda, or dilute ammonia.\\nPoison Ivy. The itching and discomfort may be\\nrelieved by bathing the part in a mixture of\\nTwo teaspoons of carbolic acid (pure),\\nTwo tablespoons of glycerin,\\nOne half pint of water or rose-water.\\nThe Sick-room. Every boy and girl ought to learn\\nsomething about the care of the sick, as any one is\\nlikely to be called on to do this kind of work. Good", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "ACCIDENTS. 325\\nnursing is often half the battle. In the first place,\\nthe nurse should faithfully follow the directions of the\\nphysician. This obedience should be complete as to admis-\\nsion of visitors, as well as in administering medicine, etc.\\nThe nurse often yields to the persuasion of some unwise\\nfriend, It won t do any harm for him to see me.\\nQualities of a Nurse. The nurse should have a quick\\nsympathy, and make the patient feel that all that can be\\ndone for his comfort will be done yet this sympathy must\\nnot lead the nurse to do anything for, or give anything to\\nthe patient contrary to the orders of the physician. The\\nnurse should always be cheerful, even when the patient\\nis impatient and annoying in his demands. The\\npatient is not himself, and no attention should be paid\\nto his unnatural irritability.\\nThe Room should be Cheery. The patient should\\nhave a cheerful room, but the bed should be so placed\\nthat the light will come not too strongly into his face.\\nEvidence of illness, such as medicine bottles, etc., should\\nbe kept out of sight so far as possible.\\nHope. While it is not best to deceive the patient as\\nto his condition, there should at all times be kept up\\nan air of cheerfulness and hope. If the physician can\\ninspire with confidence, and the nurse give unflagging\\ngood cheer, the chances of recovery are vastly improved.\\nNothing sustains like hope.\\nPure Air in the Sick-room. Keep the air of the room\\npure. Remove excreta and everything offensive just as\\nsoon as possible. Do not rely on feeling as to tempera-\\nture, but keep a thermometer in the room.\\nSympathy with the Patient. One of the necessary\\ncharacteristics of a good nurse is the power of imagina-", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "326 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ntion. How would I feel, and what would I like to have\\ndone for me, if I were in his place This feeling will\\nlead the nurse frequently to raise the patient s head and\\nturn the pillow the coolness of the other side of the\\npillow is refreshing; to give sips of cool water; to see\\nthat the patient does not suffer for want of a bath in\\ngiving a bath, to do the work thoroughly, as a skillful\\nbarber carefully and thoroughly reaches every fold and\\ncrevice back of the ear, etc.\\nBathing the Sick. In bathing a weak person only a\\npart of the body should be moistened at a time after this\\npart is thoroughly dried, another part may be washed\\nit is often necessary to do all this work under the bed\\nclothing.\\nChanging the Bedding. In changing the bed clothing\\nmove the patient to one side of the bed, push the cloth-\\ning along close to his body, and place the clean bedding\\non the other side then move the patient back, remove\\nthe soiled linen, and smooth out the clean. It is often\\nnecessary to warm the sheets first they should be thor-\\noughly dry.\\nFollow Physician s Directions Faithfully. Have\\nthe physician s directions written out plainly, as they may\\nbe forgotten and if there is a change of nurses during\\nthe night there is less chance of mistake. Never let your-\\nself get drowsy when acting as nurse. Get up and walk\\nabout, get a breath of fresh air, and if inclined to be\\ndrowsy do not allow yourself to settle back in an easy-\\nchair. If watching all night, take a good lunch in the\\nmiddle of the night coffee may help to keep you awake.\\nIt is not to be expected that one who has worked hard\\nall day out-doors will be likely to keep awake all night.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "ACCIDENTS. 327\\nThere should be day and night watchers, and one would\\nbetter not watch more than six hours at a time.\\nSweeping the Sick-room. Do not allow the room to\\nbe swept with the ordinary broom. The room should have\\nrugs that can be removed and shaken, and the floor wiped\\nwith a moist cloth. If the room is carpeted, it may be\\nswept with moist salt, tea-grounds or coffee-grounds, saw-\\ndust, etc. Any dusting should be avoided furniture may\\nbe wiped with a damp cloth.\\nDo not Whisper. In the effort to be quiet many make\\na mistake do not whisper, as it disturbs more than talking,\\nand also has an air of secrecy that rouses suspicion in the\\npatient.\\nWalk Flat-footed. In walking on tiptoe often floors\\nand stairs are made to creak when they would not in ordi-\\nnary circumstances. It takes little reflection to see that\\nin walking on tiptoe one brings more weight than usual\\non a smaller part of the floor, and is therefore more likely\\nto spring a board in the floor it is best to walk flat-footed.\\nWear an easy pair of shoes an old pair are likely to be\\nquiet.\\nFood for the Sick. Raise the head with the hand, or\\nbolster the patient up, when giving drink or if the patient\\nis very weak, use a rubber tube, so that he will not have to\\nlift the head. The nurse should know how to prepare any\\nfood that may be needed during the night. An oil stove\\nor gas stove is very desirable for cooking, or heating poul-\\ntices, as an ordinary wood or coal fire is likely to die down,\\nmaking it impossible for the nurse to do this work quickly,\\nas is often necessary to take advantage of a favorable\\ntime, as when the patient wakens.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "328 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nCare of Lamps. Most lamps, when turned low, give\\noff a disagreeable gas. It is better to have a very small\\nlamp burning at full height than a large one turned low\\nsperm candles are recommended.\\nBandaging, Preparing Food, etc. It is well for every\\none to know something about bandaging, preparation of\\nfood for the sick, etc. Space here will not allow further\\ntreatment of these subjects, and the student is referred to\\ntreatises on the care of the sick, of which there are several\\ngood ones mentioned at the end of this chapter.\\nTo Prevent Sneezing. It is well known that a sneeze\\nmay be prevented by firmly pressing on the upper lip.\\nThis may enable a nurse to keep from waking a very sick\\npatient when, at a critical point, sleep is almost a question\\nof life or death. And it is a convenient fact for any one\\nto know. To prevent coughing there are cough drops that\\nwill relieve the tickling in the throat.\\nFor Disinfectants see Appendix.\\nIn addition to the list of books on Accidents, Emer-\\ngencies, etc., already given, read Hand-Book of Nursing,\\npublished under the direction of the Connecticut Training-\\nSchool for Nurses, State Hospital, New Haven, Conn.\\nText-Book of Nursing, Weeks-Shaw; Nursing: Its Prin-\\nciples and Practice, Hampton.\\nSummary. i To stop flow of blood from an artery apply pres-\\nsure to the wound, or between the wound and the heart.\\n2. To stop flow of blood from a vein apply pressure to the wound or\\nbeyond the heart.\\n3. Leaning forward promotes, instead of checking, nosebleed.\\n4. To burns apply cooking soda.\\n5. If the clothing takes fire lie down and roll, or wrap a rug or shawl\\nabout the body.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "ACCIDENTS. 329\\n6. If a person with clothing on fire loses his presence of mind, seize,\\nthrow down, and wrap in any woolen clothing.\\n7. In case of fainting lay the body flat on the back, loosen clothing,\\ngive fresh air, and sprinkle lightly with cold water if this does not\\nrevive, rub the limbs toward the body, hold to the nostrils smelling-\\nsalts (or ammonia) and, last, send for a physician.\\n8. Broken bones do not urgently need prompt attention. Keep\\npatient quiet and send for a physician.\\n9. For resuscitation from drowning, use artificial respiration,\\npromptly begun and long continued.\\n10. Before going down into a well, test the air by lowering a lighted\\ncandle.\\n1 1. Learn the antidotes of every poison in your house as soon as it is\\nbought, and keep the antidote at hand.\\n12. Volunteer to help take care of sick friends, and learn to do this\\nwork well.\\nQuestions. 1. How does holding up the wounded part check\\nbleeding\\n2. What other methods of resuscitation from drowning are in\\nuse?\\n3. What are some of the poisonous substances commonly kept in\\nthe house?", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXIV.\\nTHE SKELETON.\\nThe Two Parts of a Skeleton. Observe that the\\nskeleton as a whole consists of two portions, the axial por-\\ntion, consisting of a central axis, the spinal column, to\\nwhich the head belongs and the appendicular portion,\\nthe limbs and the bones belonging to them.\\nThe Uses of the Bones. In the skeleton as a whole\\nobserve\\ni. The skeleton shows the form of the body.\\n2. It supports the softer tissues.\\n3. It protects softer parts, as the brain in the skull, the\\nspinal cord in the spinal column, the heart and lungs in\\nthe thorax, etc.\\n4. The bones serve as levers in producing motion and\\nlocomotion.\\nStudy of a Vertebra. Take a vertebra from the middle of the\\nspinal column\\n1. Its most solid part is its body, or centrum.\\n2. On the dorsal side of this is the neural arch, forming with the\\nbody the neural ring, through which the spinal cord passed.\\n3. From this arch there extend projections, or processes. Hold the\\nvertebra by the tip of its longest process, and place it beside the cor-\\nresponding vertebra in the complete skeleton. Note that\\n(a) The body is flattened where it fitted against the vertebrae\\nanterior and posterior to it\\n(b) The holes in the vertebrae form a passage for the spinal cord\\n33o", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON.\\n53\\n(c) The middle process is the spinous process, and the series of\\nspinous processes form the ridge of the backbone\\n(d) The two lateral processes are the transverse processes.\\nNeural Arch\\nBody\\nTransverse Process\\nSpinous Process\\nNeural Ring\\nFig. 99- Anterior View of Thoracic Vertebra.\\nDemi-Facet for Head of Rib\\nBody\\nAnterior Articular\\nProcess\\nFacet for i ubercl\\nof Rib\\nransverse Process\\nSpinous Process\\nFig. 100- Left Side View of Thoracic Vertebra.\\nFit together two vertebrae in their proper order and observe that\\n(e) The openings at the sides, through which the spinal nerves\\npassed, are formed by adjacent notches, or grooves, in the contiguous\\nvertebrae.\\n(f) The two projections extending anteriorly from the ring of one\\nvertebra fit against two corresponding processes extending posteriorly\\nfrom the other vertebra. These are the anterior and posterior articu-\\nlating processes.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "332\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nTempor\\nFrontal\\n/v2?\\nParietal\\nPhalanges\\n4jQ\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094..Occipital\\nCarpus\\niL^ffigg\\nn\\ni Radms Clavicle\\n1\\n.....Cervical Vertebrae\\natess- ^i Humerus\\n^S^^^^k\\netacarpus\\nUlna Sternum\\nwS^^%\\n1\\nRibs\\n....Tnoracic Vertebrae\\nRib Cartilages\\n^S^^sf/wgA\\n5 J\\nLumbar Vertebrae\\nPelvis\\n\\\\.R Jm^LY\\\\\\nSacrum\\n\\\\m^mhP-\\nCoccyx\\nPatella\\nTibia\\nFibula\\nTarsus.,\\nlalanges.-\\nMetatarsus\\nFig. 101. Side View of the Human Skeleton.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON.\\n333\\nTABLE OF THE BONES.\\nf Skull (8)\\nHead (28)\\nFace (14)\\nI Ears (6)\\nCervical Region (8)\\nThorax (37\\nUpper Extremities (64) Arm\\nHand.\\nFrontal (forehead).\\n2 Temporal (temples).\\n2 Parietal (side).\\nOccipital (posterior base).\\nSphenoid (base).\\nEthmoid (base of nose and between eyes),\\n2 Superior Maxillae (upper jaw).\\n2 Nasal (bridge of nose).\\n2 Malar (cheek).\\n2 Lacrymal (inner front corner of orbit).\\n2 Turbinated (within nostrils).\\n2 Palate (posterior hard palate).\\nVomer (nasal partition).\\nInferior Maxilla (lower jaw).\\nMalleus (hammer).\\nStapes (stirrup).\\nI Incus (anvil).\\ni 7 Cervical Vertebras (neck)\\n1 Hyoid Bone (base of tongue).\\n14 True, 6 False, 4 Floating Ribs.\\n12 Thoracic Vertebrae (back).\\nSternum.\\njfj Clavicle (collar-bone).\\nScapula (shoulder-blade).\\nf Humerus (arm).\\nRadius 1 c\\n(Ulna fore a\\n8 Carpal (wrist).\\n5 Metacarpal (palm).\\ni 14 Phalanges (fingers).\\nLumbar Region (5)\\nPelvis (4)\\nLower Extremities (60)\\n5 Lumbar Vertebrae (loins).\\nC 2 Innominata.\\nSacrum.\\nI Coccyx.\\nThigh. Femur.\\nf Patella (knee-pan).\\nLeg. Tibia (large bone).\\nt Fibula (outer bone).\\nC 7 Tarsal (instep, heel).\\nFoot. 5 Metatarsal (arch).\\nI 14 Phalanges (toes).", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "334\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nThe Spinal Column. The central part of the skeleton\\nis the backbone, or spinal column. As a whole it is a\\ncolumn, widening toward the base, composed of a series of\\nseparate bones called vertebrae.\\nHole for Blood\\nBody-\\nAnterior Articular Facet\\n.Neural Arch\\nW Spinous Process\\nNeural Ring\\nFi\u00c2\u00a3. 102. Anterior View of Cervical Vertebra.\\nBody\\nSpinous Process\\nFig. 103. Left Side View of Cervical Vertebra.\\nEach vertebra has seven processes, four articulating\\n(two anterior and two posterior), two transverse, and one\\nspinous.\\nTake a thoracic vertebra and in the presence of the class trim off the\\nprocesses with a pair of bone-forceps. The vertebra will be seen to be\\nessentially a ring, or padlock, consisting of the body and neural ring or\\narch.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON. 335\\nArticulations of a Vertebra. The smooth places where\\nthe articulating processes join are called facets. Observe\\non each side of the body of the vertebra a facet where the\\nhead of the rib articulated. There is also a facet on the\\ntransverse process where the tubercle of the rib articulated.\\nThe Cervical Vertebrae. The seven cervical vertebrae\\n(neck) have holes through their sides, or transverse pro-\\ncesses, for the passage of blood tubes.\\nAtlas and Axis. The first vertebra, the atlas, has no\\nbody. The second vertebra is the axis. It has a peg,\\ncalled the odontoid process, which represents the body of\\nthe atlas. In shaking the head, the atlas, with the head,\\nturns on the axis. In nodding the head, the head simply\\nrocks back and forth on the atlas.\\nThe Thoracic Vertebrae. The twelve rib-supporting\\nvertebrae are the thoracic vertebrae.\\nThe Lumbar Vertebrae. The next five are the lumbar.\\nThe Sacrum and Coccyx. The sacrum is composed of\\nfive vertebrae grown together, and the remaining four are\\ncombined in the coccyx.\\nReview of the Spinal Column. Let the eye slowly\\nreview the whole spinal column, noting what the vertebrae\\nhave in common. Note also their differences.\\nFlexibility of the Spinal Column. In most articulated\\nskeletons there are pads of felt between the vertebrae.\\nThese take the place of the inter-vertebral cartilages,\\nwhich are a form of connective tissue, possessing the elas-\\nticity of cartilage and the toughness of fibrous connective\\ntissue, such as ligament and tendon. These inter-vertebral", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "336\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\ncartilages serve both to keep the vertebrae apart and to\\nhold them together. When we bend the shoulders to the\\nright, the right edges of these cartilages are compressed,\\nNeural Arch\\nransverse Process\\nBody\\nNeural Ring\\nFig. 104. Anterior View of Lumbar Vertebra.\\nBody\\nPosterior Articular Process\\nFig. 105. Side View of Lumbar Vertebra.\\nand the left edges are stretched, as a piece of india rubber\\nwould be if it were glued between the ends of two spools,\\nand the whole were slightly bent.\\nCurves of the Spinal Column. View the spinal column\\nfrom the side. Draw a line representing all its curves.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON. 337\\nThe Cavities of the Skeleton. Examine the cavity of the skull.\\nIf the class has not a skull which has been sawed across, look into the\\nskull cavity through the hole where the spinal cord joined the brain.\\nObserve the conical shape of the thorax. In the entire body the\\nbones and muscles about the shoulders usually make a reversed cone of\\nthe upper part of the trunk.\\nObserve that the ribs are connected with the breastbone by carti-\\nlages.\\nThe upper limbs are articulated with the body only where the inner\\nends of the collar bones join the breastbone.\\nPronation and Supination. Rest the forearm on the table with the\\npalm up keeping the elbow fixed, turn the hand over. Turning the\\npalm up is called supination turning it down is pronation. Perform\\nthis experiment with the articulated skeleton.\\nThe Skeleton of a Cat or Rabbit. Examine the skeleton of a cat\\nor rabbit for the sake of comparison. Note especially the skull and\\nspinal column, so that you will know better what to do when dissecting\\nthe brain and spinal cord in one of these animals.\\nThe Weight of Bones. The bones make about one sixth\\nof the weight of the living body. When dried they may\\nlose half of their weight.\\nMicroscopic Structure of Bone, i Examine with a hand lens.\\nHold a mounted cross-section of bone up to the light and examine with\\na hand lens. The solid part of the bone will be seen to be pierced by\\nmany small holes (or if the holes are filled they will appear as black\\nspots) These are the cross-sections of the haversian canals, through\\nwhich run the blood tubes, mainly lengthwise through the bone.\\n2. Examine with the Low Power of a Compound Microscope.\\nExamine the section, under the microscope, using a half-inch objective.\\nThe bony matter will now be seen to be arranged in circles, lamellae,\\naround the haversian canals, -somewhat like the rings seen on the end\\nof a log.\\nBetween the rings are circles of elongated dark dots. These are\\nlacuna?, cavities in which lay the live-bone corpuscles which built up\\nthe bone. The bone was. at first, cartilage. Later, mineral matter\\nwas deposited, forming true bone.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "338\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\n3. Examine with a High Power. Now examine the section\\nunder a one-fifth-inch objective. From the lacunae there run out, in\\nevery direction, little crevices, appearing as fine black lines. These\\nare the canaliculi. Through the haversian canals, lacunae, and cana-\\nliculi, the nourishing materials of the blood reach all parts of the bone.\\nThe Chemical Composition of Bone. 1. Take a tall, narrow\\nglass jar, called in the chemical laboratory a graduate, or a lamp\\nchimney corked at one end answers very well, and nearly fill with\\nCanaliculi Haversian Canal\\nFig. 106. Cross-section of Bone. (Highly Magnified\\nwater. Add one sixth as much hydrochloric acid. Put into this a\\nslender, dry bone, such as a fibula or rib. In twenty-four hours take it\\nout, rinse it thoroughly, and examine it. The acid will probably have\\ndissolved out the mineral matter and left the animal matter.\\n2. Lay a piece of bone on a shovel, or piece of sheet iron, and place\\nin the fire. The animal matter is burned out, leaving the brittle min-\\neral matter.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON. 339\\nBone is composed of mineral matter, two thirds, and animal matter,\\none third in childhood the animal matter is in larger proportion, while\\nin old age the mineral matter is in excess.\\nThe mineral matter is chiefly calcium phosphate, while the animal\\nmatter is largely gelatin.\\nJoints may be classified according to their structure as\\nfollows\\nClassification of Joints. i. Immovable, such as the\\nsutures between the bones of the skull\\n2. Mixed, such as the joints between the vertebrae\\n3. Movable, which allow free motion between the parts\\n(a) Ball and socket, as in the hip and shoulder\\n(b) Hinge, as in the knee and elbow\\n(c) Pivot, as in the forearm, and between the atlas and\\naxis\\n(d) Gliding, as between the short bones of the wrist, and\\nof the ankle.\\nStudy of Joints. Examine these joints in the articulated skeleton,\\nand so far as possible, in fresh specimens (of rabbits). Compare the\\nball and socket joints of the hip and shoulder. Also compare the hinge\\njoints of the knee and elbow.\\nHygiene of the Bones. Sometimes the bones of chil-\\ndren are deficient in mineral elements, and are unduly soft\\nand flexible. This condition indicates a disease called\\nrickets. Even if the bones are normal, children should\\nnot be encouraged to walk early, as bow-legs may result.\\nMost bow-legged persons seem to be active, and probably\\ntheir muscles developed faster than the bones. Constrained\\npositions or excessive use of special groups of muscles may\\nresult in lateral curvature of the spine. The height of\\nseats and desks should be carefully looked after.\\nSprains and Dislocations. Sprains and dislocations\\nare injuries to the joints, and often bring more serious", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "340 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nresults than a broken bone. There should, usually, be\\ncomplete rest until the part can be used without pain.\\nOtherwise a stiffened joint may result. Hot water applied\\nto a sprain or bruise promotes circulation and prevents dis-\\ncoloration. But if there is inflammation cold water should\\nbe applied. Bandages may be needed for support.\\nSummary. i The skeleton consists of the axial and appendicular\\nportions.\\n2. Each vertebra consists of a body, ring (around spinal cord) and\\nprocesses.\\n3. Pads of cartilage connect the vertebrae.\\n4. Bone is traversed by tubes and crevices through which it receives\\nits nourishment from the blood.\\n5. Bone consists of animal matter with limy matter embedded in it.\\n6. Sprains should be treated carefully to avoid stiffened joints.\\nQuestions. 1. Why do the bones of old people break so much\\nmore easily than those of children\\n2. What is the use of the central marrow?\\n3. What is the work of the red marrow in the spongy ends of the\\nbones\\n4. What are sesamoid bones", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXV.\\nTHE MUSCLES.\\nThe Number of Muscles. There are over five hun-\\ndred muscles in the human body. These vary in size from\\nless than an inch in length, in the ear and in the larynx,\\nto a foot and a half long in the thigh.\\nThe Arrangement of Muscles. The muscles of the\\ntwo sides of the body are paired, and normally are about\\nequal in size and strength. The muscles of the limbs are\\nfurther paired into flexors, which bend, and the extensors,\\nwhich straighten the limbs. The muscles are also arranged\\nmore or less in layers. There is generally a superficial\\nlayer and a more deep-seated layer.\\nForms of Muscles. Muscles are of various shapes.\\nThe prevailing form in the limbs is spindle-shaped, or fusi-\\nform. This is convenient, as the thicker middle portion\\nof the muscle is opposite the more slender part of the\\nbone, while the tendons at the ends of the muscles are\\nopposite the enlarged ends of the bones at the joints.\\nSome muscles are flat, some have their fibers arranged\\nlike the barbs of a feather, and are hence called penni-\\nform. Some muscles have a tendon in the middle which\\nruns through a loop, as in the case of the muscle which\\ndepresses the lower jaw. As already stated, muscles\\nwhich close openings are circular, and are called sphincter\\nmuscles.\\n34 1", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "342\\nPHYSIOLOGY,\\nDeltoid\\nSerratus Magn\\nRectus Femoiis\\nTibialis Anticus\\nFig. 107. Ventral View of the Superficial Muscles.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "THE MUSCLES,\\n343", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "344\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nNames of Muscles. Some muscles are named from\\ntheir shape, as the deltoid on the shoulder from position,\\npectoralis major; from their supposed action, as sartorius\\nand adductor direction, as rectus, etc. The biceps and\\ntriceps are named from their division at their origins.\\nPeculiar Muscles. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle\\nthat forms a partition between the chest and the abdomen.\\nIt is arched, and has a clear tendinous center. The ab-\\ndominal muscles form a wall to hold the organs of the\\nabdominal cavity. These muscles also aid in breathing,\\nespecially in forced expiration, as after violent exercise\\nand in coughing. The abdominal wall consists of several\\nlayers of muscle.\\nHeart Muscle. The fibers\\nwhich make up heart muscle\\nare different in appearance from\\neither the striated or smooth\\nmuscle fibers. They are more\\nor less branched, as shown in\\nthe accompanying figure. No\\nsheath has been found on these\\nfibers.\\nThe Three Kinds of Muscular\\nFibers Compared. For the\\nsake of comparison, the striated\\nand unstriated muscle fibers are\\nhere shown again, alongside the\\nheart muscle fibers. The stri-\\nated fibers (of the skeleton) are\\nusually called voluntary, and\\nthe plain fibers involuntary. The heart muscle fibers\\nare intermediate, being\\nFig. 109. Muscular fibers from the\\nheart, magnified, showingtheir cross\\nstriae, divisions, and junctions.\\n(Schweigger-Seidel.\\nThe nuclei and cell-junctions are only\\nrepresented on the right hand side\\nof the figure.\\nstriated, but involuntary in their", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "THE MUSCLES.\\n345\\naction. A striated muscle fiber may be inches long and\\n2 Jo- of an inch wide, though usually less. The heart muscle\\nfiber is narrower than the skeletal fiber, and the plain fiber\\nvery much smaller than either. (But the figures do not\\nattempt to give relative proportions with any exactness.\\nEach Muscle Fiber is a Muscle Cell. It is easily seen\\nthat each plain muscle fiber is a single cell, having its dis-\\ntinct nucleus. The same is true of the heart muscle fibers,\\nFig. 110. Plain (.unstriated) mus-\\ncular fibers from the bladder.\\nFig. 1 1 1. Two striated mus-\\ncular fibers showing the ter-\\nminations of the nerves.\\nthough they are not so simple, being more or less branched.\\nIn the development of striated muscle, when the muscular\\nfibers are about to be formed, the cells from which they\\ndevelop (called muscle plates) become elongated so that\\neach cell is converted into a long protoplasmic fiber, with\\nmany nuclei. Most investigators agree that the striated\\nfibers are produced by the elongation of single cells with\\nmultiplication of their nuclei, though some have thought\\nthat the fiber is formed by the coalescence of several cells\\nend to end.\\nMuscles of Expression. The facial expression is due\\nto the action of the muscles of the face, which in turn are", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "346 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nunder control of the cranial nerves. The habitual position\\nbecomes somewhat fixed, so it is true that character\\nis often shown by the looks. Cultivation of happy\\nthoughts therefore tends to make one better looking.\\nMuscles and Fat. Fat fills in space between muscles,\\nand, if abundant, forms a layer over the muscles. One\\nnotable instance is the hollow triangular space between\\nthe muscles of the cheek. If there is very little fat, a\\ndepression is seen, forming the hollow cheeks. But\\nan abundance of fat makes a corresponding elevation.\\nConvulsions. These spasmodic actions are due to dis-\\nordered action of the muscles, and, further back, to the\\ndisturbed action of the nervous system that controls the\\nmuscles. Various disturbances, such as indigestion, may\\nby reflex action bring on convulsions.\\nRigor Mortis. Rigor mortis (death stiffening) is a\\nmuscular rigidity due to the coagulation of muscle plasma.\\nIt usually sets in not long after death, the time of its\\nappearance and its duration being variable.\\nSome Prominent Muscles. The deltoid on the shoul-\\nder is a noticeable muscle. The biceps and triceps have\\nalready been studied. The calf muscle is one of the\\nthickest and strongest in the body. The great muscles of\\nthe rump are needed to raise and hold the body up. On\\neach side of the front of the neck is a muscle easily ob-\\nserved in thin persons. It extends down to the top of the\\nbreast bone.\\nSculpture and Anatomy. The sculptor needs to be a\\nthorough student of anatomy, so far as the bones and mus-\\ncles are concerned. If he knows the muscles thoroughly,\\nhe can make them stand out naturally. Otherwise his\\nwork cannot be truly good.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX A.\\nANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS.\\nThe following is chiefly from Sternberg s Manual of Bacteriology, and\\nembodies part of the report of The Committee on Disinfectants of the\\nAmerican Public Health Association.\\nAntiseptic Defined. :An antiseptic is a substance having the power to\\nprevent or destroy putrefaction, or, what is the same thing, the bacteria upon\\nwhich putrefaction depends.\\nDisinfectant Defined. A disinfectant is a substance that can destroy\\ndisease germs.\\nDisinfection Defined. Disinfection is the destroying of disease germs by\\nmeans of heat, chemic substances, fumigation, or by fresh air.\\nThe injurious consequences which are likely to result from such misap-\\nprehension and misuse of the word disinfectant will be appreciated when it\\nis known that recent researches have demonstrated that many of the agents\\nwhich have been found useful as deodorizers or as antiseptics are entirely\\nwithout value for the destruction of disease germs.\\nAn Antiseptic, but not a Disinfectant. This is true, for example, as\\nregards the sulphate of iron, or copperas, a salt which has been extensively\\nused with the idea that it is a valuable disinfectant. As a matter of fact,\\nsulphate of iron in saturated solution does not destroy the vitality of disease\\ngerms, or the infecting power of material containing them. This salt is,\\nnevertheless, a very valuable antiseptic, and its low price makes it one of the\\nmost valuable agents for the arrest of putrefactive decomposition.\\nExtracts from the Above-Mentioned Report.\\nSome Methods of Disinfecting. The most useful agents for the\\ndestruction of spore-containing infectious material are\\n347", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "348 PHYSIOLOGY.\\n1 Fire complete destruction by burning.\\n2. Steam under pressure, 105 degrees C. (221 degrees F.), for ten minutes.\\n3. Boiling in water for half an hour.\\n4. Chlorid of lime a four per cent solution.\\n5. Mercuric chlorid a solution of 1 500.\\nFor the destruction of material which owes its infecting power to the pres-\\nence of microorganisms not containing spores, the committee recommends\\n1. Fire complete destruction by burning.\\n2. Boiling in water for ten minutes.\\n3. Dry heat no degrees C. (230 degrees F.) for two hours.\\n4. Chlorid of lime a two per cent solution.\\n5. Solution of chlorinated soda; a ten per cent solution.\\n6. Mercuric chlorid a solution of I 2,000.\\n7. Carbolic acid a five per cent solution.\\n8. Sulphate of copper a five per cent solution.\\n9. Chlorid of zinc a ten per cent solution.\\n10. Sulphur dioxid exposure for at least twelve hours to an atmosphere\\ncontaining at least four volumes per cent of this gas in the presence of\\nmoisture.\\nMethods of Disinfecting. The committee would make the following\\nrecommendations with reference to the practical application of these agents\\nfor disinfecting purposes\\nFor Excreta. (a) In the sick room\\n1. Chlorid of lime, four per cent.\\nIn the absence of spores\\n2. Carbolic acid in solution, five per cent.\\n3. Sulphate of copper in solution, five per cent.\\nIn privy vaults\\n1. Mercuric chlorid in solution, 1 500.\\n2. Carbolic acid in solution, five per cent.\\n(V) For the disinfection and deodorization of the surface of masses of\\norganic material in privy vaults, etc.\\nChlorid of lime in powder.\\nFor Clothing, Bedding, etc. (a) Soiled underclothing, bed linen, etc.\\n1. Destruction by fire, if of little value.\\n2. Boiling at least half an hour.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS.\\n349\\n3. Immersion in a solution of mercuric chlorid of the strength of I 2,000\\nfor four hours.\\n4. Immersion in a two per cent solution of carbolic acid for four hours.\\nib) Outer garments of wool or silk, and similar articles, which would be\\ninjured by immersion in boiling water or in a disinfecting solution\\n1. Exposure in a suitable apparatus to a current of steam for ten minutes.\\n2. Exposure to dry heat at a temperature of no degrees C. (230 de-\\ngrees F.) for two hours.\\nr) Mattresses and blankets soiled by the discharge of the sick\\n1. Destruction by tire.\\n2. Exposure to superheated steam, 105 degrees C. (221 degrees F.), for\\nten minutes. (Mattresses to have the cover removed or freely exposed.)\\n3. Immersion in boiling water for half an hour.\\nFurniture and Articles of Wood, Leather, and Porcelain. Washing,\\nseveral times repeated, with\\n1. Solution of carbolic acid, two per cent.\\nFor the Person. The hands and general surface of the body of attend-\\nants of the sick, and of convalescents, should be washed with\\n1. Solution of chlorinated soda diluted with nine parts of water, 1 10.\\n2. Carbolic acid two per cent solution.\\nFor the Dead. Envelop the body in a sheet thoroughly saturated\\nwith\\n1. Chlorid of lime in solution, four per cent.\\n2. Mercuric chlorid in solution, I 500.\\n3. Carbolic acid in solution, five per cent.\\nFor the Sick Room. While occupied, wash all surfaces with\\n1. Mercuric chlorid in solution, 1 1,000.\\n2. Carbolic acid in solution, two per cent.\\n{b) When vacated, fumigate with sulphur dioxid for twelve hours, burning\\nat least three pounds of sulphur for every thousand cubic feet of air space in\\nthe room then wash all surfaces with one of the above-mentioned solutions,\\nand afterward with soap and hot water finally throw open doors and win-\\ndows, and ventilate freely.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "350\\nPOISONS AND ANTIDOTES,\\ng ^fi c o\\n5s\\n03 03 4^ rt\\n.2 o3 a 08\\nS ft J^^\\nS 2 S\\ni\u00e2\u0080\u0094 c o\\n-ff.S\\nS a-g\\na\\nc\\n_3 CO rZ,\\na c\\n\u00c2\u00a9\u00e2\u0080\u00a2rs\\nCO -O\\n2\\nbJOA\u00c2\u00a9\\noS c3^3\\na e -e ti\\n4^\\na-a\\nrj a\\n2 a\\n.rH 00 O\\nO S W\u00c2\u00bbM\\noS.\u00c2\u00a9\\n5 s a\\nS 05 O\\nA\\nAcqs\\ns\\n\u00c2\u00a33\\na 43\\nI g s\\n3 a. 2\\ncs a\\nw -3\\nS.S\\nos-C\\n\u00c2\u00abM a\\noS\\n+3\\n05 hi\\n0,\\n.2\\njl, ju\\nC3 S CO\\nE a\\ng8|| a\\n-a be 1 1\\n8-3 a g p\\n8 J*a\\nJ c3 k\\n.3 ^M od\\n-a o^ a\\n2f 05 J%~M\\n03-^\\nI||\\na -5 m\\na\u00c2\u00a9\\n43 \u00c2\u00a9.5\\ne_ 03\\na\\n\u00c2\u00bb.a or\\n.a r-\\na\\nfe 2~ 05 E\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a25 a 2^\\n05- 3 a\\na-a\\n2\\na\\n1\\ncs fl ,a\\n.a +3\\nP. 05 03\\nQ.\u00c2\u00a9\\na\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nS U.2\\nOS r\\nS\\nU\\n50 S li\\nfl ^5\u00c2\u00a3*ao3\\n.2 rQ a o\\nbJ0 cc\\nu a a\\n*_.\u00c2\u00ab\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0-a\\na\\nW S c3\\n8 \u00c2\u00a719\\na a ft\\no\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a25^\\ntdDO\\nVI\\nH\\nH\\nM\\nd\\nH O 03\\npin", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0370.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "POISONS AND ANTIDOTES.\\n351\\n=5\\nrf 60 O\\n33 g 8\\n3 e3 08\\na\\nS a\\n2\u00c2\u00a7 2.\\n3 c3 I\\nP\u00c2\u00ab \u00c2\u00a9-a\\n=-5\u00c2\u00a9\\n\u00c2\u00a9-a\\nw\\n_- 5\\n2 o\\n-si\\nu\\nC\\n2 4a b C\\n.2 :3~\\n2 .a to ir\\n2 ^O\\nr\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\na a -g\\n\u00c2\u00a32\u00c2\u00a9\\n,0 +j +s\\nH\\nc P\\nIh 2\\nn\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0r!\\nc3\\n03\\n3\\n+3\\nej\\n_\\n0)\\na\\nS3\\n3\\n1\\nSo\\nO P\u00c2\u00ab\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a23 c\\n-j\\n5 2\\no So a:\\n6\u00c2\u00a9\u00c2\u00a3\\ne3 C\\nr^S\\nw.S\\na\\no 2\\n\u00c2\u00a3fe\\n2~^\\nS\\nS 4\\nsag\\na fl! 5\\n0D\\nc3\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2a- 1\\n311-\\n2^o\\n2 a.\\n2 a\\nw\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2_\\nC\\n-r\u00c2\u00a9 2\\na C-.2\\nOlS\\nbc.2 a\\n\u00c2\u00abH\\n35\\n5-3*3\\n\u00c2\u00a9S\\n.a a x\\n+1 S w\\nb\\n2 S\\nS\u00c2\u00aba\\nc3 a\\nc a\\nP\\nEG -\u00c2\u00a3l\\n03 t-t OQ\\na 3\\na\\ntil\\n5 S\\n3^5\\ns\\nMO 1\\nat\\nti SCd^.\\nH^^", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0371.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "352\\nPOISONS AND ANTIDOTES.\\nra r\u00c2\u00a9\\na\\nO e3\\na oj a\\nS3 a\\nJOS\\nag\u00c2\u00a9\\n4) CS\\nsgo\\nSP O o\\n+3\\nm Z. \u00c2\u00abs a\\n2\\n3\u00c2\u00a70\\nii\\nH co\\n2 ft\\nC3 50\\nH\\na\u00c2\u00a9\u00c2\u00a3\\n5* 8\\na\\n\u00c2\u00a3-1\\nIf I\\ncoo a a?\\ne3 4* 02\\nS^J \u00c2\u00a9.2\\n\u00c2\u00a94^ 4=\\nar 2\\nH\\nS^J a^\\nO ,r) C ft .i-c S .f*\\nfto b\\nftcS\\ngp+3 5BS g\\ng eStf C3 4 3 O\\na a 58\\nC3\\na\\n.0^1:1\\n8fl2sr c\\n-a^ta o 1\\n4= a o\\nH\\na 04= a -5 g .5\\n\u00c2\u00ab8 pi To p, .a\\na \u00c2\u00a9\u00c2\u00a9^ft\\n22 S-a n o a w\\nftr\u00c2\u00a3 fl\\nt-l f\u00c2\u00a9. P\\n2 2 4=\\nc3 O co\\nft\\nra+3\\na,\\nee,a a\\n8 o.ft\\n03 43\\nr3.2bf)\\nbb .a\\n8s\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2H OS\\n43\\nP4\\nB O\\n.3 Sfi\\n.25^3 a\\n\u00c2\u00a7S?\\nif\\ns s\\na P\\ns a\\nS-73 g\\n03 O\\nl|l I\\ns a n*c\\n,_ s\u00c2\u00a9\\na ^a^\\nJ Mod\\n.ssgs\\nft.\u00c2\u00a7\u00c2\u00ab\\ne3 to\\n^1\\n5-^+\u00c2\u00bb\\nm\\n03 .2\\n03 S ft\\nlis\\n43 *S\\nco S a\\nbJOtt 43\\na n s\u00c2\u00a9 -p\\nCO \u00c2\u00a9^S \u00c2\u00a9rrt tt\\ns^l s S 43\\n2.\u00c2\u00b0/-g\\no\\nf\u00c2\u00a7s\u00c2\u00a9iirii\\nr S54lc8 cS .2\\n\u00c2\u00a9\u00c2\u00a9trS S.-Sa-SS\\nCOjafc.Sco^HflS\\n\u00c2\u00a9tj O 45 o 03 o\\na^\\n\u00c2\u00a9fej\\nS3\\n^5-s.a\\n\u00c2\u00a9r\u00c2\u00b1\\nw SLa\u00c2\u00b0\\naong\\nHOOK\\nm:\\nC3\\nl! 43\\n3 a\\nI a S\\na-\u00c2\u00a9 5 ,5 I ^fe^\\no-2\\nr2 fe\\n^1111 all\\ng oc", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0372.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "POISOA r S AND ANT/DOTES.\\n353\\ncS\\nft^\\n^3\\nSI\\nIII\\nci\\nO P-i\\nS PI d\\non O-g^\\nft-O g S\\nO a\\nft i s\\n.-I P +3 C\\n.S s ft^\\nOS ,5\\nO\\n+3 o c3\\n03\\ns\\nS S+3\\ng s-r+3 n\\nfH +S O 43 H\\no\\n2\\nrA\\nS s 5q\u00c2\u00a7S\\nJ5\\n~r\\n-5 fl\\n02\\nT3 ft\\nO =3\\n6\\nSh\\n.05\\n3x2\u00c2\u00a9 A\\ncSOXS S\\n.2 2 2 o\\n3 3 a S .s =3\\n05^3^2 S \u00c2\u00a9CO\\nO", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0373.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "354 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nDaily Excretions. Sweat, from 1.5 lbs. to 4.5 lbs. urea, about\\n1 oz. organic matter exhaled, 3 grains urine, 53 oz.\\nOf the entire excreta, 32 per cent pass off by the breath 17 per\\ncent by the skin 46.5 per cent by the kidneys 4.5 per cent by the\\nalimentary canal. Cutter.\\nNumber of Sweat Glands. The number of sweat glands may\\nbe as high as 3,500 in a square inch, and the average is estimated at,\\n2,800 per square inch as there are about 2,500 square inches of body\\nsurface, it is readily computed that there are several millions of sweat\\nglands.\\nNumber of Hairs on the Human Head. The average number\\nof hairs on the head is 120,000. They are set obliquely, and are con-\\ntrolled by muscles so that they may be made to stand erect, or nearly so,\\nunder the influence of certain emotions, as fear, anger, etc.\\nHuxley and others have classified the races of men according to the\\nhair, into the Ulotrichi, or crisp or woolly haired division, including\\nthe negroes, bushmen, etc. and Leiotrichi, or smooth-haired, sub-\\ndivided into the Australioid, the Mongoloid, the Xanthochroic, and the\\nMelanochroic.\\nIn Europeans the hair is oval in cross-section in the Japanese\\nand Chinese it is circular.\\nCirculation. Rate of blood flow in the large arteries, from 12 to\\n16 inches a second in the caval veins, about 4 inches a second in the\\ncapillaries, from 1 inch to 1.5 inches a minute. A portion of the blood\\nmakes the complete circulation (in a horse) in less than half a minute.\\nThis is found by putting some readily detected chemical into one jugular\\nvein, and noting how soon it appears in the other jugular vein. The\\ntime necessary for all the blood to pass through the heart is estimated\\nas follows Each ventricle pumps about six ounces of blood at each\\nstroke. At this rate thirty strokes, 25 to 50 seconds (or less), would\\nhave pumped all the blood in the body. Still, some of the blood (from\\nthe shorter circuits) may have been pumped twice, and some (from the\\nlonger routes) may not yet have been around once. And since the\\ntotal amount of blood has been only approximately determined, these\\nfigures are not very accurate.\\nNumber of blood corpuscles to the cubic inch, about 83,000,000.\\nDr. Tanner s Forty Days Fast (Newspaper Account). No\\nFood but Water Taken. When Dr. Tanner came to New York\\nfrom Minnesota he weighed 184 pounds. He was six weeks making ar-", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0374.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "VITAL STATISTICS.\\n355\\nrangements for his fast and when he began his experiment his weight\\nwas 157| pounds. He weighed 1214 pounds on the day his fast ended.\\nHe had therefore lost 62h pounds since he came to the city, and 36\\npounds since he began his fast. Dr. Hammond, the well-known New\\nYork physician whose assertion that a forty days fast was a physical\\nimpossibility led Dr. Tanner to make the attempt, came out in a card\\nin the New York papers declaring that he believed the fast had been\\nfairly conducted.\\nOn each day of his fast Dr. Tanner weighed as follows\\n157i\\n153\\n147\u00c2\u00a3\\n143J\\n139|\\n136^\\n133\\n132\\n133\u00c2\u00a3\\n135J\\n136\u00c2\u00a3\\n136\\n20th (4 p.m.) 135\u00c2\u00a3\\n20th (5 a.m.) 135\\n21st 135\\n22d 133\u00c2\u00a3\\n26th 132\u00c2\u00a3\\n1st\\n3d\\n5th\\n7th\\n11th\\n13th\\n14th\\n16th\\n17th (8.30 p.m.)\\n17th (11 A.M.)\\n18th\\n19th\\nDAY.\\n25th\\n26th\\n27th\\n28th\\n29th\\n30th\\n31st\\n32d\\n33d\\n34th\\n35th\\n36th\\n37th\\n38th\\n39th\\n40th\\n13li\\n131i\\n130\u00c2\u00a3\\n129|\\n130\\n128\\n127\u00c2\u00a3\\n126\u00c2\u00a3\\n126\u00c2\u00a3\\n125\u00c2\u00a3\\n122\u00c2\u00a3\\n121\u00c2\u00a3\\nCavities of the Body. 1. Mucous cavities (open to the external\\nair). Digestive tube, respiratory passages, genito-urinary passages, ex-\\nternal and middle ear, etc.\\n2. Serous cavities (closed). They may all be said to be lymph cav-\\nities. They are the lymph spaces throughout the body, and the large\\nspaces, called the pleural cavity around the lungs, the pericardial cavity\\naround the heart, the peritoneal cavity in the abdomen, the arachnoid\\ncavity around the brain, and a similar one along the spinal cord.\\n3. Synovial cavities in the joints.\\n4. Blood cavities, the inside of the heart and blood tubes.\\n5. Secretion cavities, the cavities and tubes from the glands for\\nexample, the bile sac and its duct.\\n6. Bone cavities.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0375.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "356\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nLOSSES OF THE TISSUES DURING STARVATION.\\nFat\\nBlood\\nSpleen\\nPancreas\\nStomach\\nPharynx, gullet\\nSkin\\nKidneys\\nLiver\\n(from experiment on a cat.)\\nloses 93 per\\n75\\n71\\n64\\n39\\n34\\n33\\n31\\n52\\nHeart\\noses 44\\nper cent\\nIntestines\\n42\\nMuscles of locomo-\\ntion\\n42\\nRespiratory appa-\\nratus\\n22\\ntt\\nBones\\n16\\na\\nEyes\\n10\\nNervous system\\n2\\nQUANTITY OF WATER IN 1,000 PARTS.\\nTeeth 100\\nBones 130\\nCartilage 550\\nMuscles 750\\nLigament 768\\nBrain 789\\nBlood 795\\nSynovia 805\\nBile 880\\nMilk 887\\nPancreatic juice 900\\nUrine 936\\nLymph 960\\nGastric juice 975\\nSweat 986\\nSaliva 995\\nTHE LOSS OF WATER FROM THE BODY.\\nFrom the Alimentary canal (feces) 4 per cent.\\nLungs 20\\nSkin (perspiration) 30\\nKidneys (urine) 46\\nOxygen 72.0\\nCarbon 13.5\\nHydrogen 9.1\\nNitrogen 2.5\\nCalcium 1.3\\nFosforus 1.15\\nSulfur 147\\nSodium 1\\nELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY.\\nChlorin\\nFluorin\\nPotassium\\nIron\\nMagnesium\\nSilicon\\nCopper, lead, aluminum\\n.085\\n.08\\n.026\\n.01\\n.0012\\n.0002\\n(traces)\\nloo.\\nDAILY RATION OF A U. S. SOLDIER DURING THE LATE WAR.\\nBread or flour\\nFresh or salt beef (or pork or bacon 12 oz.)\\nPotatoes (three times a week)", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0376.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "VITAL STATISTICS.\\n357\\nRice 1.6 oz.\\nCoffee (or tea 0.24 oz.) 1.6\\nSugar 2.4\\nBeans 64 gill.\\nVinegar 32\\nSalt 16\\nCOMPOSITION OF FOODS.\\nBeef, lean\\nBeef, fat\\nMutton, lean\\nMutton, fat\\nVeal\\nPork, fat\\nPoultry\\nWhitefish\\nSalmon\\nEels (rich in fat)\\nOysters\\nMilk\\nButtermilk\\nCream\\nCheese, full\\nCheese, skim\\nEggs, white\\nEggs, yelk\\nBread\\nFlour\\nATJEU.\\n72\\nPROTEIDS.\\n19.3\\nFATS.\\n3.6\\n(ARBO-\\nUVDRATE.S.\\nSALTS\\n5.1\\n51\\n14.8\\n29.8\\n4.4\\n72\\n18.3\\n4.9\\n4.8\\n53\\n12.4\\n31.1\\n3.5\\n63\\n16.5\\n15.3\\n4.7\\n39\\n9.8\\n48.9\\n2.3\\n74\\n21\\n3.8\\n1.2\\n78\\n18.1\\n2.9\\n1.0\\n77\\n16.1\\n5.5\\n1.4\\n75\\n9.9\\n13.8\\n2.7\\n75.7\\n11.7\\n2.4\\n2.7\\nSUGAR.\\n86\\n4.1\\n3.9\\n5.2\\n.8\\n88\\n4.1\\n.7\\n6.4\\n.8\\n66\\n2.7\\n26.7\\n2.8\\n4.9\\n36\\n28.4\\n31.1\\n4.5\\n44\\n44.8\\n6.3\\n4.9\\n78\\n20.4\\n1.6\\n52\\n16\\n30.7\\nSTARCH.\\n1.3\\n37\\n8.1\\n1.6\\n51\\n2.3\\n15\\n10.8\\n2\\n7\\n0.8\\n1.7\\nCOMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD.\\nWater\\nSolids-\\nCorpuscles\\nProteids (of serum)\\nFibrin (of clot)\\nFatty matters (of serum)\\nInorganic salts\\nGases, urea, kreatin, etc.\\n130\\n70\\n2.2\\n1.4\\n6.0\\n6.4\\n784\\n216\\n1000", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0377.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "358 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nCOMPOSITION OF GASTRIC JUICE.\\nWater 99.44\\nSolids\\nPepsin .319\\nSalts 218\\nHydrochloric acid .02\\n.557\\n100\\nFluids of the Body (Ford). 1. Circulating fluids, chyle,\\nlymph, blood.\\n2. Fluids for digestion, saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, bile,\\nintestinal juice.\\n3. Fluids of closed cavities, of the arachnoid, pleural, pericardial,\\nand peritoneal sacs, of joints, of the eye and ear, and of cells.\\n4. Secretions for protection, cerumen or wax, tears, fluid of mucous\\nmembranes, oily fluids on the surface of the body.\\n5. Fluids for discharge, intestinal secretion, renal or kidney se-\\ncretion, perspiration, vapor from the lungs, etc.\\nAcids and Alkalies of the Body. Acids, gastric juice, mu-\\ncus, chyme, contents of large intestine.\\nAlkalies, saliva (or neutral), pancreatic juice, intestinal juice,\\nbile (or neutral), contents of small intestine, sweat.\\nAmount of Digestive Liquids. The amount of saliva secreted\\ndaily is estimated at from 1 to 3 pints, of gastric juice from 10 to 20 pints,\\nof bile from 2 to 3 pints. The amount of intestinal and other juices is\\ndifficult to estimate. But it is readily seen that a very large amount of\\nliquid is daily separated from the blood to be used in the preparation of\\nthe food for absorption into the blood. This is to be looked upon as an\\ninvestment. It is supposed to be reabsorbed with large returns in addi-\\ntion to the prepared food and if anything interferes with the absorp-\\ntion of the food material, especially if the secretion goes on, it is plain\\nthat bankruptcy will follow as surely as in the business world whenever\\nthere is a continual expenditure without corresponding returns. The\\ncondition known as diarrhea illustrates this condition, perhaps, as\\nwell as any well-known condition of the body.\\nSpecific Gravity of the Liquids of the Body. As all the\\nliquids of the body have dissolved and suspended in them various salts\\nand other matters, they are all heavier than water.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0378.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "VITAL STATISTICS. 359\\nAlcohol and Longevity. Investigation by Baer has shown that the\\naverage expectation of life among users and dealers in alcoholic liquors\\nis very much shortened. The following table gives a comparative view of\\nthe expectation of life in those who abstained from and those who used\\nalcohol\\nEXPECTATION OF LIFE.\\nAGE.\\nABSTAINERS.\\nALCOHOL USERS\\nAt 25,\\n32.08 years,\\n26.23 years.\\n35\\n25.92\\n20.01\\n45\\n19.92\\n15.19\\n55\\n1445\\n11. 16\\n65,\\n9.62\\n8.04\\nTABLE SHOWING THE INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL UPON THE\\nMORTALITY FROM VARIOUS DISEASES.\\nGENERAL MALE POPULATION. ALCOHOL VENDERS.\\nBrain disease,\\n11.77 Per\\ncent.\\n14.43 P er cent\\nTuberculosis,\\n30.36\\n36.57\\nPneumonia and pleuritis,\\n9.63\\n11.44\\nHeart disease,\\n1.46\\n3.29\\nKidney disease,\\n1 .40\\n2.11\\nSuicide,\\n2.99\\n4.02\\nCancer,\\n2.49\\n3.70\\nOld age,\\n22.49\\n7.05", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0379.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "GLOSSARY.\\nAlbumen (al-bu -men).\\nAlbumin (al-bh -mui). A proteid substance, the chief constituent of\\nthe body. Its molecule is highly complex, and varies widely within\\ncertain limits in different organs and in different conditions.\\nAlbuminuria {al-bu -mi-nu -ri-a The presence of albumin in the urine,\\nindicating changes in the blood or in the kidneys.\\nAmylopsin (am-i-lop -sin). A ferment said to exist in pancreatin.\\nAnabolism (an-ab -o-lizm). Synthetic or constructive metabolism.\\nActivity and repair of function opposed to katabolism.\\nArbor Vitae (ar -bor vY-te). A term applied to the branched appear-\\nance of a section of the cerebellum.\\nArgon (ar -gon). A newly discovered element similar to nitrogen\\n(found in the air).\\nArytenoid (ar-l-te -noid). Resembling the mouth of a pitcher, as the\\narytenoid cartilages of the larynx.\\nAtlas (at -las). The uppermost of the cervical vertebrae (from the\\nmythical Atlas who supported the Earth).\\nAuricle (aw -ri-kl). The auricles of the heart are the two cavities be-\\ntween the veins and the ventricles. Also, the pinna and external\\nmeatus of the ear.\\nAxis (ak -sis). The second cervical vertebra, on which the head, with\\nthe atlas, turns.\\nBacterium (bak-te -ri-um) pi. bacteria. A genus of microscopic fungi\\ncharacterized by short, linear, inflexible, rod-like forms without\\ntendency to unite into chains or filaments.\\nBiceps (bi -seps). Biceps brachii, the flexor of the arm.\\nBicuspid (bi-kus -pid). Having two points the bicuspid or premolar\\nteeth the bicuspid valve, between the left auricle and the left ven-\\ntricle.\\nBrachial (bra -ke-al or brak -i-al). Pertaining to the arm.\\n360", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0380.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "GLOSSARY. 361\\nBronchus (hrong -kus), pi. bronchi. The two tubes into which the tra-\\nchea divides opposite the third thoracic vertebra, called respectively\\nthe right and left bronchus.\\nCaffein (kaf-e-iri). An alkaloid that occurs in the leaves and beans of\\nthe coffee-tree, in Paraguay tea, etc.\\nCanaliculus (kan-a-lik -u-lus),.jA. canaliculi. The crevices extending\\nfrom lacunae, through which nutrition is conveyed to all parts of\\nthe bone.\\nCanine (ka-nhi or ka -nin). The conical teeth between the incisors\\nand the premolars.\\nCapillary (kap -i-la-ri or ka-pil -a-ri). A minute blood-tube connecting\\nthe smallest ramification of the arteries with those of the veins.\\nCapsule (kap -sul). A tunic or bag that incloses a part of the body or\\nan organ.\\nCarbohydrate (kar-bo-hi -drat). An organic substance containing six\\ncarbon atoms or some multiple of six, and hydrogen and oxygen in\\nthe proportion in which they form water; that is, twice as many\\nhydrogen as oxygen atoms. Starches, sugars, and gums are carbo-\\nhydrates.\\nCardiac (kar -di-ak). Pertaining to the heart.\\nCarotid (ka-rot -id). The principal right and left arteries of the neck.\\nCarpus (kcir -pus). Belonging to the wrist; as the carpal bones.\\nCartilage (kar -ti-laj). Gristle of various kinds, articular, etc.\\nCasein (kd -se-in). A derived albumin, the chief proteid of milk, pre-\\ncipitated by acids and by rennet at 40\u00c2\u00b0C.\\nCecum (se -kum). The large blind pouch or cul-de-sac, in which the\\nlarge intestine begins.\\nCentrum (sen -truni). The center or middle part the body of a verte-\\nbra, exclusive of the bases of the neural arches.\\nCerebellum (ser-e-bel -um). The inferior part of the brain, lying below\\nthe cerebrum.\\nCerebrum {ser -e-brum). The chief portion of the brain, occupying the\\nwhole upper part of the cranium.\\nCervical (ser -vi-kal). Pertaining to the neck, as cervical vertebrae.\\nChordae tendineae (kor -de). The tendinous cords connecting the\\nfleshy columns of the heart with the auriculo-ventricular valves.\\nChoroid (ko -roid). The second or vascular coat of the eye, continu-\\nous with the iris in front, and lying between the sclerotic and the\\nretina.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0381.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "362 GLOSSARY.\\nChyle (kil). The milk-white fluid ahsorhed by the lacteals during di-\\ngestion.\\nChyme (kirn). Food that has undergone gastric digestion, and has not\\nyet been acted upon by the biliary, pancreatic, and intestinal\\nsecretions.\\nCilium (sil -i-um), pi. cilia. The eyelashes also the hair-like appen-\\ndages of certain epithelial cells, whose function is to propel fluid\\nor particles along the passages that they line.\\nCiliary (sil -i-a-ri). Pertaining to the eyelid or eyelash also by ex-\\ntension to the ciliary apparatus or the structure related to the\\nmechanism of accommodation. Pertaining to the cilia.\\nCircumvallate (sir-kum-val -at). Surrounded by a wall or prominence,\\nas the circumvallate papillae on the tongue.\\nClavicle (klav -i-kl). The collar-bone.\\nCoccyx (kok -siks). The last bone of the spinal column, formed by the\\nunion of four rudimentary vertebrae.\\nCochlea (kok -le-a). A cavity of the internal ear, resembling a snail-\\nshell.\\nConjunctiva (kon-jungk-tl -vci). The mucous membrane covering the\\nanterior portion of the globe of the eye, reflected on, and extending\\nto, the free edge of the lids.\\nCorpus Arantii (kor -pus). The tubercles, one in the center of each\\nsegment of the semilunar valves.\\nCorpuscle (Jcor -pus-l). A name loosely applied to almost any small,\\nrounded or oval body, as the blood corpuscles.\\nCortex (kor -teks). Bark. The outer layer of gray matter of the brain\\nthe outer layer, cortical substance, of the kidney.\\nCricoid (kri -koid). King-shaped, as the cricoid cartilage of the\\nlarynx.\\nDentine (den -tin). The ivory-like substance constituting the bulk of\\nthe tooth, lying under the enamel of the crown and the cement\\nof the root.\\nDiabetes (di-a-be -tez). The name of two different affections, diabetes\\nmellitus, or persistent glycosuria, and diabetes insipidus, or polyu-\\nria, both characterized, in ordinary cases, by an abnormally large\\ndischarge of urine. The former is distinguished by the presence\\nof an excessive quantity of sugar in the urine.\\nDialysis (di-al -i-sis). The operation of separating crystalline from\\ncolloid substances by means of a porous diaphragm, the former", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0382.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "GLOSSARY. 363\\npassing through the diaphragm into the pure water upon which the\\ndialyzer rests.\\nDigastric (di-gas -trik). Having two bellies, as the digastric muscle,\\nenlarged near each end and with a tendon in the middle.\\nDuodenum (du-o-de -num). The first part of the small intestine, begin-\\nning with the pylorus.\\nEmulsion (e-mul -shun). Water or other liquid in which oil, in minute\\nsubdivision of its particles, is suspended.\\nEnamel (en-am -el). The hard covering of the crown of a tooth.\\nEndothelium (en-do-the -li-um) The internal lining membrane of\\nserous, synovial, and other internal surfaces, the homolog of epi-\\nthelium.\\nEnzyme (en -ziiri). Any chemic or hydrolytic ferment, as distinguished\\nfrom organized ferments such as yeast; unorganized ferment.\\nEpiglottis (ep-i-glot -is). A thin fibro-cartilaginous valve that aids in\\npreventing food and drink from passing into the larynx.\\nEsophagus (e-sof-a-gus). The musculo-membranous tube extending\\nfrom the pharynx to the stomach.\\nEustachian (u-sta -ki-an). Eustachian tube, the tube leading from the\\nmiddle ear to the pharynx.\\nFacet (fas -et). A small plane surface. The articulating surface of a\\nbone.\\nFemur (fe -mer). The thigh-bone.\\nFerment (fer -ment). Any micro-organism, proteid, or other chemic\\nsubstance capable of producing fermentation, i.e., the oxidation\\nand disorganization of the carbohydrates.\\nFibrin (fi -hrin). A native albumen or proteid, a substance that, be-\\ncoming solid in shed blood, plasma, and lymph, causes coagulation\\nof these fluids.\\nFibula (ftb -u-la). The smaller or splint bone in the outer part of the\\nleg, articulating above with the tibia, and below with the astraga-\\nlus and tibia.\\nFiliform (fil -i-form). Thread-like, as the filiform papillae.\\nFrontal (fron -tal). Belonging to the front, as the frontal bone.\\nFungiform (fun -ji-form). Having the form of a mushroom, as fungi-\\nform papillae.\\nGanglion (gang -gli-on), pi. ganglions or ganglia. A separate and semi-\\nindependent nervous center, communicating with other ganglia or\\nnerves, with the central nervous system, and peripheral organs.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0383.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "364 GLOSSARY.\\nGastric (gas -trik). Pertaining to the stomach.\\nGelatin (jel -a-tin). An albuminoid substance of jelly-like consistence,\\nobtained by boiling skin, connective tissue, and bones of animals\\nin water. The glue of commerce is an impure variety.\\nGlosso-pharyngeal (glos -o-fa-rin -je-al). Pertaining to the tongue and\\nlarynx.\\nGluten (glb -ten). A substance resembling albumin, and with which it\\nis probably identified it occurs abundantly in the seeds of cereals.\\nGlycogen (gli -ko-jen). A white amorphous powder, tasteless and odor-\\nless, forming an opalescent solution with water, and insoluble in\\nalcohol. It is commonly known as animal starch. It occurs in the\\nblood and in the liver, by which it is elaborated, and is changed by\\ndiastasic ferments into glucose.\\nGustatory (gus -ta-to-ri). Pertaining to the special sense of taste and\\nits organs.\\nHashish (hash -esh). A preparation from Indian hemp, Cannabis in-\\ndica. It is a powerful narcotic.\\nHaversian (ha-ver -zian). Haversian canal, in bone, a central opening\\nfor blood-tubes, surrounded by a number of concentric rings, or\\nlamellae, of bone.\\nHemoglobin (hem-o-glo -bin). A substance existing in the corpuscles of\\nthe blood, and to which their red color is due.\\nHepatic (he-pat -ik). Pertaining or belonging to the liver.\\nHilum (hl -lum). A small pit, scar, or opening in an organic structure\\nthe notch on the internal or concave border of the kidney.\\nHumerus (hu -me-rus). The bone of the upper arm.\\nHumor (hu -mor). Any liquid, or semi-liquid, part of the body.\\nHyoid (hi -oid). Having the form of the letter U. The hyoid bone\\nsituated between the root of the tongue and the larynx, supporting\\nthe tongue and giving attachment to its muscles.\\nHypo-glossal (hi-po-glos -al). Under the tongue.\\nIliac (il -i-ak). Pertaining to the ilium, or region of the flanks, as iliac\\nartery, vein, etc.\\nIncisor (in-si -sor). The chisel-shaped front teeth.\\nInhibition (in-hi-bish -un). The act of checking, restraining, or sup-\\npressing any influence that controls, retards, or restrains. Inhib-\\nitory nerves and centers are those intermediating a modification,\\nstoppage, or suppression of a motor or secretory act already in\\nprogress.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0384.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "GLOSSARY. 365\\nInnominate (i-nom -i-ndte). Nameless a term applied to several parts\\nof the body to which no other definite name has been given, as the\\ninnominate bone, artery, vein, etc.\\nInvertin (in -ver-tin). A ferment found in the intestinal juice, and also\\nproduced by several species of plants it converts cane-sugar in\\nsolution into invert sugar.\\nJugular (jo -gu-lar). Pertaining to the tbroat, as the jugular vein.\\nKatabolism (ka-tab -o-lizm). Analytic or destructive metabolism a\\nphysiologic disintegration opposed to anabolism.\\nLacrymal (lak -ri-mal) Having relation to the organs of the secretion,\\ntransfer, or excretion of tears.\\nLacuna (la-ku -na). A little hollow space especially the microscopic\\ncavities in bone occupied by the bone corpuscles, and communicat-\\ning with one another and with the haversian canals and the sur-\\nfaces of the bone through the canaliculi.\\nLamella (la-mel -ci), pi. lamellae. A thin lamina, scale, or plate of\\nbone, the concentric rings surrounding the haversian canals.\\nLarynx (lar -ingks). The upper part of the air passage between the\\ntrachea and the base of the tongue the voice-box.\\nLegumin (le-gu -min). A proteid compound in the seeds of many plants\\nbelonging to the natural order Leguminosae (peas, beans, lentils,\\netc.).\\nLumbar (lum -bcir), pertaining to the loins, especially to the region\\nabout the loins.\\nLymphatic (lim-fat -ik). Pertaining to lymph.\\nLymphatics (lim-fat -iks). The tubes that convey lymph.\\nLymphatic glands. The glands intercalated in the pathway of the\\nlymphatic tubes, through which lymph is filtered.\\nMassage (ma-sazh A method of effecting changes in the local and\\ngeneral nutrition, action and other functions of the body, by rub-\\nbing, kneading, and other manipulation of the superficial parts of\\nthe body by the hand or an instrument.\\nMasseter (mas -e-ter). A chewing-muscle felt on the angle of the\\njaw.\\nMedullary (med -u-la-ri). Pertaining to the medulla, or marrow re-\\nsembling marrow. Also pertaining to the white substance of the\\nbrain contained within the cortical envelop of gray matter.\\nMesenteric (mez-en-ter -ik). Pertaining to the mesentery, as artery,\\nvein, etc.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0385.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "366 GLOSSARY.\\nMesentery (mez -en-ter-i). A fold of the peritoneum that connects cer-\\ntain portions of the intestine with the dorsal abdominal wall.\\nMetabolism (me-tab -o-lizm). A change in the intimate condition of\\ncells (1) constructive or synthetic metabolism is called Anabo-\\nlism in anabolism, the substance is becoming more complex and\\nis accumulating force (2) destructive or analytic metabolism is\\ncalled Katabolism in katabolism there is disintegration, the mate-\\nrial is becoming less complex, and there is loss or expenditure of\\nforce.\\nMetacarpus (met-a-Mr -pus). The bones of the palm of the hand.\\nMetatarsus (met-a-tar -sus). The five bones of the arch of the foot,\\nsituated between the tarsus and the phalanges.\\nMitral (mi -tral). Resembling a miter; mitral valve, with two flaps,\\nbetween the left auricle and the left ventricle.\\nMolar (mo -lar). Mill; the grinding-teeth.\\nMucous (mu -kus). A term applied to those tissues that secrete mucus.\\nMucus (mu -kus). A viscid liquid secretion of mucous membranes,\\ncomposed essentially of mucin, holding in suspension desquamated\\nepithelial cells, etc.\\nMyosin (mi -o-sin). A proteid of the globulin class, the chief proteid\\nof muscle. Its coagulation after death causes rigor mortis.\\nNarcosis (nar-ko -sis) The deadening of pain, or production of incom-\\nplete or complete anesthesia by the use of narcotic agents, such as\\nanesthetics, opium, and other drugs.\\nNarcotic (nar-kotf-ic). A drug that produces narcosis.\\nNeural (nu -ral). Pertaining to the nerves.\\nNeuroglia (nu-rog -U-a). The reticulated framework or skeleton-work\\nof the substance of the brain and spinal cord. The term is some-\\ntimes abbreviated to glia.\\nNucleus (nu -kle-us). The essential part of a typical cell, usually round\\nin outline, and situated in the center.\\nOccipital (ok-sip -i-tal). Pertaining to the occiput or back part of the\\nhead, as the occipital bone.\\nOdontoid (o-don -toid). Resembling a tooth the tooth-like process\\n(axis) of the second cervical vertebra, on which the atlas turns.\\nOlfactory (ol-fak -to-ri) Pertaining to the sense of smell.\\nOsmosis (os-mo -sis). That property by which liquids and crystalline\\nsubstances in solution pass through porous septa endosmosis and\\nexosmosis.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0386.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "GLOSSARY. l6j\\nOxy-hemoglobin (ok-si-hem-o-glo -bin). Hemoglobin united, molecule\\nfor molecule, with oxygen. It is the characteristic constituent of\\nthe red corpuscles to which the scarlet color of arterial blood is\\ndue.\\nPancreas (pan -kre-as). A large racemose gland lying transversely\\nacross the dorsal wall of the abdomen. It secretes a clear liquid\\nfor the digestion of proteids, fats, and carbohydrates. The sweet-\\nbread of animals, vulgarly called the belly sweet-bread in con-\\ntra-distinction to the thymus, or true sweet-bread.\\nPancreatin (pan -kre-a-tin). The active element of the pancreatic juice.\\nPapilla (pdrpil -a), pi. papillae. Any soft, conical elevation, as papillae\\nof the dermis, tongue, etc.\\nPapillary (pap -i-la-ri). Pertaining to a papilla; papillary muscles,\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nthe conic muscular columns of the heart, to which the chordae\\ntendineae are attached.\\nParietal (pa-ri -e-tal). Pertaining to the walls, as the parietal bone.\\nParotid (pa-rot -id). !Sear the ear, as the parotid salivary glands.\\nPatella (pa-tel -a). The knee-pan.\\nPeptone (pep -ton). A proteid body produced by the action of peptic\\nand pancreatic digestion.\\nPericardium (per-i-kar -di-um). The closed membranous sac or cover-\\ning that envelops the heart.\\nPeriosteum (per-i-os -te-um). A fibrous membrane that invests the\\nsurfaces of the bones, except at the points of tendinous and liga-\\nmentary attachments, and on the articular surfaces where cartilage\\nis substituted.\\nPeristaltic (per-i-stal -tik). The peculiar movement of the intestine\\nand other tubular organs, consisting in a vermicular shortening\\nand narrowing of the tube, thus propelling the contents onward.\\nIt is due to the successive contractions of the bundles of longitudi-\\nnal and circular muscular fibers.\\nPeritoneal (per-i-to-ne -al). Pertaining to the peritoneum.\\nPeritoneum (per-i-to-ne -urn). The serous membrane lining the interior\\nof the abdominal cavity, and surrounding the contained viscera.\\nThe peritoneum forms a closed sac, but is rendered complex in its\\narrangement by numerous foldings produced by its reflection upon\\nthe viscera.\\nPhalanges (fa-lan -jez), plural of phalanx (fci -langks). Any one of\\nthe bones of the fingers or toes.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0387.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "368 GLOSSARY.\\nPharynx (far r -ingks). The cavity back of the soft palate. It commu-\\nnicates anteriorly with the posterior nares, laterally with the eusta-\\nchian tubes, ventrally with the mouth, and posteriorly with the\\ngullet and larynx.\\nPlasma (plaz -ma) The original undifferentiated substance of nascent,\\nliving matter. The fluid part of the blood and lymph.\\nPleura (plo -ra). The serous membrane which envelops the lungs, and\\nwhich, being reflected back, lines the inner surface of the thorax.\\nPlexus QAek -sus). An aggregation of vessels or nerves forming an\\nintricate net-work.\\nPneumogastric (nu-mo-gas -trik). Pertaining conjointly to the lungs\\nand the stomach, or to the pneumogastric or vagus nerve.\\nPortal (por -tal). Pertaining to the porta (gate) or hilum of an organ,\\nespecially of the liver, as the portal vein.\\nPostcaval (post-kd -val). Pertaining to the postcava; the postcaval\\nvein, formerly called the inferior vena cava, or vena cava ascendens.\\nPrecaval (pre-ka -val). Pertaining to the precava; the anterior caval\\nvein, formerly called the superior vena cava, or vena cava de-\\nscendens.\\nPronation (pro-na -shuri). The turning of the palm downward.\\nProtoplasm (prb -tb-plazm). An albuminous substance, ordinarily re-\\nsembling the white of an egg, consisting of carbon, oxygen, nitro-\\ngen, and hydrogen in extremely complex and unstable molecular\\ncombination, and capable, under proper conditions, of manifesting\\ncertain vital phenomena, such as spontaneous motion, sensation,\\nassimilation, and reproduction, thus constituting the physical basis\\nof life of all plants and animals.\\nPtyalin (ti -a-lin). An amylolytic or diastasic ferment found in saliva,\\nhaving the property of converting starch into dextrin and sugar.\\nPulmonary (pul -mo-na-ri). Pertaining to the lungs.\\nPylorus (pi-lb -rus). The opening of the stomach into the duodenum.\\nRadius (rd -di-us). The outer of the bones of the forearm.\\nRenal (re -nal). Pertaining to the kidneys.\\nRennin (ren -in). An enzyme, or ferment, to whose action is due the\\ncurdling or clotting of milk produced upon the addition of ren-\\nnet.\\nRetina (ret -i-nd). The chief and essential peripheral organ of vision;\\nthe third or internal coat or membrane of the eye, made up of the\\nend organs or expansion of the optic nerve within the globe.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0388.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "GLOSSARY. 369\\nSacrum (sa -krum). A curved triangular bone, composed of five con-\\nsolidated vertebrae, wedged between the two iliac (pelvic) bones,\\nand forming the dorsal boundary of the pelvis.\\nScapula (skap -u-la). The shoulder-blade.\\nSciatic (si-at -ik). Pertaining to the ischium; the sciatic nerve, the\\nmain nerve of the thigh.\\nSclerotic (skle-rot -ik). Hard, indurated; pertaining to the outer coat\\nof the eye.\\nSemilunar (sem-i-lu -nar). Resembling a half-moon in shape; semilu-\\nnar valves, pocket-like valves at the beginning of the aorta and\\npulmonary artery.\\nSerous (se -rus). Pertaining to, characterized by, or having the nature\\nof, serum.\\nSerum (se -rum). The yellowish fluid separating from the blood after\\nthe coagulation of the fibrin.\\nSolar plexus (so -lcir). Solar, with radiations resembling the sun.\\nSphincter (sfingk -ter^). A muscle surrounding and closing an orifice.\\nSplenic (splen -ik). Pertaining to the spleen.\\nSteapsin (step -sin}. A diastasic ferment which causes fats to combine\\nwith an additional molecule of water and then split into glycerine\\nand their corresponding acids.\\nSternum (ster -num). The breast-bone.\\nSubclavian (sub-kla -vi-an). Situated under the collar-bone subcla-\\nvian artery and vein.\\nSublingual (sub-ling -gwal). Lying beneath the tongue, as sublingual\\ngland.\\nSubmaxillary (sub-mak -si-la-ri) Lying beneath the lower maxilla, as\\nsubmaxillary salivary gland.\\nSupination (su-pi-na -sJiun). The turning of the palm upward.\\nSynovia (si-no -vi-ci). The lubricating liquid secreted by the synovial\\nmembranes in the joints.\\nTarsus (tar -sus). The instep, consisting of seven bones.\\nTemporal (tem -po-ral). Pertaining to the temples, as temporal artery,\\nvein, muscle, etc.\\nTetanus (tet -a-nus^. A spasmodic and continuous contraction of the\\nmuscles, causing rigidity of the parts to which they are attached.\\nThein (the -in). An alkaloid found in tea.\\nTheobromin (the-d-bro -min). A feeble alkaloid obtained from cacao-\\nbutter the essential substance found in cocoa and chocolate.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0389.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "370 GLOSSARY,\\nThyroid (tlii -roid). Shield-shaped, as the thyroid cartilage of the\\nlarynx.\\nTibia (tib -i-a). The larger (inner) of the two hones of the leg, com-\\nmonly called the shinbone.\\nTrachea (tra-ke -a or tra -ke-a). The windpipe.\\nTriceps (tri -seps). Triceps of the arm, the extensor of the arm, lying\\nalong the back of the humerus.\\nTricuspid (tri-kus -pid). Having three cusps or points, as the tricuspid\\nvalve.\\nTrypsin {trip -sin). The proteolytic ferment of pancreatic juice.\\nUlna (ul -na). The larger (inner) of the two bones of the forearm.\\nUreter (u-re -ter). The tube conveying the urine from the pelvis of the\\nkidney to the bladder.\\nVaso-constrictor (vas -o-kon-strik -tor). Causing a constriction of the\\nblood-vessels.\\nVaso-dilator (vets -b-di-ld -tor). Pertaining to the positive dilating mo-\\ntility of the non-striated muscles of the vascular system.\\nVaso-motor (vas-o-mo -tor). Serving to regulate the tension of the\\nblood-vessels, as vaso-motor nerves including vaso-dilator and\\nvaso-constrictor mechanisms.\\nVentricle (ven -tri-kl). Applied to certain structures having a bellied\\nappearance. The cavities of the heart from which the blood is\\nforced out through the arteries.\\nVesicle (ves -i-kl). A small, membranous, bladder-like formation, as\\nair vesicle.\\nVillus (vil -us), pi. villi. One of the numerous minute vascular projec-\\ntions from the mucous membrane lining the small intestine, for ab-\\nsorbing digested food.\\nVitreous (vit -re-us). Glass-like, as the clear, jelly-like, vitreous humor\\nof the eye.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0390.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nAbdomen, cross section of, 161.\\nAbdominal respiration, 95.\\nAbsorption, 181.\\nOf fats, 182, 183.\\nFrom stomach, 175.\\nAccommodation, 291.\\nAcids, in digestion, 179.\\nFatty, 179.\\nIn poisoning, 323.\\nTasting, 302.\\nAction of large arteries, 49.\\nOf gullet, 171.\\nOf heart, 45; rhythmic, 65.\\nOf diseased kidneys, 197.\\nOf muscle, 9.\\nOf ciliary muscle, 291.\\nReflex, 30, 32, 263.\\nAdam s apple, 309.\\nAdjustment of lens, 290.\\nAfferent currents, 268.\\nNerve fibers, 27, 28, 32.\\nNerve roots, 33, 31.\\nAfter-images, 295.\\nNegative, 295 Positive, 295.\\nAfter-pressure, 281.\\nAir, complemental, 96, 97.\\nComposition of, 100.\\nCurrents about stoves, 116.\\nExpired, 102.\\nReserve, 96, 97.\\nResidual, 96, 97.\\nSacs, 84, 91.\\nIn the sickroom, 325.\\nTidal, 96, 97.\\nVesicles, 84, 91, 103.\\nWashed, 119.\\nAlbinos, 288.\\nAlbumen, 145.\\nAlbuminuria, 199.\\nAlcohol, 208.\\nIn the army, 216, 217.\\nBinz, 218.\\nBrunton, 250.\\nAnd circulation, 70.\\nClum, 252.\\nAnd cold climates, 209.\\nAnd crime, 208.\\nCrothers, 251.\\nEffects of, 210, 223.\\nAnd energy, 208, 212.\\nAnd excesses, 252.\\nGreely, 216.\\nHalliburton, 222.\\nAnd heat, 209.\\nHornaday, 221.\\nHowell, 212.\\nLuce, 260.\\nMartin, 253.\\nM Kendrick, 222.\\nMiura, 213.\\nMoral deterioration, 253.\\nAs a narcotic, 2T0.\\nAnd nerve centers, 251.\\nAnd nervous system, 250,\\nAs a poison, 210.\\nReichert, 213.\\nRohe, 218.\\nStanley, 216.\\nStevenson and Murphy, 250.\\nAs a stimulant, 210.\\nThompson, 214.\\nAnd training, 209.\\nIn the tropics, 221.\\nAnd water, 210.\\nWoodhull, 216.\\nWoodruff, 217.\\n371", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0391.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "372\\nINDEX.\\nAlcoholic beverages, 218.\\nAlkalies, in digestion, 179.\\nIn poisoning, 323.\\nAlveoli, of the lungs, 84.\\nAmeba, 5.\\nAmount of blood, 75.\\nOf food needed, 193.\\nOf perspiration, 136.\\nOf saliva, 168.\\nAmylopsin, 178.\\nAnabolism, 203.\\nAnatomy defined, 3.\\nAnd sculpture, 346.\\nAnesthetics, 254.\\nAnimal matter, 338, 339.\\nProtoplasm, 202.\\nAnimals and plants, 205.\\nAntidotes to poisons, 322, 347.\\nAorta, 44, 177.\\nApex beat of heart, 49.\\nApoplexy, 248.\\nAppendicular skeleton, 330.\\nAppendix, vermiform, 187.\\nAqueous humor, 288, 289.\\nArch, neural, 330, 331.\\nAristotle s experiment, 266.\\nArm, bleeding from, 314.\\nArrangement of teeth, 164.\\nOf muscles, 341,\\nArterial muscle, exercise of, 233.\\nArteries, large, action of, 49.\\nBleeding from, 314.\\nDistribution of, 44.\\nAnd exercise, 69.\\nRegulation of size, 68.\\nStructure of, 51.\\nArtery, carotid, 44, 314.\\nGastric, 44.\\nHepatic, 44, 177.\\nIliac, 44.\\nMesenteric, 177.\\nPancreatic, 44.\\nPulmonary, 42, 43.\\nRenal, 44.\\nSplenic, 44.\\nSubclavian, 44.\\nArticulating process, 331.\\nArticulations of vertebra, 335.\\nArtificial life, 1.\\nRenewal of air, 1 16.\\nAuditory center, 244, 264.\\nXerve, 239, 238, 305.\\nAuricles of heart, 41, 47.\\nContraction of, 46.\\nAsiatic cholera, Bacillus of, 123.\\nAssociation fibers, 264.\\nAstigmatism, 292.\\nAtlas, 335.\\nAxial skeleton, 330.\\nAxis, 33s axis cylinder, 27, 28.\\nBacilli, types of, 123.\\nBacillus, of Asiatic cholera, 123.\\nOf diphtheria, 123.\\nOf hog cholera, 123.\\nTuberculosis, 122, 123\\nOf typhoid fever, 123.\\nBacteria, 124.\\nOf putrefaction, 127.\\nBaking meat, 156.\\nPowder bread, 189.\\nBall and socket joint, 339.\\nBandaging, 328.\\nBarley, 149.\\nBaseball, 229.\\nBathing, 232.\\nThe sick, 326; Time for, 233.\\nBath mits, 232.\\nBaths, cold, 232; warm, 233.\\nBeans, dried, 189.\\nBear, hibernation of, 201.\\nBedding, changing in sickroom, 326.\\nBee-stings, 324.\\nBeef extract, 155.\\nTea, 155.\\nBeets, 189.\\nBeverages containing alcohol, 218.\\nBiceps, 8, 15.\\nBicuspid teeth, 164.\\nBicycling, 230.\\nBile, 177.\\nDuct, 186, 177.\\nFunctions of, 178.\\nSac, 160, 186.\\nBites of cats, 324 dogs, 324 snakes, 324.\\nBitters, taste of, 302.\\nBlackberries, 189.\\nBleeding from arm, 314; arteries, 314;\\nneck, 314; nose, 315; veins, 315.\\nBlind spot, 293.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0392.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n373\\nBlindness, color, 295.\\nBlister, 132.\\nBlood, amount of, 75.\\nChanges in, 106.\\nChemical reaction of, 75.\\nCoagulation of, 74.\\nColor of, 73.\\nComposition of, 71.\\nOf frog, 73.\\nGases of, 104.\\nAnd glands, 134.\\nMixture of good and bad, 196.\\nQuantity in different organs, 75.\\nRenewal of, 200.\\nAnd river, 195.\\nSpecific gravity of, 75.\\nTransfusion of, 81.\\nWork of, 39.\\nBlood-flow, and exercise, 107.\\nAnd lymph-flow, 77, 78.\\nRate of, 59.\\nBlood-pressure, of ventricle, 46.\\nBlood-stream and sewer, 199.\\nBlood-supply of brain, 247.\\nOf stomach, 173.\\nBlood-tubes joining heart, 42.\\nBlowing, 96.\\nBlushing, 68.\\nBoats upsetting, 321.\\nBody, care of, 2.\\nAnd locomotive, 109.\\nTemperature of, 108.\\nBoiled milk, 189.\\nBoiling meat, 156 boiling water, 152.\\nBone, composition of, 338.\\nCorpuscles, 337.\\nLamellae of, 337.\\nBone, structure of, 18, 337.\\nBones, broken, 317.\\nOf ear, 305, 306.\\nHygiene of, 339.\\nLightness and strength of, 20.\\nRelation to muscles, 15.\\nTable of, 333.\\nUses of, 2i, 330.\\nWeight of, 337.\\nBow-legs, 339.\\nBoxing, 229.\\nBrain, 235.\\nBlood-supply of, 247.\\nBrain centers, connection of, 263.\\nConvolutions and intelligence, 240.\\nGanglia of, 241.\\nGray matter of, 241.\\nHemispheres of, 240.\\nLocation of functions, 244.\\nParts of, 235.\\nPreservation of, 236.\\nRest, 246, 247.\\nAnd sensation, 30, 243.\\nThe water-cushion of, 248.\\nWhite matter of, 241.\\nWork, 246.\\nBread, hot, 189.\\nBreathing, effect on circulation, 98.\\nDeep, 97, 98.\\nHygiene of, 97.\\nThrough mouth, 98.\\nRestoring, 320.\\nAnd swallowing, 170, 171.\\nBroiling meat, 156.\\nBroken bones, 317.\\nBronchi, 43.\\nBruises, 340.\\nBulb, hair, 130.\\nOlfactory, 303.\\nSpinal, 245, 246.\\nBurning clothing, 316.\\nBurns, treatment of, 316.\\nCabbage, 189.\\nCaffein, 155.\\nCake, 189.\\nCalf muscle of frog, 9.\\nCamel s hump, 201.\\nCanaliculi, 338.\\nCanals, haversian, 337, 338.\\nCanals, semicircular, 305, 306.\\nCandle, heat of, 205.\\nAnd respiration, 201.\\nCane sugar, 179.\\nCanine teeth, 164.\\nCapacity of lungs, 97, 96.\\nVital, 97.\\nCapillaries, blood-flow in, 55 of frog s\\nweb, 52, 53 of lung, 91 of\\nmuscle, 54; pulmonary, 86.\\nCapsule of lens, 289.\\nCarbohydrate food, 147.\\nCarbohydrates, 147.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0393.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "374\\nINDEX.\\nCarbon dioxid of air, ioo, 102; in blood,\\n104; in breath, 102; in wells, 322.\\nCare of body, importance of, 2.\\nOf ears, 307.\\nOf eyes, 295.\\nOf lamps in sickroom, 328.\\nOf the sick, 324, 325.\\nOf teeth, 166.\\nCarotid artery, 44, 314.\\nCarpal bones, 333.\\nCarpus, 332, 333.\\nCartilage, 19.\\nCricoid, 309.\\nIntervertebral, 335.\\nThyroid, 309.\\nCartilages of windpipe, 86.\\nCasein, 144, 145.\\nCataract, 293.\\nCats, bites from, 324.\\nCauliflower, 189.\\nCauterizing, 324.\\nCavities, lymph, 80.\\nSerous, 80.\\nOf skeleton, 337.\\nCavity, pulp, 163, 164.\\nCecum, 186.\\nCelery, 189.\\nCells, aquatic, 79.\\nCiliated, 86.\\nDivision of, 5.\\nOf epidermis, 53.\\nEpithelial, 4.\\nFat, 130.\\nCells and lymph, 79, 200.\\nMuscle, 5, 345.\\nNerve, 5, 28.\\nAnd oxygen, 107.\\nPigment, 52, 53.\\nPoisoning of, 200.\\nStarvation of, 200.\\nStructure of, 4.\\nCenter of control of circulation, 68.\\nFor hearing, 244, 264.\\nRespiratory, 99.\\nOl sensation, 243, 245.\\nFor speech, 245, 264.\\nFor vision, 264.\\nCentrum, 330.\\nCerebellum, 236, 245.\\nCerebral cortex, functions of, 243.\\nCerebro-spinal system, cat, 26.\\nOf man, 24, 25.\\nCerebrum, 235, 241.\\nCervical vertebrae, 332, 333.\\nCesspools, 151.\\nChange of voice, 313.\\nCheese, 147, 189, 191.\\nChemical composition of bone, 338.\\nChemistry of respiration, 100.\\nChildren, exercise of, 228.\\nChloral hydrate, 257.\\nChloroform, 257.\\nChocolate, 155, 189, 212.\\nChoking, 96.\\nCholera, Asiatic, bacillus of, 123.\\nHog, bacillus of, 123.\\nChoroid coat, 287.\\nChurning in the stomach, 174.\\nChyle, receptacle of, 184, 186.\\nChyme, 175.\\nCider, 212; fermentation of, 121, 212.\\nCigarettes, 259.\\nCigars, 258.\\nCilia, 87.\\nCiliary muscle, 290, 291.\\nProcess, 288.\\nCiliated cells, 86.\\nCirculation and alcohol, 70.\\nControl of, 64.\\nDiagram of, 60, 196, 197, 198.\\nIn frog s web, 52, 53, 54.\\nIn gray matter, 249.\\nIn muscle, 54.\\nPlan of, 60.\\nPortal, 177.\\nIn white matter, 249.\\nCircumvallate papilla?, 302.\\nClassification of senses, 271.\\nClavicle, 332, 333.\\nCleanliness of eyes, 298.\\nClimate and alcohol, 209.\\nClothing, regulating heat, 138.\\nEffect of wet, 139.\\nCoagulation of blood, 74.\\nOf muscle plasma, 346.\\nCoat, choroid, 287.\\nSclerotic, 287.\\nCoats of eye, 287; of stomach, 172.\\nCocaine, 257.\\nCoccyx, 332, 333, 335.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0394.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n375\\nCochlea, 305, 306.\\nCocoa, 155, 189.\\nCoffee, 155, 189, 212.\\nCold baths, 232.\\nSpots, 283.\\nTaking, 231.\\nColds and deafness, 307.\\nColon, 187.\\nColor blindness, 295.\\nOf blood, 73, 105.\\nSensations, 294.\\nOf skin, 132.\\nColored corpuscles, 71.\\nColorless corpuscles, 72.\\nAs germ destroyers, 126.\\nColumn, spinal, 334.\\nCommon sensations, 272.\\nCompass points and touch, 281.\\nComplemental air, 97.\\nComposition of air, 100.\\nOf blood, 71.\\nOf bone, 338.\\nOf sweat, 135.\\nConduction of heat, 137.\\nCones and rods, 293, 292.\\nConjunctiva, 286.\\nConnective tissue, 11, 12.\\nConsciousness, 243.\\nConservation of energy, 206.\\nConsonants and vowels, 312.\\nConstipating foods, 189.\\nConstipation, 178, 188.\\nConsumption, danger from, 122.\\nContraction of auricle, 46.\\nOf ventricle, 46.\\nControl of diaphragm, 100.\\nOf mind, 247.\\nOf respiration, 99.\\nConvalescence and reading, 298.\\nConvection of heat, 137.\\nConversation at meals, 192.\\nConvolutions of brain, 235, 240.\\nAnd intelligence, 240.\\nConvulsions, 346.\\nCooking, 155.\\nCoordination, 245.\\nCord, spinal, 24; reflex action of, 30, 32.\\nCords, tendinous, 41, 46 vocal, 309.\\nCorn, 148, 189.\\nCornea. 288.\\nCorpuscles of blood, 72, 53.\\nBone, 337.\\nColored, 71, 72, 104.\\nColorless, 72, 126.\\nTouch, 279.\\nCorrelation of energy, 206.\\nCortex, cerebral, functions of, 243.\\nCoughing, 95.\\nCovering of brain, 235 of heart, 40.\\nCracked wheat, 189.\\nCrackers, 189.\\nCramps, 35.\\nCranial nerves, 237, 242.\\nCream, 144.\\nCricoid cartilage, 309.\\nCrime and alcohol, 208.\\nCrossing of nerve fibers, 35, 243.\\nCrown of tooth, 163.\\nCrying, 95.\\nCrystalline lens, 288, 289.\\nCulture of voice, 313.\\nCurdling in stomach, 174.\\nCurrents, afferent, 268, 269; efferent,\\n268; induction, 266.\\nCurvature of spine, 339.\\nCustard, 189.\\nCutaneous sensations, 278.\\nCylinder, axis, 27.\\nDanger of consumption, 122.\\nDead dust, 119.\\nDeafness and colds, 307.\\nDeep breathing, 99.\\nDefects in eyesight, 291.\\nDeliberation in eating, 192.\\nDental formula, 164.\\nDentine, 163, 164.\\nDermis, 132.\\nDesserts, 191.\\nDextrose, 179.\\nDiabetes, 199.\\nDialysis, 182.\\nDiaphragm, 85, 87, 88, 177, 344.\\nControl of, 99.\\nDiarrhea, 231.\\nDiastole, 47.\\nDiet, errors of, 193 mixed, 153 one-\\nsided, 153 proper, 154.\\nDiffusion of gases, 115; of liquids, 182.\\nDigestion, hygiene of, 190.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0395.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "376\\nINDEX.\\nDigestion, organs of, 160.\\nOutline of, 187.\\nTime in stomach, 175.\\nDigestive tube, 159.\\nDilation of ventricle, 47.\\nDiphtheria, bacillus of, 123.\\nDirect heating, 118.\\nDisease germs, 122.\\nOf lungs, 126.\\nPrevention of, 126.\\nDislocations, 339.\\nDistribution of arteries, 44 of veins, 44.\\nOf heat, 138.\\nDivision of cells, 5.\\nOf labor, physiological, 4.\\nDogs, bites from, 324.\\nDouble windows, 119.\\nDreams, 266.\\nDried fish, 189.\\nDrink, hot, 191.\\nDrinking, 96.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Water, 152.\\nDropsy, 80.\\nDrowned, treatment of, 317.\\nDrowning, resuscitation from, 317.\\nDuodenum, 160.\\nDura mater, 235.\\nDust, avoiding, 124.\\nDead, 119; live, 121.\\nAnd lungs, 120.\\nSources of, 120.\\nDusting, 125.\\nEar, bones of, 305, 306.\\nCare of, 307.\\nExternal, 305.\\nInternal, 306.\\nMiddle, 305.\\nParts of, 305.\\nUse of, 307.\\nEating between meals, 193.\\nDeliberation in, 192.\\nTime of, 193.\\nEddy, living, 199.\\nEfferent nerve currents, 268.\\nNerve fibers, 27, 32, 33.\\nEggs, 146.\\nElectric light, 296.\\nEmetic, mustard, 323.\\nEmulsion, 147, 179.\\nEnamel, 163, 164.\\nEnergy and alcohol, 208.\\nConservation of, 206.\\nCorrelation of, 206.\\nFrom food, 204.\\nUtilization of, 205.\\nEnnui, 95.\\nEntire wheat flour, 148.\\nEnzymes, 169.\\nEpidermis, 53, 131.\\nEpiglottis, 170, 171, 310.\\nEpithelial cells, 4.\\nEquilibrium sense, 306.\\nErrors in diet, 193.\\nEssentials of reflex action, 32.\\nEthmoid bone, 333.\\nEustachian tube, 306, 305, 170, 171.\\nEvaporation of sweat, 137.\\nEvening reading, 297.\\nExcretion, 130 of urea, 202.\\nExercise of arterial muscles, 233.\\nAnd bathing, 226.\\nAnd blood-flow, 107.\\nForms of, 228.\\nAnd health, 226.\\nAnd heat, 137.\\nAnd long life, 227.\\nAnd size of arteries, 69.\\nExpiration, elastic reactions of, 94.\\nExplosion in muscles, no.\\nExpression, muscles of, 345.\\nExtensor muscle, 8.\\nExternal ear, 305.\\nExtract of beef, 155.\\nEye, coats of, 287.\\nDissection of, 287.\\nExternal parts of, 286.\\nMovements of, 287.\\nMuscles, 286, 288.\\nProtection of, 285.\\nSection of, 288.\\nStructure of, 288.\\nEyes, of albinos, 288.\\nCare of, 295.\\nCleanliness of, 298.\\nIrritation of, 298.\\nPain in, 294.\\nPigment in, 288.\\nResting, 297.\\nSympathy between, 294.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0396.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "INDEX,\\n177\\nEyeball, muscles of, 286.\\nEyeglasses, 292.\\nEyesight, defects of, 291.\\nEyestrain, 299.\\nFacial expression, 345.\\nNerves, 238.\\nFainting, 316, 248.\\nFans, ventilating, 117.\\nFar-sight, 291, 292.\\nFarina, 189.\\nFat cells, 130.\\nAnd muscles, 346.\\nAs a tissue, 201.\\nFats, 147.\\nFatty acids, 179.\\nFatigue, 246, 272 from standing, 268.\\nFemur, 18, 332, 333.\\nFever, typhoid, 151.\\nFiber, muscle, plain, 50, 344.\\nMuscle, striated, 11, 12, 344.\\nNerve, 28.\\nFibers, association, 264.\\nFibrin, 74, 145.\\nFibula, 333.\\nFiliform papillae, 301.\\nFish, 146; dried fish, 189.\\nFlavors, 302.\\nFlexibility of spinal column, 335.\\nFlexion of forearm, 16.\\nFlexor muscle, 8, 13.\\nFlexure, sigmoid, 188.\\nFloating, 321.\\nFlour, entire wheat, 148; Graham, 148.\\nFlow of lymph, 77.\\nFlues, ventilating, 115.\\nFood, amount needed, 193.\\nObject of, 159.\\nRegulating temperature, 138.\\nFor the sick, 327.\\nSource of energy, 204.\\nFoods, 144.\\nConstipating, 189 laxative* 189.\\nPreservation of, 127.\\nFoodstuffs, 144, 145.\\nFoot asleep, 37 as kind of lever, 17.\\nFootball, 229.\\nForce, indestructibility of, 204.\\nForced respiration, 94.\\nForms of exercise, 228 of muscles, 341.\\nFormula, dental, 164.\\nFoul air shafts, 117.\\nFrog, blood of, 73.\\nWithout cerebrum, 241.\\nMuscle action of, 9.\\nFrontal bone, 332, 333.\\nFruits, 150.\\nAcid, 189.\\nPies, 189.\\nPuddings, 189.\\nFrying, 156.\\nFulcrum, 16.\\nFunction, defined, 3.\\nOf cerebellum, 245.\\nOf cerebral cortex, 243.\\nOf cerebrum, 241.\\nOf nerve fibers, 28.\\nOf nerve roots, 33.\\nOf skin, 136.\\nOf spinal bulb, 245.\\nOf spinal cord, 29.\\nFungiform papillae, 301.\\nFurnaces, 117.\\nGain and loss of body, 195.\\nGame, wild, 189.\\nGames of children, 228.\\nGanglia, 29; of brain, 241.\\nSympathetic, 65.\\nGanglion of dorsal root, 26, 29.\\nGargling, 95.\\nGases of blood, 104.\\nDiffusion of, 115.\\nGastric glands, 173; juice, 173, 174.\\nGelatin, 145.\\nGeneral sensations, 271, 272.\\nGerms of disease, 122.\\nGlands and blood supply, 134.\\nCompound, 133.\\nEssentials of, 134.\\nGastric, 173.\\nIntestinal, 176.\\nLacrymal, 286.\\nLymphatic, 77, 183.\\nMucous, 169.\\nOil, 130.\\nSalivary, 166.\\nSimple, 133, 135.\\nSweat, 133.\\nGlasses, wearing, 299.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0397.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "378\\nINDEX.\\nGliding joints, 339.\\nGlossopharyngeal nerves, 239.\\nGlottis, 170, 171.\\nGluten, 145.\\nGlycogen, 178, 202.\\nGraham flour, 148.\\nGrains, 147.\\nGranula, 189.\\nGrape sugar, 179.\\nGrates as ventilators, 114.\\nGravity and circulation, 61.\\nGray matter of brain, 241.\\nMatter, circulation in, 249.\\nMatter of spinal cord, 28, 29, 31.\\nGray nerve fibers, 28.\\nGullet, 160, 170, 171, 186.\\nHabit, 212.\\nAcquired reflex action, 267.\\nHair, 130, 133 bulb, 130.\\nHammer bone, 333.\\nHard palate, 170.\\nHarmony in muscle action, 21, 36.\\nHauser, Kaspar, 271.\\nHaversian canals, 337.\\nHawking, 95.\\nHeadaches from eyestrain, 299.\\nHealth, 1.\\nHearing, 304.\\nHeart, action of, 45 rhythmic, 64.\\nAuricles of, 41 46.\\nBeat of, 39, 49.\\nBlood tubes joining, 42.\\nCovering, 40.\\nDissection of, 42.\\nMuscle, 344.\\nNourishment of, 61.\\nPosition of, 40.\\nSize of, 41.\\nSounds of, 49.\\nStructure of, 41.\\nValves of, 41.\\nVentricles of, 41, 46.\\nWork and rest of, 48.\\nHeat and alcohol, 209.\\nConduction of, 137.\\nConvection of, 137.\\nDistribution of, 138.\\nAnd exercise, 137.\\nFrom oxidation, 109.\\nHeat, production of, 106.\\nRadiation of, 137.\\nWays of giving off, 137.\\nHeating, direct, 118; indirect, 118.\\nHemispheres of brain, 235, 240.\\nHemoglobin, 74, 104.\\nHemorrhage of lungs, 315.\\nOf stomach, 315.\\nHepatic arteries, 177; veins, 177, 186.\\nHibernation, 201.\\nHiccuping, 95.\\nHinge joint, 339.\\nHoarseness, 313.\\nHog cholera, bacillus of, 123.\\nHope in illness, 325.\\nHot drink, 191.\\nHumerus, 332, 333.\\nHumor, aqueous, 288, 289.\\nVitreous, 288, 289.\\nHump, camel s, 201.\\nHunger, 276.\\nHyaloid membrane, 289.\\nHygiene of bones, 339.\\nOf breathing, 97.\\nDefined, 3.\\nOf digestion, 190.\\nHyoid bone, 333.\\nHypoglossal nerve, 240.\\nIce water, 152.\\nIgnoring nerve currents, 266.\\nIliac arteries, 44; veins, 44.\\nImage, inversion of, 290.\\nImmovable joints, 339.\\nImportance of retina, 293.\\nImpulse, nerve, 28, 36.\\nTransmission of, 36.\\nImpurities in water, 151.\\nIncisor, 164.\\nIncus, 333.\\nIndestructibility of force, 204.\\nOf matter, 203.\\nIndirect heating, 118.\\nInduction current, 266.\\nInebriety, Clum, 260; Crothers, 260.\\nA disease, 253.\\nPalmer, 260.\\nInhibition, 67.\\nInnominate bones, 333.\\nInsertion of muscle, 10, 15.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0398.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n379\\nInspiration, 91 and expiration, 92.\\nForces of, 94.\\nResistances to, 94.\\nIntelligence, 243; and convolutions, 240.\\nInterference with reflex action, 35.\\nIntervertebral cartilages, 335.\\nIntestine, 176, 177.\\nLarge, 186, 188 small, 160, 176, 186.\\nIntestinal glands, 176, 179.\\nInversion of image, 290.\\nInvertin, 179.\\nIris, 288.\\nIron, in blood, 74.\\nIrritant poisons, 323.\\nIrritation of eye, 298.\\nIvy poisoning, 324.\\njacketed stoves, 117.\\nJoints, 19, 339.\\nJudgment, 266.\\nJugular vein, 44.\\nJuice, gastric, 173.\\nIntestinal, 179.\\nLime, 150.\\nPancreatic, 177.\\nKaspar Hauser, 271.\\nKatabolism, 203.\\nKidneys, 139.\\nDiseased, 197.\\nAnd skin, 141, 142.\\nKinds of teeth, 164.\\nLabor, physiological division of, 4.\\nLacrymal bone, 333 gland, 286.\\nLacteals, 181, 184, 186.\\nLacunae of bone, 337.\\nLamellae, of bone, 337.\\nLamps, in sickroom, 328.\\nLarynx, from above, 311.\\nStructure of, 310.\\nLateral process, 331.\\nLaughing, 95.\\nLaxative foods, 189.\\nLeather, 132.\\nLedger of body, 195.\\nLegumin, 145.\\nLens capsule, 289.\\nCrystalline, 288, 289.\\nLevers, 16, 17.\\nLife, artificial, 1 natural, I.\\nProcesses, 203.\\nLigament, suspensory, 288.\\nLigaments, 19.\\nLight, electric, 296.\\nIn sickroom, 325.\\nStrength of, 297.\\nLingering of sensations, 207.\\nLive dust, 121.\\nLiver, 177, 160.\\nAs food, 189.\\nPosition, 85.\\nStarch, 178.\\nLobes, olfactory, 237.\\nLocal sign, 281.\\nLocation of brain functions, 244.\\nLocomotion, 19; by reaction, 20.\\nLoss and gain of body, 195.\\nLoudness of voice, 311.\\nLumbar vertebrae, 332, 333, 335.\\nLung diseases, 126..\\nLungs, 87.\\nParts of, 84.\\nCapacity of, 97.\\nDorsal view of, 43.\\nHemorrhage of, 315.\\nLymph, 79.\\nCavities, 80.\\nFlow of, 77.\\nImportance of, 80.\\nRenewal of, 200.\\nSpaces, 75.\\nTubes, 76.\\nVariations in, 80.\\nLymphatic glands, 77, 183.\\nLymphatics, 183, 184.\\nMalar bone, 333.\\nMalleus, 333.\\nMalted milk, 155.\\nMassage, 81.\\nMasseter muscle, 8.\\nMastication, imperfect, 192.\\nMatter, animal, in bone, 338, 339.\\nIndestructibility of, 203.\\nMineral in bone, 338, 339.\\nMaxilla, inferior, 333.\\nSuperior, 333.\\nMeals, conversation at, 192.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0399.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "38o\\nINDEX.\\nMeat, 146; baking, 1^6; boiling, 156;\\nbroiling, 156; roasting, 156 salted,\\n189; smoked, 189.\\nMechanism, of body, 2.\\nMedia, refracting of eye, 289.\\nMedullary sheath, 27.\\nMembrane, hyaloid, 289.\\nMemory, 267.\\nMeningitis, 248.\\nMesentery, 161, 186.\\nMesenteric artery, 177; vein, 186.\\nMetabolism, 203.\\nMetacarpus, 333, 334.\\nMetatarsal bones, 333.\\nMetatarsus, 332, 333.\\nMiddle ear, 305.\\nMilk, 144, 146.\\nBoiled, 189 Malted, 155.\\nSouring of, 127.\\nTeeth, 164.\\nMind, control of, 247.\\nMineral matter in bone, 338, 339.\\nMitral valve, 41.\\nMixed diet, 153.\\nJoints, 339.\\nModification of respiration, 95.\\nMolars, 164.\\nMolds, 121.\\nMorphia, 255.\\nMorphine, 255.\\nMotion, experiments with, 7.\\nInvoluntary, 24.\\nAnd locomotion, 19.\\nProduction of, 106.\\nVoluntary, 24.\\nMouth, 162; breathing through, 98.\\nMovable joints, 339.\\nMovements of eye, 287.\\nOf respiration, 91.\\nMucous glands, 169; Membrane, 86, 87.\\nMucus, 169.\\nMuscle, action of, 9.\\nCapillaries of, 54.\\nExplosion in, no.\\nInsertion of, 10, 15.\\nNormal condition of, 13.\\nOrigin of, 10, 15.\\nShortening, 13, 24.\\nStructure of, 10, 11.\\nMuscle-action, harmony in, 36.\\nMuscle-action, laws of, 12.\\nMuscle-cells, 5, 345; of heart, 344.\\nMuscle-fiber, a cell, 345.\\nMuscle-fibers compared, 344.\\nPlain, in artery, 50.\\nPlain and striated, 52, 344.\\nIn lymph tubes, 77.\\nMuscle-plasma, coagulation of, 346.\\nMuscles, arrangement of, 341.\\nArterial, exercise of, 233.\\nBiceps, 8.\\nCiliary, 290, 291.\\nOf expression, 345.\\nOf eyeball, 286, 288.\\nAnd fat, 346.\\nForms of, 341.\\nImportance of, 12.\\nNames of, 344.\\nNumber of, 341.\\nPapillary, 46.\\nRelation to bone, 15.\\nSize of, 341.\\nSkeletal, 15.\\nSphincter, 175.\\nSuperficial, 342, 343.\\nSymmetrical development of, 14.\\nTemporal, 9.\\nTriceps, 8.\\nMuscular exertion and urea, 202.\\nPower, loss of, 37.\\nSense, 272.\\nSense and sight, 274.\\nMyosin, 145.\\nNails, 133.\\nRusty, wounds from, 323.\\nNames of muscles, 344.\\nNarcosis, 254.\\nNarcotics, 254, 257.\\nNasal bones, 333.\\nNature, punishments, 1, 227.\\nOf sensation, 264.\\nNausea, 272.\\nNear sight, 291, 292.\\nNeck, bleeding from, 314.\\nOf tooth, 163, 164.\\nNegative after-images, 295.\\nNerve cells, 5, 28.\\nCenters, 29.\\nCurrents afferent and efferent, 268,", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0400.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n381\\nNerve, currents ignoring, 266.\\nEndings, in skin, 278.\\nFibers, crossing of, 35, 243.\\nFibers, destination of, 33.\\nFibers, function of, 28.\\nFibers, gray, 28.\\nFibers, sheath of, 28.\\nFibers, similarity of, 262.\\nFibers, structure of, 27, 28.\\nImpulse, 28, 36.\\nRoots, functions of, 33.\\nStimuli, 261.\\nSupply of heart, 66.\\nSupply of tongue, 302.\\nNerves, Auditory, 239, 305.\\nCranial, 237, 242.\\nOf diaphragm, 100.\\nEffect of pressure, 37.\\nFacial, 238.\\nGlossopharyngeal, 239.\\nOf hearing, 242, 305.\\nOf heart, 66.\\nHypoglossal, 240.\\nOlfactory, 238, 303.\\nOptic, 237, 238, 288.\\nPneumogastric (see vagus).\\nSciatic of frog, 9.\\nOf smell, 303.\\nSpinal, 26.\\nStructure of, 27.\\nOf taste, 302, 301.\\nTrigeminal, 237.\\nTrophic, 251.\\nVagus, 66, 239.\\nVaso-constrictor, 67.\\nVaso-dilator, 67.\\nVaso-motor, 68.\\nNervous impulse, nature of, 28, 36.\\nNervous system and alcohol, 250.\\nCerebro-spinal, 24.\\nSympathetic, 65, 66.\\nAnd telegraph, 268.\\nNervous tissue and starvation, 247.\\nNeural arch, 330; ring, 330.\\nNeuralgia and cold baths, 233.\\nNeuroglia, 241.\\nNicotine, 258.\\nNitrogen in air, 100.\\nNose, bleeding from, 315.\\nNourishment of heart, 61.\\nNucleus, 4; of ciliated cell, 86; of epi-\\ndermic cell, 53.\\nNurse, qualities of, 325.\\nNursing, 325 books on, 328.\\nNutrition, 202.\\nNuts, 191.\\nOats, 149.\\nOccipital bone, 332. 333.\\nOculist, consultation of, 299.\\nOdontoid process, 335.\\nOil gland, 130.\\nOlfactory bulb, 303, 238, 242.\\nLobes, 237, 242.\\nNerves, 303, 242, 238.\\nOnions, 189.\\nOpium, 255.\\nOptic nerves, 237, 242, 288, 297.\\nOrgan, defined, 3.\\nOrgans of digestion, 160.\\nLedger account of, 195.\\nOrigin, of muscle, 10, 15.\\nOsmosis, 182.\\nOutline of digestion, 187.\\nOxidation, source of heat, 109.\\nOf tissues, 107.\\nOxygen in the air, 100.\\nAmount used, 104.\\nIn blood, 104.\\nStorage in tissues, no.\\nOxy-hemoglogin, 104.\\nOysters, 189.\\nPain, 274; extent of, 275.\\nIn eyes, 294.\\nA general sense, 276.\\nPalate bone, 333.\\nHard, 170, 171.\\nSense of taste in, 302.\\nSoft, 160, 170, 171.\\nPancreas, 160, 177, 186.\\nPancreatic duct, 186.\\nJuice, 177, 178.\\nPanting, 96.\\nPapillae, circumvallate, 303.\\nFiliform, 301.\\nFungiform, 301.\\nOf skin, 130, 131, 279.\\nOf tongue, 301.\\nPapillary muscles, 46.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0401.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "382\\nINDEX\\nParietal bone, 332, 333.\\nParotid salivary gland, 186.\\nPastry, 189.\\nPatella, 332, 333.\\nPeaches, 189.\\nPeas, green, 189.\\nPepper, 189.\\nPepsin, 173.\\nPeptone, 176.\\nPeriosteum, 19.\\nPeritoneum, 161.\\nPerspiration, 130; amount of, 136.\\nInsensible, 135; sensible, 135.\\nPhalanges, 333, 334.\\nPharynx, 160, 169.\\nPhysician s directions, 326.\\nPhysiology defined, 3.\\nPia mater, 235.\\nPie, 191.\\nPigeon without cerebrum, 241.\\nPigment cells, 52, 53.\\nOf eye, 288.\\nOf human skin, 132.\\nPitch of voice, 312.\\nPivot joint, 339.\\nPlain muscle fibers, 49, 50, 344.\\nPlants, relation to animals, 205.\\nPlasma, 73.\\nPleura, 87.\\nPlexus, solar, 66.\\nPlums, 189.\\nPoison ivy, 324.\\nPoisons, 322, 347.\\nIrritant, 323; neutralizing, 323.\\nPollen, 121.\\nPores, sweat, 130.\\nPortal circulation, 177; Vein, 177.\\nPositive after-images, 295.\\nPostcaval vein, 42, 44, 177, 186.\\nPotatoes, 149, 189.\\nPotential energy, in respiration, 93.\\nPoultry, 189.\\nPower, of levers, 16.\\nPrecaval vein, 42, 44, 186.\\nPremolars, 164.\\nPreservation of food, 127.\\nPressure sense, 280.\\nEffect on nerves, 37 on veins, 58.\\nPrevention of sneezing, 328.\\nProcess, articulating, 33T lateral, 331.\\nProcess, odontoid, 335.\\nSpinous, 331.\\nProcesses, of vertebra, 330.\\nProduction of heat, 106; of sound, 306.\\nPronation, 337.\\nProtection of eye, 285.\\nProteid food, 146.\\nProteids, 145 importance of, 145.\\nVegetable, 147.\\nProtoplasm, 4; animaj, 202; vegetal, 202.\\nPtyalin, 168, 176.\\nPuff-balls, 121.\\nPulmonary artery, 42; veins, 42, 43.\\nCapillaries, 86.\\nPulp-cavity, 163, 164.\\nPulse, 40.\\nPunishment, by nature, 227.\\nPupil, 288, 289.\\nPutrefaction, bacteria of, 127.\\nPylorus, 175.\\nQuality of voice, 312.\\nQuantity of blood in organs, 75.\\nRabbit, muscles of leg, 9.\\nNerves of leg, 9.\\nRadiation of heat, 137.\\nRadius, 332, 333.\\nRainwater, 150.\\nRaspberries, 189.\\nRate of blood-flow, 59.\\nOf heart beat, 39.\\nOf respiration, 95.\\nReaction of blood, 75.\\nTime, 262.\\nReading in convalescence, 298; heavy\\nbooks, 296; mornings, 297 even-\\nings, 297 outdoors, 296.\\nReceptacle of chyle, 186.\\nRectum, 188.\\nReference in sensation, 282.\\nReflex action, 30, 32, 263.\\nEssentials of, 32.\\nAnd habit, 267.\\nImportance of, 32.\\nOf spinal cord of frog, 30.\\nRefracting media of eye, 289.\\nRegulation of blood-flow, 68, 69, 107.\\nOf heart beat, 66, 67.\\nOf lymph-flow, j-j-", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0402.jp2"}, "403": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n3\u00c2\u00bb3\\nRegulation of respiration, 99, 108.\\nOf temperature, 136.\\nRenal arteries, 44; veins, 44.\\nRenewal of blood and lymph, 200.\\nRennet, 174.\\nRennin, 174.\\nRepose, effect on digestion, 192.\\nReserve air, 97.\\nResidual air, 97.\\nRespiration, abdominal, 95.\\nAnd candle, 201.\\nChemistry of, 100.\\nControl of, 99.\\nForced, 94.\\nModifications of, 95.\\nMovements of, 91.\\nOrgans of, 84.\\nAnd oxidation, 201.\\nRate of, 95.\\nThoracic, 95.\\nRespiratory center, 99 sounds, 99.\\nRest of brain, 246, 247.\\nOf eyes, 297.\\nOf heart, 48.\\nUsefulness of, 268.\\nRestoring breathing, 320.\\nResuscitation from carbon dioxid,322.\\nFrom drowning, 317.\\nRetina, 287, 292, 293.\\nRhubarb, 189.\\nRibs, 332, 333; in respiration, 92.\\nRice, 149, 189.\\nRickets, 339.\\nRigor mortis, 346.\\nRing, neural, 330.\\nRiver and blood-flow, 195.\\nRoasting meat, 156.\\nRods and cones, 293, 292.\\nRoots of spinal nerves, 26, 29, 31.\\nRunning, 20.\\nRye, 149.\\nSacrum, 333, 334, 335.\\nSago, 189.\\nSalines, 302.\\nSaliva, amount of, 168 uses of, 168.\\nSalivary glands, 166, 186.\\nSalted meat, 189.\\nSalts, 153.\\nSatiety, 272.\\nScapula, 332, 333.\\nSciatic nerve of frog, 9.\\nSclerotic coat, 287, 288.\\nSculpture and anatomy, 346.\\nSemicircular canals, 305, 306.\\nSemilunar valves, 42.\\nSensation centers, 243, 245\\nDefined, 265.\\nNature of, 264.\\nAnd stimulus, 262.\\nSensations and brain, 30.\\nOf color, 294.\\nCommon, 272.\\nCutaneous, 278.\\nGeneral, 271.\\nLingering, 267.\\nReferred to nerve ends, 282.\\nRelative, 265.\\nSubjective, 265.\\nSense of equilibrium, 306.\\nOf hearing, 304.\\nMuscular, 272.\\nOf sight, 285.\\nOf smell, 303.\\nOf taste, 301.\\nTemperature, 283.\\nOf touch, 279.\\nSenses, classification of, 271.\\nSerous cavities, 80.\\nSewer and water pipes, 199.\\nSheath, medullary, 27.\\nOf muscle fiber, 11, 12.\\nOf nerve fiber, 28.\\nSick, care of, 325 food for, 327.\\nSickroom, 324.\\nSweeping, 125, 327.\\nTemperature of, 325.\\nSighing, 95.\\nSight, 285.\\nSigmoid flexure, 188.\\nSign, local, 281.\\nSkeleton, 330.\\nAppendicular, 330.\\nAxial, 330.\\nCavities of, 337.\\nSkeleton, side view of, 332.\\nSkin, color of, 132.\\nFunctions of, 130, 136.\\nAnd kidneys, 141.\\nPapilla; of, 279.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0403.jp2"}, "404": {"fulltext": "3\u00c2\u00a74\\nINDEX.\\nSkin, structure of, 130.\\nSkull, 332, 333.\\nSleeplessness, 246.\\nSmall intestine, 160.\\nSmell, 303.\\nSmoked meat, 189.\\nSnake bites, 324.\\nSneezing, 95 prevention of, 328.\\nSniffing, 95, 304.\\nSnoring, 95.\\nSobbing, 95.\\nSocket-joint, 339.\\nSoft palate, 160.\\nSolar plexus, 66.\\nSound, 306.\\nSounds of heart, 49.\\nRespiratory, 99.\\nSoup, 156; value of, 191.\\nSpecial senses, 271, 278.\\nSpecific gravity of blood, 75.\\nSpeech center, 245, 264.\\nAnd voice, 312.\\nSphenoid bone, 333.\\nSphincter muscles, 175.\\nSpices, 189.\\nSpinach, 189.\\nSpinal bulb, 236, 245, 246.\\nSpinal column, 334; flexibility of, 335.\\nSpinal cord, 24.\\nCross section of, 28.\\nFigure of, 29.\\nFunctions of, 29.\\nReflex action of, 30.\\nSpinal nerves, 26.\\nRoots of, 26, 29.\\nEffect of severing, 34.\\nSpine, curvature of, 339.\\nSpinous process, 331.\\nSpirillum, of Asiatic cholera, 123.\\nSpitting, 96.\\nSpleen, 81.\\nSpot, blind, 293.\\nYellow, 288.\\nSpots, cold, 283; warm, 283.\\nSprains, 339.\\nSquash, 189.\\nStanding, 19.\\nStapes, 333.\\nStarch, 189.\\nStarvation of cells, 200.\\nStarvation of nervous system, 247.\\nSteapsin, 179.\\nStereoscopic vision, 295.\\nSternum, 332, 333.\\nStiffened joints, 340.\\nStimulants, 210, 212 in resuscitation, 320.\\nStimulating nerve roots, 34.\\nSpinal nerves, 33.\\nStimuli of nerves, 261.\\nStimulus and sensation, 262.\\nStings of bees, 324.\\nStirrup bones, 333.\\nStomach, 160, 172, 186.\\nAbsorption from, 175.\\nBlood-supply of, 173.\\nCoats of, 172.\\nChurning, 174.\\nDigestion, time of, 175.\\nHemorrhage of, 315.\\nPosition, 85, 160, 172, 186.\\nStructure of, 172.\\nStorage of oxygen, no.\\nStove, 116; with jacket, 117.\\nStrength of light, 297.\\nSource of, 14.\\nStructure of artery, 51.\\nOf bone, 18, 337.\\nOf brain, 238, 239, 241.\\nOf eye, 288.\\nOf gullet, 171.\\nOf heart, 41.\\nOf kidney, 139, 140.\\nOf larynx, 310.\\nOf muscle, 10, n.\\nOf nerves, 27.\\nOf retina, 292.\\nOf skin, 130.\\nStructure of stomach, 172 of tooth, 163,\\n164.\\nSubclavian vein, 44, 186.\\nSubjective sensations, 265.\\nSublingual salivary gland, 166, 186.\\nSubmaxillary salivary gland, 166, 186.\\nSucking, 96.\\nSuffocation in wells, 322.\\nSugar, 144; cane, 179; grape, 179.\\nIn diabetes, 199.\\nSunshine, 139.\\nSunstroke, 317.\\nSupination, 337.", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0404.jp2"}, "405": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n385\\nSuspensory ligament, 288.\\nSwallowing, 171 and breathing, 170, 171.\\nSweat, 130.\\nComposition of, 135.\\nEvaporation of, 137.\\nGlands, 130, 133, 135.\\nPores, 130.\\nSweeping, 125.\\nSickroom, 125, 327.\\nSweetmeats, 191.\\nSweets, where tasted, 302.\\nSwimming, 321.\\nSympathetic nervous system, 65, 66.\\nSympathy between eyes, 294.\\nIn nursing, 325.\\nSynovia, 19.\\nSystole, 47.\\nTable of bones, 333.\\nTapioca, 189.\\nTarsal bones, 333.\\nTarsus, 332, 333.\\nTaste, 301.\\nTasting, conditions of, 302.\\nTea, 154, 189, 212 beef, 155.\\nTears, 286.\\nTeeth, 162, 163.\\nArrangement of, 164.\\nCare of, 166.\\nKinds, 164.\\nMilk, 164.\\nTemperance drinks, 211.\\nTemperature of body, 108.\\nTemperature, regulation of, 136.\\nSense, 283.\\nOf sickroom, 325.\\nEffect on taste, 302.\\nTemporal bone, 332, 333 muscle, 9.\\nTendinous cords, 41, 46.\\nTendon, 7, 10, it, 15.\\nTennis, 228.\\nTetanus, 35.\\nThein, 154.\\nTheobromin, 155.\\nThermometer in sickroom, 325.\\nThigh, wounds in, 315.\\nThirst, 276, 272.\\nThoracic duct, 183.\\nRespiration, 95,\\nVertebra, 331, 335.\\nThorax, cross section of, 89.\\nThorns, wounds from, 323.\\nThyroid cartilage, 309.\\nTibia, 332, 333.\\nTidal air, 97.\\nTime for bathing, 233 of eating, 193.\\nTissue defined, 3.\\nConnective, n, 12,\\nFatty, 201.\\nTissues, oxidation of, 107.\\nTobacco, 258.\\nTomatoes, 189.\\nTongue, 162.\\nNerves of, 301.\\nPapillae of, 301.\\nTooth, structure of, 163, 164.\\nTouch, sense of, 279.\\nCorpuscles of, 279.\\nTrachea, 43, 86.\\nTraining and alcohol, 209.\\nTransfusion of blood, 81.\\nTransmission of nerve impulse, 36.\\nTreatment of burns, 316.\\nOf the drowned, 317.\\nOf fainting, 316.\\nIn poisoning, 322, 347.\\nTriceps muscle, 8.\\nTricuspid valve, 41.\\nTrigeminal nerve, 237.\\nTrophic nerves, 251.\\nTrypsin, 178.\\nTube, digestive, 159.\\nEustachian, 305, 306.\\nTubes, lymph, 76.\\nTuberculosis, bacillus of, 123.\\nTurbinated bones, 333.\\nTyphoid fever, 151 bacillus of, 123.\\nUlna, 332, 333.\\nUpsetting of boats, 321.\\nUrea, 139; and muscular exertion, 20:\\nUses of bones, 330.\\nUtilization of energy, 205.\\nUvula, 160.\\nVagus nerves, 66, 239.\\nValve, mitral, 41 tricuspid, 41.\\nValves of heart, 41.\\nOf lymph tubes, 76.\\nSemilunar, 42, 46.", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0405.jp2"}, "406": {"fulltext": "386\\nINDEX.\\nValves of veins, 57.\\nVariation of blood-supply, 50.\\nVaso-constrictor nerves, 67.\\n-dilator nerves, 67.\\n-motor nerves, 68.\\nVegetable proteid, 147.\\nVegetables, 149.\\nVegetal protoplasm, 202.\\nVegetarians, 154.\\nVeins, 57.\\nBleeding from, 315.\\nDistribution of, 44.\\nFlow in, 61.\\nHepatic, 177, 186.\\nIliac, 44.\\nJugular, 44.\\nMesenteric, 186.\\nPortal, 177.\\nPostcaval, 42, 44, 177, 186.\\nPrecaval, 42, 44, 186.\\nEffect of pressure on, 58.\\nPulmonary, 42, 43.\\nRenal, 44.\\nSubclavian, 44, 286.\\nValves in, 57.\\nVentilating flues, 115.\\nVentilation, need of, 114.\\nPrinciples of, 115.\\nVentricle, contraction of, 46.\\nDilation of, 47.\\nOf heart, 41.\\nVermiform appendix, 187.\\nVertebra, articulations of, 335.\\nParts of, 330.\\nProcesses of, 330.\\nVertebrae, cervical, 332, 333, 334.\\nLumbar, 335.\\nThoracic, 331, 332, 333, 335.\\nVerifies, air, 84.\\nVilli, 179, 181, 184, 185.\\nVision, stereoscopic, 295.\\nVisual center, 264.\\nVital capacity, 97.\\nVitreous humor, 288, 289.\\nVocal cords, 309.\\nVoice, 309.\\nChange of, 313.\\nCulture of, 313.\\nLoudness of, 311.\\nPitch of, 312.\\nVoice, quality of, 312.\\nAnd speech, 312.\\nVolition, 242, 243.\\nVoluntary inhibition, 35.\\nVomer, 333.\\nVowels and consonants, 312.\\nWalking, 20; in sickroom, 327.\\nWarm baths, 233.\\nSpots, 283.\\nWatching in sickroom, 326.\\nWater, 150.\\nBoiling, 152.\\nDrinking, 152.\\nIce, 152.\\nImpurities in, 151,\\nRain, 150.\\nWell, 150.\\nWater-cushion of brain, 248.\\nWater-pipes and bloodstream, 199.\\nAnd sewer, 199.\\nWearing glasses, 299.\\nWeb of frog s foot, 52, 53.\\nWeight of bones, 337.\\nIn levers, 16.\\nWell-water, 150.\\nWheat, 148.\\nFlour, 148.\\nWhispering, 313 in sickroom, 327.\\nWhistling, 96.\\nWhite matter of brain, 241.\\nCirculation in, 249.\\nOf spinal cord, 28, 29.\\nWild game, 189.\\nWind, 116.\\nWindows, double, 119.\\nWindpipe, 86.\\nWork of blood, 39.\\nBrain, 246.\\nOf heart, 48.\\nWorker, outdoor, 2.\\nWounds from rusty nails, 323 from\\nthorns, 323.\\nIn thigh, 315.\\nYawning, 95.\\nYeast, 121.\\nYellow spot, 288,", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0406.jp2"}, "407": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0407.jp2"}, "408": {"fulltext": "JAN 2 1900", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0408.jp2"}, "409": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3526", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0409.jp2"}, "410": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3563", "width": "2480", "jp2-path": "physiology00colt_0410.jp2"}}