{"1": {"fulltext": "^B|S ul\\nWWMWWWIMWWMHttXWtWXI tl l HW M XMI I -M M\\nI\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0HfcB", "height": "4623", "width": "3104", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\nChap._\u00e2\u0080\u009ek__ Copyright No.\\nShelf\u00e2\u0080\u009e\u00c2\u00ab.B\u00e2\u0080\u009eK^\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.", "height": "4333", "width": "2656", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4333", "width": "2656", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4333", "width": "2656", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4333", "width": "2656", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4333", "width": "2656", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4333", "width": "2656", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4482", "width": "2839", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS\\nOF\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nAND\\nHYGIENE.\\nBY\\nR. T. BROWN, M.D.,\\nPROF. OF PHYSIOLOGY, MED. DEPT., INDIANA E v r ERSITY.\\nNEW-YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO\\nAMERICAN BOOK COMPANY", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "TWO COPIESR\u00c2\u00a3o\u00c2\u00a3iV^\\nLibrary of Co Bgre\\nff -\u00c2\u00ab\u00c2\u00bbft B e\\nFEB 5 l\u00c2\u00a7O0\\nK gltUr of C9 P y rt g Bf%\\nQ\\n55821\\nEntered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1 872, by\\nWILSON, H1NKLE CO.,\\nIn the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.\\nCopyright, 1900, by Nancy T. Brown.\\nBROWN DUYS HY.\\nSECOND OOi J Ki", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "PREFACE.\\nThe following lessons in Physiology and Hygiene were prepared\\nin response to a resolution of the Indiana State Teachers Asso-\\nciation. They were designed originally to meet a demand in that\\nState, where the law introduces these branches of study into common\\nschools. In the execution of this design the author has endeavored to\\nprepare a work adapted to the wants of families and the general\\nreader.\\nPhysiology and Hygiene having been but recently introduced into\\nthe common literature of the country, parents, generally, have only a\\nlimited knowledge of a subject which stands in most intimate connec-\\ntion with the well-being of those intrusted to their care. To such\\npersons the following lessons present the elementary principles of\\nhuman physiology, and the laws of health, deduced therefrom, di-\\nvested, as far as possible, of the technical dress which too often\\nplaces these subjects beyond the comprehension of common readers.\\nIt is of the first importance to those who have the care of chil-\\ndren, whether in the family or the school, that they make themselves\\nfamiliar with the laws of health, in order that they may establish, in\\nearly years, habits of correct living in those under their charge. The\\nvalue and duration of human life are more intimately connected with\\nthe establishment of such habits than is generally admitted. If wrong\\nones are formed in childhood, the power to correct them in maturer\\nyears is often wanting and even if efforts in that direction prove\\nsuccessful, still the evil consequences remain.\\nIt must be remembered that habits injurious to health, when estab-\\nlished in youth, while the vital organs are in a state of development,\\nleave an impression of a deeper and more permanent character than\\nsimilar habits formed in after life. To prevent these evils rather than\\nto reform them is the true philosophy.\\nTo this end the author invokes the aid of parents and teachers, and\\nas his contribution to what he conceives to be the best method of\\ninstruction, presents these lessons, trusting they will tend toward\\nawakening an interest in subjects of vital importance to all.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "iv PEEFACE.\\nMany text-books on the science of Physiology and Hygiene have\\nbeen presented to the schools and colleges of this country during the\\npast few years. These are chiefly abridgments of the larger works\\nused in medical colleges and as physiology is taught in those schools\\nwith a direct reference to the cure of disease, these books retain more\\nor less of this character. But the study of physiology in other than\\nmedical schools should have direct reference to the Reservation of health,\\nrather than to the cure of disease. It has been the leading purpose of\\nthe author to make hygiene the prominent feature of this book, and\\nall other studies introduced subordinate to it.\\nTo the scientific reader the author wishes to say, that while he has\\naimed to present his subject in a popular form, and avoid the discus-\\nsion of many purely scientific questions which might have been intro-\\nduced, it has, at the same time, been his purpose to treat it in the light\\nof the latest discoveries.\\nIn the use of such terms as vital force, etc., the author does not\\nintend to commit himself to any particular theory of life, but merely\\nuses such phrases as signs of the unknown.\\nHINTS TO TEACHERS.\\nThis book is divided into fifty lessons, with the intention of adapt-\\ning it to the common division of the school year into terms of about\\ntwelve weeks each. If five lessons are recited each week, the work can\\nbe completed in a term, and ten recitations be left for review.\\nIf it is desirable to give more time to the study, the lessons may\\nbe divided and the work distributed over two terms, devoting the first\\nto Physiology and the second to Hygiene.\\nFor the purpose of easy reference, the work is divided into sections\\nand each one is numbered. To adapt it to the method of teaching by\\ntopics, each section is introduced by a head-line in full-faced type,\\nembracing the leading subject.\\nBrief recapitulations are appended to the lessons, for. the assistance\\nalike of teachers and pupils in the work of reviewing.\\nMuch of the work of teaching this science should be done by lec-\\ntures, or by familiar conversations between pupils and the teacher;\\nand in the arrangement of the matter of these pages this feature has\\nbeen kept constantly in view.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nPage\\nLesson I. Introduction 7\\nLesson II. Definitions and Classifications\\n13\\nLesson III. Nutrition\\n19\\nLesson IV. Digestion\\n24\\nLesson V. Circulation\\n31\\nLesson VI. Circulation Continued\\n3G\\nLesson VII. Respiration\\n41\\nLesson VIII. Purification of the Blood\\n46\\nLesson IX. Growth and Kepair\\n52\\nLesson X. System of Voluntary Motion\\n58\\nLesson XI. Skeleton\\nG3\\nLesson XII. Muscles\\n72\\nLesson XIII. Muscular Motion Voice\\n78\\nLesson XIV. Nervous System\\nS3\\nLesson XV. Nervous System Continued\\n90\\nLesson XVI. Sensation\\n96\\nLesson XVII. Organs of Special Sense\\n101\\nLesson XVIII. Hearing\\n106\\nLesson XIX.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Eye\\nIll\\nLesson XX. Vision\\n117\\nLesson XXI. Vision Continued\\n123\\nLesson XXII. Motor Functions\\n128\\nLesson XXIII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Nervous Functions\\n133\\nLesson XXIV.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mental Functions\\n138\\n(v)", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "VI\\nCONTENTS.\\nLesson XXV. Sleep\\nLesson XXVI.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Health\\nLesson XXVII. Food and Drink\\nLesson XXVIII. Classification of Food\\nLesson XXIX.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Quality of Food\\nLesson XXX. Quality of Food Continued\\nLesson XXXI. Mode of Preparing Food\\nLesson XXXII. Auxiliary Food\\nLesson XXXIII. Quantity of Food\\nLesson XXXIV.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Time of Taking Food\\nLesson XXXV. Condition of the System\\nLesson XXXVI. Circulation\\nLesson XXXVII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Breathing\\nLesson XXXVIII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Pure Air\\nLesson XXXIX. Animal Heat\\nLesson XL. Bathing Clothing\\nLesson XLI. Hygiene of Bones\\nLesson XLII. Muscular Exercise\\nLesson XLII!. Exercise and Eest\\nLesson XLIV. Brain Best\\nLesson XLV. Brain Poisons\\nLesson XLVI. Brain Poisons Continued\\nLesson XLVII. Brain Poisons Continued\\nLesson XLVI II. Tobacco\\nLesson XLIX. Brain Exercise and Best\\nLesson L. Accidents and Diseases\\nPage\\n143\\n149\\n154\\n160\\n165\\n170\\n175\\n180\\n185\\n190\\n196\\n201\\n206\\n211\\n216\\n222\\n227\\n232\\n237\\n242\\n248\\n253\\n258\\n263\\n268\\n273", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "PART I.\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nLESSON I.\\nINTRODUCTION.\\n1. Classification of Bodies. The material things\\nthat are around us in this world may be divided into\\ntwo classes those which were formed by the coming\\ntogether of particles of matter under the simple laws\\nof attraction, and those which have grown to their\\npresent size and shape under the influence of that force\\nwhich we call Life.\\nChemistry teaches us how the first class of bodies is\\nformed; and Mechanical Philosophy tells how they op-\\nerate on each other, and defines the laws governing\\ntheir movements.\\nPhysiology instructs us in the mysteries of life-formed\\nbodies, as far as these may be known. It may therefore\\nvery properly be called The Science of Life.\\n2. Organic Bodies. The difference in the growth of\\na living body, and the increase in size of a body which\\n(V)", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "8 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nis not alive, have given rise to the following method of\\nclassifying and naming bodies, which is now very gen-\\nerally received.\\nA plant takes up the matter intended for its growth\\nby means of vessels, or open mouths provided for that\\npurpose, either in its roots or leaves. In these vessels,\\nthis matter undergoes the changes that fit it to become\\na part of the living plant, and by them it is carried to\\nits proper place and built into the structure of the body.\\nThese instruments by which the food is absorbed, pre-\\npared, and deposited are called Organs, and the body thus\\nformed is an Organic body.\\n3. Inorganic Bodies. A stone placed in water which\\nholds lime dissolved in it, as the waters of many springs\\ndo, will increase in size by the addition of particles of\\nlime to its outer surface; but in making this apparent\\ngrowth, no vessels are employed to carry the lime to its\\nplace, and no instruments are used to change either its\\nform or place.\\nA rock thus formed is, therefore, an Inorganic body.\\nThese two classes embrace all bodies of matter on the\\nearth. To the inorganic group belongs the great mass\\nof material of which the globe is formed, such as rocks,\\nearths, metals, etc.\\n4. Character of Organic Bodies. The organic world\\nis made up of but a few simple elements; but the bodies\\nare very complex, both in their form and composition.\\nThey are, moreover, much less fixed and permanent in\\ntheir character than inorganic bodies.\\nWhile an organic body lives, it is constantly under-\\ngoing change by growth, or by decay and repair; and as\\nsoon as it ceases to live, a tendency to decomposition", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION. 9\\nensues, and the body it may be slowly, but very\\nsurely returns its matter to the inorganic world from\\nwhich it was taken.\\n5. Division of the Organic World.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Organic bodies\\nare of two kinds Vegetable and Animal. These are alike\\nformed under the influence of the life-force, and by\\nmeans of organs, yet they differ from each other in their\\ngeneral characteristics. This difference is most apparent\\nin the higher and more perfect forms of both classes;\\nbut as we descend in the scale of life, these two grand\\ndivisions approach so near to each other that it is al-\\nmost impossible to define the line separating them.\\nThe distinction w T hich most persons would first ob-\\nserve is that plants are fixed to one spot, w r hile animals\\nenjoy the power of changing their place. While this is\\ngenerally true, it is not so universally. The sponges\\nand corals of the ocean are as firmly fixed to one spot\\nas the trees of the forest.\\n6. Animal Characteristics. Animals are described\\nas having a nutritive cavity a stomach into which\\nfood is taken, and where it is prepared to be used for\\nthe growth and repair of the living body. In the veg-\\netable, the food is absorbed either by the roots or leaves,\\nand it undergoes no previous preparation to fit it to be\\nthus absorbed.\\nThis distinction applies only to those animals whose\\nstructure conforms to the regular types of animal life.\\nNo internal cavity can be found in many of the lower\\nand irregular forms of animal life. Plants live on inor-\\nganic food; animals digest and assimilate only that\\nwhich has been organized. This, in the strict meaning\\nof its terms, is true; yet it is evident that animals ap-", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "10 PHYSIOLOGY.\\npropriate water, and various mineral substances, though\\nprobably without any digestive change.\\n7. Nervous System the true distinction.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The real\\ndifference between animal and vegetable life consists in\\nthe possession of a Nervous System, and the manifestation\\nof its functions, in a greater or less degree, by all ani-\\nmals. These are the powers of sensation, perception,\\nand voluntary motion. In the lower forms of animal\\nlife, the nervous system is very imperfect; yet the un-\\nmistakable evidence of feeling, and the power to move\\nat the command of the will, though the motion may be\\nto a very limited extent, demonstrate its existence, even\\nthough the microscope may not reveal the nervous cen-\\nters.\\n8. Animal Sub-kingdoms. While all animals have\\nan apparatus of voluntary motion, and organs for receiv-\\ning, transmitting, and perceiving sensations, yet the\\ndegree of perfection in which these animal powers are\\npossessed, is so widely different as to give room for the\\ndivision of the animal kingdom into several sub-king-\\ndoms, each distinguished by some common element of\\nform, which constitutes what is called the type of the\\nsub-kingdom.\\nAt the base of the pyramid of animal life lies a group\\nof forms, exceeding in numbers, perhaps, all other classes\\nof animals, yet so minute as to be seldom visible to the\\nnaked eye, and are therefore studied chiefly by aid of\\nthe microscope. They are called Protozoans, a word\\nwhich means first life. These are exceedingly simple,\\nyet they present endless varieties of form. As they\\ndo not conform to any special type, they are very\\ndifficult of classification.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION.\\n11\\nRising above these, we have four well defined types\\nof life, which we enumerate in the ascending order.\\nFig. 1.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Stab-Fish.\\n1st. Radiate Animals, or those with arms or feelers ex-\\ntending in every direction, like rays, from the mouth,\\nwhich is simply an opening into the central, digestive\\ncavity.\\nFig. 2.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Snail.\\n2d. Mollush, or soft-bodied animals without limbs;\\nsuch as snails, oysters, clams, etc.\\nFig. 3-Dragon-Fly.\\n3d. Articulates, or animals whose bodies are made of", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "12\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nFig. 4.\\nrings joined together, as in the lobster, craw-fish, and in-\\nsects generally.\\n4th. Vertebrates. Animals with a bony col-\\numn extending the whole length of the body,\\nand inclosing a nervous cord with a more or\\nless perfectly developed brain at its forward\\ntermination.\\n9. Classification of Vertebrate Animals.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nOf this last and most perfect type of animal\\nlife we enumerate, in the ascending order,\\nfour grand sub-divisions, distinguished from\\neach other by very well marked natural pecu-\\nliarities. These are:\\n1st. Fishes. Inhabiting the water, and\\nbreathing by means of gills. They are usu-\\nally covered with scales.\\n2d. Reptiles. Breathing air with very imperfectly\\nformed lungs, and general^ having the body naked.\\nFishes and reptiles are cold-blooded animals, the tem-\\nperature of the body being nearly that of the water or\\nair in which they live.\\n3d. Birds. Warm-blooded animals, covered with feath-\\ners, and provided with wings for flying. With the ex-\\nception of a few reptiles, these three classes produce their\\nyoung from eggs.\\n4th. Mammals. Animals which suckle their young.\\nTheir bodies are usually covered with hair.\\nRecapitulation.\\nAn Organ is any thing used as an instrument to accomplish a\\npurpose.\\nThat which is done by an organ is called its function. Exam-\\nple The teeth are organs chewing food is their function.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS. 13\\nA body which grows and maintains its repairs, by means of the\\nlife force exerted through organs, is called an Organic body, and\\nthe laws regulating the proper action of these organs constitute\\nits Physiology.\\nLESSON II.\\nDEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS.\\n10. Range of Physiological Science. Anatomy de-\\nscribes the different parts or organs of an organic body,\\nwhile Physiology teaches the use of each organ, and\\ndescribes its mode of action. As we have vegetable and\\nanimal bodies, and both are organic, so we have vegeta-\\nble anatomy and physiology, and animal anatomy and\\nphysiology. The first of these belongs properly to the\\nscience of Botany the last is very appropriately divided\\ninto two sections Comparative Anatomy and Physiol-\\nogy, and Human Anatomy and Physiology.\\nThe first of these sections is devoted to the peculiar\\nforms of the several organs and their functions in the\\nlower animals, as compared with the corresponding or-\\ngans and functions in the human body.\\n11. Limits of the present study.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In the following\\npages w^e propose to confine the discussion to the subject\\nof Human Anatomy and Physiology, chiefly. No more\\nof descriptive anatomy will be given than will enable\\nthe reader or student to understand the functions of the\\n-everal organs described, and to treat these organs and\\nfunctions so as to maintain, in the most perfect manner,\\nthen natural condition and proper action. This is\\nhealth.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "14 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nWhat Life is, we may not know; but what it does,\\nand the laws by which it acts, are legitimate subjects\\nof knowledge, as clearly within our reach as any other\\nscience.\\n12. Animal and Vegetable Nutrition the differ-\\nence, Though the laws of animal life, in their leading\\nand essential features, are the same in the lower ani-\\nmals as in man, yet in many of the details, both in the\\nform of special organs, and the manner in which these\\nperform their functions, there is a wide difference be-\\ntween the merely animal and the human.\\nAll living bodies grow by absorbing substances unlike\\nthat of their own body, and by so changing it as to\\nconvert it into a substance exactly like that of their\\nown organs. This is nutrition, and is a function com-\\nmon to all organic bodies. In vegetables, the matter\\nthus appropriated remains a part of the body till the\\nwhole structure or organ dies, and by decay returns to\\nthe inorganic world.\\nIn animals the matter furnished by nutrition, after\\nit has served its purpose for a time, is removed, particle\\nby particle, new matter being prepared and furnished\\nby digestion to supply the place of the worn-out par-\\nticles removed.\\n13. Animal Functions. The work of repair is a feat-\\nure which characterizes animal life, and is common to\\nall its forms indeed, this change of matter is not only\\ncommon to all animals, but is essential to the mainte-\\nnance of active life in them.\\nThe manner in which motion is performed, is the\\nsame in man as in all other animals, however widely\\nthey may differ from the human form, or from each", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS. 15\\nother. The breathing apparatus differs in many par-\\nticulars in different animals; but to breath air, either\\nby itself or in mixture with water, is a condition of\\nactive life from which no animal can escape.\\nU. Relation of Man to the lower Animals. In all\\nthese respects man is an animal, but in other respects he\\nis more than an animal. He has many characteristics\\nthat are purely human. In the frame-work of his body,\\nman is constructed for an upright position; while in all\\nother animals the natural position is that in which the\\nspinal column, or backbone, is horizontal, or nearly so.\\nEven the monkey when taught to stand erect does so\\nwith evident difficulty, and all his movements show his\\nposition to be a constrained one.\\nThe configuration of the human face differs in many\\nfeatures from that of any other animal. For example\\nthe lower jaw of all the inferior animals drops back im-\\nmediately from the front teeth, while that of man pro-\\njects fonvard, forming a chin. Certain very expressive\\nfunctions or actions are peculiar to man, such as the\\npower to shed tears, to laugh, to communicate his\\nthoughts by articulate language, etc.\\n15. Classification of Man. Naturalists concur in\\nplacing man at the head of the animal creation. They\\nplace him in an order distinct and separate from all\\nother animals; and recognizing the fact that he alone\\nhas two hands, they name that order Bimana; while\\nmonkeys are regarded as four-handed animals, and there-\\nfore as constituting the order Quadrumana.\\nIf w T e study carefully the structure of that w r onderful\\norgan the human hand, and observe closely its marvel-\\nous endowments and capabilities, we shall hardly be\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 2.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "16 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nwilling to say that a baboon is furnished with four such.\\norgans! The feet of a monkey are not real hands.\\n16 Mental and Moral Distinctions. But it is chiefly\\nin the perfection of his nervous system, and his superior\\nmental endowments, that man rises above the mere ani-\\nmals that surround him, and stands alone in his endow-\\nments and capacities. The inferior animals certainly\\nthink and make inferences with regard to matters of\\ntheir own personal experience and so far they may be\\nsaid to reason but they are wholly incapable of reason-\\ning on the abstract qualities of things, or of deducing\\ngeneral truths from special manifestations.\\nThe moral sense the abstract idea of right and\\nwrong is exclusively a human faculty, and belongs to\\nman s spiritual nature. This is not merely a higher\\ndegree of the reasoning power of brutes, but a different\\nkind of reasoning.\\n17. Abstract Thought a human attribute, It is\\nto this power of abstract thought that man is indebted\\nfor his ability to contrive and construct machines to re-\\nlieve his hands from the drudgery of manual toil; by\\nthis he discovers and applies natural laws, invents sci-\\nence, and perfects literature. While he is un animal\\na very perfect animal in all his physical organs and\\nfaculties he is something more than an animal in\\nthis.\\nThis superior mental endowment should be made the\\nbasis of his classification; and as only organic life is\\ndisplayed in the vegetable world, and this, with the\\nanimal-powers of sensation and volition superadded, is\\nembodied in the animal kingdom, so both these, with the\\npowers of abstract reason, moral sensibility, and the", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS. 17\\ndevotional attributes of his nature mark him as belong-\\ning to a grade of Life as much above the mere animal\\nas the animal is above the vegetable.\\n18. Form of Matter composing the Organs of the\\nBody. But our present task is to study man in the\\nstructure of that body which he has in common with\\nother living organisms, and in the laws by which the\\nvarious movements of that complicated machine are\\ngoverned. Before entering on the study of this subject\\nin detail, a few general statements and explanations\\nmay be of use in its introduction.\\nThe human body is composed of solids, semi-solids,\\nand fluids. These are constantly changing while the\\nbody lives. The semi-solid flesh, as well as the firm,\\ncompact bone, was once fluid in the form of blood and,\\nin due time, particle by particle, they will be dissolved,\\nand becoming fluid again, will be carried away.\\n19. Tissues their several offices. The several\\nparts of the body differ from each other in the character\\nof their structure as well as in the substances out of\\nwhich they are formed. These different structures are\\ncalled Tissues. So we have the bony or osseous tissue in\\nthe bones which form the solid frame-work of the body;\\nthe fibrous tissue in the muscles which move these bones\\nthe membranous tissue in the delicate skin or membrane\\nwhich covers each organ, and lines every cavity of the\\nbody; the areolar or cellular tissue which fills all the\\nspaces between the organs, and gives roundness and\\nsymmetry to the outlines of the body; the nervous\\ntissue, that delicate structure seen in the substance of\\nthe brain, and in those white cords the nerves which\\nextend from it to all parts of the body.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "18 PHYSIOLOGY.\\n20. The three Systems. The living human body,\\nthough evidently a unit, may yet be regarded, in its\\nvaried and complicated actions, as three systems acting\\nin concert with each other. These are\\n1st. The System of Nutrition, consisting of the apparatus\\nof Digestion, of Circulation, and of Respiration.\\n2d. The System of Voluntary Motion, consisting of a bony\\nskeleton with its joints and ligaments, and a muscular\\napparatus so constructed and arranged as to produce a\\ngreat variety of motions.\\n3d. The System of Nervous Sensibility and Motor Force.\\nThis consists of the brain and spinal cord, with numer-\\nous nerves branching and ramifying through every tissue\\nof the body. These several systems w^e shall proceed to\\nconsider in order.\\nRecapitulation.\\nComparative Physiology likens the organs of inferior animals\\nto those of man. This book treats of organs and their functions\\nchiefly with reference to the preservation of health.\\nVegetables acquire matter for growth which becomes perma-\\nnent. Worn-out animal matter is replaced by new. Man is\\nmore than an animal in figure, face, and functions. Man forms\\nthe order Bimana; is distinguished by mental capacity, moral\\nnature, and capability for abstract thought.\\nThe body is composed of solids, semi-solids, and fluids. Tis-\\nsues are osseous, fibrous, membranous, areolar, and nervous*\\nThe three systems in one body.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION. 19\\nLESSON III.\\nNUTRITION.\\n21. Classification of Food.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The process of supplying\\nmaterial fitted for the growth and repair of the living\\nbody is properly nutrition; but as the maintenance of\\nanimal heat is intimately connected with this matter\\nof nutrition, w r e shall consider them together, as parts\\nof one process.\\nThe crude material of nutrition is known by the gen-\\neral name of Food. This consists, how r ever, of two classes\\nof substances that which supplies the material for the\\ngrowth, and also to repair the wastes of the several\\ntissues of the body; and that which, being consumed,\\nconstantly gives off heat to maintain the uniform tem-\\nperature of the body.\\nThe first class, from the close resemblance, in chem-\\nical composition, which all the articles of it bear to al-\\nbumen (which is the substance of the white of eggs), is\\ncalled albuminate food, and the latter class is known\\nas carbonaceous food.\\n22. The Month its functions. The first act of nu-\\ntrition is performed in the mouth, and is called mastica-\\ntion. It consists of crushing and grinding the food, thus\\nreducing it to a state of fine division, and at the same\\ntime moistening it w r ith a fluid furnished for the pur-\\npose called saliva. The mouth, where this work is done,\\nis lined with a smooth covering alw r ays kept moist, when\\nin a healthy condition, by a glairy fluid known as\\nmucus, and hence this surface is named the mucous\\nmembrane.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "20\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nThis kind of a membrane lines all cavities of the body\\nwhich communicate in any way with the air; while all\\nthe closed cavities, and the organs contained in them,\\nare lined and covered with a dense, smooth, shining\\ncoat, called a serous membrane.\\nFig. 5-Peemaxent Teeth.\\na. Incisors. b. Cuspids. c. Bi-cuspids. d. Molars. e. Wisdom-teeth.\\n23. Mastication\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Classification of the Teeth.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The\\ngrinding of the food is performed by the Teeth. These\\nare composed of a very hard, compact, bony substance,\\ncovered with a material still harder called enamel.\\nThere are two sets of teeth. The first, or temporary\\nteeth, consists of ten in each jaw. They appear in in-\\nfancy, and continue six or eight years, when they become\\nloose and are crowded out by the permanent teeth. Of\\nthese there are sixteen in each jaw, or thirty-two in all.\\nThe teeth are divided into four classes, as follows:\\nThe four front teeth in each jaw are called incisors, or\\ncutting-teeth; the next tooth on each side of these is\\nthe cuspid, or canine-tooth; next follow two bi-cuspids", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION.\\n21\\non each side; and. Lastly, three molars, or grinding-\\nteeth, in each jaw. The last of these, on each side, is\\ncalled the wisdom-tooth, because it does not appear\\nuntil a person is twenty, and sometimes twenty-live\\nyears old.\\nFig. 6.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Salivary Glands.\\na. Parotid gland. b. Parotid duct. c. Sublingual gland.\\nd. Submaxillary gland. e. Submaxillary duct.\\n24. Salivary Glands.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The saliva, with which the\\nfood is moistened in mastication, is furnished by a set\\nof bodies called Salivary glands, whose office it is to\\nseparate this fluid from the blood. All the special fluids\\nof the body are produced in a similar manner, so that\\nthe glands form an important group in the vital econ-\\nomy. Their action is called secretion.\\nThe salivary glands are three in number on each\\nside. The largest of these, called the Parotid gland, is", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "22 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nsituated behind the angle of the lower jaw, and forward\\nof the external ear. It sends its saliva into the mouth\\nthrough a tube or duct which opens opposite the second\\nmolar tooth, in the upper jaw.\\nThe second pair, the Submaxillary glands, are located\\non the inner side of the lower jaw, a little forward of\\nthe angle, on each side. The Sublingual glands are\\nplaced beneath the mucous membrane, forming the\\nfloor of the mouth, on each side, near the base of the\\ntongue.\\n25. Saliva its use, The movement of the jaw in\\nthe act of chewing excites these glands to activity, and\\nthey pour out a bland fluid, nearly transparent and a\\nlittle heavier than water. This saliva, when mixed with\\nfood of the. nature of starch, has the power of slowly con-\\nverting it into sugar. Now starch, which forms the\\ngreater part of bread, potatoes, and such articles of food,\\nwill not dissolve in water; but when converted into\\nsugar, it is very readily dissolved. It will be observed,\\nthen, that the saliva is not intended merely to moisten\\nthe food that it may be swallowed easily. Tea, cofree,\\nwater, or milk may be used for that purpose, but neither\\nof these can be substituted for saliva without injuring\\ndigestion, for neither of them can change starch into\\nsugar, or render it soluble in water.\\n26. Pharynx its office. In the act of chewing, the\\ntongue is used to keep the food pressed between the\\nteeth; and finally, when it is thoroughly reduced to a\\npulp, the tongue rolls it into a little ball, and carries it\\nalong its upper surface to the back part of the mouth,\\npasses it between the pillars of the fauces, and under the\\nhanging palate. These organs form a kind of gate-way", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION.\\n23\\nFig. 7.\\nfrom the mouth into the Pharynx. This is a funnel-\\nshaped, muscular sack, covered on the inner surface\\nwith a continuation of the mucous membrane of the\\nmouth.\\nThe pharynx is a kind of common chamber, commu-\\nnicating with the mouth through the fauces, and with\\nthe nose by two passages called the pos-\\nterior nares; with the ears, by two small\\nfunnel-shaped openings called the Eusta-\\nchian tubes; with the Larynx, or voice-\\nbox, by the glottis, which is closed by a\\nfirm valve called the epiglottis, that\\nshuts down on it, and over which the\\nfood is carried to the opening at the\\nsmall end of the funnel, where it termi-\\nnates in the CEsophagus, or gullet.\\n27. (Esophagus its structure and\\nfunction. The (Esophagus is a tube ex-\\ntending from the pharynx to the stomach,\\nand lies directly back of the windpipe.\\nIt is made of two coat\u00c2\u00a7 or layers an in-\\nner covering of mucous membrane, con-\\ntinued downward from the mouth through\\nthe pharynx, and an outer muscular coat\\ncomposed of a layer of fibers running\\nlengthwise, and a double set of fibers run-\\nning spirally around the tube in each direction, and\\nconsequently crossing each other. The longitudinal\\nfibers serve to hold the tube steady in the act of swal-\\nlowing; while the oblique fibers, contracting behind the\\nlittle ball of food, partly close the tube, and, the closure\\nextending downward, carries it to the stomach.\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 3.\\na. Oblique fibers.\\nb. Longitudinal\\nfibers exposed.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "24\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nRecapitulation.\\nNutrition is that function which supplies the material for the\\ngrowth of the body, and to repair its wastes; including, also,\\nthe material for the production of animal heat. This material\\nis called food, and is divided into the albuminate and carbon-\\naceous classes. Mastication, the first act of nutrition, is per-\\nformed in the mouth, and consists in grinding the food and\\nmixing it with saliva. The principal organs concerned in this\\nare the teeth and the salivary glands.\\nThe pharynx receives the masticated food and passes it into\\nthe oesophagus, by which it is transmitted to the stomach.\\nLESSON IV.\\nFig. 8.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Stomach.\\nDIGESTION.\\n28. Anatomy of the Stomach. The Stomach, into\\nwhich the oesophagus carries\\nthe food, is a curved sack or\\nbag, lying obliquely across the\\nbody immediately below the\\ndiaphragm, which is a kind\\nof partition separating the\\ncavity of the chest or thorax\\nabove, from the abdomen be-\\nlow 7 The larger end of the\\nstomach lies in the left side,\\nand its greater curvature or\\nrounded side is below.\\nOn the upper or concave\\nside, a little nearer the left end of the stomach than the\\nright, the oesophagus enters it. This is called the Cardiac\\na. Cardiac orifice, b. Pyloric ori-\\nfice, c. Pancreatic duct.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION. 25\\norifice. Toward its righl extremity the stomach be-\\ncomes narrow, and finally passes into the intestines. At\\nthis point there is a band of muscular fibers, which are\\ncapable of contracting so as to close the opening entirely.\\nThis is called the Pyloric orifice.\\n29. Functions of the Stomach. The stomach is\\ncomposed of three coats. The inner cr mucous coat is\\na continuation of that of the oesophagus, though differ-\\ning from it in many particulars. It is very delicate and\\nsoft like velvet, and besides thj little mucous glands or\\nfollicles it has a number of more complicated glands,\\nwhose mouths, opening on its surface, throw into the\\nstomach a thin acid-fluid (the gastric juice) as often as\\nfood is taken. This gastric fluid, besides the acids dis-\\nsolved in it, contains also a peculiar substance called\\nwhich, with the aid of a uniform heat, enables it\\nto dissolve albuminate food.\\n30. Muscular and Peritoneal Coats of the Stomacho\\nThe second coat of the stomach is a strong, muscular\\nenvelope, consisting of two sets of fibers one running\\nfrom end to end of the organ, and another running around\\nit. and crossing the first nearly at right angles. The third\\ncoat of the stomach is a serous membrane smooth and\\ndense it being a continuation of th: Peritoneum, which\\nmembrane lines the whole cavity of the abdomen, and\\ncovers all the organs contained in it. This covering is\\nreflected off from the lower surface of the diaphragm to\\nthe outer surface of the stomach, at the point where\\nthe oesophagus passes through that partition.\\n31. Process of Digestion. A strong sympathy exists\\nbetween the mouth and the stomach, for as soon as mas-\\ntication commences, and the salivary glands begin to act", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "26 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nfreely, the peptic glands of the stomach pour out, at\\ntheir numerous mouths, the gastric juice, ready to re-\\nceive the food when it arrives.\\nAs soon as this reaches the stomach, the muscular\\ncoats of that organ begin to contract, gently rolling the\\nfood from side to side, thus mixing it thoroughly with\\nthe gastric fluid constantly exuding from the inner coat\\nof the stomach. In the meantime, the salivary glands\\nare actively furnishing saliva, which is slowly convert-\\ning the starchy part of the food into sugar, and thus\\ndissolving it.\\n32. Formation of Chyme. This action of the sali-\\nvary glands has more of importance than is usually\\nattached to it. The poisoning of the saliva by a quid\\nof tobacco or a cigar, thus interfering with an important\\npart of the process of digestion, is one of the fruitful\\nsources of dyspepsia, however little the unfortunate vic-\\ntim may suspect it.\\nThe digestive action continues from two to four\\nhours, according to the nature of the food, the healthy\\ncondition of the organs engaged in the work, and the\\ngeneral vigor and activity of the body. The food thus\\nacted on becomes a semi-fluid mass, nearly of a uni-\\nform character, however various and unlike the original\\nmaterial may have been. This substance, called Chyme,\\nis now ready to be passed through the pylorus into\\nthe intestines, where it enters on the third and last\\nstage of digestion.\\n33. Anatomy of the Intestinal Canal. The Intes-\\ntinal canal is a tube, varying in length from twenty-\\nfive to thirty feet, or even more than this in some\\nindividuals. This tube is divided into two sections,", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION.\\n27\\nthe small intestines and the Large. The first section,\\nor small intestines, are divided, for the sake of con-\\nvenience in describing them, into three portions, called\\nthe Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum.\\nThe canal, in all its parts, has an inner mucous\\nmembrane, a middle muscular coat, much thinner than\\nthat of the stomach, and an outer covering of serous\\nmembrane, the peritoneum, it being a continuation of\\nthat which covers the stomach.\\n-This peritoneal cover-\\nMesbntery and Lacteals.\\n34. Lacteals and Mesentery\\ning is reflected off\\nfrom the back part\\nof the tube, in its\\nwhole length, form-\\ning a double -fold\\nof the membrane\\ncalled the Mesen-\\ntery, which binds\\nthe whole intesti-\\nnal apparatus firm-\\nly to the posterior\\nwall of the abdo-\\nmen. The space\\nbetween these folds\\nof the peritoneum,\\nforming the mesen-\\ntery, is filled with a. Small intestines, b. Lacteals. c. Mesen-\\na net-work of blood- teric glands JIe e tei Lymphatic\\nvessels. Thoracic duct. g. Aorta.\\nvessels, nerves, and\\na class of vessels called Lacteals. These vessels, com-\\nmunicating with the mucous surface of the intestines,\\ncarry a milky fluid containing the nutritious part of\\n1 a", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "28\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nthe food in a dissolved state. The lacteals, in their\\npassage through the mesentery, form clusters called\\nmesenteric glands, in which the lacteal fluid undergoes\\nan important change, by which it acquires many of\\nthe properties of blood.\\n35. Colon and Xleo-colic Valve. The large intest-\\nines differ materially in their form from the small.\\nThere are contractions at short intervals, diminishing\\nthe size of the tube at those points, and forming an\\nenlargement or kind of cell between them. The small\\nintestines do not enter the large tube in a continuous\\nline, but appear as if the ileum was spliced on the side\\nof the large intestine, at a point three or four inches\\nfrom its end. At this junction the lips of the open-\\ning are elongated inward, so as to form a very perfect\\nvalve, which permits the contents of the small in-\\ntestines to pass into the large,\\nbut arrests all passage in the\\nopposite direction. This is\\nthe Ileo-colic valve.\\n6,\\na\\na. Ileum. 6. The valve, c. As-\\ncending colon, d. Opening of sections\\nappendix.\\nFig. 10.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ileo-coiLic Valve.\\n36. Direction of the Co-\\nlon. The closed end of the\\nintestine lying back of this\\nvalve is called the Caecum,\\nand that portion which lies\\nforward of it is the Colon.\\nThis is divided into three\\nthe ascending co-\\nlon, rising on the right side\\nnearly to the stomach; the transverse colon, extend-\\ning across the abdomen below the stomach; and the\\ndescending colon, passing down the left side to the", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION. 29\\nrectum, which is the last division of the large intes-\\ntines, and the termination of the intestinal canal.\\nFia. 11.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Intestinal canal.\\ne a\\na. Duodenum, b. Ileum, c. Caecum, d. Ascending colon, e. Transverse\\ncolon. Descending colon, g. Rectum, h. Vermiform appendix.\\n37. The Liver its function. The Liver, the largest\\ngland of the body, is situated immediately below the\\ndiaphragm, and chiefly on the right side of the body.\\nIts office (which will be more particularly described\\nhereafter) is to separate from the blood a slightly tena-\\ncious yellow fluid, called bile, which is collected into\\nthe gall bladder, and from thence passed into the duo-\\ndenum, a short distance below the stomach.\\nThe Pancreas is a long, slender gland, lying under\\nthe convex surface of the stomach, and secreting a", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "30\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nfluid very nearly resembling saliva, which it throws\\ninto the duodenum.\\nFig. 12.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Ltver.\\na f\u00c2\u00a3\\na. Right lobe of the liver, b. Left lobe. c. Vena cava. d. Gall bladder.\\ne. Portal vein. Bile duct. g. Hepatic artery.\\n38. Digestive Process. The Spleen. The food\\nbeing converted into chyme in the stomach, and\\npassed through the pylorus into the duodenum, is\\nmixed with the pancreatic fluid which serves to di-\\nlute it, and perhaps complete the work of the saliva\\nin converting the starch into sugar. The bile being\\nalkaline, from the soda which it contains, neutralizes\\nany acid which the chyme may have brought from\\nthe stomach; and it also has an effect on the oily\\nportions of the food, so as to make them dissolve\\nreadily.\\nThese changes convert the chyme into chyle, which,\\nas a milky fluid, is absorbed by the lacteal vessels,\\nand transmitted through the mesenteric glands into\\nthe Thoracic duct, which is the common trunk of all\\nthe iacteals. This vessel carries the lacteal fluid up-\\nward, and pours it into the large vein which returns\\nthe blood from the left arm. A little to the left, and", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION. 31\\nbelow the great curvature of the stomach, lies the\\nSpleen. It is made up chiefly of a net-work of blood-\\nvessels. Its use, in the animal economy, has not been\\nclearly determined.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe stomach is composed of three coats an inner mucous coat,\\na middle muscular layer, and an outer serous membrane. The\\nfunction of the stomach is to change the various forms of food\\ninto a homogeneous mass, and to render it soluble in water.\\nThis semi-fluid mass is called chyme. The intestinal canal is\\ndivided into two sections the large and the small intestines.\\nThe mesentery, a double fold of the peritoneum, binds the in-\\ntestines to the posterior wail of the abdomen, and contains the\\nlacteal vessels between its folds. The liver secretes bile, which\\nacting on the chyme, converts it into chyle.\\nLESSON V.\\nCIRCULATION.\\n39. The Apparatus of the Circulation. Having,\\nin the last lesson, followed the food through the first\\nstage of preparation for nutrition, we now find it, if\\nthe work of digestion has been well done, prepared to\\nenter the circulation, that it may be carried to all\\nparts of the living body to supply material for its\\ngrowth in early life, and its repair at all times. This\\nwork of distributing the nutriment prepared by the\\nchanges it has undergone in the mouth, stomach, and\\nintestines, to become a part of the living tissues, is\\nperformed by the Heart, Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "32 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nThe heart consists of a right and left side, separated\\nfrom each other by a strong partition, which, after\\nbirth, is entirely closed, so that there is no more com-\\nmunication between the right and left cavity than if\\nthe two sides were distinct and separate hearts.\\n40. Anatomy of the Heart. Each side is composed\\nof two chambers or cavities, capable of holding about\\ntwo ounces of blood eacji. The first or upper one of\\nthese chambers is called the Auricle, and the lower one\\nthe Ventricle; and the two auricles and ventricles\\nare distinguished from each other by the terms right\\nand left. The right side of the heart receives the\\nblood returning from all parts of the body, and sends\\nit to the lungs to be purified and materially changed,\\nfrom whence it is returned to the left side of the\\nheart to be distributed again throughout the system.\\nThe lungs being near by the heart, the right side\\nhas much the lighter task, though the quantity of\\nblood sent out from each side, in a given time, is the\\nsame. From this cause the walls of the right side of\\nthe heart are much thinner than on the left.\\n41. Position of the Heart. The heart is situated\\nin the lower part of the chest, between the folds of\\nthe partition separating the lungs from each other. It\\nis a cone-shaped organ, with the base or large end di-\\nrected upward and backward, pointing toward the\\nright shoulder, while the apex or small eiid projects\\ndownward, forward, and to the left side.\\nWhen in vigorous motion, the point of the heart\\nstrikes against the front wall of the chest, and can be\\nfelt distinctly near the fifth rib on the left side. Its\\nunder side rests on the arch of the diaphragm, which", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION.\\n33\\nseparates the chest from the abdomen. The heart is\\ninclosed in a membra nous sae called the pericardium,\\nbetween the inner surface of which and the heart there\\nis always a small quantity of water, which serves to\\nprotect the heart from the effect of blows on the chest,\\nor sudden movements of the body.\\n42. Action of the Heart. The blood reaches the\\nright auricle as it is returned\\nn i i ji Fig. 13.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Front view of the\\nfrom the veins; and by the\\ncontraction of the auricle, the\\nvenous blood is forced into the\\nventricle, through three tri- |||i m^ r\\nangular folds of a membrane. W^F~\\\\m\\\\^- f\\nThese are called the Tricuspid e %J. Jp 5\\nvalves, and they are so ar- e-^5 g5 ----g\\nranged as to permit the blood c tWr J\\nto pass freely toward the ven- |^W\u00c2\u00bb^P^^^Sk\\ntricle, but close so as to arrest ^ffl^O\\nits passage in the opposite di-\\nrection. ^\u00e2\u0096\u00a0S\\nThe ventricle being now a y\\nfilled, contracts on its con- ^w^r\\ntents, and the blood is forced RigM ventricle. fc.Leftven-\\ntricle. c. Right auricle, d.\\ninto the Pulmonary artery, Len auricle 6j Cj 6j e Pul\\nby which it is carried to the monary veins. Pulmo-\\n1 A r, *xi i nary artery, a. Aorta, h.\\nlungs. After passing the pul- J\\nmonary capillaries, and under-\\ngoing a change of which we shall speak in the proper\\nplace, it is returned to the heart by the pulmonary\\nveins.\\n43. Valves of the Heart and their use. Entering\\nthe left auricle, the blood is transmitted through the", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "34\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\na. Left auricle, b. Right auricle.\\nc. Left ventricle, d. Right ven-\\ntricle. Mitral valves, g. Tri-\\ncuspid valves.\\nvalves, which, on this side of the heart, consist of two\\nmembranous folds called\\nFig. 14.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Valves of the Heart. T\\\\r-j. i i xi i ju\\nMitral valves, into the left\\nventricle, whose walls con-\\nsist of a firm and power-\\nful muscle. It is now con-\\ntracted, and the blood,\\npropelled with consider-\\nable force, is thrown into\\na large tube called the\\nAorta.\\nThis tube may be taken\\nas the representative of\\nthe whole class of blood-\\nvessels whose office it is\\nto carry the blood from the\\nheart. They are called Arteries, while those vessels which\\nreturn the blood to the\\nFig. 15.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Semi-lunar Valves.\\nheart are named Veins.\\nThe blood having en-\\ntered the aorta, is pre-\\nvented from returning\\nto the ventricle, when\\nthat cavity expands, by\\nthree folds of the inner\\ncoat of the artery, which\\nfrom their shape are call-\\ned Semi-lunar valves.\\n44. Arteries, Capil-\\nlaries, and Veins\\ntheir anatomy. The\\narteries are firm, elastic\\ntubes, made of three coats. The external coat is of a\\na. A section of the aorta laid open.\\nb. The semi-lunar valves.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "CIKCULATION. 35\\nspongy, cellular texture; the middle coat is of very dense,\\nfibrous material, generally regarded as muscular; the\\ninner coat is x smooth and very fine serous mem-\\nbrane, being a continuation, from the heart, of the\\nlining membrane of the ventricle. The aorta sends off\\nbranches to all the living organs of the body; even\\nthe heart itself receives a pair of arteries from the\\naorta, to carry to it material for its repair.\\nThese branches, as they divide and sub-divide, grow\\nconstantly smaller, but more numerous, till at last they\\nterminate in a net-work of hair-like vessels, called\\nCapillaries, almost infinite in number. These vessels\\ngive origin to the system of veins which, running into\\neach other, become less and less numerous, till finally\\nthey form one great trunk, the Vena Cava, through\\nwhich all the veins of the general circulation com-\\nmunicate with the heart.\\n45. Forces concerned in the Circulation. Several\\nforces are concerned in the circulation of the blood, the\\nfirst and chief of which is the contraction and expan-\\nsion of the heart. Though the heart is a double organ,\\nand concerned in carrying on two distinct circulations\\none to the lungs and the other to the general sys-\\ntem yet all its parts work in concert.\\nThe two auricles contract at one time, and while\\nthey are contracting, the ventricle is expanded on each\\nside; but as soon as these are filled with blood, they\\nbegin to close the cavity, and, by a powerful contrac-\\ntion, the contents of each ventricle is injected into the\\nartery united with it. While this is going on, the\\nauricles are expanded to receive the constant stream\\nof blood returned by the great veins.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "36 PHYSIOLOGY.\\n46. The Pulse. Each contraction of the ventricle\\ngives a wave-like motion to the blood in the arteries.\\nThis is the Pulse. It is probably assisted by a con-\\ntraction of the artery itself, following directly after the\\nwave of blood. The changes which are made in the\\ncondition of the blood while passing through the capil-\\nlaries, evidently exert a force in transmitting it through\\nthese minute passages. This force is entirely independ-\\nent of the contraction of the heart. The blood is thus\\nconstantly forced into the veins; these vessels, being\\nfilled, must overflow into the right auricle. The veins\\nare passive in the work of circulation.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe circulation is carried on by the heart, arteries, veins, and\\ncapillaries. The heart is a double organ, consisting of a right\\nand left side, and each side is composed of an auricle and a\\nventricle. The heart is inclosed in a sac the pericardium\\nand lies in the partition separating the lungs, its larger end\\nlooking upward and backward, and its smaller downward and\\nforward. Valves are interposed between the auricles and ven-\\ntricles on each side of the heart. The arteries convey the\\nblood from the heart, and the veins return it to that organ.\\nThe capillaries unite the arteries with the veins. The con-\\ntraction and expansion of the heart is the chief force concerned\\nin the arterial circulation.\\nLESSON VI-\\nCIRCULATION. CONTINUED.\\n47. Teins their Valves. The veins originating in\\nthe net-work of capillaries, and joining together, form", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION. 37\\nconstantly enlarging trunks; but these, unlike the ar-\\nteries, are soft and easily compressed. The middle or\\nfibrous coat is almost entirely wanting, and the two\\nremaining coats are much thinner than those of the\\narteries. When emptied of their contents, the arteries\\nmain open tubes; but the veins, under similar circum-\\nstances, collapse the walls falling in on each other.\\nAt irregular intervals, the internal coat of the veins\\nforms pouches or folds, which operate most\\neffectually as valves. They are so ar- FlG 16 valves\\nranged that the open end of the pouch\\nis turned toward the heart, and when\\nthe blood flows in that direction, the\\nvalve closes down against the wall of\\nthe vein; but an attempt to force a flow\\nin the opposite direction, fills the pouch\\nwith blood, and, by its enlargement,\\ncloses the vein completely.\\n48. Venous Circulation effected by a A vehl laid\\nopen, exposing\\nMuscular Movements. The veins being the valves,\\nsoft, and passing freely through and\\namong the moving machinery of the body, are con-\\nstantly compressed by these movements, and the valves\\npreventing this compression from forcing the blood\\nbackward into the capillaries, become material aids in\\ntransmitting the blood through the veins.\\nIt is sometimes important to be able to distinguish\\na vein from an artery at once. When the vessel is\\nopened and blood is issuing from it if it be an artery,\\nit will flow in intermittent jets corresponding to the pul-\\nsations of the heart; if it be a vein, the flow will be a\\nconstant stream. If the vessel be not opened, the pulsat-", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "38 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ning motion may be seen or felt even in a small artery,\\nbut in a vein no such movement is perceptible.\\n49. Lymphatic Vessels\u00e2\u0080\u0094 their functions.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 There is\\nanother class of vessels, called Lymphatics, which\\nperform an important office in the circulation. They\\nresemble small veins in their general\\nfig. 17.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a lym- s t ruc t ure but carry a transparent fluid\\nphatic Vessel\\nmagnified. instead of blood. Their valves are more\\nnumerous than those of the veins, and the\\nsmall tubes show but little disposition to\\nunite, often running jDarallel with each\\nother, in clusters, for some distance. In\\nsome parts of the body, as about the neck,\\ngroins, and armpits, the lymphatics form\\nnumerous clusters or balls, called lym-\\nphatic glands. These are the principal\\nseat of scrofulous diseases. In their struct-\\nure they are much like the mesenteric\\nglands.\\nThe lymphatics are chiefly employed\\nin taking up and conveying to the blood-\\nvessels the waste matter resulting from\\nthe constant wear of the tissues. They all communi-\\ncate with the venous side of the circulation, so that\\nthe blood with which the lymphatic circulation is\\nmingled is not sent out into the general circulation\\ntill it has been purified in the lungs. No lymphatics\\nhave r et been detected in the brain, in tendon, carti-\\nlage, or bone. In these tissues the office of the lym-\\nphatics is probably performed by veins. The lacteals,\\nin their general character and work, very much re-\\nsemble lymphatics.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION. 39\\n50. Absorbents their action. A class of lym-\\nphatic vessels, called Absorbents, are engaged in the\\nbusiness of taking up Quids from the external surface\\nof the body, and the surface of internal cavities. Vari-\\nous kinds of liquids, when applied to the skin, can be\\ndetected in the circulation, and in the different secre-\\ntions, in a very short time. In the same manner, sub-\\nstances inhaled are taken up by the absorbents, and\\ncarried directly into the blood-vessels, to be mingled\\nwith all the fluids of the body. In this manner poisons\\nare often imbibed and diseases contracted, without the\\nslightest suspicion of the manner of taking the poison.\\n51. Absorbents in Serous Membranes. Another\\noffice of the absorbent vessels is to take up and carry\\naway the fluids constantly exhaled from the surface of\\nmembranes lining cavities. There is, in a healthy state\\nof these serous membranes, a very nice adjustment in\\nthe w r ork done by the exhalent and absorbent vessels, so\\nas to keep the surface constantly moistened, and yet suf-\\nfer no accumulations of fluids in such cavities. Dropsy\\nis but the disturbance of this nicely balanced exhala-\\ntion and absorption.\\nSimple fluids, like water, are not subject to any\\nchange in the stomach, nor do they take the circuitous\\nroute, by w r ay of the lacteals and thoracic duct, to the\\ncirculation, but are absorbed directly from the surface\\nof the stomach, and pass into the veins at once. Even\\nalcohol or turpentine, taken into the stomach, can be\\ndetected in the air breathed from the lungs, in a very\\nshort time after it is swallowed.\\n52. Anastomosing Vessels. The vessels constituting\\nthe circulatory apparatus, whether arteries, veins, capil-\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 4.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "40 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nlaries, or lymphatics, often communicate by collateral\\nbranches, but always with vessels of their own kind.\\nBy means of these vessels, called Anastomosing\\nbranches, the surgeon is able to preserve the life of a\\npart, though he may be required to tie the principal\\nartery supplying that part with blood. An anastomos-\\ning branch, connecting the injured vessel below the\\nligature with a neighboring artery, will furnish a\\npartial supply of blood and becoming enlarged by the\\nincreased work it is required to do, the anastomosing\\nvessel soon acquires the capacity of the original trunk,\\nand performs its office effectually.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe heart is a double organ, carrying on two circulations at the\\nsame time.\\nThe right side of the heart is devoted to the pulmonary circula-\\ntion, or that carried on through the lungs for the purpose of puri-\\nfying and oxidizing the blood.\\nThe left side of the heart is engaged in the distribution of the\\nblood to all parts of the body, for its nutrition.\\nIn health the heart makes about seventy-five contractions in\\na minute.\\nArteries carry the blood from the heart veins return it to that\\norgan.\\nCapillaries connect the extremities of the arterial and venous\\ncirculations; hence all arteries terminate in capillaries, and all\\nveins have their origin there.\\nThe change from arterial to venous blood takes place in the\\ncapillaries of the general circulation, and the opposite change in\\nthe capillaries of the pulmonary circulation.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "RESPIBATION. 41\\nLESSON VII.\\nRESPIRATION.\\n53. The Respiratory Organs and their use. The\\n3piratory apparatus consists of a trachea or wind-\\npipe, two lungs, the bronchial tubes, and air-cells.\\nAuxiliary to these are the ribs, and the muscles be-\\ntween them; the diaphragm, and the abdominal mus-\\ncles. The purpose of this rather complicated apparatus\\nis two-fold: first, to impart to the blood oxygen, which\\nis one of the constituents of the air; and, second, to\\nrelieve the blood of carbonic acid and watery vapor,\\nwhich it has acquired in passing through the capilla-\\nries, and which has resulted from the decomposition of\\nthe worn-out particles of the body and of the carbona-\\nceous food.\\n54. Position of the Lungs. The body or trunk is\\ndivided into two great cavities. In the abdomen or\\nlower one of these is placed the digestive apparatus,\\nwhich we have already described. The upper one is\\ndevoted to the Heart and great blood-vessels, which are\\nsituated in the space between the walls of a double\\npartition that completely separates the cavity into\\ntwo apartments; and to the Lungs, one of which fills\\neach of these apartments. This cavity is called the\\nThorax or Chest. Unlike the abdomen, it is surrounded\\nby bony walls on all sides, except the bottom, where\\nit is separated from the abdomen by the diaphragm.\\nThe natural shape of the chest is that of a cone, with\\nits small end upward, and its base resting on the dia-\\nphragm below.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "42\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nFig. 18.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Respiratory Apparatus.\\n,,a\\n55. Trachea and Bronchia. The Trachea is a tube\\nextending from the air-passages of the nose and the\\nmouth to a point nearly opposite the top of the breast-\\nbone, where it separates into two branches, which,\\nfrom this point, take the name of Bronchia. These\\nbronchial tubes divide and sub-divide as they distribute\\nthemselves through the lungs each tube finally ter-\\nminating in a little\\nsac called an air-cell.\\nThese tubes, both the\\ntrachea and bronchia,\\nare composed of rings\\nformed of a hard, elas-\\ntic substance, called\\ncartilage. In the tra-\\nchea the rings are not\\nquite closed on the\\nback part, thus leav-\\ning a soft side to\\nthe tube for the ac-\\ncommodation of the\\nsesophagus, which\\nlies immediately be-\\nhind it.\\n56. Air-Cells and their use. The trachea and\\nbronchial tubes are lined with a very delicate mucous\\nmembrane, which is extended into the air-cells. On\\nthis membrane, forming the inner surface of the air-\\ncells, is spread out a net- work of capillary vessels\\nthe terminations of the pulmonary artery. This mem-\\nbrane permits gases to pass through it readily, and\\nthus the oxygen from the air in the air-cells is trans-\\nmitted to the blood; and the carbonic acid contained\\na. Larynx, b. Trachea, c. Left lung.\\nd. Right lung. e. Heart.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION.\\n43\\nFig. 19.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 A m -cells.\\nin the blood-vessels passes in the opposite direction,\\nand escapes with the air exhaled from the lungs.\\nPure air is nearly one-lift li oxy-\\ngen, and four-fifths nitrogen. These\\nLiases are not chemically combined,\\nbut are merely in a state of mix-\\nture. When the air is taken into\\nthe lungs, it contains about twenty-\\none per cent of oxygen, but it\\nis returned with but about seven-\\nteen per cent the loss, however,\\nis filled by nearly four per cent of carbonic acid and\\nFig. 20.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Diaphragm.\\nc\\na, a. Cavity of the right and left lungs, b, b. Ends of the ribs, which\\nare removed to expose the diaphragm, c, c. Arch of the diaphragm.\\nwatery vapor. This proportion varies a little in dif-\\nferent individuals, and in the same individual in", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "44 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ndifferent states of health; but this is about the average\\nresult in a healthy person.\\n57. Mechanism of Respiration, Diaphragm. In\\nthe act of breathing, the lungs are passive, the air\\nbeing drawn in by the enlargement of the chest, made\\nby the action of the Diaphragm and the muscles be-\\ntween the ribs.\\nThe diaphragm is the floor of the chest. It is com-\\nposed of at least two layers of muscles, covered on its\\nunder side by the peritoneum, and above by the pleura,\\na serous membrane lining the cavity of the chest, and\\ncovering the lungs. The diaphragm has nearly the\\nshape of an inverted basin, being an irregular arch in\\nevery direction. When the muscles composing the dia-\\nphragm contract, the arch is shortened, and conse-\\nquently the crown of it is drawn downward, and the\\ncavity of the chest made deeper in proportion.\\nFig. 21.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Intercostal, Muscles.\\na-\\na. External iniercostals. b. Internal intercostals.\\n58. Ribs and Intercostal Muscles. The ribs are\\narticulated to the spinal column by a movable joint,\\nand in front they are attached to the breast-bone by\\na flexible cartilage. They are curved around the body", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. 45\\nlike a hoop; but they arc also bent downward from\\nthe back and to a little beyond the middle of the rib,\\nfrom which they ascend to the breast-bone. The space\\nbetween the ribs is filled by two layers of muscles,\\npassing obliquely from one rib to the other. They\\narc called the external and internal intercostals.\\nThe upper rib, being nearly immovable, acts as a\\nfixed point to which the whole series is attached by\\nmeans of the intercostal muscles. And when these\\ncontract, the middle of each rib is drawn upward, and\\nconsequently the chest is enlarged in its transverse\\ndiameter.\\n59. How we Breathe. Now, as the lungs completely\\nfill the cavity they each occupy, and the fold of the\\npleura covering the lungs, and that lining the chest,\\nare in actual contact, it follows that the increased space\\nmade by enlarging the cavity of the chest, can be\\nfilled only by the air passing into the air-cells, and thus\\nenlarging the lungs sufficiently to fill the enlarged cav-\\nities they occupy. By this movement, about twenty-\\nfive cubic inches of air are drawn in at an ordinary\\nrespiration.\\nBut a healthy pair of lungs will contain, in common\\nbreathing, about two hundred cubic inches of air, so\\nthat only about one-eighth of it is changed at each\\nbreath. The relaxation of the diaphragm and inter-\\ncostal muscles, though necessary for the expulsion of\\nthe air inhaled, is not of itself depended on in the\\neconomy of respiration. From the arch of the large\\nbone on each side, which forms the basin-like cavity\\nterminating the abdomen below, there arise several\\nmuscles which form the walls of that cavity. A pair", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "46 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nof these are attached, above, to the ribs, and, on con-\\ntracting, draw these downward. Other muscles run\\ntransversely or obliquely around the abdomen, which,\\nby their contraction, force the contents of the abdomen\\nupward, and thus elevate the arch of the diaphragm,\\nand expel the air inhaled.\\nRecapitulation.\\nEespiration is carried on by means of the trachea and lungs.\\nThe lungs consist chiefly of bronchial tubes, air-cells, and\\nblood-vessels. The ribs and their muscles, the diaphragm and\\nthe abdominal muscles, give the movements in breathing. The\\nlungs are entirely separated by a double partition. Eespiration\\nsupplies oxygen to the blood, and removes impurities from it.\\nThese changes take place in the air-cells. The cavities contain-\\ning the lungs are enlarged by the contraction of the diaphragm\\ndepressing its arch, and by the elevation of the ribs increasing\\nthe lateral dimensions. The space thus made is filled by air\\npassing through the trachea and bronchia. The contraction of\\nthe abdominal muscles elevates the arch of the diaphragm, and\\nthus expels the air.\\nLESSON VIII.\\nRESPIRATION PURIFICATION OF THE BLOOD.\\n60. Two-fold Purpose of Respiration. Respiration\\nserves a two-fold purpose in the animal economy. First,\\nit furnishes oxygen to the blood. This is carried by\\nthe circulation to all the tissues of the body, where it\\ncombines with the elements of the old and worn-out\\nparticles, forming with them new compounds, capable\\nof being dissolved in the blood and thus carried for-\\nward into the veins. At the same time, in the capil-\\nlaries, it comes into close contact with the carbonace-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. 47\\nous elements of the newly digested food, combines with\\nits carbon, forming carbonic acid, disengaging its other\\nelements to form water. From these changes the heat\\nof the body is supplied and maintained.\\nBut these products, resulting from the combination\\nof the oxygen with the tissues and with the food,\\nbeing thrown into the circulation, load the blood with\\nimpurities. The second purpose of respiration is to\\nrelieve the blood of these impurities. All the carbonic\\nacid generated in the living body, and a large portion\\nof watery vapor, as well as numerous other substances\\nwhich find their way into the circulation and are in-\\ncapable of being made^a part of the living body, are\\ndischarged by the lungs.\\n61. Chemical Changes the Source of Animal\\nHeat. The production of heat by the chemical\\nchanges constantly taking place in animal bodies,\\nappears to be intimately connected w r ith the evolution\\nand expenditure of force in the body. Every move-\\nment of the body, or any part of it, requires a certain\\namount of force to accomplish it, proportioned to the\\nextent and violence of the movement; and, as many\\nof these motions are constant, and all of them frequent,\\nthey demand a constant and uniform supply of this\\nforce. This they have in respiration and its results.\\nHence it follows, that as we increase the active exer-\\ncise of the body, there is a corresponding increase of\\nbreathing and more oxygen being thus distributed to\\nthe tissues, more chemical action takes place, and from\\nthis heat and force are evolved.\\n62. Products of Respiration. But all this is con-\\nsuming both the tissues of the body and the carbon-\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 5.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "48 PHYSIOLOGY.\\naceous elements of the food, and this waste must be\\nsupplied by additional food, consequently exercise in\\nthe open air increases the appetite, and invigorates\\nall the vital functions, thus furnishing new material,\\nwell prepared to replace the worn-out particles of the\\ntissues, and enabling the several organs, whose duty it\\nis to carry off and dispose of the old matter, to do that\\nwork effectually. A large proportion of this waste is\\nconverted into carbonic acid, which is formed by the\\ndirect union of the oxygen inhaled, and the carbon of\\nthe tissues. This being carried to the lungs, escapes\\nwith the air exhaled in respiration.\\nIf we fill a vessel with clear lime-water, and, through\\na tube, blow our breath into it, we shall soon perceive it\\nbecoming milky from the carbonic acid of the breath\\ncombining with the lime. The hydrogen, another ele-\\nment of the worn-out particles, unites also with the\\noxygen communicated to the blood in breathing, and\\nthus forms water, a great part of which is thrown\\noff from the lungs as vapor.\\n63. Other Means of Purifying the Blood \u00e2\u0080\u0094Other\\nportions of this waste material, rendered fluid by com-\\nbination with oxygen, are taken up by the absorbents,\\nand carried into the circulation, from which they are\\nseparated by the process of secretion. This operation\\nis performed by a class of organs called Glands. The\\nlargest gland of the body is the liver, whose duty it is\\nto separate, from the venous blood circulating through\\nit, a peculiar fluid, the bile, which, as we have learned\\n38), performs an important office in the conversion\\nof chyme into chyle. A large part of the bile, in per-\\nforming this work, is itself changed into sugar, in", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION.\\n49\\nFig. 22.\u00e2\u0080\u0094] ekspira tort\\nI A DS.\\ne e\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0a\\nb\\nwhich form it re-enters the circulation as a carbonace\\nous element of the blood. The\\nremainder of the bile, which\\nis incapable of this change, is\\npassed oh* as excrement.\\nThe Skin is another impor-\\ntant outlet of the wastes of\\nthe living body. A cluster of\\nsmall glands forms the lower\\nsurface of the skin, and from\\neach gland a small tube, called\\na perspiratory duct, winds its\\nway in a spiral course through\\nthe skin to its external sur-\\nface. The mouths of these\\nform what are commonly call-\\ned the pores of the skin. The\\nperspiration consists chiefly\\nof water, with various saline\\nmatters dissolved in it. Under ordinary circumstances,\\nit passes off in the form of vapor, and is called insen-\\nsible perspiration^ because it is not observed; but when\\nthe secretion becomes more active, it is liquid, forming\\ndrops of sweat.\\nd-\\na. Cuticle, b. Colored layer of\\nthe skio frete mucosum). c.\\nTrue skin, d, d. Perspiratory\\nglands. e, e. Perspiratory\\nducts.\\n64. The Skin. Perspiratory and Oil Glands.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nAnother set of glands are located near the surface of\\nthe skin, smaller and much simpler than the perspira-\\ntory glands. They are the oil glands, or sebaceous follicles,\\nw T hich furnish oil to keep the surface of the skin soft\\nand pliable. The kidneys also perform an important\\noffice in the work of purifying the blood. They are a\\npair of large glands, situated in the upper and back", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "50\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\npart of the abdomen, and are concerned in separating\\nfrom the blood a peculiar substance called Urea, which\\nis formed in the decomposition of the tissues.\\nFig. 23.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Oil Glands.\\na. Simple oil gland, b. Oil glands surrounding a hair.\\nThrough these various outlets we see what ample\\nprovision is made for purifying the blood, and remov-\\ning from the system the waste matter resulting from\\nthe tranformation of the tissues. No one of these or-\\ngans can suspend action, or be impaired in its func-\\ntions, without deranging the healthy condition of the\\nwhole vital machinery.\\n65. Temperature Measured hy the Air Breathed,\\nBut a result of respiration, no less curious than it is\\nimportant, is that of enabling a living body to main-\\ntain a nearly uniform heat independent of the tem-\\nperature of the surrounding medium. It required many\\nyears of patient observation, and investigation, to reach\\nthe cause of this wonderful phenomenon, and even yet\\nthere is much connected with it that is but imper-\\nfectly understood; enough however is known to satisfy", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "K INSPIRATION. 51\\nscientific men that, primarily, animal heat depends on\\nrespiration.\\nFishes, whose respiration is carried on by gills, ob-\\ntaining merely a portion of the oxygen which water\\nis capable of absorbing, have a temperature but little\\nabove that of the water in which they live. Reptiles,\\nbreathing with membranous lungs, and inhaling but\\na small volume of air, and retaining but little of its\\noxygen, are cold-blooded animals, or nearly so. With\\nthem, breathing may be suspended for an hour or\\nmore, even while the animal is active; and when the\\ntemperature of the atmosphere falls to near the freez-\\ning point, respiration is suspended entirely and indef-\\ninitely, and the reptile remains torpid until the tem-\\nperature rises again.\\n68. Mean Temperature of the Body. Effect of\\nEvaporation. Among w r arm-blooded animals the tem-\\nperature varies somewhat, but is always measured by\\nthe amount of oxygen consumed. In man, the tem-\\nperature, in health, varies but little from ninety-eight\\ndegrees Fahr. in many of the inferior animals it falls\\nbelow this; while in birds, it rises above one hundred\\ndegrees; but birds breathe more air, in proportion to\\ntheir weight, than even man. The actual amount of\\nair consumed in respiration is not to be measured by\\nthe number of cubic feet of air inhaled in a given time,\\nas the volume of all gasses is materially increased by\\nan elevation of temperature.\\nA person, breathing an atmosphere at zero, will\\ninhale a much greater quantity of air in the same\\nvolume than he will with the temperature at eighty\\ndegrees. This important provision materially aids in", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "52 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nmaintaining the heat of the body in cold climates. The\\nincreased quantity of food required in the winter season,\\nas well as the kind of food which the appetite de-\\nmands, is a wise provision for accomplishing the same\\npurpose.\\nTo modify the effects of a high temperature, the\\nperspiratory function of the skin is the chief agent.\\nEvaporation is a cooling process; when, therefore, the\\nheat of the air approaches the natural temperature of\\nthe body, a copious evaporation from the skin relieves\\nthe heat.\\nRecapitulation.\\nRespiration furnishes the blood with oxygen, and carries off\\nimpurities; these changes are the source of animal heat.\\nSecretion is performed by glands. The liver secretes bile. The\\ncutaneous surface, prespiration. Oil glands. The kidneys sep-\\narate urea from the blood.\\nAnimal heat depends on respiration. Normal temperature of\\nthe human body is ninety-eight degrees, and is uniform in dif-\\nferent climates.\\nLESSON IX,\\nGROWTH AND REPAIR.\\n67. Growth and Repair\u00e2\u0080\u0094 why complex.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The im-\\nmediate action of nutrition, that is, the original growth\\nof all the parts of the body, and the repair of the\\nconstant waste which is the necessary result of every\\nmotion in the animal machine, is a very complicated\\nprocess, and there is much about it which is but im-\\nperfectly understood; much which the human mind", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "GROWTH AND REPAIR. 53\\nmay never fully comprehend What is done, we know;\\nand the general laws under which the great work of\\ngrowth and of repair ia carried on, are understood in\\nthe main points relating to their practical application.\\nFrom the very nature of the chemical and vital forces\\ninvolved in this work, there must remain much that is\\nunknown, perhaps unknowable.\\n68. Composition of the Blood. All the tissues of\\nthe body, from tlie tender and delicately organized\\nbrain to the most compact and solid bone, are formed\\nfrom material taken into the body as food, digested in\\nthe stomach, dissolved in the blood, and from that fluid\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0united and built into its proper place, while that\\nfluid is being transmitted through the capillaries.\\nHealthy blood, on cooling, separates into a semi-solid\\nsubstance called Coagulum, and a nearly transparent\\nfluid, the Serum. This serum is the basis of the blood,\\nand may be considered as water, holding the coagulum\\nand several mineral substances in solution.\\nIn every one hundred parts of blood, there are\\nseventy-nine parts water, and twenty-one parts of\\ndry solids. These solids are dissolved in the serum,\\nand held in that condition by the living state of the\\nblood, and its constant motion. If the blood be drawn\\ninto a basin, though it be kept at the natural tem-\\nperature of the body, yet it rapidly separates into\\ncoagulum and serum.\\n69. Proportion of the Ingredients in the Blood.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe coagulum, if carefully washed in cold water, may be\\nreduced to a white fibrous mass, much like muscles\\nin composition and appearance. The matter which has\\nbeen washed out is found to consist of a coloring sub-", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "54 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nstance rich in iron, from the oxide of which metal\\nit has been supposed to derive its color.\\nOf the twenty-one parts, in one hundred, of solid\\nmr,\u00c2\u00a3ter contained in healthy blood, about one-seventh\\nis composed of saline matter, (chiefly common salt,)\\nof fatty substance, and sugar; two-sevenths consist\\noi albumen, a substance like the white of an egg;\\nand the remaining four-sevenths appear to be derived\\nfrom the breaking down of minute disks, which the\\nmicroscope reveals in great numbers in the blood.\\nFig. 24.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Blood Disks,\\na. Colored disks\u00e2\u0080\u0094 various forms, b. Colorless disks\u00e2\u0080\u0094 different\\nappearances.\\n70. Blood Disks two kinds. Of these disks, or\\ncorpuscles, as they are sometimes called, two kinds are\\nobserved in the blood of all animals which suckle\\ntheir young, colored corpuscles and colorless ones. The\\ncolored corpuscles seen in the human blood, are small,\\ncircular bodies, flattened into thin plates or disks.\\nThe colorless corpuscles are more globular in form,\\nand vary in number with the changing condition of\\nthe system.\\nWhile the colored corpuscles appear to be a constit-\\nuent part of the blood itself, those without color seem\\nin some way intimately connected with the appropri-\\nation of nutriment to the growth and repair of the\\nvarious organs.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "GROWTH AND KEPAIR. 55\\n71. Cell Structure of the Tissues.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Among the as-\\ntonishing revelations of the microscope, none is more\\nmarvelous than tin* truth thai all living forms, animal\\nand vegetable, arc, in their ultimate structure, com-\\nposed of cells. These cells, in their original form, are\\nglobular, or slightly elliptical, but when they are built\\ninto tissues, the pressure of the adjoining cells gives\\nthem a great variety of forms. Sometimes they adhere\\ntogether like strings of beads, and form fibers, as in\\nthe muscular tissue; sometimes the cell-walls are ab-\\nsorbed at the point of adhesion, and thus the fiber\\nbecomes a tube, as in the white matter of the brain;\\nand again, the globular cell will assume strange and\\nirregular forms, as seen in the gray matter of the\\nbrain.\\n72. Cells how formed and removed. All the vari-\\nous tissues of the body are thus formed, and the original\\ncells appear very much alike. They resemble little\\nbladders or sacs, filled with a transparent fluid: but the\\ncell-walls permit both fluids and gases to pass in and\\nout of the cell readily, and by this means the cell be-\\ncomes filled with the proper material to form the differ-\\nent tissues of the body. Thus earthy matter, filling cells,\\nforms solid bone; fibrine, in a like manner, forms muscle;\\nand, in like manner, all the other tissues are formed.\\nIn the waste and repair of the tissues, the work on\\nboth sides proceeds by cells. In the activities of the\\nsystem, the cells, one by one, are broken down, the\\nmaterial of which they were formed is taken up by\\nthe absorbents and conveyed to the proper organs to be\\ndisposed of, and instantly the place of each removed\\ncell is occupied by a new and more vigorous one.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "56 PHYSIOLOGY.\\n73. Modes of Cell Growth.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 These cells, whether pro-\\nduced in the fluids of the body, or in more intimate\\nconnection with the tissues, are always produced from\\na pre-existent cell. In the production of cells in veget-\\nable growth, we have been able to examine the process\\nmuch more clearly than is possible in the animal tis-\\nsues. Here we learn that they multiply in several\\nways. An existing cell may become lengthened, and\\ngrowing narrow in the middle, may assume the hour-\\nglass form, and finally separate into a pair of inde-\\npendent cells; or cells may sprout from the opposite\\npoints of an existing cell, as from the poles of a globe,\\nand, having attained their growth, disengage them-\\nselves from the parent cell.\\nIn whatever way cells may be multiplied or produced,\\nno well-established instance of the production of a ceil\\nwithout direct connection with a pre-existing one has\\nbeen placed on record.\\n74. Life Force its relation to Cell Destruction.\\nThe transformation of the tissues by the removal of old\\ncells, and the formation and deposition of new ones to\\nsupply their place, appears to be, in some way, inti-\\nmately connected with the production and expenditure\\nof force in the animal economy. Every movement of\\nthe body is accompanied with a correspondent waste\\nof cells, and a proportional expenditure of force. We\\nlive by the death and renewal, one by one, of the\\ncells composing the living machinery; and that ma-\\nchinery is kept in working order only by being con-\\nstantly renewed. To impair or disturb this destruction\\nand renewal of the cell structure, is to produce disease,\\nand to arrest it, is death.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "GROWTH AND REPAIR. 57\\n75. The Blood the Agent of Cell Transformation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe blood is the immediate instrument of this vital\\naction. It conveys the prepared material for the new\\ncells to the tissues where it is to be used, and removes\\nthe remains of the decomposed cells; and as these\\nchanges must be constant and unintermittent, that\\nlife may be maintained, so the blood must be kept\\nin constant and incessant motion, that the cell trans-\\nformation may not be interrupted. The pulsation of\\nthe arteries, measuring the circulation of the blood,\\nbecomes the most important index of the manner in\\nwhich the life functions are being carried on at any\\ngiven time.\\n76. Quantity of Blood. The quantity of blood cir-\\nculating in the body is constantly changing, even in\\nthe same individual; and in different persons it varies\\nwith age, state of health, habits of life in regard to\\nfood, exercise, etc. As a general rule, it may be safe\\nto estimate the quantity of blood at about one-tenth\\nof the weight of the body. Its power to impart life\\nto the tissues will depend much on its composition,\\nand this will, to a great extent, be measured by the\\nquality of food, and its perfect digestion.\\nRecapitulation.\\nGrowth and repair are complex, and not fully understood.\\nAll parts of the body are repaired from the blood. Nature and\\nsubstance of healthy blood. Blood disks are of two kinds.\\nAll animal and vegetable structures are composed of cells of\\nvarious forms. Formation and removal of cells. Modes of their\\ngrowth. Relation of the death and renewal of cells to life.\\nCells are built by the blood. The blood constitutes about\\none-tenth the weight of the body.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "58\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nLESSON X.\\nSYSTEM OF VOLUNTARY MOTION.\\n77. Bones their use how formed. Having briefly\\nconsidered the system of nutrition, in the several\\nfunctions which contribute to carry on that work,\\nFig. 25.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Front view of the\\nSkuletox.\\nFig. 26.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Back view of the\\nSkelktun.\\nwe proceed to look at the system of voluntary motion.\\nThis consists of a number of Bones, so formed as to", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "SYSTEM OF VOLUNTARY xMOTION. 50\\nserve as solid levers of motion, or to act as a protec-\\ntion from injury to the important and more delicate\\norgans of the body.\\nThese bones are originally formed of an elastic, semi-\\nsolid substance called Cartilage. The earthy matter is\\nafterward deposited in it, so as to give to bone the\\ndensity and general character of a mineral substance.\\nThis process of changing cartilage to bone is called\\nossification. In the long bones, such as those of the\\nlimbs, ossification begins near the middle, and extends\\ngradually toward the extremities, leaving a portion of\\nthe extreme end of the bone, which, except in very\\nold persons, still remain cartilaginous.\\n78. Composition of Bone. The proportion of animal\\nand earthy matter varies with the age of the person,\\nwith the diet, habits of life, etc. In childhood, the\\nearthy matter forms about one-half the weight of the\\nbone; in adult life, four-fifths; and in extreme old\\nage, as much as nine-tenths. The hardness and brit-\\ntleness of bone depends on the proportion of earthy\\nmatter. And hence the bones of old persons are easily\\nfractured, and unite slowly when broken; on the other\\nhand, the bones of children are readily bent or distorted\\nby confinement in improper positions.\\nThe earthy matter of bone consists almost entirely\\nof lime, in combination with phosphoric and carbonic\\nacids, and, like every other part of the living body,\\nis subject to the general law of removal and replace-\\nment; but the transformation goes on more slowly in\\nthe bones than in the softer tissues of the body.\\n79. Structure of Bones. Bones are covered with a\\ndense fibrous membrane, called the Periosteum, from", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "60\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nwhich they are supplied with nutritive vessels. In\\nthe long bones, the center of the bone is hollowed\\nout, leaving a cavity which is filled with fatty\\nmatter called marrow. This marrow cavity does not\\nextend entirely to the ends of the shaft, but its\\nplace is supplied by a porous structure, which not\\nonly fills the cavity, but expands the extremity of\\nthe bone, so as to furnish a greater bearing surface\\nat the joints. The flat bones, such as those of the\\nhead, are composed of two plates of solid,\\nFig. 27 Struo t -i.\\nturk of the osseous matter, and an intermediate space\\nlong bonks, filled with a cellular, bony structure.\\n80. Mechanism of the Long Bones.\\nPrinciples well known to mechanical phi-\\nlosophers are involved in this arrangement\\nof bone material. Lightness is of great\\nimportance in a moving limb; but, at the\\nsame time, strength must be provided for\\nin bones intended to sustain the weight\\nof the body, and to afford attachment to\\npowerful muscles which are to be the in-\\nstruments of complicated, vigorous, and\\nrapid motions. In no other way could\\nboth these objects be secured so effectually,\\na, c. Spongy ex-\\ntremitiesofthe as making the shafts of the bones\\nfemur. hollow.\\nanow cay- -g^ a fi Tm articulation requires that\\nity in the shaft. 1\\nthe surfaces of the bones which bear on\\neach other at the joints, should be broader than that\\nwhich a cross section of the bone in the middle of\\nthe shaft wculd give. The spongy texture of the\\nbones at their articulating ends, as seen in the long", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "SYSTEM OF VOLUNTARY MOTION. 61\\nhoaes of the limbs, admirably accomplish this purpose,\\nwithout increasing the weight or diminishing the\\nstrength.\\n81. Hones not Sensitive. In a healthy condition,\\nbones have no sensibility. When they become dis-\\neased, however, they are often acutely sensitive. The\\npopular idea, that the marrow of a bone is very painful\\nwhen touched, is altogether false. Marrow is simply fat\\ndeposited in the cavities of a spongy tissue. It receives\\nnutriment by means of blood-vessels, which pass ob-\\nliquely through the walls of the cavity at particular\\npoints, usually near the middle of the shaft.\\n82. Articulations. Bones are joined together by\\nthree kinds of union, to wit joints, sutures, and\\nsymphyses. A Joint is the union of two bones, admit-\\nting of motion at the point of union. In the true\\njoints, the ends of the bones are covered with a pad, or\\ncushion of cartilage, which readily yields to pressure,\\nand thus serves to break the concussion when the bones\\ncomposing the joint are violently forced together, as in\\njumping or running.\\nIn youth, this cartilage is thick; but as age advances,\\nossification extends further toward the extremity of the\\nbones; and in old persons, the cartilages of the joints\\nare nearly obliterated. From this cause, old persons\\nare cautious in all their movements, and carefully avoid\\nleaping, or any other movement that might bring the\\nends of the bones violently together.\\n83. Ligaments\u00e2\u0080\u0094 their form and use. The bones\\nuniting with each ether in joints, have the surfaces\\nwhich come together formed so as to fit very nicely T\\nand they are held in place by bands of dense, fibrous", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "62 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nsubstance, so arranged as to admit of motion within\\na limited range.\\nIn the principal joints these bands, or ligaments, as\\nthey are called, are so connected as to form a continuous\\nlayer, completely surrounding the articulating extremi-\\nties of the bones, and thus inclosing the joint in a kind\\nof sac. This continuous band is called the Capsular lig-\\nament. The articulating surfaces of the bones, as well\\nas the inner surface of the capsular ligament, is covered\\nwith a very fine, smooth membrane, from which is\\nsecreted a slimy fluid, that serves to lubricate the\\njoint and prevent friction. This is the sjmovial fluid,\\ncommonly called joint water.\\n84. Kinds of Joints. There are several forms of\\njoints the most important, however, are the ball\\nand socket and t]ie hinge joint. The first of these\\nadmits of motion in all directions, and is well illus-\\ntrated in the hip joint. In many respects, this is the\\nmost perfect articulation in the body. It allows a\\ngreater range of motion than any other has a deeper\\nsocket and a more perfect ball than is found elsewhere\\nand it has, in addition to a most perfect capsular liga-\\nment, a strong cord binding the extremity of the ball\\nto the bottom of the socket, thus securing a wide range\\nof motion in all directions, and, at the same time,\\ngiving great strength to the parts. The hinge joint\\nis well illustrated in the knee and elbow. It admits\\nof motion but in one direction, or, rather, backward\\nand forward on the same line.\\n85. Irregular Joints. At the wrist and ankle we\\nhave examples of compound joints, formed by the artic-\\nulation of a number of bones, so adjusted as to allow but", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "SKELETON. 63\\nlittle motion between any two bones, and yet the aggre-\\ngate gives considerable motion in every direction. In\\nthe spinal column, or back-bone, Ave have still another\\ncontrivance for allowing motions, though there are no\\narticulating surfaces between the several pieces of the\\ncolumn. An clastic cartilage is interposed between\\nthese pieces, adhering firmly to each, and thus, by\\ncompression and distention, furnishing a good degree\\nof motion. Nearly akin to this is that kind of union\\nbetween bones, called Symphysis, where two bones are\\njoined by smooth edges, and held in place by a thin\\nlayer of cartilage interposed. This kind of union does\\nnot admit of motion. If the edges are indented, or\\ndove-tailed into one another, and the cartilage omitted,\\nthe union is called a Suture.\\nRecapitulation.\\nBones are formed from cartilage. Earthy matter forms from\\none-half to nine-tenths of the bones. They are covered by the\\nperiosteum, and contain marrow in central cavity. Form of bone\\nbest for strength and lightness. Bones are not sensitive. They\\nare united by joints, sutures, and symphyses. Form and use of\\nligaments. Synovial fluid prevents friction. Varieties of joints,\\nball and socket, and hinge. Irregular forms. Symphysis and\\nsuture defined.\\nLESSON XI.\\nSKELETON.\\n86. The Skeleton its division. The bones of th6\\nbody, arranged in their natural position, constitute a\\nSkeleton. When the bones are held together by the\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 6.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "64\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nligaments, the group is called a natural skeleton; if\\nthese have been removed, and the bones are held in\\nplace by means of wires, it is an artificial skeleton.\\nAnatomists usually enumerate two hundred and eight\\nbones in the skeleton, not including the teeth. Some,\\nhowever, reckon more, others less than this number, for\\nreasons which will appear in the further description\\nof the particular bones. For convenience of description,\\nthe skeleton is divided into four sections: 1st. Bones\\nof the head 2d. Bones of the trunk 3d. Bones of the\\nupper extremities; 4th. Bones of the lower extrem-\\nities.\\n87. Bones of the Head. The Head is divided into\\nbones of the skull and of the face. The Skull, or cra-\\nnium is composed of eight bones. The frontal bone\\nFig. 28.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Fiioxt view of Skull.. Fig. 29.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Base of the Skull.\\nb-- ^mm^ .-6\\n5--\\na\\n..d\\na. Frontal bone. b. Right parietal\\nbone. c. Left parietal bone. d.\\nLeft temporal bone.\\na. Foramen magnum.\\nb. Occipital bone.\\nc. c. Zygomatic arch.\\noccupies the region of the forehead. The side of the\\nhead has a pair of parietal bones in the upper region,\\nand a pair of temporal bones below. The back part of", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "SKELETON.\\n66\\nFig. 30.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Vertical view of the\\nSkull.\\na\\nthe head, and most of the base of the skull, is occupied\\nby the occipital bone. In the forward part of the base\\nof the skull are two small bones, the ethmoid and sphenoid,\\nwhich are seen only by removing the upper part of the\\nskull.\\n88. The Cranial Arch\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Bones of the Face. The\\nbones of the skull are joined firmly by sutures, and the\\nshape of each bone is such as to present the form of an\\narch in whatever line it is\\nmeasured; and the whole\\nskull forms a dome, or\\narched roof of the chamber\\nwhere the brain, the most\\nimportant organ of the\\nbody, is carefully depos-\\nited.\\nThe bones of the skull\\nare made of two plates,\\nseparated by a thin layer\\nof spongy bone. By this\\narrangement the concus-\\nsion, or jar of injuries re-\\nceived on the outer plate,\\nis mainly arrested before\\nit reaches the brain. The\\nbones near the base of the\\nskull are much thicker than those which form its sides\\nand upper part. This serves as a solid abutment to the\\narch, to enable it to withstand severe blows on the top\\nof the head, or to resist great pressure at that point.\\nThe Face is composed of fourteen bones.\\n89. The Spinal Column. The trunk is divided into\\nFrontal bone. b. Parietal\\nbones, c. Occipital bone, d, d.\\nLambdoidal suture, e, e. Coronal\\nsuture. Sagittal suture.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "66 PHYSIOLOGY\\nthe thorax and the pelvis. These, with the soft parts\\nconnected, form two important cavities the chest and\\nthe abdomen. The thorax consists\\nH1G of the spinal column, the ribs, and\\nSpinal Column. r\\nthe sternum, or breast-bone.\\nCervical lg^ The Spinal column consists of\\nVertebra*. twenty-four bones. Each bone is\\n\\\\3\u00c2\u00a7S^ called a Vertebra. Seven of these\\nlift?^ are in the neck (cervical vertebrae),\\nWW twelve in the back (dorsal verte-\\nDorsal WKflte\\nVertebra. brae), and five in the loins (lumbar\\nS%^ vertebrae). Each vertebra consists\\n(^\u00c2\u00a7k of a body and seven projecting\\nbones, called processes. These pro-\\ni^^ff cesses unite at their base, so as to\\nLumbar form a continuous tube for the\\nVertebra* I ^felPllli -i\\n^K passage of the spinal cord. This\\ntube does not pass through the\\nsl body of the vertebra, but lies just\\nW back of it.\\nSacrum.\\n90. Union of the Vertebrae. The vertebrae are\\nunited together by a layer of cartilage which is\\nfirmly attached to each bone, and yet it has elasticity\\nenough to admit of considerable motion; but the broad\\nand strong band of ligaments which binds the articu-\\nlating processes together, limits that motion, and renders\\nthe articulation more firm and secure than any other\\njoint in the body.\\nThe spinal column, when viewed from the back,\\nshould present a straight line; but viewed laterally,\\nit is slightly curved like the letter S. This form is a\\nwise arrangement, serving to break the force of any", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "SKELETON.\\n67\\nsudden jar of the body, and thus save the brain from\\nthe concussion.\\nFig. 32. a Lumbar Vertebra.\\na. Body of the vertebra. 6, b. Transverse processes, c, c. Articulating\\nprocesses, d. Spinous process.\\n-The Ribs form\\nFig. 33.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Thorax.\\n91. The Ribs\u00e2\u0080\u0094 their articulation\\nthe side walls of the\\nthorax. They are twen-\\nty-four in number\\ntwelve on each side\\nand are divided into\\nthree classes. Seven are\\ntrue ribs, three are false\\nribs, and two are float-\\ning ribs. Each rib has\\ntwo curvatures one\\nwhich bends it around\\nthe chest horizontally,\\nand another which gives\\nit a downward curva-\\nture from the back for-\\nward.\\nThe ribs are united\\nto the vertebrae by true\\njoints, but forward, the true ribs join the breast-bone\\n435 c\\na. Sternum, b. Seven true ribs. c.\\nThree false ribs. d. Two floating\\nribs. e. Dorsal portion of the spinal\\ncolumn.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "68\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nFig. 34.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Pklvis.\\na\\nby flexible cartilages. The three false ribs unite to a\\ncartilage which is common to all of them, and by\\nmeans of which they are attached to the breast-bone.\\nThe floating ribs have no forward attachment.\\n92, The Sternum. Bones of the Pelvis.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Ster-\\nnum, or breast-bone,\\nforms the front of the\\nthorax. In infancy,\\nit is in eight distinct\\npieces in youth,\\nthree and in old age,\\nbut one. It is the\\nlast bone in the body\\nto ossify, and, except\\nin extreme old age,\\nthe point at the lower\\nend remains cartilagi-\\nnous.\\nThe Pelvis, or lower\\ndivision of the trunk, consists of four bones. The\\nSacrum, which forms the back part of the basin, appears\\nlike a continuation of the spinal column, only that the\\nvertebrae are grown firmly together. At the extreme\\nlower point of the sacrum is a small conical bone, called\\nthe Coccyx. On each side of the sacrum, and uniting\\nwith each other in front, is a large, irregular formed\\nbone, called the Innominatum. In early life this is com-\\nposed of three pieces, and it is often described as three\\ndistinct bones; but in adults they become completely\\nunited.\\n93. Shoulder, Arm, Forearm, and Hand. The\\nupper extremity is divided into the shoulder, arm, fore-\\na. Sacrum, b, b. Right and left innom\\ninatum. c. Coccyx.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "SKELETON.\\n69\\nPig. 86.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Left Clavicle.\\na. Articulation with the acromion pro-\\ncess of the scapula, b. Articulation\\nwith the sternum.\\nFig. 36.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Left Scapula.\\nJb\\narm, and hand. The shoulder consists of a large, triangu-\\nlar bone, the Scapula,\\nor shoulder-blade, and\\nthe Clavicle, or collar-\\nbone, which is at-\\ntached to the upper\\nend of the sternum at\\none extremity, and to\\nthe scapula at the other.\\nThe arm has one bone, the Humerus, which is articu-\\nlated, by a ball and\\nsocket joint, to the\\nhead of the scapula\\nabove, and to the\\nbones of the forearm\\nby a hinge joint be-\\nlow. The forearm\\nconsists of two bones,\\nthe Radius on the\\nside of the arm cor-\\nresponding to the\\nthumb, and the Ulna\\non the other side.\\nThe ulna forms the\\nprincipal part of the\\nelbow joint, but the\\nradius gives the\\nchief articulation at\\nthe wrist.\\nThree groups of\\nbones form the\\nhand. The Carpus,\\nor wrist, consists of eight bones; the Metacarpus, or\\na. Acromion process, b. Coracoid process.\\nc. Spiue, or ridge on the back of the scap-\\nula, d. Articulation of the humerus.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "70\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\npalm of the hand, has five bones and the fingers have\\nthree bones, or phalanges, in each; while the thumb\\nhas but two.\\nFig. 38.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ulna\\nand Radius.\\nFig. 39.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Carpus or\\nWrist.\\na. Shoulder artic-\\nulation.\\nb. Elbow articula-\\ntion.\\na. Elbow articula-\\ntion.\\nb. Wrist articula-\\ntion.\\na. Carpus or wrist eight\\nbones, b. Metacarpal bones.\\nc. Lower end of the Radius.\\nd. The ulna.\\n94. Bones of the Lower Extremities. The lower\\nextremity is divided into the thigh, leg, and foot. The\\nFemur, or bone of the thigh, is the largest long bone of\\nthe body. At the upper end it has a head, which\\nstands at an angle of about forty-five degrees with the\\nshaft of the bone. This head is received into a deep\\ncavity in the innominatum, and forms a complete ball\\nand socket joint. The bones of the leg are the Tibia\\nwhich articulates with the femur by a hinge joint the\\nFibula, a small bone placed on the outer side of the tibia\\nas a kind of brace and the Patella, or knee-pan, a flat,\\noval-shaped bone, placed on the front of the knee joint", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "SKELETON.\\n71\\nto serve as a kind of pulley. The foot consists of the\\nTarsus, or ankle, a group of seven bones: the Metatarsus,\\na Head of the femur.\\nb. Articulating sur-\\nface at knee joint.\\nFig. 41.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Tibia and Fig. 42.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Tarsus and\\nFibula. Metatarsus\\nC.\\nb\\na. Tibia, 6. Fibula,\\nc. Knee joint. d.\\nAnkle joint.\\na. Seven tarsal bones.\\n6. Five metatarsal\\nbones.\\nor foot proper, with five bones and the toes, with three\\nbones in each, save that the great toe has but two.\\nSmall bones, called Sesamoid bones, which are not enu-\\nmerated here, are frequently found near the joints.\\nRecapitulation.\\nSkeleton, natural or artificial, consists of two hundred and\\neight bones. The skull consists of eight bones joined by sut-\\nures, and consisting of two plates separated by spongy matter.\\nThe face is composed of fourteen bones.\\nThe thorax consists of spinal column, ribs and sternum. The\\nspinal column consists of twenty-four bones united by layers of\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 7.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "1 1 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ncartilage. There are twenty-four ribs, all jointed to the spinal\\ncolumn, ten on each side joined to the sternum.\\nThe sternum consists of from one to eight bones. The pelvis\\nconsists of four lt)ones. The upper extremities consist of thirty-\\ntwo bones each, the lower of thirty each.\\nLESSON XII.\\nMUSCLES.\\n95. Muscles and their functions. The bones, with\\ntheir joints held firmly together by ligaments, and yet\\npermitting much freedom of motion, are admirably\\nadapted to the great variety of movements required\\nto perform all the functions of the human body. But\\nthe bones have no power of motion; they are merely\\nthe machinery of motion, to be operated on directly by\\nthe muscles, and remotely\\nFig. 43.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Muscular Fibers as n\\nSEEN BY A MICROSCOPE. ^VOllS System.\\nMuscles are formed of nu-\\nmerous bundles of fleshy\\nfibers, bound together by a\\nfirm membrane, called the\\nFacia. The fibers of which\\na muscle is composed are\\nexceedingly fine threads and yet the microscope reveals\\nthe fact that each fiber is composed of a string of cells\\nslightly elliptical in form, and attached together by\\ntheir longer axes. By changing the form of these cells\\nso that they become more globular in shape, the fiber is\\nmade shorter and this change taking place at the same\\ntime in all the fibers of a muscle, the parts to which the", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "MUSCLES.\\n73\\nFig. 44.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Tendons of\\nthe Right Hand.\\na-\\ntwo ends of the muscle are attached are drawn nearer\\ntogether. This is muscular contraction.\\nJ)( Tendons; their form and use. The manner in\\nwhich the will directs, and the extent to which it gov-\\nerns this contraction and consequent\\nmotion, and the part which the\\nbrain and nerves perform in this\\nwork, will be explained when we\\ncome to study the Nervous System.\\nThe muscles which move the\\nlimbs, and perform the chief vol-\\nuntary movements, have various\\nforms, generally swelling larger\\nnear the middle, and tapering\\ntoward the end where motion is ef-\\nfected; they usually terminate in a\\ndense, white cord called a Tendon.\\nThese tendons are sometimes very\\nlong, as, for example the muscles\\nwhich move the hand are situated\\non the forearm, just below the elbow,\\nand their tendons are carried down\\nover the wrist joint, and inserted\\ninto the bones of the hand and\\nfingers.\\nMil\\na. Muscles which move\\nthe fingers, b. Ten-\\ndons extending from\\nthe muscles to the\\nfingers, c. Annular\\nligament.\\n97. Union of Tendons with\\nMuscles. In this manner, symmetry and lightness is\\nsecured for the hand, while great variety and force give\\ncharacter to its motions. So, in other parts of the body^\\nthe muscles are placed w r here they will be least in the\\nway, and where they will most conduce to symmetry\\nand beauty of form and the motion produced by their", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "74 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ncontraction is conveyed by means of tendons to the\\npoint where it is to have its effect.\\nThe muscular and tendonous fibers interlock, so that\\nit is impossible to say precisely where the muscle ends\\nand the tendon begins yet the two kinds of fibers differ\\nmaterially. The fibers forming the tendonous cords are\\nvery fine, hard, inelastic, and strong and though the\\nmuscles are so much larger than the tendons, yet a\\nsufficient force applied will tear the muscle in two\\nbefore the tendon will break. Where the tendons are\\nattached to bones, the fibers penetrate the solid bone,\\nand hold very firmly.\\n98. Arrangement of Muscles in producing Motion.\\nThe broad, flat muscles, such as form the walls of the\\nabdomen, etc., commonly have a tendon on one side,\\ninto which the muscular fibers are inserted; or a ten-\\ndonous band passes through the middle, into which the\\nfibers run obliquely on each side.\\nThe most common arrangement for motion is where\\neach end of a muscle is inserted into a different bone,\\nand these united by a movable joint. In this arrange-\\nment, the muscle is situated oh the fixed part, or that\\nwhich does not move, and the motion is conveyed over\\nthe joint to the movable part by means of a tendon.\\nThere are, however, a great diversity of arrangements\\nin the smaller muscles, designed for the production\\nof special and complicated motions.\\n99. Bones as Levers. To understand the mechanism\\nof muscular motion, we must learn that bones are true\\nlevers, having the fulcrum, or fixed point of the lever,\\nat the joint, the attachment of the tendon to the bone\\nanswering to what is called the power, and the extrem-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "MUSCLES. 75\\nity of the limb or part moved representing the weight.\\nThere may be three adjustments of these points in\\nevery lever, and all of these are found in the human\\nbody; but that which is commonly called the third\\nform of the lever that which places the power be-\\ntween the fulcrum and the weight is by far the most\\ncommon arrangement.\\nFig. 45.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Muscular Motion.\\nmm. ---MBjJI^S^^\\nn\\na. Flexor muscle of the arm. b. Tendon inserted into the radius.\\nc. Extensor muscle, w. The resistance.\\n100. Economy of Motion. The general principle\\non which muscles are arranged is that of producing\\na great measure of motion by a very small amount\\nof contraction. In Fig. 45, the muscle which is marked\\na is fastened by its tendon to the forearm at b. Now,\\nif the muscle a is made shorter, it will draw b upward\\nto the extent of its shortening; but an amount of\\nmotion at b will move the weight at iv as much further\\nas the distance between iv and b. is greater than the\\nspace between b and the center of the joint. But this\\nwill require that the power applied at b be as much\\ngreater than the weight at iv as the space through\\nwhich w is moved is greater than that through which b\\npasses. This is the economy of motion at the expense", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "76\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nFig. 46.\\nMovement in Walking.\\nof power, and may be regarded as the general principle\\nof muscular motion in the human body.\\n101. Levers of the second and third classes. In\\nreversing the motion of the arm, as seen in the above\\ncut (Fig. 45), the muscle c is attached by its tendon to\\na process of the ulna, which projects backward and\\nupward beyond the joint, and the fulcrum is placed\\nbetween the power and the weight. But the power\\nbeing applied to the short end of the lever, produces,\\nby a small motion there, a\\ngreat motion at the weight\\nend of the lever.\\nIn the foot we have the\\nother adjustment, or second\\nform of the lever, as seen in\\nFig. 46, where a is the large\\nmuscle on the back of the\\nleg, which draws the heel\\nupward when we rise on\\nour toes b is the large bone\\nof the leg, by which the\\nweight of the body rests upon the bones of the ankle\\njoint; c is the fulcrum or fixed point, on w T hich the\\nwhole weight of the body is raised in walking.\\n102. The Power of Muscular Contraction.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 It will\\nbe seen, from w T hat we have said, that the power\\nexerted in the contraction of the muscles is many\\ntimes greater than that manifested in the motions\\nproduced. This loss of power is not merely the effect\\nof the application of the force to the short arm of\\nthe lever, but perhaps more is lost in power and\\ngained in motion by the direction in which the force\\na. Large muscle of the leg-\\nTibia, c. The fulcrum.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "MUSCLES. 77\\nis exerted. This is seldom in the line in which the\\nmotion is to be obtained, but usually very obliquely\\nto it; as, for example, when a limb is to be bent, as\\nthe arm at the elbow joint, the muscles on the upper\\narm contract, but the tendency is chiefly to draw the\\nbones of the fore-arm up against the humerus at the\\nelbow joint. The tendency to bend the arm would be\\nalmost nothing if it were not for a contrivance by\\nwhich the direction of the tendon, in passing over the\\njoint, is changed. This is simply an enlargement of\\nthe humerus at its lower end, so that the tendon passes\\nover it as over a pulley.\\n103. Special Arrangements of Muscles. Number\\nof Pairs. There are many special contrivances for\\nproducing peculiar motions that are noticed and\\nminutely described by anatomists, but which our pur-\\npose will not allow us to even name. The con-\\ntrivance by which the eyelids are closed in winking,\\nand that which draws the low r er jaw downward in\\nopening the mouth, are among the most curious and\\ncomplicated of muscular movements.\\nThe muscles of voluntary motion are arranged in\\npairs on each side of the body, so that the right and\\nleft sides correspond exactly in the number and posi-\\ntion of their muscles. Anatomists have named and de-\\nscribed about two hundred and forty pairs of voluntary\\nmuscles, many of these, however, are very small, and\\napparently unimportant.\\nRecapitulation.\\nBones are moved by muscles. These consist of fibers, and\\neach fiber of cells. Muscular contraction is effected by chang-\\ning the form of cells. Tendons are used to attach muscles to", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "78 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nbones, and to transfer motion. Muscles are not generally situ-\\nated on the parts moved by their contraction. Bones are used\\nas levers. Power moving them arranged to economize motion.\\nMuscular contraction exerts a force greater than that realized\\nthrough the mechanism of motion. Number of voluntary\\nmuscles about two hundred and forty pairs.\\nLESSON XIII.\\nMUSCULAE MOTION -VOICE.\\n104. Muscular Motion voluntary and involun-\\ntary. There is a number of very interesting phe-\\nnomena connected with muscular action, two or three\\nof which will be considered in this lesson. All animal\\nmotion, of whatever kind it may be, is produced by\\nmuscular contraction. A part of these motions are\\nunder the control of the will, and are therefore called\\nvoluntary motions; another class of motions are en-\\ntirely independent of the will, or even the consciousness\\nof the animal in which the motion is performed, and\\nare called involuntary motions.\\nThe organs thus controlled belong more directly to\\nthe class on which depend the immediate functions\\nof life. The heart and stomach are each active organs,\\nbut, in a healthy condition, we neither control nor\\nfeel their movements. The wisdom of this arrange-\\nment is very obvious, for it would be unsafe to trust\\nsuch important functions to our voluntary attention.\\n105. Articulate Language. Thoughts, sensations,\\nand emotions are communicated to others by mus-\\ncular motion only. In man this communication is\\nmade chiefly by means of articulate language, and is", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "THE VOICE.\\n79\\nmuch more extended and perfect than in the lower\\nanimals, whose Language consists of a few simple\\nBounds, accompanied by certain movements of the\\nbody which forcibly express a limited range of thought\\nand passion.\\nThe barking of a dog, the purring of a cat, or the\\nclucking of a hen, each, taken with the motions and\\nattitudes of the body accompanying it, conveys mean-\\ning; but the thoughts, however forcibly they may\\nimpress us, are not communicated with the clearness\\nof articulate language. The muscles of the human\\nface, which, by contracting, change the features so as\\nto give what is called expression\\nto the countenance, greatly assist\\nin making language impressive.\\n106. Anatomy of the Larynx.\\nVoice is produced in an organ\\ncalled the Larynx, which is placed\\non the top of the trachea. It con-\\nsists of five cartilages, arranged so\\nas to form a most perfect musical\\ninstrument, which, by means of\\nair passed through it with more\\nor less force, gives all the varied\\ntones of the human voice. The\\nCricoid cartilage is a ring, narrow\\nin front and broad behind, and is\\nsecurely attached to the trachea\\nby its lower margin.\\nOn the front part of this, and overlapping it, is placed\\nthe Thyroid cartilage; this is attached to a small\\nU-shaped bone, situated at the root of the tongue, both\\nd-\\n15\\nii;ilK.v\u00c2\u00abj;rf\\na. Hyoicl bone. b.\\nThyroid cartilage.\\nc. Cricoid cartilage.\\nd. Trachea, e. Epi-\\nglottis.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "80\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nFig. 48.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Glottis axd\\nVocal, Cords.\\n6\\\\ /b\\nby a broad ligament and by muscles which move it\\nin swallowing food, in speaking, singing, etc. The\\nthyroid cartilage forms the projection on the front of\\nthe neck called Adam s Apple, by the motions of\\nwhich the movements of the cartilage may be readily\\nobserved.\\n107. Vocal Cords and Glottis. Two small triangular\\nbodies, called the Arytenoid cartilages, are placed on\\nthe back part of the cricoid\\ncartilage, and so joined to it\\nas to admit of considerable\\nmotion at the joint from these\\nare stretched two pairs of liga-\\nments called Vocal cords, which\\nare attached to the upper edge\\nof the thyroid cartilage at the\\nfront part. The vocal cords\\nare formed of very fine elastic\\nfibers, inclosed in a delicate\\nmucous membrane. The space\\nbetween the upper and lower\\npair of cords is called the Ven-\\ntricle, and the opening between\\nthe cords of each pair is called\\nthe glottis. These parts will\\nbe better seen in the figure attached.\\nX^/^\\n\\\\r\\na. Upper edge of the tnyroid\\ncartilage, b, b. Arytenoid\\ncartilages, c, c. Vocal cords.\\nd. Glottis.\\n108. The Epiglottis. The Epiglottis is a thin, car-\\ntilaginous valve, which closes the glottis by resting\\nfirmly on the upper pair of vocal cords, thus forming a\\nkind of bridge, by which the food and drink are con-\\nveyed safely over the glottis into the pharynx and\\noesophagus, which lie back of the air passage.. If we", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "THE VOICE. 81\\nattempt to speak or laugh while in the act of swallow-\\ning, the epiglottis will be raised, permitting the food\\nor drink to fall into the trachea, and thereby produce\\nstrangling.\\nIn ordinary, quiet breathing, the vocal cords are\\nrelaxed, and the epiglottis thrown up, so as to partially\\nclose the passage into the mouth, and thus direct the\\nair through the nasal passages. The upper pair of\\nvocal cords serve chiefly as a resting place for the\\nepiglottis, and are but little concerned otherwise in\\nthe ordinary production of voice.\\n109. The Pitch of Yoice its mechanism. The\\nlower cords are exceedingly delicate, and the edges,\\nwhich form the glottis proper, are very fine, and w T hen\\ndrawn tensely, they present an instrument of vibration\\nmore perfect than any that has been produced by art.\\nIt is a well established principle, that the pitch of a\\nsound, produced by a vibrating cord, is determined by\\nits length, size, and tension.\\nNow the vocal cords, fastened firmly at the back to\\nthe arytenoid cartilages, and running obliquely upward\\nand forward, are attached to the front of the thyroid\\ncartilage, and if this be drawn upward, it will make\\nthe vocal cords very tense. These, being elastic, dimin-\\nish in size as their tension increases.\\nWe have thus two conditions of elevated pitch, but\\nwe have by this movement lengthened the cords which\\nwould have a contrary effect. To counteract this, the\\narytenoid cartilages are drawn closer together, and as\\nthe cords are attached to the same point in front, if the\\nback ends are brought closer together, the front part\\nof the cords will touch each other, and thus virtually\\nshorten the cord.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "82 PHYSIOLOGY.\\n110. The Larynx as a wind instrument. But the\\nlarynx is not merely a stringed instrument; perhaps\\nit has more points in common with wind instruments.\\nIn these the notes are varied by the size of the aperture\\nthrough which the air is forced into the tube, by the\\nlength of the tube, and by the velocity with which the\\nair enters it. Now, as the thyroid cartilage is drawn\\nupward, and the vocal cords are made tense and brought\\nnearer to each other by the movement of the arytenoid\\ncartilages, the glottis is diminished in size, while the\\ntube (which consists of the mouth and nasal passages)\\nis shortened by the amount that the thyroid cartilage\\nis elevated.\\nBut when the organs of voice are placed in this con-\\ndition, more force is required to expel the usual quan-\\ntity of air from the lungs, and thus the last condition\\nof a high pitch is secured. This explains why it is\\nmore fatiguing to speak or sing on a high key than on\\na lower one.\\n111. Modulation of Articulate Sounds. But the\\nutterance of musical sounds, and the performance of\\nmost wonderful musical combinations, are not the most\\nimportant or most difficult functions of the vocal ap-\\nparatus. The rapid adjustment of the larynx, by the\\nmovements of a very complicated system of muscles,\\nin the articulations of a rapid speaker, is one of the\\nmost marvelous of all the phenomena of the animal\\neconomy.\\nWhile all vocal sounds are formed in the larynx, yet\\nvoice thus formed is modulated in the mouth and nasal\\npassages. The organs concerned in modulation of voice\\nare chiefh^ the lips, teeth, tongue, palate, and air pass-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM. 83\\nages of the nose. All have observed how the voice is\\naffected by the loss of the front teeth, or by the imper-\\nfect palate and lip in persons with harelip. The\\ntongue, though important, is not the sole organ in\\nmodulating articulate sounds.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe larynx is the organ of voice. It is composed of five\\ncartilages. Voice is produced by the vibration of the vocal\\ncords. These are put in motion by air forced through the\\nglottis from the trachea.\\nThe larynx has the properties of both a stringed and a wind\\ninstrument. Various means of modifying pitch, etc. Rapid\\nmovement of the vocal organs in speaking. Modulation of\\nsound in the mouth and nasal passages.\\nLESSON XIV,\\nNERVOUS SYSTEM.\\n112. Distribution of Vital Force, a brain func-\\ntion. The organs which we have described, with\\ntheir functions, are simply the machinery of life. We\\nhave not yet looked into the engine-room from which\\nthe power is furnished to operate this wonderful ma-\\nchinery, enabling it to perform the various functions\\nof the living body. The instrument through which\\nthis power is distributed to every organ of the body, is\\nthe nervous system.\\nThis consists of the Spinal cord, Brain, and the\\nnerves by which every organ is connected with these\\ngreat centers of vital force. It has been customary to", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "84\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nconsider the brain as the primary organ, and the spinal\\ncord and nerves as appendages to it; but we find, in\\nFig. 4!).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Front and back view of the Bkain\\nand Spin at, Cord.\\na-\\na, a. Cerebellum, b, b. Cerebrum, c, c. Spinal cord.\\nd. Medulla oblongata.\\nthe lowest class of vertebrate animals (the fishes), that\\nthe brain is very imperfectly developed, while the\\nspinal cord, with its nerves distributed to all parts\\nof the animal, is very perfectly formed.\\n113. Cerebrospinal and Ganglionic Systems. In-\\ndeed, we find in living bodies this ascending scale\\nin vegetables we have no trace of anything like a\\nnervous system in the invertebrate forms of life, we\\nfind nerves distributed to the adjacent organs from local\\nnervous centers, called ganglions, but no brain or spinal\\ncord; in fishes, the brain is little more than an enlarge-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "NICUVOUS SYSTEM.\\n85\\nF i g. 50.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Bra rN\u00e2\u0080\u0094 fro nt\\nV I E W\\na. Right hemisphere of the\\ncerebrum. 6. Left hemi-\\nsphere of the cerebrum.\\nFig. 51.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Brain\u00e2\u0080\u0094 side\\nview.\\nment of the forward end of the cord. As we ascend the\\nscale of vertebrate life, however, we find the brain be-\\ncoming more and more promi-\\nnent, till we reach the summit\\nof perfection in man.\\nThe spinal cord and brain are\\ngenerally regarded by anatomists\\nas a single organ, which they\\ncall the Cerebro-spinal axis.\\nThe existence of this cerebro-\\nspinal axis, in vertebrate ani-\\nmals, does not supersede or dis-\\nplace the system of ganglions,\\nas found in the lower types of\\nanimal life. This constitutes\\nwhat is known as the Sympa-\\nthetic system.\\n114. The Two Hemispheres. c\\nThe cerebro-spinal nervous\\nsystem is symmetrical, being\\ndivided into right and left sides,\\ncorresponding exactly in num-\\nber, size, and position of the\\nparts. In accordance with this\\narrangement, the brain is sep-\\narated, by a deep, vertical fissure,\\ninto the right and left hemi-\\nspheres. This separation is not\\nquite perfect, for, near the base\\nof the brain, a broad band of\\nfibers extends from one hemisphere to the other, thus\\nforming a connection between them.\\na. Anterior lobe of the cere-\\nbrum, b. Inferior lobe. c.\\nPosterior lobe. d. Cerebel-\\nlum.\\nFig. 52.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Cerebellum-\\npack view.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "86\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nTransversely, the brain is divided into the Cerebrum\\nor large brain, occupying the upper and front part\\nof the skull, and the Cerebellum or small brain, sit-\\nuated at the posterior base of the cranium. The spinal\\ncord is divided longitudinally by a deep fissure, both\\non the front and back, leaving only a narrow bridge\\nof the substance of the cord in its center.\\nFig. 53.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Bask of the Bkaix.\\n4\\n115. Medulla Oblongata\u00e2\u0080\u0094 membranes of the brain.\\nThe spinal cord enters the cranium at the large open-\\ning in its base, called\\nthe Foramen Magnum,\\nand extending upward\\nand forward, forms a\\nconnection with the\\ncerebellum backward,\\nand with the cerebrum\\nabove. This portion\\nof the spinal cord ly-\\ning within the skull\\nis called the Medulla\\nOblongata. It is a\\nkind of bulb, or en-\\nlargement of the up-\\nper end of the cord,\\nand consists of three pairs of bodies (Pyramidal, Resti-\\nform, and Olivary), which are united pretty firmly\\ntogether.\\nBoth the brain and spinal cord are securely wrapped\\nin membranes. The outer one of these, the Dura Mater,\\nis a dense, firm membrane, adhering strongly to the\\ninner surface of the skull. The Pia Mater is a very\\ndelicate membrane, attached to the surface of the brain;\\na. Medulla oblongata, b. Pons varolii,\\nc. Olfactory nerves, d. Optic nerves.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM. 87\\nand as this surface is uneven, or convoluted, the Pia\\nMater dips down between these convolutions, separating\\nthem from each other. Between these membranes lies\\nno, gauze-like coat, called the Arachnoid membrane.\\nThese serous membranes are subject to diseases both\\ndangerous and difficult to cure.\\n116. Gray and White Matter of the Brain. The\\nsubstance of which the brain is composed is very soft, and\\neasily broken down in handling it. Being composed\\nlargely of albumen, it may be rendered quite firm by\\nsteeping it for some days in alcohol, after which it may\\nbe studied very satisfactorily. Like all other life-formed\\ntissues, its ultimate form is the cell, or little globe.\\nThese cells, however, change their shape more rapidly\\nin the brain than in any other tissue of the bod)\\nThe brain is not uniform throughout in its texture\\nand appearance. In both the cerebrum and cerebellum,\\nthe central portion of the organ is nearly a clear white,\\nand appears under the microscope to be fibrous in its\\ntexture. Surrounding this, and following the irregular-\\nities of the convolutions, we find a layer of gray or\\nash-colored matter, differing in thickness in different\\npersons, but forming a marked feature of every brain.\\nIn the spinal cord, the relative position of these parts\\nis inverted, the gray matter being in the center, and\\nthe white surrounding it.\\n117. Gray and White Matter. The proportion of\\ngray matter to the white is greater in the cerebrum\\nthan in the cerebellum or spinal cord; and the nervous\\ncords distributed from these to all parts of the body are\\nmade entirely of white matter, though the gray sub-\\nstance appears again in the center of the ganglions, or\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 8.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "PHYSIOLOGY.\\nFig. 54.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Transverse section of\\nthe Cerebrum.\\nlittle brains attached to the sympathetic system. The\\ngray matter consists of\\ncells, often very irregular\\nin their shape, and con-\\nstantly changing form.\\nThe white part, while it\\nappears to be made of\\nfibers, is really composed\\nof chains of cells, forming\\ncontinuous tubuli, extend-\\ning from the gray part of\\nthe brain to the extremi-\\nties of the nerves.\\n118. Cranial Nerves.\\na, a. Gray matter of the brain. b,b. The nerves are COrds COm-\\nWhite matter, c. Corpus callosum. poged Qf ft wMte gubgtance\\nlike that of the brain, extending to all the living tissues\\nFig. 55\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Orjgix of the C rax tat, Nerves.\\na. Cerebrum, b. Cerebellum, c. Arbor vitse. d. Corpus callosum. e.\\nMedulla oblongata. Olfactory nerve, g. Optic nerve, h. Trifacial\\nnerve, i. Auditory nerve.\\nof the body, and connecting all the organs with the gray", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0098.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\n89\\nFig. 56. Origin of the Spinal\\nNfrves.\\nmatter of the brain or spinal cord. These nerves are\\narranged in pairs, corresponding to cadi other on the\\ndifferent sides of the body. Twelve pairs of these come\\noff within the skull, and are sent to the different organs\\non which they are distributed through openings in the\\nbones. These are called Cranial nerves.\\nThe first and second pairs, being the Olfactory and\\nOptic nerves, appear to come off from the lower part\\nof the front lobe of the cerebrum, but their principal\\nfibers have been traced backward to the upper part\\nof the medulla oblongata. The fifth pair, immediately\\nafter passing out of the\\nskull, divides into three\\nbranches. From this fact\\nit is sometimes described\\nas three nerves. The\\nninth and tenth pairs,\\nas they leave the skull\\nthrough the same open-\\ning, have been described\\nas one pair by some anat-\\nomists.\\n119. Spinal Nerves.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe spinal cord gives\\norigin to thirty-one pairs\\nof nerves, eight of which\\ncome off from the spinal\\ncord in the neck, and are\\ncalled Cervical nerves\\ntwelve in the back, which\\nare named Dorsal nerves five from the loins, which are\\nknown as Lumbar nerves; and six pairs come from\\na, a. Brachial plexus,\\nplexus.\\nb, b. Lumbar", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0099.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "90 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nthe termination of the cord in the sacrum, and are called\\nSacral nerves. The four lower cervical and the upper\\ndorsal nerves on each side unite with each other, and\\nseparate again to be distributed on the upper extremity.\\nThis is called the Brachial Plexus. The last dorsal\\nand the five lumbar nerves form a similar combina-\\ntion, called the Lumbar Plexus.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe nervous system is the distributer of vital force. It con-\\nsists of spinal cord, brain, and nerves. The nervous system is\\nsymmetrical, being divided into right and left sides.\\nThe two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum.\\nThe brain consists of cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla ob-\\nlongata.\\nThe brain consists of an outer gray substance made of cells,\\nand an inner white matter composed of fibers, or tubuli.\\nThe nerves connect all the organs with the brain and spinal\\ncord.\\nLESSON XV.\\nNERVOUS SYSTEM. CONTINUED.\\n120. Complex Function of the Brain. The organs\\ncomprising the systems of nutrition and voluntary\\nmotion have, as a general rule, but a single function\\neach; but in the nervous system this rule is violated.\\nThe spinal cord and brain, considered as a single organ,\\nperforms at least three distinct and independent func-\\ntions 1st. it is the source, either directly or indirectly,\\nof all muscular motion 2d. it is the seat of sensation\\nand, 3d. it is the organ of thought.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0100.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM. 91\\nThese several functions, if not absolutely independent\\nof each other, are so in a degree that is truly wonderful.\\nThe intellectual powers may be deranged so as to pro-\\nduce a true insanity, with scarcely any disturbance\\nof the functions of motion or sensation. On the other\\nhand, in paralysis there may be entire loss of motion or\\nsensation in many of the organs, while the mental\\nactivity remains unimpaired.\\n121. Nerves of Special Sense. The functions of\\nmotion and sensation are carried on by the brain exclu-\\nsively through the agency of nerves, but the connection\\nof the brain with the intellectual phenomena appears to\\nhave no direct association with the nerves.\\nThe first,* second, and eighth pairs of nerves are de-\\nvoted exclusively to special sensations. The first pair\\nare appropriated to the sense of smell, and are therefore\\ncalled the Olfactory nerves. They are distributed on\\nthe mucous membrane of the nasal cavities. The sec-\\nond pair are the Optic nerves, which furnish the eye\\nwith the power of vision. The nerves of hearing are\\nthe eighth pair. They are distributed on the internal\\near, and are the only cranial nerves that do not pass\\nout of the skull. The sense of taste is the function of a\\nbranch of the fifth and eighth pair of nerves on each side.\\n122. Motor and Sentient Nerves. The nervous\\ntrunks which perform the mixed functions of sensation\\nand motion originate by two separate roots, each de-\\nvoted to its appropriate office. This is more distinctly\\nseen in the spinal nerves, where, at each joint of the\\nspinal column, nerves pass out, right and left, from the\\nspinal cord. These have each an anterior and a pos-\\nterior root, the first originating from the front, and the", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0101.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "92\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nFig. 57.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Motor and Sen\\ntient Roots of the\\nSpinal Nerve.\\na.\\n,b\\njJmt IS\\na, a. Anterior or motor\\nroot. 6, b. Sentient or\\nlast from the back part of the spinal cord. If the an-\\nterior root be injured or diseased, the power of motion\\nis lost or impaired in the parts\\nto which the nerve is distributed;\\nbut if the injury is in the poste-\\nrior root, the power of sensation,\\nor feeling, is impaired in the\\nparts supplied by that nerve.\\nThe anterior is therefore called\\nthe Motor root, and the posterior\\nthe Sentient.\\n123. Distribution of Nerves.\\nThe sentient root is slightly\\nlarger than the motor, and has\\nposterior root with its a ganglion or enlargement on it\\nganglion exposed by re- bf it {m g^\\nmoving the motor root. J J\\nThis union takes place before\\nthe nerve passes through the opening between the\\nvertebrae, and beyond this the nervous cord appears\\nto consist of but one kind of fibers or tubuli, but at the\\ntermination of the nervous branches the distinction of\\nfunction is again observed.\\nThe nervous trunks, by sending off branches, dis-\\ntribute themselves over the parts they are intended to\\nsupply. In this distribution, though the branches of\\nnerves are sent to almost every organ of the body, yet\\nthe supply furnished to different organs is not by any\\nmeans the same.\\n124. Motor and Sentient Nerves terminate differ-\\nently. The nerves of motion and those of sensation\\ndiffer most widely in their functions, yet the most\\ncareful examination with the best microscope fails to", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0102.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM. 93\\nreveal any difference in their structure so long as the\\nfibers remain wrapped in the same nervous envelope;\\nbut as we trace the nervous trunks toward their ex-\\ntremities, the filaments of different functions separate\\nfrom each other, and in their terminations there is a\\nvery marked difference in their appearance. The nerves\\nof motion continue to divide, until their filaments be-\\ncome so fine that even the microscope scarcely enables\\nus to trace them. They are distributed entirely to the\\nmuscular system, and terminate on the ultimate cells\\ncomposing the muscular fibers, and communicate to\\nthem the power by which the fiber is shortened, and,\\nconsequently, the whole muscle contracted.\\n125. Pacinian Corpuscles. The nerves of sensation,\\nas they approach their extremities, are usually folded\\nback on themselves, so as to form a kind of loop; and\\nsometimes this folding is repeated two or three times,\\nso as to produce a distinct enlargement at the end of\\nthe nervous filament. This repeated folding of the\\nnervous tubuli forms what are called Pacinian corpus-\\ncles. They are found in the nerves terminating on the\\nhand and foot more frequently than in any other part\\nof the body. They appear to be connected with the\\nspecial sense of touch, as they are found in the upper\\nlip of the horse, and in the end of the elephant s trunk.\\nSome have supposed them to be organs for producing\\nanimal electricity, as they resemble somewhat the\\norgans of certain electric fishes.\\n126. Sentient Nerves on the Skin. But the single\\nloop, or simple folding back on themselves, is a mode\\nof termination common to all sentient nerves, whether\\nthe sensation is merely feeling, or is some special form", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0103.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "94\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nof sensation, as seeing, hearing, tasting, or smelling.\\nThe surface of the skin is so well furnished with\\nsentient nerves, that it is impossible to put down the\\npoint of a needle anywhere on it without touching one\\nof those loops terminating a nervous filament, and\\nthus communicating to the brain intelligence of the\\nFig. 58.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Nerves of Sensation, with their Terminal Loops\\ngreatly magnified.\\ninjury. B} r this arrangement, every part of the body\\nthat is liable to be injured by foreign substances, is\\nkept in constant communication with the brain, where\\nconsciousness resides, and from whence proceed all\\nvoluntary motions.\\n127. Mystery of Sensation. This power of feeling\\nis a wonderful endowment. An impression is made on\\na looped extremity of a sentient nerve, in some remote\\npart of the body. Instantly, the filament of nerve\\nthus impressed communicates the impression along\\nthe nervous cord, where this particular filament is\\nentangled and interlaced with a thousand similar ones\\nand yet the impression is not communicated to them,\\nbut is confined to the individual filament; it passes\\nthrough the interior white matter of the brain, and\\nfinally reaches the gray substance, where perception\\nor consciousness appears to reside. This perception\\nnot only locates the precise spot where the impression", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0104.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS SYSTEM. 95\\nwas made, but also determines the nature of the im-\\npression, and, within certain limits, the character of\\nthe substance or agent making it.\\n128. Injury of a Nervous Trunk. The office of the\\nnerves is illustrated in the phenomenon of a paralyzed\\nlimb. If the great nervous trunks, returning to the\\nbrain the impressions made on any particular part\\nof the body, be destroyed, the person has no knowledge\\nof the condition of that part; but if the injury be\\npartial or temporary, the perception will be impaired\\nor confused as to the place of the impression or its\\nnature. Thus, by an improper attitude, we sometimes\\ncompress the nervous trunk conveying impressions\\nfrom the hand or foot, and a peculiar, prickling sen-\\nsation is felt in the part on which the nerve ter-\\nminates. This is expressed in common language by\\nsaying that the hand or foot is asleep.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe nervous system performs the functions of motion, sensa-\\ntion, and thought. Nerves devoted to sensation alone, have but\\na single origin; nerves of both sensation and motion, originate\\nby two roots. Nerves of sensation terminate in loops; those of\\nmotion by filaments distributed on the muscles. Between their\\norigin and termination the nervous trunks are alike. When\\nimpressions are made on the trunk of a sentient nerve, the\\nsensation is referred to the extremity.\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 9.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0105.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "96 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nLESSON XVI.\\nSENSATION.\\n129. Low Sensibility of Bone, Cartilage, etc. The\\npower of sensation is not distributed alike to all the\\norgans of the body. The bones and cartilages have no\\nfeeling when in a healthy condition; but when they\\nare inflamed, they become highly sensitive. This is\\nprobably owing to some peculiar condition of the\\nnerves in the solid substance of these tissues, which\\nis not well understood.\\nThe fatty deposits, which often accumulate to a con-\\nsiderable thickness between the skin and muscles, as\\nwell as in other parts of the body, are nearly destitute\\nof feeling, having but few nerves distributed on them.\\nThe muscles which produce the voluntary motions of\\nthe body, while they are the only points of distribution\\nfor the motor nerves, are but moderately supplied with\\nnerves of sensation and consequently the muscles, when\\nin a healthy condition, have but little feeling. The\\norgans of involuntary motion, such as the heart, etc.,\\nare entirely insensible, except in a diseased state.\\n130. Sense of Touch in the Fingers. The skin,\\nand the mucous membrane lining the mouth and\\nglottis, are the chief seats of sensation. The skin, on\\ndifferent parts of the body, has different degrees of\\nsensibility. The fingers and toes have the largest num-\\nber of sentient nerves distributed on their surfaces, and,\\nconsequently, have the most acute sensibility of any\\nof the organs of the body. Indeed, the surface of the", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0106.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "SENSATION. 97\\ntrue skin on the ends of the fingers appears to be made\\nup of bundles of sentient nerves, or their loop-like\\nterminations, forming those little elevations, called the\\npapillae, which cover these parts. So highly endowed\\nwith sensibility arc these organs, that some have re-\\ngarded them as special instruments of a local sense,\\ndiffering from the general sensibility of the body; but\\nthe function appears to differ in degree, rather than in\\nkind.\\n131. The Grades of Sensation Muscular Sense.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nA careful analysis of this subject will reveal at least\\nthree distinct grades of sensibility, located in different\\norgans of the body and, in some of them, the sensation\\nvaries in acuteness in different parts of the organ or\\norgans to which the sensation is referred. First in the\\ngroup of sensations, and lowest in the distinctness of its\\nimpressions on the perceptive powers, is the subjective\\nor internal sense, sometimes called the muscular sense.\\nThe most obscure manifestation of this is in those sen-\\nsations which we call weariness, fatigue, faintness, etc.\\nThese sensations appear to be rather general than\\nspecial, and therefore can hardly be referred to any\\nparticular locality in the body.\\nThe sensation of weight, or resistance to muscular\\naction, is a little better defined, but still very difficult\\nto locate. If we extend the hand, and place a piece\\nof card-paper on the fingers, we will perceive merely\\nthe sensation of touch but if a two-pound weight be\\nsubstituted for the card, a very different sensation is\\nfelt a perception of what we call weight.\\n132. Sense of Touch, of Taste and Smell. A\\nsecond class comprises those sensations which are made", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0107.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "98 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nby contact with external objects, and referred definitely\\nto the point of contact, and also where the perception\\ndetermines something in relation to the character of the\\nbody producing the sensation.\\nFor example, the sense of touch determines where\\nthe person is touched, and whether the substance pro-\\nducing the sensation is rough or smooth, hard or soft,\\nhot or cold, etc. But the tongue not only conveys to\\nthe brain the sensation of being touched, and the usual\\nknowledge of the physical properties of the body touch-\\ning it, but also a peculiar sensation which is called\\ntaste. It is a special sensation, and is definitely re-\\nferred to the mouth. So, also, the olfactory nerves convey\\nto the brain the sensation produced by odorous bodies.\\n133. Organs of the Sense of Smelling. This second\\ngroup of sensorial functions ascends, in point of delicacy,\\nfrom the mere sense of contact common to the whole\\nsurface of the body, to the sense of smell, which recog-\\nnizes odors so exceedingly delicate that no other test\\ncan detect their presence. This sense has a pair of\\nnerves especially appropriated to it; and though the\\nsentient extremities of these nerves are distributed on\\nthe mucous membrane of the nasal passages, which\\ndiffers nothing in appearance from the mucous mem-\\nbrane forming the surface of other open cavities, yet\\nthe delicacy of the olfactory sense falls but little below-\\nthat of senses of the third class, each of which has\\na special apparatus appropriated to its use. In some\\nof the lower animals, such as the dog and the vulture,\\nthis sense is much more acute than in man. Many\\nanimals which live in the water have the sense of\\nsmell greatly developed.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0108.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "SENSATION. 99\\n13+. Use of the Turbinated Bones. The nasal\\ncavities have their surfaces greatly extended by the\\nturbinated hones. These are thin plates of bone, rolled\\nup and placed, one in each nasal chamber, and covered\\nthroughout with the membrane, on which the olfactory\\nnerves are distributed.\\nThese air passages are so placed that the air, in\\nordinary breathing, scarcely enters them but when a\\nvoluntary effort is made to exercise the function of\\nsmelling, it is drawn forcibly through the passages, and\\nmade to enter the cavities among the folds of the\\nturbinated bones, and thus greatly to increase the\\nsurface in contact with the odors inhaled. There\\nappears to be a strange complication of the sense of\\nsmell with that of taste, so that much of what is usually\\nregarded as taste really belongs to the olfactory sense.\\n135. Simple Nature of the Olfactory Sense. The\\nsense of smell appears to be the least complicated of all\\nour sensations. When we place our hand on the table,\\nwe have, first, a sense of contact with something exter-\\nnal to ourselves; then, in quick succession, the sensa-\\ntions which determine hardness, smoothness, tempera-\\nture, etc., each one of which appears to be the exercise\\nof a special function, but all taken together form the\\nPcomplex sensation which we call feeling. On the other\\nj hand, if we inhale a powerful odor, such as musk, for\\nexample, we have no distinct sensation of contact, no\\nclear perception of any thing outside of ourselves, no\\nindication of the direction from which the odor came,\\nno ideas of size or shape are derived from the sensation\\nall we acquire is a knowledge of that indefined property\\ncalled odor.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0109.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "100 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nA singular fact about the exercise of this sense is\\nthat, while we distinguish odors, and identify them as\\nthe property of certain substances, yet we have no\\nnames for odors, but describe them only by com-\\nparison.\\n136. Ability to suffer Pain, important to our\\nSafety, These lower grades of sensation are of the\\nutmost importance to the safety and enjoyment of the\\nindividual. The senses of taste and smell are the chief\\nguides on which we rely in the selection of our food;\\nand the sense of feeling, which rises to pain when the\\ncontact is violent, continually admonishes us of danger\\nfrom surrounding objects. Our safety depends more on\\nour ability to suffer pain than most persons apprehend.\\nThose who, from disease or accident, have lost the sense\\nof feeling in a limb, often sustain serious injury, from\\nburns or other accidents, before they are aware of\\ndanger. These senses may therefore be regarded as\\nbody-guards or sentinels, placed on the outposts of the\\ncitadel of life to give timely warning of the approach\\nof friend or foe.\\nRecapitulation.\\nSensation is unequally distributed among the organs. Sense\\nof feeling is distributed over the surface of the body generally.\\nSpecial sense of touch located in the ends of the fingers.\\nThree grades of sensations: 1st, muscular sense; 2d, touch,\\ntaste, and smelling; 3d, seeing and hearing. Olfactory sense\\nlocated in the nasal passages. Peculiar arrangement of the\\nturbinated bones. Smelling the least complicated of all the\\nsenses.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0110.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "THE EAR. 101\\nLESSON XVII.\\nORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE.\\n137. Senses which have Special Organs. The third\\nand highest class of sentient functions have each a\\nspecial apparatus appropriated to them, by means of\\nwhich they make us acquainted with properties and\\nconditions of bodies around us, that are entirely be-\\nyond the reach of ordinary sensation. The special\\nsenses of hearing and seeing form this class.\\nThe Ear, the organ of hearing, consists of the external\\near, the tympanum or middle ear, and the labyrinth or\\ninternal ear. The external ear consists of a tube about\\nan inch in length, which in man and in most mam-\\nmals spreads out into a broad expansion externally.\\nBoth the tube and the expanded rim are formed of a\\nfirm, elastic cartilage. In birds and reptiles the exter-\\nnal expansion is wanting; and, in fishes, the rudiments\\nof the internal ear are found, but no vestige of an outer\\near has been discovered.\\n138. The External Ear. In the human subject,\\nthe external expansion forms an irregular, semicircular\\nplate, concave on its forward and outer surface, and cor-\\nrespondingly convex on the opposite side. Its purpose\\nis to collect and concentrate the vibrations of the air at\\na central point, which is the external opening of the\\nauditory tube.\\nThis opening is protected from the intrusion of dust,\\ninsects, etc., by a cluster of stiff, short hairs placed near\\nthe entrance but a more effectual protection is afforded", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0111.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "102\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nby a yellow, tenacious, bitter wax, secreted by a number\\nof small glands on the inner surface of the auditory\\ntube. Across the bottom of this tube is drawn a fine\\nmembrane, so as to close it completely, and thus cut\\noff all communication with the middle ear.\\n139. Drum of the Ear\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Eustachian Tube. The\\nTympanum, or drum of the ear, is a cavity in the\\nhard portion of the temporal bone. While it is cut\\noff from direct communication with the external air\\nby the drum-head, or membrane of the tympanum, just\\nnow described, that communication is indirectly estab-\\nFiG.59-TiiEEAn. lished through the\\nposterior chamber of\\nthe mouth, by means\\nof a funnel-shaped\\ncanal, called the Eu-\\nstachian tube. The\\nnarrow end of this\\ntube passes through\\na small opening, or\\nforamen, into the\\ncavity of the middle\\near, while the broad\\nend establishes a\\ncommunication with\\nthe upper portion of\\nthe pharynx, and by\\nthis means the tympanum is kept filled with air. In\\nyawning, the Eustachian tube is compressed, and some-\\ntimes the sides temporarily adhere together, occasioning\\nan unpleasant roaring in the head, till, w T ith a crackling\\nsound, the obstruction is removed, and all is right again.\\na. External ear. b. Auditory tube. c. Tym-\\npanum, or middle ear. d. Semicircular\\ncanals, e. Vestibule. Cochlea, g. Eu-\\nstachian tube.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0112.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "THE EAE.\\n103\\nFig. GO.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Bonks of the Middle\\nEar, enlakgkd.\\n140. Hones of the Ear.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In the cavity of the tym-\\npanum there arc lour small bones, articulated together\\nso as to form a bony\\nchain, stretching from the\\ntympanic membrane to\\nthe membrane closing the\\naperature communicating\\nwith the inner ear. These\\nbones are named, from\\ntheir fancied resemblance\\nto the objects, the malleus,\\nor hammer; the incus, or\\nanvil; the orbiculare, or\\nround-bone and the stapes,\\nor stirrup. The handle of the hammer is fastened to\\nthe middle of the drum-head, while the head of the\\nhammer fits into the cavity of the anvil, and the horn\\nof the anvil is attached, by means of the round-bone, to\\nthe bow of the stirrup, the base of which rests firmly\\nagainst the membrane closing the passage into the\\nlabyrinth.\\na. Malleus, or the hammer, b. In-\\ncus, or the anvil, c. Orbiculare, or\\nthe round-bone. d. Stapes, or the\\nstirrup.\\n141. Injuries of the Middle Ear their effect.\\nThis chain of bones is furnished with very delicate\\nmuscles, which serve to render it tense, so that the\\nslightest vibration is transmitted along it from the\\nouter to the inner ear. These bones are sometimes\\ndestroyed by disease or accident, without the entire\\nloss of hearing, though always with great injury to\\nthat function.\\nThe dullness of hearing common to old age is usually\\nthe result of the growing together of this bony chain,\\nas well as of the thickening of the membranes at each", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0113.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "104\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nend of the chain. These changes are often accompanied\\nby the more or less complete closure of the Eustachian\\ntubes. While perfect deafness seldom results from inju-\\nries to the middle ear, yet most of the causes which\\noperate to merely impair hearing are located there.\\n142. The Labyrinth, or Internal Ear. The Laby-\\nrinth is composed of three parts the vestibule, the\\nsemicircular canals, and the cochlea, or snail-shell. The\\nvestibule is a common chamber with which all the\\nother parts communicate. It is a small, oblong, irregu-\\nlarly shaped cavity in the hard portion of the tem-\\nporal bone, with two small openings looking into the\\nmiddle ear. These are called finestrze, or windows, and\\nfrom their respective shapes are named the oval and\\nthe round windows. These, in the living body, are\\nclosed by a dense, firm membrane, but, in the skeleton,\\nappear as openings from one chamber to the other.\\n143. The Semicircular Canals\u00e2\u0080\u0094 their use. Some\\nidea of the form and\\nfig. 61,-the Internal ear. relation of the several\\nparts of the inner ear\\nmay be obtained from\\nthe annexed figure,\\nwhich represents the\\ninternal ear, somewhat\\nenlarged.\\nThe semicircular ca-\\nnals, three in number,\\nare simply curved\\nopenings through the\\nbony substance sur-\\nrounding this cavity, passing out of the vestibule and\\na. Vestibule, b. Cochlea, c. Semicircu\\nlar canals, d. The oval window, e\\nThe round window.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0114.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "THE EAR. 105\\nreturning to it. If they serve any other purpose than\\nto extend the surface for the distribution of the auditory\\nnerve, th^t purpose has not been discovered.\\n144. The Cochlea. The Cochlea, or snail-shell, is a\\ndouble spiral canal, wound around a central pillar.\\nLeaving the vestibule opposite to the oval window, it\\nmakes two and a half turns around the pillar and\\nreaches the summit, where it enters the other canal,\\nand by the same number of turns as in ascending, it\\ndescends to the vestibule, reaching it at the round\\nwindow. All these cavities are filled with a limpid\\nfluid, which is nearly pure water; and they are lined\\nby a very delicate membranous expansion of the audi-\\ntory nerve. In the vestibule and semicircular canals,\\nthis nervous expansion is covered with filaments, or\\nloops of nerve matter, floating loosely at one extremity,\\nand attached to the nervous mass by the other. In the\\ncochlea, the nervous expansion presents a smooth, soft\\nsurface.\\nRecapitulation.\\nSeeing and hearing are senses with special organs devoted to\\nthem. The ear consists of the external, middle, and internal\\ndivisions. The middle ear communicates with the mouth by\\nthe Eustachian tube. It contains a chain of four small bones.\\nIts cavity is filled with air. The internal ear consists of a\\nvestibule, a cochlea, and three semicircular canals. These\\ncavities are filled with water. The auditory nerve is distributed\\non the membrane.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0115.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "106 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nLESSON XVIII.\\nHEARING.\\n145. Nature of Sound, The complex organ which\\nwe attempted to describe in the last lesson, is intended\\nto convey to the brain the sensation of sound, and its\\nseveral properties and qualities. The sense of hearing\\ntakes cognizance of a tremulous or vibratory motion\\ntransmitted through a medium (usually the air) from a\\nvibrating body, to the auditory nerve in the inner\\near.\\nAll bodies are not capable of emitting sound. Elas-\\nticity and hardness are the properties which are com-\\nmonly assigned to sonorous bodies, but this definition\\nappears to be defective. Two currents of air striking\\neach other will give out sound, without the assistance\\nof any hard substance. Elasticity is an indispens-\\nable property of sonorous bodies, and yet but few sub-\\nstances are more elastic than India rubber, and none\\nless sonorous.\\n146. Transmission of Sound-waves. A bell is struck\\nwith a hammer, and instantly the particles of which it\\nis composed are thrown into a kind of wave-like motion,\\nwhich is prolonged for several seconds. This vibration\\ncan be easily perceived if we bring our fingers into\\ncontact with the bell immediately after the stroke.\\nThis movement is transmitted to the surrounding air,\\nand waves of motion, exactly corresponding to the\\nvibrations in the bell, roll off in every direction, di-\\nminishing, however, in intensity as they recede from", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0116.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "HEARING. 107\\nthe sonorous body, but retaining all the other properties\\nof the original vibration in the bell.\\nAir is not the only medium of communication\\nbetween sounding bodies and the organ of hearing.\\nDense solids, such as the metals, compact wood, etc.,\\nare good conductors of sound, and water transmits\\nsonorous vibrations very perfectly.\\n147. Conditions of the Transmission of Sound.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nSound is not transmitted through a vacuum, hence a\\nbell struck in the exhausted receiver of an air-j)ump\\ngives out no sound, because there is nothing in contact\\nwith it to communicate its vibrations to the outer air.\\nSound is transferred with difficulty from one medium\\nto another. A bell struck under water gives scarcely\\nany sound to the ear in the air, but if the ear be under\\nwater, the sound is almost deafening.\\nThough wood is an excellent conductor of sound, yet\\na wooden partition of but an inch in thickness greatly\\ninterrupts the passage of sounds. This is because the\\nvibrations have to be transferred to the wood from the\\nair, and after passing the wood, re-transferred to the air\\nagain, by which a large proportion of the original in-\\ntensity is lost. Air contained in a tube transmits sound\\nmuch more perfectly than when unconfined, because the\\nvibrations are not readily communicated to the sur-\\nrounding walls of the tube.\\n148. Reflected Sound. Waves of sound, transmitted\\nthrough the air, striking on a solid surface, communi-\\ncate but a small amount of their motion to the ob-\\nstructing solid. The greater portion is reflected or\\nturned back again into the same medium. This re-\\nflected wave of sound forms what is called the echo,", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0117.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "108 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nand is always less intense than the original sound, by\\nthe amount of vibration communicated to the reflecting\\nsurface. Obeying the law of reflection, sound may be\\nconcentrated by being reflected from concave surfaces,\\nand diffused when thrown off from convex ones. On\\nthis principle ear-trumpets act, to collect at a single\\npoint the sonorous vibrations of a large space. The\\ncartilaginous expansion of the outer ear serves the\\nsame purpose.\\n149. Mechanism of Hearing. The undulations, or\\nwaves of sound, thus concentrated by the expansion\\nof the external ear, strike on the tense membrane of\\nthe tympanum at the bottom of the auditory tube,\\ncommunicating to it similar vibrations. But as one\\nend of the chain of bones in the middle ear is attached\\nto the tympanic membrane, whatever state of motion is\\ninduced in it will be transmitted along the bony con-\\nnections to the stirrup, the base of which presses firmly\\nagainst the membrane of the oval window.\\nThe arrangement of these bones is such as to slightly\\nmagnify the movement, and to limit it to a single\\ndirection. The stirrup-bone moves to and from the\\nmembrane with which it is in contact, and can have\\nno lateral or side motion. But the inner ear, in all its\\nparts, being filled with fluid, has the vibration of the\\nmembrane communicated to it throughout, by the well-\\nknown law of the transmission of impressions through\\nfluids.\\n150. The Qualities of Sound. The expansion of\\nthe auditory nerve being every-where in contact with\\nthis fluid, and its sentient loops floating loosely in it,\\ntransmits to the brain the intelligence of the vibration.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0118.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "HEARING. 109\\nThe sensation thus conveyed to the seat of perception\\nis an exceedingly complex one, embracing, beside the\\nsimple impression of sound, the almost innumerable\\nqualities and modifications of it.\\nThe chief of these may be comprised in the intensity\\nor force, the pitch, and the direction of sound. The\\nforce or loudness of a sound is often mistaken for its\\npitch, because a sound on a high key produces the\\njarring sensation of a much louder sound on a lower\\nkey. The length of the undulations, or what is the\\nsame thing, the number of vibrations in a given time,\\nconstitutes the pitch of a sound, without any reference\\nto the force by which the vibration is set in motion.\\n151. The Direction of Sound, how determined.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe power to determine the direction from w T hich a\\nvibration proceeds, is not the least of the wonders of\\nthis wonderful sense. If we were to reason from the\\nmechanical arrangement of the ear, we would infer that\\nall sounds, when communicated to the auditory nerve\\nthrough the tube of the external ear, the chain of bones\\nin the middle ear, and the fluid of the labyrinth, would\\nbe converted into waves in a uniform direction; but\\nthis is not the case. As the wave of sound rolls\\nout in every direction from the vibrating body, it is\\nevident that a line drawn from that body must cut the\\nwave at right-angles, at whatever point it may strike it.\\nThat which the auditory sense determines, therefore, is\\nthe direction of a line that shall be at right-angles with\\nthe undulations. In a practiced ear, this delicate task\\nis performed with amazing accuracy.\\n152. Musical Faculties. But the nice discrimina-\\ntions of a well disciplined musical ear, are even more", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0119.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "110 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nwonderful than the measurement of the angle necessary\\nto determine the direction of sound. This is a special\\nfaculty, and does not depend alone on the acuteness of\\nhearing. Many persons who hear accurately even very\\nfeeble sounds, and judge correctly of their other prop-\\nerties, yet distinguish the pitch of sounds very im-\\nperfectly. Many eminent physiologists have referred\\nthis faculty to the cochlea or spiral canals, and there\\nappears to be plausible reasons for such reference.\\nHowever, in the present state of anatomical knowledge,\\nit would be hazardous to affirm any thing on the subject.\\nThe power to distinguish the voice of a particular\\nperson, is really as strange as the most wonderful\\nmusical powers.\\n153. The Sense of Hearing how far it is vol-\\nuntary. The sense of hearing is properly an invol-\\nuntary function, though there are several modifications,\\nsubject to the will, which have an important bearing\\non the exercise of this faculty. For example, if the\\nattention be directed to a certain sound, we can, by a\\nvoluntary effort, transmit that sound to the perceptive\\ncenter, and practically exclude all others, though they\\nmay be more forcible.\\nThere is also a voluntary power of increasing the\\ntension of the tympanic membrane, thus rendering the\\near more sensitive, and capable of hearing very feeble\\nsounds. The sense of hearing can be educated, in its\\nseveral departments, to an almost unlimited extent,\\nas is witnessed in the trained musician, and the\\ntelegraph operator.\\nThe organs essential to hearing being located in a\\nbony cavity, are subject to fewer accidents than most", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0120.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "THE EYE. Ill\\nof the other organs; but a long continued exposure to\\nloud and constant noises, as in machine-shops and\\nfactories, greatly impairs the acuteness of hearing.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe ear acquaints us with sound and its qualities. Hard,\\nelastic bodies, when vibrating, communicate their motion to the\\nair, or other medium with which they are in contact. This\\nvibration is transmitted to the inner ear through the drum by\\nmeans of the bony chain, and a similar motion is set up in the\\nfluid of the internal ear. The auditory nerve transmits to the\\nbrain the knowledge of this vibration. The brain recognizes\\nthe sound its force, pitch, direction, etc. Hearing is involun-\\ntary, but may be modified by volition.\\nLESSON XIX.\\nTHE EYE.\\n154. Muscles of the Eye. The Eye, the organ of\\nvision, consists of the globe or ball of the eye, the\\nadjusting machinery, and the protecting organs. The\\ntwo last-named divisions, however, are merely auxiliary\\norgans, and not absolutely essential to vision. The\\nadjusting machinery consists of six muscles, w\\\\hich\\narise from the back part of the bony socket in which\\nthe ball of the eye is placed. Four of these are called\\nstraight muscles. They are inserted into the back part\\nof the orbit, about equal distances apart, so that while\\ntwo serve to roll the eye upw T ard and dow T mvard, the\\nother tw r o give it a lateral motion to the right and\\nleft.\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 10.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0121.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "112\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nThe remaining two are called oblique muscles. They\\nare inserted into the outside of the eyeball, and operate\\nto roll it inward and downward. One of these has a\\npeculiar contrivance for this purpose. It arises with\\nthe straight muscles from the back of the orbit, but is\\nFig. 62.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Muscles of the Eye.\\na. Globe of the eye. b, b, b. Straight muscles, c. Muscle to raise\\nthe upper eyelid (Levator Palpebrce). d. Upper oblique muscle.\\ne. Loop and tendon.\\ncarried forward and upward by a slender tendon, which\\npasses through a loop of firm ligament attached to the\\nupper and inner margin of the bony socket of the eye,\\nfrom whence, turning back, it is inserted into the outer\\nand back part of the ball.\\n155. Arrangements for Protecting the Eye. The\\nprotecting organs are several, and, taken together, con-\\nstitute a very perfect system of protection to a very\\ndelicate organ, whose function requires that it shall\\nhave a large external exposure. The ball of the eye,\\nthe true organ of vision, is placed in a deep, bony\\nsocket, the margin of which is guarded above by a\\nheavy ridge of bone in the form of an arch. The eye-\\nball, in this cavity, rests on a soft, elastic cushion of", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0122.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "THE EYE.\\n113\\nfatty matter, which entirely fills the back part of the\\nsocket.\\nThe eyelids are a pair of curtains, with each a thick,\\ncartilaginous edge fitting accurately to its mate, and\\nthus completely excluding the eye from the outer world.\\nThese margins are lined with short, curved hairs, the\\neyelashes, which serve as a screen to protect the eye\\nfrom dust. The bony ridge above the eye is also cov-\\nered with a line of short, thick hairs, inclining toward\\nthe outer angle of the eye, so as to carry the perspira-\\ntion around that organ.\\n156. Tears their use the Lachrymal Duct,\\nThat it may perform its function properly, the eye\\nP IG. ftl-LACHKYMAL GLAND AND DUCT.\\n,a\\nd\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\na. Lachrymal gland, b. Ducts leading from the gland to the\\nupper part of the eye. c, c. The lachrymal points, d. Nasal\\nduct.\\nrequires to be kept constantly moist. To accomplish\\nthis end, a gland, called the Lachrymal gland, is placed\\nin a depression of the orbit immediately back of the\\narch, at its upper and outer part. This gland secretes\\nthe fluid called tears, and, from its situation, this secre-", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0123.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "114\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\ntion is very readily distributed over the front part of\\nthe ball, by the motion of the eyelids in winking.\\nThe inner surface of the eyelid is covered with a\\nvery delicate and highly sensitive membrane, called\\nthe conjunctiva. This is reflected off from the eyelid\\nto the ball, and covers the front part of it, one layer\\nof it passing entirely over the transparent cornea in\\nfront of the eye. The tears, after having performed\\ntheir office, are conveyed into the nose by the lach-\\nrymal duct, which opens into the orbital cavity near\\nthe inner angle of the eye.\\n157. Coats of the Eye. The ball of the eye is a\\ncomplete optical instrument, a camera of the same\\nkind used by artists in making sun-pictures, but in-\\nfinitely more perfect\\nfig. 4.-THE eye. than any instrument\\nwhich human ingen-\\nuity and skill has yet\\nproduced. The eye has\\nthree distinct coats.\\nThe outer one of these,\\ncalled the Sclerotic\\ncoat, is a dense, tough\\nmembrane, approach-\\ning nearly to the firm-\\na. The three coats of the eye. b. The ness Of Cartilage,\\ncornea, c. The aqueous humor, d. Oil the front part\\nThe crystalline lens. e. The vitreous\\nhumor. Optic nerve. f the h f l tlllS COat\\nchanges its character,\\nbecomes transparent and slightly thinner, but preserves\\nits hardness. This transparent portion is called the\\nCornea. It is more convex than the sclerotic coat", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0124.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "THE EYE\\n115\\nFig. 65.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ikis, Pupil, and\\nCiliary Processes.\\nelsewhere, as if it were a segment cut from a smaller\\nBphere. The Choroid coat is a highly vascular mem-\\nbrane, lying in immediate contact with the inner sur-\\nface of the sclerotic coat. It contains numerous cells\\nfilled with a dark brown or black pigment, which gives\\nits color to the membrane.\\n158. Iris, Pupil, and Ciliary Processes. That\\nportion of the choroid coat which lies back of the\\ncornea, is separated from it by a considerable space,\\nand in this part it takes the name of Iris. The iris\\nis a colored curtain, with a circular opening in the\\ncenter called the Pupil.\\nOn the back of the iris, and\\nattached to the outer margin\\nof it, is a series of firm, liga-\\nmentous bodies, arranged like\\nrays around the iris. These are\\nthe Ciliary processes. To the\\ninner end of these is attached a\\nnumber of very fine, muscular\\nfibers, with their opposite ends\\ninserted into the margin of the\\npupil. When these contract,\\nthey draw the curtain back, and thus enlarge the\\npupil.\\nThere is also a set of circular fibers, the contraction\\nof which serves to draw the curtain forward, and thus\\ndiminish the pupil. These motions are produced, in-\\nvoluntarily, by the effect of light.\\n159. The Retina. The Retina forms the third coat\\nof the eye, and lies directly in contact with the vitreous\\nhumor which fills the greater portion of the ball. This\\na. Pupil, b. Iris. e. Ciliary\\nprocesses.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0125.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "116 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nis a very delicate membrane, made up of a net-work of\\nnervous filaments interwoven with minute blood-vessels,\\nso as to form a continuous membrane. These filaments\\nare expansions of the optic nerve, which, though it is\\nthe largest nervous trunk in the body, is confined in its\\nexpansion exclusively to the inner coat of the eye. It\\nis limited in its function to the special sense of sight,\\nand though so sensitive to the effect of light, it is in-\\ncapable of feeling the grosser impressions, when in a\\nnormal or healthy condition; but when inflamed, it\\nbecomes very sensitive.\\n160. Aqueous Humor its position. The space\\nbetween the cornea and iris is filled with a transparent\\nfluid, which is nearly pure water. It is called the\\nAqueous humor. Its shape is that of a plano-convex\\nlens, and it affects the rays of light that enter it in\\nprecisely the same manner that such a lens does in\\noptical instruments.\\nIn surgical operations on the eye, the aqueous humor\\nis sometimes discharged; but if the opening be closed,\\nand the light carefully excluded from the eye, the water\\nwill be reproduced in a few clays. This fluid fills not\\nonly the space between the cornea and the iris, but\\nalso that back of the iris, to the suspensory ligament\\nof the crystalline lens.\\n161. Crystalline Lens. The Crystalline Lens is the\\nprincipal organ in the apparatus of vision. It is situ-\\nated immediately behind the pupil, and is held in place\\nby a thin suspensory ligament, attached to the outer\\nmargin of the ciliary processes. It is a soft solid, very\\ntransparent, and, in shape,, a double convex lens, with\\nthe posterior surface more convex than the front. It is", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0126.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "VISION.\\n117\\nConcen-\\ntric Layers of\\nTHkCrYSTA LUKE\\nLens.\\ncapable o( being Beparated into concentric layers, some\\nwhat like the coats o( an onion, the T\\nPig. 66.\\nlayers becoming constantly denser as\\nwe penetrate toward its center.\\nThe muscular bands attached to the\\nciliary processes have the power of\\nadjusting the crystalline lens, so as to\\naccommodate the vision to objects at\\ndifferent distances from the eye. Back\\nof the crystalline lens, the ball of the\\neye is filled with a transparent semi-\\nfluid, somewhat resembling the white\\nof an egg. It is the vitreous humor, and is in contact\\nwith the retina at all points.\\nRecapitulation.\\nProvisions for protecting the eye. Eyebrows, their use. Tears\\nsecreted by the lachrymal gland, and distributed over the eye-\\nball in winking. Conjunctiva covers the inner surface of the\\neyelid. The eyeball has three coats the sclerotic coat, the\\nchoroid, and the retina. The front projection of the sclerotic\\ncoat is transparent it is the cornea. The front part of the\\nchoroid coat is the iris; the opening through it, the pupil.\\nThe retina, the inner coat, is a nervous membrane. The aqueous\\nhumor lies between the cornea and iris. The crystalline lens\\nlies behind the pupil.\\nLESSON XX.\\nVISION.\\n162. Mechanism of Yision. The Eye is an optical\\ninstrument which, by the most perfect adaptation of its\\nparts, produces an image of external objects, and casts", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0127.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "118 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nit on a sensitive screen in the back part of a dark-\\nened chamber. It is, therefore, a true camera obscura\\nwith two lenses, and a very transparent medium be-\\ntween the last lens and the retina, where the image\\nappears.\\nIn order to understand how the mechanism of the eye\\noperates to produce vision, it will be necessary to state\\na fundamental law governing the movement of light in\\npassing through mediums of different density.\\n163. Refraction of Light. Rays of light are thrown\\noff from luminous bodies in every direction, and move\\nin straight lines so long as they continue to pass\\nthrough the same medium. When light passes from\\none medium into another, as from air into water, the\\nray is bent out of its course, unless it enters on a line\\nperpendicular to the surface.\\nThis bending of a ray out of a straight line is called\\nthe refraction of light. Different substances have different\\nrefractive powers. A ray of light passing from the air\\ninto water, on a line oblique to its surface, is bent\\ndownward, or refracted toward a line perpendicular to\\nthe surface of the water; and a ray passing from water\\ninto the air, is refracted in the opposite direction that\\nis, from the perpendicular.\\n164. Reflection of Light from Opaque Bodies.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nA lens is a transparent medium bounded by curved\\nlines. These may make the surfaces either concave or\\nconvex, and the effect of the lens on rays of light will\\ncorrespond to the shape. A convex lens converges or\\nbrings the rays together, while the effect of a concave\\nlens is to cause the rays to diverge from each other.\\nRays of light are thrown off, not only from luminous", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0128.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "VISION.\\n119\\nbodies, but from all substances which afford any obstruc-\\ntion to light in passing through them. The latter re-\\nflect the rays of light, which thus appear to come from\\nthe reflecting surface as though it originated there. Most\\nbodies are visible, therefore, only by reflected light.\\nFjg. 67.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 A Double Convex Lens, showing the Refraction\\nof Light.\\na, a. A double convex lens. b. Parallel rays of light, c. The\\nfocus, or point where the converging rays meet.\\n165. Aqueous Humor and Crystalline Lens. The\\ntransparent cornea, forming the front of the eye, re-\\nFig. 68.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Formation of Images in the Eye.\\ne\\na. The cornea, b. The aqueous humor, c, c. The iris, d, d. The\\nsclerotic coat. e. The crystalline lens. The optic nerve.\\ng. The vitreous humor, h. The pupil.\\nceives the rays of light on a convex surface; and it,\\nwith the aqueous humor lying back of it, being\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 11.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0129.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "120 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ndenser than the air, causes the rays to converge c\\nNow rays coming to the eye from objects near it,\\ndo not reach the cornea parallel with each other,\\nbut are diverging. This first lens (the aqueous hu-\\nmor), therefore, serves chiefly to correct this diverg-\\nence, and bring the light to the crystalline lens in\\nparallel rays. This lens is denser than the aqueous\\nhumor, and consequently refracts the light conveyed to\\nit. Both its surfaces are convex, w T ith the back more so\\nthan the front; therefore the rays, in passing into the\\nvitreous humor, are so converged that they form a focus\\non the retina, in the posterior chamber of the eye.\\n166. Place and Size of the Image. Rays of light\\nthrown off divergent from every point of an object,\\nwould therefore be converged to a focus, and form an\\nimage; and when the eye is properly adjusted, this\\nimage will be in direct contact with the sensitive\\nsurface of the retina. This surface transmits the im-\\npression thus made to the brain, where the perceptions\\nof it are recorded.\\nBy a law in optics, the image becomes smaller as the\\ndistance of the object from the lens is increased. In\\nlooking at a distant landscape, the whole scene, with\\nits mountains, rivers, and forests, covering many square\\nmiles, is faithfully delineated on a surface scarcely\\nmore than a quarter of an inch square; and yet so\\nperfect is the image of each object, that the mind\\ndearly perceives it.\\n167. Images on the Retina are Inverted. But the\\nrays of light coming from the lower part of an object,\\nwill form their focus at the upper part of the image;\\nand those from the upper part of the object, crossing", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0130.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "VISION. 121\\nthe first, will form the lower part of the image, so\\nthat the picture will be inverted.\\nThis is well known to be the position of the image\\nformed in a camera obscura, an instrument constructed\\non the princix le of the eye; and it has been further\\nproven by actual experiment. If we take the eye of\\nan ox, and carefully dissect the sclerotic and choroid\\ncoats away from the back part of it, and fit the\\neye thus prepared into an opening in a shutter, so\\nthat the cornea will look outward, and then place\\nourselves behind the eye, in a dark room, Ave shall\\nsee the images of external objects in an inverted\\nposition on its retina.\\n168. How Objects are seen Erect. Many physi-\\nologists have been greatly puzzled to explain why\\nobjects appear erect, when the images by which we\\nsee them are inverted; but if we remember that vision\\nis an acquired function, and that we learn the position,\\nsize, and form of things seen, only by habit, the diffi-\\nculty disappears at once.\\nUniversal experience teaches us that the part of the\\nimage impressed on the lower portion of the retina,\\nanswers to the upper part of the object; and, reversely,\\nimpressions on the higher parts of the eye answer to\\nthe lower portion of objects. Indeed, none of the\\nspecial senses give us knowledge instinctively, but all\\nrequire to be trained and educated, till the perceptive\\npowers become familiar with their modes of commu-\\nnicating intelligence.\\n169. Adjustment of the Eye. But there is an-\\nother difficulty connected with the mechanism of the\\neye, more serious than this. Rays coming from distant", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0131.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "122 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nobjects are nearer parallel than those radiating from a\\nless remote point, and rays entering the eye least di-\\nvergent will come to a focus soonest; consequently, if\\nthe distance between the crystalline lens and the retina\\nwere always the same, and the shape of the lens un-\\nalterable, we would be able to see objects distinctly\\nonly in one place.\\nIf they were nearer to us, the image would fall\\nbehind the retina; if farther from us, it would be\\nformed in the vitreous humor in front of that surface.\\nThis difficulty is remedied by accommodating the posi-\\ntion or shape of the crystalline lens to the distance of\\nthe object from the eye. The muscular fibers of the\\nciliary processes (\u00c2\u00a7161), draw the lens forward when\\nwe look at things near us, which movement also com-\\npresses the lens, so that its focus is shortened; and\\nthese joint movements throw the image on the sensitive\\nsurface of the retina.\\nRecapitulation.\\nImages are formed in the eye by the refraction of light.\\nSelf-luminous bodies, and those reflecting light, are objects of\\nvision. The aqueous humor corrects the divergence of light;\\nthe crystalline lens is chiefly concerned in forming the image.\\nThe distance of the object diminishes the size of the image.\\nPerfect vision requires that the image be in contact with the\\nretina. Images in the eye are inverted. Position, size, and\\nplace of an object are determined by habit. The eye adjusts\\nitself to the varying location of objects.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0132.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "VISION. 123\\nLESSON XXI.\\nVISION. CONTINUED.\\n170. Spherical Aberration\u00e2\u0080\u0094 its cause and effect.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe quantity of light admitted into the eye is meas-\\nured by its intensity. In a strong light, fewer rays are\\nrequired to form a distinct image; and accommodating\\nitself to this condition, the pupil is diminished by the\\ncircular fibers of the iris contracting, and drawing the\\nedge of the curtain forward. In a dim light, this move-\\nment is reversed, and the radiating fibers of the iris\\ndraw the edge back, and thus enlarge the pupil. But\\nin using the eye with an enlarged pupil in a dim light,\\nobjects become indistinct, with their outlines no longer\\nsharply denned.\\nThis results from a well-known principle in optics.\\nThe rays of light which fall near the edge of a convex\\nlens are bent more, and consequently have a shorter\\nfocal distance than those falling near the axis of the\\nlens, thus making the focus a line, rather than a point.\\nThis is called spherical aberration. The contraction of the\\niris covers the edges of the crystalline lens, and thus\\navoiding spherical aberration, leaves the image sharply\\ndefined when made by a bright light.\\n171. Short-sightedness. Short-sightedness is gen-\\nerally attributed to a too great convexity of the cornea.\\nIn a majority of cases of this kind, the defect in vision\\narises from this cause, but it evidently may be produced\\nby a too great convexity of the crystalline lens, as well\\nas by the same deformity of the cornea; or there may be", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0133.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "124\\nPHYSIOLOGY.\\nThe image formed forward of the\\nretina.\\nFig. 70.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Long-sightedness.\\ntoo great a distance between the lens and the retina.\\nThis may be owing to a defect in the power of adjust-\\nment in the eye. If the\\npig. 69,-Short-sightedness. canse f ne ar-sighted-\\nness lies in the cornea,\\nage will cure it if it is\\nfrom either of the other\\ncauses, it will remain.\\nLong-sightedness arises\\nfrom the opposite condi-\\ntions. This is seen in\\nthe subjoined figures.\\n172. Size and Dis-\\ntance of Objects how\\ndetermined. The abil-\\nity to determine the\\ndistance and size of ob-\\njects seen is acquired only by practice. The size of an\\nobject would very naturally be inferred from the space\\noccupied by the image on the retina; but a small object\\nnear the eye will make an image covering as much of\\nthe retina as a large one at a distance. From this it\\nwill be seen that size and distance are intimately re-\\nlated in vision.\\nIf we know the distance of an object, we may form\\na pretty accurate judgment of its size; and, on the\\nother hand, having determined the size of any thing,\\nwe readily refer it to the proper distance. Painters\\navail themselves of this law by introducing into pic-\\ntures of buildings, landscapes, etc., figures of men or\\nanimals whose size is well known, and by this means\\nthey enable us to judge correctly of the distance of the\\nThe image formed back of the retina.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0134.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "VISION. 125\\nobjects, which the perspective may, perhaps, have failed\\nto determine positively.\\n173. Transparency of the Atmosphere affects the\\nJudgment of Distance. The degree of distinctness\\nin the outlines and general form of bodies, furnishes\\nanother means of determining distance. This is modi-\\nfied very much by the intensity of light and the trans-\\nparency of the air. In the clear atmosphere and strong\\nlight common in mountainous regions, the distance of\\nobjects is apparently much diminished.\\nWhen we look at objects near to us, the eyes are\\nrolled inward, so that the lines drawn through the\\ncenter of each eye will form a greater angle where they\\nmeet in the object, than they would if it were distant.\\nThe muscular sense estimates the extent of this inclina-\\ntion of the eyes toward each other, and thus materially\\naids in determining distance.\\n174. Why Objects are seen Single, when an Image\\nis made in each Eye. When we see objects with\\ntwo eyes, it is evident that two distinct images are\\nformed, and yet the mind perceives but one object.\\nThis depends on our ability to adjust the axis of vision,\\nso that the image will occupy exactly the same point\\non the retina in each eye. Any thing that interferes\\nwith the action of the muscles which roll the eyeballs,\\nor that hinders our adjusting the eyes to objects at a\\nparticular distance, will produce the phenomenon of\\ndouble vision.\\nWhen we attempt to arrange three or more objects at\\ndifferent distances from us, so that they shall be in a\\nline, we use but one eye, otherwise all the objects but\\none would be seen double. If we press one of our eyes", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0135.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "126 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nso as to hold the ball firmly in the socket, we see all\\nobjects double, because we interfere with the adjustment\\nof the angle of vision.\\n175. The Advantage of two Eyes. The advantage\\nof two eyes in seeing is not merely that we double the\\nimpression made on the nervous center, but we are\\nenabled to see more of objects with two eyes than\\nwith but one. If we place a card before us, with\\nits edge directed to the space between the eyes, we\\nwill see both sides of the card; but if we close one eye,\\nthe side of the card corresponding to that eye will dis-\\nappear. From this simple experiment, it is evident\\nthat the images in the two eyes are not alike, but they\\nmust occupy the same point on the retina to make\\nvision perfect.\\nWhen we look at a plane surface, each eye has\\nexactly the same image in it; but if the surface is\\nirregular, curved, or angular, each eye will picture\\nits own side of these irregularities; but out of the two\\npictures, the mind perceives one perfect image.\\n176. The influence of the Mind on Vision. In\\ncross-eyes, the mind recognizes the image formed in\\nbut one eye, and thus objects are seen single which\\notherwise would evidently appear double. But it is\\ntrue of ordinary vision, also, that the mind has no per-\\nception of many images that must be formed on the\\nretina. Indeed, the whole process of sight is very\\nmuch influenced by the mind, and often the things\\nspoken of as objects of sight are really the results\\nof our judgment about the sensation.\\nDistance, size, and, to a great extent, shape, are rather\\ncomplex judgments than simple sensations. Another", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0136.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "VISION. 127\\nsource of false vision is, that the image is not perceived\\nat the instant it is made, nor is its absence observed\\nthe moment it disappears. The separate spokes of a\\nwheel in rapid motion blend together and appear con-\\ntinuous. So if a burning coal be whirled rapidly in\\na circle, it appears as a continuous line of light, be-\\ncause the eye retains the first impression till it is\\nreproduced.\\n177. Subjective Sensation. The mind performs an\\nimportant part in all our sensations, as well as in\\nvision. What are commonly known as delusions of\\nthe senses are really mental phenomena morbid\\nactions of the perceptive faculties. They are more\\nproperly called subjective sensations.\\nIn certain conditions of the skin, there is a percep-\\ntion of something creeping on the surface. In many\\ndiseases, the patient is constantly harassed with certain\\ndisagreeable tastes or odors. These are perceptions from\\ninternal conditions, and not from external impressions\\non the organs of sense. Many persons are troubled\\nwith perceptions of sound, without any external cause;\\nbut the most wonderful exhibition of subjective sensa-\\ntion is to be seen in patients laboring under de-\\nlirium tremens, when the most frightful objects are\\npictured to the mind with great distinctness and in\\nminute detail.\\nRecapitulation.\\nSpherical aberration, the effect of enlarging the pupil in a\\ndim light. Short-sightedness may be the effect of several\\ncauses. Distance of an object determined chiefly by its known\\nsize, and the sharpness oLits outline. Objects are seen singly", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0137.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "128 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nby the image in each eye falling on the same part of each\\nretina. More of an object can be seen with two eyes than with\\none. Vision is influenced by the mind. Certain conditions of\\nthe brain produce false perceptions, or subjective sensations.\\nLESSON XXII.\\nMOTOR FUNCTION.\\n178. The Motor Functions of the Nervous Sys-\\ntem. We have already said 120) that the nervous\\nS3 r stem lias a three-fold function or, rather, it performs\\nthree distinct and nearly independent functions. Sen-\\nsation is but one of these. By it we become acquainted\\nwith the external world, and acquire the material for\\nthought that on which the mind exerts its creative\\npowers of imagination, comparison, judgment, etc.\\nSensation is thus intimately connected with our ra-\\ntional enjoyment; but the power of motion, communi-\\ncated to the muscles through the motor nerves, is\\nessential to life itself.\\nWhen the heart and the respiratory muscles cease\\nto move, death ensues instantly. But the motor func-\\ntions have an important bearing on the mental action.\\nWhile the mind receives the thoughts of other minds\\nby the sentient nerves, it is able to communicate its\\nown thoughts only through the motor nerves.\\n179. Voluntary and Involuntary Movements.\\nMuscular motion has been generally considered as of\\ntwo kinds, voluntary and involuntary; or those motions", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0138.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "MOTOR FUNCTION. 129\\nthat are immediately under the control of the will, and\\nthose over which we are able to exert little or no\\ncontrol by our volitions. The involuntary movements\\nbelong to the functions immediately connected with\\nlife, such as digestion, circulation, secretion, etc. Res-\\npiration is a mixed function, controlled to a limited\\nextent by the will, but beyond that, becoming invol-\\nuntary.\\nThe involuntary motions of the body, when in a\\nhealthy condition, are carried on without our knowl-\\nedge, as well as without our consent. We therefore\\nnever feel fatigued from the constant action of the\\nheart, or the movements of the stomach during diges-\\ntion. The wisdom of placing these important functions\\nbeyond the reach of the will, as w T ell as beyond our\\nconsciousness, is apparent at the first glance.\\n180. Ganglions of Involuntary Motion. The nerves\\nsupplying power to the involuntary muscles, do not\\ncome directly from the brain or spinal cord, but are\\nderived from a system of ganglions, or little brains,\\nlocated in the vicinity of the great organs they are\\nintended to supply, and these connect with two nervous\\ncords extending nearly the whole length of the spinal\\ncolumn, and occupying positions on each side of it.\\nThis double cord is known as the Great Sympathetic\\nnerve. These cords are really chains of ganglia, or\\nlittle knots of nervous matter arranged like the spinal\\ncord, the gray matter occupying the center, with the\\nwhite matter on the surface. These ganglia are oppo-\\nsite to the space between the vertebra. They are con-\\nnected together by a nervous cord, and each ganglion\\nreceives a filament from the corresponding spinal nerve", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0139.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "130 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nat its origin, and sends off branches which, uniting\\ntogether, form the ganglia of the involuntary organs.\\n181. Importance of Ganglionic Nerves. The\\nbranches of this sympathetic system accompany the\\nblood-vessels even to their capillary extremities, and\\nseem to exert an influence on those mysterious changes\\nwhich take place in connection with this class of\\nvessels, such as the secretion of fluids by certain\\nglands, direct nutrition of the different tissues, etc.\\nThis is demonstrated by the effect of injuries to the\\nbranches of this nervous system distributed to the\\ndifferent organs. For instance, if the great semi-lunar\\nganglion, from which the diaphragm derives its nerves\\nof involuntary motion, be injured, breathing is so im-\\npaired that the patient frequently dies suddenly, as\\nif from suffocation. This system has no true sentient\\nnerves, but certain mental emotions are referred to the\\nlarger ganglions, producing peculiar sensations familiar\\nto every one.\\n182. Passions and Emotions how expressed.\\nThis indirect or sympathetic connection between the\\nmental condition and the involuntary organs, gives\\nrise to all the common manifestations of emotion or\\npassion, such as tears of grief, the paleness of fear, the\\nflush of rage, or the blush of confusion or shame.\\nThese being produced involuntarily by the several\\nmental conditions of which they are the exponents,\\ncan be artificially induced only by exciting in the\\nmind the actual condition of which they are the\\nproper representatives.\\nThe actor on the stage, by the long training of,\\nperhaps, an originally active imagination, throws his", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0140.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "MOTOR FUNCTION. 131\\nmind into the actual condition of that expressed in\\nthe character he is personating, and the involuntary\\nexpressions of these conditions follow, by sympathy,\\nas truly as if the emotions were real.\\n183. The Physiological Law of Sympathy. But\\nthe sympathetic action does not end here. Watching\\nthe expression of the actor s emotion, our own minds\\nbecome similarly affected, whether we will it or not,\\nand that condition is expressed by the invariable\\naction of the involuntary nerves. In this power to\\nvoluntarily call up the mental condition present in\\nthe exercise of any of the passions, and thus induce\\nthe true expression of the emotion through involuntary\\nfunctions, consists the chief control of the orator over\\nhis hearers.\\nThe speaker who can so impress his own mind as to\\nproduce the mental state of grief, will find the lachry-\\nmal glands responding at once in as copious a flow\\nof tears as if his grief were real; and his audience,\\nunless they, by a voluntary effort, withdraw their\\nattention, and thus sever the cord of sympathy, will\\nfind themselves weeping too. Such are the mental\\nassociations of the involuntary nerves.\\n184. Degree of Sensibility in the Involuntary\\nOrgans. The organs which perform involuntary func-\\ntions have, in their healthy condition, no sensibility,\\nor, at least, they are sensitive only as they are supplied\\nwith nerves from the cerebro-spinal system. In certain\\nforms of disease, however, the stomach, intestinal canal,\\nand heart become exceedingly sensitive to the touch of\\nany solid substance.\\nThough the will has no direct control over these", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0141.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "132 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nfunctions yet the activity of the voluntary organs pro-\\nduces a decided influence on the rate and force with\\nwhich they act. Brisk exercise, short of the point\\nof violence, and not continued to fatigue, will accel-\\nerate all the involuntary actions in sympathy with\\nthe voluntary functions. If, however, the exercise be\\nviolent, and be carried forward till a sense of fatigue\\nis felt, the vital force will be expended on the volun-\\ntary organs, leaving the involuntary functions in an\\nimpaired condition.\\n185. Effect of Sleep. This sympathy of the invol-\\nuntary w r ith the voluntary movements of the body is\\nfurther seen in the diminished force and activity of\\ncirculation, digestion, and secretion during sleep, which,\\nas w T e shall see in the proper place, is a suspension of\\nthe voluntary functions.\\nThough the involuntary muscles are not capable of\\nfeeling fatigued, yet they are subject, at least in some\\ndegree, to the rapid exhaustion which so soon succeeds\\nto the forcible contraction of a voluntary muscle.\\nThough the heart may continue to perform its function\\nincessantly for its three score and ten years, yet we\\nmust remember that its intervals of relaxation are\\nequal to its periods of contraction; in other words,\\nthe heart rests half its time.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe motor functions are essential to the maintenance of life.\\nMuscular motions are of two kinds, voluntary and involuntary.\\nThe cranial and spinal nerves govern voluntary motion. In-\\nvoluntary movements are connected with the brain through", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0142.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "NEBVOUS FUNCTIONS.\\n133\\nganglions. The sympathetic nerve, with its connected ganglions,\\ncontrols the circulation, Mention, etc. Passions and emotions\\nare expressed through the sympathetic nerve. Voluntary mo-\\ntions effect involuntary functions indirectly.\\nLESSON XXIII.\\nFjg. 71.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Transverse\\nSection of the\\nSpinae Cord.\\nb\\nNERVOUS FUNCTIONS.\\n186. Special Functions of the Spinal Cord. In\\nthe anatomical description of the brain and spinal cord,\\nit was observed that the proportion of gray matter,\\ncompared with the white, was smaller in the cord than\\nin either the cerebrum or cerebel-\\nlum. As we come now to inquire\\ninto the motor function of the\\nspinal cord, it will be well to note\\nG the relative position of these two\\nsubstances. As is shown in the\\nsubjoined figure, the gray 7 matter\\noccupies the center of the cord,\\nand is nearly surrounded by the\\nwhite substance.\\nBoth roots of the spinal nerves\\na. Anterior fissure, b. communicate first with the white\\nmatter of the cord, but do not ter-\\nminate there. Many of their fila-\\nments dip downward through the external white en-\\nvelope of the cord, and terminate on the gray matter at\\nits center. This arrangement gives to the cord a two-\\nfold function 1st. It is, by its white matter, a part of\\nPosterior fissure, c,\\nc. Gray matter.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0143.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "134 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nthe continuous chain of communication between the\\ngray substance of the brain and the motor and sentient\\nextremities of the nerves; and, 2d. Under certain cir-\\ncumstances, it assumes the functions of brain proper,\\nand carries forward its actions unconsciously.\\n187. Complex Nature of Voluntary Motion*\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Vol-\\nuntary motion, however simple it may appear, is a very\\ncomplicated matter. If the hand comes into contact\\nwith a hot poker, an impression is made on the extremi-\\nties of the sentient nerves; this is immediately trans-\\nmitted to the spinal cord by the brachial nerve, and,\\nthrough the white matter of the cord, is conveyed to\\nthe gray substance of the brain, where the sense of heat\\nis perceived, and immediately an impulse is transmitted\\nto the proper motor nerves by the same route through\\nthe spinal cord, the appropriate muscles are called into\\naction, and the hand removed from its dangerous con-\\ntact with a hot surface. That these actions take place\\nconsecutively can be clearly demonstrated by experi-\\nment, and yet the touch, the sensation, and the motion\\nappear to occur at the same instant,\\n188. Reflex Motions originate in the Spinal Cord.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nBut the greater number of voluntary motions do not\\noriginate directly from sensations transmitted to the\\nbrain, but spring from independent volitions. A vol-\\nuntary motion, which at first requires a specific action\\nof the brain and a clear consciousness of the volition\\nwhich produced it, will, after being often repeated,\\nbecome habitual, and be produced without any con-\\nsciousness of the volition commanding it.\\nThese are called reflex motions, and are supposed to\\noriginate in the gray matter of the spinal cord, which,", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0144.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS FUNCTIONS. 135\\nin these instances, performs the true functions of brain\\nwithout our being conscious of its action. A great\\nmajority of the movements of the body belong to this\\nclass of reflex or unconscious action.\\n189. Unconscious nature of Reflex Motions.\\nMovements thus performed fatigue us much less, and\\nare usually performed with greater accuracy, than those\\nwhich demand our conscious attention to every volition\\nand every motion resulting therefrom. In illustration\\nof this, take the example of a walk. At every step the\\nfoot is carried forward by the contraction of a great\\nnumber of muscles but the attention is diverted to the\\nscenery around us, or to the particular objects along our\\npathway; or, if not to these, the mind is engaged with\\nsome train of thought, or in the solution of some\\nabstract problem, and at the end of our walk we are\\nunable to recall the volition which produced any one\\nof the thousands of separate motions we have made, or\\nthe consciousness of a single step we have taken.\\n190. Reflex Motions less exhaustive than Volun-\\ntary ones. When we begin a kind of work to which\\nwe are not accustomed, our motions are awkward and\\nclumsy, and each movement requires our undivided\\nattention. They are cerebral motions. But after we\\nestablish the habit of these motions, however complex\\nthey may be or, in common phrase, after we have\\nacquired the handicraft the movements are made\\ngracefully, with ease, and without our attention or\\nconsciousness. These are spinal or reflex actions.\\nIt is a matter of common observation, that a kind\\nof labor to which we are not accustomed, fatigues us\\nmore than heavier labor to which we have habituated\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 12.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0145.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "136 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nourselves. This is because cerebral action is more ex-\\nhausting than spinal or reflex action.\\n191. How the Nerves convey Impressions. We\\nhave spoken of the impressions made on the looped\\nextremity of a sentient nerve, and of their communi-\\ncation along that nerve to the seat of perception in the\\nbrain, and of the transmission of an impulse or force\\nfrom the same center of influence, along the motor\\nnerves to the muscles to produce motion; but our closest\\nscrutiny does not detect any matter, however subtle, as\\ntraversing the nerves in either direction.\\nThe nervous tissue, like other tissues of the body, is\\nmade of cells, and those in the white matter of the\\nbrain, and in the nervous cords, are elongated into\\ntubuli, and what is transmitted is probably the mere\\nmotion or undulation of the molecules of which these\\ntubuli are formed.\\n192, Communication with the Brain essential to\\nSensation or Motion. A continuity of nerve structure\\nfrom the brain to the muscles of motion, and from the\\norgans of sensation to the brain, is absolutely essential\\nto motion or sensation. If the nerve be divided, or if the\\ncommunication with the brain through the spinal cord\\nbe broken, all the organs to which that nerve is distrib-\\nuted will lose the power of either sensation or motion.\\nFrom the fact that the spinal nerves originate by\\nseparate roots from different tracts of the spinal cord,\\n122,) and of these roots each performs a different func-\\ntion, it is possible to lose the power of feeling in a part\\nwhile the function of motion remains unimpaired,\\nand the reverse. Both the power of motion and sensa-\\ntion may be lost in a limb, while the circulation in it", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0146.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "NERVOUS FUNCTIONS. \\\\:\\\\j\\nwill be scarcely disturbed, tins being under the control\\nof the ganglionic nerves.\\n193, Effect of Injury to the Nervous Trunks.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 If\\nthe trunk of a nerve, at any point between its origin\\nand its sentient extremity, be irritated or injured in\\nany way, the pain will be referred to the part on which\\nthe sentient extremities of the nerve are spread. When\\na limb lias been amputated, and the ends of the divided\\nnerves left in a condition exposing them to injury from\\ncompression or irritation, the patient will complain of\\npain in the lost limb; and these unpleasant sensations\\nwill frequently continue for years. The practical lesson\\nto be learned from this is, that sensation is not to be\\nreceived as infallible evidence that the cause producing\\nit is located at the point where it is felt. It may be at\\nany point along the trunk of the nerve.\\n194. Motions Classified. The motor functions of\\nthe nervous system may be arranged in three classes:\\n1st. Those motions which originate in the gray matter\\nof the brain, and proceed from a conscious impulse of\\nthe will; 2d. Those which at first are voluntary and\\nconscious, but by frequent repetition come to be per-\\nformed unconsciously, under the control of the spinal\\ncord; 3d. Those which are purely involuntary, and of\\nwhich w r e are entirely unconscious. These motions\\noriginate in the ganglions, and the organs thus acting\\nare supplied chiefly with nerves from this source.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe spinal cord consists, like the brain, of gray and white\\nmatter, but their relative positions are inverted. Voluntary\\nmotions are complex. Keflex motions originate in the spinal", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0147.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "138 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ncord. They are performed unconsciously, and are. less fatigu-\\ning than motions of cerebral origin. Sensation and motion re-\\nquire unbroken nervous connection with the brain. Injuries\\nof nervous trunks produce sensation which is referred to the\\nextremities.\\nLESSON XXIY.\\nMENTAL FUNCTION.\\n195. Thought dependent on the Brain The\\nthird function of the brain is thought. In what\\nmanner the brain acts when one thinks, we may,\\nperhaps, never know; and yet we are as certain that\\nit is the instrument of thought, as we know its con-\\nnection with sensation and motion. Compression of\\nthe brain suspends consciousness and thought, as cer-\\ntainly as compression of the spinal cord arrests motion,\\nand destroys sensation in the parts beyond the com-\\npression.\\nCertain diseased conditions of the brain derange the\\nfunction of thought, and produce the different forms\\nand grades of insanity corresponding to the character\\nand intensity of the disease. Malformation of the brain\\nmay be regarded as a constant accompaniment of idiocy;\\nand, as a general rule, the extent of the malformation\\nmeasures the loss of mental power.\\n196, Deyelopment of Brain measures Thought.\\nTo suppose that the power of thought belongs alone\\nto the human race is, perhaps, the most common\\nmistake on this subject. There is unmistakable evi-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0148.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "MENTAL FUNCTION. 139\\ndence that the inferior animals think, and that in\\nthem the power of thought is more or less perfect,\\naccording to the degree of brain development.\\nIn the vertebrate animals, as we ascend the scale\\nfrom fishes to reptiles, from reptiles to birds, from birds\\nto mammals, and finally to man, we find at every step\\nan advance in the perfection of the nervous system;\\nbut this advance affects chiefly the cerebrum. Fishes\\nhave a very perfect spinal cord, the rudiments of a\\ncerebellum, but nothing that deserves to be called a\\ncerebrum. With them, thought is little more than an\\ninstinct of self-preservation. In reptiles, the cerebrum,\\nthough very small, can be clearly distinguished; and\\nso the advance continues, intelligence keeping pace\\nwith it, till it culminates in man.\\n197. The Cerebrum, the Organ of Thought, But\\neven in the mammalia, the class to which man, as an\\nanimal, belongs, the proportion of the cerebrum to the\\ncerebellum varies very much. In the lower orders of\\nthis class, such as the sloth, the ant-eater, and the\\nopossum, the cerebrum is but little larger than the\\ncerebellum but, in man, it is from seven to ten times\\nas large. This fact has led physiologists to infer that\\nthe cerebrum is the proper organ of thought, and the\\ninference is probably well founded.\\nThere is another feature in which the human brain\\ndiffers from that organ in inferior animals. The pro-\\nportion of gray matter is much greater in the brain of\\nman than in that of any of the lower animals. But\\nhere, again, we find an ascending scale corresponding\\nto the degree of intelligence in the animal. This is so\\nuniform, ,hat it may be regarded as establishing a", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0149.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "140 PHYSIOLOGY.\\ngeneral rule, that the proportion of gray, as compared\\nwith the white matter in the cerebrum, measures the\\nsagacity of the animal.\\n198. Voluntary and Involuntary Thought.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Within\\ncertain limits, thought is an involuntary function, but\\nbeyond these, the intellectual phenomena appear to be,\\nto a great extent at least, under the control of the will.\\nThoughts which arise immediately from impressions\\nmade through the senses are not voluntary, but appear\\nto spring up spontaneously. Another source of invol-\\nuntary thought is found in the appetites and desires\\nconnected with the maintenance of life and health,\\nsuch as hunger and thirst.\\nIn the higher and more purely intellectual regions\\nof thought, the will exercises at least a directive power\\nover the mental action, selecting the subject of thought,\\nand determining the direction of the investigation, and\\nhow far it shall be prosecuted.\\n199. Voluntary Thought modified by Training.\\nThe power to maintain complete control of the mental\\nfunctions varies materially in different individuals.\\nTo some extent this variation is natural, but to a\\ngreat extent it is the result of training and edu-\\ncation. Every student has observed how much more\\nreadily and perfectly he can command his attention\\nto the subject of his studies, after his mind has\\nbeen trained for }^ears in the daily business of study,\\nthan he could when he first made his acquaintance\\nwith books.\\nThe relation existing between the voluntary and in-\\nvoluntary departments of thought, gives rise to many\\ncurious and interesting phenomena. The power to", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0150.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "MENTAL FUNCTION. 141\\nconcentrate the thoughts by a voluntary effort, and fix\\nthem on any line of investigation, is often so strong as\\nto completely suppress the involuntary powers for the\\ntime being. This in common language is called absent-\\nmindedness. It may arise from the great force of the\\ndirective faculty, or from the feeble effect of the sentient\\npower on the brain.\\n200. Life in the Ascending Scale.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Modern phi-\\nlosophy assumes that motion, every-where in this world,\\nis the result of force, operating on and through matter.\\nGravity, the chemical, electrical, and thermal forces\\npervade the entire material w r orld. In addition to\\nthese, we find the force of organic life manifesting its\\npresence in the vegetable world by the phenomena of\\nnutrition, and through the mysterious process of cell\\ngrowth, molding each individual into a specific form.\\nSuperadded to this, we have animal life manifested in\\nthe three-fold function of the nervous system sensa-\\ntion, voluntary motion, and thought. Besides these\\nphenomena, man also possesses the power of abstract\\nthought, giving him the faculties of imagination, moral\\nand religious perceptions, etc.\\n201. The Human Powers. In the possession of\\nthese human powers, man differs from all the lower\\nanimals as really as they differ from the vegetable\\nworld. As the formation of cells and the construction\\nof organs, etc., are functions of organic life, and sensa-\\ntion, motion, and thought are functions of animal life,\\nso abstract reasoning, moral sensibility, the creative\\nfaculty of imagination, w T ith all its high powers of\\nexamining and comparing things which are not, as\\nthough they w r ere, are functions of spirit.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0151.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "142 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nAs animal life differs from the organic, not in degree\\nmerely, but also in kind, so the power of abstract reason\\ndiffers from animal sensation and intellection it is of\\nanother kind. Man manifests all the life forces of the\\nvegetable and animal worlds, and in addition to these,\\nfunctions which belong to a higher force, which we\\ncall Spirit.\\n202. Man, compared with the Lower Animals.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nOf the nature of any force, abstractly, we know nothing.\\nIts existence, and the law governing its activities, w T e\\nknow r only by a careful study of what it does. The\\nlower animals have all our senses, and some of these are\\nmuch more acute than in man. They have memory,\\nin some instances amazingly perfect; they manifest\\nemotions and desires and to gratify these desires, they\\nadopt means to that end, limiting their reasoning to\\nobjects of sensation, however, and circumscribing their\\nefforts to the securing of pleasurable emotions, and the\\navoidance of painful sensations. But they manifest no\\npower to separate and examine, abstractly, the qualities\\nof either actions or objects. These are functions of the\\nspirit, and in the exercise of these powers man is a\\nmoral agent he knows right and wrong has a con-\\nscience, and feels his accountability, and is, therefore, a\\nreligious being; he reasons on form and number as\\nabstract qualities of things, and is, therefore, a mathe-\\nmatical being. These are attributes of spirit.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThought is a function of brain. This faculty is not confined\\nto man, but is manifested in the lower animals in proportion\\nto brain development. The cerebrum is probably the organ", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0152.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "SLEEP. 143\\nof thought. The sagacity of animals may be measured by the\\nproportion of gray matter in the cerebrum. Thought is an in-\\nvoluntary function, but the directive power is voluntary.\\nAbstract thoughts, such as relate to the moral qualities of\\nactions, the mathematical properties, form, number, etc., are\\nfunctions of spirit, and belong exclusively to man.\\nLESSON XXV.\\nSLEEP.\\n203. Sleep, as it affects the Tital Functions. The\\nconstant activity of the brain, in its triple function,\\nrapidly exhausts its power, and, like other living\\norgans, it requires rest. But the rest of the brain,\\nnecessary to restore its wasted energies, like rest in\\nother organs, is the suspension of its function. To\\nsuspend the functions of the nervous system, is to\\ninduce a state of entire unconsciousness. This is sleep,\\nand is a necessity in all animals, as well as in man.\\nIt is proper to say, however, that the complete\\nsuspension of function does not extend to the whole\\nnervous system. It begins with and belongs properly\\nto the cranial brain, extending, by a kind of secondary\\ninfluence, to the spinal cord, and modifying but slightly\\nthe great sympathetic nerve and its ganglions. There-\\nfore, all the involuntary movements of the body con-\\ntinue during sleep, but they are performed more slowly\\nand with less force.\\n204. The order in which Sleep affects the Senses.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe transition from a waking to a sleeping state,\\nthough often very rapid, is a process consisting of\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 13.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0153.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "144 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nseveral consecutive steps. The progress toward a state\\nof sleep appears to begin with impaired sensation, the\\nsenses of smell and taste being first to feel the effect\\nafter this the eyes close, and vision ceases. The sense\\nof touch is early impaired, but does not entirely dis-\\nappear until all the other faculties are locked in sleep.\\nThe sense of hearing maintains its function unim-\\npaired as long as consciousness remains and there are\\ngood reasons to believe that, though unconscious of it,\\nthe auditory sense is constantly reporting to the per-\\nceptive center, though no notice may be taken of these\\nreports. A man falls asleep in the middle of a sermon,\\nbut as soon as the voice ceases he wakes, from the\\nauditory nerve ceasing to report to the perceptive\\ncenter.\\n205. Cerebral and Spinal Functions differently\\ninfluenced. While sleep is thus stealing on our\\nsenses, the power of voluntary motion is early sus-\\npended, especially those motions which demand the\\nattention, and which requires each a special volition\\nfor its performance. The habitual motions, or those\\nwhich are performed by the reflex action of the spinal\\ncord, are continued longer, sometimes even after con-\\nsciousness is entirely suspended, as in case of persons\\nwalking.\\nSomnambulism, or sleep-walking, is but the waking\\nstate of the functions under the influence of the reflex\\naction of the spinal cord. The involuntary functions,\\nsuch as respiration, circulation, digestion, etc., as soon\\nas the voluntary movements of the body are suspended,\\nfeel the effect at once. The breathing is not so deep,\\nand the number of inspirations in a given time is", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0154.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "SLEEP. 145\\nreduced; the pulse is generally diminished in fre-\\nquency and force, and the temperature of the body falls\\nsensibly.\\n206. Effect of Sleep on the Mental Faculties.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nIn the mental department of brain action, sleep first\\nimpairs the directive power of the mind. By this we\\nmean the faculty which determines the course which\\nour thoughts shall pursue. Next follow the powers of\\nabstract reasoning, imagination, and memory; and last\\nof all, the mind ceases to respond to the impressions\\nmade on the senses, and consciousness of our person-\\nality, or even existence, is lost.\\nJust before consciousness becomes extinct, there some-\\ntimes supervenes a curious intermediate state, w r hich in\\ncommon language is called dozing. We are still con-\\nscious, but unable to discriminate between impressions\\nmade by external objects through the senses, and those\\nmade from within by our own thoughts. This state is\\nnear akin to dreaming.\\n207. Sleep is Brain rest. In a healthy state of the\\nbody, after about fifteen hours, more or less, spent in\\nbrain activity, the nervous system demands rest, to\\nrecuperate its pow r ers and restore its exhausted ener-\\ngies. Sleep is the only true brain rest. We can tem-\\nporarily repair an exhausted faculty by suspending its\\naction, or exchanging it for some other form of brain\\nactivity; as, for example, when fatigued with study,\\nw 7 e take a brisk walk, thus transferring the action to\\nthe motor nerves; yet the brain, as a whole, is suffering\\nan exhaustion of its force, which can be restored only\\nby sleep.\\nWe may, by a voluntary effort, postpone from hour to", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0155.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "146 PHYSIOLOGY.\\nhour the demanded rest, but, finally, it supervenes\\ninvoluntarily, or inflammation of the brain will ensue.\\nWell authenticated instances are on record of persons\\nfalling asleep on the battle-field, or in the midst of a\\nterrible storm at sea, the presence of death itself not\\nbeing able to keep them awake.\\n208. How much Sleep is Necessary. The demand\\nfor sleep differs materially in different persons. Chil-\\ndren require more hours of sleep than do adults, and\\ntheir sleep is more profound, and the suspension of all\\nthe brain functions is more perfect. As a general rule,\\nwomen endure loss of sleep better than men, and the\\nnervous better than sanguine or lymphatic tempera-\\nments.\\nOf the three functions of brain, the mental is the\\nmost exhaustive. Next to this stands the function\\nof sensation; and that which demands the least sleep\\nis the motor function, or muscular activity. No rule\\ncan be laid down, with any degree of certainty, pre-\\nscribing a given number of hours for sleep in the\\ntwenty-four. Age, sex, temperament, kind of employ-\\nment, condition of health, etc., will materially modify\\nany rule we may adopt.\\n209. How far Sleep is Voluntary. Though sleep\\ncan not be voluntarily induced, yet w T e may place our-\\nselves in such a condition that it will be invited, and\\nwill almost invariably supervene. Silence, darkness,\\nand the absence of any object of sense, together w T ith\\na state of muscular repose, will place the brain in a\\ncondition where no external demand on its powers can\\nbe made. In this state of repose, it falls very naturally\\ninto unconscious sleep, unless this is prevented by the", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0156.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "SLEEP. 147\\nactivity of the representative faculties, or the creative\\npowers of the imagination. These, in persons of active\\nminds, often become troublesome, inducing a state of\\nwakefulness which is always exhaustive of the vital\\nforce, and sometimes causes dangerous disease of the\\nbrain.\\n210. Coma how it differs from Sleep. Coma is\\na condition of the brain which, in its external mani-\\nfestations, resembles very much a profound sleep. But\\nin this state, consciousness can not be restored by or\\nthrough impressions made on the organs of sense.\\nNatural sleep maybe regarded as an objective condition;\\none by one the senses suspend their functions, and cut\\nthe brain off from the external world, and thus se-\\ncluded, it sinks into a state of insensibility. In coma,\\nthe brain suffers from mechanical compression, from an\\nengorged state of its blood-vessels, from the presence of\\nalcohol or some other narcotic, till unconsciousness\\nsupervenes, and impressions made through the senses\\ncan no longer arouse it to action. It is in a state of\\nsubjective sleep.\\nRecapitulation.\\nSleep is brain rest, and is common to all animals. It affects\\nthe involuntary functions only indirectly. Sleep approaches by\\nsuccessive steps, affecting the senses in a regular order.\\nSomnambulism is the waking state of the spinal cord in its\\nreflex functions. Of the mental faculties, the directive power\\nfirst sleeps, and afterward the power to perceive sensations,\\netc. Sleep is involuntary, but may be invited or repelled by\\ncircumstances. Sleep is an objective condition. Coma is sub-\\njective sleep.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0157.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0158.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "PART II.\\nHYGIENE\\nLESSON XXVI.\\nHEALTH.\\n211. Hygiene defined\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the Importance of Health.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe art of preserving health is merely the application\\nof correct physiological principles to our daily life.\\nAs we have seen, the human body in living action is\\na very complex piece of machinery. Though wisely\\ncontrived and admirably constructed for the perform-\\nance of its very complicated functions, yet it is liable\\nto derangements both of structure and force.\\nThe causes leading to these derangements, and the\\ncircumstances under which they occur, and the mode\\nof preventing their occurrence, constitute the science\\nof Hygiene and its correlate art is the observance\\nof such rules of life as will most effectually avoid the\\ncauses of derangement and disease. The importance\\nof this knowledge in practice is so obvious to all,\\n(149)", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0159.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "150 HYGIENE.\\nthat not one word is necessary on that subject. With-\\nout good health, there is neither enjoyment or profit\\nin life therefore, to secure good health is the first duty\\nof every human being; nor can we neglect this duty\\nwithout incurring a fearful responsibility.\\n212. Relation of Physiology to Hygiene. In the\\nfirst part of these lessons we attempted to give the\\nstudent a correct idea of the form and structure of the\\nseveral organs of the human body, and their action in\\na normal or healthy condition. This knowledge has\\ntwo important practical applications the first of these\\nis to preserve health while we have it; the second is.\\nto restore it when it is lost.\\nIf by accident, neglect, or violation of the physio-\\nlogical conditions of vital actions, whether from ig-\\nnorance or willful inattention, these actions are im-\\npaired, deranged, or disturbed, great skill and knowl-\\nedge are required in the physician, in order to restore\\nthem to the normal condition; but the knowledge and\\nobservance of a few simple laws constitute the art of\\nmaintaining health, and these are within the reach of\\nall.\\n213. False Ideas of Disease their Influence on\\nHealth. The study and practice of hygiene has been\\nvery much impeded by false notions of the nature of\\ndisease. In ancient times, diseases were regarded as\\nthe inflictions of malignant spirits, who entered into\\nthe living body, deranged the delicate machinery, and\\ndisturbed its harmonious action. This superstition has\\nlong since been dispelled by the light of science, but\\nthere lingers still, in the common mind, the error\\nwhich supposes that disease is a thing an undefined", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0160.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "IIKALTII AND DISEASE. 151\\nand indefinable something which has somehow gained\\na lodgment in the body, and is to be driven out by\\nmedicines. Such notions as these are very unfavorable\\nto the introduction of healthful observances in our daily\\nlife. When the mind has once fully settled in the con-\\nclusion that disease occurs by a kind of fatal necessity,\\nwhich no precautions can avail to prevent, and all that\\nremains is for the physician to find some specific which\\nhas the mysterious power of expelling it, but little care\\nwill be taken to prevent it.\\n214. Health and Disease defined. From a careful\\nstudy of the living body, w T e learn that vital force, if\\nnot resulting from chemical change, is, at least, its\\nconstant accompaniment; and the development and\\nmaintenance of animal power are dependent on vital\\ntransformations. The lungs are in constant action,\\nsupplying oxygen to the blood; and the heart keeps\\nthat blood in incessant motion through all the parts\\nof the body. But these sensible and visible motions\\nare only accessory to the chemical changes effected by\\nthe oxygen thus transmitted.\\nThese changes take place in the tissues of the body,\\nand in the combustible elements of our food, evolving\\nfrom the change both heat and vital force. This active\\nchange and constant renewal of the particles consti-\\ntuting the body, is Health; the disturbance, obstruc-\\ntion, or perversion of this transformation of the tissues,\\nor the imperfect elimination of its products, is Disease.\\nIt is not a malignant entity, but a morbid action.\\n215. Diminished Transformation, a diseased con-\\ndition. A disease may, however, consist in diminished\\nor suspended action, as w r ell as in its perversion. In", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0161.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "152 HYGIENE.\\nall diseases of debility, the transformation of the tissues\\ntakes place too slowly; and nutrition, in all its pro-\\ncesses, from the first action of the mouth on the food\\nto its final deposition, is impaired, resulting in prostra-\\ntion of all the vital forces, and general emaciation of\\nthe body.\\nOn the other hand, in febrile diseases the tissues\\nare rapidly transformed, and the force evolved from\\nthis change appears in the correlate form of heat,\\nwhile the tissues thus w r asted are not replaced, as\\nnutrition is almost entirely suspended. All narcotic\\nsubstances, such as tobacco, opium, alcohol, etc., pro-\\nduce a really diseased condition, inasmuch as they\\ndiminish the amount of chemical change in the system\\nin a given time. Quinine, iron, and kindred sub-\\nstances, though they disturb the normal rate of vital\\naction by increasing the amount of change, can hardly\\nbe said to produce disease, as the nutrition is aug-\\nmented in the same proportion.\\n216. Disease from Perverted Action. But disease\\nmay consist in a perverted chemistry of the body,\\nresulting in the formation of compounds not found\\nin the healthy state of the system. Such are the\\nconcretions found in and about the joints in gout, the\\ngall-stones found in the gall-bladder under certain cir-\\ncumstances, and the gravel found in the urinary organs.\\nBut whatever may be the characteristics of disease, it\\nwill be found to consist in diminished, accelerated, or\\nperverted action, in reference to the chemical change\\ngoing on in the living body.\\nThe disturbing causes, which thus derange the vital\\naction, may not always be within the reach of human", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0162.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "DURATION OF LIFE. 153\\nknowledge, or, if known, may not be under our con-\\ntrol, yet, in a great majority of cases, we can discover\\nand avoid the course of life inducing these derange-\\nments, and thus escape disease. At least, it is easier\\nto maintain the normal action than to restore it when\\nimpaired.\\n217. Influence of Hygiene on the Duration of\\nLife. The influence of a knowledge of hygienic laws,\\nwere that knowledge generally diffused, would greatly\\nincrease the average duration of human life. It would\\nalso add very much to the efficiency and value of life,\\nboth to the individual and to the community, by the\\nmaintenance of uniform good health, protracting the\\nvigor and efficiency of manhood to w r hat we now call\\nextreme old age.\\nOf the average life of man, deducting infancy, sick-\\nness, and old age, scarcely more than half is available\\nfor the purposes of active life. Nor should we be sur-\\nprised that men and women are so frequently sick, and\\nso often unfit for the duties or even the enjoyments of\\nlife. When w r e observe the almost constant violations of\\nthe laws of health, so common in every community, we\\nwonder that people live at all we are surprised at the\\nleniency and long-suffering of Nature, in so slowly and\\ntenderly exacting the penalty of her violated laws.\\n218. Hygiene in relation to the Cure of Disease.\\nBut the rules, by the observance of which health is\\nmaintained, have an important bearing on the cure\\nof disease; and it is in this relation that hygiene\\nbecomes almost as important to the physician as to\\nthe patient. The persistent violation of a sanitary\\nlaw finally wears out the powers of resistance inherent", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0163.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "154 HYGIENE.\\nin the vital force, and disease follows. No sensible\\nphysician would even hope for a cure of that disease\\nwithout first restoring an enforcement of the violated\\nlaws these being restored and carefully observed, health\\nwill generally follow with but little aid from medicine.\\nThe most perceptible change in the practice of medi-\\ncine, within the last fifty years, is the diminished con-\\nfidence of enlightened physicians in mere medication,\\nand their increased confidence in sanitary and hygienic\\nmeasures for the cure of disease.\\nRecapitulation.\\nHygiene is the art of preserving health. Disease is deranged\\nphysiological action. To restore health is a complex and diffi-\\ncult work, but to maintain health is comparatively simple and\\neasy. Vital force is in the ratio of the chemical changes taking\\nplace in the body. This chemical action may be too rapid, too\\nslow, or it may be perverted. Duration and value of life de-\\npendent on the maintenance of health. Disease arising from\\nviolations of the laws of health is incurable while these vio-\\nlations continue.\\nLESSON XXVII.\\nFOOD AND DRINK.\\n219. Division of the Subject purposes of Food.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nIn investigating the subject of hygiene, we find it\\nconvenient to follow the same division which we\\nadopted in the first part of the work. We will there-\\nfore begin with the hygiene of the Nutritive system.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0164.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "FOOD AND DRINK. 155\\nThis will embrace the subjects of Digestion, Circulation,\\nRespiration, and the Transformation of the tissues.\\nThe subject of digestion includes food and drink, with\\nregard, 1st, to quality and quantity; 2d, to the time and\\nmanner of taking them; and, 3d, to the condition of the\\nsystem. As it is the purpose of food to supply mate-\\nrial to repair the wastes of the system from the wear of\\nits incessant activities, it is evident that it must contain\\nthe elementary substances out of which the tissues of\\nthe body are formed; for the vital and chemical forces,\\nhowever strangely they may change and modify the\\nforms of matter, can create nothing. Therefore our\\nfood must furnish the material for growth and repair.\\n220. Organic and Inorganic Substances. In gen-\\neral terms, we may assume that all digestible food is\\nderived from the organized forms of matter, vegetable\\nor animal. It is true that a number of substances,\\nsuch as water, common salt, lime, etc., enter into both\\nthe fluids and solids of the body; but these undergo\\nno change by digestion. They enter the circulation by\\nabsorption, maintaining their true forms, and are never\\nvitalized in the same manner that muscles, nerves, and\\nmembranes are. Yet we must not suppose that these\\nare therefore unimportant in the animal economy.\\nThe inorganic elements of the body are, indeed, indis-\\npensable to its growth and health. Of these, water is\\nby far the most abundant, and, we may safely say, of\\nthe most immediate importance. It is the solvent of\\nall that goes into or is carried out of the system. It is\\npresent in all the tissues, and permeates even the\\nfirmest solids, carrying nutrition to them, and bearing\\nfrom them the waste material.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0165.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "156 HYGIENE.\\n221. Sources of Impurity in Water.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Water, to be\\n^fitted for the purposes of the body, should be as nearly\\npure as possible but absolutely pure water can be ob-\\ntained only by distillation. Rain-water, in falling\\nthrough the air, absorbs carbonic acid, ammonia, and\\nother gases, which are mixed in minute quantities\\nwith the air; afterward, in percolating through the\\nearth, it dissolves variable amounts of lime and other\\nmineral substances which are found in solution in the\\nwater of our springs and wells.\\nBut, fortunately, the gases from the air or the min-\\nerals from the earth are not often in such quantities\\nas to greatly impair the healthfulness of water as a\\ndiet drink. Much has been said of the unhealthfulness\\nof what is called hard ivater, but a comparison of lime-\\nstone and freestone districts shows much less difference\\nin the health of the people living in them, than we\\nmight expect.\\n222. Lime, how held in Solution Rain-water.\\nWater holds lime in solution chiefly by aid of the\\ncarbonic acid dissolved in it; but on raising the tem-\\nperature of the water, the carbonic acid escapes as a\\ngas, and the lime is consequently precipitated. It is\\nprobably from this cause that limestone water is com-\\nparatively harmless. As soon as it enters the stomach,\\nthe temperature rises till it reaches blood-heat, the\\ncarbonic acid escapes, and the lime is precipitated,\\nand, being indigestible, is carried off by the intes-\\ntines.\\nIron is frequently found in spring and well waters,\\nbut it is seldom in such quantity as to materially\\naffect its healthfulness; and when such is the case,", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0166.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "FOOD AND DK1NK. 157\\nit imparts to the water an offensive taste, which will\\ncommonly prevent its use for drinking purposes.\\nRain-water, well filtered through alternate layers of\\ncoarsely pulverized charcoal and clean silicious sand,\\nfurnishes a diet drink sufficiently pure for all practical\\nuses.\\n223. Organic Impurities in Water. But organic\\nimpurities, derived from decomposing animal and veg-\\netable matter, are much more injurious than the ordi-\\nnary mineral impurities in water. Unfilterecl rain-\\nwater, especially if it has been collected from a wooden\\nroof, is generally unfit for drinking or culinary pur-\\nposes; and river water is seldom so free from organic\\nsubstances, in solution, as to render it fit for table or\\nkitchen use.\\nRivers, springs, and shallow wells often become im-\\npure from sewage which is mixed with them in the\\nvicinity of large cities. Sickness is sometimes induced\\nby the use of such water, when neither the taste nor\\nsmell of it betrays the presence of the impurities. It\\nis hardly necessary to add that surface water, though\\nderived from recent rains, and drawn from the surface\\nof clean meadows or woodlands, is unfit for use until it\\nhas been very thoroughly filtered.\\n224. Proper Temperature of Drinks. For drinking\\npurposes, water should have a temperature ranging\\nbetween fifty-five and sixty degrees Fahrenheit. A\\ntemperature above sixty is not palatable, and a lower\\ntemperature than fifty-five degrees is injurious to the\\nstomach, and often dangerous. Especially is this true\\nof ice-water used at meals. Food requires a temperature\\nvarying but a few degrees from blood-heat (ninety-", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0167.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "158 HYGIENE.\\neight), to insure its rapid and perfect digestion; but\\nif the drink used at meals be either ice-cold or boiling\\nhot, digestion will be suspended until the contents\\nof the stomach has acquired nearly the natural tem-\\nperature of the body.\\nBoth ice-water and hot drinks at meals are un-\\nhealthy, but of the two, the former is the most inju-\\nrious. In warm weather, when heated from exercise,\\nice-cold water should never be used, and even water\\nat the proper temperature should be taken slowly\\nand with caution.\\n225. Tea, Coffee, and Chocolate.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The diet drinks,\\ntea, coffee, and chocolate appear to have been mis-\\nunderstood until very recently. They have generally\\nbeen classed with stimulants and narcotics, but care-\\nful experiments have established the fact that their\\naction is to hasten the transformation of the tissues,\\nas is indicated by the increased volume of carbonic\\nacid exhaled from the lungs in a given time, when\\nunder their influence. The active principle in each\\nof these belongs to that family of vegetable alkaloids\\nof which quinine is the representative.\\nBut it is not to be inferred from this that every\\nindulgence in these beverages is harmless. Tea and\\ncoffee, besides the active principle, contain a large\\namount of astringent matter (tannic acid), which acts\\nunfavorably on the mucous membrane of the stomach\\nand intestines. This is, however, modified to a great\\nextent by the action of milk, which should always be\\nused with these beverages.\\n226. Fermented Drinks their effects. Beer, ale,\\nwine, and other diet drinks produced by fermentation,", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0168.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "FOOD AND DRINK. 159\\nand consequently containing alcohol, should be uncon-\\nditionally rejected by every one who wishes to main-*\\ntain good health. It is the characteristic action of\\nalcohol to prevent or arrest chemical change in organic\\nsubstances. But digestion is chemical change, and so\\nlong as the alcoholic mixture is mingled with the food,\\nthat change is suspended.\\nThe absorbents of the stomach, however, soon remove\\nit into the circulation, but the effect of its specific\\naction on the nerves of the stomach remains, diminish-\\ning and perverting the sensibility of that organ, so that\\nthe food in a half-digested state is hurried into the in-\\ntestines, and the nutriment is lost, if nothing w r orse\\noccurs. The glass of wine at dinner is merely a bribe\\nto deaden the sensibility of the stomach, overloaded by\\ngluttonous indulgence, so that it may not complain.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe subject of digestion, as it relates to food, embraces quan-\\ntity, quality, time and manner of taking, and the condition of\\nthe system when food is taken. Inorganic substances undergo\\nno change by digestion. Impurities in water, and the sources\\nfrom which they are derived. Mode of purifying rain-water.\\nExtremes of temperature in drinks their effect on digestion.\\nTea, coffee, and chocolate their true character. Fermented\\ndrinks are always injurious.\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 14.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0169.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "160 HYGIENE.\\nLESSON XXVIII.\\nCLASSIFICATION OF FOOD.\\n227. Animal and Vegetable Food\u00e2\u0080\u0094 their essential\\nidentity. The classification of food into animal and\\nvegetable, which appears so obvious and which, a few\\nyears ago, was so generally admitted, is found, on care-\\nful examination, to be without any real foundation.\\nAnimal substances are all derived from the vegetable\\nkingdom, and most of the proximate principles entering\\ninto the composition of animal bodies are found already\\nformed in vegetable organisms. The prejudice against\\nanimal food is therefore without foundation, so far as\\nthe chemical constituents of the food is concerned.\\nAnimal food is only a more concentrated state and\\ndifferently organized form of the same substances we find\\nin vegetables. The vegetable world, however, contains\\nmany proximate elements that are not transferred to\\nthe animal kingdom. No one substance, whether pro-\\nduced in the vegetable or animal kingdom, contains all\\nthe material of healthful, nutritious food; nor do all\\npersons require the same proportions of the various\\nkinds of food, nor does the same person under different\\ncircumstances.\\n228. The Three Groups of Food. Food may be\\nconveniently divided into three groups, according to\\ntheir resemblances in composition, and the general\\npurpose which they subserve in the animal economy.\\nThese are, 1st. The Proteine or flesh-forming group;\\n2d. The Amylaceous or starchy group; 3d. The Ole-\\naginous or fatty group.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0170.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD. 1G1\\nIn their office as food, the second and third group,\\nthough not identical, are nearly allied to each other.\\nThe old division of food into the carbonaceous or heat-\\nproducing substances, and the nutritious or flesh-form-\\ning materials, is found to be faulty, inasmuch as the\\nlatter, in its chemical changes, also gives off heat, and\\nthe changes in both are connected with the evolution\\nof vital force.\\n229. The Proteine Group\u00e2\u0080\u0094 its several substances.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe proteine group consists chiefly of gluten, ftbrine,\\nalbumen, and caseine. These all contain nitrogen, and\\nclosely resemble each other in their chemical compo-\\nsition, though they differ materially in the form of\\ntheir organization and in their general appearance.\\nThey decompose by putrefaction, and give off in that\\nprocess the disagreeable odor familiarly known as ac-\\ncompanying that kind of decay.\\nGluten is found in various kinds of grain, in fruits,\\nand in numerous vegetables, such as asparagus, cab-\\nbages, etc. It is easily obtained by washing the starch\\nfrom flour with cold water. It is a tough, elastic sub-\\nstance, of a light gray color, without odor, and with a\\nslightly sweetish taste. Its composition is the same as\\nthat found in the lean flesh of animals, the two differing\\nonly in the manner in which they are organized.\\n230, Fibrine, Albumen, and Caseine. Fibrine is\\nfound in solution in the blood of animals, and is pre-\\ncipitated when the blood is cooled, forming the essential\\npart of the coagulum, or clot, from which it may be\\nobtained by washing with cold water. It is the sub-\\nstance from which most of the fibrous tissues of all\\nanimals are formed.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0171.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "162 HYGIENE.\\nCaseine is the curd or solid part of milk, which is\\nseparated by coagulation, and therefore forms the chief\\ningredient in cheese, as it is the chief element of nutri-\\ntion in milk. It is found in the seeds of many plants,\\nsuch as peas, beans, etc. Albumen is found nearly\\npure in the white of eggs. It dissolves, to a limited\\nextent, in cold water, but coagulates and hardens in\\nwater a little below the boiling temperature. It occurs\\nin nearly all the fluids of the living body, and forms a\\nlarge proportion of the brain. It has also been detected\\nin the seeds of many vegetables.\\n231. Gelatine its properties and use. Gelatine, a\\nsubstance often associated with this group, differs essen-\\ntially from those just described, both in chemical com-\\nposition and in material form. The animal matter in\\nbones, the substance of tendons, ligaments, etc., is gela-\\ntine. Glue is the form in which it is most familiar.\\nWhile the true proteine compounds are convertible into\\none another in the animal economy, gelatine can not be\\nappropriated to any purpose but the formation and\\nrepair of bone, tendon, ligament, etc.\\nIt is sparingly soluble in cold water, but dissolves\\nreadily in that fluid at or near the boiling point. It is\\nthe essential ingredient in soups and animal jellies.\\nThe fact that it can not be appropriated to the repair\\nor growth of the soft tissues of the body, corrects a\\npopular mistake in regard to the very nutritious\\nquality of soup.\\n232. The Tissues whence derived. All the tis-\\nsues of the body are derived from the proteine group\\nof alimentary substances and from gelatine; conse-\\nquently their growth and constant repair depend on", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0172.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD. 163\\na sufficient supply of these, in such form and condi-\\ntion as will enable the stomach most readily to digest\\nthem, and place them in favorable circumstances to be\\nassimilated. It is of but little consequence whether\\nthey are derived from their original forms in the vege-\\ntable world, or from the secondary forms of animal or-\\nganization, but it is of the first importance that these\\nbe in a sound condition, entirely free from any taint\\nof decomposition or putrefaction.\\nAnimal food is usually preserved from decay by an\\nexcess of salt (chloride of sodium), which requires to be\\ndissolved out by the fluids of the stomach before diges-\\ntion takes place. Salt meats are therefore not so readily\\ndigested as fresh.\\n233, The Amylaceous Group its office. The\\nsecond group of alimentary substances comprises starch\\nand the several forms of sugar, gums, etc. From this\\ngroup is derived by far the largest bulk of our food;\\nand in whatever form it comes to us, it is the product\\nof vegetable life. All the members of this group con-\\ntain the same chemical elements, and differ only in the\\nproportions in which these are combined. They are\\nespecially rich in the two combustible substances, car-\\nbon and hydrogen. This fact indicates the office of the\\nstarch and sugar, which, in the form of bread, potatoes,\\nfruits, and other vegetable productions, enter so largely\\ninto our daily bill of fare.\\nIn combining w r ith the oxygen inhaled by the lungs,\\nthese undergo a true combustion. From this source,\\nand from the oxidation of the waste matter of the\\ntissues, are derived the animal heat and working force\\nexpended by the body.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0173.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "164 HYGIENE.\\n231. The Oleaginous Group\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the use of Oils and\\nFats. The oleaginous group consists of various oils\\nand fats, derived both from the vegetable and the\\nanimal world. Like the members of the other groups,\\nthey are closely allied to each other in composition,\\nand are convertible each into the other in the vital\\neconomy. The oils are non-nitrogenized bodies, made\\nof the same elementary substances as those composing\\nthe second group, but containing much less oxygen.\\nThey therefore form the highest grade of heat-producing\\nfood, and are in demand in cold temperatures and\\nwith those exposed to the winter climate of the tem-\\nperate zones. Fatty matter is also found in the brain,\\nand is probably an essential constituent of that impor-\\ntant organ.\\nRecapitulation.\\nAnimal and vegetable forms of food contain the same proxi-\\nmate elements. Food is divided into three groups the pro-\\nteine, the amylaceous, and the oleaginous. The tissues are\\nderived from the proteine forms of food. The proteine ele-\\nments are formed in vegetables and transferred to animals.\\nThe amylaceous group supplies the largest portion of our daily\\nfood. Both the amylaceous and the oleaginous groups furnish\\nheat-producing food. They consist chiefly of combustible ele-\\nments.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0174.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "QUALITY OF FOOD. 165\\nLESSON XXIX.\\nQUALITY OF FOOD.\\n235. Volume of Food important. Before we pro-\\nceed to name the several articles of food which go to\\nmake up our bill of fare, it may be well to say, that the\\nvalue of any particular article does not depend alto-\\ngether on the amount of nutritious matter it contains.\\nNutriment may be so concentrated or so combined as to\\nrender its digestion difficult, if not impossible.\\nThe stomach requires a certain degree of distention\\nfor the ready and perfect performance of its function.\\nTo secure this distention, volume or bulk in the food\\nis required, at least to a certain extent. An ounce\\nof concentrated nutriment mixed with half a pound\\nof inert, indigestible matter, will generally be digested\\nmuch more readily than if it were taken unmixed.\\nThe nutritious elements of food may be so combined\\nas to render their separation difficult, and consequently\\ntheir digestion slow and imperfect.\\n236. Milk as a perfect Diet. Milk comes nearer\\nsupplying all the demands of a complete nutrition than\\nany other substance. It has, therefore, been generally\\nregarded as the perfect type of food, and other articles\\nhave been measured by this standard. This, however,\\nis true only of young or growing persons but in adults\\nengaged in active and laborious employments, it fails\\nto furnish a necessary proportion of combustible or\\nheat and force-producing elements.\\nMilk from different animals varies considerably in its\\ncomposition, and even from the same animal, under", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0175.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "166 HYGIENE.\\ndifferent circumstances of food, exercise, temperature,\\netc., a considerable variation in quality is observed.\\nThe average of a number of specimens of milk, taken\\nfrom several cows, gives, in a hundred parts, 4.48\\nparts of caseine or cheesy matter, 3,13 of butter, 4.47\\nof sugar of milk, .60 of saline matter, and 87.32 of\\nwater.\\n237. Milk, by what circumstances modified. In\\nmost stomachs, milk is more digestible when quite\\nfresh, but there are conditions of that organ in which\\nthe lactic acid, formed when milk coagulates, is re-\\nquired to supplement the deficiency of acid in the\\ngastric fluid. This relates, however, to a morbid and\\nnot to a normal condition of the digestive organs. Milk,\\nwhen used as a diet drink, should have a temperature\\nnot lower than sixty degrees.\\nIced milk, taken at meals, suspends the digestion of\\nthe food till the whole mass has acquired the natural\\ntemperature of the body; and sometimes this interrup-\\ntion so disturbs the whole process, that the work is very\\nimperfectly done. Milk is much affected by the food\\nof the cow producing it, and certain odors, such as\\nclover-bloom and others less agreeable, can readily be\\ndetected in the milk when fresh. From this cause,\\ndecaying or putrescent food and slops should never be\\nfed to cows giving milk.\\n238. Cheese and Butter their dietetic value.\\nCheese is a product from milk, and contains, when\\nproperly made, the caseine and most of the butter,\\ntogether with a considerable proportion of the milk\\nsugar. It is a highly concentrated form of food, and\\ntherefore it should never be eaten alone, but always", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0176.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "QUALITY OF FOOD. 107\\nwith the more crude and bulky forms of vegetable\\ndiet. Mixed in tins manner, cheese digests readily,\\nand furnishes a large amount of material for repairs\\nin active bodies. Taken by itself, it is hard of diges-\\ntion, and often produces serious disturbances of the\\nstomach.\\nButter is a true fat, but more complex in its char-\\nacter than the other oils, whether animal or vegetable;\\nand from this cause it is more liable to chemical\\nchanges, producing certain acids which give the rancid\\ncharacter to it, and greatly impair its dietetic value.\\nIt is purely a heat and force-producing article, and\\nfurnishes nothing to growth or repair.\\n239. Eggs very nutritious how to cook them.\\nEggs consist chiefly of albumen and the mineral salts,\\nespecially those whose acids are derived from phos-\\nphorus and sulphur. They are, therefore, a very per-\\nfect but a very concentrated form of food. However,\\nalbumen is the most digestible form of all the proteine\\ngroup, and eggs, if properly prepared, seldom fail to be\\ndigested, though taken alone.\\nMixed with a proper measure of food containing\\nstarch, so as to increase the bulk and furnish an\\nadditional supply of the heat-producing material, there\\nis no more nutritious and healthful diet than fresh\\neggs. Those of barn- yard fowls are always to be pre-\\nferred to the eggs of water fowls. Eggs, though very\\nnutritious in themselves, are often so injured in cook-\\ning as to render them almost indigestible. By what-\\never method they are cooked (and boiling is the best),\\nthe white should be merely coagulated and the yolk\\nleft soft.\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 15.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0177.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "168 HYGIENE.\\n240. Animal Flesh kinds and value. Animal\\nflesh furnishes a concentrated and highly nutritious\\nfood. In most of its forms it is easily digested and\\nreadily assimilated. There is quite a wide margin,\\nhowever, between different kinds of meat, in regard\\nto the amount of available nutrition, as well as to\\nthe ease with which they are digested and incorporated\\ninto the living tissues.\\nBeef, pork, and mutton are the most common forms\\nin which animal flesh is met with on American tables.\\nOf these, mutton is the most digestible, but beef con-\\ntains the highest per cent of nutriment. Pork is of\\nvalue chiefly for the large amount of oil it furnishes,\\nand its consequent high, heat-producing qualitj^. It\\nis therefore well adapted to use in cold climates and\\nin the winter season. The animal fats should be used\\nwith caution and sparingly in warm weather, but never\\nin hot climates.\\n241. Necessary Precaution in Fattening Animals\\nfor Food. The flesh of young animals is more easily\\ndigested than that of the more mature. An important\\nexception to this rule may be mentioned beef is more\\ndigestible than veal. The good quality of meat depends\\nmuch on the manner in which it is fed and prepared\\nfor the market. The best beef is fattened on fresh\\npastures, with but little grain. This mode of fattening\\ntends to develop the muscular or fleshy part of the ani-\\nmal, and diffuse the fat through the flesh, rather than to\\naccumulate it in masses, as is done in stall-feeding.\\nAnimals fattened on the slops of distilleries and the\\nwastes of breweries are entirely unfit for food, and\\nshould not be offered in the markets. Animals taken", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0178.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "QUALITY OF FOOD. 169\\nto market by long journeys, whether on foot or in\\ncrowded cars, arc not suitable for food till they have\\nfully recovered from the journey.\\n242. Wholesome Meat how distinguished. The\\nflesh of good beef, pork, or mutton should be a light\\nred, approaching toward the scarlet hue. A pale color\\nindicates an immature animal, and dark red meat\\nshows an animal too old and tough to be savory, or\\nthat it had been suffering from the effects of a long\\njourney to market.\\nWholesome meat should be entirely free from even\\na tendency to putrefaction. This can not always be\\ndetected by the odor, for meat kept on charcoal or on\\nice will frequently be far advanced in the first stages\\nof decomposition, and yet emit no unpleasant gases.\\nIf, on cutting the flesh, the surface appears mottled,\\nor marbled with pale spots, and if the fibers be easily\\ntorn across, it will be safe to reject such meat. The\\nfat of pork and mutton should be white and firm, even\\nin warm weather, and that of beef but slightly tinged\\nwith yellow.\\nRecapitulation.\\nConcentrated food is difficult of digestion. Milk is a perfect\\nfood only for growing persons. The composition of milk. It\\nvaries with the circumstances of the animal from which it is\\nderived. Cheese is a very concentrated form of food, and\\ntherefore should never be taken alone. Butter belongs to the\\noleaginous group. Eggs form a very nutritious diet, and when\\nproperly cooked, are easily digested. Animal flesh difference\\nin the several kinds. The kind of food on which animals are\\nfattened affects the quality of their flesh.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0179.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "170 HYGIENE.\\nLESSON XXX,\\nQUALITY OF FOOD CONTINUED.\\n343. Flour\u00e2\u0080\u0094 its composition\u00e2\u0080\u0094 different varieties.\\nThe amylaceous or starchy group is represented chiefly\\nby the cereal grains, such as wheat, rye, Indian corn,\\nbarley, etc. Of these, wheat is the most important,\\nas it approaches nearer to a perfect diet than any\\nother product of the vegetable world. Different samples\\nof wheat vary somewhat in the proportions of the dif-\\nferent proximate elements entering into its compo-\\nsition.\\nThis arises from the many varieties of wheat cul-\\ntivated, and from the quality of the soil on which it\\nis grown. The average may be stated at twelve per\\ncent of gluten, seventy per cent of starch, and ten\\nper cent of water; the remaining eight per cent consists\\nof sugar, oil, and phosphates of lime, potash, and mag-\\nnesia. These proportions are seldom found, however,\\nin fine flour. The central portion of the grain consists\\nalmost entirely of starch, while the outer part, near\\nthe cuticle or bran, is rich in gluten and the mineral\\nsalts. In the common methods of manufacturing flour,\\nthese are chiefly lost, by not being made fine enough\\nto pass through the bolting cloth.\\n244. Adulteration and Deterioration of Flour.\\nFrom this cause, very fine flour is less nutritious\\nthan that of a coarser grade. Brown bread, made of\\nunbolted flour ground closely, contains all the nutri-\\nment of the grain in a very digestible form; and for\\npersons of feeble digestive powers, it is always to be", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0180.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "QUALITY OF FOOD. 171\\npreferred to fine bread. Flour is sometimes adulterated\\nby mixtures of carbonate of lime or chalk. This can\\nbe detected by a grittiness in chewing the flour or\\nthe bread made from it.\\nAdulterations from mixture of cheaper grains are\\ndifficult to detect, but, fortunately, they are of less\\nconsequence, as they but slightly diminish the nutri-\\ntive value of the food. Flour becomes whiter by age,\\nbut this improved appearance is at the expense of its\\nsweetness and real value. The richer flour is in gluten,\\nthe more rapidly it deteriorates.\\n245. Rye and Corn as Bread Materials. Rye\\nfurnishes a wholesome bread, though it is much darker\\nthan that made from wheaten flour. It contains more\\nsugar and oil than wheat, has a heavier bran and a\\nsmaller proportion of starch. In the gluten, the nitro-\\ngenized matter resembles caseine from milk, w r hile that\\nfrom wheat flour more nearly resembles fibrine. In del-\\nicate stomachs it is not easily digested; and it is much\\nmore difficult to make good bread from rye than from\\nwheat flour.\\nIndian corn contains a larger proportion of oil than\\nany other grain known. This, however, differs very\\nmaterially in the different varieties of corn. Those\\nknown as flint corn yield more than double as much\\noil as the varieties with large, spongy grains. The\\nquantity of sugar, also, is far from being constant.\\nIt is very rich in starch, but in the nitrogenized or\\nflesh-producing element, it is poorer than any bread\\nmaterial in use, excepting, perhaps, buckwheat. This\\nis not in the form of gluten, as found in other grains,\\nbut in a peculiar form called zeine.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0181.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "172 HYGIENE.\\n246. Preparation of Corn for Food, From these\\npeculiarities it lacks the adhesive qualities of dough\\nfrom wheat or rye flour, and therefore the bread is\\nmade light by fermentation, with difficulty. In pre-\\nparing articles from corn meal, a longer time is re-\\nquired to cook them thoroughly than is necessary when\\nother bread materials are used. But when properly\\ncooked, corn meal furnishes a palatable, highly nutri-\\ntious, and easily digested food.\\nBarley and oats are but little used as bread material\\nin this country, though in some parts of the world\\nthey form an important part of the daily food of a\\nlarge population. They are rich in sugar and gluten,\\nbut poor in starch and the phosphates, as compared\\nwith wheat. Rice is seldom used for bread. It is very\\ndigestible, consisting of nearly pure starch, with the\\nsmallest quantity of gluten and oil.\\n247. Beans and Peas their dietetic yalne. Peas\\nand beans can hardly be classed with this group, as\\nthey contain from twenty-five to thirty per cent of\\nnitrogenous matter, in the form of vegetable caseine;\\nbut as there appears to be no more appropriate place\\nfor them, w T e have assigned them here. They are highly\\nnutritious, but, like most other concentrated forms of\\nnutritive matter, they are hard to digest, and if not\\nreadily digested, they are apt to produce flatulency and\\nother derangements of the digestive apparatus. Taken\\nin the unripe state, they are less objectionable in this\\nrespect.\\nAs a substitute for animal food, to laborers and others\\nfollowing active employments, there is no form of veg-\\netable food so well adapted as peas and beans. They", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0182.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "QUALITY OF FOOD. 173\\nare rich in sulphur and the phosphates, and contain\\nBlifccient starch to furnish heat-producing material\\neven for winter food.\\n218. Potatoes their composition and use as\\nFood. There is a class of succulent vegetables ex-\\ntensively used as food, which is allied more or less\\nremotely to this group of starchy foods. The potato\\nproperly stands at the head of this list. Well matured\\npotatoes contain, in one hundred parts, seventy-four\\nparts of water, twenty-three parts of starch, one and\\none-half parts of gluten, and one part earthy salts,\\nwith but a small fraction of oil. It will be observed,\\nthe proportion of flesh-producing material is very\\nsmall. They should, therefore, always be associated\\nwith animal food to supply this defect, as well as\\nthat of the oily matter.\\nPotatoes, when properly cooked, are easily digested;\\nand being a bulky form of food, are w r ell adapted to\\naccompany the more concentrated articles of diet, not\\nmerely to give distention to the stomach, but to pro-\\nmote the digestion of those highly nutritious articles\\nthat are often difficult of digestion.\\n249. Other Succulent Tegetables. Turnips, beets,\\ncarrots, and parsnips, constitute an important group\\nin this class of succulent vegetables. They contain\\neven more water than potatoes, and the solid part\\nconsists largely of sugar, instead of starch, and the\\nproportion of nitrogenous elements is somewhat larger\\nthan in the potato. They are rather hard of digestion,\\nand should be used sparingly by persons whose habits\\nof life are not very active, or whose digestive powers\\nare feeble.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0183.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "174 HYGIENE.\\nAsparagus, onions, and cabbage contain but little\\nstarch. They are, however, well supplied with the\\nflesh-forming elements, and are therefore very nutri-\\ntious when properly prepared. Onions contain an es-\\nsential oil, on which their peculiar odor depends. This\\noil is indigestible, but being volatile, it is absorbed\\nfrom the stomach, and passing to the lungs, is exhaled,\\ngiving the disagreeable odor to the breath. Thorough\\nboiling removes the greater portion of this, and leaves\\na very nutritious food.\\n250. Fruits their importance as diet. Fruits\\nconsist mainly of water, with variable quantities of\\nstarch, sugar, and gum. Many kinds of fruit furnish\\na fair supply of gluten, and are on that account highly\\nnutritious. Their chief value, however, as diet, is in\\nthe various forms of vegetable acid which they contain,\\nin such combination with the alkaline and earthy car-\\nbonates, as supply an important want in the process\\nof digestion, as well as furnish the lime and potash\\nwhich they contain for the use of the animal economy.\\nMost of these acids are laxative, and are therefore\\nwell adapted to persons predisposed to habits of con-\\nstipation. This is especially true of the malic acid,\\nwhich abounds in apples, peaches, pears, etc. The\\ntartaric acid, so abundant in grapes and berries gen-\\nerally, is not only a laxative, but tends to increase the\\nsecretion of the skin and kidneys.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe amylaceous group is represented chiefly by the cereal\\ngrains. Wheat is the most important of these. Fine flour is\\nnot so nutritious as coarse. Flour deteriorates by age. Rye\\ncontains more sugar and oil than wheat, but a smaller propor-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0184.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "MODE OF PREPARING FOOD. 175\\ntion of starch. Indian com ifl rich in oil and starch. Its nitro-\\ngenous element has a peculiar form. Beans and peas arc very\\nnutritious, but hard to digest Potatoes are rich in starch, hut\\ndeficient in the proteine elements. Asparagus, onions, and cah-\\nge arc Lacking in starch, hut abound in proteine elements.\\nFruits are important on account of the acids they furnish to\\nassist digestion.\\nLESSON XXXI.\\nMODE OF PREPARING FOOD.\\n251. Cooking Food what is gained by it. The\\nnatural quality of the different articles of food is\\nscarcely less important than is the mode of preparing\\nthem for the table. But few articles of diet are fit for\\nfood without some preparation. This is usually done\\nby the aid of heat. Cooking, when properly performed,\\naccomplishes two objects: 1st. By rendering the sub-\\nstances soft, they are easily masticated, and more read-\\nily dissolved in the gastric fluid; and, 2d. The peculiar\\nflavor of the food is developed, so that it is more agree-\\nable to the taste.\\nThis is generally the result of cooking, though there\\nare some very well marked exceptions to the rule.\\nFor example, cabbage cut fine, and dressed with di-\\nluted vinegar, is more digestible than when cooked in\\nany form. The flavor of some kinds of fruit is so\\nvolatile that it escapes in cooking, and thus the fruit\\nis rendered insipid. Long continued boiling produces\\nthis effect on nearly all kinds of vegetables.\\n252. Meat general rule for cooking it. Meats\\nare prepared for the table by several methods, such as", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0185.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "176 HYGIENE.\\nboiling, roasting, baking, broiling, frying, etc. One\\ngeneral rule applies to all these methods, and its ob-\\nservance is indispensable if we would preserve the\\ngood qualities of flesh.\\nAll wholesome meats contain a good proportion of\\nalbumen. This substance is familiar to us in the white\\nof eggs. It dissolves readily in warm water, but if the\\ntemperature be raised to near the boiling point, it is\\ninstantly hardened, and becomes entirely insoluble in\\nwater. To preserve this property of meat is essential\\nalike to its nutritive quality and good taste. A high\\nheat should therefore be applied to meat at the begin-\\nning, and as the cooking proceeds, the heat may be\\nreduced. This coagulates the albumen on the outside,\\nand thus prevents the escape of the nutritive juices.\\n253. Boiling Meat the Rules. When meat is\\ncooked by boiling, the pieces should be large, and the\\nwater raised to the boiling point before the meat is put\\nin. By this means its flavor may be preserved nearly\\nperfect, and the loss in weight greatly diminished.\\nThis, in the ordinary method of boiling meat, amounts\\nto nearly one-third of the original weight. After boil-\\ning rapidly for ten minutes, the heat should be lowered\\nto about one hundred and seventy degrees, or to a point\\nbelow any perceptible boiling, and should be retained\\nat that temperature till the fiber is fully softened and\\ntender.\\nIf the object is to make soup, the meat should be\\nput into cold water, and the temperature of about one\\nhundred and fifty degrees maintained for two or three\\nhours, when a few minutes of rapid boiling will com-\\nplete the process. Soft water is a better solvent than", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0186.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "MODE OF PREPAKING FOOD. 177\\nhard, therefore soup should be made with soft water,\\nand the salt should not bo added till the last stage\\nof the process. The opposite course should be followed\\nwhen meat is boiled for other purposes.\\n254. Roasting, Broiling, Baking, and Frying\\nMoat. Meat is cooked with a direct application of\\nheat by roasting, broiling, or baking. By either of\\nthese methods the flavor of the meat is better retained\\nthan when cooked by boiling, but care must be taken\\nnot to overdo the cooking, and thus render the fiber\\nhard, insipid, and indigestible. The same rule should\\nbe observed in the application of heat when cooking\\nmeat by these methods as by boiling 253).\\nFrying is in all respects the worst method of cooking\\nmeat. It expels the natural fluids from the flesh fiber,\\nand substitutes oil for these. When meat is cooked by\\nfrying, the fat should be heated very hot before the\\nmeat is put in, and it should be cooked rapidly, and\\nremoved as soon as it is tender.\\n255. Cooking Vegetables. Vegetables are usually\\ncooked by boiling potatoes, however, are often prepared\\nby baking and when it is carefully done, the result is\\nvery satisfactory. When vegetables are boiled, care\\nmust be taken that the process be not carried too far.\\nAs soon as the vegetable is soft it should be removed at\\nonce from the boiling water. If the cooking be con-\\ntinued beyond this point, the structure will be broken\\ndown, and much of the vegetable will be dissolved in\\nthe water and lost.\\nPotatoes, especially, should not be suffered to remain\\nin the water a moment after boiling has ceased. While\\nboiling, the pores of the vegetable are fil ed with steam,", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0187.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "178 HYGIENE.\\nbut as soon as the temperature falls below the boiling\\npoint, the steam begins to condense, and the surround-\\ning water is drawn in to fill the vacuum, and the potato\\nis water-soaked and indigestible. To a less extent, the\\n*rame is true of beets, carrots, and parsnips.\\n256. Bread its importance as a diet. The prep-\\naration of farinaceous food in the form of bread is at\\nonce the most difficult and the most important part\\nof the culinary art. In civilized countries bread is a\\nconstant diet, a part of every meal and if it be badly\\nmade, unwholesome, and indigestible, the mischief will\\nbe in proportion to its universal use.\\nThe method of preparing bread by fermentation has\\nundergone no material change since the days of the\\noldest monuments of Egypt; and yet fermentation is\\nnot essential to the production of a wholesome and\\ndigestible bread. Indeed, fermentation is incipient\\ndecay, and all substances are less wholesome and nutri-\\ntious after decomposition than before. So we find\\ncrackers, and kindred forms of unleavened bread, more\\ndigestible and nutritious than the ordinary form of fer-\\nmented bread. In fermentation, flour loses all the\\nsugar it originally contained, and this loss amounts\\nto from six to ten per cent of the whole weight.\\n257. Fermenting Bread rules to be observed.\\nIn making fermented bread, the chief secret lies in\\nproducing a rapid action and to secure this, good,\\nundamaged flour and fresh, active yeast must be used,\\nwith a temperature of about one hundred degrees\\nsteadily maintained. If fermentation begins slowly,\\nor if it be arrested after it has commenced, either by\\ntoo high or to r low a temperature, the first products", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0188.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "MODE OF PBEPAKING FOOD. 179\\nof fermentation will pass to the second stage, acetic\\nacid will be formed, and the dough thus soured will\\nbe spoiled.\\nThere is much more danger of fermentation going too\\nfar, and the bread being sour, than there is of arresting\\nit at too early a stage by baking it. A very palatable\\nand wholesome bread is made by forcing carbonic acid\\ninto the dough, under a high pressure, as it is being\\nmixed. But this aerated bread can be produced\\nonly by expensive machinery, and therefore can not\\nbe made in common domestic establishments.\\n258. The Qualities of Wholesome Bread. By\\nwhatever method bread is produced, rapid and thor-\\nough baking is indispensable to a palatable and digest-\\nible article. The bread should not shrink on cooling,\\nand there should be no clamminess on cutting a loaf.\\nSeveral kinds of baking powders are in use to pro-\\nduce spongy bread without fermentation. These consist\\nof carbonates of soda or potash, mixed wdth some of the\\nvegetable acids, or with phosphoric acid. The last is\\nthe least objectionable, as the salt resulting from the\\ncombination is comparatively harmless.\\nPerhaps the best method to obtain carbonic acid, to\\nlighten bread without fermentation, is to mix good bi-\\ncarbonate of soda with dry flour, and a weight of pure\\nmuriatic (chloro hyclric) acid equal to the socla, with\\nthe fluid used to moisten the mass. The gas will be set\\nfree, and nothing but common salt will be formed.\\nEecapitulation.\\nCooking renders food more easily digested and develops its\\nflavor. Meat is cooked by boiling, roasting, baking, broiling,", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0189.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "180 HYGIENE.\\nand frying. There is one general rule for applying the heat,\\nto be observed in all these methods. Danger of boiling veg-\\netables too long. They should be removed from the water\\nwhile it is yet boiling. Importance of bread as an article of\\ndiet. Antiquity of fermented bread. Fermentation not neces-\\nsary to wholesome bread. Aerated bread is a substitute for\\nthe fermented article.\\nLESSON XXXII,\\nAUXILIARY FOOD.\\n259. Oils and Fats their dietetic value. The\\ngroup of oils and fatty substances forms an important\\nelement in the diet of the inhabitants of cold climates.\\nThe animal tissues containing fatty deposits are usually\\nsubjected to the same cooking processes as the fibrous\\nmeats, but the oil undergoes no change whatever in the\\noperation. This class of food, however, is not confined\\nto animal substances, bat is found extensively distrib-\\nuted through the vegetable kingdom.\\nOil is the most concentrated form of heat-producing\\nfood; therefore most appetites demand it in cold weather,\\neven in our temperate latitudes. Its rapid combination\\nwith the oxygen inhaled by the lungs is also an im-\\nportant source of vital force, and it is on this account\\nthat persons engaged in severe labor in the open air\\ndemand oily food.\\n260. Oily Food for Consumptives. Of late it has\\nbeen maintained that a deficiency of oily food pre", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0190.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "AUXILIARY FOOD. 181\\ndisposes to consumption, and a careful observation\\nof the early habits of consumptive persons shows that\\na very large proportion of this class were not in the\\nhabit of eating fat meats, many of them declining\\neven butter. Dr. Carpenter says: There is a strong\\ntendency and increasing reason to believe that a defi-\\nciency of oleaginous matter, in a state fit for appro-\\npriating by the nutritive processes, is a fertile source\\nof diseased action, especially that of a tuberculous\\ncharacter; and that the habitual use of it in large\\nproportions would operate favorably in the prevention\\nof such maladies.\\nIt is, however, an unsettled question, whether this\\nabstinence from fatty food is the cause or the effect of\\nthe consumptive tendency. Care should be taken that\\noils, fats, and butter used for food be fresh and sweet.\\nRancid fat or butter is always unwholesome.\\n261. Salt its use in the Animal Economy. There\\nare many substances which enter into our daily bill of\\nfare which are not properly food, and yet they affect\\nour health in a very important degree. Common salt\\n(chloride of sodium) may with propriety be placed at\\nthe head of this list. It has been held by some writers\\nthat salt is not necessary to the maintenance of good\\nhealth, and even that its use is injurious.\\nIt is true that many savage tribes, living almost\\nexclusively on animal food, have maintained good\\nhealth without the use of salt; but extensive ob-\\nservation proves that persons living on a mixed diet,\\nor chiefly on vegetables, lose their health when salt\\nis withheld from their food. Both chlorine and sodium,\\nthe two elements of which salt is formed, are essential", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0191.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "182 HYGIENE.\\nto the digestion of food, the former furnishing the acid\\nfor the gastric fluid, and the latter the alkaline proper-\\nties of the bile. In flesh-eating tribes, these are fur-\\nnished in sufficient quantity from the animal food on\\nwhich they subsist.\\n262. Salt retards Transformation. Salt has an-\\nother office in the animal economy. It appears to be\\na kind of governor, regulating the rate at which the\\nchanges in the body proceed. Salt is an antiseptic,\\nand therefore retards the transformation cf the tissues.\\nLean persons of active habits have an instinct for\\nsalt, and generally use it freely with their food;\\nwhile persons of full habit, or tending to corpulency,\\nuse it but sparingly, the transformation being already\\ntoo slow.\\nPepper and other condiments, such as mustard, horse-\\nradish, etc., are direct stimulants, both on the local\\nsurfaces with which they come in contact, and on the\\ngeneral circulation. By their local action they increase\\nthe flow of saliva and gastric fluid; but the quality of\\nthese secretions is impaired nearly in the proportion\\nthat their quantity is increased, so that really little or\\nnothing is gained in the digestive process.\\n263. Eifect of Highly-seasoned Food. The con-\\ntinued and habitual use of highly-seasoned food vitiates\\nthe secretions of the mouth and stomach, and thus\\nimpairs digestion; and worse even than this, such\\nstimulants impair the sense of taste and pervert the\\nappetite, the natural faculty of selection, and the power\\nof determining both the quantity and quality of food\\nwhich the necessities of the system demand. In a\\nhealthy condition, the digestive organs will not require", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0192.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "AUXILIARY FOOD. 183\\ncondiments to assist them in the performance of\\ntheir work.\\nIf this is true of pepper and kindred stimulants,\\nit is more intensely important in regard to wine, beer,\\nand other alcoholic drinks used at meals, under the\\npretext of creating an appetite. Such beverages not\\nonly act as a local irritant on the mucous membrane\\nof the stomach, but the effect of the alcohol is to impair\\nsensibility in the nerves of that organ, and to disturb\\nif not suspend digestion by its well-known power of\\npreserving organic substances from decomposition or\\nchange.\\n264. Vinegar its effect on Digestion. Vinegar\\nis extensively used as an auxiliary food. It furnishes\\nno nutriment; indeed, it is not digestible; but when\\nnitrogenous food is taken in large quantities, or in\\nsuch form, as to be difficult of digestion, the secretion\\nof the stomach frequently fails to furnish the acid\\nquality of the gastric fluid sufficiently to complete di-\\ngestion before putrefaction takes place. Vinegar more\\nnearly supplies this defect than any other substance\\nwhich could be used with safety.\\nNitrogenous vegetables, such as cabbage, etc., are\\nrendered more digestible by vinegar. Two precautions,\\nhowever, are necessary in the use of vinegar: 1st. We\\nshould be sure that it is vinegar that we are using, as\\nmany dangerous compounds of cheap mineral acids are\\nsold for vinegar; 2d. The vinegar for the table should\\nbe largely diluted with water.\\n265. Soda its use in Cooking. Much has been\\nsaid of the use of soda in the different culinary proc-\\nesses, and considerable alarm has been manifested ovei\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 16.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0193.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "184 HYGIENE.\\nthe constantly increasing use of this article. While it\\nadmits of no doubt that caustic soda is a dangerous\\npoison, and that even the milder carbonate is unfit to\\nbe taken into the stomach in that state, yet it must be\\nremembered that, in cooking, the use of soda is confined\\nalmost exclusively to the neutralizing of acids which it\\nis desirable to get clear of, or as a means of obtaining\\ncarbonic acid to lighten bread artificially. In either\\nof these instances the soda becomes a neutral salt, and\\nnearly all the salts of soda are harmless.\\nBut it may be well to say that, though no bad effects\\nresult from the use of well neutralized soda, yet the\\npractice of using it to mitigate the acid of sour fruits,\\nin cooking them, has the effect to impair their flavor\\nand ultimately to render them insipid.\\n266. The Appetite\u00e2\u0080\u0094 when it is safe to follow it.\\nBefore closing the subject of the quality of food as\\naffecting health, it will be proper to state, in general\\nterms, that the most reliable guide in selecting our\\nbill of fare is an unperverted appetite. This, however,\\nis very rarely to be found in civilized communities.\\nThe false and often pernicious theories of nurses and\\nmothers too frequently establish wrong habits and\\nperverted tastes, long before the unfortunate victim\\nlearns to form a proper judgment by his own reason-\\ning from physiological laws; and even then it too\\noften happens that wrong habit is stronger than right\\nknowledge.\\nChildren naturally prefer plain, simple, nutritious\\nfood, but if they are fed on that which is highly-\\nseasoned and stimulating, accompanied with wine or\\nother narcotic beverages, plain food will soon fail to", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0194.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "QUANTITY OF FOOD. 185\\ngratify their desires. The appetite is then an unsafe\\nguide.\\nRecapitulation.\\nOils and fats are demanded in cold climates, and in the\\nwinter season of temperate climates. Their necessity in the\\ndiet of those predisposed to consumption. Salt furnishes the\\nchlorine and soda necessary for healthy action of the system.\\nIt retards transformation of the tissues. Highly-seasoned food\\nand stimulating condiments are injurious. Vinegar hastens the\\ndigestion of nitrogenous food. Soda, when used in cooking,\\nshould always be neutralized by an acid. An unperverted\\nappetite is the best guide in the selection of food.\\nLESSON XXXIII.\\nQUANTITY OF FOOD.\\n267. Quantity of Food. The quantity of food\\nnecessary to the maintenance of good health has been\\nvariously stated by different authors. Indeed, there\\nare so many modifying circumstances connected with\\nthis question, that no definite statement can be made\\nthat will be in any degree reliable. Age, sex, tem-\\nperament, occupation, state of health, and previously\\nestablished habits, each exerts a greater or less influ-\\nence on the demands of the system for support.\\nDr. Dalton says that a man in full health, living on\\na diet exclusively of bread, butter, and meat, with coffee\\nand water for drink, and exercising in the open air,\\nwill require, in each twenty-four hours, nineteen ounces", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0195.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "186 HYGIENE.\\nof bread, three and one-half ounces of butter, and six-\\nteen ounces of meat, with fifty-two ounces of drink.\\nThe army rations of the United States soldier exceed\\nDalton s estimate by about twenty per cent, besides\\nadding rice, sugar, and beans to the bill of fare. The\\nrations in European armies are somewhat less than\\nthis.\\n268. Digestion modifies Food. The more or less\\nperfect manner in which the digestive process is\\nperformed, is a modifying circumstance to which too\\nlittle importance has been attached. Two persons,\\neach in good health, of the same age, and following\\nthe same occupation, will eat equal quantities of the\\nsame kind of food, and yet derive nutriment from it\\nin very different proportions.\\nIt is not the quantity of food taken, but the amount\\ndigested, which ministers to the support of the living\\nbody. This defective digestion may depend on a nat-\\nural debility, a lack of vital force in the organs con-\\ncerned in the work but more frequently it is the result\\nof bad habit, the habit of overeating, formed in early\\nlife. As the digestive process will seldom take from\\nthe food more nutriment than the demands of the\\nsystem require, so when that amount is obtained the\\nwork is suspended, and the residue is passed off as\\nwaste matter.\\n269. Use of Tobacco. Persons addicted to the\\nuse of tobacco require a larger amount of food to\\nfurnish the same nutrition than persons who do not\\nuse the narcotic. The saliva, being rendered unfit\\nfor its office, is wasted, and the starchy part of the\\nfood, which should have been converted into sugar", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0196.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "QUANTITY OF FOOD. 187\\nby this fluid, remains to a great extent unchanged.\\nThe saliva is less important in the digestion of animal\\nfood, and for this reason those who use tobacco in-\\nstinctively become largely flesh-eaters, or the habit\\ninduces dyspepsia.\\nAlcoholic drinks produce similar effects, by impairing\\nthe sensibility of the stomach, and diminishing its vital\\nforce. By these derangements the stomach permits the\\nimperfectly digested food to pass the pyloric orifice, and\\nso but a small amount of its nutriment is made availa-\\nble. The appetite demands more food, and this morbid\\nand pernicious effect of the bitters is often mistaken\\nfor an evidence of increased nutrition.\\n270. Temperature its influence on Food. A few\\ngeneral principles, judiciously applied, will be found\\nmore effectual in regulating the quantity of food than\\nany special rules that can be laid down. In childhood\\nand youth, the nutrition must not only supply the\\nwaste of the system which is greater in a given time\\nthan in adult age but also a surplus, to be applied to\\ngrowth.\\nIn cold weather the transformation of the tissues is\\nmore rapid, and a greater amount of heat-producing\\nfood is consumed to maintain the temperature of the\\nbody. The amount of this increase will be modified by\\ncircumstances. Persons well provided with warm cloth-\\ning, living in comfortable houses, and spending their\\ntime chiefly in well-warmed apartments, will scarcely\\nrequire any increase of food; but the poorly clad and\\nhoused, and those engaged in out-door occupations,\\nwill require their food to be greatly augmented in\\ncold weather.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0197.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "188 HYGIENE.\\n271. Exercise and Ventilation vary the quantity\\nof Food. Active muscular exercise draws largely on\\nthe vital force; but the evolution of force is intimately\\nconnected with the wastes of the body, the oxidation\\nof the food we digest, and of the worn-out particles of\\nthe body. These wastes must find an appropriate com-\\npensation in an increase of food. If the exercise be in\\nthe open air, the atmosphere pure, and the breathing\\nfree, the increased demand for food will be much greater\\nthan if the same exercise had been taken in a close ill-\\nventilated room.\\nBut the force furnished to perform the exercise or\\nlabor will be in the exact proportion of the wastes to be\\nsupplied, and if the demand for food is not increased,\\nthe ability to perform the exercise will soon fail. From\\nthis cause persons are capable of performing more severe\\n.and longer protracted labor in the open air than in\\nbadly-ventilated rooms.\\n272. Change of Habits demands change in Food.\\nIn altering their habits of life, persons should be care-\\nful to adapt the quantity of food to the modified condi-\\ntion. If the change be from sedentary, in-door occupa-\\ntion to active, open-air labor, the appetite will generally\\npoint out the proper alteration in diet; but changes in\\nthe opposite direction are not so promptly indicated,\\nor, if so, the indications are not always heeded.\\nPupils leaving the active employments of the farm,\\nand confining themselves to the school-room, often injure\\ntheir health by continuing the same diet, both in quan-\\ntity and quality, which they found necessary when\\nengaged in daily labor. After a careful attention to\\nthis subject for the first week of school life, it may be", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0198.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "QUANTITY OF FOOD. 189\\nsafely intrusted to the appetite. Persons making such\\na change of habits are frequently alarmed at their\\nfailing appetite, and resort to medicines to provoke\\na desire for food. This is all wrong.\\n273. Mental Labor the diet it demands. Pupils\\nat school, and other persons engaged in mental labor,\\nneed a plain, liberal diet. The amount of food devoted\\nto muscular repair and the production of animal heat\\nshould be reduced proportionally to their diminished\\nphysical exercise, yet it by no means follows that it\\nis necessary to starve the body to invigorate the mind.\\nThis hypothesis, so popular a few years ago, has been\\nsuperseded by more rational views.\\nBrain is exhausted by activity even more rapidly\\nthan muscle, and the waste of its material is propor-\\ntionally great. To replace this wasted matter requires\\na full supply of food, rich in albumen and the phos-\\nphates. Eggs, fish, oysters and other shell-fish, the\\nlean part of mutton and beef, and wheat bread, are\\nall articles rich in brain elements, and may be used,\\nliberally if cooked plainly, with no other seasoning\\nthan salt. Fruits, either raw or cooked by stewing or\\nbaking, may be introduced as dessert.\\n274. Bribing the Appetite. The appetite is the\\nonly measure to determine the quantity of food to be\\ntaken, but many devices have been invented to bribe\\nthe appetite to take more food than the demands of\\nthe system require, or to take it when none is needed.\\nHighly-seasoned food perverts the appetite, and renders\\nit an unsafe guide. A great variety of dishes at the\\nsame meal has the same effect.\\nA single course, consisting of one kind of meat or", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0199.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "190 HYGIENE.\\neggs, one variety of vegetables, with bread and butter,\\nand some palatable, unstimulating diet drink, in very-\\nmoderate quantities, will furnish a meal which may be\\nsupplemented by a dessert of fruit. Of such a repast,\\nthe appetite will determine very accurately when to\\ndesist from eating. A person should never suffer him-\\nself to be decoyed into taking food when there is no\\ndesire for it.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe quantity of food demanded to supply the wastes of the\\nsystem depends primarily on its perfect digestion. Tobacco\\nand alcohol impair digestion. Temperature modifies the de-\\nmand for food. A change of habits of life requires a corre-\\nsponding variation in diet. Exercise and good ventilation in-\\ncrease the demand for food. Brain labor needs a generous\\ndiet. The use of highly-seasoned food renders the appetite\\nan unsafe guide.\\nLESSON xxxiy.\\nTIME OF TAKING FOOD.\\n275. Intervals at which Food should be taken.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nFood should be taken at such intervals as will permit\\nthe stomach to perform the labor of digestion, and en-\\njoy a period of rest about equal to the time of its\\nactive work. An ordinaiy meal, in a healthy stomach,\\nwill be disposed of in about three hours; and if we\\nallow the same time for rest, this will make an inter-\\nval of six hours between meals.\\nNearly all civilized nations have adopted the rule", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0200.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "TIME OF TAKING FOOD. 191\\nof three meals per clay a few, more than this, and\\nsome, less. But individuals are found, in all commu-\\nnities, who depart from the general usage of society in\\none direction or another.\\nWhatever rule is adopted, it should be made a uni-\\nform habit, which should not be violated except under\\nthe most urgent necessity. When a habit is fully\\nestablished, the quantity of food will not depend on\\nthe number of meals. A person eating but once in\\ntwenty-four hours will take as much food at that one\\nmeal as he would take if it w r ere divided into three\\nmeals.\\n276. Early Breakfast\u00e2\u0080\u0094 why required.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 When three\\nmeals are taken, the morning one should come early,\\nor at least before we enter on any of the active duties\\nof the day. The long interval between supper and\\nbreakfast is or should be an interval of rest, yet the\\nactive absorbents have carried into the circulation, in\\nthis time, all the nutritious matter derived from yester-\\nday s food, and the stomach is now in an empty con-\\ndition, awaiting a fresh supply. Any heavy drafts on\\nthe vital force in this condition can not fail to seriously\\ndisturb the equilibrium of that force, and derange im-\\nportant functions.\\nIn this state, the system demands that the digestive\\napparatus should be early set at w T ork to prepare nutri-\\nment sufficient to meet the heavy drafts of a day of\\nactive exertion. This view of the subject demands\\nthat breakfast should be a substantial meal of good,\\nnutritious food.\\n277. Dinner its proper time. Dinner should not\\nbe delayed much beyond six hours after the morning\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 17.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0201.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "192 HYGIENE.\\nmeal. Late dinners require that the interval between\\nthem and the evening meal be too short, or that the\\nlatter be crowded too close to the hour of retiring for\\nsleep. If the meals be taken at regular intervals of\\nsix hours, beginning at about seven o clock in the\\nmorning, they may all be made full meals of sub-\\nstantial food; but if the dinner be delayed till four\\no clock in the afternoon, the evening meal, if not en-\\ntirely dispensed with, should be very light both in\\nquantity and quality, and should be taken not later\\nthan eight o clock.\\nLate suppers of heavy, indigestible food are a fruit-\\nful source of dyspepsia, and that long train of nervous\\ndiseases which render life an intolerable burden to so\\nmany. No food should be taken nearer than two\\nhours to the time of retiring, and that time should not\\nbe later than ten o clock.\\n278. Eating between Meals its pernicious effects.\\nThe practice of eating pieces between meals is a\\nmost pernicious habit, and one that is the prolific\\ncause to which may be traced the ruin of so many\\nconstitutions, even in childhood. When food is taken,\\na full meal should be made, and the stomach should\\nthen be permitted to digest it without disturbance.\\nBut if fresh portions of food be introduced when the\\nstomach has half finished its work, the result is that\\nneither portion is properly digested; for the process\\nis thereby prolonged, the stomach is virtually kept at\\nconstant labor, and its powers are so enfeebled and\\nexhausted that it fails to provide the means of nu-\\ntrition sufficient to supply the demands of the system,\\nor to compensate for its daily waste.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0202.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "TIME OF TAKING FOOD. 193\\nLoss of appetite and general debility ensue, followed\\nby a train of nervous derangements that disturb all\\nthe vital functions. Half the ruined constitutions,\\nthat are not traceable to alcohol and tobacco, may\\nsafely be referred to the habit of eating between\\nmeals.\\n279. Meals should not be interrupted. Eating\\nshould be done slowly and deliberately, but it should\\nalso be done continuously. By this we mean that,\\nwhen a meal is begun, it should proceed without\\nany considerable interruption to its termination. The\\nstomach does not begin the process of digestion till eat-\\ning is finished; but if, after the first course at a fashion-\\nable dinner, there is an interval of ten minutes, a\\nhealthy stomach will go promptly to work on the food\\nalready taken. But this will be interrupted by the\\nsecond course, and the stomach, thus disturbed, will re-\\nturn to its task tardily, and will be likely to do its\\nwork imperfectly.\\nExtremes of temperature in our food should be\\navoided. Food, to be promptly digested, must vary but\\na few degrees from blood-heat. Hot food and drink, or\\nice-water, ice-cream, etc., taken into the stomach, sus-\\npend all action till the mass has acquired the tempera-\\nture of the body. 224.)\\n280. Importance of thorough Mastication. Good\\nhealth depends not alone on what we eat, and when\\nwe eat it, but the manner of taking food is of the first\\nimportance in this relation. Eating, as we have said,\\nshould be done slowly and deliberately, and the masti-\\ncation should be thorough. This is demanded more\\nespecially with regard to the starchy forms of food.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0203.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "194 HYGIENE.\\nSaliva is the immediate agent by which starch is\\nchanged into sugar, and thus rendered soluble and\\ntransformed into available nutriment.\\nBut if the food be hurried through the mouth, and\\nbut imperfectly mixed with saliva, the digestion will\\nbe equally imperfect, and much of the nutriment lost.\\nA worse defect in mastication than this occurs when,\\nby the use of tobacco, the saliva is poisoned and ren-\\ndered unfit for the purposes of mastication; or the\\nsalivary glands, goaded to constant overaction, secrete\\na fluid which contains none of the essential properties\\nof saliva, and therefore can not aid in digestion.\\n281. Good Teeth necessary to Mastication. The\\ngrinding of food, the mechanical work of mastication,\\nis performed by the teeth and in order that the work\\nshould be well done, the machinery should be kept in\\ngood order. But, in this country, a good, sound set of\\nteeth, in a middle-aged person, is rare. Many things\\nhave, each in their turn, been charged with causing\\nthe premature decay of teeth, so common and so dam-\\naging to good health.\\nIt is pretty clear that the mischief is traceable to a\\ncombination of causes rather than to any one agent.\\nThe teeth are covered with an enamel which, if prop-\\nerly taken care of, will protect them from the chemical\\naction of any thing proper to be taken into the mouth;\\nbut this enamel may be broken, either by mechanical\\nmeans, or by taking food too hot or too cold, and decay\\nwill inevitably follow.\\n282. Rnles for preserving the Teeth. The pres-\\nervation of the teeth is a subject of too much impor-\\ntance to be passed over lightly; we therefore submit a", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0204.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "TIME OF TAKING FOOD. 195\\nfew general rules for their care. After eating, the teeth\\nshould be thoroughly cleaned, removing, by means of a\\ntooth-pick of wood, quill, or ivory, whatever has lodged\\nbetween them, and washing the mouth with tepid water.\\nNever use a metallic instrument of any kind to clean\\nthe teeth, for in its use there is always a liability to\\nfracture the enamel, which is, of all things, most to be\\nguarded against.\\nAll tooth-powders and dentifrices are to be avoided,\\nfor even the constant rubbing of the teeth with pow-\\ndered charcoal will ultimately wear through the enamel,\\nand expose the teeth to decay. A soft brush, a little\\nfine soap, and soft water about blood-heat, will cleanse\\nthe teeth more thoroughly and more safely than the\\nmost expensive dentifrice.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThree meals a day generally adopted in civilized countries.\\nMeals should be taken at intervals of at least six hours.\\nBreakfast should be eaten before commencing the day s labor.\\nLate dinners bring the evening repast too near the hour of\\nretiring. The pernicious effects of late suppers. Eating be-\\ntween meals is a fruitful source of indigestion. The digestive\\napparatus must have time to rest. Meals, when once begun,\\nshould not be interrupted. Care of the teeth important to\\ngood health.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0205.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "196 HYGIENE.\\nLESSON XXXV.\\nCONDITION OF THE SYSTEM.\\n283. Do not eat when fatigued. The condition\\nof the system, at the time of taking and digesting\\nfood, is a matter not to be overlooked in the hygiene\\nof nutrition. To digest a full meal, is an operation\\nwhich draws heavily on the nervous system for the\\nforce necessary to maintain the constant motion of\\nthe stomach, by which its contents are moved about\\nso that every part of it may be brought in contact\\nwith the surface secreting the gastric fluid, as well\\nas to keep up a full flow of this secretion.\\nNow if labor of muscle or mind has been carried to\\nfatigue, and a feeling of exhaustion is experienced, it\\nwould be very improper to take food until the ex-\\nhausted vital force has been restored by rest. Persons\\nengaged in active labor, or in hard study, should allow\\nthemselves at least half an hour for rest of body and\\nmind before assigning to the stomach its task of digest-\\ning a meal.\\n284. Rest should follow Meals. It is equally im-\\nportant that an interval of rest and relaxation should\\nfollow each meal. The action of the stomach is invol-\\nuntary, and proceeds without our knowledge or con-\\nsent; yet, if a strong effort be made to carry on any\\nvoluntary function, the vital force will be directed to\\nthe organs concerned in that work, and being thus\\nturned away from the stomach the work of digestion\\ncan not proceed for want of power.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0206.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "CONDITION OF THE SYSTEM. 107\\nIt is not merely vigorous muscular exertion which\\nproduces this effect, but it may be even more certainly\\ninduced by brain labor. Some of the most inveterate\\ncases of indigestion are traceable to the habit of spend-\\ning the dinner hour in reading and hard study. This\\nis a habit which laboring men, anxious both to acquire\\nknowledge and economize time, are apt to fall into, and\\nagainst which they should be warned.\\n285. Cheerfulness during Meals. A lively, cheerful\\nstate of mind, as far as this can be commanded, should\\naccompany all our meals; and if the surrounding\\ncircumstances force on us the melancholy mood, our\\nmeals should consist of light, digestible food, in small\\nquantities. Under such circumstances the appetite\\nwill seldom demand food; and care must be taken\\nthat we are not decoyed into the mistake of attempt-\\ning to create an appetite by local stimulants, or of\\nescaping from the cares that oppress us by a resort\\nto alcoholic exhilarants.\\nAt least half an hour should be spent in sprightly\\nconversation or amusement after a meal is taken.\\nLight reading, which will amuse and entertain, w T ill\\nfurnish a safe means of passing this interval between\\neating and business. But works of fiction which appeal\\nstrongly to the imagination or rouse emotions should\\nbe carefully avoided.\\n286. Rest after Meals objection to the Siesta.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe half hour of rest after meals, which we have\\nrecommended, will be sufficient, in most persons, to\\nstart the process of digestion; and when the stomach\\nhas become fully engaged in its work, it w r ill not be\\neasily diverted from it. But on resuming business", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0207.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "198 HYGIENE.\\nwe should begin moderately, and not tax our powers\\nto their full capacity for at least the first hour of\\nlabor. When the time can be spared, it will be\\nsafer to lengthen the period of rest after eating to\\nan hour, which could be economized by devoting it\\nto some easy task that will but lightly tax either\\nmuscle or brain.\\nTo the Spanish siesta, or hour of sleep after dinner,\\nthere is a physiological objection. All the vital powers\\nare depressed during sleep, and the stomach feels this\\nlowering of vital force in common with all the other\\norgans, and consequently digestion can not be perfectly\\nperformed.\\n287. Food not to be taken when there is no Appe-\\ntite. We have, in a previous lesson, intimated that\\nfood should be taken at regular intervals, and this\\nregularity should be maintained till it grows into a\\nhabit. This, however, is to be accepted under certain\\nrestrictions. There are conditions of the system in\\nwhich the appetite does not ask for food, and in\\nwhich to take food into the stomach would only add\\na new source of irritation, which might, with existing\\ndisturbances, prove a cause of serious sickness.\\nThese conditions may be reduced to two general\\ndivisions, to witj Those in which the loss of appetite\\nsprings from derangements in the digestive apparatus,\\nso that food, if taken, could not be properly digested,\\nand, by becoming either acid or putrid in the stomach,\\nwould not fail to seriously irritate that organ; and\\nthose in which the loss of appetite arises from dimin-\\nished wastes of the system, reducing the demand for\\nnutrition.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0208.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "CONDITION OF THE SYSTEM. 199\\n288. Abstinence\u00e2\u0080\u0094 when necessary. The first of\\nthese conditions, resulting in a loss of appetite, usually\\nhas its origin in improper eating as to the quantity\\nof food, its quality, or the time of taking it. Under\\nthese circumstances nothing more is necessary than\\nto abstain from eating and await a return of appetite.\\nIf there be no serious disease approaching, abstinenco\\nfrom food for twenty-four hours will correct the dis-\\nturbance and bring a renewed appetite.\\nThe second condition may generally be traced to a\\nlack of active exercise in the open air. When the\\nchange or transformation of the tissues is retarded,\\nthe demand for new material is proportionally dimin-\\nished, and the digestive organs refuse to prepare nutri-\\ntion beyond the healthy demands of the system.\\n289. Efforts to create an Appetite. The habit\\nof urging food on invalids when there is no desire\\nfor it, is only equaled in absurdity by the opposite\\nerror of denying food to convalescent persons when\\nthe appetite imperiously demands it. In these con-\\nditions of the system, which disqualify the digestive\\napparatus for the performance of its proper office, it\\nis a very grave mistake to resort to medicines to create\\nan artificial appetite.\\nWhen we look at the formidable catalogue of tonics,\\nand bitters, and other nostrums, with which the public\\nregularly doses itself, and all for the purpose of provok-\\ning an appetite against the wiser instincts of the sys-\\ntem, it is surprising that comparatively so little mis-\\nchief is done by all this war on nature. Out of this\\ninjudicious tampering with the digestive organs grow\\nmost of the chronic diseases, which make so many", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0209.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "200 HYGIENE.\\ninvalids, and induce premature old age in so many\\ncases.\\n290. Habits measure the quantity of Food.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The\\ncondition of the system, with regard to activity or\\nrest, must modify our diet both as to quantity and\\nkind; and it will be wise to depart even from the\\ngeneral rule of following the appetite when changes\\nin manner of life are suddenly made, especially if the\\nchange be from active labor to absolute rest. Under\\nthese circumstances, it will be prudent to leave the\\ntable while there is still a desire for more food.\\nThe changes of the season demand a corresponding\\nchange in our bill of fare. Oils and animal flesh may\\nbe taken freely in winter, if we follow out-door occupa-\\ntions, but when the relaxing days of spring come, we\\nshould keep lent, for health, if from no other motive.\\nNever take food late at night when the system is\\noppressed with a feeling of drowsiness or languor.\\nRecapitulation,\\nFood should not be taken when there is fatigue of either\\nmuscle or brain. Meals should be followed by rest. Cheerful-\\nness and mental relaxation at meals are important. Sleep\\nshould not be indulged in during digestion. Food is not to be\\ntaken when there is no desire for it. Abstinence from food\\nwhen proper, and to what extent. Efforts to create an arti-\\nficial appetite are injurious. Change of habits or of season\\ndemand a corresponding change of diet.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0210.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION. 201\\nLESSON XXXVI.\\nCIRCULATION.\\n291. Sympathetic Relations of the Heart and Blood-\\nvessels.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The circulatory apparatus has an extensive\\nrange of sympathies, being affected, more or less, by\\nevery change which takes place in any of the impor-\\ntant organs of the body; but the circulation is subject\\nto fewer direct disturbances than any other function\\nof the living body.\\nThe heart, the central organ of the circulation, is so\\nsituated that it is removed from liability to injury by\\nexternal accidents; and being an involuntary organ,\\nthe will exerts no direct control over it, and therefore\\nit is not, like the stomach, liable to be overworked for\\nany present gratification, or neglected in the hurry and\\npress of other business. Nearly all the diseases to\\nwhich the heart and blood-vessels are subject, have\\ntheir origin in their sympathetic action with the\\ndigestive or respiratory functions, or with the brain\\nand nervous system.\\n292. Pressure on the Veins. The veins perform\\nthe work of returning the blood to the heart, and\\nare therefore an important link in the process of\\ncirculation. These are largely distributed on the su-\\nperficial parts of the body, and are therefore peculiarly\\nsubject to external influences, such as change of tem-\\nperature, mechanical pressure, etc. Moreover the veins,\\nunlike the arteries, have soft and yielding coats, af-\\nfected by the lightest pressure; and as the current of\\nblood flowing through them is not impelled by any", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0211.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "202 HYGIENE.\\ndirect active force behind it, therefore it is more liable\\nto disturbances from external causes.\\nIf the clothing is so tight as to produce any sensible\\npressure, it will retard the return of venous blood, and\\nwill to that extent disturb the circulation. Tight gar-\\nters are a fruitful source of cold feet, which so many\\ncomplain of. The return of blood from the feet being\\ninterrupted, the supply will be diminished in propor-\\ntion.\\n293, Compression of the Jugular Teins. A more\\ndangerous compression of the venous circulation is that\\noccasioned by tight collars or neckties. The jugular\\nveins, which return the blood from the head, are\\nsituated immediately under the skin, on each side of\\nthe neck, and are therefore very liable to compression\\nfrom dressing the neck tightly. Compression of these\\nvessels produces engorgement of the whole vascular\\nsystem of the brain, manifesting itself by dizziness,\\na sense of fullness in the head, or severe headache.\\nThis will derange the mental machinery, and disturb\\nall the functions of the nervous system. If the com-\\npression is considerable, and any active exertion is\\nattempted, the engorgement of the brain is liable to\\nterminate in apoplexy; but if the compression be\\nmoderate and long continued, the consequence will be\\nthat less blood will be sent to the brain, and the whole\\nnervous system will be correspondingly weakened.\\n294. Muscular Exercise and the Circulation. But\\nthe circulation is affected indirectly by nearly all the\\nactivities of the body. Every contraction of a muscle\\nmakes momentary pressure on the veins in contact\\nwith it, and thus their contents are forced forward", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0212.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION. 203\\nill the direction of the heart, the valves preventing\\nthe flow in the opposite direction. The relaxtion of\\nthe muscle permits the veins to fill again, and thus\\nthe action of the muscular system increases the\\nquantity of blood returned to the heart in a given\\ntime.\\nThis demands a more vigorous action of the heart,\\nand, under this influence, the pulse becomes fuller,\\nstronger, and more frequent. This increase of circu-\\nlation by exercise is a healthy action, and with it an\\nincreased respiration is demanded for the full supply of\\noxygen, in order to break down and render soluble the\\nold material of the tissues, that it may be removed by\\nthe absorbents.\\n295. Changes of Temperature. The temperature\\nof the body and the circulation of the blood mutually\\naffect each other. Whatever excites the circulation,\\nand induces a greater transmission of blood through\\nthe capillaries, increases the temperature in the same\\nproportion and, on the other hand, if any part of the\\nbody be exposed to a very low temperature, the vessels\\nwill be contracted, and the circulation in that part\\ndiminished.\\nThis may be general, as in a cold bath or local, as in\\nthe application of ice to any part of the body. But\\nwhen there is a depression of the circulation from\\nsudden exposure to cold, there is always an effort of the\\nsystem to overcome the obstruction by augmenting the\\nforce of the circulating current. Under these circum-\\nstances, if the depressing cause be removed, the tem-\\nperature suddenly restores itself and even rises above\\nits former standard; and the increased action of the", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0213.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "204 HYGIENE.\\ncapillary circulation will be maintained for several\\nhours.\\n296. Change from Cold to Heat, most dangerous.\\nBut in feeble health this reaction does not always take\\nplace, especially if the low temperature be long en-\\ndured. Persons, therefore, of feeble vitality should be\\ncautious in exposing themselves to a low temperature,\\nwhether in the bath, or in a cold atmosphere and they\\nshould bear in mind that the reactive force diminishes\\nwith the length of the exposure.\\nThe increased force of the circulation, whether from a\\nhigh temperature of the surrounding medium, or from\\nviolent and long-continued exertion, is more to be\\ndreaded as a cause of disease than exposure to a low\\ntemperature. Changes of weather from cold to warm\\nare more unfavorable to health than those in the oppo-\\nsite direction. By the increased vascular action there is\\ninduced a tendency to inflammatory diseases.\\n297. Influence of the Mind on the Circulation.\\nThe action of the heart is readily influenced by the\\nmental condition. A powerful exertion of the purely\\nintellectual faculties, as in the solution of some in-\\ntricate problem, reduces both the force and fullness of\\nthe circulation, while the action of the heart becomes\\nmore frequent, and often irregular,\\nAnger and the other exciting passions increase the\\nforce of the heart s action sometimes to an alarming\\nextent. The depressing passions, such as sorrow or\\ngrief, render the pulse empty, slow, and feeble. Under\\nthe influence of these depressing passions, the power\\nto resist disease is greatly diminished, as was demon-\\nstrated when cholera visited our cities a few years since.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0214.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION. 205\\nThe condition of the circulation is the best measure\\nof the vital force which is in our reach. A heart-action\\nwhich maintains its uniformity, and is but little dis-\\nturbed by the various exciting causes, indicates a\\npowerful life force which will resist all ordinary causes\\nof disease, and restore health under circumstances that,\\nwith a feeble circulation, w T ould be hopeless.\\n298. Bleeding from Arteries or Veins. Though\\nthe heart and larger arteries are well secured from\\ninjury by ordinary accidents, yet the superficial vessels\\nare often injured, and it is frequently of the first impor-\\ntance to be able to distinguish the bleeding of an artery\\nfrom that of a vein, as this discrimination will decide\\nwhat must be done. 48.)\\nWhen an artery is divided, the bleeding can be\\narrested only by tying the vessel; but the immediate\\ndanger can generally be met by compressing the vessel\\nabove the wound, or on the side next to the heart, till\\na surgeon is obtained.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe circulatory organs are in sympathy with all the func-\\ntions of the body. Danger from compression of the veins by\\ntight clothing. Nearly all the activities of the body affect the\\ncirculation indirectly. Temperature and circulation mutually\\ninfluence each other. Reaction from exposure to cold neces-\\nsary precautions. Mental exercise and the influence of the\\npassions affect the circulation.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0215.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "206 HYGIENE.\\nLESSON XXXVII.\\nBREATHING.\\n299. Breathing its complex character. The\\norgans concerned in respiration are intimately con-\\nnected with a long train of dangers to health, both\\nfrom the defective performance of their functions, and\\nfrom the unwholesome condition of the air used in\\nbreathing. Foremost among these dangers stand prom-\\ninent the restrictions on the respiratory movements\\nfrom improper dressing.\\nWe have already described (Lesson VII) the process\\nof breathing as being carried on jointly by the dia-\\nphragm, the muscles between the ribs (intercostals),\\nand the muscles forming the front part of the abdomen.\\nNow, breathing may be imperfectly carried on by the\\ndiaphragm alone, but perfect breathing requires the\\njoint action of all these organs, operating without\\nrestraint and with the utmost freedom. But our\\nmodern style of dress defeats this end so completely,\\nthat we rarely see a person breathing naturally.\\n300. Movement of the Ribs in Breathing. Much\\nthat has been written on the subject of tight lacing has\\nbeen misunderstood, or the statements have been so\\nindefinitely made that they have rather served to mis-\\nlead than to instruct those for whose benefit they were\\nwritten.\\nThe motion of the ribs in expanding the chest in-\\ncreases as we descend in the series. The first rib is a\\nfixed point, and the second one is moved upward a\\ngiven amount the third moves twice as much as the", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0216.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "BKEATHING. 207\\nsecond, the fourth three times as much, and so on\\nthrough the whole series, so that the twelfth rib should\\nhave eleven times as much motion as the second one.\\nAt a glance it will be seen how much more injurious\\nit is to compress the lower than the upper part of the\\nchest, yet our modern styles nearly relieve the true\\nribs, and put all the compression on the false and\\nfloating ribs.\\n301. Injurious effect of Compression. But the\\ncompression of the chest is not the only thing to be\\nguarded against in this relation. In healthy breathing\\nthere is a free motion of the abdominal muscles, and\\nif this motion be in any way interfered with, the\\nbreathing will be imperfect.\\nTo suspend the lower garments by a band passed\\naround the loins, will prevent all free motion of the\\nmuscles on the front and sides of the abdomen, and\\nto that extent impede respiration. And this remark\\napplies not merely to women s clothing; the habits\\nof dress common among men confine the abdomen\\nby too tight a waistband, so as to materially interfere\\nwith the freedom of breathing. The lower garments,\\nwhether in male or female dress, should be suspended\\nfrom the shoulders, so as to leave the most perfect\\nfreedom of motion to the lower part of the chest and\\nabdomen. Compression need not be violent in order\\nto be injurious. A very moderate pressure, constantly\\nkept up, will be sufficient.\\n302. Compression when most injurious. Im-\\nproper clothing is much more injurious to young per-\\nsons than to those of mature age. In youth the car-\\ntilages are soft and yielding; a compression, therefore,\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 18.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0217.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "208 HYGIENE.\\nwhich in older persons would hardly be felt, will in a\\nshort time produce permanent distortion of the ribs,\\nand entail on the unfortunate and, perhaps, unconscious\\nsubject of it, a feeble vitality, which will constantly\\ninvite all the ailments that flesh is heir to.\\nMothers, in the dressing of their children, have a\\ngreat responsibility resting on them. We can not be\\ntoo often reminded that vital force is measured by\\nthe amount of chemical change going on in the body,\\nand that these changes are limited, at least on one side,\\nby the supply of oxygen furnished by the respiratory\\nprocess. Free breathing is therefore a prime condition\\nof vigorous health.\\n303. Too frequent Breathing. To one who under-\\nstands the mechanism of breathing, it is an instructive\\nlesson to watch the respiration of a company quietly\\nseated in a room. Not one in ten breathes correctly.\\nMany persons breathe with the diaphragm alone;\\nothers use the upper part of the chest almost exclu-\\nsively; and but few bring into requisition all the\\nmeans of inflating the lungs.\\nThis imperfect filling of the air-cells compels the\\nbreathing to be more frequent, in order to supply in\\nsome degree the deficiency of fullness. But this in-\\ncreased frequency not only exhausts the few muscles on\\nwhich the whole labor is imposed, but the air is not re-\\ntained in the pulmonary cells long enough to impart\\nits oxygen fully to the blood, and receive, in turn, its\\ncharge of carbonic acid from it. A healthy person with\\nwell-developed lungs, breathing quietly, will fill them\\nabout fifteen times per minute; but persons, from a\\nbad habit of breathing, or from ill-developed or com-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0218.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "BREATHING. 209\\npressed lungs, frequently respire twenty or twenty-five\\ntimes per minute.\\n904. Exorcise of the Vocal apparatus. A free\\nexercise of the lungs in singing, declaiming, or reading\\naloud, with careful attention to the method of breathing,\\nis the best means of correcting, vicious habits in the\\nuse of the lungs and their associated apparatus. In\\nthese exercises, care must be taken that the diaphragm,\\nribs, and abdominal muscles are all brought into use\\nand act in concert.\\nMany public speakers and singers, when they suffer\\nsomewhat from embarrassment, are in the habit of\\nrigidly contracting the abdominal muscles, and holding\\nthem firmly in that attitude during the whole perform-\\nance. This compels more frequent breathing than is\\nconvenient, deprives the voice of volume and force,\\nand gives it the appearance of coming from the upper\\npart of the throat only. Much of the throat disease in\\npublic speakers may be traced directly to this vicious\\nhabit of breathing.\\n305. Imperfect Breathing, source of Feeble\\nHealth. Imperfect breathing, from whatever cause\\nit may arise, is more to be dreaded as inducing feeble\\nhealth than almost any other cause, for the reason that\\nit is seldom suspected either by those who suffer or by\\ntheir friends. Though a compressed chest and unde-\\nveloped lungs, with a bad habit of breathing, may not\\nimmediately lead to any actual disease, yet the dimin-\\nished vital force, which is an inevitable result of\\nbreathing imperfectly, will greatly impair the powers\\nof endurance the ability to sustain protracted efforts\\neither of muscle or mind.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0219.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "210 HYGIENE.\\nWith this diminished vital force comes the enfeebled\\npower to resist the encroachment of disease, or to restore\\nthe healthy action of the system after disease has super-\\nvened. The chances of recovery from sickness are al-\\nways augmented by a well-developed respiratory ap-\\nparatus and a good habit of breathing. Much of the\\nfeeble health that is complained of in this country,\\nespecially among women, is traceable to imperfect\\nbreathing as its remote cause.\\n306. Breathing directly connected with Life.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nEating, drinking, sleeping, and exercising are condi-\\ntions of life and health, }^et they are only remotely so;\\nbut breathing is an immediate and indispensable con-\\ndition on which life depends directly; it is therefore\\nthe most important of all the voluntary functions we\\nperform. Indeed, respiration is so immediately con-\\nnected with life, that beyond a certain point of volun-\\ntary control, the Creator has wisely removed it from\\nour personal management, and placed it among the\\ninvoluntary functions.\\nIn this view T of its importance, it is surprising to\\nobserve how little attention is usually paid to the\\nwhole matter of respiration, both with regard to how\\nwe breathe and what we breathe. Persons are often\\nvery particular to have their food scrupulously clean,\\nbut will not hesitate to breathe the air of a crowded,\\nill-ventilated hall, or to inhale volumes of second-hand\\ntobacco smoke.\\nRecapitulation.\\nBreathing is a complex function, carried on by the joint\\naction of several organs. Compression of the lower ribs is more\\ninjurious than that of the upper ones. Bad effects of com-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0220.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "PUEE A IK. 211\\npression on the abdominal muscles. Tight clothing is most\\ninjurious to the young. Too frequent breathing defeats the\\nobject of respiration. Use of the vocal organs as a means of\\ncorrecting bad habits of breathing. Imperfect breathing is a\\nsource of feeble health.\\nLESSON XXXVIII.\\nPURE AIR.\\n307. Composition of the Atmosphere. A healthy\\nrespiration demands that pure air be supplied to the\\nlungs at appropriate intervals and in proper quantities.\\nThis question of pure air is the more difficult to solve\\nbecause many of the most objectionable impurities give\\nto our senses no evidence of their presence. The atmos-\\nphere consists of seventy-nine parts of nitrogen and\\ntwenty-one parts of oxygen. These are not chemically\\ncombined, but in a state of intimate mixture; or,\\nmore properly, the nitrogen acts as a solvent, and\\nthe oxygen is held in solution in it. This accounts\\nfor its uniformity in every place where it has been\\nexamined.\\nBesides these two gases, the atmosphere holds a vari-\\nable quantity of watery vapor, carbonic acid, ammonia,\\nand other volatile substances, which it receives from a\\nthousand sources. These impurities, however, where\\nthe air is allowed a free circulation, seldom exceed one\\npart in a thousand. It is only where the air is confined\\nthat they accumulate so as to be dangerous to those\\nwho breathe them.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0221.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "212 HYGIENE.\\n308. Natural means of Purifying the Air. One\\nof the most beautiful economies in nature is that by\\nwhich the air is purified of the pollutions that are\\nconstantly poured into it from the breathing of ani-\\nmals, the burning of fires, the decomposition of vegeta-\\nble and animal matter, etc. Like a great ocean, the air\\nreceives from all these sources constant streams of car-\\nbonic acid and ammonia, which, if there were no coun-\\nteracting agency, would soon render it utterly unfit to\\nbe breathed. But these noxious impurities are readily\\ndissolved in water, and the showers, as they fall from\\nthe clouds, wash the air and purify it.\\nTo assist this process, the vegetable world spreads its\\nbroad, leafy surface to the breeze, where myriads of\\nmouths on every leaf are open to drink up the carbonic\\nacid from the air, and appropriate it to their own use.\\nIn this same leaf the impurity is decomposed, and its\\noxygen returned to the air to supply the constant waste\\nof it by animals.\\n309. Sources of Impure Air. The influence of\\ngrowing vegetation in purifying the air suggests the\\nimportance of trees and shrubbery about our dwellings,\\nand of lawns and parks in the vicinity of large cities,\\nwhere they will serve as reservoirs of pure air. What\\nwe are able to do, locally, to purify the air for our use,\\nmay be but a small matter, but much may be gained\\nfor health by carefully shunning the sourees of impure\\nair. Ponds of stagnant water, marshes, and other accu-\\nmulations of decomposing vegetable and animal matter,\\nshould be studiously avoided.\\nLarge assemblies in imperfectly ventilated rooms are\\nmost fruitful sources of mischief to the health of those", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0222.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "PIKE AIR. 213\\nwho visit them. Air that has been once breathed is\\nunfit for use until it has mingled with the great atmos-\\npheric ocean, and its original composition has been\\nrestored. By a wise provision, to prevent re-inhaling\\nour own breath, it is rarefied by heat, and caused\\nto rise above our heads as soon as exhaled from the\\nlungs.\\n310. Oxygen its diminution by Breathing. It\\nhas been ascertained by careful experiment that air\\nexhaled from healthy lungs has lost about one-fourth\\nof the oxygen it originally contained, and that the\\nvolume has been maintained by the substitution of\\ncarbonic acid for the oxygen abstracted. Some might\\ninfer from this that breathing the same air four times\\nwould rob it of all its oxygen. This is not the case.\\nAir that has lost one-fourth of its oxygen by a first\\ninhalation, will lose less than one-eighth the second\\ntime it is inhaled; and when the oxygen has been\\ndiminished one-half the original quantity, the air will\\nno longer support life.\\nOn the other hand, the capacity of air to dissolve\\ncarbonic acid diminishes in a rapid ratio by the amount\\ndissolved. Now, when we bear in mind that breathing\\nperforms the double function of supplying oxygen to\\nthe blood and removing carbonic acid from it, we shall\\nperceive the importance of having the first use of all\\nthe air we breathe.\\n311. Importance of thorough Ventilation. The\\nproper ventilation of rooms is a subject involving more\\nof health and comfort than has been generally appre-\\nhended. Public halls, churches, school-rooms, private\\napartments, and especially sleeping-rooms, should at all", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0223.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "214 HYGIENE.\\ntimes have a free supply of pure, fresh air, and a con-\\nstant removal of that which has been vitiated by\\nbreathing.\\nIt is not necessary that air should be cold in order\\nto be pure. Air may be warmed to any desirable\\ntemperature by a proper apparatus, and yet retain its\\nhealthy proportions unchanged. The only advantage\\nin breathing cold air is, that heat expands air largely,\\nand consequently a given volume of cold air contains\\nmore oxygen than the same volume of heated air. In\\nw T arming apartments by a supply of heated air, we\\nmust guard against passing the air over red-hot surfaces\\nof iron, as a portion of its oxygen will combine with\\nthe iron, and thus the amount available for breathing\\nwill be diminished in the same proportion.\\n312. Care necessary in Warming Rooms. When\\nstoves or furnaces are used for the purpose of heating\\napartments, great care must be taken that the gases\\nresulting from combustion of the fuel do not escape\\ninto the air being warmed by it. Dr. Nichols, of\\nBoston, has demonstrated, by a series of careful experi-\\nments, that cast-iron, when highly heated, will permit\\ncarbonic oxide to pass through its pores, and render\\nthe air thus heated unsafe.\\nAn open grate or wood fire with a strong draft,\\nthough not a very good method of economizing heat,\\nis an excellent ventilator and a safe way of warming\\nsmall rooms; but when large halls or suites of rooms\\nrequire heating, currents of warm air should be con-\\nstantly introduced, which will demand that means be\\nprovided for the discharge of a corresponding current\\nof vitiated air. This warm air should be supplied", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0224.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "PURE AIR. 215\\neither from a wrought-iron furnace or from a chamber\\nheated by coils of steam or hot water pipes.\\n313. Bad effects of ill-ventilated School-rooms.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nIn large manufacturing establishments, where un-\\nhealthy gases are generated, provisions should be made\\nfor carrying these away, by means of a high venti-\\nlating stack, in which a rapid current is made to\\nascend constantly by the aid of proper machinery,\\nthus effecting a thorough renovation of the air.\\nThe imperfect ventilation of school-rooms is an evil\\nwhose consequences can hardly be measured; and they\\nare the more to be dreaded because their effects are of\\nsuch a character as seldom to occasion immediate alarm.\\nThe direct consequence of breathing air containing\\na mixture of carbonic acid below the point producing\\na sense of suffocation, is to oppress the brain w f ith a\\nfeeling of languor and dullness, followed by an almost\\nirresistible tendency to sleep. In this condition neither\\nteachers nor pupils are fit for duty. In a room twenty-\\nfive feet square, fifty pupils w T ill breathe all the air it\\ncontains in a little more than two hours. After the\\nfirst hour, the time spent in such a school-room is worse\\nthan wasted.\\n314. Alcohol and Tobacco\u00e2\u0080\u0094 influence on Respira-\\ntion. It is important, in the relation of acquiring and\\nmaintaining vigorous health, that the lungs be pre-\\nserved in such a state that the air will freely enter the\\nwhole of each lung, and that the air-cells be in such a\\ncondition that the oxygen from the air, and the car-\\nbonic acid and watery vapor from the blood, may be\\nfreely transmitted through the walls of the cells.\\nIt is a familiar fact, that when spirituous liquors are\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 19.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0225.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "216 HYGIENE.\\ntaken into the stomach, the alcohol begins directly to\\npass off by the lungs, and may be detected in the\\nbreath. But so delicate a membrane as that of the\\nair-cells can not be subjected to the action of alcohol\\nwithout serious injury. The same may be said of in-\\nhaling an atmosphere foul with tobacco smoke. The\\nnarcotic effect of tobacco smoke in its second use is\\nworse than the first use of the fumes, as in that in-\\nstance the poison is carried to the lungs, instead of\\nmerely affecting the mucous membrane of the mouth.\\nRecapitulation,\\nHealthy respiration requires pure air in proper quantities.\\nDecaying animal and vegetable matters vitiate the air. Eain\\nand growing vegetation are means of purifying the air. Large\\nassemblies corrupt it. Air once breathed is unfit for use till it\\nis purified. In exhaled air, the oxygen is reduced and car-\\nbonic acid increased. Ill ventilation affects brain functions.\\nNarcotics diminish the quantity of oxygen retained from the\\nair inhaled.\\nLESSON XXXIX.\\nANIMAL HEAT.\\n315. Uniform Temperature of the Body.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Animal\\nheat, being so intimately connected with the respira-\\ntory function, will be appropriately considered in this\\nplace. The temperature of a healthy adult is about\\nninety-eight degrees; in infancy it is a little greater,\\nand in old age somewhat less. It is astonishing to\\nobserve with what regularity the general temperature", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0226.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "ANIMAL HEAT, 217\\nis maintained in all climates, and under extreme 4 vicis-\\nsitudes of season. When persons are exposed in ex-\\ntremely cold weather, the temperature of the extremi-\\nand of the exposed parts of the face often sinks to\\nnear the freezing point; but, even at this time, a\\ndelicate thermometer, placed in the arm-pit or under\\nthe tongue, will show little or no variation from the\\nuniform standard of ninety-eight degrees.\\nDr. Kane, in his Arctic explorations, was often ex-\\nposed for hours to a temperature between sixty and\\nseventy degrees below r zero, without materially affecting\\nthe heat of his body; and in a number of well-authen-\\nticated cases, persons have subjected themselves for\\nhours to a temperature above the boiling point of\\nwater, and still the thermometer under the tongue\\nmarked ninety-eight degrees.\\n316. Evaporation and Temperature. These aston-\\nishing results can be explained only by understanding\\nthe relations existing between the pulmonary and\\ncutaneous surfaces of the body. If the proper amount\\nand kind of food be taken and digested, the tempera-\\nture will be measured by the quantity of oxygen re-\\nceived through the lungs in respiration; but the\\nevaporation of water is a cooling process, and reduces\\ntemperature in proportion to its rapidity.\\nThe rapidity of evaporation depends, to a very great\\nextent, on the temperature of the air. In a low tem-\\nperature, the evaporation from the surface of the body\\nis virtually suspended, and the heat evolved in the\\nsystem is retained only as it is conducted away by\\nexposure of the surface to the cold air. When the body\\nis exposed to the other extreme of temperature, the", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0227.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "218 HYGIENE.\\nevaporation of perspiration from the surface is suffi-\\ncient to keep the temperature down to ninety-eight\\ndegrees.\\n317. Conditions of a uniform Temperature. The\\npower to maintain this constant equilibrium of tem-\\nperature depends directly on the healthy action of the\\npulmonary surface that is, the inner surface of the air-\\ncells; and on the external, or perspiratory surface the\\nskin; and indirectly, on the supply of oily, starchy, or\\nsaccharine food, and the perfect digestion of the same.\\nThe failure of either of these conditions will be followed\\nby a corresponding disturbance in the power to main-\\ntain an equal temperature under changes in the heat\\nof the atmosphere.\\nIn cold weather, the first condition of security\\nagainst suffering is full and free breathing of pure\\nair into healthy lungs. Many persons, on leaving a\\nwarm room and going into a cold atmosphere, feel a\\nsense of chilliness, which induces a short, shallow\\nbreathing, as though they feared to fill the lungs\\nwith cold air. A few full inspirations will relieve\\nthis chilly sensation and restore a feeling of comfort-\\nable heat.\\n318. Precautions against a Cold Atmosphere. But\\nif there is an inability to fill the lungs, whether from\\ntemporary disturbance or from permanent disease, care\\nmust be observed in making sudden transitions from a\\nwarm to a cold atmosphere. Persons who have natu-\\nrally small lungs, or who dress so that the larger part\\nof the pulmonary surface is rendered useless, or those\\nwho, from present or previous disease, have the full\\nuse of only a small part of the breathing apparatus,", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0228.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "ANIMAL HEAT. 219\\ngenerate heat feebly, and should not be exposed to\\nlow temperatures. But even if the lungs supply a\\nfull amount of oxygen, the stomach may not have\\nfurnished the supply of combustible material with\\nwhich this is to unite; there will then be a corre-\\nsponding inability to maintain the temperature on\\nexposure to cold.\\n319. Overheated Rooms ill effects. Dyspeptics,\\nand those who are suffering from pulmonary disease,\\nor have a predisposition to it, while they are careful\\nto avoid sudden transitions from one extreme of tem-\\nperature to another, should be equally careful to guard\\nagainst the too common error of constantly living in\\noverheated rooms.\\nLet invalids remember that the chemical action which\\ngoes on between the air we breathe and the food we\\ndigest is not only the source of animal heat, but of\\nvital force. That uncomprehended, and perhaps incom-\\nprehensible power also, by which all the movements of\\nthe living machinery are performed, is more or less\\ndirectly connected with the same chemical changes;\\nand whatever diminishes the amount of these changes,\\nimpairs the life-force in the same ratio. In a room\\nheated to near the natural temperature of the body,\\nthere is but little demand for food, because there is\\nvery little chemical change required to supply the\\nsmall deficiency of heat; but the vital force is also\\ndiminished in like proportion.\\n320. Proper Temperature of Rooms.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This accounts\\nfor the relaxing effect of external heat the languor\\nand lassitude of those who spend their days and nights\\nin heated apartments. This effect is often heightened", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0229.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "220 HYGIENE.\\nby imperfect ventilation, suffering the air to become\\nloaded with carbonic acid and other impurities, The\\nstomach seldom digests food when there is no demand\\nfor it in the system and if food be taken under these\\ncircumstances, indigestion must follow.\\nLiving-rooms, school-rooms, offices, etc., should be\\nmaintained as nearly as possible at a temperature be-\\ntween sixty and sixty-five degrees. This will leave\\nsome thirty-five degrees of temperature to be supplied\\nby the vital apparatus, and that will insure, as a con-\\nsequent, sufficient force to give energy and efficiency\\nto the life-functions. Sleeping apartments may safely\\nhave a lower temperature say fifty degrees.\\n321. Means of reducing Heat. In the artificial heat\\nproduced by the burning of fuel, we have a means of\\nguarding against low temperature, that may be made\\navailable in all in-door occupations; and proper cloth-\\ning, exercise, breathing, and food will render out-door\\nemployments comparatively comfortable in any ordi-\\nnary temperature. But the other extreme, the high\\ntemperature of summer, is not so readily controlled;\\nmuch may be done, however, in this direction that\\nhas hardly been attempted yet.\\nBuildings with thick walls, or with an air-chamber\\nbetween the outer and inner surface, will maintain a\\nmuch more uniform temperature than can be secured\\nby the walls in common use. The evaporation of water\\nis the method employed in nature to mitigate extreme\\nheat every-where. The three great oceans which stretch\\nacross the tropics present a broad evaporating surface,\\nwhich serves to cool the trade-winds that sweep over\\nthe continents. If the entire surface of the globe", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0230.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "ANIMAL HEAT. 221\\nwithin the tropics wore land, neither animal nor\\nvegetable life could be sustained on it.\\n333, Exposure to currents of Air. Evaporation\\nmay be made available, to some extent at least, to cool\\ndown the intensity of summer heat in and around our\\ndwellings. While our clothing should allow the air to\\npenetrate freely, that the perspiration may evaporate\\neasily from the surface of the body, yet care must be\\ntaken lest currents of dry air produce such rapid evap-\\noration as to arrest or obstruct the perspiration by a\\nsudden reduction of the temperature.\\nIt is always safer to have the evaporation take place\\nfrom the surface of our clothing rather than directly\\nfrom the skin. The influence of even a rapid breeze,\\nwhen we are perspiring freely, may be borne with\\nlittle danger if w r e continue in active exercise; but\\nwhen the exercise is suspended, currents of air should\\nbe avoided, and additional clothing should be put on.\\nRecapitulation.\\nTemperature of the healthy body is uniform. Evaporation is\\na regulator of temperature. Proper breathing, appropriate food,\\nand a healthy condition of the skin are necessary to a uniform\\nheat. Precautions should be taken against a cold atmosphere\\nby those who have weak or diseased lungs. Overheated rooms\\nare to be guarded against. Proper temperature of living-rooms\\nis between sixty and sixty-five degrees Fahrenheit. Evapora-\\ntion is the natural means of reducing temperature. When\\nheated, avoid currents of air.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0231.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "222 HYGIENE.\\nLESSON XL.\\nBATHING CLOTHING.\\n323. Bathing necessary. In order to maintain a\\nuniform temperature of the body, the skin must be\\nkept in a healthy condition, so that when the heat of\\nthe body rises above ninety-eight degrees, perspiration\\nwill be increased, and evaporation will reduce the\\ntemperature to the healthy standard; or, on the other\\nhand, if the heat of the body falls below that standard,\\nthe action of the skin will be proportionally dimin-\\nished, and the animal heat thus preserved. But in\\norder that the skin may thus act as a regulator of\\nanimal heat, it must be kept clean. It is one of the\\nchannels through which the waste material of the\\nbody is carried away.\\nWhen the perspiration evaporates, it leaves on the\\nsurface of the skin the saline and animal matter which\\nit held in solution. But the skin secretes oil, also; and\\nthis, with the residuum from the evaporation and the\\nnatural waste from the surface of the cuticle, forms a\\ngummy substance which is liable to obstruct greatly\\nthe natural outlets through the skin.\\n324. How to Bathe. To remove this accumulation,\\nas well as that which is added to it from external\\nsources, the whole surface of the body should be fre-\\nquently and carefully washed. Bathing, as a means of\\ncleansing the skin, should be resorted to, during the\\nwarm seasons, at least as often as twice a week. The\\nbath should be of soft water, and the temperature be-\\ntween ninety and one hundred and ten degrees. In", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0232.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "B ATH ING CLOTHING. 223\\norder to dissolve the oily accumulations more certainly,\\nfine soap should be used moderately, and the surface\\nbriskly rubbed with a soft sponge, and dried with a\\ncoarse towel.\\nCare must be observed in the use of strong potash\\nsoap, in bathing, lest the oil should be so completely\\nremoved from the cuticle that its surface will be ex-\\nposed to the air, and become dry and chapped from its\\naction. If soft, warm water be used, nothing but the\\nmildest soaps will be necessary to cleanse the skin\\neffectually.\\n325. Bathing for other Purposes. Bathing may be\\nresorted to for other purposes than that of cleansing the\\nskin. Where the cutaneous circulation is feeble, and\\nthe temperature of the surface habitually too low, a\\nhot bath may be taken for the purpose of inviting the\\ncirculation to the surface. For this purpose the tem-\\nperature of the bath may range between one hundred\\nand twenty and one hundred and thirty degrees. Those\\nwho resort to the use of the hot bath must be careful\\nnot to suffer its use to grow into a habit.\\nWhat we have already said (Lesson XXXIX) on the\\nsubject of overheated rooms, applies equally to any\\nother habitual substitution of external heat for that\\nwhich is produced by the chemical changes going on\\nin the living body. If the vital force be not very\\nfeeble, the circulation may be attracted to the surface\\nas certainly and more permanently by a cold bath\\nor, rather, by the reaction which follows a cold bath\\nthan by the direct application of heat. To secure this\\nobject, the bath should have a temperature of about\\nseventy degrees, and should not be continued more", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0233.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "224 HYGIENE.\\nthan two or three minutes, being followed by brisk\\nfriction on the surface with a coarse towel or hair-\\ncloth.\\n320. The Plunge-bath and Shower-bath. The\\nbath may be used for the purpose of rousing up the\\nsluggish action and torpid sensibilities of the body.\\nTo accomplish this end, the whole body should be\\nplunged at once into water of a temperature between\\nsixty and seventy degrees, and immediately wiped dry,\\nand wrapped in a soft blanket or clothed in flannel.\\nThe same purpose can be accomplished as effectually\\nand sometimes more conveniently by a shower-bath.\\nBut in the use of both the plunge and shower-bath\\nwe must be careful not to mistake an exhausted vitality\\nfor a merely torpid condition of the system.\\nIn general it will be safer to begin either the plunge\\nor shower-bath with a temperature of eighty degrees,\\nand if the bath is followed by a glow of heat on the\\nsurface, we may safely venture to reduce the tempera-\\nture; but if not, we should at once desist. Medicated\\nand vapor-baths are frequently used, but, being reme-\\ndial agents, they do not belong to the subject of\\nhygiene.\\n327. Clothing, as related to health. To enable\\nthe skin to perform its office in such a manner as to\\nregulate effectually the temperature of the body, care-\\nful attention must be paid to the subject of clothing.\\nThis embraces both the material used in the fabrics\\nworn, and the adjustment of it to the body.\\nSo far as the subject is related to health, the prime\\nobject of clothing is to protect the surface of the body\\nfrom vicissitudes of temperature, by interposing between", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0234.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "BATHING CLOTHING. 225\\nit and the external air a non-conducting substance,\\nwhich will transmit the heat of the body but slowly\\nwhen the air is colder than blood-heat, and which\\nwill arrest the scorching heat of the sun, when his rays\\nhave a temperature above the natural heat of the body.\\nSubstances differ widely in their conducting properties;\\nbut in the fabrics used for clothing, the chief difference\\nconsists in the porous texture of the cloth, or the\\namount of air in the fabric.\\n328. Qualities of Good Clothing. Wool, when\\ncarded and spun in the ordinary manner, forms an\\nelastic, soft, and porous texture, and is therefore an\\nexcellent non-conductor of heat; but the same wool,\\nif combed so that the fibers will lie parallel, will form\\na firm, hard, worsted thread, which, when woven, will\\nbe almost as good a conductor as linen. Cotton spun\\nwith a slack twist, and softly woven, wall conduct heat\\nbut little better than flannel but if hard twisted and\\nfirmly woven, cotton goods conduct heat freely.\\nAnother important property of a good material for\\nclothing is, that it shall not absorb and retain moisture\\nto any considerable extent. A good clothing material,\\nwhile it will not permit a current of air to pass\\nthrough it directly, yet it must be so porous as to\\ntransmit the insensible perspiration without obstruc-\\ntion.\\n329. Variations of Clothing. Clothing should be\\nvaried with the climate and season, but this variation\\nshould have regard more to quantity than quality of\\nclothing. In hot climates, and in warm weather in all\\nclimates, few r er garments should be worn, and those of\\nlighter fabrics; but still a non-conductor is needed, to", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0235.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "226 HYGIENE.\\nprevent the injurious effects of sudden changes of tem-\\nperature, from currents of air, or transitions from sun-\\nshine to shade. The direct rays of the sun in the\\nsummer months frequently give a temperature far\\nabove blood-heat, and persons exposed to this require\\nthe protection of the best non-conductors they can\\ncommand.\\nThe materials of clothing in common use are fur,\\nwool, silk, cotton, and linen; and their value as cloth-\\ning material is in the order they occupy in this list.\\nFor protection against intense cold, fur is the best dress\\nmaterial known. Its high price and the difficulty with\\nwhich it is cleansed are the principal objections to its\\ngeneral use as winter clothing.\\n330. Wool, Silk, Cotton, and Linen. Fine wool,\\nmade into loose, soft fabrics, is the best substitute for\\nfur, and, indeed, meets all the demands of comfort,\\nhealth, and beauty in dress material. Silk is a good\\nnon-conductor of heat, and absorbs very little moisture,\\nbut its high price has hitherto prevented its general\\nuse in dress. Cotton has a wide range in its conduct-\\ning properties, depending on the mode of its manu-\\nfacture. Cotton flannels are nearly equal to w T oolen\\nfabrics as nonconductors, while the hard-twisted,\\nclosely-woven shirtings differ but little from linens\\nin this respect.\\nFrom the round, hard character of the fiber, flax and\\nhemp, in all the forms of their manufacture, are good\\nconductors of heat, and consequently the worst material\\nfor clothing in use. White linen, worn as an outer\\ngarment, is a good reflector of sunshine. This, to some\\nextent, counteracts its defect as a conductor. Under-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0236.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "HYGIENE OF BONES. 227\\nclothing should be changed frequently and kept scrupu-\\nlously clean.\\nRecapitulation.\\nA healthy action of the skin is important in maintaining a\\nuniform temperature. To secure this, frequent bathing is neces-\\nsary. Bathing may be used as a means of influencing the\\ncirculation of the blood. Caution in the use of warm baths.\\nEules for using the plunge-bath and shower-bath.\\nClothing is directly related to health. A good clothing mate-\\nrial must be an imperfect conductor of heat. Mode of manu-\\nfacture has much to do with the conducting property of cloth-\\ning materials.\\nLESSON XLI.\\nHYGIENE OF BONES.\\n331. Bone Nutrition its demands. The apparatus\\nof voluntary motion is much less complicated than that\\nof either of the other systems, and consequently less\\nliable to derangements and disturbances of its functions.\\nThe osseous or bony frame-work of the body, for its\\nproper development and the maintenance of its healthy\\naction, demands attention to food, exercise, and security\\nfrom external injuries.\\nThe food necessary to supply the material for the\\nformation and repair of bone, consists of those articles\\nwhich are rich in phosphate of lime, such as fish and\\nother forms of animal flesh, eggs, wheat bread, etc.\\nMany vegetables and fruits, which are otherwise very", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0237.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "228 HYGIENE.\\nnutritious, are nearly destitute of bone-earth, and per-\\nsons living on these exclusively can not develop and\\nmaintain a healthy bony system. Potatoes, for example,\\nwhile they are rich in the starchy elements of food, and\\ncontain a fair proportion of the nitrogenous or muscle-\\nforming material, are deficient in bone-earth; and the\\nbones of persons living exclusively on such diet become\\nsoft and often distorted.\\n332. Oversupply of Bone-earth its effects. Per-\\nsons who are very fond of what they please to call good\\nliving that is, a diet rich in animal food frequently\\nsuffer from an oversupply of bone-earth. The bones\\nbecome hard and brittle, and even slight accidents\\nresult in fractured bones, often seriously endangering\\nlife. This redundancy of phosphates in the food may\\ngive rise to gouty concretions about the joints, resulting\\nin a disease alike troublesome, painful, and difficult to\\ncure.\\nThese two conditions frequently mark the opposite\\nextremes of society. Rickets and other bony deformi-\\nties indicate the poor diet of the children of want,\\nwhile fractured bones from slight accidents, and gouty\\nailments, are the results of affluence and ease. The\\nremedy for both lies in a rational diet and proper\\nexercise.\\n333. Distortion of Bones\u00e2\u0080\u0094 how produced. Both\\nthe size and strength of the bones composing the frame\\nof the body will depend much on the judicious use of\\nthem. Like every other organ of the body, the bones\\nduring the period of growth require regular exercise,\\nin order to their full development both in regard to\\ntheir perfect organization and their proper size. But at", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0238.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "HYGIENE OF BONES. 229\\nthis period all occupations which require a constrained\\nor unnatural attitude of the body, or which demand\\nhours to be spent in the standing position, should be\\ncarefully avoided.\\nThe bones of growing persons are quite soft and\\nflexible, and will yield to a constant pressure; and\\nif that force be applied in an unnatural direction, the\\nbones will be permanently curved, and the body mis-\\nshapen and deformed. Scholars at their desks should\\nbe required to sit upright, so that the w r eight may be\\nsupported vertically on the spinal column.\\n334. Freedom of Motion necessary. Persons fol-\\nlowing sedentary employments should so arrange their\\nwork that they will not be required to assume a stoop-\\ning attitude. With all persons, such positions of the\\nbody are injurious to health, but, to the young, perma-\\nnent deformity is almost certain to be added to the\\npresent injury. This mischief results not so much\\nfrom assuming improper attitudes as from the con-\\ntinuance of them. Children at natural, healthful play\\nthrow the body and limbs into almost every conceiv-\\nable position, but they change their attitudes every\\nmoment, and no harm results.\\nIn childhood, the symmetrical development of the\\nbony skeleton requires perfect freedom of motion, and\\nsuch active employments or plays as will give a great\\nvariety of motions to the body, and a constant change\\nof position. The perfect play of all the organs in\\nmature life demands, as a first condition, that there\\nbe no malformation of the bones by careless or improper\\ntreatment in youth.\\n335. Compression from Clothing. The clothing", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0239.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "230 HYGIENE.\\nof young persons should be adjusted with special refer-\\nence to the fact that, while the bones are yet flexible\\nfrom the large proportion of animal matter they con-\\ntain, even a very gentle pressure, continued from day\\nto day, will curve and distort the bones, and thus\\nproduce permanent malformation.\\nIn this manner the Chinese practically render their\\nwomen cripples for life; and a tribe of savages in the\\nRocky Mountains, by a similar process, deform the\\nhead in childhood so as to produce a nation of mon-\\nstrosities; and thousands of children in this country,\\nby a very moderate pressure on the floating ribs,\\ncontinued through the growing period, have the chest\\nso narrowed at the base as practically to diminish\\nthe breathing power at least one-half, and, as a con-\\nsequence, reduce the force of all the vital functions in\\nthe same ratio.\\n336. Deformed Feet how produced. Multitudes\\nthus deformed in infancy drag out a miserable life,\\nunder the false impression that their daily suffering\\nfrom feeble health is a mysterious visitation of Divine\\nProvidence. In childhood and youth, the dress of either\\nsex should be so loose as to admit of the fullest inflation\\nof the lungs without obstruction or constraint.\\nIn dressing the feet there is great liability to distort\\nthe bones of the toes and the metatarsal bones. But\\nfew feet can be found in this country which retain the\\nnatural form of the human foot, as seen in the statuary\\nof the Greeks. Though this is a minor evil compared\\nwith the deformity of the chest, yet activity and grace-\\nfulness of movement is greatly impaired by every de-\\nparture from the natural form of the foot, and the", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0240.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "HYGIENE OF BONES. 231\\nability to participate in that most healthful of all\\nforms of exercise, walking, is proportionally reduced.\\n337. Spinal Curvature its origin. Next to the\\nribs, the spinal column is most liable to permanent\\ndeformity from compression. We have already spoken\\nof the stooping attitude, acquired at study or in follow-\\ning sedentary employments, but a greater danger is to\\nbe apprehended from a lateral or sidewise curvature,\\ninduced by working at occupations which employ but\\none hand and arm.\\nThe constant action of the muscles on one side, while\\nthose of the other remain inactive, will naturally tend\\nto draw the dorsal portion of the spine toward that side.\\nThis tendency is often aided by an elevated position\\nof the elbow of the active arm, or, in many instances,\\nmerely by a habit of drawing the shoulder of that side\\nupward. This deformity is very common, to a greater\\nor less extent, among needle-women, and is frequently\\nseen among clerks who write at high desks. The de-\\nformity is often so slight as to escape the notice of\\nthose suffering from it, or their friends, and yet it\\nalways impairs the powers of endurance.\\n338. Exercise its effects. In adult age the bones\\nbecome firm and solid, and are much less liable to be\\ndistorted or deformed by pressure than in early life;\\nthey are. however, subject to the general law of w r aste\\nand repair common to all parts of the living machinery.\\nThis transformation takes place more slowly in bone\\nthan in the soft parts, but the health of the bone re-\\nquires that it be carried on steadily and at a uniform\\nrate. This demands active exercise in a good atmos-\\nphere.\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 20.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0241.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "232 HYGIENE.\\nIt has been demonstrated that the bones actually\\ndiminish in size, when persons accustomed to active\\nlabor suddenly change their habits of life and abandon\\ntheir activities. But exercise may be carried to ex-\\nhaustion, and both bone and muscle may be diminished\\nin size and impaired in strength by overwork.\\nRecapitulation.\\nBone nutrition demands food sufficiently rich in phosphate\\nof lime. Oversupply renders them brittle. Deformity of the\\nskeleton may result from unnatural positions long continued.\\nFreedom of motion and frequent change of attitude are neces-\\nsary to secure a well-developed frame. Deformities are more\\neasily produced in childhood than in mature age. Spinal curva-\\nture how induced, and its effect on the general health.\\nLESSON XLII.\\nMUSCULAR EXERCISE.\\n339. Muscular Motion. The system of muscles,\\nwith their tendons and attachments, constitute the\\nmachinery of motion, which is operated by the vital\\nforce through the motor nerves. A general law, gov-\\nerning all the vital machinery, provides that, within\\ncertain limits, an organ shall correspond with the work\\nit is required to do. Under this law, the muscles\\nincrease, both in size and force, by their judicious use,\\nand the supply of vital energy is correspondingly\\naugmented.\\nWhen the muscles are brought into use, there is", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0242.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "MUSCULAR EXERCISE. 233\\nan increased flow of blood to them, which demands a\\ncorresponding increase in the action of the whole cir-\\nculatory apparatus; but this augmented circulation\\nthrows more blood to the lungs to be purified and\\naerated, and this requires fuller and deeper breathing.\\nA larger flow of oxidized blood being transmitted\\nthrough the capillaries, the chemical changes, both in\\nthe tissues themselves and in the combustible elements\\nof the food, are directly increased.\\n310. Influence of Exercise. Now this complicated\\nchain of causes and effects, springing from muscular\\ncontraction, terminates in two important results first,\\nthe cell structure of the muscles themselves is more\\nfrequently renewed, by which means the contraction\\nof the muscle is rendered more efficient; and if the\\ndemand is kept up by habitual activity, the number\\nof cells will be increased, thus giving greater volume\\nand density to the muscles that are in frequent use.\\nIn the second place, the chemical change connected\\nwith the renewing of the tissues the removal of the\\nold matter and depositing of the new, as well as the\\nrapid oxidation of the carbon and hydrogen of the\\nfood is directly connected with the evolution of vital\\nforce. This not only serves to increase the power of\\nmuscular contraction, but it re-inforces all the vital\\nfunctions and imparts activity to the mind.\\n311. Muscular Activity and Good Health. This\\nactivity of the muscular apparatus, terminating in an\\nincreased waste of material, with a correspondingly\\naugmented force distributed to all the organs, calls for\\na supply of new material to be furnished by the di-\\ngestive apparatus. This is the only legitimate and", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0243.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "234 HYGIENE.\\nnatural means of creating an appetite for it not only-\\ndemands the food, but at the same time supplies the\\nforce for its speedy and perfect digestion. But while\\nit furnishes vital force for the digestion of the addi-\\ntional food demanded, this is only the measure of the\\naugmented vital force of all the organs. Muscular ac-\\ntivity is, therefore, to be regarded as the first link in\\nthe chain of phenomena leading to, and securing that\\nvery desirable result, good health. More or less directly\\nconnected with a vigorous exercise of the muscles,\\nstands the healthy performance, correct habit, and\\npersistent endurance of all the functions of life.\\n342. Exercise as a corrective. If a person has\\ncontracted a vicious habit of imperfect and shallow\\nbreathing, vigorous exercise will soon compel a free\\nand full use of the lungs, and directly establish a more\\ncorrect habit of breathing. If sedentary employments\\nendanger a curvature of the spine, a brisk walk of\\nhalf an hour, once or twice a day, will be found the\\nmost effectual remedy. The almost instant fatigue of\\nwalking in a bent posture will compel the erect atti-\\ntude as a means of relief.\\nBut muscular exercise has its healthful restrictions.\\nIt should never be violent, nor should it be continued\\nto fatigue. Whatever form of exercise may be selected,\\nthe action should commence moderately and be gradu-\\nally increased to the proper intensity. Active forms of\\nexercise should not be suddenly suspended; and if the\\nexercise has produced perspiration, additional clothing\\nshould be put on.\\n343. Pure Air for Exercise. Exercise should be\\nconducted in the open air, if we would derive from it", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0244.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "MUSCULAR EXERCISE. 235\\nthe greatest benefit. If the air we breathe be vitiated\\nby a mixture of unwholesome gases, or if its proper\\nproportion of oxygen be reduced by having been pre-\\nviously breathed, the good effect of exercise on the\\nvital force is lost, and even a positive injury may be\\nthe result.\\nMuscular activity can be continued longer in the\\nopen air, without producing a sense of fatigue, than\\nin a close room. An invalid w T ill sit up longer when\\nriding in a carriage, than in an easy chair in the sick-\\nroom. If, however, the condition of the weather forbids\\nmit-door exercise, or circumstances render it inconven-\\nient, the windows may be thrown open and the room\\nfreely ventilated, so that a good substitute for the free\\nair of out-doors may be had, which will be much better\\nthan omitting the exercise.\\n3J4. Sunlight. Light exerts a curious influence on\\nthe ability to endure exercise without suffering fatigue.\\nRepeated experiments have demonstrated that persons\\ncan endure labor with less fatigue in the sunshine\\nthan in the shade, the temperature being the same.\\nWe shall, perhaps, never know how the sun s rays\\nimpart force to both vegetable and animal life, but\\nthe fact may be ascertained every day.\\nKitchens and workshops should be well lighted, as\\nwell as ventilated, and living-rooms should be on the\\nsunny side of the house, and the light should be freely\\nadmitted. Miners, and others who work by artificial\\nlight, are, as a general rule, short-lived, and have a\\nfeebler vitality than those who enjoy sunshine. In-\\nvalids, and persons confined by chronic forms of disease,\\nshould have light, cheerful rooms.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0245.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "236 HYGIENE.\\n345. Amount of Exercise. Exercise, whether in\\nthe form of manual labor, or taken expressly for its\\nsanitary effect, should be reduced to a habit, and\\nshould have its regular periods of activity and rest.\\nThe amount of exercise necessary to secure its best\\neffect is modified by so many circumstances, that no\\nspecial rule can be given. The general law governing\\nexercise, as we have elsewhere said, is that it is bene-\\nficial up to the point of fatigue; but as soon as this\\nfeeling is distinctly perceived, exercise should be sus-\\npended at once.\\nPersons who are beginning a course of active exercise\\nwill soon reach this point, but each succeeding day\\nthey will find themselves able to continue the exercise\\nlonger, and even add to its force and activity, until\\neight or ten hours of the day may be devoted to\\nactive labor, without materially impairing the vital\\nenergy. Fatigue is more readily induced by the vio-\\nlence of the exercise than by its long continuance. A\\nperson who will walk a mile in thirty minutes and\\nfeel no fatigue, will be entirely exhausted after run-\\nning that distance in ten minutes.\\n346. Mental Functions and Exercise. The mental\\ncondition during exercise is of the first importance in\\nregard to its sanitary value. If exercise be imposed as\\na daily task if it be taken as a medicine to secure\\nhealth, it will soon become irksome, and even repul-\\nsive, and no good will be derived from it. Whatever\\nmay be the form of exercise, the mental action should\\nbe directed to some other point than that of the mere\\nmuscular motion.\\nIf walking is selected, the mind should be pleasantly", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0246.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "EXERCISE AND REST. 237\\nemployed on some subject entirely disconnected from\\nthe exercise itself. The muscular movements of walk-\\ning should be performed entirely by the reflex action\\nof the spinal cord.\\nRecapitulation.\\nJudicious exercise increases both the volume and force of\\nmuscles. It hastens the renewal of the tissues, and thus con-\\nduces to good health. Exercise should be in the open air\\nwhen possible, for in a vitiated air it soon produces fatigue.\\nSunlight has an invigorating influence on all the vital func-\\ntions. Exercise should be habitual, and the attention should\\nbe directed to some other object.\\nLESSON XLIII.\\nEXERCISE AND REST.\\n347. Rules of Exercise. Summing up what has\\nbeen said on the subject of exercise, we present the\\nfollowing rules, namely:\\n1st. It should call into play the largest number of\\nmuscles, and include such a variety of attitudes and\\nmotions as to distribute the exercise over the whole\\nbody.\\n2d. The movements should be energetic and active,\\nbut never violent.\\n3d. The exercise should carry with it some mental\\nstimulant, or it should leave the mind free to employ\\nitself on other subjects without interfering with the\\nmuscular movements.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0247.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "238 HYGIENE.\\n4th. It should be regular and habitual.\\n5th. It should have the full advantage of free air\\nand light.\\n6th. It should begin gradually, and be increased to\\nfull energy.\\n7th. All kinds of exercise should be avoided which\\nrequire the muscles to be held long in a state of rigid\\ncontraction.\\n348. Gymnastics. In selecting a form of exercise to\\nfill these indications, we have a wide field in which to\\nmake our choice and yet but few of the special modes\\nwhich have been invented and prescribed as sanitary\\nmeasures, are free from formidable if not fatal objec-\\ntions. The various forms of gymnastics and calis-\\nthenics, while they fill most of the requirements,\\nfail to furnish any mental stimulus other than the\\nmuscular movements themselves; and yet these de-\\nmand so much of the attention, that the mind can\\nnot leave the movements to seek other fields of em-\\nployment.\\nThe various games of ball, etc., while they call\\ninto activity a wide range of muscles, and have the\\nadvantages of open air and ample light, and, withal,\\nfurnish a vigorous mental stimulant in the chances\\nof the game, yet there is a constant tendency for\\nthat activity to be converted into violence, that may\\nend in actual injury, and more than defeat the object\\nof the exercise.\\n349. Manual Labor. Walking, when properly per-\\nformed, is one of the most healthful forms of exercise,\\nand one which is nearly always available. We said,\\nwhen properly performed, for every body has not learned", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0248.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "EXERCISE AND REST. 239\\nto walk correctly. A promenade should always be per-\\nformed in the open air, with the body and head erect,\\nand the shoulders thrown back so as to give free ex-\\npansion to the lungs. The clothing should be adapted\\nto the condition of the weather, and should be so ad-\\njusted as to permit the free use of every muscle of the\\nbody, without compression or restraint.\\nBut the demand for active exercise finds its legiti-\\nmate and complete fulfillment in the various, forms of\\nuseful labor. This is demonstrated every day in the\\nfact that the most perfect symmetry of form and vigor\\nof constitution is found among those w T ho spend most\\nof their waking hours in manual labor. Labor only\\nrequires to be regulated by a proper knowledge and\\ncorrect application of physiological laws, to meet all\\nthe demands of healthful exercise.\\n350. Kinds of Labor not Healthy.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 But all forms\\nof labor are not alike promotive of health. That form\\nof it is best which furnishes the greatest variety and\\nwidest range of activities. These conditions are found\\nin the highest perfection in agricultural and horticul-\\ntural pursuits. The division of labor w T hich, in our\\nmodern civilization, has been carried to so great an\\nextent, and which has resulted in such a wonde?ful\\neconomy of labor, has a direct tendency to reduce its\\nvalue as a means of maintaining good health.\\nThe tendency of this system is to confine the work\\nto the repetition of a few motions the activity of a\\npart, and often but a small part of the body; and while\\nthese organs are generally overworked, the remainder\\nof the body becomes feeble from disuse. Some occu-\\npations employ the hands alone, while the other\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 21.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0249.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "240 HYGIENE.\\nmuscles of the body are unused and the brain unem-\\nployed. Such occupations are pernicious to health,\\nand should be avoided.\\n351. Bad effects of Overexercise.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 But exercise,\\nlike every other good thing, is liable to be abused, and\\nthus become a positive injury and a fruitful source of\\ndisease. It is only when labor is perverted that it de-\\ngenerates into drudgery and becomes a curse, destroy-\\ning the symmetry of the body, entailing on its victim\\ndisease and suffering, and greatly reducing the period\\nof human life.\\nThe tendency of modern society is to inflict positive\\ninjury on a large class, by idleness and want of any\\nhealthful exercise, and to break down the constitution\\nand ruin the health of another class by overwork.\\nEight hours of labor active, but not violent with an\\ninterval of one or two hours rest, will, in most consti-\\ntutions, be endured, without loss of energy or injury to\\nhealth, for six days in succession, and, with a day of\\nrest intervening, may be repeated from week to week\\nindefinitely. A few may endure more than this, but\\nthese are the exceptions and not the rule.\\n352. Exercise for Young Persons.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Young persons\\nin active employments need more frequent intervals\\nof rest than those of mature age; and the same is\\ntrue in regard to exercise, if confinement is the rule.\\nPupils required to remain quiet in the school-room,\\nshould have at least fifteen minutes of active exercise\\nat the end of each hour. Such a course would not only\\nsecure better health to the scholars, but a more satisfac-\\ntory progress in their studies.\\nPersons laboring in shops will greatly improve their", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0250.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "EXERCISE AND KEST. 241\\nhealth by devoting an hour each day to amusement\\nin the open air and sunlight. This is especially true\\nof those occupations which employ only the hands, or,\\npossibly, only a single hand. Such persons require\\nas much exercise of the whole body as their health\\nwould demand if they were actually unemployed.\\nBoys generally manage to get exercise enough and\\nif girls from fourteen to twenty years of age w r ere\\ncompelled to exercise every day in the open air, we\\nshould soon have a different race of women.\\n353. Rest its necessity. But vital machinery is\\nnot made for constant activity. A regular alternation\\nof action and rest is the law of life every- where, and\\nthe intervals of repose are as essential to health as are\\nthe periods of activity. Rest is rendered necessary\\nfrom two considerations: In the first place, the cells\\ncomposing the muscular fibers are broken down and\\nremoved more rapidly during the active contraction of\\nthe muscle, than the nutritive process is able to re-\\nplace them; but while we rest, the preponderance is on\\nthe other side the wastes are replenished and the\\nmuscular tissue restored to its original integrity.\\nIn the second place, active exercise expends force\\nmore rapidly than it can be supplied by the brain and\\nnerves: hence, as fatigue comes on, the muscles con-\\ntract more slowly and with less energy, until finally\\nthe entire exhaustion of strength, above what is neces-\\nsary to keep in motion the involuntary organs, takes\\nplace, and motion ceases from prostration of the vol-\\nuntary powers.\\n354. Two kinds of Rest. Corresponding to this\\ndivision, rest must be of two kinds, looking to the", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0251.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "242 HYGIENE.\\naccomplishment of these two objects. A mere suspen-\\nsion of muscular contraction is all that is necessary to\\nrestore the wasted tissues, for nutrition will go on\\nwith an activity stimulated by the demand for new\\nmatter, while the waste from action will be suspended.\\nUnder these influences, but a short period of repose\\nwill be required to restore the equilibrium.\\nThat rest is most perfect, however, which most\\ncompletely suspends muscular action; and from this\\nit follows, that a reclining position is better adapted\\nto rest than either sitting or standing. But to restore\\nexhausted contractile force, requires more than mus-\\ncular repose it demands brain rest, which can only\\nbe had in sleep.\\nRecapitulation.\\nGeneral rules for exercise. Gymnastics do not furnish any\\nmental stimulus other than the muscular movements them-\\nselves. Walking is a healthy and available form of exercise.\\nManual labor properly regulated is most conducive to health.\\nKinds of labor which are to be avoided. Kest must follow\\nactivity. Muscular rest, distinguished from brain rest.\\nLESSON XLIV.\\nBRAIN REST.\\n355. The Nervous System. The systems of nutri-\\ntion and voluntary motion, which we have been con-\\nsidering, are entirely dependent on the nervous system\\nfor the supply of force necessary for their several\\nfunctions. All the diseases of these systems which", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0252.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "BRAIN REST. 243\\ndo not depend on structural derangements of the\\norgans, are therefore to be traced to disturbances in\\nthe nervous system.\\nBut this dependence is reciprocal. The brain de-\\npends on the digestive apparatus for a constant supply\\nof healthy blood, rich in the elements of brain nutri-\\ntion. It is also dependent on the uninterrupted action\\nof the respiratory organs, for a supply of oxygen neces-\\nsary to carry forward the chemical changes so inti-\\nmately connected with the evolution of that vital force.\\nWithout the chemical changes dependent on digestion\\nand respiration, the supply of vital force is cut off;\\nand without a healthy action of the brain and nerves,\\nits distribution is impossible.\\n356. Brain needs Exercise. The brain and its\\nappendages are subject to the general physiological\\nlaw of alternate activity and rest, which is so inti-\\nmately connected w r ith the normal condition and\\nhealthy action of all the other organs of the body.\\nAs the brain is the most delicately organized part of\\nthe body, and receives proportionally the largest supply\\nof blood, its tissues are transformed with a correspond-\\ning rapidity.\\nIf the exercise of brain be regular, and not too\\nviolent nor too long protracted, and the nutrition be\\nsufficient to supply the material wasted by the activity,\\nthe result of the exercise will be the same here as else-\\nwhere. The efficiency of brain action will be in pro-\\nportion to the frequent and perfect renewal of its cell\\nstructure. The functions of sensation and motion do\\nnot exhaust the cerebrum as rapidly as the function\\nof thought.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0253.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "244 HYGIENE.\\n357. Brain fatigue. During our waking hours,\\nthere is hardly such a thing possible as absolute brain\\nrest. The attention is constantly called to the various\\nobjects of sense around us, and the perceptive faculty is\\nas constantly required to note the various sensations,\\nso that the representative faculty can recall them at\\npleasure.\\nIt is true that, under ordinary circumstances, this\\naction is so nearly spontaneous that it can hardly be\\ncalled brain labor. But let a person spend a day in\\nsight-seeing, in some new and interesting locality, or\\nlisten closely for an hour or two to an intricate argu-\\nment, or an elaborate discourse on any subject that\\nsecures his attention, and a sense of brain weariness\\nwill be felt. The undivided attention can no longer be\\nfixed and held to the subjects of observation, and the\\nmind will fail to grasp the scope of the argument, or\\nperceive the nice distinctions which the speaker, from\\nfamiliarity with his subject, may present even with\\ngreat clearness.\\n358. Brain weariness. This point of mental fatigue,\\nor brain weariness, is induced more readily in young\\npersons than in those of mature age, and in that class\\nwho are not accustomed to brain work, than in those\\nwhose business has been study. This fact is especially\\ncommended to the notice of parents and teachers.\\nPupils, at the immature age of ten or twelve years,\\nare required to confine their attention, often for a\\nperiod of eight hours a day, to studies which are\\nfrequently abstruse, uninteresting, and, to them, diffi-\\ncult; and this, generally, with but very brief intervals\\nof rest. After an hour or less of close application to", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0254.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "BRAIN REST. 245\\nstudy, if the pupil be required to divert the brain\\naction in the direction of brisk muscular exercise,\\ninvolving chiefly the functions of the spinal cord, the\\nbrain will return to its task refreshed, and in this\\nmanner it may labor safely and profitably five or six\\nhours a day.\\n359. Mental effort long continued. ^Lfter a period\\nof close mental application, if the pupil finds himself\\nunable to confine his attention to the subject of his\\ninvestigation, or discovers an inability to exercise his\\nordinary powers of mental perception, he should be\\nadmonished at once and intermit his labors. All exer-\\ntion beyond this point is more than a waste of time\\nand effort; it is inflicting a positive and, to some\\nextent, a permanent injury on the brain. If exertion\\nbe persisted in after this stage, a condition of ex-\\nhaustion will follow, from which recovery can be found\\nonly in sleep. But sound, refreshing sleep is not always\\nattainable under these circumstances.\\nThe system of cramming, which is becoming so\\ncommon in our schools, and which prescribes for pupils\\nof tender age an amount of mental labor that would\\nbe more than enough for well matured and disciplined\\nminds, has a tendency to arrest mental development\\nby overwork.\\n360. Time of Study. No general rule can be laid\\ndown prescribing a definite number of hours of mental\\nlabor to each pupil in a school. So many modifying\\ncircumstances may interpose, such as age, sex, general\\nhealth, temperament, previous habits of study, etc.,\\nthat the whole matter must be left to parents or\\nteachers, to be governed by their judgments under", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0255.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "246 HYGIENE.\\nvery broad instructions. Before the age of ten years,\\nstudy should be amusement rather than business; be-\\ntween ten and fifteen years, the confinement should\\nnot exceed an hour of close application without inter-\\nmission.\\nAs a general rule, boys endure confinement to study\\nbetter than girls, and persons of bilious better than\\nthose of a nlrvous temperament; but those who are\\nleast able to sustain a protracted effort, can generally ac-\\ncomplish more, by close application, in a given time, than\\nthose who suffer less from long continued mental labor.\\n*.o\\n361. Special Training. In cultivating and devel-\\noping the mental powers, the same law governs the\\nprocess as that which controls the education and train-\\ning of muscular movements. If the entire attention be\\ndirected to the training necessary to the performance\\nof a single motion or group of motions, great perfection\\nmay be attained in that direction; but all the other\\nmovements being neglected, the aggregate of muscular\\npower is reduced, and the educated faculties soon fail\\nfor want of the force which can be evolved only in the\\nsymmetrical development of all the faculties.\\nConforming to this law, it follows that, if the mental\\nfaculties be educated in a single direction, a much\\nhigher perfection is attainable, in that particular line,\\nthan would be possible if the culture and training\\nwere distributed equally among all the faculties. But\\nthe few favored faculties, depending on the general\\nbrain force for the power of their expression, and this\\nfailing through neglect of general culture, soon reduce\\nthe overtrained powers to the imbecility of the neglected\\nfaculties.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0256.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "BRAIN REST. 247\\n962. Relation of Mind to Matter. Many well-\\ndisposed persons object to referring the mental mani-\\nfestations, in any case, to the proper development and\\nhealthy action of the brain, because of a supposed tend-\\nency to materialism. But the relation of mind to\\nmatter is a question of fact, and is independent of all\\ntheory.\\nNothing is clearer than that all our knowledge of an\\nouter world, as well as our knowledge of the thoughts\\nand actions of other minds, reach us through sensation\\nand, on the other hand, that we can transfer our\\nthoughts to other minds only by muscular motion.\\nBut sensation and motion are primary brain functions.\\nThere is no necessity, however, for confounding the\\nagent which operates, with the instrument by means\\nof which the operation is performed.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThere is a mutual dependence between the brain and the\\nother organs of the body. All vital action is dependent on a\\nhealthy condition of the brain. The brain requires exercise in\\norder to maintain its powers of action. Of the three brain\\nfunctions, thought is the most exhausting. Brain labor de-\\nmands frequent intervals of rest. Protracted study most in-\\njurious to young persons. Special training operates unfavorably\\non the general development of mind.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0257.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "248 HYGIENE.\\nLESSON XLV.\\nBRAIN POISONS.\\n363. Alcohol, Tobacco, and Opium. It may be\\nregarded as an axiom in hygiene, that the proper devel-\\nopment and healthy action of the brain and nerves, in the\\nabsence of structural derangements in the other organs, is\\nthe prime condition of good health. This being true, it\\nfollows that our first care in the preservation of health\\nis to guard well the brain, supply it with pure, well\\naerated blood, give it the proper alternations of exer-\\ncise and rest in each of its threefold functions, and\\npreserve it from the influence of poisons which impair\\nits powers, disturb its functions, or derange its delicate\\nstructure.\\nOf this class of poisons the most dangerous are alco-\\nhol, opium, and tobacco. Two of these, at least, are in\\ncommon use in this country, and the third (opium) is\\nrapidly gaining favor with certain classes in American\\nsociety. If we had the means of tracing to its legiti-\\nmate source every disease that afflicts civilized man,\\nwe have no doubt but that a large majority would be\\nfound to originate, either directly or indirectly, in the\\nhabitual use of these narcotics.\\n364. Alcohol its chemical relation. Alcohol is\\nthe most active, and on this account, as well as on\\nothers that will appear hereafter, it is the most\\ndangerous of this class of poisons. Alcohol is the\\nproduct of fermentation; the result of, or, rather, one\\nof the bodies resulting from, the decomposition of\\nsugar. If it is produced from grain, potatoes, etc.,", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0258.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "BKAIN POISONS. 249\\nthe starch is first converted into sugar, and this into\\nalcohol and carbonic acid: the one a poison when taken\\ninto the stomach, the other a most deadly poison when\\ninhaled.\\nIn all the various forms of intoxicating liquors, the\\nactive agent is alcohol; and the effect of a given quan-\\ntity of it is the same, whether in the concentrated form\\nof distilled liquors, such as brandy, rum, gin, or whisky,\\nor in the milder dilutions of fermented mixtures, such\\nas wine, beer, cider, etc. In all these mixtures the\\nfluids with which it is mixed serve only as solvents\\nof the alcohol, and do not decompose it nor change its\\ncharacter.\\n365. Alcohol and Organic Substances, Though\\nalcohol produces its chief and most observable effect\\ndirectly on the great nervous centers, yet there is an\\nindirect action through the nutritive functions, which\\nis too important to be overlooked. The chemical action\\nof alcohol is to arrest or impede change in organic sub-\\nstances wherever it comes in contact with them.\\nAnimal tissues may be preserved in alcohol for an\\nindefinite period, so as to be entirely proof against\\nthe putrefactive process. Vegetable substances, also,\\nmay be preserved from decay indefinitely by immer-\\nsion in alcohol. But the life processes, from the first\\nstage of digestion to the completed w r ork of trans-\\nforming the tissues, is incessant change; and whatever\\ninterferes with this regular succession of chemical trans-\\nformations, in the same proportion disturbs the vital\\nfunctions and impairs health.\\n366. Alcohol is Indigestible. The first effect of\\nalcohol, when taken into the stomach, is to impair", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0259.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "250 HYGIENE.\\nthe capability of change in the food in the process\\nof digestion, for digestion consists of a series of chem-\\nical changes. Beefsteak that has been macerated in\\nalcohol for forty-eight hours is perfectly indigestible.\\nAlthough the brandy taken at dinner impairs di-\\ngestion while it is present in the stomach, yet a\\nwise provision is made by which the stomach is soon\\nrelieved of its presence.\\nAlcohol is entirely indigestible, and does not pass\\nwith the chyme into the intestinal tube, but is in-\\nstantly taken up by the absorbents and carried into\\nthe veins, and by way of the right side of the heart\\nand pulmonary artery, it reaches the lungs and begins\\nto escape with the breath exhaled. That which gives\\nodor to the breath of one who drinks is, substantially,\\npure alcohol. A very small part of it has lost one-\\nthird of its hydrogen, and is converted into a compound\\nwhich chemists have named aldehyde.\\n367. Alcohol impairs Chemical Change. Though\\nthe odor of alcohol can be detected in the breath a\\nfew minutes after it has been taken into the stomach,\\nyet it is not all disposed of so soon, for the odor fre-\\nquently remains on the breath for twenty-four hours.\\nAll this time the poison has been mixed with the\\nblood, and passing the capillary circulation, it has\\nproduced its specific effect on the changes, so inti-\\nmately connected w T ith life itself, going on in this\\nregion of waste and repair. These changes consist in\\nthe oxidation of the carbon and hydrogen of the di-\\ngested food, and the consequent evolution of animal heat\\nand vital force.\\nThat it really impairs all these actions and dim-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0260.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "BRAIN POISONS. 261\\ninishes change in the capillaries, and consequently\\nreduces the normal amount of vital force by which the\\nnervous system is enabled to maintain the various\\nvoluntary and involuntary motions necessary to life,\\nis no longer a matter of conjecture. It has been dem-\\nonstrated that, under the influence of alcohol, the\\namount of carbonic acid exhaled from the lungs is\\ndiminished from thirty to fifty per cent.\\n368. Alcohol lessens Muscular Force. This reduc-\\ntion of the chemical changes going on in the capillary\\ncirculation indicates a corresponding change in the\\nbrain force, as transmitted by way of the motor nerves\\nto the muscles by which the various movements of the\\nbody are performed. This deduction of science has\\nbeen fully demonstrated by repeated experiments, made\\nby actual measurement of muscular power in the same\\nindividual under the influence of alcohol and without\\nit. These experiments prove that the reduction of\\nstrength is very accurately measured by the diminution\\nof carbonic acid from the lungs in breathing. This\\nreduced supply of nervous force is soon apparent in\\nthe impaired powers of endurance, observed in those\\nwho use alcoholic drinks.\\n369. Alcohol causes a sense of heat. The effect\\nof alcohol on the animal heat is among the most\\ncurious of the physiological phenomena that attend\\nits action on the living body. The diminished pro-\\nduction of carbonic acid, when under the influence\\nof alcohol, would suggest a reduced combustion in the\\nbody, and a corresponding reduction of temperature;\\nbut the testimony of the person under its influence is\\nconclusive in the opposite direction; he avers that he", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0261.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "252 HYGIENE.\\nfeels warmer, and the flush of the blood in the super-\\nficial vessels appears to corroborate his testimony,\\nLiebig, the justly celebrated German chemist and\\nphysiologist, attempted to solve the mystery by sup-\\nposing that the oxygen inhaled entered into combina-\\ntion with the alcohol, and thus produced heat without\\nevolving vital force; but this solution will require an\\nincreased amount of carbonic acid in the breath, when,\\nin fact, the quantity is diminished.\\n370, The Thermometer shows a reduction of Tem-\\nperature. But the mystery disappears at once when\\nwe appeal to the thermometer. A delicate thermometer\\nplaced under the tongue will show an unsteadiness in\\nthe temperature for the first fifteen or twenty minutes\\nafter taking four ounces of brandy. In some instances\\nthe temperature falls from the first, but in most\\ncases there is an increase of heat, ranging from one-\\nhalf to three-fourths of a degree, and continuing from\\nten to fifteen minutes; after which there is a reduction\\nin temperature of two or three degrees, lasting for sev-\\neral hours, even while the face is flushed and the person\\naffirms that he is warmer.\\nBut common observation shows that he will freeze\\nmuch quicker with than without the brandy. The\\nflush of his face is the result of diminished action,\\nsuffering the blood to accumulate in the capillaries;\\nand his sense of heat depends on perverted sensi-\\nbility.\\nRecapitulation.\\nNarcotics operate as brain poisons. To this class belong alco-\\nhol, tobacco, opium, etc. Of these, alcohol is the most active. It\\nis the active principle of all spirituous and fermented liquors.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0262.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "BRAIN POISONS. 253\\nWhen a given amount is taken, its effect is the same, whether\\nconcentrated or diluted.\\nThe chemical action of alcohol on organic substances arrests\\nchange. This impairs digestion, and diminishes vital force.\\nThe sense of heat following the use of alcohol is the result of de-\\nranged sensibility.\\nLESSON XLVI.\\nBRAIN POISONS CONTINUED.\\n371. Narcotic Poisons. The direct action of alcohol,\\nand other narcotic poisons, on the nervous system con-\\nsists chiefly in diminished sensibility and its conse-\\nquences. If the mouth be filled with a strong alcoholic\\nliquor, such as brandy or whisky, and the same re-\\ntained but a few minutes, it will be found that the\\nsense of taste is nearly, if not entirely, destroyed for\\nthe time being.\\nThe mucous membrane of the stomach is continuous\\nwith that of the mouth: it will, therefore, be similarly\\naffected by like agents. Alcohol will -produce a double\\neffect on digestion it will render the food less sub-\\nject to change, and, therefore, more difficult of diges-\\ntion; and it will so reduce sensibility in the nerves\\nof the stomach that the imperfectly digested food will\\nbe suffered to pass the pyloric orifice into the intestinal\\ncanal, and a great portion of the food be lost, if\\nnothing worse occur from the presence of undigested\\nfood in the intestines.\\n372, Alcohol and the Digestive Function. But", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0263.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "254 HYGIENE.\\nthis abuse of the stomach can not be long indulged in\\nwithout permanently impairing the sensibility of that\\norgan, and establishing the habit of imperfect diges-\\ntion, if not inducing confirmed dyspepsia. The first\\neffect of this impaired digestion is a demand for more\\nfood than would be required if digestion was perfect;\\nfor it is not the amount of food we eat that repairs the\\ndaily wastes of the body, but that which is digested\\nand assimilated.\\nThis increased demand for food after taking the\\nbitters is often mistaken for a healthy appetite, and\\nregarded as an indication of increasing tone and vigor\\nin the digestive apparatus. If the alcohol be left off,\\nthe returning sensibility of- the stomach will admonish\\nthe brain of the true condition of that organ, and its\\ninability to digest food, and consequently it will refuse\\nit, a loss of appetite being the result.\\n373. Alcohol impairs sensibility. The diminished\\nsensibility in the nerves of the stomach is not a local\\naffection, but extends to the whole sentient apparatus.\\nIt is to this fact that alcohol owes most of its reputa-\\ntion as a medicine. It renders the patient insensible\\nto pain, and he mistakes this insensibility for the cure\\nof the disease, of which the pain was but the warning\\nof a faithful sentinel. The insensibility to injury, of\\nthose who are intoxicated is very commonly noticed, and\\nillustrates the effect of* this poison on the very impor-\\ntant function of sensation.\\nThe general sense of feeling can not be impaired\\nwithout the local senses suffering more or less. Of\\nthese the sense of vision early feels the effect of the\\npoison, rather in a perversion of vision than in a loss", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0264.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "BRAIN POISONS. 255\\nof sight. To intoxicated persons, things often appear\\ndouble, and frequently things at rest appear to be in\\nmotion. The sense of hearing is less affected by alcohol\\nthan the other senses, and yet the long continued use\\nof the poison often seriously impairs that faculty.\\n374. Exhilaration. The feeling of exhilaration,\\nwhich is generally mistaken for exalted sensibility, is,\\nin fact, the result of a partial paralysis of the sentient\\nextremities of the nerves. The vital force, by the\\nmovement of which sensation is carried on, being with-\\ndrawn from the nervous expansions, is concentrated on\\nthe great nervous centers, thus manifesting the dis-\\nturbed equilibrium of nervous force rather than an\\nincrease of it.\\nThe phenomenon of exhilaration can be studied better\\nin the inhalation of chloroform, or nitrous oxide, than\\nin the slower process of administering narcotics by the\\nstomach. The exhilaration is the same, and in either\\ncase the power to feel impressions made on the sentient\\nnerves is diminished from the beginning; and, if car-\\nried far enough, terminates in total insensibility, un-\\nconsciousness, and, finally, in death.\\n375. Fascinating influence of Alcohol. This ex-\\nhilaration, always tending toward insensibility and\\nunconsciousness, is that which renders alcohol so fas-\\ncinating and so dangerous a poison. Its first effect is to\\nrender the victim unfit to judge of his own condition,\\nof the nature and situation of things around him, or of\\nhis relations to these surroundings. Through the me-\\ndium of the general nervous sensibility, we determine\\nour condition of body and mind through this medium\\nwe are conscious of our own powers, and determine.\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 22.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0265.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "256 HYGIENE.\\nwith a good degree of accuracy, the physical, mental,\\nand moral possibilities and duties of our situation.\\nBut the moment we place ourselves under the exhila-\\nrating influence of alcohol, and in the exact ratio in\\nwhich that influence affects us, we lose this power.\\nOur judgment of ourselves, of our powers, and of our\\nduties, is distorted and false, and this false judgment\\nmay lead us to ruin our health, corrupt our morals,\\nand alienate our friends.\\n376. The Action of Alcohol. There are several\\nfallacies connected with the too common indulgence in.\\nalcoholic exhilaration, which demand exposure for the\\ngood of the young and the unguarded. There is an\\nidea, widely entertained, that the effect of alcohol as\\nseen in the furious, or the insensible state of drunken-\\nness, differs in hind from the exhilaration produced by\\na single glass of wine. This is not true. The action\\nof alcohol on the nervous system is a unit: it is dimin-\\nished sensibility, manifesting itself in exhilaration, and\\nthis is drunkenness in kind, whatever the degree may\\nbe; and the exhilaration itself disqualifies the victim\\nof it from judging of the degree. Hence, it follows\\nthat a man who has taken alcohol, and is under its\\ninfluence, is drunk to that extent, but how much he is\\ndrunk he is not competent to know.\\n377. The Danger of the Poison.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This last fact is\\na significant one, and solves the most profound\\nsocial mystery of the past ages as well as of the pres-\\nent. It is this Young men see the ruin of health,\\nmorals, fortune, character, and domestic happiness in\\nthe hundreds of their acquaintances, who go down to\\nearly and dishonored graves, victims of the drinking", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0266.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "BRAIN TOISONS. 257\\nhabits of society, and yet they venture to travel the\\nsame dangerous road, when one of positive safety is\\nopen to their choice.\\nThey do not understand that the danger lies in tak-\\ning the poison, but suppose that it is in taking too\\nmuch an evil which they resolve always to avoid.\\nBut not understanding the nature of alcohol, nor\\nknowing that to indulge in its exhilaration is, to that\\nextent, to surrender the means of self-knowledge, and\\nconsequently of self-control, they move steadily on to\\nruin. A knowledge of the physiological effect of nar-\\ncotics, and correct habits of life established on that\\nbasis, are the only safeguards against their fascina-\\ntions.\\n378. The Moderate Use of Alcohol.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The habitual\\nuse of alcoholic drinks, even though the quantity in-\\ndulged in does not produce such drunkenness as will dis-\\nqualify the subject for the ordinary business of life, w T ill\\nyet leave the unmistakable traces of its effects in a dis-\\neased condition of the brain and nervous system. Sensi-\\nbility in all the organs of the body will be more or less\\nblunted; the pow T er to resist disease, and the ability to\\nrestore to healthy action the morbid condition of any\\norgan or function, will be greatly impaired, the whole\\nnutritive system will be found the subject of more or\\nless derangement, and the force and endurance in the\\nmuscular system will feel the effect of the poison in a\\ngreat diminution of its energy. Taken in this manner,\\nit is a slow but very sure poison.\\nRecapitulation.\\nNarcotics render the food less subject to change, and, therefore,\\nmore difficult of digestion. Alcohol impairs sensibility in all the", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0267.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "258 HYGIENE.\\norgans. The exhilaration produced by alcohol is the result of\\ndiminished sensibility in the nervous system. This disqualifies\\nthe person to judge of his condition. Drunkenness differs in\\ndegree, but not in kind. The moderate use of alcohol is a dan-\\ngerous delusion.\\nLESSON XLVII.\\nBRAIN POISONS CONTINUED.\\n379. Effects of Alcohol on the Mind \u00e2\u0080\u0094The effects\\nof alcoholic drinks on the mental powers are among the\\nmost ruinous, as they are the most prominent of its\\nmorbid influences. Exhilaration is disturbed equilib-\\nrium of nervous force, with a constantly progressing\\ndiminution of the aggregate of that force, ending in\\ninsensibility and delirium, and, finally, in unconscious-\\nness.\\nWhile the powers of imagination are momentarily\\nexalted, and the command of language is greater, the\\njudgment is impaired, the power of perception is blunt-\\ned, and the reasoning faculties are rendered unreliable.\\nWith these derangements of the purely intellectual\\nfaculties, the passions are excited to morbid activity;\\nand especially those of the grosser kind, being released\\nfrom the restraint of the intellectual faculties and\\nmoral sensibilities, lead their victim into every species\\nof debauchery and crime.\\n380. Alcohol destroys Mental Harmony. In the\\nhuman constitution, the intellectual powers, the ani-\\nmal appetites, the passions, and the moral affections", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0268.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "UK. UN POISONS. 259\\nare so adjusted that when a healthy balance of power\\nis maintained among them, and a proper subordination\\nobserved, the result is the harmony of the whole group,\\nbringing the highest happiness to the individual and\\nthe greatest good to society.\\nThe universal testimony of all ages, and every form\\nof civilization, is, that the use of alcohol has every-\\nwhere disturbed this nicely adjusted balance, and de-\\nstroyed the equilibrium among these powers, bringing\\nruin on society, destruction on nations, and misery to\\nits immediate victims, and to the domestic circle in\\nwhich they moved. These disastrous results attract\\nattention most where the poison is used in large quan-\\ntities, but the effect is the same in kind, and is always\\nin proportion to the quantity taken, other things being\\nequal.\\n381. Effects of Brain-poisoning. The immediate\\neffects of alcohol are temporary, and if the quantity\\ntaken be not very large, the disturbances pass off as\\nsoon as the alcohol can be discharged from the circula-\\ntion by the lungs and other organs, and the nerves\\nrecover from its paralyzing influence. Fortunately,\\nthe poison is volatile, and its vapor passes through\\nthe membranes and other tissues of the body with\\nscarcely any obstruction. From this cause, death\\nseldom results immediately from alcoholic poisoning;\\nbut the secondary effects of the poison remain in a\\ntrain of deranged physical functions and impaired or\\ndisturbed mental powers.\\nThe effect of alcohol on albumen is to coagulate it.\\nNow, the brain consists largely of albumen, and alcohol\\nacts on it as it does on the white of an egg, which is", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0269.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "260 HYGIENE.\\nnearly pure albumen it hardens it, and thus destroys\\nits delicate texture, and proportionally impairs all its\\nfunctions. This effect has long been observed in the\\nbrains of habitual drunkards.\\n382. Alcohol invites Disease. The membrane which\\nforms the walls of the air-cells in the lungs, as well as\\nthat which makes the fine capillary tubes of the pul-\\nmonary circulation, is highly albuminous in its char-\\nacter. The effect of alcohol is to thicken these mem-\\nbranes, and thus interrupt the easy transmission of\\noxygen to the blood and of carbonic acid from it. This\\neffect on the respiratory organs will usually relieve\\nitself in a few days, but in the meantime the vitaL\\nforce is diminished with the reduced supply of oxygen,\\nand the power to resist disease is greatly impaired.\\nFrom this cause, those who use alcoholic drinks are\\nmore liable to be attacked with epidemic diseases than\\nthose who abstain. If the use of the poison becomes\\nhabitual, this effect, both on the brain and respiratory\\norgans, will be rendered permanent, and impaired\\nhealth and obtuse intellect will be entailed on the\\nvictim.\\n383. Moral Effects of Brain-poisoning.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The im-\\npressions left on the mental and moral powers by long\\nand frequent indulgence in the use of alcohol may be\\nresolved into two classes: first, those arising from an\\nenfeebled will-power; and, second, those springing from\\nobtuse moral perceptions. Among the first results of\\neven moderate drinking habits, w T e notice the loss of\\nself-control. If the friends of the victim expostulate\\nwith him, and bring to his blunted and obtuse sen-\\nsibilities a perception of his danger, he betrays a", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0270.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "BRAIN POISONS. 261\\nvacillating will an inability to take a firm stand\\nand guide his future course in the path of absolute\\nBobriety.\\nThis inability of self-control gives rise to irregular\\nand fitful moods of life, and betrays a want of confi-\\ndence on the part of the victim, in his ability to carry\\nout any good resolve which he may make. This weak-\\nening of the will-power betrays itself in the persistent\\ndrinking habits of those who are fully convinced of the\\nruin on which they are surely drifting, as well as in\\nthe numerous failures resulting from attempts at ref-\\normation.\\n384. Diminished Will-power. The force of this\\ndrinking habit, of which so much has been said, re-\\nsolves itself chiefly into this feeble will-power. If we\\ndiminish the ability to resist a force, we do, practi-\\ncally, the same thing as if we had increased that force.\\nThere is little doubt but this is merely a symptom\\nindicating the diseased condition of the brain, present\\nin the victim of the poison.\\nWhile the unfortunate man of drinking habits may\\nnot be able to carry into action any good resolve, or\\nguide his life to any virtuous end on account of an\\nactually diseased condition of the brain, yet he is mor-\\nally responsible his very disease is a crime the crime\\nof his youth. All either know or should know that\\nalcohol is a poison, producing these effects, and to use\\nit is to incur the consequences.\\n385. Blunted Moral Sensibility.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Perhaps the effect\\nof alcohol which is most to be deplored, is that which\\nis exerted on the moral sensibilities. More than\\nhalf the crimes that are committed in this country, are", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0271.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "262 HYGIENE.\\neither perpetrated under the immediate influence of\\nalcoholic delirium, or may be traced directly to the\\nblunting and paralyzing influence of the criminal s\\ndrinking habits.\\nThe nice perceptions of right and wrong, and the\\nconscientious regard for the obligations of duty, are so\\nimpaired that the person who habitually takes the\\npoison can stoop to low and dishonorable acts, or even\\nto the commission of crimes, at which his moral sensi-\\nbilities would have revolted when free from the degrad-\\ning influence of the poison. The social vices, such as\\ngambling, licentiousness, etc., if not the direct out-\\ngrowth of the drinking habits of society, are, at least,\\nfostered by, and associated with these habits.\\n386. How far these Derangements may be Cured.\\nAfter these injuries are inflicted on the brain and its\\nappendages, the prospect of a permanent cure is very\\nremote. If the patient be placed beyond the reach of\\nthe poison, as in an inebriate asylum, or be sustained\\nby the encouraging council and sympathy of friends,\\nand especially if he be kept constantly employed, he\\nmay, to some extent, restore a healthy action to the\\nbrain and reclaim its lost powers, but he is never safe.\\nHis impaired will-power is never restored to its origi-\\nnal integrity. His only safety is in keeping beyond\\nthe reach of the poison.\\nAll experience proves that it is not safe for him to\\ntaste alcohol, even as a medicine. Here, as in other\\ndiseased conditions, the true policy is to prevent rather\\nthan cure, and, fortunately in this case, certain preven-\\ntion is within easy reach of every one. It is simply not\\nto drink alcohol in any form.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0272.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "TOBACCO. 263\\nRecapitulation.\\nAlcohol deranges the whole mental machinery, and destroys\\nharmony of action between the mental and moral powers. Its\\nimmediate effects are temporary but, if the habitual use of alco-\\nhol be established, the derangement will become permanent.\\nThe loss of self-control is among the first effects of drinking\\nhabits. Moral sensibilities are impaired by the use of alcohol.\\nHow far this diseased condition is curable.\\nLESSON XLVIII.\\nTOBACCO.\\n387. Tobacco\u00e2\u0080\u0094 its mode of Poisoning.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Tobacco is\\namong the most powerful of the narcotic poisons which\\nthe vegetable kingdom affords. It differs from alcohol,\\nhowever, in many particulars, which modify its effects\\non those who use it. As alcohol is the active poison in\\nall the various forms of intoxicating drinks, so nicotine\\nis the exhilarating agent in tobacco, whether it be\\nchewed, smoked, or taken as snuff. This nicotine is an\\nalkaline principle, volatile at a high heat; but, at\\nordinary temperatures, it is not converted into vapor\\nin any sensible quantities, and, therefore, does not\\npenetrate the membranes and pervade the tissues of\\nthe whole body as alcohol does and on this account its\\nnarcotic effects are slowly developed.\\nIn addition to its exhilarating effect, nicotine is di-\\nrectly emetic, even when the poison is not taken into\\nthe stomach, but absorbed by the skin. While the\\nparalyzing effects of alcohol begin with the nerves of\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 23.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0273.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "264 HYGIENE.\\nsensation, the action of tobacco is primarily on the nerves\\nof motion, diminishing the contractile force of the\\nmuscles.\\n388. Effect of Tobacco on Digestion, From these\\ncharacteristics, we will be prepared to learn that to-\\nbacco produces its disturbances among the nervous and\\nvital functions slowly, and often without the cause of\\nthese disturbances being suspected.\\nWe have already alluded 269) to the effect of the\\nuse of tobacco on the saliva, and its influence on the\\nperfect digestion of food, and we have only to add in\\nthis place, that, in common with all narcotics, tobacco\\nhas a tendency to prevent change in the composition\\nof organic substances, although this tendency is feeble\\ncompared with that of alcohol.\\nThe proportion of the food digested in the stomach\\nof those who use tobacco, compared with the digestive\\naction of those who do not use it, nor any other nar-\\ncotic, is greatly in favor of the latter class, other things\\nbeing equal.\\n389. Tobacco diminishes the Desire for Food.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe specific effect of tobacco on the stomach, tending\\nmore or less toward nausea, has the effect to diminish\\nthe desire for food; and though the rate at which the\\ntissues are transformed is perceptibly diminished, yet\\nleanness, and sometimes emaciation, result from the\\nuse of tobacco. Perhaps it was this peculiar effect of\\ntobacco which first prompted its use among savages\\n(who w r ere subject to great irregularity in the supply\\nof food), that they might endure starvation without\\nsuffering the pain of hunger.\\nThe ultimate effect of tobacco, however, is to slowly", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0274.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "TOBACCO. 265\\nreduce the aggregate of the vital force, impairing first\\nthe motor functions of the nervous system, affecting the\\ninvoluntary motions more directly than the voluntary.\\nThe senses most seriously affected by the use of this\\npoison are taste and smell, but this is probably owing\\nto the local action in the method of using it.\\n390. Strength of the Tobacco Habit \u00e2\u0080\u0094The feeling\\nof exhilaration from the use of tobacco is hardly percep-\\ntible until its action is withdrawn, when a sense of\\nirritability and indescribable wretchedness takes pos-\\nsession of the victim of the poison, and will not yield\\nto any terms till the exhilaration is restored. Where\\nthe habit is of long standing, and the quantity used is\\nlarge, the feeling of irritability on being deprived of it\\nsometimes amounts to actual insanity for the time\\nbeing.\\nThe habit, from this cause, is even more inveterate\\nthan that of using alcoholic drinks, and the power of\\nvoluntary control over the habit appears to be as com-\\npletely paralyzed by tobacco as by the more powerful\\nnarcotics. No one is sensible of the effects of tobacco\\non the nervous system till he has abandoned the use of\\nit, and so far recovered from its effects as to have lost\\nthe desire for its peculiar exhilaration.\\n391. Effect of Tobacco on the Mental Functions.\\nTobacco exerts its characteristic influence on the in-\\ntellectual functions. Its action is slow, and its ex-\\nhilaration at any time almost imperceptible; but in a\\nseries of years it works most disastrous consequences,\\nimpairing first the power of decision the will-power;\\nafter that, the memory feels its effects, the finer moral\\nfeelings are blunted, and the mental perceptions the", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0275.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "266 HYGIENE.\\npowers of abstract thought are impaired, and the\\nwhole mental fabric, slowly undermined, falls into\\nruin.\\nSo stealthy is its approach, so insidious its march,\\nthat neither the victim nor his friends suspect the\\ncause of his feeble health and failing mind; and\\neven when the faithful physician has the sagacity to\\ndetect the cause, and professional honor enough to tell\\nthe whole truth without concealment, the chances are\\ngreatly against the patient s being able to exercise self-\\ncontrol enough to apply the proper remedy the entire\\ndisuse of the poison in every form.\\n392. Duration of human Life affected by Tobacco.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThough tobacco is so active, and so virulent a poison,\\nyet it is rarely the immediate and direct cause of\\ndeath; and it has even been affirmed by good physi-\\nologists that its use has not diminished the average\\nduration of human life. This does not follow, however,\\nfrom the fact by which it is sought to be established.\\nIf the duration of human life now is as great as it\\nwas two hundred years ago, or before tobacco came into\\ngeneral use, it must be remembered that the average\\ncomfort and protection of man has greatly increased,\\nand his knowledge of the laws of health and his means\\nof controlling diseases, have been greatly advanced in\\nthat period; and if human life has not been corre-\\nspondingly prolonged, there must be some counteract-\\ning cause. May not that cause be found in the use of\\nalcohol and tobacco?\\n393. Early Decay, one of the Effects of Tobacco.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nWhatever may be the influence of tobacco on the\\nhealth and vital force of those who lead lives of mus-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0276.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "TOBACCO. 267\\ncular activity in the open air, there can be no question\\nof its pernicious effects on persons of sedentary habits,\\nand especially on those devoted to mental pursuits.\\nThe victim of the tobacco poison makes an apology\\nfor the use of his cigar by declaring that it gives force\\nand clearness to his mental operation, and yet he does\\nnot perceive that even that apology is an admission of\\nthe fearful effects of the poison on brain action. If a\\nman has so reduced his brain-power that it is necessary\\nto cut off the vital force from the nervous extremities,\\nin order to supply the force for efficient brain action,\\nhe is certainly on the road to mental imbecility and\\nphysical decrepitude. There is no doubt but that thou-\\nsands destroy years of their ripest usefulness, and in-\\nduce imbecility and second childhood, by the habit of\\nusing tobacco.\\n394. Opium its peculiarities as a Poison. Opium\\nhas long been used in China and Japan as alcohol and\\ntobacco are used in Europe and America. Within the\\nlast half century, the use of opium as an exhilarant has\\nbeen increasing with alarming rapidity in this country.\\nIt is a narcotic, less diffusible than alcohol, but more\\nactive than tobacco, in the ordinary modes of its use.\\nIt is equally as fascinating in its influence as either of\\nthose poisons; and the fact that it may be used for\\nyears and yet its use kept a secret, gives it a power\\nthat neither of those can exert. Tobacco and alcohol\\nbetray their victims, but opium keeps the secret for\\nthem till it binds them so securely in its fetters that\\nescape is almost impossible. Safety is found only in\\nfirmly discarding the use of all narcotics, except when\\nabsolutely demanded in acute disease.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0277.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "268 HYGIENE.\\nRecapitulation.\\nTobacco is a less volatile poison than alcohol. Its effect on the\\nsaliva impairs digestion, and the tendency to induce nausea dim-\\ninishes the desire for food. The exhilaration from tobacco is\\nfeebler than that from alcohol; but, when the habit is formed,\\nthe desire for it is equally strong. Tobacco slowly, but very cer-\\ntainly, impairs all the mental functions of the brain, and produces\\nearly decay and premature old age. Opium, as an exhilarant,\\nstands intermediate between alcohol and tobacco. Its use is\\nmore easily concealed than is the use of alcohol or tobacco.\\nLESSON XLIX.\\nBRAIN EXERCISE AND REST.\\n395. Early failure of Mental Faculties.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The brain,\\nas the instrument of thought, acquires power and tact\\nby exercise and judicious use. This aptitude is much\\nmore readily acquired when the brain action is regu-\\nlar and habitual. Persons who have accustomed them-\\nselves to exercise the mind in thought under certain\\ncircumstances, or in connection with certain movements\\nof the body, will find it very difficult to bring all their\\nmental powers to bear under different circumstances.\\nThe duration of mental activity, or the period of life\\nwhen mental force begins to fail, is a subject which is\\nattracting much attention, both on account of its in-\\ntrinsic importance, and because that in different per-\\nsons this decrepitude of old age appears at periods so\\nwidely different. Much of this may depend on hered-\\nitary constitutional peculiarities, but more will be found\\nto be connected with the modes of mental training.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0278.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "BRAIN EXEBCISE AND REST. 2G9\\nMinds not trained to think soon fall into decay; and\\nthose in which the training has heen confined to a few\\nfaculties, and in which all the others have been neg-\\nlected, fail early in life. A broad and general training\\nof all the faculties, and the uniform exercise of them,\\nwill secure the greatest exemption from the mental\\ninfirmities of age, other things being equal.\\n396. Brain rest its necessity in brain labor.\\nBut brain activity demands rest, as activity every-\\nwhere in the vital machinery calls for its period of\\nrepose. The powers of thought may be relieved some-\\nwhat by changing the mode of thought, and trans-\\nferring the mental activity to other channels; but\\nactual brain rest is obtained only in sound sleep.\\nThe notion which was so popular a few years ago,\\nthat students and brain-workers in general require\\nbut little sleep, is not only false but most pernicious\\nin its consequences to the student who reduces it to\\npractice. The romance of the midnight lamp has\\nbeen a very expensive luxury, dimming many of the\\nbrightest stars of human genius.\\n397. Sleep should be in proportion to brain activ-\\nity. Sleep should be periodical and habitual, if we\\nwould derive the greatest benefit from it as a restorer\\nof wasted brain force. As activity naturally associates\\nitself with light, so the repose of sleep is associated\\nwith darkness; and as the day of twenty-four hours is\\nnearly equally divided (taking the whole year together)\\nbetween light and darkness, there is a very suggestive\\nhint as to the proper proportion of time to be devoted\\nto rest. This will depend very much, however, on the\\nintensity of brain action.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0279.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "270 HYGIENE.\\nIf the mind could be trained to endure twelve con-\\nsecutive hours of labor, the succeeding twelve hours\\nshould be devoted to sleep, in order to repair the waste\\nof such a protracted effort. But such prolonged activity\\nis possible in but few persons; and even where it is\\npossible, it is bad economy. With the best trained\\nand disciplined thinkers, about two hours of close appli-\\ncation is the extent of time which can be economically\\nemployed without an interval of relaxation.\\n398. Wakefulness\u00e2\u0080\u0094 its effect and its remedy.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The\\nstudent whose life is properly divided between activity\\nand rest, will find that from eight to ten hours of quiet,\\nsound sleep will be sufficient to maintain the highest\\nmental vigor. Persons of irritable, nervous systems\\nand of studious habits often fail to sleep soundly. This\\nwakefulness may be generally overcome by establishing\\nand rigidly maintaining the habit of retiring and\\nrising at certain hours.\\nA firm mattress, a well ventilated bedroom, a light\\nand early supper, and a cold sponge bath before lying\\ndown, will seldom fail to procure sound sleep. The\\nhabit of sleeping at intervals during the day, and\\nespecially the regular after-dinner siesta, greatly inter-\\nferes with the sound and refreshing quality of the\\nnight s repose. Sleep can never be refreshing while\\nthe stomach is engaged in the business of digestion,\\nand for this reason we should never eat within two\\nhours of our time of retiring.\\n399. Light its effect on brain activity. Carefully\\nconducted experiments have established the principle\\nthat sleep is more invigorating when the sleeper is in\\nthe dark than in sunlight; and, conversely, that activ-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0280.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "BRAIN EXERCISE AND REST. 271\\nity is best sustained in sunlight, either direct or dif-\\nfused. These are truths too intimately connected with\\nhealth to be neglected with impunity. Sunshine exerts\\na strange force on brain activity, augmenting the power\\nwith which the whole vital machinery operates.\\nPersons who work in mines by means of artificial\\nlight, and those who live in badly lighted apartments,\\nsoon show the effects of this want of sunshine in the\\nreduced color of the blood, the general relaxation of the\\nmuscular system, and the diminished mental activity.\\n400. Best Time for Sleep. In securing the number\\nof hours of sleep which we propose, the time of retir-\\ning should be fixed so that sleep will not trespass on\\nthe sunlight of the morning. One hour in the morning\\nis worth more for mental labor than two hours after ten\\no clock in the evening. To retire early and rise at day-\\nlight is the order of nature, and they who violate it\\nwill, sooner or later, pay the penalty. Late and irreg-\\nular hours, inducing dreamy slumber rather than sound\\nsleep, will dissipate brain force, and destroy both mental\\nvigor and physical health.\\n401. Reduction of Vital Force in Sleep. Sound,\\nrefreshing sleep is a state of absolute inaction of all\\nthe voluntary functions, and of entire unconsciousness\\nwith regard to ourselves or our surroundings. The in-\\nvoluntary functions sympathize with this state of rest,\\nand the force expended in their performance is mate-\\nrially reduced. The circulation becomes slower, the\\npulse softer and less forcible, and the breathing is\\nneither so full nor so frequent.\\nThis reduction of vital action during sleep brings\\nseveral important suggestions. In sleep we are more", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0281.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "272 HYGIENE.\\nsusceptible to the action of external agencies which\\ntend to produce disease than when awake, and there-\\nfore we should be careful to guard against them.\\nSleeping apartments should be well supplied with\\nfresh air, but its introduction should be so arranged\\nthat the sleeper will not be in the direct current, or\\ndraft. The production of animal heat is reduced during\\nrepose, and on this account the sleeper should be pro-\\ntected by sufficient covering to secure comfort.\\n402. Procuring Sleep by Medicine. Among the\\nmany errors with regard to sleep, none is more mis-\\nchievous than the habit of resorting to medicine to\\nrelieve sleeplessness. Anodynes and narcotics never\\nproduce natural, refreshing rest; and the disturbance\\nin the nervous system, left as the result of the remedy,\\nis generally more injurious than the wakefulness it was\\nintended to relieve.\\nThe most dangerous effect to be dreaded in such use\\nof medicine, is the necessity of repeating and even\\nincreasing the dose till the habit becomes too strong\\nto be broken. But it is especially in behalf of infants\\nthat we enter our solemn protest against the whole\\nfamily of anodynes, cordials, soothing syrups, etc. No\\nhuman power of computation can measure the mischief\\ndone to helpless humanity in this way while yet in the\\ncradle.\\nRecapitulation.\\nThe duration of the period of mental activity is dependent on a\\nvariety of causes. Uncultivated minds fail at an earlier period\\nthan those properly trained. Sleep necessary to maintain mental\\nvigor. It should be periodical, and reduced to a habit. Wakeful-", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0282.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "BRAIN EXERCISE AND REST. 273\\nness its remedy. Sleep should be in the night, and should be\\na state of absolute unconsciousness. Rest should not be pro-\\ncured by anodyne medicines.\\nLESSON L.\\nACCIDENTS AND DISEASES.\\n4:03. Injuries from Accident. It has been the\\nobject of these lessons to communicate such a knowl-\\nedge of the laws of life as will put the student in pos-\\nsession of the means of preserving health and vigor\\nunder all ordinary circumstances. But with our present\\nsurroundings we are liable to injuries from accidents\\nand casualties, which no prudence or foresight can\\navoid; and even diseases may attack us, that no in-\\nherent vigor of health or vital force will be sufficient\\nto throw off.\\nIf, as has been said, good health is not only a\\nblessing, but a duty, it must be admitted to be, some-\\ntimes, a duty very difficult of performance. It is im-\\nportant, therefore, that every body should understand\\nsomething of the management of the minor accidents\\nto which mankind is subject, and how to treat the\\nslighter disturbances of health so as to prevent them\\nfrom passing into the more formidable types of disease.\\n404. Bleeding from Wounds. In a majority of\\ncases of minor accidents or of threatened disease, it is\\nnot so difficult to know what should be done as what\\nshould not be done. One of the great difficulties in\\nthese cases is to manage the ignorant officiousness of", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0283.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "274 HYGIENE.\\nkind and benevolent persons, who often do immeas-\\nurable mischief when prompted by the very best of\\nmotives.\\nIn all cuts or wounds made by sharp instruments,\\nthe first thing that demands attention is the bleeding.\\nIf the blood flows rapidly and in jets, we will under-\\nstand that an artery is injured, and our business is to\\nmake pressure on the bleeding vessel near the wound,\\non the side toward the heart, by the best means that\\nwe can devise. Having thus temporarily arrested the\\nbleeding, a surgeon should be obtained immediately,\\nand the artery secured by a ligature. If the injured\\nvessel be on the scalp, it may be permanently closed by\\ncontinued pressure.\\n405. Treatment of Cuts by sharp instruments. If,\\nhowever, the bleeding be in a regular, constant stream,\\nwe may be assured that the blood is flowing from a\\nvein or veins. In this case nothing more is necessary\\nthan to apply cold water freely until the bleeding has\\nabated, when the edges of the wound should be care-\\nfully drawn together and secured, in actual contact\\nwith each other, by strips of adhesive plaster: and\\nwhere the parts admit of it, the dressings should be\\nsupported by a light bandage, applied with only a\\nmoderate degree of tightness. This dressing should not\\nbe removed for five or six days, but may be frequently\\nwet with cold water. All that is necessary is that the\\ndivided edges be maintained in contact, with nothing\\nbetween them, and that the air be carefully excluded\\nfrom the injured part.\\nThat is a mischievous error which supposes that\\nsalves, ointments, and stimulating applications have", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0284.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 275\\nhealing virtues. Injuries of this kind can be repaired\\nonly by the vital force producing new cells, and with\\nthese uniting the divided tissues and thus repairing\\nthe injury.\\n406. Bruises and Burns how treated. In bruises\\nand lacerated wounds, the exclusion of the air and the\\napplication of cold water, to keep down excessive in-\\nflammation, together with absolute freedom from mo-\\ntion in the parts, comprise all that is necessary to be\\ndone. After suppuration has commenced, the wound\\nshould be frequently washed with tepid water, and the\\nparts supported by an appropriate bandage.\\nIn burns and scalds where the cuticle has been\\nremoved, and a large surface of the true skin exposed,\\nthe important matter is to secure protection from the\\nair. This may be done by saturating cotton batting or\\nsome other soft substance with glycerine, or oil of any\\nkind that is not rancid or stimulating. The object\\nis to substitute for the cuticle something that will pro-\\ntect the sentient extremities of the nerves from ex-\\nposure, which is the cause of the excruciating pain of\\nburns.\\n407. The approach of Acute Diseases. Fevers, and\\nmost acute diseases, are preceded by a sense of languor,\\nan indisposition to activity, and a loss of appetite.\\nAdmonished by these symptoms, the body should be\\nsponged with tepid water so as to thoroughly relieve\\nany mechanical obstruction of the perspiratory pores.\\nThis should be followed by brisk friction with a flesh-\\nbrush or rough crash towel till a glow of heat is felt\\nover the surface of the skin.\\nFollow this with absolute quiet, both of body and", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0285.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "276 HYGIENE.\\nmind, and limit the food to gruel, beef tea, or thin por-\\nridge, taking even these only as the appetite calls for\\nthem. If twenty-four hours of this treatment brings no\\nrelief, your physician should be consulted. Avoid all\\nexcitants, stimulants, or exhilarants, and resist all per-\\nsuasions to take solid food when the appetite admon-\\nishes you of the inability of the stomach to digest it.\\n408. Diarrhea and Habitual Costiyeness.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In warm\\nweather, it frequently occurs that the perspiration\\nis suddenly checked, and the fluids thrown to the\\ninternal surface produce a troublesome diarrhea. All\\nthat is necessary in this condition, in ordinary cases, is\\nto use the tepid bath and flesh-brush, drink copiously\\nof slippery-elm water, or flaxseed tea, and abstain from\\nsolid food and from all nostrums which promise to cure\\nbowel complaints.\\nSome persons are much troubled with habitual con-\\nstipation of the bowels. Diet and exercise are the\\nremedies for this troublesome condition. Bread made\\nof unbolted flour, with a free use of succulent vege-\\ntables and ripe fruits, will seldom fail to relieve the\\nmost stubborn case of costiveness, if the patient takes\\nsufficient exercise in the open air.\\n409. Selection of a Physician. But few duties de-\\nvolve on the heads of families more important, and, to\\nmost persons, more difficult, than the selection of a\\nfamily physician. This difficulty is greatly increased\\nby the fact that people in general, though well edu-\\ncated, and intelligent on other subjects, know but little\\nof the physiological laws underlying the whole subject\\nof health.\\nA physician should, first of all, be possessed of a large", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0286.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 277\\nendowment of common sense and moral honesty. To\\nthese indispensable qualities should be added a thor-\\nough knowledge of medical science in all its depart-\\nments, and a well-trained faculty of close observation\\nand patient investigation of the phenomena of health\\nand disease, as they will be presented to him in his\\ndaily routine of business.\\nFirmness and decision are traits of character which\\nwill be largely in demand in his daily intercourse with\\nthe sick. The impudence of quackery, the ignorant\\nofficiousness of well-meaning friends, and the vacilla-\\nting indecision of the sick, demand that, for the safety\\nof the patient and the maintenance of his own good\\nname and clear conscience, the physician should exer-\\ncise an unfaltering firmness.\\n410. Medicines their use and abuse. Among the\\nmost pernicious ideas wdiich have possessed the public\\nmind, is the notion that health may be disregarded,\\nsince we have medicines to cure all the diseases our\\nrecklessness may induce. Let the public learn that\\nmedicine is always an evil a great evil, though it may\\nbe necessary in order to obviate a greater evil.\\nOne of the most unaccountable traits in the character\\nof modern society is the propensity to swallow drugs,\\nand to be deluded by the boastful pretensions of igno-\\nrant venders of nostrums, warranted to cure all dis-\\neases, restore shattered constitutions, and be a perfect\\nsubstitute for a careful observance of the laws of health.\\nThe faithful physician has no higher duty to perform,\\nthan to properly inform the public mind on this sub-\\nject and correct these fearful abuses. But this demands\\na large share of moral honesty and self-denial, for the", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0287.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "278 HYGIENE.\\nill health of the country, which gives him his business,\\nis largely the result of this ignorant and indiscriminate\\nuse of medicines.\\n411. Preservation of Health a Moral Duty.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 There\\nis a moral obligation resting on every one to preserve\\nand maintain the highest health that is attainable,\\nboth of body and mind. God has created us for the\\ndischarge of important duties in life, and the fulfill-\\nment of this Divine purpose depends on the health\\nthat will give us ability equal to the task, Within\\ncertain limits, the means of health are placed in our\\nown hands, and we can not, ignorantly or recklessly,\\ndisregard its conditions without incurring guilt.\\nWe have no more right to render our life a failure\\nthan we have to commit suicide. Moreover, the laws\\nof life and health are Divine laws, emanating from the\\nwisdom and benevolence of the Creator, and to violate\\nthem is rebellion against his authority. Our own hap-\\npiness, the greatest good of society, and our regard for\\nthe Divine authority, all conspire to demand of us a\\nthorough knowledge and faithful observance of the\\nLaw t s of Health.\\nRecapitulation.\\nAccidental injuries are unavoidable, therefore every person\\nshould have some knowledge of their treatment. Bleeding from\\nan artery can be arrested only by a ligature. Cuts from sharp\\ninstruments require simple dressings. In burns and scalds the\\nsurface must be protected. The selection of a physician is a\\ndifficult and responsible task. Medicines, though sometimes\\nnecessary, are always to be regarded as evils.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0288.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "Index.\\nB. P.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 24.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0289.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0290.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nAbsorbents, 39.\\nAbstinence from food, 199.\\nAbstract thought, a human pecu-\\nliarity, 16.\\nAdjustment of the eye, 121.\\nAir, composition of, 43.\\nmeans of purifying it, 212.\\nsources of its impurity, 212.\\nAir-cells in the lungs, 42.\\nAlcohol, its effect on respiration,\\n250.\\nits chemical relations, 248.\\neffect on the transformation\\nof tissues, 250.\\ndiminishes muscular force,\\n251.\\nits influence on animal heat,\\n252.\\nits influence on mind, 258.\\nhow far its effects are curable,\\n262.\\nAmylaceous food, 163.\\nAnastomosing vessels, 39.\\nAnatomy defined, 13.\\nAnimals, how distinguished from\\nvegetables, 9.\\nAnimal sub-kingdoms, 10.\\nAnimal functions, 14.\\nAnimal food, 168.\\nAorta, 34.\\nAppetite, when safe to follow, 184.\\nbribing the, 189.\\nAqueous humor of the eye, 116, 119.\\nArachnoid membrane, 87.\\nArm, the bones of, 68.\\nArteries, their office, 34.\\nhow distributed, 35.\\nArticulate animals, 11.\\nlanguage, 79, 82.\\nArticulations, 61.\\nArytenoid, cartilage, 80.\\nAtmosphere, composition of, 211.\\nAuricles, 32.\\nB\\nBathing, 222.\\nBaths, plunge and shower, 224.\\nBeans as food, their character, 172.\\nBeef, its food value, 168.\\nBirds, 12.\\nBleeding from an artery, how dis-\\ntinguished, 37.\\nhow arrested, 274.\\n(281)", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0291.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "282\\nINDEX.\\nBloody the means of purifying it, 48.\\nits composition, 53.\\nquantity of, 57.\\nBlood disks, 54.\\nBones, their use, 58.\\ntheir composition, 59.\\nmechanism of, 60, 74.\\nnot sensitive, 61.\\ntheir hygiene, 228.\\nliability to distortion, 228.\\nBrain, anatomy of, 85.\\ngray and white matter in, 87.\\ncomplex function of, 90.\\nits connection with mental\\nfunctions, 138.\\nrest in sleep, 145.\\nexercise of, 243.\\nBread, its importance as food, 178.\\nrules for making, 178.\\nBreathing, how performed, 45.\\npurpose of, 46.\\ntoo frequent, effect of, 208.\\nimperfect, effect on health,\\n209.\\nits direct connection with\\nlife, 210.\\nBronchia, 42.\\nBurns, how treated, 275.\\nButter, its food value, 166.\\nC\\nCaecum, 28.\\nCapillaries, 35.\\nCardiac orifice, 24.\\nCarpus, the hones of, 69, 70.\\nCartilage, cricoid, 79.\\nCartilage, arytenoid, 80.\\nthyroid, 79.\\nCells compose the tissues, 55.\\nhow formed, 55.\\ntransformation of, 57.\\nCerebro-spinal axis, 85.\\nCerebrum and cerebellum, 86.\\nCerebrum, connected w T ith thought,\\n139.\\nCheese as food, 166.\\nChemical changes, 47.\\nChyle, 30.\\nChyme, 26.\\nCirculation of the blood, 31-40.\\nClassification of bodies, 7.\\nClavicle, 69.\\nClothing, its relation to health, 224.\\nmaterial of, 225, 226.\\nCoccyx, 68.\\nCochlea, 105.\\nCoffee as a diet drink, 158.\\nColon, 28.\\nComa, how it differs from sleep, 114.\\nComparative anatomy defined, 13.\\nCompression of the chest, 207.\\nCooking food, 175.\\nCranial arch, 65.\\nnerves, 88.\\nCranium, bones of, 64.\\nCricoid cartilage, 79.\\nCrystalline lens, 116, 119.\\nD\\nDiaphragm, 43, 44.\\nDigestion, how performed, 25.\\nDisease defined, 151.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0292.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n283\\nDraft of air, exposure to, 221.\\nDuodenum, 27.\\nDura Mater, 86.\\nE\\nEar, external, 101.\\ndrum of, 102.\\nEar, bones of, 103.\\nEating between meals, 192.\\nEconomy of motion, 75.\\nEggs as food, 167.\\nEpiglottis, 80.\\nEthmoid bone, 65.\\nEustachian tube, 102.\\nEvaporation, a cooling process, 217.\\nExercise varies the quantity of\\nfood, 188.\\nrules for, 237.\\nExhilaration explained, 255.\\nEye, the anatomy of, 111-117.\\nF\\nFace, bones of the, 65.\\nFemur, 70.\\nFermented drinks, 158.\\nFermenting bread, 178.\\nFibula, 70.\\nFishes, 12.\\nFlour, varieties of, 170.\\nadulterations of, 170.\\nFood classified, 19, 160-164.\\nand drink, 154-159.\\nquality of, 165-174.\\npreparation of, 175-179.\\nauxiliary, 180-184.\\nquantity, time of, 185-195.\\nFrontal bone, 64.\\nG\\nGanglions, 84, 129.\\nGlands, 48.\\nsalivary, 21.\\nlymphatic, 38.\\noil, 50.\\nlachrymal, 113.\\nGlottis, 80.\\nGrowth and repair, 52.\\nGymnastic exercise, 238.\\nH\\nHand, bones of, 69.\\nHead, bones of the, 64.\\nHearing, 106-111.\\nmechanism of, 108.\\nHeart, its anatomy and action.\\n32-34.\\nHeat, its source in animals, 47.\\nmeans of reducing, 220.\\nHeat-producing food, 163.\\nHemispheres of the brain, 85.\\nHumerus, 69.\\nHygiene defined, 149.\\nIleo-colic valve, 28.\\nIleum, 27.\\nImages on the retina, how formed,\\n120.\\nInjuries from accidents, etc., 273.\\nInnominatum, 68.\\nInorganic bodies, 8.\\nIntercostal muscles, 44.\\nIntestinal canal, its anatomy, 26, 29.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0293.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "284\\nINDEX.\\nInvoluntary motions, 128.\\nIris, 115.\\nJejunum, 27.\\nJoints, anatomy of, 61, 62.\\nJugular Vein, 202.\\nK\\nKidneys, their office, 49.\\nKnee-pan, 70.\\nLabyrinth of the ear, 104.\\nLachrymal gland, 113.\\nLacteals, their function, 27.\\nLarynx, 79, 82.\\nLife-force, 56.\\nLife, graduated scale of, 141.\\nLigaments, 61.\\nLight and brain activity, 270.\\nLiver, its function, 29, 48.\\nLungs, 41, 42.\\nLymphatic vessels, 38.\\nM\\nMammalia, class of, 12.\\nMan, compared with the lower\\nanimals, 15.\\nhis mental superiority, 142.\\nManual labor as exercise, 239.\\nMastication, 19.\\nimportance of, 193.\\nMeat, how to select it, 169.\\nmodes of cooking, 175.\\nMedulla Oblongata, 86.\\nMesentery, 27.\\nMetatarsus, 71.\\nMilk as a diet, 165, 166.\\nMind, its effect on the circulation,\\n204.\\nModerate drinking, 257.\\nModulation of voice, 82.\\nMollusks, 11.\\nMotor and sentient nerves, 91.\\nMouth, 19.\\nMuscles, their anatomy, 72.\\ntheir arrangement, 74.\\nnumber of, 77.\\nMuscular contraction, its effect on\\nthe circulation, 202.\\nexercise, its effect, 232.\\nMusical faculties, 109.\\nN\\nNerves, 88-95.\\ndistribution of, 92.\\nof special sense, 91.\\nNervous system, 83.\\npeculiar to animals, 10.\\nNervous terminations, 92.\\nNutrition of animals and plants, 14.\\nO\\nOccipital bone, 65.\\n(Esophagus, 23.\\nOil glands, 49.\\nOils and fats as food, 164, 180.\\nOlfactory nerve, 89, 91.\\nOpium, a brain poison, 267.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0294.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n285\\nOptic nerve, SO, 01.\\nOrganic bodies, 7.\\ncharacter of, 8.\\nOrgans of special senses, 101.\\nOssification, 59.\\nOver-heated rooms, 219.\\nOxygen, its office in respiration,\\n213.\\nPacinian corpuscles, 93.\\nPancreas, 29.\\nParietal bones, 64.\\nParotid glands, 21.\\nPatella, 70.\\nPelvis, bones of, 68.\\nPeritoneum, 25.\\nPerspiratory glands, 49.\\nPharynx, 22.\\nPhysiology defined, 13.\\nits relation to hygiene, 150.\\nPia Mater, 86.\\nPlexus, Brachial, 90.\\nLumbar, 90.\\nPotato, its food value, 173.\\nProteine food, 161.\\nProtozoans, 10.\\nPulse, 36.\\nPupil of the eye, 115.\\nPyloric orifice, 25.\\nQ\\nQuadrumana, 15.\\nQuality of food, 165.\\nQuantity of food, 185.\\nR\\nRadiate animals, 11.\\nRadius, 69.\\nReflex motions, 134.\\nRelation of mind to matter, 247,\\nReptiles, 12.\\nRespiration, organs of, 41.\\nits mechanism, 44.\\nits use, 46.\\nRest, its importance, 241.\\nRetina, 115.\\nRibs, action of the, 44.\\nanatomy of, 67.\\ntheir movements in breath-\\ning, 206.\\nSaliva, its use, 22.\\nSalivary glands, 21.\\nSalt necessary to health, 181.\\nScapula, 69.\\nSebaceous follicles, 49.\\nSecretion, 21.\\nSemicircular canals, 104.\\nSensation, method of, 94.\\ngrades of, 97.\\nSentient nerves, 91.\\nSesamoid bones, 71.\\nShort-sightedness, 123.\\nSkeleton, 58, 63.\\nSkin, its anatomy, 49.\\nSkull, 64.\\nSleep, 143.\\ntrue brain rest, 269.\\nproper time for, 271.", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0295.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "286\\nINDEX.\\nSmelling, sense of, 98.\\nSoda, its use in cooking, 183.\\nSound, nature of, 106.\\ntransmission of, 107.\\nSphenoid bone, 65.\\nSpinal column, 65, 66.\\nnerves, 89.\\ncord, special functions of,\\n133.\\nSpine, curvature of, 231.\\nSpleen, 31.\\nSternum, 68.\\nStomach, its anatomy and func-\\ntion, 29.\\nSublingual glands, 22.\\nSubmaxillary glands, 22.\\nSunlight, its influence on health,\\n235.\\nSympathy of the heart with other\\norgans, 201.\\nSymphysis, 63.\\nTarsus, bones of, 71.\\nTea as a diet drink, 158.\\nTears, 113.\\nTeeth, classification of, 20.\\nrules for preserving, 194.\\nTemperature of the body in health,\\n51.\\neffect of on the circulation,\\n203.\\nTemporal bones, 64.\\nTendons, their form and use, 73.\\nThoracic duct, 30.\\nThorax, 41.\\nThought, a human attribute, 16.\\nhow related to brain, 138.\\nThyroid cartilage, 79.\\nTibia, 70.\\nTissues, 17.\\nTobacco, its effect on saliva, 26.\\nits mode of action on brain\\nfunctions, 263.\\nits effect on digestion, 264.\\nTrachea, 42.\\nTricuspid valves, 33.\\nTurbinated bones, 99.\\nU\\nUlna, position of, 69, 70.\\nValves of the heart, 33, 34.\\nVeins, 34, 36.\\nvalves of the, 37.\\neffect of pressure on, 201.\\nVena Cava, 35.\\nVentricles, 32.\\nVertebrse, anatomy of, 66.\\nVertebrate animals, 12.\\nVision, 117-127.\\nVocal cords, 80.\\nVoice, pitch of, 81.\\nW\\nWarming apartments, 214.\\nWater, sources of impurity of, 156.", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0296.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "I", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0297.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0298.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0299.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": ":cn", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0300.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4549", "width": "2797", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0301.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4598", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofphysio00brow_0302.jp2"}}