LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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Chap. ., Copyright No... 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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HOME GEOGKAPHY 

AND THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



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TARR AND McMURRY GEOGRAPHIES 

FIRST BOOK 

HOME GEOGRAPHY 

AND THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

y BY 

RALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. 

PROFESSOR OF DYNAMIC GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 

AND 

FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OP THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING AT TEACHERS 
COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



WITH MANY COLORED MAPS AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS 
CHIEFLY PHOTOGRAPHS OF ACTUAL SCENES 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
1900 

All rights reserved 






* wo COPIES „t:cEIVHO. 

Library of CffnypBtii 
Office of th, 

APR 7 * 1900 • 

K<»ffr«t«r of Copyrlgfcfn 



OPYKIGHT, 1900, 

By the MAOMILLAN COMPANY. 



SbWJNU COPY, 



WorinooO Tj^xtii 

J. S. Gushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith 
Norwood Mass. U.S.A. 



PEEFACE 

This is the first of a series of three volumes ; the sec- 
ond deals with North America ; the third, with Europe 
and the other continents. Since Part I of the present 
volume is a radical innovation, it- perhaps needs an 
explanatory foreword. 

Necessity of Home Geography. — The final basis for 
all study of geograj^hy is actual experience. Yet text- 
books on that subject rarely treat Home Geography at 
all, and those that do, devote but few pages to it. This 
subject should, we think, receive far more careful attention. 

Necessity of Other Basal Notions. — Home experi- 
ence alone, however, cannot offer a complete basis for- the 
later study of geography, because no one locality presents 
all the features required. From this it happens that the 
best books have contained some definitions and illustra- 
tions, as of mountain, river, valley, harbor, and factory, 
and have planned to build the later text with the ideas 
these gave as a foundation. Such conceptions are cer- 
tainly necessary in the early part of geography ; but mere 
definitions fail to produce vivid, accurate pictures. The 
average pupil who has pursued geography for a year, has 
little notion of the great importance of soil, of what a 
mountain or a river really is, of the value of good trade 
routes, and why a vessel cannot find a harbor wherever 

y 



vi PREFACE 

it will cast anchor along the coast. Yet such ideas are 
the proper basis for the study of geography in the higher 
grades. The fact that they are so often wanting is proof 
that our geography still lacks foundation. 

How THESE Needs ake met. — The first 110 pages of 
this volume attempt to supply this foundation by treating 
first, such common things as soil, hills, valleys, industries, 
climate, and government, which are part of every child's 
environment ; and secondly, other features, as mountains, 
rivers, lakes, and the ocean, which, though absent from 
many localities, are still necessary as a preparation for 
later study. Definitions, however, are not relied upon 
for giving the child this extra knowledge, but detailed 
descriptions and discussions instead. This by no means 
involves neglect of the child's own environment from the 
time the unfamiliar matter is introduced, for through- 
out the three volumes home experiences are frequently 
used. We believe that our plan gives a fuller guarantee 
of fitness for advanced study than has heretofore been 
furnished. 

Relationship to Mankind. — According to the defi- 
nition of geography, — which treats of the relation be- 
tween man and the earth, — a hill or a lake is worthy 
of mention only because it bears a relation to us, the 
men upon the earth ; considered by itself it is not a part 
of geography. Therefore each chapter which takes up 
one of the above subjects, either closes with the bearing 
of the given topic upon mankind, or it deals with the 
human relationship throughout. 

Earth as a Whole. — The most difficult portion of 
our task has been that which presents the Earth as a 
Whole. That a bird's-eye view should be given at an 



PBEFACE Vll 

early period in the child's instruction is not questioned ; 
but it is not easy, in limited space, to support the prin- 
cipal facts with sufficient detail to produce vivid and 
interesting pictures. The authors have found that some 
topics commonly included in the early study, such, for 
instance, as latitude and longitude, should be omitted. 
They have also found that many other minor subjects 
usually presented are comparatively irrelevant to the 
geographical knowledge necessary to a pupil. By setting 
these aside for the time, space has been secured for a 
physiographic basis, and for a fairly close sequence in 
tracihg the effects of physical conditions upon plants and 
animals, and also upon mankind. Throughout each chap- 
ter much care has been taken to present a closely related 
chain of thought, and at the same time to keep the leading 
facts in their proper foreground. 

Suggestions for Furthek Home Study. — A study 
of books alone can never furnish an adequate knowl- 
edge of geography. Therefore it has been thought ex- 
pedient to add numerous suggestions at the end of each 
section, in order to remind both teacher and pupil of 
suitable excursions, experiments, etc., and to show at the 
same time the breadth of the subject. In this way physi- 
cal activity — the love of exercise — may be employed 
in the service of the study, and a habit of investigating 
the home environment encouraged. 

Frequent Reviews. — Believing in the value of fre- 
quent reviews, the authors have suggested review material 
in frequent comparisons and contrasts, and in introduc- 
ing new topics through others that have already been pre- 
sented. This method has been used throughout this book, 
and more extensively still in the volumes that follow. 



Viii PREFACE 

Maps. — The succeeding volumes in tlie series are of 
tlie same size as the present one. Our reasons for this 
marked innovation are that the old form is both unneces- 
sary and unwieldy. The main excuse for the size of the 
common geography is the supposed need of large maps, a 
need which should be supplied by atlas and wall maps. 
This supposed requirement has led to the introduction of 
so many names, entirely unnecessary to pupils, that the 
purpose of a school book has generally been sacrificed to 
that of a cheap atlas. Why should a map, intended for 
school children, contain such Servian names as Valievo, 
Kragouydvatz, Ushitze, and Kruchevatz, four neighboring 
words upon an overcrowded map in one of the much-used 
geographies? Such piling up of names, which carry no 
meaning to the pupil and are distinguished by no idea, 
merely distract attention from the important names and 
features. Aside from that, the old form of geography is 
distinctly objectionable because of its size, which makes 
it difficult to handle and to carry. When open, it occu- 
pies nearly the entire surface of the desk ; and, being so 
unwieldy, it is the most easily damaged of all the school 
books in use. 

The most pertinent inquiry in regard to the maps of 
a text-book of geography should refer not to their size, 
but to their quality. In respect to the excellence of maps 
we challenge comparison. We believe that our maps are 
the best thus far printed in an American geography. 
While thoroughly artistic, they cause the essential fea- 
tures to stand out with surprising distinctness. Contrary 
to the usual custom, the political maps include the prin- 
cipal physical features, so that any place is always seen 
in connection with its physiographic surroundings. The 



PREFACE IX 

colors have been so selected as to secure harmony, and at 
the same time to show the boundaries clearly. Unimpor- 
tant names are excluded, even where space might have 
permitted their introduction ; and, to an unusual degree, 
the size of print is proportionate to the importance of 
places, so that the names of leading divisions, cities, etc., 
can be distinguished at a glance. 

Illustrations. — The illustrations have been selected 
with great care to illustrate specific points ; and for the 
sake of accuracy, photographs have in most cases been 
employed. They are not inserted merely for the purpose 
of entertainment, but in every case bear a direct relation- 
ship to the text. They are not intended as mere pictures, 
but as illustrations; and being numbered and referred to 
frequently, they pay for their space by contributing mate- 
rially to the book's fund of instruction. 

Acknowledgments. — The photographs have been ob- 
tained from many sources ; the globe drawings were made 
by Mr. Murray of the Matthews-Northrup Co. ; and the 
other drawings were mostly prepared by Mr. C. W. Fur- 
long, instructor in Cornell University. The maps have 
been prepared by the Matthews-Northrup Co. of Buffalo, 
who have obtained an enviable reputation as map engravers 
for the Century Atlas. 

The authors of this book are responsible for any short- 
comings that it may prove to have. They have had the 
benefit of much criticism of the best sort. Space does 
not permit them to refer to each one who has kindly 
extended aid; yet mention should be made of the ex- 
ceedingly valuable criticisms and suggestions of Mr. 
Philip Emerson of the Cobbet School, Lynn, Mass. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 
PART I. HOME GEOGRAPHY 

PAGE 

Section I. The Soil 1 

Section II. Hills 10 

Section III. Mountains • . . 17 

Section IV. Valleys 28 

Section V. Rivers . 39 

Section VI. Ponds and Lakes 53 

Section VII. The Ocean 62 

Section VIII. The Air ......... 71 

Section IX. Industry and Commerce ..... 81 

Section X, Government . . . . . . . .92 

Section XI. Maps . . . ' 102 

References to Books, etc 108 

PART II. THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Section I. Form and Size of the Earth ..... Ill 

Its Form, 111. Size of the Earth, 113. 
Section II. Daily Motion of the Earth and its Results . 115 
The Axis and Poles, 115. The Equator, 116. Gravity', 
116. Sunrise and Sunset, 117. Day and Night, 117. 

Section III. The Zones 120 

Boundaries of the Zones, 120. Torrid Zone, 121. Tem- 
perate Zones, 121. Frigid Zones, 122. Hemispheres, 123. 
Section IV. Heat within the Earth and its Effects . . 124 
Heat in Mines, 124. Melted Rock, 125. The Earth's 
Crust, 125. Cause of Mountains, 125. Cause of Conti- 
xi 



XU TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 
NENTS AND OCEAN BaSINS, 126. ChANGE IN THE LeVEL OP 

THE Land, 126. 
Section V. The Continents and Oceans ..... 128 
Land and Water, 128. The Continents, 128. North Amer- 
ica, 129. South America, 129. Eurasia, 131. Africa, 

132. Australia, 132. The Oceans, 133. The Arctic 
AND Antarctic, 133. The Atlantic, 133. The Pacific, 

133. The Indian, 134. The Ocean Bottom, 134. Moun- 
tains IN the Oceans, 135. Coral Islands, 135. 

Section VI. Maps 137 

Section VII. North America 138 

Physical Geography, 138. Political Divisions, 139. 

Section VIII. The United States 141 

Section IX. New England ....... 142 

Names, 142. Seaports, 142. Fishing, 143. Farming, 143. 
Quarrying, 144. Lumbering, 144. Manufacturing, 146. 
Commerce, 147. 

Section X. Middle Atlantic States 149 

The Coast Line, 149. The Seaports, 149. Reasons for the 
Great Size of New York City, 149. Cities Near by, 149. 
Water Koute to the Interior, 150. Lumbering, 151. 
Farming, 151. Salt, 152. Manufacturing, 152. Com- 
merce, 153. Reasons why Philadelphia has become a 
Great City, 153. Cities Near by, 153. Farming, 153. 
Iron, 154. Coal, 154. Oil and Gas, 155. Commerce, 156. 
Other Cities, 156. Baltimore, 156. Washington, 1-56. 
Virginia and West Virginia, 157. 
Section XI. Southern States ....... 159 

Belief, 159. Coal and Iron, 160. Cotton, 160. Ranch- 
ing, 161. Sugar and Rice, 162. Fruits, 162. Lumber- 
ing, 162. Manufacturing, 163. New Orleans, 163. 
Other Seaports, 165. Oklahoma and Indian Territory, 
165. Climate, 166. 

Section XII. Central States 167 

Raw Products, 167. The Manufacturing and Trade Cen- 
tres, 170. Review and Comparisons, 175. 

Section XIII. Western States . 176 

Reasons why there are so Few People, 176. Wonderful 



TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlil 

PAGE 

ScENEKT, 178. Mining, 179. Ranching, 181. The Desert, 

182. Irrigation, 182. Fruit Raising, 183. Industries 

ALONG the Pacific Coast, 184. The Cities of the Pacific 

Coast, 185. 

Section XIV. Alaska 188 

Section XV. Canada and Other Countries North of the 

United States ......... 190 

Canada and Ne-wfoundland, 1 90. Industries, 190. Cities, 

192. The Far North, 192. Islands North of North 

America, 193. 
Section XVI. Countries South op the United States . . 195 
Mexico and Central America, 195. The West Indies and 

Bermuda, 197. 

Section XVII. South America 199 

Relief, 199. Climate, 200. History, 200. Brazil, 201. 

Venezuela and Guiana, 202. La Plata Countries, 203. 

Andean Countries, 204. 

Section XVIII. Europe , . . .207 

The British Isles, 207. Norse Countries, 211. Russia, 

212. Germany, 214. Holland, 216. Belgium, 217. 

France, 217. Spain and Portugal, 219. Italy, 220. 

Switzerland, 222. Austria-Hungary, 223. Greece, 224. 

Turkey, 225. 

Section XIX. Asia . . .230 

Physical Geography, 230. Southwestern Asia, 231. Sibe- 
ria, 234. The Chinese Empire and Korea, 235. Japan, 
237. India and Indo-China, 238. 

Section XX. Africa 242 

The Dark Continent, 242. Northern Africa, 243. Cen- 
tral Africa, 246. South Africa, 246. 
Section XXI. Australia, the East Indies, Philippines, and 

Other Islands of the Pacific ...... 249 

Australia, 249. The East Indies, 252. The Philippine 
Islands, 253. Islands of the Pacific, 254. 

Books of Reference 256 

Appendix — Tables of Area, Population, etc 262 



LIST OF MAPS 



PIGtrRE 
91. To ILLUSTRATE THE MEANING OF MaPS 

119. The Hemispheres 

120. Mercator Map of the World 

121. Relief Map op North America 

123. North America 

124. United States 

125. New England . 
132. Middle Atlantic States 
140. Southern States 
148. Central States 
157. Western States 
177. South America 
183. Europe . 
203. Asia .... 
214. Africa 
221. Australia, East Indies, Philippine Islands, and 

of the Pacific 



FACING PAGE 


. ^ 


107 


. 


137 




137 


On page 


138 


. 


140 


. 


141 


. 


142 


. 


149 


. 


159 


. 


167 


. 


176 


. 


199 


. 


207 


. 


230 


. 


242 



Islands 



249 



XV 



Paet I 
HOME GEOGRAPHY 



oJ«<c 



I. THE SOIL 

You have often played in the dirt. Did you ever stop 
to think what it is made of? It was not alwaj'^s what it 
now is. You know that the wood in your desk was not 
always a part of the desk ; it used to be part of a tree, 
and has a long storj?- to tell about itself before it was 
brought to your school. So all the dirt or soil that 
you have ever seen has a long story to tell about how 
it became what it is now. Let us see what that story 
is. 

When mud dries upon your hands and you rub them 
together, you can notice an unpleasant, gritty feeling. 
This is caused by the scraping together of hard bits of 
something in the soil. If you rub some of this dirt 
against a smooth piece of glass, you can often hear it 
scratch the glass. This shows that these little bits must 
be very hard, for if they were not, they could not scratch 
anything so hard as glass. They must be even harder 
than a pin, for you cannot scratch glass with a pin. 

It will help you to find out what these bits are if you 
examine some sand. The grains in it are tiny bits of 
rock, large enough to be clearly seen. When they are 

B 1 



2 HOME GEOGBAPHT 

rubbed against glass, they scratch it, because they are 
hard and sharp. 

Sand is made of rock that has been broken up into 
very fine pieces. Soil is also made of rock, but the 
pieces are finer still. The soil that you have seen, such 
as that in the schoolyard, or by the side of the walk, was 
once rock. 

Soil has been made from rock. 

Since soil is found almost everywhere, you may wonder 
how so much rock has been changed to it. The answer is 
not hard to find. Did you ever pound a brick up into 
bits until you made brick-dust? You can change a stone 
to dust in the same way. Break one into small bits and 
see how much it resembles dirt. 

Sometimes one sees men drilling holes into stone ; the tiny pieces 
that are broken off collect in and round the hole, and look much like 
dirt. When a grindstone is used to sharpen tools, small pieces of the 
stone are ground off, and if water is j^oured upon it, this dust makes 
the water muddy, just as soil would. 

Much rock has been changed to dirt by the rubbing of 
pieces of stone against one another. In this way tiny 
bits have been worn off, as chalk is worn away when 
rubbed against the blackboard, or slate pencils against the 
slate. Perhaps some of the dirt that you have seen has 
been made in this manner. Later you will learn about 
the glaciers which have caused much of this rubbing. 

The grinding of rochs together has made much soil. 

But this is not the only way in which rock has been 
changed into soil. Much of it has decayed and fallen to 
pieces as wood does. You know that, after a long time, 
stumps of trees, and the boards in sidewalks, grow so 



THE SOIL 




Fig. 1. 
A decaying stump of a tree. 



soft that they fall to pieces. Perhaps you have called 

it rotting, but this meaus the same as decaying. The 

picture (Fig. 1) shows such a 

stump. 

Other things even harder 

than wood decay in much the 

same way, although perhaps 

more slowly. Hard nails, at 

first bright and shiny, decay 

until they become a soft, yel- 
low rust. Iron pipes and tin 

pails rust until holes appear in 

them and they leak. 

You may not have thought that stones also decay, but 

they do. The headstones 
in old graveyards are 
often so crumbled that 
the letters can scarcely be 
read, and sometimes the 
stones have even fallen 
apart. The decay of rock 
may also be seen in old 
stone buildings, boulders, 
and rock cliffs. Have you 
ever noticed this ? 

Soil has been formed, 
also, by the decay of 

Fig. 2. ''^^^*- 

There are several things 

that help to cause this decay. 

All rocks have cracks in them 

(Fig. 2). Usually some of these are so large that they can be plainly 

seen ; but there are many others so tiny that they cannot be seen 




w^rr."-^-^ 



A rocky cliff containing many cracks. 
Point to some of them. 



HOME GEOGBAPHY 



without a magnifying glass. When it rains, the water steals into 
them, and by. eating and rotting the rock, very slowly changes it to 
a powder. 

The water may also freeze in these cracks and piy the stone apart. 
If you have seen iron water pipes, or water pitchers, burst in cold 
weather,- you know how this is done. Some of the pieces of rock 
pried oif in this way are very small, others quite large (Fig. 3). 

Plants help the 
water in this 
work. In search 
of food they push 
their hair - like 
roots into the 
cracks, and there 
remain until they 
grow so large 
that they also pry 
off pieces. 

The earth- 
worms that you 
may often see 
after a heavy rain 
also help in crum- 
bling the rock. 
In order to get 

food, they take soil into their bodies and grind the coarse bits together 
until they become very fine. 

Water" stealing into tJie cracks causes roch to decay 
and crumble. Plants and earthiuorrns also help to breah 
it up. 

Rock changes to soil most rapidly near the surface ; 
for the rain, roots of plants, and earthworms can reach 
it more easily there than elsewhere. So the deeper into 
the earth one goes, the less the rock is changed (Fig, 4); 
and, no matter where you live, if you should dig deep 
enough, you would come to solid rock. 




Fig. 3. 

Pieces of rock broken from a cliff by the weather. Can 
you also see the cracks in the rock of the cliff? 
Find some broken pieces in Fig. 2. 



THE SOIL 




Fig. 4. 

A section, as if the earth were sliced through, like a loaf of bread, so that the 
part below the surface is seen. Tell what you see in this picture. Notice 
the roots of the tree on the left side. 

Fig. 5 shows soil about one and one-half feet deep. 
Sometimes there is much more than this, and men may 




Fig. 5. 
A picture showing solid rock beneath the soil. Notice the cracks in the rock. 



6 HOME GEOGBAPHT 

even dig deep wells without finding rock ; but in many 
places there are only a few inches of soil, or, sometimes, 
not even enough to hide the rock. 

One reason for such differences in the depth of soil is that some 
rocks decay more easily than others. Another reason is that in some 
places the rain washes the bits away as fast as the rocks crumble. 
This may leave the rock quite bare in one place and make the soil 
very deep in another. 

There is solid rock heneath all soil. 

How different it would be if no rock had ever changed 
into soil ! There could then be no grass, flowers, or trees 
around your home, because they grow by means of the 
food that they get from the soil. 

Without grass there could be no cattle, horses, or sheep ; 
in fact, few animals such as are found upon the land could 
live ; for what would they eat ? What, then, could you 
yourself find to eat ? There would be no vegetables, no 
bread, butter, and milk, and no meat. You see that, if 
there were no soil, few people could live ; so that the 
dirt under our feet is a very valuable substance. 

Without soil, few plants, anUnals, or people could live 
on the land. 

Soil is needed by plants because it holds water. They 
become thirsty as well as you. Where the dirt is only 
a few inches deep, it may dry out on hot summer days, 
and then the plants die ; but where it is deep, the roots 
may reach down several feet till they find damp earth. 

It is surprising how long the roots of some small plants are 
(Fig. 6). For example, the clover in the picture is less than a foot 
high, but its roots are longer than you are tall. They reach so deep 
down that even in dry weather the clover is green while other plants, 
with shorter roots, are withered and dry. Some trees push their root? 



THE SOIL 



down a greater distance still. Can you find out how long the roots 
of any weeds are ? ^ 

The soil holds food, as well as water, for plants. In it 
is found something which plants need, and which they 
take up through their roots ; it 
is a part of the soil itself, and 
is called plant food. Each 
blade of grass and each limb 
of a tree contains some of it ; 
and when a piece of wood is 
burned, some of this food is left 
behind in the ashes. 

Every person even has a quan- 
tity of it in his body ; your 
bones and teeth are partly made 
of it. But you did not take it 
directly from the soil ; the plants 
took it for you, and you received 
it from them in flour and other 
foods that you have eaten. 

Soil furnishes luater and food 
to plants. 

All plants do not need the 
same kind of food any more 
than all animals do. Horses 
eat hay and grain, while dogs 
eat meat ; so some plants need 
one kind of food, others another. These different kinds 
of plant food are found in the different kinds of soil, of 
which there are very many. 

For example, some soils are fine, while others are coarse, because 
gome rocks have crumbled to finer bits than others. Then, too, there 




Fig. 6. 

Some of the roots of the clover 
that the boy is picking have 
reached out into the air 
through the side of the bank. 
They were seeking water. 



8 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

are many kirids of rock, such as granite, marble, and sandstone ; and 
when they decay they make different kinds of soil. 

In some places great numbers of plants have grown up and died. 
During their growth they took substances from the air, as well as 
from the soil, and when they died and decayed they returned some 
of these to the soil. These plant remains have become mingled with 
the soil, making it dark and sometimes almost black. In some places 
this dark-colored layer may be several feet deep, as in forests, or in 
swamjDs, where plants have been growing and decaying for hundreds 
of years. This is an excellent soil for farming, because it produces 
large crops. 

There are many different hinds of soil. 

Soil that lias mucli plant food in it is said to be rich or 
fertile ; if it has little, it is said to be poor or sterile. The 
plants are taking away some of this food; they are really 
robbing the soil. But when weeds and trees fall and 
decay on the spot where they grew, they pay back what 
they took awa}^ In fact, some of this food is returned to 
the earth every autumn when the leaves fall from the trees. 

But if plants are carried away from the spot where 
they grew, there is danger lest fertile land shall be robbed 
of so much plant food that it will become sterile. Now 
this often happens; for farmers send away their wheat to 
make flour, and haul their corn, hay, and oats to market. 
Some farmers have done this for so many years that they 
are no longer able to support their families on their land, 
but have been obliged to move away to find other farms 
where the soil has not been robbed of its plant food. 

The wise farmer takes cai'e to put some plant food back upon the 
soil to pay for what he has taken, so that he may continue to raise 
good crops. That Avhich he puts back upon the soil is called a 
fertilizer, because it keeps the soil fertile. People in the city often 
use a fertilizer to feed the grass of their lawns and keep it green. 

Fertile soil may he rohhed of its food and hecortve sterile. 



THE SOIL 9 

Review Questions. — (1) Of what is the soil made? (2) How can 
you show that the little bits in it are hard like rock ? (3) What hap- 
pens when rocks are rubbed together? (4) If you have ever seen 
rocks that were decaying and crumbling, tell about it. (5) How 
does water enter rocks? (6) What happens when water freezes in the 
cracks? (7) What else helps to crumble the rocks and soil? (8) What 
is beneath the soil? (9) Make a drawing, like Figure 4, showing the 
rock beneath the soil. (10) Tell about the depth of the soil. (11) Why 
is there no soil in some places ? 

(12) Why is the soil worth studying? (1.3) Name two things that 
plants take from it. (14) Of what advantage is a deep soil? (15) Do 
all plants want the same kind of food? (16) What causes the different 
kinds of soil? (17) What has made some soils so black? (18) What 
is fertile soil? (19) Sterile soil? (20) How are some soils robbed of 
their plant food? (21) What is used to make them fertile once more? 
(22) Tell what you see in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. 

. SuGGESTIOlSrS FOK StUDY AT HOME AND OUT OF DoORS. 

Here are things, some of which, at least, you will be able to 
see or do for yourselves : (1) Find a place where men are dig- 
ging a ditch or cellar, to see how the dirt looks below the surface. 
(2) Find a boulder, cliff, old stone wall, or an old headstone in a grave- 
yard, and see if the stone is crumbling. (3) Break some pebbles 
open to see whether or not they are decayed on the outside and 
fresh within. (4) Change a stone to dust. (5) Collect several dif- 
ferent kinds of soil. (6) Plant beans in each kind, at the same time, 
and see in which one they grow best. (7) See what the effect would 
be if no water were given to some of them. (8) Find out what trees 
and vegetables grow best near your home. (9) What do the farmers 
pi'efer to raise? (10) Go to a hot-house to find out what kind of 
soil is used there, and what is done to keep it fertile. (11) Visit a 
gardener or a farmer to find out how he cultivates the soil. (12) How 
many articles can you name, as crockery, for example, that are made 
of soil or clay? (13) Write a short story about the soil. 
For Eeferences, see page 108. 



II. HILLS 



The soil tliat lias been formed from rock has not been 
left smooth and level like a floor. The surface of the 
land, is usually uneven or rolling ; and even those places 
which at first sight appear level, are really sloping 
(Fig. 7). Beside such- gentle slopes, there are many 




Fig. 7. 

A very level plain ; but since a stream is flowing through it, there must he 

slope. 

others steep enough to allow coasting in winter, and 
others still that are much too steep for this purpose. In 
other words, Mlh^ some gently sloping, some steep, are 
found almost everywhere upon the surface of the earth 
(Fig. 8). 

These hills have not always been here. Even the ones 
you may have seen and climbed have been slowly made. 
Let us see what has caused them. 

When it rains slightly, the water soaks into the ground 
and disappears; but when there is a heavy rain, all of the 

IQ 



HILLS 



11 



water cannot sink into the soil as rapidly as it falls. Some 
then begins to flow away. One little stream, perhaps 
hardly an inch wide, begins at one point ; another joins 
it ; quickly several of them unite, and soon a good sized 




Fig. 8. 

A picture in a hilly country. The surface of the lake is level ; hut the hills, 
some steep, others gently sloping, are very Irregular. 

brook or creek is formed. Have you not noticed this 
flowing water in the school yard, in the roads, and on the 
sides of hills ? 

But did the water flow off without taking something 
with it ? Was it not muddy ? This means that soil had 
become mixed with the water and was being borne away. 
Every heavy rain bears along much soil, cutting out little 
channels, washing out roads, and perhaps even destroying 
the beds of railways, so that trains must stop running for 
a time. 

During such a rain little channels, or valleys^ and tiny 
hills and ridges are carved in the soil (Fig. 9). No 
doubt you have seen these formed very many times. If 
not, you can easily make them by pouring water from a 
sprinkler upon a pile of loose dirt. 

There are many heavy rains every year, and in a life- 
time their number is very large. During many hundreds 
of years, then, the water could wash away an enormous 



12 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



amount of soil and rock which the large streams and 
rivers would carry away to the sea. By this means deep 
valleys have been formed, with hills between them, much 
as the tiny channels in the school yard are cut in the dirt 
by the rain water. 

Then, also, some rocks are not so hard as others, and 
the softer ones, as they break up, are naturally carried 
away faster than those that are harder. This leaves high 
ground where the rocks are hardest. 



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Fig. 9. 
Little bills and valleys cut in the soil by heavy rains. Point to some of them. 

What a change water must have made in the appear- 
ance of the surface of the earth ! No doubt, in the 
very beginning there were hills and valleys ; but every 
year, for thousands of years, these have been slowly 
changing, so that they are now very different from what 
they were long ago. And after many more years they 
will be very different from what they now are, for they 
are even noAV changing. 

Most hills have heen carved out hy running water. 

In every neighborhood there ai-e hills, although they may not be 
very high. The picture shows one with a somewhat gentle slope 



HILLS 



13 



(Fig. 10). If a person were to walk up this hill, going from its base 
to the top, or summit, he would walk more than a mile ; but this, of 
course, does not mean that the hill is a mile high. 

For example, in 
Figure 11 you see a 
board ten feet long, 
with one end resting 
on the ground and 
the other on a fence 
four feet above the 
ground. If a person 
starts at the lower 
end and walks to the 
upper end, he travels 
ten feet; but he is 
then only four feet 
above the ground. 

The height of a hill is much less than the length of 
its slope. 

Perhaps you liave liearcl that it is colder on the summit, 
or crest, of a higli hill than at its base. If one takes a 
thermometer with him when going to the top of the 




Fig. 10. 

To show the difference between the slope of a hill 
and its height. 




Fig. 11. 



14 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



Washington Monument (Fig, 85), which is 550 feet high, 
he finds that it is about two degrees colder at the top 
than at the base. One might not notice any difference 
in climbing low hills, but it can be easily noticed on high 
ones ; and if your home is near one, you can prove this. 

People who live where there are high hills often observe 
that it snows upon them while it rains upon the lower 
ground at their base (Fig. 12). Explain why this is so. 

It is colder at the crest of a hill than at its base. 




Fig. 12. 

Do yoTi see any reason for thinking that it is colder near the summit of this 
high mountain than at its base'? This is Mount Chimborazo in South 
America, where it is very hot in the lowlands. 

Many people prefer to build their houses upon hills, 
partly because the air is cooler and fresher in summer ; 
but another and more important reason is, that it is more 
healthful to live on this high ground. Where the land 
is low, the slope is often so gentle that the water cannot 
flow off readily, so it stands, sometimes making wet places 
called swamps (Fig. 33). Houses in such places often 
have cellars and foundation walls that are damp, and the 
people who live in them are in danger of fever, and of 
other kinds of sickness caused by this dampness. 



HILLS 



15 



But the water usually runs quickly away from a hill, 
so that even after a heavy rain the ground soon becomes 
dry. In large cities, where land is very expensive, people 
build almost anywhere ; but in these cities there are so 
many drain pipes, or sewers^ to carry off the water, that 
even the low places are quite dry. 




Fig. 13. 
A castle built upon the brow of a high hill. Describe the view from there. 

In times past some men were in the habit of building great 
castles, with thick walls, on the crests of hills (Fig. 13). From 
these they could look out over the country for a long distance and 
spy approaching enemies in time to prepare for them. Then, too, 
the steep sides of the hills were difficult for the enemy to climb, so 
that the people living in castles on hilltops were quite safe. 

Some of the Pueblo Indians built their towns upon the tops of 
steep hills in order to be safe from the more savage Indians who 
attacked them. For much the same reason the Puritans, many years 
ago, were in the habit of building their churches upon the hilltops. 



16 HOME GEOGBAPHY 

Hills at present are little needed for siich a purpose ; but there 
is another reason why people like to live upon them. From their 
tops they can look out over the fields for long distances and enjoy the 
beautiful views. Have you yourself ever enjoyed such a view? 

People like to build their hozvses upon hills, because 
it is healthful there and the views are beautiful. 

IIp:view Questions. — (1) Is there much land that is really level? 
(2) What do you understand by rolling land? (3) Were the hills 
that you know always there ? (4) Have you seen water carrying away 
soil? If so, tell about it. (5) Explain how hills have been made. 

(6) What is the base of a hill? (7) The summit ? (8) Tell what 
you learn from Figure 10. (9) From Figure 11. (10) Make a draw- 
ing somewhat like Fig. 11. (11) On what part of a hill is it coolest? 
(12) How could you prove it? (13) Why does it often snow on hills 
while it rains on lower land near by ? 

(14) What is a swamp? (15) Why should not houses be built on 
swampy ground? (16) Why are hills liable to be dry? (17) Why 
is the lowland in cities usually so dry? (18) Why have castles often 
been built on hills? (19) Why did the earlier settlers place their 
churches on hills? (20) What other reasons can people have for 
wishing to look far out over the country ? 

Suggestions for Study at Home and out of Doors. — 
(1) Find some ground about your home that seems nearly level. 
Is it really level? (2) Where is the longest slope in your neighbor- 
hood ? The steepest one ? (3) Watch the water carrying off soil 
after a rain. Where does the soil go ? (4) Write a story about it. 
(5) Hunt for a washout after a heavy rain. (6) Where is your 
highest hill? (7) In what season of the year is it especially pleasant 
to live on a hill ? Why? 

(8) Can you find any houses built on low, wet soil? (9) Are 
their cellars ever very damp ? (10) Ask some doctor why one should 
not live in such places. (11) Find some pictures of castles, showing 
their location. (12) Is your schoolhouse upon a hill? (13) Name any 
houses in your neighborhood that stand on a hill. (14) Where is 
your most beautiful view ? (15) Do your friends agree with you that 
it is the most beautiful one ? 

For References, see page 108. 



III. MOUNTAINS 

You may never yet have seen mountains, but you 
have certainly seen something that looks much like them. 
Often, on a summer evening, the sun sets behind great 
banks of clouds that reach far up into the sky. Some of 
them have rough, steep sides, and great, rugged peaks, 




Fig. 14. 
A scene among the White Mountains of New Hampshireo 

while others have more gentle slopes, and rounder tops. 
Oftentimes there are many of them together, and they are 
so real that it seems as if one might climb their sides if 
he could only reach them. 

This is very much the way snow-covered mountains 
appear in the distance ; in fact, the resemblance is so 
close that, when one is at a distance from mountains, he 
must often look carefully to note whether he is looking at 
real mountains, or only at clouds in the sky. 

The mountains in Fig. 14 are much like hills, except 
that they are larger. Hills are seldom more than a few 
c 17 



18 



HOME GEOGBAPHY 



hundred feet high, while these mountains rise two or three 
thousand feet in height. Some mountains are so low, and 

their slopes so 
gentle, that one 
is able to climb to 
their tops with- 
out much trou- 
ble. Such moun- 
tains are often 
called hills. But 
many others are 
even two or three 
miles in height. 
Their peaks rise 
far above the 
clouds and are 
often wholly hid- 
den by them, as 
in Figure 15. 

Usually where 
there is one 
mountain peak there are others near by (Fig. 16). They 
often extend a long distance, perhaps hundreds of miles, 




Fig. 15. 

A mountain peak in Switzerland, with snow on its 
sides and base, and a small cloud hiding the very 
summit. 




Fig. 16. 
A number of lofty mountain peaks near together. 



MOUNTAINS 



19 




forming what is called a mountain chain, or a mountain 
range. 

Such great ranges have not been carved out by running water, 
as hills have been. In fact, real mountains are found only where 
parts of the land have been slowly raised or lowered until some 
portions are much higher than the surrounding country (Fig. 17). 
Among these moun- 
tains, as elsewhere, 
running water has 
of course cut out 
many valleys. 

You can imitate 
mountain folding by 
crumpling a num- 
ber of sheets of pa- 
per. The reason for 
this folding of the 
rock layers will be 
found stated on 
page 125. 

Mountains are masses of rock that have heen -pushed 
above the level of the surrounding country . 

Men often climb to the tops of mountains. It might 
seem that this would not take a very long time, nor be 
very difficult ; but to go to the crest of even a low moun- 
tain is often quite a task. Upon a level road one can 
easily walk a mile in less than half an hour. But it might 
require a whole day of steady climbing to reach the sum- 
mit of a mountain only one mile high. 

It would be a long journey even if one could go in a 
straight line to the top. It has already been stated (page 
13) that to climb a hill two or three hundred feet high 
it is necessary to walk a longer distance than this. The 
same is true of mountains. 



Fig. 17. 

This is a drawing of a mountain range sliced through 
so as to show the layers of rock that have been 
pushed upward. 



20 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



Most mountains are so steep that one would grow 
very tired climbing directly up their slopes ; so a much 
longer, zigzag path is usually followed. Then, too, there 
are often steep cliffs^ ov precipices^ that could not be climbed 
(Fig. 18), and one must travel round these to find a place 
where the slope is gentle. This makes the path still 

longer, so that to 
climb a moun- 
tain one mile 
high it might 
be necessary to 
walk ten miles, 
or even more. 

If the air is 
colder at the 
crest of a hill 
than at its base, 
one might expect 
that it would be 
very much colder 
on the top of a 
high mountain, 
and this is true 
(Fig. 12, p. 14). 
In fact, it grows 
so much colder 
near the summit 
of the higher mountains that it never rains there, but snows 
instead; and it may even be so cold that trees cannot 
grow there (Fig. 20, p. 23). 

It is a long distance to the top of a high mountain, 
and the air is cold there. 




Fig. 18. 

A mountain precii^ice in the Yosemite Park among 
the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. No 
one could possibly climb the face of this steep 
rock cliff. 



MOUNTAINS 



21 



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rf*^^f^S -' _-'^ 



Many people cross the ocean to visit the Alps Mountains in Switzer- 
land ; but while they enjoy climbing about on the sides, and looking 
at the beautiful views, very few ever reach the summit of the higher 
peaks. Mont Blanc is one of the best known of these, and is nearly 
three miles in height. (The picture. Fig. 20, show^s views of Mont 
Blanc.) 

It is very difficult, and even sonaewiiat dangerous, to climb to the 
summit of this mountain. When a person Avishes to do so, he must 
employ guides to help him over the difficult places. 

The I'ound trip usually takes two nights and tliree days; as there 
is no place to obtain food high up on the mountain side, it is neces- 
sary to carry it. Overcoats and blankets are also necessary ; for even 
though the journey be made in the hottest summer weather, it will be 
bitterly cold upon the mountain top. 

Suppose that we are making such a journej^ We start early in 
the morning so as to have a long day. Each of us carries a few- 
light articles, but 
the guides and por- 
ter carry most, for 
they are strong and 
used to climbing. 

At first we walk 
along a pleasant 
path in a beavitiful 
wood. A house is 
occasionally passed 
(Fig. 20, G), and 
perhaps a green field. 
But soon there are 
no more houses and 
fields, and the trees 
become smaller and 
smaller, until the 

line is reached above which it is so cold that no trees can grow^ 
This is called the tree line or timher line (Fig. 19). 

From this point on, no plants larger than bushes are seen, and after 
a while even these disappear. Meanwhile the soil and the grass have 
become more scarce, while here and there banks of snow are found in 









Fig. 19. 

A picture of the timber line on tlie snowy slopes of 
a mountain in Colorado. 



22 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

the shady hollows. Soon we have climbed to the snow line. This is 
the line above which snow is found all the year round. Now, no 
matter in what direction we look, x'ock aiid snow are everywhere to 
be seen, the latter often being hundreds of feet deep (Fig. 20, F). 

What a beautiful view before us ! It repays us for all the hard 
work. We look down upon the woods through which we have just 
passed; then, over beyond them, to the deep valleys, with the green 
fields, pretty houses and villages far below us ; and, beyond these, 
to the other steep mountains upon the opposite side of the valley. 

The guide takes his place in front of ns, and often tells us to 
stop while he goes ahead to examine the way. It may be that the 
snow has bridged over and hidden a deep and narrow chasm, so that 
if one were to step upon this snow he might fall through. 

Sometimes the guides lift one of us over a dangerous place ; and, when 
it is steep or slippery, fasten all the members of the party together 
with ropes (Fig. 20, E), so that if one falls, the others may hold him. 

As we advance higher and higher, it is often necessary to take a 
narrow path on the steep side of the mountain. On the right you 
can look hundreds of feet almost directly downward; on the left are 
great stones and masses of snow almost directly overhead. 

The snow sometimes falls, forming snow slides or avalanches, 
which are very dangerous. They come tearing down the sides of 
the mountains with a terrible roar, burying whole villages beneath 
them. You have seen the same thing, on a much smaller scale, when 
snow has slid from the roofs of houses on warm winter days. 

After one night spent in a little house about half way up the 
mountain side, and after much hard work on the next day, we 
reach the summit (Fig. 20, A). Here, in spite of our wraps, we are 
all shivering; for upon high mountain summits there are fierce winds 
which seem to go through even the thickest cloth. 

On this barren mountain top there are no birds, no trees, no grass : 
nothing but snow and rock; but if it is a clear day, and there are 
no clouds clinging to the mountain sides below, we may be able to 
look down into the beautiful green valleys, only a few miles away. 
There the birds are singing, flowers are blossoming, and men, working 
in the fields, are complaining of the heat. 

It is a difficult anci dangerous journey to the top of 
a high mountain. 




Fig. 20. 

Seven photographs taken on a journey to the summit of Mont Blauc. See if 

you can find in these pictures any of the scenes described. 

23 



24 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



It is by no means so difficult to reach the summits 
of all mountains. Many of them (Fig. 14, p. 17) are 

so low that there 
is no snow upon 
them in summer, 
and trees live and 
thrive even at the 
top. Roads may 
have been made 
to the summit, 
so that one may 
drive up instead 
of walking. 
„ ^^ Among some of 




A hotel at the base of a lofty mountain at Banf , 
on the Canadian Pacific Railway, in British Co- 
lumbia, Canada. 



these mountains 
hotels are built 
(Figs. 21 and 24), 
to which people go in summer to escape the hot weather. 
There they may walk through the woods, and climb to 
many inter- 
esting places, 
where fine 
views are to 
be had. 
Mountains 
are imjjor- 
tant sum- 
mer resorts. 



Perhaps 
you already 
know that 
the rocks in- 




FiG. 22. 

Here men are digging gold ore deep in the mountain side. 
The ore is hoisted to the surface and crushed to bits 
in these buildings, so that the particles of gold can be 
separated from the rock. 



MOUNTAINS 



25 




Fig. 23. 

This man is deep down in the earth in an iron mine. He is preparing to load 
the car with ore which other miners have been digging in a tunnel just 
above, on the right-hand side. 

side the mountains sometimes contain gold and silver (Fig. 
22). Iron, lead, and other metals are also found there. 
When they are dug out from the rocks they are ores, which 
do not look much like these metals as we know them. But 
the metal in the rings, watches, and silver dollars that you 
have seen, and even the iron parts of your school desk, may 
have come from the rocks of some mountain (Fig. 23). 

The trees in the mountain forests are also valuable. The most 
common kinds are evergreens, such as the pine, hemlock, and spruce, 
which are green even through the winter, and which can live on the 
cold mountain sides as far up as the timber line. 



26 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



The land upon a mountain side is usually too steep and rocky for 
farms. But even where farms are not possible, trees often grow 
finely, covering the mountain for miles and miles with dense forests. 
This is fortunate, for the trees may be cut down and sawed into 
lumber, from which all sorts of wooden articles are made. Possibly 
the very seat in which you are sitting was once a part of a tree that 
grew on the side of a mountain. 

Mountains are of further use because of the abundance of water 
that they supply. We have already seen that there is much ice and 




Fig. 24. 

The forest on the sides of the White Mountains, New Hampshire. The large 
buildings are the hotels of a summer resort. 



snow upon some of them ; in fact, there is so much upon the higher 
ones that it can never all melt away, no matter how hot the summer 
may be. 

During hot weather many streams dry up ; but at such times the 
ice and snow of the mountains only melt the faster, so that the streams 
which flow forth from these mountains are even more swollen than 
usual. This water may run along for many miles until it finally 
reaches towns and cities where people need it to drink. Do you know 
of any city that gets its drinking water from such a river ? 

Mountains furnish metals, lumher, and ivater. 



MOUNTAINS 27 

Review Questions. — (1) AVhat can you say about the height 
of mountains? (2) How have they been made? (3) What is a 
mountain chain or range? (4) How long might it take to climb a 
mountain a mile high? (5) Why so long? (6) What can you tell 
about the cold at the summit? (7) How do the trees change in 
appearance as one mounts higher and higher? 

(8) What would you need for a journey up Mont Blanc? 
(9) Desci'ibe the first part of the jou.rney. (10) What is the timber 
line? (11) What is the snow line? (12) What are avalanches? 

(13) Describe the view from the top of the mountain. 

(14) Mention some reasons why mountains are favorite summer 
resorts. (15) What kinds of mines are found in mountains ? (16) Why 
is it fortunate that trees grow so well on mountain sides ? (17) What 
is done with them ? (18) Tell what you can about the streams that 
flow from mountains. 

Suggestions. — (1) Watch for clouds that resemble mountains. 
Make a drawing of them. (2) Find pictures of mountains; note the 
timber line, the snow line, and other points of interest. (3) Repre- 
sent a mountain in sand. Show the tree line ; the snow line ; steep and 
gentle slopes. (4) Represent a mountain range in sand. (5) In 
what direction are the nearest mountains? What are they called? 
How far away are they ? Find out an interesting fact about them. 

(6) Ask some one who has climbed a mountain to tell you about 
it. (7) Would you care to climb one yourself ? Why? (8) Write a 
story relating the adventures you would expect in mountain climbing. 
Describe some of the views you would expect to find. (9) Why do 
few people live high up on the mountain sides? 

(10) Examine a piece of ore (in some museum) and find out how 
the metal is taken from the rock. (11) Start a collection for the 
school by bringing some ores. (12) Hunt for pictures of woods on 
mountain sides. You will find several in this book. (13) Find'some 
pictures which show gorges cut in the mountains by running water. 

(14) Find out some facts about glaciers. 
For References, see page 108. 



IV. VALLEYS 




We have seen how water is always washing away soil, 
making hills and changing their appearance. Wherever 

hills are found 
there are al- 
ways low places 
or hollows, and 
these are called 
valleys. 

Some very 
small valleys 
you have al- 
ready seen in 
Figure 9. They 
are only a few 
inches wide, 
and the tiny 
hills or ridges between them are only a few inches high. 

Every stream of w^ater, whether great or small, when 
flowing over soft earth, is carrying some of it away and 
forming valleys. Even when flowing over hard rock, the 
water is doing the same thing, but more slowly. It grinds 
the rock away by dragging pebbles and grains of sand over 
it, thus scouring it out. This work of the water is never 
finished, for every rain is slightly changing the valleys. 

Are there any valleys in your neighborhood? Do you 
live in one ? If you have travelled on the railway, you 
have certainly seen many of them. Figs. 11, 14, and 25 

28 



Fig. 25. 
A beautiful stream in a wooded valley. 



VALLEYS 



29 



show valleys. Can you find others in the book ? In Fig- 
ure 25 is shown a small stream with the land on either 
side gently sloping toward it. 

Since there are very few places without slopes and 
hills of some kind, there must be few places without 
valleys. Although some of these are narrow, others are 
so wide that one cannot see across them. 

Wherever two downward slopes come together, a valley is formed, 
whether the slopes be long or short. In those that you can find, 
notice the difference in the slopes. If in one of the valleys there is 
a stream, notice the direction in which it flows. Why does the water 
flow at all ? Which way is doton the iicdley ? Point up the valley. 

You see, of course, that valleys have not only width, but length. 
Many of them are only a^ew inches' long, and you can certainly find 
some of these. Perhaps your 
home is in a valley that is 
many miles in length. Find 
out if this is true. 

Most valleys have heen 
cut out of the land hy 
running water. 



In the picture (Fig. 
26) you see several val- 
leys. Rain falls into each 
of these, some of it sink- 
ing into the soil and some 
running off down the 
slopes. Into which valley will the water flow that falls 
on the top of the ridge ? 




Fig. m. 

The dotted lines show the divides be- 
tween the valleys. Trace them. What 
else do you see in the picture ? 



When it rains upon the roof of a house (Fig. 27), the 
water is divided along the highest part, some flowing 
doAvn one side, some down the other. The same thing 
happens when water falls on the land. Because the water 



30 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



parts, or divides, at the highest place between two valleys, 
this place is called a divide or water-parting^ or sometimes a 

watershed. The 
dotted lines in 
the picture 
(Fig. 26) show 
some divides. 
How irregular 
the lines are ! 

A divide some- 
times stands out 
sharply, as on 
the roof of a 
house ; but in 
many places it 
is difficult to 
find, for the 
land there ma}^ 
appear to be 







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■p. 









Fig. 27. 

A house roof, to show that the water is divided along 
the highest part. 



fiat. Can you point out such a place in Figure 26 ? 

If you wish to know how wide one of these valleys is, where 
would you begin to meas- 



ure ? AVould it not be from 
the divide on one side to the 
divide directly across on the 
other side? Of course it 
would, for the divides form 
the boundaries of the valley 
(Fig. 28). 



A divide or water- 
shed is the highest 
ground separating two 
valleys. 




Fig. 28. 
The line A-B shows the width of this val- 
ley. Observe that the valley is much 
wider than the stream. 



VALLEYS 31 

While the valleys that one usually sees are both narrow 
and. short, there are some so long and wide that one could 
not travel their whole length or width, even if he were to 
spend all day and all night upon a fast train (Fig. 29). 
In our own country there is such a one, called the Missis- 
sippi Valley, which is over three thousand miles long and 
many hundred miles wide. 




Fig. 29. 
Picture of a river winding through a hroad and very long valley. 

When valleys are so large as this, their slopes must be 
very gentle. On that account many people who live in 
the Mississippi Valley scarcely know that they are in a 
valley. The river flows through the lowest part, and the 
homes of these people may be so far away that they have 
never seen it. All about, them the land appears so level 
that it does not seem to form a part of a slope. It is 



32 



HOME GEOGBAPHY 



therefore called a plain. But wlien rain falls there, it 
immediately flows toward the river, thus proving that 
the plain is a part of the great Mississippi Valley slopes. 

Such an immense valley was not cut out by running 
water. You have learned that hills are made in that way, 
but that mountains are formed by the rising of great masses 
of rock. Some of the great valleys, like the Mississippi, 
have also been made by changes in the level of the land. 
But even the vallej^s that have been formed in this way 
have generally been greatly changed by the water that 
has run through them. 

Some great valleys have heen formed hy the rising or 
sinking of the land. 




Fig. 30. 

A valley sliced through to illustrate how valleys may be formed hy the fold- 
ing of the rock layers. 

People generally choose the valleys for their homes. 
Even among high mountains, where it is impossible to live 
on the steep and cold sides, they often dwell in the bottom 
of the valleys. Here they are surrounded by lofty peaks 
which appear to shut them in almost entirely (Fig. 31). 

Hills are often too cool, or else have too shallow a soil 
for farming. The rains have washed the dirt down the 
steep slopes into the lower part of the valleys, making a 
deep and fertile soil there. In the valleys, therefore, the 



VALLEYS 



33 







Fig. 31. 
A city near some miues in a valley among the Rocky Mountains. 

best farms are found, with their great fields of corn, oats, 
wheat, and grass. Here, also, cattle and horses are raised, 
(Fig. 32), many large cities have sprung up, and railways 
have been built. 




Fig. 32. 

A herd of cattle grazing on the clover that is growing in the deep, rich soil 
in a valley bottom. 

D 



34 



HOME GEOGBAPHT 



Most of the land is really made up of slopes, and we 
are living upon them. It may not seem that your home 
is upon one, but it probably is. Your house may even be 
upon a hill-top, and yet you may be living in a broad 
valley. 

Mosi people live in some part of a valley. 




Fig. 33. 
A ditch dug to drain a swamp. 

The soil is all the more valuable because of the slopes 
of valleys. Were it not for them the water, after a heavy 
rain, would stand in a thin sheet upon the ground. But 
where there are slopes down which the water can freely 
run, it quickly flows off and does not drown the crops or' 
make the region unhealthful for man and animals. 



VALLEYS 35 

The great importance of this matter is shown when farmers buy- 
land. One of the first things that they inquire about is drainage, 
that is tlie slopes, which allow the water to run off quickly. 

If the water does not freely flow away, they even dig ditches in 
order to carry it off (Fig. 33). Sometimes these ditches are left open, 
as in the picture ; but, more often, tiles are placed in the bottom, 
forming a kind of pipe, and then the earth is thrown back again. 
The water finds its way into the pipes, through small openings that 
are left for this purpose, and flows away. Good drainage is so im- 
portant that men are often willing to incur great expense in order to 
secure it. 

In some places the land is so nearly level that the 
standing water produces swamps. There are thousands 
of swamps in this country, and great sums of money are 
spent in digging ditches to drain them. This makes the 
swamp dry ; and since the soil in such places is very fer- 
tile, a great deal of land that was once of little value is 
noAV changed to rich farms. 

T7ze slopes of valleys are valuable for drainage. 

Valleys have had a great influence upon the roads of a 
country. For instance, in going across mountains men 
generally follow a valley, going higher and higher until 
they come to what is called a mountain pass (Fig. 34), , 
which is nothing more than a valley between mountain 
peaks. After crossing this, they go down another valley 
on the other side of the mountain. 

Railroads also cross mountains through the valleys and 
over the lower passes ; they wind in and out, often mak- 
ing sharp curves in order to avoid cutting directly through 
the rock. 

Even in hilly regions it is usually easier to get from 
one place to another by travelling in the valleys. In the 



36 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



lower parts, near the streams, the land is most nearly level ; 
but as soon as one attempts to go directly across the coun- 
try, the roads become rough and hilly. 

On that account, when white men first came to this 
country, and settled among the hills and mountains, they 
built their roads in the valleys, often quite near the 
streams. Men do the same thing still. 




Fig. 34. 
A mountain pass among the lofty Rocky Mountains of Colorado. Point to it. 



Where the country is more level, as upon a jplain, it is 
not so difficult to travel directly forward ; but even in 
such places both the wagon roads and the railways are 
often built round a small hill rather than over it. 

The location of zvagon roads and railways depends 
on the valleys' 

We have seen that hills and mountains afford many beautiful views. 
But it is not necessary to go to the mountains to see fine views. 
You may see them in almost any valley or plain. Even a field of 



VALLEYS 



37 




Fig. 35. 

A beautiful New England roadway in Northfield, 
Massachusetts. 



green grass, such as 

may be seen in city 

parks, and in the 

country, is beautiful. 

This is particularly 

true in the early 

spring, after the long, 

cold winter. 

Those who live in 

small towns or cities 

may find streets 

where the trees have 

grown so tall that 

they droop and meet 

overhead (Fig. 35). 

As one looks down 

such a street, he can 

scarcely help exclaiming, " What a magnificent archway ! " 

In the country, also, there are many beautiful sights, such as the 

variously colored fields, the waving grain, the graceful trees, and the 

shady roads. 

The views 
change from 
time to time. 
They are not 
the same at 
noon as in the 
late afternoon 
w'hen the sun 
is casting long 
shadows. In 
the spring the 
plants are fresh 
and bright ; 
in the autumn 
they are pi"et- 
tily colored ; 
in the winter 




Fig. 36. 

A scene in Boston Common after a heavy fall of damp 
snow. 



38 HOME GEOGRAPMT 

the damp snow clings to the trees, bushes, fences, and houses until 
everytliing is robed in white (Fig. 36). Again, the rain freezes to 
the trees, and when the sun appears, everything sparkles in the bright 
light as if it were covered with a thousand jewels. 

It is not necessary, then, to travel far in order to find beautiful 
views ; they are to be found everywhere, not only among the moun- 
tains, but on the hills, in the valleys, in the country and in the city. 

The Jiills, 'mountains, and valleys are very heaxttiful. 

Review Questions. — (1) What makes the little valleys ? (2) Tell 
why they must change from year to year. (3) Describe some of those 
that you have crossed on the railway. (4) How many slopes are 
necessary to make a valley? (5) What is a divide? (6) Tell how 
large some of the largest valleys may be. (7) How have these very 
large valleys been formed ? (8) What is a plain ? 

(9) In what parts of mountains do most people live? Why? 
(10) What is meant by drainage? (11) How do farmers sometimes 
provide drainage? (12) What is a swamp? (13) Why do roads 
and railways among the mountains follow the valleys? (14) What 
is a mountain pass ? (15) Where is the most level land usually 
found? (16) What fields or yards near you are beautiful ? (17) Are 
there any walks or drives that you greatly enjoy? (18) How do the 
views change from time to time ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Find a tiny valley and watch to see if it is 
changed in any way by a heavy rain. (2) Find a still larger valley 
in your neighborhood. (3) Find the divide on each side of it. 
(4) Show that streets and roads are so made that they have a water- 
shed. (5) Make some valleys in clay or sand and show the divides. 
(6) Where is the largest valley in your neighborhood ? (7) Is your 
home in one of the very large valleys, or in a small one ? (8) Show 
by a drawing like Figure 30 how the largest valleys have been made. 
(9) Can you show it in any other way? (10) Why should swamp 
land that has been drained raise uncommonly good crops? (11) Do 
you know of any roads or railways that follow valleys and wind about 
the hills? Tell about them. (12) Find some beautiful views in 
your neighborhood. (13) Make a collection of pictures of valleys. 
(14) Write a story telling how valleys have been formed. 

For References, see page 109. 



V. RIVERS 



Every heavy rain causes the water to collect, here and 
there, and flow down the slopes. At first only tiny rills 
are formed ; but these unite to form the little streams 
and brooks. 

In some places a brook is narrow and deep, in others 
broad and shallow ; here it floAvs swiftly, and there slowly. 
Place a chip or a boat 
in such a brook, and it 
floats quietly in some 
places, and then, com- 
ing to a rapid ^ it is 
whirled along swiftly 
and perhaps upset 
(Fig. 37). Or it may 
float to a waterfall, 
where the water tum- 
bles down from the 
top of a ledge, and 
then it is surely over- 
turned (Fig. 38). 

There are large riv- 
ers in the world much 




Fig. 37. 

A noisy brook in the Adirondacks of New 
York, tumbling over its rocky bed. 



like these little brooks, the main difference being in their 
size. But even such rivers are generally small at their 
beginning or source. Some of the largest have their sources 
far up in the mountains, where they are so small that a 
person can easily step across them, 

39 



40 



HOME GEOGBAPHY 



The water of these rivers 
may come from the melting 
snows ; and, as it dashes along, 
beating itself into foam by 
striking against the rocks, it 
is joined by other streams like 
itself. Often the water must 
rush round or leaj) over large 
boulders which lie in its path; 
and often it falls directly 
downward for many feet with 
a great roar (Fig. 76). . 

Great T-ivers at their source 
are usually no larger than 
a hrooh. 

The water of a mountain 
stream seems to be quite help- 
less, with the great, hard 
rocks all about it ; but it 
never gives up its struggle' 
with them. Rocky Oiiffs may 
reach far up into the sky on 
either side, and the slopes may 
be so steep that loose pieces 
of stone often fall into the 
water. But the torrent dashes 
these against one another, and 
grinds them against its rocky 
bed, until they are worn into 
pebbles. These pebbles are borne down stream and are 
slowly ground up into grains of sand and bits of clay. 




Copyrighted, 18S9, by S. R. Stoddard. 

Fig. 38. 

A mountain torrent leaping oA^-er 
the ledges in rapids and water- 
falls. Point to one of the 
falls. Find others in the other 
pictures of the book. 



BIVEES 



41 



If we sliould travel down sucli a stream, starting near 
its source among the wild mountains, we should find it 
constantly changing. In the first place, it gradually grows 
larger, because other streams, called branches or tributaries, 
enter it (Fig. 39). The banks become lower and the 
river grows broader and deeper. In places there may still 
be rapids and falls, but the country on either side is not 




Fig. 39. 

Two streams, the Allegheny and Monongahela, uniting at the great city of 
Pittsburg in Pennsylvania. 

SO steep and rocky as it was among tlie mountains. Now, 
houses, farms, and men are seen, and horses and cattle are 
grazing in the fields near the banks (Fig. 40). 

At first, the slope of the stream bed was so great that 
the river hurried along faster than you could run. Now 
the water no longer flows rapid] 7 enough to drag boulders 
or even pebbles; but it can st'd carry the sand and mud 
brought by the rain from the soil of the hillsides. 

It has now been many days since this water left the 



42 



HOME GEOGBAPHT 




Fig. 40. 

The Connecticut River in Massachusetts, flowing through a splendid farming 

country. 

mountains. The river has become so wide that a long 
bridge is needed to cross it (Fig. 41), and so deep that 
one cannot touch its bed even with a long pole. 

At last, per- 
haps weeks after 
it started, the 
water approaches 
the ocean ; and 
now the down- 
ward slope of the 
river bed is so 
gentle that the 
current cannot 
Fig. 41. drag even grains 

The long bridge across the Mississippi River at St. 01 Sancl ; DUt it 
Louis. Notice how small the horses appear near still carries fine 
the river. This will show how very large the 

bridge is, bits of rock-mud 




BIVEBS 



43 



with it. These bits may be so tiny that if you were to 
place some of the muddy water in a glass, it would take 
hours for all of them to settle and leave the water clear. 
When the river enters the quiet waters of the ocean, even 
this mud, or sediment, settles. 

We have followed the river from the source to the 
mouth where it empties its waters into the great ocean. 
At first it was a little stream, but by the addition of water 
from many tributaries, it has grown larger and larger, 
until at its mouth it may be more than a mile in width. 

A great river is hroad and deep at its mouth, and 
its current is very sloiu ; hztt it carries sediment even 
to the ocean. 

We have been describing a large river that had its source in the 
mountains ; but others are much smaller, and many do not start in 
the mountains. Some empty their water into other rivers, being 
tributaries, and others enter lakes rather than the sea. They may 
also have low, 
soft batiks in- 
stead of high, 
rocky ones, and 
there may be no 
rapids and falls. 
But no matter 
where their 
sources and 
mouths may be, 
or what other dif- 
erences may ex- 
ist, they are, in Fig. 42. 

many ways, much A pebbly brook bed which is filled with water when 
like this river. *^® t:sAtv falls or the snow melts, but is often dry in 

summer. 

Where does so much water come from? Taken up 
from the ocean, it falls from the sky in the form of rain 




44 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

or snow. But we all know that small streams dry up 
and disappear soon after a rain. Even large brooks may 
become quite dry in summer (Fig. 42). Why, then, do 
not great rivers also dry up ? 

One reason is that many rivers have a constant supply 
at their source. That this is true of a stream starting in 
a high mountain is clear, because we have seen (p. 26) 
that the snow in such places never entirely melts away. 
It is also true of streams that have their sources in lakes 
and swamps. 

Then, again, not all of the rain-water flows off, but some 
sinks down into the ground. There is a great deal of 
water in the ground, and it is this which men find when 
they dig Avells. This underground water trickles through 
the soil, and through crevices in the rocks, often bubbling 
forth as a spring, weeks after it has fallen as rain some= 
Mdiere else. Most large rivers are supplied with water 
from hundreds and even thousands of such springs. 

It is to be remembered, too, that a great river, with its many trib- 
utaries, flows through a very large tract of country, so that when it is 
not raining in one part, the rain may be falling in another. Thus, 
while one tributary carries little water, heavy rain may keep others 
full, and this flows into the main stream, preventing it from drying 
up. 

If a heavy rain falls, or if the snow melts rapidly, so 
much water may flow into a river that it rises and over- 
flows its banks (Fig. 43). Those who live near such 
streams are in danger of being drowned by the floods, and 
in some places men have built banks of earth, called levees, 
to keep the water from overflowing the towns and farms. 

The supply of river water comes from rain or melting 
snow, from lakes and swamps, and from underground. 



BIVERS 



45 



Every one has seen muddy water flowing in gutters, or in rills on 
the hillsides. Great quantities of soil are washed away in this man- 
ner, as has been shown (p. 11). But what becomes of it all? 

If you have seen a sidewalk or a field flooded with water, you per- 
haps remember that when the flood disappeared, a thin layer of fine 
mud was left. This mud was carried along by the current until it 
reached a place where the water stood almost still, then it slowly set- 
tled. The same thing will happen if some muddy water is allowed to 
stand in a glass for a time. Try it. 

In much the same way, when there is a river flood (Fig. 43), the 
water spreads out on either side of the river in a great, thin sheet, flow- 




FiG. 43. 

Photograph of a river flood on the Ohio, which has forced the people to move 
out of their homes. Tell what you see in this picture. 

ing slowly along and depositing a thin layer of mud. Each flood adds 
a layer, making the land higher, until, after many years, it is lifted con- 
siderably above the usual level of the river. Such land is generally 
a level plain ; and since it is made by river floods, it is called a flood- 
plain. 

Many pieces of land have been made in this manner, and you have 
perhaps seen some of them. Near the banks of streams the valley is 
often flat, and the hillsides that bound the bottom of the valley begin 
to rise at a considerable distance from the water (Fig. 44). This level 
land is usually a flood-plain. Near small streams such plains are genei'- 



46 



HOME GEOGBAPRY 



ally narrow ; but in the Mississippi and Nile valleys the flood-plains are 
many miles in width. Farmers like this soil because it is very fertile. 
Some of the sediment carried hy rivers forms flood- 
plains. 




Fig. 44. 
A small flood-plain between steeply sloping valley sides. 

Much of the sediment is carried on until it reaches a 
lake or the ocean. Here, opposite the river mouth, the 
water is generally quiet, so that the mud sinks to the 

bottom. At first only 
enough sediment is 
collected to form low, 
swampy land ; but 
this is gradually lifted 
higher and higher, by 
layers of mud from 
each flood, until it 
becomes high enough 
to make dry land. 
■^^^- *^- These plains at the 

This picture shows a river delta. What else ,, ^ . p 

do you see in the picture ? mouths of rivers form 









' , „l 




^m^& 


'^M 


■■«i' "i 






$i^^^^^^- 




>l 




=s>v. 


' "'^/:^aaijvw;"_ 






/^ . -*'. . 






F'l a <n 


X 


ii 











rivehs 



47 



what are called deltas (Fig. 45). Many streams liave 
such wide deltas that one cannot see across them, most of 
the sediment having come from fields, hills, and moun- 
tains, perhaps hundreds of miles away. The surface of 
the delta is a plain, because it cannot be built any higher 
than the floods themselves have reached. 

From year to year more sediment is brought down, and 
the land is built further and further into the water, so 
that deltas are constantly 
growing. The slope of the 
river bed is usually so gentle 
that all of the water cannot 
flow out in a single channel. 
For this reason it enters the sea 
through several arms, cutting 
the delta into several parts. 

Some of the sediment car- 
ried by rivers iuilds deltas 
at their j)%ouths. 

A river entering the sea may re- 
ceive water brought by hundreds of 
tributaries. Thus the rain that falls 
in places even hvmdreds of miles 
apart may at last be brought together 
in a single main stream. Such a 
main stream with all of its tributa- 
ries is called a river system (Fig. 46). 
For instance, we speak of the Missis- 
sippi River system, meaning the Mis- 
sissippi and its many tributaries. 

All the country which is drained by a single main stream is called 
a river basin. Thus all the land drained by the Mississippi River is 
included in the Mississippi basin. 

One should not think of this as a true basin. A real basin, as a 




Fig. 46. 

Picture of a river system and 
river basin. Point to some 
of the tributaries ; to their 
source; to the mouth; to the 
delta. 



48 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

wash basin, has a rim extending all around it. The rim of a river 
basin is the divide ; but there is no divide, or rim, near the mouth of 
a river, since the water runs out into the sea. If it were a true basin, 
with a rim all around it, the water would collect and form a lake. 

All the land whose ivaters are drained hy a single 
river is called a river hasin, and all these streains 
together forin a river system. 

Some ways have already been suggested in whicli rivers 
are of much use. They build flood-plains and deltas, thus 
making some of the most fertile land in the world. Rivers 
also furnish water to plants, animals, and man. 

On page 6 it was shown that plants sometimes wither during hot 
weather, because the soil is dry. But near rivers the soil is usually 
kept so moist that plants grow well even in dry weather. 

There are some places in the world where there is not enough rain 
for crops to grow. The people in such regions sometimes lead the 
water out of the rivers into ditches, through which it flows for long 
distances. Then it is spread out over the thirsty soil, so that plants 
can thrive. This is called irrigation, and in some places no crops can 
be raised without it. 

Many animals and people depend on rivers for all the water they 
use. Even whole cities obtain their drinking water solely from rivers. 

Streams not only bring water where it is needed, but 
they also carry it away when it is not wanted. A river 
is really a great ditch for draining the land, so that when- 
ever the snow melts rapidly, or a heavy rain falls, the 
rivers quickly remove the water. They also carry off the 
filthy water, or sewage, of many towns and cities. 

divers supply zuater where needed, and remove it 
when not wanted. 

The water of rivers is also used for turning wheels to 
help make many articles, such as cloth and flour. 

You have perhaps noticed how windmills work (Fig. 



B I VERS 



49 



68). The wind blows the large wheel round and round, 
and it is so connected with other wheels that it can pump 
water, or turn a saw for sawing wood, or grind corn. 
Likewise steam is used to turn the wheels of a railway 
engine, so that it drags the heavy cars along. 

River water is made to do work in much the same man- 
ner. Where there is a swift current, or where there are 




Fig. 47. 

A picture of an old mill and old-fashioned wheel. Much smaller wheels are 
now used, and they are usually kept out of sight. 

falls, as the Niagara Falls (Fig. 135), it is often easy to 
run some of the water oft' to one side through a ditch or 
pipe. The water, racing rapidly along, strikes a wheel 
(Fig. 47) and makes it whirl round. This wheel, being 
connected with others, causes them to turn also, much as 
one wheel in a clock causes others to revolve. 

Thus machinery is set in motion by which logs are 
sawed into lumber, grain is ground into flour, cotton is 
made into cloth, and many other kinds of work are done. 



50 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

The water that furnishes the power to turn the wheels 
is called the water-power, and the buildings in which such 
manufacturing is carried on are called factories or mills. 

In many places the river water does not flow fast enough 
to strike a wheel with much force ; water-power is found 
mainly in rivers with swift currents, and especially near 
rapids and falls. Here mills have been built, and then 
great cities have often sprung up (Fig. 75, p. 85). 

Rivers also supply water-power for manufacturing. 

There is still another way in which rivers are extremely 
valuable. It has always been difficult to find a conven- 
ient means for carrying goods from one place to another. 
In some places there are no roads ; and even where there 
are, they are often hilly, rough, and muddy. 

Yet most of the articles that we use every day, like sugar, 
flour, oil, meat, coal, lumber, and clothing, have been car- 
ried long distances, sometimes thousands of miles. Even 
if the roads were excellent, it would take a great deal 
of time, and cost much money, to bring these things in 
wagons. To carry them by railway takes less time, but is 
expensive. 

A broad, deep river is really one of the finest roads in 
the world. To be sure, no wagons or cars can be drawn 
over it, but boats move there with ease. A river boat 
can carry as much as scores of wagons or cars (Fig. 48), 
and many may be going and coming at the same time, so 
that a large river is equal to several railroads : it costs 
little, too, to keep it in repair. 

For these reasons carrying goods by boat upon rivers, 
or river navigation, is a very important business. Indeed, 
it is so important that in many places broad ditches, called 



RIVERS 



51 



canals, have been cut in tlie soil and rock in order to carry 
goods by boat. 

Before the railways were built, — which is no longer 
ago than when your grandfathers were boys, • — boats were 
used for carrying all sorts of articles from place to place. 
Even to-day, when there are so many good wagon roads 
and railways, it is cheaper to carry crops and other prod- 
ucts on boats than in cars, and this is often done. 




Fig. 48. 

A ^^e■w across the broad Mississippi at New Orleans. The other bank is seen 
dimly in the distance. A loaded river boat is just coming in, and others 
are tied up to the levee. 

We see, then, why many people have preferred to build 
their homes near rivers. A farmer prefers to live near a 
good wagon road, or near the railway station, so that he 
may easily send his crops away ; and, for the same reason, 
people have always liked to live near a river, which is a 
good road or waterway. It is partly on this account that 
many of the large cities of the world stand on the banks 
of large rivers. Do you know of any such cities ? 

Rivers are also of value for navigation. 



52 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

Review Questions. — (1) Describe a streapi that you have seen. 
(2) What are rapids and falls ? (3) Describe a small stream in 
the mountains. (4) AVhat does it do with the rocks in its way? 
(5) What are tributaries ? (6) Does the current grow more or less 
swift as one goes further down stream ? (7) How does the country 
change in appearance ? (8) What becomes of the pebbles ? Why ? 

(9) What is meant by the source of a river? By its mouth? 

(10) Where do rivers obtain their water? (11) What is a spring? 
(12) What effect has a heavy rain upon a stream ? (13) Why do 
not large rivers dry up in summer? (14) Why does not sediment 
sink where the current is swift? (15) What is a flood-plain? Why 
is it level? (16) Explain how a delta is made. (17) What is a 
river basin? (18) A river system? (19) Why do plants grow well 
on the banks of a river ? (20) What is irrigation ? (21) How are 
rivers useful for drainage? (22) What is water-power? (23) In 
what ways -is a river a fine road ? (24) Give some of the reasons 
why many cities have sprung up near great rivers. 

Suggestions. — (1) After a heavy rain, follow a small stream 
from its source to its mouth. (2) Throw a chip into the water, and 
follow it as far as you can. (3) Why are the rocks in river beds 
usually so smooth and round? (4) If there is a brook or river near 
you, examine its banks. Is it a tributary of another stream? 
(5) How deep and how wide is it ? (6) Trace a brook to its source, 
if possible. Find several tributaries. (7) What large river is nearest 
your home? What are its largest tributaries? (8) What is meant 
by "up a river"? By "down a river"? By right bank? By left 
baiik? By river channel? By river bed? (9) Find a spring. 
Why is its water cool? (10) Watch a well that is being dug, 
to see if underground water is found. (11) Find a flood-plain 
along the side of a stream. (12) Find a delta. (13) Do you 
know of a city that gets its water from a river? (14) Make a 
small water-wheel, and arrange for a stream of water to turn it round. 
(15) Visit a mill that is run by water-power. (16) Find out more 
about canals. (17) Make a collection of pictures of rivers, and 
notice as many things as you can about them. (18) Find some 
poems describing brooks and rivers. (19) Write a story of a journey 
from the source to the mouth of a river. 

For References, see page 109. 



VI. PONDS AND LAKES 




Fig. 49. 

A dam of dirt, built in order to form 
a pond or reservoir. 



Rivers supply towns and cities with water, and also 
turn the wheels of factories ; but some streams become 
so low in summer that they lack water for these pur- 
poses. To prevent this diffi- 
culty men often build dams 
of wood, earth, or stone across 
the rivers, and in this way 
collect sufficient water to 
make ponds (Fig. 49) . When 
the rivers are high, these 
ponds are filled, and enough 
water gathers to last through 
the dry season. 

Probably you have seen such a pond as this. Or you 
yourself may have made small ponds by building dams 
of mud or leaves across brooks and gutters (Fig. 50). 

Lakes may be made in a similar manner, for they are like ponds, 
only larger. Sometimes they are several hundred miles in length, 
and perhaps one hundred miles in width. Some of the largest in the 
world, the Great Lakes in the northern ^United States, were made by 
dams formed ages ago across parts of the great St. Lawrence River 
system. 

Most ponds and lakes have been made in much the 
same way. That is, the water has gathered behind dams 
across streams. 

53 



54 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



But in most cases these dams have not been built by men. Beavers 
have made a few of them. There used to be a great many of these 
little animals in this country, and some are still left. Since they pre- 
fer quiet, shallow ponds in which to live, they gnaw down trees and 
build dams with the logs ; then they build their homes in the water 
thus collected. 

In other places, where the sides of a valley are steep, great masses 
of rock and earth have sometimes fallen, in the form of avalanches, 
and blocked or dammed the streams. 




Fig. 50. 
A boy building a dam to form a pond in the gutter. 

Also it was stated (p. 19) that the earth has been warped or bent 
upward in some places, forming low ridges, or even lofty mountain 
ranges. In this way the ground has sometimes slowly risen across 
river valleys, making high dams ; in such cases large lakes have been 
formed. 

There are many other ways in which dams have been built, espe- 
cially by means of glaciers, which you will study, about later. 

Most ponds and lakes have heen forined hy dams 
across valleys. 



POJSTDS AND LAKES 55 

Since a lake is generally a part of a stream, it is evident 
that water must flow into it. The river that flows into 
a lake is called the inlet, and that which flows out is 
called the outlet. There are also many streams entering 
from the sides. Each of these brings sediment, which set- 
tles in the lake, slowly filling it. At first deltas are built 
opposite to the stream mouths ; then, in time, the whole 
lake is filled and changed to a swamp. Many a swamp is 
really the last stage in the life of a lake. 

The surface of a lake appears to be level ; but one part 
is really slightly higher than the other, otherwise the 
water would not flow out of it. The higher part of the 
lake, near the inlet, is called the head of the lake, the lower 
part, near the outlet, the foot of the lake. It is correct, 
then, to speak of going up or down a lake, just as we 
speak of going up or down a river. 

Some lakes have no outlets, because there is so little water that 
the basin cannot fill up and overflow. This has a very peculiar effect 
upon the water, for in time it becomes salt. Probably you have heard 
of the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah. These are salt lakes 
of this kind, and no one would drink their water, even if he were 
dying of thirst. 

But why do such lakes become salt ? There is some salt in all water, 
even in that which we drink, although so little that we do not notice it. 
When water flows into a lake, the salt is carried with it. If there is 
no outlet, the salt can go no further ; but each day some of the water 
is changed to vapor and carried away in the air. As the bits of salt 
cannot go off in this way, they remain, and increase in number, until, 
in time, the water becomes so salt that we have a salt lake. 

Most lakes have inlets and outlets; hut some, having 
no outlets, become salt. 

The land at the margin of a river is called the bank, 
but that along the margin of a lake is called the shore. 



56 



HOME GEOGBAPHY 




FiGt. 51. 

A sandy beach on a lake shore. 



Sometimes the lake shore is low and wet, being over- 
grown with swamp plants. Again, it is pleasant to walk 
upon, being made of sand and pebbles brought there by 
the waves. This kind of shore is called a beach (Fig. 51). 




Fig. 52. 
A view on Moosehead Lake in Maine, Learn what each of the names means. 



PONDS AND LAKES 51 

Many lake shores are regular, but many more are irreg- 
ular. In some places points of land, called headlands, ex- 
tend into the water (Fig. 52). If small, these are called 
points or capes; if large, peninsulas. A narrow neck 
of land joining two larger pieces is an isthmus. Bodies of 
land entirely surrounded by water are known as islands. 

The water that is partly shut in between two headlands 
is called a bat/. When a bay has deep water, and is so 
nearly surrounded by land that vessels can enter it and 
be protected from the wind and waves, it is called a 
harbor. A narrow strip of water connecting two larger 
bodies of water is known as a strait. 




Fig. 53. 

How many of the features just mentioned can you find in this picture? Find 
some also on Fig. 60. 

When the water gathers behind a dam to form a lake, it enters 
many valleys, lorming bays and harbors, with capes, and j)erhaps 
islands between. This is the chief reason for the irregular shores 
of many lakes. If you will make a little valley in clay, with two or 
three tributaries entering, then put a dam across it and fill it with 
water, you will see just how this is done. 

The shores of lakes are often irregular, producing 
bodies of land and water of many shapes. 



58 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



Ponds and lakes are useful in many of the same ways 
as rivers. They help to keep the ground moist ; they 
furnish water to cities, and they supply water to turn the 
wheels of factories. Beside this, many valuable fish are 
caught in lakes, and much ice is cut from their surface. 

Again, like rivers, lakes are important waterways. 
Upon large lakes, like the Great Lakes, hundreds of ves- 
sels are going and coming, carrying men, grain, coal, lum- 
ber, and countless other things. On this account many 
people have sattled on the shores of large lakes ; and, as a 
result, many towns and cities have been built there. Do 
you know of any ? 

The shores of lakes are often very beautiful, and many persons go 
to them in summer to hunt, fish, and canoe. There are hotels there, 
too (Fig. 52), and some lakes are important summer resorts. 

Lakes supply drinking water, waterpower, fish, and 
ice. They are also useful for navigation and for summer 
resorts. 

How are vessels loaded with goods ? And again, how 
can these cargoes be unloaded? Wagons may be driven 
beside a railway car, and be filled or emptied speedily. 

But a large 
boat sinks 
down many 
feet into the 
water (Fig. 
54), so that if 
it came near 
the shore, it 
might strike 
Fig. 54. the bottom and 

A picture to show how deep a vessel sinks in the water. be wrecked. 




PONDS AND LAKES 



59 




Fig. 55. 

A small harbor on an island on the coast of 

California. 



Fortunately, here and there along the lake shore, there 
are small bays with deep water. The opening is large 
enough for 
vessels to en- 
ter easily, but 
small enough 
to keep out the 
fierce waves. 
Here we have 
a fine harbor 
(Fig. 55). 

F r o m the 
shores of the 
harbor men 

build piers of wood or stone, called wharves. These reach 
into the deeper water, where ships may be fastened or 
moored to them. Wagons can be driven on to the wharves, 
so that this forms a convenient and safe place for loading 
and unloading vessels. Such a harbor often determines 
the location of a city. 

Large cities are sometimes found on parts of a lake shore where there 
are no such natural harbors. In that case harbors have to be made, 
even though it is expensive to do so. Walls of rock, or of posts driven 
deep into the. ground, are built in such a way as nearly to inclose a 
body of water, very much as capes inclose the water of a natural harbor. 
Such a wall is called a breakwater (Fig. 56), because it breaks tlie 
force of the waves, and prevents them from entering the space behind. 

When a harbor is not deep enough for vessels to enter, it is neces- 
sary to dig out the dirt and rock from the bottom. This is quite 
often done in the inlet and outlet streams at the ends of a lake. 

Harbors are places where vessels ftiid safety from 
storms and where cargoes are loaded and unloaded 
with ease. 



60 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 




Fig. 56. 
A breakwater built in a place where the coast has no natural harbor. 

Eeview Questions. — (1) Why are dams built in rivers ? (2) Ex- 
plain how ponds are made. (3) How do lakes differ from ponds? 
(4) How are lakes made ? (5) Tell what you can about beaver 
dams. (6) In what other ways may lake dams be made ? (7) "What 
is the inlet of a lake ? The outlet ? The head ? The foot ? (8) How 
does it happen that some lakes have no outlet? (9) What about 
.the water then? Why? 

(10) What is meant by shoi'e? By beach? (11) What do you 
understand by a regular lake shore? (12) Make a drawing of a 
cape; peniusula; isthmus; island; bay; strait. (13) "Tell in words 
what each of these is. (14) What is the cause of these iiTegularities ? 
(15) Mention a few uses of ponds and lakes. (16) What is a harbor? 
(17) Why must the water be deep? (18) How can a harbor protect 
ships from storms ? (19) What is a whai'f ? (20) How are harbors 
often made? (21) What is a breakwater? 

Suggestions. — (1) Build a dam in some small stream and note 
how rapidly the water collects. (2) Find out more about beavers. 

(3) Look for a pond or lake and examine the dam that caused it. 

(4) See if there are both an inlet and an outlet. (5) Walk up the 



PONDS AND LAKES 61 

lake ; walk down the lake. (6) Examine the shore and notice the 
different forms of land and water. (7) Find a small harbor. Would 
every bay make a good harbor? (8) Make a small, irregular hollow 
in clay and fill it with water to form capes, harbors, and islands. 
(9) Find some of these in the pictures and maps of this book. 

(10) How do men get ice from a lake ? (11) In what ways do men 
catch fish? What kinds of fish have you seen caught? (12) Find 
pictures of good harbors. Look for the wharves and the breakwater. 
(13) Build a breakwater to form a little harbor in a small stream or 
pond. (14) Find just how many feet some of our largest ships sink 
into the water. 

(15) Walk toward the nearest large lake. What are some of its 
tributaries ? Where is the inlet stream ? The outlet ? What are 
their names? (16) Name some cities that are on lake harbors. 
(17) Write a story telling what you would expect to see along a 
lake shore. 

For Eeferences, see page 109. 



VII. THE OCEAN 



The great rivers, starting as tiny brooks, grow into 
larger and still larger streams, until, after days and per- 
haps weeks, they mingle their waters in the ocean. No 
doubt much of the rain falling in your neighborhood 
finally reaches the sea in this way ; and if you could float 
along upon it in a light boat, in time you too would reach 




Fig. 57. 

A view of the great ocean. Notice the sailing vessel in the distance on the 
right-hand side. 

the ocean. How large is this body of water, and what 
are some other interesting facts about it ? 

We can see across most lakes, and can sail across even 
the largest in a day or two ; but the ocean is far larger. 
One could sail upon it in a straight line for weeks with- 
out coming to any land (Fig. 57). It is so great that it 
surrounds all the land on which people live, and no matter 
in which direction you might travel, if you went far 
enough you would come to it. 

62 



THE OCEAN 63 

If you were to start out to reach the ocean, the journey 
might last many days. It might be necessary to go up 
hills and across valleys, to pass around lakes, and possibly 
over great ranges of mountains. You would be surprised 
to find how much land there is, and how many farms, 
villages, towns, and cities there are. 

But there is far more water than land. In fact, the 
water covers about three-fourths of the earth's surface and 
the land only one-fourth. If one were to travel entirely 
around the earth, he would probably spend much more 
than one-half of his time upon the ocean. 

The ocean is so immense that the great rivers in all parts of the 
earth pour their water into it. Their mouths may be thousands of 
miles apart, yet the sea stretches far enough to reach them all. 

The water of the ocean is too salt to drink ; but river water is 
fresh. Since there are many thousands of rivers entering the sea, 
would you not expect that their water would make the ocean less salt? 
It does do so near the mouths of great rivers ; but soon it becomes 
mixed and swallowed up in the salt water. This is another way of 
showing the size of the ocean, for all the ..river water that enters it is 
not enough to make it fresh. 

The salt ivater of the ocean surrounds all the land. 

Different parts of tlie ocean have different names. For 
instance, the Atlantic Ocean is the part lying between the 
United States and the land called Europe, where the 
English, German, and other peoples live. We buy many 
articles from these countries, such as woollen cloth, knives, 
oranges, and olives; and they likewise purchase other 
articles from us, such as wheat, cotton, and meat. The 
way to reach these people is to cross the Atlantic Ocean. 
The fastest steamers need five or six days for the voyage. 

In all parts of the earth, the ocean is a great highway. It is so 
large that thousands of ships are travelling upon it in all directions, 



64 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



carrying people, cattle, grain, fruit, iron, different kinds of machines, 
and many other things. Although there are so many ships, the ocean 
is so large that one ship may sail for days without seeing another. 

Ocean navigation is therefore a great business, and many 
thousands of men are engaged in it. Most of the ships 
used are larger than the vessels upon lakes, and they sink 
deejDer into the water (Fig. 58). Very large ones, when 
loaded, reach down about thirty feet below the surface. 




Fig. 58. 

A large ocean steamer, one that sails between the United States and Europe. 
See how small the men appear. 

Of course the ships meet with storms upon the ocean, as upon lakes. 
In fact, the ocean waves are at times so high that they sweep over and 
almost cover up the largest vessels (Fig. 59). 

The coast of the ocean resembles the lake shore in hav- 
ing capes, peninsulas, islands, isthmuses, straits, and ba^^s 
(Fig. 60). We have learned (pp. 19 and 32) that the 
land in places has been raised or lowered. When it is 
lowered near the seacoast, the water enters the valleys 



THE OCEAN 



65 



and partly drowns the land, as it does in lakes (p. 57). 
This of course makes an irregular coast. 




Fig. 59. 
Ocean waves during a storm. 

Naturally, on such an irregular coast there are harbors 
which large vessels enter, and in which they are safe from 
storms. For example. New York harbor is so broad and 
deep that hundreds of ships (Fig. 61) are found in it at 
all times, either loading or unloading their cargoes, or 
waiting for storms to pass. 




Fig. 60. 

A picture of Castine harbor on the irregular coast of Maine. Here the land 
has been lowered so that the salt water of the ocean has entered the val- 
leys, covering their bottoms, but leaving the hill-tops as islands, capes, etc. 



66 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



Goods are brought to New York, not only from Europe, but also 
from China and Australia, and in fact, from all parts of the world. It 
is quite possible that the tea and coffee which are used on your 
table, and the bananas and oranges which you have eaten, were 
brought over the ocean and unloaded in this harbor. If not, they 
were unloaded in some other fine harbor, such as Boston, San Fran- 
cisco, or Philadelphia. 

Since the ocean easily connects sncli harbors with all 
parts of the world, it is natural that great cities should 




Fig. 61. 

A view among the ships along the wharves of New York Harbor. The great 
Brooklyn Bridge is seen behind the masts. 



spring up where the best ocean harbors are found. It is 
partly on this account that New York, Philadelphia, Bos- 
ton, and San Francisco have become such large cities. 

Vessels come toward these seaports from all parts of the world ; 
but it is often difficult to tell just where to enter the harbors, espe- 
cially at night. Ships are in danger of going out of the way, and of 
running upon rocks, or reefs, in the shallow water near the coast 
(Fig. 62). On that account, tall lighthouses are built on many 



THE OCEAN 



m 




Fig. 62. 
A vessel wrecked by running aground upon a shallow reef. 

islands and capes, so that captains may know by their lights which 
way to go in order to enter the harbors (Fig. 63). 

The ocean is a great zuateriuay, connecting different 
parts of the luorld. 

Not only are goods carried on vessels, but many men go out in 
them, often out of sight of land, in order to catch the fish which 
live in such great numbers in the sea. Instead of hooks and lines, 
long nets are often used, and in them so many fish are caught that 




Fig. G3. 

A lighthouse on a rocky point. A bright light is placed at the top of the 
tower so that it may be seen far away. 



68 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

the vessel is loaded down with them. No doubt some of the mackerel 
that you have eaten have been caught in this way. Picture 67, p. 73, 
shows a vessel that is used to catch ocean fish. 

In summer the ocean shore is cooler than the land far 
away from the sea. This is because the air is cooled as 
it passes over the water. Many people therefore go to 
the seashore to avoid the hot weather, just as others go 
to the mountains. Here they spend day after day climb- 
ing about over the rocks or walking upon the clean, 



Fig. 64. 

Old Orchard Beach on the New England coast. Notice the large number of 
summer visitors strolling over the cool, hard beach, or bathing in the 
shallow water. 

sandy beach, breathing the fresh air, enjoying the beauti- 
ful scenery, and bathing in the cool salt water (Fig. 64). 

On this account many houses, and even towns, have been built at 
those places along the seashore where people wish to spend their vaca- 
tions. There are large hotels to accommodate the visitors; and in 
the summer these places are crowded; but very few people remain at 
the summer resorts during the winter. 

There is another way in which the ocean is even more 
useful to man. It is the sea-water which supplies us 



THE OCEAN 



69 



with moisture, so that there can be rain. If it were not 
for the great ocean, very little rain would fall. So every 
one is deeply indebted to the ocean, even though he may 
live thousands of miles from it. Soon you will learn 
(p. 74) how its water reaches us in the form of rain. 

The seashore is a popular summer resort; the ocean 
water supplies food and inakes rain possible. 

Kivers, lakes, and the ocean present many beautiful views. You 
may have observed that in cities, where people plan for fine parks, 
they arrange, if possi- 
ble, to have a lake or 
stream as part of the 
scenery. A body of 
water, even if but a 
brook, greatly im- 
proves a view. 

A brook is a beau- 
tiful object (Fig. 65). 
How pleasant to see 
its green banks, to 
listen to its rippling 
waters, and to watch 
its tiny rapids, whirl- 
pools, and falls, as it 
travels onward to the 
ocean ! 

Elvers are not less attractive ; like the brooks, their rushing waters 
seem to tell a story, and one loves to linger by them, to listen and to 
look. At times, when swollen by floods, they are wild and savage ; 
again they are quiet, peaceful, and beautiful. They wind in and 
out among the steep and wooded hills ; now they flow along noise- 
lessly, then they rush over rapids and falls with a roar ; here their 
banks are low and green, there they are high, steep, and rocky. 

The lakes and the ocean are sparkling sheets of silvery water, often 
dotted here and ther-e with white sails. Sometimes the color is green, 
again it is blue; and when the clouds hang over it, it is dark and 




Fig. 65. 

A quaint New England bridge across a beautiful 
brook. 



70 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

gloomy. There ai'e beautiful sunrises and sunsets to watcli ; and 
one can see the storms come and go, with the waves dashing into 
the whitest of foam. In fact, the water, the sky, and the coast are 
always changing in appearance, so that the lake shore and the sea- 
shore are among the most attractive of places. 

• The land and the water together furnish many heau- 
tiful views. 

Review Questions. — (1) What place does the water of brooks 
and rivers finally reach ? (2) How m uch of the earth's surface is water ? 
(3) What other facts show that the ocean is very large ? (4) Tell 
about ocean navigation. (5) What is the cause for iri'egular ocean 
shores ? (6) Tell what you can about New York harbor. (7) Why 
are large cities found on the fine ocean harbors ? (8) Of what use 
are lighthouses? (9) Name some foods obtained from the ocean. 
(10) Why do many people go to the seashore in summer? 

(11) Do you know of any park or meadow with a stream or lake 
in it? If so, describe it. (12) Did you ever enjoy watching the 
water? Where was it? (13) How does the surface of a lake or 
ocean change at different times? 

Suggestions. — (1) In what direction would you go to reach the 
ocean? How far is it? (2) Find pictures of large harbors with 
ships in them. (3) Name several seaport cities. (4) Have some one 
tell you about a journey across the ocean. (5) Name as many arti- 
cles as you can that come from over the ocean. (6) How does the 
captain of a vessel know in what direction he is going, after losing- 
sight of land? (7) How are ships made to move through the water? 
(8) What use is made of whales? (9) Find out how fish are caught. 
(10) Ask some one who has visited a summer resort on the seashore 
to tell you about it. (11) Is there any brook or river that you enjoy 
visiting? Where is it most beautiful? (12) Tell about some of the 
storms on the ocean described in Robinson Crusoe. (13) Do you 
know of any views that are made more beautiful by the presence 
of water? If so, where are they? Describe them. (14) Collect, 
from magazines, pictures of beautiful views with water \\\ them. 
(15) Write a story, telling what you would expect to see in crossing 
the ocean. (16) Make a drawing of a ship. 

For Refekences, see page 109, 



VIII. THE AIR 

. Since air cannot be seen, people often forget tliat it 
really is something ; but a fire will not burn without it, 
and plants, animals, and men must have it to breathe. In 
fact, drowning means nothing more than sinking under 
water, where there is not enough air to breathe. 

This is proof that the air is really something, even 
though it cannot be seen ; and you can prove the same 
thing in other ways. For instance, if you stand with 
your face to a breeze, you feel the air moving. Some- 
times this movement of the air, which we call wind, is so 
rapid that it blows down trees and houses. 

Here is an experiment to prove that the air is something and that 
it fills space. 

Find an empty bottle without a cork and sink it in water with the 
open end up. Notice the gurgling noise as the bubbles of air rise to 
the surface, while the bottle slowly fills. Where does this air come 
from? And why does not the bottle fill more quickly? You see that 
although we called the bottle empty, it was really filled with air which 
could not be seen. The water could not enter the bottle until it pushed 
the air out, because the bottle could not be filled with two substances 
at the same time. So, as the air was leaving, the water was entering. 

If the bottle is turned bottom upward, and pushed perfectly straight 
into water, the air will be given no chance to slip out, and then the 
bottle cannot be filled with water. 

Air is something real and occupies space. 

There is air all around the earth, and it extends many 
miles above us. This air, often called the atmosphere, is 

71 



72 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



usually in motion, now in one direction, now in another, 
and it often moves fast enough to cause a breeze, or wind. 

Even when the wind is not blowing near the ground, it may be 
doing so far above, where the clouds are. Yon can see that this is 
so, if you watch the clouds as they are driven along by the winds. 

Let us see what causes the air to move. Heat has 
much to do with it. If you watch smoke in a room where 

there is a lighted 
lamp, you will see 
that it moves toward 
the lamp, and then 
rises above it (Fig. 
66). Hot air also 
rises above a stove, 
or above a furnace 
through the regis- 
ters; and during the 
winter, when there 
is a hot fire, the air 
near the ceiling of 
a room is much 
warmer than that 
near the floor. 
The reason for all this is, that when air is warmed, it 
is expanded and made lighter. Light objects, such as 
wood, will rise and float in water. So, also, when air is 
warmed and made light near a lamp, the cooler, heavy air 
all around flows toward the lamp and the warm air is 
forced to rise. It is, in fact, pushed up by the current of 
heavy, cool air. 

Now we can understand the cause of winds. The at- 




FiG. 66. 

Tbe smoke of a cigar rising from the table above 
the lighted lamp. 



THE AIR 



73 



mosphere in one place, perhaps to the north of you, is 
colder than that where you are. This cold air, being denser 
and heavier than the warm air, begins to push it away, 
and thus moves toward you, forming a cold north wind. 

People on the sea or lake shore often have such winds in summer, 
when, during a hot day, the air over the land becomes heated, while 
that over the water remains cool. The cool air then commences to 
move landward, and a cool sea breeze begins to blow. 

Whenever the air is heavy in one place, and light in 
another, winds will blow toward the place where it is 
light. Since this lightness of the air is usually caused by 
heat, we say that 

Most ivinds are caused hy differences in the tempera- 
ture of the air. 



Winds are useful in many ways 
vessels through 
the water, and 
they turn wind- 
mills (Fig. 68), 
which are often 
used to pump 
water from wells. 
But what is most 
important, they 
carry water all 
over the earth. 
At all times 
there is enough 
water in the at- 
mosphere to fill 
many large lakes. 



They drive sailing 




Fig. 67. 

A sailing vessel driven through the water by the 
wind. This is a fishing schooner going out of the 
harbor of Gloucester, Massachusetts, after a load 
of fish. 



74 



HOME GEOGEAPHY 




You know tliat there must be some water in the air, for 
wet clothes hung out on a line become dry as the water 
passes off into the air. 

Some of the water in the atmosphere enters 
it after every rainstorm, when the muddy 
roads and wet fields are drying ; but most of 
it comes from rivers, lakes, and the ocean. 
We have already learned (p. 63) that the 
ocean covers about three-fourths of the sur- 
face of the earth. The air is taking water 
from all parts of it, so that each minute 
enough water to fill thousands and thousands 
of barrels is leaving the ocean and fioating 
away in the atmosphere. 
Another reason why we know that there must be much 
water in the air, is that much comes out of it in the form 
of rain, snow, hail, dew, and frost. 

The air takes up water from one place and holds it, per- 
haps for many days, during which time the winds may 
have carried it hundreds of miles ; it may then be allowed 
to fall. Thus it is by the help of the wind that rocks are 
wet and caused to change to soil, plants are made to grow, 
rivers are furnished with water, and animals and people 
are given water to drink. 

Persons living where there is plenty of rain perhaps do 
not realize how important it is ; but there are some parts 
of the earth where the air is so dry that very little rain 
can fall from it. In these places, called deserts (Fig. 69), 
only a few kinds of plants and animals can live, while men 
generally avoid them. 

The air takes water from the ocean^ o^nd tfi.e winds 
carry it about. 



THE A IB 75 

Wliat causes water to rise into the air ? And wliy can 
we not see it there ? If you watch a boiling kettle, you 
will see that " steam " rises from it. In a short time all 
the water will be boiled out of the kettle, passing into the 
air, where you can no longer see it. 

The water in the kettle was a liquid, which could be seen; 
but heat has changed it to a gas, which, like air, is colorless 
and cannot be seen. Then, too, it is so light that it floats 





■^ ^'^. 





FiG. 69. 
Camels crossing the desert. Notice how harreu it is. 

round in the air. This water gas is called water vapor, and 
the change from liquid water to vapor is called evaporation. 

It is not necessary to boil water to make it evaporate ; 
for all over the earth, where there is water, vapor is rising 
from it into the air. You can prove this for yourself by 
placing a pan of water on a table and leaving it for some 
days, and then noticing how much of it has evaporated. 
It is in this way that the great amount of water, which 
every moment is rising from the ocean, is able to pass 
into the atmosphere. 

Wcuber vapor is obtained hy evaporation, 



76 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



When it falls from the sky as rain, the water vapor has 
changed back to liquid water. What causes it to do 
this? 

Have you ever noticed a glass or pitcher of ice water 
"sweat" on a hot summer day (Fig. 70)? The water 
that collects on the glass has not leaked through, for there 
are no holes in the glass. What has really happened is 
that the air near the dish has 
been cooled so that the vapor has 
collected in drops on the cold sur- 
face of the glass. Drops would 
gather there just the same, even if 
no water were in the glass, pro- 
vided the surface remained just as 
cold. 

On wash day, when a great 
deal of water vapor rises from the 
boiler, the windows are often cov- 
ered with drops of water, because 
the vapor has been changed back 
to liquid, or condensed, on the cold 
window pane. Your own breath 
contains vapor, and you can change 
it to water by breathing on a cold 
window pane. So you see that if 
air loaded with vapor is cooled, some of the vapor gas is 
changed back to water. 

There are several ways in which air may be cooled. 
You know that mountains are colder than the lower 
lands (p. 20) ; so that winds blowing over them are often 
chilled, and their vapor condensed. It is evident from 
this that mountains are an important help in causing rain. 




Fig. 70. 

Little drops of water con- 
densed from the vapor of 
the air on the outside of 
a glass of cold water. 



THE AIR 



77 



Vapor may also be condensed when a cold wind blows 
against a warm one. Again, during summer the sun may 
shine down so hot that the air near the earth becomes 
warm. This makes it so light that it often rises high into 
the sky, where the air is so cold that the vapor condenses 
into rain. The summer thunder showers, which often 
come on hot afternoons, are caused in this way. 

Vapor is condensed by the cooling of the aii\ 




Fig. 71. 
Clouds formed upon the mountain sides because the air has been chilled. 

There are several different forms of condensed vapor. 
When you breathe into the air on a cold, frosty morning, 
your breath forms a little fog or cloud. The cold air has 
made the vapor change to tiny particles of water, so small 
that you cannot see a single one, though many of them 
together make a thin mist. You have no doubt seen fogs 
in valleys, on lakes, or over the ocean. These are always 
made of tiny drops of water condensed from vapor in 
the air. 

Most clouds are also made of tiny fog and mist parti- 
cles. These, too, are caused by the cooling of the air, 



78 



BOME GEOGBAPHY 




Fig. 72. 

A summer cloud, often called a "thun- 
der head," formed by the rising of 
warm air to such a height that the 
vapor is condensed. 



sometimes when it moves against mountain slopes (Fig. 
71), sometimes when cold winds blow against warm ones, 
and sometimes when warm air rises high in the heavens 

and becomes cool (Fig. 
72). 

Another form of con- 
densed vapor is the rain- 
drop which falls from 
the clouds. These drops 
begin as tiny mist or 
fog particles, and then, 
becoming larger and 
larger, grow so heavy 
that they can no longer 
float, but must fall to the 
ground. 

We have seen that water may be either a liquid or a 
gas. There is still another form, the solid, which is pro- 
duced when vapor con- 
denses in a temperature 
below 32°, or the freezing 
point. Then snow or hail 
is formed instead of rain 
(Fig. 73). 

At night, drops of water 
often collect on the cold 
ground, on grass and 
leaves, somewhat as it does 
on an ice pitcher or the 
window pane. This is deiv, which gathers because the 
ground cools quickly after the sun sets, so that the warm, 
vapor-laden air is chilled until the vapor is condensed. 




Fig. 73. 

Photographs of snowflakes. Some- 
time, when light, feathery snow is 
falling, notice what beautiful forms 
it takes. 



THE AIR 



79 



If the temperature is below the freezing-point, frost is 
formed instead. 

You will notice that raindrops, fog particles, and snow- 
flakes form in the air, while dew gathers on grass and the 
drops of water on window panes. Really, the raindrops 
and fog particles also gather on solid substances ; for 
there are many tiny, solid particles of dust floating in the 
air, which you can often see dancing in a beam of sun- 
light, and it is around these that the rain, fog, and snow 
form. 

It is condensed vapor that forms fog, mist, rain, 
snow, hail, dew, and frost. 

Usually winds from certain directions, as from the 
ocean, are liable to bring rain, while others indicate fair 
weather. By keeping a daily record of the direction of 
the wind, and of the kind of weather it brings, you will 
be able to find out for yourself which of your winds 
cause fair weather and which rainy. You might also 
look at the thermometer at the same time and note the 
temperature. By these means you can learn something 
about the weather around your home. A record of this 
kind, which would be called a weather record^ might be 
kept somewhat as follows : ^ 



Date and Time of Day. 


Direction op Wind. 


Kind of Weathek. 


Temp. 


Aug. 17, 1899, 8 A.M. 
Aug. 17, 1899, 8 P.M. 
Aug. 18, 1899, 8 A.M. 


Southeast. 

Calm. 

West. 


Cloudy. 
Gentle Rain. 
Clear. 


70° 
72° 
68° 



1 If it is practicable, the teacher should at this point introduce an ele- 
mentary study of weather maps and have the pupils read them each day. 



80 HOMU GEOGRAPHY 

Review Questions. — (1) Of what use is air ? (2) How cau you 
pi'ove tliat air is something? (3) Describe the experiments with 
the bottle. (4) AVhat do they prove? (5) What are winds? 
(6) Prove that there are winds high above the ground. ' (7) AVhy 
does the air rise over a lighted lamp ? (8) What causes winds ? (9) In 
what ways are winds useful? (10) How can you prove that there 
is water in the air? (11) Where does most of it come from? 
(12) What do the winds do with this water? (13) Of what service 
is the rain ? (14) AVhat becomes of water as it boils ? (15) What is 
water vapor ? (16) What is evaporation ? 

(17) What happens to vapor when cooled? (18) Tell some 
ways in which you can see condensed vapor. (19) In what ways can 
the vapor in the air be condensed ? (20) Why can you " see your 
breath " on cold mornings ? (21) How are clouds formed? (22) How 
cold must it be to form snow? (23) How is dew caused? Frost? 
(24) Of what importance are the dust particles in the air? (25) Tell 
how you would keep a weather record. 

Suggestions. — (1) Why are stoves made so as to let in air for the 
fire ? (2) What becomes of the air after it enters ? (3) How does 
air reach the wick of a lamp ? (4) Try a common drinking glass, 
instead of a bottle, to show that air takes up space. (5) Heat some 
muddy water and watch its movement. (6) Why does smoke go up, 
and not down, the chimney? (7) Show how a hot stove causes a 
movement, or circulation, of the air in a room. (8) Find out how 
your schoolhouse is ventilated. (9) How many examples can you 
give of evaporation of water ? (10) Cool a piece of glass or iron and 
notice the vapor condense upon it, when the air is "muggy" or when 
steam is passing into the air. (11) Why do clouds frequently sur- 
round mountain tops ? (12) See how early in the evening the dew 
begins to collect upon the ground. (13) What causes fogs to dis- 
appear? (14) Which winds usually bring rain to you? (15) How 
far have they probably carried the vapor? How long would it take 
them to do this, if they travelled at the rate of eight miles per hour ? 
(16) Write a story, giving the history of a raindrop. 

For References, see page 109. 



IX. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 

Every man is expected to engage in some kind of 
work, or industry, in order to earn a living. For instance, 
farmers raise stock and grain, while gardeners produce 
vegetables and fruit. Tlie crops they raise vary with 
the locality. 

Some men, instead of working in the soil, are engaged 
in manufacturing such articles as shoes, cloth, and ma- 
terials used in building and furnishing houses. Are 
there any of these men in your vicinity ? If so, what do 
they make ? You can at least find a blacksmith shop, or 
a tin shop, or a house that is being built. Notice how 
many different materials are used by the workmen. 

Storekeepers do neither of these two kinds of work. 
What, then, do they do ? Notice how many articles the 
grocer keeps in his store, also the dry-goods merchant, 
and others whose stores you visit. Where do they get 
them all ? 

At the present time it is eas}^, where most of us live, to 
buy almost anything, and to find men who can do almost 
any kind of work. We are so accustomed to all this 
that we are apt to forget that it has not always been so. 

Not many hundred years ago there were no stores or 
houses in this country ; and each family, as it settled 
here, was obliged to find its own food, make its own 
clothing, and build its own house. 
G 81 



82 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



Let us study more fully how people lived in those days, 
and how changes have gradually been made until the 
present manner of living was reached. 

The first persons who left Europe, and crossed the 
Atlantic Ocean to live in this country, naturally settled 
along the coast, because that was the first place reached. 

But soon men began to pusK into the wilderness 
further west. Often several families settled together, 
miles away from other people. Sometimes a single 
family would go off alone, and make a home ten or 
twelve miles from the nearest neighbor. Most of the 
United States was first settled by these scattered pioneer 
families. 

Of course when a man started out he took some articles 
with him, as a gun, with powder and bullets, some cloth- 
ing, and some blankets ; but upon arriving at his new 

home he was obliged, 
like Robinson Crusoe, 
to rely upon himself. 

In 1816, when Abraham 
Lincoln was seven years of 
age, his father moved to 
Indiana. He had to cut 
down trees in order to make 
room for a house, which he 
built of logs with mud be- 
tween the cracks (Fig. 74). 
It had no floor except the 
earth, and only one room. Abraham slept in the loft, climbing up 
each night by pegs fastened in the logs. The beds were some posts 
driven into the ground with cross-pieces ; the chairs were three-legged 
stools, and the table was a part of a log supported upon four legs. 
■^Vhen a young boy, Abraham wore trousers of deerskin, and when 
he was not barefooted he probably used moccasins for shoes. 




Fig. 74. 

A log house, siich as the pioneers used to 
build in the forests. 



INDUSTRY AND COMMEBCE 83 

His father raised enough corn for corn bread ; their tea was often 
made from roots in the forest, and meat was obtained by shooting 
wild game. Abraham was very fond of books ; but at night he read 
by the light of burning wood, for he had no candle or lamp. He 
wrote with ink made from brier-root, and with a pen made from the 
quill of a large feather. Almost everything that the family used was 
raised or made by the father and mother, so that they had to do 
many kinds of work. 

Other pioneers lived in mucli the same manner. Usu- 
ally they raised their grain and wheat for bread. They 
kept sheep and made the wool into yarn, blankets, and 
cloth. If a boy needed a new suit of clothes, his mother 
would make the^ cloth, cut it, and sew it. They were 
obliged to do nearly everything for themselves. 

As a rule, each man raised more of some things than 
his own family could use, as wheat, wool, or hogs ; but 
there were others that he had to buy, as powder, sugar, 
salt, pepper, and coffee. 

It was the custom, therefore, to drive two or three times 
a year to the nearest large town, perhaps a hundred miles 
away, taking the products of the farm and exchanging 
them for necessary articles. 

These trips had to be few, for the roads were often 
rough, muddy, and dangerous. It might require two 
weeks or more to haul a load of grain to town and bring 
back the coffee and other materials the family wanted. 
In parts of the world, where there are few settlers, people 
are still living in this manner. 

But one family did not usually live long alone, for soon 
others came and settled near them. Perhaps several built 
their houses near together, forming a little village. 

Now that there Avere more people, the kind of work 



84 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

that each did began to change. Perhaps one of them 
built a saw-mill, and sawed lumber for the others when 
they needed it. Another spent part of his time at car- 
pentry work for his neighbors. A third built a grist-mill, 
and occasionally ground grain into flour. A fourth made 
shoes, or clothes, a part of his time, or he doctored the 
sick, or preached, or taught school. 

Perhaps the blacksmith spent all of his time in his shop, shoeing 
horses, making ploughs, etc., while the storekeeper did nothing but 
buy and sell goods. He went to the city and bought the supplies that 
he thought his neighbors would need, such as matches, boots, shovels, 
calico, and drugs, and these he kept in his store for sale. 

It was not then necessary for the farmer to go to the 
distant town, because he could usually find what he wanted 
at the store ; and if he raised more potatoes than he needed, 
he could take them to the storekeeper and get coifee in 
return. Or he would receive money for them, and with 
this pay the blacksmith who had shod his horses, or the 
doctor, or teacher. In many of the less settled parts of 
the country this is the way people are still living. 

Each year more people took up land, until most of it 
was carefully cultivated, and towns and cities grew up 
(Fig. 75). Then they began to live in the way that is 
now so common. That is, each man now confines himself 
to one or a very few kinds of work, and depends upon other 
men for the other things that he needs. Those who live 
in the country are chiefly farmers, and raise the food that 
we eat. Others work in mines, digging coal, iron, lead, 
copper, silver, or gold out of the ground. 

Many, instead of raising crops or working in mines, are 
employed in mills and factories. One saws logs into 
lumber, or makes doors ; another manufactures cloth. 



INDUSTBY AND COMMERCE 



85 



another needles, another shoes. Others follow the indus- 
try of tailoring, tanning hides for leather, making clocks, 
etc. 

Still others are engaged in a third kind of work. They 
do nothing but buy and sell such articles, and among these 
are all the merchants 
that we 



see m 



the 



stores. 




Under these conditions 
the work that one man 
does is not only of one 
kind, but it may be of a 
very narrow kind. For 
example, a man may do 
nothing but drive a team. 
Or he may make shingles, 
or drive nails, or tie tip 
sacks of flour, or put in 
the heads of barrels. How 
different this is from the 
■work of the pioneers ! 



As a rule, each 
town or city is spe- 
cially interested in 
one or a few kinds of 
business. For exam- 
ple, a town surrounded by extensive woods is liable to 
have an important lumbering industry. Another, in the 
midst of mountains, may make mining its especial work ; 
or another, near great wheat-fields, may have immense flour 
mills. 

Thus each town, like each man, is apt to be interested 
in the production of few things ; what they raise or man- 



FiG. 75. 

The city of Rochester, in New York, has grown 
up near these beautiful falls on the Gen- 
esee River. Some of the factories that use 
the water iDOwer are seen in the picture. 



86 



HOME GEOGBAPHY 



ufacture is sent away in all directions, and the other arti- 
cles, that the people in the town want, are brought to them 
from the many places in which they are produced. Find 
out what is made in your own town, and some of the 
substances that are brought to it. 

When people are so dependent upon others for most of 
the materials that they use, it is clear that roadways be- 
come of great importance. For if the best wheat for flour 
is raised in Dakota, if the best shoes and cloth are made 
in New England, and if the thousand other things that 
we must have are produced in a thousand other places, 
what good will they do us if they cannot be brought to us ? 
The pioneers had no roads at first. When Lincoln's 
father moved to Indiana, he settled fifteen miles north of 

the Ohio River. 
There was no 
road from his 
place, and one 
of the hardest 
pieces of work he 
ever did was to 
cut one through 
the dense for- 
ests. 

One of the 
early customs 
was to follow a 
trail, or narrow path, and, instead of using a wagon, to 
carry goods strapped upon one's own back, or else upon 
horses or mules. A number of horses carrying packs 
formed ?i pack train (Fig. 76). Pack trains are still com- 
mon in some places. 





1 




Ik 






^^^^* 




t/'-UKM^m'^ 


l^h^'^^^ffil 


K* 


m 




^M 


^1 


1 


K 


ia 


^^^ 


L£=iAas.-cfc-i>aji*!S^ 



Fig. Tfi. 

A pack train, on a mountain road, carrying supplies 
to a mine on the mountain side. 



INDUSTRY AND COMMEECE 



87 




Later, when roads were more common, they were often 
rough and muddy ; and as there were few bridges, streams 
often had to be waded ov forded. 

A great deal of labor has been spent in making good 
roads. Not only must trees be cut down and stumps and 
stones be re- 
moved, but 
steep places 
must often be 
levelled. 
Bridges are al- 
so necessary, 
and much work 
must be done 
to keep the 
roads in re- 
pair. In some 
places where 
there is much 

travel, as in eastern Massachusetts, great sums of money 
are spent in making excellent roads. 

There is so much carting in cities that their streets 
must be paved. Bricks are often used ; or stones larger 
than bricks are laid down side by side ; and in many 
cities, asphalt pavements are common. What kind of 
streets have you seen, and how were they built ? 

We have already (p. 50) considered the importance 
of rivers as roadways. When Abraham Lincoln was a 
young man, it was the custom to carry goods from his 
section of the country down the Ohio and Mississippi 
rivers, all the way to New Orleans. These rivers were, 
in fact, the only good roadways to that great city. The 



Fig. 77. 

A long freight train, on the Northern Pacific Railway, 
crossing the Rocky Mountains. There is another 
engine in the middle of the train and a third on the 
rear end. 



88 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

goods were shipped upon fiat-boats, and Lincoln himself 
made two such journeys. 

But railways are, in many respects, the best roads. 
Even with the finest of wagon roads, people and goods 
cannot usually be carried more than twenty to forty miles 
in a day. Boats are somewhat faster ; but railway trains 
travel from four hundred to a thousand miles per day, 
and they take both passengers and freight much more 
cheaply than they can be carried in wagons. 





1 


1 


|B 


P 




BHH 


i»iijj[ 


1 






i 


i 




1 


1 


^^s 


I 


Hill J 



Fig. 78. 
A view in a freight depot at St. Paul, Minnesota. 

As we ourselves travel on passenger trains, we are in- 
clined to think that the chief business of railways is to 
carry people ; but this is not generally the case. Their 
main business is to carry freight, such as grain, cattle, 
groceries, and machinery ; and by doing this they have 
had a great influence upon the development of the 
country. 

For example, a few years ago it would have done little 
good to raise sheep, wheat, and fruit in the far west, be- 
cause they could not be sent to the great cities to be sold ; 
but as soon as railways were built, these industries, and 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 



89 



many others, have become 
of great importance. 
There is therefore much 
more buying, selling, and 
carrying — that is, much 
more commerce — than be- 
fore the railways were 
built. 

Letters, newspapers, 
and express packages are 
now carried very rapidly 
on the trains. Formerly they were sent in stage coaches 
or on horseback ; but now many passenger trains have 
one or two cars used for these purposes alone. 




Fig. 79. 
A freight yard with many freight cars. 




Fig. 80. 
A view in New York harbor showing the vessels coming and going. 

It is clear that good roadways, Avhether made of soil, 
water, or iron, are a great help to trade. In fact, without 
them there could be very little commerce. The wagon 



90 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

roads in the country and city are of great value in carry- 
ing goods for short distances as, for instance, to the river 
wharf or the railway station. Then boats and trains are 
used to carry them further. 

Not only is there commerce on the land, but, as we have 
already seen (p. 63), thousands of vessels are engaged in 
carrying freight on the ocean. They are constantly pass- 
ing up and down the coast of the United States, going 
from one city to another (Fig. 80) with loads of cloth, 
iron, grain, lumber, and hundreds of other articles. 

Vessels are also going and coming at all times between 
the United States and foreign countries, bringing materials 
which we need and taking back some of our products. 
This is known us foreign commerce. 

Review Questions. — (1) What do merchants do? (2) Who are 
pioneers? (3) Describe the house in which Abraham Lincohi lived 
when a boy. (4) Mention some of the different kinds of work that 
his father and mother had to do. (5) Tell about the trips to the 
nearest large town. 

(6) How did the work of each man change when the people began 
to live in villages ? (7) Give some examples. (8) What would you 
expect to see in a general store ? (9) Make a list of articles that 
are manufactured. (10) Name several industries. (11) How has 
the work of each man changed as great numbers of them have settled 
together? (12) In what ways have men become dependent upon one 
another ? Give examples. 

(13) Show that roads are of great importance. (14) What kind 
of roads did the early pioneers have? (15) How did they cross the 
streams ? (16) Why must streets in cities be paved ? (17) In what 
respects are railways better than other roads ? (18) Tell how rail- 
ways have helped to develop our country. (19) What is meant by 
commerce? (20) By foreign commerce? 

Suggestions. — (1) Make a list of the crops grown in your neigh- 
borhood. How is the work done ? (2) Do the same for manufactured 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 91 

articles. (3) Have you read the life of Daniel Boone, the pioneer? 
(i) What were some of the things Robinson Crusoe had to do for him- 
self? (5) Write a story describing an early pioneer's journey to the 
nearest large town. (6) Read more about the boyhood of Abraham 
Lincoln. 

(7) Visit a general store in the country. (8) Visit a factory, a 
blacksmith shop, or a mill. Describe the visit. (9) Make a list of 
articles that you use which were probably brought from a distance on 
the railroad or on water. (10) Find out where some of them came 
from. (11) What is meant by a ford ? The last syllable in the name 
of a great many towns is ford, as Hartford, Stamford, and Rockford ; 
what does that suggest to you? (12) Visit a street where pavement 
is being laid. (13) Have improvements been made in any river near 
you? 

(14) What freight goods have you seen carried on the nearest rail- 
way? (15) Visit a freight house to see what is inside. (16) Find 
"out where the boxes, etc., come from. (17) Count the number of 
freight cars and of passenger cars that run over the railway during 
one day. (18) Name as many substances as you can that come from 
over the ocean. (19) Write a story giving the history of the mate- 
rial of your dress or coat. Of your shoes. (20) Find out some facts 
about bananas as, for instance, where they are grown and how they 
are brought to you. Do the same for coffee, tea, sugar, and other 
articles of food. 

For References, see page 110. 



X. GOVERNMENT 

Every boy and girl has heard men talk about voting^ 
and has noticed how interested they often become as 
election time approaches. 

But do you know what voting is for ? Do you know 
why the clay for voting is called election day ? Find out 
what you can about voting and election. 

Laws and officers are frequently mentioned when men 
are talking about election. Can you name some laws ; 
and do you know any officers ? You have certainly seen 
a policeman : what does he do ? You have heard of 
judges, and of the President : can you state anything 
about them ? Can you mention any other officers ? 

In our study of commerce we saw that it required a 
long time to reach our present way of living and carrying 
on trade. So it is with our government. At present we 
have many laws and officers, while long ago there were 
very few of each. Let us see why this is so. 

The farmer manages his farm nearly as he pleases. He 
puts up fences, sells his grain, or feeds it to stock, as seems 
to him best ; and when repairs are needed, he looks after 
them himself. The miller builds a large or small mill, 
uses old or new machinery, grinds much or little corn, and 
makes repairs, as he chooses. In each case, one man owns 
and uses the property. 

But there are some things that no one man owns and 
that all wish to use. This is true, for instance, of roads. 

92 



GOVBnNM:ENT 93 

All people drive or walk over them, yet they belong to no 
one person. Who, then, should build roads in the first 
place, and who should make necessary repairs on them ? 

This was one of the first questions that the pioneers of 
New England had to answer. The best way they saw of 
doing it, was for those who used the roads in a small 
section to meet together and decide, or vote^ as to what 
should be done. That is, they made rules or laws about 
the roads; then they elected men who should make it a 
part of their business to see that the roads were built, and 
that repairs were made, according to these laws. Such 
men were known as officers. 

Schools also are not owned by one person, and yet many wish to 
use them. Large yards, good buildings, and good teachers are all de- 
sirable ; but who should provide for them ? The pioneers of New 
England settled this matter also by voting and by electing officers to see 
that the schools were properly managed. 

Many other important matters were attended to in much the same 
manner. For example, there are usually some persons in every com- 
munity who are liable to take things that do not belong to them, or 
who are noisy and quarrelsome. The pioneers passed laws in regard 
to such offenders and elected officers, called constables, to arrest them 
when necessary. 

Thus far we have been considering only matters which 
could be settled by a small group of people living near 
together in a village or small town (Fig. 81). But there 
are some matters that cannot be settled in this manner, 
because other people, living far away, are also interested 
in them. 

For example, the managers of a railway company may 
charge too much for passengers and freight. In such 
cases laws may need to be passed, compelling them to 
charge reasonable rates. But as these railways are scores. 



94 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



or even hundreds, of miles long, tlie people of a single 
town could do very little witli them. In that case it 
would be necessary for those living perhaps hundreds of 
miles apart to unite in some way in order to make laws. 

Again, it is important that there be buildings in which blind people 
may be properly cared for, in which the deaf and dumb may be edu- 
cated, and insane people confined. There must also be strong prisons 
where criminals may be sent. But in any one town there are not 
many such persons, and it would prove very expensive to take proper 




Fig. 81. 

A small New England town, nestled in a valley among the hills, fields, and 
forests. Tell what you see in this picture. 

care of only a few. This is another reason why a number of people 
should unite to make laws on some matters. 

We have seen why there must be a town government, 
and now we see why there niust also be a state government ; 
for a state is nothing more than a large section of country 
in which all the people unite to make and enforce laws. 

All the men of a state cannot assemble at one point, 
from a distance of one or two hundred miles, in order to 
attend to such matters. Even if they could make the 
journey at the time appointed, there would be so many of 



GOVERNMENT 



95 



them that they could not hear one another speak, and 
little business could be carried on. 

For these reasons it is necessary for one man to be 
elected to rept^esent many others. Where there are a 
great number of people, he may represent many thou- 
sands. 

Suppose, for instance, that there are a million people living in a 
state and that one man is elected to represent every ten thousand ; 
there will then be one hundred such men chosen, and it will be their 
duty to meet together to make laws for the whole million. 

Such men, being chosen to represent the others, are 
often called representatives; and because they legislate 
(which means " make 
laws "), they are to- 
gether called the legis- 
lature. 

In order to meet to- 
gether, these men must 
assemble in a certain 
place, and that place is 
called the capital (cap- 
ital means head city) of 
the state. This is a city, 
often near the centre of 
the state, in which there is a fine building, called the state 
capital (Fig. 82), where the representatives hold their 
meetings. 

We saw that in the town the people not only made 
laws, but elected men to see that they were enforced. Such 
men are necessary for the state also. The leading officer, 
cliosen to enforce or execute the laws, is the governor, 
sometimes called the chief executive. 




Fig. 82. 

The state capitol of Indiana at Indian- 
apolis. 



96 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



In large cities (Fig. 83) there are so many people that they must 
also be governed by representatives, as the people of the whole state 
are governed. The men who make the laws are often called alder- 
men and councillors, and the 
highest officer, elected to 
execute the laws, is known 
as the mayor. The building 
in which these representa- 
tives meet, and in which 
the mayor has his office, is 
the City Hall. While a city 
is governed by its own offi- 
cers in some matters, it is 
still a part of a state, and 
elects representatives to the 
state legislature. 

In our country there 
are many states, and 
there are some matters 
that no one state can 
decide alone, because 
all the others are equal- 
ly interested in them. 
For instance, it would 
be a great hindrance 
to travel and trade if 
each state made its own 
money ; for then each 
one might have a dif- 
ferent kind, with coins 
of different names and weights. Every time a traveller 
passed from the state of New York to Pennsylvania, or 
Massachusetts, he might be obliged to take the time and 
trouble to exchange his money for a new kind. 




Fm. 83. 

A crowded street in the great city of New 
York. Notice the high buildings and busy- 
streets. Many officers are needed in such 
a city. Indeed, there are more police- 
men in New York City than there are 
men, women, and children in some towns. 



GOVERNMENT 



97 



Again, in case of war it "would be impossible to make much prog- 
ress if each state acted independently. Perhaps you can give some 
of the reasons why. Mail is another matter that concerns aU the 
states, and there are still others besides. Can you mention some ? 

So it is evident that we need a Uiiited States Govern- 
ment, as well as state, city, and town governments. The 
reason for calling it the United States Government is also 
plain ; for the states have really united in order to have 
one central government for some of their most important 
affairs. 

If the people of a single state cannot meet in a body 
to make laws, certainly those of the entire United States 
cannot do so. Representatives are 
elected and sent, from all the states 
of the Union, to one place where 
they consider the affairs of the 
whole nation. The place where 
they meet is the city of Washing- 
ton, and it is on that account the 
capital of the United States. Here 
is a magnificent capitol building 
(Fig. 85) in which the meetings 
are held ; and there are many other 
great government buildings be- 
sides. (See Fig. 85.) 

The representatives from all the 
forty-five states of the Union form 
what is known as Congress. This corresponds to the legis- 
lature of the states, the congressmen making laws for the 
nation, as the legislators do for the state. The members 
of Congress are called senators and rejjresentatives. The 
executive officer of the United States, corresponding to 




Fig. 84. 

A picture of George Wash- 
ington, after whom the 
capital is named. Find out 
what you can about him. 



98 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

the mayor of a city and the governor of a state, is called 
the President. He lives in Washington, and his residence 
is called the Executive Mansion, or the White House, 
since it is painted white (Fig. 85). 

- Besides these officers who are elected by the people, 
there are a great many others appointed by the President 
to carry on the government work. Many live in Wash- 
ington, but some, as postmasters, live in other places. 

We have seen how the people in small towns arrange 
for their home government, and how, uniting with those 
in other towns, they elect some men to represent them at 
the state capital and others to represent them at the 
national capital. These representatives are elected by 
means of votes that are cast for them. 

Because the people make their own laws, our govern- 
ment is called a democracy/. The first part of this word 
means "people," and the last part "government," so that 
the whole word means "government by the people." Be- 
cause the people do not make all the laws themselves, but 
allow their representatives to make them, it is often called 
a representative government or a republic. 

It is often said that our form of government makes us 
free and equal. People are by no means so free and equal 
in all countries. Under some governments, in Europe 
and Asia, the people have very little to say about the laws 
that shall govern them. Nor do the laws protect them 
all equally, for the high officers say freely what they think, 
while others do not dare to do this. They must obey 
their rulers blindly, just as little children are expected to 
obey their parents. 

Such a government cannot be called a democracy or a 
republic; it is indeed a despotism, ov an absolute monarcJiy. 




^4 -1-' 

7.^ 



|2i ^ 



M=il 






100 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

This means that the ruler is a despot, or a monarch, hav- 
ing complete or absolute power to do what he chooses. 
For instance, he puts men to death without any trial, a 
thing that the laws of our country do not allow. China 
and Turkey are examples of this kind of government. 

There are other nations in which the peoj)le have more 
freedom than this, but not so much as we have. They 
are allowed freedom to do some things which they wish, 
while in other matters they are compelled to obey, with- 
out even asking any questions. Spain has a govern- 
ment of this kind. Since the people have some rights by 
which the monarch's power is checked or limited, this 
government is called a limited monarchy. Some limited 
monarchies, however, like England, allow a very con- 
siderable freedom. 

Review Questions. — (1) Name a few things that no one person 
owns and that all wish to use. (2) How did the pioneers arrange 
for roads? (3) Why was a constable necessary? (4) What are 
laws ? (5) Why must a great many towns and villages unite in order 
to make laws? (6) Name some of the objects for which they must 
unite. (7) What is a state? (8) How are laws made in states? 

(9) Why are the men that are elected called representatives? 

(10) What is a legislature? (11) Where does it meet? In what 
building? (12) Where does the governor live? (13) Why must 
large cities also be governed by representatives ? (14) Name some 
of the city officers. Where do they meet? 

(15) Why should not each state make its own money? (16) Why 
are these states called the United States? (17) Where do the repre- 
sentatives of the United States meet? In what building? (IS) What 
is Congress? (19) What is the White House? (20) What does the 
word democracy mean ? (21) Why is this government called a repub- 
lic ? (22) How are people in many other countries less free and equal 
than we are? (23) What is a despotism? An absolute monarchy? 
Give examples. (24) What is a limited monarchy? Give an example. 



GOVERNMENT 101 

Suggestions. — (1) What persons repair the roads or streets where 
you live ? (2) How are they chosen ? (3) What officers look after 
the schools ? (4) How is your constable or policeman uniformed ? 
(5) Attend a trial to see how it is conducted. (6) What are taxes? 
(7) In what state do you live? (8) What is the name of your state 
capital ? (9) How far is it from your home, and in what du'ection ? 
(10) Who is the governor of your state? (11) If you live in a city, 
who is the mayor? Where is the City Hall? (12) Ask some friend 
who has travelled in foreign countries if he had much trouble with 
the different kinds of money. (13) What does U. S. stand for? 
(14) In what direction is the city of Washington from you, and how 
far is it ? (15) Who is living in the White House now ? (16) Where 
are the nearest polls for voting ? (17) Have some one show you how 
he votes. (18) What is meant by the statement that a " majority 
rules " ? 

For References, see page 110. 



XI. MAPS 




Fig. 86. 

Picture of a schoolroom which is 32 feet long 
and 32 feet wide. 



We often wish, to represent a country upon a map so as 
to tell, at a glance, its shape, and where the mountains, 

rivers, and cities are 
located. Such a draw- 
ing can be made of any 
place, no matter " how 
large or small it is. 

Suppose we desired 
to draw only a school- 
room (Fig. 86), which 
is perhaps 32 feet long 
and 32 feet wide. It 
would not be easy to 
find a piece of paper 
so large as that, and it would not be necessary to do so. 
A small piece would do, because 1 inch upon it could be 
allowed to represent several feet in the room. 

In this case let an inch stand for 16 feet. Since the room is 32 
feet on each side, and there are two 16s in 32, the drawing will be 
just two inches long and two wide. To place the desks and aisles 
properly, we will need to use a ruler divided into sixteenths, for one 
foot in the room represents y^ of an inch on the ruler. 

The ends and sides are marked (Fig. 87) north, east, south, and 
west. The teacher's desk is 3^ feet in front of the north wall. There 
is a row of desks about 4 feet from the west wall. The desks are 
just 2 feet long, with eight in a row 1^ feet apart. There are seven 
rows ; and the aisles between them are each li feet wide. Here is a 

102 



MAPS 



103 



map of the schooh'oom 
(Fig. 87). Measure 
each part to see if it has 
been drawn correctly, 
using a foot rule that 
shows the sixteenths 
of inches. How large is 
the desk ? The piano ? 

When a person 
draws in this way, 
letting a certain 
distance on the 
paper represent a 
much greater ons, 
he is said to use a 
scale^ or to make a 
map according to a 
scale. In the school- 
room just described (Fig. 87), the scale is 1 inch to 16 feet. 

In the next drawing, that of the school yard (Fig. 88), 
the scale must be much larger, because the yard is so 



-C "^. 



L^ LU LZI LU LZI [^ LZI 
[^ l:^ CJ ^] LH ^1 [ZD 
CZl □ □ □ □ □ □ 

□□□□□□□ 

^2 L3 \^ en n^ \zj cj 

CJ ^1 □ □ □ [ZJ LJ 
CZI □ □ □ EU CJ CZI 
CJ □ □ ^1 □ □ □ 



1 ' 1 


SOUTH 

1 1 1 1 1 1 


1 1 


1 


2 


i e 


8 10 


12 1-1 


10 


ECALE OF FEET: 


1 INCH. 


= 16 FEET 


OR 


XjOF AN 


INCH = 


1 FOOT 





Fig. 87. 
A map of the schoolroom shown in Figure 86. 




Fig. 88. 
Picture of a school yard. Figure 89 shows a map of this. 



104 



HOME GEOGRAPHY 



much larger than the room. Here one inch represents 
140 feet. According to that scale, find out how large 
the yard and the school building are (Fig. 89). Find 
how far the trees are from each other, from the nearest 
fence, and from the building. 

Can you not make a map of your own schoolroom? What scale 
will you use? Put in your own desk, but omit the others, if you 
wish. 

You might also draw a map of your school yard. If you prefer to 
do so, find its size by stepping or pacing it off, making each of your 

steps about two 
feet long. Meas- 
ure the building 
in the same way. 
After having fin- 
ished these two 
maps, draw a 
third one, includ- 
ing in it not only 
the school yard, 
but also a few 
of the neighbor- 
ing streets and 
houses. The scale 
for this might per- 
haps be 1 inch for 
every 500 steps. 

All maps are drawn to a scale in this way, whether they represent 
a school yard, a state, the United States, or even something still larger. 
Opposite page 140 you will find a map of North America. On what 
scale is it drawn ? Look at some other maps to find out the scale. 

Maps are used a great deal to show the direction of one 
place from another. But a person must first understand 
what is meant by north, south, east, and west. Probably 
you already know that. 



r^ 




SckiialJfmn 








Slept 












» ■ 




rra 











35 



70 



105 140 



Scale in feet : 1 inch equals in 140 feet. 

Fig. 89. 
A map of the school yard shown in the picture, Fig. 



MAPS 



105 




One of the easiest ways to find the direction is by a 
compass (Fig. 90). This is simply a piece of steel, called 
a needle, that swings about easily and always points to 
the north. It is magnetized, like the horseshoe magnets 
that you have seen, and it points north- 
ward, because something draws it in that 
direction ; but no one knows certainly 
what this " something " is. 

When the stars are shining, one can 
tell which direction is north by the help 
of the Great Dipper. The two stars on 
the edge of the Dipper point toward the 
North Star. It is so bright that it can 
be easily picked out, and it is always to 
the north of us. 

One can also find direction by the help 
of the sun ; for, as you know, it rises in 
the east and sets in the west. Accord- 
ingly, when one faces the rising sun, his 
right side is to the south aiid his left to 
the north. Which direction is on his right and left when 
he faces the west ? The south ? The north ? 

Northeast means half way between north and east. Southeast 
means half way between south and east. What, then, do northwest 
and southwest mean ? 

Point north, east, west, south, southwest, northeast, northwest. 
Walk a few feet in each direction. What direction is your desk 
from that of your teacher ? From the desks of your friends ? From 
the door? What direction is your home from the schoolhouse ? From 
other houses ? In what directions do some of the streets extend ? 



Fig. 90. 

compass. The 
letter N means 
north. What do 
the other letters 
stand for ? Notice 
that the needle 
is pointing north 
and south. 



Now let US tell directions on the map. Lay your draw- 
ing of the schoolroom upon your desk, so that the line 



106 HOME GEOGRAPHY 

representing the north side of the room is toward the 
north. Also place yourself so that you are facing di- 
rectly north as you look at the map. If your desk faces 
the wrong way for this, turn round, or put your map 
upon the floor. Now, north on the map is also north in 
the room, and the other directions on the map correspond 
with those in the room. In which direction, on the map, 
is the door from your desk? From the teacher's desk? 
Place your map of the school yard in the same position 
and give the directions. 

You see that the north side of this map is the side fur- 
thest from you; the east side is on your right, the south 
next to you, and the west is on your left. When a map 
is lying before us, we usually look at it from this position. 

But it is not always convenient to have a map lying 
down, especially in the schoolroom, where it must be hung 
up so that the whole class may see it. 

Let us hang up one of these maps and take particular 
pains to put it upon the north wall. Which direction on 
the map is north now? It is evident that north must be 
wp, while east is on the right, south is doivn, and west is on 
the left. It could not be otherwise. These are always the 
directions on a map when it is hanging, and you should 
drill yourself so that you will never forget it. 

Give the directions of objects from one another while the map is 
hanging up. Put up the map of the school yard, and any others that 
you have, and tell the directions from one place to another.^ 

1 After the children are quite at home in using the map when it is 
hung on the north wall, hang it on other sides of the room and have them 
give the directions. This is easy work if properly graded ; but the fact 
that many children studying geography are confused in regard to direc- 
tions on the map suggests that caution be exercised. 




Fig. 91. 

To show what maps mean. The left-hand figures show the country as if you were 
looking down upon it; the right-hand figures represent the same country on 
maps. Tell wliat you see in each of these. 



MAPS 107 

It is clear now what a map is. It is a drawing telling 
something about a country, just as a letter may be some 
writing telling something about a friend. When you 
read such a letter, you think about your friend, how he 
looks, what he has been doing, etc. So when you look at 
a map, you should think about the country, how it looks, 
how far apart the places are, etc. 

There is more than one kind of map. On page 138 there 
is a picture of North America. It shows how that conti- 
nent might appear if you looked down upon it from some 
point far above. A picture like this, showing the moun- 
tains and valleys, is called a relief map. That is, it gives 
you some idea of the relief or height of the land.^ 

The maps that you have been drawing do not show this. 
They are flat maps, representing the country as if it were 
a flat surface. Opposite page 140 you will find a flat 
map of North America. Compare it with the relief map 
on page 138 to see the difference. 

In Figure 91 you will see the way in which flat maps are 
made to represent the land and water. No attempt is 
made on the flat maps to show just what the country 
looks like, that is, to represent its relief. They represent 
the position and direction of towns, rivers, lakes, etc., just 
as if the country were perfectly flat. 

For Keferences, see page 110. 

1 If it seems desirable, the teacher may introduce the study of contour 
maps at this point. The children could draw a contour map of their own 
neighborhood, and then possibly make a relief map from it by cutting out 
pieces of pasteboard that correspond to the spaces between the lines. 
Relifif maps may also be constructed by modelling in sand. 



REFERENCES TO DESCRIPTIONS, IN PROSE AND POETRY, 
OF TOPICS TREATED IN HOME GEOGRAPHY. FOR 
TEACHER AND PUPIL 



McM. means The Macmillan Co., New York; Ginn, Ginn & Co., Boston, 
Mass. ; A. B. C, The American Book Co., New York ; S. B. C, Silver, Burdett 
& Co., New York; Heath, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass. 



Section I. The Soil. — King, "The Soil" (McM., $0.75); Tarr, 
"Elementary Geology," Chapters VI, XI, and pp. 4:75-487 (McM., 
11.40); Shaler, "First Book in Geology," pp. 24r-29 (Heath, $0.60). 
Also other geologies. Nature Study Quarterly, No. 2, October, 1899 
(Cornell University, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N.Y. Free on 
application) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady Why," Chapter IV, 
" The Transformation of a Grain of Soil " (McM., $1.00) ; Wilson, 
" Nature Study in Elementary Schools. Teacher's Manual," p. 177 
(McM., $0.90) ; Frye, "Brooks and Brook Basins," section on "How 
Soil is made and carried" (Ginn, $0.58); Strong, "All the Year 
Round," Part II, sections 7 and 8 (Ginn, $0.30). 

Section II. Hills. — Whittier, "Among the Hills" (poem); Whit- 
tier, " The Hilltop " (poem) ; Hutchinson, " The Story of the Hills " 
(McM., $1.50). 

Section III. Mountains. — Lubbock, "The Beauties of Nature," 
Chapters V and VI (the former on forests) (McM., $1.50) ; Jordan, 
"Science Sketches," section on "The Ascent of the Matterhorn" 
(A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, $1.50) ; Whymper, " Chamonix and 
Mont Blanc" (Scribner, New York, $1.20); Whymper, "Travels 
amongst the Great Andes" (Scribner, New York, $2.50); Tarr, "Ele- 
mentary Geology," Chapter XVII (McM., $1.40) ; Tarr, " Elementary 
Physical Geography," Chapter XIX (McM., $1.40); Shaler, "First 
Book in Geology," Chapter V (Heath, $0.60) ; Kingsley, "Madam How 
and Lady Why," Chapter V, " The Ice Plough " (McM., $1.00). 

108 



BEFERENCES 109 

Sections IV and V. Valleys and Rivers. — Tarr, "Elementary 
Geology," Chapters Vl-X ; " Elementary Physical Geography," Chap- 
ters XV and XVI (each, McM., $1.40); Shaler, "First Book in 
Geology," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.60) ; Payne, " Geographical ISTature 
Studies," sections on " Valleys," " Plants of the Valleys," and " Animals 
of the Valleys" (A. B. C, 10.25); Kingsley, "Madam How and Lady 
Why," Chapter J, "The Glen" (McM., |i.OO); Frye, "Brooks and 
Brook Basins" (Ginn, $0.58); Lubbock, "The Beauties of Nature," 
Chapters VII and VIII (McM., $1.50). Poems : " The Brook," Ten- 
nyson ; " The River," Samuel G. Goodrich ; " The Mad River," Long- 
fellow ; " The Falls of Ladore," Southey ; " The Brook and the Wave," 
Longfellow; "A Water Song," E. G. W. Rowe ; "The Endless Story," 
A. K. Eggieston ; " The Impatient River," E. G. W. Rowe ; the last 
three in Payne, "Geographical Nature Studies" (A. B. C, $0.25). 

Section VI. Ponds and Lakes. — Shaler, "First Book in Geology," 
pp. 125-129 (Heath, $0.60) ; Tarr, "Elementary Geology," pp. 188-193, 
and "Elementary Physical Geography," pp. 298-304 (each, McM., 
$1.40) ; Lubbock, " The Beauties of Nature," Chapter VIII (McM., 
$1.50) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies," section on " Pools, 
Ponds, and Lakes " (A. B. C, $0.2.5) ; " The Lakeside," poem, by 
, Whittier. 

Section VII. The Ocean. — Shaler, " Sea and Land" (Scribner, New 
York, $2.50); Tarr, "First Book of Physical Geography," Part III 
(McM., $1.10) ; Lubbock, " The Beauties of Nature," Chapter IX 
(McM., $1.50); Andrews, "Stories Mother Nature Told Her Chil- 
dren," section on " Sea Life " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Holland, " The Sea 
Voyage," in " Arthur Bonnicastle " ; Dickens, " David Copperfield," 
Chapter V; "Robinson Crusoe," Chapter III; Taylor, "The Waves," 
"Wind and Sea," in "Nature Pictures by American Poets" (McM., 
$1.25) ; Coleridge, " The Ancient Mariner." 

Section VIII. The Air. — Tarr, "First Book of Physical Geog- 
raphy," Part II (McM., $1.10); "A Summer Shower," "Cornell 
Nature Study Bulletin," No. 1, June, 1899 (free on application to 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.) ; Murche, " Science Reader," Book 
III, sections on " Air," " Vapor in the Air," " Vapor : What becomes 
of It?" "What the Atmosphere Is," "Ice, Hail, and Snow " (McM., 
$0.40); Frye, "Brooks and Brook Basins," sections on "Forms of 
Water " and " The Atmosphere in Motion " (Ginn, $0.58) ; Strong, 



110 SOME GEOGRAPHY 

" All the Year Round," Part IT, sections 33-39 (Ginn, $0.30) ; Andrews, 
" Stories Mother JSTature Told Her Children," section on " The Frost 
Giants" (Ginn, $0.50); Payne, "Geographical JSTature Studies," 
many excellent stories and poems (A. B. C, $0.25); "Nature Pic- 
tures by American Poets " : " Summer Shower," Dickinson ; " Rain," 
De Land; "Song of the Snowflakes," Cheney; "Cloudland," Cheney 
(McM., 11.25) ; Wilson, " Nature Study in Elementary Schools," Sec- 
ond Reader, the following poems : " The Rain Shower," " The Wind 
Song," " The Bag of Winds," " The Sunbeams," " Snowflakes," " Signs 
of Rain," "The Rainbow" (McM., $0.35); Lovejoy, "Nature in 
Verse," the following jDoems : "Merry Rain," "The Clouds," "The 
Dew," "The Fog," "The Rain," "The Snow," "The Frost," "Jack 
Frost," " Little Snowflakes " (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Shelley, " The Cloud " ; 
Whittier, " The Frost Spirit " ; Bryant, " The Hurricane " ; W^hittier, 
"Snowbound"; Irving, "The Thunderstorm" (prose). 

Section IX. Industry and Commerce. — Payne, " Geographical Nature 
Studies," sections on "Occupations," "Trade or Commerce," "Trans- 
portation by Land," " Transportation by Water " (A. B. C, $0.25) ; 
Andrews, " The Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children," section on 
" The Carrying Trade " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Whittier, " Songs of Labor." 

Section X. The Government. — Brooks, " Century Book for Young 
Americans" (Century Co., New York, $1.50); Brooks, "The Story of 
the United States " (The Lothrop Publishing Co., Boston, $1.50) ; Wil- 
son, " Nature Study in Elementary Schools," Second Reader, section on 
" Boyhood of Lincoln " (McM., $0.35) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature 
Studies," section on "Government" (A. B. C, $0.25). 

Section XI. Maps. — Excellent outline maps of states and conti- 
nents, costing IJ to 2 cents each, can be purchased from D. C. Heath 
& Co., Boston, Rand, McNally, & Co., Chicago, and other publishers. 
Maltby, " Map Modeling " (E. L. Kellogg & Co., New Yoi-k, $1.00) ; 
Kellogg, " Geography by ]\Iap Drawing " (same publishers, $0.30) ; 
Redway, " The Reproduction of Geographical Forms " ($0.30) and 
" Teacher's Manual of Geography " ($0.65) (both by Heath) ; Frye, 
"The Child and Nature" (Ginn, $0.80); Frye, "Sand and Clay 
Modeling" (Butler, Sheldon & Co., New York, $0.10); Frye, " Teacher's 
Manual of JNIethods in Geography " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Kellogg, " How to 
Teach Clay Modeling " (E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York, $0.25); King, 
" The Picturesque Geographical Readers," First Book, Lesson XUI 
(Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.50). 



Part II 
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



o>««c 



I. FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH i 

Its Form. — Hundreds of years ago, before America 
was discovered, men thought the earth was flat. They 
travelled so little that they had no idea of its form or of 
its size. 

A few men who had studied the matter believed that 
the earth was a round ball, and that if one travelled 
straight on in any direction, he would in time return to 
the place from which he started. You can understand 
this by pushing your finger around on the outside of an 
orange, until it comes back to the starting-point. 

Christopher Columbus believed this, and went to Spain, hoping to 
obtain money to secure ships for a long voyage to prove it. 

Men were at that time in the habit of going to a land, called India, 
for spices, silks, and jewels. To reach India from Spain they travelled 
thousands of miles eastward; but Columbus said that if the earth 
were round, like a ball, India might be reached by going loestward 
across the ocean, and the distance would be much less. He therefore 
asked the king of Spain for ships and men to make such a journey. 

The king refused the request, because the idea seemed ridiculous; 
but the queen came to his aid, and, at last, on August 3, 1492, he 

1 The use of a globe in this study is very important. Small globes 
may be obtained from dealers in school supplies at a very slight cost. 

Ill 



112 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



sailed westward on a voyage from which many thought he would 
never return ; but, after a journey of several weeks, land was reached 
on October 12th. 

Thinking he had reached India, he called the natives Indians ; but 
instead of that he had discovered Cuba and other islands near the 
coast of North America ; a continent and large ocean still lay between 
him and India. These newly discovered lands became known as the 
New World, to distinguish them from the Old World, where all white 
men then lived. 



\ ..^^m% 








■i^fc;-.-*. -iiS^i;'"" 


-.«r;r-,.-*^ **c^_ -,_ -_ : _ ^^^^Ji 



Fig. 92. 

Columbus landing in America and taking possession of it in the name of the 

king of Spain. 

After Columbus returned in safety, other men dared to 
explore the New World. One of them, named Magellan, 
started to sail round the earth ; and though he was killed 
when he had reached the Philippine islands, his ships 
went on and completed the journey. Since then many 
people have made the voyage in various directions, and 
the earth has been studied so carefully that every one 
now knows it is round. 

The great, round earth is also called the ^lohe or sphere. 



FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 



113 



NORTH POLS 




The reason that it does not seem round to us, is that we 
see so little of it at a time. 

If you see very little of an orange, it will not look round either. 
To prove this, place upon an orange a piece of paper with a small hole in 
it, so that none of the surface is seen 
excepting that which shows through 
the hole. This part does not appear 
round, but flat. 

If we could get far enough 

away from the earth to see a 

large part of it at once, as we 

are when looking at an orange, 

or at the moon, we would easily 

be able to observe its roundness 

(Fig. 93). 
Size of the Earth. — Our 

sphere is so large that even the 

highest mountains, when compared to the whole earth, 
are no larger than a speck of dust 
when compared to an apple. Lofty 
mountains are rarely more than three 
or four miles high ; but the diameter 
of the earth, or the distance from one 
side to the other, through the centre 
of the earth, is nearly eight thousand 
miles. 

The circumference of the earth, or the dis- 
tance around the outside of it, is about twenty- 
five thousand miles. This is a little more than 
three times the diameter, and you will find 
that the circumference of any sphere is always 
a little more than three times its diameter. 
Prove this with an orange. 



SOUTH POLK 



Fig. 93. 
The sphere. 




Fig. 94. 

Figure of the earth 
cut in two, to show 
the diameter, the 
line passing through 
the centre (c). 



114 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Keview Questions. — (1) What did people formerly know about 
the shape of the earth? (2) What is its form? (3) Tell the story 
of Columbus. (4) Why did he call the savages Indians? (5) Why 
was the land he discovered called the New World? (6) Tell about 
Magellan's voyage. (7) Explain why the earth does not appear to 
us to be a sphere. (8) What is the diameter of the earth? The cir- 
cumference ? (9) The latter is how many times the former ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Read something about the life of Columbus. 
(2) Read about Magellan. (3) Find the names of some other early 
explorers and read about then}. (4) Trace Columbus's journey on a 
globe to see where he actually went. Find India in order to See 
where he thought he had gone, and notice how one can go to India 
by travelling eastward as well as westward. (5). Make a sphere in 
clay. Measure its diameter with a needle. (6) How many proofs 
can you find that the earth is round? Find out how we know that 
it is like a ball and not like a cylinder. (7) Write a story about 
Columbus. (8) Trace on a globe the route followed by our soldiers 
who went to the Philippines. Of Admiral Dewey when he returned 
by way of the Mediterranean. How many days are required for such 
a journey? (9) Obtain a telescope or an opera glass and look through 
it at the moon. 

For References, see page 257. 



11. DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH, AND ITS 
RESULTS 




The Axis and Poles. — The earth seems to us to be 
motionless, while the sun appears to move round it each 
day, rising in the east and setting in 
the west. But in reality neither of 
these things happens. 

Instead of being without motion, 
the earth is whirling round with 
tremendous speed. You have per- 
haps watched a wheel spin about 
upon a rod or pin, and have noticed 
that the outside goes rapidly, while 
the part near the pin moves much 
more slowly. It is the same with 
the earth; and just as we speak of 
the wheel turning upon a pin, so we 
speak of the earth turning upon its 
axis. 

But the axis of a wheel is something real, while the axis 
of the earth is merely a line that we think of as reaching 
through the earth's centre and extending to the surface 
in both directions. 

The two ends of this axis are called the poles of the earth, 
one end being the north pole, the other the soiitJi pole. 

Allowing an apple to represent the earth, a knitting needle or a 
stick pushed through its centre would represent its axis, and the two 

115 



Fig. 95. 

A drawing of the earth 
cut through to show 
the axis and poles. 



116 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



North Pole 



ends on the surface, the two poles. You can then spin the apple, 
very much as the earth spins (Fig. 97). 

If you were to go directly north from the place where you live, you 
would in time come to the north pole ; or, if far enough south, to the 
south pole. Many men have tried to cross the icy seas (Fig. 100) that 
surround the north pole. If one ever reaches that point, he will not 
find a pole ; but the north star, toward which the axis points, will be 
almost directly overhead. 

The Equator. — Midway between these poles, we think 
of another line drawn around the earth on the outside. 

This is called the equator, be- 
cause all parts of it are equally 
distant from each of the poles. 
On page 113 the distance 
around the earth was given ; 
what, then, is the length of the 
equator ? 

As the earth spins on its axis, all 
points on the surface must go with 
it, as every part of the skin of an 
apple turns with it. Since the earth 
makes one complete turn each day, a 
man at the equator travels twenty- 
five thousand miles every twenty-four 
hours. What a whii'ling motion that 
is! It is at the rate of over one thousand miles an hour, while the 
fastest trains run little more than sixty miles an hour. 

Why do not places considerably north or south of the equator move 
as rapidly as those at the equator ? 




Fig. 96. 

That half of the sphere contain- 
ing the New World, to show 
the position of the poles and 
the equator. 



Gravity. — What, then, is to hinder our flying away 
from the earth, just as, when a stone is whirled about on 
a string, it flies away the moment the string breaks ? And 
why is not all the water hurled from the ocean? 



DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 117 

The reason is that the earth draws everything toward 
it. If you push a book from your desk, it falls to the 
floor; and when you spring into the air, you quickly 
return to the ground. All objects are drawn doivnward, 
because the earth is pulling upon them. It attracts them 
much as a horseshoe magnet attracts pieces of iron. 

The force with which the earth draws all objects toward 
it is called gravity ; and it is because of gravity that the 
water, trees, houses, and we ourselves, do not fly off when 
the earth is turning at such a tremendous speed. 

Sunrise and Sunset. — The sun seem% to rise in the east 
and set in the west. This could not be the case if the 
earth did not turn or rotate toward the east ; for all 
heavenly bodies must first appear in the direction toward 
which the earth turns. This eastward rotation of the 
earth, therefore, explains why the sun seems to rise and 
set as it does. 

Hundreds of years ago people thought that the sun actually rose, 
and, after moving across the heavens, set m the west. We still use 
the words " sunrise " and " sunset " which they used, although we 
know that the sun appears to rise only because the earth rotates. 

Day and Night. — It is this rotation that causes day 
and night. A lamp can light only one-half of a ball at 
a time, as you know. So the sun can light only half of 
the great earth ball at one time. That being the case, if 
our globe stood perfectly still, there would always be day 
on the half next to the sun, and night on the other half. 

But since the earth rotates, the place where it is day 
is constantly changing ; and while -the sun is setting for 
people far to the east of us, it is rising for those far to 
the west. When it is noon where you live, it is midnight 
on the other side of the earth. Thus each place has its 



118 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

period of daylight and darkness ; and as the earth makes 
one complete rotation every twenty-four hours, the day 
and night together must last just that length of time. 




Fig. 97. 

An apple lighted by a candle on one side, to illustrate the cause of day 

and night. 

Review Questions. — (1) What motion has the earth ? (2) What 
is the axis of the earth ? (3) The north pole ? The south pole ? 
(4) Represent the axis and poles by using an apple. (5) Walk toward 
the north pole. Toward the south pole. (6) What is the equator? 
(7) How long does it require for the earth to turn completely around 
once? (8) What rate of travel is that, for a point upon the equator? 
(9) Why are we not thrown away from the earth? (10) Give sev- 
eral examples showing what is meant by gravity. (11) In what 
direction is the earth rotating ? (12) How does that explain sunrise 
and sunset? (13) What causes night? (14) What would be the 
result if the earth did not rotate? (15) When it is noon here, what 
time is it on the other side of the earth? (16) How long must the 
day and night together last ? Why ? 



DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 119 

Suggestions. — (1 ) Point out the axis of a wheel ; of a top ; of a 
rotating ball ; of a spinning globe. (2) Mark the two poles on an 
apple or ball, and then draw a line for the equator. (3) Mould a 
sphere in clay, and show the poles and the equator. Cut it in half, 
and mark a line for the axis. (4) Find exactly how many miles a 
point on the equator moves each hour. (5) Use a horseshoe magnet 
to attract pieces of iron. (6) Use a globe, or apple, and a lamp to show 
why the sun appears to rise and set, and why it is day on one side 
while it is night on the other. (7) Watch the stars in the east some 
night, to see which way they appear to move. (8) Why do not the 
clouds appear to move westward also ? (9) Is the sun always shin- 
ing during the day ? Why, then, do we not always see it ? (10) Who 
was Atlas? Who was Aurora? (11) Find out what the ancients 
supposed became of the sun each night. (12) When it is noon here, 
what time is it one-fourth of the distance around the earth to the 
east? To the west? 

For References, see page 258. 



III. THE ZONES 



,NO£TH.POLB 




SOUTH POLB. 



Fig. 98. 



Boundaries of the Zones. — The sun's rays feel warmer 
at noon than in the early evening because the sun is more 

nearly overhead at noon, and 
the rays then reach us nearly 
vertically. 

For the same reason the sun 
seems hotter in summer than in 
winter, and in some parts of 
the earth than in others. 

The hottest part of the earth 
is near the equator, for in that 
region the sun at midday is di- 
rectly over the heads of the 
people. That is the case, for a 
part of the year, as far north as 
the line on the map (Fig. 98) 
marked tropic of Cancer^ and as 
far south as the one marked 
tropic of Capricorn. Point to them on Figures 119 and 
120. These lines are more than three thousand miles 
apart, a distance greater than that across the United States 
from Boston to San Francisco ; and over that vast area 
the heat is intense, or torrid. Those who live there wear 
only the very lightest clothing, and the savages have 
almost none (Fig. 99). 

But further north and south the heat becomes less and 

120 



A map of the zones. The colors 
suggest sharp differences be- 
tween the zones on the two 
sides of the boundaries ; but 
you should remember that the 
changes are very gradual. 



TEE ZONES 



121 



less intense, because the rays of the sun, even at noon, 
approach the earth at a greater slant. There is a region, 
then, on each side of this broad hot belt, where it is neither 
very hot nor very cold, but tempei'ate. 

Finally, near the poles, the rays are very slanting, as 
they are in our early morning or late afternoon. There 
it is so cold, or frigid^ that the ground never thaws out, 
the ice never entirely disappears, and very little vegeta- 
tion can grow. 

Torrid Zone. — Thus one part of the earth has a hot 
climate. There the noonday sun is always so directly 
over the heads of the 
inhabitants that they 
never have winter. 

This hot region ex- 
tends entirely around 
the earth, like a great 
belt, and the equator 
is in the middle of 
it. This is called the 
tropical belt, or the 
tropical or torrid zone, 
and sometimes the 
equatorial belt. Why 
the latter name ? 

Temperate Zones. 
— On the north and 
south sides of this 
are the two temperate 
zones. People living 
in the north temperate zone find the sun to the south of 
them at noon, even in summer ; and their shadows always 




Fig. 99. 

Philippine savages hunting; their home is in 
the torrid zone, and they need almost no 
clothing. 



122 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



fall toward the north. But in the south temperate zone the 
midday sun is always in the north. Which way must the 
shadows fall in that zone ? 

Notice the position of the sun at midday where you live, and also 
the direction and length of your shadow at that time. In which of 
the temperate zones do you live ? 




Fig. 100. 

Cape York Eskimos, Greenland, in their summer dress, standing by their 
sleds on the ice-covered sea. 

Frigid Zones. — North of the north temperate zone, and 
south of the south temperate, are the frigid zones, where 
the sun is never high in the heavens, but even at midday 
is near the horizon. There the shadows are very long, as 
they are with us in the late afternoon. In consequence, 
while at the equator there is never any winter, near the 
poles there is never any real summer weather. 

The nortbei'n of these zones is called the north frigid 



THE ZONES 123 

zone (Fig. 100) ; the southern, the south frigid zone. They 
are also known as the polar zones, since they surround the 
poles. 

It is so cold that no one has ever been able to reach either of the 
poles. These are surrounded by miles and miles of snow and ice, and 
vessels hundreds of miles away from them ai-e in danger of being 
crushed by ice, or held by it so that they cannot move. 

Hemispheres. — The half of our sphere north of the equator is 
called the northern hemisplieve (or half sphere), the southern half, the 
southern hemisphere. The earth is also divided into halves by a circle 
running north and south through both poles, the western half, con- 
taining the New AVorld, being called the loestern hemisphere, and the 
eastern half, containing the Old World, the eastern hemisphere. 

Review Questions. — (1) What is the cause for the great heat in 
the torrid zone ? (2) What are its boundaries ? (3) What other zones 
are there ? What are their boundaries ? (4) In which direction does 
the midday sun lie in each zone ? (5) In which direction do the 
shadows then fall? (6) Why should the heat grow less, the farther 
one travels from the equator? (7) Why has no one ever been able to 
reach either pole ? (S) Which part of the earth has no cold weather ? 
(9) Which part has no hot weather? (10) Point out the zones in 
Figure 98. (11) Represent them in a drawing of your own. 
(12) Name the hemispheres and tell where each is. 

Suggestions. — (1) Find out more about the reason why the sun's 
rays are hotter when the sun is overhead than when it is low in the 
heavens. (2) Write a story telling about the changes in clothing 
you would need to make in passing from the north to the south pole. 
(3) In which direction would you look to see the sun at noon on such 
a journev ? (I) How might the changes in heat affect the growth of 
trees and other plants ? (5) How would the direction of your shadow 
change? Its length? (6) If there were no watches or clocks, how 
could you tell the time of day from the sun? (7) Find out about 
some of the men who have tried to reach the north pole. (8) In 
which zone should you prefer to live? Why? (9) Explain how some 
places in the temperate zone are warmer than some in the torrid 
zone, For references, see p. 258. 



IV. HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH, AND ITS 
EFFECTS 

Heat in Mines. — While much is known about the sur- 
face of the earth, very little is certain about its interior. 
The reason for this is that people cannot go far down 
below the surface in order to see what is there. 




Fig. 101. 

Melted rock, from a volcano in the Hawaiian Islands, flowing over the face 
of a precipice into the water. 

In some places there are mines reaching fully a mile 
below the surface. This may seem a great depth ; but 
when it is remembered that it would be necessary to go four 
thousand times as far to reach the center, it is plain that 
this is really a short distance. A mile below the surface 
of the earth is not so much as the thickness of the skin of 
an apple, compared with the thickness of the apple itself. 

124 



HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 



125 



In all of these mines, and in many deep wells, men find 
solid rock, usually covered at the surface with soil ; but 
no one has ever gone beyond this rock. 

It is interesting to note that the farther miners have 
dug down into the earth, the warmer they have found it. 
The thermometer rises about one degree for every fifty or 
sixty feet, and some mines, as they have been deepened, 
have become so hot that men could no longer work in them. 

Melted Rock. — This has led to the belief that, if it were possible 
to go still deeper, the earth would be found to gpow hotter and 
hotter, until, several miles below the surface, it might be hot enough 
to melt rocks. 

Another fact leading to the same belief is that, in some regions, 
melted rock, called lava, actually flows out of the earth, and then 
cools to form solid rock (Fig. 101). In some places so much lava has 
flowed forth at different times, and collected about the opening called 
the crater, that a mountain 
peak has been built. Such 
peaks are called volcanoes 
(Fig. 102), and some of them 
are many thousand feet high. 

The Earth's Crust. — 

From a study of the 
earth it seems certain 
that, although the out- 
side is now cold, it was 
once hot, and that the 
mass within is still hot. 
It may be compared to a biscuit that is still hot inside, al- 
though its crust has become cool. In fact, this cold out- 
side part of the earth is generally called the earth's crust. 

Cause of Mountains. — It was stated on page 19 that 
some parts of the earth have been raised to form mountain 




Fig. 102. 

Vesuvius, in Italy, sending out lava, ashes, 
and steam during an eruption some 
years ago. 



126 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

ranges, while others have been lowered to form valleys. 
We are now ready to explain how this has happened. 

You have, perhaps, seen a blacksmith put a tire upon a 
wheel. He heats the tire so hot that it expands, and it is 
then easily placed over the wheel. But when the iron 
cools it shrinks, so that the tire then fits the wheel tightly. 
The hot interior of the earth is under- 
going a similar change, since every year 
it is slowly growing cooler, and, there- 
fore, shrinking or contracting. This al- 
lows the cool crust to settle ; but, being 
too large, it wrinkles, or puckers, causing 
the rocks to bend and break, and form- 
ing great mountain ranges and valleys. 




Fig. 103. 

apple wri 
through drying. 



One sees something of the same kind in an 
apple that has become dry and wrinkled (Fig. 
^1, u J • 103). It has dried because some of the water 

beneath the tough skin has gone into the air as 
vapor ; thus the inside has been made smaller. The skin of the apple, 
like the crust of the earth, has then settled down and become wrinkled. 

Cause of Continents and Ocean Basins. — The mountains 
and valleys are not the largest wrinkles on the earth's 
surface. As the crust has settled, some portions have 
been lowered several miles further than others, and in 
these great depressions the waters have collected, forming 
the oceans^ which in places are four or five miles deep. 

Those great portions of earth's crust which rise above 
the ocean are called continents ; and the highest mountain 
peak upon them is fully eleven miles above the deepest 
part of the ocean. 

Change in the Level of the Land. — The contracting of the earth 
Jias caused many changes, and is still causing them. Some parts of 



HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 



127 



the laud have risen out of the ocean, and other parts have sunk 
beneath it. Perhaps the place where you live, even though it be 
among the mountains, was once below 
the ocean. This can be proved, in 
some places, by finding certain shells, 
called fossils, in the ]'ocks. 

Ages ago these shells were parts of 
animals living in the ocean ; but on 
the death of their owners they became 
buried in the mud and lay there for 
centuries until the layers of mud be- 
came slowly hardened into rock. This 
was later lifted above the water, and 
then frost, rain, and rivers wore the 
upper layers away, bringing the fossils 
to light. 

We have already seen (page 2) how rock is changing to soil and 
being washed from the land into the ocean. We now learn that this 
settles upon the ocean bottom, hardens into rock, and then, perhaps, 
is lifted into the air. These changes are very slow, but they are going 
on all the time. Places once inhabited by men are now beneath the 
sea, and others where they now live have risen above it. 




Fig. 104. 

A rock containing many fossil 
shells. 



Eeview Questions. — (1) What is known about the tempera- 
ture of the earth below the surface? (2) What does that suggest? 
(3) What other proof of this conclusion is there? (4) What is a 
volcano? (5) What is the crust of the earth? (6) What happens as 
the interior cools? (7) Compare this with the drying of an apple. 
(8) How have the ocean basins and continents been formed? (9) What 
do fossils in the rocks prove ? 

Suggestions. — (1 ) Collect pictures of volcanoes. Of earthquakes. 
Read about some volcanic eruption. (2) Make a drawing of a vol- 
cano. (3) Dry an apple and notice the change. (4) Not all rocks 
contain fossils ; but examine those in your section to find if they do. 
(5) If you live near a beach, notice how shells are covered by the 
sands. (6) If a mine were a mile deep, what would be the tempera- 
ture at the bottom, if the average temperature at the surface is 45°. 

FoK References, see page 258. 






Fig. 105. 

Land (on left-hand side) and water (on right-hand side) hemispheres. 
Hemisphere means half sphere ; that is, half of the earth. 



V. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 



Land and Water. — The greater part of the land is found 
in the northern hemisphere, the greater part of the water 
in the southern. (Figs. 106 and 112.) 

It is possible to divide the earth 
into halves, in one of which — the 
land hemisphere — nearly all the land 
is situated, while in the other — the 
toater hemisphere — there is very little 
land. From Fig. 105 you see that 
much more than half the earth's sur- 
face is water. 




Fig. 106. 

The northern hemisphere, show- 
ing the land about the north 
pole, Eurasia in the eastern 
hemisphere, and America in 
the western. 



The Continents 

In Figure 106, or, better, on 
a globe, notice that two great 
masses of land extend from the 
north polar zone. One of these 

128 




THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 129 

lies in the western hemisphere, and is the land on which 
we live ; the other is in the eastern hemisphere. 

North America. — ^'The western land, which is better 
shown in Fig. 107, is broad near the north pole, and tapers 
down nearly to a point iust 

•^ J. J North Pole 

north of the equator, having 
the form of a triangle. What 
is the name of this part ? ^K' ^^^"s 

Show where New York, Washing- 
ton, and Chicago should be on this 
map. (See the map, Fig. 120.) Point 
also to your home. Find some rivers, 
mountains, peninsulas, gulfs, and other 
forms of land and water. 

South America. — South of 
North America, and connected ^^^- ^^'^• 

with it by a long neck of land, ^he half of the sphere containing 

Jo ' the New World, 

the Isthmus of Panama, lies the 

continent of South America. The two continents together 

are called the two Americas, forming the New World 

which Columbus discovered (p. 111). Notice how much 

alike they are in shape ; draw triangles to show this. 

Through what zones does North America extend? (See Fig. 98, 
p. 120.) South America? Point to the places where there is snow all 
the time ; to the part where there is never any snow. Where must 
the Eskimo girl, Agoonack, one of the Seven Little Sisters, have 
lived ? Read about the Eskimos on p. 192. 

Tell how the climate would change if you were to travel from the 
northern end of North America to the southern end of South America. 
What changes would you expect to find in the plants? In the cloth- 
ing of people? Write a story about such a journey. 

On the next page are pictures of some of the wild animals of South 
America (Fig. 108). What wild animals live in North America? 
Collect pictures of them. Have you ever seen any of them ? 

K 



MONKEY 




CONDOR 



Fig. 108. 
Some of the animals of South America. 



THE GONTiNENTS AND OCEANS 



131 




\ 



Fig. 109. 

A hemisphere showing a part of 

Eurasia and Alrica. 



Eurasia. — East of us, across 

the Atlantic Ocean, is the Old 

World (Figs. 109 and 113). 

More land is found there than in 

the New World, and the largest 

mass of it is called Eurasia. 
The northern part of Eurasia 

is in the North Frigid zone, on 

the opposite side of the north pole 

from North America (Fig. 106), 

and extends a great distance east 

and west. Find for yourself 

how far south it reaches, and through what zones it passes. 
Long ago, before Columbus made his voyage to the New 

World, all the 
civilized people 
lived in Europe., 
the western part 
of that great 
continent. 

The homes of 
.Jeannette and Lou- 
ise, two of the Seven 
Little Sisters, were 
in that country. If 
you have read the 
story, can you not 
tell some things 
about each of them ? 




Fig. 110. 

The home of Jeannette, among the Swiss mountains. 
Find other pictures of these mountains on pages 18 
and 23. 



The eastern 
part of the con- 
tinent is called 
Asia. 



132 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Read in the " Seven Little Sisters " about Gemila, the child of the 
desert, and of Pen-se, the Chinese girl, whose homes were in Asia. 

Europe is usually considered one continent and Asia an- 
other, although, as you can see from the maps, especially 
Fig. 105, they are not so clearly separated as the other 
continents are. For this reason Europe and Asia are 
often called one continent, Eurasia, the name being made 
up of "Eur," from Europe, and "Asia." 

Point toward this continent. Walk toward it. Which is probably 
its warn^est part? 




Fig. 111. 

The tiger, one of the wild animals of Africa and Asia. 

Africa. — South of Europe is the continent of Africa. 

Here lived the little dark girl, Manenko, one of the Seven Sisters, 
and this is the place the negroes came from. 

In what zones does Africa lie ? How does it compare 
with South America in temperature ? In shape ? In what 
direction would you start in order to go directly to Africa ? 

Australia. — South of Asia are many large islands called 
the East India Islands (Fig. 119). Find the zone in which 
they lie. Southeast of these is a large island known as the 
continent of Australia (Fig. 119). In what zones is it? 



THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 



133 



The Oceans 

The Arctic and Antarctic. — There seems to be a 
deal of land ; but, as we have learned (p. 63), 
fourths of the earth is covered by ocean water, 
water around the north pole (Fig. 106) is called the 
Ocean. Find it on a globe. 

There are many islands in this 
ocean, and the water between thein is 
covered with ice. The climate is so 
cold that there are very few people, 
and no crops of any kind can be raised. 
Here the Eskimos live, hunting the 
polar bear, seal, and walrus to obtain 
meat for food, fur for clothing, and 
oil for fuel and light (see p. 192). 



Fig. 112. 



great 

three- 

The 

Arctic 




The southern hemisphere, show- 
ing the water surrounding the 
south pole. Notice that the 
Antarctic is not separated by 
laud from the other oceans. 



JJOKTII POLE 



Much less is known about 
the Antarctic Ocean (Fig. 112), 
which surrounds the south pole, 
and on which there is also a 
great deal of .floating ice. 

The Atlantic. — Extending from the Arctic to the An- 
tarctic is the Atlantic Ocean., hav- 
ing the Old World on the east 
and the New World on the west. 
This is the water that we cross 
in going to Europe, and many of 
the things we eat and wear are 
brought across it. Can you name 
some of them ? Find what con- 
tinents the Atlantic bathes. 
Fig'^TS. T^e Pacific. — The water west 

The Atlantic Ocean. of North America is called the 




134 



TRE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



NORTH I'OT.E 




SOUTH I'OLE 



Fig. 114. 

The eastern part of the Pacific 

Ocean. 



NOBTH POLE 



Pacific Ocean, which is the larg- 
est of all oceans, covering more 
than one-third of the earth's 
surface. What continents does 
it bathe ? Walk toward it. 

The Indian. — There is still an- 
other great body of water called 
the Indian Ocean (Fig. 109). It 
lies south of India in Asia, and 
between Africa on one side and 
Australia and the East Indies on 
the other. 
The Ocean Bottom. — The 
depth of the ocean water varies 
considerably ; on the average it 
is a little over two miles, bat in 
some places it is more than four 
miles deep. In this immense 
body of water are millions of 
animals, some of them, as the 
whale, shark, codfisli, and seal, 
being of use to man. 

The bed of the ocean is 
mainly a great plain, where it 
is as dark as our darkest night, because the sunlight 

cannot pass 
through so 
much water. 
In conse- 
quence, the 
Fig. 116. fish living 

One of the deep-sea fish. there have 




SOUTH I'Ol.E 



Fig. 115. 



A part of the globe. What con- 
tinents and oceans are shown ? 




THE CONTINENTS A,NI> OCEANS 



135 



little use for eyes, and some that have been brought to the 
surface have none. 

The mud which covers the bottom is in many places 
made up of the shells of tiny animals, many of them even 
smaller than a pinhead. Some of the chalk used in 
schools was just such mud before it was raised to form 
rock layers on the dry land. 

Mountains in the Oceans. — While most of the bottom 
of the sea is a plain, some parts are not so level. Here 
and there are mountain peaks, and chains of islands, 
extending above the sea far away from the continents. 
Many of these are portions of mountain chains rising 
^bove the water, having been 
lifted to such a height by 
the wrinkling of the earth's 
crust through contraction ; but 
many, like the Hawaiian Is- 
lands, are volcanoes which have 
been built up by lava flowing 
from the interior of the earth 
(see pp. 124 and 125). 

Coral Islands. — In the open 
ocean there is another inter- 
esting kind of island known as the coral island (Fig. 118). 
Some very tiny creatures, called coral polyps, build hard, 
limy coral, such as you have no doubt seen. Where the 
ocean water is warm, as in the torrid zone, these little 
animals live in immense numbers. Millions of them may 
be found around a single island, and every one is busy 
building its tiny skeleton of lime. 

Each polyp resembles a fully blossomed flower ; and 
they vary greatly in color, being white, pink, purple, red, 




Fig. 117. 

A piece of coral, with the polyps 
projecting from the hard coral 
like a bunch of flowers. 



136 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Fm. 118. 

A ring-like coral island, 
called an atoll, in the 
open ocean. 



yellow, brown, and many other col- 
ors. It is a truly beautiful sight to 
see them spread out in the water, 
looking like a flower garden in the 
sea (Fig. 117). 

When these coral animals die, 
the hard coral part remains. Then 
other polyps build upon these skele- 
tons, and this is continued until 
the surface of the water is reached 



and coral islands are formed. 



Review Questions. — (1) Name the five continents, counting 
Eurasia as one. (2) Write their names. (3) Walk toward each of 
them. (4) Tell what you can about each. (5) Where is the Arctic 
Ocean? The Antarctic? (6) Tell something about the people and 
animals of the Arctic region. (7) What oceans touch North Amer- 
ica ? (8) Name five oceans. Which is the largest ? (9) How deep 
is the ocean water? (10) Name some of the animals that live in it. 
(11) What are the conditions on the ocean bottom? (12) In what 
ways are islands in the open ocean formed? (13) Explain how coral 
islands are made. 

Suggestions. — (1) Make an outline drawhig of each of the con- 
tinents. (2) Of each of the oceans. (3) Collect pictures of the 
animals, people, and scenery of the different continents. Many such 
pictures are printed in the magazines. (4) Write a story about one 
of the pictures. (5) Write a story about something that you have 
learned concerning one of the continents. (6) Obtain pieces of coral 
for the school collection. (7) Study the maps, Figs. 119 and 120, to 
learn more about the continents and oceans. 

For References, see page 2.58. 



« North Pole § 





r r, 






^ass^- »g 










VI. MAPS 

The maps that have been thus far used are all hemi- 
spheres, and represent the earth as it would appear if 
we looked down upon it from above. Such maps are 
especially desirable because they call attention to the 
roundness of the earth ; but they are so difficult to make 
that it is customary to represent the earth on flat maps 
instead. 

In Figure 119 you can see the difference between the 
two. While the lower ones show the roundness of the 
earth, the upper two represent it as quite flat. Although 
they are unlike, the latter show the position of the land 
and the water quite as plainly as the former. Since this 
is true, and since it is much easier to make the flat maps, 
these will be the ones chiefly used hereafter in this book. 
But in studying flat maps one should always remember 
to think of the earth as round, and not as a flat surface.^ 
Examine Figure 120 also.^ 

1 The teacher should see that this is done by frequent use of a globe. 
It is advisable to have one large globe and several small ones, so that each 
pupil may have one for frequent use. 

2 These maps (Figs. 119 and 120) should be carefully studied, the 
pupil following map questions given by the teacher to cover form, loca- 
tion, etc. , of continents, oceans, and important places. 

137 




Fig. 121. 
Relief map of North America. 

VII. NORTH AMERICA 

Physical Geography. — Here is a relief map of the con- 
tinent on which we live. What great highland do you 
find in the west? In the east? In what direction does 
each extend ? One is much broader and higher than the 
other; which is it? Where is the lowest land between 

138 



NORTH AMERICA 139 

these two highlands ? Trace the Mississippi River. Name 
some of its largest tributaries. (You will find these 
names on the map, Fig. 123.) Find the Rio Grande River 
in the south ; the St. Law^rence River in the northeast ; 
the Mackenzie and the Yukon in the northwest. 

What two great rivers flow westward from the Rocky- 
Mountains to the Pacific Ocean ? Notice the slope east of 
the Appalachian Mountains. Is it longer or shorter than 
that west of the Rockies ? What, then, are the main 
slopes in North America? 

Upon which of these slopes do you live? Point as 
nearly as you can to the place where your home is. Show 
where your nearest large river should be, even if it is not 
represented on this map. 

Find New York and San Francisco on Figm-e 123. If you were to 
go westward from the former to the latter, you would travel over 
many hills, valleys, and mountains. Some of the slopes would be 



F E 


B 




a 






B A 


frfvi -ifeiltv^ 


^ 


■t^"^ 


^__.. ;■■•: 


ra^lM 


s£^ 


^^^ 



Fig. 122. 

Section across United States, from east to west, to show mountains, plains, 
and principal slopes. 

short and gentle ; others would be very long, and sometimes gentle, 
sometimes steep. Here is a drawing showing the chief slopes you 
would cross in making that journey. Point on the map to the slopes 
A^B, C, Z), £■, and F, of the drawing. Draw a section like this. 

Political Divisions. — You will remember that Spain 
was the nation that helped Columbus make his discovery 
of America. The Spaniards afterward settled in the 
southern part of the continent, and iutroduced the Span- 



140 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 

ish language there. That is still the chief language 
spoken in Mexico, in the southern part of North America. 
Mexico used to belong to Spain, but became independent 
many years ago. 

After Columbus had proved that there was land to the 
west of Spain, other nations sent explorers and made 
settlements. Among these were the English, who settled 
chiefly along the Atlantic coast, and finally came to own 
the greater part of the continent north of Mexico. 

In time the English who lived in the central portion of 
eastern North America, waged war against England, and 
chose George Washington as their leader. On the 4th of 
July, 1776, they declared their independence of England, 
and finally won it completely. This part became known 
as the United States ; but the region to the north, which 
England was able to keep, and which she still possesses, is 
called Canada. Find each of these countries on the map 
(Fig. 123). Point toward Canada and Mexico. Walk 
toward each. 

Besides these three large nations, several smaller ones 
occupy that part of the continent, south of Mexico, which 
is called Central America. 

Of course there must be some place where one country ends and 
another begins. Such a place is called a boundary, and the boundary- 
lines between the different nations are shown on this map by heavy 
lines. Point them out. 

In some parts you see that a natural boundary has been chosen, 
such as a river or a chain of lakes; but it is often only a straight line, 
cutting across rivers, lakes and mountains. Exainine the boundary 
of the United States to determine how much of it is natural. 

Where the boundary is only a straight line, it is marked by a row 
of posts or stone pillars a few rods apart, and if you were to cross 
from one country to another you could easily see them. 



VIII. THE UNITED STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) What waters border the United States? 
(2) What countries? (3) What is the greatest distance across the 
United States, east and west ? (Notice the scale of miles on the map). 
North and south? (4) Where are the main divides? (5) Do you see 
any part that has very few streams ? What does that suggest to you ? 
(6) Find New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Washington, 
Chicago, New Orleans, St. Louis, Denver, and San Francisco, and tell 
where each is. 

When our war for independence began there were thir- 
teen large settlements, called colonies, which at the close 
of the war became known as states. Our flag still has its 
thirteen red and white stripes to remind us of them. 

There were at first only thirteen stars in the blue field of the flag; 
but one has been added for each new state until now there are many 
more. Count the stars on a flag to see how many states there are. 

For a long time after the war for independence, the in- 
terior and western parts of what is now the United States 
formed an unknown wilderness belonging to other nations, 
and inhabited chiefly by Indians. The United States has 
obtained part of this land by war, and part of it by pur- 
chase, so tliat the country is now several times as large as 
it was at first. Many large states have been added ; but 
there are still some parts, called territories, which have 
not yet been made into states. 

In order that they may be more easily studied, the 
states are usually divided into groups. Let us take first 
the northeastern group called the New England States; 
and afterwards, others. 

141 



IX. NEW ENGLAND 

Map Questions. — (1) Name the six states included in New Eng- 
land. (2) Which is largest? (3) Which smallest? (4) Which has 
no seacoast ? (5) What mountains are found in these states ? What 
rivers? (6) Remembering what was said on pp. 66 and 90, where 
would you expect to find the largest cities ? (7) What is the capital 
of each state ? (8) Point to Cambridge in Massachusetts, where Long- 
fellow lived. (9) To Boston. Walk toward Boston. (10) In what 
direction would one sail from there to reach England? (See Fig. 119.) 




Fig. 126. 

A view of Boston, the largest city in New England, showing its harbor and 
some of the ships in it. 

Names. — The settlers who came to this part of North 
America called it New England. Several names on the 
map also commence with New^ as New Hampshire and 
New Haven. Find others. What reason can you give 
for their using that word so often ? ] 

Seaports. — If you examine the map you will notice that 
the coast is very irregular, with many small bays, promon- 

142 



72"' Longitude 



Test 70" frou 




i 
I 



NEW ENGLAND 



143 



tories, and fine harbors. Draw the coast line showing 
some of these. 

The excellent harbors have determined the places where 
great cities should grow up. The largest of all is Boston, 
and two others are Portland and Providence. Point 
them out. What direc- 
tion is each from the 
others, and in what 
state is each ? 

Fishing. — Some of the 
towns are located on the 
coast because the men who 
live in them are fishermen, 
and must have their homes 
near the water. In the early 
days, cod, mackerel, and 
halibut were easily caught 
near the shore ; but now it 
is often necessary to sail far 
from land, the men being 
gone perhaps for weeks be- 
fore filling their vessels 
(Fig. 67, p. 73) with fish. 

Portland, Boston, and Gloucester ^ are important fish markets, 
the latter being the largest fishing port in the country. Fish are sent from 
there to all parts of the United States, and even to foreign countries. 

Farming. — A fine harbor by itself cannot make a great 
city. As you remember (p. 59), this is important simply 
because it renders the loading and unloading of vessels 
both easy and safe. But unless there were many people 
supplying and needing materials, there would be little 
need of using these harbors. 

1 Whenever a city, river, etc., is mentioned in the text, the pupils 
should be required to locate it on the map, giving state and position. 




Fig. 127. 

Fishermen hoisting halibut from a fishiug 
vessel at Gloucester. Notice that these 
fish are as large as a man. 



144 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



TiGt US see, then, if there are many people living farther 
inland and what they do. 

One might expect that there would be much farming 
there ; but there are so many hills and mountains, and the 
soil is often so thin and stony, that the farms are usually 
small, supplying only vegetables, milk, butter, and other 
products to be used in the cities near by. Some of them, 
far from the cities, have been abandoned because the land 
is so hilly and the soil so poor. 




Fig. 128. 
Lumbermen engaged in floating logs down-stream from the forest. 

Quarrying. — But while the rocky hills and mountains hinder farm- 
ing, they often furnish excellent granite, which is used for buildings 
and street pavements. White marble, used in monuments, is also 
found among the mountains near Rutland, Vermont ; and slate, for 
roofs of houses, and for writing slates, is obtained both in Vermont 
and Maine. 

Lumbering. — Since many of the hills and mountains 
are still covered with forests, much lumber is obtained 
from them, especially from the mountainous part of north- 
ern Maine. As you can see from the map (Fig. 125), 



Hew ENGLAND 



145 



there are very few towns in this section, most of the 
country being wooded. 

During spring freshets, when the winter snows are melt- 
ing, the logs are floated down-stream, often to a place where 
ocean steamers 
can reach them. 
Here they are 
sawed into lum- 
ber and loaded 
upon vessels to 
be carried in all 
directions. Ban- 
gor, on the Pe- 
nobscot River, 
has become a 
large city, chief- 
ly because of its 
lumber industry. Other towns on the Kennebec and the 
Androscoggin rivers have grown in the same way. 




Fig. 129. 




Fig. 130. 

Lumber ships loading boards from the great piles that can be seen on the 
wharf. Here are also many logs ready to go to the saw-mill to be made 
into boards. 



146 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Manufacturing. — But we have not yet come to the most 
huportant occupation of the New England people. The 
short rivers, having their sources in the uplands, flow with 
swift course to the sea, and are often interrupted by rapids 
and falls. In one way this is a disadvantage, because 
vessels cannot go far up-stream ; but in another way it is 
a great advantage. Can you see how ? 

On page 50 you learned that streams with swift cur- 
rents and waterfalls furnish the best water-power. Where 
such power is abundant, wheels can be turned and great 
factories be run. This makes it clear why the chief in- 




FiG. 131. 
Great cotton-mills on the Merrimac River at Manchester, New Hampshire. 

dustry of New England is manufacturing. In fact, the 
New England states are among the most important manu- 
facturing states in the Union. 

The principal rivers that furnish water-power are the 
Merrimac, Connecticut, and the three in Maine already 
mentioned (p. 145). Find each of these, and trace its 
course from source to mouth. Make a drawing to rep- 
resent each one, and locate upon it some of the large 
cities. 

There is so much manufacturing in New England, by 
the use of water-power and steam, that shiploads of cotton 



ITEW ENGLAND 147 

are sent there to be made into cloth at such cities as Man- 
chester (Fig. 131), Lowell, New Bedford, and Fall 
River. Great quantities of wool are brought to be made 
into woollen goods at Lawrence and Providence, which 
also manufacture cotton goods ; and thousands of hides of 
cattle and other animals to be made into boots, shoes, gloves, 
and leather of all kinds at Lynn and other cities. Iron 
and other metals are also brought to be made into knives, 
needles, watches, firearms, machines, and hundreds of 
other articles at Worcester, Bridgeport, Springfield, 
New Haven, and Hartford. In Boston itself there is 
also a vast amount of manufacturing of different kinds. 

Find each of these cities; tell in what state it is and upon what 
rivei-, if the name is given on the map. Most of the other cities 
marked on the map are also engaged in some kind of manufacturing. 
Perhaps the shoes or some of the clothing that you wear were made 
in one of these places. 

Commerce. — Some of the manufactured articles are 
shipped to all parts of the United States, and even to 
other countries. It is to a considerable extent this im- 
mense amount of manufacturing that furnishes employ- 
ment to the people along the coast, and has caused the 
large cities to grow about the best harbors. 

Not only do the persons living in the interior produce 
great quantities of goods to be shipped away, but they 
require others to be shipped in. Much of their food and 
also the cotton, wool, and hides must be brought to them. 
The amount of shipping is therefore very great, and this 
is one of the chief reasons why Boston, Portland, and 
Providence have become large cities. To the first two 
goods are sent by rail from the far West to be shipped 
abroad. 



148 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Review Questions. — (1) Why is it an advantage to New Eng- 
land that its coast is so irregular? (2) Mention some of the larger 
seaports. (3) Name the principal fishing port in the country. (4) Tell 
what you can about the farming. (5) What kinds of stone are found, 
and for what are they used ? Where are they found ? (6) Describe 
the lumbering. Which state produces most lumber? (7) Explain 
how the lumber trade has determined the location of Bangor. On 
what river is it situated? (8) Why cannot vessels go far up the New 
England rivers ? (9) How are the rivers useful for manufacturing ? 
Name several that furnish water-power. (10) What goods are manu- 
factured there? In what cities? (11) What articles must be shipped 
to this section? Why? (12) Tell how such commerce affects the 
size of the coast cities. 

Suggestions. — (1) What stories of New England do you know? 
(2) Read about the Puritans. (3) Go into a fish store to see a cod- 
fish, mackerel, halibut, etc. (4) Examine some granite so that you 
will know it the next time you see it. (5) Find a monument made 
of white marble. (6) Find a house whose roof is covered with slate. 
(7) Start a collection for the school by bringing specimens of use- 
ful stones. (8) Try to find out more about lumbering in Maine. 
Hunt for pictures illustrating this work. (9) Start a school collec- 
tion of pictures from magazines, etc. (10) How many articles can 
you mention that are made of wood? (11) Get some friend to take 
you through some kind of a factory, and tell the class what you saw. 
(12) Draw a sketch-map of New England, locating the rivers, capital 
cities, and principal towns. 

For References, see page 259. 



wich Vi 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 




X. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) Which of the Middle Atlantic States bor- 
der on the Atlantic Ocean? (2) Which does not? (3) Which is 
smallest? (4) How does Pennsylvania compare in size with New 
England? (You will find the scale on each map.) (5) Name the 
chief rivers and tell where they are. (6) Which state extends far- 
thest east? Which farthest west ? (7) What natural boundaries do 
you find between them? (8) What are the names of the mountain 
ranges? (9) Which state has no mountains? 

The Coast-line. — Observe that, as in New England, 
the coast-line of the Middle Atlantic states is very irregu- 
lar. At three places the sinking of the land has caused 
the ocean water to reach far into the land, forming Chesa- 
peake, Delaware, and New York bays. Find each ; also 
draw the coast-line to show these bays. 

The Seaports. — The largest cities in New England 
were found along the coast on bays similar to these, though 
smaller. , The same is true here. New York on the first 
named bay, is the largest city in the United States and 
next to the largest in the world. Southwest of it is Phil- 
adelphia on the Delaware, just as far up the river as 
large ocean vessels can go. Farther south, near the head 
of Chesapeake Bay, is a third great city, named Balti- 
more, in the state of Maryland. 

Reasons eor the Great Size of New York City 

. Cities near by. — Near New York harbor we find not only 
New York, but Jersey City, Newark, and Brooklyn, 

149 



150 



TSE EABTE AS A WHOLE 



which has lately become a part of Greater New York. 
Other cities like Paterson are not far away. That is, 
not only one, but several great cities haA^e grown up here 
very near together. Let us see why more people should 
have crowded together here than in any other part of the 
New World. 

One reason is that from New York harbor, where hun- 
dreds of vessels may enter at one time, goods can be 

shipped over the At- 
lantic Ocean to vari- 
ous parts of the world. 
Water-route to the 
Interior. — A second 
reason is that goods 
may also be shipped 
westward by water. 
Looking at the map, 
you see that New 
York Bay is at the 
mouth of the Hudson 
River. The sinking of the land has caused the ocean 
water to enter this river, and thereby to make it so broad 
and deep that large vessels can ascend it as far as Albany. 
A few miles from Albany the Mohawk River enters the 
Hudson from the west, having its source far over toward 
Syracuse. 

Long ago people saw that if they could construct a 
water-way from the Hudson River to Buffalo, they 
could go by water all the way from New York to Buffalo ; 
and then, since the Great Lakes are connected with one 
another, they could go all the way to the western end of 
Lake Superior. Use the scale of the map (Fig. 124) 





JM// ^ ' ''^ \\\ \/^^- ' -^^0\- /--■'-•If'"'' ■ 


^ 



Fig. 133. 

The broad Hudson River at Poughkeepsie, 
where a railway bridge crosses it. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



151 



to find how many miles that is. Through what lakes 
would the route lead ? 

The scheme was finally carried out by building the JErie 
Canal from Buffalo, on Lake Erie, to the Mohawk Valley, 
then down that valley to Albany. (See map. Fig. 132.) 

As the Western country became settled, more and more 
goods were shipped to and from New York. When rail- 
ways began to be built many of them also led there. In 
this way New York has become a great city, and the chief 
shipping-point for a large part of the United States. Let 
us see what some 
of the goods are 
that are sent to 
New York. 

Lumbering. — 
On the map 
(Fig. 132) you 
will find the Ad- 
irondack Moun- 
tains north of 
the M o h a w k , 
and the Catskill 
Mountains south 
of it. Among 
these there are still forests, as in Maine, so that lumbering 
is an important industry there. 

Farming. — These mountains do not cover all of the 
state ; most of it is more level, and has a rich soil upon it. 
Farming is therefore much more important than in New 
England. Besides butter and cheese, considerable hay 
and grain are produced, and an abundance of fruit, such 
as apples, pears, peaches, plums, and grapes. 




Fig. 134. 
In a salt mine, a thousand feet beneath the surface, 
in central New York. The walls and sides of these 
tunnels are glistening white salt. 



152 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



Salt. — An extensive bed of salt is found deep down 
in the earth, in the central part of the state. Salt is taken 
from it in many places, and it was the important salt in- 
dustry that determined the location, and much of the 
early growth, of Syracuse. 

Manufacturing. — Again, in this state, as in New Eng- 
land, there are many streams with waterfalls. Manufac- 
turing has therefore become extensive. 




Fig. 135. 
Niagara Falls, the greatest cataract in the world (160 feet high) . 

In Rochester, at the falls of the Genesee River (Fig. 75, p. 85), 
are many flour inills. The cities on the IMohawk are also engaged in 
manufacturing. What are their names? In Buffalo, the second 
city in size in New York State, much use is made of power from the 
Niagara Falls, twenty miles away. Troy, near Albany, makes 
shirts, collars, and cuffs. These cities, as you see, are situated along 
the water-route already mentioned. Why ? What others do you find 
along this route ? 

In New York City itself there is avast amount of manufacturing, 
steam being used for power. In fact, in many places, even where 
there is water-power, factories now often use steam ; but when the 
manufacturing began, people could not use steam because they did 
not know how, and the first manufacturing towns were built where 
there was water-power. 



MUDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 153 

Commerce. — So mach manufacturing, together with 
the farming and other industries of the state, helps to 
explain the great amount of commerce. People are con- 
tinually sending goods to New York and receiving others 
from there. It should be remembered, too, that cities 
hundreds of miles farther west, in the neighborhood of 
the Great Lakes, are connected with New York by water 
and rail, and are engaged in trade with it. 

From this it is plain whj'" the largest city in America is 
situated where it is, and why other cities have grown up 
about New York harbor. 

Reasons why Philadelphia has become a Great 

City 

Cities near by. — Philadelphia, like New York, has 
other important cities near by. Directly across the Dela- 
ware is Camden in New Jersey ; and to the northeast, 
also in New Jersey, is Teenton, where a clay is found 
that is made into dishes and earthenware. To the south- 
west is Wilmington in Delaware, where many ships and 
railway cars are built. 

Farming. — The soil and climate in this neighborhood 
are well adapted to fruit-growing, especially peaches, pears, 
apples, grapes, and berries. On this account there are 
many factories for canning fruit in some of these cities. 

To the northwest of Philadelphia are the Appalachian 
Mountains. Note the direction in which they extend 
across the state. The valleys among the mountains, and 
the plateaus and lowlands east and west of them, are fer- 
tile enough for good farming, especially wheat raising, 
sheep raising, and dairying ; but lumbering is still carried 
on among the mountains. 



154 



HOME GEOGBAPHY 




Fig. 136. 

The forest-covered slopes of the Appalachian Mountains in Pennsylvania, at 
Mauch Chunk. 



Iron. — Several substances found beneath the soil in 
Pennsylvania are its most important products. 

In the first place, a great amount of iron ore is found 
there. When dug out of the ground this often resembles 
reddish earth, and it never looks exactly like iron ; but 
by melting the ore, iron is obtained from it, and is then 
shipped to many places to be made into stoves, engines, 
guns, ships, knives, and a thousand other things. Pitts- 
burg and Allegheny are noted for such manufacturing ; 
also Reading and Habeisbueg, the capital, as well as 
Philadelphia and its neighboring cities. See how long a 
list you can make of articles made of iron and steel. 

Coal. — It requires an immense amount of fuel to pro- 
duce the heat necessary to obtain iron from the ore and 
to make it into the many articles mentioned. Fortunately 
great quantities of coal are also found in this state, soft 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



155 




In a Pennsylvania coal mine, where the walls are black instead of white as in 
the salt mine (Fig. 134) . 

coal being mined in the western part near Pittsburg 
and Allegheny, and hard or anthracite coal in the east- 
ern part near ScRANTON and Wilkes Barre. 

Much coal is needed for stoves and furnaces in houses, and also 
for producing steam for factories. There is, therefore, a great 
demand for it, and 
every year it is 
shipped by thou- 
sands of carloads 
to New York, Phil- 
adelphia, and else- 
where, often to be 
loaded upon ships 
to be sent to Boston 
and many other 
cities. 

Oil and Gas. — 
Gas, much like that 
used in lighting Fig. 138. 




FRIKCIPAL COAL FIELDS 

OF THE 

UKITED STATES. 



156 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 

houses, and iietroleum, the oil from which kerosene is made, are also 
found beneath the soil in the western part of Pennsylvania. There is 
so much gas in some places that it is burned as a fuel in manufac- 
turing glass and other articles, as at Pittsburg and elsewhere. 

Commerce. — The products of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
and Delaware, principally fruit, grain, lumber, iron, coal, 
gas, and oil, together Avith the manufacture of iron goods, 
have helped to make Philadelphia a great city. As in 
the case of New York, many of these substances are sent 
to Philadelphia to be manufactured ; and, like New York, 
Philadelphia is one of the great manufacturing cities of 
the country. Many other materials are sent there to be 
shipped away by water ; and many shiploads of goods, for 
people living in other cities farther west, are unloaded at 
Philadelphia. 

Other Cities 

Baltimore. — Baltimore has grown in much the same 
way. Its harbor is excellent, and both coal and iron can 
easily reach it from Pennsylvania. Like Philadelphia, 
Boston, and New York, it has an important commerce and 
much manufacturing. 

Oysters abound in the shallow waters of Chesapeake Bay, and are 
shipped from Norfolk, Annapolis, and Baltimore. 

Washington. — Another large city in this section is 
Washington, on the Potomac River in the District of 
Columbia. Although large vessels are able to reach it, 
it owes its importance not to commerce, but to the fact 
that it is the National Capital^ where there are many great 
government buildings (Fig. ^5, p. 99), and thousands of 
men and women employed in the service of the govern- 
ment. Can you describe some of their work? (See 
pp. 97 and 98 in Part I.) 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



157 



Virginia and West Virginia. — Richmond, on the James 
River, is the capital and most important city of Virginia, 
the state in which Washington and Jefferson lived. The 
western part of the state is mountainous, as is the eastern 
part of West Virginia, the mountains furnishing lumber and 
iron. Also in West Virginia, as in Pennsylvania, there is a 
great amount of coal, oil, and gas. This leads to extensive 
manufacturing, especially at Wheeling on the Ohio River. 











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Fig. 139. 

A picture of Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, with the National Capitol 
building standing at the farther end. 

Farming is^the chief work in Virginia. The climate is 
so mild that tobacco can be raised much more profitably 
than in the states farther north. The tobacco plant, which 
white men found the Indians smoking, has a large leaf 
that is picked and dried, and then made into cigars and 
other forms in which tobacco is used. Factories are 
needed for such work, and they represent one of the main 
industries of Richmond, which is a great tobacco market, 
as Gloucester is a great fish market. 



158 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Review Questions. — (1) Name the chief seaports. Walk tow- 
ai'd each as you name it. (2) Wliat reasons can you give for the 
great size of New York City ? (3) Make a drawing of the Hudson 
and Mohawk rivers. (4) AVhat cities do you find on the Erie Canal ? 

(5) What can you say about the farming in New York State? 

(6) Where is the salt found? (7) What about manufacturing in 
New York ? (S) What are the chief farm products near Philadelphia 
and Wilmington? (9) Why is iron manufacture so important in 
Pennsylvania? (10) Tell why Philadelphia has become a great city. 

(11) Where are Pittsburg, Allegheny, Scranton, and Wilkes Barre? 

(12) For what is Baltimore noted? (13) Washington? (14) For 
what industry is Richmond noted? (15) Where are Richmond and 
Wheeling? (16) In which state is each of the cities mentioned? 

Suggestions. — (1) Make a list of all the cities named. (2) Are 
any of them not located either upon the seashore, on rivers, or lakes? 
(3) Which is farther north, Buffalo or Boston ? (see Fig. 124, oppo- 
site p. 141.) (4) Find what some of the chief difficulties are in build- 
ing canals. (.5) Examine some iron ore and add it to the school 
collection. (6) Visit a factory where iron goods are manufactured. 

(7) Why does Buffalo promise to be a growing city ? (8) Why have 
Pittsburg and Allegheny a good location? (9) Give two reasons why 
Wilmington is a good place for shipbuilding. (10) Collect some 
pieces of anthracite or hard, and bituminous or soft, coal, and com- 
pare them. (11) Read the story of Rip Van Winkle. The mountains 
described are the Catskills. (12) Draw an outline map of these 
states and include the capitals. (13) Draw each of the states from 
memory. (14) Find out some facts about Washington, — its build- 
ings, the people who live there, and what they do. (15) On the map 
(Fig. 124, opposite p. 141) the word Delaware is not spelled out be- 
cause there is not room, but Del. is put in its place. All the states 
have abbreviations like this, which we use in writing letters. Find 
out the abbreviation for each state in this group and in New England. 
Also for the other states as you study about them. 

For References, see page 259. 



XL SOUTHERN STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) Where are the mountains in this group of 
states? (2) Where are the plains ? (see map,- Fig. 140.) (3) Notice 
the direction in which the land slopes. (4) Name the gulf on the 
south side. (5) How is Texas separated from Mexico ? (6) What 
large peninsula do you find on this map ? (7) Which is the largest 
state ? (8) How does it seem to compare with South Carolina in size? 
With Pennsylvania ? (9) About how many miles is it by sea from New 
Orleans to Boston ? (see map, Fig. 124, opposite p. 141.) (10) Notice 
how near these states are to the Tropic of Cancer (see map, Fig. 123, 
opposite p. 140). What does that tell you about their climate? 

Relief. — The Appalachian Mountains extend into Ala- 
bama, passing across several of the Southern states. 
Name them. There are also some low mountains in west- 
ern Arkansas and Missouri, and a portion of the Rocky 
Mountains in western Texas. 

But this part of the country is mainly a great region of 
plains. Near the mountains, the plains are quite high 
above the sea ; but near the coast there is a strip of low, 
level land known as the coastal plains. 

Other low land is found along the Mississippi River, 
where there are broad flood-plains protected from tlie river 
floods by banks, called levees. Notice especially the Mis- 
sissippi delta, and explain how it happens that the land 
projects so far into the gulf (see pp. 46 and 47). 

We observe, then, that in this group of states are some 
mountains ; between these and the coast are high plains 
or plateaus ; then along the coast are low plains. Let us 
see what these three sections produce. 

159 



160 



THE EAitTR As A WHOLE 



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Coal and Iron. — Coal and iron are found among the Ap- 
palachian Mountains here, as in Pennsylvania. You would 

expect from this 
to find manufac- 
turing centres 
near the moun- 
tains : and Bir- 
mingham, At- 
lanta, Chat- 
tanooga, and 
Knoxville 
are engaged in 
manufacture. 
Find each and 
tell what state 
it is in. 

Cotton. — On the plains the soil is usually fertile, the 
climate is warm, and there is plenty of rain everywhere 
excepting in western Texas and Oklahoma. For these 
reasons farming is 
the chief occupa- 
tion. The south- 
ern farms are 
commonly called 
plantations, and 
the principal crop 
on the higher 
plains, away from 
the coast, is cot- 
ton. 



Fig. 141. 

Negro children on a cotton plantation. The white spots 
are cotton bolls. 




Fig. 142. 
A small cotton-field and a negro home. The cot- 
ton bolls look like white flowers. 



The cotton plant grows to a height of two to four feet. It has a 
white blossom, and after the flower is gone a small pod grows. This 



SOUTHERN STATES 



161 



pod enlarges until it ripens and bursts into a white ball, called the 
cotton boll, which looks somewhat like a milkweed pod after it has 
burst open. 

The cotton bolls are picked in the autumn, usually by men, women, 
and children, and then placed in a machine called the cotton gin; this 
removes the cotton seed, and also separates or combs out the threads 
of cotton. The cotton is then packed in bales, like hay, and shipped 
away to be made into thread, cotton cloth, and other goods. Name 
more of them. Name some of the cities in New England where this 
manufacturing is carried on (see p. 147). 

Corn and wheat are also grown upon these higher plains, 
and tobacco, especially in the northern part of this section. 




Fig. 143. 
Great bunches of cattle feeding on the ranches of the arid plains of the west. 

Ranching. — The drier plains of western Texas are 
covered with grass, which furnishes food for herds of 
horses, cattle, and sheep. The work of raising these 
animals is, therefore, one of the most important industries 
of this state. The section of land over which a man's 
cattle roam is not called a farm or plantation, but a cattle 
ranch, and the business is known as ranching. 

Since a few men can look after several thousand horses, cattle, or 
sheep, few people are needed to carry on ranching. On that account 
there are not many towns in the western part of Texas, as you can see 
on the map. Many cattle are sent eastward from Dallas by rail to 
be used as food. 



162 



THl: EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 144. 
Negro women cutting sugar-cane in Louisiana. 



Sugar and 
Rice. — On the 
low, swampy 
plains near the 
coast and along 
the lower Missis- 
sippi Riyer, rice 
and sugar-cane 
are raised. Rice 
seeds grow on a 
grasslike plant in 

wet soil. Sugar-cane looks much like corn ; but the juice 

of the stalk is so 

sweet that it can be 

made into sugar and 

molasses. 

Fruits. — Besides the 
crops mentioned, the low 
plain of Florida produces 
fruits. It is so far south 
that its climate is warm 
enough for oranges, lem- 
ons, and pineapples ; prob- 
ably your grocery store 
has such fruits from that 
state. 

Lumbering. — ■ Some of 
these plains, both the high 
and the low ones, are still 
wooded. It is from them 
that the hard or Georgia 
pine, so often used in 
floors, is obtained. There are forests also in the mountains, so that 
there is an abundance of timber in this region. Which Northern 




Fig. 145. 
A pineapple field in Florida. 



SOUTHERN STATES 163 

state already studied has a large amount of timber ? In what section 
would you expect the climate to prevent the growth of forests? 

Manufacturing. — Knowing what is produced in the 
Southern states, we might expect that there would be a 
great deal of manufacturing. There are coal, iron ore, 
corn, wheat, sugar-cane, cattle, sheep, cotton, and lumber, 
from each of which useful articles can be made. Tell what 
they are. There is also water-power in some places. 

But it requires much skill to handle machinery, and 
until recently most of the labor in the South was done by 
negro slaves who had little education. Therefore, before 
the war which freed the slaves, there was almost no manu- 
facturing in the South. Now the negroes are learning to 
work with machinery, and many white men from the North 
have carried manufacturing to these Southern states, so 
that the cities near the coal and iron section have grown 
to be manufacturing centres. Name them once more. 

There are also numerous lumber mills ; and the sap of the pine tree 
is manufactured into turpentine and rosin. In some places tobacco 
is made into cigars, sugar-cane into molasses, the hides of cattle into 
leather, cotton into cloth, and cotton seed into cotton-seed oil. The 
number of these factories is increasing every year. 

But even now many of the products of the mines and 
the soil, called raw products, are shipped away to be manu- 
factured into useful articles in other places, as New Eng- 
land. Then, after the articles are finished, some of them 
are brought back for use in the South. 

New Orleans. — Since farming is the main occupation, 
many of the people must live some distance apart upon 
their plantations. We need not expect, then, to find 
many large cities in these states. The principal ones will 
be those that have grown up at the best shipping points, 



164 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



that is on the ocean harbors, on the rivers, or on some of 
the great railways. 

The greatest city in this entire section is New Orleans, 
in Louisiana, on the Mississippi River about one hundred 
miles from its mouth. It is about the size of Pittsburg. 




Fig. 146. 

Loading and unloading goods on the levee at New Orleans. Notice the mules, 
one of the most conamon draft animals of the South. 

Like New York it can be reached not only by railway, 
but also by vessels from across the Atlantic Ocean, and by 
others from distant inland cities. Ocean ships are able to 
pass up the river from the Gulf; and river boats can reach it 
from cities far up the Mississippi and its tributaries. Find 
some of these cities, such as Pittsburg and St. Louis (Fig. 
124). Measure the distance from New Orleans to Pittsburg. 

These facts help to explain why New Orleans is a great cotton- 
shipping port. Quantities of cotton-seed oil, sugar, molasses, and rice 
are also sent from there. Manufactured goods, as cloth and shoes, 
and foods, as meat and corn, are brought to this centre, and there 
distributed in all directions. Further up the river are Vicksburg 
and Memphis, which are important river ports. 



SOUTHERN STATES 



1G5 



Other Seaports. — Not many large cities are found on 
the Gulf coast. One reason is that the entrances to the 
harbors are often blocked by sand-bars. Also, since there 
are so few people and cities inland, there is no reason for 
having many great cities on the coast. 

The largest seaport west of New Orleans is Galveston, 
which is somewhat larger than Lynn, Mass. What goods 
are probably shipped from this harbor ? Remember the 
low coastal plains and the high dry plains to the west. 

Along the coast east of New Orleans are Mobile, a great cotton 
port, Tampa, and Pensacola, a lumber port. AVhy lumber? On 
the Atlantic coast are Jacksonville, the chief shipping port for 
Florida oranges. Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington. Find 
each of these and tell what state it is in. 










Fig. 147. 
Some of the Indians who live in Indian Territory. 



Oklahoma and Indian Territory. - 
of Texas, now called Indian Terr 
under the one name of Indian Terr 
ernment as a home for some of the 
Indians were collected in the part 
Oklahoma was opened up to white 
thousands of white men are living 



— A few years ago the section north 
itory and Oklahoma, were known 
itory, a place set aside by our gov- 
tribes of Indians. But later, these 
noiv called Indian Territory; then 
people for settlement. Now many 
in the territory of Oklahoma. 



166 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 

Climate. — The climate of the Southern states is so mild that many 
Northern people go South in winter to escape the cold. In the South- 
ern part it rarely snows, and flowers are in blossom in midwinter. 
Do you know why the song-birds of the North go there in winter ? 

Review Questions. — (1) In which Southern and Northern states 
are the Appalachian Mountains found? (2) Tell what you can 
about the Southern plains. (3) Near what cities are coal and iron ore 
mined ? (4) Name and describe the chief crop on the higher plains. 
(5) What is done with the cotton after it is picked? (6) What is 
the occupation of the people in western Texas ? Why ? Why so few 
towns there ? (7) What two products are raised on the warm coastal 
plains and flood-plains ? Describe each. (8) What fruits are raised 
in Florida? Why raised there? (9) What about the lumber indus- 
try? (10) Why should one expect to find much manufacturing there? 
(11) What kinds are there? (12) Why not more? (13) Why are 
there so few large cities? (14) Which is the largest of all? Why? 
(15) What goods reach this port? Why? (16) Name and locate 
the principal seaports. (17) Make a list of the Southern cities studied, 
and locate each. (18) Tell the direction of each from New Orleans. 
(19) Tell something about Indian Territory and Oklahoma. 

Suggestions. — (1) Draw the coast-line of these states. Add the 
rivers, the state boundaries, and principal cities. Put in the capitals. 

(2) Represent the group in sand, showing the mountains and plains. 

(3) Examine some cotton. Make a collection of articles made 
from cotton and add them to the school collection. (4) Inquire of 
your groceryman where his oranges and other fruits were grown. 
(5) Examine some rice. (6) You can plant and grow not only 
wheat, but rice, cotton, sugar-cane, and other plants in the schoolroom, 
especially if you can induce some one who has a hothouse to allow 
you to start them there. (7) Why is not New Orleans as large as 
New York? (8) How are the people of New England and those of 
the Southern states dependent upon each other in the work that they 
do? (9) Beginning with the New England states, name those thus 
far studied that have mountains in them. (10) Name and locate 
the chief cities in all these states. (11) Draw the entire Eastern 
coast-line, and put in the larger cities and rivers. 

Fob References, see page 259. 



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XII. CENTRAL STATES 



Map Questions. — (1) Name the states in this group. (2) Which 
ones border on the Great Lakes ? How can goods be shipped from 
them by water to New York? (3) Name the Great Lakes. Which 
is highest above the level of the ocean ? Which is lowest ? (4) Into 
what do they empty? (see Fig. 123.) (5) What are the chief rivers 
in this group? (6) Into what do their waters empty? (see Fig. 124, 
opposite p. 141.) (7) Which states drain mainly into the Missouri 
Kiver? (8) Into the Mississippi ? (9) Into the Ohio? (10) Which 
one into the Great Lakes? (11) Find Chicago. Can you think of 
any reason why it should be a great city — the greatest in this sec- 
tion? (12) In which of these states did Abraham Lincoln live ? 

Raw Products. — This group of states has five cities 
larger than New Orleans, two that are almost as large, 
and several others that are not very much smaller. These 
facts tell us that there are many more people here than in 
the Southern states, 
and that the indus- 
tries must be far 
more extensive. Let 
us see what they are. 

The entire sec- 
tion, as you see, is 
mainly a great plain, 
whose soil is favor- 
able to farming. 

In the western part of Kansas, Nebraska, and the two 
Dakotas this plain is dry, like the western part of Texas. 

167 




Fig. 149. 
A bunch of cattle on a farm in western Kansas. 



168 



THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 



The reason for this is that the winds from the Pacific 
Ocean lose their moisture as they pass eastward over tiie 
mountains, while those from the Gulf of Mexico and At- 
lantic rarely reach so far as this region. On that account 
the men of this section, as in western Texas, are princi- 
pally engaged in raising cattle (Fig. 156), sheep, and horses. 

The eastern part of the two Dakotas and Minnesota have 
more rain ; and since the soil and climate are favorable, 
it is a great wheat region, the best in the entire country. 




Fig. 150. 

Harvesting wheat on one of the great wheat fields of the Red River Valley of 
North Dakota. 

In Kentucky, as in Virginia, tobacco is one of the most 
important products ; but in the Central states perhaps 
the most valuable farm crop is corn. A great deal of 
that grain is raised in every one of these states, although 
Iowa and Illinois produce the largest amounts. In many 
localities so much is raised that the cornfields extend as 
far as the eye can reach. 

In all of these states there is much stock, each farmer usually 
keeping a few horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs. Each state, likewise, 
produces wheat and other kinds of grain, as well as wool, hay, fruit, 
vegetables, and other crops. Ohio is especially noted for its sheep 
and wheat. 



CENTRAL STATES 



169 



Underneath the soil in several of the states, especially 
in Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana, coal is mined. Look on 




Fig. 151. 

Iron mining in the famous Mesabi district of Minnesota, wliere they sliovel 
out car-loads of the ore with great steam shovels, as gravel is often 
shovelled. 

the map (p. 155) to see in what states coal occurs. In 
Ohio and Indiana, petroleum and natural gas are found. 

On the north- 
western shore of 
Lake Superior, 
in Minnesota, 
and also on the 
southern side, in 
Wisconsin and 
Michigan, iron 
ore is mined, as 
in Pennsylvania 
and Alabama. 
In fact, that re- Fig. 152. 

ffion Droduces Make a list of the wheat producing states. 

more iron ore than any other in the world. A great 
quantity of copper is also mined in Michigan. 




170 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



The northern parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michi- 
gan also have large forests, so that many kinds of lumber 
are secured from them. 

Now we know the principal raw products of the soil 
and mines of this region. We find cattle and sheep in the 
dry western section, wheat in the northwest and in Ohio, 
copper and iron ore along the shores of Lake Superior, 

lumber in the north, 
tobacco in the south, 
corn in the centre, 
and*a vast amount of 
coal in several of the 
states. Many of the 
people of these states 
are engaged in ob- 
taining these raw 
products. 

The Manufacturing 
and Trade Centres. — 
From this it is easy 
to see the reason for 
so many people and 
great cities in this 
region. The statement was made at the beginning of this 
section that five cities here were larger than New Orleans, 
and several others about as large. Where should they be 
located ? Heretofore we have found the great cities where 
goods can be shipped by water ; accordingly we would 
expect to find them either on the shores of the Great 
Lakes or along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. 

Let us study about some of these cities, starting first 
with Chicago. It is next to New York in size, and is 



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Fig. 153. 
Market Street iu the great city of Chicago. 



CENTRAL STATES 



171 



situated on the southwestern end of Lake Michigan in 
Illinois. It has water connections with New York City, 
as you know, and also with the cities along the St. Law- 
rence River ; for there is a canal leading from Lake Erie 
to Lake Ontario in order to avoid the Niagara Falls. 

Aside from that, since Lake Michigan extends so far south, the 
railways from the Dakotas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, northern Iowa, and 
Illinois must swing around this southern end in going east and south- 
east. This makes that point a great railway centre. 




Fig. 1.54. 
Cattle in the Chicago stock-yards. 

Milwaukee, farther north on the lake shore, is much 
smaller than Chicago, but it is one of the two cities nearly 
as large as New Orleans. 

What, now, are likely to be the industries of these two 
cities and the others along the Great Lakes. Quantities 
of the raw products named are sent to Chicago. It is the 
greatest meat-market in the world ; and cattle and sheep 
from the Western plains, and hogs from all over the Central 
states, are shipped to the Chicago stock-yards (Fig. 154), 



172 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



where tliousands of men are employed in preparing tliem 
for food. The business of packing, canning, and shipping 
the meat requires a great number of Avorkmen, and the 
tanning of the hides to make leather, which is done in 
Milwaukee, also keeps many men busy. 

Some of the wheat of the Dakotas and Minnesota is 
sent to Chicago and Milwaukee to be ground into flour 
for bread, the latter city being specially noted for its 
flour-mills. But there are also great flour-mills nearer 
the wheat fields. In southeastern Minnesota are falls in 




Fig. 155. 

St. Anthony Falls, in the Mississippi, around which Minneapolis has grown. 
These falls furnish power for a number of great flour-mills. 

the Mississippi River (Fig. 155) which furnish excellent 
water-power, so that flour-mills have been built there and 
the city of Minneapolis has grown up about them. 

Only a few miles away, at the head of navigation on the Missis- 
sippi, is St. Paul, which owes its growth partly to the fact that it is 
a centre for the sale of machinery, clothing, and other articles needed 
by the farmers who raise the wheat. Name some of the articles they 
need to buy. 

While much flour is made in the West, a great deal of the wheat 
is sent to Duluth, on the western end of Lake Superior, and there 
shipped over the Great Lakes, whence it goes to New York and even 
to Europe. Why should Duluth be selected? 



CENTRAL STATES 173 

Chicago has no water-power for manufacturing, but it 
is the nearest lake port to the Illinois coal-fields, and draws 
upon them for fuel to produce steam for factories. Thus 
it is made a great centre for the manufacture of iron goods 
and furniture, receiving both iron ore and lumber in lake 
vessels. But the other lake ports share in this work, espe- 
cially the great cities of Cleveland, Detroit, and To- 
ledo, which are within easy reach of the raw products. 

Another important product that reaches Chicago is corn. There 
it is ground into corn-meal or made into hominy, starch, and other 
substances. So much corn and wheat are carried there that Chicago 
is a great grain as well as meat market. 

Locate the principal cities along the Great Lakes. Named in order 
of size they are Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, Toledo, and 
Duluth. In what state is each of these? Also find Saginaw and 
Grand Rapids, two important lumber manufacturing cities. 

We said that the other great cities should be looked for 
upon the water ways formed by the Mississippi River and 
its largest tributaries. The greatest of these tributaries 
is the Missouri River, and a very large city, St. Louis, is 
situated near where it enters the Mississippi. 

St. Louis is connected with the country far to the 
northwest by the Missouri River ; with Minneapolis by 
the Mississippi ; with Pittsburg by the Ohio ; and on the 
south with Memphis, New Orleans, and the ocean. Natu- 
rally, as people settled here, railways were built, until, 
like Chicago, it has become one of the great railway 
centres in the country. Like Chicago, also, it draws to 
itself all the products that have been named. 

Although a great many cattle and sheep reach St. Louis and Chi- 
cago, making them important meat-markets, many of these animals 
are slaughtered near the plains on which they are raised, and that 



174 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



fact explains the importance of Omaha and Kansas City. Both 
these noted meat-markets are on the Missom'i River. Horses and wool 

are also shipped 
from these cities. 

Much wheat and 
corn are brought 
to St. Louis, mak- 
ing it an impor- 
tant grain-market. 
A great deal of to- 
bacco also goes to 
St. Louis ; but since 
Kentucky is the 
chief tobacco rais- 
ing state in the 
Mississippi Valley, 
its leading city, 
Louisville, is the great tobacco market of that section, as Richmond 
is for Virginia. Jt is also an important manufacturing centre. 




Fig. 156. 



The manufacture of clotliing is an important industry 
in Cincinnati on the Ohio River, and much machinery 
is made there from iron ore sent from Pennsylvania and 
West Virginia. Why from these states rather than from 
Lake Superior ? 

One of the largest cities in these Central states, Indian- 
apolis, the capital and largest city in Indiana, is located 
away from the great waterways. But it is in a rich farm- 
ing country, and as railways enter it from all directions, 
it has become the chief trade centre of that state. Colum- 
bus, the capital of Ohio, is another great trade centre. 

Locate the principal cities on the large rivers and tell 
for what they are important. Ranked in order of size they 
are, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Louisville, Minneapolis, Kansas 
City, St. Paul, and Omaha. In which state is each of these ? 



CENTRAL STATE'S 175 

Review and Comparisons. — We have seen that the farm products 
and manufactures of the Central states are quite different from those 
of the Southern states. Make a list of these for each of the groups 
and compare them. Compare them in the same way with those of 
New England. With those of the Middle Atlantic states. Explain, 
as well as you can, the causes for these differences. 

Make a list of the six largest cities in each of these four groups of 
states. When in doubt as to whether one city is larger than another, 
look np the population in the tables on page 265. Add together the 
populations of each group of cities and compare the results. 

Review Questions. — (1) Describe the surface of the Central 
states. (2) What four states are dry in the western part? AVhy? 

(3) Coinpare the products of these with those of western Texas. 

(4) Where is our greatest wheat region ? (5) Where in this group of 
states are copper and iron ore mined? (6) Where is lumber found? 

(7) Tobacco? (8) Corn? (9) Coal? (10) For what products is 
Ohio noted? (11) Give some reasons why Chicago has become so 
great a city. (12) Also St. Louis. (13) Name and locate the chief 
cities along the Great Lakes, giving the main industries of each. 
(14) Do the same with the cities along the great rivers. (15) What 
was said about Lidianapolis and Columbus? 

Suggestions. — (1) Draw the Mississippi River with its two main 
tributaries. Add to the drawing the Great Lakes and the Atlantic 
and Gulf coasts. Make a cross where each of the large cities is 
located, and write its name. (2) Locate your own home on this map 
and notice its direction and distance from some of the large cities. 

(8) Add some wheat and corn to the school collection. (4) Grow some 
of each in the school. (5) Tell from what animals wool, beef, pork, 
mutton, lard, and leather come. (6) Find out about the buffalo and 
Indians that used to live on the plains. (7) Read about the early 
French explorers. About the pioneers who first settled these plains. 
(8) According to the scale of the map (Fig. 124) how does Kansas com- 
pare in size with Connecticut? (9) With the whole of New England? 
(10) Estimate the entire length of the Mississippi River according to 
the scale on Figure 124. (11) Draw a map of the Central states 
similar to that of New England, and put in the capitals. 

For References, see page 259. 



XIII. WESTERN STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) In what directions do the mountains ex- 
tend? (2) Xame the principal ranges. (3) Which are the chief 
rivers ? (4) Make a drawing of them. (5) In what sections do 
there seem to be few rivers ? (6) What does tliat suggest about rain- 
fall? (7) Some rivers empty into lakes that have no outlet. What 
does that suggest (see p. 55) ? (8) How far is it across the United 
States from the northern to the southern boundary? (9) Measure 
the length of California. Compare its size with Pennsylvania ; with 
Texas ; with Massachusetts. (10) Compare the coast-line with that 
of New England. What does that suggest about harbors and cities? 
(11) Where are Denver and San Francisco? 

Reasons why there are so Few People. — This group of 
states is much larger than either of the other four, form- 
ing about one-third of the entire United States. But 
they are thinly settled, having only about one-fourth as 
many people as the Southern states alone. Two divi- 
sions, Arizona and New Mexico, are still territories, like 
Oklahoma, because they have so few inhabitants. 

One reason they have so few people is that most of the 
early settlers came from Europe, and naturally located in 
the Eastern and Southern states. It was only after these 
parts were fairly well occupied that many people moved 
farther westward. 

Another important reason is the mountainous condition 
of the country. Much of this section is a vast, dry pla- 
teau, usually more than a mile above the level of the sea. 
Extending across the plateau from north to south are 

176 



QJil Vf^'^^i 0(7 

?!. _.:2J ^' "Jm:u'u j Una, „u 





A H O I ^ ^ 












t; ;/ ff'>— ^ --■ s, fi?, Si.rings I 

I ,I>uraugo [ 1_?-.— — 7-"^ — 



115 LuuguuJe West 110^ from Greeuffich 105 "-n- c° 



WESTERN STATES 



177 



several great mountain ranges. The mountains along the 
jPacific coast are called the Coast Ranges^ those in eastern 
California the Sierra Nevada, and those farther north, in 
Oregon and Washington, the Cascade Ranges. Far east 
of these long chains are others called the Rocky Mountains. 
All of these mountains together are known as the Western 
Cordilleras. 

The Cordilleras are far higher and steeper than the Appa- 
lachians in the East, and they are very rocky, so that farm- 




FiG. 158. 
A geyser in eruption in the Yellowstone National Park. 

ing is impossible on much of the land. Indeed, in many 
parts they are so rough that it is difficult to travel among 
them ; this is indicated by the name Rocky Mountains. 

Still another reason why there are so few people is that, 
even where the soil is fertile, the climate is usually too 
dry for farming, because the winds that reach it do not 
carry 'much vapor. 



178 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 159. 

A view in the great Colorado Canyon, where the Colorado River tlows in a 
deep gorge cut in the plateau, to a depth of over a mile. 

Wonderful Scenery. — Some of the places in this section 
are among the most interesting in the world. For exam- 
ple, in northwestern Wyoming are hundreds of springs 
where the water is so hot that it boils. At some points 
boiling water and steam occasionally shoot upward with a 
roar, from holes in the ground, and rise frequently to a 
height of one or two hundred feet. These are called 
geysers (Fig. 158), and there are scores of them in this 
region. 

Here, too, is the Yellowstone River, whose waters tum- 
ble 308 feet in a single fall, which is nearly twice as high 
as the Niagara Falls in New York. In the deep gorge 
that the river has cut below the falls, the rocky banks are 



WESTERN STATES 



179 



in places fully one-fourth of a- mile high and beautifully 
colored. Our nation has set aside this wonderful region 
as a park, naming it the Yellowstone National Park; and 
each year hundreds of people travel there to see it. 

There are many other interesting places to visit in this 
western country ; but none are more wonderful than the 
Colorado Canyon (Fig. 159), an immense river valley cut 
in the rocks of the plateau^ in places to a depth of over a 
mile. Trace its course on the map. 

Mining. — Although so rocky and so arid, there are 
some very important industries in the Western states ; 
and in order to find out what they are, let us first study 
the mountains. You remember that iron ore and coal are 
found in the Appalachians ; do you remember in what 
states ? Some coal and iron ore are also mined in the 
Cordilleras ; but even more valuable minerals than these 
are found in the mountain rocks. 

In 1818 gold Avas discovered in 
California. Bits of this heavy metal 
lay in some of the stream beds, and 
could be obtained by carefully wash- 
ing the lighter dirt away (Fig. 160). 
News of the discovery quickly 
spread throughout the Avorld, and 
men hastened to the gold fields by 
thousands. Ever since then Cali- 
fornia has been one of the leading 
states in the production of gold. 

There were no railways then in 
the West, so that some men from the East crossed the 
plains and mountains in wagons, in which they were in 
danger of being attacked by savage Indians ; others made 




Fig. 160. 

Miners washing, or " pan- 
ning," gravel to see if 
there is any gold in it. 



180 



TRE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



, V« Oran,, ^f^ Superior, 

Irun District, 



the long journey in vessels. What route must they have 
taken? The best harbor on the Pacific coast was San 
Francisco Bay, where a small Spanish town had existed 
for years. Soon people crowded in so rapidly that the 
town of San Fkancisco became a great city and the chief 
trade centre in the West. 

The metal was also found under the soil in the midst of 
solid rock. Rock with gold in it is called gold ore, and 
must be crushed into fine bits before the gold can be 

collected. This 
requires much 
machinery, and 
is one of the im- 
portant parts of 
mining (Fig. 
22, p. 24). A 
great deal of 
this kind of ore 
is now mined in 
California. 

Gold is also 
found in Colo- 
rado, and many men have been attracted to that state, as 
formerly to California. Indeed more gold now comes from 
Colorado than from California. Denver, the largest city 
in Colorado, and Pueblo, owe their growth partly to the 
gold mines near them. Find these cities on the map. 

Silver is another precious metal mined in the West, and 
Colorado produces more of it than any other state. With- 
out doubt some of the gold and silver that you have seen 
came from the mountain rocks of California or Colorado. 
For what purposes are these metals used ? 




Coppc] 
CHIEF ■, 

Iron, Gold, Silver and 
Copper Districts 

OF THE 

IKITED STATES. 

□ Iron S^Goldi: Silver < 




Fig. 161. 
In wliat states is each found ? 



WESTERN STATES 



181 




Large quantities of both metals are also mined in the 
other states and territories of this section, especially in 
the Black Hills of South Dakota, in Montana, Nevada, 
and Utah. 

Much copper is mined in the West, especially at Butte, 
Montana, where the greatest copper mines in the Avorld 
are located, and 
in the territory of 
Arizona. Lead is 
a fourth impor- 
tant metal ob- 
tained from these 
Western states. 

Cities have 
grown up near 
some of these 
mines ; but there 
are many mines in the mountains far away from the cities. 
In some parts of the country travellers may see, from the 
car windows, scores of little tunnels dug into the sides of 
the mountains, by men who were hunting for ore. It 
is a hard, lonely life, and many find little ore ; but one 
occasionally makes a discovery that brings him a fortune. 

Ranching. — The mountains, therefore, are chiefly val- 
uable for their ores; but the high plains and plateaus also 
have some worth. There is little rain upon them ; but, 
as in the western part of the two Dakotas, Nebraska, Kan- 
sas, and Texas, there is often grass enough for raising 
cattle, sheep, and horses. The animals raised are finally 
shipped eastward to furnish meat, leather, and wool. In 
these states the cowboys live, spending most of their 
days upon their horses. 



Fig. 162. 

These piles of dirt and rock are the waste dumped 
aside by miners as they have dug into the earth 
for ore. 



182 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



The Desert. — In 

some parts of this 
dry, or arid, region 
there is so little rain 
that it is a true des- 
ert. One can travel 
for scores of miles 
and see scarcely any 
vegetation except- 
ing cactus, a little 
grass, and such 
plants as grow in 
arid regions. There 
are no trees; there 
is no water ; in fact, 
there is little but 
sand and rock to be 
seen ! No wonder 
that many a family, 
with their horses or oxen, died of thirst and hunger in 
attempting to cross this desert waste in search of Cali- 
fornia gold fifty years ago. 

Irrigation. — However, by irrigation (see p. 48) parts 
of these deserts are changed' into gardens. To irrigate 
the thirsty soil, which is usually fertile, men dig ditches 
and lead the water from streams that are fed by the rain 
and melting snow of the high mountains. 

The Mormons of Utali, a people who were driven out 
of the Eastern states many years ago, and who settled in 
that barren region, have changed the desert to a garden 
by means of irrigation. They have also built the beauti- 
ful Salt Lake City near Salt Lake ; and not far away 




Fig. 163. 
A western cowboy. 



WESTERN STATES 



183 



from this is Ogden", a busy railway centre, where there 
are not so many Mormons. Find these places on the 
map. 

People living near the eastern base of the Rocky Moun- 
tains raise much of their food by the aid of irrigation. Near 
Denver is a great irrigation ditch leading from the moun- 
tains ; and while the land just above the level of the ditch 
is fit for nothing but grazing, that below it, which can be 
flooded with the water, produces excellent crops. 




fci^v: s.^-r/r - r 



*'^ '^' 



^^^^^^aei^. 



Fig. 164. 

The desert of Utah, near Great Salt Lake, where there is no fresh water, 
where it rarely rains, and where there is very little A^egetation. 

Irrigation is grow^ing more common every year, and by 
the aid of it people often raise food for stock, as well as for 
themselves. They even build great reservoirs to collect 
the water for use in the summer (Fig. 49, p. 53); but 
most of this barren waste can never make good farm land, 
because there is not enough water. 
- Fruit Raising. — We have been studying the moun- 
tains, high plains, and plateaus, finding mining and graz- 
ing to be the chief industries, with farming where the soil 
is irrigated. 



184 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 




Let us now examine the land nearer the coast. South- 
ern California also has an arid climate where farming 
cannot be carried on without irrigation. But since the 
climate of the region is warm, as in Florida, the fruits that 

grow in southern 
countries, such as 
oranges, lemons, 
peaches, olives, 
and figs, are easily 
raised. 

In the midst of 
this beautiful fruit 
country, where the 
climate is so fine, 
is the beautiful 
^'''- ^^^- ^ city of Los Ange- 

Au orauge grove near Los Angeles in SoutJiern Can- 

foruia, the irrigation ditch being seen between LES, an important 
the two rows of orange trees. railway centre, sur-' 

rounded by thriving towns and orange groves (Fig. 165). 

EveryAvhere in that vicinity the main work is fruit 
raising by aid of irrigation. Without it a piece of land 
produces no crops, while a well-irrigated orchard by its 
side thrives wonderfully well. Visitors are usually sur- 
prised to see such a striking difference. 

Industries along the Pacific Coast. — Farther north, 
toward San Francisco and beyond it, the rainfall is heav- 
ier ; but irrigation is necessary in many places. The most 
common fruits are grapes, plums, peaches, and apricots. 
Considerable wheat is also raised, and sheep are numerous. 
This is the country of " big trees," too, the largest in the 
world being found in the vast forests among the moun- 
tains. 



WESTERN STATES 



185 



Still farther north, between Oregon and Washington, 
you will find a large river on the map. What is its name ? 
Here the moist winds from the ocean cause heavy rainfall, 
so that irrigation near the coast is unnecessary. On the 
mountain slopes are extensive forests, and there are large 
lumber mills, especially in Washington along Puget Sound. 
Find this sound (Fig. 124). 

In this section there are many cattle and sheep ranches, 
and quantities of wheat are raised. Fruit raising, espe- 
cially peaches and apples, is also an important industry. 
Salmon are abundant in the Columbia River, so that the 
fishing industry is 
important there, as 
at Gloucester, Mas- 
sachusetts. What 
kinds are caught 
there? (seep. 143.) 

The Cities of the 
Pacific Slope. — The 
largest city north 
of San Francisco is 
Portland, on the 
Columbia River. 
Like New Orleans 
it is about one hun- 
dred miles above 
the mouth of the 
river, and can be 
reached by ocean 
vessels. The other large cities are Tacoma and Seattle 
on Puget Sound, and Spokane, a manufacturing centre, 
at the falls in the Spokane River, 




Fig. 1G6. 

One of the " big trees." Notice that through a 
bole cut in the trunk a large wagon can be 
driven. 



186 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 

Comparing the Pacific with the Atlantic coast, one sees 
some striking differences. The Atlantic coast is low and 
extremely irregular, having many bays and fine harbors, 
with numerous great cities about them. But the Pacific 
coast has steep mountains in many places, and, except in 
the very north, is regular, having few fine harbors and 
large cities. San Francisco is the most important, being 
larger than New Orleans. Los Angeles is twenty-five 
miles away from the coast ; but Portland, Tacoma, "and 
Seattle are all seaports. 

From the four coast cities and from Los Angeles, goods 
are shipped over the Pacific Ocean to Japan, China, Aus- 
tralia, and even around South America to the Atlantic 
coast. This is an important trade, but it is by no means 
so extensive as the ocean commerce of the Atlantic coast 
cities. The fact that we now control the Philippine and 
Hawaiian islands will cause this trade to increase; and 
when the Nicaragua Canal is finished, there will be still 
more ocean commerce. Why ? 

At present the greater part of the products of the 
Western states, even of the coast cities, instead of being 
shipped by water, are sent eastward by rail. There are 
railway lines connecting each of the large Western cities 
with all portions of the Eastern states. 

Review Questions. — (1) Compare the size of this group of states 
with that of the other groups. (2) What about the number of people 
there? (3) Give three reasons why there are so few. (4) Name 
each of the mountain ranges, finding each on the map, Fig. 124. 
(5) Tell what a visitor may see in, the Yellowstone Park. Where is 
it? (6) Where is San Francisco? What caused its early rapid 
growth? (7) Where is Denver? Give a reason for its importance. 
(8) What metals are obtained in the West ? (9) Where is each found? 



WESTERN STATES 187 

(10) Tell what you can about each. (11) What is the principal in- 
dustry on the high plains and plateaus? Why? (12) Why cannot 
the whole desert be imgated? (13) What city have the Mormons 
built? Where is it? (14) Where is Los Angeles? (15) What is 
raised near there? Why? (16) What is raised in other parts of 
California? (17) Name the products of Oregon and Washington. 
(18) Where is the chief city in Oregon? Why there? (19) What are 
the chief cities in Washington? (20) Name the cities on the Pacific 
coast having excellent harbors. Name several on the Atlantic. 
(21) How do the two coasts differ ? (22) Where are the products of 
the Pacific coast sent ? How ? 

(23) Make a list of the principal cities studied in the United 
States. (24) In what direction is each from Chicago ? (25) Make 
a map of the United States, placing on it each of the states with their 
names. Put on the map the names of the capitals. (26) Which 
states have a sea-coast ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Write a story describing a journey across the 
plains and mountains to California in the early days. (2) Make a 
list of articles made of gold ; of silver ; of copper ; of lead. Collect 
some ores of these for the school. (3) What stories have you read 
about the life of cowboys? About the Western Indians? (4) Find 
out something about the Yosemite Valley. (5) Ask a storekeeper 
what California fruits he keeps. (6) Visit a fish-market to see some 
salmon. Find a picture of one in the dictionary. (7) Add together 
the population of the five largest cities on the Pacific coast. Compare 
that number with the population of the five largest on the Atlantic 
coast. You will find a table giving population of cities on page 265. 
(8) Make a drawing of the Pacific coast, showing the cities. Add 
the rivers. (9) Find out what large animals live among the moun- 
tains. (10) What is the distance from San Francisco to New York? 

(11) Past what cities must the waters of the Yellowstone River run, 
in flowing to the Gulf of Mexico? Through what states? (12) Write 
to some Western railway, as the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe 
oflBice in Chicago, the Northern Pacific office at St. Paul, or the Denver 
and Rio Grande at Denver, for their illustrated circulars, in which 
there are many views of Western scenery. 

For References, see page 260. 



XIV. ALASKA 

Alaska, which you see on the map (Fig. 123, opposite 
p. 140), although a part of the United States, is a great 
distance from us. Our country purchased this cold, bar- 
ren land from Russia. It is so far north that it is partly 
in the Arctic Zone, and many people thought that our 
government wasted the 17,200,000 that were paid for it. 




Fig. 1G7. 

A street in Sitka, Alaska. Although it is summer, notice the snow on the 

mountains. 

But Alaska has proved valuable in several ways. Dur- 
ing the last few years thousands of men have gone there in 
search of gold, just as years ago thousands rushed to Cali- 
fornia. You have j)robably heard of the famous Klon- 
dike region where so much gold has been found. The 

•X88 



ALASKA 



189 



Klondike is a stream flowing into the Yukon River just 
east of the boundary line between Alaska and Canada. 
Find it. The Klondike region itself is in Canada. 

Much gold is also mined on the coast just north of Sitka, the cap- 
ital of Alaska, and in other places as well. But the country is so far 
north that little food can be 
raised, and mining in many 
parts is not only difficult 
but dangerous. 

Much sealskin for cloaks 
and caps comes from Alaska . 
A few hundred miles south- 
west of the mouth of the 
Yukon River are the small 
Pribilof Islands, to which 
thousands of seals come 
every spring to rear their 
young. Seal hunters are 
allowed by the government 
to capture some of these for 
their fur, which is warm 
and beautiful, but very ex- 
pensive because the animals 
are not abundant. 

There are great forests in some parts of Alaska, and the fishing is 
good. Not only is Alaska valuable at present, but it will probably be 
even more valuable in the future. 




Fig. 108. 

Some of the fur-seal on the Pribilof 
Islands. 



Ekview Questions. — (1) Where is Alaska? (2) In what zones? 
(3) How did we obtain it ? (4) What is done there ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Draw the Yukon River. (2) Measure its 
length and compare it with that of the Mississippi. (3) How does 
the coast compare with that of California? Of Maine? (4) Read 
something about the fur seal. Examine some fur. (5) Find out 
something about a journey to the Klondike. 

Fou' References, see page 260. 



XV. CANADA AND OTHER COUNTRIES NORTH 
OF THE UNITED STATES 

Map Questions. — (1) How far are Detroit, Buffalo, and Chicago 
from Canada? (See map opposite p. 167.) (2) What Falls in the 
river between Lakes Ontario and Erie ? (3) What effect have they 
upon shipping? (4) In what part of Canada would you expect to 
find most of the people? Why? (5) What large bay in northeastern 
Canada? (See map opposite p. 140.) (6) What can you say about 
the climate of the country north of this? (7) Which of the Great 
Lakes is entirely within the United States? (8) Into what large 
river do the Great Lakes empty ? 

Canada and Newfoundland 

Industries. — Canada is a British colony ; and New- 
foundland and Labrador also belong to England, but are 
separate from Canada. 

Much of this region is cold and bleak , but the south- 
ern part resembles the northern United States in climate 
and soil, so that the products on the two sides of the 
boundary may be expected to correspond. 

Fishing was found to be an important industry along 
the New England coast (p. 143) ; so it is, also, in Nova 
Scotia and Newfoundland, 

Maine in the East and Washington in the West are cov- 
ered with vast forests. Forests extend into Canada, cover- 
ing a large part of it, and in fact they reach northward 
for several hundred miles until the climate becomes so 
cold that trees can no longer grow. 

190 



COVNTBIES NORTH OF UNITED STATES 



191 



New York and Ohio are noted for their fruit, dairying, 
and farming. Ontario, or that part of Canada just north 
of these states, has the same products. 

The best wheat fields in the United States are in Min- 
nesota and the two Dakotas ; so Manitoba is the best 
wheat region in Canada, And since the dry plains of 
the Far West also extend into Canada, cattle and sheep 
raising are important industries on the plains of western 
Canada, even to the base of the Rocky Mountains. 

The western mountains of the United States contain 
much gold, silver, and other metals ; it is the same with 
the mountains of Canada. The Klondike region should 
be remembered as a part of Canada, although it was men- 
tioned in connection with Alaska (see p. 188). 

Since we know the principal products, let us locate the 
chief lines of transportation and cities. Canada, like the 
United States, 



has a 

route 

ocean. 



water- 
to the 
This is 




partly along the 
Great Lakes 
and partly along 
the St. Law- ^ ^^„ 

Fig. 169. 
rence Kiver, one 'j^j^g Lachine Rapids on the St. Lawrence, just above 
of the 2'reat riv- Montreal. There is one place down which a steamer 

„ , can come; but no vessel can go up the rapids. Do 

ers 01 tne con- you see how this has helped to determine the loca- 

tinent; but in tion of Montreal ? 

some places, as at Niagara, it is necessary to pass for short 
distances through canals. One of the largest of these is 
the Welland Canal, which connects Lakes Erie and On- 
tario. Point it out on the map opposite p. 167. 



192 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 




Cities. — The eastern part of Canada is most thickly 
settled, like the eastern part of the United States, and for 
the same reasons. What are they ? Along the water- 
route just mentioned are some very large cities, as in the 

United States. The 
largest is Montre- 
al, which is nearly 
as large as New Or- 
leans. Like that city, 
Montreal is situated 
on a river at a point 
where ocean vessels 
can reach it. Far- 
ther down the St. 
Lawrence is the old 
city of Quebec, 
founded many years 
ago by the French. Ottawa, the capital, is west of 
Quebec, on Ottawa River, and Toronto is across Lake 
Ontario from Niagara Falls. Find all these (Fig. 123). 

As there is much water-power and coal in eastern Can- 
ada, there is a great deal of manufacturing in the cities, 
especially in Montreal and Toronto. 

The cities not on this water-route are smaller. Halifax, iia Nova 
Scotia, has an excellent harbor. Winnipeg, the main city in the 
wheat region of Manitoba, is connected with the Pacific coast at Van- 
couver and the Atlantic at St. John by the great Canadian Pacific 
Railway. From Vancouver and Victoria, as from Seattle, Tacoma, 
Portland, and San Francisco, goods are shipped to Australia and Asia. 

2''ke Far North. — In the vast forests of northern Canada live 
few other people than hunters, trappers, and Indians. 

Along the northern coast are found scattered groups of Eskimos, 
who get their living almost entirely from the sea. Their food is 



Fig. 170. 

Waterfall at Ottawa. The city is seen behind 
the fall. How has the fall helped to deter- 
mine the location of Ottawa ? 



COUNTRIES NOETS OF UNITED STATES 



193 



obtained from the seal, walrus, polar bear, and reindeer ; their clothes, 
summer tents, and boats are made from the skins of these animals; 
and their oil for light and heat 
during the long winter night 
also comes from them. Their 
winter houses are snow huts, 
and long journeys over the ice- 
covered seas are made on sledges 
drawn by wolf-like dogs. 

Islands North of 
North America 

The islands north of North 

America ai'e desolate lands. In 

winter the sea is frozen ; and 

even in summer floating ice is 

usually in sight. Some of the 

ice is that which has frozen on 

the surface of the sea during the 

winter ; but rising above this 

are many great blocks of ice, or 

icehergs, sometimes two hundred 

or three hundred feet in height. 

They have broken off from the 

streams of ice, called glaciers, 

that move down from the land and enter the sea. The immense island 

of Greenland is almost all 
covered by such glaciers. 
!N"o land can be seen except- 
ing near the coast, where 
some Eskimos live and 
a few Europeans, called 
Danes, from Denmark. 
The island belongs to the 
Fig. 172. Danes, who pui'chase skins, 

An iceberg from the great Greenland glacier. oil, etc., from the Eskimos. 
o 




Fig. 171. 

An Eskimo boy from Baffin Land, 
dressed in his summer furs. 




194 



TBE EABTH A8 A WHOLE 



Review Questions. — (1) Show how the products of Canada 
correspond with those of northern United States. (2) Where is the 
St. Lawrence River? Walk in the direction in which it flows. 
(3) Where does the water come from? (4) Through what waters 
must a vessel pass in going from Duluth to the Gulf of St. Lawrence 




Fig. 173. 

Cutting ice from the St. Lawrence River opposite Montreal. What effect 
should you think this thick ice would have on the commerce of Montreal ? 

and the ocean ? (5) Name and locate the chief cities along this route. 
(6) Where is the largest city? Why there? (7) Where is Ottawa? 
Halifax? (8) Name two cities on the western coast. (9) Tell about 
the people living in northern Canada. (10) How are icebergs caused? 
(11) Make a drawing of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, 
putting in the cities. 

Suggestions. — (1) What difficulty do you see in building the 
Welland Canal ? How is it overcome ? (2) What difficulties should 
you think the Canadian Pacific Railway would have in running trains 
upon it in winter? (3) Why is not Hudson Bay an important outlet 
for goods by water from Canada? (4) How can you explain the 
fact that there are no large cities along the great Mackenzie River? 
(.5) Find out something about Quebec. (6) Write a story about 
the Eskimos. (7) Collect pictures of scenes in Canada. (8) Read 
Longfellow's poem, " Evangeline " ; the land of Evangeline is in Nova 
Scotia. 
For References, see page 260. 



XVI. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED 

STATES 



Map Questions. — (1) What does the map (Fig. 123, opposite 
p. 140) tell you about the highlands and lowlands in Mexico ? (Notice 
the rivers.) (2) Find the cai^ital of Mexico. (3) Why is Central 
America a fitting name for the region southeast of Mexico ? (4) Point 
toward Cuba. (-5) How far is Havana from Florida? From New 
Orleans ? (6) What large islands in the West Indies ? In what zone 
are they ? (7) What large peninsulas are in Mexico ? 

Mexico and Central America. — As Canada is colder than 
the United States, so the countries south of us may be ex- 
pected to be warmer. 
Notice that a large 
part of Mexico is 
south of the tropic 
of Cancer and that 
Central America is 
entirely south of it. 

Near the seacoast 
of Mexico the land 
is low and the cli- 
mate hot ; but in the 
interior are many 
mountains and broad, 
arid plateaus. They 
are a continuation of those in our Western states, and are 
so high that the climate is cool. 

195 




Fig. 174. 

Popocatepetl, an extinct volcano, not far from 
Mexico City, and one of the highest moun- 
tain peaks on the continent. Notice that 
the top is white with snow, although in the 
torrid zone. 



196 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



Some of the highest mountain peaks are old volcanoes made of lava 
that has poured forth from the earth. These peaks are so high that 
they are always covered with snow, in spite of the fact that they are 
in the torrid zone. 

With such a variety of climate we shall of course find a 
variety of products. Much of the mountain region is too 

cold and rocky 
for farming ; 
but, as in Col- 
orado, these 
mountains yield 
valuable metals, 
especially sil- 
ver. 

Part of the 
Mexican plateau 
is dry, like west- 
ern Texas and 
some of the 
other Western 
states. Name some of them. Like, these, its value con- 
sists largely in wild grass, on which great herds of cattle, 
sheep, and horses feed. Of what use are these animals ? 
In other parts of the plateau there is enough rainfall 
for farming ; but in most places crops can be raised by 
the aid of irrigation only. 

Along the lowlands of the coast, the rainfall is heavy, 
and the products are much the same as on the low, damp 
plains of our own Southern states. What are they ? (See 
pp. 160 and 162.) Besides these, much coffee is grown on 
the slopes between the coastal plain and the high plateau. 
Have we found that product before in North America ? 




Fig. 175. 
A street in a Mexican town. 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF UNITED STATES 197 

There is very little manufacturing in these countries, for two rea- 
sons. One is that coal is lacking. Why is that a good reason? The 
other is that many of the people are too ignorant to manage machinery. 

The Spaniards once owned this part of North America, and their 
language is still spoken there. Most of the people living in Mexico 
and Central America are either pure Indians, or else Spaniards with 
Indian blood in their veins, called half-breeds.. Only about one man. 
in six is a full-blooded Spaniard. 

Mexico is now a republic, like the United States, and 
its capital is the city of Mexico. The coast on the east 
is regular, as 3'ou can see, so that there are few harbors. 
Vera Cruz is the chief port, but the harbor is poor. 

Central America is made up of several republics, each 
having a capital of its own. Many of the people are very 
ignorant, and there are frequent revolutions when ambi- 
tious generals try to overthrow the government. 

At the present time Central America and the Isthmus of Panama 
are of interest because canals are being dug there, to save vessels the 
long journey around South America. Examine the map (Fig. 120, 
opposite p. 137) to see how much distance wiU be saved in this way 
between New York and San Francisco. In Central America are dense 
tropical forests from which hard woods, dyes, rubber, and other valua- 
ble products ai'e obtained. 

The West Indies and Bermuda. — Besides the countries on 
the mainland of the continent there are numerous islands, 
some of which form an archipelago called the West Indies. 
They are really the highest parts of mountain ranges pro- 
jecting above the sea and so arranged as to separate the 
Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico and from the At- 
lantic Ocean. All of them have a tropical climate. 

The largest island is Cuba, where sugar, tobacco, and 
tropical fruits, such as bananas, are raised. Havana is its 
capital and largest seaport. Cuba belonged to Spain until 



198 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 176. 

A field of Easter lilies in the Bermuda Islands, 
where these lilies are raised for export 
to the United States at Easter. 



our recent war with Spain, and so did Porto Rico, which 
now belongs to the United States. 

The other large islands are Jamaica, belonging to England, and 

Haiti, where there are two 
negro republics. The large 
islands are called the Greater 
Antilles; and the small is- 
lands, extending in a chain 
from near Porto Rico to the 
South American coast, are 
called the Lesser Antilles. 
These belong to England, 
France, and other European 
nations. 

Off the eastern coast of 
Florida are the low Bahama 
Islands; and in the open 
Atlantic, far to the north- 
east of these, is a tiny clus- 
ter called the Bermuda Islands. Both belong to England, and are 
made of coral sand, as described on page 135. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the climate and relief of 
Mexico. (2) About the industries. (3)' About the inhabitants. 
(4) What cities are there ? (5) For what is Central America espe- 
cially important at present ? (6) Tell what you can about the West 
Indies. (7) The Bahamas. (8) The Bermudas. 

Suggestions. — (1) What reason can you see for digging the Nica- 
ragua Canal at the place where it is shown on the map? (2) Why 
are there no large rivers in Mexico? (3) Find out about the Panama 
Canal. (4) Tell some of the events that happened in Cuba during 
our war against Spain. (5) Find out what you can about Cuba; 
about Porto Rico. (6) In what time of year would it be best for 
people to visit these islands? (7) Why can potatoes, onions, and 
other vegetables be grown in Bermuda so early as to reach us in 
March ? (8) Ask some one who has been to the Bermuda or Bahama 
Islands to tell you what he saw there. 

For References, see p. 260. 



XVII. SOUTH AMERICA 

Map Questions. — (1) Compare the shape of South America 
with that of North America. (2) What great mountain ranges are 
there along the western side ? (3) Which part of South America has 
no cold winter? (4) Which part has a climate much like that where 
you live ? (5) What is the name of the longest river ? (6) Where 
do you expect to find the most fertile regions ? (7) Name the coun- 
tries of South America. 



Relief. — Great mountain chains were found in the 
western part of North America. What are their names ? 
Through what countries 
do they extend ? In 
South America there are 
also high mountains on 
the western side, called 
the Andes. The peaks 
of the Andes are higher 
than those in the United 
States, and there are 
many active volcanoes 
among them (Fig. 12). 




Two tunnels on a railway line that crosses 
the hiffh Andes of Peru. 



Besides the Andes, the 
map shows a highland re- 
gion in eastern Brazil and a smaller one between the Amazon and 
Orinoco rivers, forming the divide between them. 

The remainder of South America is mainly lowland, drained by 
three mighty rivers. What are their names? Where does each rise? 
In what direction does each flow ? Which drains the longest slope ? 

199 



200 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Climate. — The products of the three valleys greatly 
depend upon their climate ; let us, therefore, see how 
much heat and moisture they have. 

Where does the equator cross the continent ? Where 
does the tropic of Capricorn cross it ? How much of 
the continent, then, is in the torrid zone ? Where is the 
coldest part ? In which zone ? 

From this we see that much more than half the 
continent must have a warm climate ; but that the south- 
ern part has a temperate climate more like our own. In 
which months does summer come to this region ? 

As for the moisture in the torrid or tropical part of 
South America the rains are very heavy. The reason 
for this is that the air becomes heated and is thus made 
very light ; it is then forced to rise to such a height that 
the vapor is condensed, causing heavy showers. (See 
p. 77.) . 

There is less rainfall in the south temperate zone, and 
still less in the narrow strip west of the central part of 
the Andes, in Chile and Peru. There the climate is quite 
arid because the principal winds are from the east, so 
that the air loses its vapor in passing over the mountains 
and descends upon the Pacific slope as dry, parching 
winds. 

History. — Knowing now the chief facts about the 
relief and climate, let us look at the countries themselves. 
After the discovery of South America by Columbus the 
Spaniards settled in many parts, obtaining great quanti- 
ties of gold and silver, especially in the Andes. Nearly 
all of South America once belonged to Spain, excepting 
Brazil, which was settled and for a long time owned 
by the Portuguese. Although these countries are now 



SOUTH AMERICA 



201 



independent nations, the Spanish language is still spoken 
there. 

Brazil. — This is the largest country, being even larger 
than the United States without Alaska ; but it has only 
about one-third as many inhabitants. Much of the 
great Amazon valley consists of forest-covered plains, 
called silvas, in which the trees are so close together, and 
there is such a mat of vines and underbrush, that it is 




Fig. 179. 

A path through the dense tropical forest of South America. 



extremely difficult for one to make his way through. 
From what was just said about the climate, you may be 
able to give the reason for such rank growth. 

You will find pictures of some of the wild forest 
animals in Figure 108, page 130. What are their 
names ? 

Of course this forest is not a good home for men, 
especially since much of the land is frequently flooded ; 



202 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

in fact, Indians are almost the only people living there. 
They make a living by hunting, fishing, and selling rub- 
ber from the rubber tree that grows in the woods. 

Rubber is obtained by cutting a hole in the bark and 
catching the milky fluid that flows forth. After being 
warmed over a fire to make it more solid, it is sent down the 
river in boats to Paea and then shipped to many parts of 
the world. Bicycle tires and overshoes are made from it. 
See how long a list of other rubber articles you can name. 

Another common tree is the cocoa tree, on which grow 
the beans from which cocoa and chocolate are made. The 
rivers are almost the only roadways in this great section, 
so that it is mainly a great wilderness. 

Most of the inhabitants of Brazil live in the eastern 
part along the coast. Some of them are white people, 
but many are either Indians or negroes, or of mixed 
blood, as in Mexico. You will notice several cities on 
the coast, of which Rio de Janeieo, the capital, is the 
largest, being about twice the size of New Orleans. It 
has a splendid harbor. 

There must certainly be some important industries in 
this region to cause a city to become so large. Besides 
the raising of cattle upon the plateau of eastern Brazil, 
farming is an important industry there. The principal 
crops are the same as those already found in warm coun- 
tries : namely, cotton, sugar, tobacco, and coffee. The 
last is most important, and Rio de Janeiro is the chief 
export town, which is the reason why some of our coffee 
is called Rio coffee. 

Venezuela and Guiana. — North of Brazil is Venezuela, 
which includes most of the Orinoco valley. Here are 
broad plains, called llanos, which produce excellent grass, 



SOUTH AMERICA 



203 




Fig. 180. 

Native Indian women washing clothes in Vene- 
zuela. Do you see in the picture any reason 
for thinking it is warm there ? 



SO that cattle raising is one of the important industries. 

Coffee and cocoa 

are also raised. 

The capital and 

largest city is 

Caracas, which 

is located several 

miles from the 

coast upon land 

more than half a 

mile above the sea. 

What advantage 

do you see in such 

a position? 

Just north of the mouth of the Orinoco River is Trini- 
dad Island, which belongs to Great Britain. On that 
island is a great pitch lake, from Avhich much of the 
asphalt used in our street pavements is obtained. 

AH of the countries of South America are republics 
excepting Guiana, east of Venezuela, which belongs to 
three European nations. What are their names ? And 
what is the capital of each section of Guiana? The prod- 
ucts of these countries are much the same as those of 
Brazil and Venezuela. 

La Plata Countries. — The country south of Brazil, 
drained by the Plata River and its tributaries, is one 
of the most productive parts of South America. Here, 
at the mouth of the Plata River in Argentina, is Buenos 
Aires, the largest city on the continent. Across the 
wide river mouth is Montevideo, another large city, 
in Uruguay. What other small country lies between 
Argentina and Brazil? 



204 



THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 



The plains in this section of the country are called 
pampas; and because of their excellent grass one of the 
chief industries is ranching. Since most of the country- 
is in the temperate zone, corn and wheat are important 
farm products ; and in the warm northern part, near the 
tropics, tobacco and sugar-cane are raised. This is the 
part of South America that most nearly corresponds in 
climate and products to the United States. 




Fig. 181. 
A scene on the pampas of Argentina. 

Goods are still carried upon the rivers in Argentina, 
but there are also many railways in that country, more, in 
fact, than in any other part of South America. 

Andean Countries. — The countries in the western part 
of South America are very mountainous, since each of 
them includes a part of the Andean chain. As you might 
expect, then, one of the principal industries is mining ; 
and immense quantities of gold and silver have been 
found there. What are the names of these countries ? 

Observe that most of the cities are not upon the coast. 
This is partly because they have grown up in the mining 



SOUTH AMEBIC A 205 

districts among the mountains, and partly because there 
are so few good harbors. Many of the interior cities have 
seaports, as Callao in Peru, the seaport of Lima. Find 
others. 

Valparaiso, in Chile, is the largest port on the Pacific 
coast ; but Santiago, the capital, situated fifty miles in- 
land, and about one-half mile above the sea, is more than 
twice as large. Notice how long and narrow Chile is ; 
what reason can you give for that ? 




Fig. 182. 
A scene among the lofty, snow-capped mountains of Chile. 

Farming is possible in the northern part of the western 
coast, where the rainfall is heavy ; but farther south, as 
in Peru and northern Chile, agriculture is impossible with- 
out irrigation. In southern Chile, however, the rainfall 
is moderate, and many people have settled there because 
the farming and grazing are excellent. 

Which of the Andean countries has no seacoast ? Is 
that any disadvantage ? One country is called Ecuador, 
which is the Spanish word for equator. Why is that a 
fitting name ? Notice that Colombia has seacoast on the 
two oceans and includes the Isthmus of Panama. What 



206 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 

cities do you find on the two sides of the Isthmus ? They 
are connected by a railway. Why is this important ? 

Review Questions. — (1) Describe the highland regions of South 
America. (2) AVhat three great valleys are there? (3) In what 
zones are the different parts of the continent ? (4) Which is the rainiest 
region? Wliy? (5) What about the rainfall elsewhere? (6) Com- 
pare Brazil with the United States in size and number of inhabitants, 
(7) Tell about the silvas and the valuable products obtained from 
them. (8) Where are the chief cities in Brazil? Which is the largest? 
(9) Name the main industries in that section. (10) Where is Vene- 
zuela. (11) Tell about the industries there. (12) Where is Cara- 
cas? (13) For what is Trinidad noted? (14) Which is the most 
productive part of South America? What are the products? 
(15) Name and locate the largest city on the continent. (16) Name 
the countries along the western side of South America. (17) Why 
are most of the cities not directly on the coast? (18) Which is the 
largest port? (19) What are the products of these countries? 

Suggestions. — (1) Draw the outline of South America. Put in 
the drawing the mountains, chief rivers, and cities. Add the country 
boundaries. (2) Make a sand model of the continent, showing the 
highlands and lowlands. (3) What large cities were found in the 
interior of North America? How about South America in that 
respect? What are the causes for the difference? (4) Brazil is in 
the torrid zone, while the United States is in the temperate zone. 
Which country has the advantage in temperature ? Why ? (5) Write 
a storj^ telling of a journey by land and river from the mouth of tlie 
Orinoco to the mouth of the Plata. (6) Find some pictures from 
South America and add them to the school collection. (7) Read 
something about coffee raising. Read about Pizarro. About Boli- 
var. (8) From the table on page 268 find the five largest cities in 
South America. Add the populations together and compare the result 
with the total of the five largest cities in North America (see p. 
264). (9) The Hartford Tire Comj)any, Hartford, INIass., issues a 
pamphlet with illustrations of rubber making. You could probably 
obtain one if you wrote for it. 

For References, see page 260. 



XVIII. EUROPE 

Map Questions. — (1) On page 131 it was stated that Eurasia con- 
sisted of two continents, Europe and Asia. Trace the boundary line 
between them, naming the mountains and waters that form it. 
(2) One of the seas has no outlet; wliich one is it? What kind of 
water would you expect to find in that sea? (3) How does the coast 
line of Europe compare with that of South America? Of North 
America? (4) AVould you expect to find many good harbors? 
(5) Name the largest peninsulas and draw an outline map to show 
them. (6) Where are the highest mountains? (7) One of the 
Alpine peaks is Mt. Blanc. What have you already learned about 
it? (See p. 21.) (8) Where are the plains? AVhich very large 
country is made up mainly of plains? Find Sicily and Sardinia. 
(9) In what zones is Europe? (10) How do you think its climate 
would compare with that of the United States? (11) With which 
of these countries have we recently been at war? (12) What other 
countries in Europe do you know something about? (13) By what 
route would you go from New York to one of them? (See Fig. 120.) 

Europe is only a little larger than tlie United States 
with Alaska, but contains more than five times as many 
inhabitants, who are separated into a score of nations 
with a different language for nearly every one. 

I. The British Isles. — The people in Europe to whom 
we are most closely related live on the small group of 
islands, called the British Isles, which lie just west of 
the mainland. This is often called our " motlier coun- 
try." Can you tell why ? 

There are two islands, Ireland and Great Britain ; what 
are the names of the three parts of Great Britain ? 

207 



208 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



On these islands are fine harbors and many great cities, 
London, in the southern part of England, on the Thames 
River, being the largest city in the world. Let us see 
what the people do. 

Judging from their position one might expect these islands to be 
too cold for agriculture, for they are farther north than the mouth of 

the St. Lawrence 
River; but the cli- 
mate is no colder 
than that of the 
northern United 
States. The reason 
for this is that the 
western coast of 
Europe is warmed 
by a broad cur- 
rent, or drift, of 
warm ocean 
water, known as 
the Gulf Stream, 
which flows north- 
east in the Atlan- 















§ 


& 




#* 


.-„^ -^ 




j^ 


JT^-^^ 


ii^ 


[t ;j 


fcrr . »ji|iMK 


'&jbX,jri 


Wm 




^wffi 




\la^ 






M 




^S 




m 






B 


i^ 


^^ 


i^^i 


jM 






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^B 


m 




1 


B*^ £i'5 




w^ 





Fig. 184. 

London bridge, across the Thames, over which a busy 
throng is almost constantly passing. ' 



tic Ocean from the warm southern seas. The air over it becomes 
warmed ; and, since the winds of Europe blow chiefly from the west, 
they carry this warmth with them and produce a climate much milder 
than one would otherwise expect. 



Wales and most of Scotland are too hilly to be well 
suited to agriculture ; but many sheep and cattle are 
raised. In England there is much more farming, and hay 
is one of the chief crops, since the damp air and the rain 
cause the grass to grow well. This is a reason, also, why 
sheep are raised in great numbers. 

But agriculture and stock raising are not the chief oc- 
cupations. Having much wool, the people long ago 



EUROPE 209 

learned to make woollen cloth. In addition to that, they 
purchased cotton from distant countries, — as New Eng- 
land does to-day from the Southern states, — and made cot- 
ton goods. Thus extensive manufacturing industries have 
been developed, which have been made possible because of 
the vast beds of coal found there, as in Pennsylvania, Illi- 
nois, and neighboring states. 

The centre for this manufacturing is Makchestee, and 
the nearest port is Liverpool, thirty-five miles away. 
Recently a ship canal, called the Manchester Canal, has 
been built, connecting these two cities. Find them. 

The coal has helped to make another great industry 
possible. Beds of iron ore occur in England, and by 
the use of coal it is made into iron and steel, especially 
at BiemIjStgham, which is the greatest centre for iron 
manufacturing in Great Britain. Where else have we 
found a city called Birmingham ? What can you tell 
about it ? 

The lowland portion of Scotland, about Edinburgh 
and Glasgow, is likewise noted for its cotton and wool- 
len factories, and for its iron manufacturing. Glasgow 
is the greatest centre for steel shipbuilding in the world. 
What city in the United States is noted for shipbuild- 
ing ? 

Great numbers of people are employed in all this work, 
so that enough cloth, knives, needles, engines, and so forth 
are made to supply many parts of the world. 

Ireland is not so much interested in manufacturing, al- 
though linen is an important product, being manufactured 
especially at Belfast. It is really to a great extent a 
farm for the English, furnishing them butter, eggs, pota- 
toes, and also meat. The air is so moist that the grass 



210 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



1 


■■I«WI»^^I) 






jIJI 


HuiO^HHI 



is kept fresh and green, and on that account Ireland is 
often called the Emerald (or Green) Isle. The two largest 

cities are naturally 
on the side next to 
England, What are 
their names ? 

So many manu- 
factured goods must 
be shipped away 
from Great Britain, 
and so much food 
imported, that the 
shipping business is 
very important. For 
^^^' ^^^' this reason there are 

Thatched cottages in Ireland. ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^.^^^.^ 

in Great Britain, and that nation has more ships upon the 
sea than any other in the world. 

Having so many ships, the British have been led to explore coun- 
tries in all parts of the v\'oi']d. Whenever they discovered new lands, 
they laid claim to them in the name of their government, and in that 
way England has come into possession of Canada, Australia, and a 
large part of Africa, and scores of islands besides. These are called 
colonies, and the British have more colonies than any other nation in 
the world. Indeed, these colonies cover one hundred times as much 
surface as the British Isles and have ten times as many inhabitants. 

London, the capital and the central port for vessels, 
has an excellent harbor on the Thames River, where hun- 
dreds of ships can be accommodated at one time. 

Great Britain and Ireland, together with their many 
colonies, form the British Empire. Its government, un- 
like our own, is a monarchy ; but it is very liberal, and 



EUROPE 211 

as in our own country, the people have an important share 
in the making of laws. 

II. Norse Countries. — Sweden and Norway. These 
two countries together occupy the Scandinavian peninsula, 
and are about as far north as southern Greenland. Were 
it not for the Gulf Stream, which flows past Norway, this, 
like Greenland, might be a barren, frozen country. As it 
is, however, many people live there. 




Fig. 186. 
The Thames River and Windsor Castle, where the Queen of England resides. 

As in Scotland, most of the country is too hilly and 
rocky for farming, although some grain, cattle, and sheep 
are raised, especially on the lower land of southern Sweden 
along the Baltic. Few people live in the highlands, and 
about one fourth of Norway is covered by forests. 

The coast is veiy irregular, and many deep, narrow bays, or fjords, 
reach into the land, making fine harbors. As a result, Norwegians 
and Swedes are skilful sailors. In the early days these Northmen 
were the best sailors in the world, and they came to the American 
shores long before Columbus discovered America. Fishing for cod 
and herring is now one of their important industries. 



212 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 




The principal cities are Stockholm and Cheistiania. 
Find each. They are the capitals of Sweden and Norway, 

but the entire peninsula 
is ruled by one king, 
the government being a 
monarchy. 

Denmark, just south 
of Norway and Sweden, 
is inhabited by people 
similar to those in Scan- 
dinavia ; in fact, these 
three are often called 
Fig. 187. t^'^s Norse nations, or the 

One of the deep, narrow fjords of Norway. nations of the Northmen . 

The Danes, also, have been great sailors, and now have possession 
of Iceland and the west coast of Greenland. Their country presents 
a very different appeai'anco from Norway and Sweden, for the land is 
low and level, and farm- 
ing is the occupation of 
about one-half the peo- 
ple. Fishing is also an 
important industry. 

The government 
is a monarchy, the 
capital and largest 
city being CoPEisr- 
HAGEN, situated on 
an island. 

III. Russia.— The 
Russian Empire not 
only includes great plains in Europe, but extends sev- 
eral thousand miles beyond the Ural Mountains to the 




Fig. 188. 
Danish women selling fish. 



EUROPE 213 

eastern coast of Asia ; it is nearly as large as the whole of 
North America and contains a greater number of inhab- 
itants. 

Most of Russia in Europe is a level country. The northern part, 
like northern Norway, is in the frigid zone, and so far away from the 
Gulf Stream that the climate is extremely cold. The plains there, 
called tundras, are too cold for trees, and the frost never leaves the 
ground except at the very surface in summer. Nevertheless, a moss 
flourishes and supports numbers of reindeer, which are used as draft 
animals by the natives. 

The southeastern plains, called steppes, are so far from 
the ocean that the west winds can bring them little rain. 
They are therefore dry like the arid region in our West- 
ern States. But the central and western parts are well 
suited to farming, and there most of the people live. As 
in the northern United States, one of their main crops is 
grain, especially wheat ; and vast numbers of cattle and 
sheep roam over the broad, grassy steppes. 

The rivers are excellent waterways, the largest of all 
being the Volga, the greatest river in Europe. What 
others do you find ? 

Since the Caspian Sea has no outlet, and the Arctic 
Ocean on the north side is frozen much of the time, the 
chief ports for foreign commerce must be either on the 
Baltic or the Black Sea. This explains the location of 
St. Petersburg, the capital and largest city, which is 
about the size of Philadelphia. Odessa, on the Black 
Sea, contains many flour-mills and is an important port 
for the export of wheat. With what two cities northwest 
of Chicago may it be compared? 

The chief railway centre is Moscow in the interior, 
which is nearly twice as large as Boston. 



214 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



The great mass of the people, called peasants, are not allowed to 
take any part in the government, andj unlike most of the Euro- 
peans, are kept in 
ignorance and sub- 
jection. They are 
ruled by a man 
called the Czar, 
who makes and ex- 
ecutes laws very 
much as he pleases. 
That kind of gov- 
ernment is called 
an absolute mon- 
archy, or despot- 
ism, and is very 
different from the 
limited monarchies 
thus far studied. 




Fig. 189. 
A family of Russian peasants. 



IV. Germany. — The general slope of the land in Ger- 
many is shown by the rivers ; in what direction do most 
of them flow? The southern part of the country consists 
of mountains and highlands, but the northern part is a 
great plain, a continuation of the plains of Russia. 

As in Russia, there is much agriculture, one of the 
chief products being grain. Much of their bread is made 
from a grain called rye, and is so dark that it is called 
"black bread." Beets are grown in enormous quantities, 
and sugar is manufactured from them as it is from sugar- 
cane in Louisiana. Grapes flourish along the upper Rhine 
River, and from these wine is made ; and more hops for 
making beer are raised in Germany than in any other 
country of the Avorld. 

Both coal and iron ore are mined in abundance ; and many 
articles are manufactured, such as the famous Krupp guns 



EUROPE 



215 



and many kinds of macliineiy. Germany is noted also for 
its manufacture of cotton, woollen and linen goods, ranking 
next to England as 
a manufacturing 
country of Europe. 
The chief seaport 
is Hamburg on the 
Elbe River, a city al- 
most the size of St. 
Louis. Why should 
the chief port be at 
this point rather 
than farther east on 
the Baltic Sea ? A 
ship canal has re- 
cently been dug ^^^- •'^^^• 
a cross the Deninsula ^ ""^^^^^ "'' *^^ ^^^''^- 
south of Denmark. What are the advantages from it ? 





Fig. 191. 
The Royal Museum at Berlin. 

The schools, universities, and museums of Germany are among the 
best that exist, and many Americans go to Germany each year to 



216 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



study music, painting, and other subjects. The largest university is 
iu Berlin; Leipzig also has one, and there are many others. Mu- 
nich and Dresden are noted for their fine picture gallei'ies, and so is 
Berlin, which also has other large museums. Find these cities. 

BEELlisr, the capital of Germany, is the largest city. 
The government is a limited monarchy, and the present 
ruler is Emperor William II. 

V. Holland, or the Netherlands (a word that means 
lowlands)^ is a low, flat country, much of it being lower 

than the neighbor- 
ing sea. 

The inhabitants 
have built embank- 
ments, called dykes, to 
keep the sea out, and 
kave dug canals across 
the country to drain 
it. The water that 
collects inside the em- 
bankments is pumped 
out by windmills, or 
by steam, into the 
canals, and these ca- 
nals are the chief 
roads, being used in 
summer by boats and in winter by people on skates or on sleds. 

The damp soil furnishes excellent grass, so that cattle raising and 
dairying are the principal occupations. 

The Hollanders, or Dutchmen, living so near the sea, have become 
great sailors and explorers, like the Englishmen. For this reason 
they have come into possession of some of the richest islands in the 
East Indies, from which are obtained valuable products, such as 
coffee, spices, and precious stones. On the map. Figure 221, facing 
page 250, find the names of some of the Dutch East Indies. Find 
out about the early Dutch settlements in America. What great city 
did they settle V 




Fig. 1'J2. 
A canal in Holland. 



EUBOPE 



217 



The chief city is Amsterdam, which is about the size 
of Boston. The government is a monarchy, and the laws 
are made at The Hague, on the coast. 

VI. Belgium, like Holland, has some land that is lower 
than the sea and protected by dykes ; but the eastern 
part is much higher. 

The people are crowded 
together more closely than 
in any other country of Ru- 
rope. Many live on farms and 
raise much the same prod- 
ucts as those of Holland and 
Germany. What are these ? 

Flax is an important farm prod- 
uct. It is a plant about two feet 
high, whose fibre is used in mak- 
ing linen and fine laces. The Bel- 
gians have long been skilful in 
such work, and it was from them 
that the English received some of 
their knowledge about manufac- 
turing". Brussels, the largest city, is famous for its fine laces, linens, 
and Brussels carpets, the latter being made of wool on a mat of linen. 

There is a great amount of coal and iron in this little 
kingdom, so that the iron industry is extensive, as in 
Germany. 

The government is a monarchy with Brussels for its 
capital. Antwerp is the chief seaport. 

VII. France. — The slope of the land in France you see 
by the course of its rivers. What are their names ? 
Where do they rise and in what direction do they flow? 

In the cool northern part the crops are similar to 
those of Germany ; but in the southern portion the 




Fig. 193. 

A windmill, in Belgium, like those 
so commou in Holland. 



218 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



climate is warmer and the crops somewhat different. 
Besides grapes, which are grown in great quantities in 
the region of Boedbaux, and made into wine that is sold 
in many parts of the world, much silk is also produced. 

Silk is nianiifactured from cocoons spun by a caterpillar called the 
silkworm. Each one of the cocoons is made of a fine thread several 
thousand yards long, looking somewhat like the thread of a spider's 
web. 

After the cocoons have been softened in hot water the threads are 
unwound and then wound upon spools. They are later made into 
thread and woven into silk cloth, ribbons, handkerchiefs, and other 
silk goods. 

Much depends upon the proper care of the silkworm. Their 
principal food is the leaf of the mulberry tree, which is planted in 
great groves in the Rhone Valley, in southei-n France. The leaves 
are plucked and fed to the worms. 

Lyoist, the centre for the silk industry^ and the great- 
est silk market in the world, is next to the largest 

city in France. 

Paris, the larg- 
est city in France, 
is the third in 
size in the world, 
and probably the 
most beautiful. 
Like several cities 
in Germany, it 
has fine picture 
galleries and mu- 
seums, and many foreigners go there to study painting, 
music, and other subjects. It is situated upon the Seine 
River, and its chief port is Hayee, at the mouth of the 
Seine. 




Fig. 194. 
a view of the great city of Paris. 



EUROPE 



219 




Fig. 195. 
The harbor of Marseille. 



Bordeaux, already mentioned, is an important ship- 
ping port for wine, and Marseille the principal port upon 
the Mediter- 
ranean coast. 
From these 
three harbors 
France ships 
goods to and 
from her sev- 
eral colonies 
and other coun- 
tries. 

The French 

government was formerly a monarchy, but is now a re- 
public with Paris as its capital. 

VIII. Spain and Portugal. — The Pyrenees Mountains 
form the boundary between France and Spain, rising like 
a great wall to separate the two countries. 

You remember that Magellan was a Portuguese and that 
it was to Spain that Columbus went for help. These 
were once among the most powerful nations in the world, 
and they once ruled much of North America and most of 
South America. Little by little they have lost their colo- 
nies in the New World, the last to be taken being Cuba 
and Porto Rico. 

Like Mexico, which was settled and for a long time 
owned by the Spanish, Spain has a dry, mountainous 
plateau or table-land in the interior, with low land along 
the coast. 

Being so much like a desert, one would expect few 
people to make their homes in the interior ; and this is 
the case, although, strange to say, the greatest city, 



220 



THE EABTR AS A WHOLE 




Fig. 196. 

A view of a part of Madrid and the great plateau 

on which it is situated. 



Madrid, is found in the centre of this table-land. Its im- 
portance is due to the fact that it is the capital of Spain. 

As upon our dry 
Western plains 
and plateaus, cat- 
tle and sheep rais- 
ing are important 
industries on this 
highland. But 
the rocks of this 
region contain its 
chief wealth, for 
Spain produces 
more quicksilver and lead than any other nation, and more 
copper and iron than most others. 

There is considerable farming in the mountain valleys and on the 
low lands along the coast. One of the most valuable crops is grapes ; 
you have doubtless seen Malaga grapes, named from the city of 
Malaga on the southern coast. Many grapes are made into wine ; 
others are dried to make raisins. Other fruits grown here are olives, 
lemons, oranges, and figs ; besides this much cork is obtained from 
the bark of the cork oak. 

BARCELOisrA, on the eastern side, is the chief port of 
Spain ; and the principal city of Portugal is Lisbon, the 
capital. 

Both governments are limited monarchies, like those 
of most European countries. 

IX. Italy was once the most powerful country in the 
world. Its principal city was Rome, and the Romans 
ruled nearly all the other countries then known. But, 
like Spain, it has lost much of its importance. 

Rome is still the capital and the residence of the king ; 



EUROPE 



221 



also of tlie 
Pope, who is 
theheadof the 
Roman Cath- 
olic Church. 
The city is es- 
pecially noted 
for its many 
ruins of build- 
ings erected 
hundreds of 
years ago. 




Fig. 197. 

St. Peter's Cathedral on the left, and the Vatican, the 
residence of the Pope, on the right. 



Venice, at the head of the Adriatic Sea, is another interesting 
city. It is built upon many islands joined by hundreds of bridges, 
and its chief streets, are canals, where boats, called gondolas, are used 
in place of wagons and carriages. 




Fig. 198. 
One of the canals of Venice with a gondola floating upon it. 

Naples, which is on the coast southeast of Rome, and 
near Mt. Vesuvius, is the largest city in Italy. The steam 



222 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



rising from the crater of Vesuvius is easily seen from the 
city (Fig. 102). Volcanic ash from Mt. Vesuvius has en- 
tirely buried some of the towns near by, such as the ancient 
city of Pompeii, from which the ashes have been dug away 
so as to bring to light the buried buildings and streets. 

The best farm land is in the valley of the Po River in the northern 
part, where wheat, and other grains, and mulberry trees for silk- 
worms are raised. Milan, like Lyou iii France, is a great centre for 
silk. 

The climate is mild enough to produce the same fruits that are 
grown in Florida and Soutliern California. Name some of them. 



X. Switzerland. 

— Any one who has 
heard the story of 
William Tell, or 
who has read about 
the St. Bernard 
dogs kept by the 
monks, has some 
idea of how Swit- 
zerland looks. Here 
are the snow-capped 
Alps, with many 




Fig. 199. 

The snow-capped Matterhorn, one of the Alpine 
peaks. 



lakes and fertile valleys between them, and views so 
beautiful that thousands of people go every year to enjoy 
them (p. 21). One of the occupations of the Swiss is to 
provide for these visitors in hotels and restaurants. 

The green grass in the low lying valleys and on the mountain sides 
provides excellent food for cattle and goats, so that butter and cheese 
are made, as in Holland. Probably you have heard of Swiss and 
Dutch cheese. 

Wood carving is also an important industry. During the long 



EUROPE 223 

winters the -wood grown upon the mountains is carved into toys, 
clocks, and many other articles. Have you ever seen a Swiss clock? 

Name the countries on each side of Switzerland, and notice that it 
is surrounded by people who speak German, French, and Italian. In 
consequence, instead of having one language of their own, the Swiss 
have these three, those living in each part speaking the language of 
the foreign country nearest to them. 

The Swiss government has long been a republic, like 
our own, and Berne is the capital. Find the chief cities, 
Zurich and Geneva. 




Fig. 200. 
A view in Austria. 

XI. Austria-Hungary. — Austria and Hungary are 
united under one monarchy, although they have differ- 
ent customs and languages. Many of the Austrians are 
closely related to the Germans ; but the Hungarians are 
a very different race. The capital and largest city is 
Vienna, the fourth in size in Europe. It is situated on 
the Danube River, so that it has water connection with 
many other places. 

Budapest is next to Vienna in importance. Like Minneapolis, it 
is in the midst of a great wheat region, and is a flour-milling centre. 



224 



TEE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



The cultivation of flax leads to another manufacturing industry. 
What is it? 

Which parts of Austria-Hungary are mountainous? Much coal 
and iron are found in the northwestern part near Germany, and 
Prague is noted for the manufacture of hardware. The chief harbor 
is on the Adriatic coast ; what is its name ? 

XII. Greece. — The country in Europe which has per- 
haps had the greatest influence upon the rest of the world 
is Greece. The Romans received many of their beliefs and 




Fig. 201. 

The Acropolis with its ruins on top, and the ruins of the Temple of Jupiter on 
the right, hoth in ancient Athens. 

customs from the Greeks; and since many of ours come from 
the Romans, we also are greatly in debt to the Greeks. 

The centre of this influence was Athens, once the most 
famous city in the world. Many years later, at the time 
of Christ, it was still an important place. Both Athens 
and Corinth, near by, are mentioned in the Bible. 

The country is mountainous, producing raisins and other fruits, 
and much grass for grazing. But there is little mining and manu- 
facturing. 

At one time the Greeks were conqiiered by the Turks and very 



EUROPE 



225 



cruelly treated by them ; but they obtained their independence, and 
their government is now a monarchy with Athens for its capital. 

XIII. Turkey. — The largest city in southeastern Eu- 
rope is Constantinople, which is about one-half as 
large as Chicago. Notice what an excellent location it 
has. It is the capital of Turkey, which, like Russia, is a 
country partly in Europe and partly in Asia. 

The Turkish govern- 
ment is the worst in Eu- 
rope. The ruler, called 
the Sultan^ is an absolute 
despot, who governs his 
people so badly that they 
are kept extremely igno- 
rant and poor. In all the 
other nations of Europe 
the Christian religion, 
either Catholic or Prot- 
estant, is followed ; but 
the Turks are Moham- 
medans, followers of Mohammed, like many other people 
in Asia and Africa. They are religious fanatics, and dis- 
like Christians very much- 
One proof that the Turkish government is bad, is the fact that the 
people in many parts of the Empire have rebelled against it and 
fought for their freedom. For example, Roumania, east of Austria, 
used to belong to Turkey, but it is now an independent kingdom. 
The same is true of Bidgaria, Servia, and Montenegro; Greece has 
already been mentioned. 

The people in all these countries are largely engaged in 
farming and herding, the Danube Valley being especially 
fertile. Grain, wine, and raisins are important products. 




Fig. 202. 

A mosque, or Mohammedan church, in 
Constantinople. 



226 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

I. The British Isles. Questions. — (1) What are the divisions of 
the British Isles? Where is each? (2) Why have not the British 
Isles a colder climate? (3) Tell about the agriculture. (4) What 
kinds of cloth are manufactured? Where? (5) Where is the iron 
manufacturing carried on. (6) Of what value are the coal-beds? 
(7) Tell about Ireland. (8) Explain how Great Britain has come to 
have so many ships. (9) So many colonies. Name some of them, 
including several islands near North America. (10) What is the 
British Empire? Whafkind of government has it? (11) Locate all 
the cities mentioned. 

SuaGESTiONS. — (12) Whatbooks have you read whose authors lived 
in Great Britain ? (13) Examine pocket-knives and table-knives to see 
if you can find some made in England. (14) The iron manufactories 
of England remind you of what states in this country? (15) When 
did our country cease to be a colony of Great Britain ? (16) What 
are the people from the four divisions of the British Isles called? 
(17) Make a drawing of the British Isles. 

II. Norse Countries. Questions. — (18) What about the climate 
of Norway and Sweden ? (19) Tell about the agriculture ; the other 
industries. (20) What are the Norse nations? (21) What colonies 
have the Danes? (22) Name the chief industries of Denmark? 
(23) What kind of government have these Norse countries? and 
what is the capital of each ? 

Suggestions. — (24) Find out something about Iceland. (25) In 
what other section that you have studied is fishing important? 

(26) Find out about the length of days and nights in Norway. 

(27) Draw a map of the Scandinavian peninsula. 

III. Russia. Questions. — (28) Tell about the size of Eussia. 
(29) What parts of Russia in Europe are not fitted for farming? 
Why ? (30) What is the main occupation of the people ? Name the 
important products. (31) What are the tundras? The steppes? 
(32) Which is the largest river in Europe ? (33) Where are the lead- 
ing Russian ports ? (34) Locate three of the largest cities, and state 
why each is important. (35) Tell about the government. 

Suggestions. — (36) Why would you not expect Russian sailors 
to be as numerous as the English sailors ? (37) Name some city of 



EUROPE 227 

the United States which is about as far north as Odessa. (38) How 
does the northern location of St. Petersburg interfere with its com- 
merce by sea? (39) What city on the St. Lawrence has the same 
difl&culty? (40) Show the route a vessel would take in going from 
Odessa to London. From Odessa to St. Petersburg. 

IV. Germany. Questions. — (41) Where is the highest land in 
Germany? The great plains? (42) Tell about the chief farm prod- 
ucts. (43) What are the principal manufactures in Germany ? 
(44) Where is Hamburg? (45) For what is Berlin noted? Leipzig? 
Munich ? Dresden ? Locate each. (46) Tell about the govern- 
ment. 

Suggestions. — (47) Do you know any songs or stories about the 
Rhine River ? (48) Make a drawing showing the course of this river. 
(49) Do you know of any German paintings ? Of any music written 
by Germans? (50) Make a collection of German pictures. 

V. Holland. Questions. — (51) Tell about the dykes and canals of 
Holland. (52) What is the principal industry ? Why? (53) What 
important colonies has Holland? (54) What are the main cities? 

Suggestions. — (55) Write a story telling what you think might 
result if a dyke were to give way. (56) Find a picture of a Dutch 
windmill. (57) Tell what you would expect to see in crossing Hol- 
land on a railway train. 

VI. Belgium. Questions. — (58) What are the farm products of 
Belgium? (59) Tell what you can about flax. (60) Name and lo- 
cate the two principal cities. (61) What about coal and iron? 

Suggestions. — (62) Examine a piece of Brussels carpet ; a piece 
of lace also. 

VII. France. Questions. — (63) Describe the chief slopes of 
France. (64) What are the products in the northern part? In the 
southern part? (65) Tell about the silk industry. (66) What can 
you say about the capital? (67) About each of the other cities? 
(68) What kind of government has France? 

Suggestions. — (69) Examine a cocoon and a piece of silk. Ob- 
tain a caterpillar, if possible the silkworm, and raise it in the school 
to' see how the silkworm forms silk and what happens to the 
"worm." (70) AVhy would the value of a cocoon be destroyed if 
the chrysalis inside were to break through in order to get out? 
(71) Can you find any pictures of Paris? 



228 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

VIII. Spain and Portugal. Questions. — (72) Where are the 
Pyrenees Mouia tains? (73) Tell about the former power of these 
countries. (74) Describe the relief and climate. (75) What are the 
industries on the plateau? (76) What minerals are found there? 

(77) Where is most of the farming ? What are the chief products ? 

(78) Name and locate the most important coast cities. The two 
capitals. 

Suggestions. — (79) Would you expect the rivers to be naviga- 
ble for any considerable distance from the Spanish coast? Why? 

(80) Make a sand map of Spain, showing the high and low land. 

(81) Examine some quicksilver. For what is it used? (82) Can 
you find out anything about the Moors and the Alhambra in south- 
ern Spain? Perhaps you can find pictures from there. Washington 
Irving has written some beautiful stories about the Alhambra. 

IX. Italy. Questions. — (83) Where is Rome ? Venice ? Na- 
ples? Mt. Vesuvius? Milan? (84) Tell something about each of 
these. (85) Where are the mountains ? (86) Where is the Po Val- 
ley? (87) What is raised in Italy ? 

Suggestions. — (88) Find pictures of some of the ruins in Rome. 
(89) Of some of the buildings in Venice. (90) Look on a globe to see in 
which direction Rome is from New York. (91) Draw a map of Italy. 

X. Switzerland. Questions. — (92) What are some of the in- 
dustries of the Swiss? (93) What languages are spoken? (94) Name 
the principal cities. (95) What is the kind of government? 

Suggestions. — (96) Read the story of William Tell. (97) Find 
other stories about Switzerland. (98) W'hat disadvantages do you 
see in having so many languages ? (99) What large rivers rise in 
Switzerland ? (100) Write a story describing a visit to the Alps. 
You will get some suggestions from Figure 15, page 18, Figure 110, 
page 131, and Figure 20, page 23. 

XI. Austria-Hungary. Questions. — (101) Name four leading 
cities in Austria-Hungary. (102) Tell why each is important. 

Suggestions. — (103) Trace the Danube River from its source to 
its mouth. (104) How far is Trieste from Venice? (105) Through 
what waters would a vessel pass in sailing from New York to Trieste ? 
(106) By using the scale on the map, find out how far Vienna is from 
Munich. From Leipzig. From Berlin. From Paris. From St. 
Petersburg. (107) In what direction is it from each of these? 



EUROPE 229 

XII. Greece. Questions. — (108) What can you say about the 
influence of Greece upon the world ? (109) Find Athens. (110) Tell 
about the climate and products. 

Suggestions. — (HI) Where can you read about Ulysses? 

(112) Have some one tell you the story of the Trojan War, 

(113) Find some other stories about the ancient Greeks. 

XIII. Turkey. Questions. — (114) Where is Turkey? What is 
its capital? (115) Tell about its government. (116) What is the 
chief occupation of the people? (117) What countries have gained 
their independence from Turkey? 

Suggestions. — (118) What is the boundary line between Tur- 
key in Europe and Turkey in Asia? (119) Examine a Turkish rug. 
(120) What reasons can you give why Russia would like to own 
Constantinople ? 

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

(121) Do you know of any persons who have come from one of 
these countries of Europe? If so, ask them to tell you about them. 
Also have them speak in their native language. (122) Ask your 
storekeeper to show you some goods from Europe. (123) What diffi- 
culties would you expect to meet if you were to travel through Europe 
without knowing any foreign languages? (124) Bound each of the 
countries of Europe. (125) Draw an outline map of Europe, putting 
in these boundaries and the principal rivers. (126) Make a dot to 
represent Berlin ; also locate the other large cities. Mark the capitals 
with stars. (12f ) Collect pictures of Europe for the school collection. 
(128) Cut out scraps, from the magazines and papers, relating to the 
people, animals, plants, cities, etc., of different parts of Europe and 
present them to the school to be kept for use in the geography class. 
They can be arranged by countries and will be very useful. 

For References, see page 261. 



XIX. ASIA 

Map Questions. — (1) Through what zones does Asia extend? 
(2) What climate would you expect to find? (3) Where are the 
highest mouirtains and plateaus ? (4) W^hat rivers have their sources 
in that region ? (5) What large inland seas do you find? (6) What 
three large peninsulas on the southern side? (7) What three were 
found on the south side of Europe? (8) How does Asia compare in 
size with Europe? (9) Find Asia on a globe. (10) How could you 
reach it, if you wished to go there ? 

Physical Geography. — Like Europe, the coast of Asia 
is very irregular, with many peninsulas and islands. 
Draw an outline map of it, showing these, with the larger 
bays and seas enclosed by them. 

Note the direction in which the many mountain ranges 
extend. The loftiest among them, and in fact the highest 
in the world, are the Himalaya Mountains (Fig. 204), 
the highest peak. Mount Everest, being over, twenty-nine 
thousand feet, or about five and one-half miles, above the 
sea. Where is it ? How does it compare in height with 
Mt. Blanc ? (See p. 270.) 

North of the Himalayas are lofty plateaus, one of them, 
the plateau of Tibet, being about three miles in height. 
How does that compare with the Spanish plateau (see 
p. 271) and with our western plateau (see p. 271) ? 
It is so high that the winter climate is very cold ; and 
since the winds from the ocean have lost their moisture 
in passing over the mountains, these plateaus are also 

230 



ASIA 231 

dry. Farther north it is drier still, and we find there 
the great desert of Gobi. 

These mountains and plateaus form the watershed of the conti- 
nent. Find thi'ee great rivers that flow northward from the watershed 
through the vast plain of Siberia. Name three that flow eastward 
into the Pacific Ocean. What others flow southward ? 

The southwestern portion of Asia is mainly a desert 
because the winds blowing over it come from the land 
instead of from the sea, and therefore have little vapor. 




Fig. 204. 
The snowy range of the lofty Himalayas. 

From what has been said about the climate it is plain that the 
inhabitants of this continent must be found chiefly in the eastern 
and southern parts. There they live in vast numbers along the coast 
and the large rivers; in fact, nearly one-half of all the people in the 
world are found in these regions. 

I. Southwestern Asia. — Rome and Athens have been 
mentioned as cities that have had a great influence upon 
other countries. But the part of the world which has 
probably had the greatest influence of all is that at the 
eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Here is the land 



232 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



that used to be called Palestine, the home of the Jews ; 
and here is still the city of Jbeijsalem (Fig. 205), near 
which Christ was born about 1900 years ago, and in which 
He was crucified. The Christian churches and Christmas 
are in His memory. The home of Christ, where the 
Christian religion was founded, is now a part of the 
Turkish empire which extends into Asia. 

Turkey extends down the western coast of the Arabian peninsula, 
and includes another famous city called Mecca. The Turks are not 
Christians but Mohammedans, or followers of Mohammed, who was 




Fig. 205. 
A picture of a part of Jerusalem. 

born at Mecca nearly fourteen hundred years ago. The Moham- 
medans believe in God, and their holy book is called the Koran. A 
great many other people in Asia and northern Africa are followers of 
Mohammed. 

The western part of Asia, including Turkey, Arabia, 
and Persia, has a very drj'-, arid climate. This is par- 
ticularly true of Arabia, which is mainly a desert plateau 
much more arid than Spain. 

In this desert country agriculture is not a very impor- 



ASIA 



233 



tant industry ; but dates and coffee are raised there, espe- 
cially near the rivers and along the coast. You have 
perhaps heard of Mocha coffee, and if you look on the 
map you can find the place from which it gets its name. 



i^~~^^BPHl^^Efll^KS 


Kbw 






L^feWli 


^^^^S| 


*' 


.-■ '.»-!' ^^"^ 


=Sir^ 


if-~ 


BH^^^^i V '". 


>■ '-'^4*^-^ 


ff^^'j^^','!;'];;^^-.:- ■ 


/^ \ .--,- 1- --^ 




fw^' ' ^ 


'^^im 






■■'M 




w^ 


2j^ 


w^w-jm^'% 


^^ V- 


^ 




Ski 






m 


l# 


*&!§ 



Fig. 206. 
The home of a group of Persian nomads. 

Although so much of this region is desert, there are places, called 
oases, where water is found. As these ai'e usually too small to fur- 
nish water and grass for large herds during a long time, the Arabs are 
forced to wander from place to place, having no fixed homes. On 
that account they are called nomads or wanderers (Fig. 206). They 
take special pride in raising horses, which have become famous through- 
out the world. They also keep cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. 

Much of Persia is also a desert ; but some parts are 
well suited to grazing, and the climate is warm enough 
for such fruits as figs and dates. What is the capital? 
The ruler of the Persians is a despot called the Shah. 

The people of these countries are not civilized enough: to carry on 
much manufacturing, although beautiful carpets, rugs, and shards 
are made in great numbers, especially in Persia and Turkey. The 



234 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 



work is done by hand, and though it is well done, it requires a great 
deal of time, while in our great factories carpets are quickly made by 
machinery. Railways are almost unknown, and even carriage roads 
ai'e usually lacking. Goods are carried upon camels in groups, called 
caravans, and men travel upon the backs of horses and camels. 

II. Siberia. — Siberia belongs to Russia. It is a region 
of extensive plains and is much larger than the whole of 
Russia in Europe. Like northern Canada, much of it is 
so cold that few people can live there, and it has been 
made a prison for many Russians who have committed 
crime, or who have offended their despotic rulers. 

A large portion of southwestern Siberia is a desert having numerous 
lakes without outlets. Would you expect them to be salt or fresh ? 
Between this arid section and the bleak northern plains, or tundras, 
which resemble those of northern Europe, is a region where there 
are extensive forests, and broad plains suited for grazing and farming. 






Fig. 207. 
A Siberian three-horse wagon. 

One of the chief sources of wealth of Siberia is in the gold mines 
of the Ural Mountains. Graphite, from which the " lead " in lead 
pencils is made, is also found there. Many of the prisoners from 
Russia are compelled to work in these mines. 



ASIA 



23^ 



The Russian government has built a great railway all the way 
from St. Petersburg eastward to Port Arthur in China on the 
Pacific coast. How far is that? 

III. The Chinese Empire and Korea. — Some of the most 
important arts that we have ever learned first came from 
the Chinese. For instance, tliey made porcelain dishes 
long before Europeans knew how, and on that account 




Fig. 208. 
Houseboats on the Tientsin River of China. 

those dishes are still called chinmvare, even though 
manufactured in the United States. They invented 
gunpowder, and our firecrackers for the Fourth of July 
used to come from China. They also discovered how to 
make silk and paper, and they invented the art of printing. 

But while this strange-looking, yellow race was once among the 
foremost nations of the earth, it is now very much behind. This is 
explained partly by the fact that their religion causes them to worship 
their ancestors, so that whatever their fathers did, they must do. 
Since their fathers had no railways, telegraphs, or telephones, none 
are wanted now. Owing to their fear of new things, they have 
neither travelled abroad much nor allowed foreigners to visit them. 

But recently many Chinese have come to this country, working 
as servants, especially on the Pacific coast, and as laundrymen in all 



236 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



parts of our country. Besides that, they now allow foreigners to 
live in some of their coast cities and trade with the people. 

CANTOisr in the southern part, which is considerably- 
larger than Chicago, and Shanghai, a city nearly as 
large as Baltimore, are the principal ports for trade with 
Americans. Hongkong is a British port. 

Much of the northern and western portions of the Chinese Empire 
are so high and dry that few persons can live there. Find the names 
of those parts. But the lower plains near the coast, especially the 
fertile flood plains and deltas of the great rivers, support a vast 
population, because the soil is fertile, and abundant rainfall is sup- 
plied by the damp winds from the Pacific. Here live nearly one- 
fourth of all the inhabitants of the globe, crowded together so closely 
that many thousands dwell in boats on the rivers. 

In the northern part a great deal of wheat is raised ; 
but farther south rice, millet, tea, and silk are important 

products. China 
produces more 
raw silk than any 
other country in 
the world. What 
other regions are 
noted for these 
same products? 

The govern- 
ment is an abso- 
lute monarchy, 
with the capital at 
Peking, which, 
like Tientsin, its 
seaport, is nearly twice as large as Boston. The govern- 
ment is so weak and corrupt that European nations are 




Fig. 209. 
Temple in Peking 



ASIA 



237 



able to seize and hold parts of the country, so that the 
once great empire is in danger of being destroyed and the 
different parts made subject to various European nations. 

Korea is also a very unprogressive nation which, until recently, 
would not permit foreigners to enter. 

IV. Japan. — The Japanese live upon islands east of Asia, 
as the British do west of Europe. Their territory is but 
slightly larger than 
the British Isles, and 
there are not many 
more inhabitants. 
Many of the islands 
are small, but there 
are five large ones, the 
southernmost being 
Formosa. They are 
really the crest of a 
mountain range ris- 
ing above the sea, and 
some of the mountain 
peaks are volcanoes. 




Fig. 210. 

A Japanese woman being carried in a travelling 
chair by two Japanese men. 



The Japanese used to be much like their neighbors, the Chinese ; 
that is, they believed in ancestor worship, and wanted nothing to do 
with foreigners. But in 1853 an American naval officer, with several 
war-ships, entered the harbor of Yokohama and persuaded the Jap- 
anese to allow us to trade with them. 

Before many years had passed the Japanese not only allowed 
foreigners to enter, but they invited them to come as teachers, and 
even sent some of their own young men abroad to study. There have 
been many Japanese students in the colleges and universities of the 
United States during the last twenty years. 

The result is that Japan is now far in advance of China, and in 



238 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



fact of all other parts of Asia. Railways, telephones, and newspapers 
are common, and there are many good schools, while rapid progress 
has been made in manufacturing. 

Tliat the Japanese are very skilful in many kinds of 
handiwork is suggested by the Japanese fans, parasols, 
napkins, dolls, and screens so often seen in this country. 

Whatever they 
make they try to 
make beautiful, be- 
ing one of the most 
artistic races in 
the world. 

Japan, like 
China, produces a 
great amount of 
silk, rice, and tea. 
There is also con- 
siderable mining. 

The principal 
city and capital is 
ToKio, Avhich is 
as large as Phila- 

FiG. 211. 




The way Japanese babies are carried by the 
youLg girls. The baby leaning back is asleep. 



delphia, and is the 
home of the em- 
peror, called the 
Mikado. Its seaport is Yokohama, a city as large as 
Rochester. 

V, India and Indo-China. — India, the central one of 
the three peninsulas on the southern side of Asia, is the 
country that Columbus thought he had reached when he 
discovered America. Hence the name " Indians " for the 
savages whom he met. 



ASIA 



239 




Fig. 212. 
Idols in a cave near Bombay. 



The damp winds from the Indian Ocean furnish the plains and 
mountains of India with so mucli rain that in places the forests form 
a perfect tangle or Jungle 
of luxuriant vegetation, 
in which live tigers, ele- 
phants, and many other 
wild animals. Have you 
ever read Eudyard Kip- 
ling's "Jungle Book," 
which tells of this region ? 
Several very large rivers 
rise in the Himalayas and 
flow across the plains. 
One is the Indus, from 
which the word India comes, and also the word Hindoos, as the in- 
habitants are sometimes called. 
The river flowing southeast is the 
Ganges, on which is the capital 
and largest city, Calcutta. The 
next city in size on this eastern 
coast is Madras, far to the south, 
while the largest city on the 
west side is Bombay, which has 
the best harbor of all. 

Nearly all this peninsula, to- 
gether with the part of Indo- 
China called Burmah, belongs to 
England, through whose influ- 
ence roads and railways have 
been built and manufacturing 
carried on. 



One of the chief rea'sons 
why England holds India 
is for the important crops 
raised there. Cotton, one 
of the principal products, 




Fig. 213. 

A view in the palace grounds at Ban^ 
kok, Siam. 



240 THE EARTB AS A WHOLE 

is shipped to England to be made into cloth, and then 
some of this cloth is shipped back to India and sold. 
Where else have we found a similar situation ? 

Wheat is another great product, and since England 
cannot raise enough of that food for herself, she secures 
some of it from India. Other crops are poppies, from 
which opium is made, silk, rice, tea, coffee, and sugar. 

The peninsula east of India, called Indo-China, and the East In- 
dian Islands south of it, are other places that Columbus wished to 
reach. Here are found precious stones, peppei-, such spices as nutmeg 
and cinnamon, and other valuable products, which were carried by 
caravans to Europe long before the time of Columbus. Many of 
these products are now shipped from Singapoke, an English city on 
an island at the southern end of the Malay peninsula. The greatest 
city in Indo-China is Bangkok, the capital of the kingdom of Siam. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

I. Southwestern Asia. Questions. — (1) What part of Asia has 
had the greatest influence upon the civilized world ? Tell about it. 
(2) To what nation does Palestine belong? (3) What other parts 
of Asia belong to it? (4) Tell about Mecca. (5) Describe Arabia. 
(6) How do the Arabians live ? (7) What do you know about Per- 
sia? (8) How do people travel in those countries ? 

Suggestions. — (9) Whatismeantby the date 1900? (10) What 
buildings in your neighborhood have been erected in the memory of 
Christ? (11) What stories in the Bible have you read that tell about 
places mentioned in this book or on the map ? (12) What reasons 
can you suggest why the Tm'ks have not taken possession of the inte- 
rior of Arabia, as well as of the coast ? (13) Does your grocer sell 
Mocha coffee? (14) Examine a Persian or Turkish rug. (15) Learn 
how camels are especially fitted to live in desert countries. 

II. Siberia. Questions. — (16) Point toward Siberia. (17) Tell 
about the climate.' (18) In what occupations are the people engaged? 
(19) How does Siberia compare in size with Russia ? 



ASIA 241 

Suggestions. — (20) "What advantage will the railway be to Rus- 
sia? (21) How does that railway compare ill length with those reach- 
ing across the United States ? (22) What object do you see in having 
the eastern terminus, Port Arthur, so far south ? 

III. Chinese Empire and Korea. Questions. — (23) Name some of 
the arts that we have learned from the Chinese? (24) What has 
made them so backward? (25) What special ports are open to 
American traders ? (26) In what part of China do most of the peo- 
ple live? Why there? (27) What are the principal products? 
(28) What kind of a government has China ? (29) Tell about Korea. 

Suggestions. — (30) How can you distinguish a Chinaman from 
other men? (31) How does the number of people in China compare 
with the number in the whole of Europe ? (See the table on p. 262.) 
(32) Write a story telling some of the differences between life in 
America and in China. (33) Draw the two chief rivers in China. 
(34) How might railways in China help to pi'event the awful famines 
that they have there ? (35) Find out about Confucius. About the 
Great Wall of China. 

IV. Japan. Questions. — (36) Where is Japan ? (37) In what 
way have the Japanese been like the Chinese ? (38) How have they 
differed? (39) Why are they called an artistic race? (40) What 
are their chief products ? (41) ISTame and locate the chief cities. 

Suggestions. — (42) Make a collection of Japanese articles, as 
paper napkins, fans, etc. (43) Examine them to see in what respect 
they are artistic. (44) Collect pictures of Japanese houses and people. 

V. India and Indo-China. Questions. — (45) What nation owns 
India? (46) AVhat rivers in northern India ? (47) Locate. the chief 
cities. (48) What are the products? (49) What advantages does 
England enjoy in owning India ? (50) Name the peninsula east of 
India. (51) What comes from there? (52) Find Singapore. 

Suggestions. — (53) How far was Columbus from India when he 
discovered America? (54) What route should he have taken if he 
had continued his voyage to India ? (55) What is the shortest route 
from Bombay to London ? Through what waters would a vessel pass? 

VI. Review. — (56) Draw an outline map of Asia and put in the 
boundary lines of the principal countries ; also the rivers, mountains 
and cities. (57) Find out about foreign missions to Asia, 

For References, see page 261, 



XX. AFRICA 

Map Questions. — (1) What continent does Africa most resem- 
ble in shape? (2) In what parts are the chief mountain ranges? 

(3) Find the main slopes on the continent by a study of the rivers. 

(4) Name and trace the three largest rivers. (5) About how much 
of Africa lies in the torrid zone ? (6) How does its coast line com- 
pare with that of Europe as to regularity ? (7) What influence must 
that have upon the harbors ? 

The Dark Continent. — Although Africa is so near 
Europe that they ahiiost join at the Strait of Gibraltar, 
and although it is one of the oldest continents that history 
tells about, it is the least known of them all. 

There are several reasons for this. In the first place, 
south of the Mediterranean Sea is a broad desert, extend- 
ing entirely across the continent. This, a part of which is 
called the Sahara Desert (Fig. 69), is about a thousand 
miles wide, and very difficult to cross. 

South of this desert for more than a thousand miles 
the country is covered with a forest where the rainfall 
is heavy ; and near the equator the vegetation is so rank 
that an almost impenetrable jungle is formed, like the 
Amazon jungle. It is inhabited by large and fierce 
animals, such as the elephant, tiger (Fig. Ill), and lion. 

The rivers offer further obstacles to travel. The 
continent is mainly a plateau, varying from one-fourth to 
one and one-half miles in height; and its rivers on 
approaching the ocean have numerous rapids and falls, 
so that boats cannot make their way up-stream. 

242 



AFRICA 



243 




Fig. 215. 

The Great Pyramid and the Sphynx. What animals are those standing on the 
desert sands near the Sphynx? 

Not only are there deserts, unnavigable rivers, and dense 
forests with fierce animals, but there are hordes of savages 
belonging to the black race. It was from Africa that 
negroes Avere first brought to our country as slaves, and 
on that account those now here are often called Africans. 

Here, then, are several reasons why we know so little 
about Africa, which, because of this, and because so many 
blacks live there, is sometimes called the "dark conti- 
nent." 

Northern Africa. — The African side of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, being so close to Asia and Europe, has long 
been settled by the white race. Many of the inhabitants 



244 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



are Arabs, who, being believers in Mohammed, still make 
pilgrimages to Mecca in Arabia, like other followers of 
that prophet. 

The best-known country in this section is Egypt, and 
Cairo, its capital, is the largest city in Africa, being 
about twice the size of New Orleans. Alexandria is 
the chief Egyptian port. 

This is the country over which the Pharaohs, the kings of Egypt, 
used to rule ; and the ruins of the immense pyramids and monu- 
ments that they built thousands of years ago may still be seen. 
Here, the Bible tells, Moses once lived; and Joseph also. What 
stories do you remember about them ? 

Most of Egypt is a desert country, like Arabia on the one 
side and the Sahara Desert on the other. The Nile River 
flows through this desert, and every year the heavy floods, 
from the mountains of Abyssinia and the forest country 
near the equator, cause it to rise higher and higher until it 
overflows its banks. These floods, spreading out over the 
flood plain and level delta of the Nile, irrigate the land. 

As in other rivers, the water carries with it a-n abundance 
of mud, which settles in a thin layer of rich soil upon the flood 

plain, making it so 
fertile that excel- 
lent crops of cotton, 
sugar-cane, and 
grain can be raised 
after the water is 
gone. By this 
means millions of 
people obtain food, 
Fig. 21G. although they live 

A ship passing through the Suez Canal. in a desert region. 




AFBICA 



245 



The eastern part of Egypt includes the Isthmus of Suez, which con- 
nects Africa with Asia. Because of this narrow neck of land, ships sail- 
ing from Europe to Asia were compelled to go all the way round Africa ; 
but in 1869 a canal one hundred miles long was completed across the 
isthmus, so that vessels can now make a short cut. Estimate how many 
miles are saved by the Suez Canal in going from London to Calcutta. 

Name the countries west of Egypt along the Mediter- 
ranean coast. What are their capitals ? Most of them, 
like Egypt itself, are controlled by countries of Europe. 
Their products are similar to those on the northern side 
of the Mediterranean. What are some of them ? 




Fig. 217. 
A family camped on an oasis in the desert of Morocco. 

On the desert of Sahara few people are able to live. Some parts 
are sandy plains, while others are rocky and hilly, and in places 
even mountainous. But here and there, as in Arabia, are oases where 
water comes from underground, so that grass and date palms are able 
to grow. Sometimes these oases are so large that villages are built 
upon them ; and the cai'avans that cross the desert to bring ivory and 
other products from the soiith, make their stops at these places. Some 
of these caravans consist of hundreds of camels, so that there is need 
of much food and water. 



246 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



Central Africa. — Until a few years ago this was a wil- 
derness that no civilized man had ever visited ; but now 
much of it has been explored. The natives are mainly 
savage blacks ; and the Arabs, who go there to purchase 
ivory, still carry large numbers of them away as slaves. 

The northern part is called the Soudan. Near the 
borders of the Sahara the country is a desert ; but this 
condition gradually changes until, farther south, the land 
is covered with a dense tropical forest, for the rains are 
heavy near the equator. In this region live the lion, 
rhinoceros, giraffe, and elephant, the latter being killed 
for the sake of its ivory tusks. Some of the forest woods 
are valuable, and since the rubber tree flourishes there, as 
along the Amazon, rubber is another product. See p. 200. 

The two great rivers of this region are the Niger, north of the 
equator, and the Kongo, south of it. They are the main roads leading- 
inland, although their falls 
and rapids greatly interfere 
with travel. Throughout that 
entire region there are almost 
no wagon roads, so that goods 
must be carried either on the 
rivers or over paths or trails 
in pack trains. But this sit- 
uation is improving as the 
nations of Europe obtain 
more and more control. At 
the present time, several Eu- 
ropean countries claim parts 
of Africa, England haAnng 
the largest share, as you will see from the map, and they are intro- 
ducing civilized laws, railways, and other improvements. 

South Africa. — Southern Africa is the best developed 
section of the continent. It was originally settled by the 




Fig. 218. 
Kaffirs, South African savages, in full dress. 



AFEICA 



247 



Dutch, thoiigli England has taken possession of a portion 
of it. Part of it is a high plateau, with a warm temperate 




r. : _tf- — 



Fig. 219. 
A group of ostriches in South Africa. 

climate, having many of the same products as our own 
country. Most of the people are engaged in farming and 
ranching, producing grain, wool, and hides. Ostrich 
farming is an impor- 
tant industry in Cape 
Colony, the beautiful 
feathers of the male 
bird being very valua- 
ble. 

Johannesburg is 
the centre of the richest 
gold-mining region in 
the world, and more 
diamonds are obtained 
from near KiMBEELEY than from any other part of the 
globe. Portions of southern Africa have long been settled 




Fig. 220. 
A picture of a diamond mine at Kimberley. 



248 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 

by Europeans and much of it is now owned by England, 
the oldest colony being Cape Colony, the capital of which 
is Cape Town. Consequently many railways and good 
wagon roads have been built, and many other advances 
have been made. 

Review Questions. — (1) Why is so little known about Africa? 
(2) Why is it called the " dark continent " ? (3) Which is the best- 
known country in northern Africa ? (4) Name and locate its two 
chief cities. (5) Tell about the Nile River. (6) About the Suez 
Canal. (7) About the Sahara Desert. (8) Where is the Soudan? 
What animals live there? (9) What two great rivers are in Central 
Africa? (10) How are goods carried from place to place? (11) 
What influence are the nations of Europe having upon Africa? 
(12) AVhat climate has southern Africa? What are the occupa- 
tions of the people? 

Suggestions. — (1) What reasons can you give why Timbuktu 
should be an important trade centre ? (2) The caravans composed 
of camels travel at the rate of about sixteen miles per day. How 
long would it probably take for a caravan to travel from Timbuktu 
to Tripoli on the Mediterranean coast? (3) One camel can carry 
about four hundred pounds. How many tons could a caravan of 
six hundred camels carry? (4) What are some of the dangers of a 
journey across the desert ? (5) Beginning with the western Sahara, 
trace the desert country that extends across Africa and Asia. (6) Why 
should the two largest cities in Africa be located at or near the mouth 
of the Nile River ? (7) Find some object made of ivory and show 
it to the class. (8) Examine an ostrich feather and a diamond. 
(9) Why are there no tributaries to the northern half of the Nile? 
What part of the river, then, probably has most water? (10) Find 
out about the war between the Boers (those living in the South Afri- 
can Republic and Orange Free State) and the British. (11) Draw 
an outline map of Africa and put in the main rivers and cities. 

For References, see page 261. 



XXL AUSTRALIA, THE EAST INDIES, PHILIP- 
PINES, AND THE OTHER ISLANDS OF THE 
PACIFIC 

Map Questions. — (1) Find Australia on a globe and show how 
you would reach it from New York in a vessel. Through what waters 
would you pass? (See Fig. 120.) (2) From San Francisco? From 
London? (3) In what part are most of the mountains? (4) The 
rivers? (5) The cities? (6) In what zones is Australia? (7) Will 
there be any cold winter on this continent ? (8) Look on a globe to 
see what other continents are in the same zones. 

(9) What are the principal islands of the East Indies ? Find Ba- 
tavia. (10) In what direction are the Philippine Islands from Austra- 
lia? (11) Estimate the distance. (12) Find the Hawaiian Islands. 

I. Australia. — The names of the three eastern divi- 
sions of Australia — Victoria, New South Wales, and 
Queensland — suggest the countr}^ to which this continent 
belongs. Which is it ? As has been done in Canada, the 
various sections of Australia are being joined into one con- 
federation similar to our own confederation of states- 
Australia is the smallest of the continents, being about 
the size of the United States, not including Alaska. It 
is a low plateau, with the chief mountain range on the 
eastern side. These mountains have much influence on 
the climate ; for, since the prevailing winds are from the 
southeast, as they reach this range, and rise to pass over 
it, they grow cooler and lose most of their moisture. If 
the mountains were on the western side, as the Andes are 

249 



250 



THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 



in Soutli America, nearly tlie whole country might be well 
watered, like the Amazon Valley. As it is, however, the 
eastern coast of Australia has abundant rain, while farther 
westward it becomes drier, until, at a distance of one 
hundred and fifty miles from the coast, farming is almost 
impossible. 

What about the country farther west ? With what part 
of Afi-ica should it be compared ? Where must the chief 




Fig. 222. 
A forest of tree ferns iu Avistralia. 

rivers be ? Where might we expect to find salt lakes ? 
The best farm land ? The principal cities and most of the 
people ? 

Now examine the map to see if you are right. Where 
is the large desert? (It is dotted.) What is the name 
of the main river? There is often so little rain, even on 
the lower part of the Murray River Basin, that the river 
grows smaller toward its mouth ; and its chief tributary, 
the Darling, dries up almost entirely. 



AUSTRALIA 251 

When the English began to colonize this country, they found it 
inhabited by a very low class of savages ; and the plants and animals 
were found to be different from those elsewhere. A great part of the 
interior was covered with a low bush, called "scrub," having hard, 
prickly leaves and often growing so dense that it was difficult for one 
to make his way through it. It caused the country to 
look desolate indeed. 

There were none of the fierce animals common to 
other countries, the largest being the kangaroo, which is 
furnished with a sack or pouch for carrying its young. 
Instead of running on all fours, it jumps along on its 
hind legs, using its tail for support. 

Finding the plants and animals of 
little use, the English began to im- 
port some. Sheep were taken 
there and fonnd to thrive ; for 
the temperature is so mild that 
they are not exposed to cold, 
and some of the plants 
furnish excellent 
food. Conse- 
quently, great 
sheep ranches 
or sheep runs, as 
they are called ^^^- 223. 

there, have been . ^^ Australian kangaroo, 

established. The best sections for this purpose are Vic- 
toria and New South Wales, where wool has become one 
of the chief exports. Indeed, Australian wool is the best 
in the world. 

The imported cattle have likewise multiplied, so that hides and 
meat are produced in abundance. Wheat and corn also flourish, and 
many fruits, such as we know, are now plentiful in that region. 




252 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

The presence of mountains suggests that metals might 
exist there, which is the case. For many years Australia 
has ranked as one of the most important gold-producing 
countries of the world. 

Since these industries have become very extensive, 
especially in the rainy southeastern part, we see why 
several great cities have grown up in that section. The 
largest is Melboukne, the capital of Victoria, which is 
nearly as large as Boston. The next is Sydney, the capi- 
tal of New South Wales, nearly as large : and the third 
is Adelaide, the capital of South Australia. 

An island, Tasmania, just south of Australia, is owaed 
by- the British, and has almost the same industries as Vic- 
toria. 

The New Zealand Islands are also British, and in the 
climate and the customs of the people they resemble 
Australia. What is the capital ? What other city is 
found there? Do you remember the geysers for which 
the Yellowstone National Park is noted (p. 178) ? New 
Zealand and Iceland are the only two other parts of the 
world where geysers are found. 

Manufacturing is not yet greatly developed, so that 
quantities of wool, hides, metals, etc., are exported, going 
mainly to England, since these are colonies of Great Brit- 
ain. Some of the imports that must be received in return 
you can probably name. 

II. The East Indies. — Between Australia and Asia are 
a large number of islands, many of them too small to 
place upon the map. What are the names of some of the 
largest of this group, or archipelago, known as the East 
Indies ? The one that you have probably heard about 
most often is Java, from which the Java coffee comes. 



AUSTRALIA 



253 



Among the forests of these islands are many different 
kinds of valuable tropical woods. Sugar, tobacco, pepper, 
spices, and precious stones are other valuable products. 

These islands, like those of the Japanese Empire, are 
the crests of mountains in the sea. Among them are 
many very active volcanoes, some of them having caused 
terrible destruction by their frightful eruptions. The 
islands belong to European countries, and you will find 
the names of these countries marked on the map. 

III. The Philippine Islands. — The principal city on the 
Philippine Islands is Manila, on Luzon Island, where 
Admiral Dewey de- 
stroyed the Spanish 
fleet. 

Notice (Fig. 203) 
that they lie between 
the Japanese Islands 
and the East Indies, 
both of which were 
said to be mountain 
ranges in the sea. 
The Philippines are 
also mountains, form- 
ing a part of the 
same chain. 

There are valuable 
kinds of wood in the forests, and many mineral deposits ; 
but these were never much used by the Spaniards. The 
chief products have been sugar, tobacco, and hemp, which 
is used in making ropes. Now that the United States is 
in control of the islands, it is probable that their mineral 
and other resources will be developed. 




Fig. 224. 

A native house in Manila. In order to be well 
above the damp ground, the people live in 
the upper part. Notice the bamboo fence. 



254 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

On these islands dwell several different races. There 
are still many savages there, especially in the dense for- 
ests of the interior (Fig. 99). Some of them are called 
Negritos or little negroes. On the Sulu Islands are 
Mohammedans called Moros. The Tagalogs belong to 
the more advanced tribes, Avho have learned the arts of 
civilization from the Spaniards. 

IV. Islands of the Pacific. — There are many hundreds 
of islands in the Pacific Ocean, some of them being tiny 
coral islands, others large and mountainous. They are 
all located where mountain ranges or volcanic peaks rise 
from the great plain of the ocean floor. 

Find the Fiji Islands. They are also British. What 
other group of small islands do you see in that region ? 
Find the Samoan Islands. One of these belongs to the 
United States. What large island is just north of Aus- 
tralia ? In what zone does it lie ? One part is British, 
one part Dutch, and one part German. All of its prod- 
ucts are tropical, and it is covered with a dense forest 
and inhabited by fierce savages. Very few Europeans 
live there. 

Among the islands of the Pacific we must not forget to 
mention the Hawaiian Islands, for they now form a 
part of our own country. They are situated in the mid- 
Pacific on the way from San Francisco to Australia, and 
consist of a number of islands, the largest being Hawaii. 
All of them are volcanic, and on Hawaii are two of the 
largest volcanoes in the world (Fig. 101). Being in the 
torrid zone, their climate is warm enough for sugar raising, 
and this is one of the principal industries of the islands. 
Where else have we found this industry ? Honolulu is 
the ca^Dital and largest city. 



I 



AUSTRALIA 255 



REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

I. Australia. Questioxs. — (1) To what country does Australia 
belong ? (2) How does it compare in size with the United States ? 
(o) How does the mountain range on the east affect the climate? 
(-1) Which, then, is the most valuable part of the country? (5) Tell 
about the native plaiits and animals. (6) What animals and plants 
have been imported ? (7) What industries have resulted ? (8) Name 
the principal exports. (9) Locate the chief cities. 

Suggestions. — (10) Sketch Australia, putting in the Murray 
River and tlie principal cities. (11) What other places in the world 
are noted for sheep and cattle raising ? (12) For gold mining ? 
(13) Read about the great trouble the imported rabbits have caused 
in Australia, (li) Where are the desert countries of the world? 
Make a sketch map to show them. 

II. East Indies. Questions. — (15) Name several of the larger 
islands of the East Indies.. (16) What are the products? 

Suggestions. — (17) W^hy were they named the East Indies? 
(18) Find what spices are used in cooking at your home. (19) Make 
a collection of spices, trying to find where each kind came from. 
(20) See on the map (Fig. 221) to what European countries each of 
the larger islands belongs. (21) Find where the tea and coffee used 
at your home came from. By what route are they pi'obably brought? 

III. Philippine Islands. Questions. — (22) Where are the Philip- 
pine Islands ? (23) Name the principal city. (24) W^hat has re- 
cently made it famous? (25) What are the names of the largest 
islands? (26) How far is Manila from China? (27) What races 
occupy these islands? 

Suggestions. — (28) Collect some Manila hemp rope. (29) Find 
out about the battle of Manila Bay and also about the war with the 
Filipinos. (30) Collect pictures from the Philippines. 

IV. Islands of the Pacific. Questions. — (31) Find Tasmania ; 
New Zealand; the Fiji Islands. (32) What large island lies north 
of Australia ? Tell about it. (33) Tell about the Hawaiian Islands. 

Suggestions. — (34) Find out something about the Fiji Islands. 
(35) About the Hawaiian Islands. (36) Find out some events that 
have happened on the Samoan Islands. 

For References, see page 261. 



BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1 



McM. means The Macmillan Co., New York; Ginn, Ginn & Co., Boston, 
Mass. ; A. B. C, American Book Co., New York ; S. B. C, Silver, Burdett & 
Co., New York; Heath, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass.; E. F. C, Educa- 
tional Publishing Co., Boston, Mass. ; Scribner, C. Scribner & Sons, New 
York. 



Methods, Aids, etc. 

Geikie, "The Teaching of Geography" (McM., |0.60) ; King, 
"Methods and Aids in Geography" (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $1.20); 
Parker, " How to Study Geography " (D. Appleton & Co., New York, 
$1.50); Mchols, "Topics in Geography" (Heath, $0.65); Trotter, 
"Lessons in the New Geography" (Heath, |1. 00) ; McMurry, "Spe- 
cial Method in Geography " (Public School Publishing Co., Blooming- 
ton, 111., $0.50) ; McCormick, " Suggestions on Teaching Geography " 
(same publisher, $0.50) ; McMurry, " A Course of Study in Geogra- 
phy " (Herbartiaii Society, University of Chicago) ; Frye, " The Child 
and Nature " (Ginn, $0.80) ; Frye, " Teacher's Manual of Methods 
in Geography" (Ginn, $0.50); Redway, "Manual of Geography" 
(Heath, $0.65) ; Morton, " Lessons on the Continents " (E. L. Kellogg 
& Co., New York, $0.20) ; McCormick, " Practical Work in Geog- 
raphy" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 111., $0.80). 

Journal of School Geography (R. E. Dodge, Teachers' College, 
Columbia University, New York City, $1.00 per year) ; National 

1 These references are not intended to be exhaustive, but, rather, sug- 
gestive. Most, if not all, are to first-class sources. The attempt has been 
to make few references, assuming that the teacher will have others in 
mind. While there may seem to be many here, a careful examination 
will reveal the fact that really few books are referred to. Some of those 
mentioned at the end of Part I will be found useful for Part II also. 

256 



BEFERENCES 257 

Geographic Magazine (Washington, D. C, ^2.00 ; includes membersliip 
to Society) ; Bulletin, American Bureau of Geography/ (Winona, Minn., 
f 1.00 ; includes membership to Bureau) ; " The Statesman's Year 
Book," published each year, gives latest statistics, etc. (McM., $3.00) ; 
Mill, " Hints to Teachers and Students on the Choice of Geographical 
Books " (Longmans, Green & Co., New York, $1.25) ; Ritter, " Com- 
parative Geography" (A. B. C, fl.OO) ; Shaler, "Nature and Man in 
America " (Scribner, f 1.50) ; Guyot, " Earth and Man " (Scribner, 
$1.75) ; Champlin, " Cyclopedia of Common Things " (H. Holt & Co., 
New York, $2.50); Champlin, "Cyclopedia of Pei'sons and Places" 
(same publisher, $2.50) ; Murche, " Science Readers " (McM., 1 and 
U, $0.25 each. III and IV, $0.40 each, V and VI, |0.50 each) ; Lange, 
"Handbook of Nature Study " (McM., $1.00) ; Yonge, " Little Lucy's 
Wonderful Globe" (McM., $0.50); Strong, "All the Year Round" 
(Ginn, three volumes, $0.30 each) ; Carpenter, " Geographical Readers " 
(A. B. C, Vol. II, Asia, $0.60 ; volume on North America, $0.60) ; 
Guyot, " Geographical Reader " (A. B. C, $0.60) ; Gonner, " Commei- 
cial Geography " (McM., $0.75) ; Tilden, " Grammar School (Com- 
mercial) Geography " (T. R. Shewell & Co., Boston, $1.25) ; Chisholm, 
" Commercial Geography" (Longmans, Green & Co.,New York, $1.00) ; 
Mill, " General Geography" (McM., $0.90) ; Lyde, " Man and His INIar- 
kets"(McM., $0.50); Herbertson, "Man and His Work" (McM., 
$0.60) ; Pratt, " American History Stories " (E. P. C, four volumes, 
.$0.36 each) ; Pratt, " Stories of Colonial Children " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; 
Shaler, " First Book in Geology " (Heath, $0.60) ; Davis, " Physical 
Geography " (Ginn, $1.25) ; Tarr, " Elementary Geology " (McM., 
$1.40) ; Tarr, "Elementary Physical Geography "(McM., $1.40) ; Tarr, 
"First Book of Physical Geography" (McM., $1.10). Excellent 
selections may also be found in many school readers. 

Section I. Form and Size of the Earth. — Andrews, " Seven Little 
Sisters," section on " The Ball Itself " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Irving, " Life 
and Voyages of Christopher Columbus" (G. P. Putnam's Sons, New 
York, $1.75) ; for Columbus, Magellan, etc., see various school 
histories. Also, poem on " Columbus " by Tennyson D'Anvers, 
" Science Ladders," Vol. I (E. P. C, $0.40) ; Gee, " Short Studies 
in Nature Knowledge," section on " The Great Globe Itself " (McM., 
$1.10); Ritter, "Comparative Geography," First Part (A. B. C, 
$1.00). 



258 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 

Section II. Daily Motion of the Earth and its Results. — Redway, 
"Manual of Geography," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.65); "Daybreak" 
(poem), Longfellow. 

Section III. The Zones. — Eggleston, "Stories of American Life 
and Adventure," section on "Adventures in Alaska" (A. B. C, $0.50) ; 
Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters," sections on " The Little Brown Baby," 
" Agoonack, the Esquimau Sister," and " How Agoonack Lives" (Ginn, 
$0.50) ; Schwatka, " The Children of the Cold " (E. P. C, $1.25) ; 
Ballon, "Footprints of Travel," Chapters XXIX and XXX (Ginn, 
$1.00) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," First Book, 
Part 2 (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.50). 

Section IV. Heat within the Earth and its Results. — Tarr, " First 
Book of Physical Geography," Chapters I (p. 8), XIX, and XX 
(McM., $1.10) ; Trotter, "Lessons in the New Geogi-aphy," pp. 16-17 
(Heath, $1.00) ; Redway, "Manual of Geography," Chapter VII 
(Heath, $0.65) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady Why," section on 
" Volcanoes " (McM., $1.00) ; Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowl- 
edge," Chapter XI (McM., $1.10); Kelly, "Leaves from Nature's 
Story Book," Vol. Ill, "The Records of the Rocks" (E. P. C, $0.40). 

Section V. The Continents and Oceans. — Andrews, " Seven Little 
Sisters" (Ginn, $0.50); Ballon, "Footprints of Travel" (Ginn, 
$1.00) ; Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowledge," Chapter IV, 
"The Sea" (McM., $1.10); Kelly, "Leaves from Nature's Story 
Book," Vol. Ill, " A Visit to the Bottom of the Ocean " (E. P. C, 
$0.40) ; Shaler, " The Story of Our Continent," " Section on Coral 
Reefs" (Ginn, $0.75); Tarr, "Elementary Geology," p. 251 (McM., 
$1.40) ; D'Anvers, " Science Ladders," Vol. Ill, Lesson VIII (E. P. 
C, $0.40). Poems: Shelley, "A Vision of the Sea"; Longfellow, 
" The Secret of the Sea " ; Longfellow, " The Wreck of the Hespe- 
rus " ; Holmes, " The Chambered Nautilus " ; Byron, " The Ocean." 

Section VI. Maps. — For References, see bottom of page 110. 

Section VII. North America. — Shaler, "The Story of Our Conti- 
nent " (Ginn, $0.75) ; Lyde, " North America " (McM., $0.50) ; King, 
" The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shep- 
ard, Boston, $0.72). 

Section VIII. The United States. — Brooks, "Century Book for 
Young Americans " (The Century Co., New York, $1.50) ; Brooks, 
" The Story of the United States " (The Lothrop Publishing Co., 



BEFERENCES 259 

Boston, $1.50) ; Channing, " Students' History of the United States " 
(McM., $1.40) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters I and XXV 
(Ginn, $1.00) ; Gannett, " The United States," Stanford's Com- 
pendium of Geography (Scribner, |4.50) ; King, " The Picturesque 
Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.72) ; 
" Our Country " (poem), Holmes. 

Section IX. New England. — Eggleston, " Stories of American Life 
and Adventure," " Stories of Whaling " and " A Whaling Song " (A. 
B. C, $0.50); Rocheleau, "Great American Industries," Book I, 
"Granite," "Marble," and "Slate"; Book II, "Cotton Manufactur- 
ing" and "Lumbering" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, each $0.50); Chase 
and Clow, " Stories of Industry," Vol. I, " Lumbering," " Ship Build- 
ing," " Marble and Granite," " Slate and Brick " ; Vol. 11, " Manufac- 
turing," " Fisheries," and " Whaling " (E. P. C, each $0.40) ; King, 
" The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Third and Fourth Books 
(Lee & Shepard, Boston, each $0.56) ; Wilson, " ]!^ature Study in 
Elementary Schools," Second Reader, "The Tree," by Bjornsen 
(McM., $0.35). Poems: Whittier, " Mogg Megone " ; "Pentiicket 
" The Bridal of Pennacook " ; " The Merrimack " ; " The Norsemen 
Longfellow, " The Woods in Winter " ; " The Building of the Ship 
" The River Charles " ; Emerson, " Boston." 

Section X. Middle Atlantic States. — Chase and Clow, " Stories of 
Industry," Vol. I and Vol. II, various stories on Iron, Coal, Mining, 
Manufacturing, Farming, etc. (E. P. C, each $0.40) ; Rocheleau, 
" Great American Industries," Book I, sections on " Coal Mining," 
" Natural Gas," " Petroleum," and " Iron " (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 
$0.50) ; Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Adventure," sec- 
tion on "A Story of Niagara" (A. B. C, $0.50) ; King, " The Pictur- 
esque Geographical Readers," Third and Fourth Books (Lee & 
Shepard, Boston, each $0.56). 

Section XI. The Southern States. — Rocheleau, " Great American 
Industries," Book II, section on " Cotton and Sugar " (A. Flanagan, 
Chicago, $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," 
Fourth Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56). 

Section XII. The Central States. — Garland, " Boy Life on the 
Prairie " (McM., $1.50) ; McMurry, " Pioneer Stories of the Missis- 
sippi Valley" (Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111., $0.50) ; 
Rocheleau, " Great American Industries," Book II, sections on " Grain 



260 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Raising," "Wheat Raising," and "Milling" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 
f 0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Fourth Book 
(Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56). Poems: "When the Frost is on 
the Punkin," Riley; "Knee Deep in June," Riley; "The Prairies," 
Bryant ; " The Hunter of the Prairies," Bryant. 

Section XIII. The Western States. — Ballon, "Footprints of 
Travel," Chapter XXV (Ginn, fl.OO); Eggieston, "Stories of Ameri- 
can Life and Adventure," sections on " How Fremont Crossed the 
Mountains," "The Finding of Gold in California," "Descending the 
Grand Canon," and several Indian stoi'ies (A. B. C, $0.50) ; Chase and 
Clow, "Stories of Industry," Vol. I, several sections on "Mines and 
Mining " (E. P. C, |0.40) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical 
Readers," Fifth Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56) ; " The Pass of 
the Sierra" (poem), Whittier; "In the Yosemite Valley," Joaquin 
Miller. 

Section XIV. Alaska. — Ballpu, "Footprints of Travel," Chapter 
XXVI (Ginn, fl.OO) ; Eggieston, " Stories of American Life and Ad- 
venture," "Adventures in Alaska" (A. B. C, $0.50). 

Section XV. Countries North of the United States. — Coe, "Our 
American Neighbors," Chapters I-XII (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Lyde, " A 
Geography of North America " (McM., $0.50) ; Dawson, " Canada 
and Newfoundland," Stanford's Compendium (Scribner, $4.50) ; An- 
drews, "Seven Little Sisters," the two sections on Agoonack (Ginn, 
$0.50); Schwatka, "The Children of the Cold" (E. P. C, $1.25); 
Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowledge " (McM., $1.10) ; King, 
" The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shep- 
ard, Boston, $0.72) ; " An Arctic Vision," Bret Hart ; " Evangeline," 
Longfellow. 

Section XVI. Countries South of the United States. — Coe, " Our 
American Neighbors," Chapters XIII-XVII (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Conk- 
lin, " Guide to Mexico " (D. Appleton & Co., New York, $1.50) ; Lyde, 
" A Geography of North America " (McM., $0.50) ; Ballon, " Foot- 
prints of Travel," Chapters XXIII, XXIV, XXV, XXVII, and 
XXVIII (Ginn, $1.00) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical 
Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.72). 

Section XVII. South America. — Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," 
Chapters XXIX-XXXI (Ginn, $1.00) ; Coe, " Our American Neigh- 
bors" (S. B. C, $0.60). 



REFEBENCES 261 

Section XVIII. Europe. — Lyde, " A Geography of Europe " (McM., 
10.50) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters X-XXII (Giun, 
11.00) ; Coe, " Northern Europe " (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Pratt, " Northern 
Europe " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; Lyde, " A Geography of the British Isles " 
(McM., $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Sixth 
Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.60) ; Pratt, " Stories of England " 
(E. P. C, $0.40); Andrews, "Seven Little Sisters," "The Little 
Mountain Maiden," and "Louise" (Ginn, $0.50). Poems: Alice 
Carey, " The Leak in the Dike " ; Longfellow, " Venice " ; " The Bel- 
fry of Bruges " ; " Nuremberg " ; " To the River Rhone " ; " To the 
Avon." Joaquin Miller, " Sunrise in Venice " ; " In a Gondola " ; " To 
Florence " ; Shelley, " Ode to Naples." 

Section XIX. Asia. — Ballou, " Footprints of Ti-avel," Chapters 
III, VIII, and IX (Ginn, $1.00); Andrews, "Seven Little Sisters," 
" The Story of Pen-se," also " Gemila " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Smith, " Life 
in Asia" (S. B. C, $0.60); Pratt, "Stories of India" (E. P. C, 
$0.40); Pratt, "Stories of China" (E. P. C, $0.40). Poems by 
Whittier : " The Holy Land " ; " Palestine " ; " The Pipes of Luck- 
now." 

Section XX. Africa. — Lyde, " A Geography of Africa " (McM., 
$0.50); Ballou, "Footprints of Travel," Chapters IX and X (Ginn, 
$1.00); Badlam, "Views in Africa" (S. B. C, $0.72); Andrews, 
" Seven Little Sisters," section on " The Little Dark Girl " and 
"Gemila" (Ginn, $0.50). 

Section XXI. Australia, etc. — Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," 
Chapters II, IV, V, VI, VII (Ginn, $1.00); Kellogg, "Australia and 
the Islands of the Sea " (S. B. C, $0.68) ; Pratt, " Stories of Aus- 
tralasia" (E. P. C, $0.40). Poem, "Western Australia," O'Reilly. 



APPENDIX 



CONTINENTS AND PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES 

Note. — The figures 1897, 1890, etc., refer to the year m which the 
estimate was made. Most of the figures are obtained from the " States- 
man's Year Book" for 1899, or from the " Century Atlas." 





Area in Square Miles 


Population 


North America 


6,446,000 


1897 


94,000,000 


United States (with Alaska) 


3,602,990 


1890 


62,840,835 


Mexico 


767,005 


1895 


12,619,959 


Canada 


3,653,946 


1891 


4,833,239 


Central America . 


175,696 


1897 


3,271,426 


South America 


6,837,000 


1897 


40,000,000 


Brazil .... 


3,209,878 


1892 


18,000,000 


Argentina 


1,778,195 


1895 


3,954,911 


Peru . . . . 


449,000 


1897 


3,000.000 


Chile .... 


290,829 


1895 


2,527,320 


Europe .... 


3,850,000 


1897 


374,000,000 


Russia .... 


2,095,616 


1897 


106,191,795 


German Empire . 


208,830 


1895 


52,279,901 


Austria-Hungary . 


240,942 


1890 


41,359,204 


France .... 


204,092 


1896 


38,517,975 


British Isles . 


120,979 


1891 


38,104,975 


Italy .... 


110,646 


1898 


31,667,946 


Spain .... 


197,670 


1887 


17,565,632 


Turkey in Europe 


62,744 


1898 


5,711,000 


Asia (with islands) . 


17,255,890 


1897 


831,000,000 


Chinese Empire . 


4,218,401 


1897 


402,680,000 


India .... 


1,559,603 


1891 


287,123,350 


Japan .... 


147,655 


1896 


42,708,264 


Turkey in Asia . 


650,097- 


1898 


16,823,500 


Siberia .... 


4,833,496 


1897 


5,727,090 


Africa .... 


11,508,793 


1897 


170,000,000 


Kongo Free State 


900,000 


1898 


14,000,000 


Egypt .... 


400,000 


1897 


9.734,405 


Cape Colony 


276,925 


1891 


1,766,040 


South African Republic 


119,139 


1898 


1,094,156 



262 



APPENDIX 



263 





Area in Square Miles 




Population 


Australia 


. 2,946,691 


1891 


3,036,570 


New South Wales 


310,700 


1898 


1,335,800 


Victoria . ... 


87,884 


1898 


1,169,434 


Queensland 


668,497 


1897 


484,700 


Soutli Australia . 


903,690 


1897 


858,224 



SIZE OF THE EARTH 

Length of the Earth's Axis at equator (miles) 
Length of the Equator (miles) 

The Earth's Surface (square miles) 
Pacific Ocean (square miles) 
Atlantic Ocean (square miles) 
Antarctic Ocean and the great southern sea sur 

rounding the south pole (square miles) 
Indian Ocean (square miles) 
Arctic Ocean (square miles) 

The sea (square miles) . . . .- 



7,926 
24,902 

196,940,000 

55,660,000 
33,720,000 

30,605,000 

16,720,000 

4,781,000 

141,486,000 



AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 





Area in Square Miles 


Population 


Alabama . 


52,250 


1890 


1,513,017 


Alaska 


577,390 


1890 


31,795 


Arizona 


113,020 


1890 


59,620 


Arkansas . 


53,850 


1890 


1,128,179 


California . 


158,360 


1890 


1,208,130 


Colorado . 


103,925 


1890 


412,198 


Connecticut 


4,990 


1890 


746,258 


Cuba .... 


41,655 


1894 


1,631,696 


Delaware . 


2,050 


1890 


168.493 


District of Columbia . 


70 


1890 


230,392 


Florida 


58,680 


1895 


464,639 


Georgia 


59,475 


1890 


1,837,3.53 


Hawaiian Islands 


6,640 


1897 


102,020 


Idaho 


84,800 


1890 


84,385 


Illinois 


56,650 


1890 


3,826,351 


Indiana 


36,350 


1890 


2,192,404 


Indian Territory- 


31,400 


1890 


186,490 


Iowa .... 


56,025 


1895 


2,058.069 


Kansas 


82,080 


1895 


1,334,734 


Kentucky . ... 


40,400 


1890 


1,858,635 


Louisiana . 


48,720 


1890 


1,118,587 



264 



APPENDIX 



Maine 
Maryland . 
Massachusetts 
Michigan . 
Minnesota . 
Mississippi . 
Missouri 
Montana 
Nebraska . 
Nevada 
New Hampshire 
New Jersey 
New Mexico 
New York . 
North Carolina 
North Dakota 
Ohio . 
Oklahoma . 
Oregon 
Pennsylvania 
Philippine Islands 
Porto Rico . 
Rhode Island 
South Carolina 
South Dakota 
Tennessee 
Texas . 
Utah . 
Vermont 
Virginia 
Washington 
West Virginia 
Wisconsin 
Wyoming . 



Area in Square '. 


Miles 


Population 


33,040 


1890 


661,086 


12,210 


1890 


1,042,390 


8,315 


1895 


2,500,183 


58,915 


1890 


2,093.889 


83,365 


1895 


1,574,619 


46,810 


1890 


1,289,600 


69,415 


1890 


2,679,184 


146,080 


1890 


132,159 


77,510 


1890 


1,058,910 


110,700 


1890 


45,761 


9,305 


1890 


376,530 


7,815 


1895 


1,673,196 


122,580 


1890 


153,593 


49.170 


1890 


5,997.853 


52,250 


1890 


1,617,947 


70,795 


1890 


182,719 


41,060 


1890 


3,672,316 


39,030 


1890 


61,834 


96,030 


1890 


313,767 


45,215 


1890 


5,258,014 


114,326 


1897 


7,000,000 


3,550 


1887 


813,937 


1,250 


1890 


345,506 


80,570 


1890 


1,151,149 


77,650 


1895 


330,975 


42,050 


1890 


1,767,518 


265,780 


1890 


2,235,523 


84,970 


1890 


207,905 


9,565 


1890 


382,422 


42,450 


1890 


1,655,980 


69,180 


1890 


349,890 


24,780 


1890 


762,794 


56,040 


1890 


1,686,880 


97,890 


1890 


60,705 



TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES OF THE UNITED 

STATES 



Note. — The great increase in size of New York is due to the joining 
of Brooklyn and other cities to it, making Greater New York. 



1. NewYork, N. Y. 

2. Chicago, 111. 



Estimated Population, 
Jan. 1, 1899 

. 3,549,558 . 
. 1,950,000 . 



Population, 
Census of 1890 

. 1,515,301 

. 1,099,850 



APPENDIX 



265 



3. Philadelphia, Pa. 

4. St. Louis, Mo. . 

5. Boston, Mass. 

6. Baltimore, Md. . 

7. Cincinnati, O. 

8. Cleveland, O. . 
Buffalo, N. y. . 
San Francisco, Cal. 
Detroit, Mich. . 
Pittsburg, Pa. 
New Orleans, La. 

14. Washington, D. C. 

15. Milwaukee, Wis. 
Newark, N. J. . 
Louisville, Ky . 
Minneapolis, Minn. 

19. Jersey City, N. J. 

20. Kansas City, Mo. 

21. Indianapolis, Ind. 

22. Kochester, N. Y. 

23. St. Paul, Minn. . 

24. Providence, R. I. 

25. Denver, Col. 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 



16. 
17. 

18. 



Estimated Population, 




Population, 


January 1, 1S99 Census of 1890 


. 1,350,000 . . . 1,046,964 




623,000 






451,770 




530,000 






448,477 




500,000 






434,439 




405,000 






296,908 




400,000 






261,353 




400,000 






255,664 




350,000 






298,997 




350,000 






205,876 




31.5,000 






238,617 




300,000 






242,039 




280,000 






230,392 




280,000 






204,468 




250,000 






181,830 




225,000 






161,129 




200,000 






164,738 




200,000 






163,003 




200,000 






132,716 




200,000 






105,436 




177,000 






133,896 




175,000 






133,156 




167,000 






132,146 




165,000 






106,713 



CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES AND ITS DEPEND- 
ENCIES MENTIONED IN THIS BOOK 



Albany, N. Y. . 
Allegheny, Pa. . 
Annapolis, Md. 
Atlanta, Ga. 
Baltimore, Md. . 
Bangor, Me. 
Birmingham, Ala. 
Boston, Mass. . 
Bridgeport, Conn. 
Buffalo, N.Y. . 
Butte, Mont. . 
Cambridge, Mass. 
Camden, N. J. . 
Charleston, S. C. 



Estimated Population, Mainly 


Population, 


January 1, 1899 


Census of 1890 


. 100,000 . 


94,923 




125,000 . 


105,287 






7,604 




118,000 . 


65,533 




500,000 . 


434,439 




27,000 . 


19,103 




60,000 (1897) . 


26,178 




530.000 . 


448,477 




75,000 . 


48,866 




400,000 . 


255,664 




50,000 . 


10,723 




89,276 . 


70,028 




65,000 . 


58,313 




65,000 . 


54,955 



266 



APPENDIX 



Chattanooga, Tenn 
Chicago, 111. 
Cincinnati, O. 
Cleveland, O. 
Columbus, O. 
DaUas, Tex. 
Denver, Col. 
Detroit, Mich. 
Duluth, Minn 
Fall River, Mass. 
Galveston, Tex. 
Gloucester, Mass. 
Grand Rapids, Mich 
Harrisburg, Pa. 
Hartford, Ct. . 
Havana, Cuba . 
Honolulu . 
Indianapolis, Ind. 
Jacksonville, Fla. 
Jersey City, N. J. 
Kansas City, Mo. 
Knoxville, Tenn. 
Lawrence, Mass. 
Los Angeles, Cal. 
Louisville, Ky. . 
Lowell, Mass. . 
Lynn, Mass. 
Manchester, N. H. 
Manila, Philippines 
Memphis, Tenn. 
Milwaukee, Wis. 
Minneapolis, Minn. 
Mobile, Ala. • . 
Newark, N. J. . 
New Bedford, Mass. 
New Haven, Ct. 
New Orleans, La. 
New York, N. Y. 
Norfolk, Va. . 
Ogden, Utah 
Omaha, Neb. 
Paterson, N. J. . 
Pensacola, Fla. 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Pittsburg, Pa. . 



Estimated Population, 




Population, 


January 1, 1899 Census of 1890 


40,000 . . . 29,100 




1,950,000 






1,099,850 




405,000 






296,908 




400,000 






261,353 




135,000 






88,1.50 




50,000 






38,067 




165,000 






106,713 




350.000 






205,876 




60,000 






33,115 




103,000 






74,398 




71,250 






29,084 




29,000 






24,651 




100,000 






60,278 




60,000 






39,385 




75,000 






53,230 




. 200,000 (1894) 








28,920 (1896) 








200,000 . 




105,436 




35,000 . 




17,201 




200,000 . 




163,003 




200,000 . 




132,716 




50,000 (1897) 




22,535 




58,000 . 




44,654 




115,000 . 




50,395 • 




225,000 . 




161,129 




87,000 . 




77,696 




67,000 . 




55,727 




60,000 . 




44,126 




154,062 (1887) 








110,000 . 




64,495 




280,000 . 




204,468 




200,000 . 




164,738 




40,000 . 




31,076 




250,000 . 




181,830 




59,000 . 




40,733 




115,000 . 




81,298 




300,000 . 




242,039 




3,549,558 . 




1,515,301 




65,000 . 




34,871 








14,889 




160,000 . 




140,452 




97,344 (1895) 




78,347 




16,000 . 




11,750 




1,350,000 . 




1,046,964 




315,000 






238,617 



APPENDIX 



267 







Estimated Population, 


Population, 


January 1, 1899 


Census of 1890 


Portland, Me 45,000 




36,425 


Portland, Ore. . 






100,000 




46,385 


Providence, R. I. 






167,000 




132,146 


Pueblo, Col. 






28,250 


(1897) '. 


24,558 


Reading, Pa. 






90,700 




58,661 


Richmond, Va. 






100,000 




81,388 


Rochester, N. Y. 






177,000 




133,896 


Rutland, Vt. . 










11,760 


Saginaw, Mich. 






60,000 




46,322 


St. Louis, Mo. . 






623,000 




451,770 


St. Paul, Minn. 






175,000 




133,156 


Salt Lake City, Utah 






48,076 


(1895) ! 


44,843 


San Francisco, Cal. 






350,000 




298,997 


Savannah, Ga. . 






66,000 




43,189 


Scran ton. Pa. 






125,000 




75,215 


Seattle, Wash. . 






85,000 


, 


42,837 


Sitka, Alaska . 








. 


1,190 


Spokane, AVash. 






45,000 




19,922 


Springfield, Mass. 






57,676 


. 


44,179 


Syracuse, N. Y. 






130,000 


. 


88,143 


Tacoma, Wash. 






52,000 


. 


36,006 


Tampa, Fla. 






15,634 


^1895) . 


5,532 


Toledo, 0. 






145,000 


. 


81,434 


Trenton, N. J. . 






62,518 


(1895) . 


57,458 


Troy, N. Y. 






. 65,000 




60,956 


Vicksburg, Miss. 






20,000 




13,373 


Washington, D. C. 






280,000 


. 


230,392 


Wheeling, West Va. 






40,000 


(1897) . 


34,522 


Wilkes Barre, Pa. 






57,000 


. 


37,718 


Wilmington, Del. 






70,000 




61,431 


Wilmington, N. C. 






27,000 




20,056 


Worcester, Mass. . . . 105,000 




84,655 


TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES 


OF THE 


W^ORLD 

Population 


1. London, England, 1898 


/ 4 


t,504,766 


2. New York, United States, 1899 . 


'. 


,549,558 


3. Paris, France, 1896 


'. '. 2 


,536,834 


4. Canton, China . . < * 


f; 


,500,000 


5. Chicago, United States, 1899 


'. '. 1 


,950,000 


6. Berlin, Germany, 1895 


1 


,677,304 


7.. Vienna, Austri 


a-Hu 


ngar^ 


Y, 1890 . 


. 1 


,364,548 



268 



APPENDIX 



8. Philadelphia, United States, 1899 

9. Tokio, Japan, 1896 

10. St. Petersburg, Russia, 1897 

11. Moscow, Russia, 1897 . 

12. Tientsin, China, 1898 . 

13. Peking, China, 1898 . 

14. Constantinople, Turkey, 1885 

15. Calcutta, India, 1891 . 

16. Bombay, India, 1891 . 

17. Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1898 

18. Glasgow, Scotland, 1898 

19. Bangkok, Siam, 1898 . 

20. Warsaw, Poland, 1897 . 

21. Liverpool, England, 1898 . 

22. Hamburg, Germany, 1895 . 

23. St. Louis, United States, 1899 

24. Cairo, Egypt, 1897 

25. Brussels, Belgium, 1897 



Population 

1,350,000 
1,299,941 
1,267,023 
988,614 
950,000 
900,000 
873,565 
861,764 
821,764 
753,000 
724,349 
700,000 
638,209 
633,645 
625,552 
623,000 
670,062 
551,011 



OTHER IMPORTANT FOREIGN CITIES 



Adelaide, South Australia, 1897 
Alexandria, Egypt, 1897 
Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1897 
Antwerp, Belgium, 1897 
Athens, Greece, 1896 
Bangkok, Siam, 1898 
Barcelona, Spain, 1887 
Belfast, Ireland, 1891 
Berlin, Germany, 1895 
Berne, Switzei'land, 1897 
Bu'mingham, England, 1898 
Bombay, India, 1891 
Bordeaux, France, 1896 
Brussels, Belgium, 1897 
Budapest, Austria-Hungai-y, 1890 
Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1898 
Cairo, Egypt, 1897 
Calcutta, India, 1891 
Callao, Peru, 1890 . 
Canton, China 

Cape Town, Cape Colony, 1891 
Caracas, Venezuela, 1891 



Population 

146,125 
319,766 
503,285 
271,284 
111,486 
700,000 
272,481 
255,950 
1,677,304 

49,030 
510,343 
821,764 
256,906 
551,011 
505,763 
753,000 
570,062 
861,764 

35,492 
2,500,000 

51,251 

72,429 



APPENDIX 



269 



Christiania, Norway, 1897 . 

Constantinople, Turkey, 1885 

Copenhagen, Denmark, 1890 

Dresden, Germany, 1895 

Dublin, Ireland, 1891 . 

Edinburgh, Scotland, 1898 

Geneva, Switzerland, 1897 

Glasgow, Scotland, 1898 

Halifax, ISTova Scotia, 1891 

Hamburg, Germany, 1895 

Havre, France, 1896 

Hongkong, China, 1898 

Jerusalem, Turkey in Asia, 1885 

Johannesburg, South African Republic, 1896 

Kimbei'ley, Cape Colony, 1891 

Leipzig, Gernjany, 1895 

Lima, Peru, 1891 . 

Lisbon, Portugal, 1890 . 

Liverpool, England, 1898 

London, England, 1898 

Lyon, France, 1896 

Madras, India, 1891 

Madrid, Spain, 1887 . 

Malaga, Spain, 1887 

Manchester, England, 1898 

Marseille, France, 1896 . 

Mecca, Turkey in Asia, 1885 

Melbourne, Victoria, 1897 

Mexico, Mexico, 1895 . 

Milan, Italy, 1897 . 

Mocha, Turkey in Asia 

Montevideo, Uruguay, 1897 

Montreal, Canada, 1891 

Moscow, Russia, 1897 . 

Munich, Germany, 1895 

Naples, Italy, 1897 

Odessa, Russia, 1897 

Ottawa, Canada, 1891 . 

Para, Brazil, 1892 . 

Paris, France, 1896 

Peking, China, 1898 

Prague, Austria-Hungary, 1890 

Quebec, Canada, 1891 . 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1890 

Rome, Italy, 1897 . 

St. John, New Brunswick, 1891 



Population 

200,000 
873,565 
312,859 
336,440 
245,001 
295,628 

86,535 
724,349 

38,556 
625,552 
119,470 
248,710 

41,000 
102,078 

28.718 
399,963 
103,956 
301,206 
633,645 
4,504,766 
466,028 
452,518 
470,283 
134,016 
539,079 
442,239 

60,000 
458,610 
344,377 
470,558 
5,000 
249,251 
216,650 
988,614 
407,307 
536,073 
405,041 

44,154 

65,000 

2,536,834 

900,000 

184,109 

63,090 
522,651 
487,066 

39,179 



270 



APPENDIX 



St. Petersburg, Russia, 1897 . 
Santiago, Chile, 1897 . 
Shanghai, China, 1897 . 
Singapore, Malay Peninsula, 1891 
Stockholm, Sweden, 1897 
Sydney, New South Wales, 1897 
Teheran, Persia, 1897 . 
The Hague, Netherlands, 1897 
Tientsin, China, 1898 . 
Tokio, Japan, 1896 
Toronto, Canada, 1891 . 
Trieste, Austria-Hungary, 1890 
Valparaiso, Chile, 1897 . 
Vancouver, Canada, 1891 
Venice, Italy, 1897 
Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1895 
Victoria, Canada, 1891 . 
Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1890 
Warsaw, Poland, 1897 . 
Winnepeg, Canada, 1891 
Yokohama, Japan, 1896 
Zurich, Switzerland, 1897 



Population 

1,267,023 
302,131 

457,000 
160,000 
288,602 
417,250 
210,000 
196,325 
950,000 
1,299,941 
181,220 
158,344 
139,038 

13,685 
155,899 

88,993 

16,841 

1,364,548 

638,'209 

25,642 
179,502 
151,994 



HEIGHT OF A FEW MOUNTAIN PEAKS 

Teet 

Mt. Everest, Himalaya Mountains, Asia . . 29,002 

Aconcagua, Andes Mountains, Chile . . . 22,860 

Mt. McKinley, Alaskan Mountains, Alaska . . 20,464 

Mt. Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada .... 19,500 

Mt. Elburz, Caucasus Mountains, Russia . . 18,200 

Orizaba, Sierra Madre, Mexico .... 18,314 

Mt. St. Elias, Coast Ranges, Alaska . . . 18,100 

Mt. Blanc, Alps Mountains, France . . . 15,781 

Mt. Whitney, Sierra Nevada Mountains, California 14,898 

Mt. Rainier, Cascade Mountains, Washington . 14,526 

Mt. Shasta, Cascade Mountains, California . . 14,380 

Pikes Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colorado . . 14,108 

Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands .... 13,675 

Fremont Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wyoming . 13,790 

Fujiyama, Japan 12,365 

Mt. Mitchell, Appalachian Mountains, North Carolina 6,711 

Mt. AVashington, White Mountains, New Hampshire 6,293 

Mt. Marcy, Adirondacks, New York . . . 5,344 



APPENDIX 



271 



SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD 



Name 


Country- 


Length 
in miles 


Basin area 


Ocean 


Missouri-Mississippi United States 


4,300 


1,257,000 


Atlantic 


Nile . 


Africa 


3,400 


1,273,000 


Atlantic 


Amazon 


South America 


3,300 '. 


2,500,000 


Atlantic 


Ob 


Siberia 


3,200 


1,000,000 


Arctic 


Yangtse 


China 


3,200 


548,000 


Pacific 


Kongo . 


Africa 


2,900 


1,200,000 


Atlantic 


Lena . 


Siberia 


2,800 


950,000 


Arctic 


Hoang-Ho . 


China 


2,700 


570,000 


Pacific 


Niger . 


Africa 


2,600 


563,300 


Atlantic 


Plata . 


South America 


2,580 


1,200,000 


Atlantic 


Mackenzie . 


Canada 


2,000 


590,000 


Arctic 


Volga . 


Russia 


2,400 


563,300 


Caspian 


St. Lawrence 


North America 


2,200 


519,000 


Atlantic 


Yukon 


Alaska 


2,000 


440,000 


Pacific 


Lidus . 


India 


1,800 


372,700 


Indian 


Danube 


Europe 


1,770 


300,000 


Atlantic 


TEN OF 1 


CHE GREAT LAK 


ES OF THE WORLD 


Name 


Length Breadth 
in Miles in Miles 


Area in Square 
Miles 


Countrj 




Caspian 


680 270 


169,000 


Russia 




Superior 


390 160 


31,200 


U. S. an 


d Canada 


Victoria Nyanz 


1 230 220 


30,000 


Africa 




Aral 


225 185 


26,900 


Asiatic Russia 


Huron 


250 100 


17,400 


U. S. and Canada 


Michigan 


335 85 


20,000 


tfU. S. and Canada 


Tanganyika 


420 50 


12,650 


Africa 




Baikal 


397 45 


12,500 


Siberia 




Erie 


250 58 


10,000 


U. S. and Canada 


Chad (a shallow 


lake which grows 








very large in 


the rainy season 


about 






and shrinks ii 


1 the dry season) 


10,000 


Africa 




APPROXIMATE 


AVERAGE HEIG 


rHT OF SOME PLATEAUS 


Tibet . 






i'eet 

10-15,000 


Bolivia 


. 




10-13,000 


Abyssinia . 


. 




5- 


7,000 


Mexico 






5- 


6,000 


Western Unit 


ed States Plateau 




5- 


6,000 


Brazil 


. 




2,000- 


2,500 



INDEX OF PLACES AND PRONOUNCIN& VOCABULARY. 



KEY TO PRONUNCIATION. 



a, as in fat ; a, as in fate ; a, as in far ; a, as in fall ; e, as 
in pen ; e, as in mete ; e, as in Aer ; i, as in pin ; i, as in pine ; o, as in 
not ; 0, as in 7iote ; o, as in move ; u, as in tub ; u, as in mute ; u, as in 
pull ; g, as in get ; g, as in gem ; c, as in cat; ^, as in cent. 

A double dot under a or o (a, p) indicates that its sound is shortened to 
that of u in but. 

Italicized letters are silent. The sign ' tells upon which syllable the 
accent is placed. The numbers refer to pages in the book excepting where 
Fig. is before them, when they refer to figures in the book. 



Ab-ys-sin'-i-a, 244. 

A-con-ca'-gua (gwa), Fig. 177, 

A-crop'-o-lis, 224. 

Ad'-e-latde, 252. 

Ad-i-ron'-dacks, 39, 151. 

Ad-ri-at'-ic, 221, 224. 

Af-g/ian-is-tau', Fig. 203. 

Af'-ri-ca, 132, 242. 

Al-a-ba'-ma, 159. 

A-las'-ka, isS. 

Al'-ba-ny (ni), 150. 

Aleutian (a-lu'-shun), Fig. 203. 

Al-ex-an'-dri-a, 244. 

Al-ge'-ri-a, Fig. 214. 

Allegheny (al'-e-ga-na), 41, 154, 

155. 
Alps, 21. 

Am'-a-zon, 199, 201. 
Am'-ster-dam, 217. 
Amur (a-moor'). Fig. 203. 
Andes (an'-dez), 199, 204. 
An-drps-cog'-grin, 145. 

T 273 



An-nap'-o-lis, 156. 
Antarctic (an-tark'-tik) , 133. 
An-til'-les (lez), 198. 
Ant'-werp, 217. 
Ap-jja-lach'-i-ans, 139, 153, 154, 

159, 160. 
A-ra'-bi-a, 232. 
Ar'-al, Fig. 203. 
Ar'-a-rat, Fig. 203. 
Arctic (ark'-tik), 133. 
Ar-gen-ti'-na (te), 203. 
Ai--i-zo'-na, 176. 
Ar'-kan-sas (saw), 159. 
Asia (a'-sh?a), 131, 2.30. 
At/i-a-bas'-ca, Fig. 123. 
Ath'-ens (enz), 224. 
At-lan'-ta, 160. 
At-lan'-tic, 63, 133. 
A2«-gus'-ta, Fig. 125. 
Aus-tra'-li-a, 132, 249. 
Aus'-tri-a, 223. 
A-zores' (zorz'). Fig. 214. 



274 



INDEX 



Baf'-/in Land, 193. 

Ba-ha'-ma, 198. 

Baikal (bi'-kal), Fig. 203. 

Bal'-tic, 211, 213. 

Bal'-ti-more, 149, 156. 

Ban'-gor, 145. 

Bang-kok', 240. 

Bar-ce-lo'-na, 220. 

Bat'-on Rouge (roozh), Fig. 140. 

Bel'-fkst, or (fast), 209. 

Bel'-gi-um, 217. 

Ben-gal', Fig. 203. 

Be'-ring Sea, Fig. 203. 

Ber-lin', 216. 

Ber-ma'-da, 198. 

Berne, 223. 

Bir'-miug-ham (Ber), Ala., 160. 

Bir'-ming-ham (um), Eng., 209. 

Bo-go-ta', Fig. 177. 

Boise (boi'-ze). Fig. 157. 

Bo-k/ia'-ra, Fig. 203. 

Bo-liv'-i-a, Fig. 177. 

Bom-bay', 239. 

Bordeaux' (bor-do'), 218, 219. 

Bor'-ne-o, Fig. 221. 

Bos'-ton, 37, 66, 142, 143, 147. 

Bra/i-ma-pu'-tra (poo). Fig. 203. 

Bra-zil', 200. 

Bridge'-port, 147. 

Brit'-ish Isles, 207. 

Brook'-lyn (lin), 149. 

Brus'-sels, 217. 

Bu'-da-pest (Boo), 223. 

Buenos Aires (bwa'-nos i'-res), 

203. 
Buf'-fa-lo, 150, 151, 152. 
Bul-ga'-ri-a, 225. 
Burma (ber'-ma), 239. 
Butte (but), 181. 

Cairo (ki'-ro), Egypt, 244. 
Cal-cut'-«a, 239. 
Cal-i-for'-ni-a, 179. 
Cal-la'-o, 205. 



Cam'-bridge, 142. 
Cam'-den, 153. 
Can'-a-da, 140, 190. 
Can'-Qer, Tropic, 120, 
Can-ton', 236. 
Cape Town, 248. 
Cape Verde Islands, Fig. 214. 
Cap'-ri-corn, Tropic, 120. 
Ca-ra'-cas, 203. 
Car-i6-be'-an, 197. 
Cas-cade' Range, 177. 
Cas'-pi-an, 213. 
Cas-tine' (ten), 65. 
Cats'-kiUs, 151. 

Caucasus (ka'-ka-sus). Fig. 183. 
Cayenne (ka-yen'), Fig. 177. 
Celebes (sel'-e-bez), Fig. 221. 
gen'-tral -Amer'-i-ca, 140, 197. 
Ceylon (se-lon'). Fig. 203. 
Chad, Fig. 214. 

Cham-plam' (sham). Fig. 132. 
Charles'-ton (charlz), 165. 
Chat-ia-noo'-ga, 160. 
Ches'-a-peake, 149. 
Cheyenne (shi-en'), Fig. 157. 
Chi-ca'-go (She), 170, 171. 
Chile (Chil'-a), 205. 
Chim-bo-ra'-zo, 14. 
Chi-na, 100, 235. 
Chris-ti-a'-ni-a (ne-a), 212, 
Qin-Qiw-na'-ti, 174. 
Cleve'-land, 173. 
Coast Ranges, 177. 
Co-lom'-bi-a (be-a), 205. 
Col-6-ra'-do, 180. 
Col-o-ra'-do Can'-yon, 178. 
Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a) District, 156, 
Co-lum'-bi-a (be-a) River, 185. 
Co-lum'-bus, 174. 
Con-nect'-i-cut, 146. 
Con-stan-ti-no'-ple, 225. 
Co-pen-ha'-gen, 212. 
Cor-dil-ler'-as, 177. 
Cor'-inth, 224. 



INDEX 



275 



Cor'-si-ca, Fig. 183. 
Crete, Fig. 183. 
Cu-ba, 112, 197. 

Dal'-Zas, 161. 

Dan'-ube, 223, 225. 

Dar'-ling River, 250. 

Dead Sea, 55. 

Del'-a-ware, 149. 

Den'-mark, 212. 

Den'-ver, 180. 

Des Moines (de-moin') , Fig. 148. 

De-troit', 173. 

Dnieper (ne'-per). Fig. 183. 

Dniester (nes'-ter), Fig. 183. 

Dres'-den (drez), 216. 

Dub'-lin, Fig. 183. 

Duluth (D6-looth'), 172. 

Dwina (dwe'-na), 183. 

East In'-di-a Islands, 132, 252. 
Ecuador (ek'-wa-dor) , 205. 
Edinburgh (ed'-n-bur-o) , 209. 
E'-gypt, 244. 
El'-be, 215. 

El-burz' (boorz), Fig. 183. 
England (ing'-land), 100, 208. 
E'-rie, Lake, 151. 
Es'-ki-mos (moz), 122, 193. 
Eurasia (u-ra'-she-a) , 131. 
Europe (u'-rop), 131, 207. 
Ev'-er-est, Mt., 230. 

Fan River, 147. 
Fiji (fe'-je), 254. 
Flor'-l-da, 162. 
For-mo'-sa, 237. 
France (frans), 217. 
Fu-ji-ya'-ma (foo), 270. 

Gal'-ves-ton, 165. 
Ganges (gan'-jez), 239. 
Gen-e-see', 152. 
Ge-ne'-va, 223. 



Geor-gi-a, 162. 

Ger'-ma-ny (na), 214. 

Gi-brai'-tar, 242. 

Glas'-goto, 209. 

Gloucester (glos'-ter), 73, 143, 185. 

Gobi (go'-be), 231. 

Grand Rap'-ids, 173. 

Great Britain (brit'-n), 207. 

Great Lakes, 53, 58. 

Great Salt Lake, 55, 182, 183. 

Greece (Gres), 224. 

Green'-land, 193. 

Guam (Gwam), Fig. 221. 

Guiana (ge-a'-na), 203. 

Guth'-r^•e, Fig. 140. 

Haiti (ha'-ti), 198. 

Hal'-i-fax, 192. 

Ham '-burg (berg), 215. 

Har'-?'is-burg (berg), 154. 

Hart'-ford, 147. 

Ha-van'-a, 197. 

Havre (a'-vr),218. 

Hav^aii (ha-wa'-e), 254. 

Havraiian (ha-wa'-yan) Islands, 124, 

135, 186, 254. 
Hel'-e-na, Fig. 157. 
Him-a-la'-ya, 230. 
Ho-ang-ho', Fig. 203. 
Hol'-Zand, 216. 
Hong'-kong, 236. 
Ho-no-lu'-lu (loo'-loo),254. 
Hud '-son River, 150. 
Hun'-ga-ry (ray), 223. 
Hu'-ron, Lake, Fig. 148. 

iQe'-land, 212. 
I'-da-'ho, Fig. 157. 
Illinois (il-i-noi'), 168, 169. 
Iloilo (e-lo-e'-lo), Fig. 221. 
In'-di-a, 238. 
In'-di-an, 134. 
In-di-an'-a, 169. 
In-di-an-ap'-o-lis, 95, 174. 



276 



INDEX 



In'-(ii-an Ter'-ri-to-ry, 165. 

In'-do Chi'-na, 240. 

In'-dus,. 239. 

l'-o-M?a, 168. 

Ireland (I'-er-land) , 207. 

Ir-kutsk' (kotsk), Fig. 203. 

It'-a-ly (la), 220. 

Jack'-son-vilZe, 165. 
Jamaica (ja-ma'-ka), 198. 
Ja-pan', 237. 
Ja'-va, 252. 

Jersey (jer'-zi) City, 149. 
Je-ru'-sa-lem (ro), 232. 
Johannesburg (yo-lian'-es-berg) , 
247. 

Kam-chat'-ka, Fig. 203. 
Kan'-sas (zas), 167. 
Kan'-sas (zas) City, 174. 
Ka-ta/i'-din, Fig. 125. 
Ken-ne-bec', 145. 
Ken-tuck'-y, 168. 
Kim'-ber-ley, 247. 
Klon'-dike, 188, 191. 
^nox'-vilZe, 160. 
Kon'-go, 246. 
Ko-re'-a, 287. 

Lab-ra-dor' (door), 190. 
Lachine (La-shen') Kapids, 191. 
La-drone', Fig. 221. 
Lawrence (la'-rens), 147. 
Leipzig (lip'-tsig), 216. 
Le'-na, Fig. 203. 
Li'-ma (le) , 205. 
Lis'-bon (liz), 220. 
Liv'-er-pool, 209. 
Loire (Iwar), Fig. 183. 
Lon'-don (lun), 208, 210. 
Los An'-ge-les, 184, 186. 
Louisiana (lo-e-zi-an'-a), Fig. 140. 
Louisville (lo'-is-vil), 174. 
Loto'-eU, 147. 



Lu-zon' (16), 253. 
Lynn (lin), 147. 
Lyon (li'-on), 218. 

Mackenzie (ma-ken '-zi), 139. 
Mad-a-gas'-car, Fig. 214. 
Ma-dei'-ra, Fig. 214. 
Ma-dras', 239. 
Ma-drid', 220. 
Maine, 144. 
Mal'-a-ga, 220. 
Ma-lay', Fig. 203. 
Man'-ches-ter, Eng., 209. 
Man'-ches-ter, N.H., 146, 147. 
Man-chti'-ri-a, Fig. 203. 
Ma-nil'-a, 253. 
Man-i-to'-ba, 191. 
Marseille (mar-sal'), 219. 
Maryland (mer'-i-land), 149. 
Mas-sa-chii'-setfs, Fig. 125. 
Mat'-ier-horn, 222. 
Mau'-na Lo'-a, 270. 
Mec'-ca, 232. 

Med'-i-ter-ra'-ne-an, 231, 242. 
Me-kong' (ma). Fig. 203. 
Mel'-bourne (bern), 252. 
Mem'-phis (fis), 164. 
Mer'-ri-mac, 146. 
Me-sa'-bi, 169. 
Mex'-i-co, 140, 195. 
Mex'-i-c5 City, 197. 
Mich'-i-gan (misb), 169. 
Mich'-i-gan (mish), Lake, 171. 
Mi-lan', 222. 
Mil-waw'-kee, 171. 
Min-da-na'-o (men), Fig. 221. 
Min-do'-ro (men), Fig. 221. 
Min-we-ap'-o-lis, 172. 
Min-?2e-so'-ta, 168, 169. 
Mis-sis-sip'-pi, 172. 
Mis-sis-sip'-pi Eiver, 31, 42, 46, 51, 

139, 159. 
Mis-soM-ri, 159, 173. 
Mo-bile' (bel), 165. 



INDEX 



277 



Mo'-c^a, 233. 

Mo-ham'-me-dan, 225, 232. 
Mo'-haiok, 150, 151. 
Mon-go'-li-a, Eig. 203. 
Mo-non-ga-he'-la, 41. 
Mon-ta'-na, 181. 
Mont Blanc, 21, 23. 
Mon-te-ne'-gro (na), 225. 
Mon-te-vid'-e-o, 203. 
Mont-pe'-li-er (Iyer), Fig. 125. 
Mont-re-al', 192. 
Moose-head Lake, 56. 
Mo-roc'-co, Fig. 214. 
Mo'-ros, 254. 
Mos'-cow, 213. 
Mu'-nic/i, 216. 
Mur'-ray Eiver, 250. 

Nan-tuck'-et, Fig. 125. 

Na'-ples (plz), 221. 

Nash'-viUe, Fig. 140. 

Ne-bras'-ka, 167. 

Ne-gri'-tos (gre'-toz), 254. 

Neth'-er-lands, 216. 

Ne-va'-da, 181. 

New'-ark, 149. 

New Bed'-ford, 147. 

New Cal-e-do'-ni-a, Fig. 221. 

New Eng'-land (ing'), 93, 142, 

New'-found-land, 190. 

New Guinea (gin'-i), Fig. 221. 

New Hamp'-shire, 142. 

New Ha'-ven, 142, 147. 

New Heb'-ri-des (dez), Fig. 221. 

New Jersey (jer'-zi), 153. 

New Mex'-i-co, 176. 

New Or'-le-ans, 61, 87, 163, 164. 

New South Wales (Walz), 249. 

New York, 65, 66, 89, 96, 149, 152. 

New Zea'-land, 252. 

NT-ag'-a-ra Falls, 152. 

Nic-a-ra'-gua (gwa). Fig. 123. 

Ni'-ger, 246. 

Nile, 46, 244. 



Nor'-foZk, 156. 

North A-mer'-i-ca, 129, 138. 

North Car-o-li'-na, Fig. 140. 

North Da-ko'-ta, Fig. 143. 

North'-fMd, 37.' 

Nor'-way, 211. 

No'-va Sco'-tia (Sco'-sha), 190. 

Ob, Fig. 203. 

O-des'-sa, 213. 

Og'-den, 183. 

O-hl'-o, 45, 168, 169. 

Ok-la-ho'-ma, 160, 165. 

O-lym'-pi-a, Fig. 157. 

O'-ma-ha, 174. 

On-ta'-ri-o, Lake, Figs. 132, 171. 

Or'-e-gon, 185. 

O-ri-no'-co, 199, 202. 

0-ri-za-ba, 271. 

Ot'-«a-wa, 192. 

Pa-5if'-ic, 133, 

Pa-la^wan', Fig. 221. 

Pal'-es-tlne, 232. 

Pan-a-ma' Canal, 186. 

Pan-a-ma' Is«A-mus, 129, 197, 205. 

Panay (Pa-ni'), Fig. 221. 

Pa-ra', 201. 

Par'-a-guay (gwl), 199. 

Par-a-mar'-i-bo, Fig. 177. 

Par'-is, 218. 

Pat-a-go'-ni-a, Fig, 177. 

Pat'-er-son, 150, 

Pe-king',236, 

Penjt-syl-va'-ni-a, 149. 

Pe-nob'-scot, 145. 

Pen-sa-co'-la, 165. 

Per'-sia (sha), 232, 

Pe-ru' (ro), 205, 

Petchora (pech-o'-ra) , Fig. 188. 

Phil-a-del'-phi-a, QQ, 149, 153, 156. 

Phil'-ip-pine, 121, 186, 253. 

Phoe'-nix, Fig. 157. 

Pierre (pe-ar'). Fig. 148. 



278 



INDEX 



Pitts'-burg (berg), 41, 154, 155, 156. 

Pla'-ta, 203. 

Po-po-cat-e-pe'-tl, 195. 

Port Ar'-thur, 235. 

Port'-land, Me., 143, 147. 

Port'-lancl, Oregon, 185, 186. 

Por'-to' Ri'-co (re'-ko), 198. 

Por'-tu^gal, 219. 

Pp-to'-mac, 156. 

Poughkeepsie (po-kip'-si), 150. 

Pragwe, 224. 

Pribilof (pre'-be-lof) Islands, 189. 

Prov'-i-dence, 143, 147. 

Pueblo (pweb'-lo), 15, 180. 

PQ'-get Sound, 185. 

Pyrenees (pir'-e-nez) , 219. 

Quebec (kwe-bek'), 192. 
Queens'-land, 249. 
Qui-to (ke'-to), Fig. 177. 

Eainier (ra'-ner), Fig. 157. 

Ealeigh (ra'-li). Fig. 140, 

Eead'-ing, 154. 

R/iine, 214, 215. 

EAode Island, Fig. 125. 

Eich'-mond, 157. 

Rio de Janeiro (re'-o da zha-ne'-ro) , 

202. 
Rio Grande (re'-o), 139. 
Roch'-es-ter, 85, 152. 
Rock'-y Mountains, 33, 36, 139, 177. 
Rome, 220. 
Rou-ma'-ni-a, 225. 
Russia (rush'-a), 212. 
Rut'-land, 144. 

Sac-ra-men'-to, Fig. 157. 

Sag'-i-naie, 173. 

Sa-ha'-ra, 242. 

St. An'-tho-ny (ni) Falls, 172. 

St. JoAn, 192. 

St. Law'-ren§e, 53, 139, 192. 

St. Louis (16'-is), 42, 173. 



St. Paul, 88, 172. 

St. Pe'-ters-burg (berg), 213. 

Salt Lake City, 182. 

Sa-niar', Fig. 221. 

Sa-mo'-a, 254. 

San Fran-gis'-co, 66, 180, 185, 186. 

San'-taF^ (fa), Fig. 157. 

San-ti-a'-go (te), 205. 

Sar-din'-i-a, Fig. 183. 

Sa-van'-waA, 165. 

Scot'-land, 208. 

Scran'-ton, 155. 

Se-at'-fle, 185, 186. 

Seine (san), 218. 

Seoul (sol). Fig. 203. 

Ser'-vi-a, 225. 

Shang-hai' (hi), 236. 

Shas'-ta, Fig. 124. 

Si-am', 240. 

Si-be'-ri-a, 234. 

Si-er'-ra (se) Mad'-re (ra),Fig. 123. 

Si-er'-ra (se) Ne-va'-da, 20, 177. 

Sin-ga-pore, 240. 

Sit'-ka, 188, 189. 

Soit-dan', 246. 

South A-mer'-i-ca, 129, 130, 199. 

South Car-o-li'-na, 159. 

South Da-ko' ta. Fig. 148. 

Spain, 100, 219. 

Spo-kane', 185. 

Spring'-fteld, 147. 

Stock'-holm, 212. 

Sucre (soo'-kra). Fig. 177. 

Su-ez' (so), 245. 

Sulu (so-lo'), 254. 

Su-ma'-tra (so), Fig. 221. 

Su-pe'-ri-or, Lake (so), 150, 169, 

Swe'-den,"211. 

Swit'-zer-land, 131, 222. 

Syd'-ney, 252. 

Syr'-a-cuse, 150, 152. 

Ta-co'-ma, 185, 186. 
Ta^gal'-ogs, 254. 



INDEX 



279 



Tal-Za-has'-see, Fig. 140. 

Tam'-pa, 165. 

Tan-gan-yi'-ka (ye), Fig. 214. 

Tas-ma'-ni-a (taz), 252, 

Te-lieran', Fig. 203. 

Ten-nes-see', Fig. 140, 

Tex'-as, 159, 161. 

Tliames (temz) , 208. 

Ttie Hague (bag), 217. 

Tib'-et, Fig. 203. 

Tientsin (te-en'-tsen'), 236, 

Ti-er'-ra del Fue'-go (fua), Fig. 177» 

Tim-buk'-tu (to) , 248. 

Ti-ti-ca'-ca (te-te),Fig. 177. 

To'-ki-o (ke), 238, 

To-Ie'-do, 173. 

To-pe'-ka, Fig. 148, 

To-ron'-to, 192. 

Tren'-ton, 153. 

Trieste (tre-esf), Fig. 183. 

Trin-i-dad', 203. 

Trip'-o-li, Fig. 214. 

Troy, 152. 

Tu'-nis, Fig. 214. 

Tur-kes-tan' (Ter), Fig. 203. 

Turkey (ter'-ki), 100, 225. 

U-ni'-ted States, 97, 140, 141. 
U'-ral Mountains, 212, 234. 
U-ru-guay (o-ro-gwi'), 203. 
U'-ta/i, 181. 

Val-pa-rai'-so, 205, 
Van-cou'-ver (ko), 192, 
Ven-e-zue'-la (zwe), 202. 
Ven'-ige, 221. 
Ve'-ra Cruz (kroz) , 197. 



Ver-mont', 144. 
Ve-su'"-vi-us (so), 125, 221. 
Vicks'-burg (berg), 164. 
Vic-to'-ri-a, Australia, 249. 
Vic-to'-ri-a, Canada, 192. 
Vic-to'-ri-a Ny-an'-za, Fig. 214. 
Vi-en'-na, 223. 
Vir-gin'-i-a (ver), 157. 
Vis'-tu-la, Fig, 183, 
Vol'-ga, 213, 

Wales (walz), 208. 
War'-saw, Fig. 183, 
Wash'-ing-ton (city), 97, 98, 99, 

156, 157, 
Wash'-ing-ton (state), 185, 
West Indies (in'-diz), 197, 
West Vir-gin'-i-a (ver), 157.. 
Wheel'-ing, 157," 
White Mountains, 17, 
Wilkes Barre (wilks'-bar-a) , 155. 
Wil'-ming-ton, Del., 153. 
Wil'-ming-ton, N. C, 165, 
Win'jii-peg, 192. 
Wis-con'-sin, 169. 
Worcester (wiis'-ter), 147. 
Wy-o'-ming (wi), Fig. 157. 

Yang'-tse-ki-ang' (ke). Fig. 203. 

Yel'-?ow-stone, 177. 

Yenisei (yen-e-sa'-e) , Fig. 203» 

Yo-ko-ha'-ma, 238. 

Yo-sem'-i-te, 20. 

Yu'-kon, 139, 189, 

Yu-ca-tan', Fig, 123, 

Zti-rich (zo'-rik), 223. 



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