{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3767", "width": "2372", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\nChap.i.l:Z.\u00c2\u00aeo4yright No\\nShelf.4-\u00c3\u00aei3..b\\ne,__\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "A CONDENSED HISTORY\\nOP\\nMODERN TIMES\\nBY\\nVICTOR DURUY\\nFORMERLY MINISTER OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION AND MEMBER\\nOF THE ACADEMY\\nTRANSLATED FROM THE HISTOIRE GENERALE\\nREVISED AND EDITED BY\\nEDWIN A. GROSYENOE\\nPROFESSOR OF EUROPEAN HISTORY IN AMHERST COLLEGE\\nNEW YORK\\nTHOMAS Y CROWELL COMPANY\\nPUBLISHERS", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "TW^O COPIES KkiOEiV\\nC^ff\u00c3\u00af of tes\\nAPR 14 1900\\ntfgUter of CopyHghii^\\n61060\\nCOPTBIGHT, 1898 AND 1900,\\nBy THOMAS T. OEOWELL CO.\\n33 OOj SECOND COPY.\\n,i~f^ /C, /fui)", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nPAGE\\nI. Progress of Kotaltt in France 1\\nPrincipal Divisions of Modern History.\\nLouis XI (1461-1483) League of Public Welfare (1465)\\nInterview of P\u00c3\u00a9ronne (1468).\\nDeath of the Duke of Guyenne (1472).\\nMad Enterprises and Death of Charles the Bold (1477).\\nUnion of the Great Fiefs with the Crown.\\nAdministration of Louis XI.\\nCharles VIII (1483).\\nII. Progress of Kotalty in England. War op the Eoses 7\\nHenry VI. Richard of York, Protector (1454)\\nEdward IV (1460).\\nRichard III (1483).\\nHenry VII (1485).\\nIII. Progress of Royalty in Spain 11\\nAbandonment of the Crusade against the Moors.\\nMarriage of Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella of Cas-\\ntile (1469).\\nConquest of Granada (1492).\\nThe Inquisition. The Power of Royalty.\\nProgress of Royalty in Portugal.\\nIV. Germany and Italy from 1453 to 1494 15\\nFrederick III (1440) and Maximilian (1493).\\nItaly. Republics replaced by Principalities.\\nV. The Ottoman Turks (1453-1520) 19\\nStrong Military Organization of the Ottomans. Mo-\\nhammed II.\\nBayezid II (1481). Selim the Ferocious (1512).\\nill", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "iv CONTENTS\\nPAGB\\nVI. Waes in Italy. Charles VIII and Louis XII 22\\nConsequences of the Political Revolution. The First\\nEuropean Wars.\\nExpedition of Charles VIII into Italy (1494).\\nLouis XII (1498). Conquest of Milan and Naples.\\nLeague of Cambrai (1508). The Holy League (1511).\\nInvasion of Erance (1513). Treaties of Peace (1514).\\nVIL The Economical Revolution 26\\nDiscovery of the Cape of Good Hope (1497).\\nColonial Empire of the Portuguese.\\nChristopher Columbus. Colonial Empire of the Span-\\niards. Results.\\nVIII. The Revolution in Arts and Letters, or the Renais-\\nsance 30\\nInvention of Printing.\\nRenaissance of Letters.\\nRenaissance of Arts.\\nRenaissance in Science.\\nIX. The Revolution in Creeds, or the Reformation 33\\nThe Clergy in the Sixteenth Century.\\nLuther (1517).\\nThe Lutheran Reformation in the Scandinavian States.\\nThe Reformation in Switzerland. Zwingli (1517).\\nCalvin (1536).\\nThe Reformation in the Netherlands, France, Scot-\\nland, and England.\\nCharacter of the Three Reformed Churches.\\nConsequences of the Reformation.\\nX. The Catholic Restoration 41\\nReforms at the Pontifical Court and in the Church.\\nThe Jesuits.\\nCouncil of Trent (1545-1563).\\nXI. New Wars in Italy. Francis I, Charles V, and\\nSOULE\u00c3\u008fMAN I 44\\nFrancis I, Victory of Marignano (1515).\\nPower of Charles V.\\nPavia (1525). Treaties of Madrid (1526) and Cam-\\nbrai (1529).", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nPAGE\\nAlliances of Francis I. Successes of Soule\u00c3\u00afman I.\\nNew War between Charles V and Trancis I.\\nAbdication of Charles V (1556).\\nContinuation of the Struggle between the Houses of\\nTrance and Austria (1558-1559).\\nXII. The Eeligiofs Wars in Western Europe (1559-\\n1598) 51\\nPhilip IL\\nCharacter of this Period.\\nErance the Principal Battlefield of the Two Parties.\\nThe Pirst War (1562-1563).\\nSuccesses of Catholicism in the Netherlands and\\nPrance (1564-1568). The Blood Tribunal (1567).\\nDispersion of the Porces of Spain. Victory of Le-\\npanto (1571).\\nCatholic Conspiracies in England and in Prance.\\nProgress of the Protestants (1573-1587).\\nDefeat of Spain and of Ultramontanism (1588-1598).\\nXIII. Eesults op the Eeligious Wars in Western\\nEurope q\\\\\\nDecline and Euin of Spain.\\nProsperity of England and Holland.\\nEeorganization of Prance by Henry IV (1598-1610).\\nXIV. The Eeligious Wars in Central Europe, or the\\nThirty Years War (1618-1648) 65\\nPreliminaries of the Thirty Years War (1655-1618).\\nPalatine Period (1618-1625).\\nDanish Period (1625-1629).\\nSwedish Period (1630-1635).\\nErench Period (1635-1648).\\nXV. Eesults op the Eeligious Wars in Central\\nEurope 70\\nPeace of Westphalia (1648).\\nAdvantages won by the Protestants. Eeligious Inde-\\npendence of the German States.\\nPolitical Independence of the German States.\\nAcquisitions of Sweden and Prance.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "vi CONTENTS\\nPAGE\\nXVI. KiCHELIEU AND MaZARIN. COMPLETION OF MONARCH-\\nICAL France (1610-1661) 72\\nMinority of Louis XIII (1610-1617).\\nRichelieu humiliates the Protestants and the High\\nNobility.\\nMazarin and the Fronde.\\nTreaty of the Pyrenees (1659).\\nXVn. England from 1603 to 1674 77\\nEurope in 1661.\\nJames I (1603-1625).\\nCharles I (1625-1649).\\nThe Civil War (1642-1647).\\nExecution of Charles I.\\nThe Commonwealth of England (1649-1660).\\nCharles II (1660-1685).\\nXVIII. Louis XIV from 1661 to 1685 84\\nColbert.\\nLou vois.\\nWar with Flanders (1667).\\nWar with Holland (1672).\\nRevocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685).\\nXIX. The English Revolution (1688) 89\\nReawakening of Liberal Ideas in England (1673-1679).\\nCatholic and Absolutist Reaction. James II (1685).\\nFall of James II (1688). Declaration of Rights.\\nWilliam III (1689).\\nA New Political Right.\\nXX. Coalitions against France (1688-1714) 92\\nFormation of the League of Augsburg (1686).\\nWar of the League of Augsburg (1689-1697).\\nWar of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714).\\nTreaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastadt (1714).\\nLouis XIV the Personification of Monarchy by Divine\\nRight.\\nXXL Art, Literature, and Science in the Seventeenth\\nCentury 97\\nLetters and Arts in France.\\nLetters and Arts in Other Countries.\\nScience in the Seventeenth Century.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS vii\\nPAOX\\nXXII. Creation of Eussia. Downfall of Sweden 101\\nThe Northern States at the Beginning of the Eigh-\\nteenth Century.\\nPeter the Great (1682).\\nXXIII. Creation of Prussia. Decline of Prance and\\nAustria 105\\nKegency of the Duke of Orleans. Ministries of\\nDubois, the Duke of Bourbon, and Pleury (1715-\\n1743).\\nPormation of Prussia.\\nMaria Theresa and Frederick II. The War of the\\nAustrian Succession (1741-1748).\\nThe Seven Years War (1756-1763).\\nXXIV. Maritime and Colonial Power of England 111\\nEngland from 1688 to 1763.\\nThe English East India Company.\\nXXV. Foundation of the United States of America 114\\nOrigin and Character of the English Colonies in\\nAmerica.\\nThe Revolutionary War (1775-1783).\\nWashington. The Part of France in the War.\\nXXVI. Destruction of Poland. Decline of the Otto-\\nmans. Greatness of Russia 117\\nCatherine II (1761) and Frederick II. First Parti-\\ntion of Poland (1773).\\nTreaties of Kainardji (1774) and Jassy (1792).\\nSecond and Third Partitions of Poland (1793-1795).\\nAttempt at Dismembering Sweden.\\nXXVII. Preliminaries of the French Revolution 120\\nScientific and Geographical Discoveries.\\nLetters in the Eighteenth Century.\\nDisagreement between Ideas and Institutions.\\nReforms effected by Governments.\\nLast Years of Louis XV (1763-1774).\\nLouis XVI.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "Till CONTENTS\\nXXVIII. The R\u00c3\u00a9volution (1789-1792) 125\\nDivine Right and National Sovereignty.\\nThe Constituent Assembly until the Capture of the\\nBastile,\\nThe Days of October. The Emigrants. The Con-\\nstitution of 1791.\\nXXIX. Ineffectual Coalition of the Kings against the\\nRevolution (1792-1802) 132\\nThe Legislative Assembly (1791-1792).\\nEffect outside of France produced by the Revolu-\\ntion. The First Coalition (1791),\\nThe Commune of Paris. The Days of June 20 and\\nAugust 10, 1792. The Massacres of September.\\nInvasion of France. Defeat of the Prussians at\\nValmy, September 20, 1792.\\nThe Convention (1792-1795). Proclamation of the\\nFrench Republic (September 21, 1792). Death\\nof Louis XVL\\nThe Reign of Terror.\\nThe Ninth of Thermidor, or July 27, 1794.\\nGlorious Campaigns of 1793-1795.\\nCampaigns of Bonaparte in Italy (1796-1797).\\nThe Egyptian Expedition (1798-1799). Second\\nCoalition. Victory of Zurich.\\nInternal Anarchy. The Eighteenth of Brumaire,\\nor November 9, 1799.\\nAnother Constitution. The Consulate.\\nMarengo. Peace of Lun\u00c3\u00a9ville (1801) and of Amiens\\n(1802).\\nXXX. Greatness of France (1802-1811) .149\\nThe Consulate for Life.\\nBonaparte Hereditary Emperor (May 18, 1804).\\nThird Coalition. Austerlitz and the Treaty of\\nPresburg (1805).\\nThe Confederation of the Rhine and the Vassal\\nStates of the Empire.\\nJena (1806) and Tilsit (1807).\\nThe Continental Blockade.\\nInvasion of Spain (1807).\\nWagram (1809).\\nXXXI. Victorious Coalition of Peoples and Kings\\nAGAINST Napoleon (1811-1815) .158\\nPopular Reaction against the Spirit of Conquest\\nrepresented by Napoleon.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nIX\\nXXXII.\\nPAGB\\nPreparations for Insurrection in Germany.\\nProgress of Liberal Ideas in Europe.\\nPormation or Awakening of the Nations.\\nMoscow (1812). Leipsic (1813). Campaign in\\nPrance (1814).\\nThe First Eestoration. The Hundred Days. Water-\\nloo (1814-1815).\\nEeorganization of Europe at the Congress op\\nVienna. The Holt Alliance 167\\nThe Congress of Vienna.\\nThe Holy Alliance (1815).\\nXXXIII. Secret Societies and Eevolutions (1815-1824) 173\\nCharacter of the Period between 1815 and 1830.\\nEfforts to preserve or reestablish the Old R\u00c3\u00a9gime.\\nPeculiar Situation of France from 1815 to 1819.\\nAlliance of the Altar and the Throne. The Con-\\ngregation.\\nLiberalism in the Press, and Secret Societies.\\nPlots (1816-1822). Assassinations (1819-1820).\\nRevolutions (1820-1821).\\nThe Holy Alliance acts as the Police of Europe.\\nExpedition of Italy (1821) and of Spain (1823).\\nCharles X (1824).\\nXXXIV. Progress op Liberal Ideas\\n192\\nThe Romantic School. The Sciences.\\nFormation in France of a Legal Opposition.\\nHuskisson and Canning in England (1822). New\\nForeign Policy. Principle of Non-intervention.\\nIndependence of the Spanish Colonies (1824).\\nConstitutional Empire of Brazil (1822). Liberal\\nRevolution in Portugal (1826).\\nLiberation of Greece (1827).\\nDestruction of the Janissaries (1826). Success of\\nthe Russians (1828-1829).\\nSummary. State of the World in 1828.\\nXXXV. New and Impotent Efforts op the Ancient\\nR\u00c3\u0089GIME against THE LIBERAL SpIRIT 205\\nDom Miguel in Portugal (1828). Don Carlos in\\nSpain (1827).\\nThe Wellington Ministry (1828). The Diet of\\nFrankfort.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nThe Tsar Nicholas.\\nThe Polignac Ministry (1829). Capture of Al-\\ngiers (1830).\\nThe Revolution of 1830.\\nXXXVI. Consequences op the Revolution of July in\\nFrance. Struggle between the Liberal\\nConservatives and the Republicans (1830-\\n1840) 210\\nCharacter of the Period comprised between 1830\\nand 1840.\\nKing Louis Philippe.\\nThe Lafitte Ministry (1830).\\nThe Casimir-P\u00c3\u00a9rier Ministry (1831).\\nSuccess Abroad.\\nInsurrections at Lyons and at Paris (1834). At-\\ntempt of Fieschi (1835).\\nThe Thiers Ministry (1836).\\nThe Mole Ministry (1836-1837).\\nMinistry of Marshal Soult (1839).\\nXXXVII. Consequences in Europe op the Revolution op\\nJuly (1830-1840)\\nGeneral State of Europe in 1830.\\nEngland. Whig Ministry (1830). The Reform\\nBill (1831-18.32).\\nBelgian Revolution (August and September, 1830).\\nLiberal Modifications in the Constitutions of Swit-\\nzerland (1831), Denmark (1831), and Sweden.\\nRevolutions in Spain (1833) and Portugal (1834).\\nTreaty of the Quadruple Alliance (1834).\\nImpotent Efforts of the Liberals in Germany and\\nItaly (1831) Defeat of the Polish Insurrection\\n(1831).\\n219\\nXXXVIII. The Three Eastern Questions (1832-1848)\\nInterests of the European Powers in Asia,\\nThe First Eastern Question Constantinople.\\nDecline of Turkey. Power and Ambition of the\\nViceroy of Egypt.\\nConquest of Syria by Ibrahim Pasha (1832).\\nTreaty of Hunkiar Iskelessi (1833).\\nThe Treaty of London (1840) and the Treaty of\\nthe Straits (1841).\\nThe Second Eastern Question Central Asia.\\n230", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS xi\\nPA E\\nProgress of the Russians in Asia.\\nIndirect Struggle between the English and the\\nRussians in Central Asia.\\nThe Third Eastern Question The Pacific Ocean.\\nIsolation of China and Japan.\\nOpium War (1840-1843).\\nTreaty of France with China (1844).\\nRussia and China.\\nSummary of the Three Eastern Questions in 1848.\\nXXXIX. Preliminaries op the Revolution op 1848 244\\nCharacter of the Period comprised between 1840\\nand 1848. Progress of Socialistic Ideas.\\nPrance from 1840-1846.\\nEngland. Free Trade. The Income Tax and the\\nNew Colonial System (1841-1849).\\nEstablishment of the Constitutional System in\\nPrussia (1847). Liberal Agitations in Austria\\nand in Italy.\\nXL. America prom 1815 to 1848 256\\nAmerican Progress. The Monroe Doctrine. Ad-\\nvantage of Liberty.\\nXLI. The Revolution op 1848 259", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "du Royal Possessions\\nI I Acquisitions made hy LouisJil\\nen Feudal Possessions\\nCn Spanish Possessions\\nCil House of Savoy\\nr \u00c2\u00bbv i^ AV E DA N,\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0,;\u00e2\u0080\u009e.,jv J I /ro\u00c3\u00bb)ssillon\\nCopyrighl, 1S98, by T. Y. Crowell Co.\\nruJ Ly Collun. Ohiiiau Co., N. Y.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES\\naXKo^\\nPROGRESS OF ROYALTY IN FRANCE\\nPrincipal Divisions of Modern History. Tlie Middle\\nAges have been characterized by the predominance of local\\npowers like fiefs and communes, and by the small consider-\\nation paid the state. Modern Times until the nineteenth\\ncentury are characterized by the preponderance of a central\\npower or absolute royalty, and by governmental action sub-\\nstituted for that of individuals and communities. But\\nwhile the political life of the nations was becoming con-\\ncentrated in their chiefs, the intellect by an opposite ten-\\ndency was bursting its bonds and diffusing itself over\\neverything to renew all.\\nThe political revolution will result in the Italian wars\\nand the rivalry through centuries of the houses of France\\nand Austria.\\nThe intellectual movement will cause: a pacific revolu-\\ntion in art, science and letters, or the Eenaissance; an\\neconomical revolution, or the discovery of the New World\\nand of the route to India, thereby creating a prodigious\\ncommerce which will place personal property in the hands\\nof the common people a religious revolution, or the Refor-\\nmation of Luther and Calvin, against which fanaticism will\\nexcite abominable wars; a philosophic revolution, brought\\nabout by Bacon and Descartes and continued in the eigh-\\nteenth century. The latter will result in a new political\\nand social revolution whose success unhappily will be com-\\npromised by blind resistance and criminal violence.\\nThis in its general features is the history of the centuries\\nwhich compose the period from 1453 to 1848, called Modern", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "2 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1465-1468.\\nTimes. First, then, we have to show how the political in-\\nstitutions of the Middle Ages gave way in the principal\\nstates of Europe to a new system of government.\\nLouis XI (1461-1483). The League of Public Welfare\\n(1465). Charles VII had reconquered Franfee from the\\nEnglish. He had also to reconquer it from the nobles.\\nThe work was already begun. More than one rebellious\\nnoble had been drowned or beheaded or banished. The\\ndauphin himself, the son of Charles, who afterwards be-\\ncame Louis XI, ifad entered into every plot against his\\nfather and had been forced to demand a refuge with the\\nDuke of Burgundy. He was with him when Charles VII\\ndied (1461). When this former leader of discontent\\nascended the throne, it was thought that the good old\\ndays of feudalism were returning. Such expectation was\\nquickly undeceived. At first Louis bungled. He dismissed\\nmost of the officers whom his father had appointed, in-\\ncreased the perpetual villein tax from 1,800,000 livres to\\n3,000,000, and notified the University of Paris of the papal\\nprohibition to interfere in the affairs of the king and the\\ncity. By other acts he offended the parliaments of Paris\\nand Toulouse. He incensed the ecclesiastics and the nobil-\\nity, and rendered the great dukes of Brittany and Burgundy\\nhis enemies. Five hundred princes and nobles formed the\\nLeague of Public Welfare against him.\\nThe danger was great. Louis met it with little heroism\\nbut with much cleverness. After a show of military ac-\\ntivity he shut himself behind the walls of his capital and\\nlabored to dissolve the League by offering pensions and\\nlands to those greedy nobles. By a variety of public\\nand private arrangements he promised them each what-\\never each one desired. As for the public welfare, no one\\nspoke or thought of that.\\nInterview of Peronne (1468). After the confederates\\nwere satisfied and all had returned home, he began syste-\\nmatically to retract everything he had granted. To the\\nDuke of Berri he had ceded Normandy, which it was most\\nimportant to the king to retain. Inciting insurrections in\\nseveral Burgundian towns, he thus occupied Charles the\\nBold, Duke of Burgundy, and at the same time purchased\\nthe neutrality of the Duke of Brittany by the present of\\n100,000 crowns. Then he entered Normandy and made\\nhimself its master. Meanwhile by seasonable gifts or bribes", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "A.D. 146 -1472.] PROGRESS OF nOYALTT m FRANCE 3\\nof money or office lie shrewdly attaclied to himself some of\\nthe most influential persons in France.\\nCharles the Bold tried to revive the whole feudal system\\nand to make an alliance with Edward IV, king of England.\\nAs an English army was preparing to disembark in France,\\nLouis went to the court of Charles to negotiate in person\\nand avert the danger. At that moment a rebellion, which\\nhe had previously incited and which he had forgotten to\\ncountermand, broke out at Li\u00c3\u00a8ge. Charles, profoundly\\nincensed, imprisoned his guest in the castle of Peronne.\\nLouis obtained his freedom only by hard concessions and\\nby marching with the duke against Li\u00c3\u00a8ge. That unhappy\\ncity, whose inhabitants fought to the cry of Long live\\nthe king, was given over to sack (1468).\\nThe treaty of Peronne was the last mistake of Louis XL\\nTo his one rival, the Duke of Burgundy, it was the begin-\\nning of impossible dreams and enterprises. Louis sent his\\nbrother, the Duke of Berri, to the other end of France by\\ngiving him Guyenne instead of Champagne. He shut up\\nthe cardinal La Balue and the bishop of Verdun for ten\\nyears in an iron cage because they had betrayed him. The\\nking of England, allied to the Duke of Burgundy, had a\\nmortal enemy in the Earl of Warwick. Louis reconciled\\nthe latter to Margaret of Anjou and furnished him the\\nmeans of overthrowing Edward IV and restoring Henry VI.\\nNow sure of having isolated Charles the Bold, he convoked\\nat Tours an assembly of notables. He caused this assembly\\nto repudiate the treaty of Peronne. Forthwith he seized\\nSaint Quentin, Montdidier, Amiens and other towns. He\\nset on foot 100,000 men and a powerful artillery (1471).\\nDeath of the Duke of Guyenne (1472). The rage of\\nCharles was raised to frenzy by the death of the Duke of\\nGuyenne or Berri, upon whom rested the hopes of feudalism\\n(1472). Rumors of poison circulated. Charles the Bold\\nopenly accused Louis XI of fratricide, and entered the king-\\ndom dealing everywhere fire and blood. At Nesle the\\nentire population was butchered. The inhabitants of Beau-\\nvais resisted with a heroism of which the women and espe-\\ncially Jeanne Hachette set the example. Charles was forced\\nto retrace his steps. Moreover ambition called him in\\nanother direction. He signed the truce of Senlis.\\nMad Enterprises and Death of Charles the Bold (1477).\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe chief attention of the Duke of Burgundy was now di-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "4 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1472-1478.\\nrected toward Germany, Lorraine and Switzerland. He\\nwished to unite Ms two duchies and his possessions in the\\nNetherlands by the acquisition of the intermediate countries,\\nLorraine and Alsace. That done, he aimed at conquering\\nProvence and Switzerland and restoring old Lotharingia\\nunder the name of Belgian G-aul. He already held Upper\\nAlsace and the county of Ferrette, which the Austrian Arch-\\nduke Sigismund had pawned to him for money, and he was\\nsoliciting from the Emperor Frederick III the title of king.\\nLouis XI, by his activity and his money caused the ship-\\nwreck of these ambitious plans. The archduke suddenly\\npaid the duke the 80,000 florins agreed upon as the ransom of\\nAlsace. Hagenbach, the agent of Charles in that coun-\\ntry, was seized and beheaded by the inhabitants of Brisach\\n(1474). Lastly the Swiss, whom he had molested^ entered\\nFranche-Comt\u00c3\u00a9 and gained over the Burgundians the battle\\nof Hericourt. While these events were taking place in the\\nsouth, Charles himself in the north was m^eeting failure in\\nhis attempt to support the archbishop of Cologne against\\nthe Pope and the Emperor. Edward lY, who had landed\\nin France at his invitation, concluded the treaty of Pec-\\nquigny with Louis XI, who loaded him with money and\\nsent him back to his island.\\nThat he might be free to finish his affairs with Lorraine\\nand Switzerland, the duke signed with the king of France\\na new treaty at Soleure. A few days later he entered Nancy\\nand conquered Lorraine. The Swiss remained to be dealt\\nwith. He made a foolish attack and was completely routed at\\nGranson (1476). Three months later he was again defeated\\nat Morat. Then Lorraine rose in favor of Ren\u00c3\u00a9 de Vaude-\\nmont, and Charles went to his death in battle under the\\nwalls of Nancy (1477).\\nUnion of the Great Fiefs with the Crown. While the\\nmightiest feudal house of France was thus crumbling to\\nruin on the plains of Lorraine, Louis XI was destroying the\\nothers. Many lords were guilty either of plots against the\\nking or of monstrous crimes. Jean Y of Armagnac had\\nmarried his sister and slew whoever opposed him. Besieged\\nand captured in Lectoure, he and his wife were put to death.\\nThe Duke of Nemours was beheaded in the market-place.\\nThe Duke of Alen\u00c3\u00a7on was imprisoned and the constable of\\nSaint Pol also executed. Louis confiscated not only their\\nheads, but their property.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1478-1483.] PROGRESS OF ROYALTY IN FRANCE 5\\nAs to the immense possessions left by Charles the Bold,\\nhe could obtain only a portion. His disloyal policy forced\\nMary, the heiress of Burgundy, to marry the Archduke\\nMaximilian. From this marriage, unfortunate for France,\\narose the enormous power of Charles V, which caused the\\nhouses of France and Austria long and bloody struggles.\\nNevertheless Louis succeeded in incorporating Picardy and\\npart of Burgundy into the royal domain. He even com-\\npelled the conditional cession of Franche-Comt\u00c3\u00a9. During\\nthe preceding year he acquired all the inheritance of the\\nhouse of Anjou. Thus when he died in 1483 he had res-\\ncued from feudalism and added to France, Provence, Maine,\\nAnjou, Boussillon and Cerdagne, Burgundy with the Ma-\\n\u00c3\u00a7onnais, Charolais, and Auxerrois, Franche-Comt\u00c3\u00a9, Artois,\\nhalf of Picardy, Boulogne, Armagnac, Etampes, Saint Pol\\nand Nemours.\\nAdministration of Louis XI. He rendered tenure of\\noffice permanent, established posts, created the parliaments\\nof Grenoble, Bordeaux and Dijon, enlarged opportunity of\\nappeal to the royal tribunal, assured the public tranquillity\\nand the safety of the highways, multiplied fairs and mar-\\nkets, and attracted from Venice, Genoa and Florence arti-\\nsans who founded at Tours the first manufactures of silk.\\nHe encouraged mining industry and entertained the idea\\nof giving France a common system of weights and measures.\\nHe delighted in learned men, founded the Universities of\\nCaen and Besan\u00c3\u00a7on and favored the introduction of printing.\\nEverything considered, he was a king. Villon and his\\ncouncillor Commines are the poet and the prose writer of\\nhis reign.\\nCharles VI\u00c3\u008fI (1483). Charles VIII succeeded, a child\\nof thirteen, feeble in mind and body. His guardian was\\nhis eldest sister, Anne of Beaujeu, in shrewdness and deci-\\nsion the worthy daughter of her father. A violent reaction\\nagainst the late policy made many victims, but the nobles\\ncould not overthrow the work of Louis XL They demanded\\nand obtained the convocation of the States General, but their\\nexpectations were disappointed. The deputies, especially\\nthose of the Third Estate, would not make themselves the\\ntools of feudal grudges. They reformed some abuses, but\\nleft entire power to Anne of Beaujeu, together with guar-\\ndianship of the king s person, whom they declared of age.\\nThis princess continued her father s policy without his cru-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "6 BlSTOnr of modern times [a.d. 1488-1498.\\nelty. The Duke of Orleans entered into an alliance with\\nthe Duke of Brittany and the Archduke Maximilian to\\noverthrow her. He was defeated and captured in what is\\ncalled the Mad War. The regent won another triumph as\\nto the succession in Brittany. That great fief was almost\\nas formidable as Burgundy. She married its heiress to\\nCharles VIII, and thus paved the way for its union with\\nFrance. Unfortunately the king broke away from his sis-\\nter s guardianship in ambition for distant expeditions.\\nEager to put his dreams into execution, he signed three\\ndeplorable treaties. By that of Etaples he continued to\\nHenry VII the pension which his father had paid to Ed-\\nward ly. By that of Barcelona, he restored Roussillon and\\nCerdagne to the king of Aragon. Lastly by that of Sen-\\nlis, still more disastrous, he enabled Maximilian to gain\\nArtois and Franche-Comt\u00c3\u00a9. Thus through the folly of her\\nsovereign France receded on three frontiers. It required\\nnearly two centuries and the astuteness of Bichelieu and\\nLouis XIV to regain what Charles VIII threw away in\\npursuit of a dangerous chimera.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "1400.] PBOGBESS OF ROYALTY IN ENGLAND\\nII\\nPROGRESS OF ROYALTY IN ENGLAND, WAR OP THE\\nROSES\\nHouses of Lancaster and York. England had outstripped\\nEurope in her political institutions. Parliament and the\\njury system gave the English control of the taxes and trial\\nby their peers, the double guarantee of political and civil\\nliberty. The nobles, united with the commoners, did not\\nallow the kings to abandon themselves to their caprices.\\nThen came a civil war of thirty years duration, which over-\\nrode all these pledges of prosperity and opened to royalty\\nthe path of absolutism. This was the War of the Roses,\\noriginating in the rivalry of the house of Lancaster, or E^ed\\nEose, and the house of York, or White Rose.\\nThe house of Lancaster, seated on the throne by the\\naccession of Henry IV, had given England the glorious\\nHenry V and his successor, the feeble and imbecile Henry\\nVI. Under the latter Erance was lost, and the national\\npride of the English was greatly wounded by their reverses.\\nThey beheld with indignation the truce of 1444, and were\\nincensed at the marriage of the king with Margaret of\\nAnjou, who as a Erench princess became the object of their\\naversion. Eichard, Duke of York, thought the moment\\npropitious to assert his claims to the throne. The house of\\nLancaster descended from the third son of Edward III.\\nThe house of York was in the female line descended from\\nthe second son, and in the male line from the fourth son.\\nEichard caused the Duke of Suffolk, the king s favorite\\nminister, to be attainted by the House of Commons. The\\ncourt enabled the accused to escape, but he was overtaken\\non the high seas by an English vessel, whose crew seized,\\ncondemned and beheaded him (1450).\\nAt the same time an Irishman, Jack Cade, stirred up the\\ncounty of Kent to rebellion. He got together a crowd of\\n60,000 men, and was master of London for several days.\\nThe robberies committed by this mob armed every one", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "8 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1459-1470.\\nagainst them, and an amnesty offered by the king brought\\nabout their dispersion. Their leader was captured and\\nexecuted (1459). He was regarded as an agent of the Duke\\nof York.\\nAs the king suffered from a mental trouble, Richard\\ncaused himself to be appointed protector (1454). When the\\nmonarch on restoration to health tried to take away his\\npowers, he took up arms. He was abetted by the high aris-\\ntocracy, especially by Warwick, surnamed the king-maker,\\nwho was rich enough to feed daily 30,000 persons on his\\nestates. Victorious at Saint Albans (1455), the first battle\\nin that war, and master of the king s person, Richard had\\nParliament again confer on him the title of protector. After\\na second battle at Northampton (1460), he was declared\\nlegitimate heir to the throne. Margaret protested in the\\nname of her son. Aided by the support of Scotland which\\nshe purchased by the cession of Berwick castle, she defeated\\nand slew Richard at Wakefield. The head of the rebel\\nwas adorned in derision with a paper crown, and exposed on\\nthe walls of York. His youngest son, the Earl of Rutland,\\naged barely eighteen, was butchered in cold blood. From\\nthat time on the massacre of prisoners, the proscription of\\nthe vanquished and the confiscation of their goods became\\nthe rule with both parties.\\nEdward IV (1460). Richard of York was avenged by\\nhis eldest son, who had himself proclaimed king in London\\nunder the name of Edward IV. The Lancastrians gained\\nthe second battle of Saint Albans, but suffered that same\\nyear (1461) a sanguinary defeat at Towton, southwest of\\nYork. Margaret took refuge in Scotland, and fled thence\\nto France where Louis lent her 2000 soldiers on her promise\\nto restore Calais, but the battle of Hexham destroyed her\\nhopes (1463). She herself was able to regain the continent,\\nbut Henry VI, a prisoner for the third time, was confined in\\nthe Tower of London, where he remained seven years.\\nThe new king displeased Warwick, who rebelled, defeated\\nhim at Nottingham (1470), and forced him to flee to the\\nNetherlands to his brother-in-law, Charles of Burgundy.\\nParliament, docile to the will of the strongest, reestablished\\nHenry VI.\\nThis triumph of the Lancastrians was brief. Their\\nexcesses roused bitter discontent. Edward was able to\\nreappear with a small army, which Charles the Bold had", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1471-1506.] PROGRESS OF ROYALTY IN ENGLAND 9\\nhelped him get together. Warwick fell at Barnet (1471)\\nand Margaret was no more fortunate at Tewksbury. This\\nlast action had decisive results. The Prince of Wales\\nmurdered, Henry VI dead, Margaret a prisoner, the parti-\\nsans of the Bed Rose killed or exiled, Edward IV remained\\nin peaceable possession of the throne. The rest of his reign\\nwas marked by an expedition to France, terminated by the\\ntreaty of Pecquigny, and by the trial of his brother Clar-\\nence, whom he put to death. He died in consequence of his\\ndebauches in 1483.\\nEichard III (1483). His brother Eichard of York,\\nDuke of Gloucester, took advantage of the youth of\\nEdward s children to usurp their rights, and smother them\\nin the Tower of London. Horror of his crimes divided his\\nfollowers. The Duke of Buckingham revolted and invited\\nto England Henry Tudor, Earl of E-ichmond, the last scion\\non the female side of the Lancastrian house. Henry hired\\n2,000 men in Brittany, landed in Wales and at Bosworth\\noverthrew Eichard, who fell fighting bravely (1485).\\nHenry V\u00c3\u008eI. He united the two Eoses by wedding the\\nheiress of York, the daughter of Edward IV. He founded\\nthe Tudor dynasty, which reigned until the accession of\\nthe Stuarts, 118 years afterward. Though a few plots\\nwere formed by such obscure impostors as Lambert Simnel\\nand Perkin Warbeck, he ruled as absolute master over the\\nremnants of the decimated aristocracy. Eighty persons of\\nroyal blood had perished. Nearly one-fifth of the lands of\\nthe kingdom through confiscation had become part of the\\ndomains of the crown. Thus when the War of the Eoses\\nended English royalty found increased resources at its dis-\\nposal and fewer enemies to fear.\\nHenry VII r.arely assembled Parliament. The money\\nwhich he would not ask for fear of making himself depend-\\nent, he procured by forced loans or benevolences, and by\\nconfiscations, which he multiplied on every sort of pretext.\\nThe Star Chamber became a servile tribunal to strike down\\nthose whom a jury would not have permitted him to reach.\\nThe ruin of the aristocracy was completed by the abolition\\nof the rights of maintenance, whereby the nobles had been\\nable to rally round them a whole army of followers, and of\\nsubstitution, whereby the nobles had been prevented from\\nalienating or dividing their lands. By the treaties which\\nhe concluded, by the voyages which he caused to be under-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "10 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1506.\\ntaken and by his attention to the shipping, he favored com-\\nmerce and industry, to which the nation devoted itself with\\nzeal. He paved the way for the union of Scotland and\\nEngland by marrying his daughter Margaret to James IV.\\nHe died in 1506. Perfidious, rapacious and cruel, without\\ngrandeur of mind or action to redeem his vices, he founded\\nlike Louis XI in France and Ferdinand the Catholic in\\nSpain an absolute government, which in England became\\ntruly great only under Elizabeth.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1469.] PROGEESS OF ROYALTY IJST SPAm 11\\nIII\\nPROGRESS OP ROYALTY IN SPAIN\\nAbandonment of the Crusade against the Moors. The\\nSpanish people had thus far remained almost entirely aloof\\nfrom European affairs. They had been obliged to wrest\\ntheir soil foot by foot from the Moors. Tha t task, the first\\ncondition of their national existence, was not yet finished.\\nThe southern extremity of the peninsula still belonged to\\nthe Mussulmans and formed the kingdom of Granada, the\\nlast of the nine states into which the caliphate of Cordova\\nhad been broken. Thus Spain had lived a life apart\\nthroughout the Middle Ages. She had been engrossed in\\nthe single undertaking of expelling the Moors, odious both\\nas Mussulmans and as foreigners. This isolation and this\\nperpetual crusade gave her a peculiar character. Nowhere\\nelse has religion exercised such ascendency over the mind.\\nIt was the sole bond which united the various states of the\\npeninsula.\\nWe have seen however that, forgetting the Moors, the\\nfour Christian states had diverted their attention and their\\nforces in different directions Portugal toward the ocean,\\nAragon toward Sicily and Italy, Navarre toward Trance,\\nwhile Castile was rent by internal discords. Everywhere\\nroyalty was in a humiliating position. A spirit of indepen-\\ndence reigned in the cities which had their fueros, and\\namong the nobles who defended their privileges of war and\\nbrigandage. But the need of uniting for mutual protection\\nagainst violence made itself felt as early as 1260 in the cities\\nof Aragon, and afterward in those of Castile. The Santa\\nHermandad or Holy Brotherhood, a confederation of the\\nprincipal cities, was instituted. This organization became\\nso prosperous that it furnished the king at the siege of\\nGranada 8000 armed men and 6000 beasts of burden.\\nMarriage of Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella of Castile\\n(1469). In Aragon John II poisoned his son Charles,\\nPrince of Viana, who disputed his claim to the kingdom of", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "12 HISTORY OF MODERir TIMES [a.d, 1461-1499.\\n!N avarre (1461). The Catalans; rising in revolt, gave them-\\nselves in succession to the king of Castile, to Pedro of\\nPortugal and to the house of Anjou. They submitted only-\\nafter eleven years of war.\\nIn Castile Henry TV rendered himself odious and des-\\npicable by his predilection for Bertrand de la Cueva, a\\ngreedy and cowardly favorite who disgraced him. The\\nnobles went through the form of deposing the king in ejB gy\\nin the plain of Avila, and in his place proclaimed Don Al-\\nphonso, who died in 1467. Then they forced Henry IV to\\nrecognize as princess of the Asturias his sister Isabella, to\\nthe prejudice of his own daughter (1468). Prom many\\nsuitors to her hand Isabella chose Perdinand, the eldest son\\nof the king of Aragon, and married him secretly at Valla-\\ndolid (1469). It was stipulated in the contract that the\\ngovernment of Castile should remain vested exclusively in\\nher. She took possession at the death of her father (1474)\\nand strengthened her authority by defeating the king of\\nPortugal, who undertook to dispute her rights. Three years\\nafterward Perdinand, her husband, became king of Aragon\\n(1479).\\nConquest of Granada (1492). Prom that day Spain ex-\\nisted. The firm Isabella and the clever though perfidious\\nPerdinand toiled vigorously to establish national unity for\\nthe benefit of royalty. Pirst of all, they rendered the whole\\npeninsula Christian by destroying the last remnants of Mus-\\nsulman domination. G-ranada had more than 200,000 in-\\nhabitants. The Moors were promised after the capture of\\ntheir city (1492) that they should be allowed to remain in\\nthe country and enjoy their own laws, property and religion.\\nThe Inquisition. The Power of Koyalty. The popula-\\ntion of the peninsula then presented a singular mixture of\\nMussulmans, Jews and Christians. Isabella and Perdinand\\ndecided to bring dissenters to a common religious faith by\\npersuasion, and above all by terror. With this intent they\\nhad already instituted that tribunal of melancholy fame, the\\nHoly Office or Inquisition. It was established in Castile\\nabout 1480, and in Aragon four years later. Between\\nJanuary and November, 1481, in Seville alone the inquisi-\\ntors sent to torture 298 Christian proselytes, accused of\\nJudaizing in secret, and 2000 in the provinces of Cadiz and\\nSeville. In 1492 they expelled the Jews of whom 800,000\\ndeparted from Spain. In 1499 they deprived the Moors of", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1499-1521.] PROGRESS OF ROYALTY m SPAm 13\\ntlie religions liberty which, the treaty of Granada had guar-\\nanteed. Torquemada, the first grand inquisitor, alone con-\\ndemned 8800 persons to the flames.\\nThe king controlled the terrible tribunal, for he appointed\\nits chief and the property of the condemned was confiscated\\nto his use. Thus the Inquisition was for Spanish royalty\\nnot only a means of ruling the conscience but an instrument\\nof government. Any rebellious or suspicious person could\\nbe denounced to the Holy Office. This was a mighty engine.\\nFerdinand acquired another together with considerable\\nrevenues by making himself grand master of the orders\\nof Calatrava, Alcantara and Saint James. He reorganized\\nthe Holy Brotherhood, announced himself its protector, that\\nis to say its master, and employed it for the police service\\nof the country at the expense of the barons, whose castles\\nhe razed to the ground. In a single year forty-six fortresses\\nwere demolished in Galicia. Commissioners were sent into\\nall the provinces, who listened to the complaints of the peo-\\nple and made the nobles tremble.\\nAt the death of Isabella (1504) Ferdinand became regent\\nof Castile. As king of Aragon, he acquired the Two Sicilies.\\nThe acquisition of JSTavarre put him in possession of one of\\nthe two gates of the Pyrenees. The other, Eoussillon, had\\nbeen ceded to him by Charles VIII (1493). Already Chris-\\ntopher Columbus had given America to the crown of Castile\\n(1492). This immense heritage reverted on his death in\\n1516 to his grandson Charles, already master of Austria,\\nthe Netherlands and Franche-Comt\u00c3\u00a9, whose history we shall\\ntrace farther on.\\nIn the absence of the new king. Cardinal Ximenes exer-\\ncised the power with an energy which forced obedience from\\nthe nobles. The communeros, taking alarm too late at the\\nmenacing progress of royalty, formed a Holy League, which\\ncommitted the mistake of demanding the abolition of the\\npecuniary immunities of the nobility. The aristocracy sepa-\\nrated its cause from that of the cities and rallied around the\\nsovereign. The army of the League was routed at Yillalar\\nand its leader, Don Juan de Padilla, died on the scaffold\\n(1521). Thus Spanish royalty triumphed over the burgher\\nclass as it had triumphed over the nobles, but the nation\\nwas about to lose its wealth, its vigor and its honor for the\\nsake of serving the ambition of its masters.\\nProgress of Royalty in Portugal. In Portugal the same", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "14 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1481-1515.\\nrevolution was accomplislied. JoTin II restored alienated\\nproperty to tlie royal domain, withdrew from the lords the\\nright of life and death over their vassals, sent the Duke of\\nBraganza to the scaffold and stabbed the Duke of Viseu with\\nhis own hand. He transmitted absolute power to his son\\nManuel the Fortunate (1495), who during twenty years did\\nnot assemble the Cortes. Under the latter prince the Por-\\ntuguese discovered the road to the Cape of Good Hope and\\nthe Indies.\\nThus throughout all Western Europe royalty became pre-\\ndominant. This condition indicated the approach of great\\nwars. Because the countries of Central Europe remained\\ndivided, they were to become the battlefield of royal am-\\nbitions.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "A.D. UZS-U93.] GERMANY AND ITALY FROM 1453-1494 15\\nIV\\nGERMANY AND ITALY PROM 1453 TO 1494\\nFrederick III (1440) and Maximilian (1493). In Ger-\\nmany the house of Austria had just recovered possession\\nof the imperial crown (1438), to which hardly a shadow\\nof authority was attached. Frederick III was not a man\\nto modify this state of affairs, but was content with bare\\nexistence. His reign of fifty-three years is marked only\\nby an unfortunate war against Matthias Corvinus, king of\\nHungary, and by the marriage of his son Maximilian to\\nMary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold and heir-\\ness of the ISTetherlands.\\nMaximilian endeavored to restore the public peace in\\nGermany. The Diet, which exercised legislative power,\\nprohibited all war between the states. The empire was\\ndivided into ten circles, in each of which a military director\\nwas charged with maintaining order. This police organiza-\\ntion did not succeed, because the German princes had no\\nidea of being checked in their enterprises. They had seized\\nupon the absolute power in their lands, as the kings had\\ndone in their kingdoms. The monarchical revolution accom-\\nplished in France, England and Spain had also taken place\\nin the empire, but not to the profit of the emperor. In\\n1502 the seven electors concluded the Electoral Union and\\ndecided to convene every year for the purpose of consulta-\\ntion as to the best means of preserving their independence\\nfrom imperial authority. With another object in view sev-\\neral of the cities had already set up the Hanseatic League.\\nThis was the mercantile association of all the cities along\\nthe banks of the Bhine and the German coast. It had\\ncounting houses in the Netherlands, France, England and\\neven in the heart of Bussia, and was prosperous for cen-\\nturies.\\nAs archduke of Austria and sovereign of the Nether-\\nlands, Maximilian acquired by the treaty of Senlis (1493)\\nArtois and Franche-Comt\u00c3\u00a9. Then in an erratic manner he", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "16 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1453-1480.\\nmeddled in Italy. The most important event in his reign\\nwas the marriage of his son Philip the Eair with Jane the\\nFoolish, daughter of Isabella of Castile and of Eerdinand of\\nAragon, who brought to the house of Austria as her dowry-\\nSpain, Naples and the New World. Maximilian died (1519)\\nduring the first throes of the Eeformation.\\nItaly. Republics Replaced by Principalities. In the\\nmiddle of the twelfth century Italy was the centre of\\nMediterranean commerce. She had a skilful agricultural\\nsystem and well developed manufactures. She was rich,\\nluxurious and corrupt, with a passion for arts and letters\\nbut no taste for arms. More divided than Germany, she\\nhad not even a nominal head like the emperor, nor a body\\nlike the Diet which could sometimes speak in her name.\\nAlmost universally the republics had been changed into\\nprincipalities, whose princes reigned as tyrants or magnifi-\\ncent despots. The capture of Constantinople by the Otto-\\nmans caused a momentary panic, and the different states of\\nItaly formed a confederation at Lodi (1454). Men talked of\\na crusade. Pius II wished the bell of the Turks to be\\nrung every morning throughout Christendom. But when\\nthe first moment of fright was over, each one went back to\\nhis own private interests.\\nAt Milan the condottiere Francesco Sforza, who had suc-\\nceeded the Visconti in 1450, left the ducal crown to his son,\\nwho was assassinated by the nobles (1476). His grandson\\nGiovanni Galeazzo, a child of eight years, fell under the\\ntutelage of his uncle Ludovico il Moro, who for the sake\\nof usurping the power was destined to call in the French\\nand begin the fatal Italian wars. Genoa incessantly dis-\\nturbed by factions offered itself to Louis XI, who had the\\nwisdom to refuse the fatal gift and transfer it to the Duke\\nof Milan. The Lombards, as the inhabitants of that rich\\nduchy were called, continued to be the bankers of Europe,\\nand their agents were found everywhere in the commercial\\nworld.\\nVenice remained the chief power in northern Italy. No\\nrepublic could more fully resemble a monarchy. After 1454\\nits exclusive oligarchy was governed by three state inquisi-\\ntors, who watched each other and made their own laws.\\nThe state existed tranquilly in the lap of pleasure under\\nthis strong but pitiless government, whose principal instru-\\nments of action were spies and secret accusation. Provedi-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1460-1492.] GERMANY AND ITALY FROM 1453-1494 17\\ntors kept watch, of the generals, who were carefully chosen\\nfrom among the foreign mercenaries or condottieri, so that\\nshe might have nothing to fear from them at home. On\\nthe continent she had just subjugated four provinces, while\\nthe Turks were ruining her domination in the East. She\\nlost Negropont and Scutari and beheld their swift horse-\\nmen threaten her lagoons. In order to save their commerce\\nthe Venetians consented to pay tribute to the new masters\\nof Constantinople. When they were taunted with this dis-\\ngrace, they replied, We are Venetians first of all, Chris-\\ntians afterward. In Italy the wealth of the Most Serene\\nEepublic excited the covetousness of the neighboring\\nprinces, while her recent acquisitions endangered their se-\\ncurity. In 1482 they formed a league against her, but she\\ntriumphed over the excommunications of the Pope and over\\nthe arms of his allies.\\nAt Florence the Medici had supplanted the Albizzi by\\nrelying on the Minor Arts, or the middle class. They were\\nrich bankers with many debtors in the city whom they held\\nattached to their fortune. Cosmo de Medici, the head of\\nthis house, was master of Florence until 1464 though he\\nbore no title. He caused commerce, manufactures, arts and\\nletters to thrive, and expended more than $6,000,000 in\\nbuilding palaces, hospitals and libraries, though continuing\\nto live like a private citizen. He was surnamed the Father\\nof the Country. Liberty no longer existed. The nobles\\ntried to restore it by the conspiracy of the Pazzi (1478), and\\nassassinated Giuliano de Medici at the foot of the altar.\\nLorenzo, his brother who escaped the dagger, punished the\\nmurderers. One of the conspirators. Archbishop Salviati,\\nwas hanged in his episcopal robes from a window of his\\npalace. Lorenzo, the most illustrious of the Medici, wel-\\ncomed the Greek fugitives from Constantinople. He had\\na translation of Plato made, an edition of Homer published,\\nand encouraged artists and learned men. Ghiberti cast for\\nhim the doors of the Baptistery of San Giovanni, which\\nMichael Angelo deemed worthy to be the gates of Para-\\ndise. In 1490, ruined by his magnificence, he was about\\nto suspend payment. To save him the republic became\\nbankrupt herself.\\nUnder Pietro II, his unworthy successor, a new popular\\nparty, the frateschi, demanded public liberty. Its leader,\\nthe Dominican monk Girolamo Savonarola, wished to restore", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "18 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1494.\\nto the clergy purity of manners, to the people their ancient\\ninstitutions, and to letters and the arts the religious senti-\\nment which they had already lost. Beholding the opposi-\\ntion of the young nobles and of the wealthy classes to every\\nreform, he declared that all those gilded vices were about to be\\nchastised by a foreign hand. Italy Eome Do pen-\\nance, for lo, the barbarians are coming like hungry lions\\nThe papacy was unable to avert these disasters, because\\nthe Holy See was occupied by popes who disgraced the\\ntiara. Thus Sixtus IV busied himself in carving a princi-\\npality in the E-omagna for his nephew, and to attain success\\nhad taken part in the conspiracy of the Pazzi. Alexan-\\nder VI Borgia is the scandal and the sorrow of the Church.\\nHis election had been defiled by simony. His pontificate\\nwas polluted by debauchery, perfidy and cruelty. He indeed\\ndelivered the Holy See from the many turbulent petty lords\\nwho infested the neighborhood of Eome, but his weapons for\\ntheir overthrow were ruse, treason and assassination. His\\nson, Csesar Borgia, is an infamous example of a man de-\\nvoured with ambition and destitute of scruples, marching\\nto his goal by any road. To create for himself a state in\\nthe Eomagna, he waged against the lords of that country\\nthe same sort of war that his father had carried on against\\nthose of the papal states. No crime troubled him, whether\\nby dagger or poison. More than any other man he con-\\ntributed to earn for Italy the surname which was then\\napplied to her of the Poisonous.\\nAt Naples Ferdinand in 1459 had succeeded Alphonso the\\nMagnanimous. He triumphed at Troia over John of Cala-\\nbria, his Angevine rival, but he seemed desirous of bringing\\nabout a new revolution by reviving hatreds instead of effac-\\ning them. The harshness of his rule stirred up his barons\\nagainst him. He deceived them by promises, invited them\\nto a banquet of reconciliation, then had them seized at his\\nvery table and put to death. The common people fared no\\nbetter. Ferdinand claimed the monopoly of all the com-\\nmerce of the kingdom and crushed the people with taxes.\\nHe did not prevent the Ottomans from seizing Otranto and\\nthe Venetians from taking Gallipoli and Policastro. The\\nprofound contempt which he excited explains how subse-\\nquently Charles VIII could drive him from his kingdom\\nof Naples without breaking a lance. All the Italian states\\nfrom one end of the peninsula to the other were in the same\\ncondition.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1453.} THE OTTOMAN TUBES 19\\nTHE OTTOMAN TURKS\\n(1453-1530)\\nPowerful Military Organization of the Ottomans. Mo-\\nhammed II. The Ottomans were apparently the foe whom\\nItaly had most to dread. By the conquest of Constantinople\\nthey had definitely established themselves in the great\\npeninsula which separates the Adriatic and Black Seas.\\nMohammed II was obeyed from Belgrade on the Danube\\nto the Taurus in Asia Minor. But this mighty empire had\\ntwo classes of enemies. On the west were the various\\nChristian nations, and on the East the Persian schismatics.\\nThese two parties by taking turns at fighting the Ottomans\\nwere to keep them within bounds. The one checked their\\nprogress on the Tigris, and the other along the lower valley\\nof the Danube.\\nThe Ottoman government was like that of all Asiatic\\npeoples despotism tempered by insurrection and assassi-\\nnation. Nevertheless above the Sultan or Padishah was\\nthe Koran, whose interpreters, the Sheik ul Islam and the\\nOulema, often won the ear of the ruler or of the people.\\nThe Turkish armies were then stronger than those of the\\nChristians. Their most effective force consisted of 40,000\\njanissaries, a regular and permanent troop. The Christians\\nhad as yet hardly more than the feudal militia. Moreover\\nthe sultan could quickly raise 100,000 men from the tima-\\nriots, or lands given for life on condition of military service.\\nThey thoroughly understood the art of fortification and pos-\\nsessed an unequalled artillery. These efiicient means of\\naction were put in play for two centuries by ten successive\\nand energetic princes. Above all account must be taken of\\nthe religious fanaticism and martial ardor of a race which\\nalso saw its victories fruitful in acquisition of lands and\\nwealth. It is not difS.cult to explain the rapid progress of\\nthe Ottomans.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "20 HISTORY OF MODE BIT TIMES [a.d. 145a-1512.\\nAfter making Constantinople his capital, Mohammed II\\nundertook the subjugation of Hungary and Austria. But\\nhe was hurled back in 1456 by Hunyadi from the walls of\\nBelgrade. He then attacked the remnants of the Greek\\nEmpire and seized Athens, Lesbos, the Morea and Trebizond.\\nChristendom ought to have united in one common effort.\\nPope Pius II demanded it. But the sovereigns were busy\\nabout other things. Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary,\\nwho was most endangered, and Frederick III, emperor of\\nGermany, were warring against each other. Corvinus did\\nat least force the Turks to a halt on the Danube. But the\\nAlbanian Scanderbeg, Prince of Epirus, was their one per-\\nsistent enemy. During twenty-three years he fought them\\nwithout repose and gained more than twenty battles. His\\ndeath in 1468 and the fall of Cro\u00c3\u00afa, his capital, delivered\\nAlbania into their hands. Two years afterward they\\nwrested Negropont from the Venetians. Also they\\ntriumphed over the Tartar Ouzoun Hassan, who had just\\nfounded in Persia the dynasty of the White Sheep, and was\\nstirred up against them by Pope Paul II.\\nFortunately the Moldavians on the lower Danube, the\\nAlbanians and some Greek mountaineers compelled Moham-\\nmed II to divide his forces. Although he had sworn to feed\\nhis horse with oats on the altar of Saint Peter s in E-ome,\\nhe could undertake no serious enterprise against Italy. The\\nsurprise of Otranto by his fleet was hardly more than a\\nbold and sudden raid by sea (1480). When his horsemen\\ncame and burned villages within sight of Venice, that\\nrepublic took alarm. She sued for peace, ceded Scutari on\\nthe coast of the Adriatic and promised an annual tribute.\\nMohammed II was heading a great expedition, the object of\\nwhich was known only to himself, when death overtook him\\nin 1481 at the age of fifty -three.\\nBayezid II (1481) and Selim I the Ferocious (1512). \u00e2\u0080\u0094His\\nson, Bayezid II, was a scholar rather than a soldier. More-\\nover he was forced to consult prudence, inasmuch as his\\nbrother Zizim after an unsuccessful rebellion had escaped\\nas a fugitive to the Knights of Bhodes. By them he had\\nbeen delivered into the hands of Pope Alexander VI. As\\nlong as Zizim was with the Christians, he was a constant\\nmenace to his brother. Yet despite his pacific inclination,\\nit was necessary to keep the janissaries busy and somehow\\nwin their favor. So Bayezid sent them to conquer Bosnia^", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1512-1520.] THE OTTOMAN TURKS 21\\nCroatia and Moldavia on the left bank of the Danube where\\nthe Ottomans already possessed Wallachia. The soldiers be-\\ncame discontented with their indolent sultan and placed his\\nson Selim on the throne. At once the movement of conquest\\nresumed its course. The new monarch attacked Persia,\\nbeginning the religious war by the massacre of 40,000\\nShiite Mussulmans who inhabited his states. A bloody\\nbattle near Tauris was indecisive, but he soon subjugated\\nthe provinces of Diarbekir, Ourfa and Mossoul, which ex-\\ntended the Turkish Empire as far as the Tigris (1518).\\nSyria belonged to the Mamelukes of Egypt. Selim attacked\\nthem. He defeated them at Aleppo, at Gaza and finally on\\nthe banks of the Nile, where the Copts and fellahs, down-\\ntrodden by the Mamelukes, welcomed him as a liberator.\\nMoutawakkel, caliph of Cairo, confided to him the Standard\\nof the Prophet and resigned the religious authority into his\\nhands. The Arab tribes in their turn submitted. The\\nscherif of Mecca came to offer the conqueror the keys of the\\nKaaba. Thus the sultan became the Commander of the\\nEaithful, the spiritual as well as the temporal chief of\\nthe Mussulmans.\\nBy this conquest the road to the East by way of Egypt was\\nclosed to Europeans. This was the death-blow of Venice.\\nMaster of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, Selim also\\nheld in its western basin the strong fortress of Algiers,\\nwhich the pirate Horouk, surnamed Barbarossa, had wrested\\nfrom Spain and placed under his protection in return for\\nthe title of Bey (1518). From that time until 1830 Algiers\\nwas a nest of pirates who preyed upon European commerce.\\nAbominable cruelties accompanied the conquests of Selim\\nand earned for him the surname of the Ferocious. He died\\nin 1520 and had for his successor Soule\u00c3\u00afman the Magnificent,\\nthe worthy rival of his illustrious contemporaries Charles V\\nand Francis I.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "22 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1494.\\nVI\\nWARS IN ITALY. CHARLES VIII AND LOUIS XII\\nConsequences of the Political Revolution in European Wars.\\nOne general fact had been evolved during the second\\nhalf of the fifteenth century. It was that society in all\\nthe states had reverted to a form of government, lost since\\nthe Roman Empire and based upon the absolute power of\\nkings. This is the political side of the revolution in prog-\\nress. It was to affect the arts, sciences and literatures, and\\neven for a part of Europe the beliefs, at the same time\\nthat it modified institutions. The inevitable consequence\\nof this first transformation, which places the peoples with\\ntheir wealth and forces at the disposal of their sovereigns,\\nwill be to imbue the kings with the desire of aggrandizing\\ntheir dominions. Thus European wars are about to follow\\nfeudal wars, just as kings have followed nobles. France,\\nthe first ready, is also the first in the endeavor to issue\\nfrom her frontiers.\\nExpedition of Charles VIII into Italy (1494). The prudent\\nLouis XI had been careful not to assert the rights which\\nthe house of Anjou had bequeathed him over the kingdom\\nof Naples. His son, Charles VIII, revived these claims\\nwith ambitious projects. Not to be hampered in the exe-\\ncution of plans which he thought would carry him from\\nNaples to Constantinople, and from Constantinople to Jeru-\\nsalem, he abandoned Cerdagne and Eoussillon to Ferdinand\\nthe Catholic, and Franche-Comt\u00c3\u00a9, Charolais and Artois to\\nMaximilian. He crossed the Alps at Mount Ginevra and\\nwas well received at Turin and in the duchy of Milan,\\nwhere Ludovico il Moro then needed his support against the\\nNeapolitans. He forced Pietro de Medici to deliver to him\\nSarzana and Pietra Santa, the two fortresses of the Apen-\\nnines, and arrived without encountering any obstacle at\\nFlorence, which he entered as a conqueror. But when he\\ndemanded a war contribution, the inhabitants threatened a\\nriot and he withdrew, though still holding Pisa and Siena.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1494-1498.] WARS IN ITALY 23\\nAt Kome the cardinals and nobles, who had been harshly-\\ntreated by Alexander YI, opened the gates to the French.\\nThe Pope took refuge in the castle of San Angelo. Charles\\ntrained his cannon on the ancient fortress and demanded\\nthe son of the pontiff, Csesar Borgia, as hostage. Also he\\ndemanded that Zizim, the brother of Sultan Bayezid II,\\nwho was then with the Pope, should be surrendered to him,\\nthinking this prisoner would advance his ultimate plans in\\nthe East. A few days later the former captive escaped.\\nThe latter was given up, but soon afterward died, perhaps\\nfrom poison. At San Germano, Perdinand II, king of Na-\\nples, wished to fight but his soldiers deserted and Charles\\nentered the capital without breaking a lance (1495). There\\nhe had himself crowned King of Naples, Emperor of the East,\\nand King of Jerusalem. He speedily alienated all parties.\\nWhile he gave himself up to festivity, in his rear Venice\\nformed a league against him, which included Ludovico il\\nMoro, Pope Alexander VI, Maximilian, Perdinand the\\nCatholic, and Henry VII of England. Forty thousand men\\nlay in wait for him at the foot of the Apennines. Warned\\nby Commines, he hastily marched northward, leaving in\\nthe south 11,000 men. The battle of Fornovo reopened his\\nroad to the Alps, but Italy was lost and no fruit remained\\nfrom this brilliant expedition.\\nItaly freed from the foreigner returned to her domestic\\nquarrels. Ludovico implored the aid of the Emperor Maxi-\\nmilian, who suffered a ridiculous defeat before Leghorn.\\nIn the Pomagna civil war continued between the Pope and\\nthe barons, in Tuscany between Pisa and Florence, in Flor-\\nence itself between the partisans and the enemies of Savona-\\nrola. The latter perished at the stake (1498), but his death\\ndid not restore harmony.\\nLouis XII (1498). Conquest of Milan and Naples.\\nLouis XII, grandson of a brother of Charles VI, suc-\\nceeded his cousin, whose widow he married to prevent her\\ncarrying Brittany to another house. He inherited not only\\nthe claims of Charles VIII to Naples, but also those of his\\ngrandmother, Valentine Visconti, to Milanese territory\\nwhich had been usurped by the Sforza. Cajoling or brib-\\ning the neutrality or support of Csesar Borgia, Venice and\\nFlorence, he sent Trivulcio, an Italian mercenary, to con-\\nquer Milan. Ludovico il Moro lost, regained and again lost\\nthe city, but was finally betrayed by his troops and was", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "24 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1500-1511.\\nconfined in Erance in the castle of Loches. Master of\\nMilan, Louis sought to acquire the kingdom of Naples with-\\nout striking a blow. Therefore he shared it in advance\\nwith Ferdinand the Catholic. He reserved for himself the\\ntitle of King, together with the Abruzzi, Terra di Lavoro,\\nand the capital. Ferdinand asked nothing but Apulia and\\nCalabria. The unfortunate Frederick, king of Naples, find-\\ning himself betrayed by the Spaniard Gonsalvo of Cordova,\\nplaced himself at the mercy of the king of France, who\\noffered him a retreat on the banks of the Loire. But the\\nconquest made, disputes soon arose between the Spaniards\\nand the French. Perfidious negotiations gave Gonsalvo\\ntime to bring up his troops. The French generals were\\neverywhere defeated and their forces again evacuated the\\nkingdom (1504).\\nTo retain at least the Milanese territory, Louis XII\\nsigned the disastrous treaty of Blois. His claims to Na-\\nples he renounced in favor of Prince Charles, the sovereign\\nof the Netherlands, who was destined to become Charles V\\nof Germany. It was stipulated that Charles should wed\\nMadame Claude, the daughter of the king. The dowry of\\nthe bride was to be Burgundy and Brittany. Public opin-\\nion cried out against this dangerous marriage, so Louis\\nassembled the States General. They declared that the two\\nprovinces were inalienable, and implored the king to betroth\\nhis daughter to his presumptive heir, Francis, Duke of\\nAngouleme.\\nLeague of Cambrai (1508). The Holy League (1511).\\nJulius IL succeeded Alexander YI. This warlike Pope\\nundertook to expel from Italy those whom he called bar-\\nbarians. He also aimed at humbling Venice and at render-\\ning the Holy See the dominating power of the peninsula.\\nFirst he managed to unite every one against Venice. Louis\\nXII wished to recover from that republic the places for-\\nmerly acquired from the duchy of Milan. Ferdinand the\\nCatholic claimed from it several maritime cities of the\\nkingdom of Naples. The Emperor Maximilian was desir-\\nous of extending his sway in Friuli. All the jealousies and\\ndesires coalesced therefore in 1508, at Cambrai.\\nAt Anagdello Louis gained over the Venetians a victory\\nwhich permitted his allies to fill their hands with Venetian\\nbooty. Thereupon the Pope promptly turned this league\\nagainst his successful confederate, and formed the Holy", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1511-1515.] W\u00c3\u0082ES IK ITALY 25\\nLeague to expel the French from Italy. Setting an ex-\\nample, in person he stormed the cities and entered them\\nthrough the breach. Louis assembled at Pisa a council to\\ndepose him. Julius convoked another council at the Lat-\\neran, which excommunicated the king, and drew into alli-\\nance all the Catholic powers, even including the Swiss, upon\\nwhom Louis was lavishing his money.\\nInvasion of France (1513). Treaties of Peace (1514).\\nAt first France was victorious, thanks to the talents of the\\nyouthful Gaston de Foix, who drove the Swiss back to their\\nmountains, captured Brescia from the Venetians and de-\\nfeated all the allies at Eavenna. But he was slain in that\\nlast battle. Under his successor, La Palisse, the French\\nretreated to the Alps. Maximilian Sforza, the son of Ludo-\\nvico il Moro, reentered Milan. Then France was invaded\\nfrom three sides. Ferdinand the Catholic threatened French\\nNavarre. The English and Germans routed the French\\ncavalry at the battle of Spurs. Lastly, the Swiss pene-\\ntrated as far as Dijon, and their withdrawal was purchased\\nby payment in gold. The only ally of France was James\\nIV, king of Scotland. He shared her evil fortune and was\\ndefeated and slain at Flodden Field by the English. Louis\\nbegged a truce from his enemies. He disavowed the council\\nof Pisa, and persuaded Henry VIII to return to his island,\\npromising a pension of 100,000 crowns for ten years. Thus,\\nafter fifteen years of war, after immense loss of blood and\\nmoney, France was no farther advanced than when the\\nreign of Charles VIII began. Louis died on January 1,\\n1515. His domestic administration had been superior to\\nhis foreign policy. He created two parliaments, one in\\nProvence and another in Normandy, suppressed the use of\\nLatin in criminal procedure, stopped pillage by soldiers, and\\ncaused commerce and agriculture to thrive. So he has been\\nsurnamed the Father of his People.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "26 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1497-1512.\\nVII\\nTHE ECONOMICAL REVOLUTION\\nDiscovery of the Cape of Good Hope (1497). The end\\nof the Middle Ages is marked, not only by the destruction\\nof hitherto prevalent political forms, but also by the simul-\\ntaneous revolution in commercial affairs, consequent upon\\nthe discovery of America and of the passage to the Indies\\naround the Cape of Good Hope.\\nUp to that time, commerce had followed the routes\\nmarked out by the Greeks and the Eomans. The products\\nof the East reached Europe by the Eed Sea and Egypt, or\\nthrough Persia and the Black Sea. But the peoples who\\nbordered on the Atlantic had long been turning their gaze\\ntoward the mysterious expanse of its unknown waters.\\nThey had become familiar with its tempests and had gained\\nconfidence in the compass. The Normans had been the\\nfirst to enter upon the path of maritime discoveries along\\nthe western coast of Africa. There the Portuguese, more\\nadvantageously situated, followed and outstripped them.\\nIn 1472 they crossed the equator. In 1486 Bartolomeo\\nDiaz discovered the Cape of Storms, which King John II\\nmore wisely named the Cape of Good Hope. In fact,\\nVasco da Gama soon sailed round the African continent and\\nreached Calicut on the Malabar coast (1498). Later on\\nCamoens in his Lusiad painted this heroic expedition. At\\nCalicut Alvarez Cabrai founded the first European estab-\\nlishment in the Indies. On the way thither he had been\\ncast upon the coast of Brazil.\\nColonial Empire of the Portuguese. The true creator of\\nthe Portuguese colonies was Albuquerque. By the capture\\nof Socotora and Ormuz, he closed the ancient routes of\\nIndian commerce to the Mussulmans and to Venice. He\\ngave to Portuguese India its capital by taking possession\\nof Goa (1510). He conquered Malacca and secured the\\nalliance of the kings of Siam and Pegu and the possession\\nof the Molucca Islands. While preparing one expedition", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "J SPANISH\\nColumbus 1st Voyage, 1492-3\\ntFerdinand Magellan, ,1519-22\\nI PORTUGUESE\\nBartholomew Dias, 1486-87\\ni+++HVasco da Gama, 1497-99 Columbus 4tli Voyage, 1502-4 Pizarro, 1524 and 1532-34\\nHHf* Amerigo Vespucci, 1501-2 l-H-i-i-iOjedaand Vespucci, 1499-1500 -\u00c2\u00ab\u00e2\u0080\u0094^-sAlmagro, 1535-37\\nIVIarco Polo, 1271-95 ft.Jolin Cabot, 1497-98\\n100\\n120\\n140\\n160\\n180\\n160\\n140\\n120\\nCopyright. 1898, by T. Y. Crowell Co.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "Engraved by Colton. \u00e2\u0096\u00a0Ohman i Co., N.Y.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1492-1518.] THE ECONOMICAL REVOLUTION 27\\nagainst Egypt and another against Arabia, where he wished\\nto destroy Mecca and Medina, he was arrested by an un-\\nmerited disgrace (1515). The conquest continued under\\nJohn de Castro, who seized Cambaye. Japan was dis-\\ncovered in 1542, and a trading station set up opposite\\nCanton in the island of Sanciam. Goa was the centre of\\nPortuguese domination. The other principal points in\\ntheir empire were Mozambique, Sofala and Melinda on the\\nAfrican coast, whence they obtained gold-dust and ivory\\nMuscat and Ormuz, on the Persian Gulf, whither came the\\nproducts of Central Asia; Diu, on the coast of Malabar;\\nNegapatam, on that of Coromandel; Malacca, in the pe-\\nninsula of the same name, which threw into their hands the\\ncommerce of the countries of Indo-China and the Moluccas,\\nwhere they occupied Ternate and Timor, and whence they\\nexported spices. Their trading stations on the western\\ncoast of Africa and on the Congo were of no importance\\nuntil after the establishment of the slave trade. For a long\\ntime, the only colonists whom Brazil received were crim-\\ninals and deported Jews.\\nChristopher Columbus. Colonial Empire of the Spaniards.\\nThe discovery of America had taken place earlier, in 1492.\\nThe Genoese navigator, Christopher Columbus, engrossed\\nwith the idea that India must extend far toward the west\\nas a counterbalance to the European continent, hoped to\\nreach its furthest shore by directing his course westward\\nacross the Atlantic. Eebuffed as a visionary by the Senate\\nof Genoa and by the king of Portugal, as well as for a\\ntime by the court of Spain, he succeeded in obtaining from\\nIsabella three small vessels. After sailing for two months\\nhe landed on October 11, 1492, in Guanahani, one of the\\nLucaya Islands, which he named San Salvador. Only dur-\\ning his third voyage in 1498 did he touch the continent,\\nwithout knowing it, and on the fourth in 1502 discovered\\nthe coast of Columbia. He still believed that he had reached\\nthe shores of India. Hence was derived the name. West\\nIndies, which long prevailed. The name America refers to\\nAmerigo Vespucci, who merely enjoyed the inferior distinc-\\ntion of landing on the mainland before Columbus.\\nThe route once found, discoveries followed each other in\\nrapid succession. In 1513 Balboa traversed the Isthmus of\\nPanama and caught sight of the Great Ocean. In 1518 Gri-\\njalva discovered Mexico, of which Fernando Cortes effected", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "28 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1519-1534.\\nthe conquest (1519-1521). In 1520 Magellan reached the\\nstrait to which his name has been given between Sonth\\nAmerica and Tierra del Euego. He traversed the Pacific\\nOcean, where he died, and his comrades returned to Spain\\nby way of the Moluccas and the Cape of Grood Hope. They\\nwere the first to make the circuit of the globe. The advent-\\nurers, Almagro and Pizarro, gave to the crown of Spain\\nPeru and Chili. Others founded on the opposite coast\\nBuenos Ayres, at the mouth of the Plata. In 1534 Cartier\\ndiscovered Canada for Prance.\\nThe Portuguese colonies rapidly declined. They were\\nonly a line of trading posts along the coasts of Africa and\\nHindustan, without power of resistance, because few Portu-\\nguese settled there. The Spanish colonies, which in the\\nbeginning aimed not so much at commerce as at the develop-\\nment of the mines, attracted on the contrary many Spaniards\\nto the New World, and formed in America a compact domi-\\nnation, divided into the two governments of Mexico and\\nLima. At the present day Mexico and South America are\\ndominated by Spanish blood, while Brazil is Portuguese.\\nResults. These discoveries threw open to the industrious\\nactivity of the men of the West both a New World and also\\nthat East where so much idle wealth was locked up. They\\nchanged the course and form of trade. For land commerce,\\nwhich hitherto had held first rank, maritime commerce was\\nabout to be substituted. As a result the cities of the in-\\nterior were to decline and those on the coast to expand.\\nMoreover commercial importance passed from the countries\\nbathed by the Mediterranean to the countries situated on\\nthe Atlantic, from the Italians to the Spaniards and the\\nPortuguese, and later on from these latter to the Dutch\\nand the English. ISTot only did these peoples grow rich,\\nbut they were enriched in a peculiar manner. The mines\\nof Mexico and Peru threw into European circulation an\\nenormous mass of specie. Industry, commerce and agri.\\nculture developed on receiving the capital which they re\u00c2\u00bb\\nquired in order to thrive. The third part of the kingdom\\nof France, says a writer of the sixteenth century, was\\nput under cultivation in the course of a few years. All\\nthis created a new power in personal wealth which fell into\\nthe hands of the burgher class, and which in after centuries\\nwas to battle with the landed wealth still remaining in the\\nhands of the lords.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1540.] THE ECONOMICAL REVOLUTION 29\\nBy means of the posting stations which Louis XI had\\norganized, and the canals with locks which Venice began to\\nconstruct in 1481, communication became more rapid and\\nmore easy. When to the letters of exchange, devised by\\nthe Jews in the Middle Ages for the purpose of saving\\ntheir fortunes from their persecutors, were added the deposit\\nand credit banks, instituted by the Hanse, the Lombards\\nand the Tuscans, it came to pass that capital circulated as\\neasily as produce. We have already seen a banker, Cosmo\\nde Medici, become a prince. Lastly, the system of insurance,\\npractised first at Barcelona and Florence, and later on at\\nBruges, began the great system of guarantees which at the\\npresent day gives to commerce such audacity and security.\\nThus labor was making for itself a place in the new society.\\nThrough it, by means of order, economy and intelligence, the\\ndescendants of the slaves of antiquity and of the serfs of\\nthe Middle Ages became the leaders of the industrial world\\nand masters of money, and were one day to find themselves\\nthe equals of the ancient masters of the land.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "30 BISTORT OF MODERN TIMES [a.d, 1450.\\nVIII\\nTHE REVOLUTION IN ARTS AND LETTERS, OR THE\\nRENAISSANCE\\nThe Invention of Printing. The ardor which impelled men\\nof action to abandon beaten paths and rush into unexplored\\nways was shared by men of learning. They also aspired\\nafter another world. They sought it, not in front but in\\nthe rear. Like Columbus, they thought they were only\\ntravelling toward the old land, but on their route thither\\nthey, like him, found a new one.\\nWeary of the vain disputes of scholasticism and the quib-\\nbles of a school which its barbarous Latin speech rendered\\nobscure, they threw themselves toward the half-extinguished\\nlights of antiquity. They ransacked monastic libraries, those\\nstorehouses of old books. The discovery of a Greek or\\nLatin manuscript, or of an antique statue, caused the joy of\\na victory. But only a few men would have profited by the\\nnew spirit, which reviving antiquity was breathing upon\\nthe world, had not an invention appeared by means of which\\nthe treasures, otherwise reserved to. a small number, could\\nbecome the domain of all. Guttenberg created printing by\\ndevising movable characters. As early as 1455, the first\\nprinted book made its appearance. This was a Bible. The\\nnew art spread rapidly throughout all Christian Europe, and\\nthe price of books marvellously decreased. In 1500 Aldus\\nManutius at Venice placed on sale a whole collection of\\nancient authors at about fifty cents the volume. A single\\nbookseller of Paris, Josse Bade, published as many as 400\\nworks, the majority in folio. In 1529, the Colloquia of Eras-\\nmus was printed in an edition of 24,000 copies. Thus eager\\nwere people to learn, for they began to perceive that they\\nhad been living in mental slavery as well as in bodily servi-\\ntude.\\nThe ancients wrote upon parchment or papyrus, both ma-\\nterials of great cost, the Chinese upon silk, the Arabs of\\nDamascus upon cotton, the Spanish Arabs upon a paper", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1470-1520.] THE REVOLUTION IN ARTS AND LETTERS 31\\nmade from flax and hemp. Thus the printers, at the very\\nbeginning of their labors, had at their disposal a low-priced\\nproduct which could receive the imprint of the characters.\\nRenaissance of Letters. Italy eagerly seized upon the new\\ninvention. Before the year 1470, there were already printers\\nat Eome, Venice and Milan. Everywhere schools, libraries\\nand universities were founded. The ancient authors were\\npublished and translated. Not only the Fathers of the\\nChurch were published to uphold the faith, but also the ora-\\ntors, historians and philosophers. Thereby faith was ex-\\nposed to peril, for thus were opened to the mind new horizons\\nwhere reason was to seek and find its domain. Pope Julius\\nII was not always surrounded by captains and diplomats.\\nQuite as many learned men and artists were to be seen at\\nhis side. Polite letters, he said, are the silver of plebe-\\nians, the gold of nobles, the diamonds of princes. The day\\non which the Laocoon was discovered in the Baths of Titus,\\nhe caused the bells of all the churches in Eome to be rung.\\nLeo X paid 500 sequins for five books in manuscript of\\nTitus Livius, and was the friend as well as the patron of\\nEaphael and Michael Angelo.\\nAt that period only three countries thought and produced.\\nItaly was foremost with Ariosto, Machiavelli, Guicciardini\\nand all her artistic geniuses. Prance came second, with\\nMarot, Eabelais, Calvin, Amyot, Montaigne and a host of\\nlearned men or jurisconsults whose fame still endures, like\\nCujas, Pithou, Godefroy and Dumoulin. Germany stood\\nthird, with Ulric von Hutten, the cobbler-poet Hans Sachs\\nand the Ciceronians, with Luther and his Latin writings at\\nthe head. The Netherlands presented Erasmus, a hardy\\nthinker but timid-hearted man, whose Latin works enjoyed\\nan immense success. As for England, she was healing the\\nwounds inflicted by the War of the Eoses. As for Spain,\\nher eyes were turned far less upon antiquity than toward\\nAmerica and her mines, toward Italy and the Netherlands,\\nwhere the bands of Charles V so loved to indulge in war\\nand pillage.\\nRenaissance of Arts. Italy was their natural cradle, since\\nthere the finest remains of ancient art were to be found. As\\nearly as the beginning of the fifteenth century, Brunelleschi\\nsubstituted the rounded for the pointed arch, and for the\\ntortured lines of the florid Gothic, the straight line of the\\nGreek temples or the elegant curve of the Eoman dome. Por", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "32 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1500-1550.\\nJulius II Bramante constructed Saint Peter s at Eome,\\nwhich Michael Angelo crowned with the immense cupola,\\nthe idea of which he had derived from the Pantheon of\\nAgrippa. The sculptors of Florence and Rome were unable\\nto excel their classic rivals, but Leonardo da Vinci, Michael\\nAngelo, Raphael and Titian far surpassed their most illus-\\ntrious predecessors and created painting, which with music\\nhas remained the distinctive modern art.\\nIn the field of the arts, Italy in the sixteenth century was\\nthe teacher of the nations. France followed her close be-\\nhind. Her architects reared many chateaux and palaces,\\nthe Louvre, the Tuileries, Fontainebleau, Blois and Cham-\\nbord, where elegance and grace are blended with strength.\\nTwo French sculptors are still famous, Jean Goujon and\\nGermain Pilon. Germany had but two painters, Albert\\nDurer and Holbein. Engraving, recently invented, multi-\\nplied the masterpieces of the artists, just as printing had\\npopularized masterpieces in literature, and Palestrina began\\nthe great school of music.\\nRenaissance in Science. Science was still hesitating\\nbetween the dreams of the Middle Ages and the stern reason\\nwhich guides it at the present day. Men did not know\\nthat the physical world is subject to changeless laws.\\nThey continued to believe in capricious powers, in magicians\\nand sorcerers, whom they burned by thousands. At Wtirz-\\nburg 158 persons were sent to the stake in the course of\\ntwo years (1527-1528). But Italy had several geometers,\\nand as early as 1507 the Pole, Copernicus, discovered the\\ntruth concerning the planetary system.\\nThus, while the navigators were opening new worlds to\\nhuman activity and through artists and learned men\\nmodern genius was acquiring fresh vigor from the ancients,\\nscience was assigning its place to the sun and to the earth\\nand the planets their parts in the universe. Is it a marvel\\nthat the century which beheld these mighty results of\\naudacity and intelligence should have abandoned itself to\\nthe resistless power of thought", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1510.] THE REVOLUTION IN CREEDS 33\\nIX\\nTHE REVOLUTION IN CREEDS, OR THE REFORMATION\\nThe Clergy in the Sixteenth Century. By its reverence\\nfor the two antiquities, the sacred and profane, which had\\njust been as it were rediscovered, the literature of the six-\\nteenth century led to the religious Reformation, whose true\\ncharacter was a mixture of the reasoning spirit borrowed\\nfrom the pagans, and of theological ardor derived from\\nthe Bible and the Fathers. The prime author of this revo-\\nlution was the clergy itself. What was there in common\\nbetween the Church of the early days, poor, humble, ardent,\\nand the opulent, lordly, indolent Church of Leo X, who\\nlived like a gentleman of the Renaissance, with huntsmen,\\nartists and poets, rather than with theologians And of\\nthose bishop-princes who had armies, and of those monks\\nwho were so vicious and so ignorant, what was not said?\\nFor a long time the most devout had been demanding the\\nreform of the Church in its head and its members. I\\nsee, said Cardinal Julian to Pope Eugenius IV, that\\nthe axe is laid to the root; the tree leans, and instead of\\npropping it up, we are hurling it to the earth. Bossuet\\nhimself recognized the necessity of a reform.\\nLuther (1517). The strife began with the pamphlets of\\nErasmus and Hutten. It became serious only when Luther\\nhad drawn the theologians after him into the lists. This\\nson of a Saxon miner of Eisleben was an Augustinian\\nmonk. He became the most esteemed doctor of the Uni-\\nversity of Wittenberg. During a journey to Rome he beheld\\nthe disorders of the Church. The scandal of indulgences,\\nwhence Leo X sought money for the completion of Saint\\nPeter s, led him to examine the very principles of this doc-\\ntrine. Finding the system of indulgences contrary to the\\nteachings of the primitive Church, he fought against it.\\nThe Dominican Tetzel was the broker of these spiritual\\nwares in Germany. Luther nailed to the doors of the\\nchurch in Wittenberg ninety-five propositions concerning", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "34 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1517-1525.\\nindulgences. Tetzel replied by 110 counter propositions.\\nThe battle had begun.\\nAt first Leo X would see in it nothing but a quarrel\\nbetween monks and sent to Germany the legate Cajetano\\nto bring them to their senses. Luther appealed from the\\nlegate to the Pope, then from the Pope to a future council.\\nFinally^ rejecting even the authority of councils, or of all\\nhuman utterances as opposed to the Word of God, as set\\nforth in the Gospels and as he understood it, he admitted\\nno other law for the believer than the very text of Scripture.\\nThus Luther plunged into schism. The Eoman Cath-\\nolic faith was nourished from the two sources of Scripture\\nand tradition. He denied the latter source. Retaining\\nthe former, he admitted no mediator between him and the\\nsacred text to interpret the latter and solve its_ diffi-\\nculties. He beheld in the Scriptures neither the author-\\nity of the Pope, nor sacraments, nor monastic vows. Hence\\nhe rejected them. The Church on becoming organized had\\ntaught that even a society of believers is impossible unless\\nits members think that they are bound to add to the merits\\nof their faith those of their works. Luther, an ardent monk,\\nand a theologian reared in the spirit of Saint Paul and\\nSaint Augustine, did not hesitate before the formidable\\nproblem of grace. In his book On Christian Liberty,\\naddressed to the Pope in 1520, he immolated the free will\\nof man, and grace became the essential principle of faith.\\nCalvin hence deduced later the doctrine of predestination.\\nLeo X excommunicated the bold innovator, who neverthe-\\nless was simply looking backward, and returning to the\\napostolic age. Luther returning blow for blow publicly\\nburned the papal bull (1520). He was protected by the\\nElector of Saxony, Frederick the Wise. When Charles V\\nin order to win over the Catholics cited him to appear\\nbefore the Diet of Worms, he boldly presented himself.\\nHe was so well defended that the Church did not dare\\nseize him as it had formerly seized John Huss and send\\nhim to the stake. The elector prudently had him carried\\noff and kept under guard at the Castle of the Wartburg,\\nwhence Luther stirred up all Germany by his pamphlets.\\nAs a matter of fact, the reformer was serving well the\\ninterests of the princes. He restored to their hands the\\ndirection of religious affairs. The secularization of church\\nproperty tempted their greed. In 1525 the Grand Master of", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1525-1555.] THE REVOLUTION IN CREEDS 35\\nthe Teutonic Order declared himself the Hereditary Duke\\nof Prussia. Already the Elector of Saxony, the Landgrave\\nof Hesse Cassel, the Dukes of Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and\\nZell, and a great number of imperial cities, had embraced the\\nBeformation and at the same time seized the ecclesiastical\\ndomains situated in their territories.\\nThe people wished to have its share in this immense\\nbooty. In Suabia and Thuringia the peasants rose, not to\\nhasten the reform in the Church, but to accomplish that of\\nsocietj^, wherein they meant to establish absolute equality\\nand community of goods. Luther himself preached against\\nthem a war of extermination and those wretched persons\\nperished by thousands (1525).\\nThis savage demagogy, which appeared again with the\\nAnabaptists of Munster, frightened every one, but especially\\nthe Catholics. The Diet of Spires forbade the propagation\\nof the new doctrines (1529). The followers of the Eeforma-\\ntion protested against this decree in the name of liberty of\\nconscience, and hence received the name of Protestants. In\\nthe following year, they published at Augsburg a confession\\nof their belief which has remained the creed and the bond\\nof all Luther s followers (1530).\\nThanks to Francis I and to Soule\u00c3\u00afman, the emperor was\\noccupied in defending himself on all his frontiers. He\\nshrank from creating for himself a new enemy in the heart\\nof the empire by attacking the Reformers. He avoided\\nsuch risk until after the battle of Crespy and the death\\nof the king of France. The victory of Miihlberg (1547)\\nseemed to place Germany at his discretion. In order to\\nimpose religious peace he promulgated the Interim at Augs-\\nburg, which displeased both parties and reduced the Ger-\\nman princes to the powerlessness of French or English\\nnobles. The supreme power of Charles V was overthrown\\nby the alliance of the Protestants with the king of France,\\nHenry II. Maurice of Saxony came near capturing the\\nemperor at Innsbruck (1551), and the peace of Augsburg\\ngranted the E-eformers entire liberty of conscience (1555).\\nThe Lutheran Reformation in the Scandinavian States.\\nAt that period the new doctrines had already triumphed\\nthrough almost all Northern Europe. Gustavus Vasa, who\\nhad delivered Sweden from the Danish domination, wel-\\ncomed them as a means of humbling the episcopal aris-\\ntocracy and of raising himself to absolute power.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "36 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1517-1550.\\nIn Denmark on the contrary the revolution was effected\\nin the interests of the secular aristocracy, which suppressed\\nthe States General, held royalty in tutelage for 120 years\\nand bowed the people under a harsh subjection.\\nThe Reformation in Switzerland. Zwingli (1517). Calvin\\n(1536). In Switzerland the Eef ormation was born as early\\nas in Germany. In 1517 Zwingli declared that the Gospel\\nwas the only rule of faith. The evangelical religion spread\\nin German Switzerland, except in the original cantons of\\nLucerne, Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, which remained\\nfaithful to the ancient faith. The war, which broke out in\\n1531, and in which Zwingli perished, was favorable to the\\nCatholics. Each canton still remained sovereign as to regu-\\nlating its worship, but the evangelical doctrine was expelled\\nfrom the common possessions. This was a defeat for^Protes-\\ntantism. On the other hand, it acquired Geneva, which had\\nlong been discontented with its bishop, its temporal sov-\\nereign, and was divided between the so-called parties of the\\nMamelukes and the Huguenots. Thanks to the support of\\nBerne, the Huguenot party carried the day and maintained\\nthe independence of the city against Savoy (1536).\\nAt this juncture Calvin arrived. He was a Frenchman\\nfrom Noyon, who had just published a remarkable book,\\nThe Christian Institutes, wherein he condemned every-\\nthing which did not seem to him prescribed by the Gospel,\\nwhile Luther, less audacious, allowed everything to subsist\\nw hich did not appear to him positively contrary to it. His\\neloquence, the austerity of his life and his radical doctrines\\ngave him in Geneva an authority which he used to convert\\nthat joyous city into a sombre cloister, where every frivolous\\nword or deed was punished as a crime. A poet was beheaded\\nfor his verses. Michael Servetus was burned for having,\\nthought otherwise concerning the Trinity than did the spirit-\\nual director. But none the less, Geneva became the citadel,\\nand as it were the sanctuary of the Calvinistic E-eformation.\\nThe Reformation in the Netherlands, France, Scotland\\nand England. The seventeen provinces of the Low Coun-\\ntries formed a federated state under the direction of an\\nAustrian or a Spanish governor. Each had its own con-\\nstitution and its assembly. These free institutions, the\\nindependent spirit of the population and its nearness to\\nGermany favored the propagation in that country of Luther s\\nReformation. Charles Y stifled it by the horrors of a spe-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1535-1546.] THE REVOLUTION IN CREEDS Zl\\ncial inquisition, which punished with death more than 30,000\\npersons. But Lutheranism gave way to Calvinism, which\\nhad come from Switzerland by way of Alsace, or from Eng-\\nland, during the reign of Edward VI, and which spread\\nrapidly throughout the Dutch provinces.\\nProtestantism was not established in Erance until com-\\nparatively late. The Sorbonne refuted the new doctrines\\nand the law suppressed them by force. Moreover there had\\nbeen fewer abuses among the Gallican clergy, as they had\\npossessed little wealth or power. Though many provincial\\nnobles regretted the domains formerly ceded to the Church\\nby their fathers, though more independent doctrines grat-\\nified their feudal inclinations, and though desires for politi-\\ncal enfranchisement were mingled with desires for religious\\nliberty, yet the inhabitants of the great cities remained\\nstrongly Catholic. In Erance a foothold was gained, not by\\nLutheranism, but by Calvinism. Erancis I, who supported\\nthe Protestants in Germany, did not tolerate them in his\\nown kingdom. He had the Lutherans burned before his\\neyes and approved the horrible massacre of the Vaudois.\\nHenry II, by the edict of Chateaubriand, decreed the same\\ndeath penalty against heretics. He even had two magis-\\ntrates, suspected of heresy, arrested in open Parliament;\\nand one of them, Anne Dubourg, was burned at the stake.\\nPersecution was destined, as always, to bring about plots\\nand a frightful struggle.\\nIt was Calvinism which won the day in Scotland. Marie\\nof Guise, the widow of James V, left the management of\\naffairs to Cardinal Beaton, who defended Catholicism by\\nextremely rigorous measures, but was assassinated (1546).\\nThe Reformation took possession of all Scotland, where\\nKnox, who was summoned from Geneva, established the\\nPresbyterian system.\\nIn England the Eeformation was not the work of the\\npeople, but of a despot, who found the country disposed\\nfor this revolution by the memories of Wicliffe and the\\nLollards. Being smitten with Anne Boleyn, Henry VIII\\nasked Pope Clement VII to dissolve his marriage with\\nCatherine of Aragon. As the pontiff hesitated, he made\\nhis own Parliament pronounce the divorce. On being ex-\\ncommunicated, he proclaimed himself the head of the Angli-\\ncan Church (1534), suppressed the monastic orders, and\\nconfiscated the property of the convents (1539). Though", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "38 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1539-1562.\\nHenry YIII separated himself from the Holy See, he\\nclaimed that he remained orthodox. He retained the title\\nof Defender of the Faith, which the Pope had bestowed\\nupon him for writing a book against Lnther. Without dis-\\ncrimination, he punished with death the man who denied\\nthe E-eal Presence in the Eucharist, and the man who de-\\nnied the religious supremacy of the king. Very many sen-\\ntences of death were pronounced. Spoliation followed\\nmurder. The nation, which through love of repose had\\nabandoned its political liberty after the War of the Eoses,\\nbeheld its money, its blood, its very beliefs, sacrificed to a\\ntyrant. But by publishing an English translation of the\\nsacred Scriptures, Henry unwittingly favored the spirit of\\ninvestigation, which caused many sects to spring forth in\\nEngland and paved the way for the revolution of^ 1648.\\nUnder Edward VI this beheaded Catholicism, as the\\nKeformation of Henry VIII was called, gave way to Prot-\\nestantism pure and simple (1547).\\nA Catholic reaction set in after the death of the latter\\nprince (1553). Earl Warwick placed upon the throne Lady\\nJane Grey. Mary, the daughter of Henry VIII, caused this\\nten days queen to be beheaded, then married Philip II,\\nking of Spain, and reconciled England with the Holy See.\\nThis restoration was marked by numerous executions. Be-\\ntween February, 1555, and September, 1558, 400 reformers\\nperished, 290 of whom were burned at the stake. Drawn\\nby Philip into the war against Prance, Mary lost Calais, and\\nonly survived this disaster by a few months (1558). She\\noften said that if her body were opened, the word Calais\\nwould be found written upon her heart. The Anglican\\nChurch, as it exists to-day, was finally constituted in 1562\\nby Queen Elizabeth, the successor of Mary.\\nCharacter of the Three Reformed Churches. Thus in\\nless than half a century, Switzerland, Great Britain, Sweden,\\nDenmark, half of Germany and a part of France had sepa-\\nrated themselves from Catholicism. As the principle of re-\\nform was free examination, it had already produced many\\nsects, whose number was destined to be still further in-\\ncreased. However, three great systems were dominant:\\nLutheranism in the north of Germany and the Scandi-\\nnavian States Calvinism in Switzerland, France, the Neth-\\nerlands and Scotland and Anglicanism in England. Their\\ncommon dogma was justification.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1560.] THE REVOLUTION IN CREEDS 39\\nOf the three systems, Calvinism differed most from Eo-\\nman Catholicism. It regarded the Lord^s Supper as a sim-\\nple, commemorative rite. The Lutherans admitted the Real\\nPresence, but not transubstantiation. The Anglicans were\\nCalvinistic in dogma, and Koman Catholic in liturgy. Their\\nChurch, with its archbishops, bishops, and its numerous\\nrevenues, differed from the Catholic Church mainly in the\\nsimplicity of costume, in the cold austerity of its worship,\\nin the employment of the vernacular language, and in the\\nmarriage of its priests. Subject to royal supremacy, its exist-\\nence was intimately bound up with the maintenance of the\\nmonarchy and the clergy in England was, as it has been\\nin the Catholic countries, the firmest support of royalty.\\nThe Presbyterian Church of Scotland was democratic, like\\nall Calvinistic churches, and its clergy were equal. Puri-\\ntans were later to declare every Christian a priest, if he has\\nthe inspiration. The Lutheran countries retained the epis-\\ncopal form. Their bishops had neither wealth nor liberty,\\nas the prince had inherited nearly all the spiritual power\\nwhich had been wrested from the Pope, and drew up the\\ncreeds. Luther, said Melancthon, has placed on our\\nheads a yoke of iron, instead of a yoke of wood.\\nConsequences of the Reformation. The religious revolu-\\ntion at first strengthened the political revolution, since it\\nadded to the civil rights of princes the right to control the\\nconscience. The Calvinistic communities, however, recog-\\nnized spiritual power as vested only in the assembly of the\\nfaithful.\\nAs to the effect on general civilization, this insurrection\\nof the investigating spirit was at first of small advantage to\\nthe progress of public reason. In Germany all utterance\\nwas bent upon theology. As in the palmy days of scholas-\\nticism, men neglected classic literature to occupy themselves\\nonly with barren and insolvable questions. The Eenais-\\nsance died in consequence. Painters and poets disappeared\\nbefore the iconoclastic rage of the one party and the theo-\\nlogical vagaries of the other.\\nLuther and Calvin, the former of whom intrusted to the\\nprinces the spiritual power, and the latter of whom burned\\nMichael Servetus and taught predestination, are not directly\\nthe fathers of modern liberty. But on the field, where man\\ntoils and sows, a harvest which he does not expect springs\\nup. The denial of the Pope s absolute authority in the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "40 mSTOEY OF MODEBIT TIMES [a.d. 1560.\\nspiritual order inevitably ended in the denial of the abso-\\nlute authority of kings in the philosophical and social order.\\nLuther and Calvin unwittingly led to Bacon and Descartes,\\nand Bacon and Descartes as unconsciously led to Locke and\\nMirabeau.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1522-1542.] THE CATHOLIC RESTORATION 41\\nTHE CATHOLIC RESTORATION\\nReforms at the Papal Court and in the Church. The\\nJesuits. The papacy had in a few years lost half of its\\nempire. Eoused by this solemn warning, it began a work\\nof internal reformation which did honor to four great Popes\\nPaul III, Paul IV, Pius V and Sixtus V. The tribunal\\nof the Pota, the penitentiary, the Poman chancellery, were\\nbetter organized. A new Inquisition, whose superior tri-\\nbunal sat at Pome, was instituted in 1542 to search out and\\npunish, at home and abroad, all attacks upon the faith.\\nNeither rank nor dignity could protect from the jurisdiction\\nof the inquisitors, who set to work with such energy that\\nthe roads leading from Italy to Switzerland and Germany\\nwere thronged with fugitives. The Congregation of the\\nIndex permitted no book to be printed until after it had\\nbeen examined and revised. As individuals were executed,\\nlikewise books were burned. These means, obstinately pur-\\nsued, were successful. Poman Catholicism was saved in\\nthe peninsula, but at what a price The subjection of the\\nItalians to the house of Austria had suppressed political\\nlife. The measures taken to prevent or extirpate heresy\\nsuppressed literary life. Men ceased to think and art de-\\nclined like letters.\\nThe Inquisition was considered only a measure of defence.\\nIn order to attack, the Holy See multiplied the militia which\\nfought in its name. Pirst the ancient monastic orders were\\nreformed: in 1522 the Camaldules; in 1525 the Pranciscans,\\nwhence sprang the Capucins. Then new orders were cre-\\nated, as the Theatines in 1524 and the Barnabites in 1530.\\nIn 1540 the Jesuits were established, whose statutes reveal\\none of the strongest political conceptions which has ever\\nexisted. In addition to the ordinary vows, the Jesuits swore\\nabsolute obedience to the Holy See. Instead of shutting\\nthemselves up in the recesses of a convent, they lived in\\nthe midst of society, so they might there grasp all the means", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "42 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1545-1563.\\nof influence. They travelled over the world to keep believ-\\ners in the faith, or convert heretics and barbarians, and they\\nsought to control the education of the young. When their\\nfounder, Ignatius Loyola, died in 1556, the society already\\nnumbered fourteen provinces, 100 colleges, and 1000 mem-\\nbers. Spain and Italy were under their influence, and\\ntheir missionaries were traversing Brazil, India, Japan and\\nEthiopia.\\nCouncil of Trent (1545-1563). Thus fortified, the\\nChurch could repudiate those ideas of conciliation which\\nhad repeatedly arisen, but which the Protestant princes had\\nrejected lest they should be compelled to restore the eccle-\\nsiastical property. The Council of Trent proclaimed the\\ninflexibility of the Catholic doctrines. Convoked in 1545\\nby Paul III and presided over by his legates, it was sub-\\nscribed to by eleven cardinals, twenty-five archbishops,\\n168 bishops, thirty-nine procurators of absent bishops, and\\nseven generals of religious orders. The Italian prelates\\nwere in the majority, generally two to one. As the voting\\nwas by individuals and not by nations, they were the\\nmasters of the council. The ambassadors of the Catholic\\npowers were present at the deliberations.\\nTransferred from Trent to Bologna in 1546, restored to\\nTrent in 1551, the council dispersed in 1552, at the ap-\\nproach of the Lutherans under Maurice of Saxony. Its\\nsessions were interrupted for ten years, while Paul IV\\nwith the help of France, was trying to overthrow the Span-\\nish rule in Italy. When the sword of the Duke of Alva\\nhad terminated this conflict to the advantage of Spain,\\nPius IV abandoned the temporal cause of Italian inde-\\npendence. He was recompensed in spiritual matters by\\nthe last decrees of the Council of Trent, which instead of\\nfollowing the Fathers of Constance and Basle and setting\\nitself above the Pope, humbled itself before his authority.\\nThe pontiff remained sole judge of the changes to be\\nmade in discipline, supreme interpreter of the canons,\\nundisputed head of the bishops, infallible in matters of\\nfaith, but nevertheless without possessing the personal\\ninfallibility (se solo) which Pius IX extorted from the\\ncouncil of 1870. Thus Eome could console herself for the\\nfinal loss of a part of Europe, as she beheld her power\\ndoubled in the Catholic nations of the south, which pressed\\nreligiously about her.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1563.] THE CATHOLIC RESTORATIOIT 43\\nThe Pope also, in Ms quality of king, was his own master.\\nPins V celebrated in the victory of Lepanto, won by Don\\nJohn of Austria over the Ottomans, a sort of revival of the\\ncrusades. Gregory XIII attached his name to the useful\\nreform of the calendar. Sixtus V restored order in the papal\\nstates, displaying therein the inflexibility of Louis XI. He\\ncleared the Eoman country of the hordes of brigands, im-\\nproved the finances, enlarged and adorned his capital, whose\\npopulation rose to 100,000 souls, built the Vatican Library\\nand annexed to it a printing-office, for the publication of\\nsacred books and of the writings of the Fathers.\\nThus reform in the temporal administration of the pontif-\\nical states and reform in the bosom of the Church resulted\\nfrom the efforts of Catholicism, in the second half of the\\nsixteenth century, and caused its subsequent greatness.\\nWhen discipline was revived and the scandal of the worldly\\nlife of prelates was repressed, the religious spirit reawoke.\\nAsceticism and consecration again appeared.\\nAt Eome something more was hoped for than this restora-\\ntion of Catholicism to its diminished empire. The image\\nof Gregory VII had passed before the eyes of his succes-\\nsors, and the regenerated Church had resumed the ambition\\nof her great pontiffs. Democratic in the first centuries,\\naristocratic in the Middle Ages, with her powerful bishops,\\nwho in case of need, threatened the Pope with excommuni-\\ncation, and with her councils which enforced her will, she\\nhad followed the tendency of the civil power, and through\\nthe necessities of her own defence had culminated in abso-\\nlute royalty.\\nUnfortunately for her, this constitution of sacerdotal\\nroyalty took place at the moment when the temporal\\nmonarchies were too strong to humble themselves under\\nany authority whatever. The decisions of the Council of\\nTrent as to matters of discipline, were not received iii\\nFrance, not even in Spain, and the Catholic sovereigns\\nappropriated to themselves a portion of the prerogatives\\nwhich the Protestant princes had obtained by force. But\\nwhen the authority of these monarchs yielded under the\\npressure of a new political revolution, ultramontanism in\\nthe nineteenth century resumed the work of the sixteenth.\\nIt was too late, for though the struggle was to be conducted\\nthis time with greater concentration, the force of the Church\\nwas less, and the spirit of the world ran in other channels.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "44 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1515-1516.\\nXI\\nFURTHER WARS IN ITALY. FRANCIS I, CHARLES V\\nAND SOULE\u00c3\u008fMAN\\nThe Victory of Marignano (1515). The successor of\\nLouis XII was Francis I. Young, ardent and warlike, he\\ncommenced his reign by an invasion of the Milanese terri-\\ntory. He crossed the Alps by the Neck of Argenti\u00c3\u00a8re and\\nat Marignano attacked 30,000 Swiss, whom he overthrew in\\nthe Battle of the Giants. The Swiss were disgusted with\\nthese Italian wars. They returned to their mountains, where\\nthey signed the perpetual peace which assured their\\nalliance with Prance until the French Revolution. To\\narrest the young conqueror. Pope Leo X made haste to sign\\na treaty, to the cost of the Church of France, but to the\\nmutual profit of the Pope and the king. The Concordat of\\n1516 suppressed the ecclesiastical elections which had been\\nrecognized by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, and gave\\nthe king the direct appointment of the bishops and of the\\nbeneficed clergy. To the Pope it assigned the annates, or\\nfirst year revenues of vacant sees. In this partition the\\npontiff left the spiritual share to the prince and took the\\ntemporal share for himself.\\nPower of Charles V. By a series of fortunate marriages,\\na rival and dangerous power had been formed over against\\nFrance. In 1516 Charles of Austria took possession of\\nSpain, where Ferdinand the Catholic had just died. He\\nfound himself master of Austria, the Netherlands, Franche-\\nComt\u00c3\u00a9, Naples, Sicily, Spain and America. Francis I, still\\nelated by the victor}^ of Marignano, did not fear the master\\nof so many divided states. Instead of trying to dismember\\nthis monstrous power before it could consolidate, he con-\\ncluded with Charles the treaty of Noyon, which permitted\\nhis youthful a^ntagonist at his leisure to gather together all\\nhis crowns (1516).\\nThis friendship was broken three years later, when the\\nimperial throne became vacant through the death of Maxi-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1519-1521.] FURTHER WARS IN ITALY 45\\nmilian. Charles and Francis became competitors for it.\\nThe electors deemed those candidates too powerful and chose\\nFrederick the Wise. He declined the honor, but advised the\\nchoice of Charles, since that prince was more interested than\\nany one else in defending Germany against the Ottomans,\\nwho were daily becoming more menacing. So Charles of\\nAustria became the Emperor Charles V. His power aided\\nby his astuteness threatened the independence of the other\\nstates.\\nFrance accepted the task of resisting the new Charle-\\nmagne. The forces of the two adversaries were really less\\nunequal than they seemed. France formed a compact and\\nin a degree a homogeneous whole which it was difficult to\\ncrush. Her resources were controlled by a royal house\\nwhich encountered resistance nowhere at home. By the\\nConcordat Francis I had just placed the clergy under\\nhis hand. The feudal aristocracy was already in his\\npower, and he boasted of being a king free from tutelage.\\nCharles V, on the contrary, met opposition on every side\\nin Spain, from the comuneros in Flanders, from the\\nburghers in Germany, from the princes and later on from\\nthe Protestants. In Austria he had to combat the then\\nterrible Ottomans. Besides, he found it very difficult to\\nconcentrate in one direction all his instruments of action,\\nthen scattered through so many countries.\\nFirst of all the rivals sought allies. Francis I at the\\ninterview of the Field of the Cloth of Gold, only succeeded\\nin wounding the self-love of Henry YIII, king of England,\\nwhom he eclipsed in elegant luxury and knightly accom-\\nplishments. Charles, less pretentious, gained Wolsey, the\\nprime minister of Henry, by promising him the tiara, and\\nthus secured the English alliance for himself. Pope Leo X\\nalso declared for the man who seemed able to arrest the\\nfermenting reformation in Germany.\\nFrancis began hostilities by just complaints against the\\nemperor, for not having executed one of the principal clauses\\nof the treaty of Noyon in the restitution of French Navarre.\\nSix thousand men invaded that country, and the Duke of\\nBouillon attacked Luxemburg. But the French were de-\\nfeated in Castile, and the Imperialists would have taken\\nMezi\u00c3\u00a8res, had not Bayard thrown himself into the place\\n(1521). In Italy Lautrec was left without resources, and\\nforced to submit to his Swiss mercenaries, who demanded", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "46 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1522-1527.\\nmoney, discharge, or battle. So he was completely routed\\nat Bicoque (1522). The loss of the Milanese entailed the\\ndefection of Venice and G-enoa. In that same year, Charles\\nY placed his preceptor, Adrian VI, on the pontifical throne.\\nBattle of Pavia (1525). Treaties of Madrid (1526) and of\\nCambrai (1529). The very existence of France was then\\nimperilled by the treason of the constable of Bourbon, the\\nlast of the great feudal lords, whom injustice had driven into\\nthe camp of Charles V. He vanquished the incapable\\nBonnivet at Biagrasso where Bayard was slain (1524), and\\nled the Imperialists into Provence. However the peasants\\nrose and compelled them to retreat in disorder. The French,\\nthe king at their head, rushed in pursuit and attacked them\\nat Pavia. The artillery was accomplishing marvels, when\\nFrancis I, charging with his cavalry, placed himself in front\\nof his own fire. The battle was lost and the king himself\\nwas captured (1525).\\nEurope was roused and showed herself unwilling to allow\\nthe destruction of France. Italy, menaced in her indepen-\\ndence, and Henry VIII, who was overshadowed by the\\nglory of Charles V, and whose minister, Wolsey, had been\\ntwice tricked by the emperor in his hopes of the promised\\npapal tiara, formed a league against the victor. Meanwhile\\nFrancis I, impatient to escape from captivity, signed the\\ndisastrous treaty of Madrid (1526), whereby he ceded to\\nCharles the province of Burgundy, renounced Milan, Naples\\nand Genoa, with the suzerainty over Flanders and Artois,\\nreestablished Bourbon in his possessions, and promised to\\nwed the sister of the emperor, the queen dowager of\\nPortugal.\\nOnce free, he caused the deputies of Burgundy in the\\nassembly of Cognac to declare that the king had no right\\nto alienate a national province. The emperor treated\\nFrancis as a perjurer and the latter accused him of lying.\\nThe two princes challenged each other to single combat and\\nthe war again began. Italy was the first victim. Bourbon\\nthrew upon it an army of fanatical Lutherans, whose leader,\\nGeorge Frondsberg, wished to hang the Pope with a golden\\nchain. Bourbon was killed under the walls of Rome, but\\nhis horde captured the city and avenged him by abpminable\\nrapine and most odious cruelty (1527). Lautrec, who had\\nreconquered Milan, marched upon Naples. The defection\\nof the Genoese fleet made the expedition a failure. The", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1528-1532.] FURTHER WARS m ITALY 47\\ngeneral died of the pest, and the defeat at Landriano drove\\nthe French from Italy once more. Then Charles V made\\nhis appearance there as a master. He forced the dukes of\\nFerrara, Milan and Mantua to acknowledge themselves\\nvassals of the empire Savoy and Montferrat to renounce\\nthe French alliance Pope Clement YII to crown him king\\nof Italy and emperor (1529). France even signed the treaty of\\nCambrai, less harsh but hardly less humiliating than that of\\nMadrid.\\nAlliances of Francis I. Successes of Soule\u00c3\u00afman. Francis\\npaved the way for revenge by negotiations which showed\\nthat the religious spirit, a main characteristic of the Middle\\nAges, was yielding to the political spirit, the sole inspira-\\ntion of governments in modern times. He entered into alli-\\nance with the Protestants of Germany, with Soule\u00c3\u00afman, the\\nOttoman sultan, and later on with the Swedish and Danish\\nreformers. Soule\u00c3\u00afman (1520-1566), as a friend of the arts,\\na protector of letters and the author of the code entitled\\nthe Khanounname, deserved his triple surname of the Con-\\nqueror, the Magnificent and the Legislator. In 1521 he\\ncaptured Belgrade, the bulwark of Hungary. In 1522 he\\nwrested Rhodes from the Knights of Saint John, despite\\ntheir heroic resistance through five months under their\\nGrand Master, Yilliers de I Isle Adam. Soule\u00c3\u00afman passed\\nthe Danube with 200,000 men, and destroyed the Hungarian\\narmy on the fatal field of Mohacz (1526), where perished\\nLouis II, the last of the Jagellons. The crown of Hungary\\nfell to Ferdinand of Austria. Soule\u00c3\u00afman supported against\\nthis brother of Charles V, a Magyar claimant, John Zapoli.\\nAll Hungary was ravaged, Buda itself fell into his power\\nand he marched through Austria to the very walls of\\nVienna, which repelled twenty assaults. To cause this\\nreverse to be forgotten the sultan, with his own hands\\ncrowned his vassal king of Hungary in Buda.\\nTwo years later he appeared again in Austria at the head\\nof 300,000 men. Fortunately Gratz, a small fortress in\\nStyria, delayed him for a month. During the siege of this\\ntown he received the first embassy of Francis I. He in-\\ntended to invade Germany, but Charles V had had time\\nto collect 150,000 combatants. Lutherans and Catholics\\njoined hands against the crescent, and Francis I dared not\\naid his formidable ally by a diversion on the Rhine or in\\nItaly. No general battle was fought. At the end of six", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "48 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1532-1340.\\nweeks the sultan learned that a Spanish, fleet had just\\nentered the Dardanelles and was threatening Constanti-\\nnople, so he withdrew (1532). Meanwhile the Turkish\\nnavy was being developed under the celebrated Khaireddin\\nBarbarossa. This corsair, now become the admiral of the\\nOttoman fleets, scoured the Mediterranean with 100 vessels.\\nWhile in Asia the sultan was taking Tauris and Bagdad\\nfrom the Persians, he seized Tunis, which became a lair\\nwhence pirates devastated the whole Spanish and Italian\\ncoast. Charles V sent two expeditions against them. In\\nthe first with 400 vessels commanded by Doria he took\\npossession of La Gouletta at the entrance of the Gulf of\\nTunis, and freed 22,000 captives (1535). Less fortunate six\\nyears later at Algiers, he beheld his fleet dispersed by a\\ntempest, and could scarcely save its pitiable remnants.\\nThe emperor afforded more effectual protection to the com-\\nmerce of Christian peoples by ceding the island of Malta to\\nthe Knights of Rhodes, who for a long time repressed the\\npirates. While Charles Y played the part of Defender of\\nChristianity, Erancis I seemed to be its enemy. The very\\nyear of the expedition to Tunis, he signed with Soule\u00c3\u00afman\\nthe first of those treaties called capitulations.\\nNew War between Charles V and Francis I. Charles V\\nprovoked a new war with France by causing an agent of\\nthe French king to be put to death in Constantinople. His\\nsecond invasion of Provence was no more successful than\\nthe first. He found the country systematically devastated\\nby Montmorency, who refused to give battle, and was\\nforced to a disastrous retreat (1536).\\nThen Francis I cited him before Parliament as a trai-\\ntorous vassal, since he still held the fiefs of Flanders and\\nArtois. A desperate struggle seemed begun, but a grand\\nvictory won by Soule\u00c3\u00afman at Essek over the Austrians, and\\nthe ravages of Barbarossa rendered the emperor more pa-\\ncific. Francis I was content with having conquered Pied-\\nmont, so through the mediation of the Pope, he signed at\\nNice, a truce of ten years with his rival (1538). The two\\nsovereigns appeared reconciled. In 1540, Ghent revolted,\\nand Francis offered Charles a free pass through France on\\nhis way to subjugate it. The emperor accepted and prom-\\nised to restore Milan. Hardly had he arrived in Flanders\\nwhen he retracted his promise, and furthermore caused the\\nmurder of two French envoys who were on their way to", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1541-1558.] FURTHER WARS m ITALY 49\\nTurkey. This assassination and the failure of Charles at\\nAlgiers decided Francis I to again take up arms. His fleet,\\nunited to that of Barbarossa, captured Nice, and the Duke\\nof Enghien won the splendid victory of Cerisoles (1544).\\nBut in the north Charles V penetrated as far as Chateau\\nThierry, fifteen leagues from Paris, and his ally, the king of\\nEngland, laid siege to Boulogne. Famine and disease stopped\\nthe Imperialists who signed the peace of Crespy (1544) on\\nterms of mutual restitution. Henry VIII continued the\\nwar and took Boulogne, but gave it back on payment of\\n2,000,000 francs at the treaty of Ardres (1546).\\nAbdication of Charles V (1556). Francis died in 1547.\\nHis death left Charles V apparently free to restore the\\nempire of Charlemagne. Soule\u00c3\u00afman was at that time chiefly\\nabsorbed in wars in Asia against the Persians, and the\\nHungarians seemed capable of checking the Ottomans on\\nthe Danube. The Protestants already formed a powerful\\nbody in Germany, which the emperor wished to crush be-\\nfore France could send them support. He defeated them\\nat Muhlberg (1547) through the treachery of Maurice of\\nSaxony, and dictated the Interim of Augsburg, which dis-\\npleased everybody. Henry II, the new king of France, took\\nadvantage of the general discontent to declare himself the\\nprotector of German liberties. He entered Lorraine, took\\npossession of the Three Bishoprics, Metz, Toul, and Verdun\\n(1551), while the Protestants surprised the emperor and\\nforced him to flee to Italy. By the compromise of Passau\\nCharles accorded them freedom of conscience (1552), and\\nturned against France, his ancient enemy, to avenge this\\nhumiliation. His good fortune deserted him before Metz.\\nThen weary of so many fruitless struggles, he renounced the\\ncrown of Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands in favor of his\\nson Philip II (1556). Next he abdicated the imperial\\nthrone in favor of his brother Archduke Ferdinand, already\\nking of the Eomans. From that day forth the house of\\nAustria separated into two branches, and the vast dominion\\nof Charles V was henceforth divided (1556).\\nContinuation of the Struggle between the Houses of France\\nand Austria (1558-1559). Thus the integrity of France\\nhad not been broken, and Charles V had failed in realizing\\nhis dream of a universal monarchy. Germany also pre-\\nserved her liberties, or in other words her divisions. Italy\\nalone found herself in the hands of the Spaniards, who were", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "50 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1558-1559.\\nquartered at Naples and Milan. An energetic Pope, Paul\\nIV, undertook to expel them. He counted upon the aid of\\nPrance for success. So the war continued. One Prench\\narmy was sent towards the Netherlands and another towards\\nItaly. They intended to leave to Philip nothing but Spain.\\nThe Duke of Guise was already marching upon Naples\\nwhen he was recalled to Prance by the defeat of Saint\\nQuentin. The bold captain struck a great blow. Unex-\\npectedly in the dead of winter he besieged Calais and\\ncaptured it in a week (1558). The Spaniards were still\\non the Somme, and a defeat of the Marshal of Thermes at\\nGravelines destroyed all hope of their prompt expulsion.\\nMoreover Italy was at their mercy, and the plan of the Pope\\nbecame impossible of execution. Henry negotiated the\\ntreaty of Chateau Cambresis by which Prance restored to\\nthe Duke of Savoy his states minus a few cities, Siena to\\nthe Medici, and Corsica to the Genoese but she retained the\\nThree Bishoprics, and on payment of 500,000 crowns, the\\ncity of Calais (1559).\\nThus the Spanish domination was strengthened in north-\\nern and southern Italy. The still existing Italian princes\\npossessed hardly more than the shadow of independence. The\\nPrench kings had thrown Prance into these wars, hoping to\\nconquer Naples and Milan, but instead had given them to\\nSpain. Their royal rivalries had engrossed the attention\\nand the forces of the sovereigns for forty years. Mean-\\nwhile the Reformation had spread over half of Europe.\\nThe peace of Chateau Cambresis ended the Italian wars\\nonly to permit the kings of Prance and Spain to begin,\\nwith the aid of the Pope and the Catholic clergy, the\\nreligious wars.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "A,D. 1556.] RELIGIOUS WABS IN WESTERN EUROPE 51\\nXII\\nTHE RELIGIOUS WARS IN WESTERN EUROPE\\n(1559-1598)\\nPhilip II. Tlie rehabilitated diurch could now make\\nwar witli arguments. She required also an arm wherewith,\\nto do battle with the sword. For this end she possessed, in\\nthe sixteenth century, Philip II, the son of Charles V and\\nhis successor in Spain, and in the seventeenth the heir of\\nhis German possessions, Ferdinand of Austria.\\nPhilip 11, whom the Protestants call the Demon of the\\nSouth, was master of Sicily, Sardinia, Naples and Milan in\\nItaly; of Flanders, Artois, Franche-Comt\u00c3\u00a9, Koussillon in\\nFrance of the Netherlands at the mouth of the Scheldt,\\nMeuse and E.hine of Tunis Oran, Cape Verd and the\\nCanary Isles in Africa; of Mexico, Peru, Chili and the\\nAntilles in America and lastly of the Philippine Islands in\\nOceanica. He had seaports without number, a powerful\\nfleet, the best disciplined troops and the most skilful\\ngenerals in Europe, and the inexhaustible treasures of the\\nNew World. He increased this domination still further in\\n1581 by the acquisition of Portugal and her immense co-\\nlonial empire. The sun never set upon his states. It was a\\ncommon saying then, When Spain moves, the earth\\ntrembles.\\nAll this power did not satisfy his ambition. As a Cath-\\nolic he hated the Protestants as an absolute king he feared\\nthem. Both from self-interest and conviction he declared\\nhimself the armed leader of Catholicism, which was able\\nout of gratitude, to raise him to the supreme power in\\nWestern Europe. This was the thought of his whole life.\\nHe recoiled before no means which might crush the hostile\\nprinciple. To this struggle he consecrated rare talents.\\nTherein he expended all his military forces. He lavished\\nall his gold to foment assassination in Holland, conspiracy\\nin England and civil war in France. We shall see with\\nwhat success.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "52 HISTORY OF MOlJERN TIMES [a.d. 1559.\\nCharacter of TM\u00c3\u00a2 Period When tlie Erench and Span-\\nish, kings signed the peace of Chateau Cambr\u00c3\u00a9sis (1559),\\nthey purposed to introduce into their government the new\\nspirit which animated the Church, and to wage a pitiless\\nwar against heresy. The one undertook to stifle the Eef-\\normation in France the other sought to prevent its birth\\nin Italy and Spain and to crush it in the ISTetherlands and\\nEngland. When Henry II died, his three sons, the last of\\nthe Valois, carried on his plans. At first they required\\nonly the advice of Spain. The oldest, Francis II, reigned\\nless than a year and a half (1559-1560). The second,\\nCharles IX, died at the age of twenty-four (1574). The\\nthird, Henry III (1574-1589), who alone attained full\\nmanhood, always remained in a sort of minority, whence he\\nemerged only in fits of passion. Hence this Valois line was\\nincapable of conducting in France the great battle of creeds.\\nBut at their side or confronting them, there were per-\\nsons more strongly tempered for good or ill. Such were\\nCatherine de Medici, their mother, unscrupulous and astute\\nthe Guises, uncles of Mary Stuart, queen of Scotland, who\\norganized the Catholics into a party when they saw the\\nProtestants forming a faction around their rivals, the\\nprinces of the house of Bourbon; the general Conde;\\nColigny, who, from a moral point of view, was the superior\\nof them all; in the ^Netherlands, William the Silent, the\\nPrince of Orange in England Elizabeth, daughter of Henry\\nVIII, who, during the reign of her sister Mary, was the\\nhope of the English Protestants.\\nIn the war, many diverging interests were about to en-\\ngage. The Dutch desired liberty, England her indepen-\\ndence, the cities of France their ancient communal rights,\\nand provincial feudalism its former privileges. But the\\nreligious form, which was that of the times, covered all.\\nWhen we survey the whole from the heights of the Vatican\\nor the Escurial, we recognize the fact that the chief aim\\npursued in Western Europe during the second half of the\\nsixteenth century was the triumph of the Church, as con-\\nstituted by the Council of Trent, and the triumph of the\\nking of Spain, her military chief.\\nFrance the Principal Battlefield of the Two Parties. The\\nFirst War (1562-1563). The contract, entered into by the\\ntwo kings at Chateau Cambr\u00c3\u00a9sis, had immediately been put\\ninto execution. In France, Anne Dubourg was burned at", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1559-1563.] RELIGIOUS WARS IN WESTERN EUROPE 53\\nthe stake, and the edict of Ecouen threatened the Protes-\\ntants with death. In Spain Philip II had autos-da-fe\\ncelebrated in his presence, in order to show the provincial\\ngovernors that they must grant no mercy to heretics. At\\nNaples and Milan all suspected persons perished. Even\\nthe archbishop of Toledo was persecuted for his opinions.\\nSanguinary edicts spread the terror to the Netherlands,\\nwhere the creation of new bishoprics notified the population\\nof a stricter surveillance. This declaration of war against\\nheresy was answered as early as 1559, by acts of the Eng-\\nlish Parliament, which recognized Elizabeth as the supreme\\nhead of the Anglican Church by the secularization of all\\nthe bishoprics of Brandenburg and by the suppression of\\nthe religious and military Order of the Sword Bearers of\\nLivonia. Thus did the Reformation consolidate and extend\\nfrom the Irish Sea to the recesses of the Baltic, despite the\\nthunders of Eome and the threats of two mighty kings.\\nIt even tried to win Erance by the plot of Amboise,\\nwhich came near success, and which the Guises defeated by\\nshedding rivers of blood (1560). In vain did a great magis-\\ntrate, L H\u00c3\u00b4pital, preach moderation and tolerance to those\\nfurious men who listened only to their passions. The\\nmassacre of Protestants at Vassy (1562) inaugurated a war\\nwhich only ended thirty-six years later. During this time\\nErance was the principal battlefield of the two parties.\\nThe atrocious character of the war was evident from the\\nvery beginning of hostilities. As soon as Philip II learned\\nthat the sword had been drawn, he sent to the south, to\\nMontluc, the Catholic butcher, 3000 of his best soldiers\\nand directed others from the Netherlands upon Paris.\\nAt the same time the German Protestants gave 7000 men to\\nConde, to whom Elizabeth also despatched re\u00c3\u00abnforcements\\nand money. The defeat of this prince at Dreux and the\\ndeath of the Duke of Guise, who was assassinated before\\nOrleans, restored influence to the advocates of peace. Cath-\\nerine de Medici granted to the Protestants the edict of\\nAmboise (1563). Its principal clauses will be found again\\nin the last edict of pacification, that of Nantes, a proof of\\nthe uselessness of those thirty-six years of murder, ravage\\nand conflagration.\\nSuccess of Catholicism in the Hetherlands and in France\\n(1564--1568). The Blood Tribunal (1567). The edict of\\nAmboise irritated Spain and Eome. Pius V, who had been", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "54 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1565-1570.\\ngrand inquisitor before lie became Pope, reproached Cath-\\nerine for her weakness. During a journey which she made\\nin the south Philip II sent to meet her at Bayonne the\\nmost pitiless of his lieutenants, the Duke of Alva, who in-\\nformed the queen of the policy of his master, which con-\\nsisted in ridding himself of hostile leaders by assassination.\\nThis doubtless was the germ whence the subsequent mas-\\nsacre of Saint Bartholomew developed. The Jesuits were\\nspreading everywhere and were everywhere, preparing the\\nway for a mortal combat with heresy. This time it was in\\nthe Netherlands that the fire broke out and thence spread\\nto France.\\nThe Spaniards poured into the Netherlands. They intro-\\nduced the despotic spirit among a people whose municipal\\nlife had always been very strong. The publication jof the\\ndecrees of the Council of Trent was the signal for insurrec-\\ntion. The nobles, threatened with the loss of their religious\\nand political liberty, bound themselves by the Compromise\\nof Breda (1566) to lend each other mutual aid in obtaining\\nthe redress of their grievances. The people among whom\\nthe Eeformation had already made great progress flung\\nthemselves with the blind fury of mobs upon the churches,\\nbroke the images of the saints, overthrew the altars and\\nburned the pulpits. Shocked at these demagogical excesses\\nthe nobles held aloof, and the revolt, thus isolated, calmed\\ndown at once. But Philip decided to make an example.\\nHe sent to the Low Countries the Duke of Alva, who in-\\nstituted the Tribunal of Blood. Eighteen thousand persons\\nperished on the scaffold, among whom were the counts\\nHorn and Egmont. Thirty thousand persons were stripped\\nof their property, 100,000 emigrated, and a ruinous tax\\ndestroyed the fortunes of those who remained.\\nThese events found their echo in France, where the second\\ncivil war broke out (1567), marked by the battle of Saint\\nDenis. Then came the third civil war (1568), where Italians\\nhired by Pius V, Spaniards despatched by the Duke of Alva,\\nand Catholic Germans fought against the Protestants of all\\ncountries. At Jarnac Conde was slain, and at Moncontour\\nColigny was defeated.\\nThus the victory remained with the Catholics. In France,\\nCatherine resolved to sign the Peace of Saint Germain (1570)\\nthat she might gain time to devise something else. In\\nthe Netherlands the Catholic triumph was apparently com-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1570-1571.] RELIGIOUS WARS IN WESTERN EUROPE 65\\nplete, and preparations were carried on for an invasion of\\nEngland, where since 1563 Spanish gold had been cleverly-\\nemployed to keep up the agitation. In Spain every attempt\\nto escape from religious and political tyranny was merci-\\nlessly repressed. The wrath of the king hung over all. He\\ndrove his son to suicide, his wife to death and the Moors of\\nthe Alpuj arras to revolt. He established the Inquisition in\\nthe Spanish colonies, and from one end to the other of his\\ndominions silence and terror reigned. During this period\\nCatholicism suffered only one serious check, when the errors\\nand the fall of Mary Stuart (1568) assured the victory in\\nScotland to the followers of the Reformation.\\nDispersion of the Forces of Spain. Victory of Lepanto\\n(1571). Meanwhile the forces of Spain were being dis-\\npersed in all directions. Much money was expended and\\nmany soldiers were employed. In Andalusia they fought\\nthe Moors who supported by England resisted until 1571.\\nOn the Mediterranean they fought the Ottomans, whose\\nprogress continued and who conquered Cyprus in 1570. In\\nthe Netherlands they fought the Gueux or beggars, who\\nalong the coast and at the mouth of the rivers intercepted\\nthe Spanish vessels, prevented the provisioning of the strong-\\nholds and thus inspired uneasiness in one party and hope in\\nthe other. At Naples, at Milan, on the coast of Africa, in\\nthe colonies, in Mexico, in Peru, everywhere, strong garri-\\nsons were required and Spain drained herself of men to\\nmaintain her domination of the world.\\nThe only honorable war carried on was that against the\\nOttomans, but it was ruinous. Thus in 1558 a squadron and\\narmy sent against Tlemcen were destroyed. In the follow-\\ning year 15,000 soldiers on 200 vessels tried to capture\\nTripoli and suffered a frightful disaster. Eour years later,\\nthe fleet of Naples was overwhelmed by a tempest. In\\n1565 Souleiman, who had already wrested Rhodes from the\\nKnights, besieged them in Malta, but was repulsed by their\\nGrand Master, La Valette. These efforts of the Ottomans\\nto render themselves masters of the whole Mediterranean\\nforced Philip II to direct a large proportion of his resources\\nagainst them. After the loss of Cyprus he got together 300\\nships manned by 80,000 soldiers and rowers, and his natural\\nbrother, Don Juan of Austria, won the famous but useless\\nvictory of Lepanto (1571). When we take a kingdom from\\nyou, said Sultan Selim to the Venetian ambassador, we", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "56 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1567-1572.\\ndeprive you of an arm. When you disperse our fleet, you\\nmerely shave our beard, which does not hinder its growing\\nagain. In fact he equipped immediately 250 vessels.\\nCatholic Conspiracies in England and in France. Such\\nexpenditure of men and money rendered Philip unable to\\ninterfere in the affairs of France and England except by\\nplots. The victory of Lepauto encouraged the Catholics.\\nThe Duke of Norfolk vainly tried to overthrow Elizabeth\\nand enthrone Mary Stuart, while Catherine de Medici\\nsought to annihilate the Calvinist party by the massacre of\\nSaint Bartholomew.\\nWhen Darniey, the husband of Mary Stuart, was mur-\\ndered by the Earl of Bothwell (1567) and the queen married\\nthe assassin, all Scotland rose against her. Mary took ref-\\nuge with Elizabeth, who treated her as a prisoner (1568).\\nThe expiation of such injustice began almost immediately,\\nand England thenceforth was constantly agitated by Catho-\\nlic plots to deliver the captive. Philip pensioned the Eng-\\nlish Catholics, who had fled to the continent. He threw\\nopen to their priests the seminaries of Elanders, so as to\\nhold the British coast under the perpetual menace of an\\ninvasion more formidable than that of an army of soldiers.\\nIn 1569 the Pope excommunicated Elizabeth. Thereupon\\nmany lords got together a little army, which had as its\\nstandard a picture of Jesus Christ with his five bleeding\\nwounds. In the following year a fresh rebellion was re-\\npressed like the first. A third unsuccessful attempt was\\nmade in 1572 by the Duke of Norfolk, to whom Mary Stuart\\nhad promised her hand, but who was defeated and mounted\\nthe scaffold.\\nThus in England Protestantism made a victorious de-\\nfence. In Prance it seemed on the point of perishing.\\nAfter the peace of Saint Germain Admiral Coligny gained\\ngreat influence over the mind of the king, the young Charles\\nIX. He wished to lead the French Protestants against the\\nSpaniards in the Netherlands, and thus by one stroke end\\nthe civil wars in France, and commence a national war\\nagainst the foreigner. The execution of this sagacious\\nplan was in preparation, when a professional assassin in\\nthe pay of the house of Guise severely wounded the ad-\\nmiral. The king was finally persuaded to order a general\\nmassacre of the Protestants on Saint Bartholomew s day,\\nAugust 24, 1572. The unsuspecting victims were butchered", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1572-1587.] RELIGIOUS WARS IN WESTERN EUROPE 57\\nby thousands. For this abominable crime the king received\\nwarm congratulations from the courts of Eome and Spain.\\nBe fully assured, Philip II wrote, that in furthering\\nthus the affairs of God, you are furthering your own still\\nmore. This is the countersign of that atrocious and odious\\npolicy which masked political ambition under the guise of\\npiety.\\nProgress of Protestantism (1572-1587). Protestantism,\\nmutilated and bleeding, rose up stronger than ever. De-\\nspite the loss of its most experienced captains and most\\nvaliant soldiers, the Calvinist party rushed to arms after\\nthe massacre of Saint Bartholomew and at the peace of\\nLa K/Ochelle enforced the recognition of its right to liberty\\nof conscience. That political crime of August 24 was\\ntherefore as always happens useless. When Henry III,\\na man of distinguished ability, but of corrupt heart, suc-\\nceeded Charles IX in 1574, he found himself face to face\\nwith three parties which he was incapable of controlling\\nthe politicians, headed by his youngest brother, Pran\u00c3\u00a7ois\\nd Alen\u00c3\u00a7on; the Calvinist, who recognized as their leader\\nHenry of Beam, king of \u00c3\u008eTavarre; and the enthusiastic\\nCatholics, whom Henry of Guise organized into the faction\\nof the league, and who opposed both the king and the\\nHuguenots. Unimportant wars and treaties carry us to the\\nyear 1584, when the Duke of Alen\u00c3\u00a7on died. As Henry III\\nhad no son, Henry of Navarre, the leader of the Protes-\\ntants, became heir presumptive to the crown. In the war of\\nthe three Henrys he consecrated his rights by the brilliant\\nvictory of Coutras (1587). Thus it seemed that the re-\\nligious wars in Prance were on the point of elevating a\\nheretic to the throne of Saint Louis, in spite of the excom-\\nmunication of the Pope, who had declared Henry of Na-\\nvarre unworthy to succeed to the crown.\\nIn the Netherlands, there was likewise Protestant suc-\\ncess. After having long carried on a piratical war which\\neffected nothing, the Gueux undertook war on land which\\nmight lead to some result. In 1572 they seized Briel, and\\nthe two provinces of Holland and Zealand immediately\\ntook up arms.\\nSupported by the Protestants of Germany, England and\\nFrance, aided by the nature of their country intersected by\\ncanals, above all commanded by William of Nassau, Prince\\nof Orange, who was surnamed the Silent despite his elo-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "58 HISTORY OF MOBEBir TIMES [a.d. 1576-1585.\\nquence and who understood quite as well as Coligny, Ms\\nfather-in-law, how to extort advantage even from reverses,\\nthe insurgents defended themselves with success. Violence\\nhaving failed, Philip wished to try mildness and replaced\\nthe Duke of Alva. But the army, left without pay and\\nwithout provisions, sacked the principal cities. The general\\nirritation gave rise to the confederation of Ghent (1576),\\nwhich united for a time all the Netherlands against the\\nSpanish rule.\\nUnfortunately this union could not long be maintained\\nbetween the ten Walloon provinces, or modern Belgium,\\nwhich were manufacturing and Catholic, and the seven\\nBatavian provinces, or modern Holland, which were com-\\nmercial and Galvinistic. Opposition of interests and beliefs\\nwas bound to bring about opposition of political views.- In\\n1579 in fact the Walloons, by the treaty of Msestricht,\\nrecognized Philip II as their king. On the other hand the\\nnorthern provinces made a closer union at Utrecht, and con-\\nstituted themselves a republic, with William of Orange as\\nstadtholder or governor general. Two years later the States\\nGeneral of The Hague, the federal capital of the United\\nProvinces, solemnly separated themselves from the crown\\nof Spain, and declared that Philip II had forfeited all\\nauthority in the Netherlands.\\nThe king set a price on the head of William the Silent.\\nA rascal, who wished to earn this reward, murdered the\\nstadtholder (1584), but the liberty of the United Provinces\\nno longer hung upon the life of one man. The Dutch\\nunderstood how to defend their independence, even against\\nthe skilful Farnese Duke of Parma. They were also aided\\nby England, which in 1585 sent them 6000 men, and by\\nPrance, whither the duke was twice obliged to go to the\\nsuccor of the League, and where in his second journey he\\ndied. Thus the war undertaken by the Catholics in the\\nNetherlands resulted in the establishment of a new people\\namong the nations.\\nEngland and Spain had not yet grappled in hand to hand\\ncombat. But Elizabeth was sending to all the enemies of\\nPhilip II arms, soldiers and money, and by means of bold\\ncorsairs was carrying on a disastrous war against Spanish\\ncommerce. Drake in 1577 pillaged the cities on the coast\\nof Chili and Peru, captured many ships, and after making\\nthe circuit of the globe returned at the end of three years", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1585-1589.] RELIGIOUS WARS IN WESTERN EUROPE 59\\nwith immense booty. Cavendisli in 1585 devastated the\\nSpanish establishments for the second time, while the Dutch\\nlaid waste those of Portugal, which had become a province\\nof Spain. The king could not revenge himself, because his\\ntwo enemies then had no trading posts or commerce, and\\nthere were no vulnerable points outside their territory where\\nhe could strike them. Thus against Elizabeth he saw no\\nweapon but conspiracy. The cruel situation created for\\nEnglish Catholics by the queen rendered this easy. In one\\nyear 200 persons were beheaded, for the Protestants prac-\\ntised toleration no more than their adversaries, and on both\\nsides they defended heaven by torture or assassination. A\\nfinal attempt to kill the queen of England decided her to\\nsend Mary Stuart to the scaffold (1587). With the head\\nof the niece of the Guises fell all the hopes of a Catholic\\nrestoration in Great Britain.\\nDefeat of Spain and of Ultramontanism (1588-1598).\\nThe Ultramontane party, vanquished in the Netherlands\\nand in England and menaced in Prance, resolved upon a\\nsupreme effort. As early as 1584 the Guises had treated\\nwith Philip II and infused fresh life into the League. He\\nhimself exhausted all the resources of his states to organize\\nan army and a fleet strong enough to bring back the Nether-\\nlands and England, and after them France, to the Catholic\\nfaith, and subject them to the law of Spain. On June 3,\\n1588, the invincible Armada issued from the Tagus. It\\nwas to land in England an army of 50,000 men. Storms\\nand the English and Flemish sailors with their fire-ships\\ngot the better of this arrogant expedition. The plan, over\\nwhich Philip II had toiled for five years and u.pon which\\nhe had meditated for eighteen, was utterly shipwrecked\\nin the space of a few days.\\nAt the moment when Philip believed that his Armada\\nwas carrying him back victorious to London, Guise, his best\\nally, was making a triumphal entry into Paris, whence the\\nking escaped as a fugitive. But the Spanish fleet once\\ndestroyed, Henry III began to hope again. He enticed\\nHenry of Guise to Blois, where he had him murdered.\\nThen joining the heretic king of Navarre, he returned to\\nlay siege to his capital. A monk assassinated him in his\\ncamp (1589).\\nThe Huguenot Henry of Navarre was immediately pro-\\nclaimed king of France as Henry IV. Though many Cath-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "60 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1589-1598.\\nolics abandoned him, 7000 English, 10,000 Dutch and 12,000\\nGermans came to his help, which permitted him to hold his\\nown against the Spaniards and Italians who had hastened\\nto the aid of the League. The battles of Arques and of\\nIvry confirmed his fortune and his renown (1590). Twice\\nthe Duke of Parma endeavored to capture Paris and Eouen\\n(1591). But demagogic excesses, the general lassitude, and\\nthe imprudence of Philip II, who demanded of the States\\nGeneral of 1593 the crown of Prance for his daughter Isa-\\nbella, the promised bride of an Austrian archduke, rallied\\nthe politicians around Henry lY. Soon afterward he ab-\\njured Protestantism at Saint Denis, because Paris was well\\nworth a mass, and was generally accepted as king (1593).\\nThe League had no longer any reason to exist. It re-\\ntarded but could not prevent the triumph of Henry- IV.\\nBrissac sold him Paris when he expelled the Spanish garri-\\nson. A few months later papal absolution consecrated his\\nrights even in the eyes of the leaguers. The chiefs were\\nthen compelled to acknowledge him. The Duke of Guise\\nyielded, as did Villars, Brancas and Mayenne, but all made\\nhim pay for their submission. A brief war with Spain,\\nsignalized by the battle of Fontaine Fran\u00c3\u00a7aise and the siege\\nof Amiens, brought about the peace of Vervins, which rees-\\ntablished the boundaries of the two kingdoms, on the foot-\\ning of the treaty of Chateau Cambresis. Three weeks\\nearlier Henry lY had assured peace at home by signing\\nthe edict of Nantes, which guaranteed the Protestants lib-\\nerty of conscience, freedom of worship in their castles and\\nin a great number of cities, equal representation in the par-\\nliaments of the south, and places of surety. Lastly, they\\nwere accorded the right of assembling by deputies, every\\nthree years, to present their complaints to the government\\n(1598). Thus they constituted a state within the state.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1598.] RELIGIOUS WARS IN WESTERN EUROPE 61\\nXIII\\nRESULTS OP THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN WESTERN\\nEUROPE\\nDecline and Euin of Spain. There is no greater moral\\nlesson in history than that afforded by the reign of Philip\\nII. That man, for the sake of ruling the human will and\\nconscience, devoted to his ambition apparently inexhausti-\\nble resources, and an energy that flinched at nothing.\\nEverything seemed legitimate to his mind, devoured by a\\ndouble fanaticism, at once political and religious. In the\\ntask which the Pope and the king pursued in common, the\\nChurch was far more the instrument than the end, for Cath-\\nolic restoration was to result in the consolidation of Spanish\\nsupremacy. And when to attain his object Philip II had\\nshed torrents of blood, he found that he had slain neither\\nheresy nor popular liberty, but had destroyed Spain.\\nEverything was perishing in the peninsula. Commerce\\nand industry, which had been cruelly attacked by the ex-\\npulsion of the Jews and Moors, were still further affected\\nby the monopolies which the government set up. Agricul-\\nture was succumbing under the periodical ravages of the\\nflocks of the Mesta. The population, decimated by war\\nand emigration, was also diminished by the multiplication\\nof convents. For all these reasons labor decreased and the.\\ncountry was forced to purchase abroad what it could no\\nlonger produce. Thus the gold of America traversed Spain\\nwithout rendering it fruitful and flowed rapidly towards\\nthe productive nations. This explains the astonishing fact\\nthat the possessor of the richest deposits of metals in the\\nworld was twice obliged (1575 and 1596) to suspend pay-\\nment, and that he left a debt of over $200,000,000. Men\\nhad not yet learned that real wealth does not exist in the\\ngold which represents it, but in the labor which creates it.\\nPhilip II died in 1598, four months after the edict of\\nNantes and the treaty of Vervins. He had witnessed the\\ncrumbling of all his plans and the strengthening of his two", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "62 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1598.\\ngreat adversaries, Henry TV and Elizabeth, on the thrones\\nwhich they had gloriously reconquered or preserved. A\\ncentury later the Marquis de Torcy said Spain is a body\\nwithout a soul. We have seen that Italy shared the fate\\nof Spain.\\nProsperity of England and Holland. The perils from\\ninternal conspiracies and foreign war, which England had\\njust escaped, permitted Elizabeth to finish the work of the\\nTudors by constituting the most absolute royalty which ever\\nexisted in the land. As head of the Church she persecuted\\nthe Non-Conformists with cruelty. In order that she might\\nmore effectively reach their adversaries, the Anglicans\\ndelivered over to her the public liberties. The jury was\\nnearly suppressed. In Parliament not a voice dared raise\\nitself against the ministers. In the trials for high treason\\nwhich were instituted on the slightest pretext, the courts\\nof justice differed little from regular caverns of assassins.\\nThis is what the War of the Eoses, the Reformation and\\nreligious hatreds had made of free England. Beneath this\\ndespotism a revolution was in secret preparation, which was\\nto break out against the second successor of Elizabeth.\\nAt least she had developed all the sources of national\\nwealth for her country by favoring commerce and the\\nmarine; by the creation of the Exchange in London; by\\nthe colonization of Virginia, whence were brought the\\npotato and tobacco by the immigration into England of\\nthe Elemish who fled from Spanish tyranny, and caused\\ntheir adopted country to profit by their industrial and com-\\nmercial skill. Under Queen Elizabeth lived one of the\\ngreatest dramatic poets of the world, Shakespeare, and a\\nphilosopher. Bacon, who brought about a salutary revolution\\nin the sciences by effecting the final adoption of the experi-\\nmental method.\\nThe Dutch, while defending against Philip II their half-\\nsubmerged land, had already become the carriers of the\\nocean and the harvesters of the sea. They bartered their\\ntons of herrings for tons of gold, by provisioning with salted\\nviands the Catholic countries where the practice of fasting\\nrendered such food a necessity. In a single year the fisher-\\nmen turned into the treasury 5,000,000 florins as their share\\nof the taxes. Moreover they carried on an enormous com-\\nmission trade, taking merchandise where it was cheap and\\ntransporting it where it was needed. Philip II closed", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1598-1608.] RELIGIOUS WARS IN WESTERN EUROPE 63\\nLisbon to them. Therefore they sought their Oriental\\nwares at the places of production, and by the conquest\\nof the Moluccas laid the foundations of a colonial empire\\nwhich the great East India Company, organized in 1602,\\ndeveloped and strengthened. The two provinces of Holland\\nand Zealand alone possessed 70,000 sailors, through whose\\nhands the entire commerce of Spain and Portugal was des-\\ntined to pass.\\nEeorganization of France by Henry IV (1598-1610).\\nHenry IV, by the treaty of Vervins and the edict of Nantes,\\ngave France peace at home and abroad. The country s\\nwounds remained to be healed. The finances were in the\\nmost deplorable state. The public debt amounted perhaps\\nto 1,300,000,000 francs and the income was barely 30,000,000\\na year. Henry IV chose for superintendent of the finances\\nthe soldier Sully, the faithful comrade of his fortunes. This\\nenergetic and devoted minister made the revenue farmers dis-\\ngorge. He himself verified the product of the imposts and\\nfixed them at only a proper amount. In less than a dozen\\nyears, although the taxes had been reduced by 4,000,000,\\nthe public service was assured, 147,000,000 of debts had\\nbeen paid, 8,000,000 worth of domains redeemed, and a sur-\\nplus of 20,000,000 placed in reserve in the vaults of the\\nBastile.\\nTillage and pasturage, said Sully, are the two breasts\\nwhich nourish Erance. They are the real mines and treas-\\nures of Peru. Therefore he decreed the draining of\\nmarshes, prohibited the destruction of the forests and per-\\nmitted the free exportation of grain. Tax collectors were\\nforbidden to seize the beasts or instruments of tillage. And\\nlastly, Olivier de Serres, a great scientific agriculturist, popu-\\nlarized by his works the true maxims of rural culture and\\neconomy. Sully despised manufactures, but the king, who\\nwas less exclusive, had 50,000 mulberry trees planted and\\nrevived the factories of Lyons, N\u00c3\u00aemes and Tours, which\\nPrancis I had established. He founded factories for glass\\nand pottery at Nevers and Paris, concluded treaties of com-\\nmerce with Holland and England, restored to Prance the\\nmonopoly of commerce in the East, and had Champlain\\nbuild the city of Quebec in Canada (1608).\\nHenry IV longed to restore peace to Europe as he had\\nrestored it to France, He conceived the plan of a grand\\nconfederation of European states, with a diet to settle in-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "64 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1610.\\nternational differences. With, this aim in view, he was\\nabout to begin a war with Austria and had already taken\\nthe field with 40,000 men, to determine the succession of\\nCleves and Juliers, when the dagger of Eavaillac saved\\nAustria (1610).\\nSuch were the results of the formidable enterprise di-\\nrected by the papacy and Spain against the modern spirit\\nwhich was awakening. The independence of Europe was\\nsaved. Toleration had won its first victory and liberty of\\nthe mind could begin. A new state, the United Provinces,\\nwas about to treat on terms of equality with the most glori-\\nous kings. An ancient state, England, had received the\\nrevelation of her future greatness. France was placed by a\\ngreat prince at the head of Europe. Spain, in conclusion,\\nfell from the hands of Philip II, exhausted and agonizing;\\nand the Eoman Inquisition made of Italy for three cen-\\nturies the land of the dead.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1555-1580.] RELIGIOUS WARS IN CENTRAL EUROPE 65\\nXIV\\nTHE RELIGIOUS WARS IN CENTRAL EUROPE, OR THE\\nTHIRTY YEARS WAR\\n(1618-1648)\\nPreliminaries of the Thirty Years War (1555-1618).\\nThe struggle of ultramontanism against the Reformation,\\nafter the Catholic restoration effected by the Council of\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Trent and the papacy, broke out first in Western Europe.\\nVanquished in France, the Netherlands, England and Scot-\\nland, and constrained to submit to the edict of toleration\\nproclaimed at ]N antes in 1598, ultramontanism attempted\\ntwenty years later to regain Germany and the countries of\\nthe North. The first war had lasted thirty-six years and\\ncovered with ruins all the lands situated between the\\nPyrenees and the North Sea. The second lasted thirty\\nyears (1618-1648) and extended its ravages from the Dan-\\nube to the Scheldt, from the shores of the Po to those of\\nthe Baltic, destroying cities, ruining nations, decimating\\nthe population and bringing back barbarism. Men em-\\nployed two-thirds of a century in murdering each other in\\nthe name of the God of charity and love.\\nWhen Charles V, fallen from the height of his hopes,\\nresolved to abdicate, he first promulgated the peace of\\nAugsburg. This could be only a truce, because it contained\\nan ecclesiastical reservation which forbade any holder of\\na benefice on becoming a Protestant to retain any church\\nproperty which he had formerly held. Moreover Luther-\\nanism had split up into a multitude of sects which inter-\\npreted differently the question of grace. The universities\\nof Jena, Wittenberg and Leipzig excommunicated each\\nother in turn, and in the midst of this confusion the Duke\\nof Saxony, a temporal sovereign, arrogated the right of\\ndictating a creed and of expelling or imprisoning all\\ninfringers thereof. In 1580 the followers of the Eeforma-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "66 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1580-1618.\\ntion in Saxony and Brandenburg signed a formula of\\nconcord, to which, the three electors and a great number\\nof princes and cities gave their adhesion, but which other\\nstates of northern Germany rejected. In conclusion, the\\nseparation was so profound between the Lutherans and the\\nCalvinists, that the former allowed the Catholics to deprive\\nof his electorate Gebhard von Truchsess, archbishop of\\nCologne, who had become a Calvinist (1583). These\\nquarrels permitted the Catholics to regain ground, thanks\\nto the cleverness of the Jesuits, who from Bavaria, their\\nheadquarters in Germany, extended their action to a dis-\\ntance. They caused the Protestants of Aix-la-Chapelle to\\nbe expelled, the republic of Donauwerth to be degraded from\\nits rank as an imperial city, and prevented a reformer from\\nbecoming bishop of Strasburg. Thus the plan of a Catholic\\nrestoration was being carried out in Germany.\\nThe uneasy Protestants drew together and formed the\\nEvangelical Union (1608). To this their adversaries op-\\nposed the Catholic League, the direction of which Austria\\nunder feeble princes abandoned to Maximilian, Duke of\\nBavaria.\\nThe succession to Cleves, Berg and Juliers (1609) came\\nnear setting Europe aflame. Two Protestant heirs pre-\\nsented themselves, the Duke of ISTeuburg and the Elector of\\nBrandenburg. When the emperor sequestered the duchies,\\nthe Protestants complained and Henry IV was about to\\nuphold them when he died by assassination (1610). The con-\\ntention was prolonged. Neuburg became Catholic Bran-\\ndenburg, Calvinist. The Spaniards entered the country from\\none side and the Dutch from the other. At that moment\\nthe policy of Austria was changed hf the accession of\\nEerdinand II, an energetic prince, who blew up with gun-\\npowder the heretical churciies in his states and on one\\noccasion burned 10,000 Bibles.\\nPalatine Period (1618-1625). The Bohemians, whose\\nprivileges he had violated, rose in revolt and chose\\nFrederick, the elector palatine, son-in-law of the king of\\nEngland, as their king (1618). Thus, just a century after\\nthe outbreak of the Reformation, began a struggle which\\nrepeated in Central Europe what we have already seen\\nin the west namely, a political war under the mask\\nof a war for religion. Ferdinand II in fact was deter-\\nmined to make ultramontanism triumph, but like Philip II,", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "A.D. 161S-1629.] RELIGIOUS WARS IN CENTRAL EUROPE 67\\nhe intended it to redound to his personal profit and to\\nrender Germany an Austrian province.\\nFrederick was a Calvinist. Hence the Lutherans de-\\nserted him, while the Spaniards on the contrary made\\ncommon cause with the Austrians and their allies. When\\nthe battle of White Mountain, won by the forces of the\\nLeague, delivered Bohemia to ^Ferdinand II, he committed\\nabominable cruelties. Two centuries later the country still\\nshowed the effects of this sanguinary restoration of\\nCatholicism.\\nThe proscribed Bohemians were formed into an army by\\nCount von Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick. They\\nlong held in check the Bavarian General Tilly and the\\nSpaniards of the Netherlands who had come to his help.\\nBanish Period (1625-1629). The Protestant princes had\\ntime to penetrate the designs of Ferdinand and call in the\\nkings of the North, whom the defeat of the German\\nKeformers would leave exposed to the blows of Austria.\\nChristian lY, king of Denmark, was the first to enter the\\nlists (1625) and occupied the country between the Elbe and\\nthe Weser. While in that direction he was arresting the\\nforces of the Catholic League, in his rear an adventurer\\ncalled Wallenstein was bringing to the emperor, who had\\nno army, 50,000 men and later 100,000, who lived by pil-\\nlage and whose leader reserved for himself the absolute\\ncommand. Bouted by Tilly at Lutter, and threatened by\\nWallenstein with being cut off from Holstein, the Danish\\nking retreated to his peninsula and signed the peace of\\nLubeck (1629). Then northern Germany, despoiled\\nby the edict of restitution and occupied by 100,000\\nimperialists, bowed its head before the Austrian power.\\nWallenstein said openly that no more princes or elec-\\ntors were needed in Germany; that everything there\\nought to be subject to a single king, as in France and\\nSpain. Thus what Prussia has done in our day, Austria\\nbelieved herself on the point of accomplishing.\\nFortunately, the French Cardinal Richelieu thwarted this\\nplan. He sent secret emissaries to arouse the jealousy and\\nthe courage of the princes. At the Diet of Eatisbon, he\\npersuaded them to demand the recall of Wallenstein, who\\nwas crushing Germany with his requisitions and to refuse\\nthe title of King of the Romans to the son of Ferdinand IL\\nAt the same time, he induced Poland and Sweden to con-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "68 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1630-1640.\\nelude a peace, so tliat the king of the latter, already so re-\\nnowned under the name of Gustavus Adolphus, might be\\nfree to hasten to the succor of the Eeformers.\\nSwedish Period (1630-1635). That great captain took\\nalarm when he saw Catholicism and the Austrians obtaining\\na foothold on the shores of the Baltic. He disembarked in\\nPomerania (1630) with 16,000 admirably disciplined men.\\nErance could not join him in offensive alliance. But at\\nleast she promised him an annual subsidy of 400,000\\ncrowns. When he had conquered Pomerania, he made his\\nway into Saxony, defeated Tilly at Leipzig (1631), and ex-\\npelled all the Catholic or Spanish garrisons from Pranconia,\\nSuabia, the Upper Ehine and the Palatinate, while the\\nElector of Saxony invaded Lusatia and Bohemia. Having\\nthus separated the Imperialists and the Spaniards, he en-\\ntered Bavaria and forced the passage of the Lech, where\\nTilly was slain. But the emperor had recalled Wallenstein,\\nwho rapidly formed another army, flung himself upon Sax-\\nony and forced Gustavus to come to its defence. The Swe-\\ndish king won at Lutzen his last victory, and died in his\\ntriumph (1632). Skilful generals, his pupils, took his place\\nat the head of the armies. The chancellor Oxenstiern suc-\\nceeded him in the council. Perdinand made their task\\neasier by assassinating Wallenstein of whose ambition he\\nwas afraid (1634). But that same year the defeat of Ber-\\nnard of Saxe-Weimar at Nordlingen deprived SAveden of all\\nher German allies except the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel\\nand Eichelieu considered it necessary to set the armies of\\nPrance in motion at last.\\nFrench Period (1635-1648). At first he was unfortunate.\\nThe Spaniards crossed the Somm\u00c3\u00a9e and took possession of\\nCorbie. The court and Paris had a moment of terror. But\\nPichelieu averted the danger, reconquered Corbie and im-\\nposed victory upon his generals under pain of death. La\\nMeilleraye and Chatillon captured Arras (1640). Bernard\\nof Saxe-Weimar, bought by Pichelieu, conquered Alsace,\\nand dying shortly afterward, bequeathed his army, and his\\nconquest to Prance. D Harcourt won three victories in\\nPiedmont, which v^^as then the ally of the Spaniards. The\\nking himself marched to take possession of Perpignan,\\nwhich is still Prench. In order to give Spain occupation\\nat home, Pichelieu encouraged revolts in Catalonia and\\nPortugal. The Swedish generals Banner and Torstenson", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1641-1648.] RELIGIOUS WARS m CENTRAL EUROPE 69\\ncompleted the Frencli successes in the west by victories in\\nBrandenburg, Silesia and Saxony. Guebriant, triumphant\\nat Wolfenbuttel and at Kempen (1641-1642), was effecting\\nhis junction with the Swedes, so as to hurl their combined\\nforces upon exhausted Austria, when Eichelieu died (1643).\\nHis death emboldened the Spaniards, who invaded France.\\nConde routed them at Eocroi (1643), at Fribourg (1644), at\\nISTordlingen (1645) and lastly at Lens (1648). Thus the\\nconclusion of the peace of Westphalia was compelled.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "70 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1648.\\nXV\\nRESULTS OP THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN CENTRAL\\nEUROPE\\nPeace of Westphalia (1648). ITegotiations for peace had.\\nbeen begun in 1641, but were not seriously undertaken until\\n1644 in two cities of Westphalia. At the last moment Spain\\nwithdrew hoping to profit by the troubles of the Fronde,\\nwhich were then breaking out in France, and to regain\\nCerdagne, Eoussillon and Artois, which she had lost. The\\nother states signed the treaty in October, 1648.\\nAdvantages won by the Protestants. Eeligious Inde-\\npendence of the German States. Austria had tried to stifle\\nthe religious liberties of Germany. Since she was van-\\nquished, whatever she had wished to overthrow still existed.\\nThe princes enjoyed full liberty of conscience. Their sub-\\njects possessed it only under many restrictions for in each\\nstate one religion dominated, either Catholic, Lutheran, or\\nGalvinist. No other religious organizations were recognized.\\nThese three obtained equality of rights. As to the posses-\\nsion of ecclesiastical property and the exercise of worship,\\neverything was restored in Germany to the condition of\\n1624, except in the Palatinate, which was set back to the\\nyear 1618. Thus the territorial acquisitions and conver-\\nsions, effected since the peace of Augsburg in 1555, were\\nrecognized. In order to indemnify the Protestant princes,\\nmany bishoprics and abbeys were secularized. It was a\\ncardinal, Richelieu, who brought about this treaty. It was\\nanother cardinal, Mazarin, who signed it. Two princes of\\nthe Church had been the instruments to defeat ultramon-\\ntanism and the papacy. It was a proof that politics were\\nno longer based upon creeds, and that temporal interests\\nmust henceforth depend solely on themselves.\\nPolitical Independence of the German States. When\\nWallenstein was pressing upon Germany with his immense\\narmy and when Ferdinand II was distributing to his kins-\\nmen the spoils of the princes, one might have thought that", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "{ioyf\u00c3\u00b9ghl, 1898, by T. Y. Croivtil i Ce", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": ",\u00c2\u00a3ngra\u00c2\u00bbed by CoUon, Uhnjuii i Co N. Y.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1648.] RELIGIOUS WARS IN CENTRAL EUROPE 71\\nthe dream of Otho tlie Great, of Frederick Barbarossa and\\nof Charles V was being realized, and that the unity of the\\nempire was assured under the absolute authority of the\\nemperor. France and the Swedes dispelled this dream.\\nThe German princes and states were assured the right of\\nsuffrage in the diet on questions of alliance, war, treaty\\nand new laws. They were confirmed in the full and entire\\nexercise of sovereignty in their territory. They had also\\nthe right to ally themselves with foreign powers, provided,\\nas said a restriction, that it was not against the emperor or\\nthe empire. Thus the imperial authority was only a title\\nand Germany henceforth formed not a state, but a con-\\nfederation.\\nFor a long time Switzerland and Holland had been for-\\neign to the empire. This separation in fact was formally\\nrecognized.\\nAcquisitions of Sweden and France. The victors lacked\\nmoderation. Sweden caused such territories to be ceded\\nher as placed in her hands the mouths of the three great\\nGerman rivers, the Oder, Elbe and Weser. These were\\nuseless acquisitions, because she could not keep them. They\\nwere dangerous acquisitions, because tempting her to inter-\\nfere in continental wars, whereby she was to lose her good\\nfortune. France retained Pignerol in Piedmont, that is to\\nsay, a door open upon Italy also Alsace, a precious posses-\\nsion, and beyond the E-hine Vieux Brisach and Philipsburg,\\nwhere she had the right to keep a garrison. Moreover by\\nforcing recognition of the right of the German states to con-\\ntract alliance with foreign powers, she always had the means\\nof purchasing support among those indigent princes. Thus\\nthe French had on the west, like the Swedes on the north,\\nan offensive position. Germany, divided into four or five\\nhundred states, Lutheran and Catholic, monarchical and\\nrepublican, secular and ecclesiastical, was of necessity to be-\\ncome the theatre of every intrigue and the battle-ground of\\nEurope. Such, from the same causes, her divisions and an-\\narchy, had been the condition of Italy at the beginning of\\nmodern times.\\nIf the Bourbons had not inherited the ambition of the\\nHapsburgs and stirred up against themselves the same co-\\nalitions, the peace of Westphalia would have constituted\\nthe grandeur of France and the political liberty of Europe.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "72 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1610-1621.\\nXVI\\nRICHELIEU AND MAZARIN. COMPLETION OP\\nMONARCHICAL FRANCE\\n(1610-1661)\\nMinority of Louis XIII (1610-1617). \u00e2\u0080\u0094While the papacy,\\nthe chief power of the Middle Ages, was growing weaker,\\nroyalty, the chief power of modern times, was growing\\nstronger. E-ichelieu had the genius to continue the work\\nof Louis XI, of Francis I and of Henry IV but his min-\\nistry was preceded by fourteen troubled years which came\\nnear reversing their gains. The feeble regent, Marie de\\nMedici, abandoned both the foreign and domestic policy of\\nHenry IV. Her favorite Concini alienated the nobles, who\\nrevolted in order to force her to purchase their submission\\nby of ces and pensions. Then, to disguise their covetous-\\nness as a desire for the public welfare, they exacted the\\nconvocation of the States General, the last which was con-\\nvoked before the French Eevolution. At this assembly the\\nThird Estate or the Commons showed a remarkable appre-\\nciation of the needs of the country. The nobility displayed\\nits insulting contempt for the people, and the court its dis-\\ndain for reforms. A second rebellion headed by Conde\\nwas appeased by bribes to the leaders. Finally Concini\\nwas killed and his wife, Eleanor Galiga\u00c3\u00af, burned alive on\\naccusation of having bewitched the queen mother by magic\\nspells.\\nLouis XIII and his favorite, the Duke de Luynes, gov-\\nerned no better. The nobles now rebelled in behalf of the\\nmother against the son. A more serious war broke out in\\n1621. Incensed by the order to restore the ecclesiastical\\nproperty which some of the reformers had seized, the Prot-\\nestants revolted. They planned to found in the marshes of\\nAunis a French Holland, of which La Eochelle was to be\\nthe Amsterdam. De Luynes, who had appointed himself\\nConstable of France, laid siege to Montauban. He failed", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1624r-1628.] RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN 73\\nand was himself carried off by a malignant fever. The\\nking succeeded the following year in expelling Soubise from\\nthe Isle of R\u00c3\u00a9 and the Protestants sued for peace. The\\ntreaty of Montpellier confirmed the edict of Nantes, granted\\nthem La Eochelle and Montauban as cities of refuge, but\\nforbade their holding any public meeting without the king s\\nauthorization.\\nRichelieu humbles the Protestants and the High Nobility.\\nRichelieu was raised to the ministry (1624) by the reviv-\\ning influence of Marie de Medici. He resumed the grand\\npolicy of Louis XI and Henry IV. His twofold object\\nwas at home to destroy the power of the nobility and the\\nindependence of the Protestants, and abroad to humble the\\nhouse of Austria. Like Louis XI he began too eagerly,\\nbut moderated his pace in time and attacked his different\\nenemies in succession. Two treaties with the Protestants\\nand Spain enabled him to turn all his forces against the\\nnobles, whom he smote with terrible sentences. Marshal\\nd Ornano was thrown into the Bastile the Count de Chalais\\nwas beheaded as a conspirator; Bouteville, Montmorency\\nand the Marquis de Beuvron were executed for duelling.\\nAt the same time the terrible cardinal deprived the nobles\\nof the high dignities which gave them too much influence.\\nThe ofiice of constable was abolished and that of grand\\nadmiral was brought in.\\nThese acts of severity made the nobles pause. Richelieu\\nfound himself free to end with the French Protestants who\\nwere upheld by England, although by marrying Henrietta\\nof France to the English king, Charles I, he had flattered\\nhimself that he could prevent any such alliance. La Ro-\\nchelle was besieged. An immense dike closed the port to the\\nEnglish fleets. After the most heroic resistance, when out\\nof 30,000 inhabitants only 5000 remained, this capital of\\nFrench Protestantism opened its gates (1628). The peace\\nof Alais left to the Protestants the civil guarantees and the\\nreligious liberty which the edict of Nantes had given them,\\nbut their strongholds were dismantled. They ceased to\\nform a state within the state, and the political unity of\\nFrance was definitely reestablished. *^You will see, said\\nMarshal de Bassompierre, that we shall be fools enough\\nto capture La Rochelle.\\nThe nobles were fully aware that royalty, no longer dis-\\nquieted by the Protestants, would so act as to rid itself of", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "74 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a. d. 1629-1642.\\nfuture anxiety on tlie score of the grandees, Richelieu in\\nfact was obliged all his life to stifle their plots. No sooner\\nwas La Eochelle subdued than they formed about the king\\na cabal led by Marie de Medici, who did not find her former\\nconfessor, Eichelieu, sufliciently docile. When common\\nrumor reported him fallen in disgrace, a final interview\\nwith Louis XIII restored to him all his influence. The\\nvictims of that Day of Dupes were Marshal de Marillac,\\nbeheaded for extortion, and Marie de Medici, who retired\\ninto exile at Brussels (1631). After the king s mother,\\nthe king s brother Gaston d Orleans incited to rebellion\\nthe Duke de Montmorency, whom he basely abandoned,\\nand who on being made prisoner at the battle of Castel-\\nnaudary, died on the scaffold (1632). Another civil war\\nundertaken by the Count of Soissons, a member of- the\\nhouse of Conde, suddenly ended with the death of that\\nprince, who was slain at the battle of La Marf\u00c3\u00a9e (1641).\\nThe final conspiracy, that of Cinq Mars, might have suc-\\nceeded, had not that favorite of Louis XIII ruined him-\\nself by signing a treaty with Spain. Cinq Mars was\\nexecuted, together with De Thou, his too faithful friend\\n(1642).\\nThe great minister died during the following year. At\\nhome he had overcome every obstacle to the royal authority.\\nWithout equalling Sully, he had introduced some order into\\nthe finances. He had destroyed many feudal fortresses,\\nand by the creation of intendants (1635) had diminished the\\nhitherto excessive authority of the provincial governors.\\nAbroad his services had been still more illustrious, as we\\nhave seen in the history of the Thirty Years War.\\nMazarin and the Fronde. On the death of Louis XIII,\\nFrance had again to undergo the reign of a minor.\\nLouis XIV was only five years of age. His mother, Anne\\nof Austria, made Parliament intrust her with the regency\\ncontrary to the late king s will, which gave the power to\\na council. The regent confided the authority to Mazarin,\\na shrewd and supple minded Italian, obstinate rather than\\ngreat. Sent as papal nuncio to France, he had been dis-\\ntinguished by Kichelieu, who caused his nomination as a\\ncardinal.\\nA reaction against the severe government of Eichelieu\\nimmediately set in. Pensions, honors and privileges were\\nlavished by the Good Queen, but they did not restrain", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1642-1649.] RICHELIEU AND MAZABIN 75\\nthe great lords, some of whom formed the cabal of the\\nConsequential Persons/^ The regent, or rather Mazarin,\\nperceived the danger in time. Beaufort was sent to the\\nBastile, and Vend\u00c3\u00b4me, Duchess de Chevreuse, and the rest\\nto their country houses.\\nThe finances were in extreme disorder. Mazarin had\\nneither financial instinct nor the necessary degree of self-\\nsacrifice. To obtain money two unpopular edicts were\\nissued. Mazarin demanded from the sovereign courts their\\nsalaries for four years as a loan. This time the Parliament\\nflew into a rage and undertook to play the part which the\\nEnglish Parliament had just assumed as reformer of the\\nstate. It proposed for the royal sanction twenty-seven\\narticles, which forbade the collection of taxes until they\\nhad been verified and registered, abolished the ofiice of the\\nintendants, and prohibited any servant of the king being\\ndetained in durance for more than twenty-four hours with-\\nout examination. Just then Conde won the victory of Lens.\\nMazarin, emboldened by this great success, had three coun-\\ncillors, Charton, Blancmesnil and Broussel, arrested during\\nthe Te Deum (1648). Immediately the people rose; 200\\nbarricades were constructed, and the court in order to gain\\ntime sanctioned the demands of Parliament. At that\\nmoment the treaty of Westphalia was being signed.\\nWhen peace was concluded with Austria, the regent\\nsummoned Conde to her presence. Immediately the par-\\nliament party began raising troops. They were joined by\\nmany of the intriguing and covetous nobles. The soul of\\nthe movement was Paul de Gondi, afterwards archbishop\\nof Paris and later on Cardinal de Eetz, who boasted of\\nhaving studied the art of plotting in Sallust and Plutarch,\\nand who had himself written the conspiracy of Fiesco. He\\nflattered himself that he could force the court to appoint\\nhim as successor of Eichelieu by creating himself a party\\namong the people, as though the people already had a part\\nto play. He was a talker and made adroit use of the Duke\\nof Beaufort, grandson of Henry IV, a popular man despite\\nhis emptiness of mind, who was called the king of the\\nmarkets but who could not be anything more. After a\\nshort war in which the insurgents were constantly beaten,\\npeace was signed at Euel (1649).\\nThis is the famous war of the Fronde, so called from a\\nchild s game. The haughty Conde, who had won the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "76 mSTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1649-1661.\\nvictory for the court, rendered himself unendurable to the\\nqueen and to Mazarin who had him arrested. The provincial\\nnobility took up arms in favor of the rebellious prince, and\\nTurenne, drawn into rebellion by his passion for the Duch-\\ness de Longueville, was vanquished at Rethel by the royal\\ntroops. Thus Mazarin was triumphant, when Paul de Gondi,\\nincensed at failing to obtain the cardinal s hat which had\\nbeen promised him, rekindled the war of the Fronde.\\nMazarin was obliged to flee to Li\u00c3\u00a8ge (1651). Fortunately\\nTurenne returned to his allegiance and saved the king by his\\nskill at Bleneau and at the battle of the Faubourg Saint\\nAntoine (1652). Cond\u00c3\u00a9 was compelled to flee to Flanders\\nand entered the Spanish service. The Fronde was ended\\n(1653). Two years afterwards, when Parliament wished to\\noppose the registration of several edicts, the young king,\\nbooted and whip in hand on his way from the chase, entered\\nthe hall and forbade that assembly to continue its delibera-\\ntions.\\nTreaty of the Pyrenees (1659). Peace being established\\nat home, war abroad was prosecuted with energy. Turenne\\nforced the Spanish lines before Arras (1654) and then won\\nthe battle of the Downs, which opened to him the Nether-\\nlands (1658). Several months later Mazarin signed the\\ntreaty of the Pyrenees (1659). Spain renounced Eoussillon,\\nCerdagne and Artois. The Infanta Maria Theresa married\\nLouis Xiy, renouncing all claims on the crown of Spain,\\nbut Mazarin so managed matters that the renunciation\\nshould be void. In the preceding year he had concluded\\nwith many German princes the league of the Ehine, which\\nNapoleon renewed a century and a half afterwards, though\\nwithout greater profit to France.\\nMazarin died in 1661. His administration without being\\ngrand had been clever. His financial management, disas-\\ntrous for the treasury, had been lucrative for him and his\\nfriends. Nevertheless he left royalty free from all domestic\\nobstacles, and France glorious in politics and arms, and\\neven in letters and arts. Corneille, Descartes, Pascal and\\nPoussin had long before begun what is called the century of\\nLouis XIV.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1603-1615.] ENGLAND FROM 1603-1674 77\\nXYII\\nENGLAND PROM 1603 TO 1674\\nEurope in 1661. Thus France was entering upon the\\nmost brilliant reign of her old monarchy. Meanwhile the\\ntwo defeated powers of the religious wars, Spain and\\nAustria, were dressing their wounds the former listlessly,\\nfor she remained thirty-five years under a moribund king\\nthe latter with the energy which Hungarian turbulence and\\nthe nearness of the Ottomans imposed, yet without either\\nbrilliancy or grandeur because of the insignificance of her\\nprinces. In Eastern Europe other ambitions were in motion,\\nthe Swedes against the Danes, the Russians against the\\nPoles. From the midst of these contentions the Elector of\\nBrandenburg was trying to reap a harvest. The Turks from\\ntime to time were making terrible invasions, the last threats\\nof an exhausted and declining power. The attention of man-\\nkind was not as yet seriously attracted in that direction, but\\nwas already fixed upon Louis XIV.\\nOn examining the history of England during the Thirty\\nYears War we shall perceive that to the humiliation of the\\nhouse of Austria in its Spanish and imperial branches cor-\\nresponds the political abasement of Great Britain during the\\nsame period, condemned to civil war or impotency by the\\nsecret or avowed Catholicism of its kings.\\nAccession of the Stuarts. James VI of Scotland, the son\\nof Mary Stuart and great-grandson of Henry VII, succeeded\\nElizabeth in 1603. He wore the two crowns without as yet\\nuniting the two states in one. He abandoned the Protes-\\ntant policy which in the preceding reign had saved Eng-\\nland. He refused to cooperate in the projects of Henry IV,\\nsought alliance with Spain and remained almost indifferent\\nto the ruin of his son-in-law, the elector palatine. Never-\\ntheless he upheld Anglicanism against the Catholics, who\\nformed the Gunpowder Plot (1615), and against the Non-Con-\\nformists, whom he persecuted without pity. No bishop,\\nno king/ said he with reason. Elizabeth had bequeathed", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "78 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1614-1625.\\nto Mm absolute power. But a firm and glorious hand, is\\nrequired to exercise unfettered authority and under a vain\\nand feeble prince Parliament was no longer docile. In vain\\ndid James send five deputies to the Tower in 1614. The\\nCommons refused subsidies. In order to obtain money which\\nhis extravagance rendered necessary, he had recourse to the\\nmost shameful traffic, put the court offices and judicial func-\\ntions up at auction, created and sold titles, and then wasted\\nthe riches shamefully acquired upon greedy favorites, of\\nwhom the most notorious was George Villiers, Marquis of\\nBuckingham.\\nWhen the Thirty Years War broke out, James took ad-\\nvantage of the perils which Protestantism in Germany was\\nincurring to summon a new Parliament. But the Commons\\ngranted subsidies only on condition that justice should-be\\ndone to the nation s grievances. The old spirit of liberty,\\nrepressed by the Tudors, was awakening. The king again\\ndissolved the assembly (1622). Allured by the bait of a\\nrich dowry, he sought for his son the hand of an infanta of\\nSpain. This was a fresh outrage to the keenest feelings of\\nthe English people, but the plan failed, thanks to the folly\\nof Buckingham. The marriage of the Prince of Wales with\\nHenrietta of France, sister of Louis XIII, was almost as\\nunpopular, because it placed a Catholic princess upon the\\nthrone of England. James I died in 1625. He published\\nthe True Law of Free Monarchy wherein he expounded the\\ndivine right of kings. The Anglican clergy, in its canons\\nof 1608 erecting this right into a dogma, made absolute obe-\\ndience to the reigning prince an article of faith. Thus the\\nalliance of the altar and the throne against the public liber-\\nties was everywhere ratified, even in the heart of the\\nE-eformation.\\nCharles I (1625-1649). Charles I, a prince of sedate and\\npure character, thus found himself from childhood imbued\\nwith the principles of despotism. His wife showed the\\nCatholics a preference which wounded the nation. Buck-\\ningham, who had contrived to remain the favorite of the\\nson as he had been the favorite of the father, retained an\\ninfluence which diminished the respect of the country for\\nthe king. The struggle with the Commons immediately\\nbegan afresh. This assembly was composed of the younger\\nsons of the nobility and of citizens of the middle class, who,\\nhaving grown rich under Elizabeth and James, filled all the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1626-1640.] ENGLAND FROM 1603-1674 79\\nliberal professions. It was the practice to vote the customs\\nduties for the whole duration of the reign. The lower\\nChamber granted them only for one year and Charles in\\nanger dismissed the assembly. The Parliament of 1626\\nwent still farther. It impeached Buckingham and was\\nimmediately prorogued. In the hope of acquiring some\\npopularity Buckingham persuaded Charles I to support\\nthe Protestants of France and conducted a fleet to the\\nrescue of La Rochelle. The expedition failed through the\\nincapacity of the general (1627).\\nThis check encouraged the Commons, who forced the king\\nto give his sanction to the Petition of Right and addressed\\nto him two remonstrances, one against the illegal collection\\nof the customs duties, the other against his favorite, who\\nwas described as the author of the public wretchedness.\\nThe king again prorogued Parliament, and John Felton, a\\nfanatic, assassinated Buckingham (1628). Charles then\\ncalled to the ministry Archbishop Laud and the Earl of\\nStrafford, and decided to govern without a Parliament, that\\nis to say, contrary to the spirit of the British constitution.\\nBut without Parliament there were no subsidies, and con-\\nsequently no means of taking part in the great events which\\nwere agitating Europe. This inaction discredited the Eng-\\nlish government in the eyes of its own subjects. The enor-\\nmous fines imposed upon opponents and the cruelty of Laud\\ntoward the dissenters, as in torturing Leighton and Prynne,\\nintensified the general discontent. The prevailing senti-\\nment was manifest in the intense sympathy shown John\\nHampden when he opposed the tax of ship-money by legal\\nresistance (1636). Scotland had been attacked in its Pres-\\nbyterian polity by Laud. It protested by an insurrection\\nat Edinburgh (1637), and formed the political and religious\\nleague of the Covenant (1638), against which the English\\narmy led by Strafford refused to fight (1640).\\nAfter eleven years without the Chambers, the king con-\\nfessed himself vanquished and convoked a fourth Parlia-\\nment. It refused the least subsidy until justice should be\\ndone to the complaints of the nation, and was speedily\\nprorogued. Compelled by necessity the king assembled a\\nfifth Parliament (1640), which is famous in history as\\nthe Long Parliament. Exceeding its original purpose, it\\ntook charge of the taxes and of the judicial authority,\\nabolished extraordinary tribunals, proclaimed its own peri-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "80 HISTORY OT MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1641-1644.\\nodical character, and impeaclied of high crimes the Earl\\nof Strafford, whose head fell upon the block (1641).\\nMeanwhile a formidable insurrection broke out among the\\nIrish, who slew 40,000 Protestants. When the king asked\\nfor means to reduce the rebels. Parliament replied by bitter\\nremonstrances, and voted the militia bill, which put the\\narmy under its own control. Charles endeavored to arrest\\nthe leaders of the opposition in the very midst of the assem-\\nbly. Failing in his purpose he quitted London to begin the\\ncivil war (1642).\\nThe Civil War (1642-1647). Parliament held the capi-\\ntal, the great cities, the seaports and the fleet. The king\\nwas followed by most of the nobility, who were better\\ntrained to arms than the burgher militia. In the northern\\nand western counties the B-oyalists or Cavaliers were in the\\nmajority. The Parliamentarians or Roundheads predomi-\\nnated in the east the centre and the southeast, which were\\nthe richest sections, were close together, and formed a sort\\nof belt round London. At first the king had the advantage.\\nFrom Nottingham, where he had raised his standard, he\\nmarched upon London. The Parliamentarians, defeated at\\nEdge Hill and Worcester (1642), redoubled their energy.\\nHampden raised a regiment of infantry among his tenants,\\nfriends and neighbors. Oliver Cromwell, then beginning to\\nemerge from obscurity, formed in the eastern counties from\\nthe sons of farmers and small landed proprietors select\\nsquadrons, who opposed religious enthusiasm, to the senti-\\nments of honor which animated the Cavaliers. The Par-\\nliamentarians, victorious at Newbury, allied themselves\\nwith the Scotch by a solemn covenant.\\nParliament was composed of various parties. The chief\\nwere Presbyterians, who though abolishing grades in the\\nChurch wished to preserve them in the state, and the Inde-\\npendents, who rejected both the peerage and the episcopacy,\\nboth the temporal and religious sovereignty of the king.\\nAround the latter were the numerous sects derived from\\nPuritanism, such as Levellers, Anabaptists and Millenarians.\\nTheir leaders were clever men. Ablest of all was Oliver\\nCromwell, an ambitious and sphinx-like genius, a politician\\nand an enthusiast. With his squadrons surnamed Ironsides,\\nhe won the battle of Marston Moor in 1644 and then that\\nof Newbury, which saved the revolution. These successes\\nhelped the Independents, although a minority in Parlia-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1645-1653.] ENGLAND FROM 1603-1674 81\\nment, to pass the self-denying ordinance wliicli excluded\\nthe deputies from public affairs. This was equivalent to\\nhanding over the army to the Independents. Cromwell then\\nprosecuted the war with vigor. The king s last army was\\ncrushed at Naseby (1645), while his lieutenant Montrose\\nwas beaten by the Scotch Covenanters. The disheartened\\nking withdrew through weariness to the camp of the Scotch,\\nwho sold him to Parliament for 400,000 pounds sterling\\n(1647).\\nExecution of Charles I (1649). The Presbyterians would\\ngladly have treated with their captive. Supported by the\\narmy, Cromwell purged Parliament of the Presbyterian\\ndeputies, and the Independents cited the king before a court\\nof justice, which sent him to the scaffold (January 30, 1649).\\nHis bloody death caused his acts of violence and perfidy to\\nbe forgotten. It revived the monarchical creed of England\\nand royalty again became popular on the day when the head\\nof the king rolled from under the axe of the executioner.\\nThe Commonwealth of England (1649-1660). Cromwell.\\nThe Eepublic was proclaimed. Catholic Ireland and Scot-\\nland, who remembered that the Stuarts were of Scottish\\nrace, protested against the revolution which had been ac-\\ncomplished. Cromwell subdued the former by an atrocious\\nwar. By the victories of Dunbar and Worcester, he forced\\nthe latter to recognize the authority of the Parliament of\\nLondon (1651). The new government announced its foreign\\npolicy by the daring but sagacious Navigation Act. Thereby\\nit prohibited the entrance into English ports of all vessels\\nladen with merchandise, not produced on the soil or by the\\npeople whose flag the vessel bore. This act remained in\\nforce until January 1, 1850. In consequence England was\\nforced to develop her manufactures and her marine. To\\nthe Dutch, the teamsters of the sea, this measure meant\\nruin, and they declared war but were defeated.\\nThe country was tired of the Long Parliament, now called\\nthe E-ump. One day Cromwell went to the hall of session,\\nannounced to the deputies that God was no longer with them,\\nand had them driven out by his soldiers, who fastened to\\nthe door this notice, House to let (1653). But some time\\nlater he formed another Parliament, which he declared con-\\nvoked in the name of the Holy Spirit and which he soon\\ndissolved. Then he had himself proclaimed Lord Protector.\\nHe was king without the name. He employed his power", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "82 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1654-1660.\\nfor the welfare and greatness of his country. At home he\\nensured order and developed commerce and industry.\\nAbroad he beheld his alliance entreated by Spain and sought\\nby France. Blake, his admiral, thrice defeated the Dutch\\nand forced them to abandon hope of provisioning the Eng-\\nlish market. The Spaniards lost their galleons as well\\nas Jamaica and Dunkirk. The Barbary States were chas-\\ntised the Pope was threatened with hearing the English\\ncannon thunder at the Castle of San Angelo if his perse-\\ncution of the Beformed Party did not cease. Thus Crom-\\nwell resumed the r\u00c3\u00b4le which the Stuarts had abandoned\\nand which Louis XIV was about to abandon, of defender\\nof Protestant interests. Unfortunately for England he re-\\ntained power only five years (1658). His son Bichard suc-\\nceeded, but could not replace him and abdicated after a few\\nmonths. England relapsed into anarchy. The clever Gen-\\neral Monk paved the way for the return of monarchy. He\\ndissolved the Bump Parliament, which had again assembled,\\nformed a Parliament devoted to himself, and the combined\\nTories and Whigs recalled the Stuarts without conditions\\n(1660).\\nIt was an error to declare that twenty years of revolution\\nhad passed over England in vain, and to believe that the\\nancient order of things could be reestablished unchanged.\\nThat mistake was soon to render necessary a second revo-\\nlution. Moreover the despotism of the Tudors was not\\naccording to the ancient order of things, for the oldest thing\\nin England was public liberty, which had been temporarily\\neclipsed by the fatigue of thirty years warfare during the\\nstruggle of the Boses. Then had come the Beformation\\nwhich had engrossed all minds, and the war with Philip\\nII, when the very existence of England had been at stake.\\nConfronted by such perils, the country had allowed the\\nauthority of its kings to increase. But now that Spain was\\ndying and Prance no longer threatening and the religious\\nquestions definitely settled, England wished to reenter her\\nancient path.\\nCharles II (1660-1685). Charles II seemed at first to\\nunderstand the state of the popular mind. He remained\\nfaithful to Anglican Protestantism and permitted the Par-\\nliament to enjoy its ancient prerogatives. But frivolous\\nand debauched, he soon found himself forced through need\\nof money to make himself dependent upon the Commons", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1660-1674.] ENGLAND FROM 1603-1674 83\\nfor the sake of receiving subsidies, or upon some foreign\\npower for the purpose of obtaining therefrom a pension.\\nHis choice was quickly made. The spectacle of France and\\nof her king revived in him the despotic instincts of his\\nfathers. The dread of Parliament, of its remonstrances\\nand its complaints, threw him into the arms of Louis XIV.\\nHe sold to him Mardick and Dunkirk, two of Cromwell s\\nconquests (1662). After the triple alliance of The Hague\\n(1666), which his people imposed upon him that they might\\narrest France in the JSTetherlands, he sold himself. Louis\\npaid him a pension of 2,000,000 francs until his death.\\nBut the fear of anarchy, which in 1660 had prostrated\\nEngland at the feet of Charles II, had vanished. Little by\\nlittle, there had been formed in the heart of the nation and\\nin Parliament an opposition, which in 1674 was strong\\nenough to extort the Test Bill. This bill was the prelude\\nto the second and imminent revolution. Let us pause for a\\ntime at this point in the history of Charles II. Under him\\nduring the first part of the reign of Louis XIV, England\\ncounted no more in continental affairs than did Spain or the\\nempire. Later on we shall trace the events which will hurl\\nthe Stuarts from the throne and give to Great Britain the\\nleadership in the opposition to France.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "84 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [ajj. 1661-1683.\\nXYIII\\nLOUIS XIV FROM 1061 TO 1685\\nColbert. After tlie death of Mazarin Louis XIV an-\\nnounced his intention of governing without any prime min-\\nister. This sovereign, then aged twenty-four, throughout his\\nafter life kept the pledge which he had taken to exercise\\nmanfully his royal trade. His was not a great intellect,\\nand yet despite his faults he was a great king. At least\\nduring the first half of his reign, he practised the chief art\\nof sovereigns, which is to understand how to choose good\\ndepositaries of their power.\\nColbert, intrusted from 1661 to 1683 with the finances,\\nagriculture, commerce, manufactures and the navy, caused\\nall these branches of the national activity to prosper. The\\nperiod of his ministry is the most glorious in the reign of\\nLouis XIV, for he moderated the king s ambition and de-\\nveloped the national forces. He found a debt of 430,000,000\\nfrancs, the revenues expended two years in advance, and the\\ntreasury receiving only 35,000,000 out of the 84,000,000 of\\nannual taxes. He severely investigated cases of fraud, re-\\nduced such taxes as were imposed only on the humbler\\nclasses, but increased the indirect imposts which every one\\npaid. Every year he drew up a sort of national budget, and\\nraised the net revenue of the treasury to 89,000,000. He\\nencouraged industry by subsidies, and protected it by tar-\\niffs which imposed heavy duties upon similar products from\\nabroad.\\nIn order to facilitate business and transportation internal\\ncustoms-duties were abolished in many provinces, highways\\nwere repaired or created, and the canal of Languedoc was\\nconstructed between the ocean and the Mediterranean. He\\norganized the five great commercial companies of the East\\nIndies, the West Indies, the Levant, Senegal and the North,\\nwhich competed with the merchants of London and Amster-\\ndam and he encouraged the merchant marine by bounties.\\nThe military marine developed such vigorous life that in", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1667-1672.] LOUIS XIV FROM 1661-1685 85\\n1692 it became possible to equip more tban 300 vessels of\\nall sizes. Thanks to tbe Maritime Inscription, wMcb. fur-\\nnished 70,000 mariners, the recruiting of the crews was\\nensured. The port of Rochefort was created, that of Dun-\\nkirk was bought back from the English, Brest and Toulon\\nwere enlarged, and a magnificent colonial empire, founded\\nin the Antilles and in North America, would have delivered\\nthat continent to French influence had men understood how\\nto carry out the plans of the great minister.\\nLouvois. At the same time Louvois was organizing the\\narmy, which he compelled to wear a uniform. He created\\nthe companies of grenadiers and hussar corps, and intro-\\nduced the bayonet. He founded the artillery schools of\\nDouai, Metz and Strasburg, organized thirty regiments of\\nmilitia which the communes equipped, and companies\\nof cadets, in which originated the school of Saint Cyr and\\nthe Polytechnique. Furthermore he subjected even officers\\nof noble birth to strict discipline. A great engineer and\\npatriotic citizen, Vauban, fortified the frontiers.\\nWar with Flanders (1667). \u00e2\u0080\u0094Louis XIY, dazzled by the\\nforces which two clever ministers placed at his disposal,\\nconducted himself arrogantly toward all the foreign powers.\\nHe exacted from the Pope and from the king of Spain\\nample satisfaction for insults to the French ambassadors,\\nchastised the corsairs of Tunis and Algiers, and, abandon-\\ning the policy of Francis I, sent 6000 men to aid the\\nemperor against the Ottomans, and thus made himself\\nostensibly the protector of the empire. At the death of\\nPhilip IV, availing himself of the right of devolution in\\nforce in Brabant, he claimed to inherit the Spanish Nether-\\nlands through his wife, Maria Theresa, the eldest sister of\\nthe new king of Spain, Charles II. Holland and England\\nwere at first neutral. Spain thus left alone could not de-\\nfend herself. The French armies in three months time\\ncaptured the strongholds of western Flanders, and in\\nseventeen days in the depth of winter overran all Franche-\\nComt\u00c3\u00a9 (1668). Then the maritime powers took the alarm.\\nHolland, England and Sweden concluded the triple alli-\\nance of The Hague. As the king lacked audacity on the\\none day when it was most essential, he signed the peace\\nof Aix-la-Chapelle, which left him only a dozen such towns\\nas Charleroy, Douai, Tournay, Oudenarde and Lille (1668).\\nThe War with Holland (1672). Four years of peace", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "86 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1672-1678.\\nwere employed in preparing a terrible storm against a lit-\\ntle country, Holland. Colbert, wbo wished to develop tbe\\nmaritime commerce of France, grew anxious at tlie 15,000\\nmerchant vessels of the Dutch. Moreover, when he im-\\nposed exorbitant duties on their cloths, they retaliated by\\nonerous duties on French wines and brandies. Therefore\\nColbert did not oppose a war which seemed likely to rid\\nFrench commerce of a formidable rival. Louvois desired\\nwar to render himself necessary, Louis XIY declared it\\nthat he might humble those republicans who had just placed\\na check on his good fortune. Thereby he abandoned the\\npolicy of Henry IV and of Richelieu, which was the pro-\\ntection of small states and of Protestantism and opposition\\nto useless conquests. Louis XIV, however, was far more\\nthe successor of Philip II than the heir of Henry IV and\\nof the great cardinal.\\nHaving subsidized Sweden and England, he suddenly\\ndeluged (1672) Holland with 100,000 men commanded by\\nTurenne and Conde. The Ehine was passed. All the\\nstrongholds opened their gates and the French encamped at\\nfour leagues distance from Amsterdam. But the delays of\\nLouis XIV saved the Dutch. They deposed and murdered\\ntheir Grand Pensioner, Jan de Witt, put in his place as\\nstadtholder William of Orange, who opened the locks,\\nflooded the country and forced the invaders to retreat\\nbefore the inundation. At the same time he formed a for-\\nmidable coalition against Louis. Spain, the emperor, many\\nGerman princes, and even England, though her king was\\npensioned by Louis, joined Holland.\\nFrance made headway everywhere. The king in person\\nsubjugated Franche-Comt\u00c3\u00a9 (1674). Turenne by an admirable\\ncampaign drove the imperialists out of Alsace; but was\\nkilled himself the following year. Conde after the bloody\\nbattle of Senef no longer commanded an army, and Luxem-\\nbourg and Crequi were poor substitutes for the two great\\ngenerals. Meanwhile the invasion of France, on the north\\nby the Spaniards, and on the east by the imperialists, was\\nrepulsed. Duquesne and d Estrees defeated the fleets of\\nHolland and ravaged her colonies. His abandonment by\\nEngland decided Louis to accept the treaty of Nimeguen\\nwhich awarded him Franche-Comt\u00c3\u00a9 with fourteen Flemish\\nstrongholds, and forced Denmark and Brandenburg to restore\\nall the conquests which they had made from Sweden. Thus", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1685.] LOUIS XIV FROM 1661-1685 87\\nFrance, emerged greater than before from a struggle with, all\\nEurope. The French northern and eastern frontiers became\\nfarther from Paris. But this proudest period of the reign\\nwas also the point of departure for the calamities which\\nwere soon to follow. The war with Holland had directed\\nagainst France the coalitions which France had formerly-\\norganized against Austria, and had founded the good fortune\\nof William of Orange, who a few years afterwards became\\nking of England.\\nRevocation of the Edict of Hantes (1685). Thus that war\\nwas a first mistake. Other similar mistakes were sure to\\nfollow, for after the death of Colbert in 1683 the hard and\\nnarrow influence of Louvois and of Madame de Maintenon\\nwas no longer counteracted. If it hath not pleased God,\\nsaid Henry IV, in the preamble to the edict of Nantes, to\\npermit His Holy Name to be adored by all our subjects in\\none and the same form of religion, let it at least be adored\\nwith the same intent and pray ye unto the Divine\\nGoodness that He may make men understand that in the\\nobservance of this ordinance exists the principal foundation\\nof their union, tranquillity and repose, and of the re-\\nestablishment of this State in its pristine splendor. These\\nglowing words had worthily inaugurated the new era which\\nE-ichelieu and Mazarin continued abroad by their Protes-\\ntant alliances, and at home by their respect for religious\\nliberty.\\nBut Louis XIV, intoxicated with his omnipotence and\\nled astray by the fatal counsels of a party, which during\\nthree centuries had ruined every cause which it defended,\\nundertook to repudiate the toleration of Henry IV as he\\nhad repudiated his diplomacy. As he allowed in his king-\\ndom but one will, his own, and but one law, that of the\\nabsolute prince, so he wished that there should be but one\\nreligion, Catholicism. To convert the Protestants he first\\nsent into the cantons where they were numerous booted\\nmissionaries or the dragonades. In 1685 he officially\\nrevoked the edict of Nantes. The Eeformers were bound to\\nundergo conversion or to leave the kingdom. Their children\\nwere taken from them by force to be reared in the Catholic\\nChurch. They had furnished to French industries its most\\nskilful workmen. Two or three hundred thousand quitted\\nthe kingdom, among whom were 9000 sailors, 12,000 soldiers,\\nand 600 officers. One suburb of London was peopled by", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1685.\\nthese refugees. Berlin and Brandenburg welcomed great\\nnumbers. Foreigners became possessed of the secrets of the\\nFrench manufactures. Among the learned men who during\\nthe last century and a half have been the honor of Holland\\nGermany, England and even of Italy, there are many\\ndescendants of the exiles of Louis XIV.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "CopJT\u00c3\u008eglit\\nL.y T. Y. Cl", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "Engraved by Cuko.., OI,uia\u00e2\u0080\u009e i Cu.. .Vj,", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1673-1679.] THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION 89\\nXIX\\nTHE ENGLISH REVOLUTION\\n(1688)\\nAwakenings of Liberal Ideas in England (1673-1679).\\nThe reply of the Protestant powers to the revocation of the\\nedict of Nantes was the English revolution, which hurled\\nfrom the throne the Catholic James II and placed thereon\\nthe Calvinist William III.\\nCharles II had hired himself out to Louis XIV, but\\nEngland had not ratified the bargain. In 1668 she forced\\nher king to join the Swedes and Dutch in rescuing the\\nSpanish Netherlands. Again in 1674 she compelled him to\\nrenounce the French alliance, and then by opposing France\\nto bring about the peace of Nimeguen. The king, defeated\\non a political question, was defeated again on a question of\\nreligion. He was suspected of favoring Catholicism.\\nTherefore Parliament voted the Test Bill, which obliged\\nofficials to declare under oath that they did not believe in\\ntr an substantiation. Thus public employment was closed\\nto Catholics and their exclusion lasted until 1829. The\\nPopish plot, imagined by the wretched Titus Gates,\\nand the memory of the fire of London in 1666 which had\\nbeen attributed to the Catholics, provoked extremely rigor-\\nous measures. Eight Jesuits were hanged. Viscount Staf-\\nford was beheaded in spite of his seventy years, and the\\nDuke of York, the king s brother, who had abjured Protes-\\ntantism, was threatened with deprivation of his rights to\\nthe crown. In order to restrain the royal despotism the\\nWhigs or liberals who controlled Parliament passed the\\nfamous bill of habeas corpus in 1679, which confirmed\\nthe law of personal security written in Magna Charta, and\\nso often violated. Every prisoner must be examined by the\\njudge within twenty-four hours after his arrest, and released\\nor set at liberty under bail if the proofs were insufficient.\\nCatholic and Absolutist Reaction. James II (1685).", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "90 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1680-1689.\\nThus Parliament at the same time repressed the dissenters\\nand the court. The English were peacefully effecting their\\ninternal revolution when the violent put everything in peril.\\nThe Puritans rose in Scotland. They were crushed and a\\nnew Test Bill imposed upon the Scotch passive obedience to\\nthe king. At London a conspiracy to prevent the Duke\\nof York from succeeding his brother led to the execution\\nof many Whig chiefs and to the exile of others. Thus the\\nliberal party was defeated. So James II quietly took pos-\\nsession of the throne in 1685, the year when the edict of\\nNantes was revoked. His nephew Monmouth and the\\nDuke of Argyle tried hard to overthrow him, but both per-\\nished after the defeat of Sedgemoor, and the odious Jef-\\nfries sent many of their partisans to the block. If the\\nAnglican clergy and those among the aristocracy who were\\ncalled Tories or conservatives were disposed to pardon the\\nStuarts for their despotism, they had no intention of allow-\\ning royalty by right divine, a deo rex, a rege lex, to bring\\nback Catholicism which surely would demand restitution of\\nthe immense church property which they had seized. When\\nJames sent to the Vatican a solemn embassy to reconcile\\nEngland with the Roman Church, the archbishop of Can-\\nterbury protested. He was thrown into the tower with six\\nof his suffragans.\\nFall of James II (1688). Declaration of Rights. Wil-\\nliam III (1689). These acts of violence together with the\\nbirth in 1688 of a Prince of Wales whose mother was an\\nItalian Catholic, and whose rights of inheritance would\\nprecede those of the Calvinist William of Orange, the son-\\nin-law of James II, made the stadtholder of Holland ac-\\ncede to the propositions of the Whigs. James deserted by\\nall fled to France, and Parliament proclaimed William III\\nking. It first made him sign the Declaration of Rights,\\nwhich substituted royalty by consent for royalty by divine\\nright, and which contained nearly all the guarantees of a\\nfree government the periodical convocation of Parliament,\\nthe voting of taxes, laws made by the joint consent of the\\nChambers and the king, and the right of petition. A few\\nmonths later Locke, one of those whom James II had per-\\nsecuted, set forth the theory of the revolution of 1688, by\\nrecognizing national sovereignty and liberty as the sole\\nlegitimate a.nd durable principles of a government.\\nA New Political Eight. Thus a new right, that of the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1689.] THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION 91\\npeople, arose in modern society in opposition to tlie abso-\\nlute riglit of kings, and humanity entered upon a new stage\\nof its journey. Feudalism had been an advance over Car-\\nlovingian barbarism. Royalty bad been likewise an ad-\\nvance over mediaeval feudalism. After having constituted\\nthe modern nations, developed commerce and industry,\\nfavored the blossoming of the arts and letters, royalty\\nundertook to render its absolute right eternal, and demanded\\nof the Catholic Church to aid it in maintaining itself\\ntherein. England had the good fortune, thanks to her\\ninsular position and to her traditions, to grasp the principle\\nwhich was destined to be that of the future. To her wis-\\ndom she already owes two centuries of tranquillity amid\\nthe ruins which have been crumbling around her.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "92 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1681-1692.\\nXX\\nCOALITIONS AGAINST FRANOB\\n(1688-1714)\\nFormation of the League of Augsburg (1686). In tte\\nsixteenth century and in the first half of the seventeenth,\\nFrance took in hand the defence of Protestantism and of\\nthe general liberties of Europe against the Hapsburgsof\\nMadrid and of Vienna and against the ultramontanism\\nof the Vatican. But with Louis XIV she threatened the\\nconscience of the adherents of the E-eformation and the\\nindependence of states. England took up the r\u00c3\u00b4le which\\nErance was abandoning and grew mighty in it, as had done\\nHenry IV and E,ichelieu.\\nWhile the Protestants who had been expelled from Erance\\ncarried in all directions their resentment against Louis, he\\nwantonly braved Europe by aggressions made in time of\\npeace. By duplicity he gained possession of twenty cities,\\namong which was Strasburg (1681). He treated the Pope\\nwith arrogance and compelled the Doge of Genoa to come\\nand humble himself at Versailles. He bought Casal in Italy\\nso as to dominate the valley of the Po, claimed a part of the\\nPalatinate as the dowry of his sister-in-law, opposed the\\ninstallation of the archbishop of Cologne, and occupied\\nBonn, Neuss and Kaiserwerth. The Powers, rendered\\nuneasy by such ambition, formed as early as 1686 the\\nLeague of Augsburg which England joined in 1689.\\nWar of the League of Augsburg (1689-1697). Louis\\ndirected his first blows against William. He gave James\\nII a magnificent reception, and furnished him with a fleet\\nand army, which landed in Ireland but lost the battle of\\nthe Boyne. Tourville, forced by the king s orders to attack\\nninety-nine vessels with forty-four, suffered the disaster of\\nLa Hogue (1692). Thenceforth the sea belonged to the\\nEnglish and French commerce was at their mercy despite\\nthe exploits of bold captains like Jean Bart. On land the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1693-1701.] COALITIONS AGAINST FRANCE 93\\nFrench, maintained the advantage. Luxemburg beat the\\nallies at Eleurus, and Neerwinden. Catinat occupied Pied-\\nmont and assured its possession by the victories of Staffarde\\nand La Marsaille. But France was exhausting herself in\\nan unequal struggle. Half of the kingdom, wrote\\nVaubauj lives on the alms of the other half. Moreover\\nCharles II of Spain was dying. The Spanish succession\\nwas at last about to be thrown open, and Europe needed\\nrepose in order to prepare herself for this event. Hoping\\nto obtain peace, Louis instigated dissensions among his\\nenemies. The desertion of the Duke of Savoy, to whom\\nhis states and even Pignerol were restored, induced the\\nallies to sign the treaty of Ryswick (1697). Louis XIV\\nrecognized William III as king of England, restored to the\\nempire with the exception of Alsace whatever had been\\nawarded him, put the Duke of Lorraine again in possession\\nof his duchy, but kept the west of San Domingo, Landau\\nand Sarrelouis.\\nWar of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). At Madrid\\nthe elder branch of the house of Austria was about to\\nbecome extinct. France, Austria and Bavaria each dis-\\nputed the inheritance of Charles 11. Louis XIV asserted\\nthe rights of his wife, Maria Theresa, the eldest child of\\nPhilip IV. Leopold I had married her younger sister,\\nMargarita. The Elector of Bavaria laid claim in the name\\nof his minor son, the grandson of this same Margarita. The\\nfirst plan for the partition of the Spanish monarchy, favor-\\nably entertained by William, was rejected by Charles II\\nwho preferred the boy Duke of Bavaria. That youth died.\\nFrance and Austria being thus left as the only claimants,\\nCharles by a will bequeathed his estates to the Duke of\\nAnjou, grandson of Louis XIV, in the hope of preserving\\nthe integrity of his monarchy.\\nEurope was alarmed at this added greatness of the French\\nBourbons. Louis XIV alarmed it still more by preserving\\nfor the new king, Philip V, his rights of eventual succes-\\nsion to the crown of Saint Louis. Such, succession would\\nhave reestablished to the advantage of France the enormous\\npower of Charles V. Louis posted French garrisons in the\\nSpanish Netherlands to the great consternation of Holland.\\nThen on the death of James II he recognized his son as\\nking of England, thereby openly violating the treaty of\\nRyswick (1701). A new league was soon concluded at The", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "94 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1701-1713.\\nHague between England and the United Provinces. Prus-\\nsia, tlie empire, Portugal and even the Duke of Savoy, the\\nfather-in-law of Philip V, successively joined it (1701-\\n1703). Three superior men, Heinsius, Grand Pensioner of\\nHolland, Marlborough, leader of the Whig party in England,\\na clever diplomat and great general, and Prince Eugene, a\\nFrenchman who had emigrated to Austria, guided the coali-\\ntion. France had Chamillart to replace Colbert and Louvois.\\nFortunately her generals, except the incapable Villeroi, were\\nbetter than her ministers.\\nAustria began hostilities by reverses. Eugene was de-\\nfeated at Luzzara by the Duke of Vend\u00c3\u00b4me (1702), as was\\nanother imperial army at Friedlingen and at Hochstedt by\\nYillars. But Marlborough landed in the Netherlands, and\\nthe Archduke Charles in Portugal. The Duke of Savoy\\ndeserted France and the Camisards rose in the Cevennes.\\nThe loss of the second terrible battle of Hochstedt or Blen-\\nheim drove the French out of Germany (1704). The battle\\nof Eamillies gave the Netherlands to the allies that of\\nTurin gave them Milan and the kingdom of Naples (1706).\\nToulon was menaced (1707). To arrest the enemy in the\\nNetherlands Louis XIY collected another magnificent army.\\nIt was put to rout at Oudenarde. Lille surrendered after\\ntwo months of siege (1708). The winter of 1709 added its\\nrigors to the French disasters and Louis sued for peace.\\nThe allies required that he should himself expel his grand-\\nson from Spain. He preferred to continue the fight. Villars\\nhad still 100,000 men. They were defeated at Malplaquet.\\nIn the meantime Vend\u00c3\u00b4me secured the throne of Spain\\nto Philip V by the victory of Villaviciosa (1710), and the\\nArchduke Charles, the candidate of the allies, became em-\\nperor of Germany by the death of his brother (1711). The\\nEuropean balance of power would have been disturbed in\\na much more threatening manner by his uniting to the\\nimperial crown the crowns of Naples and Spain, than by\\nPhilip V at Madrid. Thus England had no more interest\\nin this war. The Whigs who wished to continue it fell\\nfrom power, and the Tory ministry that replaced them\\nentered upon negotiations with France. Several months\\nlater the imperial army was beaten at Denain b}^ Villars.\\nThis glorious victory hastened the conclusion of peace,\\nwhich was signed at Utrecht, by England, Portugal, Savoy,\\nPrussia and Holland (1713).", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1713-1715.] COALITIOFS AGAINST FRANCE 95\\nTreaties of Utrecht and Rastadt (1713-1714). Louis\\naccepted the succession as established in England by the\\nrevolution of 1688, ceded to the English the island of New-\\nfoundland, pledged himself to demolish the fortifications\\nof Dunkirk and agreed that the crowns of France and\\nSpain should never be united on one and the same head.\\nHolland obtained the right of placing garrisons in most of\\nthe strongholds of the Spanish Netherlands so as to pre-\\nvent their falling into the hands of France. The Duke of\\nSavoy received Sicily with the title of king. The Elector\\nof Brandenburg was recognized as king of Prussia, having\\njust purchased that title from the emperor. The latter,\\nleft alone, continued the war, but the capture of Landau\\nand Freiburg induced him to sign the treaty of Eastadt\\n(1714) by which he acquired some of the foreign posses-\\nsions of Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Sardinia,\\nMilan and the fortresses of Tuscany.\\nFrance made many sacrifices but Spain, no longer dis-\\ntracted by her Netherlands, became her natural ally instead\\nof being as for two centuries her constant enemy. This\\nchange meant security on the southern French frontier and\\nhence greater strength in the northeast. Louis XIV died\\nshortly afterwards (1715). He had reigned seventy-two years.\\nLouis XIV the Personification of Monarchy by Bivine\\nRight. He left the kingdom without commerce, without\\nmanufactures, drained of men and money, with a public debt\\nwhich would amount at the present day to $1,600,000,000.\\nThus the setting of that long reign did not fulfil the\\npromise of its dawn. The acquisition of two provinces,\\nFlanders and Franche-Comt\u00c3\u00a9, and of several cities, Stras-\\nburg, Landau and Dunkirk, was a small compensation\\nfor the frightful misery which France endured and which\\nshe might have been spared, had Louis remained faithful\\nto the policy of Henry IV and of Richelieu. More-\\nover she had declined in just the same degree as others\\nhad risen. Spai\u00c3\u00b9 had not recovered her strength. Austria\\nstill remained feeble. But two youthful royal houses, Sar-\\ndinia and Prussia, formed in Italy and Germany the corner-\\nstones of mighty edifices whose proportions could not as\\nyet be described, and England already grasped the r\u00c3\u00b4le,\\nwhich she was to retain for a century and a half, of the\\npreponderant power in Europe by virtue of her commerce,\\nher navy, her colonies and her gold.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "96 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1715.\\nBy tlie matcMess brilliancy of his court, Ms magnificent\\nfestivals, his sumptuous buildings, his taste for arts and\\nletters by his lofty bearing, the dignity which he showed\\nin everything, the serene confidence which he cherished in\\nhis rights and his superior intelligence, Louis was the most\\nmajestic incarnation of royalty. To him is attributed the\\nsaying I am the state. In consequence of the ener-\\ngetic centralization which placed all France at Versailles, and\\nVersailles in the study of the prince, the saying was true.\\nHe firmly believed, and others believed with him, that the\\nproperty as well as the lives of his subjects belonged to\\nhim that he was their intelligence, their will, their spring\\nof action; that is to say, that 20,000,000 of men lived in\\nhim and for him. But his errors, his vices, were sacred\\nalso, like those of the gods of Olympus whose images\\nfilled his palaces. At need the judiciary served his pas-\\nsions, the army his caprices, the public treasury his pleas-\\nures, and debauchery became a royal institution which\\nconferred on the mistresses of the king rank at court.\\nSuch a government might suit the Orient which knows\\nonly force and submits to it with resignation. It could not\\nlast in our Western world where humanity has come to con-\\nsciousness of itself and of its lofty rights. By developing\\nmanufactures and commerce and consequently the fortunes\\nof his people, and by favoring arts and letters or in other\\nwords the development of the mind, Louis himself paved\\nthe way for the formation of two new powers which were\\ndestined, first to undermine, then to overthrow his system.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1650.] ABTiS, LETTERS AND SCIENCES 97\\nXXI\\nARTS, LETTERS AND SCIENCES IN THE SEVENTEENTH\\nCENTURY\\nLetters and Arts in France. Tlie sixteenth century\\neffected religious reform. The eighteenth was to effect\\npolitical reform. Placed between these two revolutionary\\nages, the seventeenth was and has stood forth, especially\\nin Prance, as the great literary epoch. The generations\\nwhich live in stormy times rise higher and descend lower,\\nbut never reach that calm beauty which is the reflection\\nof a peaceful yet fertile age, where art is its own end and\\nits own recompense. Long before Louis XIV took the\\ngovernment in hand and reigned by himself (1661), France\\nhad already reaped half of the literary glory which the\\nseventeenth century had in store. Many of her great\\nwriters had produced their masterpieces and nearly all\\nwere in full possession of their talent. The Cid was acted\\nin 1636, and the Discourse on MetJiod appeared in 1637.\\nThus the magnificent harvest, then garnered by French\\nintellect, germinated and fructified of itself. When under\\nHenry IV and Richelieu, calm succeeded to the sterile\\nagitation of religious struggles, intellectual questions took\\nthe precedence over those of war and when several great\\nmen appeared, all the higher society followed them. People\\ndiscussed a beautiful verse as formerly they had discussed\\na handsome gun. They would, even have lost themselves in\\nthe mental refinements and elaborate subtleties of the H\u00c3\u00b4tel\\nde Rambouillet, had it not been for the manly accents of\\nCorneille and of his heroes, the supreme good sense of\\nMoli\u00c3\u00a8re, Boileau and La Fontaine, the biblical eloquence\\nof Bossuet, the energy of Pascal and the penetrating grace\\nof Racine. On that roll of honor let us also place the\\nnames of Madame de Se vigne for her Letters, of La Roche-\\nfoucauld for his Ma?:i7ns, of La Bruy\u00c3\u00a8re for his Characters,\\nof Fenelon for his T\u00c3\u00a9l\u00c3\u00a9maque, of Saint Simon for his\\nformidable Memoirs and of Bourdaloue for his Sermons.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "98 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1650.\\nSucli learned men as Casaubon, Scaliger, Saumaise. du\\nCange, Baluze and the Benedictines illumined tlie con-\\nfusion of our origin and gave us a better acquaintance with,\\nantiquity. Bay le continued the traditions of Rabelais and\\nof Montaigne. Descartes was the great revolutionist of the\\ntime, demanding that the mind should banish all preexist-\\ning ideas, so as to be free from all prejudice and all error\\nand thus admit only ^uch truths as evidence should invin-\\ncibly force upon the reason. Through prudence Descartes\\nveiled the eyes of his contemporaries to the consequences of\\nhis Method, yet that method became the essential condition\\nof philosophical progress. It is the law of science and it\\nwill become the law of the world.\\nAt that time France possessed four painters of high\\nrank Poussin, Lesueur, Claude Lorraine, and at some dis-\\ntance from them Lebrun one admirable sculptor, Puget\\nthe talented architects, Mansart and Perrault and a clever\\nmusician, Lulli.\\nLetters and Arts in Other Countries. In Italy there was\\nliterary as well as political decline. In Spain appeared\\nLope de Vega and Calderon. The Don Quixote of Cer-\\nvantes belongs in date and subject to another century\\nwhen men still thought of the Middle Ages, even though\\nonly with ridicule. Then England boasted her glorious\\nliterary age with Shakespeare, Milton, Dry den and Addison.\\nGermany was passing through her age of iron. The Ref-\\normation, which had fallen into the hands of princes as\\nItalian Catholicism had into the hands of the Jesuits,\\nseems to have arrested thought.\\nThe Dutch Grotius and the Swede Puffendorf settled the\\nrights of peace and war according to the principles of\\nhumanity and justice. The English Hobbes, a pensioner of\\nCharles II, maintained in his Leviathan that war was the\\nnatural state of humanity and that men needed a good\\ndespot to keep them from cutting each other s throats.\\nThis was the theory of absolute power according to phi-\\nlosophy, as Bossuet had expounded it according to religion.\\nThis doctrine was happily refuted by another philosopher,\\nLocke, in his essay on Civil Government. Therein the\\ncouncillor of William III demonstrated that civil society is\\nsubjected to the established power not otherwise than by the\\nconsent of the community. The community, said he,\\ncan set up whatever government it sees fit. That govern-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1650.] ARTS, LETTERS AND SCIENCES 99\\nment in order to conform to reason must fulfil two condi-\\ntions the first is, that the power of making the laws,\\nbinding upon the subjects as well as upon the monarch,\\nought to be separated from the power which executes them\\nthe second is that no one shall be required to pay taxes\\nwithout his consent, given personally or by his representa-\\ntives. Equality, he said, in another place, is the\\nequal right which each man has to liberty, so that no one\\nis subjected to the will or authority of another. This\\ntreatise appeared in 1690, just a century before the French\\nRevolution, of which Locke is one of the precursors. What\\nis the necessity of common consent, established as a prin-\\nciple of all political society, but the recognition of the\\nsovereignty of the nation The ideas of the English phi-\\nlosopher, like those of Descartes, were destined to make\\nprogress slowly throughout the eighteenth century.\\nTwo other philosophers deserve mention for their influ-\\nence in the realm of metaphysics. They are the pantheist\\nSpinoza, a Jew of Amsterdam, and Leibnitz, the universal\\ngenius.\\nIn the arts the first rank then belonged to the Dutch\\nand Flemish schools, represented by Eubens, Van Dyck,\\nEembrandt and the two Teniers. Spain possessed Velas-\\nquez, Murillo and Ribera, who left no heirs. Italy brought\\nforth Guido and Bernini, who mark the decline against\\nwhich nevertheless Salvator Eosa was a protest. England\\nand Germany had not a single artist.\\nScience in the Seventeenth Century. The universe is two-\\nfold. There is a moral and a physical world. Antiquity\\ntraversed the one in every direction. It extended and\\ndeveloped the faculties of which God has deposited the\\ngerms in our mortal clay. But of the physical world it\\nknew almost nothing. This ignorance was destined to last\\nso long as the true methods of investigation were unknown.\\nThey could be found only after men had become convinced\\nthat the universe is governed by the immutable laws of\\neternal wisdom and not by the arbitrary volitions of capri-\\ncious powers. Alchemy, magic, astrology, all those follies\\nof the Middle Ages, became sciences on the day when man,\\nno longer halting at isolated phenomena, strove to grasp\\nthe laws themselves which produced them. That day be-\\ngan in the sixteenth century with Copernicus, but it is only\\nin the seventeenth that the revolution was accomplished", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "100 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1600-1700.\\nand triumphant with. Bacon and Galileo. The former pro-\\nclaimed its necessity the latter by his discoveries demon-\\nstrated its benefits.\\nAt the head of the scientific movement of this century\\nwere Kepler of Wurtemberg, who proved the truth of\\nCopernicus system; Galileo of Pisa, who expiated in the\\ncells of the Inquisition his demonstration of the motion of\\nthe earth; the Englishman JSTewton, who discovered the\\nprincipal laws of optics and universal gravitation; Leibnitz,\\nwho disputes with him the honor of having created the\\ndifferential calculus; Pascal, the inventor of the calculus\\nof probabilities; Descartes, equally celebrated as a man of\\nlearning and a philosopher, for these mighty minds did not\\nconfine themselves to a single study.\\nIn their train a throng of men entered eagerly upon the\\npaths thus thrown open. Papin ascertains the power of\\nsteam as a motive force; E\u00c5\u0093mer, the velocity of light;\\nHarvey, the circulation of the blood; and Cassini and Picard\\nfix the meridian of Paris. To the thermometer constructed\\nby Galileo, Toricelli adds the barometer, Huygens the\\npendulum clock, and science finds itself armed with pre-\\ncious instruments for investigation.\\nThus in this century three countries were in full decline.\\nThey are Germany, which had Leibnitz but almost allowed\\nKepler to die of misery; Italy, which persecuted Galileo,\\nand Spain, where we find only painters and playwrights.\\nThe two peoples, France and England, to whom strength\\nand preponderance had passed, were on the contrary in the\\nfull tide of their literary age.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "AJ). 1476-1656.] CREATION OF RUSSIA 101\\nXXII\\nCREATION OP RUSSIA. DOWNFALL OF SWEDEN\\nThe Northern States at the Beginning of the Eighteenth\\nCentury. The East and Northern Europe were an unknown\\nregion to the Eomans and Greeks. In the Middle Ages,\\nthe activity of the nations was displayed in countries of the\\ncentre and west. The Slavs and Scandinavians remained\\ngenerally apart, uninfiuential and obscure. The Eussians\\nhad been subjugated by the Mongols. After long silence\\nthe Swedes had burst upon the empire under Gustavus\\nAdolphus like a thunderbolt. Thanks to their victories\\nover the Germans, Poles and Eussians, the Baltic at the\\nmiddle of the eighteenth century was a Swedish lake sur-\\nrounded by an extended line of fortified posts, but their\\ndomination was fragile. It was constructed in defiance of\\ngeography and was surrounded by enemies who had an\\ninterest in its ruin.\\nPoland still stretched from the Carpathians to the Baltic\\nand from the Oder to the sources of the Dnieper and Volga,\\nbut its anarchical constitution and its elective royalty ren-\\ndered it defenceless to the attacks of foreigners. An elector\\nof Saxony was then king of Poland.\\nThe Russians were cut off by the Swedes, the Poles and\\nthe duchy of Courlaiid from access to the southern Baltic.\\nLikewise they were separated on the south from the Black\\nSea by Tartar hordes and by the warrior republic of the\\nCossacks, unruly subjects of Poland. They were shut in\\nfrom every direction except toward the desert regions of\\nSiberia. When the powerful republic of Novgorod fell in\\n1476, their road was open to the Arctic Ocean and the east-\\nern Baltic. By the destruction of the Tartars of Astrakan,\\nthey had reached the Caspian Sea. At the treaty of Vilna\\n(1656) they forced from the Poles the cession of Smolensk,\\nTchernigoff and the Ukraine. This was their first step\\ntoward the West. They already possessed formidable ele-\\nments of power. Ivan III had abolished in his family the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "102 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1682-1706,\\nlaw of appanage, thereby establishing the unity of authority\\na.nd of the state. On the other hand he had retained it\\namong the nobility, which in consequence became divided\\nand enfeebled. In the sixteenth century Ivan IV spent\\nfifteen years in breaking the boyars to the yoke with that\\nimplacable cruelty which won for him the surname of the\\nTerrible, and a ukase in 1593 reduced all peasants to the\\nservitude of the soil by forbidding them to change master\\nand land.\\nPeter the Great (1682). He, who was destined to be the\\ncreator of E-ussia, in 1682, when ten years old, received the\\ntitle of Tsar. Guided by the Genevese Lefort, who extolled\\nto him the arts of the West, in 1697 he went to Saardam in\\nHolland to there learn the art of building vessels. After-\\nwards he studied England and her manufactures, and Ger-\\nmany and her military organization. At Vienna the news\\nreached him that the Strelitzi had revolted. He hurried to\\nMoscow, had 2000 hanged or broken on the wheel and 5000\\nbeheaded. Then he began his reforms. He organized regi-\\nments, in which he compelled the sons of the boyars to\\nserve as soldiers before becoming officers. He founded\\nschools in mathematics and astronomy, and a naval acad-\\nemy, and undertook to unite the Don and the Volga by a\\ncanal. A great war interrupted these achievements.\\nThe preponderance of Sweden weighed upon her neigh-\\nbors. At the death of the Swedish king, Charles XI, Rus-\\nsia, Denmark and Poland thought the time had come for\\ndespoiling his successor, Charles XII, a youth of eighteen,\\nand for wresting from the Swedes their provinces on the\\nBaltic (1700). If Charles XII was not Alexander, he\\nmight have been Alexander s foremost soldier. He fore-\\nstalled the attack by an impetuous invasion of Denmark.\\nThen he marched rapidly against 80,000 E.ussians, whom he\\ndefeated with 8,000 Swedes at the battle of Narva, expelled\\nthe Saxons from Livonia, pursued them into Saxony, de-\\nthroned Augustus II and forced him by the treaty of\\nAltranstadt to abdicate his Polish crown in favor of Stan-\\nislaus Lechzinski.\\nBut while he was wasting five years in these successful\\nbut fruitless wars (1701-1706), in his rear Peter the Great\\nwas creating an empire and forming an army modelled upon\\nwhat he had seen in the kingdoms of the West. Peter con-\\nquered Ingria and Carelia and founded Saint Petersburg", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "A.D. 170S-1721.] CREATION OF RUSSIA 103\\n(1703), so as to take possession of the Gulf of Finland.\\nCharles XII then returned against him. While trying to\\neffect a junction with Mazeppa, the Hetman of the Cos-\\nsacks, who had promised him 100,000 men, he lost his way\\nin the marshes of Pinsk and afforded the Tsar time to crush\\na Swedish relief force. The cruel winter of 1709 increased\\nhis distress. His defeat at Poltava (1709) forced him to\\nflee with 500 horse to the Ottomans. Prom Bender, his\\nplace of refuge, he roused them against the Russians. One\\nhundred and fifty thousand Ottomans crossed the Danube,\\nand Peter, surrounded in his camp on the banks of the\\nPruth, would have been crushed had not the grand vizier\\nbeen bribed by Catherine the Tsarina (1711). The Tsar\\nrestored Azoff and promised to withdraw his troops from\\nPoland.\\nBy this treaty Charles XII was vanquished a second\\ntime. He persisted in remaining three years longer in\\nTurkey and then set out again for Sweden, which the\\nnorthern powers were despoiling. George I of England,\\nElector of Hanover, was buying Bremen and Verden. The\\nking of Prussia was seizing Stettin and Pomerania. Stral-\\nsund still held out. Charles XII threw himself into it,\\ndefended it for a month, then returned to Sweden and met\\nhis death at the siege of Prederickshall, perhaps by treason\\n(1718).\\nHe left Sweden exhausted by this war of fifteen years\\nduration. She was deprived of her foreign possessions,\\nwithout agriculture, without manufactures, without com-\\nmerce, and had lost 250,000 men, the flower of her people,\\nand her ascendency in northern Europe. This heroic advent-\\nurer had annihilated the fortune of his people and ruined\\nhis country for a century.\\nPeter on the contrary was creating the fortune of his\\nempire. By the treaty of Nystadt he granted peace to the\\nSwedes (1721), but only on condition of their renouncing\\nall claim to Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, a part of Carelia and\\nthe country of Viborg and Finland. When the ambassador\\nof Prance implored less onerous terms, Peter replied, I do\\nnot wish to see my neighbor s grounds from my windows.\\nThus Sweden declined and Russia ascended. Thus a two-\\nfold example was furnished to the world of what one man\\ncan do for the ruin or the advancement of nations not yet\\ncapable of controlling their destiny themselves. In 1716", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "104 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1716-1725.\\nthe Tsar undertook another journey throughout Europe.\\nThis time he came to France, where he offered to replace\\nSweden as the ally of France against Austria. Cardinal Du-\\nbois, who was the hireling of England, caused the rejection\\nof his proposals.\\nThis journey was as fruitful as the first one in develop-\\ning the resources of Russia. From it she gained engineers\\nand workmen of all sorts, with manufactories and foundries.\\nThe Tsar established uniformity in weights and measures,\\na com.mercial tribunal, canals and shipyards. He opened\\nmines in Siberia and highways for the products of China,\\nPersia and India. He foresaw the future of the Amour\\nKiver, which empties into the Eastern Sea. In order to\\nmake the clergy entirely dependent upon him, he replaced\\nthe Patriarch by a synod, which he recognized as the\\nsupreme head of the Church, and he made of the Russian\\nnation a regiment, by applying the military hierarchy to the\\nwhole administration of his empire. His son Alexis was\\nactive against these reforms. The prince was tried, con-\\ndemned to death and probably executed. At all events\\nAlexis died on the day after his sentence and many of his\\naccomplices perished. A general was impaled and an arch-\\nbishop was broken on the wheel. By means of this savage\\nenergy he succeeded, as he himself said, in dressing his herd\\nof animals like men. The Tsar Peter, said Frederick II,\\nwas the nitric acid which eats into iron. He died in 1725.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1715-1718.] CREATION OF PRUSSIA 105\\nXXIII\\nCREATION OF PRUSSIA. DECLINE OP PRANCE AND\\nAUSTRIA\\nRegency of the Duke of Orleans Ministries of Dubois^ the\\nDuke of Bourbon and of Fleury (1715-1743). The suc-\\ncessor of Louis XIV was only five years old. Therefore,\\nParliament conferred the regency upon the Duke of Orleans,\\na brave and intelligent prince, but weakly amiable and of\\ndissolute character, who intrusted the power to his former\\npreceptor, Cardinal Dubois. Through fear of Philip V of\\nSpain, who by birth was nearer to the throne of Prance than\\nwas the regent, Dubois made a close alliance with England,\\nwhich paid him a pension and the spectacle was presented\\nof the Prench being on their guard against the Spaniards,\\ntheir friends of yesterday. Suddenly Cardinal Alberoni, the\\nminister of Philip V, revealed his plan of restoring to Spain\\nwhat the treaty of Utrecht had taken from her. He en-\\ndeavored, by the help of the Ottomans, to keep Austria\\nbusy, to overthrow the regent by a conspiracy and reestab-\\nlish the Stuarts through the sword of Charles XII. But\\nPrince Eugene defeated the Ottomans at Belgrade (1717).\\nThe conspiracy against the regent failed. Charles XII per-\\nished in Norway. The English destroyed the Spanish fleet\\nnear Messina. The Prench entered \u00c3\u00ae^avarre. So Spain\\nfound herself crippled by the struggle and Prance was still\\nunder the regent and Dubois.\\nLouis XIV had left behind him financial ruin. The\\nstate owed 2,500,000,000 francs, of which nearly one-third\\nwas already due. Two years revenues had been spent in\\nadvance. Though the budget was 165,000,000 francs, the\\ndeficit was 78,000,000. The regent, after having exhausted\\nevery other means to no purpose, decided to have recourse\\nto the expedients of Law. That bold Scotch financier had\\nfounded a wonderfully successful bank and also the India\\nCompany, which, successful at first, ended in a complete fail-\\nure. By clever man\u00c5\u0093uvres, the bonds of the company were", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "106 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1719-1738.\\nraised to the fictitious value of 2,000,000,000 francs. The\\nmirage could not last and men s eyes were opened. To\\nsave the company. Law united it with the bank, thereby\\nentailing a double ruin. The public which had formerly\\ncrowded to the Eue Quincampoix for the sake of obtaining\\nits paper, now crowded there to obtain its coin. Every-\\nthing crumbled to pieces and Law fled, pursued by curses.\\nNevertheless he had opened up a new horizon as to the\\npower of credit. The regency has a melancholy fame on\\naccount of the scandalous depravity of manners which, in\\nthe upper classes, suddenly followed the ostentatious piety\\nof the last years of Louis XIV.\\nThe regent and Dubois died in 1723. The succeeding\\nministry of the Duke of Bourbon is notable only for the\\nmarriage of Louis XV to the daughter of Stanislaus Lech-\\nzinski (1725), whom Charles XII had made for a brief time\\nking of Poland. That minister was overthrown by an ambi-\\ntious septuagenarian, Fleury, bishop of Frejus and precep-\\ntor to the king, who held the reins from 1726 to 1743. The\\nsingle idea in his whole administration was to economize in\\nthe finances and maintain peace in Europe. For that end\\nhe sacrificed the reputation of France and especially the\\ninterests of her navy, submitting to the exigencies of the\\nEnglish. At the death of Augustus II the Poles, by an\\nimmense majority, elected Stanislaus Lechzinski king, while\\nthe Elector of Saxony was nominated under the protection\\nof Eussian bayonets (1733). The king of France could not\\nabandon his father-in-law. Nevertheless the assistance sent\\nhim was only a mockery and comprised no more than 1,500\\nsoldiers. Stanislaus escaped with great difficulty from\\nDantzic and returned to France (1734). To make his dis-\\ngraceful inactivity forgotten, Fleury joined Savoy and\\nSpain against Austria, which they wished to expel from\\nItaly. This, at least, was true French policy, and it proved\\nsuccessful. After the victories of Parma and Guastalla,\\nFrance imposed upon the emperor the treaty of Vienna\\n(1738). In place of the kingdom of Poland Stanislaus\\nreceived the duchy of Lorraine, which after his death was\\nto revert to the king of France. The Duke of Lorraine\\nreceived Tuscany as indemnity. The Infante Don Carlos\\nacquired Sicily with the kingdom of Naples and the king\\nof Sardinia gained two Milanese provinces. Some of the\\nFrench ministers wished still more advantageous terms,", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1417-1713.] CREATION OF PRUSSIA 107\\nbut rieury cared only to make peace rapidly. After the\\npeace of Vienna, said Frederick II, France was tlie\\narbiter of Europe. She had then just conquered Austria\\nin Italy and was on the point of aiding the Turks to win\\nServia by the treaty of Belgrade (1739). Thus Austria was\\nat that moment retreating everywhere, in Italy as well as\\non the Danube. The two Seven Years Wars were to reduce\\nher lower still, but to drag down France in her fall.\\nFormation of Prussia. A new power, Prussia, was to\\nhumble the traditional rivals, Austria and France. In\\n1417 Frederick of Hohenzollern, Burgrave of Nuremberg,\\nbought from the Emperor Sigismund the margravate of\\nBrandenburg, which possessed one of the seven electoral\\nvotes. Albert, the Ulysses of the North (1469), founded\\nthe power of his house by decreeing that future acquisitions\\nshould always remain united to the electorate and that the\\nelectorate should remain indivisible. In 1618 that house\\nacquired ducal Prussia with Konigsberg. In 1624 it\\ngained the duchy of Cleves, with the counties of Mark and\\nRavensberg. Thus the state of the Hohenzollerns extended\\nfrom the Meuse to the Ni\u00c3\u00a9men and formed on the Rhine,\\nthe Elbe and the east bank of the Vistula, three groups\\nseparated by foreign provinces. To gain possession of those\\nprovinces has been, even to our day, the object of Hohen-\\nzollern ambition. At the treaty of Westphalia the great\\nelector fortified himself upon the Elbe by occupying Magde-\\nburg. Then he approached the Vistula by the occupation\\nof Further Pomerania (1648).\\nAlthough a member of the League of the Ehine, which\\nMazarin had formed and placed under the protection of\\nFrance, Frederick William supported Holland against\\nLouis XIV and founded the reputation of the Prussian\\narmy by defeating the Swedes at Fehrbellin. His states\\nhad scanty population. He attracted thither Dutch col-\\nonists and many Protestants, expelled by the edict of\\nNantes, who peopled Berlin, his new capital. His son,\\nFrederick III, bought from the emperor the title of king\\nand crowned himself at Konigsberg (1701). In Branden-\\nburg he was still only an elector, for ducal Prussia, which\\nformed the new kingdom, was not included in the limits of\\nthe German Empire. Frederick William I (1713), the\\nSergeant King, created the Prussian army, raising it to\\n80,000 men, and spent his life as a drill-master. From", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "108 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1714-1743.\\nSweden lie acquired nearly the whole of Pomerania, with\\nStettin, and had already meditated the dismemberment of\\nPoland.\\nMaria Theresa and Frederick II. The War of the Aus-\\ntrian Succession (1741-1748). While this Protestant\\npower, inheriting the r\u00c3\u00b4le of Sweden and Gustavus Adol-\\nphus, was waxing strong in the North, Catholic Austria was\\ndeclining. Hemmed in by the Protestants of Germany,\\nwho were upheld by Sweden, by the Turks, who showed a\\nremnant of vigor, and by the France of E-ichelieu, Mazarin\\nand Louis XIY, Austria had received many severe blows,\\nbut had been saved by a great general and set on her feet\\nagain by fortunate circumstances. Eugene, vanquished at\\nDeuain, gained a victory over the Turks at Zenta (1697),\\nPeterwardein (1716) and at Belgrade (1717). From the\\nwar of the Spanish Succession Austria obtained the Nether-\\nlands, Milan and Naples. The latter was exchanged, later\\non, for Parma and Piacenza.\\nWhen the Emperor Charles YI died in 1740, the same\\nyear as the Sergeant King, the male line of the Hapsburgs\\nbecame extinct. In order to secure his inheritance to his\\ndaughter Maria Theresa, Charles had taken every diplomatic\\nbut not a single military precaution. Hardly had he expired\\nwhen the solemnly signed parchments were torn up and\\nfive claimants appeared. Some, like the king of Spain and\\nthe electors of Bavaria and Saxony, demanded the whole of\\nMaria Theresa s inheritance. The other two laid claim to\\nthe provinces which suited them. Then the king of Sar-\\ndinia found Milan very attractive and Frederick II was\\ngreatly tempted by Silesia. Hostilities had already broken\\nout between the English and Spaniards, on account of the\\ncontraband trade which the former carried on in the colo-\\nnies of the latter. A general war was grafted upon this pri-\\nvate war, since Frederick II had drawn France into alliance\\nwith him and thus threw England into alliance with Maria\\nTheresa. That Prussian prince, hitherto devoted to art and\\nliterature, suddenly revealed himself as a great king and\\nthe cleverest military leader of the century. At Molwitz,\\nhe struck the first blow of the war by a victory over the\\nveterans of Prince Eugene, and that victory gave him Si-\\nlesia, while the French invaded Bohemia.\\nThe subsidies of England and the enthusiasm of the\\nHungarians furnished Maria Theresa with unexpected", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1744-1756.] CREATION OF PRUSSIA 109\\nresources. Slie abandoned Silesia to Frederick, who at\\nonce violated his alliance with France, on whom now fell\\nthe whole weight of the war. The French army, besieged\\nin Prague, made a glorious but painful retreat in the dead\\nof winter. After Bohemia had been thus retaken, the\\nAustrians invaded Bavaria. The frontiers of France were\\nexposed to attack. Louis XY, or rather Marshal Saxe,\\nhad entered the Netherlands with 120,000 men and captured\\nmany towns. Those successes ceased when it became nec-\\nessary to send a large detachment to cover the frontiers.\\nFrederick had again taken up arms against Austria and\\ninvaded Bohemia. The French line on the E-hine was thus\\nrelieved, the Emperor Charles VII returned to Munich and\\nhis son made a treaty with Maria Theresa (1745).\\nWhile Frederick was again defeating Austria and impos-\\ning upon her the treaty of Dresden, which put Brussels in\\nhis power, Charles Edward, the Stuart pretender, landed\\nin Scotland to stir up the Highlanders against the house of\\nHanover, which had been seated upon the English throne\\nsince the death of Queen Anne (1714). The victories of\\nMarshal Saxe and the alliance of Bussia with France made\\nthe opposite party ready for peace. Victorious on the con-\\ntinent, France had suffered terribly on the sea, where her\\nnavy had been almost destroyed, and she had lost her\\nopportunity of founding in Hindustan that Indian empire\\nwhich Dupleix had begun. By the treaty of Aix-la-Cha-\\npelle (1748) England and France mutually restored their\\nconquests, but Silesia was definitely assigned to the king\\nof Prussia.\\nThe Seven Years War (1756-1763).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 France employed\\nthe peace to reconstruct her marine and extend her com-\\nmerce. England was annoyed at this prosperity and, with-\\nout any declaration of war, began to capture the French\\nvessels which were sailing under the protection of treaties\\n(1755). It was the interest of France to maintain the ex-\\nclusively maritime character of this fresh struggle, but the\\nEnglish sought with gold som.e continental ally, and Fred-\\nerick II, rendered uneasy by the unlooked-for good under-\\nstanding between France and Austria, accepted their\\nsubsidies. After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle he had\\ngained the good-will of Silesia by wise measures. He\\nbegan the reformation of the courts and the finances and\\nincorporated East Friesland into his kingdom. But his", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "110 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1756-1777.\\nwit injured his policy. His epigrams wounded the Em-\\npress Elizabeth, and Madame Pompadour, the favorite of\\nLouis XIY. Maria Theresa, who could not see a Silesian\\nwithout weeping, cleverly inflamed the wrath of the offended\\nladies and roused against Prussia the very coalition which\\nhad threatened her during the preceding war.\\nFrederick anticipated his enemies by invading Saxony,\\nwhose troops he incorporated into his army. Then he\\nmade his way into Bohemia and defeated the Austrians at\\nLowositz. France threw two armies into Germany, one of\\nwhich forced the Anglo-Hanoverians to capitulate, while\\nthe other suffered the shameful defeat of Rosbach (1757).\\nFor many years the king of Prussia, alone save as assisted\\nby subsidies from England, waged a heroic war against\\ncombined Austria, Russia, France and Sweden. The con-\\nflict was marked by the battles of Prague, Kollin, Joegern-\\ndorf, Zorndorf, Kunnersdorf, Liegnitz, Minden and Crevelt.\\nIn 1761 he seemed at the end of his resources and strength.\\nHe was saved by the death of the Tsarina, whose successor,\\nPeter III, was an admirer of the Prussian hero and made\\nhaste to recall the Russian troops. A final campaign re-\\nstored to him Silesia and disposed Austria for peace.\\nFrance had not been invaded, but she lost Pondicherry,\\nQuebec and all her navy. She accepted the treaty of Paris\\n(1763).\\nThe second Seven Years War resulted, on the one hand\\nin the continental grandeur of Prussia and the maritime\\nsupremacy of England, and on the other, in the humiliation of\\nAustria and the decline of France. This war cost the lives\\nof 1,000,000 human beings. In Prussia alone 14,500 houses\\nwere burned.\\nAfter having saved his country and gloriously constituted\\na new nation in Europe, Frederick saved it from misery by\\na wise and vigilant administration. He drained marshes,\\nconstructed dikes and canals, encouraged manufactures,\\ncreated a new system of landed credit, reorganized public\\ninstruction and reformed the administration of justice.\\nIn 1772 he accomplished the dismemberment of Poland,\\nas we shall see more fully later on. In 1777 he inflicted\\nupon Austria a fresh political defeat by forcing her to re-\\nnounce her claims to Bavaria, which she had bought after the\\ndeath of the last elector. Thus Frederick made himself the\\nprotector of the German Empire against half Slavic Austria.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1688-1757.] COLONIAL F OWER OF ENGLAND 111\\nxxiy\\nMARITIME AND COLONIAL POWER OF ENGLAND\\nEngland from 1688 to 1763. \u00e2\u0080\u0094The English revolution of\\n1688 had as its result: at home the revival of both polit-\\nical and religious liberty and, abroad, the substitution of\\nstrong and resourceful England for exhausted Holland as\\nthe adversary of France. The wars of the League of Augs-\\nburg and of the Spanish Succession had ruined the French\\nnavy. The fleets of Holland were at the orders of William\\nIII, and thus England took possession of the ocean, which\\nher merchants covered with their ships. William, who died\\nin 1702, was succeeded by Queen Anne, the second daughter\\nof James II. A zealous Protestant, she brought about the\\nunion of Scotland and England, under the oflBcial title of the\\nKingdom of Great Britain (1707). Until 1710 the Whigs\\nwere in power. They represented the revolution of 1688\\nand consequently were strongly opposed to Louis XIV. So\\nAnne pursued the policy of her brother-in-law in continuing\\nwar against France, in which Marlborough won the great vic-\\ntories of Blenheim, Oudenarde, Eamillies and Malplaquet.\\nThe advent of a Tory minister in 1710 brought about the\\npeace of Utrecht (1713). On the death of the queen,\\nParliament bestowed the crown upon George of Brunswick,\\nElector of Hanover (1714).\\nThat prince knew neither a word of English nor a single\\narticle of the Constitution. He allowed Sir K-obert Walpole\\nto be the real ruler. Walpole was the leader of the Whigs,\\nwho had regained a majority in Parliament and who retained\\nit until 1742, thanks to the system of bribery openly em-\\nployed by the prime minister. The unscrupulous minister\\nwas overthrown by the outbreak of the war of the Austrian\\nSuccession. England in that war acquired not an inch of\\nterritory but great havoc was caused by the invasion of the\\nPretender, Charles Stuart (1745), and the national debt was\\nalmost doubled. Already the Great Commoner, William\\nPitt, was attracting the attention of England. In. 1757 he", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "112 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1727-1763.\\nbecame prime minister. France realized too well his talents\\nand his hatred during the Seven Years War, which he\\ndirected with an energy that was fatal to both the French\\nmarine and the French colonies.\\nGeorge I died in 1727 and George II in 1760. Both\\nwere faithful to the compact of 1688. Having neither a\\nsoldier nor a party, they accepted the ministers which the\\nparliamentary majority imposed, so that to change her\\npolicy Great Britain had only to change her ministers.\\nThus the Whigs or Liberals and the Tories or Conservatives\\ncame into power through a vote of Parliament and not\\nthrough an insurrection in the street. For this reason, dur-\\ning the last two centuries, England has been able to effect\\nmany reforms without either the pretext or the necessity\\nof a revolution. George III, who reigned sixty years,\\nseveral times even lost his reason, but governmental action\\nwas not affected thereby. In London the king reigns, but\\ndoes not govern. He accepts the councillors whom the\\nChambers assign him and signs the decrees which his\\nministers present. He is the wheel which is required to\\nset the machine in motion, but he does not command its\\nmovements, so that by his permanence he represents con-\\nservatism, while the ministry, by its mobility, ensures\\nprogress.\\nThe English East India Company. The Seven Years War\\nruined French affairs in India and delivered America over\\nto England. Leaving their colonies to spread freely over\\nthe rich valleys of the St. Lawrence, the Ohio and the\\nMississippi, the English flung themselves upon India, where\\nDupleix had just revealed how an empire could be created.\\nAs early as the reign of Queen Elizabeth, an East India\\nCompany had been organized, which obtained from the\\nGrand Mogul the right to traffic in Bengal and which\\nfounded Calcutta. The French privateers, during the war\\nof the League of Augsburg, cost the commerce of Great\\nBritain 675,000,000 francs and ruined the company whose\\naggrandizement the emperor of India, Aurangzeb, also was\\narresting. The death of that prince (1707) delivered India\\nover to anarchy. The English counted upon profiting\\nthereby, when they found a dangerous rival in a company\\nfounded by Colbert and reconstructed in 1723. Dupleix,\\nthe director-general of the French trading posts in India,\\ntransformed his commercial company into a powerful state^", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1725-1846.] COLONIAL POWER OF ENGLAND 113\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2with, fortresses, arsenals and arms, and a vast territory-\\nextending from Cape Comorin to the Krishna River. For\\nmany years he governed 30,000,000 Hindus with absolute\\npower. But Louis XY abandoned him. Recalled to France\\nin 1754, he died in misery. The English took his place,\\ncopying the organization which he had bestowed upon his\\nconquest, and France retained only Pondicherry.\\nThe empire of the Grand Mogul in the valley of the\\nGanges was in a state of dissolution. The soubahs or vice-\\nroys and the nabobs or governors of districts rendered them-\\nselves independent after the death, of Aurangzeb, so that in\\nBengal, the company, or The Great Lady of London as\\nthe Hindus called it, could easily expand. In the Deccan\\nit found brave and active adversaries. The Mussulman\\nHaidar Ali, sovereign of Mysore, and his son, Tippoo Sahib,\\nfrom 1761 to 1799 maintained a constant resistance. The\\nlatter perished defending his capital. From 1799 to 1818\\nthe English fought against the valiant population of the\\nMahrattas, who half a century earlier had come near sub-\\njugating the whole of India. The Punjaub, the country of\\nthe Five Rivers, ceased to be independent in. 1846.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "114 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1608-1767.\\nXXV\\nFOUNDATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA\\nOrigin and Character of the English Colonies in America.\\nThe English did not reckon upon India, but India is to\\nthem now a mine of wealth. They did reckon upon America\\nand America is to-day free and their rival.\\nFounded by companies or by private individuals who\\nfled from the persecutions inflicted in the mother country\\nupon dissenters, the English colonies in America, unlike\\nthe French, were not kept in leading-strings by the home\\ngovernment and developed rapidly under the protection of\\nreligious, civil and commercial liberty. There was no\\nparty, worsted in the revolutions of England, which did\\nnot find in America an asylum to receive it. New England\\nwas the refuge of the K-oundheads and Republicans, Vir-\\nginia of the Cavaliers and Maryland of the Catholics.\\nWith their creeds the emigrants brought the political ideas\\nof old England and held to the administration of public\\naffairs by representatives of the persons interested. In all\\nthese colonies a legislative assembly directed the affairs of\\ncommon weal. But the French in Canada were not even\\nallowed to appoint a syndic or mayor of Quebec, since it is\\nnot good, Colbert wrote to them, that any one should speak\\nfor all. Printing, which was not introduced into Canada\\nuntil 1764, or five years after it was lost by the French,\\nexisted in Massachusetts as early as 1636, in order, as it\\nwas stated, that the knowledge of our fathers may not be\\nburied with them in their tombs. In this national differ-\\nence of colonial organization is to be found the explanation\\nof the ruin of the one and of the prosperity of the other.\\nThe Revolution (1775-1783). After the Seven Years\\nWar the English Ministry, wishing to make the colonies\\nbear a part of the expenses of the home government, tried\\nfirst to subject them to a stamp-tax and then to a tax upon\\nglass, paper and tea (1767). The colonists, who had no\\nrepresentative in the House of Commons, invoked that", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1768-1783.] FOUNDATION OF THE UNITED STATES 115\\nprinciple of tlie English. Constitution which, provides that\\nno citizens are bound to submit to any taxes not voted by\\ntheir representatives. Ninety-six towns pledged themselves\\nnot to buy any English merchandise so long as their com-\\nplaints were unheeded. At Boston in 1773 three cargoes\\nof tea were thrown into the water. A few months later\\nwar broke out. On July 4, 1776, the Continental Con-\\ngress at Philadelphia proclaimed the independence of the\\nthirteen colonies. They united in a confederation wherein\\neach state preserved its political and religious liberty.\\nWashington. The Part of France in the War. Wash-\\nington, a wealthy planter of Virginia, was appointed gen-\\neral. Calm, methodical, persevering, audacious, but never\\nrash, never permitting himself to be crushed by a reverse\\nnor elated by a success, he was the ideal leader for such a\\nconflict. His inexperienced soldiers had to combat veteran\\ntroops. The German princes sold to the English 17,000\\nmen to take part in the war. Washington lost New York\\nand Philadelphia. But by keeping Howe busy, he enabled\\nthe insurgents in the north to stop Burgoyne, who came\\ndown from Canada with an army, and to force his surrender\\nat Saratoga (October, 1777). Erance recognized the inde-\\npendence of the colonies. She sent them, first a fleet, and\\nthen an army, whose chiefs, Eochambeau and La Eayette,\\naided Washington to compel the capitulation of Cornwallis\\nat Yorktown. Spain joined her forces to those of Erance.\\nThe secondary navies formed the League of the Neutrals\\nfor the protection of such vessels as were not carrying con-\\ntraband of war. England bowed under the burden, signed\\nthe peace of Versailles, which restored several trading posts\\nto Erance, and acknowledged the independence of the\\nUnited States (1783).\\nThus England lost America, with the exception of Canada,\\nwhich she had wrested from Erance and which she still\\nholds. She found a partial compensation for this loss in\\nthe development of her commerce with the new state.\\nHalf a century however had not elapsed before the Star-\\nSpangled Banner was competing with the British flag in all\\nthe markets of the world. Moreover the new republic\\nhad inspired in the ancient mother country a sentiment of\\nrespect which was akin to fear, because, invulnerable on her\\ncontinent, she could deal a thousand blows before receiving\\none.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "116 mSTOBY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1783-1799.\\nWashington won even more honor in peace than in wdjr.\\nHe might have retained power or have prompted a military\\nrevolution for his own benefit. But he was the most faith-\\nful servant of the law. He disbanded his troops even\\nagainst their will and became again a plain private indi-\\nvidual on the banks of the Potomac. There it was that\\nthey, whom he had saved on the field of battle, sought him\\nin 1789, that he might save them again by his political sa-\\ngacity. Twice in succession they elected him President of\\nthe United States. After that double presidency he per-\\nsisted in retiring to his estate of Mount Vernon. Carried\\nto the tomb in 1799 he left behind the purest name of\\nmodern times.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1761-1772.] DESTRUCTION OF POLAND 117\\nXXVI\\nDESTRUCTION OF POLAND. DECLINE OP THE OTTO-\\nMANS, GREATNESS OP RUSSIA\\nCatherine II (1761) and Frederick 11. First Partition of\\nPoland (1773). While a new nation was being born on the\\nother side of the Atlantic, an ancient people was dying in\\nold Europe under the pressure of two states which had as-\\nsumed a place among the great powers only a few years\\nbefore. The real successor of Peter the Great was the wife\\nof his grandson, Peter III, the Princess of Anhalt, who\\nhad her husband strangled and reigned under the name of\\nCatherine II. Poland, with her elective and powerless\\nroyalty, with her anarchical nobility and her religious pas-\\nsions, was a sort of anomaly among the absolute monarchies\\nof the eighteenth century. Now in politics anomalies can-\\nnot last. Poland was doomed either to reform herself or to\\nperish. Her people and her neighbors alike prevented\\nreforms. Hence she fell.\\nCatherine II caused her favorite Poniatowski to be elected\\nking and signed with Frederick II, who had already pro-\\nposed the dismemberment of the country, a secret treaty\\nfor the maintenance of the Polish constitution. Doubtless\\nCatherine hoped to avoid the partition and to reserve the\\nentire kingdom for herself alone. When she saw that the\\nPolish Diet was determined to persecute dissenters, she\\ntook the latter under her protection and had two bishops\\narrested whom she sent to Siberia. Forthwith the Catholics\\nformed the Confederation of Bar, which adopted a banner\\nwith the Virgin and the Child Jesus as its standard. The\\nLatin cross marched against the Greek cross. The peasants\\nmurdered their lords. From civil war Poland weltered in\\nblood. The Prussians entered on the west, the Austrians\\non the south, and the Eussians were everywhere.\\nFrance did not feel herself ready to succor Poland. Still,\\nshe roused the Turks against Russia, but they lost their\\nprovinces and their fleet, which was burned at Tchesmeh.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "118 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1773-1793.\\nFrederick II, uneasy at these victories of the Tsarina,\\nrecalled her to the affairs of Poland and reminded her of\\nthe idea of partition, threatening that she would have to\\nfight Prussia and Austria in case of refusal. Catherine\\nyielded. On April 19, 1773, the partition was accomplished.\\nMaria Theresa took Galicia or the northern slope of the\\nCarpathians; Frederick seized the provinces which he\\nneeded to unite Prussia to his German states and Catherine\\noccupied many Palatinates of the east.\\nTreaties of Ka\u00c3\u00afnardji (1774) and Jassy (1792). Having\\nsatisfied in Poland her own greed and that of Prussia,\\nCatherine resumed her projects against Turkey, on which\\nshe imposed the treaty of Ka\u00c3\u00afnardji (1774). Thereby the\\nRussians acquired many towns, the right to navigate the\\nBlack Sea, and a protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia.\\nThe Tartars of the Crimea and the Kouban became inde-\\npendent of the Sultan, preliminary to their speedy subjec-\\ntion to the Tsar. The amnesty accorded the Greek subjects\\nof Turkey revealed that they had a zealous protector in the\\nMuscovite prince at St. Petersburg, recognized as the\\nchampion of the Orthodox Church. In the following year,\\nCatherine II put an end to the republic of the Zaperoguian\\nCossacks, whose territories lay between the Eussian power\\nand the Black Sea. In 1777 she bought his sovereignty\\nfrom the khan of the Crimea, and built Sebastopol. She\\neven caused the king of Georgia on the southern slope of\\nthe Caucasus to accept her protection and finally came to\\nan understanding with the Emperor Joseph II for the par-\\ntition of the Turkish Empire.\\nThe Divan declared war (1787) and prosecuted it bravely\\nfor four years. But the Ottomans would have succumbed,\\nhad not the Tsarina, menaced by the evident hostility of\\nPrussia, which had assembled 80,000 men on its eastern\\nfrontier, and by the unfriendly tone of England and Hol-\\nland, consented to the treaty of Jassy. Thereby the\\nDniester was fixed as the boundary of the two empires\\n(1792). Turkey, formerly so dangerous to Europe, had just\\nbeen saved for the first time by three Christian states,\\nwhich were unwilling to have the European balance of\\npower disturbed for the benefit of a single people.\\nSecond and Third Partitions of Poland (1793-1795).\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe Poles paid for the Turks. Warned by the first dis-\\nmemberment, they had tried to reform their constitution^", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1772-1793.] DESTRUCTION OF POLAND 119\\nabolish the liberum veto, render the monarchy hereditary\\nand share the legislative power between the king, the\\nsenate and the nuncios or deputies. But Prussia and Aus-\\ntria, who were then engaged in stifling the revolution in\\nErance, had no intention of allowing another revolution to\\nbe kindled in their rear. A second and third partition,\\neffected at an interval of two years, blotted out the country\\nof Sobieski. If in later treaties the German people were\\ndivided up like cattle and their countries like farms to suit\\nthe convenience of a conqueror, their fate was only the\\nrepetition of the example furnished by the authors of the\\ngreat Polish spoliation. Austria in 1806 and in 1809, and\\nPrussia at Tilsit, endured only what the Poles had suffered\\nat their hands.\\nAttempt at dismemberings Sweden. Prussia and Eussia\\nhad acquired an appetite by their success and began to pre-\\npare the same fate for Sweden. By a recent treaty they\\npledged themselves to maintain in that country the factions\\nwhich had existed there since the death of Charles XII,\\nand which were kept alive by foreign money. The coup\\nd^\u00c3\u00a9tat of Gustavus III in 1772 and the constitutional act\\nof 1789 forestalled the danger. The nobles indeed at\\nlast assassinated their prince, who was friendly to reform\\nand hostile to Eussia (1792), but Catherine II, then busy in\\nthe East, and Prussia, busy in the West, left the Swedish\\nkingdom in peace.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "120 mSTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1700-1800.\\nXXVII\\nPRELIMINARIES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION\\nScientific and Geographical Discoveries. The eighteenth\\ncentury was for the sciences what the seventeenth had been\\nfor letters, and the sixteenth for arts and creeds. It was\\na period of renovation. Physics was regenerated by the\\nbrilliant electrical experiments of Franklin, Volta and Gal-\\nvani, who invented the lightning-rod and the voltaic battery.\\nSo was mathematical analysis by Lagrange and Laplace;\\nbotany by Linnaeus and Jussieu; zoology by Buffon, who\\nalso introduced geology, while Lavoisier gave to the science\\nof chemistry firm foundations. Mankind, when master of\\nthe laws of nature, wished at once to make them of advan-\\ntage. In 1775 vaccination was discovered. In 1783 a\\nsteamboat ascended the Sa\u00c3\u00b4ne and the first balloon was\\nlaunched into the air.\\nAt the same time the skilful navigators, Cook, Bougain-\\nville and La Perouse, completed the work of the great sailors\\nof the fifteenth century, not through hope of gain or from\\nreligious sentiment as three hundred years earlier, but in\\nthe interest of science.\\nLetters in the Eighteenth Century.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 While the physicists\\nwere discovering new forces and the navigators new lands,\\nthe writers for their part were revealing a new world. Lit-\\nerature was not, as in the preceding century, controlled by\\nart. It had invaded everything and claimed the right to\\nregulate everything. The most virile forces of the mind\\nseemed directed to the advancement of public welfare. Men\\nno longer labored to make fine verses but to utter fine\\nmaxims. They no longer depicted the whims of society for\\nthe sake of a laugh, but for the purpose of reforming society\\nitself. Literature became a weapon which all, the impru-\\ndent as well as the skilful, tried to wield. And by a strange\\ninconsistency, those who had the most to suffer from this\\ninroad of literary men into the field of politics were the ones\\nwho applauded it the most. This society of the eighteenth", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1700-1780.] PRELIMINARIES, FRENCH REVOLUTION 121\\ncentury, frivolous and sensual as it was, nevertheless clier-\\nished an admiration for mental power. Talent almost took\\nthe place of birth.\\nThree men headed the movement. They were Voltaire,\\nwhose whims and passions and vices cannot be forgotten,\\nbut who fought all his life long for liberty of thought;\\nMontesquieu, who studied the reason of laws and the nature\\nof governments, who taught men to examine and compare\\nexisting constitutions in order to seek therein the best, which\\nhe found in liberty-loving England and lastly, E/Ousseau\\nwith his Social Contract, wherein he proclaimed the doctrine\\nof national sovereignty and universal suffrage. At their\\nside the encyclopedists reviewed human knowledge and set\\nit forth in a manner often menacing to social order and\\nalways hostile to religion. Finally Quesnay created the new\\nscience of political economy. Thus human thought, hitherto\\nconfined to metaphysical and religious speculations, or ab-\\nsorbed in unselfish worship of the Muses, now claimed the\\nright to attack the most difficult problems of society. And\\nall, philosophers as well as economists, sought the solution\\non the side of liberty. From the school of Quesnay had\\nsprung the axiom, Let well enough alone, just as in poli-\\ntics D Argesson had said, Do not govern too much.\\nDisagreement between Ideas and Institutions. Thus the\\nmental agitation, formerly excited by the discussion of dog-\\nmas, now was produced by wholly terrestrial interests.\\nMen no longer sought to determine divine attributes, or the\\nlimits of grace and free will, but they studied man and\\nsociety, rights and obligations. The Middle Ages and feu-\\ndalism, when they expired under the hand of kings, had left\\nthe ground covered with their fragments, so the most shock-\\ning inequalities and the strangest confusion were to be met\\non every side: Therefore the complaints were vigorous,\\nnumerous and pressing.\\nMen desired that government should no longer be a fright-\\nful labyrinth wherein the most clever must lose his way.\\nThey meant that the public finances should cease to be\\npillaged by the king, his ministers and the court that per-\\nsonal liberty should be secured against arbitrary orders of\\narrest or lettres de cachet, and that property should be pro-\\ntected from confiscation. They wished that the criminal\\ncode, still aided by torture, should become less sanguinary\\nand the civil code more equitable.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "122 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1700-1780.\\nThey demanded religious toleration instead of dogma\\nimposed under penalty of death law, founded on principles\\nof natural and rational right, instead of the privilege of a\\nfew and the arbitrary government of all unity of weights\\nand measures, instead of the most extreme confusion taxes\\npaid by every one, instead of the taxation of poverty and\\nthe exemption of wealth the emancipation of labor and free\\ncompetition, instead of monopoly of corporations and free\\nadmission to the public offices, instead of favoritism shown\\nto birth and fortune.\\nTo accomplish this a revolution was necessary and every\\none saw that it was coming. As early as 1719, Fenelon\\nexclaimed, The dilapidated machine still continues to work\\nbecause of the former impetus imparted to it, but it will go\\nto pieces at the first shock.\\nReforms effected by Governments. These words did^ not\\napply to France alone. They included the whole of abso-\\nlutist Europe. If the people did not everywhere understand\\nthe need of reforms, the princes felt the necessity of under-\\ntaking them. Bold or clever ministers like Pombal of Lis-\\nbon, Aranda at Madrid and Tanucci at Naples, encouraged\\nindustry, agriculture and science, opened roads, canals and\\nschools, suppressed privileges and abuses, and banished the\\nJesuits, who seemed to embody all the evil influences of\\nthe past. The Grand Duke of Tuscany created provinces\\nby transforming pestilential marshes into fertile lands. The\\nking of Sardinia allowed his subjects to emancipate them-\\nselves from feudal taxes. Joseph II in Austria abolished\\ntithes, seignorial rights, forced labor and convents, and sub-\\nordinated the Church to the state. In Sweden Gustavus III\\ndiminished the church festivals, forbade torture and doubled\\nthe product of the iron and copper mines. We have already\\nnoted the reforms of Frederick II in Prussia.\\nCatherine the Great cultivated the acquaintance of Vol-\\ntaire, Diderot, D Alembert, so as to influence public opinion\\nthrough them. She had a magnificent constitution drawn\\nup, which, however, she did not put into execution. She\\nbuilt schools which remained empty. When the governor\\nof Moscow was in despair at the lack of scholars, she wrote\\nhim My dear prince, do not complain that the Kussians\\nhave no desire to learn. If I set up schools, it is not for\\nour own sake, but because of Europe which is watching us.\\nAs soon as our peasants wish to become enlightened, neither", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1700-1770.] PRELIMINARIES, FRENCH REVOLUTION 123\\nyou nor I shall remain in our places. Cardinal Pole had\\nexpressed the same idea at the beginning of the E/cf ormation\\nIt is dangerous to make men too learned.\\nThus a new spirit of reform was breathing over Europe.\\nIt was social and no longer a religious reform. It was\\npreached by philosophers or economists and not by monks\\nor theologians. The princes now too placed themselves at\\nthe head of the movement, hoping to derive profit therefrom,\\nas they had done from the secularizations of church prop-\\nerty during the Lutheran and the Anglican Reformations.\\nThey sought to promote the welfare of their peoples. They\\nfreed them at the expense of the feudal and ecclesiastical\\naristocracy, from vexatious or onerous burdens, but they\\nspecially labored all the time to augment their own revenues\\nand strength. These princes all said, as did the emperor of\\nAustria My trade is to be a royalist. So they preserved\\nthe discretionary power which feudal anarchy had permitted\\nthem to grasp, but which the enlarging interests of the peo-\\nple doomed them no longer to retain.\\nThus, at bottom, nothing was changed. Despite this pa-\\nternal solicitude and from default of regular institutions,\\neverything still depended on individuals, so that public\\nprosperity fluctuated with those who remained its supreme\\ndispensers. Hence Spain under Charles IV and Godoy\\nagain fell as low as under Charles II. The days of the\\nLazzaroni flourished once more at Naples under Queen Caro-\\nline and her minister, Acton. Joseph II disturbed Austria\\nwithout regenerating it, and Catherine II played with re-\\nforms for her people. In Prussia alone a great man did\\ngreat things. In France when skilful ministers, who wished\\nto do them likewise, were expelled from power, the nation\\nundertook to accomplish the reforms itself.\\nLast Years of Louis XV (1763-1774). At the treaty\\nof Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), France was still the leading mili-\\ntary power of Europe. This rank was taken from her by\\nthe disgraces of the Seven Years War. Afterwards the\\narmy had no chance of reviving its ancient renown, for\\nFrench intervention in the affairs of Eastern Europe was\\nmostly limited to diplomatic notes and a few volunteers.\\nThe acquisition of Corsica (1769) under Louis XV was the\\nresult of a bargain v/ith Genoa, which sold the island for\\n40,000,000 francs. The acquisition of Lorraine was only the\\nexecution of a treaty, for which the occupation of the duchy", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "124 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1771-1789.\\nfor almost a century by French troops had long since paved the\\nway. Hence there was little glory in those territorial gains.\\nBut the war in America, a few years later, shed some bril-\\nliancy upon the navy. While Prussia, Austria and Eussia\\nwere murdering one nation, France had the honor of aiding\\nin the birth of another. The American Revolution was\\npopular, so France resumed before the end of the century\\nsomething of the proud bearing which Eosbach had taken\\nfrom her.\\nAt home Louis XY disgraced the monarchy by his vices\\nand hastened its ruin by his political conduct. The expul-\\nsion of the Jesuits offended one party and the suppression\\nof the parliaments was a blow at another. Frequent and\\narbitrary arrests exasperated the public mind. Public inter-\\nests received a shock in the proceedings of the comptroller-\\ngeneral. Abb\u00c3\u00a9 Terray, who excused the bankruptcy he\\ndeclared by saying, The king is the master. Louis\\nrealized that a terrible expiation was approaching, but he\\nthought he himself would escape it. Things will last quite\\nas long as I shall. My successor must get out of the scrape\\nas best he can.\\nLouis XV\u00c3\u008e until the Eevolution. This sovereign was the\\nmost honest and the weakest of men. He abolished forced\\nlabor and torture. He summoned to the ministry Turgot,\\nwho could have forestalled the devolution by reforms or at\\nleast could have controlled and guided it. But when the\\ncourtiers complained, he dismissed him, saying, Only\\nMonsieur and I love the people. ISTecker, the Genevese\\nbanker, did not succeed in covering the frightful deficit\\nwhich the expenses of the American war increased. The\\nstate existed only by loans. Calonne, in the space of three\\nyears and in time of peace, increased the debt 500,000,000\\nfrancs. An Assembly of Notables, convoked in 1787, could\\npoint out no remedy. On all sides men clamored for the\\nStates General. The government, at the end of its resources,\\npromised to convoke them. Necker, recalled to the minis-\\ntry, rendered the decision that the number of deputies from\\nthe Third Estate should equal that of the other two orders.\\nThis was the same thing as deciding that by the Third\\nEstate alone the great reforms were to be effected.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1789.] THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 125\\nXXYIII\\nTHE FRENCH REVOLUTION\\n(1789-1793)\\nDivine Right and National Sovereignty. In tlie Middle\\nAges, for the purpose of combating feudalism, the jurists\\nhad again asserted the proposition of the Roman juris-\\nconsults concerning the absolute power of the prince. The\\nChurch with her religious authority had sanctioned this\\ndoctrine, borrowed from Oriental monarchies, which made\\nthe kings through the religious rite of coronation the direct\\nrepresentatives of God on earth. On the other hand, the\\ndoctrine of the sovereignty of the people, which had ruled\\nthe Greek, German, Celtic and Roman world, and which\\neven Augustus had made the basis of his power, had never\\nbeen completely forgotten and proscribed. This doctrine had\\nbeen many times reasserted. Thus did in France the States\\nGeneral of 1484, in Spain, the Aragonese, who imposed\\nupon their kings so harsh an oath. In England it was\\nannounced before the Tudors and repeated under Henry VI\\nby Chancellor Fortescue, who declared that governments\\nhad been constituted by the peoples and existed only for\\ntheir benej t. Again was it maintained under William III\\nby Locke, who proclaimed the necessity of the common con-\\nsent. In the eighteenth century it was set forth by the\\nmajority of writers. Thus the most ancient system in the\\nWest was that of national sovereignty. The principle of\\ndivine right, represented by Louis XIV and James I, had\\ncome later into the field. Reason and history were against\\nit. It was accepted only as an accidental political form\\nwhich had had certain temporary advantages and on that\\naccount, a temporary validity.\\nIn the France of 1789, the absolute monarchy by right\\ndivine found that its faults had reduced it to such a condi-\\ntion that it was impossible for it to govern. After royalty\\nceased to live upon the revenues of its own possessions^", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "126 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1789.\\nit had set up as an axiom of public law that, for the com-\\nmon weal of the state, the Third Estate would contribute\\nits goods, the nobility its blood, and the clergy its prayers.\\nNow the court clergy prayed but little, the nobility no longer\\nformed all the army but the Third Estate still remained\\nfaithful to its functions. It still continued to pay the\\ntaxes and it paid more every year. As the monarchy in-\\ncreased in prodigality, the more dependent did it become upon\\nthe Third Estate, and the more inevitable did it render\\nthe moment when, tired of paying, the Third Estate\\nwould demand a reckoning. That awful day of account\\nis known as the Eevolution of 1789.\\nThe court wanted the States General to occupy them-\\nselves solely with financial affairs and then, as soon as the\\ndeficit was covered and the debts paid, the deputies to go\\nhome. But France was suffering from two maladies, one\\nfinancial and one political, from the deficit and from abuses.\\nTo heal the former, economy was necessary together with\\na new system of taxation. To heal the latter, entire re-\\norganization of the power was needed. Royalty had under-\\ngone many transformations since the times of the Roman\\nemperors. It had been barbarian with Clovis, feudal with\\nPhilip Augustus, and by right divine with Louis XIV.\\nIn its latest form it had furnished unity of territory and\\nunity of authority, but it must now submit to another\\nchange. France, with her immense development of in-\\ndustry, commerce, science, public spirit and personal\\nproperty, now had interests too complex and needs too\\nnumerous to trust itself to the omnipotence of a single\\nman. She required a guarantee against the unlucky\\nhazards of a royal birth or the frivolity of incapable\\nministers.\\nThe National Assembly until the Capture of the Bastile.\\nOn May 5, 1789, the deputies assembled at Versailles.\\nThe clergy and nobility were represented by 561 persons,\\nwhile the Third Estate, or ninety-six per cent of the popula-\\ntion, had 584 or a majority of twenty-three votes. This\\nmajority was an illusion unless they voted as individuals\\nand not as orders. The whole spirit of 89, briefly expressed,\\nconsisted in establishing equality before the law and guaran-\\nteeing it by liberty. Now this spirit had penetrated even\\nthe privileged classes. Many of their members came and\\njoined the deputies of the Third Estate who, assembled in", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1789.] THE FBENCH REVOLUTION 127\\nthe common hall, had proclaimed themselves the National\\nConstituent or Constitutional Assembly.\\nOn June 27 the fusion of the three orders was accom-\\nplished. This the court tried to prevent, first by closing\\nthe place of assembly and then by having the king make a\\nthreatening speech. The sole effect of their opposition vsras\\nto determine the deputies to declare themselves inviolable.\\nThe court hoped for better results from military action, and\\nan army of 30,000 men, in which foreign regiments had\\nbeen carefully incorporated, was stationed around Paris and\\nVersailles. The threat was perfectly plain, but the courage\\nto strike a great blow was lacking. To this imprudent\\nprovocation another challenge was added in the exile of\\nNecker, the popular minister (July 11). To this challenge\\nthe Assembly replied by renewing the oath, taken at the\\ntennis court, that the representatives would not separate\\nuntil they had given France a constitution. But Paris took\\nalarm and flew to arms. Some of the populace marched\\nagainst the troops, encamped in the Champs Elysees, who\\nfell back upon Versailles. Others rushed to the Bastile,\\ncaptured it and massacred its commandant. The provost\\nof the merchants, the minister Poulon, and the intendant\\nBerthier were also slain. The mob began to get a taste of\\nblood (July 14, 1789).\\nThe insensate conduct of the court, which called the\\nAssembly together and then wished to get rid of it, which\\nthreatened but dared not act, which provoked yet knew\\nneither how to intimidate nor to coerce, which cherished\\nchildish hatreds and had no resolution, in only two months\\nhad caused the reformation to deviate from its pacific\\nmethods. That fourteenth of July is explained by circum-\\nstances and by the state of men s minds. It was, never-\\ntheless, the first of those revolutionary days, which were\\ndestined to demoralize the people by habituating them to\\nregard the power and the law as a target against which they\\ncould always fire.\\nThe Days of October. The Emigration. The Constitution\\nof 1791. It is a riot, exclaimed Louis XVI when he\\nheard the news of the Bastile. No, Sire, replied the\\nDuke de la Eochefoucauld, it is a revolution. In fact on\\nAugust 4 the Assembly abolished all feudal rights and the\\nsale of ofiices. In September it voted the Declaration of\\nEights, established a single legislative chamber and rejected", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "128 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1789.\\nthe absolute veto power of the king. Then the court re-\\nturned to the idea of employing force. It was proposed to\\nthe king that he should withdraw to Metz and place himself\\nin Bouille s army. That measure would have been the\\nbeginning of civil war. He remained at Versailles and\\nsummoned thither troops numerous enough to produce un-\\neasiness, but too few to inspire any real fear.\\nFamine was ravaging France and in Paris men were\\ndying of hunger. On October 5 an army of women set out\\nfor Versailles, imagining that abundance would reign if the\\nking were brought back to Paris, his capital. National\\nguards, recently organized by La Fayette, accompanied them\\nand provoked quarrels in the courtyards of the palace with\\nthe body-guard. Many of the latter were killed, the queen\\nwas insulted and the royal dwelling was broken in upon.\\nAs a final confession of weakness, the king and the Assem-\\nbly followed this crowd to Paris, where both were about to\\nfall into the hands of the mob. The success of the expedi-\\ntion to Versailles showed the ringleaders of the faubourgs\\nthat thenceforth they could rule everything, Assembly or\\ngovernment, by intimidation.\\nSanguinary scenes took place in the country districts also.\\nThe peasants were not satisfied by destroying feudal coats-\\nof-arms and breaking down drawbridges and towers. They\\nsometimes also killed the nobles. Terror reigned in the\\ncastles, as it reigned at court. Already the king s most\\nprudent counsellors, his brother, the Count d Artois, the\\nprinces of Coud\u00c3\u00a9 and Conti, the dukes of Bourbon and\\nEnghien, the Polignacs, and others of their class had fled,\\nleaving him alone in the midst of a populace whose wrath\\nthey were about to inflame by every means and whose\\nfiercest passions they were going to unloose by turning the\\narms of foreign nations against their country.\\nNevertheless the Assembly nobly went on with its work.\\nIn the name of liberty it removed all unjust discriminations\\nfrom the dissenting sects, the press and industry. In the\\nname of justice it suppressed the right of primogeniture.\\nIn the name of equality it abolished nobility and titles,\\ndeclared all Frenchmen of whatever religion eligible for\\npublic office, and replaced the ancient provincial boundaries\\nby a division into ninety-three departments. Money poured\\nout of the kingdom with the emigrants, or was above all\\nconcealed through the fear of a rising. The Assembly", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1789-1790.] THE FRENCH REVOLUTIO\u00c3\u008eT 129\\nordered tliat 400,000,000 francs in assignats or paper\\nmoney should be issued, secured by the property of the\\nclergy, which it ordered to be sold. At the same time the\\nlaw ceased to recognize monastic vows. The cloisters were\\ndeclared to be open and the parliaments were replaced by\\nelective tribunals. The sovereignty of the nation having\\nbeen proclaimed, men drew the natural inference that all\\npower ought to emanate from the people. Thus the elective\\nsystem was introduced everywhere. A deliberative council\\nin the departments, districts and communes was placed by\\nthe side of the elective council, as beside the king was\\nplaced the legislative body. And some people were\\nalready of the opinion that in such a system a hereditary\\nking was an absurdity.\\nBut the court did not accept the Constitution. Van-\\nquished at Paris on July 14 and at Versailles on October\\n6, the nobles fled to Coblentz and there openly conspired\\nagainst France. The nobles, who remained with the king,\\nplotted in secret. Louis, who had never a will of his own,\\nlet them do Avhat they liked. In public he accepted the\\ndecrees of the Assembly. In secret he protested against\\nthe violence done to his rights. Such a double game has\\nalways been productive of evil. Nevertheless, there was a\\nmoment when universal confidence reigned. This was at\\nthe Festival of the Federation, offered by the Parisians on\\nthe Champs de Mars to the deputies of the army and of\\nthe ninety-three departments. From November, 1789, to\\nJuly, 1790, in the villages and in the cities, the inhabitants\\nin arms fraternized with the men of the neighboring village\\nor city, all uniting in the joy of their new-found country.\\nThese local federations made common cause and finally\\nformed the great French federation which sent, on July 14,\\n1790, 100,000 representatives to Paris. The king in their\\npresence solemnly swore fidelity to the Constitution.\\nBut nothing came of this festival. Secret hostilities were\\nimmediately resumed between the court and the Assem-\\nbly. The immediate cause of the trouble was the civil con-\\nstitution of the clergy, which, by applying to the Church\\nthe reform introduced into the state, subjected even curates\\nand bishops to election and disturbed the whole exist-\\ning ecclesiastical hierarchy. This was an abuse of power\\non the part of the Assembly, for secular society was not\\ncompetent to regulate the internal organization of religious", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "130 mSTORY OF MODEBN TIMES [a.d. 1790-1791.\\nsociety. The Pope condemned this intervention of the\\nstate in the discipline of the Church and prohibited obe-\\ndience to the new law. The king interposed his veto^\\nwhich he removed only after a riot. But the great ma-\\njority of the clergy refused to take the oath of allegiance\\nto the civil constitution. Then schism entered into the\\nChurch of France. In its train were to come persecutions\\nand a frightful war.\\nThe king, to whose conscience this decree did violence\\njust as violence had been done to his affections by the\\nmeasures which the Assembly forced him to take against\\nthe emigrants, no longer felt himself free. He thought\\nthat he would find that liberty, denied him in the Tuileries,\\nby taking refuge in the camp of Bouille, whence he could\\nsummon Austria and Prussia to his aid. Arrested in his\\nflight at Varennes (June 21, 1791), he was suspended from\\nhis functions by the Assembly. The people on July 17,\\nin the Champs de Mars, demanded his abdication. Bailly\\nordered the red flag to be unfurled and the mob to be fired\\nupon. On September 14, the king, who up to that time\\nhad been detained like a prisoner at the Tuileries, accepted\\nthe Constitution of 1791, which created a single assembly,\\ncharged with making the laws, and left to the monarch,\\ntogether with the executive power, the right of suspending\\nfor four years the expressions of the national will by the\\nuse of his veto. The electoral body was divided into pri-\\nmary assemblies, which appointed the electors, and electoral\\nassemblies which appointed the deputies. The former com-\\nprised the active citizens, that is to say, men twenty-five\\nyears of age, who were inscribed on the rolls of the national\\nguard and paid a direct tax equal to three days labor. The\\nlatter were formed by the proprietors or tenants of an\\nestate, which brought in at least between 150 and 200\\nfrancs. All active citizens were eligible.\\nThe National Assembly ended worthily with expres-\\nsions of liberty and concord. It proclaimed universal am-\\nnesty, suppressed all obstacles to circulation and repealed\\nall exceptional laws, hoping thereby to recall the emigrants\\nto their country. Among its members the most distin-\\nguished were Mounier, Malouet, Barnave, the Lameths,\\nCazal\u00c3\u00a8s, Maury, Duport, Siey\u00c3\u00a8s, and especially Mirabeau.\\nThe last named, had he lived, might perhaps have recon-\\nciled royalty with the Eevolution. It is from Mirabeau", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "A.B. 1791.] THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 131\\nthat we have the beautiful formula of the new era, Eight\\nis the sovereign of the world.\\nThe National Assembly prohibited the reelection of\\nits members to the new assembly. This was an unwise\\nself-abnegation, for the E-evolution needed that its veterans\\nshould hold its standard high and firm above the supersti-\\ntious worshippers of the past and the fierce dreamers of\\nthe future. Thus the way might be paved for the peaceful\\ntriumph of that new state of mind and institutions which\\nhas so often been disturbed and compromised by the regrets\\nof the former and the rashness of the latter. In spite of\\nevery mistake the National Assembly was the mother\\nof French liberties. Its ideas have reappeared in all the\\nFrench constitutions and are now fundamental in the French\\npolitical state.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "132 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 179t\\nXXIX\\nINEFFECTUAL. COALITION OP THE KINGS AGAINST THE\\nREVOLUTION\\n(1793-1803)\\nThe Legislative Assembly (1791-1792). This Assembly,\\nso tame in comparison with its two great and terrible sisters,\\nthe National Assembly and the Convention, began its ses-\\nsions on October 1, 1791, and ended them on September 21,\\n1792. Its leaders, the Girondists, Brissot, Petion, Vergniaud,\\nGensonne, Dncos, Isnard and Valaze, labored to overthrow\\nthe monarchy, although leaving the extremists to initiate\\nthe Eepublic. In consequence the Eepublic was founded in\\nblood which the Girondists might have founded in modera-\\ntion.\\nEffect Outside France produced by the Revolution. The\\nFirst Coalition (1791). To the internal difficulties which\\nthe National Assembly had encountered, the embarrassment\\nof foreign complications was added under the Legisla-\\ntive Assembly. The devolution had awakened in foreign\\nlands numerous echoes of its principles and hopes. In\\nBelgium, in Italy, in Holland, all along the Bhine and in\\nthe heart of Germany, in England and even in distant Eussia,\\nit seemed a promise of deliverance. The French ambassador\\nto the court of the Tsar wrote in his memoirs Although\\nthe Bastile certainly was not a menace to any one here, I\\ncannot describe the enthusiasm which the fall of that state\\nprison and the first tempestuous triumph of liberty excited\\namong the merchants, the tradesmen, the burghers and some\\nyoung men of higher rank. Frenchmen, Russians, Germans,\\nEnglishmen, Danes, Dutchmen, everybody in the streets, con-\\ngratulated and embraced each other as though they had\\nbeen delivered from a ponderous chain which pressed upon\\nthem.\\nThe Swiss historian, von Millier, beheld in this victory\\nthe will of Providence. The philosophers and poets, Kant", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1791.] INEFFECTUAL COALITION OF THE KINGS 133\\nand Fichte, Schiller and Goethe, then thought the same.\\nThe latter said, on the evening of Valmj In this place\\nand on this day a new era for the world begins. Five\\nyears later he again recalled, in Hermann and Dorothea,\\nthose days of sweet hope, when one felt his heart beat\\nmore freely in his breast, in the early rays of the new sun.\\nThus at first the nations sympathized with France, because\\nthey understood that for them also Mirabeau and his col-\\nleagues had drawn up at Versailles the new charter of\\nsociety.\\nBut the princes were all the more incensed against this\\nRevolution which threatened not to confine itself, like the\\nEnglish revolution of 1688, to the country where it had\\nbroken out.\\nAs early as January, 1791, the emperor of Germany\\nhaughtily demanded that the German princes who held\\npossessions in Alsace, Lorraine and Franche-Comt\u00c3\u00a9 should\\nbe secured in their feudal rights. The emigrants found\\nevery facility for collecting troops at Coblentz and Worms.\\nThe Count d Artois kept up with the emperor, according to\\nthe king s own confession, negotiations which had culmi-\\nnated in a secret convention. The sovereigns of Austria,\\nPrussia, Piedmont and Spain, and even the aristocratic rulers\\nof Switzerland, bound themselves to place 100,000 men on\\nthe frontiers of the kingdom (May, 1791). This convention\\nhad determined the flight of the king (June 20). The\\nNational Assembly, moved by apprehension rather than\\ncertain knowledge, had replied by voting a levy of 300,000\\nnational guards for the defence of the territory.\\nAt that time, the various wars in which the Northern\\npowers were engaged, the Swedes against the Russians, the\\nRussians against the Ottomans, the Ottomans against the Aus-\\ntrians, the Austrians against the Belgians, were nearing their\\nend. Prussia had recovered from the anxiety which all those\\narmaments in her vicinity had excited. Austria finally put\\ndown the insurrection of the Belgians, though the hatred of\\nforeign domination survived. The peace of Sistova with\\nthe Ottomans left the Austrian emperor free to act. He and\\nthe king of Prussia had an interview at Pilnitz, where a\\nplan was drawn up for the invasion of France and the res-\\ntoration of Louis XVI. The famous declaration of Pilnitz\\nwas made on August 27, 1791. The Legislative Assembly\\nassumed a haughty tone with these monarchs. If the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "134 mSTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1791-1792.\\nprinces of Germany continue to favor the preparations di-\\nrected against the French, the Erench will carry among\\nthem, not fire and sword, but liberty. It is for them to cal-\\nculate what results may follow this awakening of the\\nnations. Louis XVI transmitted to the Powers a request\\nfor the withdrawal of their troops from the French frontiers.\\nThey maintained the legality of the league of the sover-\\neigns, united for the security and the honor of their crowns.\\nThe king of Sweden, G-ustavus III, offered to put himself\\nat the head of a sort of royal crusade against the revolu-\\ntionists.\\nThus between the two principles the struggle which had\\narisen, first at Versailles and then at Paris, between the\\nking and the Assembly, after the defeat of absolutism in\\nPrance, was about to be continued on the frontier between\\nPrance and Europe. The princes who, like the French\\nkings, had seized absolute power, were unwilling to aban-\\ndon it. They entered into a coalition for the safety of\\ntheir crowns against the political reform which the States\\nGeneral had inaugurated and which they esteemed the com-\\nmon enemy. Thus they were about to enter upon that\\nfrightful war of twenty-three years duration, which for\\nthem, except at the very end, was only one long series of\\ndisasters, but which excited passion as well as heroism, and\\ncovered Prance equally with blood and glory.\\nThe Commune of Paris. The Days of June 20 and August\\n10, 1792. The Massacres of September. The first decrees\\nof the Assembly, after the declaration of Pilnitz, dealt a\\nblow at the emigrants and the nonjuring priests who, by their\\nrefusal to take the civic oath, had become sources of trouble\\nin La Vend\u00c3\u00a9e and Brittany. At first, the king was unwill-\\ning to approve those decrees. The declaration of war, which\\nhe made against Austria on April 20, 1792, was not sufficient\\nto dissipate the fear of secret negotiations on the part of the\\ncourt with the enemy. The rout of the French troops at\\nthe engagement of Quievrain caused the cry of treason to be\\nraised. The constitutional party, which was friendly to the\\nking and had at first predominated in the Assembly, could\\nnot control the municipal council of Paris. A Girondist,\\nPi\u00c3\u00a9ton, was appointed mayor in preference to La Fayette.\\nProm that time forth the most violent propositions against\\nroyalty originated at the city hall. They were repeated\\nand still further exaggerated in the famous clubs of the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1792.] INEFFECTUAL COALITION OF THE KINGS 135\\nJacobins and tlie Cordeliers. They thence spread among\\nthe people by the thousand voices of the press and especially\\nby the journal of Marat, who was beginning his sanguinary\\ndictatorship. The masses did not long resist such appeals,\\nwhich seemed justified by the threats from abroad and by the\\ninadequate measures taken for defence of the territory. On\\nJune 20 the Tuileries were invaded. The king, insulted\\nto his face, was constrained to pat on the red cap. In vain\\ndid La Fayette demand reparation for this violation of the\\nroyal dwelling. He himself was proscribed two months later\\nand forced to quit his army and France. He had been the\\nlast hope of the constitutional party. His flight announced\\nthe triumph of the E-epublicans.\\nThe Duke of Brunswick invaded France. His insolent\\nmanifesto (July 25), threatening death to every armed in-\\nhabitant who should be captured, and the declaration of\\nthe Assembly that the country was in danger, fanned still\\nfurther the popular excitement. France responded to the\\npatriotic appeal of Paris. But with cries of hatred for\\nforeigners were mingled denunciations of the court, the\\nsecret ally of the enemy. On August 10 volunteers from\\nMarseilles and Brittany, the people of the faubourgs and\\nmany companies of the national guard attacked the Tuileries\\nand massacred its defenders. The king took refuge in the\\nmidst of the Assembly, which declared him suspended from\\nhis functions and imprisoned him and all the royal family\\nin the Temple. Four thousand persons perished in the\\ntumult.\\nAs the constitution had been repudiated, a convention\\nwas summoned to draw up a new one. Before it assembled,\\nand when by its approaching end the Legislative Assembly\\nhad finally lost its little remaining authority, a great crime\\nstartled France. The prisons of Paris were forced between\\nthe second and the fifth of September and 966 prisoners\\nwere butchered. Danton had uttered these sinister words\\nWe must terrify the royalists. Audacity Audacity\\nand still more audacity A small body of assassins, sup-\\nported by the Commune, had committed this crime, which\\nthe Assembly and the frightened burghers allowed to be\\nperpetrated and which to the grief and shame of France\\nwas to be repeated.\\nInvasion of France. Befeat of the Prussians at Valmy,\\nSeptember 20, 1792. However, hostilities had begun.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "136 HISTORY OF MODERJSr TIMES [a.d. 1792-1793.\\nThe moment liad been well chosen by the Powers. All\\ntheir wars in the North and the East were finished. Eng-\\nland herself had just imposed peace npon Tippoo Sahib,\\nand had acquired half his states. France was menaced on\\nthree sides on the north by the Austrians on the Moselle\\nby the Prussians, and in the direction of the Alps by the\\nking of Sardinia. The rawness of the troops and the\\nmutual distrust between officers and soldiers in the army of\\nthe North, at first occasioned some disorders, which were\\nspeedily repaired by the capture of several cities. Savoy\\nand Nice were conquered. The Prussians, who had entered\\nChampagne, were defeated by Dumouriez at the important\\nbattle of Valmy and driven back upon the Rhine. Cus-\\ntine, assuming the offensive, seized Spires, Worms and\\nMayence, whose inhabitants regarded his soldiers rather as\\nliberators than as enemies. The attention and forces of\\nPrussia had been again directed towards Poland. She\\ndesired to finish her work of spoliation in that unhappy\\ncountry rather than undertake the dangerous but chivalrous\\ntask of freeing the queen of France. The Austrians, more\\ninterested in the defence of a princess of their blood, inau-\\ngurated at Lille a savage war. Instead of attacking the\\ndefences, they bombarded the city and in six days burned\\n450 houses. Their cruelty was useless. They were forced\\nto raise the siege, while, with the army of Valmy, Dumouriez\\nwon (November 6) the battle of Jemmapes, which placed\\nthe Netherlands in his power.\\nThe Convention (1792-1795). Proclamation of the French\\nRepublic, September 21, 1792. Death of Louis XVI.\\nAt its first sitting the Convention abolished royalty and\\nproclaimed the Republic. On December 3 it decided that\\nLouis XVI must be brought to trial. This decision was\\ncontrary to the Constitution, which declared the king invio-\\nlable and subject to no other penalty than deposition.\\nLouis was condemned in advance. The venerable Male-\\nsherbes solicited and obtained the honor of defending his\\nformer master. A young lawyer, Des\u00c3\u00a8ze, was the spokes-\\nman. I seek in you judges, he said, and I behold\\nonly accusers. He spoke the truth. The situation was\\ndesperate. England was threatening. The Austrians were\\nabout to make the greatest efforts and a coalition of all\\nEurope was impending. Let us throw them the head of a\\nking as a challenge exclaimed Danton. Louis ascended", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "A.D.1793.] INEFFECTUAL COALITION OF THE KINGS 137\\nthe scaffold on January 21, 1793, Men had believed that\\nthe fall of that royal head would create an impassable abyss\\nbetween old France and new France. It was the monarchy\\nrather than the individual which they beheaded. Carnot\\nwept on signing the death-warrant of Louis. Thus the\\nperverted doctrine of the common welfare added another\\ncrime to history. Again men had forgotten that the\\ncommon weal springs from great hearts, not from the\\nexecutioner.\\nThe Eeign of Terror. At the news of the death of\\nLouis XVI the still hesitating powers declared against\\nFrance. All the French were threatened and civil war\\nburst out in La Vendee and Brittany. The Constitution\\neverywhere held its own. Carnot organized fourteen\\narmies. A revolutionary tribunal was created which pro-\\nnounced judgment without appeal and punished with death\\na word, a regret or even the mere name which a man bore\\n(March 10, 1793). The desertion of Dumouriez, who for-\\nsook his army and escaped to the Austrian camp (April\\n4, 1793) increased the alarm and caused revolutionary\\nmeasures to be multiplied. In order that none of those\\nwho were called traitors might escape, the convention\\nabrogated the inviolability of its members. It even re-\\nsigned a part of its prerogatives by creating in its bosom a\\nCommittee of Public Safety, which was invested with the\\nexecutive power. In fact suspicion was rife everywhere.\\nRobespierre firmly believed that the Girondists wished to\\ndismember France and surrender it to foreigners. The\\nGirondists thought that Marat, E/obespierre and Danton\\nwished to make the Duke of Orleans king, then to assas-\\nsinate him and found a triumvirate from which Danton would\\nexpel his two colleagues and reign alone. Each with con-\\nviction attributed to his adversaries the most absurd plans.\\nFrom distrust arose panic, that terrible counsellor, and the\\naxe hung suspended above and striking upon all heads.\\nThis system is called The Terror.\\nThe executioners were dominated by it as much as were\\nthe victims and were in consequence still more merciless.\\nThe party of the Mountain, whose leaders were Marat,\\nDanton and E,obesi)ierre, caused a formal accusation to be\\npassed against thirty-one Girondists (June 2), many of whom\\nhad escaped and were rousing the departments to insurrec-\\ntion. Then Caen, Bordeaux, Lyons, Marseilles, and most", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "138 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1793-1794.\\nof the cities of the south declared against the Convention.\\nToulon with the whole Mediterranean fleet was delivered\\nover to the English. Conde and Valenciennes fell into the\\nhands of the enemy. Mayence, then occupied by Erench\\ntroops, capitulated. The enemy invaded both the northern\\nand southern frontiers. At the same time the insurgents in\\nLa Vend\u00c3\u00a9e were everywhere victorious and another enemy,\\na frightful famine, was added to the general disorder.\\nThe cause of the Revolution, defended by less than thirty\\ndepartments, seemed lost. The Convention saved it by dis-\\nplaying a savage energy. Merlin drew up the law concern-\\ning suspected persons, which cast more than 300,000 persons\\ninto prison. Barr\u00c3\u00a8re declared in the name of the Committee\\nof Public Safety The Eepublic is now only an immense\\nbesieged city. France must henceforth be only one vast\\ncamp. All ages are summoned by the fatherland to defend\\nliberty. The young men will fight. The married men will\\nforge arms. The women will make clothes and tents for the\\nsoldiers. The children will turn old linen into lint. The aged\\nwill have themselves carried to the public squares to excite\\ncourage. Twelve hundred thousand men were raised. Bor-\\ndeaux and Lyons returned to their duty. Bonaparte, then an\\nartillery captain, retook Toulon. The Vendeans were driven\\nfrom the gates of Nantes, and Jourdan, who commanded the\\nprincipal army, checked the allies.\\nAll these achievements were not accomplished without\\nterrible intestine commotions. The nobles and priests, pro-\\nscribed as suspects, perished in crowds upon the scaffolds\\nwhich were erected in all the towns. Carrier, Freron, Collot-\\nd Herbois, Couthon, Fouche and Barras were merciless. The\\nassassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday, who thought\\nthat by killing him she was killing the Terror (July 13),\\nrendered it more implacable. Queen Marie Antoinette, her\\nsister Madame Elizabeth, Bailly, the Girondist leaders, the\\nDuke of Orleans, G-eneral Custine, Madame Roland, Lavoisier,\\nMalesherbes and a thousand other illustrious heads fell.\\nThen the party of the Mountain fell upon one another.\\nRobespierre and Saint Just, supported by the powerful\\nsociety of the Jacobins, first proscribed the hideous parti-\\nsans of the anarchist H\u00c3\u00a9bert and then Camille Desmoulins\\nand Danton, who had suggested clemency.\\nThe KTinth of Thermidor, or July 27, 1794. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Not yet could\\npeace reign among the remnants of the Mountain. Robes-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "A.D.1794.] INEFFECTUAL COALITION OF THE KINGS 139\\npierre was threatening many of the fiercest leaders and sev-\\neral members of the Committee whose dictatorship he wished\\nto destroy for his own advantage. Among them were Fouche,\\nTallien, Carrier, Billaud-Varennes, Collet-d Herbois, Vadier\\nand Amar. On the ninth of Thermidor these men succeeded\\nin decreeing a formal act of accusation against Robespierre,\\nCouthon, Saint Just and two other representatives, Lebas\\nand the younger Robespierre, who demanded the right to\\nshare their fate. One hundred of Robespierre s followers\\nperished with him. Two days earlier, this revolution would\\nhave saved the young and noble Andr\u00c3\u00a9 Ch\u00c3\u00a9nier.\\nSeveral of the men who had overthrown Robespierre had\\nthemselves been extreme partisans of the Terror. But such\\nwas the force of public opinion that they were compelled to\\nrepresent themselves as favorable to moderation. Thus the\\nfall of Robespierre became the signal for a reaction which,\\ndespite some frightful excesses, nevertheless allowed France\\nto take breath. The guillotine ceased to be the means of\\ngovernment. Though the parties still continued for a long\\ntime to proscribe each other, the people at least no longer\\nwere afforded the hideous spectacle of thirty or forty heads\\nevery day falling under the knife.\\nGlorious Campaigns of 1793-1795 After the death of\\nLouis XVI the coalition of Austria, Prussia and Piedmont\\nwas joined by England, who readily improved the opportu-\\nnity to deprive France of her commerce and her colonies.\\nSpain and Naples through family reasons, Holland and Por-\\ntugal through obedience to England, and the German Empire\\nunder the pressure of its two leading states, had also entered\\nit. This was to declare almost universal war against France.\\nDistance for a time prevented Russia from taking part.\\nDenmark and Sweden resolutely maintained neutrality.\\nFortunately for France, Austria and Prussia were mainly\\noccupied by Polish affairs and the invading armies frittered\\ntheir strength away in sieges. Instead of fighting for prin-\\nciples, each hostile country hoped to aggrandize itself at the\\nexpense of France. Thus the English wished to seize or\\ndestroy the French posts in Flanders. The Austrians de-\\nsired the French fortresses on the Scheldt. The Prussians\\ncounted upon seizing Alsace and the S]3aniards aimed at\\nRoussillon. But while the allies wasted three months before\\nConde, Valenciennes and Mayence, and another month in\\npreparation for the siege of Dunldrk, Le Quesnoy, Mau-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "140 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1793-1794.\\nbeuge and Landau, the French volunteers were getting into\\nshape, their armies were being organized and their generals\\nwere gaining experience without losing their dash. At the\\nend of August, 1793, the situation of France, attacked at\\nevery frontier and torn by civil war, seemed desperate. By\\nthe end of December she was everywhere victorious.\\nHouchard had routed the English at Hondschoote, Jourdan\\nhad defeated the Austrians at Wattignies, Bonaparte had\\nrecaptured Toulon, and Hoche had carried the lines of\\nWissemburg. Moreover the tedious Vendean war was\\ndrawing to a close.\\nA few months afterwards the victory of Fleury gave\\nFrance the Netherlands. The Spaniards were driven back\\nbeyond the Pyrenees, the Piedmontese beyond the Alps, the\\nimperialists and the Prussians beyond the Ehine, and dur-\\ning the winter Pichegru fought his way into Holland.\\nThese reverses induced Spain and Prussia to abandon the\\ncoalition. Spain, at the mercy of a shameless court, was\\nappalled at the sound of arms. Prussia needed repose in\\norder to assimilate Poland, which had been finally dis-\\nmembered.\\nEngland, Austria, Sardinia and the South German states\\nremained in line. Russia entered their league and sent her\\nvessels to assist England in starving the French coasts and\\nin building an immense British colonial empire. The sub-\\nsidies from the English aristocracy fed the war and pre-\\nvented defections of the allies. While men aimlessly cut\\none another s throats on the Rhine, the English fleets scoured\\nthe seas and seized the vessels and trading posts of France\\nand of her ally, Holland.\\nOn land the young volunteers had quickly learned how\\nto fight the veterans of Frederick II. But maritime war\\ndemands other tactics and long practice. All the brilliant\\nnaval staff which had combated England in the American\\nRevolutionary War had emigrated. The French fleets had\\nno sea-captains and were always worsted in sea-fight. In\\n1794, Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse, formerly captain of a\\nmerchantman, with twenty-six vessels manned by peasants\\nattacked an English fleet of thirty-eight sail, in order to\\nprotect the disembarkation of an immense convoy of grain.\\nThe convoy passed, a part of France was saved from famine,\\nbut the French fleet lost seven ships. One of them. Le\\nVengeur, rather than strike its flag, went to the bottom, its", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1795.] INEFFECTUAL COALITION OF TEE KINGS 141\\ncrew singing the Marseillaise. Martinique, Guadaloiipe and\\neven Corsica, wMch could not be defended, were seized by\\nthe English.\\nConstitution of the Year III. The Thirteenth of Vend\u00c3\u00a9-\\nmiaire or October 5, 1795. But the Convention, issuing\\nvictorious from the tumults which followed the overthrow\\nof Eobespierre, repealed the democratic Constitution of\\n1793, which had not yet been put in execution, and in-\\ntrusted the legislative power to two councils, the Five\\nHundred and the Ancients. It confided the executive\\npower to a Directory of five members, one of whom was to\\nbe changed each year. At first the Convention had central-\\nized everything. JSTow everything was divided. The legis-\\nlative power was to have two heads, which is not too many\\nfor good counsel, but the executive power was to have five,\\nwhich is unfavorable to action. Thus they hoped to escape\\ndictatorship and to create a moderate republic. The result\\nwas a republic feeble and doomed to anarchy. The local\\nassemblies accepted the Constitution, but disorders broke\\nout in Paris. The royalists, who had so often suffered from\\nsedition, committed the error of employing it in their turn.\\nThey carried with them many companies of the national\\nguard, who marched in arms upon the Convention. Barras,\\nwhom the Assembly had appointed general-in-chief, charged\\nNapoleon Bonaparte with its defence. That fifth of\\nOctober began the successes and assured the triumph of\\nthe young officer, whose astute management overcame\\nthe superiority of numbers. Three weeks later the Con-\\nvention declared its mission at an end (October 26).\\nIn the midst of civil commotions and foreign victories,\\nthe Convention had pursued its political and social reforms.\\nIn order to strengthen the unity of France it decreed\\nnational education. It founded the Normal School, several\\ncolleges, primary and veterinary schools, schools of law and\\nmedicine, the Conservatory of Music, the Institute and the\\nMuseum of Natural History. It also established unity of\\nweights and measures by the metrical system. By the sale\\nof national property it enabled many to become proprietors.\\nBy the creation of the public ledger, it founded the state\\ncredit. By the invention of the aerial telegraph the orders\\nof the central government could be transmitted rapidly to\\nthe very frontiers, and establishment of museums revived\\ntaste for the arts. The Convention wished to have the in-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "142 HISTORY OF MODERIT TIMES [a.d. 1795-\\nfirm and foundlings brought together and cared for by the\\ncountry. The last act of these terrible legislators was a\\ndecree that the death penalty should be abolished after the\\ngeneral pacification.\\nThe Directory (1795-1799). Before it dissolved the Con-\\nvention decreed that two-thirds of the members of the Coun-\\ncil of the Ancients and of the Council of the Five Hundred,\\nshould be chosen from the members of the Convention.\\nThus the latter formed the majority in the Council. They\\nelected as directors Lar\u00c3\u00a9veill\u00c3\u00a8re-Lepeaux, Carnot, Rewbell,\\nLetourneur and Barras. These five directors established\\nthemselves in the palace of the Luxembourg. The situa-\\ntion was difl cult. The local elective councils, which were\\nto administer the departments, the cantons and the com-\\nmunes, were doing nothing or doing it badly. This paraly-\\nsis of authority was compromising all the interests of Ifche\\ncountry. The treasury was empty. The paper currency\\nwas completely discredited. Commerce and industries no\\nlonger existed. The armies lacked provisions, clothing and\\neven ammunition. But three such years of war had devel-\\noped soldiers and generals. Moreau commanded the army\\nof the Rhine and Jourdan that of Sambre-et-Meuse. Hoche\\nkept watch over the coasts of the ocean to defend them\\nagainst the English and to pacify Brittany and La Vend\u00c3\u00a9e.\\nAnd in conclusion, he who was destined to eclipse them all,\\nBonaparte, then twenty-seven years of age, had just won on\\nOctober 5 the command of the Army of the Interior, which\\nhe soon afterwards exchanged for that of the Army of Italy.\\nCampaigns of Bonaparte in Italy (1796-1797). On pla-\\ncing himself at their head, he found his troops pent up in\\nthe Alps, where they were struggling painfully with the\\nSardinian troops, while the Austrians were threatening\\nGenoa and marching on the Var. With the eye of genius\\nBonaparte chose his field of battle. Instead of wearing out\\nhis forces amid sterile rocks where no great blows could be\\nstruck, he flanked the Alps, whose passage he might have\\nforced. By this skilful man\u00c5\u0093uvre he placed himself be-\\ntween the Austrians and the Piedmontese, cut them in\\npieces, defeated them in succession, drove the former into\\nthe Apennines and the latter back upon their capital, and\\nthrust the sword into the loins of the Sardinian army until\\nit laid down its arms. Thus delivered from one enemy, he\\nturned upon the other.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "1797.] INEFFECTUAL COALITION OF THE KINGS 143\\nIn vain did the Austrian Beaulieu, alarmed by his de-\\nfeats at Montenotte (April 11), Millesimo (April 14), Dego\\n(April 15), and Mondovi (April 22), retreat with, utmost\\nspeed. Bonaparte followed him, overtook him and crushed\\nhim. At Lodi the Austrians tried to stop him. The French\\nfought their way across the river over a narrow bridge and\\nwon a magnificent victory. Beaulieu was succeeded by\\nWurmser, Austria s best general, with a larger and more\\nveteran army. It disappeared like the first at Lonato and\\nCastiglione (August 3 and 5), and Bassano (September 8).\\nAlvinzi, who replaced Wurmser, was routed at Areola\\n(November, 1796) and at Rivoli (January, 1797). The\\nArchduke Charles succeeded no better. All the armies\\nand the generals of Austria dashed themselves in vain\\nagainst less than 40,000 men led by a general eight and\\ntwenty years of age. On the flag which the Directory pre-\\nsented to the Army of Italy, were inscribed these words\\nIt has taken one hundred and fifty thousand prisoners,\\ncaptured seventy flags, five hundred and fifty siege guns,\\nsix hundred field guns, five pontoon equipages, nine vessels,\\ntwelve frigates, twelve corvettes, eighteen galleys, has given\\nliberty to the peoples of Northern Italy, sent to Paris the\\nmasterpieces of Michael Angelo, Guercino, Titian, Paul\\nVeronese, Correggio, Albani, Caracci, and Raphael, gained\\neighteen pitched battles, and fought sixty-seven com-\\nbats.\\nWhile these marvellous campaigns of Italy were going\\non, Jourdan had allowed himself to be beaten by the Arch-\\nduke Charles at Wtirzburg, and Moreau, left unguarded, had\\nfound himself obliged to retreat into Alsace. His retreat\\nwas as glorious as a victory; for he took forty days to\\nmarch a hundred leagues without allowing himself to\\nbe attacked. Moreover, the Army of Italy had won for\\nFrance as a boundary that great river which for nearly a\\nthousand years, had separated Gaul and Germany. The\\ntreaty of Campo Formio, signed by Bonaparte (October\\n17, 1797), restored to France the Rhine as her frontier.\\nBeyond the Alps she possessed a devoted ally in the new\\nCisalpine republic founded in Lombardy.\\nEgyptian Expedition (1798-1799). Second Coalition (1798).\\nVictory of Zurich. Austria had laid down her arms but\\nthe English, unassailable in their island, could not consent to\\nallow France so many conquests. Therefore the war with", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "144 HISTORY OF MODERJSr TIMES [a.d. 1798-1799.\\nthem continued. To strike them to the heart by destroy-\\ning their commerce, the Directory despatched to Egypt an\\nexpedition commanded by Bonaparte. From the banks of\\nthe Nile he hoped to reach England in India and over-\\nthrow her empire there. At the battles of the Pyramids\\nand Mount Tabor, he scattered the Mamelukes and the\\nTurks before him. But the loss of the French fleet at\\nAboukir had deprived him of siege guns and caused his\\nsiege of Saint Jean d Acre to fail. After that disaster he\\ncould accomplish nothing important by remaining in Egypt.\\nDestroying another Turkish army at Aboukir, he quitted\\nhis conquest and returned to France.\\nDuring his absence the weakness of the Directory had\\npermitted all the fruits of the peace of Formio to be lost.\\nThe spectacle of French internal disorganization and jfche\\nabsence of Bonaparte with the best French army, which\\nseemed lost in the sands of Egypt, induced the continental\\nPowers to lend an ear to the persuasions of Pitt. As early\\nas 1798 that great and hostile minister began to form a sec-\\nond coalition against France. It was composed of Eussia,\\nwhere Paul I had just succeeded to Catherine II, of that\\npart of Germany which was under Austrian influence, of the\\nemperor, who could not console himself for having lost Mi-\\nlan, of Naples, Piedmont and Turkey. The alliance of the\\nlatter power with France, after lasting three centuries, had\\nbeen ruptured by the expedition to Egypt. The Barbary\\nStates offered their assistance against the nation which\\nseemed to have become the foe of the Crescent.\\nFrance, without either money or commerce, no longer borne\\non by the patriotic impulse of 93 and not yet possessing\\nthe military enthusiasm and strong organization of the em-\\npire, found herself exposed to the most serious dangers.\\nStill the first operations were fortunate Joubert drove the\\nking of Sardinia from Turin, and Championnet proclaimed at\\nNaples the Parthenopeian Eepublic. But the coalition had\\n360,000 soldiers against 170,000 Frenchmen. An Anglo-\\nRussian army landed in Holland. The Archduke Charles\\nvanquished Jourdan at Stockach, and laid siege to Kehl,\\nopposite Strasburg. Scherer at Magnano, Macdonald at Tre-\\nbia, and Joubert at Novi lost Italy, which was invaded by\\n100,000 Austro-Russians.\\nThe victory of Massena at Zurich and that of Brune at\\nBergen saved France from invasion.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1799.] INEFFECTUAL COALITION OF THE KINGS 145\\nInternal Anarchy. The Eighteenth of Brumaire, or Novem-\\nber 9, 1799. At home the struggle between parties was\\nbeginning again with fury, but fortunately with less\\nbloodshed. -After the overthrow of Robespierre the Revo-\\nlution seemed almost desirous of retracing its steps. The\\nemigrants returned in crowds and the royalists showed them-\\nselves everywhere. The condemnation of several hot-headed\\nrepublicans, who preached the abolition of property, and the\\nsuccess of the whites in the elections, thereby giving the\\nmonarchists the majority in the councils, increased their\\nhopes. The pretender, Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI,\\nbelieved that he was on the point of being recalled and was\\nalready formulating his conditions.\\nTo the parliamentary coup d \u00c3\u00a9tat which was preparing, the\\nDirectory retorted by a coup d \u00c3\u00a9tat of the government and\\nthe army. It proscribed two of its members Carnot, who\\nwas unwilling to employ violence against the royalists, and\\nBarth\u00c3\u00a9l\u00c3\u00a9my, who was royalist at heart. It sentenced fifty-\\nthree members of the two Councils to deportation. Among\\nthem were Pichegru, Barb\u00c3\u00a9-Marbois, Boissy-d Anglas, Por-\\ntails and Camille Jordan (September 4, 1797). On May 11,\\n1798, there was another coup d etat, but this time it was\\ndirected against the deputies, called patriots, whose elec-\\ntions were annulled. The legislative body, thus attacked by\\nthe Directory, struck back on June 18, 1799, and three direc-\\ntors were forced to resign. In the Councils, at Paris, in the\\narmies, men talked openly of overthrowing the Constitution,\\nwhich by dividing the executive power compelled it to be\\nby turns weak or violent, but never strong or apparently\\ndurable.\\nThus weary of the anarchy in which a feeble and undig-\\nnified government let her exist, France accepted Bonaparte\\nas her leader on his return from the East with the prestige\\nof fresh victories. Siey\u00c3\u00a8s, one of the directors, who wished\\na new constitution which he had long been meditating to be\\naccepted, thought he had found in the general a useful tool.\\nBonaparte did not deprive him of his illusions, but accom-\\nplished the military revolution of the eighteenth of Bru-\\nmaire, or November 9, 1799, which resulted in the fall of the\\nDirectory and the creation of the Consulate.\\nThe eighteenth of Brumaire was another national day\\ncrowned by an act of violence. Eoyalists and republicans.,\\ngenerals and magistrates, priests and laymen, had employed", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "146 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1799.\\nalternately during the last ten years conspiracies or weapons\\nto modify or overtlirow the law.\\nAnother Constitution. The Consulate. In order to\\nstrengthen the executive power the new chiefs of the state\\nwere reduced from five to three, and their functions were\\nprolonged for ten years. The three consuls were Bonaparte,\\nSiey\u00c3\u00a8s and Koger Ducos.\\nFrom the first Siey\u00c3\u00a8s recognized that he had given him-\\nself a master. Bonaparte rejected his plans and had a Con-\\nstitution adopted, known as that of the year VIII, which\\nplaced in his hands under the title of First Consul the most im-\\nportant prerogatives of authority. The two associate consuls,\\nCambac\u00c3\u00a9r\u00c3\u00a8s and Lebrun, had only the right of consultation.\\nAccording to the new Constitution, the laws, prepared\\non the order of the consuls by the council of state, were\\ndiscussed by the Tribunate and adopted or rejected by\\nthe legislature. The Tribunate expressed its opinions,\\nwhich the government heeded or not as it pleased, concerning\\nexisting or proposed laws, abuses to be corrected, and im-\\nprovements to be introduced. When after examination by\\nthe tribunes a proposed law was submitted to the legislative\\nbody, it was discussed by three speakers from the Tribunate\\nand by three Councillors of state. The members of the leg-\\nislative body had no right to participate in the debate.\\nThey voted in silence.\\nThe Senate, composed of eighty members appointed for\\nlife, was charged with the maintenance of the Constitution,\\nthe judgment of all acts contrary to the organic law, and\\nthe nomination from the national list of all members of the\\nTribunate and of the legislature. All Frenchmen twenty-\\none years of age and inscribed on the public registers were\\nelectors. The electors of each communal district chose a\\ntenth of their number to draw up from among themselves a\\nlist of communal notables, and from this list the First Con-\\nsul selected the public functionaries of each district. The\\nnotables placed on the communal list named a tenth of\\ntheir number to form the departmental list, and from this\\nthe First Consul selected the functionaries of the depart-\\nment. The persons named on the departmental list drew\\nup the national list, which included one-tenth of their num-\\nber, and from which the national functionaries were chosen.\\nAlso from this third list of notables the Senate was to name\\nthe members of the Tribunate and the legislative body.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1799.] INEFFECTUAL COALITION OF THE KINGS 147\\nThus the assemblies which discussed and passed the laws were\\nthe result of four successive elections. This Constitution\\nwas submitted to a plebiscite or popular vote. There were\\ncast 3,011,007 votes in favor of its adoption and 1562 against it.\\nBonaparte was known as a great general. He showed\\nhimself a still greater administrator. His first care was to\\nreestablish order. He himself proclaimed oblivion of the\\npast and endeavored to reconcile all parties. He declared\\nthe former nobles eligible to public office, recalled the later\\nexiles, reopened the churches and permitted the emigrants\\nto return. The country districts were cleared of bandits.\\nIn order to found an administration which should be at once\\nfirm and enlightened, he constituted the departments after\\nthe pattern of the state itself. The departments had been\\nadministered by elective directories over which the central\\npower had little influence, and which worked badly or not\\nat all. He replaced them by a Prefect who depended\\ndirectly upon the Minister of the Interior, and he con-\\ncentrated all the executive authority in the hands of that\\nofficial. At his side he placed the Council of the Pre-\\nfecture, a sort of departmental council of state, and the Gen-\\neral Council, a sort of legislature. The sub-prefect had also\\nhis District Council. The mayor of each commune had a\\nMunicipal Council. Each district or sub-prefecture had a\\ncivil tribunal and for the finances a special receiver. Each\\ndepartment had a criminal tribunal and a receiver-general.\\nTwenty-seven appellate tribunals were instituted over the\\nland. A Court of Cassation or Supreme Court of Appeal\\nmaintained the uniformity of jurisprudence. A commission,\\ncomposed of Portalis, Tronchet, Eigot de Pr\u00c3\u00a9ameneu and\\nde Malleville and often presided over by Bonaparte himself,\\nprepared the civil code, which was discussed by the council\\nof state, and which the legislative body, after full examina-\\ntion by the great judicial bodies and the Tribunate, adopted\\nin 1804, One of the most useful creations of this period\\nwas the Bank of France, which has rendered great services\\nto the country in times of difficulty.\\nMarengo. Peace of Lun\u00c3\u00a9ville and of Amiens. The\\nroyalists, disappointed in their hopes, raised the standard\\nof insurrection in the west. By energetic measures Bona-\\nparte stifled this new civil war. On the frontiers, especially\\nin the direction of Italy, serious dangers menaced the\\nRepublic. The situation of 1796 seemed repeated. Instead", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "148 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1800-1802.\\nof flanking the Alps, as on the former occasion, Bonaparte\\ncrossed them by the Pass of St. Bernard and fell npon the\\nrear guard of Melas who, master of Genoa, was threatening\\nto cross the Var. By the single battle of Marengo he re-\\nconquered Italy (June 14, 1800). This dazzling success and\\nthe victory of Moreau at Hohenlinden forced Austria to\\nsign the peace of Lun\u00c3\u00a9 ville (February 9, 1801).\\nEngland alone, still governed by Pitt the mortal enemy\\nof Prance, obstinately persisted in war. But men s eyes\\nwere opening. They began to see why that one power,\\nwhich gained by the war in which all the other powers\\nwere the losers, refused to lay down arms. The ideas,\\nwhich twenty years earlier had armed against England the\\nnorthern Powers, again made their appearance in the\\ncouncils of the kings. The Tsar, the kings of Prussia,\\nDenmark and Sweden, whose commerce the English were\\nmolesting, renewed the League of the Neutrals (December,\\n1800). England replied by placing an embargo in her\\nports on the vessels of the allied states, and Nelson forcing\\nthe passage of the Sund threatened Copenhagen with bom-\\nbardment. This audacious act and the assassination of\\nPaul I broke up the League of the Neutrals. The new\\nTsar, Alexander I, renounced the policy of his father,\\nand France found herself left to defend the liberty of the\\nseas alone. The capitulation of Malta after a blockade of\\ntwenty-six months and the evacuation of Egypt by the\\nFrench army seemed to justify the persistence of England;\\nbut she was staggering under a debt of over #2,000,000,000,\\nenormous even for her. The misery of her laboring classes\\nproduced bloody riots. For a long time the Bank of Lon-\\ndon had paid out no coin. Moreover the French marine\\nwas springing into new life. At Boulogne immense prep-\\narations were under way for an invasion of England.\\nJust as the peace of Luneville was signed Pitt fell from\\npower. A few months later the new ministry concluded\\nwith France the preliminaries of the peace which was\\nsigned at Amiens, March 2^, 1802. The acquisitions of\\nFrance and the republics which she had founded were\\nrecognized. England restored the French colonies, gave\\nback Malta to the Knights, and the Cape to the Dutch.\\nShe retained only the Spanish Island of Trinidad, and\\nCeylon, which completed her establishment in India.\\nPeace was reestablished on all the continents and on all\\nthe seas. The coalition of the kings was vanquished", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1802.] GREATNESS OF FRANCE 149\\nXXX\\nGREATNESS OP FRANCE\\n(1803-1811)\\nThe Consulate for Life. The treaty of Amiens carried\\nthe glory of Bonaparte to the zenith. For the second time\\nhe had given peace to France. Egypt was indeed lost and\\nan expedition, intended to make the blacks of San Domingo\\nrecognize the authority of France, was doomed to failure.\\nBut those distant misfortunes hardly awakened an echo at\\nhome. They were forgotten as men beheld parties calmed\\nand order reviving everywhere under the firm, skilful hand\\nof the First Consul.\\nHe renewed the powerful impulse imparted by Colbert\\nto manufactures. Commerce was encouraged, the finances\\nwere reorganized, the roads and ports repaired, the arsenals\\nstocked. At Paris he threw three bridges across the Seine.\\nBetween the valleys of the Seine and the Oise he dug the\\ncanal of Saint Quentin. Between France and Italy he\\nopened the magnificent road of the Simplon, and founded\\nhospices on the summits of the Alps. The civil code was\\nbeing discussed under his supervision, and he was already\\nelaborating the project of complete organization of national\\neducation. A marvellous activity and an unprecedented\\nability to labor made him see everything, understand every-\\nthing, do everything. Arts and letters received from him\\nprecious encouragement. For the purpose of rewarding\\ncivil and military services, talent and courage, he instituted\\nthe Order of the Legion of Honor, a glorious system of\\nsocial distinction which the spirit of equality could accept.\\nA stranger to the hatreds of the past ten years, he welcomed\\nthe exiles, recalled the priests, and signed the Concordat\\nwith the Pope. He tried to efface petty animosities and to\\nform only one great party, that of France. Finally, while\\nhe harnessed the Bevolution to his chariot, he preserved its\\nprinciples in his civil code and thereby rendered it im-\\nperishable.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "150 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1803-1804.\\nBut he could not disarm all Ms enemies. Every day-\\nfresh, conspiracies were formed against his life. The in-\\nfernal machine of the Rue Saint Nicaise came near de-\\nstroying his life. In order, as he himself said, to make his\\nenemies tremble even in London, he caused the execution\\nof Georges Cadoudal who had come to Paris to assassinate\\nhim. He exiled Moreau and imprisoned Pichegru, who\\nstrangled himself in his cell. Seizing the Duke d Enghien\\ncontrary to international law at the castle of Ettenheim in\\nthe margravate of Baden, he handed him over to a military\\ncommission which condemned and executed him that same\\nnight in the moat of Vincennes (March 20, 1804).\\nOn August 2, 1802, four months after the treaty of Amiens,\\nhe was appointed consul for life. In order to bring institu-\\ntions into harmony with its new powers, the Constitution\\nwas remodelled. The lists of notables were replaced by\\nelectoral colleges for life, and important changes were made\\nto the advantage of the Senate. Invested with the constit-\\nuent power, this body had the right of regulating by\\nsenatorial decrees whatever had not been provided for in\\nfundamental laws, to suspend the jury and to dissolve the\\nlegislature and the Tribunate. But organic senatorial de-\\ncrees were to be previously discussed in a privy council, all\\nof whose members were to be selected each time by the First\\nConsul.\\nBonaparte Hereditary Emperor (May 18, 1804). Ad-\\nmiration for a transcendent genius, gratitude for great ser-\\nvices, and a crying need of order after so many agitations,\\ncaused these dangerous innovations to be accepted. A few\\nmembers protested in the Tribunate. But the murmurs of\\nDaunou, Lanjuinais, Chenier, Carnot and Benjamin Con-\\nstant, like the opposition of Madame de Sta\u00c3\u00abl and Chateau-\\nbriand, were lost in the splendor which surrounded the new\\npower. Finally the Senate invited the First Consul to rule\\nthe French Republic with the title of hereditary emperor\\nas Napoleon I. The mighty master of France was unable\\nto master himself and to restrain his ambition.\\nMore than three and a half million voters declared in\\nfavor of the empire. Pope Pius VII himself came to Paris\\nand crowned the new Charlemagne on December 2, 1804.\\nTo give the throne which had just been set up the bril-\\nliancy of the old monarchies and to unite under the same\\ntitles the men of the Revolution and those of the old r\u00c3\u00a9gime,", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1805.] GREATNESS OF FRANCE 151\\nNapoleon created a new nobility of counts, dukes and princes.\\nHe appointed eighteen titled Marshals Berthier, Murat,\\nMoncey, Jourdan, Massena, Augereau, Bernadotte, Soult,\\nBrune, Lannes, Mortier, Ney, Davoust, Bessi\u00c3\u00a8res, Keller-\\nman, Lef\u00c3\u00a8vre, P\u00c3\u00a9rignon and Serrurier, with large endow-\\nments in money and lands. Again were seen oE cers of\\nthe court, its great dignitaries, its chamberlains and even\\nits pages.\\nNapoleon was president of the Italian Republic. Hav-\\ning become emperor in France, he became king of Italy\\n(March 18, 1805). That fair country, enervated by a servi-\\ntude of four or five centuries duration and by divisions\\nwhich dated from the fall of the E-oman Empire, was then\\nunable either to defend itself, or of itself to unite. If the\\nhand of France were withdrawn, either Austria would seize\\nit once more or it would fall back again into its eternal\\nrivalries. You have only local laws, said Napoleon to\\nthe deputies of the Cisalpine E-epublic you need general\\nlaws. That is to say, they were only municipalities, hos-\\ntile to each other, and ought to become a state. The unity\\nwhich Napoleon I wished to give the inhabitants by first\\nmaking them French, Napoleon III afterwards assured\\nthem by leaving them Italians.\\nBeginning with 1803 the emperor was Mediator of the\\nHelvetian Eepublic. He took advantage of the right con-\\nferred upon him by this title to give Switzerland a con-\\nstitution which, by maintaining peace between the rival\\ncantons, ultimately led the Swiss to form a real nation with-\\nout destroying local patriotism. Six new cantons, Argovie,\\nThurgovie, Saint Gall, Grisons, Yaud and Tessin, were added\\nto the thirteen old cantons, and all unjust privileges disap-\\npeared. After the proclamation of the empire. Napoleon\\nmade no change in his relations toward Switzerland, but\\ntook many Swiss regiments into his service.\\nThird Coalition. Austerlitz and the Treaty of Presburg\\n(1805). Pitt returned to the ministry on May 15, 1804.\\nThus the war party again obtained the upper hand. In\\nfact England could not bring herself to evacuate Malta\\ndespite her word pledged at the treaty of Amiens, and\\nwithout declaring war she seized 1200 French and Dutch\\nships. Napoleon replied to this provocation by invad-\\ning Hanover, the patrimony of the English king, and\\nby immediately setting on foot preparations to cross the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "152 HISTOBY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1805.\\nStraits of Dover with an army. The American Pulton\\noffered the means for crossing by the steamboat which he\\nhad constructed, but his proposals were refused. England\\nwas in danger. Nelson himself failed against the Boulogne\\nflotilla which, should the tempest drive away the English\\nvessels for a few days or should a calm render them motion-\\nless, was ready to transport 150,000 men on its thirteen hun-\\ndred boats. Admiral Villeneuve with the Toulon fleet might\\nhave protected the passage, but he lacked the daring. Through\\nfearing a defeat in the Channel, he suffered a terrible disas-\\nter a few months later on the coast of Spain at Trafalgar\\n(October 21, 1805).\\nEngland had warded off the peril by dint of gold. She\\nsubsidized a third coalition, which Sweden, Eussia, Austria\\nand Naples entered. Prussia held back and awaited de-\\nvelopments. The emperor was in the camp at Boulogne\\nwhen he learned that 160,000 Austrians, preceding a Eus-\\nsian army, were advancing under Archduke Charles upon\\nthe Adige and under General Mack on the Ehine. He was\\ncompelled to postpone his invasion. Napoleon immediately\\nbroke up his camp at Boulogne, sent the grand army post\\nhaste to the Ehine and, while Massena held back the\\narchduke s vanguard, flanked Mack, shut him up in Ulm\\nand forced his surrender (October 19). Two days later the\\ndestruction of the French fleet at Trafalgar forced him to\\nrenounce the sea, where he could not cope with his enemy.\\nStill he controlled the land and was already planning\\nthe ruin of the English by closing the continent to them.\\nOn November 19, he entered Vienna, and on December 2,\\nhe won the battle of Austerlitz over the emperors of\\nAustria and Eussia. The remnants of the Eussian army\\nreturned to their country by forced marches. Austria at\\nthe treaty of Presburg ceded the Venetian states with\\nIstria and Dalmatia, which Napoleon united to the king-\\ndom of Italy. She also surrendered the Tyrol and Austrian\\nSuabia to the Dukes of Wurtemberg, Bavaria and Baden.\\nThe first two princes he made kings and the third a grand\\nduke. Thus by the cession of Venice Austria lost all\\ninfluence over Italy, and by that of the Tyrol all influence\\nover Switzerland. The proposed cession of Hanover to\\nthe court of Berlin in exchange for Cl\u00c3\u00a8ves and Neuchatel,\\nwas designed to remove Prussia also from the Erench\\nfrontier.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1806.] GREATNESS OF FRANCE 153\\nThe Confederation of the Rhine and the Vassal States of\\nthe Empire. The emperor dreamed of inaugurating a new\\nEuropean system. He wished to be the Charlemagne of\\nmodern Europe. He had conceived a plan of empire which\\nwas not completed until after Tilsit. Still, we may present\\nit now as a whole, so as to escape returning to it again.\\nEesuming the idea which Mazarin had cherished of a\\nleague among the states of western Germany, he organized\\nafter Austerlitz the Confederation of the Rhine. The old\\nGermanic empire was dissolved after a duration of ten\\ncenturies. Francis II, reduced to his hereditary domains,\\nabdicated the title of Holy Roman Emperor to assume that\\nof emperor of Austria. The 370 petty states, which\\nshared among them the German soil and maintained\\npermanent anarchy, were reduced to thirty or forty.\\nThereby the more powerful states were enlarged and some\\nof their princes received from France the name and the\\ndignity of kings. They were united under the protection\\nof Napoleon into a federated state, from which the half-\\nSlav states, Prussia and Austria, were excluded.\\nThe new diet which sat at Frankfort was divided into two\\ncolleges. The College of Kings comprised the kings of\\nBavaria and Wurtemberg, the prince primate, ex-elector of\\nMayence, the Grand Dukes of Baden, Berg and Hesse-\\nDarmstadt. The College of Princes included the Dukes of\\nNassau, Hohenzollern, Salm and others. The nobles, whose\\npossessions were enclosed within the territories of these\\ndivers princes and whom former emperors had favored so as\\nto weaken their greater vassals, were made subject to their\\nterritorial chiefs, and were thus deprived of their sovereign\\nlegislative and judicial rights and of control of police,\\ntaxation and recruiting. Each of the confederated states\\nwas to be absolutely free in its internal government.\\nResolutions in common were taken only with reference\\nto foreign relations. Though successively enlarged, the\\nConfederation comprehended but thirty-four members in\\n1813. Nevertheless Napoleon had made Germany take an\\nimmense step toward unity. For this progress France\\nwas ultimately to pay dearly by the suppression of the\\nDiet of Frankfort and by the establishment of a new Ger-\\nman empire far more powerful than the old.\\nBut for the advancement of civil order in Germany and\\nfor the maintenance of European peace, the idea of inter-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "154 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1806.\\nposing between tlie tliree great military states of Erance,\\nPrussia and Austria a conf\u00c3\u00a9d\u00c3\u00a9ration, wMcli would be slow\\nin action and necessarily pacific and which would prevent\\ntheir frontiers from touching, was a happy combination.\\nIn order to make the plan truly successful, Napoleon should\\nhave left the confederates really independent. By trying\\nto render this Confederation of the Ehine too French, his\\nexactions repelled the Germans of the centre and west,\\nthen friendly to France, toward the northern and eastern\\nGermans from whom it was his interest to separate them.\\nHad the emperor confined himself to his first conception of\\nthe treaty of Presburg and of the Confederation of the\\nRhine, he would have assured for a long time the peace of\\nEurope and the grandeur of France.\\nThe creation of this new state was only a part in. the\\nstupendous plan of bold combinations which his genius had\\nin mind. He made all his own relatives kings and princes.\\nHis three brothers, Louis, Jerome and Joseph, became kings\\nof Holland, Westphalia and Naples. Eugene de Beau-\\nharnais, his stepson, was viceroy of Italy. Murat, his\\nbrother-in-law, was made Grand Duke of Berg and after-\\nwards king of Naples, when Napoleon judged it expedient\\nto transfer Joseph to Madrid as king of Spain. His sister\\nElisa was Princess of Lucca and Piombino, and later on\\nGrand Duchess of Tuscany. His other sister, Pauline, was\\nDuchess of Guastalla. He himself was king of Italy and\\nmediator of Switzerland. His ministers, his marshals and\\nthe great officers of the crown, had sovereign principalities\\noutside France. Thus did Berthier at Neuchatel, Talley-\\nrand at Benevento, Bernadotte at Pontecorvo. Others had\\nduchies in Lombardy, the Neapolitan territory, or the states\\nof Venice and Illyria, without feudal power, it is true, but\\nyet with a share in the public property and revenues.\\nThus dynastic policy replaced national policy. Napoleon\\nwas guilty of the imprudence of j)lacing in one family, but\\nyesterday poor and obscure, more crowns than the ancient\\nhouses of Hapsburg and Bourbon had ever worn. But by\\nthis sudden elevation of all his kindred he thought that he\\nwas serving France even more than his own house. Believ-\\ning in the strength of administrative organization rather than\\nin that of ideas or popular sentiments, he imagined that he\\nwas fortifying his empire by surrounding it with these feu-\\ndatory states, like so many buttresses to support it and", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1806-1807.] GREATNESS OF FRANCE 155\\nadvance posts to guard its approaches. These kings,\\nprinces and dukes, who were renewing royal races in so\\nmany countries, were only prefects of France seated on\\nthrones and wearing the ermine. No one could fail to rec-\\nognize that, under one form or another, half of Europe obeyed\\nNapoleon.\\nJena (1806) and Tilsit (1807). In face of this daily in-\\ncreasing ambition it was inevitable that those powers which\\nwere still erect should do what France had done legitimately\\nin the sixteenth century against the house of Austria and\\nEurope in the seventeenth century against the house of\\nBourbon. That the weaker should unite to repress him who\\naims at omnipotence is a necessary policy. Thus Napoleon\\nwas himself largely responsible if war was always either\\nthreatening or declared.\\nThe cannon of Austerlitz had killed William Pitt. His\\nrival. Fox, a man of larger scope and without the former s\\nhatred for France, succeeded as minister. Napoleon imme-\\ndiately offered to treat. As the restitution of Hanover, the\\npatrimony of the English kings, would be the guarantee of\\na durable peace, he suggested the possibility of this arrange-\\nment. Prussia, who believed that she already held in her\\ngrasp this long-coveted province, was angered at what she\\nconsidered a piece of perfidy. The death of Fox having\\nrestored power to the war party, the court of Berlin com-\\nmenced hostilities. The victories of Jena and Auerstadt\\nbroke the Prussian monarchy (1806). Behind Prussia\\nNapoleon again found the Russians. After the drawn battle\\nof Eylau, he crushed them at Friedland, and the Emperor\\nAlexander signed the treaty of Tilsit which reduced Prussia\\nby a half and gave Finland to Russia (1807).\\nThe Continental Blockade. A few days after Jena Napo-\\nleon endeavored to attack England by promulgating the de-\\ncree of Berlin. It declared the British Isles to be in a state\\nof blockade and forbade all commerce with them. This was\\nan act of reprisal against the maritime despotism of the\\nEnglish. But in order to render it effective it was neces-\\nsary that not a single port of the continent should remain\\nopen to British merchandise. After having closed the ports\\nof Holland, northern Germany and Prussia, he must neces-\\nsarily close those of Eussia and Spain, which was equivalent\\nto rendering himself the master everywhere. The conti-\\nnental blockade was a gigantic engine of war, sure to deal a", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "156 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1807-1809.\\nmortal blow to one of the two antagonists. It was Napoleon\\nwhom it slew.\\nInvasion of Spain (1807-1808). As Portugal refused to\\njoin in the new policy, Napoleon formed an army corps to\\ndrive the English from that kingdom. The court of\\nMadrid was then presenting to the world a pitiable spec-\\ntacle. Ferdinand, the heir presumptive, was conspiring\\nagainst his father Charles IV who was wholly controlled\\nby Godoy, an unworthy favorite, and he in terror besought\\nthe aid of the emperor. Napoleon employed duplicity out\\nof keeping with his strength. He invited the two princes\\nto Bayonne and persuaded the aged monarch to abdicate in\\nhis favor (May 9, 1808). Ferdinand was relegated under a\\nvigilant guard to the castle of Yalen\u00c3\u00a7ay. Charles retired\\nwith a sort of court to Compi\u00c3\u00a8gne. Napoleon wished to\\nresume the policy of Louis XIV and make sure of Spain\\non the south, so as to have full freedom of action in the\\nnorth. The idea was correct, but its execution was unwise.\\nThis attempt to lay hands on Spain was a main cause in the\\nfall of the Empire.\\nThe French troops had already entered Spain. But the\\ncourage of the French soldiers and the skill of their leaders\\nwere of no avail against the religious and patriotic fanati-\\ncism of the Spaniards. In vain did Napoleon win victories\\nand conduct to Madrid his brother Joseph, whom he took\\naway from his throne of Naples in order to make him king\\nof Spain. In that mountainous land insurrection when\\ncrushed at one point reappeared at another. Moreover\\nEngland all the time was furnishing arms, money, soldiers\\nand generals.\\nWagram (1809). Despite the assurances which Napoleon\\nreceived from all the continental powers at the interview of\\nErfurt, the English managed to organize a fifth coalition,\\nwhich forced the emperor to leave his enterprise in Spain\\nunfinished and hasten again to Germany. On May 12, 1809,\\nhe entered Vienna for the second time. On July 6, he won\\nthe sanguinary battle of Wagram, followed by the peace of\\nVienna. Austria lost 3,400,000 inhabitants whom France,\\nBavaria, Saxony, the grand duchy of Warsaw and Russia\\nshared between them.\\nNapoleon then appeared to be at the acme of his power.\\nHis empire extended from the mouth of the Elbe to that\\nof the Tiber. His marriage with the Archduchess Maria", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1810-1811.] GREATNESS OF FRANCE 157\\nLouisa had just secured his entrance into one of the oldest\\nroyal houses in Europe. The birth of a son (March 20,\\n1811), who was proclaimed King of Eome in his cradle,\\nbut was to die Duke of Eeichstadt, was his last gift from\\nfortune.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "158 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1809.\\nXXXI\\nVICTORIOUS COALITION OF PEOPLES AND KINGS\\nAGAINST NAPOLEON\\n(1811-1815)\\nPopular Reaction against the Spirit of Conquest repre-\\nsented by Napoleon. The revolution of 1688 in England\\nremained wholly English, so it did not leave its own island.\\nThe French Eevolntion was cosmopolitan. The memlSers\\nof the Erench National Assembly, not merely solicitous of\\nthe ancient liberties of the country, had the larger idea of\\nrights common to all men united in society. Thus they\\nplaced the Declaration of Rights as a preamble to the Con-\\nstitution of 1791. They thought of humanity no less than\\nof Erance. This largeness of view constituted the grandeur\\nand also the misery of the Erench Revolution. As a result\\nthe new order of things emerged from the past only with\\nfrightful throes.\\nBut the general character of the first Erench Constitution\\nand of the principles of 1789 applied as fully to the banks\\nof the Meuse, the Rhine and the Po, as to the banks of the\\nSeine. Hence this sentiment aided in Erench success. One\\nday the Revolution abdicated its principles into the hands\\nof a soldier of genius. He separated the legacy of 1789 into\\ntwo parts. The one, liberty, he postponed the other part,\\ncivil equality, he undertook to establish everywhere. In\\nthis task he sought the greatness of Erance, but above all\\nhis own. Condemned by the hatred of the English aristoc-\\nracy to an endless war, he forgot in the intoxication of\\nvictory and power his true r\u00c3\u00b4le and assumed that of a con-\\nqueror whose hand brushes aside or reduces to powder every\\nobstacle. Thus at Presburg and Tilsit, Napoleon rearranged\\nthe map of Central Europe according to his will and indulged\\nin dreams even greater than the realities of which he\\nfurnished a specta^cle to the world. The nations, formerly\\nallies of Erance, became for him the pieces on a chess board", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1809.] COALITION AGAINST NAPOLEON 159\\nwherewith he ]played the game solely according to the com-\\nbinations of his own mind. He seized some, he delivered\\nothers, without the slightest heed to those old traditions,\\naffections, or interests which would not change. And he\\nnever dreamed that from the midst of those masses, for a\\ntime inert, a force was soon to spring greater than that of\\nthe best drilled armies, more formidable than those coali-\\ntions of kings which he had already for four times destroyed.\\nThis force was found in the will of men resolved that they\\nwould no longer be treated like cattle which are bought\\nand sold, yoked or separated. Indifferent at first to the\\nfall of their royal houses, the peoples at length understood\\nthat they were the cruelly tried victims of those political\\nconvulsions. They learned that independence is not only\\nnational dignity as liberty is individual dignity, but that it\\nis also the safeguard of personal interests. They learned\\nthat habits, ideas and one s most private feelings are sadly\\nwounded by a foreign master, even though he presents him-\\nself with his hands full of benefits. Then, to defend their\\npolitical conscience, men regained the enthusiasm which\\nthey had possessed three centuries earlier to defend their\\nreligious conscience. It is a painful confession for France,\\nthough none the less too true, that the force which shattered\\nNapoleon and the French state was of the same nature,\\nthough of another order, as that which had shattered Philip\\nII and the Inquisition.\\nPreparation for Insurrection in Germany. After having\\nbroken up a fifth coalition at Wagram, Napoleon thought\\nthat he was more secure than ever. But his arms were no\\nlonger invincible. Junot and even Massena were unable to\\nconquer Portugal and General Dupont signed in 1808 the\\nshameful capitulation of Baylen. The hopes of the enemy\\nincreased and England was confirmed in her resolution to\\nfight to the death, when she beheld hostility against Napo-\\nleon on the part of the government gradually descending\\ninto the hearts of the people.\\nAfter Jena Prussia had given up the struggle. Army\\ncorps capitulated without a combat. Powerful fortresses\\nsurrendered without firing a shot. Nevertheless she was the\\nprincipal instrument of German vengeance against France,\\nalthough her ov/n virtues did not prepare her for that great\\nr\u00c3\u00b4le. Her king, Frederick William, was a mystic and re-\\nplied to those who demanded reforms by saying, I am he", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "160 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1809.\\nwliom Providence has reserved for the welfare of Prussia.\\nBut none of the persons around him and not even he him-\\nself had the conception of anything different from the\\nancient Prussian monarchical system. The number of\\nthose who resigned themselves to the existing condition of\\naffairs was very large. Germans like Stein of Nassau and\\nScharnhorst and Hardenberg of Hanover, who were strangers\\nto Prussia, provoked the regeneration of that country. Baron\\nStein set to work immediately after Tilsit. The sentiment\\nof a common existence must be aroused, said he. The\\nforces which lie quiescent must be utilized. An alliance\\nmust be concluded between the spirit of the nation and the\\nspirit of authority. He abolished serfdom of the soil.\\nHe granted to the peasants the right of holding property\\nand to the cities the right of appointing their own magis-\\ntrates and of administering their own affairs by elective\\ncouncils. He reformed the higher administration in a\\nliberal sense and caused it to be decided that rank and\\noffice, hitherto reserved to the nobles, should form the\\nreward of courage and merit. Scharnhorst, on being ap-\\npointed Minister of War, undertook to elude the article of\\nthe treaty of Tilsit which reduced the standing army of\\nPrussia to 42,000 men. He insisted upon obligatory service\\nunder the flag for all men of an age to bear arms, sending\\nthem home as soon as they were sufficiently trained. In a\\nshort time in this way he prepared an army of 150,000 men\\nwho only awaited the signal of a grand uprising to make\\ntheir appearance on the field of battle. These reforms,\\ninspired by the ideas of 1789, renewed patriotism and created\\na public spirit in Prussia by interesting all classes of the\\npopulation in the public safety. An association, founded\\nby several professors under the title of the Association of\\nVirtue, or Tugendbund, had at first only twenty members, but\\nrapidly spread throughout all Germany where the affiliated\\nwere soon numbered by thousands. Its self-appointed mis-\\nsion was to restore German strength and character. In\\n1809 one of its members, the student Staaps, tried to assas-\\nsinate Napoleon at Schonbrunn. Though proscribed, the\\nAssociation continued to exist in secret. It penetrated the\\ndeepest strata of the population and prepared the way for\\nthe awakening of 1813.\\nProgress of Liberal Ideas in Europe. The resistance of\\nSpain produced a great sensation in Germany. Stein turned", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1809-1811.] COALITION AGAINST NAPOLEON 161\\nto profit every piece of news whicb. readied him concerning\\nthat heroic struggle. Napoleon, a genius of the military\\norder, took little heed of moral forces. He believed in\\nhimself and in his strategic or administrative combinations,\\nand never dreamed that an idea could stand firm against\\nthe shot of cannon. Thus the significance of Stein s re-\\nforms escaped him. He laughed at the minister who in\\ndefault of troops of the line meditated the sublime project\\nof raising the masses. But later on he demanded his dis-\\nmissal and finally in an insulting decree dated from Madrid\\nhe proscribed the said Stein (1809). The insult was\\ndeeply resented throughout the whole of Prussia and Ger-\\nmany. Nevertheless Hardenberg continued his reforms in\\nthe emancipation of the peasants, in securing freedom of\\nindustry for the purpose of stimulating labor and in abolish-\\ning some exceptional laws levelled against the Jews. Not\\nto leave any force unemployed, he created the University of\\nBerlin (1810) whence Eichte was to address his discourses\\nto the German people, and which sent as many recruits to\\nthe insurrection as did the burning poems of Arndt and\\nSchenkendorff, the Death Song of Korner and the Sonnets\\nof Euckert. Then was born in tears, in blood and despair,\\nbut also in prayer and faith, the idea of liberty, the con-\\nsciousness of the fatherland.\\nThus liberal ideas were likewise turning against Prance\\nin Spain and Italy. The Cortes of Cadiz drew up a con-\\nstitution derived from the principles of 1789. It declared\\nthe sovereignty of the nation, the delegation of the executive\\npower to the king and of the legislative power to the repre-\\nsentatives of the country, the responsibility of the ministers\\nand the suppression of privileges in adjusting taxation. The\\nformer king of Naples, who fled to Sicily, gave that province\\na constitution modelled upon that of England. Thus kings\\nand peoples were preparing to fight France with the very\\nweapons which at the beginning of the Revolutionary wars\\nhad ensured the conquest of the Netherlands, Holland, the\\nright bank of the Rhine, Switzerland and Italy. Privileges\\nwere abolished. What still survived of feudalism was re-\\nplaced by free institutions. As Prance now represented\\nmilitary dictatorship, an ancient and worn-out form of\\ngovernment, she was bound, despite the extraordinary man\\nplaced at her head, to succumb in the struggle.\\nFormation or Awakening of the Nations. Prance was", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "162 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1811-1812.\\nnow opposed by two irresistible forces. One force she had\\nherself created. It was that of liberal ideas and of the\\nsovereign rights of the nation with all the consequences\\nwhich flow therefrom. The foundation of the other force\\nshe had provoked by doing violence to the peoples. This\\nforce was the new principle of nationality. Under the\\npressure of French weapons the Spanish insurgents and the\\nmembers of the Tugendbund had recovered the fatherland,\\nto which their ancestors in the eighteenth century had paid\\nso little heed. While they demanded the abolition of un-\\njust privileges, they wished to preserve their autonomy.\\nThus in the mountains of Castile, of the Tyrol and of\\nBohemia, on the banks of the Elbe and the Oder, as in the\\nplains of Brandenburg, this idea of nationality had its birth\\nor its revelation. It renewed history by introducing the\\nquestion of race literature, by investigation of folk songs\\nphilology, by comparison of languages; politics, by the\\nstudy of the interests which result from a common origin,\\na common language and common traditions. It is this idea\\nwhich in our own day has made Italy and Germany into\\nnations.\\nAs early as 1809, when Austria had completed her armar\\nments against France, public opinion in Germany with energy\\ndemanded that Prussia should take part in the war. Scharn-\\nhorst urged the king to this step, but Frederick William dared\\nnot undertake anything so bold. After Wagram he humbly\\nmade reparation to the victor for the premature patriotism\\nof Prussian subjects. Nevertheless the secret movement,\\nundermining the earth beneath the feet of the mighty auto-\\ncrat of the West, was making progress. Many persons\\neven in France discerned the signs of impending ruin. It\\nwas at this crisis that Napoleon undertook the rashest of\\nall his expeditions.\\nMoscow (1812). Leipzig (1813). Campaign in France\\n(1814). To compel Eussia not to abandon the scheme of\\ncontinental blockade he led his armies 600 leagues dis-\\ntant from France, while 270,000 of his best troops and\\nhis most skilful captains were occupied at the other extrem-\\nity of the continent in front of Cadiz and of the English\\narmy under Wellington. On June 24, 1812, he crossed the\\nNi\u00c3\u00a9men at the head of 450,000 men. Six days previous the\\nCongress at Washington had declared war against the cabi-\\nnet of St. James, because English cruisers insisted obsti-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1812.] COALITION AGAINST NAPOLEON 163\\nnately on the right to search vessels engaged in American\\ncommerce. Had the emperor renounced his mad expedition\\nto Russia, had he, as in 1804, centred his forces and his\\ngenius upon the war with England and aided the new ally\\nwho was arising on the other side of the Atlantic, unlooked-\\nfor results might have been brought about. Unfortunately\\nhe trusted in himself alone. At first the expedition ap-\\npeared to be successful. The Kussians were everywhere\\nrouted as at Vitesk, Smolensk and Velutina. The bloody\\nbattle of the Moskva delivered into his power Moscow, the\\nsecond capital of the empire, to which the Eussians set fire\\nas they retreated.\\nTo his misfortune he thought he had secured a peace by\\nhis victories. He waited for it and wasted precious time.\\nWhen he realized that to extort it a second expedition\\nagainst St. Petersburg was necessary, it was too late. It\\nwas impossible to winter in the heart of a ravaged country\\nand he was compelled to retreat. The retreat might have\\nescaped disaster, had not the winter been unusually early\\nand severe, and had not provisions failed. The greater part\\nof the army, all the horses, all the baggage, perished or were\\nabandoned, either in the snows or at the fatal passage of the\\nBeresina.\\nWhile the grand army was melting away, infidelity and\\ntreason against which Napoleon should have provided were\\nbreaking out behind him. He had forced Prussia, Austria\\nand the Confederates of the E-hine to furnish him numerous\\ncontingents. But Arndt, who had taken refuge in Sweden,\\nand Stein, who had fled to Bussia, were inundating Ger-\\nmany with patriotic pamphlets, wherein they called upon\\nthe Germans in the French army to desert, and represented\\nthe Tsar Alexander as the liberator of the nations. Their\\ncounsels were heeded. York who commanded a part of the\\nPrussian contingent passed over to the Russians. Frederick\\nWilliam III at once engaged in a two-faced policy. He\\nassured Napoleon that he was the natural ally of France.\\nHe informed Alexander that he was only waiting for the\\nright moment to join him with all his people. He even sug-\\ngested to Napoleon that everything might be arranged by\\ngiving the kingdom of Poland to the king of Prussia and\\ntrusting him to arrest the aggressions of the Russian power.\\nThis proposition was a treason even to the German father-\\nland, the Vaterland.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "164 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1813.\\nFrederick William believed that such duplicity was re-\\nquired by the circumstances. Therein he continued the\\npolicy of Frederick II, which justified whatever furthered\\nthe success of the Hohenzollerns. But Btilow, who com-\\nmanded another Prussian corps, followed York s example.\\nThen Stein hastened to Konigsberg, the capital of the prov-\\nince of Prussia, which was in full revolt against the king\\nbecause the latter appeared to disavow his generals and still\\nto side with Napoleon. The states of the province organized\\nwar to the death. On February 7 was issued the order\\nconcerning the whole military force of the country, the\\nlandwehr and the landsturm. A population of a million\\ninhabitants furnished 60,000 soldiers. Then, while still\\nnegotiating, the king of Prussia decided to take up arms.\\nNot however till February 28, 1813, did he sign the treaty\\nof Kalisch with Russia. But here again he did not forget\\nthe interests of his house, for he made Alexander guarantee\\nhim aggrandizement in Germany in exchange for Polish\\nterritories. He desired the acquisition of Saxony, which\\nwould strengthen Prussia toward the mountains of Bohemia\\nand fortify his position in Silesia.\\nThe long hesitation of Frederick William was due to his\\nuneasiness at the popular movement incited by his ministers.\\nHe regarded the people as valuable for saving his crown,\\nbut had no idea of rewarding their service by the grant of\\npublic liberty. But he could no longer hold back. He\\nlaunched the appeal to my people, together with an edict\\nfull of warlike fury concerning the landwehr and the land-\\nsturm. The combat to which thou art called justifies all\\nthe means The most terrible are the best Not only\\nshalt thou harass the enemy, but thou shalt destroy his sol-\\ndiers whether singly or in troops. Thou shalt slay ma-\\nrauders. At the same time the lecture-rooms of the\\nuniversities and the churches rang with calls to arms. The\\ngenerals and the ministers in their proclamations were lav-\\nish of promises of liberty. The war of the nations had begun.\\nAfter the passage of the Beresina, Napoleon, who had\\nhastened to Paris, raised another army. But his allies with\\nthe exception of Denmark had turned against him. Sweden,\\nled by a former French general, Bernadotte, had set the ex-\\nample of defection. Austria was waiting for a favorable\\nopportunity to unite her arms with those of the Russians,\\nvictors without a battle. The whole of Germany, under-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1813-1814.] COALITION AGAINST NAPOLEON 165\\nmined by secret societies, held itself ready to pass over even\\non tlie battlefield itself to tlie ranks of the enemy. The\\nbrilliant victories of Llitzen, Bautzen and Wurschen, won\\nby Napoleon with conscripts in the campaign of 1813, ar-\\nrested for a time the action of Austria. But that power at\\nlast forgot the ties which she had formed and the emperor\\nFrancis soon marched to aid in dethroning his daughter and\\ngrandson.\\nThree hundred thousand men assembled at Leipzig against\\nNapoleon s 170,000 soldiers. After a gigantic struggle of\\nthree days duration, aided by the treachery of the Saxons\\nwho in the middle of the action deserted to their side, they\\nforced Napoleon to abandon the field of battle, for the first\\ntime vanquished. He was obliged to retreat as far as the\\nEhine.\\nIn the following year began that memorable campaign in\\nFrance where the military genius of the emperor worked\\nmiracles. But while he was heroically struggling with a\\nfew thousand brave men against combined Europe the royal-\\nists raised their heads and the liberals made untimely\\nopposition to his measures. At that critical moment a\\ndictatorship was needed to spare France foreign invasion,\\nthat greatest shame which a nation can undergo, but men\\ntalked only of political rights and of liberty To many\\nthe enemy seemed a liberator. In vain did Napoleon con-\\nquer at Campaubert, at Montmirail and at Montereau. The\\nallies continued to advance, favored by the desertions which\\nbroke out in all directions, especially in the south, by which\\nroad came Wellington and the English whom Marshal Soult\\nbrought to a temporary halt at the battle of Toulouse.\\nA bold attack on the hostile rear guard might perhaps\\nhave saved France. If Paris could but stand firm for a few\\ndays, the allies, cut off from their communications, would\\nhave been ruined. But Paris, defended only for twelve\\nhours, capitulated (March 30), and the Senate proclaimed\\nthe deposition of the emperor. He himself signed his abdica-\\ntion at Fontainebleau (April 11).\\nThe First Restoration. The Hundred Days. Waterloo\\n(1814-1815). The French princes of the house of Bourbon\\nhad fought in the enemy s ranks. The Tsar, the king of\\nPrussia and the emperor of Austria, finding themselves\\nembarrassed as to the choice of government, were persuaded\\nby Talleyrand and the royalists to recognize Louis XVIII", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "166 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1814-1815.\\nwlio dated his reign from the death of his nephew, the son\\nof Louis Xyi. The white flag replaced the flag of Auster-\\nlitz and France reentered the boundaries of the days before\\nthe Eevolution. She surrendered fifty-eight strongholds\\nwhich her troops still held, 12,000 cannon, thirty vessels,\\nand twelve frigates by the first Treaty of Paris, May 30,\\n1814. In compensation for so many sacrifices Louis XVIII\\ngranted a constitutional charter which created two Chambers\\nwherein national interests were to be discussed. The emi-\\ngrants, who had returned with the princes, were irritated\\nby these concessions made to new ideas. The greed of some,\\nthe superannuated pretensions of others, the excesses of all,\\nexcited a discontent whose echo reached the island of Elba\\nwhither Napoleon had been banished. He thought that in\\nconsequence of the general dissatisfaction he could retrieve\\nhis disasters. On March 1, 1815, he landed with 800 men\\non the coast of Provence. All the troops sent against him\\npassed over to his side. Without firing a shot he reentered\\nParis, whence the Bourbons fled for the second time. But\\nthe allied princes had not yet dismissed their troops. They\\nwere then assembled at the Congress of Vienna, occupied in\\nsettling after their own pleasure the affairs of Europe.\\nThey again launched 800,000 men against France and placed\\nNapoleon under the ban of the nations.\\nIn the meantime the emperor had tried to rally the lib-\\nerals to his side by proclaiming the Act, additional to the\\nConstitution of the Empire, which confirmed most of the\\nprinciples contained in the charter. As soon as he had\\nreestablished order at home, he hastened to march against\\nWellington and Blticher. He defeated the Prussians at\\nLigny (June 16, 1815) and for half a day fought victoriously\\nwith 71,000 men against 80,000 English, Belgians and Han-\\noverians. Wellington was near retreat, when the Prussians,\\nwho had escaped through a fatal combination of circum-\\nstances from Marshal Grouchy, fell upon the exhausted\\nFrench (June 18). The catastrophe of Waterloo was a death-\\nblow to the empire. Napoleon again abdicated in favor\\nof his son, Napoleon II (June 22). Paris for the second\\ntime beheld foreigners enter her walls, pillage her museums\\nand strip her libraries. Napoleon was exiled to Saint\\nHelena in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. There he died\\non May 5^ 1821, after six years of painful captivity.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "Engraved by OMluj., Ulnuiu i Cu., N. V.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1815.] REORGANIZATION OF EUROPE 167\\nXXXII\\nREORGANIZATION OF EUROPE AT THE CONGRESS OP\\nVIENNA. THE HOLY ALLIANCE\\nReorganization of Europe at the Congress of Vienna. The\\nHoly Alliance. Congress of Vienna (1815). The second\\nTreaty of Paris (November 20, 1815) was more disastrous\\nthan the first. A war indemnity was imposed of 700,000-\\n000 francs, not reckoning special claims which amounted\\nto 370,000,000. The foreign occupation was to last five\\nyears. Rectifications of the frontier deprived France of\\nChambery, Annecy, Phillippeville, Marienburg, Sarrelouis,\\nLandau and the duchy of Bouillon, and created in the\\nline of defence the gaps of the Ardennes, the Moselle\\nand Savoy. In Alsace Strasburg was uncovered by the\\nloss of Landau, and the dismantling of Huningue opened a\\nnew road for invasion. On the sea Tobago, Santa Lucia,\\nthe \u00c3\u00aele de France and the Seychelles were lost. England,\\nwhile leaving France her trading posts in India, denied her\\nthe right to fortify them. But some still greater disasters\\nwere escaped. England, through a wise policy unwill-\\ning to shake the throne of the Bourbons, and the Emperor\\nAlexander, on account of his personal sympathy for France,\\nvetoed the plans of Prussia, who was already ambitious of\\nsecuring Alsace and Lorraine.\\nThe Congress of Vienna to regulate European affairs\\nopened in September, 1814. All the excesses with which\\nNapoleon had been reproached were repeated there. The\\nfour sovereigns of Eussia, England, Prussia and Austria,\\nwho had declared themselves the instruments of Providence\\nagainst revolutionary France, remodelled the map of Europe\\nas best profited their own ambition. It resembled a market\\nof mankind. The commission, charged with dividing up the\\nhuman herd among the kings, was greatly troubled by the\\nexigencies of Prussia who demanded 3,300,000 additional\\nsubjects as an indemnity. The Congress even discussed the\\nquality of the human merchandise and gravely recognized\\nthe fact that a former Frenchman of Aix-la-Chapelle or", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "168 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1815.\\nCologne was worth more than a Pole. In order to equalize\\nthe lots they reckoned a number of men from the left bank\\nof the Ehine equivalent to a larger number from the right\\nbank of the Oder.\\nThe agreement of the four Powers removed all difficulties\\nat the expense of the weak. In Germany the petty princes,\\nsecular or ecclesiastical, and the free cities were shared with-\\nout scruple as almost worthless booty. But this trade in\\nwhite men came near rupturing the coalition. Russia and\\nPrussia had come to an understanding that the former should\\nannex the whole of Poland, and the latter in exchange for\\nher Polish provinces the whole of Saxony. Each must\\nfind what suits him, said the Tsar. England, Austria and\\nFrance united in frustrating this plan by the secret treaty\\nof January 3, 1815. The French ambassador, M. de Talley-\\nrand, succeeded in saving the king of Saxony. At the same\\ntime he ruined France by proposing to annex to Prussia in\\nexchange for the Saxon provinces which she specially de-\\nsired the Phenish provinces for which she cared less. Later\\nFrench misfortunes sprang from this substitution.\\nPussia received the greater part of the grand duchy of\\nWarsaw, together with western Galicia and the circle of\\nZamosk. Austria gained the Venetian states, Pagusa, the\\nvalleys of the Valtelina, Bormio and Chiavenna. Also\\nSaltzburg and the Tyrol were restored to her. Prussia ac-\\nquired the duchy of Posen, Swedish Pomerania, West-\\nphalia and 700,000 inhabitants in Saxony. England asked\\nnothing on the continent. The electorate of Hanover\\nwith increased territory was restored to her royal family.\\nMoreover she might well be content with retaining the\\nacquisitions made in every sea in the struggle against\\nthe R\u00c3\u00a9volution and the Empire. She retained Heligoland,\\nopposite the mouth of the Elbe and the Weser; the pro-\\ntectorate of the Ionian Isles at the entrance to the Adriatic\\nMalta, between Sicily and Africa Santa Lucia and Tabago\\nin the Antilles the Seychelles and the \u00c3\u00aele de France in the\\nIndian Ocean, and finally Ceylon and the Dutch colonies of\\nthe Cape of Good Hope.\\nFrance, relatively weaker as the power of the four great\\nstates increased, still seemed formidable enough to render\\nprecautions necessary against her even along her exposed\\nfrontiers. The coalition shrewdly established its advance\\nposts. On the north it united Belgium and Holland into", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1815.] BEORGANIZATION OF EUROPE 169\\none kingdom under tlie Prince of Orange. On tlie north-\\neast was the Ehenish country, the larger part of which was\\nassigned to Prussia, while the remainder was divided between\\nHolland, Hesse-Darmstadt and Bavaria. The latter was\\nformerly the ally but now about to become the enemy of\\nFrance. Finally on the south the restoration of Savoy to\\nthe king of Piedmont placed Lyons, the second capital of\\nFrance, within two days of the armies of the coalition.\\nThe most difficult problem had been to reconstitute the\\nConfederation of the E/hine, which was directed against\\nFrance as the Germanic Confederation. Long and violent\\ndebates arose on this subject in the Congress, where the\\npetty states made energetic efforts to preserve their in-\\ndependence. The advocates of German union, including\\nPrussia, wished to reestablish the ancient German Empire.\\nAustria dared not resume the ancient crown of the Haps-\\nburgs. The kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg were re-\\nsolved that the crowns which Napoleon had placed on their\\nheads should not fall. Already, when the extinction of\\nSaxony was discussed, Bavaria had promised M. de Talley-\\nrand 30,000 men if France, joining Austria and England,\\nwould drive Prussia into Brandenburg and Bussia beyond\\nthe Vistula. Wurtemberg, Hanover, Baden and Hesse ad-\\nvocated the same project. It was agreed that the empire,\\ndestroyed in 1806, should not be set up again.\\nWhen the news of Napoleon s return from Elba arrived,\\na hut was constructed in all haste to shelter Germany\\nduring the storm, a miserable refuge, which the princes them-\\nselves destroyed later on. This Confederation, of which a\\nGerman diplomat spoke with such contempt, was to consist\\nof thirty-nine states, which were to send deputies to Frank-\\nfort to a Diet, over which Austria was always to preside.\\nThis Diet was to be composed of two assemblies. The\\nfirst or ordinary assembly numbered seventeen votes, that is\\nto say, one vote for each of the great Confederates and one\\nalso for each group into which the petty states had been col-\\nlected. In the general assembly each Confederate had a\\nnumber of votes proportioned to its importance. The\\nformer assembly was to settle current affairs the latter was\\nto be convoked whenever a question arose concerning funda-\\nmental laws or important interests of the federal act. The\\nConfederates were to retain their sovereign independence,\\ntheir armies and their diplomatic representation. But th\u00c3\u00a7", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "170 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1815.\\nConfederation was also to have its own army and to hold the\\nfortresses which were built with the indemnity paid by\\nFrance. Thus Luxemburg, Mayence and Landau were to\\ncut off from France the approach to the E-hine, just as Kas-\\ntadt and Ulm could prevent a French advance to the Black\\nForest or the valleys of the Danube.\\nIn Switzerland, Geneva and Yaud were enlarged at French\\nexpense by a part of the country of Gex and some com-\\nmunes in Savoy. Valais, Greneva and Neuchatel were\\nadded to the nineteen original cantons and formed the Hel-\\nvetii confederation, which the Congress declared neutral\\nterritory. In Italy the king of the Two Sicilies and the Pope\\nrecovered what they had lost, but Austria again became all\\npowerful in the peninsula. Mistress of Milan and Venetia,\\nshe made sure of the right bank of the Po through the right\\nof placing a garrison in Placentia, Ferrara and Comacchio.\\nShe had enthroned an archduke in Tuscany, and had stipu-\\nlated that the duchies of Parma, Placentia and Guastalla,\\nceded for life to the ex-Empress Marie Louise, and the\\nduchy of Modena, given to an Austrian prince, should revert\\nto the Austrian crown. Moreover the king of Piedmont,\\nalthough he had received Genoa and Savoy, was exposed on\\nthe Tessin border and seemed at the mercy of his formida-\\nble neighbor.\\nIn the north of Europe Sweden, in compensation for Fin-\\nland which had been taken by Russia, received Norway\\nwhich was taken from Denmark. Denmark in turn was to\\nhave in compensation Swedish Pomerania and Btigen. But\\nPrussia, implacable against the little Danish state which\\nalone had been always faithful to France, forced her to ex-\\nchange these countries for Lauenburg. This duchy like\\nthat of Holstein was only the personal domain of the king,\\nwho through his possession of these two German provinces\\nbecame a member of the Germanic Confederation, that is, of\\na state organized against France. Denmark experienced\\nlater the effect of these artificial combinations.\\nThe Holy Alliance (1815). The stipulations of the Con-\\ngress of Vienna (June 9, 1815) constituted the most impor-\\ntant act which diplomacy had effected in Europe since the\\nconclusion of the peace of Westphalia. The sovereigns of\\nRussia, Austria and Prussia undertook to give it religious\\nconsecration. On September 14, 1816, under the inspira-\\ntion of the Tsar Alexander, they signed at Paris the Treaty", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1815.] REORGANIZATION- OF EUROPE 171\\nof the Holy Alliance, wherein they asserted in the face of\\nthe universe their unalterable determination to take as their\\nrule of conduct, both in the administration of their respec-\\ntive states and in their political relations with every other\\ngovernment, only the precepts of the Christian religion,\\nprecepts of justice, charity and peace. In consequence\\nthey bound themselves, in the first article, to regard each\\nother as brethren, in the second, to display to one\\nanother an unalterable good-will, considering themselves\\ndelegated by Providence to govern three branches of one\\nand the same family, to wit, Austria, Prussia and Russia,\\nto form but one Christian nation, which should have for its\\nsovereign Him to Whom alone power belongs as His pos-\\nsession, because in Him are found all the treasures of love,\\nof knowledge and of infinite wisdom. The kings of con-\\nstitutional countries could not sign the Treaty of the Holy\\nAlliance, but in all lands a party upheld its principles.\\nThus was crowned by a mystical and sentimental act the\\nmost self-seeking work of politics. These words, justice\\nand love, present a singular contrast to the real state of\\nthings. Public right, said Hardenberg, is useless to\\nwhich Alexander added, You are always talking to me of\\nprinciples. I do not know what you mean. What, think\\nyou, do I care for your parchments and your treaties?\\nHowever, it was at the Congress of Vienna that Talleyrand\\ninvented the word legitimacy. That city, where so many\\njealousies were in conflict and where so little consideration\\nwas paid the wishes and the true interests of kings and\\nnations, was a strange cradle for any idea of rights.\\nIn order to satisfy political requirements Belgium had\\nbeen yoked with Holland much against her will, and Italy\\nhad been handed over to Austria. Thus the way was paved\\nfor insurrection in the Netherlands and the peninsula.\\nPoland, dismembered, remained a perpetual cause of conflict\\nbetween the three brother monarchs. And lastly, by\\nforgetting the liberal promises made to the peoples in order\\nto stir them up against Napoleon, the spirit of revolt was\\ndestined soon to shake that edifice so laboriously erected\\nand of which at the present time nothing remains.\\nThe Germanic Confederation seemed fitted, it is true, to\\nassure continental peace by separating the three great mili-\\ntary states of Prussia, Austria and France. The temporiz-\\ning German character seemed interposed between three", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "172 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1815.\\ncountries accustomed to rapid action: between Russia,\\nwliicli utilizes to the utmost ideas of race and religion;\\nEngland, which obeys the commercial spirit; and France,\\nwhich is prone to move with sudden and hasty impulse. As\\nthe Germany of 1815 was built on perpetual compromises,\\nit represented in European affairs the genius of compromise,\\nwhich is that of diplomacy. To fully render this service to\\nthe peace of the world, of necessity the Confederation should\\nhave been organized for defence and not for attack, and\\nshould have been independent both of Berlin and Vienna.\\nBut the rivalries and antagonisms of the two were to keep\\nthe Confederation in constant anxiety and turmoil and to\\ncease only when one should be able to expel the other.\\nIn 1815 the preponderance in Europe seemed for a long\\ntime assured to Russia and England, the two powers which\\nhad been invulnerable even to the sword of Napoleon.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1815.] THE HOLY ALLIANCE 173\\nXXXIII\\nTHE HOLY ALLIANCE. SECRET SOCIETIES AND\\nREVOLUTIONS\\n(1815-18\u00c3\u008e54)\\nCharacter of the Period between 1815 and 1830. As the\\nNational Assembly of 1789 paid more heed to ideas than\\nto facts, a course which philosophy always pursues but\\nwhich politics never does, it had revived and applied to\\nvast multitudes such principles of political liberty and civil\\nequality as had seldom been realized except in small cities\\nand tribes. Unfortunately society, like an individual, can\\nnever carry two ideas to victory at the same time. Equal-\\nity, inscribed in the Code Napol\u00c3\u00a9on, very quickly passed\\ninto the national character, and the Erench soldiers carried\\nits fruitful germ throughout all Europe. The Terror, civil\\ndiscords and the ambition of a great man postponed the\\ntriumph of civil liberty. None the less the spirit of liberty\\namong many European peoples united with the sentiment\\nof nationality and added strength to the forces which threat-\\nened Napoleon. But the victors of Leipzig and Waterloo\\nhad no idea of giving it a place in the national law. They\\ncombined on the contrary to fetter what they called revo-\\nlutionary passion, but what was only, if we eliminate its\\nexcesses and crimes, a new and legitimate evolution of hu-\\nmanity. The struggle which they engaged against the new\\nspirit forms the principal interest of the drama unrolling\\nbetween 1815 and 1830.\\nIn this drama, on which side was justice and consequently\\nthe right to life and success This is the question which\\nmust be put in front of every great social conflict. Setting\\naside commonplace accusations of hypocrisy and obstinacy,\\nof fondness for disorder and search for Utopias, there always\\nremains the inevitable battle between an old society, which\\nis unwilling to die, and a new society, which persists in\\nmaking a place for itself in the world and which deserves\\nto have one.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "174 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1815-1824.\\n_ Unfortunately this struggle was envenomed by passions\\nwhich impelled one party to cruel acts of violence and the\\nother to criminal conspiracies. The golden mean would\\nhave been attained by following the example of England in\\n1689. Thus the spirit of conservatism would have been\\nretained from the past but vivified for the satisfaction of\\nnew needs by the spirit of progress, which absolute royalty\\nhad formerly favored but which in the nineteenth century\\ncould be favored only by liberty. Louis XVIII, whom a\\nlong residence in England had enlightened as to the ad-\\nvantages of representative government, might perhaps have\\nmanaged to effect this miracle in France. He saw plainly\\nthat the country was divided into two camps armed against\\neach other, and he understood that a wise and prudent policy\\nalone could unite them. One must not, he said to his\\nbrother, the Count d Artois, who had become the leader of\\nreaction, one must not be the king of two peoples. All\\nmy efforts are directed to the end of there being but one\\npeople. This sagacity did not suit the violent. Its appli-\\ncation was rendered impossible by the Holy Alliance through\\na system of stern repression which excited revolutionary\\nactivity throughout all Europe.\\nMoreover the misfortunes of that period sprang from the\\nfatal idea contained in the word restoration. To some,\\ntaken literally, it seemed a threat, to others a promise. It\\nbecame both the war-cry of those whom the return of abuses\\nalarmed, and the countersign of the new crusaders who were\\nready to set out to battle for God and the king, that\\nis to say for the re\u00c3\u00abstablishment of ancient privileges. In\\npolitics one changes by going forward but restores nothing\\nby going back, for society in modern nations is composed of\\nelements so mobile and variable that the generations follow\\nbut do not resemble each other.\\nEfforts to preserve or reestablish the Old R\u00c3\u00a9gime.\\nPeculiar Situation of France from 1815 to 1819. The\\nEevolution of 1789, undertaken to secure for the individual\\nthe greatest sum of liberty, had on the contrary increased\\nthe strength of the government in the countries where it\\ntemporarily triumphed, as well as in those which felt only\\nits counter-shock. Twenty-three years of war trained the\\npeople to furnish more liberally their tribute of blood and\\ntheir tribute of money. They paid more and conscription\\nor voluntary service took the place of voluntary enlistment.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1815-1824.] THE HOLT ALLIANCE 175\\nMoreover administrative authority, formerly dispersed\\namong many intermediate bodies, had reverted to the\\nprince, and an energetic centralization had restored to his\\nhands all the national forces.\\nThus the paternal governments were stronger in 1815\\nthan in 1789. They had larger resources to enforce obedi-\\nence. They found in their path fewer of those traditional\\nobstacles which seem so fragile and which are sometimes so\\nunyielding. Leipzig and Waterloo made them the masters\\nof the world. They insisted upon so organizing their con-\\nquest as to restore order. It soon seemed to them that this\\norder could be assured only on condition of arresting all\\nmovement, that is to say, of stifling the new life which was\\nfor them, according to the expression of Frederick William\\nIV, only the contagion of impiety. Victorious over the\\nRevolution by virtue of arms, they wished to be victorious\\nalso by virtue of institutions and by inflexible severity.\\nSome clever persons even believed that popular passions\\nrendered useful service to the absolute cause, and in certain\\nplaces persecution of the liberals was inaugurated by throw-\\ning the populace on their scent.\\nAt Palermo and Madrid the Constitutions of 1812 were\\nabolished and absolute power was restored. At Milan the\\nAustrian Code replaced the French Code and cannon, trained\\nwith lighted fuses on the public square, indicated what\\nsystem of government was being reestablished. The States\\nof the Church and Piedmont returned to the same situation\\nas in 1790. The institutions of Joseph II in Austria, of\\nLeopold I in Tuscany and of Tanucci at Naples were con-\\ndemned as mischievous. In order to prevent the return of\\nthose reforms, more abusive than the abuses themselves,\\na secret article of the treaty, signed at Vienna on June 12,\\n1815, by Frederick IV, stated, It is understood that the\\nking of the Two Sicilies, in reestablishing the government\\nof the kingdom, will tolerate no changes which cannot be\\nreconciled with the principles adopted by his Imperial and\\nE-oyal Apostolic Majesty for the internal management of\\nhis Italian possessions. Then too, south of the Alps and\\nof the Pyrenees, the privileges of the clergy and nobility\\nwere revived and the Inquisition flourished once more,\\nwhile the friends of public liberty set out on the road to\\nexile, to prison and even the scaffold.\\nIn Germany the princes forgot their promises of 1813,", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "176 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1815-1824\\nexcept in Bavaria and a few petty states belonging to the\\nancient Confederation of the Ehine. As for Austria and\\nPrussia, it seemed as if nothing had taken place in the\\nworld during a quarter of a century. In both the patri-\\narchal system was maintained, defended by 300,000 soldiers\\non the Danube and 200,000 on the Spree, and also by the\\nimmense army of functionaries. Even a Prussian league\\nof nobles was formed to maintain the distinction of classes\\nand feudal immunities. The Tories continued to govern\\nEngland in the interest of the aristocracy. The royalists\\nof Erance would have gladly reorganized everything in the\\nsame way for the advantage of the great proprietors and of\\nthe clergy. In the Chamber of Deputies under the leader-\\nship of La Bourdonnaye, Marcellus and Vill\u00c3\u00a8le, men talked\\nopenly of returning to the old r\u00c3\u00a9gime even by a bloody\\npath. The emigrants of Coblentz and the fugitives of\\nGhent were determined to have their revenge for their two\\nexiles. In the official world they obtained it by means of\\nlaws and decisions which were often dictated by passion,\\nand among the masses, by means of murders which the\\nauthorities dared not or could not prevent or punish. A\\nroyal ordinance proscribed fifty-seven persons. Marshal\\nNey and several generals were condemned to death and\\nshot. Marshal Brune and Generals Eamel and Lagarde\\nwere assassinated. The provosts courts, from which there\\nwas no appeal and the sentences of which were executed\\nwithin twenty-four hours, deserved their sinister reputation.\\nThe restored monarchy had its prison massacres, its terror,\\nwhich was called the White Terror, its executioners and its\\npurveyors of victims who rivalled those of the Convention.\\nIn Spain and in Italy there were the same excesses. Fer-\\ndinand VII at Madrid imprisoned, exiled and condemned to\\ndeath jealous partisans of the Constitution of 1812. At\\nNaples the Calderari, or coppersmiths, who had been pitted\\nagainst the Carbonari, pillaged and assassinated on behalf\\nof the Minister of Police, the Prince di Canosa, whose\\ndeeds of violence went so far that the allied kings, fearing\\nserious troubles, demanded his removal.\\nLouis XVIII was also disturbed by the excessive zeal of\\nhis dangerous friends, more royalist than the king himself.\\nBy the ordinance of September 6, 1816, which the extrem-\\nists called a coup d \u00c3\u00a9tat, he dismissed the ultra-royalist\\nChamber. This measure was in accordance with public", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1815-1824.] THE HOLY ALLIANCE 177\\nsentiment, for France was by no means exclusively com-\\nposed of reactionaries. In spite of her misfortunes she\\nshowed remarkable vitality. Furthermore the ideas of\\n1789, grafted in part on the civil code, had maintained a\\nliberal spirit in the country in advance of the rest of Europe.\\nIn the Charter granted by Louis XVIII the idea of national\\nsovereignty was greatly obscured by vestiges of the theory\\nof divine rights. But offices were no longer sold, or lettres\\nde cachet issued, or secret procedure indulged in. Justice\\ndid not depend upon the ruling power. The treasury be-\\nlonged to the nation. The laws were discussed by repre-\\nsentatives of the country instead of being made by the\\nsovereign. The publicity of debate furnished a powerful\\nguarantee for the impartiality of the judge and the wisdom\\nof the legislator, over whose actions and votes public opinion\\nkept watch. Thanks to the wisdom of the sovereign, the\\nera of representative government really began for France\\nat the time when it was disappearing in Spain and Italy\\nand when the German princes were evading the execution\\nof article thirteen of the Federal Compact which promised\\nit to their peoples. Thus, although 150,000 foreigners\\nstill occupied the French provinces, all eyes remained\\nfixed upon this country, where the new era had first\\ndawned and where it seemed on the point of reviving.\\nAlliance of the Altar and the Throne. The Congregation.\\nBut this return to the wise ideas of the first National\\nAssembly did not suit the calculations of the clergy, the\\nnobility, the adherents of right divine and the privileged\\nclasses of all sorts, who, for the sake of combating a social\\norder contrary to their habits of mind and existence, em-\\nployed every weapon. Beligion was the special weapon\\nwhich seemed bound to be most efficacious.\\nThe considerations of the princes were mainly temporal.\\nAlthough they had concluded a holy alliance, religion was\\nin their eyes only the tool of politics. But the papacy,\\nwhich had also just recovered its territorial power, took\\nalarm at the state of men s minds. Philosophy, the sciences\\nand liberty of thought seemed to it far more to be dreaded\\nthan Luther and Calvin. It wished on behalf of the Church\\nto take part in the campaign upon which the kings had\\nentered for the sake of maintaining royal power. The\\nB/Oman curia became the resolute, implacable adversary of\\nthat modern spirit which is destined to triumph, since it is", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "178 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1815-1824.\\nonly the necessary and divine development of hnman reason\\nand conscience. With, each generation Kome enlarged her\\nclaimsj the final word of which has been uttered in our own\\nday in the Syllabus and in papal infallibility.\\nThose who in the sixteenth century had been her ablest\\nauxiliaries against the Reformation offered her their con-\\nsistent aid. The Jesuits, whose order, half a century before\\nPope Clement XIY had declared abolished, had just been\\nreestablished by Pius YII (1814). From Rome they rapidly\\nspread over the Catholic world, especially through France\\nwhere, although not yet legally recognized, they were\\nalways more numerous than elsewhere. They displayed\\nagainst the new enemy the same skill which they had mani-\\nfested after the Council of Trent. Their deservedly famous\\nmissions brought about many conversions. But the Jesuits\\nthen inspired zealous Roman Catholics and most of the clergy\\nwith such distrust as prevented their being intrusted with\\nthe education of the young. The superintendence of the\\nhigher schools in France was committed to the bishops.\\nThis they had already secured in the other Catholic coun-\\ntries. After the fall of the Directory a reaction had sprung\\nup in France against the irreligious spirit of the eighteenth\\ncentury. This reaction spread through all European coun-\\ntries, Chateaubriand with his Genius of Christianity being\\nits most brilliant exponent. At his side stood a logician,\\nDe Bonald, with his Primitive Legislation, and De Maistre,\\na savage Bossuet, a man of passionate eloquence and of\\nuncompromising disposition. These two, full of mediaeval\\ntheories, dreamed of such a triumph for the ideas of Gregory\\nVII as that tireless old man had never been able to secure\\nhimself. Because Chateaubriand, De Bonald and De Maistre\\nwere not priests, but laymen, they drew the more attention.\\nAn audacious priest, Lamennais, wrote the Essay on Indif-\\nference and aimed at governing the world by papal infalli-\\nbility. A society was formed to put in practice the ideas\\nof Count de Maistre and to subject Italy at least to that\\ntheocratic government of which the Pope was to be the head.\\nIn the sixteenth century in one-half of Europe the inter-\\nests of the princes and of Rome were opposed. Religious\\nparties were even at times revolutionary parties. Thus the\\nLeague desired the commune, the Protestant gentlemen of\\nFrance aimed at ridding themselves of royalty, and the Ana-\\nbaptists declared war on society as a whole. After 1815", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1815-1824.] THE HOLY ALLIANCE 179\\npolitics and religion were everywhere in accord, even in\\nProtestant monarchies, where the civil authorities sought\\nalliance with the religious spirit. Poets, as in the early\\nOdes of Victor Hugo and the M\u00c3\u00a9ditations of Lamartine,\\nsang the majesty of worship and the sweetness of pious sen-\\ntiments. Philosophers erected theocracy into a system.\\nPoliticians wished to restore to the clergy its landed pos-\\nsessions, together with its civil power. Writers of all sorts\\nfurbished up a fantastic revival of the Middle Ages, peo-\\npled with brilliant cavaliers and fair and high-born ladies,\\nwith mighty kings and well-obeyed priests who together\\ngoverned virtuous and disciplined populations. Society,\\nwhich was profoundly moved by these various influences,\\nespecially in its upper classes, readily lent itself to the\\norganization, for the defence of the altar and the throne,\\nof a secret body, the Congregation. This association num-\\nbered in France as many as 50,000 members, lay and\\necclesiastical. Finally, in the last years of the Restoration,\\nit controlled the government and the king and ended by\\noverthrowing both.\\nThe focus of this religious expansion was the very coun-\\ntry where philosophy had reigned supreme. The phenome-\\nnon however was universal. In all churches fervor had\\nredoubled. The Methodists in England and the United\\nStates, the Moravian Brethren, the Pietists in Germany and\\nSwitzerland, reawoke the iconoclastic zeal of the sixteenth\\ncentury. Bible Societies found themselves possessed of\\nsufficient funds to distribute gratuitously between 1803 and\\n1843, 12,000,000 Bibles. Madame Krtidener won over to her\\nmystical ideas the Tsar Alexander, who expelled the Jesuits,\\nbut declared himself the protector of an association formed\\nfor the purpose of diffusing the New Testament among all\\nthe peoples of his empire. The Russian Princess Galitzin\\nreturned to the communion of Pome and her son became a\\nmissionary to the Indies. A Dane of almost royal blood,\\nthe Count von Stolberg, who had abjured Protestantism,\\nwrote (1806-1818) a history of the Roman Church, so favora-\\nble to the Holy See, that the Roman propaganda made haste\\nto translate and publish it in Italian. In Switzerland a\\ngrandson of the great Haller declared himself a Catholic\\nand became the disciple of De Bonald. The most ancient\\nuniversity of England was agitated by the Oxford\\nMovement.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "180 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1815-1824:.\\nOne special attempt was made, not destitute of grandeur,\\nif grandeur can attach in human affairs to undertakings\\ncondemned in advance to failure by their very nature. The\\nprotectorate over Protestant interests in Germany had be-\\nlonged at first to the house of Saxony, the cradle of the\\nReformation, but that dynasty had lost this distinction on\\nbecoming Catholic for the sake of obtaining the Polish\\ncrown. This protectorate was claimed by the Electors of\\nBrandenburg and was exercised by the sceptic Frederick\\nII himself. After 1815, Frederick William II from reli-\\ngious zeal and dynastic self-interest tried to discipline the\\nchurches born of the Reformation, so as to oppose Protes-\\ntant unity to Catholic unity, Berlin to Bome, the king of\\nPrussia to the pontiff of the Vatican. He aimed at weld-\\ning together the members of all the Protestant confessions,\\nincluding those of England, into one evangelical chlirch.\\nHe built them a temple and drew up a liturgy for the new\\ncult. On October 18, 1817, the three hundredth anniversary\\nof the foundation of Protestantism, he caused to be cele-\\nbrated a Holy Communion, in which a Lutheran minister\\ngave him the bread and a Calvinist minister the wine of the\\nSacrament. They are uniting in a void exclaimed Gans\\nand he was right, for such union was a denial even of the\\nReformation, whose fundamental principle is liberty of in-\\ndividual examination. Therefore the scheme of Frederick\\nWilliam failed, but its political usefulness was too great to\\nbe abandoned.\\nSo, in spite of the charters accorded and the constitutions\\ngranted or promised and in spite also of the good inten-\\ntions of certain princes to effect reforms, the ancient sys-\\ntem, aided by the powerful organization of the Catholic\\nChurch and by the revival of religious sentiment, tried to\\nhold its own or to renew itself in order to restore what the\\nRevolution had destroyed. It wished to restore domination\\nover human will and conscience with that preeminence of\\nthe powerful and that dependence of the lowly which\\nseemed to some to have maintained tranquil and prosperous\\nperiods. But this reaction was often in contradiction with\\nitself.\\nLiberalism in the Press and Secret Societies. Confronting\\nthe powerful party which was dominated by the memory of\\npast glories and recent misfortunes and which wished to\\nprotect society from storm by placing it under the double", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1815-1824.] THE HOLY ALLIAITCE 181\\nguardianship of monarcMcal faith and religions faith, there\\nwere enormous numbers who ardently cherished the memory\\nof the ideas for which the revolution and the national\\ninsurrections of the later days of the empire had been\\nmade. There were in Belgium, Italy and Poland, patriots\\nwho would not accept the sway of the foreigner. There\\nwere everywhere the mixed multitudes, former freemasons\\nor republicans, liberals or Bonapartists, who through self-\\ninterest, sentiment, or theory clung to the institutions of\\n1789 or 1804 and believed them necessary to good social\\norder. In their ranks were men of heart and talent who\\nopenly advocated the new ideas in legislative chambers\\nwhere such existed in the courts, when a political case was\\non trial 5 in newspapers and books, and even in songs,\\nwherever the censorship allowed them to appear. Such\\nheroes in France were Benjamin Constant, Foy, Manuel,\\nEtienne, Lafitte, the elder Dupin, Casimir-Perier, Paul\\nLouis Courier, B\u00c3\u00a9ranger, Augustin Thierry, Cousin and a\\nthousand others. In Germany there were the great patriots\\nof 1813, such as Arndt, Gorres, Jahn, whom the Prussian\\npolice soon forbade to speak or to write. In Italy there\\nwere Manzoni, who in his Sacred Hymns endeavored to\\nreconcile religion and liberty, Berchet with his patriotic\\nOdes, Leopardi with his fiery Canzones and the gentle\\nSilvio Pellico with his tragedy of Eufemio di Messina,\\nwherein Austria discerned a war-cry against the foreigner.\\nThese men, the orators and writers, were the friends of\\nfree discussion and of that pacific progress which alone is\\neffective. But others, fanatics of a new creed, moved rest-\\nlessly in the dark and organized secret societies wherein the\\nimpatient dreamed of insurrection and the criminal of assas-\\nsination. They existed in all forms and under every sort\\nof name, as the Knights of the Sun, the Associates of the\\nBlack Pin, the Patriots of 1816, the Vultures of Bonaparte.\\nSome already possessed an international character which,\\nfifty years later, was destined to manifest other passions\\nand above all other appetites. The E-eformed European\\nPatriots and the Friends of Universal Eegeneration\\nproposed to unite the nations against their kings, just as\\ntheir successors to-day wish without distinction of country\\nto unite the poor against the rich, the workmen against their\\nemployers, for the purpose of bringing about a revolution,\\nnot indeed in creeds or institutions, but in social order. The", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "182 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a. d. 1815-1824.\\nmost famous was an old Guelph organization, wMcli owed\\nits name to the fact that its members, the Carbonari, met in\\nthe depths of the forests in the huts of the charcoal-burners.\\nIt covered Italy, France and Spain, the lands of the Latin\\ntongue. Greece had her Hetairias and Poland the\\nKnights of the Temple and the Mowers, when the se-\\nverity of Alexander impelled the patriots to employ secret\\nsocieties, the grand engine of the times. Even the victors\\nused the same weapon. They had the Sanf edists in Italy,\\nthe Army of the Faith in Spain, the Adelskette in Prussia,\\nthe Ferdinandians in Austria, and the Congregation every-\\nwhere.\\nTwo societies peculiar to Germany, the Arminia and the\\nBurschenschaft, or Union of Comrades, had succeeded to the\\nTugendbund, which was dissolved as early as 1815 by those\\nwhom it had so powerfully helped recover or save^their\\ncrowns. These societies, now that the German land was\\nfreed from the foreigner, aimed at causing the disappearance\\nof internal divisions and of the absolute or pseudo-liberal\\ngovernment of its princes. In October, 1817, on the very\\nday when the king of Prussia at Berlin was trying to master\\nthe E,eformation in order to make of it a great instrument,\\nan instrumentum regni, an immense throng was joyfully\\ncelebrating at the Wartburg the third centennial of Protes-\\ntantism and the anniversary of the battle of Leipzig. Now\\nthat religious liberty had been achieved and national inde-\\npendence assured, it demanded the advent of political liberty.\\nIt raised the colors of united Germany. It burned in its\\nbonfires of rejoicing those works which opposed philosophi-\\ncal and liberal ideas, as Luther had burned the papal bulls.\\nIn the sixteenth century, they said, the Pope was Anti-\\nchrist in the nineteenth the despotism of the kings is Anti-\\nchrist. To this manifestation the princes replied by the\\nsuppression of many universities. In the Prussian states\\nalone four universities were closed and instead of a consti-\\ntution, Prussia had a countersign.\\nPlots (1816-1822). Assassinations (1819-1820). Revolu-\\ntions (1820-1821). Eepression produced its customary\\nfruits. Compressed force exploded. This is a law of physics\\nwhich also exhibits itself in the realms of morals. There is\\nthis difference, that when repression acts upon ideas which\\nare in consonance with material needs, it distorts them and\\nrenders them all the more formidable. Thus the students", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1815-1824.] THE HOLY ALLIANCE 183\\nwere uttering generous sentiments in tlie open air and in the\\nbeer halls. Such public declamation was forbidden. Then\\nthey conspired in profound secrecy, and one of them took upon\\nhimself the office of assassin. In 1819 Sand stabbed, with\\nthe cry, Vivat Teutonia, a writer who was in the pay of\\nthe Holy Alliance. Another tried to kill the president of\\nthe regency of Nassau. A few months later, in order to\\ndrain the blood of the Bourbons at its very source, a crazy\\nfanatic, Louvel, knifed the Duke de Berri, who then seemed\\nto be the last heir of the elder branch. Even in London,\\nThistlewood plotted the murder of fourteen ministers at a\\ndinner given by Lord Harrowby, president of the council.\\nIn all the states of the Holy Alliance conspiracy was the\\npermanent state of affairs, so too in Trance, Spain, Naples,\\nTurin, the Germanic Confederation and even in Sweden.\\nFrom time to time a riot broke out in the barracks or a wine-\\nshop or a university and several heads fell on the scaffold.\\nThe governments felt the ground quake beneath them as at\\nthe approach of great eruptions. Two countries however,\\nfrom directly opposite reasons, escaped these subterranean\\nconvulsions. Eussia repressed them by her ponderous\\nmass, in whose vastness nothing seemed as yet to be in prog-\\nress of fermentation. The Tsar was then even lavish of\\npromises and liberal reforms in his German or Polish prov-\\ninces. England had forestalled danger by allowing free ex-\\npression to all ideas. Thanks to the right of assembly,\\nEnglish discontent had no need to form secret societies and\\nconspiracies. Thistlewood s plot is exceptional. But meet-\\nings were held of 100,000 persons who carried flags whereon\\nwere to be read such menacing mottoes as The Eights of\\nMan, Universal Suffrage, Equality. Those tumultu-\\nous assemblies occasioned bloody conflicts which compelled\\nthe suspension of the law of habeas corpus (1817).\\nWhen in 1814 the Spaniards restored to Ferdinand VII\\nthe crown, conquered for him and without him, the dep-\\nuties of the Cortes went as far as the frontier to meet him,\\nin order to present him with the Constitution of 1812. Do\\nnot forget, they said Avith the pride of the ancient Aragon-\\nese, that on the day when you violate it, the solemn com-\\npact which has made you king will be torn up. A few\\nweeks later Ferdinand tore up this Constitution and urged\\non the reaction with such cruelty that even the members of\\nthe Holy Alliance remonstrated with him on the subject.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "184 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1817-1821.\\nThese remonstrances were useless (1817). So plots mnlti-\\nplied with executions, and the isolated cases of recourse to\\narms were followed by an insurrection of the entire army.\\nEiego at Cadiz and Mina in the Pyrenees proclaimed the\\nConstitution of 1812. Ferdinand, abandoned by everybody,\\nswore fidelity to this Constitution, since such was the will\\nof the people. On the same day he banished the Jesuits,\\nhis counsellors. He abolished the Inquisition, whose prop-\\nerty was confiscated to extinguish the public debt, and\\nrestored the liberty of the press. Thus the two opposite\\nprinciples, which were contending for the world, met again\\nin what had just fallen and in what had just been raised up\\nin Spain.\\nThe Spanish revolution had its counterpart at Lisbon, in\\nSicily, and in the Neapolitan kingdom (July) at Benevento\\nand at Ponte Corvo, in the States of the Church and in Pied-\\nmont, whose king abdicated (March, 1821). Many persons\\nwere already thinking of constituting an Italian confed-\\neration such as Napoleon III afterwards desired, or a\\nkingdom of Italy such as events have made. A parallel\\nmovement even spread into Turkey, where the Eoumanians\\nand Greeks flew to arms (March and April, 1821). The\\nwhole south of Europe was returning to liberal ideas. In\\nthe rest of the continent the ferment was increasing. On\\nthe other side of the Atlantic the Spanish colonies were\\nmaking themselves independent republics, as the English\\ncolonies had done forty years earlier.\\nMoral contagions are as active as physical contagions. A\\nbreath of liberty was blowing over the world. It agitated\\neven venerable England under her Tory ministry and aroused\\nPoland where the Tsar proceeded from kindness to severity.\\nAlexander established a censorship over everything pub-\\nlished in the kingdom (1819). He closed the Diet of 1820\\nwith harsh words and was soon to declare that the Polish\\nnation no longer existed. To these threats Poland immedi-\\nately replied by secret societies and every preparation was\\nmade for a grand insurrection.\\nThe Holy Alliance acts as the Police of Europe. Expe-\\ndition of Italy (1821) and of Spain (1823). Thus it appeared\\nthat the Holy Alliance was doomed to be vanquished by\\nthe mere movement of life in the bosom of the nations.\\nPive years had barely passed over the political edifice so\\nlaboriously erected in 1815 and already it was tottering", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1818-1821.] THE HOLY ALLIANCE 185\\nto its fall. To prevent its entire ruin, tlie congresses of\\nsovereigns multiplied, and Prince Metternich, a man of\\ngreat skill, assumed the guidance of it. He was the real\\nruler of Austria. To that state, formed of so many frag-\\nments patched together, any shock was dangerous. There-\\nfore Metternich made the status quo the rule of his policy\\neverywhere and in everything. He contrived to instil into\\nthe unstable mind of the Tsar Alexander the idea that,\\nafter having defended civilization against despotism, he\\nought to save it from anarchy even though to attain success\\nhe should set in motion all the armies of the coalition. It\\nmust be confessed that the activity of secret societies and\\nthe permanence of conspiracies and assassinations, which\\ndisgraced the liberal cause, afforded only too many pretexts\\nfor court-martials. Men did not yet comprehend that the\\nbest way to make an end of the violent is to satisfy the\\nmoderate. So they employed the sword, which decided\\nnothing, instead of introducing reforms, fitted to conciliate\\nthe hostile parties.\\nPrussia followed in the wake of Austria and Russia.\\nThus it was easy for Prince Metternich, after winning over\\nthe Tsar to his views, to establish harmony between the\\nthree Powers. At the Congress of Aix-larChapelle (Novem-\\nber, 1818) they renewed the alliance of 1815 and bound\\nthemselves by conferences, either of these sovereigns or\\ntheir ministers, to examine questions relative to the mainten-\\nance of peace or upon which other governments should\\nformally request their intervention. This idea was more\\nprecisely stated later on in the declaration of the Congress of\\nLaibach (February, 1821). Useful or necessary changes in\\nthe legislation and administration of the states are to ema-\\nnate only from the free will, the enlightened and deliberate\\nimpulse, of those whom God has rendered depositaries of\\npower. This was a fresh affirmation of the divine right of\\nkings, with the interpretation that the prince upon whom\\nhis people wished to impose that contract called a constitu-\\ntion could summon to his aid his royal colleagues.\\nThe majority of the Prench royalists were ready to follow\\nthis policy, which was that of Pilnitz and the emigrants.\\nThis time Great Britain held herself apart. So long as it\\nhad been a question of destroying French commerce and\\nFrench military domination, she had lavished her guineas\\nfreely. But she was beginning to be alarmed at the claim,", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "186 HISTORY OF MODERir TIMES [a.d. 1819-1820.\\nput fortli by tlie continental Powers, to act as the police of\\nEurope in the name of ideas which at bottom only repre-\\nsented interests which might some day or other become\\ninimical to the interests of England. Castlereagh, who\\nseemed to have inherited Pitt s feelings toward France,\\nwas obliged to declare in the British Parliament that no\\npower has the right to interfere in the affairs of another\\npower, simply because the latter makes changes in its gov-\\nernment which do not please the former and that by erect-\\ning one s self into a tribunal to judge the affairs of others,\\none usurps a power which both international law and\\ncommon sense condemns. In the country, which owed its\\ngreatness and its liberty to the national insurrection of 1688,\\nthe friend of Wellington, the leader of the Tories, admitted,\\nwhile deprecating the revolutionary spirit, that there are\\nrevolutions which are just and necessary.\\nThus the two policies, which wrestled all through the\\nnineteenth century, publicly stated their principles. The\\none policy rejected and the other approved armed interven-\\ntion. In 1820 England alone upheld the former. As she\\nwas alone, she was unable to make it prevail. The Holy\\nAlliance adopted the second, which was nothing more than\\nthe continuation of the policy pursued by the European\\nCabinets ever since 1791.\\nThe Congress of Carlsbad in Bohemia, after the assas-\\nsination of Kotzebue (1819), was composed only of German\\nministers. It was decided to place the universities and\\nthe press under rigorous surveillance. A commission of\\ninquiry was set up at Mayence, charged with searching out\\nand punishing the enemies of established order. A new\\ncongress, which sat for six months in the capital of Austria,\\nstudied the means of stifling liberalism. One of these\\nmeans was to ask from the Pope a bull against secret so-\\ncieties. The final act of the Congress of Vienna (1820)\\nretracted nearly all the concessions which had been made\\nin 1815 in the joy of victory. As the Germanic Confedera-\\ntion, said Article 57, has been formed by the sovereigns,\\nthe principle of this union requires that all prerogatives of\\nsovereignty shall remain united in the supreme head of the\\ngovernment, and that he shall not be bound to admit the\\ncooperation of the assemblies, except for the exercise of\\nproscribed rights. The Diet of Frankfort was declared to\\nbe the sole interpreter of Article 13 of the convention which", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1820-1821.] THE HOLY ALLIANCE 187\\npromised constitutions. It was empowered to employ tlie\\nconfederated troops against all disturbers of public tran-\\nquillit}^, even without the consent of the local governments.\\nThe police of the Holy Alliance persecuted the patriots of\\n1815 as Napoleon had persecuted those of 1807. News-\\npapers and reviews were suppressed. The philosopher\\nFries and the naturalist Oken were dismissed. Other pro-\\nfessors and students were exiled. Gorres was expelled\\nfrom Prussia; Jahn, Arndt and Welker were imprisoned.\\nIn France liberal ideas, till then encouraged in a certain\\ndegree by Louis XVIII, were held responsible for the as-\\nsassination of the Duke de Berri by Louvel. The king,\\nswept on by the reaction, was forced to form a new ministry,\\nwhich caused the government to enter upon the fatal path\\nwherein the throne was wrecked in 1830. Individual lib-\\nerty was suspended, the censorship of the press restored,\\nand the double vote was introduced so that political influ-\\nence might pass into the hands of the great landed pro-\\nprietors, who voted twice, that is, in the college of the\\ndepartment and in the college of the district. The birth\\nof the Duke de Bordeaux (September 29, 1820), the post-\\nhumous son of the Duke de Berri; the elections of Novem-\\nber, 1820, in which only a few liberals were chosen to the\\nChamber; and the death of Napoleon (May 5, 1821), in-\\ncreased the joy and the hopes of the ultra-royalists. Men\\nspoke openly of restoring their ancient prerogatives to the\\nmonarchy and the Church. B\u00c3\u00a9ranger was condemned to\\nprison for his songs. The University received a stern\\nwarning that it was under suspicion when the lectures of\\nCousin and Guizot were suppressed. Lastly, in order to\\nintimidate the press, journals were placed on trial, not for\\nany definite act of transgression, but on the charge that\\ntheir tendency was injurious.\\nThese measures tended to reestablish a superficial calm\\nin the countries which had been the principal theatres of\\nmilitant liberalism. The Congresses of Troppeau (1820),\\nLaibach (1821) and Verona (1822) aimed at stifling liber-\\nalism in the two peninsulas where it had just triumphed.\\nThey refused to discriminate between legitimate complaints\\nand inopportune demands. The revolutions in Greece,\\nSpain, Naples and Turin were represented in a circular\\nnote as being the same in origin and deserving the same\\nfate.^ If no measures were taken against the Greeks, it", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "188 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1821-1825.\\nwas because Eussia was interested in that revolt of her\\nco-religionists whereby she obtained allies at the very heart\\nof the Ottoman Empire. In Italy Austria undertook to\\ndestroy the false doctrines and the criminal associations\\nwhich have brought down upon rebellious nations the\\nsword of justice. A numerous army, to be followed at\\nneed by 100,000 Russians, set out from Venetian Lombardy.\\nAt Rieti and Novara the recruits of Pepe and of Santa Eosa\\ncould not stand against the veterans of the Napoleonic\\nwars, and the Austrians entered IsTaples, Turin and Messina.\\nBehind them the prisons were filled and scaffolds erected.\\nAustria lent her prisons as well as her soldiers. The dun-\\ngeons of Venice, Laibach and the Spielberg were crowded\\nwith victims, but there was a still larger number in the\\nnative prisons. There were 16,000 at one time in the cells\\nof the Two Sicilies. In Piedmont all the leaders who had\\nbeen captured were beheaded. Those who escaped were\\nexecuted in Q^^j. ISTo insurrection had really broken out\\nin the States of the Church, but four hundred persons were\\nincarcerated there. Many of them were condemned to the\\ndeath penalty which the Pope commuted into perpetual or\\ntemporary confinement. The Piedmontese Silvio Pellico,\\nimprisoned at first at Venice and then in the Spielberg, has\\nnarrated with a martyr s calmness what tortures this piti-\\nless policy added to his captivity.\\nAfter the executions administrative measures and a clever\\npolice maintained external order. The king of Sardinia\\nreestablished forced labor (1824) and permitted no persons\\nto learn to read unless they possessed property to the\\nvalue of 1500 francs (1825). To demonstrate his zeal\\nfor the Church he ordered a fresh and equally useless per-\\nsecution against the peaceable Waldenses. The Pope re-\\nestablished episcopal jurisdiction in civil affairs, restored\\nthe right of asylum to churches, and from hatred of all\\nnovelties suppressed even the Vaccination Commission as\\na revolutionary institution. When Leo XII succeeded\\nPius VII (1823), a violent encyclical condemned civil mar-\\nriage, and excited the kings to intolerance. Eome set the\\nexample. The Inquisition opened a new prison, which was\\nimmediately filled with heretics (1825). The king of\\nNaples, Francis I, almost absolutely interdicted the en-\\ntrance of foreign books, so as to establish a sort of sanitary\\ncordon around his kingdom, and cause his peoples to recover", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1883.] THE HOLY ALLIANCE 189\\nin their isolation their holy ignorance. Then he hired ten\\nthousand Swiss mercenaries to assure the collection of the\\ntaxes and the obedience of his subjects, the two chief\\nanxieties of his government. Wherever there was material\\nwelfare, a formidable spy system wormed its way into the\\nmidst of social relations and even into the privacy of the\\ndomestic hearth.\\nThe spirit of the century desired three things. These\\nwere free institutions, equality before the law, and national\\nindependence. To the first two demands the Holy Alli-\\nance replied by reverting to the principles of pure monarchy\\nand of the feudal system. To the third the answer was\\nthe disdainful remark of Metternich, Italy is only a geo-\\ngraphical expression, or that of the Tsar Alexander, The\\nPolish nationality is nonsense.\\nIn 1823 this policy seemed successful. There were fewer\\nconspiracies and no more assassinations. The insurrections\\nwere crushed at one of the points where, because there the\\npeople and the army had entered into them, they had been\\nmost threatening. With her docile lieutenants seated on\\nthe different thrones of Italy, with her army of occupation\\nat all the strategical points, with her numerous spies and\\nthe assistance of the Holy Father, Austria did in fact believe\\nthat she had effected the durable work of restoration. To\\nher allies she pointed with pride at that peninsula formerly\\nso distracted where, from the base of the Alps to the Straits\\nof Messina, she had brought about the silence of death.\\nThen the Holy Alliance thought of undertaking the same\\ntask beyond the Pyrenees. There all passions had been let\\nloose. Eeactionaries, crucifix in hand, were murdering\\ntheir enemies, and, meanwhile, the rabble were cutting\\nthroats to the revolutionary song of the Tragala.\\nTo lull the suspicions which France had for a moment\\ninspired by her hesitation at Austrian intervention in\\nItaly, the government of Louis XVI\u00c3\u008eI asked permission to\\nstifle the disorders in Spain. Chateaubriand, who was\\nthen minister, believed that this expedition would confer\\nupon the young fleurs de lis of the Restoration the splendor\\nwith which fifty victories had crowned the imperial eagles.\\nEngland, where the irritation was increasing at the claims\\nof the Holy Alliance to govern Europe, held aloof. Wel-\\nlington, her ambassador at Verona, would allow France\\nnothing more than an army of observation along the Span-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "190 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1823-1824.\\nish frontier. Canning, who, since the snicide of Castle-\\nreagh, had become the British prime minister, threatened\\nin open Parliament to recognize the independence of the\\nSpanish American colonies as retaliation for the French\\nexpedition.\\nThe army, commanded by the Duke of Angouleme, entered\\nSpain on April 7, 1823. It had little opportunity for fight-\\ning and encountered no serious resistance except at the siege\\nof Cadiz. On August 31 the French troops took possession\\nafter a brilliant assault of the stronghold of the Trocadero,\\nand this success brought about the surrender of the city.\\nAlthough fighting for the despot Ferdinand, the French\\narmy carried its liberal spirit to Spain. The Duke of\\nAngouleme, by the ordinance of Andujar, sought to forestall\\nthe fury of a royalist reaction and to prevent arbitrary\\narrests and executions. But Ferdinand had no intention\\nof permitting his saviors to impose conditions. The mili-\\ntary commissions were implacable. Eiego, grievously\\nwounded, was carried to the gibbet on a hurdle drawn by\\nan ass. A counter revolution took place at Lisbon as well\\nas Madrid. The king declared the constitution abolished\\nand for a few months reestablished absolute power.\\nDespite the congratulations sent by the princes and the\\nPope to the honest but commonplace prince who had just\\nconducted this easy campaign, the elder branch of the\\nBourbons had won in it little military glory. Most appar-\\nent in this expedition was the fact that French soldiers had\\nbeen placed at the service of a knavish and cruel prince and\\nFrench finances depleted by an expenditure of 200,000,000\\nfrancs. Still, petty as was this success, it encouraged the\\nFrench ministry in their reactionary projects. The elec-\\ntions increased this confidence, only nineteen Liberals ob-\\ntaining seats in the Chamber,\\nCharles X (1824). \u00e2\u0080\u0094The death of Louis XVIII, a\\nprudent and moderate king, seemed to assure the triumph\\nof the ultra-royalists, by transferring the power to the\\nCount d Artois (September 16, 1824) He was one of those\\npeople who gain nothing from experience. In 1789 this\\nprince had been among the first to emigrate. While learn-\\ning nothing, he had forgotten nothing. Louis XVIII on\\nhis death-bed, placing his hand on the head of the Duke de\\nBordeaux, said to him, Let Charles X look out for this\\nchild s crown, but he had paid no heed. He felt himself", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1825.] THE HOLY ALLIANCE 191\\ncalled upon to revive the ancient monarchy. In France,\\nhe said, the king consults the Chambers. He pays great\\nheed to their advice and their remonstrances but, when the\\nking is not persuaded, his will must be done. These\\nwords were a denial of the Charter and an intimation of its\\nspeedy violation. At the very beginning of his reign, he\\nasked from the Chambers an indemnity of $200,000,000 for\\nthe emigrants, the re\u00c3\u00abstablishment of convents for women,\\nthe restoration of the rights of primogeniture, a rigorous\\nlaw against the press and another concerning offences com-\\nmitted in churches. The latter was called the law of sacri-\\nlege. The new Chamber of extremists accorded everything.\\nThere was no resistance, except in the Chamber of Peers,\\nwhich by its opposition won a few days of popularity.\\nIn May, 1825, the new monarch revived the solemnity of\\ncoronation with all traditional ceremony, with the ancient\\noath and with touching for the king s evil. A popular\\nmanifestation was the response to this royal and religious\\nfestival. General Poy, a leader of the liberal party, had\\njust died. One hundred thousand persons followed his bier,\\nand a national subscription provided for the future of his\\nchildren.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "192 mSTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1815-1830.\\nXXXIV\\nPROGRESS OF LIBERAL IDEAS\\nThe Romantic School. The Sciences. Nevertheless\\nliberal opinions were gaining ground every day and oppo-\\nsition to the spirit of the Congregation was increasing.\\nVoltaire seemed alive again, there were so many editions\\nof his works. B\u00c3\u00a9ranger was in every hand, and the people\\nwanted to see Tartuffe played in every theatre. In letters\\nand arts a great movement was to be noted. This move-\\nment was in the direction of liberty, for it ran counter to\\ndiscipline and traditions. The almost volcanic eruption\\nof the romantic school (1825-1830) overwhelmed worn-out\\nformulas and. emitted dazzling light, despite its scoria and\\nashes. Goethe and Schiller, Shakespeare and Byron, had\\nbeen the forerunners of the new men of letters. They had\\neven been precursors of those artists who, in their search\\nfor fresh expressions of the beautiful, gave the human mind\\na salutary shock and aided the work of statesmen in advan-\\ncing society. Thierry, Guizot, De Barante, Mignet and\\nMichelet reformed history. Cousin and Jouffroy reformed\\nphilosophy. Hugo, Lamartine, De Vigny, Dumas, Musset\\nand Balzac reformed poetry, the drama and romance.\\nVillemain and Sainte-Beuve reformed literary criticism.\\nGericault, Delacroix, Ary Scheffer and Delaroche reformed\\npainting. David d Angers and Eude reformed sculpture.\\nThe overthrow of the ancient classical system rendered\\nstill more difficult the victory of the ancient social system.\\nLearned letters also enlarged their horizon. Champollion\\nforced the Egyptian Sphinx to speak. De Sacy and De\\nBemusat lifted some of the veils which hid the Orient.\\nGuigiaut began the publication of Creuzer s Symhologism\\nand Mythology, and made the religions of antiquity com-\\nprehensible. All this meant new ideas put into general\\ncirculation.\\nThe sciences continued their serene and majestic march,\\nand added great names to the list of honor. There were", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1815-1830.] PROGRESS OF LIBERAL IDEAS 193\\nPoisson, Amp\u00c3\u00a8re, Fresnel, Cauchy, Chasles, Arago, Biot\\nand Dulong in mathematics and physics; Gay-Lussac,\\nThenard, Chevreul and Dumas in chemistry; Cuvier,\\nGeo oy, Saint Hilaire, Brongniart, De Jussieu, and \u00c3\u0089lie\\nde Beaumont in the natural sciences. By the successful\\nefforts of so many superior men, natural philosophy mas-\\ntered truths whose application to manufactures by creating\\nnew interests aided also to transform society. The light-\\nhouses of Fresnel began to illuminate the coasts and guided\\nvessels thirty-five miles out at sea (1822). The steamboats\\nof the Marquis de Jouffroy, kindred spirit with Watt and\\nFulton, appeared on the French rivers and in their ports\\n(1825) The company of Saint Etienne laid the first French\\nrailway (1827). Two years later S\u00c3\u00a9guin d Annonay con-\\nstructed the tubular locomotive. The discoveries of\\nOersted (1820) and of Amp\u00c3\u00a8re and Arago (1822) indicated\\nthe electric telegraph.\\nThus, during those fruitful years (1815-1830) were\\nbrought into being the great inventions of railways and\\nsteamers which have transformed the commerce of the\\nworld. This immense advance had no direct connection\\nwith politics; but they who brought it to pass thereby\\nincreased confidence in the might of human genius. They\\naccustomed men s minds to severe methods of scientific in-\\nvestigation. They showed what are the necessary con-\\nditions of truth. Thereby they contributed, some of them\\nunconsciously, to the development in modern civilization\\nof that reasoning spirit which was a main force of liberal\\nopinion.\\nFormation in France of a Legal Opposition. In the\\nChamber men of talent or authority, like Chateaubriand,\\nEoyer-Collard, De Broglie, Pasquier, De Barante, Mole,\\nand Benjamin Constant served the cause of public liberty.\\nSerious journals, like the Globe, the Censeur, the D\u00c3\u00a9bats,\\nthe Constitutionnel, and the Courier Fran\u00c3\u00a7ais, founded a\\nnew power in the state, that of the press, and defended it\\nbefore the public, while higher education popularized it in\\nthe schools. The French Academy itself protested against\\nthe proposed law which aimed at suppressing the freedom\\nof periodicals.\\nIn short, ten years of peace had afforded commerce and\\nmanufactures an opportunity to expand. The public finances\\nwere economically administered and the country was rapidly", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "194 HISTORY OF MODERN- TIMES [a.d. 1817-1825.\\nreplacing tlie capital whicli had been destroyed by war, in-\\nvasion and indemnities. But amidst the general pros-\\nperity there were manifestations of that nervous impatience\\nto which France is subject after a prolonged calm has made\\nher forget the ruins caused by the great commotions which\\nappall her, and which down to the present day seem con-\\ngenial to her strange national temperament.\\nEven social questions began to be agitated. As philoso-\\nphy and religion, those two ancient teachers of the human\\nrace, had no new lessons to impart to the fresh life upon\\nwhich the world was entering through manufactures and\\npolitics, dreamers attempted to take their place. The\\nCount de Saint Simon issued his JSfew Christianity, in\\nwhich he formulated the famous principle To each man\\naccording to his capacity; to each capacity according to its\\nworks. This doctrine was not calculated to please the\\nfavorites of birth and fortune. Many extravagances were\\ndestined to spring from the little church which the Saint\\nSimonians tried to found. The teachings of their master,\\nof Eobert Owen in England, and of Fourier in France, gave\\nbirth to dangerous Utopias which, after covertly working\\ntheir way beneath official society, broke out in the frightful\\ncivil wars of 1848 and 1871, and went on in the workshop\\nafter the tumult had ceased in the street. Some ideas of\\nthose dangerous theorists would have made humanity retro-\\ngrade, since they wished to render the state the absolute\\nmaster in even industrial and private life. Still they turned\\nmen s attention to new problems, which a sentiment of\\nequity commands us to study even if the wisdom of the\\nlegislator cannot solve them. Already men were to be\\nfound who, quarrelling with society as a whole, with its\\nlaws and its religion, undertook to overturn everything. As\\nyet they were only solitary dreamers. Later on sinister\\nfigures will appear with violent passions and monstrous\\nappetites. At that moment the extravagance of some of\\ntheir doctrines excited laughter rather than uneasiness in\\nthe crowded ranks, where to demand from the government\\na more liberal policy seemed sufficient.\\nThe country was with the Liberals. After May 5, 1821,\\nBonapartism, placing little confidence in the son of Napo-\\nleon, then a half prisoner in Vienna, and not yet sure of his\\nnephew. Prince Louis, existed rather as a m^emory than a\\nhope. In the influential class the Eepublic found but few", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1825-1828.] PROGRESS OF LIBERAL IDEAS 195\\nadvocates. Socialism was rather a doctrine than a party.\\nThus the real masters of the situation were the Liberals,\\nwho were ready to rally round the dynasty if it broke with\\nthe Congregation and with the men of 1815. On their side\\nwere the merchants, who do not love the privileged by birth;\\nthe burgher class, which rails as soon as it ceases to fear;\\nthe persecuted opponents of the Congregation, and all those\\npeople who in the cities are hostile to any government, and\\nin the rural districts are afraid of seeing tithes and feudal\\nrights restored. The great cities were in opposition, and\\nParis most of all. At a review of the national guard in\\nApril, 1827, the cry, Down with the ministers, rang\\nthrough the ranks. That very evening the national guard\\nwas disbanded. Under the circumstances this measure was\\nnecessary, but it estranged the burgher class from the court.\\nTo overcome the opposition of the upper Chamber seventy-\\nsix peers were created at once. But a general election was\\nimprudently provoked which sent to the Chamber a Liberal\\nmajority. The Conservative ministry fell from office\\n(December, 1827).\\nA few years earlier the various elements of opposition\\nhad agitated only by secret societies and plots, resulting in\\nriots and assassinations which injured the cause of liberty.\\nBut now in gradually enlightened public opinion a far more\\nformidable foe to the ancient system of government had\\narisen. A great Liberal party, organizing and disciplining\\nitself, introduced legal opposition at the very heart of the\\ngovernment into the two Chambers, and thence it was to\\nforce an entrance into the ministry. Thus, with definite\\nideas men were marching openly to their goal without\\neither rash deeds or violence, accepting the royalty of the\\nBourbons, but requiring of them to make the Charter a\\ntruth. The accession of Monsieur de Martignac to the\\npresidency of the Council seemed a reason for believing\\nthat France would escape disasters by necessary reforms at\\nthe proper time. His ministry abolished censorship of\\nthe press and sought to prevent the electoral frauds which\\npreceding ministries had favored. It asserted the liberty\\nof conscience, which had formerly been menaced, reopened\\nat the Sorbonne the courses of lectures which the Congre-\\ngation had closed, and placed under one common system the\\neducational establishments controlled by ecclesiastics. This\\nwas only a beginning. Nevertheless it was easy to infer", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "196 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1822-1829.\\nthat the conntry was again returning to the era of pacific\\nprogress, from which the assassination of the Duke de\\nBerri and a reactionary ministry had caused it to depart.\\nThe general condition of the world, which must always\\nbe taken into account in any endeavor to discover resistless\\nmovements of public opinion, confirmed this hope, for the\\nancient system was everywhere on the retreat.\\nHuskisson and Canning in England (1822). New For-\\neign Policy. Principle of Non-Intervention. Beginning\\nwith 1822 the Tories, or rather the Tory policy, had lost\\nthe direction of English affairs. The most influential min-\\nister, George Canning, the pupil of William Pitt, had just\\ngone over to the Whigs. England, irritated by the arro-\\ngant interference of the northern courts in every conti-\\nnental matter, was beginning to restrain her former^allies\\nby favoring the ideas which they combated. In 1823\\nCanning caused the presidency of the Board of Trade to\\nbe given to Huskisson, whose customs reforms opened great\\nbreaches in that tariff fortress, behind which the aristoc-\\nracy sheltered their privileges and fortunes. This eco-\\nnomical revolution was dictated by the liberal spirit, and\\nbecause of its consequences was far more serious than many\\na political revolution. It was destined, step by step, to\\ncontrol all the industrial world; to give work to the poor,\\ncomfort to many, and the habit and necessity of individual\\nand untrammelled action to all.\\nIreland was a prey to frightful misery, the result of\\natrocious legislation. The wigwam of the Indian in the\\nNew World, said one deputy, is more habitable than\\nthe hut of the poor Irishman. I have seen the peasants of\\nKerry offer to work for twopence a day. This state of\\nthings could not change until the day when the representa-\\ntives of that unhappy country were able to plead her cause\\nin Parliament. But the Roman Catholic Irish were smitten\\nwith political disability. The lords rejected the bill in\\ntheir behalf which the Commons had accepted. But two\\nyears after Canning s last speech in their favor, Eobert\\nPeel was himself compelled to propose and pass the\\nCatholic Eelief Bill (1829). In 1817 Parliament, at the\\npious instigation of Wilberforce, had voted for the abolition\\nof the slave-trade. Men now desired that, like the Con-\\nvention, it should decree the emancipation of the slaves.\\nCanning rejected immediate emancipation, but proposed", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1830-1816.] PROGEESS OF LIBERAL IDEAS 197\\nsuch amelioration as made the slave a man and opened to\\nhim the door of liberty. That humane law of 1825 led a\\nfew years later to the suppression of slavery (1833).\\nThus the English Parliament allowed itself to be affected\\nby generous ideas. Still, that great body rightly was not\\nregarded as sufficiently liberal. The aristocracy held the\\nHouse of Lords by the hereditary rights of its older sons.\\nIt held the House of Commons by its younger sons and its\\ndependents, seats for whom it obtained by means of rotten\\nboroughs. Twelve families controlled 100 seats at West-\\nminster, and sometimes sold them for cash. One village\\nof seven houses sent two members to the House. Gatton\\nand Old Sarum belonged to one landed proprietor, who\\nelected the representative himself, while the great city of\\nManchester possessed neither elector nor deputy. The\\npowerful Birmingham Union was formed to rouse the coun-\\ntry on the double question of parliamentary reform and\\nabolition of the corn laws, so as to secure cheaper bread.\\nOf these two reforms, the one was effected in 1832, but the\\nother had to wait until 1846. Thus under the influence of\\nthe new spirit old England was being transformed, without\\ndisturbance and through free discussion. The prosperity\\nof the country gained thereby. As early as 1824 Canning\\nwas able to diminish the taxes ^10,000,000, create a sink-\\ning-fund for the public debt, and reduce the customs-duties\\non rum, coal, silks and woollens. These measures favored\\nmanufactures, commerce and the rising public credit.\\nForeign policy was assuming the same character. In\\n1821 England had resigned herself to the intervention of\\nAustria in Italian affairs but in 1823, at the Congress of\\nVerona, she was already opposing the Erench expedition\\nagainst the constitutional party of Madrid, although still\\nshowing the latter nothing but barren sympathy. The irri-\\ntation against the Holy Alliance was on the increase; so\\nwhen the allies, in order to include the New World in their\\nsphere of action, had the Erench ambassador, M. de Polignac,\\npropose to Canning that they should discuss the means of\\nputting down the rebellion of the Spanish colonies, the\\nminister replied: If any power assists Spain to recover\\nher transmarine provinces, England will take measures to\\nprotect her own interests.^ To her it was not a question\\nof sentiment, and we must not consider her policy more\\ngenerous than it was. Nor did France intend to close the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "198 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1810-1822.\\nimmense market which, was opened to her by the inde-\\npendence and free trade of the Spanish colonies.\\nHowever, the policy of the future gained by the definite\\nand even threatening affirmation of the principle of non-\\nintervention. Without ranging herself on the side of de-\\nmocracy, England meant that governments should be left\\nto extricate themselves as best they could from the diffi-\\nculties which their own violation of national ideas and\\ninterests might bring upon them.\\nIndependence of the Spanish Colonies (1824). Constitu-\\ntional Empire of Brazil (1822). Liberal Revolution in Por-\\ntugal (1826). Spain had subjected her transatlantic\\nprovinces to a system which inevitably brought about\\nrevolt. All manufactures, all foreign commerce, and\\nmany branches of agriculture, including cultivation of the\\nvine, had been forbidden the colonists. They were bound\\nto obtain from their mountains the gold and silver which\\nthe galleons bore away to Spain, and to receive from the\\nmother country all manufactured articles, including even\\niron and building timber. In short, Spanish America was\\na farm worked to the uttermost by its proprietor, the gov-\\nernment of Madrid. Inhuman penalties upheld this un-\\nnatural state of affairs. The smuggler was punished with\\ndeath, and the Inquisition placed its religious authority\\nand its tribunals at the service of this strange economical\\ndespotism. Insurrection broke out in Mexico in 1810,\\nwhen the French invasion of Spain prevented the mother\\ncountry from supporting its viceroys. The revolt spread\\nfrom one province to another. In 1816 the countries com-\\nposing the viceroyalty of La Plata proclaimed their inde-\\npendence. In the following year Chili followed this\\nexample. Toward 1821 Peru, Colombia, Central America\\nand Mexico became free and the Spaniards retained only\\na few points in the New World, together with the islands\\nof Cuba and Porto Eico. As no one foresaw the unhappy\\ndissensions into which these young republics were to fall,\\nthis defeat of absolutism in the New World reacted upon\\npublic opinion in the Old and the liberal cause was strength-\\nened thereby. One of the heroes of independence, Bolivar\\nthe Liberator, was almost as popular in Paris as in Caracas.\\nThe Congress of Washington speedily recognized the new\\nstates. In 1822 England was disposed to do the same,\\nalthough an Act of Parliament in 1819 had forbidden Eng-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1822-1827.] PROGRESS OF LIBERAL IDEAS 199\\nlish subjects to furnish munitions of war to the insurgents.\\nThe French expedition beyond the Pyrenees decided her,\\ntoward the end of 1824, to send diplomatic agents to Span-\\nish America and to ask commercial treaties from the new\\nstates. In order to justify his new policy, Canning ad-\\ndressed to the European Powers a circular note in which he\\nrepudiated the doctrine of Pilnitz, still the basis of the Holy\\nAlliance. He tried to eliminate from the wars against\\nFrance their original character, which was that of two hos-\\ntile principles in hand-to-hand conflict. He set forth only\\nthe character they had assumed later on as a struggle for\\nthe independence of the states. He claimed that the coali-\\ntion was formed against imperial ambition and not, out of\\nrespect for legitimacy, against the government actually\\nestablished in Prance. And he recalled with cruel malice\\nthat in 1814, even after having deposed Napoleon from the\\nthrone, the allies had thought of bestowing the conquered\\ncrown upon another than a Bourbon.\\nIn 1826 and 1827 England made a fresh application of\\nthese doctrines, but this time on the European continent,\\nand consequently nearer to inflammable materials.\\nImperial Prance, without designing it, had given liberty\\nto Spanish and Portuguese America by overturning at\\nMadrid and Lisbon the two governments which held their\\ncolonies in such strict dependence. Brazil was still subject\\nto the unnatural severity of the old colonial system when the\\nhouse of Braganza, driven from the banks of the Tagus by\\nthe army of Junot (1808), took refuge there. The king,\\nwhom his colony sheltered and saved, was obliged to remove\\nthe ancient prohibitions and inaugurate a liberal system\\nwhich, under the form of royalty (1815) and then of a\\nconstitutional empire (1822), guaranteed to those immense\\nprovinces internal peace and growing prosperity. The\\nmother country was unwilling, after the fall of Napoleon\\nand the return of her former king, to be left behind. John\\nVI was obliged, in 1820, to grant Portugal a constitution\\nwhich the intrigues of his second son, Dom Miguel, and the\\ndefeat of the Spanish Liberals (1823) caused to be torn up.\\nAt the death of John VI (1826), Dom Pedro, the eldest\\nson of that prince, the ex-emperor of Brazil and legitimate\\nheir of the Portuguese throne, again abdicated that crown\\nin favor of his daughter Dona Maria. But first he granted\\na new constitution. The absolutists on the banks of the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "200 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1826.\\nTagus and of the Douro, supported by those of Spain, re-\\njected both the Charter and the child-queen. Portugal\\nwas both a farm and a market for Great Britain. Many\\nEnglishmen possessed vast territories there. Its wines\\nwent to London and its manufactured goods came from\\nEngland. An absolutist victory at Lisbon appeared to\\nCanning as a defeat for English influence and English in-\\nterests. He promised assistance to the Portuguese regency.\\nOn December 11, 1826, he announced to Parliament the\\nmeasures which had been taken to that end. His speech\\nmade a great sensation, because for the first time since\\n1815 a great power stated in public, and with truth, the\\nmoral condition of Europe. Canning recalled the fact that\\nwhen France had crossed the Pyrenees to restore to Ferdi-\\nnand YII the powers of which his subjects had deprived\\nhim, England, without an army, without foolish expendi-\\nture, had wrested a hemisphere from this restored monarch;\\nthat, in a word, she had with one stroke of the pen re-\\nestablished the balance of the Old World by giving existence\\nto the New. His country was not ignorant, he said, how\\nmany hearts and energetic arms, in their desire for what is\\nbest, were stretched out toward it. This force was that of\\na giant. The duty of England was to make the champions\\nof exaggerated sentiments feel that their interest lay in not\\nmaking such an empire their enemy. England in the con-\\nflict of opinions which agitated the world was in the position\\nof the master of winds. She held in her hands the leathern\\nbottles of ^olus. With a single word she could let loose\\nthe hurricane upon the world. These threats were directly\\nlevelled at the Holy Alliance. They disturbed Prince\\nMetternich, who accused the English minister of wishing\\nto unchain the Revolution once more, but in every coun-\\ntry they rejoiced the heart of the Liberals. A medal,\\nstruck in France in honor of Canning, bore on one side these\\nwords, Civil and Eeligious Liberty in all the Universe\\nand on the other side, In the name of the nations, the\\nFrench to George Canning.\\nThe motto told the truth. It certainly was for two great\\nthings, civil liberty and religious liberty, or the rights of\\nthe citizen and the rights of conscience, that mankind had\\nengaged in the great combat; and our fathers were right to\\nwage it.\\nThe intervention of England in Portugal, authorized", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1826.] FROGBESS OF LIBERAL IDEAS 201\\nby former treaties, was nevertheless far less striking\\nthan the eloquence of her minister. The enterprises of\\nDom Miguel, arrested for a time, had free course after the\\npremature death of Canning (August 8, 1827), which was\\nspeedily followed by the return to power of the Tories.\\nFurther on we shall see this question solved by the triumph\\nof a new policy among the western Powers.\\nLiberation of Greece (1827). A few days before his\\ndeath Canning signed the Treaty of London, by which three\\nof the great Powers bound themselves to compel the Sultan\\nto recognize the independence of the Greeks.\\nThe insurrection of that people, long favored by Eussia\\nand rendered inevitable by Turkish cruelty, broke out in\\n1820. The governments condemned it at first. The Eng-\\nlish government opposed it because that struggle compro-\\nmised the existence of Turkey, on whose ]3i 6servation\\napparently depended the security of its Indian empire.\\nBritish liberalism, said Chateaubriand, wears the liberty\\ncap in Mexico and the turban at Athens. As for the Holy\\nAlliance, it saw in this insurrection nothing but a rebellion.\\nBy a strange application of the doctrine of divine right it\\ninsisted that the principles of legitimacy ought to protect\\nthe throne of the chief of the Osmanlis. Do not say Hhe\\nGreeks, Nicholas one day replied to Wellington, who was\\nexpressing to him England s sympathy for them. Do not\\nsay the Greeks, but ^the insurgents against the Sublime\\nPorte. I will no more protect their rebellion than I would\\nwish the Porte to protect sedition among my own subjects\\n(1826).\\nA few months later, it is true, this language was contra-\\ndicted by acts, for public opinion was becoming irresistible\\nin favor of the Hellenes. All liberal Europe espoused a\\ncause heroically maintained for national independence and\\nreligion. Sympathy was excited, even among the Conserva-\\ntives, by that magic name of Greece, by the struggle of\\nChristians against Mussulmans. In France the finger of\\nscorn would have stigmatized any one who did not applaud\\nthe exploits of Odysseus, Botsaris, Canaris and Miaoulis,\\nthe audacious chieftains who led their palikaris into the\\nthickest ranks of the janissaries and their fire-ships to\\nthe heart of the Mussulman squadrons. Poetry came to\\nthe succor of the insurgents. Lord Byron devoted to them\\nhis fortune and his life. The politicians were forced to", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "202 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1826-1827.\\nfollow the current. Canning easily involved England.\\nBeholding Italy subject to Austrian influence, Spain re-\\nstored to friendly relations with France, and the East agi-\\ntated by Eussian intrigues or threatened by her arms,\\nEngland was growing uneasy as the northern Powers thus\\napproached the shores of the Mediterranean whither enor-\\nmous trade was on the point of returning. She had many\\nformidable vantage points in that sea, in Gibraltar, Malta\\nand the Ionian Isles. But they were fortresses and not\\nprovinces. From them she could watch and not control.\\nIt was of vital importance to England not to allow the\\nRomanoffs to dominate at Nauplia and Constantinople, as\\nthe Hapsburgs were dominating at Naples, Eome and\\nMilan, or the Bourbons at Madrid.\\nTo forestall an armed intervention, which the Russians\\nwere already preparing, the British minister tried to settle\\neverything himself by making the two parties accept his\\nmediation. In March, 1826, Sir Stratford Canning, cousin\\nof the prime minister, thought that, merely by the pressure\\nof England, he was on the point of wresting from the Porte\\nand imposing upon the Greeks a pacific solution. He asked\\nthe one party to renounce their grand idea of replacing\\nthe cross of Constantine upon Sancta Sophia and to be con-\\ntent at first with having a small but free country. To the\\nOttomans he said that the body of the empire would be\\nstrengthened by the amputation of a limb in which a germ\\nof death was endangering the whole state. By this double-\\nfaced policy England reckoned upon keeping as her friends\\nboth the adversaries whom she had reconciled. But the\\nDivan, deceived by the successes of the Egyptian army\\nwhich had just captured Misolonghi and which held nearly\\nthe whole Morea, haughtily rejected these conditions. So\\nthe only resource was to reach an understanding with the\\nTsar for common action, or else see him reap alone the\\nreward of isolated action.\\nFrance, the protectress of the Roman Catholics in the\\nLevant, could not hold aloof. Austria, whom every move-\\nment terrified, remained inactive, awaiting events and\\nhusbanding her strength. Prussia was then too remote to\\ninterfere. Thus the three Powers, France, Russia and\\nEngland, bound themselves by the Treaty of London (July\\n6, 1827) to put an end to the war of extermination which\\nhad been carried into the Peloponnesus by Ibrahim Pasha^", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1827-1829.] PROGEESS OF LIBERAL IDEAS 203\\nson of the viceroy of Egypt. The three allied squadrons\\nburned the Ottoman fleet in the Bay of ISTavarino (October\\n20, 1827). Over this easy success far too much noise was\\nmade, and in his speech at the opening of Parliament the\\nking of England deplored its occurrence. As the Sultan\\ndid not yet yield the Eussians, who had just conquered Per-\\nsian Armenia, declared war against him (April 26, 1828).\\nEifteen thousand Erenchmen disembarked in the Morea to\\naid in settling as quickly as possible this Greek question,\\nso small at the beginning but now able to give rise to the\\nmost dreaded complications.\\nDestruction of the Janissaries (1826). Success of the Rus-\\nsians (1828-1829). The Ottomans were incapable of re-\\nsistance. Sultan Mahmoud had just exterminated the\\njanissaries, a lawless militia, which had deposed or\\nstrangled several sultans, but had also victoriously car-\\nried the green standard from Buda to Bagdad. The corps\\nhad been corrupted by many abuses, which it defended by\\nconstant rebellions. This soldiery refused to drill or to\\nobey, and Mahmoud, mowed them down with grape-shot.\\nBetween the sixteenth and the twenty-second of June,\\n1826, in Constantinople alone 10,000 janissaries were slain\\nby cannon or the bowstring, or burned alive in their bar-\\nracks. Those in the provinces were hunted down in every\\ndirection.\\nThe Sultan had just destroyed the inefficient but only\\nmilitary force of the empire before organizing another.\\nThe Eussians made rapid progress, capturing Silistria in\\nJune, 1829, Erzeroum in July and Adrianople in August.\\nThe Turkish Empire seemed crumbling to pieces. Austria,\\ntrembling as the Eussians approached the gates of Stam-\\nboul, joined Erance and England in imposing peace upon\\nNicholas. The latter, in spite of a visit to Berlin, could\\nnot obtain the effective assistance of Prussia. So, on Sep-\\ntember 14, 1829, he accepted the Treaty of Adrianople,\\nwhich compelled restoration of his conquests. Neverthe-\\nless it gave him the mouths of the Danube, the right for\\nhis fleets to navigate the Black Sea, thus facilitating a\\ndirect attack upon Constantinople, and the protectorate\\nover Moldavia, Wallachia and Servia. The first two prov-\\ninces were to be henceforth governed by hospodars for life\\nand the last by a hereditary prince. This treaty, which\\nsaved Turkey, handed over the Danubian principalities to", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "204 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a,d. 1828.\\nEussian influence. But the allies hoped that the new\\nGreek state, converted into a monarchy in 1831, would\\nserve them as a basis of operations to counteract the diplo-\\nmacy of the Tsar in the Eastern peninsula.\\nSummary. State of the World in 1828. Without any\\nviolent revolution, but in consequence of the persevering\\nefforts of wise men, France with Martignac, England with\\nCanning and Portugal through Dom Pedro, took up again\\nliberal traditions. To them Spain was to be led back by\\na change in the law of succession. In the New World ten\\nrepublics were born and the only monarchy which remained\\nthere had become constitutional. On the old continent the\\nnew Hellenic state, the work of sentiment as much as of\\npolitics, had taken its place among the nations on the side\\nof free institutions. In Italy, especially at Milan and\\nRome, in Germany, Hesse, Baden, Brunswick and Saxony\\na portentous fermentation announced to unpopular govern-\\nments that revolutions could only be prevented by reforms.\\nIn Belgium and in Poland, under the lead of the clergy,\\nthe insurrection of nationalities and of religions was pre-\\nparing which antagonistic religions and nationalities wished\\nto smother. And lastly, commerce and manufactures,\\nwhich had been developed in the calm of peace, letters,\\nwhich were animated by a breath of renewal, and the peri-\\nodical press, which was becoming a power, all favored the\\nadvance of public spirit toward popular independence and\\nindividual liberty. Thus, everything warned the govern-\\nments to keep in that great liberal current which was trav-\\nersing the world from one pole to the other, from Paris to\\nLima. Unfortunately there were princes and ministers\\nwho tried once more to resist that force which some call\\nProvidence or fate, and which to others is the irresistible\\nresult of a thousand causes, great or small, by which the\\ncommon life of a nation and of humanity is determined.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "A.D.1829.] NEW EFFORTS AGAINST THE LIBERAL SPIRIT 205\\nXXXV\\nNEW AND IMPOTENT EFFORTS OP THE OLD REGIME\\nAGAINST THE LIBERAL SPIRIT\\nDom Miguel in Portugal (1828). Don Carlos in Spain\\n(1827). Absolutism, astonished and uneasy after its re-\\nverses, made a supreme effort to regain possession of the\\ncountries which had just broken from its control. The\\nsignal was given by Vienna which, under the direction of\\nPrince Metternich, was the citadel of reaction. Dom Miguel\\nhad taken refuge there and from it kept Portugal in a state\\nof incessant agitation, hoping to dethrone his niece, Dona\\nMaria, then a child of seven. Dom Pedro had believed he\\ncould save his daughter s throne by marrying her to Dom\\nMiguel and investing him with the regency. The regent\\nswore fidelity to the Constitution (February 22, 1828), but\\nfour months afterwards proclaimed himself king. This\\nperjury and usurpation was supported by the English Tories\\nand seemed successful at first. Despotism terrorized the\\ncountry. The victims of assassination, execution or ban-\\nishment were numbered by thousands (1829).\\nDom Miguel was the son of a sister of Ferdinand VII.\\nThe nephew was as bad as the uncle, and the king of Spain\\nhad given bloody pledges to the absolutists. jSTevertheless\\nthe friend of the Jesuits was deemed too liberal. In 1825\\nBessi\u00c3\u00a8res, an adventurer of French origin, took up arms\\nto deliver the king held captive by the negroes or Con-\\nstitutionals. In 1827 the former soldiers of the Army of\\nthe Faith proclaimed his brother, Don Carlos, the leader\\nof the clerical party, as king. This attempt did not suc-\\nceed: but it was the beginning of an interminable war.\\nDom Miguel had rebelled two or three times against his\\nfather. The representatives of the old r\u00c3\u00a9gime, the Apos-\\ntolicals, as they called themselves in Spain, were accord-\\ningly as revolutionary as their adversaries of 1820. It will\\nnot be surprising to find soon this same contempt for law\\nin the spirit and acts of their friends in France.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "206 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1824-1828.\\nThe Wellington Ministry (1828). The Diet of Frankfort.\\nSome time after the death of Canning the Tories re-\\nturned to power with the Wellington ministry and tried to\\ngive a different direction to the policy of Great Britain.\\nZeal for the cause of Greece immediately slackened. The\\nprotection accorded the Portuguese Liberals was withdrawn.\\nWellington recalled the English corps which had been sent\\nto the Tagus, stopped by main force an expedition of Con-\\nstitutionals, and recognized Dom Miguel as king (1829).\\nAt home the importation of foreign grain was discouraged.\\nThe emancipation of the Eoman Catholic Irish was opposed\\nalthough O Connell, the great agitator, had already begun\\nto stir the masses with the cry, Justice for Ireland.\\nLiberal opinion gained strength. In the following year it\\ncarried the Irish Bill. Lord John Eussell, the Whig\\nleader, succeeded in passing a resolution which made it no\\nlonger incumbent on all candidates for offices under the\\ncrown to prove that they received the sacrament according\\nto the rites of the Anglican Church. Hitherto all except\\nEpiscopalians had been excluded from office. Thus the\\nTories were obliged to bow before the current which was\\nflowing toward free institutions.\\nItaly, in the stern grasp of Austria, no longer made any\\nmovement, and Germany was becoming equally silent.\\nSince 1815, wrote a Prussian ambassador, the personal\\nfriend of his king, since 1815 we have lived weighed\\ndown with heavy chains. We have beheld all voices sti-\\nfled, even those of the poets, and we have been reduced to\\nseeking refuge in the sanctuary of science. Nevertheless,\\nreforms in material interests were accomplished. The\\nZollverein was introduced, which suppressed internal cus-\\ntoms-duties.\\nBut in defiance of the independence of the Confederated\\nStates, the Diet of Frankfort in 1824 renewed its declara-\\ntion that it would everywhere uphold royalty. That was\\nsaying in effect that for the simplest reforms the Liberals\\nwould be obliged to conquer the resistance of their respec-\\ntive sovereigns and of the armies of the entire Confedera-\\ntion, since the latter was self-appointed judge of whatever\\nacts might compromise ^^the monarchical principle. The\\nlaw was continued which in 1819 had established rigorous\\npenalties against the press for a period of five years. A\\ncommission was further charged with examining defects", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "A.D.1825.] NEW EFFORTS AGAINST THE LIBERAL SPIRIT 207\\nin instruction, so as to subject the rising generation to an\\neducation in keeping with the spirit of the Holy Alliance.\\nLastly, as the debates of the Diet, hitherto public, seemed\\nto disturb men s minds, the assembly decided to hold its\\ndeliberations in future only behind closed doors. The\\nfederal government hid itself in the shadow like the in-\\nquisitors of Venice. Alexander adopted the same measures\\nwith regard to the Polish Diet (1825).\\nThe Tsar Mcholas. In Eussia the nation was summed\\nup in one man, the Tsar. The prohibition issued by\\nAlexander against bringing into Russia any books which\\ntreated of politics in a manner hostile to the principles of\\nthe Holy Alliance had been a hindrance to very few\\nreaders. But the moral contagion, which cannot be kept\\nout by a line of custom-houses, crossed the frontier, and\\nthe new ideas gained a meagre following here and there.\\nAlexander s last moments were darkened by the discovery\\nof a formidable conspiracy which extended even to the\\narmy. What harm have I done them he exclaimed\\nsadly. No harm except in seeking to be the intelligence\\nand will of 60,000,000 souls. Even in Russia there were\\nalready men who believed that that r\u00c3\u00b4le was ended.\\nWhen Alexander died at Taganrog (December, 1825),\\nhis brother, the Grand Duke Constantine, voluntarily re-\\npeated his renunciation of the crown. Nicholas, a third son\\nof Paul II, was proclaimed Tsar. He was a man of iron,\\nno harder to others than to himself. Convinced that he\\nwas a representative of the divine will, he consequently\\nacted with perfect calmness, whether ordering the punish-\\nment of an individual, the execution of a people, or a war\\nwhich was to carry off a million men. The plots formed\\nunder Alexander were not abandoned. Some of the con-\\nspirators aimed at overthrowing Tsarism by uniting all the\\nSlavic population in one federal republic, like the United\\nStates. Others thought to force its surrender by imposing\\nupon it a constitution. They brought over many regiments\\nto their cause. On the day when the garrison of St. Peters-\\nburg was to take the oath to the new ruler, the sedition\\nbroke out. Before nightfall it was crushed. After a\\nfew executions in the provinces, Eussia recognized her\\nmaster in that prince who for a quarter of a century was\\nto Europe the haughty and all-powerful incarnation of\\nautocracy.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "208 HISTORY OF MOBERIT TIMES [a.d. 1829-1830.\\nThe Polignac Ministry (1829). Capture of Algiers.\\nThus in Germany, Hussia, and the Iberian and Italian\\npeninsulas, the liberal spirit was again repressed. The\\nallies of 1815 seemed to have conquered once more. In\\nGreat Britain it was awakening but under the prudent\\nguardianship of the Tories. Hitherto it had been the privi-\\nlege of France to move the world. To which side would\\nshe incline? If she were able to continue her liberal evo-\\nlution peacefully, the new light would shine abroad with-\\nout a shock and with a penetrating force well-nigh\\nirresistible.\\nSo long as M. de Martignac remained in the government\\nthe Liberals retained their hopes. Unhappily Charles X,\\ndocile to the counsels of the Congregation, supported his\\nminister without liking him. After eighteen months his\\nself-control was exhausted. On August 8, 1829, taking\\nadvantage of a slight rebuff imprudently inflicted by the\\nChamber on his ministers in a matter of minor importance,\\nhe replaced them by Messieurs De Polignac, De Labourdon-\\nnaie, and De Bourmont. The choice of such men by the\\nmonarch amounted to a declaration of war against the coun-\\ntry. A crisis was inevitable. For ten months the oppo-\\nsition press constantly repeated that the government would\\nend of necessity by a coup d \u00c3\u00a9tat, and the deputies declared\\nin their address of reply to the king s speech, that the\\nministry did not possess their confidence. The Chamber\\nwas dissolved, but the 221 signers of the address were re-\\nelected. Eoyalty, vanquished in the elections, decided to\\nmake its own revolution.\\nThe military success of the Algerian expedition encour-\\naged this resolve. Thirty-seven thousand French troops,\\nunder the Count de Bourmont, had landed in Africa to\\navenge an affront to a French consul and had taken posses-\\nsion of the country and city of Algiers. The booty seized\\ndefrayed the cost of the expedition. Since that time Alge-\\nria has been a possession of France.\\nThe Eevolution of 1830. On the 26th of July ordinances\\nappeared which annulled the liberty of the press, rendered\\nthe last elections void and created a new electoral system.\\nThis was a coup d \u00c3\u00a9tat against public liberty. It overthrew\\nthe Charter, on which the return of the Bourbons to the\\nthrone of their fathers had been conditioned. The magis-\\ntrates declared these ordinances illegal. Paris replied to", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "A.D.1830.] NEW EFFORTS AGAINST THE LIBERAL SPIRIT 209\\nthe provocation of the court by the three days of July 27,\\n2S and 29, 1830. This time resistance was legitimate,\\nsince both the burghers and populace fought those who\\nhad infringed the Constitution. Despite the bravery of the\\nroyal guard and of the Swiss, Charles X was vanquished.\\nWhen he offered to withdraw the ordinances and then abdi-\\ncated in favor of his grandson, the Duke de Bordeaux, he\\nwas answered by the watchword of revolutions, It is too\\nlate. He again went into exile. Six thousand men had\\nbeen slain or wounded. They were victims to the obstinacy\\nof an old man, who, in the words of Eoyer-Collard, had\\nset up his government counter to society as if it existed\\nagainst society, as if to give society the lie and defy it.\\nFrance saluted with almost unanimous acclamations this\\nseparation from the men and ideas of 1815. In again\\nadopting the flag of 1789, she seemed also to be regaining\\npossession of herself. She seemed to be winning the liber-\\nties which the Eevolution had promised but had not yet\\nbestowed. Eeverentially she was about to divorce religion\\nfrom politics in order to restore it to the place which it\\nought never to have quitted, in the temple and the individual\\nconscience.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "210 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1830.\\nXXXVI\\nCONSEQUENCES OF THE REVOLUTION OP JULY IN\\nFRANCE. STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE LIBERAL CON-\\nSERVATIVES AND THE REPUBLICANS\\n(1830-1840)\\nCharacter of the Period comprised between 1830 and 1840.\\nUnder the Eestoration only two policies found them-\\nselves face to face. These were the policy of the Holy\\nAlliance and that of the liberals. Thus the victory of\\nthat period is a summary of the obscure or brilliant, the\\ngenerous or criminal, struggle between these two principles.\\nAfter 1830 this conflict continued but was complicated by\\nnew interests.\\nThe revolution of July, 1830, which in certain countries\\nassured the victory to liberal ideas, seemed to promise it to\\nothers which it incited to insurrection. Meanwhile the\\nhalf-ruined alliance of 1815 made an effort to maintain\\nitself. If the western Powers, France, England, Belgium,\\nSwitzerland, Spain and Portugal, escaped therefrom for-\\never, the central and eastern states, Prussia, Austria and\\nRussia, remained faithful to that alliance. But the prin-\\nciple of free society daily enlarged its scope like a sea which\\neats away its shores and thrusts its waves always farther\\ninland. Thus gradually spreading it agitated Italy, shook\\nGermany and raised Poland a moment from her bier.\\nThe principal representative of the spirit of reaction in\\nthe preceding period had been Prince Metternich, with his\\ncalm skill and his cautious and temporizing policy. Now\\nthe Emperor Nicholas was its highest expression by his im-\\nplacable energy and his activity as well as by the grandeur\\nof his plans.\\nBut new questions arise and divert attention from internal\\nanxieties. The immense heritage of the Turkish Empire\\nseemed about opening up, and men asked themselves un-\\neasily who were to be its heirs. Egypt, on the shortest", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1830.] FRANCE AFTER THE REVOLUTION OF JULY 211\\nroad to India, was becoming civilized under a barbarian\\ngenins and the maritime powers were quarrelling over their\\ninfluence on the Nile. Central Asia became the battlefield\\nfor the rival intrigues of England and E-ussia. The bar-\\nriers which shut off the extreme East opened a little and\\nwere soon to fall before the commerce of the world. The\\nactivity of mankind expanded. Erom 1789 to 1815 men\\nthought only of France, victorious or vanquished, and forgot\\nAsia, where England was growing strong, and the New\\nWorld, where the American Republic was noiselessly\\nbecoming a giant. Between 1815 and 1830 attention, still\\ncentred upon Europe, turned aside for a moment only to\\nbehold the birth of the new states of Spanish America.\\nIn the third period one must go from pole to pole, would\\nhe keep pace with civilization which wishes to complete its\\npossession of the globe by commerce or by war, its two\\nmighty instruments.\\nKing Louis Philippe. La Eayette said to the people at\\nthe city hall, pointing toward the Duke of Orleans, There\\nis the best of republics. Many thought like La Eayette.\\nThe private virtues of the prince, his noble family, his\\nformer relations with the leaders of the liberal party, the\\ncarefully revived memories of Jemmapes and Valmy, his\\nsimple habits and the popular education given to his sons\\nin the public schools all encouraged the hopes of the\\npeople.\\nThe Duke of Orleans, the head of the younger branch of\\nthe house of Bourbon, was proclaimed king on August 9,\\nafter having sworn to observe the revised charter. The\\nchanges then made in the constitutional compact, or during\\nthe following months in the existing laws, were unimpor-\\ntant. The heredity of the peerage and the censorship of\\nthe press were abolished. The qualification for election\\nwas fixed at 500 francs and the qualification to serve as an\\nelector at 200 francs. Thus the political rights of persons\\nof fortune were maintained without specially stipulating\\nthose of intelligence. The article was suppressed which\\nrecognized the Roman Catholic religion as the state reli-\\ngion, and all the peerages created by Charles X were abol-\\nished. But in 1814 Louis XVIII had seemed to grant a\\ncharter of his own good will. In 1830 Louis Philippe\\naccepted one which the deputies imposed. Therein lay the\\nwhole r\u00c3\u00a9volution\u00c2\u00bb Nevertheless the fact must not be for-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "212 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1830.\\ngotten that rights, first violated by royalty, had been again\\nviolated by the Chamber, since the deputies had disposed\\nof the crown and re-made the Constitution without a man-\\ndate from the country. This will prove for the Orleans\\ndynasty an incurable source of weakness. The govern-\\nment, born of a fact and not of a principle, will not enjoy\\neither the force formerly conferred by legitimacy or that\\nwhich is to-day conferred by the national expression.\\nThe Laffitte Ministry (1830). The shock caused by the\\nfall of the Restoration had imparted an unexpected strength\\nto the republican party. This party must be taken into\\naccount first of all. It was flattered for awhile in the\\nperson o f two men whom the republicans respected. Gen-\\neral La Fayette, who was appointed commander of all the\\nnational guard of France, and M. Lafiitte, who was called\\nto the ministry (November 2). The popularity of the for-\\nmer was cleverly exploited until after the trial of the min-\\nisters of Charles X, and that of the second until the moment\\nwhen it became necessary to make a plain declaration of\\nsentiments on foreign policy.\\nFrance had the distinguished honor of riveting the atten-\\ntion of the world upon herself. At the crash of the throne\\nwhich crumbled at Paris all the unpopular powers were\\ncompromised. We shall soon see that in Switzerland the\\naristocratic governments fell, and that liberal innovations\\nwere introduced into Germany. Italy was quivering with\\nexcitement. Spain was preparing a revolution. Belgium\\nwas separating from Holland. England herself, troubled\\nand agitated, was on the point of wresting the Reform Bill\\nfrom the Tories. Peace was more profitable to liberty than\\nwar and French ideas re-won the conquests which French\\narms had lost.\\nBut was France to champion every European insurrection\\nat the risk of inciting a general war and of shedding torrents\\nof blood? The new king did not think so. Belgium had\\nseparated from Holland and wished to unite with France.\\nHer advances were discouraged for fear of exciting the jeal-\\nousy of England. The Spanish refugees wanted to make a\\nrevolution in their country. They were arrested on the\\nfrontier so that international law should not be violated\\neven against a prince who was a secret enemy. Poland,\\nliberated for a few moments by a heroic effort, appealed to\\nFrance. Was it possible to save her by arms? As the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1831.] FRANCE AFTER THE REVOLUTION OF JULY 213\\nPoles themselves said in their national calamity, God is\\ntoo high and France is too far. The meagre assistance\\nsent to her did not prevent Warsaw from succumbing.\\nIts fall found a sad echo in the heart of every Frenchman.\\nItaly, bound hand and foot by Austria, strove to break her\\nchains. M. Laffitte wished to aid her. The king refused\\nto follow his advice and called Casimir-Perier to the presi-\\ndency of the Council.\\nThe Casimir-Perier Ministry (1831). This policy was\\nesteemed too prudent. Casimir-Perier imparted to it a\\nmomentary grandeur by the energy with which he supported\\nthis system of moderation. He made two distinct declara-\\ntions. The first was, that he desired order and legality,\\nand consequently would combat the republicans and le-\\ngitimists to the death if they employed riots to effect the\\ntriumph of their opinions the second was that he would\\nnot plunge France into a universal war and consequently\\nfor the sake of peace would make every sacrifice compatible\\nwith the honor of the country. This haughty language was\\nsupported by deeds. Dom Miguel in Portugal had mal-\\ntreated two Frenchmen. A fleet forced the defences of the\\nTagus, which were reputed impassable, and anchored 300\\nfathoms from the quays of Lisbon. The Portuguese min-\\nisters humbly made proper reparation. The Dutch invaded\\nBelgium. Fifty thousand French entered the country and\\nthe flag of the Netherlands retreated. The Austrians who\\nhad once left the pontifical states returned thither. Casi-\\nmir-Perier, determined to enforce the principle of non-\\nintervention, sent a flotilla into the Adriatic, and troops\\nlanded and seized Ancona. This appearance of the tri-\\ncolored flag in the centre of Italy was almost equivalent to\\na declaration of war. Austria did not accept the challenge\\nbut withdrew her troops.\\nAt home the President of the Council followed with the\\nsame energy the line of conduct which he had marked out\\nfor himself. The legitimists were disturbing the western\\ndepartments. Flying columns stifled the revolt. The\\nworkmen of Lyons, excited by their misery but also by agi-\\ntators, rose, inscribing on their banners this plaintive and\\nsinister motto: To work and live or to fight and die.\\nAfter a horrible conflict in the heart of the city they were\\ndisarmed and on the surface order seemed to be restored.\\nGrenoble was a scene of blood in its turn. The so-called", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "214 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1832-\\nplots of Notre Dame and of the Eue des Prouvaires broke\\nout in Paris.\\nSucli was tlie ministry of Casimir-P\u00c3\u00a9rier, an energetic\\nstruggle in which his strong will did not recoil at any ob-\\nstacle for the cause of order. Colleagues, Chambers, the\\nking himself, he dominated over them all. Such a life\\nhad exhausted his strength when he was stricken down by\\ncholera (May 16, 1832).\\nMinistry of October 11, 1832. Society was profoundly\\nundermined by the partisans of Saint Simon and Fourier,\\nwho demanded another social order. These men as yet\\nplayed the part of pacific apostles only, but the insurrection\\nin Lyons had revealed the masses as an army fully prepared\\nto apply their doctrines. The national guard with energy\\ndefended royalty when, after the funeral of General La-\\nmarque, the republicans fought and lost the battle of June\\n5 and 6 behind the barricades of Saint M\u00c3\u00a9ry. This check\\ndisconcerted their party for a time. A month later the\\ndeath of the Duke of Eeichstadt, the son of ISTapoleon, re-\\nmoved a formidable rival from the Orleans dynasty, which\\nat the same time seemed to gain support by the marriage\\nof Princess Louise to the king of the Belgians.\\nAnother claimant also lost an opportunity. The Duchess\\nde Berri had secretly landed on the coast of Provence with\\nthe title of regent, and endeavored to kindle civil war in\\nthe west in the name of her son, Henry V. But there\\nwere no longer either Vendeans or Chouans. The new\\nideas had penetrated thither almost more than elsewhere.\\nThese people are patriots and republicans, said an\\nofficer, charged with fighting them. The country was\\npromptly pacified and the duchess, after wandering from\\nfarmhouse to farmhouse, entered Nantes disguised as a\\npeasant woman. Her adventurous freak showed the weak-\\nness of the legitimists. To complete their overthrow, M.\\nThiers, then minister, caused active search to be made for\\nthe duchess. She was found and confined at Blaye, where\\ncircumstances forced her to acknowledge a secret marriage\\nwhich rendered all similar attempts in the future impossible.\\nSuccess Abroad. Certain results of the French foreign\\npolicy reacted on their domestic policy. Thus the capture\\nby French troops of the citadel of Antwerp, which the\\nDutch refused to restore to the Belgians, terminated a\\ncritical situation which might any moment have brought", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "1835.] FRANCE AFTER THE REVOLUTION OF JULY 215\\non war. Purtlier acquisitions in Africa as well as an expe-\\ndition to the banks of the Scheldt cast a little glory on the\\nFrench army.\\nIn the East French diplomacy mediated between the\\nSultan and his victorious vassal, Mehmet Ali, the pasha\\nof Egypt. The treaty of Kutaieh, which left Syria to\\nMehmet Ali, strengthened the viceroy of Egypt, the\\nguardian in behalf of Europe of the two chief commercial\\nroutes of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf which England\\nwished to seize.\\nIn Portugal Dom Miguel, an absolutist prince, was de-\\nthroned and replaced by Dona Maria, who gave her people\\na constitutional charter (1834), In Spain Ferdinand VII\\ndied (1834), excluding from the succession his brother, Don\\nCarlos, who was upheld by the retrograde party. Thus\\nthe whole peninsula might escape at the same time from\\nthe absolutist party had England and France been ready to\\ncombine and prevent another Congress of Laibach or\\nVerona. The treaty of the Quadruple Alliance, signed on\\nApril 22, 1834, between the courts of Paris, London, Lis-\\nbon and Madrid, did, in fact, promise to the new Spanish\\nand Portuguese governments the support of the two great\\nconstitutional countries against the ill-will of the northern\\ncourts. An army corps of 50,000 men was formed at the\\nfoot of the Pyrenees for the purpose of supporting, in case\\nof need, the young Queen Isabella against the Spanish le-\\ngitimists, the natural allies of the French legitimists.\\nInsurrections at Lyons and at Paris (1834). Attempt of\\nFieschi (1835). At home the Chambers had at last passed\\na law organizing primary instruction (1833). In Parlia-\\nment, on important questions, the ministry was sure of the\\nmajority. Though the jury often acquitted persons accused\\nof political crimes, the army was faithful, and the first\\nattempt against the life of the king caused royalty to profit\\nby the horror which such crimes always inspire. Well\\nThey have fired at me, said the king. Sire, replied\\nDupin, they have fired at themselves.\\nThe insurrections of April, 1834, at Lyons and at Paris,\\nand the dramatic incidents of the trial of 164 republicans\\nbefore the Court of Peers, led to the imprisonment or flight\\nof nearly all their leaders and the momentary ruin of that\\nparty as a militant faction.\\nMeanwhile the violent had recourse again to assassina-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "216 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1835-\\ntion. At the review of July 28, 1835, Fiesclii, a returned\\nconvict and forger, directed an infernal machine at the\\nking. Eighteen persons were killed and twenty wounded.\\nAmong the slain was Marshal Mortier.\\nThis horrible attempt appalled society. The ministry\\ntook advantage of the universal indignation to present the\\nLaws of September concerning the Court of Assizes, the\\njury and the press. They were planned to render punish-\\nment for crime more severe and more prompt. They pro-\\nhibited all discussion as to the principles of the government\\nand curtailed the press.\\nThe Thiers Ministry (1836). The cause of order, ear-\\nnestly upheld at home, was now triumphant. M. Thiers,\\nPresident of the Ministerial Council after February 22,\\n1836, wished to repeat the foreign policy of Casimir-Perier.\\nThe Spanish Carlists were making threatening progress in\\nthe peninsula. M. Thiers decided to interfere. England\\nherself requested it. This course indicated closer relations\\nwith that power and the intention of defending liberal ideas\\nin Europe. The memory of the unfortunate intervention\\nof 1823 would thus have been gloriously effaced.\\nThe same ministry conceived and prepared another expe-\\ndition. Desirous of further acquisitions in Algeria, M.\\nThiers ordered Marshal Clausel to attack Constantine, one\\nof the strongest fortresses in Africa. He also intended to\\nhave General Bugeaud enter Spain at the head of 12,000\\nmen. Thus the government, which had put down troubles\\nat home, was about to exercise the activity of France abroad.\\nThe timorous king gave his consent to the expedition\\nagainst Constantine, because cannon-shots fired in Africa,\\nhe said, were not heard in Europe but he would allow no\\nintervention in Spain. M. Thiers, rather than yield,\\nquitted the ministry, where he was replaced by M. Mole as\\nPresident of the Council.\\nThe Mole Ministry (1836-1839). \u00e2\u0080\u0094The first part of M.\\nMole s ministry was marked by misfortunes. Marshal\\nClausel, whose forces were insufficient, failed in the expe-\\ndition against Constantine. Prince Louis, the nephew of\\nNapoleon, tried to rouse the garrison of Strasburg to re-\\nvolt. He was arrested and conducted beyond the frontiers.\\nHis accomplices were brought before the jury, which dis-\\ncharged them because the principal culprit had been re-\\nmoved from its jurisdiction. This verdict displeased the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "1839.] FRANCE AFTER TEE REVOLUTION OF JULY 217\\ncourt. The ministry proposed a peculiar law which aimed\\nat trying citizens and soldiers by different courts though\\naccused of the same crime. The Chamber rejected it.\\nThese checks were relieved during the following year by\\nsome successes. The army at last planted its flag upon the\\nwalls of Constantino (1837). To end a long standing quar-\\nrel with Mexico an expedition was despatched which took\\npossession of Vera Cruz. Mexico paid a war indemnity.\\nThe Prince de Joinville was on the fleet. He displayed\\nthe same courage which his brothers had often shown in\\nAfrica. The birth of a son to the Duke of Orleans, to\\nwhom the king gave the name of Count of Paris, seemed\\nto consolidate the dynasty.\\nBut vigorous attacks upon the ministry were already\\npreparing in the heart of Parliament. M. Mole had just\\nrecalled the French troops from Ancona in compliance with\\nthe terms of the treaty of 1833. It was asserted that the\\nremoval of the tri-colored flag from Ancona was a humilia-\\ntion to France in Europe and the abandonment of a precious\\nguarantee against Austria. French diplomacy was no more\\nhappy in the final regulation of the 33utch-Belgian affair.\\nThe Belgians by their revolution had aimed at separating\\ntwo peoples of different language, religion and interests.\\nBut the treaty of the twenty-four articles, accepted by the\\nFrench ministry, ceded to the king of Holland Belgian\\npopulations which had fought against him. Europe would\\nnot allow the friendly province of Luxemburg to be annexed\\nto France, which would have covered a vulnerable point in\\nthe French frontier.\\nWith a little more regard for the national honor and with\\na little more confidence in the national strength, it was said\\nthat those concessions for peace at any price might have\\nbeen spared. But the real pretext of these attacks was\\nwhat was called the insufiiciency of the ministry. M.\\nGuizot, the leader of the doctrinaires, who were a small but\\ntalented and ambitious party; M. Thiers, the leader of the\\nLeft Centre which vigorously condemned personal govern-\\nment; and M. Odilon Barrot, leader of the deputies op-\\nposed to the policy, but devoted to the person of the king,\\nformed a coalition with the motto of 1830: The kins:\\nreigns, but does not govern. The ministry wished to\\nresign. The king, whose cause was at stake, refused to\\nallow it, and appealed to the country by dissolving the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "218 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1839.\\nChamber. The ministry fought vigorously in the electoral\\nbattle, but was vanquished and fell. Jealousies in the dis-\\ntribution of offices caused the coalition to disband the day\\nafter its victory. Difficulties over the formation of a new\\nministry kept Paris in suspense for more than a month.\\nCertain republicans, with more faith in gunshots than in\\nthe propaganda of ideas, attempted a revolution. They\\ncould not even get up a riot.\\nMinistry of Marshal Soult (1839). At last a cabinet was\\nformed under the presidency of Marshal Soult. None of\\nthe leaders of the coalition were members of it. Therefore\\nit could be nothing but a Ministry ad interim. It did not\\nlast ten months.\\nMeanwhile, the Emir Abd-el Kader in Africa proclaimed\\nthe Holy War. Within two months the regular infantry of\\nthe Moslem chieftain was crushed at the battle of Chiffa.\\nStill the great concern of this cabinet was not Algiers, but\\nthe redoubtable Eastern question, as we shall see later on.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1830-1832.] CONSEQUENCES OF THE REVOLUTION 219\\nXXXVII\\nCONSEQUENCES IN EUROPE OF THE REVOLUTION OF\\nJULY\\n(1830-1840)\\nGeneral State of Europe in 1830. The revolution of\\nJuly was not the cause of the memorable events which oc-\\ncurred in Europe after the three days of Paris. Everything\\nwas ripe in England for the fall of the Tories in Belgium,\\nItaly and Poland for a national insurrection in Spain and\\nPortugal and in the bosom of the Germanic Confederation\\nfor enforcing the complaints of the constitutionals. The\\nrepressive policy, followed by the great states after 1815,\\nhad prepared the inflammable materials upon which fell a\\nspark from the conflict at Paris. Then the fire burst out in\\nevery direction. At certain points it did its work and\\ncleared the ground for new edifices. At others it was\\nstopped, smothered for the moment. Some of the nations\\nabandoned the system of authority for the contract system.\\nThat is, they repudiated the theory of aristocratic or royal\\nrights and adopted that of the rights of the nation. Other\\npeoples, held to the earth by powerful hands, moved rest-\\nlessly, but were unable to gain their feet.\\nEngland. Whig Ministry (1830). The Reform Bill\\n(1831-1832). The first Parliament which assembled at\\nLondon after the French Revolution of 1830 overthrew the\\nTory ministry, despite its illustrious leader, the Duke of\\nWellington. The Whigs assumed the direction of affairs\\nand introduced a Reform Bill which suppressed fifty-six\\nrotten boroughs, gave representation to the towns which\\nhad none, and created a multitude of new electors by\\nlowering the electoral requirement in the towns to a house-\\nhold franchise of ten pounds sterling. Thus the English\\nreform was much more liberal than the French. Thus the\\nnumber of electors was almost doubled. England alone\\nthen had more than 800,000. But we shall see in 1848 the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "220 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1830-1833.\\nfate of the Orleans monarchy staked on the question of\\nadding 24, 000 electors to a body of voters only a fourth as\\nnumerous as the voters in aristocratic England. Yet the\\npopulation of the latter country was only half that of\\nFrance. For fourteen months the Lords resisted the Com-\\nmons, the ministers, the king himself, as well as popular\\ndemonstrations which brought together as many as 300,000\\npersons. They only yielded before the threat of the crea-\\ntion of enough liberal peers to change the majority. The\\nWhigs also made Parliament pass two other liberal meas-\\nures. The one in 1833 emancipated 600,000 negroes. This\\ncost England 16,500,000 pounds sterling. The other in\\ntTie following year was the new Poor Law which, while\\nrelieving distress, diminished the expenditure. In order\\nto induce the Lords to accept the Eeform Bill, Wellington,\\nthe Tory leader, had acknowledged sadly that the time was\\nwhen the upper Chamber could make its sentiments pre-\\nvail; that England must resign herself to wishing what\\nthe Commons wished. The English aristocracy, the strong-\\nest and richest in the world, and also the one which, during\\nthe past century and a half, had displayed the most politi-\\ncal sagacity, announced in plaintive words its abdication as\\na governing class. The useful function was left it, which\\nit has well fulfilled even to the present hour, of acting as\\na moderator or restrainer. Such a curb is as necessary in\\nthose great organisms called states as in powerful and\\ndangerous machines of industry.\\nThus, in the credit column of the revolution of July\\nmust be set down its influence upon the English people.\\nThis influence was bloodless and useful to both countries.\\nIn helping to hurl the Tories from power and elevating the\\nLiberals to their place, France secured friends on the other\\nside of the Channel. King Louis Philippe was able to\\noffset the cold and haughty attitude of the courts of Ger-\\nmany and Eussia by the cordial understanding with\\nEngland. Hence the two western Powers, united for many\\nyears by a community of ideas and interests, were able to\\ncheck reactionary ambitions and favor the legitimate\\naspirations of the peoples.\\nThe first fruit of this alliance was the pacific solution of\\nthe Belgian question.\\nBelgian Eevolution (August and September, 1830). -In\\n1815 the English had had Belgium given to Holland as in-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1831-1833.] CONSEQUENCES OF THE REVOLUTION 221\\ndemnity for the Dutch colonies which they wished to keep.\\nMoreover, they had descried in this combination a means of\\nrepressing and keeping watch upon France from the north-\\neast. But Belgium, which had the French language, French\\nlaws and the French religion, felt the same repugnance as\\nin the sixteenth century to joining the Batavian provinces.\\nThe king of the Netherlands increased this antipathy by\\nquarrels with the Eoman Catholic clergy and with the\\ncourt of Eome. He prohibited French in the schools and\\nlaw-courts and forbade the students of his kingdom to attend\\nforeign universities. Writers were thrown into prison;\\njournalists were condemned. Such was the irritation of the\\nBelgians in 1829 that innumerable petitions addressed to\\nthe two Chambers protested against the abuses of authority\\nperpetrated by the government. Thus, one month after\\nthe Paris revolution Brussels took fire. All the towns of\\nBrabant and Flanders followed its example, and the Dutch\\narmy was driven back upon the citadel of Antwerp, the\\nonly point in the Belgian territory which remained to it.\\nEngland had viewed with displeasure this overthrow of\\nthe work of 1815. She lived in dread that France would\\noccupy Antwerp and thus hold the mouths of the Scheldt\\nand Meuse. The Speech from the Throne, drawn up by\\nthe Tory Ministry, censured the Eevolution of Brabant.\\nThe broader spirit of the Whigs, aided by the moderation\\nof Louis Philippe, prevented complications. In the con-\\nference which assembled at London on- November 4, 1830,\\nthe northern Powers themselves acknowledged the impos-\\nsibility of maintaining the union under the same sceptre of\\ntwo so different populations. It was decided to permit the\\norganization of a Belgian kingdom on the sole condition\\nthat the king should not be selected from any one of the\\nfive royal houses whose representatives sat in the confer-\\nence. Thus, when the Congress of Brussels elected the\\nDuke de Nemours, the second son of Louis Philippe, that\\nprince refused for his house an honor which would have\\nimperilled France (February, 1831). A few months later\\nanother election called to the throne of Belgium the Prince\\nof Saxe-Coburg, whose sagacity assured the new state an\\nunflagging prosperity through forty years. The conference\\nfinished its work by deciding that 50,000 French troops\\nshould enter Belgium to repel the aggression of the Dutch.\\nThe capture of Antwerp, after operations memorable for the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "222 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1831.\\nskill of both the besiegers and the besieged, settled the\\nquestion from a military point of view. Diplomacy spent\\nmore than six years in reaching the point of persuading the\\ntwo parties to sign the definite treaty in April, 1839. The\\nperpetual neutrality of Belgium was recognized by all\\nthe Powers.\\nLiberal Modi\u00c3\u00a2cations in the Constitutions of Switzerland\\n(1831), of Denmark (1831) and of Sweden (1840). In\\nnorthern countries, whether it be those regions which in-\\ncline toward the pole or those which, under a less elevated\\nlatitude, lie at the foot of Alpine glaciers, passion is less\\nvigorous and action is more restrained. Switzerland in\\n1815 was compelled to conform to the Holy Alliance. The\\nwealthier classes of Europe and America did not then as\\nnow every summer flock to the mountains and spend their\\nmoney. The principal source of revenue was the wages of\\nSwiss regiments at Eome, Naples, Madrid, in France, and\\neven in the Netherlands. Until 1830 Switzerland was\\nnecessarily deferential to the powers of the day. She tol-\\nerated the Jesuits in the Valais and at Ereiburg. At the\\ndemand of foreign ministers she dealt severely with the\\npress and restricted the right of asylum which refugees from\\nevery land invoked on her soil. On the news that France\\nwas freeing herself from the reactionary policy, nearly all\\nthe cantons, by legal means and the pressure of public opin-\\nion, demanded more liberal institutions. Austria massed\\ntroops in the Yorarlberg and the Tyrol to intimidate the\\nLiberals, but the Diet decreed a levy of 60,000 men and\\n100,000 took up arms. The sovereigns, menaced by the\\nBelgian revolution and the ever increasing agitation of Italy\\nand Germany, made haste to send assurances of peace.\\nAbandoned to themselves the aristocratic governments of\\nSwitzerland crumbled to pieces. The nobles lost their\\nformer immunities, and that wise people effected its politi-\\ncal evolution without shedding a drop of blood. Only later\\non were there violent disturbances at Neuch\u00c3\u00a2tel, whose\\ninhabitants rebelled against the king of Prussia, their\\nsovereign, and at Basle, where the burghers insisted upon\\nretaining privileges to the detriment of the rural communes.\\nDenmark did not experience even these slight disorders.\\nThe king, of his own initiative, instituted four provincial\\nassemblies for the Islands, Jutland, Sclileswig, and Hol-\\nstein (1831). Later on he gave a General Diet to the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1832-1834.] CONSEQUENCES OF THE REVOLUTION 22S\\nwhole kingdom (1849). Sweden was still more patient.\\nPermeated after 1830 by liberal ideas, she waited until 1840.\\nThen she reconstructed her government by instituting two\\nelective chambers, made the ministers responsible, and\\nabolished the hereditary rights of the nobility, although\\nmaintaining the distinction of orders.\\nRevolutions in Spain (1833) and in Portugal (1834).\\nTreaty of the Quadruple Alliance (1834). \u00e2\u0080\u0094The South,\\nwhere passions are more ardent, was disturbed by armed\\ninsurrections and revolutions. At Madrid Ferdinand VII\\nstill satisfied the heart of the absolutists. At first he re-\\nfused to recognize the new king of France and encouraged\\nby sympathy at least the mad enterprise of the Duchess of\\nBerri. But he exhumed a secret declaration of Charles IV\\nin 1789 which revoked the pragmatic sanction of Philip V.\\nThat sanction allowed a daughter to ascend the throne only\\nin default of sons. This declaration was a return to the\\nancient law of succession, which had formed the greatness\\nof Spain by the union of Aragon and Castile under Isabella\\nthe Catholic, and which had bestowed the crown on Charles\\nV. Moreover, the king felt no scruples at dispossessing\\nhis brother, Don Carlos, who had twice tried to dethrone\\nhim. Maria Christina gave birth to a daughter, Isabella,\\nwho, on the death of Ferdinand, became queen in Septem-\\nber, 1833; under the guardianship of her mother. The\\napostolicals, trampling on national traditions and faith-\\nless to their principle of the divine right of kings which\\nhad permitted Charles II in 1700 to bequeath his peoples\\nas his own property even to a stranger, took the part of\\nDon Carlos. He prepared to claim the throne sword in\\nhand. In consequence the regent, to save the crown for\\nher daughter, was obliged to seek the support of the con-\\nstitutionals. Thus a family quarrel was destined to re-\\nstore the Spanish government to the Liberal party; but a\\ncivil war of seven years duration was unchained upon the\\npeninsula.\\nDon Carlos first took refuge with Dom Miguel who, aided\\nby Marshal Bourmont, by French legitimists, and the ab-\\nsolutists of Portugal, was defending his usurpation against\\nhis brother, Dom Pedro. The latter was upheld by the\\neffectual sympathy of France and England. On July 8,\\n1832, the constitutionals seized Oporto. In the following\\nyear the victories of Saint Vincent and Lisbon put them in", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "224 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1834-1835.\\npossession of tlie capital. At last the treaty of the Quad-\\nruple Alliance was concluded in April, 1834, with England\\nand France by Dom Pedro and Maria Christina in the name\\nof their daughters, the young Queens Dona Maria and\\nIsabella II. This constrained Dom Miguel to leave the\\nkingdom.\\nThus defeated in Portugal, the absolutists understood\\nthat they must hold their ground in Spain or their cause\\nwould be lost in Western Europe and compromised every-\\nwhere. Don Carlos raised the northern provinces to insur-\\nrection, and especially the whole Basque country, which\\nwas still devoted to its ancient fueros and hostile to cen-\\ntralization at Madrid. The Carlist bands infested all the\\nPyrenees. Under Gomez and Cabrera they penetrated to\\nthe environs of Madrid. Zumalacarreguy even succeeded\\nfor a time in substituting the guerilla conflicts, which settle\\nnothing, by war on a great scale, which might end every-\\nthing. He was mortally wounded in 1835 before Bilbao.\\nThe Carlists had summoned to their aid all those whom\\nthe revolution of July had vanquished or menaced. As\\na matter of course the partisans of Henry V upheld the\\nSpanish pretender. But it was impossible for the northern\\ncourts to send him regular forces. The fleets of England\\nand France barred the sea and the Pyrenees were remote\\nfrom Vienna, Berlin and Moscow. The Tsar looked with\\nwrath upon this struggle which was going on far from his\\nreach. Secret encouragement and subsidies came above all\\nfrom Naples and St. Petersburg. For their part the western\\nPowers encouraged the formation of English and French\\nlegions, which were veritable armies. The French legion\\nnumbered 7000 men (1835). Thus the two policies, which\\ndivided Europe between them, did not dare to come into\\ndirect collision, but fought at a distance, and by intermedi-\\naries, on the banks of the Ebro. This was because Austria\\nand Prussia, who felt Italy and Germany quivering beneath\\nthem, hesitated to unleash the dogs of war, and because\\nLouis Philippe, despite his alliance with England, did not\\nwish to endanger the general peace by less discreet and\\nindirect intervention.\\nThe struggle was conducted with the horrors usual in\\nSpanish wars, although in the ranks of both parties were\\nmany volunteers. Some had joined out of devotion to a\\ncause or to serve a military apprenticeship. Others came", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1831-1833.] CONSEQUENCES OF THE REVOLUTION 225\\nfrom the curiosity of a tourist or even to give vent to rest-\\nlessness and love of adventure. Instead of hunting the\\nwolf and the wild boar a man passed a spring or autumn in\\nhunting the Christinos or the Carlists in the mountains.\\nThis lasted until 1840 amid sanguinary vicissitudes and\\npolitical intrigues which overthrew many ministries at\\nMadrid. Espartero, whom the regent pompously created\\nDuke de la Victoria, put an end to the Carlist war and\\nthen expelled Maria Christina (October, 1840) and usurped\\nher place as regent. Three years later he was expelled\\nin turn by Narvaez (July, 1843). Under the hand of this\\nrough soldier the Spanish monarchy became almost consti-\\ntutional though strongly conservative.\\nImpotent Efforts of the Liberals in Germany and Italy\\n(1831). Defeat of the Polish Insurrection (1831) Thus,\\nNorthern Europe and all the West entered into the move-\\nment which began on the fall of Charles X. Other coun-\\ntries would gladly have followed this example, but they\\nfound themselves restrained by bonds too strong to be\\nbroken. Their princes cherished aversion and wrath, which\\nthey did not always control, for what had just taken place\\nin France.\\nThe consequences of the revolution of July did not make\\nthemselves felt, at least ostensibly, in the two great German\\nmonarchies. Absolute power in Austria and Prussia was\\nprotected by a powerful military establishment, by the\\nalliance of the government at both Berlin and Vienna with\\nthe state church, by the support of a numerous nobility\\n.which took for its motto God and the king, and by the\\npolitic reserve of a burgher class on whom manufactures and\\ncommerce had not as yet bestowed fortune, and with it the\\nsense of strength and a legitimate pride. Frederick Wil-\\nliam III contented himself by relaxing the control of the\\npress and by rendering censorship more mild. These con-\\ncessions were not dangerous. Moreover, he counterbal-\\nanced them by the advantages which resulted for Prussia\\nfrom the completion of the ZoUverein. Thus he turned\\nmen s minds aside from burning questions of government\\nand paved the way for the political hegemony of Prussia\\nby her commercial hegemony (May 11, 1833).\\nThings went on otherwise in the petty states. Bruns-\\nwick, the two Hesses, Saxony, Hanover, Oldenburg and\\nBavaria were agitated by movements which dethroned many", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "226 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1832-1833.\\nprinces and obliged others to concede charters and reforms.\\nBut, when Eussia had caused order to reign in Warsaw\\nand when the French government had triumphed over the\\nrevolutionary spirit by its victory over both the legitimists\\nand the republicans, the diplomats of Austria and Prussia\\nreturned to the stage and again put in action the Diet of\\nFrankfort, a convenient instrument on which they played\\nto perfection. The Diet was still presided over by Austria\\nand was under her influence. In June, 1832, it decreed\\nthat the princes required the cooperation of the represen-\\ntative assemblies only for the exercise of certain rights,\\nand that these assemblies could not refuse the means neces-\\nsary for the execution of the measures which interested the\\nConfederation as a whole. A commission was appointed\\nto watch over the deliberations of the Chambers, as com-\\nmissions had already been appointed to keep an eye upon\\nthe press and education. Of these three suspects Prince\\nMetternich never lost sight. Another regulation ordered\\nthe princes to lend each other mutual aid and to surrender\\nto each other political prisoners. A few months later\\n(August, 1833) the two great Powers, who distrusted the\\nactivity of the Diet and the energy of its commissioners,\\nhad themselves authorized to constitute a commission whose\\ntask was to put a stop to revolutionary attempts. In this\\ncommission they admitted the representatives of Bavaria,\\nso as to disguise the sort of abdication which the Diet had\\njust made into their hands. Arrests and proscriptions\\nbegan again all over Germany. The Tsar, who had come\\nto Miinchengr\u00c3\u00a2tz in Bohemia for the purpose of personally\\nstrengthening the sovereigns of Prussia and Austria in their\\nideas of resistance, obtained from them the expulsion of the\\nPolish refugees who were to be transported to America.\\nOne can realize how much liberty remained to the thirty-\\nnine states whose independence had been recognized by\\nthe Congress of Vienna. From her hatred of liberal insti-\\ntutions Austria was constantly inciting the Diet to encroach\\nupon the sovereignty of the princes. Thus, little by little,\\nthe Confederation became a motley body which lacked only\\na head. Austria was firmly convinced that she was destined\\nto become that head. But on the day when the stage cur-\\ntain of Frankfort was torn away, it was Prussia which was\\nto appear, victorious and menacing with her motto, Might\\nmakes right. Prince Metternich was to learn too late that", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1831-1832.] CONSEQUENCES OF THE REVOLUTION 227\\nhe had toiled for half a century only to aid Austria s rival\\nand to enable her without scruple to dethrone kings and\\nhumiliate kings and effect the unity of Germany against\\nAustria quite as much as against France.\\nIn Italy the king of Naples, Ferdinand II, reassured by\\nthe paid fidelity of his Swiss regiments, waited for an in-\\nsurrection which every one foresaw. Louis Philippe, his\\nbrother-in-law, sent him a memorandum of General Pepe,\\nindicating the reforms which must be made in order to\\navert a catastrophe. He read it, returned thanks, and re-\\nplied, like Caesar, They will not dare. He was right so\\nfar as Naples was concerned, at least during his lifetime.\\nBut on February 4, 1831, Bologna rose, then Umbria and\\nthe Romagna, and at the end of a month the Pope retained\\nhardly more than the Eoman Campagna. The brothers,\\nCharles and Louis Napoleon, offered their aid to the leaders\\nof the insurrection, in which the former lost his life.\\nParma and Modena also expelled their princes. The\\nAustrians seized upon this pretext to cross the Po, reestab-\\nlish the fugitives, and crush the movement in the \u00c3\u0089omagna.\\nThe Italian patriots had counted upon France. The\\nFrench government announced to the Powers that its for-\\neign policy would be regulated by the principle of non-\\nintervention; but it had no idea of going to war for the\\npurpose of forcing this principle into European law. So\\nthe Austrians were left free to overwhelm the inhabitants\\nof the Romagna and to violate the conventions which they\\nhad signed. Only when they seemed to be establishing\\nthemselves permanently in Ferrara and Bologna Louis\\nPhilipX^e occupied Ancona for seven years. This action\\npossessed a certain grandeur and exercised due influence.\\nFollowing the example of the king of Naples, the Pope\\nhired a small army of mercenaries. The States of the\\nChurch presented the singular spectacle of the sovereign\\npontiff living under the protection of foreign bayonets for\\nthe Swiss were at Rome, the French at Ancona and the\\nAustrians at Bologna. In the midst of these trans-Alpine\\ntroops the cardinals and legates administered affairs and\\njudged and condemned to exile, to prison and the galleys\\njust as under the paternal absolutist governments. But the\\nfive great Powers recognized the fact that the spirit of re-\\nvolt was being nursed in a manner dangerous to the repose\\nof Europe by such a detestable administration. At the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "228 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1830-1831.\\ninvitation of Erance they drew up tlie memorandum of\\nMay, 1831, in which they begged the Holy Father to grant\\ncertain civil rights to laymen and to introduce certain re-\\nforms. Cardinal Bernetti promised a new era, but, the\\ndanger once past, everything went on as before. From one\\nend of the peninsula to the other, except in Tuscany and\\nPiedmont, the rigors of 1816 and of 1821 appeared again.\\nMilitary commissions were formed, severe measures were\\ntaken against the universities, foreign books were pro-\\nhibited, men were condemned to the galleys for a word,\\nfor a thought. After a riot at Syracuse, Ferdinand II\\nordered fifty -two persons to be shot. Never were rulers\\nand ministers blinder to the dangers with which an un-\\nseasonable policy is attended. They did not perceive that\\nby repressing the legitimate aspirations of the constitu-\\ntionals they were forming republicans. Mazzini was\\nreplacing Pepe and Santa Posa.\\nIn Eastern Europe a most formidable insurrection began.\\nPoland rose as one man, set up a regular government, or-\\nganized a powerful army, made war on a great scale and\\nfor a time held in check all the forces of the Eussian\\nEmpire. Here again as in Italy, men desired political\\nfreedom, but national independence above all. The move-\\nment broke out on November 29, 1830. Through excess of\\nprudence, after an excess of rashness, no attempt was made\\nto propagate the insurrection in the Polish provinces out-\\nside the eight palatinates that formed the kingdom as con-\\nstituted by the Congress of Vienna. The partitioners of\\n1773 were of one mind in upholding their work. While\\n100,000 Eussians marched on Warsaw, 60,000 Prussians\\nin the Duchy of Posen and as many Austrians in Galicia\\nguarded against the revolutionary contagion the share of\\nPolish spoils which had fallen to them. Moreover, the two\\ngovernments of Vienna and Berlin agreed to intercept all\\ncommunication of the insurgents with Europe and to unite\\ntheir forces with those of Eussia if the revolt invaded their\\nprovinces. Prussia did even more. After the sanguinary\\nbattles of Wawre and Grochow in February, 1831, and of\\nDembe and Ostrolenka in March and May, Marshal Paske-\\nvitch changed his plan of forcing Warsaw from the front\\nand resolved to attack the city by the right bank of the\\nVistula. This bold and dangerous march would separate\\nhim from his base. Frederick William III opened to him", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1831.] CONSEQUENCES OF THE EEVOLUTION 229\\nKonigsberg and Dantzic, so that he might be able to re-\\nvictual his army. This was direct cooperation in the vv^ar\\nand a violation of the principle of non-intervention pro-\\nfessed by the western Powers. Nevertheless they raised\\nno serious objection, although the Polish cause was very\\npopular in Prance and England. In those two countries\\ncommittees were formed which sent to Poland money, vol-\\nunteers and arms. But at Paris, as at London, the gov-\\nernments were fully resolved not to intermeddle in a\\nquarrel which lay outside the sphere of their military\\naction.\\nKing Louis Philippe negotiated, so as to have the air of\\ndoing something. The British Cabinet, which also held\\nhostile nations, like Ireland and India, in harsh depen-\\ndency, declared that the rights of the Tsar were indisputable.\\nAbandoned to their own resources, the Poles were doomed\\nto succumb. Warsaw fell on September 8, 1831, after a\\nheroic resistance. Nicholas, erasing from the treaties of\\n1815 the articles which conceded to Poland an independent\\nexistence with national institutions, converted her territory\\ninto Russian provinces. The patriots were exiled and\\nsuspected persons were stripped of their possessions. Eus-\\nsian became the official language. Poman Catholicism was\\nthe religion of the land. It was deprived of a number of\\nchurches which were bestowed upon the Orthodox Greek\\nfaith. While all Poman Catholic propaganda was pro-\\nhibited, religious apostasy as well as political desertion was\\nencouraged. Nicholas would have liked to suppress even\\nthe history of Poland. At all events he blotted out her\\nname. In official documents Poland is now called the\\ngovernments of the Vistula.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "230 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1832.\\nXXXVIII\\nTHE THREE EASTERN QUESTIONS\\n(1833-1848)\\nInterests of the European Powers in Asia. The Eastern\\nQuestion is threefold rather than single or double. The\\nfirst form is discussed on the shores of the Bosphorus, and\\nthe second in the centre of Asia. In both the antagonists\\nare Eussia and England. It is of prime necessity to the\\nlatter to control every route which leads to her Indian\\nEmpire. Therefore she desires the maintenance of those\\nstates in Western Asia which Eussia menaces by her arms\\nor her diplomacy. The third form of the Eastern Question\\nconcerns the eastern portions of the Asiatic continent,\\nincluding China and Japan. It interests Russia and Great\\nBritain primarily, but in less degree the United States and\\nall maritime nations. Such questions require many years\\nto settle. Although puzzled over so long by the world,\\nthey are still only in their preliminary stages.\\nThis portion of modern history does not present the spec-\\ntacle, which we have just considered in the West, of two\\nsocieties in the name of different ideas striving with each\\nother for universal acceptance. In place of a war of two\\nabstract principles, we shall behold a hand-to-hand conflict\\nof mercantile interests and territorial expansion. The two\\nPowers which play the principal part in these events seek\\nmainly the acquisition of provinces or guineas. Moral\\nconsiderations are constantly lost from sight. Thus British\\ncannon force the Chinese government to allow the introduc-\\ntion of opium from British India, so that the deficit of the\\nEast India Company may be made good. But man often\\naccomplishes a better work than he designs. After the\\nviolent deeds of Lord Clive and Warren Hastings and the\\naggressive wars and cruel sentences of the Tsars, India is\\nbeing covered with a network of railroads, and the Siberian\\nwaste dotted with commercial cities. Security and social", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1832.] THE THREE EASTERN QUESTIONS 231\\nlife are transforming the steppes of tlie nomads which they\\nnever visited before.\\nThe First Eastern Question. Constantinople. The Tsar\\nNicholas cherished vast designs. His states already cov-\\nered half of Europe and a third of Asia. But Eussia had\\nno outlet of the south, and her ports on the Baltic were\\nfrozen up a large portion of the year. Only by the Bos-\\nphorus and the Dardanelles could she reach the Mediter-\\nranean, and they were closed against her. Constantinople\\nis the key of the Russian house. It dominates Greece,\\nWestern Asia, and the passages to the Indies by the Red\\nSea and the Persian Gulf. Between the Russians and most\\nof the Christian subjects of the Sultan there was strong\\nreligious affinity, as both were members of the Ortho-\\ndox or Greek Church. In 1829 the troops of Nicholas had\\ncaptured Adrianople and advanced within a few leagues of\\nthe Golden Horn. His eyes were still fixed upon the\\nsecond capital of the Roman Empire. Once established\\nin that impregnable position, he could have undertaken the\\nproject of Napoleon against the British domination in India.\\nBut, though Austria was in political alliance with the\\nRussians, their ambitious hopes caused her great anxiety.\\nHerself a half-Slav state, she dreaded to have them pene-\\ntrate the valley of the Danube and wave the flag of pan-Slav-\\nism before her populations of the same blood. Moreover,\\nherself a maritime power, their establishment in the sea-\\nports of the Levant would ruin her commerce. But the\\nTsar could not reach Constantinople by land without a sort\\nof permit of transit from the Austrians, and the English\\nwould bar his path by sea. By securing Galicia and Buko-\\nvina as her share of Poland, Austria had occupied the upper\\nvalleys of the Pruth and Dniester. Hence the road which\\nthe Russian army must follow to the Marmora was a line\\n400 miles in length, perpendicular to the military roads of\\nAustria, and might be cut at a thousand points, whenever\\nthe Sultan should summon that power to his aid and throw\\nopen to its armies the valley of the Danube. Certain of\\nfinding the Austro-Hungarian forces on this road and the\\nEnglish in the Dardanelles, Nicholas waited for fresh com-\\nplications and contented himself with imposing on the Sul-\\ntan his haughty protection.\\nDecline of Turkey. Power and Ambition of the Viceroy\\nof Egypt. Turkey was rapidly descending that declivity", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "232 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1832.\\nwhicli is so difficult for a nation to reascend. In 1774 she\\nhad lost the Crimea and the month of the Dnieper in 1772,\\nthe left bank of the Dniester in 1812, Bessarabia as far as\\nthe Pruth in 1829, the months of the Danube and a part\\nof Armenia. Thus the bulwarks of the empire had been\\nfalling away one after the other. Greece had won her\\nfreedom. Montenegro had never been subdued. The Ser-\\nvians, Moldavians and Wallachians under the protection\\nof Russia had formed national governments and owed only\\na small tribute to the Porte. Although the rebellion of\\nAli Pasha of Yanina had been put down, the reforms of\\nSultan Mahmoud for the time being weakened rather than\\nstrengthened this state because they roused the indignation\\nof the faithful and of the Oulema. Thus the domination\\nof the Sultan was seriously threatened in Europe. The\\nfour or five million Ottomans, swallowed up in the midst\\nof twelve or fifteen million Christians, seemed destined to\\nretain their supremacy only a short time longer. The in-\\ntervention of Europe had been required to save them when\\nthe treaty of Adrianople was made. They maintained a\\nprecarious existence, partially through their ancient habit\\nof command and specially by the quarrels of their subjects,\\nwho belonged to different races and had conflicting passions\\nand interests.\\nWhile everything was on the decline in the north of the\\nempire, a new power was forming in its southern provinces.\\nMehmet Ali, a Roumelian adventurer, had taken advantage\\nof the disorganization of Egypt, after the departure of the\\nErench, to carve a place for himself and in 1806 to grasp\\nthe power. He had crowned this usurpation by throwing\\ninto the sea an English corps which had seized Alexandria\\n(1807). Then he had fortified his authority after the Ori-\\nental fashion by massacring the Mamelukes whom he had\\nlured into an ambush. The fierce Wahabites, the Protes-\\ntants of Islam, had captured Mecca, Medina and Damascus.\\nHe exterminated them in a war which lasted six years.\\nThus to Mussulman orthodoxy he restored its holy cities\\nand its sanctuary, and enabled it in safety to make the\\nannual pilgrimage. His conquest of Sennaar, Kordofan\\nand Dongola, in the valley of the upper Nile, restored some\\npride to that empire which was wasting away everywhere\\nelse. After the terrible expedition of his son, Ibrahim, to\\nthe Morea, it was believed that he would have crushed the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1832.] THE THREE EASTERN QUESTIONS 233\\nGreek insurrection had not the European powers interfered\\nat Navarino. In consequence, in the East the viceroy of\\nEgypt was encircled with a double halo as religious restorer\\nand invincible conqueror. In Europe, and especially in\\nErance, he was considered a reformer. With the aid of\\nErench engineers and officers he created a merchant and a\\nwar-fleet, organized an army, which was drilled in Euro-\\npean style, constructed various arsenals and workshops, and\\nfounded schools. To render these enterprises possible, he\\nhad effected such a revolution as was possible only with the\\nfellahs, one of the meekest peoples on earth. They had\\nbeen trained by sixteen centuries of servitude to endure\\neverything without a murmur. Not only had he as sover-\\neign declared himself sole proprietor of the soil, which in\\nMussulman countries is in full accordance with the written\\nlaw, but he had gone still farther and appropriated to him-\\nself the monopoly of agriculture and trade. Hence, as sole\\nproprietor, sole producer and sole merchant in all Egypt,\\nhe never lacked money for an undertaking or soldiers for\\nhis regiments.\\nConquest of Syria by Ibrahim Pasha (1832). Treaty of\\nHunkiar Iskelessi (1833) In all ages the masters of\\nEgypt have been desiroas to possess Syria and the great\\nislands of the eastern Mediterranean. Thus they might\\nobtain building timber, in which Egypt is absolutely lack-\\ning, and harbors to supplement Alexandria, which until the\\ncreation of Port Sa\u00c3\u00afd by M. De Lesseps was the only port\\nin the Delta. To reward his services in Greece, Crete was\\nadded to the provinces of Mehmet Ali. This did not sat-\\nisfy his ambition, which could only content itself by regen-\\nerating or dismembering the empire. Eor his share he\\naimed at Syria, whose mountain fastnesses covered the\\napproach to Egypt and overhung the route to India by way\\nof the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf. Under the pretext\\nof pursuing some fellah fugitives and ending a personal\\nquarrel with the pasha of Saint Jean d Acre, his son, Ibra-\\nhim Pasha, in 1831 attacked that stronghold which had\\nresisted General Bonaparte. He captured it and subdued\\nthe whole of Syria. The first army sent by the Sultan\\nagainst him was destroyed in many encounters. A second\\nOttoman army lost the great battle of Konieh, north of the\\nTaurus, in December, 1832. The road to Constantinople\\nwas open, and Ibrahim was hurrying thither. Mahmoud in", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "234 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1833-1840.\\nterror implored tlie assistance of Eussia. The fleet from\\nSebastopol immediately entered the Bosphorus, where\\n15,000 Russians landed while 45,000 crossed the Danube\\nto save the Sultan. France and England were in con-\\nsternation at the arrival of the Russians, and persuaded\\nMahmoud and his vassal to accept the Convention of Ku-\\nta\u00c3\u00afah in May, 1833, which gave over Syria to Mehmet Ali.\\nThe Russians withdrew, but by the treaty of Hunkiar\\nIskelessi, signed in June, 1833, an offensive and defensive\\nalliance was concluded between the Tsar and the Sultan.\\nA single clause, aimed at France and England, stipulated\\nthat the Dardanelles should be shut to all foreign war-\\nships.\\nThe Treaty of Adrianople had closed one act in the\\nmomentous drama of the Eastern Question. That of Hun-\\nkiar Iskelessi closed another. After having begun the dis-\\nmemberment of Turkey, the Tsar placed that empire under\\nhis protection. Had Europe interposed no obstacle to that\\nprotection, it would soon have reduced the Ottoman Empire\\nto a Russian dependency.\\nThe Treaty of London (1840) and the Treaty of the Straits\\n(1841). Six years passed, during which Sultan Mahmoud\\nmade every preparation to overthrow the pasha by whom\\nhe had been humbled. In 1839 he thought that his troops\\nwere sufficiently disciplined to cope with the Egyptians,\\nand he confided to them the task of regaining the provinces\\nwhich the Convention of Kuta iah had wrested from him.\\nIbrahim Pasha at the battle of Nezib again destroyed the\\nOttoman army. By that victory, for a second time the road\\nto Constantinople lay open. But if he marched upon it,\\nhe was sure to find it defended by the Russians. The\\nintervention of Europe brought the victorious Egyptian to\\na halt.\\nSultan Mahmoud died six days before the news of the\\nfatal battle of Nezib reached Constantinople. He was suc-\\nceeded by his son. Sultan Abd-ul Medjid, who desired peace\\nwith his resistless vassal. The Kapoudan Pasha, Achmet,\\nthrough hatred for the grand vizier, surrendered the entire\\nOttoman fleet to the viceroy of Egypt in the harbor of\\nAlexandria. The Ottoman Empire, then without ships and\\nsoldiers, could be saved from annihilation only by the\\ninterference of the great Powers.\\nEngland was haunted by the dread of a Russian army in", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1840-1841.] THE THREE EASTERN QUESTIONS 235\\nConstantinople. Nor was she willing that Egypt, which,\\nlay upon one route to India and in which French influence\\nwas then paramount, should become too strong. Austria\\nand Prussia followed in her wake. Russia, who was not\\nthen ready to act alone, preferred to have the feeble Otto-\\nmans at Constantinople rather than the energetic and suc-\\ncessful viceroy. France only was warmly on his side.\\nOn July 15, 1840, Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and\\nAustria signed the Treaty of London. It specified that\\nMehmet Ali should enjoy the hereditary possession of Egypt\\nand should retain Saint Jean d Acre during his life, but\\nthat within the space of ten days he should evacuate all his\\nother provinces and restore them to Turkey. The four\\nPowers charged themselves with the execution of these\\nterms and also agreed to depose Mehmet Ali in case of his\\nresistance.\\nThe viceroy refused to submit. Thereupon an English\\nsquadron bombarded Beyrout, burned the Egyptian fleet,\\nand almost destroyed Saint Jean d Acre, the base of Egyp-\\ntian supplies. The contest was too unequal. Mehmet Ali\\nyielded, being guaranteed the possession of Egypt.\\nFrance had not even been invited to the congress which,\\ndrew up the Treaty of London. The tortuous and ignoble\\npolicy of Louis Philippe which, while sacrificing much to\\nretain alliance with England, was making overtures to the\\nabsolutist Powers, had gained France only isolation and\\nhumiliation. The tidings that she had been utterly ignored,\\nwhile the other states decided the question of the hour,\\ncaused intense indignation throughout the country. The\\ntimorous government seemed at first to sympathize with\\nthe explosion of national sentiment. It commenced forti-\\nfying the strongholds, increasing the army and throwing up\\nextensive works around the city of Paris. It seemed threat-\\nening to draw the sword, v/hich, however, it did not draw.\\nThe king became alarmed. He abandoned the ministry,\\nwhich he had followed at first. M. Thiers yielded his place\\nto M. Guizot, and the new head of the Cabinet made haste\\nto offer his hand to the Powers from whom his country had\\njust received an insult. On July 13, 1841, he signed the\\nConvention of the Straits. This was a double success for\\nLord Palmerston. He could point at the humble return of\\nFrance to the European concert and at Russia under\\ncompulsion renouncing the secret clause of the treaty of", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "236 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1796-1859.\\nHunkiar Iskelessi, for the new treaty closed both the\\nstraits to ships of war. So this third act in the drama,\\nacted around Constantinople, terminated to the advantage\\nof England.\\nThe Second Eastern Q,uestion. Central Asia. The Eng-\\nlish had taken possession of India, and the Russians of\\nSiberia. Between them there intervened the whole breadth\\nof China, Turkestan, Persia and Afghanistan. The two\\nnations might well imagine that their frontiers would never\\ntouch. But during half a century they were drawing ever\\nnearer. To-day they stand almost face to face. To-morrow\\nthey may be engaged in a hand-to-hand death struggle.\\nProgress of the Eussians in Asia. The king of Georgia,\\na country on the southern slope of the Caucasus, in 1796\\nimplored and obtained the assistance of Catherine II\\nagainst the Persians. For the purpose of affording him\\nbetter protection the .Russians took possession of Derbent\\non the Caspian, of Daghestan, and of nearly the whole\\ncountry as far as the Koura. Gradually the entire kingdom\\nbecame a Russian province. Later on they seized from the\\nOttomans the mouth of the Paz (1809), and from the Per-\\nsians Shirvan (1813), and Armenia south of the Koura as\\nfar as its tributary, the Aras (1828). They had reached\\nMount Ararat. The central barrier of the Caucasus was\\nnot yet crossed, but it was flanked, and some day was sure\\nto fall. This occupation of the trans-Caucasian isthmus\\ngave moreover to the Russians an excellent base of opera-\\ntions, either to attack Turkey from the rear and threaten\\nPersia, or to control the Caspian and the Euxine. The\\nKoura emptied into the one sea, and the Faz into the other.\\nThe lawless Circassian mountaineers were still unsubdued.\\nA line of fortified posts was drawn year by year more\\nclosely around them, and by degrees forced them back into\\nthe wild gorges and upon the desolate mountain tops.\\nNevertheless Schamyl, their hero and prophet, maintained\\nthe holy war for twenty-five years and wore out succes-\\nsive Russian armies. In 1859 he was surrounded and capt-\\nured. With him fell the independence of those restless\\ntribes. South of the Caucasus the Tsar then possessed\\neight provinces, buttressed by the mountains which were\\noccupied by his troops and covered on their flanks by strong\\nfortresses and two great seas. United in one great military\\ngovernment, of which Tiflis is the centre, these provinces", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1816-1826.] THE THREE EASTERN QUESTIONS 237\\nform an impregnable advanced post for the Enssian Empire.\\nThence her armies can take, on the right, the road to Scu-\\ntari, whose heights command Stamboul, or, on the left, the\\nroad to Teheran, the capital of Persia. The merchant\\nmarine of Odessa and Taganrog, protected by the fleet of\\nSebastopol, the new military post, commanded the Black\\nSea. The Caspian became a Eussian lake, for an article of\\nthe treaty of Tourmantchai stipulated that the Eussians\\nshould have full liberty to navigate its waters and that no\\nother nation should maintain armed vessels thereon. Thus\\nsteamer-landings, even in Persian waters, might be con-\\nverted into small forts and mark out the track of future\\nexpeditions, either toward the south shore, not far distant\\nfrom which rises the capital of Persia, or toward the east-\\nern shore in the direction of Khiva and Turkestan. At\\nthe same time, Eussia was advancing toward the latter\\ncountries over the immense steppes of the Kirghiz Kazaks.\\nStationing a war flotilla on the Sea of Aral and staking out\\nthe desert with fortresses, they would be able some day to\\nreach the fertile regions of ancient Bactriana.\\nProgress of the English in Asia. While Europe was oc-\\ncupied against republican and imperial Prance with wars,\\nwhich England subsidized, England was completing the\\nsubjection to herself of the 200,000,000 inhabitants of\\nIndia. In 1816 Nepaul, in the north of Hindustan, and\\ntwo years later, the valiant Mahratta tribes in the Deccan,\\nwere forced to submit to British control. Each prince\\nreceived at his court a resident or officer of the Company\\nwho exercised supervision. At each capital, to hold the\\nnative sovereign in submission, an English garrison was\\nstationed, the pay of which was guaranteed from the reve-\\nnues of one district in the state. Thus, without any cost\\nto therci^elves, the English provided themselves with a\\nnumerous army, which ruled the Deccan and the valley of\\nthe Ganges. In 1824-1826 they made their way into\\nIndia beyond the Ganges, wrested 200 leagues of sea-coast\\nfrom the people of Burmah, rendered the kingdom of\\nAssam tributary and seized Singapore and Malacca. Thus\\nthe Bay of Bengal was converted into an English sea and\\nthe great commercial highway to Indo-China was com-\\nmanded. In that quarter they were thinking only of their\\ncommercial interests. On the northwest they had to take\\nmeasures for their security.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "238 HISTORY OF MOBERIT TIMES [a.d. 182 -1838.\\nUnderhand Conflict between the English and the Russians\\nin Central Asia. After the treaty of Tourmantchai (1828),\\nthe Russian influence was predominant at Teheran. When\\nthe populace of that city, angry at the harsh conditions of\\npeace, massacred the E-ussian ambassador, his family and\\nall the members of his household, the king of kings hastily\\nsent his grandson to St. Petersburg to make the amplest\\nreparation. The Tsar was merciful. But Feth Ali, the\\nfounder of the Khadjar dynasty, who since 1797 had bravely\\nresisted his formidable neighbor, was forced to realize that\\nthe glorious days of Nadir Shah, when Ottomans, Mongols\\nand Russians retreated before the Persian armies, were\\npassed and would probably never return.\\nThe two great cities of Herat and Caboul command the\\ncommunications between Persia and India. The check of\\nGeneral Bonaparte at Saint Jean d Acre prevented his\\nundertaking a march to the East. After Tilsit, Napoleon\\nproposed to the Tsar Alexander that they should unite in\\nthat grand enterprise. For years one of his secret agents\\ntraversed Mesopotamia and Persia to prepare the way.\\nNicholas inherited the plan and at first assigned the chief\\npart in its execution to the Shah, who had become his vas-\\nsal. Herat was in the hands of an Afghan prince. He\\nurged the shah to attack him. A first attempt in 1833\\nfailed. A second in 1837 succeeded no better. A third\\nwas made the following year. The operations of the siege\\nwere conducted by Russian oflicers. Great Britain watched\\nthese movements with a jealous eye. Russian spies were\\nsupposed to be travelling over India. Greek and Armenian\\nmerchants, settled in Calcutta or Bombay, were suspected\\nof furnishing the court of St. Petersburg with information\\nconcerning the army, the finances and all the affairs of the\\nEast India Company. The natives themselves were affected\\nby rumors, shrewdly put in circulation, concerning the\\ndecline of the power of England and the grandeur of the\\nMuscovite Empire. You cannot imagine, wrote a gov-\\nernor-general a few years later to the queen s ministers,\\nwhat an idea the peoples of India have of the strength of\\nRussia. The Tsar Nicholas hardly made a secret of\\nhis purpose some future day to haul down the English flag\\nin India. One of his official organs declared before the\\nCrimean War that, If an attempt were made to place ob-\\nstacles in his way in Europe, he would go to Calcutta and", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1838-1843.] THE THREE EASTERN QUESTIONS 239\\nthere dictate the terms of peace. Hesat was one of the\\nstages of the Russian army on its way to the valley of\\nthe Ganges, and consequently it was an advanced post of the\\nCompany. The two rivals met under its walls. Before\\nthe Persian troops had arrived in sight of the city, the\\nEnglish were inside to direct the defence. Also a squadron\\nhad sailed up the Persian Gulf and was making a demon-\\nstration against the southern provinces of Persia. The\\nShah was obliged to call back his forces (1838). This was\\na check to the Tsar. The following year he tried to indem-\\nnify himself by an expedition against Khiva, which his own\\ngenerals conducted. This city lies on the second highway\\nto India which passes by the Amou Daria and Bokhara.\\nFrightful deserts separate Khiva from the Caspian, and the\\nRussian army corps perished almost to a man.\\nBefore the failure of this expedition, the English had\\ndecided to forestall the Russians, or at least to occupy on\\nthe other side of the Indus the lofty chain of the Afghan\\nMountains. By so doing an impregnable bulwark would\\ndefend their Indian empire on the west. Early in 1839\\nthe army of Bengal crossed the river, marched through the\\nBolan Pass, and took possession of Candahar, the fortress\\nof Ghazni, and Caboul. It placed on the throne Shah\\nSoujah, who had been deposed and banished thirty years\\nbefore. The valiant native tribes, though disconcerted for\\na time, speedily recovered their courage. When the gov-\\nernor-general tried to curtail the subsidies, at first fur-\\nnished the chiefs, a general insurrection broke out. Fif-\\nteen thousand English soldiers, hemmed in on all sides,\\nperished. Only one man, Dr. Brydon, survived to recross\\nthe Indus and tell the story (1842). The East India Com-\\npany could not rest under the blow of so terrible a disaster.\\nA fresh army entered the country, devastated it frightfully,\\nand then inarched away. That catastrophe was a warning\\nto the English not to spread outside of their peninsula, but\\nrather to fortify themselves in it and allow no independent\\nstate to exist there which might serve as the rallying point\\nof a revolt or of an invasion. In 1843, by the submission\\nof the emirs of Scinde and Beloochistan, they became mas-\\nters of the mouth of the Indus. On the upper course of\\nthat stream they established the system of residents.\\nThus was indicated the speedy annexation of the Punjaub\\nor Country of the Five Rivers, a vast region inhabited by", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "240 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1848-1860.\\nthe warlike Sikhs. Six years later the Punjaub was united\\nto the other domains of the Company. The famous valley\\nof Cashmere shared the fate of the kingdom of Lahore on\\nwhich it depended. This was also one of the gates of India.\\nNot far distant, on the right bank of the Scinde, rises the\\nchain of the Bolan Mountains, whence flows the Amou Daria,\\nwhich empties into the Kussian waters of the Sea of Aral.\\nThe English wished to close this gate. Thus before 1848\\nthey had a firm hold of the whole course of the Indus.\\nThey were trying to submit Afghanistan to their influence,\\nhaving failed to place it under their control. Meanwhile\\nthey were pushing toward the Pamir plateau, the ancient\\ncradle of the European races and the point where the\\nprincipal mountain ranges of Asia converge.\\nThe Third Eastern Question. The Pacific Ocean. The\\nPacific Ocean, formerly an untravelled sea, is now^the\\nmeeting-place of all the navies of the world. Upon its\\nshores dwell ancient and industrious nations, which even\\nin our time have closed their gates with jealous care against\\nforeigners, and youthful colonies of Europeans or Americans\\nwhich have rapidly become flourishing. Toward the north-\\nwest are 400,000,000 Chinese producers and purchasers and\\n40,000,000 more active Japanese. Toward the southwest\\nare the English colonies of Australia, importing goods\\nthe value of which is reckoned by hundreds of millions.\\nThe Moluccas or Spice Islands lie between. At the south-\\neast of the Asiatic continent is Cochin-China, where\\nErance planted her flag in 1860. Still farther west are\\nthe 300,000,000 Hindus, among whom civilization creates\\nwants and from whom it demands products. On the\\neastern shores of the Pacific stretch the Spanish Ameri-\\ncan republics and the United States. Kailways, traversing\\nthe whole American continent, connect New York, the\\ngreat port of arrival for European goods, with San Eran-\\ncisco. Erom the latter port steamers sail regularly for\\nChinese and Japanese waters, where other steamers arrive\\ntwice a month from Marseilles and Southampton. There-\\nfore the Pacific Ocean, upon which open the great markets\\nof the world, has in our day acquired a commercial impor-\\ntance like that of the Mediterranean in ancient and medi-\\nseval times. An economical revolution has been here\\naccomplished, almost as great as that which followed the\\ndiscoveries of Columbus and far more rapid, being the crea-\\ntion of hardly a century.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1581-1840.] THE THREE EASTERN QUESTIONS 241\\nIsolation of China and Japan. For a long time foreigners\\nknocked at the doors of China. Koman Catholic mission-\\naries went there to evangelize the people as early as 1581.\\nThe Portuguese had preceded them and were followed by\\nthe Dutchj and then by France and England. The Jesuits\\nsucceeded in obtaining due admission at Pekin under the\\nname of literati, and a Russian religious mission was also\\nestablished. Foreign merchants could only obtain permis-\\nsion to open trading-houses outside the walls of Canton.\\nSuch a station Russia had at Kiakhta, where Siberian furs\\nwere exchanged for Chinese tea and silk. In vain did\\nEngland (1793-1806) and Russia (1805) send solemn\\nembassies. The Son of Heaven required the ambassadors\\nto undergo a humiliating ceremony as condition of their\\nreception. Some refused. Others reached Pekin only as\\nprisoners. All returned without the commercial treaty\\nwhich they had been commissioned to obtain. Said the\\neyewitness of one of the least unsuccessful of these embas-\\nsies, We entered Pekin as beggars. We remained there\\nas captives. We departed as condemned criminals. The\\nsituation became even worse. In 1828 the Roman Catholic\\nmissionaries were expelled, despite the religious toleration\\nprofessed by the government. China remained walled in.\\nJapan, no less tightly closed, tolerated the presence of the\\nDutch in the harbor of Nagasaki only on condition of their\\nconfining themselves to an island in the roadstead, and per-\\nmitted no other nation to approach its coast.\\nOpium War (1840-1843). All the nations, barbarous or\\ncivilized, have created for themselves artificial wants and\\nindulgences. Some chew the betel nut, others smoke to-\\nbacco, and the Chinese intoxicate themselves with opium,\\nnotwithstanding the injurious effects upon the human sys-\\ntem. The English found this vice to their financial advan-\\ntage. They covered Bengal with fields of poppies and, when\\nthe Chinese government strictly prohibited the introduction\\nof opium, organized a vast contraband trade. The Middle\\nKingdom continued to be inundated with the fatal drug,\\nfrom which the English made a yearly profit of several\\nmillion dollars. In 1839 the imperial commissioner ordered\\n20,000 chests of opium, worth about $18,000,000, to be\\nseized and thrown into the sea. This seizure was legal, and\\nno just claim could be entered against it. But several acts\\nof violence, committed against Englishmen, were grasped", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "242 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1842^-1848.\\nat as a pretext. An expedition sent to Chinese waters\\noccupied the island of Chusan and destroyed the forts which\\ncommanded the entrance to the river of Canton. The first\\nconvention not being ratified, the English made two cam-\\npaigns to dictate peace under the walls of Nankin. By the\\ntreaty of August, 1842, China opened five ports to foreign\\ncommerce, ceded Hong Kong to Great Britain, and promised\\nan indemnity of nearly $21,000,000. The two govern-\\nments in their official declarations continued to treat the\\nopium trafiic as illicit. Nevertheless smuggling was made\\neasy by the opening of the five ports. During the following\\nyear 40,000 chests were introduced. This meant a profit\\nof many millions to the landed proprietors of Bengal.\\nThe Russians meanwhile had been careful not to dis-\\nplease the court of Pekin. The Tsar Nicholas had severely\\nprohibited the introduction of opium into China through\\nthe Russian frontiers.\\nPrance tried to obtain a share in the trade of those re-\\ngions. In 1844 she sent to China an embassy which signed\\na commercial treaty and caused the edicts against the Chris-\\ntians to be revoked. Confiscated churches were to be re-\\nstored and the Roman Catholic missionaries were to enjoy\\nfreedom in disseminating their faith wherever they would.\\nSuch stipulations were honorable to France. Not only the\\ndanger but the distance was relatively greater than in these\\ndays of rapid communication. The French government\\nassumed a heavy responsibility in declaring itself the offi-\\ncial protector of Catholic missions among the Chinese.\\nSummary. State of the Three Eastern Questions in 1848.\\nIn the extreme East the two chief antagonists are hardly\\naware of each other s presence. There the question is\\nhardly more than at the beginning of its initial stage. In\\nCentral Asia both Powers have received disastrous checks\\nat the hands of the fierce natives, and neither has fully re-\\ntrieved its damaged prestige. The English are fortifying\\nthemselves behind the mountains and show no present in-\\ntention of issuing westward through the Bolan or Khaiber\\nPass. Russia has not yet resumed her march toward\\nKhiva. At Constantinople they are indeed face to face,\\nbut there the contest is diplomatic. It is waged by bring-\\ning to bear pressure upon the Porte, by successive and\\nshort-lived treaties, and by the search for allies among the\\nother European states. Neither in China, Central Asia,", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1848.] THE THREE EASTERN QUESTIONS 243\\nnor the Ottoman Empire have the two rivals met in arms\\nJNor are they so keenly conscious of their rivalry as thev\\nare to become in the succeeding fifty years. Not yet, not\\neven at Constantinople, does any one of the Three Questions\\nreveal all of its ultimate immense importance.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "244 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1840.\\nXXXIX\\nANTECEDENTS OP THE REVOLUTION OP 1848\\nCharacter of the Period comprised between 1840 and 1848.\\nProgress of Socialistic Ideas. The treaty of the Straits\\nmarks a sort of halting-point for Europe. During several\\nsubsequent years we see hardly any risings or insurrections.\\nThe Powers talk of peace, and order reigns in nearly every\\nstate. In England the Tories return to power (1841).\\nPrince Metternich continues his paternal rule in Austria.\\nThe Tsar Nicholas devotes his energies to organizing Rus-\\nsia like an immense barrack, whence can issue against\\nEurope or Asia armies which he believes invincible. Nar-\\nvaez recasts for Spain a constitution more monarchical\\nthan that of 1837.\\nPrance, which nearly every year since 1830 had beheld\\na new Cabinet, no longer has any ministerial changes.\\nM. Guizot, the prime minister, or President of the Council,\\nbuilds up a conservative party which, convinced that every-\\nthing is for the best in a social order where it monopolizes\\nthe power and honors, believes there is nothing which\\nneeds change. A sort of temporary calm is the result.\\nThe political agitations of the preceding ten years are fol-\\nlowed by the fruitful labors of manufactures and commerce.\\nFrom one end of Europe to the other nothing is to be heard\\nbut the sound of railways in process of construction and\\nof factories which spring up and work with feverish ardor.\\nFinancial institutions of all sorts are multiplied. Wealth\\nis accumulated and the Exchange regulates business trans-\\nactions.\\nAnd yet this society with its material interests so pros-\\nperous is approaching an abyss, because its leaders in their\\nturn believe in the immobility of the world and forget to\\nask whether there are not other needs which must be sat-\\nisfied. While official society was content with the tran-\\nquillity which reigned in the street and the activity which\\nshowed itself in business, the two already old ideas of na-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1843-1845.] ANTECEDENTS OF 1848 245\\ntional and individual independence were making converts.\\nA new idea had risen at their side in the realization that\\nthe lot of the laboring classes must be improved.\\nIn Poland and Italy the Russian and the Austrian were\\nstill odious. In Bohemia and Hungary the new study of\\nnational history and literature revived memories of au-,\\ntonomy which had seemed to be long effaced. Germany\\ndreamed of her unit}^ and of the fatherland. Some of her\\nprinces talked about it, for the sake of rendering themselves\\npopular. To this idea the king of Bavaria erected a Wal-\\nhalla, a Pantheon of all German glories. At Berlin the\\nhead of the Hohenzollern lauded the German country.\\nAfter the nationalists came the liberals, some of whom\\nasked for the liberties which had been promised and others\\nclaimed the enlargement of liberties already obtained. The\\ninhabitants of the Eomagna demanded from the papal gov-\\nernment, sometimes with threats as in 1843, a regular ad-\\nministration with a code of laws. Each year the Rhenish\\nprovinces expressed a strong desire for a constitution. Even\\nin the Prussian provinces of the Vistula and the Oder lib-\\neral tendencies were displayed which caused uneasiness at\\nBerlin. Turin printed a journal whose very title was sig-\\nnificant, II Risorgimento or the Resurrection and Count\\nBalbo published his Speranze d Italie (1843). The ambi-\\ntions of the French opposition party were equally modest\\nand even more legitimate.\\nBut in the darkness a still more formidable faction was\\nforming, which twice already has flooded Paris with blood,\\nmade illustrious victims, laid palaces in ashes, and which\\nwill, perhaps, long continue to be the terror of Europe,\\nunless wisdom and energy provide a remedy.\\nThe Revolution of 1789, accomplished by and for the\\nburgher class, seemed complete wherever royal despotism\\nand the privileges of birth had disappeared. This double\\nconquest, equality in the eye of the law and the free dis-\\ncussion of national interests, satisfied the ambition of the\\nmiddle class, every man of which was accustomed to be the\\narchitect of his own fortune and asked nothing of the state\\nexcept assurance of public order without interference in\\nprivate affairs.\\nThe application of steam to manual trades and the in-\\nvention of hand-machines, which were first seen in Prance\\nat the Exposition of 1845, led to a revolution in the mode", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "246 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1840-1848.\\nof manufacture and in the very constitution of labor. Small\\nworkshops disappeared and gave way to immense factories,\\nto which the railways brought the inhabitants of the coun-\\ntry districts in crowds. In a few years the capitals and\\nthe manufacturing or mercantile cities of both hemispheres\\ndoubled the number of their inhabitants. In the bosom of\\nthese formidable agglomerations of humanity industry was\\ncarried to a high degree by the powerful means placed at\\nits disposal, and created great wealth and also great\\nwretchedness.\\nIn order to compete, it was necessary to produce much\\nand to produce cheaply. In other words, longer days were\\nrequired of the workman, but the wages were so diminished\\nas to prevent provision against sickness or cessation of\\nwork. Hence arose hardships which the Utopians, some\\nof whom were generous souls, proposed to suppress by\\ncausing indigence to disappear, as the two great miseries of\\ntimes past, domestic slavery and serfdom, had disappeared.\\nBut instead of proceeding gradually, they undertook to\\nchange everything at a stroke. Their panacea might cause\\na thousand evils without even healing one, because their\\nremedies ran counter to the very nature of man and of\\nsociety. A convent can exist with community of goods or\\na religious or charitable association depend upon the devo-\\ntion of each member to the good of all. But under such\\nconditions no regular society is constituted. The Phalan-\\nsteries and the Icaria, attempted in France, Belgium, Bra-\\nzil and Texas, came to a miserable end. But the ignorant\\npopulace were not deaf to formulas like the following:\\nProperty is robbery, Every man has a right to work,\\neven when there is no work to be done, or money where-\\nwith to pay for it, Wages shall be equal, however unequal\\nthe product, The individual must disappear in a vast\\nsolidarity wherein each man will receive according to his\\nneeds and will give according to his ability.\\nThese socialistic reveries, which are absolutely opposed\\nto individual liberty, the most imperious need of our days,\\nwere destined to be put into political action through the\\nalliance of certain republicans with the new sectaries.\\nThe latter, to give realization to their dreams, desired to\\nmake the state interfere in everything. But as the gov-\\nernment was in the hands of the burghers, the first essen-\\ntial was to take it away from them. The masses trouble", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1840-1848.] ANTECEDENTS OF 1848 247\\nthemselves little about political questions which they do\\nnot understand. But, listening eagerly to those who prom-\\nised them prosperity, they were ready to follow on being\\ntold that social liquidation could be attained only with a\\ngovernment of their own choice. Thus socialism, born\\nunder the Eestoration amid apparently harmless humani-\\ntarian Utopias, gave existence to a numerous party which\\nincluded all the poor, and which the logicians of 48\\nstrengthened by decreeing universal suffrage.\\nThis movement was not peculiar to France alone. As\\nearly as 1817 England had had the Chartists, in 1836 the\\nWorkingmen s Association, and three years later disturb-\\nances in Wales. In 1844 a central association for the\\nwelfare of workingmen was formed in Prussia, and grave\\ntroubles agitated Silesia and Bohemia. This was the\\nbeginning of that war between wages and capital, between\\nthe workingman and the employer, which was to break out\\nwith violence.\\nOf this subterranean ferment official society, as is often\\nthe case, saw nothing. At least it troubled itself little\\nabout an evil from which the classes, accustomed for many\\ncenturies to suffering, were now suffering. Up to the eve\\nof February 24, 1848, it was occupied with entirely differ-\\nent issues, yet a few months later it found itself obliged to\\nwage a four days battle with 100,000 men from the poorer\\nclasses.\\nFrance from 1840 to 1846. The history of France during\\nthese years lies far more in the obscure facts just mentioned\\nthan in those stirring events of the time which a quarter\\nof a century had sufficed to restore to their true proportions.\\nThis was a golden age of orators. Much eloquence was ex-\\npended and only small things were done. A friend of the\\ngovernment summed up in 1847 this policy of mere words.\\nWhat have you done with your power? he asked the\\nministers. Nothing! Nothing! Nothing!\\nThe national feeling had been profoundly wounded by\\nthe events of 1840. M. Guizot as a compensation to French\\npride caused the sterile rocks of the Marquesas Islands in\\nthe Pacific Ocean to be occupied (May, 1842^ New Zealand\\nwas more valuable. France was on the point of seizing it\\nwhen England took possession of it first. A French officer\\nplanted the flag of France upon the great oceanic island of\\nNew Caledonia. The ministry had it torn down. The", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "248 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1840-1846.\\nstates of Honduras and Nicaragua asked for the protection\\nof France. Hayti wished to do the same. This protection\\nwas refused and the refusal was apparently inspired by Eng-\\nland. Though France acquired the Society Islands, her\\ncommercial interests in those regions were not great enough\\nto necessitate an imposing establishment. The acquisition\\nof Mayotte (1843) was a wiser operation, because that islet\\nprovided French ships a better haven than the island of\\nBourbon could afford them and a naval station in the vicinity\\nof Madagascar. At Tahiti an Englishman named Pritchard,\\nat once consul, missionary and apothecary, stirred up the\\nnatives against France. The unworthy agent was driven\\nfrom the island (1844). His complaints were listened to in\\nParliament, and the French Cabinet demanded from the\\nChambers an indemnity for the intriguer who had caused\\nthe shedding of blood. The official disavowal of E-ear-\\nAdmiral Dupetit Thouars, who had tried to extend the\\nFrench establishment in Oceanica, increased the public\\nirritation. This disavowal was regarded as a humiliation\\nbefore the British government. A more serious conces-\\nsion, made to the English, was the recognition of England s\\nright of search for the suppression of the slave trade. This\\ntime the opposition was so vigorous throughout the land\\nthat the Chamber forced the minister to repudiate the\\ntreaty and to place the French merchant marine by fresh\\nconventions once more under the exclusive protection of\\nthe national flag (May, 1845).\\nThe Chamber and public opinion desired the conquest of\\nAlgeria to be completed. The ministry had the merit of\\nchoosing an energetic and skilful man, General Bugeaud,\\nwho was able to inspire the Arabs with both respect and\\nterror. Abd-el Kader was preaching a holy war and by\\nthe rapidity of his movements had spread terror through\\nthe province of Oran and even to the gates of Algiers. The\\nemir was defeated and his family and flocks were captured.\\nTaking refuge in Morocco he prevailed on the emperor of\\nthat country to join his cause. In reply France bombarded\\nTangiers and Mogador and gained the victory of Isly. The\\nemperor was glad to sign a treaty of peace on easy con-\\nditions. France was rich enough, said her minister, to\\npay for her glory.\\nThe Anglo-French alliance was of no direct advantage to\\nFrance, but was supposed to assure the general tranquillity.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1840-1846.] ANTECEDENTS OF 1848 249\\nLouis Philippe sought above all the welfare of his family.\\nMarrying his son, the Duke of Montpensier, to the sister\\nof the Spanish queen, he aroused the resentment of the Brit-\\nish, who considered that the king was seeking to render\\nFrance and his dynasty preponderant in the peninsula.\\nAlarmed at the alienation of England and the general isola-\\ntion of France, the ministry made advances to Austria, and\\nin order to win her favor sacrificed Switzerland and Italy.\\nSwitzerland wished to remodel her constitution and give\\nmore authority to the central power. Such a change would\\nhave benefited France, whose frontier would be better pro-\\ntected by a strong than by a divided Switzerland. But this\\nreform, urged by the liberals, was opposed by the seven\\nKoman Catholic cantons. M. Guizot went so far as to ac-\\ncept the diplomatic intervention of the foreign Powers,\\nalthough that might be followed by military intervention.\\nHowever, the Separatists or Sonderbund, whom he favored,\\nwere defeated in a nineteen days campaign, and the Jesuits\\nwere expelled (November, 1847).\\nOn the banks of the Po the Austrians had occupied\\nFerrara. Pope Pius IX, who was then arousing Italy from\\nher torpor, protested and was not supported. At Milan\\nthe Austrian garrison committed outrages in February,\\n1848. M. Guizot contented himself with negotiations in\\nfavor of the victims. Thus France became the ally of an\\nempire which maintained itself only by causing the various\\npeoples which it held in servitude to oppress each other.\\nWhen the opposition complained, the minister replied by\\npointing to the national prosperity. Popular instruction\\nwas developing, the penal code had been modified and\\nlotteries suppressed. The law of appropriation for public\\npurposes rendered it possible to carry on works of public\\nutility without hindrance from private interests. Indus-\\ntry sprang into life and vigor, commerce extended its do-\\nmain, the sea-coasts were lined with lighthouses, the public\\nroads were improved, and the construction of a vast net-\\nwork of railways was decided upon. This prosperity, as\\noften happens, gave rise to frantic speculation. The evil\\nwas of wide scope. One of the king s ministers was con-\\ndemned for having sold his signature, and a peer of France\\nfor having bought it.\\nThe elections of 1846 were carefully manipulated by the\\nadministration and gave it a majority. But among the", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "250 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1841-1849,\\ndeputies cliosen were many officials. It became evident\\nthat in the very small class of electors, who numbered only\\n220,000, political feeling hardly existed and that calculation\\nwas taking the place of patriotism. Electors sold their\\nvotes to deputies. The persons elected sold their support\\nto the ministers. Thus the representative system was\\nvitiated at its source. Hence a ministry, rejected by public\\nopinion, was retained in power by an artificial majority.\\nThe President of the Council thought himself strong because\\nhe counted upon a Chamber made up according to his will.\\nSo he assumed a lofty tone with the parliamentary oppo-\\nsition, the only antagonists whom he consented to notice.\\nHe had said at the time of the elections All platforms\\nwill promise progress the conservative platform alone will\\ngive it. Meanwhile he granted no concessions under the\\npretext that one must not allow anything to be extorted\\nfrom him.\\nEngland. Free Trade. The Income Tax and the New\\nColonial System (1841-1849). Such resistance was very\\nimpolitic at a moment when liberal ideas, though repressed\\nby the governments, were everywhere springing up again.\\nThe leader of the Tories, Sir Eobert Peel, had kept his\\nministry in office from 1841 to 1846 only by becoming more\\nof a reformer than the Whigs. Snatching from his adver-\\nsaries their own weapons, the ideas of Huskisson and Can-\\nning, he abolished the corn laws, favored free trade, and\\nreestablished the income tax. In this manner he destroyed\\nwhat had been looked upon as the corner-stone of aristo-\\ncratic power. He abolished the Navigation Act, which\\nhad served to establish the maritime greatness of his coun-\\ntry, but which had already become a piece of warlike\\nmachinery fit only for a place among other antiquated\\nmachines. Lastly, he made the rich pay in order that the\\npoor might live cheaply.\\nCenturies had been required for the parliamentary insti-\\ntutions of Great Britain to react upon other governments.\\nBut only a short time was necessary for Sir Eobert PeePs\\neconomical revolution to issue from the island where it had\\nits birth. Enacted in the name of the principles of free\\ntrade and applied to the greatest market of the world, it\\npossessed a character of universal expansion. This great\\nact, which presented such a contrast to the trivial anxieties\\nof France, was destined accordingly to exercise a great in-", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1841-1849.] ANTECEDENTS OF 1848 251\\nfluence over tlie custom-house legislation of the continent.\\nBut things are bound together. The triumph of liberty in\\nthe realm of economics necessarily paves the way for its\\nvictory in the realm of politics.\\nAlready, under the control of these ideas, England had\\nrenounced the colonial system which modern Europe had\\ninherited from ancient Rome and which some states still\\nretain. She no longer sought the absolute domination of\\nthe mother country over her colonies that they, like docile\\nslaves, might exist only for her, and toil, produce and\\npurchase for her profit. That outworn system had cost\\nNorth America to the English South America to the Span-\\nish and the Portuguese and Canada and Louisiana to the\\nFrench. To the new system England was led moreover\\nby her own genius. Reserving to the mother country only\\nthe appointment of a governor, the colonies were allowed\\nto manage their own affairs by a legislative body elected by\\nthemselves. Thus was developed the prosperity of the colo-\\nnists and that of the mother country. The constitutional\\nliberty granted to Canada was productive of marvellous\\nprogress. All the English colonies, with the exception of\\nIndia and the purely military outposts, found themselves\\nendowed with this fruitful liberty in 1849. Liberty is not\\nonly a noble thing, but is also a useful thing. Thus Eng-\\nland could abolish some of her taxes, while in the ten years\\nbetween 1832 and 1842 her commerce nearly doubled. The\\nbudget of the continental states showed a deficit, while\\nthat of England presented a surplus.\\nEngland does not like revolutions. Her government\\nresembles a skilful pilot who always keeps an eye on the\\nhorizon to discern the great currents and steer the ship into\\nthem. So, since 1832, she escaped political storms by fol-\\nlowing the impulse of the public mind. Thus between 1822\\nand 1826 Huskisson s reforms were accomplished. In 1829\\ncame Roman Catholic emancipation. In 1832 electoral re-\\nform was decreed. In 1841 the income tax was revised,\\nnot indeed as a war measure, but for the purpose of freeing\\nfrom all imposts bread, beer and the raw materials which\\nfeed manufactures. In 1846 the corn laws were suppressed\\nand free trade established. Eor these reasons England\\nescaped bloodshed and revolution.\\nEstablishment of the Constitutional System in Prussia\\n(1847). In the time of Voltaire and Montesquieu echoes", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "252 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1845-1847.\\nfrom the House of Commons rarely crossed the Channel\\nand reached only a few superior men. Now, thanks to the\\npress, they were heard everywhere and awoke and excited\\nmen s minds. In 1845 the states of Silesia, of the grand\\nduchy of Posen and of royal Prussia demanded freedom\\nof the press, publicity of debate and a penal code in accord-\\nance with the principles of modern legislation. The king\\nrefused everything. To those who asked for a constitution,\\nhe replied that he would never allow a sheet of paper to\\ninterpose between his people and himself. Two years later\\nhe was obliged to convoke a general Diet, although he was\\nwilling to recogni ze in it solely a consultative character.\\nBut the Diet claimed the right of receiving the annual ac-\\ncount of the administration of the public debt and of delib-\\nerating upon all general laws, including taxation. At once\\nit arrogated to itself the superintendence of the finances\\nwith legislative power. To guarantee against all surprises\\nit declared in advance that it would recognize in no other\\nassembly or commission, even if sprung from its own ranks,\\nthe right of exercising its functions. Thus the constitu-\\ntional system was set up in Berlin. Only two great states,\\nAustria and K;ussia, were left to represent unyielding\\nopposition to the new ideas.\\nLiberal Agitations in Austria and Italy. Nevertheless\\nthe general movement was invading even changeless Aus-\\ntria. In Styria and Carinthia, her oldest duchies, men\\ndesired reforms. In Hungary a great constitutional party\\nwas already organized. Bohemia also was in a ferment.\\nBut, as the country was divided between two hostile popu-\\nlations, the Germans and the Czechs, Prince Metternich\\nwas able to rely upon the one to resist the other. In 1847\\nhe deprived the state of Bohemia of the right to vote the\\ntaxes.\\nHis policy had just suffered a signal check on the west-\\nern frontier of the empire, by the prompt defeat of the\\nSonderbund which he had tried to save. The victory of the\\nSwiss liberals was only one more bad example given to\\nthe docile subjects of the Hapsburgs and did not consti-\\ntute a danger. But on the other side of the Alps a storm\\nwas muttering, all the more threatening because this time\\nthe tempest came from E-ome.\\nThe disastrous attempt of the Bandiera brothers, sons of\\nan Austrian admiral, who tried to stir up the Calabrians", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1843-1846.] ANTECEDENTS OF 1848 253\\nin 1844, and the insurrection of Rimini in 1845, undertaken\\nto obtain the application of the Memorandum of the Great\\nPowers in 1831, had been the last appeals to arms on the\\npart of the Italians. But what the propaganda of gunshots\\ndid not succeed in effecting, the propaganda of ideas brought\\nabout among that intelligent people. Gioberti, with his\\nbook, Del primato degli Italiani, in 1843 had won over\\na part of the clergy to the national cause. Later on he had\\ntried in the Modern Jesuit to remove the Pope from the\\nfatal influence of the degenerate sons of Loyola. Father\\nVentura, a famous preacher, exclaimed: If the Church\\ndoes not march with the age, the nations will not halt, but\\nthey will march on without the Church, outside the Church,\\nagainst the Church. What pontiff would be capable of\\ncomprehending that religion must be reconciled with liberty\\nThe Italians believed they had found such a Pope, a re-\\nformer for the universal Church and a national ruler for\\nItaly, in Pius IX, elected in June, 1846. At the very\\nbeginning he dismissed his Swiss guard, threw open the\\nprisons, recalled the exiles, subjected the clergy to taxation\\nand prepared the way for reform in the civil and criminal\\nlaws. He instituted an assembly of notables, chosen by\\nhimself, but possessing only a consultative voice. He\\ncreated a Council of State, restored municipal institutions\\nto Rome, and for the first time published the budget of the\\npapal states. The king of Sardinia and the Grand Duke\\nof Tuscany followed his example. Italy again revived with\\nthe double hope of regaining her political liberty and her\\nnational independence. On December 5, 1846, tires were\\nkindled from one end of the Apennines to the other. The\\nhundredth anniversary of a defeat of the Austrians before\\nGenoa was being celebrated to the cry of, Expel the bar-\\nbarians Fuori i barbari England, governed after\\nJune, 1846, by the Whig ministry of Lord Russell, sent\\nthe Mediterranean fleet into Sicilian waters, and Lord\\nMinto, her ambassador, travelled all over Italy urging the\\nprinces into constitutional paths. The opposition in the\\nErench Chamber cried aloud to the Pope, Courage, Holy\\nEather! Courage! But the Cabinet of the Tuileries,\\nwhile favorable to administrative reforms, discouraged\\npolitical reforms, so as to keep on good terms with Austria,\\nalliance with whom seemed necessary in consequence of\\nthe Spanish marriages.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "254 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1847-1848.\\nBy joining in the liberal movement Austria might have\\nrestrained and guided it; but that Power was still under\\nthe fatal influence of the party, which accused the car-\\nbonaro Masta\u00c3\u00af of having usurped the Holy See by intrigue,\\nand which even dared to call him, A Eobespierre wearing\\nthe tiara. She addressed to the Pope a severe note against\\nhis reforms in June, 1847, fomented a conspiracy in Rome\\nitself, and, contrary to all treaties, occupied the city of\\nPerrara in August. Cardinal Perretti sent to Vienna an\\nenergetic protest, which was backed up by the courts of\\nTurin and Plorence, but of which M. Guizot expressed dis-\\napprobation. Pather Ventura, said Pius IX, discour-\\naged, Prance is deserting us. We are alone! No,\\nreplied the Theatine monk, God is with us. Porward!\\nAnd Italy did move forward. At the end of November\\nthe Eoman Council opened. Leopold II and Charles\\nAlbert effected reforms which were equivalent to the prom-\\nise of a constitution and their ministers signed with the\\nPapal Cabinet an alliance for the development of Italian\\nindustry and the welfare of the peoples on November 3.\\nThe Duke of Modena and the king of the Two Sicilies were\\ninvited to adhere to the treaty. This union was a threat\\nagainst Austria, to which she replied by the military occu-\\npation of Parma and Modena in December. The extremi-\\nties of Italy immediately caught fire.\\nThree months previously an insurrection at Reggio and\\nMessina and a disturbance in Naples had been severely put\\ndown, but promises of reform had been made. On January\\n12, 1848, as these reforms had not been effected, Palermo\\ntook up arms to the cry of, Long live Pius IX. On the\\n16th the insurrection had mastered the whole island. On\\nthe 18th 10,000 men marched upon Naples demanding, as\\nin 1821, a constitution. On the 28th Perdinand II yielded;\\ntwo weeks later a charter, modelled on the Prench charter\\nof 1830, was promulgated at Naples, and four days after-\\nwards at Plorence, and on March 4 at Turin.\\nThe Italian peoples were quivering with excitement,\\nespecially in the Lombardo-Venetian territory, where exas-\\nperation against the Austrian had seized even the women\\nand children. On January 3 Austrian dragoons put to the\\nsword groups of people in the streets of Milan. Troubles\\nbroke out in Pavia and Padua on Pebruary 8; on the 15th\\nat Bergamo. On the 22d Marshal Eadetzki proclaimed", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1848.] ANTECEDENTS OF 1848 255\\nmartial law at Milan, saying to his soldiers, The guilty\\nefforts of fanaticism and of rebellion will be shattered upon\\nyour courage like glass upon a rock/\\nAlmost at the same moment a revolution burst out at\\nParis which, seventeen days later, found its echo in Vienna.\\nNothing remained to Austria in Italy at the end of March\\nexcept the fortresses of the quadrilateral.\\nThe general situation of Europe at the beginning of the\\nyear 1848 indicated that the critical hour had come. After\\na struggle, lasting more than a generation, between the old\\nr\u00c3\u00a9gime and liberal ideas, the latter felt themselves strong\\nenough to look upon their approaching triumph as sure.\\nBut was that victory to be won peaceably, by intelligent\\nand patriotic agreement of the government and the gov-\\nerned, or was a blind resistance to arouse useless riots and\\neven war, and thus open up the way for republican advent-\\nures and socialistic violence? The answer depended upon\\nFrance. If she leaned to the side whither all civilized\\nEurope was proceeding, free institutions would be peace-\\nably established. Prussia and Austria, weakened by in-\\nternal disorders, would have recoiled before Prance and\\nEngland, united in one thought and at need in one action.\\nThe old system, like a corpse still erect though long since\\nbereft of life, would have fallen to rise no more. Such was\\nthe grand opportunity which the French ministry then held\\nin its hand, and which it threw away.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "256 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d. 1823.\\nXL\\nAMERICA FROM 1815 TO 1848\\nAmerican Progress. The Monroe Doctrine. Advantages\\nof Liberty. During all this period the New World fur-\\nnished little to general history. Spanish America writhed\\nfor a long time in periodical convulsions, the fruit of a\\ndouble despotism under which the political education of the\\ncitizens was impossible. Portuguese America was slowly\\ndeveloping her riches and her population, under the protec-\\ntion of a constitutional government. Canada prospered\\nthrough liberty.- The United States, having behind them\\nno past to arrest their movements or excite their violence,\\nand having before them infinite space, were engaged in\\nexpending upon nature the forces of an exuberant youth\\nwithout yet turning those forces against themselves, as in\\nthe old states of the European West. Eaithful to the insti-\\ntutions with which they had endowed themselves, they\\ntilled the prairies, cleared the forests, and covered the\\nIndians hunting-grounds with cities to which flocked a\\npopulation that often doubled itself in twenty years.\\nNot to be disturbed in this work they had used haughty\\nlanguage toward Europe. After having recognized in 1821\\nthe independence of the Spanish colonies. President Mon-\\nroe, in 1823, in a message to the Senate, established the\\nprinciple which has remained the rule of the Cabinet at\\nWashington in its foreign policy. The American conti-\\nnents are not to be considered as subjects for colo-\\nnization by European powers. We should consider\\nany attempt on their part to extend their system to any\\nportion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and\\nsafety. Any such interference would be regarded as the\\nmanifestation of an unfriendly spirit to the United States.\\nThis declaration was renewed in decided terms when the\\nsuccess of the French invasion of Spain aroused fear of an\\nattempt at restoration in Buenos Ayres, Lima, or Mexico.\\nThe Old World, separated from the New by 1500 leagues\\nof sea, dared not accept the challenge.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1812-1848.] AMERICA FROM 1815 TO 1848 257\\nISFevertlieless, although since the war of 1812-1815\\nagainst England, the United States had been at peace with\\nEurope, and though the European courts received from\\nWashington nothing but proposals for treaties of commerce\\nor the regulation of unimportant matters, the spectacle of\\nthat nation waxing great day by day with the most liberal\\ninstitutions in the world was contagious to the society of\\nthe Old Continent. Every year the latter sent across the\\nocean many thousands of their poor in quest of land and\\nliberty. Every year, also, there returned engineers, mer-\\nchants and politicians who had admired on the banks of\\nthe Ohio and Mississippi the power of individual energy.\\nThe tales which were told concerning the greatness of the\\nAmerican republic encouraged the liberal party and made\\nit desire still more to limit the rights of the state and ad-\\nvance the rights of the citizens.\\nThis young republic lacked, it is true, the elegances and\\ndistinction of old societies where aristocracy has left behind\\nsomething of its refined manners, of its tastes for the arts,\\nof its sentiment of honor which is a sort of personal reli-\\ngion. In haste to live and to enjoy life, the Americans ad-\\nvanced little beyond the useful. But the useful is one of\\nthe two necessities of life. The other, the ideal, was sure\\nto come later on with hereditary wealth and leisure. Some\\nday they would no longer be obliged to say, Time is money.\\nSome day, when their soil was placed under cultivation and\\ntheir railways and canals were completed, they would de-\\nvote time to solitary meditation, to pure art, to theoretical\\nscience, and in a word to all the glorious but immaterial\\npursuits which make great peoples.\\nEeading this history of Europe and of the New World\\nbetween 1815 and 1848, it would seem as if kings and peoples\\nall had but one idea during those three and thirty years\\nas if they sought only either to destroy or to save political\\nliberty. Nevertheless men s minds were occupied with\\nart, poetry, science, thought, religion, and a thousand mat-\\nters besides. Manufactures and commerce were in process\\nof transformation. Useful reforms were made. The gen-\\neral welfare increased. Ignorance and crime were on the\\ndecrease. In short, almost everywhere there was security\\nfor property and persons. But under absolute government\\nthose great and beneficent things which they enjoyed lacked\\nguarantees and could possess them only under constitutional", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "258 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d, 1848.\\ngovernment. Civil liberty is indispensable for every citi-\\nzen. Each individual needs it that he may live like a\\nman. Political liberty, on the contrary, would be merely\\na luxury, necessary to a few but useless to the majority, if,\\nlike a faithful guardian of a house, it were not there for\\nthe purpose of giving warning when thieves approach and\\nof preventing their entrance. Since its part is to assure\\nthe safety of our welfare, we must draw the inference that,\\nthe richer and happier societies are, so much the greater\\nis the fruitful development of the active faculties and so\\nmuch the more indispensable is political liberty. It is the\\nonly pledge that their welfare shall endure. For this rea-\\nson it was, and deserved to be, the object of the great\\nbattle which we have sketched so rapidly.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1848.] REVOLUTION OF 1848 259\\nXLI\\nREVOLUTION OP 1848\\nThe victory of liberal Switzerland and of the constitu-\\ntional party in Prussia, the agitation of Germany, Hun-\\ngary and the Austrian duchies, the conduct of Pius IX,\\nand the efforts of Italy to escape from the despotism of her\\nrulers as well as from the grip of the Hapsburgs, had\\ncaused an immense sensation in France. In the legislative\\nbody the deputies of the Left Centre and of the Dynastic\\nLeft, led by MM. Thiers and Odilon Barrot, called upon\\nthe ministry to fulfil its promises. They demanded the\\nmodification of certain taxes, and electoral and parliamen-\\ntary reform. The latter had been proposed in vain at each\\nsession since 1842. The ministry rejected these harmless\\ndemands and ridiculed the opposition for its ineffectual\\nefforts to awake the country from political torpor. To this\\nchallenge the opposition replied by seventy banquets in the\\nmost important cities. These national complaints found a\\nvoice. They deplored the degradation of Prance, which no\\nlonger possessed its legitimate influence in Europe. They\\nshowed how the most legitimate reforms had been refused,\\nand denounced the electoral and parliamentary corruption\\nfostered by the government. Their demands were most\\nmoderate. They asked only the addition of 25,000 persons\\nto the voters and that government officials should be refused\\nmembership in the Chamber.\\nParis, by instinct and tradition fond of fault-finding\\nwhen free from fear, was entirely devoted to the opposition.\\nIn the recent municipal elections not a single candidate of\\nthe ministry had succeeded in the richest and, consequently,\\nthe most essentially moderate quarter. A journal founded\\nby the conservatives was unable to live. Dissatisfaction\\nshowed itself in the very heart of that party. Many in-\\nfluential members of the majority passed over to the oppo-\\nsition. Prince de Joinville openly showed his disapproval\\nand went to Algiers in a sort of voluntary exile with his", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "260 HISTORY OF MODERN TIMES [a.d.1848.\\nbrother the Duke d Aumale. Several members of the min-\\nistry even were disgusted with an extreme policy. M. de\\nSalvandy, who had undertaken numerous and liberal re-\\nforms in the Department of Public Education, retained his\\nplace only from the desire to defend certain proposed laws\\nwhich he had introduced. But the President of the Council\\nbegan the battle by causing the king in his speech at the\\nopening of the session on December 20, 1848, to declare\\n100 deputies enemies of the throne.\\nFor the space of six weeks irritating debates kept public\\nopinion in an uproar. The opposition made a final demon-\\nstration by appointing a banquet in the twelfth district.\\nThe republicans who had long been discouraged let things\\ngo on without opposition, but held themselves in readiness.\\nIf the ministry authorizes the banquet, said one of their\\nleaders on February 20, it will fall. If it prohibits it,\\nthere will be a revolution. The Dynastic Left made a last\\neffort to forestall the explosion. On February 21 M. Odilon\\nBarrot laid upon the table of the Chamber an accusation\\nagainst the ministers.\\nThe latter prevented the banquet. Immediately vast\\ncrowds got together and here and there conflicts broke out.\\nBut on the evening of February 23 the opposition had\\nwon its case. A liberal ministry was appointed under the\\npresidency of M. Thiers. But those who had so well begun\\nthe movement had made no preparations for arresting its\\ncourse at the exact point which the majority of the country\\ndesired. Men, able to attack rather than to resist, critics\\nrather than men of action, in a few hours they saw the\\ncontrol of the uprising slip from their hands and pass into\\nthose of a party which included professional conspirators\\nand veterans of barricades. The latter were men of com-\\nbat. They mixed among the masses, with whom the gayly\\ndecked and illuminated boulevards were crowded. A shot\\nwas fired by an unknown person at the guardhouse of the\\nMinistry of Foreign Affairs. The troops replied by a dis-\\ncharge which killed fifty innocent promenaders. At the\\nsight of these dead bodies borne into the city, the people of\\nthe faubourgs shouted, They are assassinating our breth-\\nren Vengeance and flew to arms. The king could\\ncount upon the army, commanded by General Bugeaud.\\nThat energetic leader had already taken measures to quell\\nthe riot, when, during the night of the 23d, he received", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "A.D.1848.] REVOLUTION OF 1848 261\\norders from the president of tlie new ministry to fall back\\nwith his troops upon the Tuileries. Eather than obey this\\nsenseless order he resigned his command, and the resistance\\nwas paralyzed. The national guard had been tardily as-\\nsembled. They believed that the whole matter would be\\nconfined to a change of ministers, and allowed the move-\\nment to go on. Eevolution followed. Soon they tried to\\narrest what their inactivity had aided, but it was too late.\\nEven the Order of the National Guard, which dated from\\nJuly 14, 1789, was morally overthrown on February 24.\\nAbandoned by the burghers of Paris, Louis Philippe\\nthought he was deserted by all Prance. At noon he abdi-\\ncated, while fighting was still going on at the Palais Royal.\\nHe departed under the protection of several regiments with-\\nout being either pursued or disturbed.\\nThe Duke of Orleans, whose influence over the army had\\nbeen great, was dead. The Prince de Joinville and the\\nDuke d^Aumale, who enjoyed a well-earned popularity,\\nwere absent. There remained in addition to the Duke de\\nMontpensier, who was still too young to be known, only a\\nwoman and a child, the Duchess of Orleans and the Count\\nof Paris. The duchess, respected for her virtues and lofty\\nspirit, but a stranger and alone, had no power. While the\\npopulace was entering the Tuileries, she went to the Cham-\\nber with the Count of Paris. The insurgents followed her\\nhere and caused a provisional government to be proclaimed.\\nThus, through the incapacity of the government and the\\naudacity of a faction, instead of legal accomplishment of\\nrequisite reforms, the monarchy was overthrown. The\\nsuccessful insurrection was to paralyze labor, waste hun-\\ndreds of millions of francs and divert the country far from\\nthe path of peaceful progress. Two men above all others\\nshould have put on mourning for this useless revolution and\\nfor the overthrown dynasty. One of the two, the king,\\nmight have forestalled the insurrection by taking away its\\npretext. The other, the minister, might have crushed it\\nby force, but did not dare.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "IlfDEX\\nAbd-el-Kader, holy war of, 218, 248.\\nAbd-ul-Medjid, Sultan, 234.\\nAboukir, battle of, 144.\\nAchmet Pasha, 234.\\nActon, 123.\\nAddison, 98.\\nAdrian YI, Pope, 46.\\nAdrianople, treaty of, 203.\\nAix-la-Chapelle, peace of (1668), 85 treaty\\nof (1748), 109 Congress of (1818), 185.\\nAlais, peace of, T3.\\nAlberoni, Cardinal, 105.\\nAlbert, Ulysses of the North, lOT.\\nAlbizzi, 17.\\nAlbuquerque, 26, 27.\\nAlcantara, Order of, 13.\\nAldus Manutius, 30.\\nAlexander VI, Pope, 23, 24.\\nAlexander I, Tsar, 148, 179, 184, 185, 207.\\nAlexandria, 232, 233.\\nAlexis, son of Peter the Great, 104.\\nAlgeria, Algiers, 208, 248.\\nAli Pashi of Tanina, 232.\\nAlliance, Holy, 170-171, 173-191, 197, 201.\\nAlsace, 133.\\nAltran stadt, 102.\\nAlva, Duke of, 42, 54, 58.\\nAlvinzi, General, 143,\\nAmar, 139.\\nAmboise, edict of, 53 plot of, 53.\\nAmerica, discovered, 27 English in, 114-\\n115.\\nAmerican Eevolution, 115.\\nAmiens, siege of (1598), 60 peace of (1802),\\n148.\\nAmp\u00c3\u00a8re, 193.\\nAmyot, 31.\\nAnabaptists, the, 178.\\nAnagdello, battle of, 24.\\nAncona, 213.\\nAndujar, ordinance of, 190.\\nAnglican Church, 37, 88.\\nAnne of Austria, 74, 75.\\nAnne of Beaujeu, 5, 6,\\nAnne Boleyn, 37.\\nAnne Dubourg, 52.\\nAnne of England, Queen, HI.\\nApostolicals, 205, 223.\\nArabs, 21,\\nArago, 193.\\nAranda, 122.\\nArchitecture, Gothic, 31.\\nAreola, battle of, 143.\\nArdres, treaty of, 49.\\nArgyle, Duke of (1685), 90.\\nAriosto, 31,\\nArmada, the Invincible, 59.\\nArndt, 161, 163, 181, 187,\\nArques, battle of, 60,\\nArras, 68.\\nAsia, Eussians in, 236 British progress in,\\n237.\\nAssam, 237.\\nAssembly, French National or Constitu-\\ntional, 126-131 the Legislative, 132.\\nAuer stadt, battle of, 155.\\nAugereau, Marshal, 151.\\nAugsburg, peace of, 35, 65 League of, 92.\\nAugustus II, 102.\\nAurangzeb, 112, 113.\\nAusterlitz, battle of, 152.\\nAustria, house of, obtains imperial crown,\\n15 Soule\u00c3\u00afman the Magnificent in, 47\\ndivision of house of, 49 in Thirty Tears\\nWar, 66, 67 in War of Spanish Succes-\\nsion, 94, 95; War of Succession, 108-\\n109 and French Eevolution, 133-139\\nand Napoleon I, 142-143, 152, 156, 164\\nMetternich real ruler of, 185; attitude\\ntoward Eussian domination in Turkey,\\n230.\\nAustrian Succession, War of the, 108-109.\\nBacon, Francis, 1, 40, 62, 100.\\nBade, Josse, 30.\\nBailly, 130, 138.\\nBalbo, Count, 245,\\nBalboa, 27,\\nBaluze, 98.\\nBalzac, 192,\\nBandiera brothers, 252.\\nBank of France, 147.\\nBanner, General, 68.\\nBar, Confederation of, 117.\\nBarb\u00c3\u00a9-Marbois, 145.\\nBarcelona, treaty of, 6.\\nBarnabites, 41.\\nBarnet, battle of, 9.\\nBarras, 138, 141, 142.\\nBarr\u00c3\u00a8re, 138.\\nBarrot, Odilon, 217, 259, 260.\\nBart, Jean, 92.\\nBarth\u00c3\u00a9l\u00c3\u00a9my, 145.\\nBassano, battle of, 143.\\nBassompierre, Marshal de, 73.\\nBastile, fallofthe, 127.\\n263", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "264\\nINDEX\\nBattle of the Giants, 44.\\nBautzen, battle of, 165.\\nBavaria, 37, 110, 169, 225.\\nBayard, Chevalier, 45, 46.\\nBavezid II, 20-21.\\nBayle, 98.\\nBaylen, capitulation of, 159.\\nBeaufort, Duke of, 75.\\nBeauharnais, Eug\u00c3\u00a8ne de, 154.\\nBeaulieu, General, 143.\\nBeaumont, \u00c3\u0089lie de, 193.\\nBelgium, united with Holland, 168-169\\nseparates from HoUand, 212, 220-222.\\nBelgrade, 47 treaty of, lOT battle of, 108.\\nBeloochistan, 694.\\nBenedictines, 98.\\nB\u00c3\u00a9ranger, 181, 187, 192.\\nBerchet, 181.\\nBergen, battle of, 144.\\nBerlin, University of, 161.\\nBernard of Saxe- Weimar, 68.\\nBernadotte, Marshal (Charles XIV of\\nSweden), 151, 154, 164.\\nBernetti, Cardinal, 228.\\nBernini, 99.\\nBerri, Duchess de, 214.\\nBerri, Duke de, 183.\\nBerthier, intendant, 127.\\nBerthier, Marshal, 151, 154.\\nBertrand de la Cueva, 12.\\nBessi\u00c3\u00a8res, Marshal, 151, 205.\\nBeuvron, Marquis de, 73.\\nBiagrasso, battle of, 46.\\nBicoque, battle of, 46.\\nBillaud-Varennes, 139.\\nBiot, 193.\\nBirmingham Union, 197.\\nBlack Prince, Edward the, 68.\\nBlack Sea, 237.\\nBlake, Admhral, 82.\\nBl\u00c3\u00a9neau, battle of, 76.\\nBlenheim, battle of, 94.\\nBlockade, Continental, 155.\\nBlois, treaty of, 24.\\nBl\u00c3\u00b9cher, 166.\\nBohemia, 66-67, 108, 109, 110, 162.\\nBoileau, 97.\\nBoissy-d Anglas, 145.\\nBolan Pass, 239, 240.\\nBolivar the Liberator, 198.\\nBonaparte, Elisa, 154.\\nBonaparte, Jerome, 154.\\nBonaparte, Joseph, 154, 156.\\nBonaparte, Louis, 154.\\nBonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon I.\\nBonaparte, Pauline, 154.\\nBordeaux, Duke de, son of Duke of Berri,\\n187.\\nBorgias, the, 18.\\nBossuet, 33, 97.\\nBoston, 115.\\nBosworth, battle of, 9.\\nBothwell, Earl of, 56.\\nBotsaris, 201.\\nBougainville, 120.\\nBourbon, Duke of, regent of France, 106.\\nBourbons, 71, 165, 166.\\nBourdaloue, 97.\\nBourdonnaie, M. de, 208.\\nBourmont, M. de, 208.\\nBourmont, Marshal, 223.\\nBouteville, 73.\\nBoyne, battle of the, 92.\\nBrabant, R\u00c3\u00a9volution of, 221.\\nBraganza, house of, 199.\\nBramante, 32.\\nBrandenburg, Elector of, 66.\\nBreda, Compromise of, 54.\\nBrongniart, 193.\\nBrumaire, Eighteenth of, 145.\\nBrune (General), 144, (Marshal), 151, 176.\\nBruneUeschi, 31.\\nBrunswick, Duke of, 135 state of, 225.\\nBrussels, Congress of, 221.\\nBrydon, Dr., 239.\\nBuckingham, Marquis of. See Villiers.\\nBuffon, 120.\\nBugeaud, General, 216, 248, 260.\\nBillow, General, 164.\\nBurgoyne, General, 115.\\nBurgundy, 2, 3. _\\nBurmah, 237,\\nBurschenschaft, 182.\\nByron, Lord, 201.\\nCaboul, 238, 239.\\nCabrai, Alvarez, 26.\\nCabrera, 224.\\nCadoudal, Georges, 150.\\nCajetano, papal legate, 34.\\nCaiatrava, Order of, 13.\\nCalderari, 176.\\nCalderon, 98.\\nCalonne, 124.\\nCalvin, 1, 31, 34, 36.\\nCamaldules, 41.\\nCambac\u00c3\u00a9r\u00c3\u00a8s, 146.\\nCambrai, League of, 24 treaty of, 47. _\\nCamisards, 94.\\nCamoens, 26.\\nCampaubert, battle of, 165.\\nCampo Formio, treaty of, 143.\\nCanada, 256.\\nCanaris, 201.\\nCandahar, 239.\\nCanning, George, 190, 196, 197, 199, 200, 201.\\nCanning, Sir Stratford, 202.\\nCanosa, Prince di, 176.\\nCape of Good Hope, discovery of, 26.\\nCapucins, 41.\\nCarbonari, 176, 182.\\nCarUsts, 205, 224, 225.\\nCarlos, Don, 205, 215, 223.\\nCarlsbad, Congress of, 186.\\nCarnot, Count, 137, 142, 145, 150.\\nCaroline of Naples, Queen, 123.\\nCarrier, 138, 139.\\nCartier, Jacques, 28,\\nCasaubon, 98.\\nCasimh -P\u00c3\u00a9rier, President of Council, 181,\\n213.\\nCassini, 100.\\nCasteinaudary, battle of, 74.\\nCastiglione, battle of, 143.\\nCastlereagh, 186, 190.\\nCastro, John de, 27.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n265\\nCatherine II of Eussia, 117-119, 122, 123,\\n144, 236.\\nCatholic League, 66.\\nCatholic Relief Bill, 196.\\nCatholicism, and the Eeformation, 33-40\\nrestoration of, 41-43 and Philip II, 51-\\n52 success of, in Netherlands and\\nFrance, 53-55 conspiracies in Eng-\\nland and France, 56 and Evangelical\\nUnion, 66 and Louis XIY, 87 and\\nCharles II of England, 89 and James II,\\n89-90 and Napoleon, 149 reaction\\nafter Napoleon s downfall, 1\u00c3\u008eT-180,\\nCavaliers, 80.\\nCauchy, 193.\\nCentral America, 198.\\nC\u00c3\u00a9risoles, battle of, 49.\\nChalais, Count de, 73.\\nChamber of Deputies, French, created, 176.\\nChambord, Count of (Henry V), 214.\\nChamillart, 94.\\nChampionnet, General, 144.\\nChamplain, 63.\\nChampollion, 192.\\nCharles VIII of France, 5-6, 22-25.\\nCharles IX of France, 52, 56.\\nCharles X of France, 190-191, 208, 209.\\nCharles V, Emperor, 5, 24, 36, 44-49.\\nCharles VI, (Archduke Charles), Emperor,\\n94, 108, 143, 144, 152.\\nCharles VII, Emperor, 109.\\nCharles I of England, 73, 78-81.\\nCharles II of England, 82-83.\\nCharles II of Spain, 85, 93.\\nCharles IV of Spain, 123, 156.\\nCharles XII of Sweden, 102-103, 105.\\nCharles XIV of Sweden. See Bernadotte.\\nCharles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy,\\n2-4.\\nCharles Albert of Piedmont, 254.\\nChartists, 247.\\nChasles, 193.\\nCh\u00c3\u00a2teau Cambr\u00c3\u00a9sis, treaty of, 50.\\nChateaubriand, 150, 178, 189, 201,\\nChatiUon, 68.\\nCh\u00c3\u00a9nier, Andr\u00c3\u00a9, 139, 150.\\nChevreul, 193.\\nChiffa, battle of, 218.\\nChili, 198.\\nChina, 230, 241.\\nChristian of Brunswick, 67.\\nChristian IV of Denmark, 67.\\nChristian InstiUUes, The, 36.\\nChurch, in the sixteenth century, 33 and\\nthe Eeformation, 34-40. See Catholicism,\\nPapacy.\\nCid, Corneille s, 97.\\nCinq Mars, 74.\\nCisalpine Eepublic, 143, 151.\\nCivil Government, Locke s, 98-99.\\nCivil War, English, 80-81.\\nClaude Lorraine, 98.\\nClaude, Madame, 24.\\nClausel, Marshal, 216.\\nClement VII, Pope, 37.\\nClive, Lord, 230.\\nCoalitions against Napoleon I, 132-148,\\n158-166.\\nCode, Khanounnam\u00c3\u00a9, 47; Napol\u00c3\u00a9on, 147,\\n149, 173.\\nColbert, 84, 86, 87.\\nColigny, 52.\\nCollege of Princes, 153 of Kings, 153.\\nColloqrda of Erasmus, 30.\\nCollot-d Herbois, 138, 139.\\nColombia, 198.\\nColumbus, Christopher, 13, 27.\\nCommines, 5, 23.\\nCommittee of Public Safety, 137, 138, 139.\\nCommonwealth, English, 81-82.\\nCommune of Paris (1792), 134-135.\\nConcini, 72.\\nCond\u00c3\u00a9, 52, 54, 69, 75, 76, 86.\\nCondottieri, 17.\\nCongregation, the, 179.\\nCongregation of the Index, 41.\\nConsequential Persons, cabal of the,\\n75.\\nConstant, Benjamin, 150, 181.\\nConstantine, African fortress, 216, 217.\\nConstantino, Grand Duke, 207.\\nConstantinople, 16, 20, 203, 231.\\nConstitution, in Denmark, 222 French, of\\n1791, 128 of Year III, 141 of Tear\\nVIII, 146; Portuguese, 199, 215; in\\nSweden, 223.\\nConstitutional Assembly, French, 126-131.\\nConstitutional system in Prussia, 251-252.\\nConsulate in France, 145-147.\\nContinental Congress, 115.\\nConvention, French National, 136, 138,\\n141-142.\\nCook, Captain, 120.\\nCopernicus, 32, 99.\\nCorbie, 68.\\nCorday, Charlotte, 138.\\nCordeliers (French political club), 135.\\nCorn laws, 251.\\nCorneille, 76, 97.\\nCornwallis, General, 115.\\nCortes, Fernando, 27.\\nCorvlnus, Matthias, 15, 20.\\nCourier, Paul Louis, 181.\\nCousin, Victor, 181, 187, 192,\\nCouthon, 138.\\nCoutras, battle of, 57.\\nCovenant, league of the, 79.\\nCrespy, battle of, 35 peace of, 49.\\nCreuzer, 192.\\nCrevelt, battle of, 110.\\nCromwell, Oliver, 80-82.\\nCromwell, Eichard, 82.\\nCuba, 198.\\nCujas, 31.\\nCustine, General, 136, 138.\\nCuvier, 193.\\nCzechs. See Bohemia.\\nD Alembert, 122.\\nDamascus, captured by the Mahabites, 232.\\nD Angers, David, 192.\\nD Annonay, Seguin, 193.\\nDanton, 135, 136, 137, 138.\\nD Argesson, 121,\\nDarnley, 56.\\nD Artois, Count, 128, 133, 174, 190.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "266\\nINDEX\\nD Aumale, Duke, 260, 261.\\nDaunou, 150.\\nDavoust, Marshal, 151.\\nDay of Dupes, 74.\\nDeath Song, Korner s, 161.\\nDe Barante, 192.\\nDe Bonald, 178.\\nDeclaration of Eights, English, 90;\\nFrench, 127, 158.\\nDecree of Berlin, 155.\\nDego, battle of, 143.\\nDelacroix, 192.\\nDelaroche, 192.\\nDembe, battle of, 228.\\nDe Maistre, Count, 178.\\nDenain, battle of, 94.\\nD Enghien, Duke, 150.\\nDenmark, 38, 67, 222.\\nDe Eemusat, 192.\\nDe Sacy, Le Maistre, 192.\\nDescartes, 1, 40, 76, 98, 100.\\nDes\u00c3\u00a8ze, 136.\\nDesmoulins, Camille, 138.\\nD Estr\u00c3\u00a9es, Count, 86.\\nDe Thou, 74.\\nDe Vigny, 192.\\nD Harcourt, 68.\\nDiderot, 122.\\nDirectory, 142-145.\\nDiscourse on Method, 97.\\nDivine Eight, 125 Louis XIV personifica-\\ntion of monarchy by, 95.\\nDoctrinaires, 217.\\nDon Quixote, Cervantes 98.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2D Orleans, Gaston, 74.\\nD Ornano, Marshal, 73.\\nDowns, battle of the, 76.\\nDrake, Sir Francis, 58.\\nDresden, treaty of, 109.\\nDryden, 98.\\nDubois, Cardinal, 104, 105-106.\\nDu Cange, 98.\\nDucos, Eoger, 146.\\nDulong, 193.\\nDumas, novelist, 192.\\nDumas, chemist, 193.\\nDumoulin, 31.\\nDumouriez, General, 136, 137.\\nDunbar, battle of, 81.\\nDupin, the elder, 181.\\nDupleix, 112.\\nDupont, General, 159.\\nDuquesne, 86.\\nDiirer, Albert, 32.\\nEast India Company, English, 63, 112, 239,\\n240.\\nEast Indies, French Company of the, 84.\\nEastern Question. 230-243.\\n\u00c3\u0089couen, edict of, 53.\\nEdge Hill, battle of, 80.\\nEdict of Nantes, 60, 63 revocation of, 87.\\nEdward IV, 3, 4, 8.\\nEdward VI, 38.\\nEdward the Black Prince. See Black Prince.\\nEgmont, Count, 54,\\nElba, Napoleon at, 166.\\nElefiwor Galiga\u00c3\u00af, 72.\\nElectoral Union, 15.\\nElizabeth, Madame, 138.\\nElizabeth of England, Queen, 88, 52, 56, 59,\\n62, 77.\\nEmancipation of slaves by British Parlia-\\nment, 220.\\nEmpire, first French, 150-166; German,\\ndissolved, 153.\\nEncyclopedists, the, 121.\\nEngland, progress of royalty in, 7-10 the\\nEeformation in, 37-38 Catholic conspir-\\nacies in, 56 revolution in, 89-111 in\\nSeven Years War, 109-110; colonial\\npower of, 111-113 and America, 114-\\n115, 162, 163 Scotland united mth. 111\\nin India, 112-113 against Napoleon, 148,\\n166; progress of, in Asia, 237. See Britain.\\nErasmus, 30, 31, 33.\\nErfurt, interview of, 156.\\nEspartero, Marshal, 225.\\nEssay on Indifference, 178.\\nEtaples, treaty of, 6.\\nEtienne, 181.\\nEufimio di Messina, Peliico s, 181.\\nEugene, Prince, 94, 105, 108.\\nEugenius IV, Pope, 33.\\nEvangelical Union, 66.\\nEylau, battle of, 155.\\nFaubourg Saint Antoine, battle of the, 76.\\nFehrbellin, battle of, 107.\\nFelton, John, 79.\\nF\u00c3\u00a9nelon, 97, 122.\\nFerdinand of Aragon, 12-13.\\nFerdinand of Austria, 47.\\nFerdinand II of Austria, 66-67.\\nFerdinand the Catholic, 23, 24, 25, 44,\\nFerdinand II of Naples, 23, 227, 228, 254.\\nFerdinand VII of Portugal, 200.\\nFerdinand VII of Spain, 156, 176, 183, 184,\\n190, 215, 223.\\nFerrara, 227, 249.\\nFerretti, Cardinal, 254.\\nFestival of the Federation, 129.\\nFeth Ali, 238.\\nFichte, 133, 161.\\nField of the Cloth of Gold, 45.\\nFieschi, 215.\\nFire of London, 89.\\nFh-st Consul, Bonaparte as, 146-150.\\nFleurus, battle of, 93.\\nFleury, 106.\\nFlodden Field, battle of, 25.\\nFlorence, 17.\\nFoix, Gaston de, 25.\\nFontaine Fran\u00c3\u00a7aise, battle of, 60.\\nFornova, battle of, 23.\\nFortescue, Chancellor, 125.\\nFouch\u00c3\u00a9, 138, 139.\\nFoulon, 127.\\nFourier, 194.\\nFourierists, 214.\\nFox, George, 155.\\nFoy, General, 181, 191.\\nFrance, royalty in, 1-6; the Eeformation\\nIn, 37 Catholics in, 56 reorganization\\nof, by Henry IV, 68-64 in Thirty Years\\nWw:, completion of monarchy in,", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n267\\n72-76 under Louis XIY, 84-88, 92-96\\nletters and arts in, 97-98 in Seven Years\\nWar, 109-110; Eevolution, 125-139; under\\nNapoleon I, 149-166; liberalism in, 192-\\n196 after the July Eevolution, 210-218\\nunder Louis Philippe, 247-249.\\nFrancis II, Emperor, 153, 165.\\nFrancis I of France, 37, 44-49.\\nFrancis II of France, 52.\\nFrancis I of Naples, 188.\\nFranciscan friars, 41.\\nFrankfort, Diet of, 206.\\nFranklin, Benjamin, 120.\\nFrederick III, Emperor, 15, 20.\\nFrederick II the Great, of Prussia, 107,\\n108-110, 117-119.\\nFrederick III of Prussia, 107.\\nFrederick, elector palatine, 66.\\nFrederick the Wise of Saxony, 84, 85,\\nFrederick William I of Prussia, 107-108.\\nFrederick WilUam III of Prussia, 159, 160,\\n168-164, 225.\\nFrederick William IV of Prussia, 175.\\nFredrickshall, siege of, 103.\\nFreemasonry, 182.\\nFree trade in England, 250.\\nFr\u00c3\u00a9ron, 138.\\nFresnel, 193.\\nFriedland, battle of, 155.\\nFriedlingen, battle of, 94.\\nFries, 187.\\nFronde, 70, 75-76.\\nFrondsberg, George, 46.\\nFulton, Eobert, 152.\\nGaleazzo, Giovanni, 16.\\nGalileo, 100.\\nGalitziu, Princess, 179.\\nGalvani, 120.\\nGans, 180.\\nGay-Lussac, 198.\\nGeneva, 36.\\nGeni^os of Christianity, 178.\\nGenoa, 16, 123.\\nGeoffroy, 193.\\nGeorge I of England, 103, 111-112.\\nGeorge II, 112.\\nGeorge III, 112.\\nG\u00c3\u00a9ricault, 192,\\nGermanic Confederation, 169-172, 186-187.\\nGermany, under house of Austria, 15\\nEeformation in, 33-35; and Emperor\\nCharles V, 44-49 in the Eeligious Wars,\\n65-66 at time of Napoleon I, 153-155,\\n159-160. 162 after 1830, 225.\\nGhazni, 2.39.\\nGhent, revolt of, 48 confederation of, 58.\\nGhiberti, 17.\\nGioberti, 253.\\nGirondists, 132, 137, 138, 139.\\nGodefroy, 81.\\nGodoy, 123, 156.\\nGoethe, 133.\\nGomez, 224.\\nGondi, Paul de, 75, 76.\\nGonsalvo of Cordova, 24.\\nGood Queen, 74.\\nG\u00c3\u00b4rre\u00c2\u00bb, 181, 187.\\nGoujon, Jean, 82.\\nGranada, conquest of, 12.\\nGrand Mogul, 112, 113.\\nGranson, battle of, 4.\\nGravelines, battle of, 50.\\nGreat Britain, 111.\\nGreece, Ottoman Tui-ks conquer, 20; lib-\\neration of, 201.\\nGregory XIII, Pope, 43.\\nGrenoble, 213.\\nGrey, Lady Jane, 88.\\nGrochow, battle of, 228.\\nGrotius, 98.\\nGrouchy, Marshal, 166.\\nGuastalla, battle of, 106.\\nGu\u00c3\u00a9briant, 69.\\nGueux, the, 55, 57.\\nGuicciardini, 31.\\nGuido, 99.\\nGuigiaut, 192.\\nGuises, the, 52, 53, 59.\\nGuizot, 187, 192, 217, 235, 244, 247, 249, 254.\\nGunpowder Plot, 77.\\nGustavus AdolphuB, 68.\\nGustavus Vasa, 35.\\nGustavus III of Svreden, 119, 122, 134.\\nGuttenberg, 30.\\nGuyenne, Duke of, 8.\\nHabeas corpus, bill of, 89.\\nHaidar Ali, 113.\\nHampden, John, 79, 80.\\nHanover, 109, 110, 151, 168, 169, 225.\\nHanseatic League, 15.\\nHardenberg, 161, 171.\\nHarvey, 100.\\nHastings, Warren, 230.\\nH\u00c3\u00a9bert, 138.\\nHeinsius, 94.\\nHelvetian Eepublic, 151,\\nHenrietta of France, 73.\\nHenry IV of Aragon, 12.\\nHenry IV of England, 7.\\nHenry V of England, 7.\\nHenry VI of England, 7.\\nHenry VII of England, 9-10, 23.\\nHenry VIII of England, 37, 88, 46.\\nHenry II of France, 47, 49, 52.\\nHenry III of France, 57.\\nHenry IV (Henry of Navarre), 57, 59. 60,\\n63, 64.\\nHenry V of France, See Chambord.\\nCount of.\\nHenrys, War of the Three, 57.\\nHerat, 238, 239.\\nH\u00c3\u00a9ricourt, battle of, 4.\\nHermann and Dorothea, Goethe s, i33.\\nHesse, 169, 225.\\nHexham, battle of, 8.\\nHobbes, 98.\\nHoche, General, 140, 142.\\nHochstedt, battle of, 94.\\nHohenlinden, battle of, 148.\\nHolbein, 32.\\nHolland, 57, 58 after PhHip II, 62, 63 and\\nLouis XIV, 86.\\nHoly Alliance, 170-171, 17 -191, 197, 201.\\nHoly Brotherhood, 11\u00c2\u00bb", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "268\\nINDEX\\nHoly League of Pope Julius II, 25.\\nHoly League in Spain, 13.\\nHoly Office, 12, 13.\\nHoly War, African, 218.\\nHondschoote, battle of, 140.\\nHong Kong, 242.\\nHorn, Count, 54.\\nHorouk Barbarossa, 21.\\nHouchard, General, 140.\\nHowe, General, 115.\\nHugo, Victor, 179, 192.\\nHuguenots, 36, 56, 87, 88.\\nHundred Days, the, 166.\\nHungary, 47, 108.\\nHunkiar Iskelessi, treaty of, 234.\\nHunyadi, John, 20.\\nHuskisson, 196.\\nHutten, Ulric von, 31, 33.\\nHuygens, 100.\\nIbrahim Pasha, 202, 232, 233.\\nIcaria, 246.\\nII Risorgimento, 245.\\nIncome Tax, 250.\\nIndependents, English party, 80, 81.\\nIndia, English in, 112-113.\\nIndia Company, Law s, 105.\\nIndulgences, 33.\\nInquisition, in Spain, 12, 13, 55 (abolished),\\n184, 198 in Italy, 41, 64, 175, 188.\\nIntendants, 74.\\nInterim of Augsburg, 49.\\nIonian Islands, 168.\\nIreland, 81, 196, 206.\\nIronsides, Cromwell s, 80.\\nIsabella of Castile, 12-13.\\nIsabella II of Spain, 223, 224.\\nIsly, battle of, 248.\\nItaly, principalities in, 16-18 feudal wars\\nin, 22-25, 44-50 and. the Eenaissance,\\n31-32 campaigns of Napoleon in, 142-\\n143 revolutions of 1831, 227-228.\\nIvan III of Kussia, 101.\\nIvan IV the Terrible, 102.\\nIvry, battle of, 60.\\nJack Cade, 7.\\nJacobins, 135, 138.\\nJahn, 181, 187.\\nJames I of England (VI of Scotland), 77-78.\\nJames II of England, 89-90, 92.\\nJames IV of Scotland, 10, 25.\\nJane the Eoolish, 16.\\nJanissaries, destruction of the, 203.\\nJapan, 27, 230, 241.\\nJassy, treaty of, 118.\\nJean V of Armagnac, 4.\\nJeanne Hachette, 3.\\nJeffreys, Chief Justice, 90.\\nJemmapes, battle of, 136.\\nJena, battle of, 155.\\nJesuits, 54, 66, 122, 178 order of, founded,\\n41 expelled from Eussia, 179 from\\nSpain, 184 in Switzerland, 222, 249 in\\nChina, 241.\\nJoegerndorf, battle of, 110.\\nJohn of Austria, Don, 43, 55.\\nJohn II of Aragon, 11.\\nJohn II of Portugal, 14.\\nJohn VI of Portugal, 199.\\nJoinville, Prince de, 217, 259, 260.\\nJordan, Camille, 145.\\nJoseph II, Emperor, 118, 122, 123.\\nJoubert, General, 144.\\nJouffroy, Marquis de, 192, 193.\\nJourdan (General), 140, 142, 143, 144;\\n(Marshal), 151.\\nJudaizing, crime of, 12.\\nJulius II, Pope, 24, 31.\\nJuly Eevolution, 208.\\nJussieu, Bernard de, 193.\\nJussieu, Laurent de, 120.\\nKa\u00c3\u00afnardji, treaty of, 118.\\nKalisch, treaty of, 164.\\nKant, 132.\\nKellerman, Marshal, 151.\\nKempen, battle of, 69.\\nKepler, 100.\\nKhadjar dynasty, 238.\\nKhaiber Pass, 239, 240.\\nKhaireddin Barbarossa, 4S.\\nKhanounnam\u00c3\u00a9, the code, 47.\\nKhiva, 239.\\nKnox, John, 37.\\nKolKn, battle of, 110.\\nKonieh, battle of, 233.\\nKoran, 19.\\nKotzebue, assassination of, 186.\\nKriidener, Madame, 179.\\nKunnersdorf, battle of, 110.\\nKuta\u00c3\u00afeh, treaty of, 215 Convention of,\\n234.\\nLa Bourdonnaye, 176.\\nLa Bruy\u00c3\u00a8re, 97.\\nLa Fayette, 115, 128, 134, 135, 211. 212.\\nLaffitte, 212.\\nLafitte, 181.\\nLa Fontaine, 97.\\nLagarde, General, 176.\\nLagrange, 120,\\nLa Hogue, battle of, 92.\\nLahore, kingdom of, 240.\\nLaibach, Congress of, 185, 187.\\nLa Marf\u00c3\u00a9e, battle of, 74.\\nLamarque, General, 214.\\nLa Marsaille, battle of, 93.\\nLamartine, 179, 192.\\nLa Meilleraye, 68.\\nLammennais, 178.\\nLancaster, house of, 7-9.\\nLandriano, battle of, 47.\\nLanjuinais, 150.\\nLannes, Marshal, 151.\\nLa P\u00c3\u00a9rouse, 120.\\nLaplace, 120.\\nLar\u00c3\u00a9veill\u00c3\u00a8re-Lepeaux, 142.\\nLa Eochefoucauld, 97.\\nLa Eochelle, peace of, 57 siege of, 73.\\nLaud, Archbishop, 79.\\nLa Vallette, 55.\\nLavoisier, 120, 138.\\nLaw, John, 105, 106.\\nLeague of the Neutrals, 115, 143.\\nLeague of Public Welfare, 2.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n269\\nLebas, 139.\\nLebrun, 98, 146.\\nLech, battle of the, 68.\\nLef\u00c3\u00a8vre, Marshal, 151.\\nLegion of Honor, Order of the, 149.\\nLegislative Assembly, 135.\\nLeibnitz, 99, 100.\\nLeipzig, battle of (1631) 68, (1813) 165.\\nLens, battle of, 69, 75.\\nLeo X, Pope, 33, 44, 45.\\nLeo XII, Pope, 188.\\nLeonardo da Vinci, 32.\\nLeopardi, 181.\\nLeopold II, Archduke, 254.\\nLepanto, battle of, 43, 55.\\nLesseps, Ferdinand de, 233.\\nLesueur, 98.\\nLetourneur, 142.\\nLe Vengeur, 140.\\nLemaihan, Hobbes 98.\\nL H\u00c3\u00b4pital, 53.\\nLiberals in France, 194-195.\\nLibrary, Vatican, 43.\\nLi\u00c3\u00a8ge, rebellion of, 3.\\nLiegnitz, battle of, 110.\\nLigny, battle of, 166.\\nLille, siege of, and surrender, 94.\\nLinnseus, 120.\\nLocke, John, 40, 98-99, 125.\\nLodi, battle of, 143.\\nLombardy, 143.\\nLonato, battle of, 143.\\nLondon, treaty of (1827), 201, 202, (1840)\\n235.\\nLong Parliament, 79-81.\\nLord Protector, OromweU as, 81-82.\\nLorraine, 4. 133.\\nLouis XI, 2-5, 16.\\nLouis XII, 23-25.\\nLouis XIII, 72-74.\\nLouis XIV, 6, 74-76, 84-88, 92-96.\\nLouis XV, 105-106, 124.\\nLouis XVI, 124, 126-137.\\nLouis XVIII, 145, 165-166, 174, 176-177,\\n187, 189, 190.\\nLouis Napoleon. See Napoleon III.\\nLouis Philippe (Duke of Orleans), king of\\nFrance, 211-218, 235, 249, 261.\\nLouvel, 183, 187.\\nLouvois, 85.\\nLawositz, battle of, 110.\\nLoj ola, Ignatius, 42.\\nLubeck, peace of, 67.\\nLulli, 98.\\nLun\u00c3\u00a9viUe, peace of, 148.\\nLiisiad, the, 26.\\nLuther, 1, 31, 33-34.\\nLutter, battle of, 67.\\nLutzen, battle of (1632), 68, (1813) 165.\\nLuxemburg, 217.\\nLuynes, Duke de, 72.\\nLuzzara, battle of, 94.\\nLyons, insurrection at (1831), 213, (1834)\\n215.\\nMacdonald, General, 144.\\nMacellus, 176.\\nMachiavelli, 31.\\nMack, General, 152.\\nMad War, 6.\\nMadrid, treaty of, 46.\\nMaastricht, treaty of, 58.\\nMagellan, 28.\\nMagnano, battle of, 144.\\nMahmoud, Sultan, 203, 232, 234.\\nMain tenon, Madame de, 87.\\nMalacca, 237.\\nMalesherbes, 136, 138.\\nMalleville, de, 147.\\nMalplaquet, battle of, 94.\\nMamelukes, and Selim I, 21 and Napo-\\nleon, 144 massacre of, 232.\\nMamelukes, Swiss political party, 36.\\nMansart, 98.\\nMansfeld, Count von, 67.\\nManuel, 181.\\nManuel the Fortunate, 14.\\nManutius, Aldus, 30.\\nManzoni, 181.\\nMarat, 135, 137, 138.\\nMarengo, battle of, 148.\\nMargaret of Anjou, 7.\\nMaria Dona, Queen of Portugal, 199, 200,\\n205, 215, 224.\\nMaria Christina, 223, 224, 225,\\nMaria Louisa, wife of Napoleon I, 156, 170.\\nMaria Theresa, Empress, 108-110.\\nMaria Theresa, Infanta, 76.\\nMarie Antoinette, Queen, 138.\\nMarignano, battle of, 44.\\nMarillac, Marshal de, 74.\\nMaritime Inscription, 85.\\nMarlborough, Duke of, 94, 111.\\nMarot, 31.\\nMarquesas Islands, 247.\\nMarston Moor, battle of, 80.\\nMartignac, M. de, 195, 204, 208.\\nMary of Burgundy, 5, 15.\\nMary of England, Queen, 38.\\nMary Stuart, 55, 56, 59.\\nMass\u00c3\u00a9na (General), 144, (Marshal) 151, 152.\\nMaximilian, Duke of Bavaria, 66.\\nMaximilian, Emperor, 5, 15-16, 23, 44.\\nMayotte, 248.\\nMazarin, Cardinal, 70, 74-76.\\nMazeppa, 103.\\nMazzini, 228.\\nMecca, captured by the Wahabites, 232.\\nMedici the 17 49.\\nMedici Catherine de, 52, 53, 56, 72, 73, 74.\\nMedici, Cosmo de, 17, 29.\\nMedici, Guiliano de, 17.\\nMedici, Lorenzo de, 17.\\nMedici, Pietro de, 22.\\nMedina, 232.\\nM\u00c3\u00a9ditations, Lamartlne s, 179.\\nMehemet Ali, 215, 232-235.\\nMelancthon, Philip, 39.\\nMerlin, 138.\\nMeilwd, Descartes 98.\\nMethodists, 179.\\nMetternich, Prince, 185, 189, 200, 226, 244,\\n252.\\nMetz, 49.\\nMexico, 198.\\nMiaoulis, 201.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "270\\nINDEX\\nMichael Angelo, 31, 32,\\nMiclielet, 192.\\nMiddle Kingdom. See China.\\nMignet, 192.\\nMiguel, Dom, 199, 201, 205, 206, 213, 215,\\n224.\\nMilan, 16, 23, 24, 25, 50, 55, 94, 170, 175, 255.\\nMillesimo, battle of, 143.\\nMilton, 98.\\nMinden, battle of, 110.\\nMinor Arts, 17.\\nMinto, Lord, 253.\\nMirabeau, 40, 130, 131.\\nMisolonghi, 202.\\nModena, 170, 254.\\nMohacz, battle of, 47.\\nMohammed II, 19-20.\\nMoldavia, 21.\\nMole, M., 216-218.\\nMoli\u00c3\u00a8re, 97.\\nMolwitz, battle of, 108.\\nMoncey, Marshal, 151.\\nMondovi, battle of, 143.\\nMonk, General, 82.\\nMonmouth, Duke of, 90.\\nMonroe doctrine, 256.\\nMontaigne, 31.\\nMontenotte, battle of, 143.\\nMontereau, 165.\\nMontesquieu, 121.\\nMontmirail, battle of, 165.\\nMontmorency, Duke de, 73, 74.\\nMontpellier, treaty of, 73.\\nMontpensier, Duke of, 249, 261.\\nMontrose, 81.\\nMoors, power of, reduced, 12; expelled,\\n55.\\nMorat, battle of, 4.\\nMoravian Brethren, 179.\\nMorea, the, 202, 232.\\nMoreau, General, 142, 143, 148, 150=\\nMoro, Ludovico il, 18, 23.\\nMortier, Marshal, 151, 216.\\nMoscow, Napoleon at, 163.\\nMoskva, battle of the, 163.\\nMount Tabor, battle of, 144.\\nMountain, party of the, 137, 138.\\nMuhlberg, battle of, 35, 49.\\nMillier, von, 132,\\nMurat, Marshal, 151, 164,\\nMurillo, 99.\\nMusset, 192.\\nNantes, Edict of, 60, 63, 65, 73 revoked, 87.\\nNaples, 18, 22, 23-24, 44, 50, 53, 94, 175, 184,\\n254.\\nNapoleon I (Napoleon Bonaparte), at Tou-\\nlon, 138, 140 in Paris, 141 campaigns in\\nItaly, 142-143; First Consul, 146-150;\\nEmperor, 150-165; the Hundred Days,\\n165 Waterloo, 166 death, 187.\\nNapoleon II, 157.\\nNapoleon III (Louis Napoleon), 151, 194;\\nin Italian insurrection of 1831, 237.\\nNapoleon, Charles, 221,\\nNarva, battle of, 102.\\nNarvaez, 225, 244.\\nNaBeby, haAm of^ 81.\\nNational Assembly, French (1789), 126-131,\\n158.\\nNational Guard, Order of the, 261.\\nNavarino, 203, 233.\\nNavarre, 11, 13, 45, 53.\\nNavigation Act, 81 repealed, 250,\\nNecker, 124, 127.\\nNeerwinden, battle of, 93.\\nNelson, 148, 152.\\nNemours, Duke de, 221,\\nNetherlands, the Eeformation in, 36, 38;\\nunder Philip 11, 51, 54-55, 57-58; and\\nLouis XIV, 93, 94, 95 kingdom of, 168-\\n169, 220-222. See Holland.\\nNeuburg, Duke of, 66.\\nNeutrals, League of the, 148.\\nNewbury, battle of, 80.\\nNew Caledonia, 247.\\nNew OhrisUanity, Saint Simon s, 194.\\nNewfoundland, 95.\\nNewton, Sir Isaac, 100.\\nNew Zealand, 247.\\nNey, Marshal, 151.\\nNezib, battle of, 234. _\\nNicholas I, Tsar, 207, 210, 238, 244.\\nNimeguen, treaty of, 86.\\nNon-Conformists, 62, 77.\\nNon-intervention, principle of, 197 vio-\\nlated 229\\nNordhngen, battle of, 68, 69.\\nNormandy, 2.\\nNorthampton, battle of, 8.\\nNorway, 170.\\nNotables, Assembly of, 124,\\nNotre Dame, plot of, 214.\\nNovi, battle of, 144,\\nNoyon, treaty of, 44.\\nNystadt, treaty of, 103.\\nGates, Titus, 89.\\nO ConneU, 206.\\nOdysseus, 201.\\nOersted, 193.\\nOken, 187.\\nOldenburg, 225.\\nOld Sarum, 197.\\nOn Christian Liberty, 34.\\nOpium War, 230, 241-242.\\nOrleans, Duchess of (1S48), 261.\\nOrleans, Duke of, regent of France, 105-\\n106,\\nOrleans, Duke of, Girondist leader, 138.\\nOstrolenka, battle of, 228.\\nOttoman Empire, formation of, 19-21.\\nOttoman Turks, 18, 21 under Soule\u00c3\u00afman,\\n47-48 Spain and the, 55 defeated by\\nPrince Eugene, 105 and Eussia, 117.\\nOudenai de, battle of, 94.\\nOuzoun Hassan, 20.\\nOxenstiern, 68.\\nOxford Movement, 179.\\nOwen, Eobert, 194.\\nPadilla, Don Juan de, 13.\\nPadua, 254,\\nPalermo, 175.\\nPalestrina, 32.\\nPalmerstwn, Lord, 205.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n271\\nPapacy, in sixteenth century, 18, 88 and\\nthe Eeformation, 34, 41-43 and Enghsh\\nmonarchy, 37, 58, 56 and Napoleon I,\\n149, 150. See Church.\\nPapin, 100.\\nParis, treaty of (1763), 110, (1814) 166,\\n(1815) 167 University of, 2, 187.\\nParis, Count of, son of Duke of Orleans,\\n217, 261.\\nParliament, British, 79-81, 197. See As-\\nsembly, National Assembly.\\nParma, 106.\\nParma, Duke of, 58, 60.\\nParthenopeian Eepublic, 144.\\nPascal, 76, 97, 100.\\nPaskevitch, Marshal, 228.\\nPaul I, Tsar, 144, 148.\\nPaul II, Pope, 20.\\nPaul III, Pope, 41.\\nPaul IV, Pope, 41, 42, 50.\\nPavia, battle of, 46.\\nPazzi, conspiracy of the, 18,\\nPecquigny, treaty of, 4, 9.\\nPedro I of Brazil (Dom Pedro), 199, 223.\\nPeel, Eobert, 196.\\nPeel, Sir Eobert, 250.\\nPellico, Silvio, 181, 188.\\nPepe, General, 227.\\nP\u00c3\u00a9rignon, Marshal, 151.\\nP\u00c3\u00a9ronne, interview of, 3.\\nPerrault, 98.\\nPeru, 198.\\nPeter the Great, 102-104.\\nPeter III, Tsar, 110.\\nPeterwardein, battle of, 108.\\nPetition of Eight, 79.\\nPhalansteries, 246,\\nPhiladelphia, 115.\\nPhilip IV the Fair, of Germany, 16.\\nPhilip II of Spain, 38, 49, 51-61.\\nPhilip V of Spain, 93, 94,\\nPhilippines, 51.\\nPicard, 100.\\nPichegru, battle of, 140, 145, 150.\\nPiedmont, 139, 170,\\nPi\u00c3\u00a9ton, 134.\\nPietists, 179.\\nPietro II of Florence, IT.\\nPilnitz, declaration of, 13S,\\nPilon, Germain, 82.\\nPisa, council of, 25.\\nPitt, Wilham, Lord Chatham, 111,\\nPitt, William, son of Lord Chatham, 144,\\n148, 151, 155.\\nPius II, Pope, 16, 20.\\nPius V, Pope, 41, 43, 54.\\nPius VII, Pope, 150, 178, 188.\\nPius IX, Pope, 42, 249, 253, 254.\\nPoisson, 193.\\nPoland, 101, 102; partition of, 117-119;\\nrevolutionary feeling in, 181 revolution\\nof 1830, 228 divided up into Eussian\\nprovinces, 229.\\nPole, Cardinal, 128,\\nPolignac, M. de, 197, 208.\\nPoltava, battle of, 103.\\nPombal, 122,\\nFt mpailbiur, Madame^ 110.\\nPoniatowski, 117.\\nPoor Law, 220.\\nPopish Plot, 89.\\nPortails, 145, 147.\\nPorto Eico, 198.\\nPortugal, 13-14, 26-27, 199, 200,205, 206, 224.\\nPortuguese America, 256.\\nPoussin, 98.\\nPragmatic Sanction, of Bourges, 44.\\nPrague, battle of, 110.\\nPr\u00c3\u00a9ameneu, Eigot de, 147.\\nPresburg, treaty of, 152.\\nPretender. See Stuart, Charles.\\nPrimitive Legislation, De Bonald s, 178.\\nPrincipalities, Italian, 16-18.\\nPrinting, invention of, 30.\\nPritchard, 248.\\nProtectorate. See Cromwell.\\nProtestantism, in England, 37, 88, 56, 77,\\n82-83; in France, 37, 73; in Germany,\\n38, 70 in the Netherlands, 36, 54, 57 in\\nScotland, 37 in Switzerland, 36. See\\nEeformation.\\nPrussia, 94; creation of, 105-110 and\\nPolish partitions, 118-119 and Napoleon\\nI, 133, 136, 139, 140, 152, 155, 159-162,\\n164, 166 after Napoleon, 176, 185,\\nPuffendorf, 98.\\nPugt, 98.\\nPunjaub, 239, 240.\\nPuritans, 80, 90.\\nPyramids, battle of the, 144.\\nPyrenees, treaty of the, 76,\\nQuadrilateral, Italian, 255.\\nQuadruple Alliance, 215.\\nQuebec, 63, 110.\\nQuesnay, 121.\\nEabelais, 31.\\nEacine, 97.\\nEadetzki, Marshal, 254, 255.\\nEsemer, 100.\\nEailway, first French, 193,\\nEamel, General, 176.\\nEamiUies, battle of, 94.\\nEaphael, 31, 32.\\nEastadt, treaty of, 95.\\nEatisbon, Diet of, 67.\\nEavaillac, 64,\\nEeform BiU, English, 213, 219-220.\\nEeformation, the, 16, 33-40.\\nEeichstadt, Duke of (Napoleon IV), 157.\\nEeligious wars, 51-71.\\nEembrandt, 99.\\nEenaissance, 1, 30-32.\\nEepubhc, French, proclaimed, 136; Hel-\\nvetian, 151 Itahan, 151 of Novgorod,\\n101 Pai-thenopeian, 144 Svdss, 151 of\\nZaperoguian Cossacks, 118. See United\\nStates.\\nEepublics replaced by principalities, 16-18.\\nEestoration, of Charles II of England, 82\\nof Bourbons, 165.\\nKevolution, American, 115 Belgian, 220-\\n222 of Brabant, 221 English, 80\\nHVench, 125-131 of 1880 in France, 308-\\nV9i of 1 48, la^-iei, 960-861.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "272\\nINDEX\\nEewbell, 142.\\nEhine, League of the, 76 Confederation\\nof the, 153.\\nEibera, 99.\\nEichard III of England, 9.\\nEichard, Duke of York. 7.\\nEicheheu, Cardinal, 6, 67-69, 73-74,\\nEiego, 190.\\nEight of Search, 162, 163, 248.\\nEimini, 253.\\nEivoli, battle of, 143.\\nEobespierre, 137, 138, 139.\\nEobespierre, the younger, 139.\\nEochambeau, General, 115.\\nEochefoucauld, Duke de la, 127.\\nEocroi, battle of, 69.\\nEoland, Madame, 138.\\nEomantic School, 192.\\nEome, Bishop of. See Papacy.\\nEosbach, battle of, 110.\\nEoses, War of the, 7-9.\\nEoundheads, 80.\\nEousseau, 121.\\nEoyalty, progress of French, 1-5 English,\\n7-10, 77-81, 82-83, 89-91; progress of\\nSpanish, 11-14 Spanish, under Philip II,\\n51, 61-62 French, under Henry IV, 63,\\nand Eichelieu, 72-74, and Mazarin, 74-76,\\nunder Louis XIV, 84-83, 95, under Louis\\nXV, 105-106, under Louis XVI, 124, 126,\\n129-130, 136 and Napoleon I (coalitions\\nof kings), 132-148, 158-166.\\nEoyer-Collard, 209,\\nEubens, 99.\\nEiickert, 161.\\nEude, 192.\\nEue des Prouvaires, plot of, 214.\\nEuel, peace of, 75.\\nEump Parliament, 81, 82.\\nEussell, Lord John, 253.\\nEussia, creation of, 101-104 under Cath-\\nerine II, 117-119 and Napoleon I, 133,\\n140, 144, 148, 152, 162-163; after 1815,\\n167, 168 progress of, in Asia, 236-237.\\nEyswick, treaty of, 93.\\nSachs, Hans, 31.\\nSaint Albans, battles of, 8.\\nSaint Bartholomew, massacre of, 54, 56, 57.\\nSaint Denis, battle of, 54.\\nSaint Germain, peace of, 54.\\nSaint Helena, 166.\\nSaint Hilaire, 193.\\nSaint James of Castile, Order of, 13.\\nSaint Jean d Acre, besieged by Napoleon,\\n144 captured by Ibrahim Pasha, 233\\nEnglish nearly destroy, 235.\\nSaint John, Knights of, 47.\\nSaint Just, 138, 139.\\nSaint Peter s built, 32.\\nSaint Petersburg founded, 102.\\nSaint Quentin, battle of, 50.\\nSaint Simon, 97.\\nSaint-Simonians, 194.\\nSaint-Simonists, 214.\\nSainte-Beuve, 192.\\nSalvandy, M. de, 260.\\nSalvator Eosa, 99.\\nSan Domingo, 149.\\nSand, 183.\\nSaratoga, battle of, 115.\\nSaumaise, 98.\\nSavonarola Girolamo, 17, 18, 23.\\nSaxe, Marshal, 109.\\nSaxe-Coburg, Prince of, king of Belgium,\\n221.\\nSaxons, 102.\\nSaxony, 168, 169, 204, 225.\\nSaxony, Duke of, 65.\\nScaliger, 98.\\nScanderbeg, Prince of Epirus, 20.\\nSchamyl, 236.\\nScharnhorst, 160, 162.\\nScheffer, Ary, 192.\\nSchenkendorff, 161.\\nSch\u00c3\u00a9rer, General, 144.\\nSchiller, 133.\\nScotland, 37, 111.\\nSebastopol, built, 118.\\nSecret societies, 181-182.\\nSedgemoor, battle of, 90. _\\nSelf-denying ordinance, 81.\\nSelim I the Ferocious, 21.\\nSenef, battle of, 86.\\nSeuis, truce of, 3 treaty of, 6, 15.\\nSerfs, emancipation of, 160.\\nSergeant King, the, 107.\\nSerres, Olivier de, 63.\\nSerrurier, Marshal, 151.\\nServetus, Michael, 36,\\nSeven Years War, 107, 109-110.\\nS\u00c3\u00a9vign\u00c3\u00a9, Madame de, 97.\\nSforza, Francesco, 16.\\nShakespeare, 62, 98.\\nShip-money, 79.\\nSi\u00c3\u00a9y\u00c3\u00a8s, 145, 146.\\nSilesia, 69, 108, 109, 110.\\nSimnel, Lambert, 9.\\nSingapore, 237.\\nSistova, peace of, 133.\\nSixtus IVs Pope, 18.\\nSixtus V, Pope, 41, 43.\\nSlave-trade, Enghsh abolition of, 196.\\nSmolensk, battle of, 163.\\nSobieski, 119.\\nSocial Contract, Eousseau s, 121.\\nSociety Islands, France acquires the, 248.\\nSoissons, Count of, 74.\\nSonderbund, 249.\\nSoujah, Shah, 239.\\nSouie\u00c3\u00afman the Magnificent, 21, 47, 48, 49,\\n55\\nSoul t (Marshal), 151, 165; (President of\\nCouncil), 506.\\nSpain, progress of royalty in, 11-13 under\\nPhilip II, 51-59, 61 letters and arts in,\\n98, 99 and Napoleon I, 139, 140, 154,\\n156, 161, 162, 165 after 1815, 176, 183-\\n184, 190 absolutism in, 205 revolutions\\nof 1833, 223.\\nSpanish America, 198, 256.\\nSpanish Succession, War of the, 93-94.\\nSperanze de JiaUe, 245.\\nSpinoza, 99.\u00c2\u00bb\\nSpires, Diet of, 35.\\nSpurs, battle of, 25.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n273\\nStaaps, 160,\\nSta\u00c3\u00abl, Madame de, 150.\\nStaffarde, battle of, 93.\\nStafford, Viscount, 89.\\nStanislaus Lechzinski, 102, 106.\\nStar Chamber, 9.\\nStates General, 5, 24, T2, 126.\\nSteamboats, first French, 193.\\nStein, Baron, 160, 161, 163, 164.\\nStockach, battle of, 144.\\nStolberg, Count von, 179.\\nStrafford, Earl of, 79, 80.\\nStraits, treaty of the, 235, 244.\\nStuart, Charles, the Pretender, 109, 111.\\nStuarts, the, 9, TT, 82-83.\\nSully, 63.\\nSweden, 35, 102-103, 223.\\nSwitzerland, 222, 249; and Charles the\\nBold, 4; the Eeformation in, 36; and\\nNapoleon I, 133, 151.\\nSymbologism and Mythology, 192.\\nSyria, 233-234.\\nTahiti, 248.\\nTalleyrand, 154, 165, 168, 171.\\nTallien, 139.\\nTanucci, 122.\\nTartars, 101.\\nTartuffe, 192.\\nT\u00c3\u00a9Umaque, F\u00c3\u00a9nelon s, 97.\\nT\u00c3\u00a9niers, the two, 99.\\nTerray, Abb\u00c3\u00a9, 124.\\nTerror, Eeign of, 137-139 White, 176.\\nTest Bill, 83, 89.\\nTetzel, 33, 34.\\nTewksbury, battle of, 9.\\nTheatines, the, 41.\\nThe Hague, triple alliance of, 83, 85.\\nTh\u00c3\u00a9nard, 193.\\nThermidor, Ninth of, 138-139.\\nThierry, Augustin, 181, 192.\\nThiers, 214, 217, 235, 260.\\nThird Estate, 5, 72, 126.\\nThirty Years War, 65-69.\\nThistlewood, 183.\\nThouars, Admiral Dupetit, 248.\\nThree Henrys, War of the, 57.\\nTilly, General, 67, 68.\\nTilsit, treaty of, 155.\\nTippo Sahib, 113, 136.\\nTitian, 32.\\nTorcy, Marquis de, 62.\\nToricelh, 100.\\nTorquemada, 13.\\nTorstenson, General, 68.\\nToul, 49.\\nToulouse, battle of, 165.\\nTourmantchai, treaty of, 237, 238.\\nTourville, 92.\\nTowton, battle of, 8.\\nTrafalgar, battle of, 152.\\nTragala, the, 189.\\nTrebia, battle of (a.d. 1798), 144,\\nTrent, Council of, 42.\\nTribunal of Blood, 54-55.\\nTroia, battle of, 18.\\nTronchet, 147.\\nTroppeau, Congress of, 187.\\nTruchsess, Gebhard von, 66.\\nTrue Law of Free Monarchy, 78.\\nTudor dynasty, 9.\\nTugendbund, 160.\\nTuileries, built, 32.\\nTunis, 48.\\nTurenne, 76, 86.\\nTurgot, 124.\\nTurin, battle of, 94.\\nTurkey, 118 recognizes Grecian inde-\\npendence, 201 war with Eussia, 203\\nkey to one division of Eastern question,\\n231. See Ottoman Empire.\\nTwo SicUies, 13, 175.\\nUlm, 152.\\nUltramontanism, 59, 65.\\nUnion, Birmingham, 197; Electoral, 15;\\nEvangelical, 66.\\nUnited Provinces, 58, 64, 94. See Belgium,\\nHolland, Netherlands.\\nUnited States, 114-116, 256-258 war with\\nEngland (1812), 162-163.\\nUniversity, of Berhn, 161 of Besan\u00c3\u00a7on,\\n5; of Caen, 5; of Paris, 2, 187.\\nUnterwalden, 36.\\nUri, 36.\\nUtrecht, treaty of, 95 peace of, 111,\\nVaccination discovered, 120.\\nVaccination Commission, 188,\\nVadier, 139.\\nValmy, battle of, 136.\\nVan Dyck, 99.\\nVarennes, 130.\\nVasco de Gama, 26.\\nVassy, massacre of, 53.\\nVatican hbrary, 43.\\nVauban, 85, 93.\\nVaudois, massacre of the, 37.\\nVega, Lope de, 98.\\nVelasquez, 99.\\nVelutina, battle of, 163.\\nVendean war, 137, 140.\\nVend\u00c3\u00a9miaire, Thirteenth of, 141.\\nVend\u00c3\u00b4me, Duke of, 94.\\nVenice, 16, 21, 23, 24, 25.\\nVentura, Father, 253, 254.\\nVerona, Congress of (1822), 187, (1823) 197.\\nVersailles, peace of (1783), 115; States\\nGeneral at, 126 attacked, 129.\\nVervins, treaty of, 60, 63.\\nVespucci, Amerigo, 27.\\nVienna, treaty of (1738), 106 occupied by\\nNapoleon I, 152, 156 peace of (1809),\\n156 Congress of (1815), 167-170, (1820)\\n186.\\nVillalar, battle of, 13.\\nVillaret-Joyeuse, Admiral, 140.\\nVillars, 94.\\nVillaviciosa, battle of, 94.\\nVill\u00c3\u00a8le, 176.\\nVillemain, 192.\\nVilleneuve, Admiral, 152.\\nVilleroi, 94.\\nVilhers, George, Marquis of Buckingham,\\n78, 79.\\nVilliers de I lsle Adam, 47.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "274\\nINDEX\\nVillon, 5.\\nVilna, treaty of, 101.\\nVirginia, 62.\\nVirtue, Association of, 160.\\nVisconti, the, 16.\\nVitesk, battle of, 163.\\nVolta, 120.\\nVoltaire, 121, 122.\\nWagram, battle of, 156.\\nWahabites, 232.\\nWakefield, battle of, 8.\\nWaldenses, 188.\\nWallachia, 21.\\nWallen stein, 6T, 68.\\nWalpole, Sir Eobert. 111.\\nWar of 1812, 162-163.\\nWarbeck, Perkin, 9.\\nWarsaw, 228, 229.\\nWarwick, the king-maker, 8, 9.\\nWashington, George, 115-116.\\nWaterloo, battle of, 166.\\nWattignies, battle of, 140.\\nWawre, battle of, 228.\\nWelker 187.\\nWellington, 162, 165, 166, 189, 206, 219, 220.\\nWestminster, 197.\\nWestphalia, peace of, 69, 70-71 treaty of,\\n107.\\nWhite Mountain, battle of, 67.\\nWhite Sheep, dynasty of the, 20.\\nWilberforce, 196.\\nWilliam III of England (Prince of Orange),\\n86, 87, 90, 111.\\nWilliam the Silent, 52, 57, 58.\\nWitt, Jan de, 86.\\nWittenberg, 33.\\nWolfenbuttel, battle of, 69.\\nWolsey, 45, 46.\\nWorcester, battle of, 80 second battle of,\\n81.\\nWorkingmen s Association, 24T.\\nWorms, Diet of, 34.\\nWurmser, General, 143.\\nWurschen, battle of, 165.\\nWurtemberg, 169.\\nWiirzburg, battle of, 143.\\nXimenes, Cardinal, 13.\\nYork, General, 163.\\nYork, house of, 7-9.\\nYorktown, 115.\\nZapoli, John, 47.\\nZenta, battle of, 108.\\nZizim, brother of Bayezid II, 28.\\nZollverein, 206, 225.\\nZorndorf, battle of, 110.\\nZumalacarreguy, 224.\\nZurich, battle of, 144.\\nZwingli, 36.", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3550", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3691", "width": "2264", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory01duru_0312.jp2"}}