{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1654", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1654", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1654", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1654", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1654", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1654", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "A CONDENSED HISTORY\\nTHE MIDDLE AGES\\nBY\\nVICTOR DURUY\\nFORMERLY MINISTER OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION AND MEMBER\\nOF THE ACADEMY\\nTRANSLATED FROM THE HISTOIRE GENERALE\\nREVISED AND EDITED BY\\nEDWIN A. G-ROSVENOR\\nPROFESSOR OF EUROPEAN HISTORY IN AMHERST COLLEGE\\nNEW YORK\\nTHOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY\\nPUBLISHERS", "height": "2834", "width": "1654", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "P9t%\\nUffiCti Of tt\\nAP:i I 4 1^00\\nCopyright, 1898 and 1900,\\nBy THOMAS Y. CEOWELL CO.\\nSECOND COPY,\\n963?", "height": "2834", "width": "1654", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nPAGE\\nI. The Barbarian World in the Fourth and Fifth\\nCenturies .1\\nDefinition of the Middle Ages.\\nThe Northern Barbarians. Their Habits and Religion.\\nArrival of the Huns in Europe.\\nInvasion of the Visigoths. Alaric. The Great Invasion\\nof 406.\\nCapture of Rome by Alaric (410). Kingdoms of the\\nVisigoths, Suevi, and Vandals.\\nAttila.\\nII. Principal Barbarian Kingdoms. The Eastern Empire 7\\nBarbarian Kingdoms of Gaul, Spain, and Africa.\\nSaxon Kingdoms in England.\\nKingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy. Theodoric (489-\\n526).\\nRevival of the Eastern Empire. Justinian (527-565).\\nIII. Clovis and the Merovingians (481-752) .11\\nThe Franks.\\nClovis.\\nThe Sons of Clovis (511-561).\\nFr\u00c2\u00a3d\u00c2\u00a3gonde and Brunehaut.\\nClotaire II (584) and Dagobert (628).\\nThe Sluggard Kings. The Mayors of the Palace (638-\\n687).\\nIV. Mohammed and the Arab Invasion 17\\nArabia. Mohammed and the Koran.\\nThe Caliphate. The Sunnites and Shiites. Arab Con-\\nquests (637-661).\\nThe Ommiades.\\nDivision of the Caliphate.\\nArabic Civilization.\\niii", "height": "2834", "width": "1654", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "IV CONTENTS\\nPAGE\\nV. The Empire of the Franks. Efforts to introduce\\nUnity in Church and State 24\\nDifference between the Arab and Germanic Invasions.\\nEcclesiastical Society.\\nCharles Martel and Pepin the Short (715-768).\\nCharlemagne, King of the Lombards and Patrician of\\nRome (774).\\nConquest of Germany (771-804) Spanish Expedition.\\nLimits of the Empire.\\nCharlemagne Emperor (800).\\nGovernment.\\nVI. The Last Carlovingians and the Northmen 33\\nWeakness of the Carlovingian Empire. Louis the\\nDebonair.\\nThe Treaty of Verdun (843).\\nCharles the Bald (840-877).\\nProgress of Feudalism.\\nDeposition of Charles the Fat. Seven Kingdoms.\\nEudes and the Last Carlovingians (887-987).\\nVII. The Third Invasion 38\\nThe New Invasion.\\nThe Northmen in France.\\nThe Northmen Danes in England.\\nThe Northmen in the Polar Regions and in Russia.\\nThe Saracens and the Hungarians.\\nVin. Feudalism 43\\nFeudalism or the Heredity of Offices and Fiefs.\\nCivilization from the Ninth to the Twelfth Century.\\nIX. The German Empire. Struggle between the Papact\\nand the Empire 51\\nGermany from 887 to 1056.\\nThe Monk Hildebrand.\\nGregory VII and Henry IV (1073-1085).\\nConcordat of Worms (1122).\\nThe Hohenstaufens.\\nX. Crusades in the East and in the West 69\\nThe First Crusade in the East (1096-1099).\\nSecond and Third Crusades (1147-1189).", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nFourth Crusade (1203). Latin Empire of Constan-\\ntinople.\\nLast Crusades (1229-1270). Saint Louis.\\nResults of the Crusades in the East.\\nCrusades of the West.\\nXI. Society in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries 71\\nProgress of the Urban Population.\\nIntellectual Progress.\\nNational Literatures.\\nXII. Formation of the Kingdom of France (987-1328) 75\\nFirst Capetians (987-1108).\\nLouis the Fat (1108-1137).\\nLouis VII (1137-1180).\\nPhilip Augustus (1180).\\nLouis VIII (1223) and Saint Louis (1226).\\nVictory of Taillebourg (1242). Moderation of Saint\\nLouis.\\nPhilip III (1270) and Philip IV (1285).\\nQuarrel between the King and the Pope.\\nCondemnation of the Templars.\\nLast Direct Capetians. The Salic Law (1314-1328).\\nXIII. Formation of the English Constitution 82\\nNorman Invasion (1066).\\nForce of Norman Royalty in England.\\nWilliam II (1087). Henry I (1100). Stephen (1135).\\nHenry II (1154).\\nRichard (1189). John Lackland (1199).\\nHenry III (1216).\\nFirst English Parliament (1258).\\nProgress of English Institutions.\\nXIV. First Period of the Hundred Years War (1328-\\n1380) 88\\nCauses of the Hundred Years War.\\nHostilities in Flanders and Britain (1337).\\nBattle of Crecy (1346).\\nJohn the Good. Battle of Poitiers (1356).\\nAttempt at Reforms. The Jacquerie.\\nTreaty of Bre tigny (1360).\\nCharles V and Duguesclin.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "vi CONTENTS\\nPAGE\\nXV. Second Period of the Hundred Years War (1380-\\n1453) 92\\nCharles VI.\\nThe Armagnacs and the Burgundians. John the\\nFearless.\\nInsurrection in England. Wickliffe.\\nRichard II (1380).\\nHenry IV. Battle of Agincourt (1415). Treaty of\\nTroyes (1420).\\nCharles VII and Joan of Arc.\\nReforms and Success of Charles VII.\\nXVI. Spain and Italy (1250-1453) 97\\nDomestic Troubles in Spain.\\nThe Kingdom of Naples under Charles of Anjou (1265).\\nItalian Republics. Guelphs and Ghibellines.\\nReturn of the Papacy to Rome (1578) The Princi-\\npalities.\\nThe Aragonese at Naples.\\nBrilliancy of Letters and Arts.\\nXVII. Germany and the Scandinavian, Slavic, and Turk-\\nish States (1250-1453) 104\\nThe Interregnum. The House of Hapsburg.\\nSwitzerland. Battle of Morgarten (1315).\\nPowerlessness of the Emperors.\\nUnion of Calmar (1397).\\nStrength of Poland.\\nThe Mongols in Russia.\\nThe Ottoman Turks at Constantinople (1453).\\nXVIII. Summary of the Middle Ages 110", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "Copyright. 1398, by T. V. Crowell l", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "Eugrav.J by CoUon, Ul.iuau A- Co.. N. V.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "HISTOKY OF THE MIDDLE AGES\\nTHE BARBARIAN WORLD IN THE FOURTH AND FIFTH\\nCENTURIES\\nDefinition of the Middle Ages. The term Middle Ages\\nindicates the period which elapsed between the ruin of the\\nRoman Empire and the establishment of the great modern\\nmonarchies. It extends from the German invasion at the\\nbeginning of the fifth century to the capture of Constanti-\\nnople by the Ottoman Turks ten centuries later in 1453.\\nIn this period, situated between ancient and modern\\ntimes, the cultivation of arts and letters was suspended,\\nalthough a new and magnificent architecture was developed.\\nIn place of the republics of antiquity and the monarchies\\nof our day there grew up a special organization called\\nfeudalism. This domination of the feudal lords, the product\\nof many centuries, was finally overthrown by Louis XI, the\\nTudors and the princes contemporary with them. Although\\nthere were kings in all countries, the military and ecclesias-\\ntical chiefs were the real sovereigns from the ninth to the\\ntwelfth century. The central power had no force, local\\npowers had no overseer or guide, the frontiers had no fixed\\nlimits. The sovereign and owner parcelled out the territory\\ninto a multitude of petty states where the sentiment of\\nnationality could not exist. Nevertheless above this condi-\\ntion of many lords hovered the idea of Christianity repre-\\nsented by the pope, and of a certain political unity represented\\nby the emperor in comparison with whom all the kings of\\nEurope were provincial. Thus the great wars of those times\\nwere religious wars, as were the crusades against the Mussul-\\nmans of Palestine, the Moors of Spain, the Albigensian here-\\ntics or the pagans of the Baltic, or were a struggle between\\n1", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "2 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 395.\\nthe two powers which aspired to rule the world, a quarrel\\nbetween Papacy and the Empire. Hence there is a wide dif-\\nference between this period and those periods which preceded\\nor followed. Hence of necessity it has a name and a place\\napart in universal history.\\nThe Northern Barbarians their Habits and Religion.\\nDuring the military anarchy which drained the last re-\\nsources of the Eoman Empire, peoples, hitherto concealed\\nin the depths of the north, south and east, were setting\\nthemselves in motion beyond its boundaries, to which they\\ndaily drew nearer. In the north were three layers of\\nhumanity, placed at intervals in the following order:\\nGermans, Slavs and Turanian tribes. On the east were\\nthe Persians, a settled and stationary people, who had\\noften made war on the empire but had no thought of\\ninvading it. On the south in the deserts of their great\\npeninsula were the Arabs, who as yet caused no fear; and in\\nthe wastes of Africa the Moorish populations, who had been\\ntouched rather than permeated by Eoman civilization.\\nAt the death of Theodosius (395) there was no serious\\ndanger except from the north. Driven forward by the\\nAsiatic hordes from the banks of the Volga, the Germans\\nwere pressing upon the frontiers of the empire. The Suevi\\nor Suabians, Alemanni and Bavarians were in the south\\nbetween the Main and Lake Constance. The Marcomanni,\\nQuadi, Heruli and the great Gothic nation controlled the\\nleft bank of the Danube. In the west along the Rhine\\nextended the confederation of the Franks, formed as early\\nas the middle of the third century, and toward the mouth\\nof the Ems, the Frisii, a remnant of the Batavi. In the\\nnorth were the Vandals, Burgundi, Rugii, Longobardi or\\nLombards; between the Elbe and the Eyder, the Angles\\nand Saxons; farther north, the Scandinavians, Jutes and\\nDanes in Sweden and Denmark, whence they emerged to\\njoin the second invasion; and lastly in the immense plains\\nof the east and at many points of the Danubian valley, the\\nSlavs, who were to follow the Germanic invasion but only\\nto enter into history later on, first through the Poles and\\nthen through the Russians.\\nA spirit totally different from that of the inhabitants\\nof the Roman Empire animated these barbarians. Among\\nthem reigned the love of individual independence, the devo-\\ntion of the warrior to his chieftain and a passion for wars", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "A.D. 395.] THE BARBARIAN WORLD 3\\nof adventure. As soon as the young man had received in\\nthe public assembly his buckler and lance, he was a warrior\\nand a citizen. He immediately attached himself to some\\nfamous chieftain, whom he followed to battle with other\\nwarriors, his leudes or henchmen, always ready to die in\\nhis behalf. The government of the Germans was simple.\\nThe affairs of the tribe were administered in an assembly\\nin which all took part. The warriors gathered there to-\\ngether in arms. The clash of shields denoted applause;\\na violent murmur, disapproval. The same assembly exer-\\ncised judicial power. Each canton had its magistrate, the\\ngraf, and the whole nation had a konig, or king, elected\\nfrom among the members of one special family which held\\nhereditary possession of that title. For combat the war-\\nriors chose the leader, or herzog, whom they wished to follow.\\nThe Olympus or heaven of these peoples presented a\\nmixture of terrible and graceful conceptions. At the side\\nof Odin, who gave victory and who by night rode through\\nthe air with the dead warriors of Donar, the Hercules of\\nthe Germans and of the fierce joys of Walhalla, ap-\\npeared the goddesses Freja and Holda, the Venus and the\\nDiana of the north, who everywhere diffused peace and\\nthe arts. The Germans also adored Herta, the earth, Sunna,\\nthe sun, and her brother Mani, the moon, who was pursued\\nby two wolves. The bards were their poets and encouraged\\nthem to brave death. It was their glory to die with a laugh.\\nThe Germans cultivated the soil but little. They pos-\\nsessed no domain as private property, and every year the\\nmagistrates distributed to each village and each family the\\nplot which they were go cultivate. They had no towns\\nbat scattered earthen huts far distant from each other,\\neach surrounded by the plot which the proprietor cultivated.\\nTheir habits were tolerably pure. Polygamy was author-\\nized only for the kings and the nobles. But drunkenness\\nand bloody quarrels generally terminated their Homeric\\nfeasts, and they had a passion for gambling.\\nArrival of the Huns in Europe. Behind this Germanic\\nfamily which was destined to occupy the greater part of\\nthe empire, pressed two other barbarous races: the Slavs\\nwhose turn did not come until later, and the Huns who\\nwere an object of fear to the people of the west. Their\\nlives were passed in enormous chariots or in the saddle.\\nTheir bony faces, pierced with little eyes, their broad flat", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "4 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 375-403.\\nnoses, their enormous wide-spread ears and swarthy tat-\\ntooed skins made them seem hardly human. At the end\\nof the fourth century they had convulsed the whole bar-\\nbaric world and precipitated the Germans upon the Empire\\nof the West. In consequence of intestine discords a part\\nof the nation of the Huns, driven on toward Europe, crossed\\nthe Volga, carrying with them the Alani. They dashed\\nthemselves against the great Gothic empire in which Her-\\nmanric had united the three branches of the nation: the\\nOstrogoths or Oriental Goths east of the Dnieper the Visi-\\ngoths or western Goths; the Gepidae or Laggards farther\\nto the north. The Ostrogoths submitted. The Visigoths\\nfled toward the Danube and obtained from the Emperor\\nValens an asylum on the lands of the empire. They re-\\nvolted soon after against their benefactor and slew him at\\nthe battle of Adrianople (378). But they were arrested\\nby Theodosius who established many of them in Thrace,\\nwhere at first they faithfully defended that frontier against\\nthe Huns.\\nInvasion of the Visigoths. Alaric. The Great Invasion\\nof 406. When at the death of Theodosius his two sons\\ndivided their heritage (395), Honorius received the West.\\nHis provinces bore the full brunt of the invasion from the\\nnorth. In the course of half a century this empire endured\\nthe four terrible assaults of Alaric, Radagaisus, Genseric\\nand Attila. Hardly had it fallen, when the Franks of\\nClovis wrested the finest portion from its invaders, which\\nthey still retain. The Visigoths under the lead of their\\nking Alaric first tried their forces against the Empire of\\nthe East. They ravaged Thrace and Macedonia, passed\\nThermopylae where there was no longer a Leonidas,\\ndevastated Attica, but respected Athens, and penetrated\\ninto the Peloponnesus. The Vandal Stilicho, general of\\nHonorius, surrounded them on Mount Pholoe, but they\\nescaped. Arcadius, who reigned at Constantinople, only\\nrid himself of their dangerous presence by pointing out the\\nEmpire of the West. They hastened thither, but found at\\nPolentia in Liguria (403) the same Stilicho, who defeated\\nthem and forced them to evacuate Italy. Honorius, to\\ncelebrate this victory of his lieutenant, enjoyed a triumph\\nat Rome and offered the people the last sanguinary games\\nof the circus. Then he hid himself at Ravenna behind the\\nmarshes at the south of the Po, disdaining his ancient capi-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "A.D. 403-435.] THE BARBARIAN WORLD 5\\ntal, and no longer daring to reside in Milan where Alaric\\nhad nearly surprised him.\\nThe ostensible consent of the empire had admitted upon\\nits territory the Visigoths, who rewarded it badly. But\\nnow four peoples, the Suevi, Alani, Vandals and Burgundi-\\nans, at two points forced their way across the frontier. One\\nof their divisions passed the Alps under Radagaisus, but\\nwas annihilated at Fiesole by Stilicho. Another crossed\\nthe Rhine (406) and for two years laid waste the whole of\\nGaul. Afterward the Burgundians founded on the banks\\nof the Rhone a kingdom which Honorius recognized in 413,\\nand the Alani, the Suevi and the Vandals proceeded to\\ninundate Spain. The great invasion had begun.\\nCapture of Rome by Alaric (410). Kingdoms of the\\nVisigoths, Suevi and Vandals. But Alaric returned to the\\ncharge. No longer was he confronted by Stilicho, who had\\nbeen sacrificed to the jealousy of Honorius. He captured\\nRome, delivered it over to the fury of his barbarians who\\nrespected the Christian churches, and died some time later\\nin Calabria at Cosenza (410). The Visigoths hollowed out\\na tomb for him in the bed of a river whose waters had been\\ndiverted, and then restored the natural course of the stream\\nafter having slain the prisoners who had done the work.\\nThe power of the Visigoths did not expire with Alaric.\\nNotwithstanding their sack of Rome this people, who had\\nbeen so long in contact with the empire, were specially dis-\\nposed to yield to the paramount influence of Roman civiliza-\\ntion. Ataulf, the brother-in-law of Alaric, and after him\\nWallia, entered the service of Honorius. In his interest\\nthey rescued Gaul from three usurpers who had there\\nassumed the purple, and Spain from the three barbarian\\ntribes which had. invaded it. For his reward Wallia\\nobtained a portion of Aquitania, and founded the kingdom\\nof the Visigoths (419) which was to cross the Alps. Dur-\\ning the same year Hermanric organized with the remnants\\nof the Suevi a kingdom in the mountains of the Asturias.\\nA little later the Vandals, who had been crowded into the\\nsouth of Spain, crossed into Africa, which was opened to\\nthem by the treachery of Count Boniface. They captured\\nHippo despite its long resistance, which the exhortations\\nof the Bishop Saint Augustine sustained, and forced the\\nEmperor Valentinian to recognize their occupancy (435).\\nGenseric who made this conquest also seized Carthage", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "6 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 439-486.\\n(439), founded a maritime power on those shores which had\\nformerly acknowledged the Carthaginian sway, and until\\nhis death (477) ravaged all the coasts of the Mediterranean\\nwith his ships. In 453 he captured Eome and for the space\\nof fourteen days gave it over to pillage.\\nAttila. Four barbaric kingdoms had already risen in\\nthe West when Attila made his appearance. This is the\\ngreat episode in the invasion of the fifth century. What\\nwould have become of Europe under the Tartar domination\\nof Attila, the scourge of God, who wished the grass not to\\ngrow where his horse s hoof had fallen Having put to\\ndeath his brother Bleda, he reigned alone over the nation of\\nthe Huns, and held under his yoke all the peoples estab-\\nlished on the banks of the Danube. He inhabited a wooden\\npalace in a city in the plains of Paimonia, whence he had\\ndictated laws and imposed tribute on Theodosius II,\\nemperor of the East. When Genseric invited him to create\\na diversion favorable to his own designs he poured upon the\\nWest the immense hosts of his peoples. He traversed\\nnortheastern Gaul, overthrowing everything in his path,\\nand laid siege to Orleans. The patrician Aetius hastened\\nthither with a mixed army, in which Visigoths, Burgundi-\\nans, Franks and Saxons fought beside the Romans against\\nthe new invaders. The decisive battle of Chalons (451)\\ndrove Attila to the other side of the Rhine. He retreated\\ntoward Italy. There he destroyed many cities, and among\\nothers Aquileia, whose inhabitants escaped to the lagoons\\nof the Adriatic where they laid the foundations of Venice.\\nOn his return to Pannonia he died of apoplexy (453) and\\nthe great power of the Huns wasted away in the quarrels of\\nhis sons.\\nThe Western emperors were hardly more than playthings\\nin the hands of the barbarian chiefs who commanded their\\ntroops. One of them, the Herule Odoacer, ended this death\\nagony by assuming the title of king of Italy (476). Thus\\nfell the great name of the Western Empire, an event more\\nimportant in subsequent than in contemporary eyes, which\\nhad been accustomed through more than half a century to\\nsee the barbarian masters dispose of everything. Neverthe-\\nless a remnant of the empire still existed under the patri-\\ncian Syagrius at the centre of Gaul, between the Loire and\\nthe Somme. Ten years later that too disappeared before\\nthe sword of the Franks.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "a.d. 400-455.] PRINCIPAL BARBARIAN KINGDOMS\\nn\\nPRINCIPAL BARBARIAN KINGDOMS. THE EASTERN\\nEMPIRE\\nBarbarian Kingdoms of Gaul, Spain and Africa. We\\nhave just, seen how from the Loire to the Strait of Gibral-\\ntar Alaric and his successors founded the kingdom of the\\nVisigoths in Gaul and Spain, how Genseric built that of the\\nVandals in Africa, and lastly how Attila ravaged every-\\nthing but constructed nothing. Other barbarian domina-\\ntions established were those of the Burgundians, the Suevi,\\nthe Anglo-Saxons, the Ostrogoths and the Lombards which\\nspeedily passed away.\\nThe Burgundian kingdom, established in 413 in the val-\\nleys of the Saone and Rhone with Geneva and Vienne for\\nits principal cities, had eight kings of little distinction.\\nClovis rendered it tributary in 500 and his sons conquered\\nit in 534.\\nThe kingdom of the Suevi, born at the same time, ex-\\npired a few years later. In 409 this people invaded Spain\\nand seized the northwest region or Galicia. Under its\\nkings Rechila and Rechiarius it seemed about to conquer\\nthe whole of Spain, but the Goths arrested its growth and\\nreduced it to subjection (585).\\nSaxon Kingdoms in England. Britain, separated from\\nthe continent by the sea, had her invasion apart. Under\\nthe Romans three distinct peoples existed there. These\\nwere: in the north, in the Scotland of to-day, the Cale-\\ndonians or Picts and Scots whom the emperors had been\\nunable to subdue in the east and south, the Loegrians who\\nwere affected by Roman civilization; on the west, beyond\\nthe Severn, the Cambrians or Welsh who seemed invinci-\\nble in their mountains. Abandoned by the legions (428)\\nand left defenceless to the incursions of the Picts, the\\nLoegrians (455) entreated assistance from the Saxons, Jutes\\nand Angles, who were incessantly setting out from their\\nGerman and Scandinavian shores to plough the seas. Two", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "8 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 455-510.\\nSaxon chiefs, Hengist and Horsa, routed the Picts and\\nreceived in payment the isle of Thanet on the coast of\\nKent. But Hengist, despoiling those who had summoned\\nhim, took possession of the country from the Thames to\\nthe Channel and assumed the title of king of Kent (455).\\nThenceforth the ambition of all these pirates was to con-\\nquer a settlement in Britain. The kingdom of Sussex or\\nSouth Saxons was founded in 491 that of Wessex or West\\nSaxons in 516; and that of Essex or East Saxons in 526.\\nIn 547 began the invasion of the Angles, who founded the\\nkingdoms of Northumberland or the kingdom north of the\\nHumber; on the eastern British coast, of East Anglia (577)\\nand Mercia (584). These three kingdoms of the Angles\\nbeing reckoned with the four Saxon kingdoms, there were\\nin Britain seven little monarchies or the Anglo-Saxon\\nHeptarchy which later on formed a single state. The\\nSaxons formed the basis of the present population of the\\ncountry and to them England owes her language.\\nKingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy. Theodoric (489-526).\\nThe conquest of Italy by the Ostrogoths took place later\\nand nearly coincided with the conquest of Gaul by the\\nFranks. Emancipated from the yoke of the Huns by the\\ndeath of Attila, the Ostrogoths in 475 had taken as their\\nchief Theodoric, the son of one of their princes, who had\\nbeen reared as a hostage at Constantinople. At the invita-\\ntion of Zeno, emperor of the East, Theodoric conquered\\nItaly from the Heruli (489-493), and showed himself the\\nmost truly great of the barbarian sovereigns prior to Charle-\\nmagne. To his kingdom of Italy by skilful negotiations\\nhe added Illyricum, Pannonia, Noricum and Bhaetia. A\\nwar against the Burgundians gave him the province of Mar-\\nseilles and he routed a Frankish army near Aries in 507.\\nThe Bavarians paid him tribute. The Alemanni appealed\\nto him for aid against Clovis. Finally at the death of\\nAlaric II he became the guardian of his grandson Amal-\\nric and reigned in fact over the two great branches of the\\nGothic nation, whose possessions touched each other toward\\nthe Rhone and who occupied the shores of the Mediterranean\\nin Spain, Gaul and Italy. Family alliances united him to\\nalmost all the barbarian kings.\\nHe made an admirable use of peace. The newcomers\\nneeded land. Each city gave up one-third of its territory\\nfor distribution to the Goths. This preliminary assignment", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "A.D. 510-527.] PRINCIPAL BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 9\\nonce made, a common law was established for the two peo-\\nples, though the Goths retained some of their peculiar\\ncustoms. In other respects he aimed at separating the van-\\nquished from the victors, reserving arms foi- the barbarians\\nand civil dignities for the Romans. He possessed a great\\nveneration for ancient imperial institutions. He consulted\\nthe senate of Rome and maintained the municipal system\\nof government, himself appointing the decurions. Thus a\\nbarbarian restored to Italy a prosperity which she had lost\\nunder her emperors. The public edifices, aqueducts, thea-\\ntres and baths were repaired, palaces and churches were\\nbuilt and the waste lands were cultivated. Companies\\nwere formed to drain the Pontine Marshes and those of\\nSpoleto. The population increased. Theodoric, who did\\nnot know how to write, gathered around him the finest liter-\\nary geniuses of the time, Cassiodorus, Boethius and Bishop\\nEnnodius. Himself an Arian, he respected the Catholics\\nand confirmed the immunities of the churches. Yet the\\nclose of his reign was saddened by threats of persecution in\\nreprisal for what the Eastern emperor was inflicting on the\\nArians, and by the torture of Boethius and of the prefect\\nSymmachus, unjustly accused of conspiracy. He died in\\n526 and his kingdom survived him only a few years.\\nThus too passed rapidly away the Vandals and the Heruli,\\nthe Suevi and the Burgundians, the western and eastern\\nGoths. They all formed part of the barbarian guard which\\nfirst entered the empire. Roman society, incapable of de-\\nfending itself, seems to have been strong enough to com-\\nmunicate to those who came in contact with it that death\\nwhich it bore in its own breast.\\nBevival of the Eastern Empire. Justinian (527-565).\\nThe ruined Empire of the West had been replaced by thir-\\nteen Germanic kingdoms; those of the Burgundians, Visi-\\ngoths, Suevi, Vandals, Franks, Ostrogoths and of the seven\\nAnglo-Saxon states. The Greek Empire alone had escaped\\ninvasion and remained erect in spite of its religious dis-\\ncords and the general weakness of its government. The\\nreign of Theodosius II, the longest which the fifth century\\npresents (418-450), was really that of Pulcheria, the sister\\nof the incapable emperor. It was signalized by the publi-\\ncation of the Theodosian Code. Under Zeno and Anasta-\\nsius Constantinople was racked by quarrels and riots on\\nquestions of religion.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "10 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 527-568.\\nJustinian restored vigor and brilliancy to this empire.\\nHe preserved intact the eastern frontier and forced the\\nPersians to conclude in 562, after thirty-four years of war,\\nan honorable treaty. He repulsed (559) an invasion of\\nBulgarians which threatened Constantinople. In the west\\nhe destroyed the kingdom of the Vandals by the victories\\nof Belisarius and that of the Ostrogoths by the successes\\nof the eunuch Narses. While his generals were winning\\nbattles, his lawyers were drawing up the Code, the Digest\\nor Pandects, the Institutes and the Novellce, which have\\ntransmitted to posterity the substance of ancient jurispru-\\ndence. This reign was the glorious protest of the Eastern\\nEmpire and of civilization against invasion and barbarism.\\nThe splendor was of brief continuance. In 568 Italy was\\nlost. Concpiered by the Lombards, a fourteenth Germanic\\nkingdom was founded, which lasted more than 200 years\\nand was to fall under the blows of Charlemagne. From her\\ngeographic position Constantinople could not be the heir of\\nRome. The inheritance of the Western Empire was to\\nbelong to the Germanic race.\\nAs for the Eastern Empire, after that brilliant period it\\npassed many gloomy days despite the talent of princes like\\nMaurice and Heraclius. Thanks to her strategic situation\\nConstantinople, the daughter of aged Rome, who bore on\\nher brow from her very birth the wrinkles of her mother,\\nalone remained standing like an isolated rock. For ten\\ncenturies she braved victoriously the assaults of the Mus-\\nsulmans in the south and of the Slavic and Turanian tribes\\non the north.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "Eograoedby Colli..., Ul.u.ni, A Co., N. Y.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "A.D.241-M8.] CLOVIS AND THE MEROVINGIANS 11\\nIII\\nCLOVIS AND THE MEROVINGIANS\\n(481-752)\\nThe Franks. In the third century after Christ the\\nGermans had formed on the right bank of the Rhine two\\nconfederations on the south, that of the Suevic tribes,\\nwho called themselves the Alemanni or men; on the\\nnorth, that of the Salii, the Sicambri, the Bructeri, the\\nCherusci and the Catti, who took the name of Franks or\\nthe brave. They are first mentioned by Roman writers in\\n241 when Aurelian, then legionary tribune, defeated a body\\nof Franks on the lower Rhine. Probus recaptured from\\nthem the Gallic cities which they had attacked on the\\ndeath of Aurelian, and transported a colony of them to the\\nBlack Sea (277). A little later others crossed the Rhine,\\ndevastated Belgium and received from Julian authority to\\nestablish themselves on the banks of the Meuse which they\\nhad ravaged. Several of the Frankish chiefs rose to high\\npositions in the empire. Thus Arbogast was the prime\\nminister of Valentinian II and disposed of the purple.\\nTwelve years after his death the Franks, already estab-\\nlished in northern Gaul, tried to arrest the great invasion\\nof 406. Failing in this they wished to obtain their share\\nof these provinces which the emperor himself was aban-\\ndoning, and their tribes advanced into the interior of the\\ncountry, each one under its own chieftain or king. At that\\ntime there were Frankish kings at Cologne, Tournay, Cam-\\nbrai and Therouanne. Of these kings, Clodion, chief of\\nthe Salian Franks of the country of Tongres or Limburg,\\nis the first whose existence has been well authenticated.\\nPharamond, his reputed predecessor, is mentioned only in\\nlater chronicles. He captured Tournay and Cambrai, put\\nto death all the Romans whom he found and advanced\\ntoward the Somme which he crossed but in the neighbor-\\nhood of Sens was vanquished by the Roman general Aetius\\n(448).", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "12 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 448-496.\\nHe did not survive his defeat. Merovig his kinsman\\nsucceeded. He joined three years later with all the bar-\\nbarians quartered in Gaul and with the rest of the Romans\\nin resisting the Huns. The battle of Chalons (451) against\\nAttila cost the lives, it is said, of 300,000 men and rescued\\nthe barbarian nations encamped between the Rhine and the\\nPyrenees.\\nChilderic, the son of Merovig, was expelled by the Franks\\nwho were disgusted at his excesses. He was replaced by\\nthe Roman general iEgidius. Recalled at the end of eight\\nyears, he reigned over the Franks until his death and was\\ninterred in Tournay, where his tomb was discovered in\\n1633. His son Chlodowig or Clovis was the real founder\\nof the Frankish monarchy.\\nClovis. In 481 Clovis possessed only a few districts of\\nBelgium with the title of king of the Salian Franks, who\\nhad settled in the neighborhood of Tournay. He com-\\nmanded 4000 or 5000 warriors. Five years later he\\ndefeated near Soissons Syagrius, the son of iEgidius, who\\ngoverned in the name of the empire the country between the\\nSomme and the Loire. He forced the Visigoths among whom\\nthe vanquished general had taken refuge to give him up, put\\nhim to death and subdued the country as far as the Loire.\\nIn 493 he married Clotilde, daughter of a Burgundian\\nking, herself an Orthodox Christian. This union had the\\nhappiest results for Clotilde soon converted her husband.\\nAs all the barbarians established in Gaul were Arians and\\nhence in orthodox eyes equivalent to heretics, Clovis be-\\ncame the hope of the orthodox Gauls. Even before his\\nconversion, Amiens, Beauvais, Paris and Rouen had opened\\ntheir gates, thanks to the influence of their bishops. The\\nAlemanni having crossed the Rhine, Clovis marched against\\nthem. He was on the point of being vanquished, when he\\ninvoked the God of Clotilde. Success seemed granted to\\nhis prayer, and the Alemanni were thrust back beyond that\\nriver and pursued into Suabia. On his return Clovis was\\nbaptized with 3000 of his men by Saint Remi, archbishop of\\nReims. As the archbishop sprinkled the holy water on the\\nhead of the neophyte he said to him, Bow thy head, soft-\\nened Sicambrian. Adore what thou hast burned burn what\\nthou hast adored. An Arian sister of Clovis was baptized\\nat the same time (496). The Gallo-Roman inhabitants,\\noppressed by the Arian Burgundians and Visigoths, thence-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "A.D. 496-511.] CLOVIS AND THE MEROVINGIANS 13\\nforth centred their affections and hopes in the converted\\nchieftain of the Franks. All the episcopate was on his\\nside. When thou tightest, wrote to him Avitus, bishop\\nof Vienne, we share the victory. So they aided him in\\nall his enterprises. Some of his liegemen deserted, but his\\nsuccesses and above all the booty they could gain under so\\nskilful a leader brought them back.\\nThe country between the Loire and the Somme was sub-\\njugated and Armoricum won over to his alliance. Then he\\nattacked the Burgundians (500), defeated their king Gundo-\\nbad and made him pay tribute. Then one day he said to\\nhis soldiers, It causes me great grief that those Arian\\nVisigoths possess a part of this Gaul. Let us march with\\nthe help of God and after vanquishing them let us reduce\\ntheir county to our power. The army crossed the Loire,\\nby the express order of the king religiously respecting on\\nits passage all the property of the churches. The Visi-\\ngothic king Alaric II was beaten and slain at Vouille\\nnear Poitiers. That city, Saintes, Bordeaux, Toulouse,\\nopened their gates and Septimania with Nimes, Beziers\\nand Narbonne would have been conquered if Theodoric,\\nthe great head of the Ostrogoths, had not sent succor to his\\nbrethren of the West. On his return from this expedition\\nClovis found the ambassadors of the Emperor Anastasius\\nwho brought him the titles of consul and patrician with the\\npurple tunic and robe. His last years were bloody. He\\nslew Sigebert and Chloderic kings of Cologne, Chararic\\nanother petty Frankish king, Ragnachairus king of Cam-\\nbrai, and Benomer king of the Mans, that he might seize\\ntheir kingdoms and treasures. He died in 511 and was\\ninterred in the basilica of the Holy Apostles or Saint\\nGenevieve which he himself had built. His reign had\\nlasted thirty years, and his life forty-five.\\nAt his death the state which he founded comprised all\\nGaul except Gascogne where no Frankish troop had made\\nits appearance, and Brittany which was controlled by\\ncounts or military chiefs. The Alemanni in Alsace and\\nSuabia were associates in the fortunes of the Franks rather\\nthan subject to the authority of their king. The Burgun-\\ndians after paying tribute for a time fully intended to\\nrefuse it in future and the cities of Aquitaine, feebly re-\\nstrained by Frankish garrisons at Bordeaux and Saintes,\\nremained almost independent.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "14 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 511-571.\\nAs to the victorious nation united only for conquest and\\npillage it had contented itself with expelling the Visigoths\\nfrom Aquitaine without replacing them. The war ended\\nthe Franks had returned with their booty to their former\\nabodes between the Rhine and the Loire. Clovis himself\\nhad settled at Paris, a central position between the two\\nrivers, whence he could more easily watch the provinces\\nand his enemies.\\nThe Sons of Clovis (511-561).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The four sons of Clovis\\nshared his territories and followers, so that each one had a\\nnearly equal portion of the land to the north of the Loire\\nwhere the Frankish nation had settled, and also a part of\\nthe Roman cities of Aquitaine which paid rich tributes.\\nChildebert was king of Paris Clotaire, king of Soissons\\nClodimir king of Orleans Thierry, king of Metz or Aus-\\ntrasia.\\nThe impulse imparted by Clovis lasted for some time.\\nHis sons carried their arms to Thuringia, Burgundy, Italy\\nand Spain. The Alemanni and the Bavarians had recog-\\nnized them as suzerains, and the Saxons paid them trib-\\nute.\\nFrede gonde and Brunehaut. Clotaire, one of the sons of\\nClovis, had reunited his father s kingdom in 558, but upon\\nhis death three years afterward the Frankish monarchy be-\\ncame again a tetrarchy by the partition of its states among\\nhis four sons Caribert, king of Paris G-ontram, of Orleans\\nand Burgundy; Sigebert, of Austrasia, and Chilperic, of\\nSoissons. From that time rivalry began, destined to increase\\nbetween the eastern Franks or Austrasians and the western\\nFranks or Neustrians. The former were more faithful to the\\nrude manners of Germany of which they were the neigh-\\nbors. The latter were more accessible to the influence of\\nthat Roman civilization in the midst of which they had\\nsettled.\\nThis opposition finds its first expression in the hatred of\\ntwo women. Sigebert had married Brunehaut, the daughter\\nof Athanagild king of the Visigoths, beautiful, learned and\\nambitious. Chilperic, desirous also of a royal wife, ob-\\ntained the hand of Galswinthe, the sister of Brunehaut.\\nSoon however he returned to his imperious concubine Fre-\\ndegonde, who caused her rival to be strangled and took\\nher place. Brunehaut burning to avenge her sister stirred\\nup Sigebert to attack Neustria. Her husband, victorious,", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "A.\u00c2\u00bb. 571-628.] CLOVIS AND THE MEROVINGIANS 15\\nwas about to proclaim himself king of the Neustrians,\\nwhen two servants of Fredegonde, bewitched by her,\\nstabbed him at the same time in the side with poisoned\\nknives (575). As his son Childebert II was still a minor,\\nthe Austrasians were governed by a mayor of the palace.\\nThat official was originally a mere steward of the king s\\nhousehold, chosen from among his vassals. Supported by\\nother vassals, the mayors of the palace were to acquire an\\nimportant influence to the advantage of the barbarous aris-\\ntocracy, already very hostile to royalty, and were to hold\\nthe feeble kings in tutelage until the moment came when\\nthey could take their place.\\nThe years that followed are confused and bloody, filled\\nwith the turbulence of the leudes or liegemen, and above all\\nwith the fierce struggle between Brunehaut and Fredegonde.\\nThe former in the name of her children and grandchildren\\nseized the power in both Austrasia and Burgundy. Her\\nstern and orderly rule alienated her subjects, who proposed\\nto Clotaire II, the son of Chilperic and Fredegonde, to make\\nhim their king if he would rid them of Brunehaut. Aban-\\ndoned by her troops, she and her four grandsons were capt-\\nured by Clotaire. He cut the throats of the young princes\\nand had the aged queen fastened to the tail of a wild horse\\n(613) which dashed her body to pieces.\\nClotaire 11 (584) and Dagobert (628). Clotaire II for the\\nthird time established the unity of the Frankish monarchy.\\nUnder his reign seventy-nine bishops and many laymen took\\npart in the Council of Paris, which promulgated a so-called\\nperpetual constitution whereby the power of the ecclesiastical\\nand secular aristocracy was greatly increased. The taxes\\nimposed were abolished, the fiefs granted were declared in-\\nalienable and the ecclesiastical jurisdiction was extended.\\nThe reign of Dagobert was the most brilliant of the Mero-\\nvingian line and gave to the Franks preponderance in West-\\nern Europe. He stopped the incursions of the Venedi over\\nwhom a Frankish merchant had become king, opposed the\\nincursions of the Slavonians into Thuringia and delivered\\nBavaria from a Bulgarian invasion. In Gaul he compelled\\nthe submission of the Vascons and the alliance of the Bre-\\ntons whose chief had assumed the title of king. He chose\\nclever ministers and won a legitimate popularity by travel-\\nling about his kingdom to administer justice in behalf of the\\nsmall as the great. He revised the laws of the Salii, the", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "16 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 638-687.\\nRiparii, the Alemanni and the Bavarians, encouraged com-\\nmerce and industry and built the Abbey of Saint Denis.\\nThe Sluggard Kings. The Mayors of the Palace (638-687).\\nBut Dagobert carried the power of the Merovingians with\\nhim to the tomb. After him came the sluggard kings.\\nNevertheless royalty found a formidable champion in\\nEbroin, mayor of the palace in Neustria, who with increased\\nenergy resumed the struggle of Brunehaut and Dagobert\\nagainst the leudes and their chief, Saint Leger, bishop of\\nAutun. In a document he wrote, Those men have appar-\\nently forfeited their fiefs who are couvicted of infidelity to\\nthose from whom they hold them. Many vassals who\\nseemed too independent were put to death, deprived of their\\nproperty or banished. The Austrasian vassals made com-\\nmon cause with the exiles. They deposed their Merovingian\\nking and confided the power to the two mayors, Martin and\\nPepin d Heristal, with the title of princes of the Franks.\\nAfter the death of Ebroin they gained the battle of Testry\\nand all Neustria in consequence (687). From that day\\nforth Pepin d Heristal reigned in reality though without\\nassuming the title of king. His successors were to erect\\nthe Frankish Empire in which all the Germanic invasion\\nis summed up.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "Copjrlghl, 18911. bj T. V", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "Kn,r\u00e2\u0080\u009e,cJ l,j CulUli, Ul,u,au 4 Co., N. y", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "A.d. 570-610.} MOHAMMED AND THE ARAB INVASION 17\\nIV\\nMOHAMMED AND THE ARAB INVASION\\nArabia. Mohammed and the Koran. After the German\\ninvasion which came from the north followed the Arab\\ninvasion from the south. Arabia, whose peoples then ap-\\npeared for the first time on the scene of history, is a vast\\npeninsula covering more than a million square miles.\\nNorthward it opens upon Asia through extensive deserts\\nand is attached on the northwest to Africa by the Isthmus of\\nSuez. Elsewhere it is surrounded by the Ked Sea, the Strait\\nof Bab-el-Mandeb, the Indian Ocean, the Strait of Ormus and\\nthe Persian Gulf. The ancients, who had small acquaintance\\nwith it, divided it into three parts Arabia Petrsea or the\\npeninsula of Sinai Arabia Deserta or Nedjed, comprising\\nthe deserts which extend from the Red Sea to the Euphrates\\nand Arabia Felix or Yemen. Its religion was a mixture of\\nChristianity, introduced by the Abyssinians and Greeks of\\nSabeism, taught by the Persians of Judaism, which had\\nfiltered in everywhere in the track of the Jews and above\\nall of idolatry. The temple of the Kaaba in the holy city\\nof Mecca contained 360 idols, the custody of which was in-\\ntrusted to the illustrious family of the Kore ish. There was\\nmuch religious indilference in the presence of so many faiths.\\nThe masses of population were kept together by the poets,\\nwho were already developing the language of Islam in those\\npoetical tournaments, wherein the idea of Allah, the Su-\\npreme Being, a belief natural to such a country, frequently\\noccurs.\\nMohammed was born of Kore ish parents in 570. Early\\nan orphan and without fortune, he became a camel-driver\\nand travelled in Syria where he became intimate with a\\nmonk of Bostra. His integrity and intelligence won the\\nhand of a rich widow named Khadijah. Thenceforth he\\ncould give himself up to his meditations. At the age of\\nforty his ideas were fixed.\\nTo Khadijah, to his cousin Ali, to his freedman Sei d and", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "18 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 610-632.\\nto his friend Abou-Bekr he disclosed his purpose of restoring\\nto the religion of Abraham its primitive purity. He told\\nthem that he was receiving from God through the Angel\\nGabriel the verses of a book which was to be the book of all\\nothers, or the Koran. He designated his new religion as\\nIslam or entire resignation to the divine will. His hearers\\nbelieved in him and Abou-Bekr won over Othman and the\\nfiery Omar to the new faith. The proselytes increased\\ndaily. Persecuted by the Korei sh, he fled to Yatreb (622).\\nWith the year of the Hegira or Flight the Mussulman era\\nbegins.\\nYatreb now became Medinat-al-Nabi, the city of the\\nProphet, commonly called Medina. At the battle of Bedr\\n300 of his followers defeated 1000 Korei sh ((324). After-\\nwards he was worsted at Mount Ohud, but gained a\\ndecisive advantage in the War of the Nations or of the\\nTrench. Finally he reentered Mecca (630) where he\\ndestroyed all the idols, saying The truth has come. Let\\nthe falsehood disappear From that moment he was the\\nreligious leader of Arabia. He wrote threatening letters to\\nChosroes, king of Persia, and to Heraclius, emperor of the\\nEast, and was on the point of undertaking a holy war against\\nthem when he died (632).\\nThe Koran is the collection of all the revelations which\\naccording to the occasion fell from the mouth of the Prophet,\\nand which were collected in a first edition by the orders\\nof the Caliph Abou-Bekr, and in a second by those of the\\nCaliph Othman. Composed of one hundred and fourteen\\nchapters or surates subdivided into verses, it contains both\\nthe religious and civil law of the Mussulmans. The basis\\nof its dogma is fully summed up in these words, There is\\nno God but God, and Mohammed is the prophet of God.\\nIn Allah, the sole and jealous God, the Koran admits no plu-\\nrality of persons and it places no inferior divinity beside\\nhim. It rejects all idea of God made man but it teaches\\nthat God has revealed himself by a series of prophets,\\nof whom Mohammed is the last and the most complete.\\nThose who preceded him are: Adam, Noah, Abraham,\\nMoses and Christ, with whom God communicated through\\nangels, his messengers. Mohammed acknowledged that\\nChrist possessed the gift of miracles which he himself had\\nnot. He preached the immortality of the soul, the resur-\\nrection of the body and its participation in the joys or", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "A.D. 632-6M.] MOHAMMED AND THE ARAB INVASION 19\\nsufferings of a future life. A delightful but sensual para-\\ndise was in store for the good, a burning bell for the bad.\\nNevertheless in this paradise which appealed to the vulgar\\ncrowd there are also spiritual joys. The most favored of\\nGod will be he who shall behold his face evening and morn-\\ning, a felicity which will surpass all the pleasures of the\\nsenses as the ocean surpasses a drop of dew.\\nHe elevated the condition of Arab women. A son, he\\nsaid, wins paradise at the feet of his mother. Before his\\nday the daughters inherited nothing. He assigned to them\\none-half the portion of their brothers. While enforcing the\\nauthority of the husband, he bade him be a tender protector\\nto his wife. Though he tolerated polygamy so as not to\\nshock Eastern customs, he allowed a man only four legiti-\\nmate wives, and advised that as a praiseworthy act a man\\nshould confine himself to one. The Koran prescribes severe\\npenalties for theft, usury, fraud and false witness and\\nenjoins alms. It minutely regulates the ritual of worship\\nthe fast of Eamazan the observance of the four sacred\\nmonths, an ancient custom which like the truce of God\\nsuspended hostilities among the faithful the great annual\\npilgrimage to Mecca where Mohammed had installed the\\nseat of this new religion the five daily prayers the ab-\\nlutions, either with water or sand circumcision abstinence\\nfrom wine and many other detailed observances. Never-\\ntheless so far as Christians and Jews were concerned, it is\\nsufficient not to ally oneself with them by blood and one\\nmust not fight against them unless they give provocation.\\nAs for other people, it is the duty of every good Mussulman\\nto attack, pursue and slay them if they do not embrace the\\nreligion of the Prophet.\\nThese doctrines, these hopes and these threats were power-\\nful springs of action which launched the Arabs, sword in\\nhand, in every direction.\\nThe Caliphate. The Sunnites and Shiites. Arab Conquests.\\n(637-661). Mohammed did not designate his successor, but\\nAbou-Bekr, whom he had charged with pronouncing the for-\\nmal prayer in his place, was recognized as caliph or religious,\\ncivil, and military chief (632). Abou-Bekr in turn desig-\\nnated Omar (634) and after Omar, Othman was elected (644),\\nwho was succeeded by Ali. The latter was the husband of\\nPatima, daughter of the Prophet, and chief of the Fati-\\nmite party which gave birth to the great Mussulman sect", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "20\\nHISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 644-732.\\nof the Shiites or Separatists. They regard Ali as having\\nbeen unjustly excluded from the succession after the death\\nof Mohammed. The Sunnites, or followers of tradition, rec-\\nognize Abou-Bekr, Omar and Othman as legitimate. After\\nAli the hereditary system begins with the Ommiades (661).\\nThis period is that of the great conquests. Khaled and\\nAmrou by the victories of Aiznadin and the Yermpuk wrested\\nSyria from Heraclius, emperor of the East, who had just\\nreturned victorious from expeditions against Persia. In ten\\nyears time the conquest of Persia was assured by the vic-\\ntories of Kadesiah, J alula and Nehavend. Yezdegerd, the\\nlast of the Sassanides, in vain besought succor from the\\nemperor of China. In 639 Amrou entered Egypt and made\\nhimself master of the country after besieging Alexandria\\nfourteen months.\\nThe Ommiades. The usurpation of Moaviah, chief of the\\nOmmiades, who rendered the government a despotism and\\nmade Damascus his capital, was followed by civil dissensions.\\nBlood flowed in streams for thirty years. The almost sus-\\npended movement of conquest began again about 691 under\\nAbd-el-Malek. In the east, Transoxiana and Sogdiana were\\nconquered and India was threatened. Though in the north\\nConstantinople successfully resisted a seven years siege\\n(672-679), the Arab power was established in the west\\nalong the entire northern coast of Africa. Kairowan was\\nfounded, Carthage captured, a revolt of the Moors stifled\\nand the Columns of Hercules passed by Tarik who gave\\nthem his name as the mountain of Tarik or Gibraltar. The\\nSpanish Visigothic kingdom, weakened by ecclesiastical in-\\nfluence and given up to discord by its elective system of\\nmonarchy, succumbed at the battle of Xeres (711). Of all\\nthe peninsula the Christians retained only a corner of land\\nin the Asturian mountains where Pelayo took refuge with\\nhis comrades. Carried on by their ardor the rapid con-\\nquerors crossed the Pyrenees, occupied Septimania, ravaged\\nAquitaine and were already marching upon Tours when\\nCharles Martel arrested them by the victory of Poitiers or\\nTours (732).\\nDivision of the Caliphate. Thus the Arabs at a bound\\nreached the Pyrenees and the Himalayas. Their faith was\\nsupreme over two thousand leagues of country. Neverthe-\\nless geography, the greatest of forces to support or destroy\\nnewborn states, condemned their empire to speedy partition", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "A.D. 732-1058.] MOHAMMED AND THE ARAB INVASION 21\\namong many masters, because it was too extensive to have\\none centre and contained too many different peoples to pos-\\nsess unity. The diverse influences of locality and race soon\\nbegan to manifest themselves and then to enter into conflict.\\nThe dynasties, representing this or that nationality, which\\ngeography and history had produced, began to dispute the\\nthrone with one another and as a natural result the empire\\nfell to pieces.\\nIn 750 the Syrian dynasty of the Ommiades was over-\\nthrown by Abul-Abbas, who founded the dynasty of the\\nAbbassides, sprung from an uncle of Mohammed. A sin-\\ngle Ommiad escaping proscription fled to Spain and there\\nerected the Caliphate of the West or of Cordova (755).\\nThus the Abbassides now reigned only over the Caliphate\\nof the East or of Bagdad, a new capital built upon the\\nTigris in 762 near the ancient Seleucia. There they fur-\\nnished a succession of great men Almanzor (754), Haroun-\\nal-Raschid or the Just (786), Al-Mamoun (813) all of them\\npatrons of letters, arts and science, which they had borrowed\\nfrom the Greeks. But in those places which had always\\nwitnessed despotism and where the shade of the great kings\\nstill seemed to wander, the caliphs soon came to consider\\nthemselves the image of God on earth. A splendid court\\nseparated them from their people, immense wealth replaced\\nthe poverty of Omar and military ardor became extinct in\\nthe midst of an effeminate life. Then these men, ignorant\\nhow to fight, bought slaves to make soldiers of them, and the\\nslaves became their masters. A guard of Seldjuk Turks was\\nintroduced into the palace. They filled it with disorder and\\nviolence and at their pleasure made or unmade sovereigns.\\nThe Abbassides fell into the condition of the French Sluggard\\nKings. Togrul Beg left to the caliph only an empty reli-\\ngious authority (1058) and founded the power of the Seldjuk\\nTurks. In the ninth century Africa was detached from the\\nCaliphate of Bagdad and divided up among three dynasties\\nthe Edrissites at Fez, the Aglabites at Kairowan and the\\nFatimites at Cairo. The latter claimed descent from Fatima,\\nthe daughter of Mohammed.\\nAs for the Caliphate of Cordova, like that of Cairo, it\\nhad its brilliant days. Many Christians being treated\\nmildly mingled with the Mussulmans and formed the\\nactive population of the Mozarabis. The ever-skilful Jews\\nwere relieved from the rigors of the Visigothic law. Com-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "22 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [A.d. 755-1031.\\nmerce, industry and agriculture flourished and afforded\\nthe caliphs great riches. Convulsed by the conquests of\\nCharlemagne s lieutenants north of the Ebro, the Caliphate\\nof Cordova was again shaken by the revolts of the valis,\\nor provincial governors, and by the insurrection of the\\nbandits, Beni-Hafsoun, which lasted for eighty years. The\\nreigns of Abderrahman I (755), Hescham I (787), Al-Hakam\\nI and Abderrahman II were very fortunate. That of\\nAbderrahman III surpassed all the rest (912-961). The\\nsuccesses of this caliph and of Almanzor, the chief minister\\nof Hescham II, arrested on the Douro and the Ebro the\\nprogress of the Christian kingdoms founded in the north.\\nBut after Almanzor everything fell to pieces. An African\\nguard delivered the palace over to a sanguinary anarchy\\nwhich favored the efforts of the valis at independence. In\\n1010 Murcia, Badajoz, Granada, Saragossa, Valentia, Seville,\\nToledo, Carmona, Algesiras, were so many independent\\nprincipalities. In 1031 Hescham, the descendant of the\\nOmmiades, was deposed and retired with joy into obscurity.\\nShortly after the very title of caliph disappeared.\\nArabic Civilization. Such was the fate of the empire of\\nthe Arabs in the three continents, Asia, Africa and Europe\\na sudden and irresistible expansion, then division and a\\nrapid general enfeeblement. But they had established\\ntheir religion, their language and the laws of their Koran\\nover a great number of peoples, and transmitted to the\\nEurope of the Middle Ages industries and sciences of which\\nthey were, if not the inventors, at least the diffusers.\\nWhile Europe was plunged in thick shades of barbarism,\\nBagdad, Bassorah, Samarcand, Damascus, Cairo, Kairowan,\\nFez, Granada, Cordova, were so many great intellectual\\ncentres.\\nThe Koran had determined the literary Arab language\\nand it is preserved to our day just as Mohammed spoke it.\\nTime and local influences have caused the vulgar tongue to\\nundergo marked transformations. This Arabic, prodig-\\niously rich in words which express the objects and impres-\\nsions of the desert, nevertheless adapted itself to all the\\nusages of literature and science. From the moribund school\\nof Alexandria the Arabs had received Aristotle whom they\\nzealously commented. More than once the commentators\\nwere themselves philosophers worthy of consideration.\\nSuch were in the East, Avicenna; in the West, Averroes,", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "MOHAMMED AND THE ARAB INVASION 23\\nwho enjoyed fame in the Middle Ages because he had\\ntransmitted to the Christians of Europe the knowledge of\\nthe Stagirite.\\nThe exact sciences received from Almanzor, the second of\\nthe Abbassides, a lively impulse, thanks to the learned men\\nwhom the caliphs attracted from Constantinople. As early\\nas the first half of the ninth century two astronomers of\\nBagdad measured in the plain of Sennaar a degree of\\nthe meridian. Soon afterwards Euclid was expounded,\\nPtolemy s tables corrected, the obliquity of the ecliptic\\nmore exactly calculated, the precession of the equinoxes and\\nthe difference between the solar year and the common year\\nbetter determined, new instruments of precision invented\\nand at Samarcand an admirable observatory was founded.\\nStill it is an error, though common, to attribute to the\\nArabs the invention of algebra and of the so-called Arabic\\nfigures which we use. Probably they only transmitted to\\nEurope what they found in the learned school of Alexandria.\\nWe have from them in the same degree the compass and\\ngunpowder. They excelled in medicine where again they\\nwere the pupils of the ancients, as was Averroes of Galen.\\nIn architecture also they borrowed much from the Greeks.\\nTheir horseshoe arch belongs to the Byzantine style. They\\ncultivated neither painting nor sculpture, because their\\nreligion forbade the representation of the human figure,\\nbut their arabesques are a form of ornamentation peculiar\\nto themselves. The magnificent remains of this architect-\\nure can be seen at Cordova, Granada and Cairo.\\nIn agriculture and industry we have devised nothing\\nsuperior to their system of irrigation, which the peasants of\\nValencia and Granada still practise. The reputation of the\\nsword blades of Toledo, the silk of Granada, the blue\\nand green cloths of Cuenca, the harnesses, saddles and\\nleather of Cordova, were celebrated throughout Europe.\\nBut this civilization like the empire in whose bosom it had\\nblossomed disappeared almost as quickly as it was formed.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "24 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES\\nTHE EMPIRE OP THE PRANKS. EFFORTS TO INTRODUCE\\nUNITY IN CHURCH AND STATE\\nDifference between the Arab and German Invasions. The\\nArab invasion began with unity of faith, command and\\ndirection. It was ruined by schism, division and weakness.\\nThe German invasion, made at random and solely for the\\nsake of pillage under leaders united by no common idea, at\\nfirst gave rise to a number of little kingdoms. It had how-\\never taken place in countries where the memory of the\\nRoman Empire still lingered, and where a new principle of\\nunity, that of the Church, had arisen. Thus after wander-\\ning for two centuries in confusion and amid the ruins which\\nthey had made, nearly all of those adventurers finally\\ngathered under the sceptre of one family, that of the Car-\\nlovingians, who tried to reconstitute the state and the\\ngovernment, while the Pope with his monks and bishops\\norganized the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The harmony of\\nthese two powers caused the brilliancy of Charlemagne s\\nreign. Their rivalry brought about the great struggle of the\\nMiddle Ages, or that between the priesthood and the empire.\\nEcclesiastical Society. The Roman Empire had perished,\\nbut so far the barbarians had erected upon its ruins only\\nfragile structures. A single institution, the Church, trav-\\nersed the centuries, developing regularly in accordance with\\nthe spirit of its life, constantly gaining in power and forti-\\nfying itself by the unity of its government. This society\\nhad in the beginning been thoroughly democratic with\\nelected leaders. It emerged, mutilated but radiant, from\\nthe catacombs and the amphitheatres. Constantine bestowed\\nupon it the Roman world. In the Councils it determined\\nits dogmas and discipline. Thus it found itself possessed\\nof a strictly regulated hierarchy, where only the highest\\ndignities like the episcopacy and papacy were elective,\\nwhile the inferior grades were conferred by the bishop.\\nIf we consider territorial boundaries, the bishop governed", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "A.D. 350-723.] THE EMPIRE OF THE FRANKS 25\\nthe diocese which was divided somewhat later into parishes.\\nMany dioceses united formed the ecclesiastical province of\\nthe archbishop or metropolitan, above whom rose the bishop s\\nof the great capitals with the title of patriarchs or primates.\\nIn this picture we recognize the entire civil organization\\nof the empire. Thus the authority, in which the whole mass\\nof believers originally shared, was gradually withdrawn from\\nthe lower classes, handed over to the bishops and ended in\\nthe West by becoming concentrated at the summit in the\\nPope. This ascent of religious authority, terminated only\\nin our day by the proclamation of the dogma of papal infal-\\nlibility, sums up the entire internal history of the Roman\\nCatholic Church. But in the eighth century the sacerdotal\\nmonarchy had only traversed half the road, toward the end\\nof which Boniface VIII was destined to lead it.\\nThe bishop of Rome possessed great estates in Italy. He\\noccupied in the most famous city of the universe that large\\nplace in the municipal system of government, which at the\\nfall of the empire had been conferred upon the bishops.\\nThus the Pope, in addition to his spiritual authority, had\\nmeans of action through the income of the property be-\\nstowed upon his Church, and an authority which was nat-\\nurally increased at the fall of the Western Empire and of\\nTheodoric. In temporal affairs he still remained subject to\\nthe emperor of Constantinople and to his representative in\\nItaly, the exar.ch of Ravenna but the yoke was light, thanks\\nto distance and to the embarrassment of the exarch whom\\nthe Lombards threatened and finally expelled.\\nGregory the Great (690-704) did much for the develop-\\nment of the papal power. In the first place he saved Rome\\nfrom an attack by the Lombards. Then he took an energetic\\npart in the conversion of heretics and pagans which before\\nhis time had gone on at random. He brought the Visigoths\\nback into the pale of the Catholic Church, won to the faith\\nEngland, Helvetia and Bavaria, multiplied monasteries,\\nwhere dwelt a faithful army under the rule of Saint Bene-\\ndict, and drew closer around the bishops the bond of disci-\\npline. His successors continued the work of missions. The\\nnew churches, daughters of Rome, showed for the mother\\nchurch a respectful attachment. Holland and Friesland\\nwere evangelized. Saint Boniface, in 723 appointed by the\\nPope bishop of Germany, was about to give to Rome those\\nvast provinces.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "26 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 715-741.\\nThus new Rome was again becoming a conqueror and\\ndominant. Its chief still remained the subject of the\\nemperor but a rupture was inevitable. When Justinian II\\nwished to remove Pope Sergius, who rejected the canons of\\nthe Council in Trullo, the soldiers refused to obey. When\\nLeo the Iconoclast ordered the images in Rome to be\\nbroken, the people drove the imperial prefect from the city\\nand the Pope excited the Italians to revolt against the heretic\\nprince (726). The Lombards took advantage of this con-\\ntroversy to seize the exarchy of Ravenna and tried to lay\\nhands on Rome. Then it was that Gregory III had recourse\\nto the chief of the Austrasian Franks.\\nCharles Martel and Pepin the Short (715-768). After\\nthe death of Pepin d Heristal (715), Charles, his natural\\nson, took possession of the mayorship with the consent of\\nthe vassals. He was a valiant man. At the battle of Tours\\n(732) he forced the Arab invasion to retreat beyond the\\nPyrenees, and at one blow saved Christianity and German\\nsupremacy. On the east he defeated the Saxons and\\nBavarians, though leaving much to be done in that direction\\nby his successors. In the south he undertook to subjugate\\nAquitaine, still restive under the authority of the chiefs of\\nnorthern Gaul. His renown equalled his power. In 741\\ntwo nuncios from Gregory III brought him magnificent\\npresents, the keys of the tomb of Saint Peter, the titles of\\nconsul and patrician, and a suppliant letter. The Pope was\\ndisposing of what did not belong to him; for the pontiff\\noffered the conqueror of the Saracens the sovereignty of\\nRome together with the protectorate over the Roman Church.\\nIn his letter Gregory implored the aid of Charles Martel\\nagainst an energetic and ambitious prince, Luitprand king\\nof the Lombards, who wished to unite the whole Italian\\npeninsula under his sway. Although Luitprand was a\\nCatholic, he was too near Rome. Gregory desired a more\\ndistant and hence a less exacting protector; and he granted-\\na stranger what he refused to the Italian prince. This policy,\\nwhich has remained that of his successors, was perfectly\\nnatural, because despite the precept, Render unto Caesar\\nthe things which are Caesar s, the Holy See aimed at com-\\nplete independence. Yet in such attempts, what evils it\\nhas drawn down upon Italy without ever gaining a long-\\ncontinued success\\nCharles had not time to reply to this appeal. He died", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "A.D. 741-774.] THE EMPIRE OF THE FRANKS 27\\nin 741, and his sons, Carloman and Pepin, who succeeded\\nhim as mayors of the palace in Austrasiaand Neustria, were\\nat first too much occupied along their frontiers to think of\\nItaly. But in 747, when Carloman had retired to the convent\\nof Monte Cassino, Pepin despoiled his nephews and then\\ndecided to place upon his own brow the crown, that was\\nonly a mockery on the head of the Sluggard Kings. He\\nconsulted Pope Zacharias, and the latter replied that the\\ntitle belonged to him who held the power. Saint Boniface\\nrevived for his benefit the Hebrew solemnity of consecration\\nby Holy Unction (752). The last of the Merovingians was\\nshut up in a convent. Two years later Pope Stephen II\\ncame to Prance to consecrate for the second time the mayor\\nof Austrasia. Pepin repaid the Pope by giving him Pen-\\ntapolis and the exarchate of Ravenna, which he took from\\nthe Lombards. Thus two important revolutions were effected\\nsimultaneously. The first was, that among the peoples, who\\nhad always practised election to the royal power, the Church\\ncleverly introduced the contrary doctrine of divine right, of\\nwhich naturally she was the dispenser. The second was,\\nthat in exchange for this divine legitimacy, which suppressed\\nthe ancient legitimacy of election, the king prepared by his\\ndonations the temporal sovereignty of the Pope. Here were\\nseen two new principles which dominated society for ten cen-\\nturies, and which by a logical connection of things happened\\nat the same time.\\nThe other wars of Pepin the Short were directed against\\nthe Saxons, whom he vanquished against the Saracens, from\\nwhom he wrested Septimania, and against the Aquitanians,\\nwhom he subdued after eight years of rapine and fighting.\\nCharlemagne, King of the Lombards and Patrician of\\nRome (774). The second Frank monarchy, founded by\\nPepin the Short, reached its apogee under Charlemagne, who\\ncompleted the work of his two predecessors and presented\\nthe greatest reign which the history of the German invasion\\nrecords. Wherever his grandfather and father had fought, he\\ncarried on greater wars. The eastern frontier was threatened\\nby the Saxons, Danes, Slavs, Bavarians and Avars. He\\nmade eighteen expeditions against the Saxons, three against\\nthe Danes, one against the Bavarians, four against the Slavs\\nand four against the Avars. He made seven against the\\nSaracens of Spain, five against the Saracens of Italy, five\\nagainst the Lombards and two against the Greeks. If to", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "28 BISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 768^790.\\nthese we add those which he directed against several rebel-\\nlious peoples already comprised in the Frankish Empire,\\nas one against the Thuringians, one against the Aquitanians\\nand two against the Bretons, we have a total of fifty-three\\nexpeditions which Charlemagne conducted for the most part\\nin person.\\nHe had at first shared the inheritance of Pepin with his\\nbrother Carloman (768). When that prince died three years\\nafterward Charlemagne seized Austrasia, to the detriment\\nof his nephews who took refuge at the court of Didier, king\\nof the Lombards. Thus he remained sole master. While\\nwinning his first victory over the Saxons, Pope Adrian I\\nbesought aid against Didier, who had invaded the exarchate.\\nCharlemagne crossed the Alps, vanquished the Lombards\\nwhose king became a monk, threw the sons of Carloman\\ninto a convent and made a triumphal entry into Rome where\\nhe confirmed Pepin s donation to the Pope. To the title\\nof king of the Franks he added that of king of the Lom-\\nbards and of patrician, to which the sovereignty over Rome\\nand over all the domains of the Holy See entitled him (774).\\nConquest of Germany (771-804). Spanish Expedition.\\nThe war against the Saxons was begun in 771 and lasted\\nthirty-three years. This still barbarous people occupied the\\nlower course of the Weser and Elbe. Still pagans, they\\nadored the idol called Irminsul or Hermann-Saul, conse-\\ncrated to the vanquisher of Varus. When Saint Libuin\\nundertook to convert them, they butchered his companions.\\nCharlemagne supported his missionaries, who as spiritual\\nconquerors were preparing the way for conquerors of another\\nsort. He captured Ehresburg and broke Irminsul to pieces.\\nThen appeared Witikind, the Hermann of another age.\\nAgainst this valiant chieftain the most formidable expedi-\\ntions long proved of no avail. When his countrymen were\\nforced to swear allegiance to the victor at Paderborn (777),\\nhe fled to the depths of Germany and returned later on to\\nrekindle the war. After the great victory of Buckholz,\\nCharlemagne transported 10,000 Saxon families to Belgium\\nand Helvetia. He deprived the Saxons who remained in\\ntheir own country of their assemblies and their judges, put\\nthem under Frankish counts and divided their territory\\namong the bishops, abbots and priests, on condition that\\nthey should preach and baptize there. Many bishoprics\\nwere established. But Witikind, who had taken refuge", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "A.d. 790-812.] THE EMPIRE OF THE FRANKS 29\\namong the Danes, again returned and defeated several\\nFrankish generals. The massacre of 4000 Saxon prisoners\\nexcited a desperate insurrection. It required the two vic-\\ntories of Detmold and Osnabruck and a winter passed under\\narms in the snows of Saxony, to triumph over the obstinate\\nWitikind, who at last consented to receive baptism. Saxony,\\ndeluged in blood, was obliged to accept the harsh laws which\\nthe victor imposed.\\nThe submission of Bavaria had preceded that of Saxony.\\nIts provinces were divided into counties and its last duke\\nshut up in a monastery. Behind the Hungarians were the\\nAvars, a Hunnic people, who had settled in Ancient Pan-\\nnonia, and in an immense camp called the Ring guarded\\nthe spoils of the world. After fierce conflicts a son of\\nCharlemagne succeeded in getting possession of the Bang\\nand imposed tribute on the remnants of this people.\\nOn the south the Franks were less fortunate. The dis-\\naster of Bonces vaux, the resistance of the Vascons and of\\nthe Mussulmans of Spain allowed the Franks only outposts\\nbeyond the Pyrenees in the valley of the Ebro. Not until\\n812 could Louis, king of Aquitaine, the oldest son of Char-\\nlemagne, quarter his margraves south of the mountains.\\nBy those wars the whole German race, excepting the\\nAnglo-Saxons of Britain and the Northmen of Scandinavia,\\nwas united into a single group. The foreign and hostile\\npeoples which touched its frontiers, the Slavs, Avars and\\nArabs, were driven back or repressed. On the map of the\\nworld, instead of the confusion of preceding centuries, four\\ngreat states were to be seen between the Indus and the\\nAtlantic. These were the German and Greek Empires, and\\nthe Caliphates of Bagdad and Cordova.\\nLimits of the Empire. The empire of Charlemagne had\\nas its boundaries on the north and west, the ocean from the\\nmouth of the Elbe to the Spanish coast along the Bay of\\nBiscay on the south, the Pyrenees and in Spain a part of\\nthe Ebro with, in Italy the Garigliano and Pescara, not\\nincluding Gaeta which the Greeks retained, and in Illyricum\\nthe Cettina or Narenta, without including the cities of Trau,\\nZara and Spalatro on the east, the Bosna and the Sava to\\nits junction with the Danube, the Theiss, the mountains of\\nBohemia, the Saale, the Elbe and the Eyder.\\nWithin this vast circle everything was subject. Around\\nthe Carlovingian empire tributary nations formed a pro-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "30 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 800-812.\\ntecting zone. Such were the Navarrese, the Beneventines,\\nthe North Elbe Saxons and the Wiltzen, all held in check\\nby the counts of the frontiers. Brittany and Bohemia had\\nbeen ravaged but not conquered.\\nCharlemagne Emperor (800). Beginning with 800 the\\nmaster of this vast dominion was an emperor. During the\\nChristmas festivals of that year, Pope Leo III placed upon\\nhis head the crown of the Caesars. Thus was consummated\\nthe alliance between the supreme chief of German society\\nand the supreme chief of the Church.\\nIn assuming this title Charlemagne also reassumed all the\\nrights of the emperors over Rome and over its bishops.\\nApparently therefore unity, concord and peace were at last\\nto be reestablished in the western world. But on the con-\\ntrary this resuscitation of the empire was to be fatal to all\\nwho brought it about or who rejoiced at it to the emperor,\\nwho will not have the support of a wise administration and\\nwill consequently be unable to carry this mighty burden\\nto Italy, who will lose thereby its independence for ten\\ncenturies. As to the two allies of 800, the Pope and the\\nemperor, they will soon be bitter enemies and engage in the\\nquarrel of investiture and the wars of the Guelphs and\\nGhibellines.\\nGovernment. In spite of his Roman title, Charlemagne\\ncontinued the chief of the German race and especially of the\\nvictorious Austrasian nation, whose language he spoke, whose\\ncostume he wore and whose country he inhabited. Aix-la-\\nChapelle was his favorite residence. But he showed a wisdom\\nwhich had nothing of the barbarian. Twice every year the\\nnational assembly met around him. The bishops, the leudes,\\nthe freemen, the imperial agents, betook themselves there\\nfrom the ends of the empire to inform the sovereign of all\\nthat took place in their provinces. The nobles met apart\\nfrom the crowd of freemen to discuss and draw up the capit-\\nularies, of which sixty-five still exist comprising 1151 arti-\\ncles on every subject of civil and ecclesiastical government.\\nMissi dominici, or imperial envoys, traversed four times\\nannually the districts submitted to their inspection. They\\nwent in couples, always a count and a bishop together, so\\nas to supplement each other and to provide for all the needs\\nof both secular and religious society. On their return they\\nwere to give the emperor a report of the state of the prov-\\ninces.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "A.d. 800-812.] THE EMPIRE OF THE FRANKS 31\\nJustice was rendered by the provincial assemblies, no\\nlonger by all the freemen but by a certain number of pro-\\nvosts. A jury consisted of at least seven persons under the\\npresidency of a count and with right of appeal to the missi\\ndominici. Beginning with the seventh century there were\\nno more public imposts. The monarch received only what\\nwas due him as a landed proprietor from his numerous\\ndependants. His revenues thus included the harvests\\nand other income of his domains, the personal and active\\nservice of the counts and royal beneficiaries, the gratuitous\\ngifts of the nobles and the tributes of conquered countries.\\nThe expenses of the prince and of his agents were defrayed\\nby the proprietors over whose estates they passed. More-\\nover the proprietors were to maintain the roads and bridges.\\nThe army furnished its own equipment and lived at its own\\ncost without pay. The land, which the soldier had received,\\nwas his recompense.\\nCharlemagne tried to dissipate the darkness which the\\ninvasions had brought upon the world. All literature had\\ntaken refuge in the monasteries, especially among those of\\nthe Benedictines. Their order was founded by JSaint Bene-\\ndict at the beginning of the sixth century. His rule\\nrequired the copying of ancient manuscripts by the monks.\\nTo disseminate letters among his people, Charlemagne\\nfounded schools and compelled his officers to send their\\nchildren to them. In his palace he himself established an\\nacademy of which he was a member. He commenced a\\nTeutonic grammar and composed Latin poems. The prin-\\ncipal literary persons of the period are Alcuin, an English\\nmonk whom he made Abbot of Saint Martin s of Tours,\\nand Eginhard, his secretary and perhaps his son-in-law,\\nwho wrote his life.\\nThus Charlemagne sought to bring order out of chaos\\nand light out of darkness by organizing the German and\\nChristian society, which he collected around the proud\\nthrone of the emperors of the West. This effort has caused\\nhis name to be placed among those before which the world\\nbows down. Nevertheless the attempt was futile, because\\nall the moral forces of the time and all the instincts and\\ninterests of the peoples were opposed to its success. Even\\nin ancient Gaul, political unity could be preserved only by\\nan able and resolute hand. Beyond the Rhine he had built\\nthe disorderly, fermenting tribes into a living barrier against", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "32 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 800-812.\\nthe Slavs. It was much that modern Germany was to\\nsucceed old Germania. But the day when he received at\\nRome the crown of the emperors was an evil day for Italy.\\nThenceforth that beautiful land had a foreign and distant\\nmaster, who visited her only with his barbarous and greedy\\nhordes. Torrents of blood were shed and piles of ruins\\nwere heaped up for centuries in the attempt to carry on this\\npart of Charlemagne s work. Saddest ruin of all, so long\\nirreparable, was that of the people itself and of Italian\\npatriotism.\\nCharlemagne himself felt that his political edifice could\\nnot last. The partition of his estates among his sons\\nshowed that even in his eyes the empire lacked real unity.\\nAlready the apparition of the Northmen pirates foretold\\nthe calamities which were to ensue.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "A.D. 812-825.] THE LAST CABLOVINGIANS 33\\nVI\\nTHE LAST CARLOVINGIANS AND THE NORTHMEN\\nWeakness of the Carlovingian Empire. Louis the De-\\nbonair. We have seen two immense empires formed in the\\nseventh and eighth centuries by the side and at the expense\\nof the Eastern Roman Empire. In the ninth the ancient\\ncontinent changes its aspect. In place of the great blocks\\nwhich formerly covered the face of Europe, Asia and Africa,\\nwe no longer find anything but grains of sand.\\nThe Gallo-Romans and the Italians spoke with slight\\ndifferences a similar language, derived from the Latin.\\nBut the Germans retained their Teutonic idiom. Charle-\\nmagne left to the Lombards and Saxons their own laws.\\nThe Salian and Ripuarian Franks, the Alemanni and Bava-\\nrians, preserved theirs. Thus these peoples were not fused\\nand welded in one. The will of Charlemagne was the only\\nbond that held them together. After his death the efforts\\nof the tributaries to obtain freedom and the attempt of\\ntheir neighbors, Northmen, Slavs, Bretons, to begin again\\ntheir invasions, showed that the whole prestige of the new\\nempire depended upon its founder.\\nFurthermore the numerous partitions made among the\\nsons and grandsons of the Debonair attested not only the\\nambition of those princes but also the tendency of the\\nvarious peoples to separate. The first of these partitions\\ntook place in 817. It created two inferior kingdoms, Aqui-\\ntaine and Bavaria, for Pepin and Louis, the second and\\nthird sons of the emperor. The eldest, Lothaire, was to\\ninherit the empire. His brothers without his consent\\ncould neither make war nor conclude a treaty. Bernard,\\nking of Italy, nephew of the emperor, rebelled against\\nthis partition. Defeated, his eyes were put out and he died\\nfrom the torture. His kingdom was given to Lothaire.\\nLouis had married as his second wife the beautiful and\\naccomplished Judith, daughter of a Bavarian chief. She\\nbore him a son and thenceforth exercised great influence.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "34 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 825-843.\\nFor this child Louis formed a kingdom composed of Ale-\\nmannia, Rhaetia, a part of Burgundy, Provence and Septi-\\nmania. His other sons took up arms against their father\\nthrough anger at this partition. They made him prisoner\\nand reaffirmed the division of 817. They could not agree\\namong themselves and the Debonair was set free. Again\\nhis sons rebelled, and before a battle the emperor was de-\\nserted by his soldiers. He was declared by the bishops to\\nhave forfeited his crown, was shut up in a monastery at\\nSoissons and clad in the garb of a penitent. In the follow-\\ning year he was restored to the throne and made a final\\npartition in 839 favorable to his youngest son, Charles the\\nBald. His other sons were again resorting to arms when\\nhe died (840).\\nThe Treaty of Verdun (843). These shameful wars were\\npartly due to the feebleness and partiality of the Debonair,\\nbut also to the unwillingness of his second and third sons\\nto recognize the authority of their elder brother, who\\nclaimed for himself the imperial prerogatives of which the\\npeople wished to be rid. Lothaire demanded that even in\\nthe states of his brothers the oath of the freemen should\\nbe made to him. Pepin was dead, but the former adver-\\nsaries, Louis the German and Charles the Bald, combined\\nto resist this claim. A great battle took place at Fontanet\\nnear Auxerre. Almost all the peoples of the Carlovingian\\nEmpire took part in this grand encounter. Lothaire com-\\nmanded the Italians, Aquitanians and Anstrasians Louis,\\nthe Germans Charles, the Neustrians and Burgundians.\\nIn the army of Lothaire 40,000 men are said to have been\\nslain. He was defeated but refused to accept this judg-\\nment of God. To compel his submission the two victors\\nformed a closer alliance and confirmed it by an oath, which\\nLouis the German swore in the Roman language before the\\nsoldiers of Charles the Bald, and Charles swore in German\\nbefore those of Louis (842). These two oaths, the Oath\\nof Strasburg, are the two most ancient monuments we\\npossess of the French and German languages.\\nLothaire yielded. The treaty of Verdun (843) divided\\nthe Carlovingian Empire into three parts. Lothaire, with\\nthe title of emperor, secured all Italy as far as the Duchy\\nof Beneventum and from the Alps to the North Sea a long\\nstrip of land separating the states of his brothers. This\\nshare included the Netherlands, Lorraine, Burgundy, Swit-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "A.D. 843-870.] THE LAST CARLOVINGIANS 35\\nzerland, Dauphine and Provence. All which lay to the\\nwest of this track, called Lotharingia, fell to Charles the\\nBald. All which lay to the east, to Louis the German.\\nThis partition differed greatly from any made by the Me-\\nrovingians. We see in it the first demarcations of the\\nmodern nations of France and Germany. The part of\\nLothaire alone was ephemeral. The other two were des-\\ntined to aggrandize themselves from its fragments.\\nCharles the Bald (840-877). He did not really reign\\nover the whole of Gaul. The Bretons kept their indepen-\\ndence and Aquitaine for a long time would not submit.\\nWhen Lothaire died his estates were divided among his\\nthree sons. Louis II had Italy, with the title of emperor\\nCharles, the country between the Alps and the Rhone\\nunder the name of Provence; Lothaire II, the country\\nbetween the Meuse and the Rhine called Lotharingia. All\\nthree died without issue. Louis the German survived\\nthem only a few years. Charles the Bald endeavored to\\nplace all their crowns upon his head, but was unable to\\ndefend his cities against the Northmen and his authority\\nagainst the nobles.\\nProgress of Feudalism. The possessors of fiefs, or lands\\nceded for a time, and of crown offices, claimed that their\\nfiefs and offices were hereditary. This assumption was\\nalways opposed by Charlemagne, but tolerated and even\\napproved by Charles. He also allowed possessors of allo-\\ndial lands to seek the protection of the holders of great\\nfiefs. At the same time the immunities, or exemptions\\nfrom payments and from the king s jurisdiction, were\\nmultiplied. Thus the royal authority was recognized by\\nneither the powerful nor the weak.\\nThe Northmen took advantage of these disorders. They\\nlanded along the coasts, ascended the rivers and sacked the\\ncities. In 845 they pillaged the Abbey of Saint Germain\\ndes Pres at the very gates of Paris. Yearly they became\\nmore rapacious. Charles the Bald paid them money to go\\naway, thereby insuring their speedy return. Only Robert\\nthe Strong, who as duke of France held the country be-\\ntween the Seine and the Loire, offered energetic resistance.\\nThis Robert, ancestor of the Capetian dynasty, many times\\ndefeated the invaders and died fighting these pirates.\\nDeposition of Charles the Fat. Seven Kingdoms. Louis\\nII the Stammerer, son of Charles the Bald, and his sons,", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "36 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 870-987.\\nLouis III and Carloinan, had miserable reigns. They died\\nchildless and the crown was offered to Charles the Fat, the\\nson of Louis the German. He had united Germany and\\nbore the title of emperor. The empire of Charlemagne\\nwas thus reconstituted for a brief time. But it was only\\nthe shadow of a great past. Emperor though he was,\\nCharles could not repulse the Northmen who besieged\\nParis. The city was saved by Eudes, a reputed son of\\nRobert the Strong.\\nDisgusted at the cowardice of the king, the Germans\\ndeposed him at the diet of Tribur (887). Seven king-\\ndoms were formed from the fragments of the empire:\\nItaly, Germany, Lorraine, France, Navarre and two Burgun-\\ndies. Besides, Brittany and Aquitaine were independent\\nin fact if not in law. The imperial crown remained in\\nItaly, where petty sovereigns wrangled over it among them-\\nselves.\\nEudes and the last Carlovingians (887-987). Despite\\nthe opposition of the nobles, the brave Count Eudes occu-\\npied the throne. His premature death in 898 caused the\\naccession of Charles III the Simple, a posthumous son of\\nLouis the Stammerer.\\nUnder this prince the incursions of the Northmen ceased,\\nbecause, after having seized booty so long, they now seized\\nthe country itself. The treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte ceded\\nto Rollo, their terrible chief, the country between the An-\\ndelle and the ocean with the hand of the king s daughter\\nand the title of duke. In return he paid homage and be-\\ncame a Christian (911). Neustria, henceforth called Bur-\\ngundy, became prosperous under the rule of this active\\nprince. Charles, whose surname indicates his feebleness,\\nwas deposed in 922 and died in captivity in the tower of\\nPeronne. The nobles elected in his stead Robert, Duke of\\nFrance, and afterwards his son-in-law Raoul, Duke of Bur-\\ngundy. In 935 another Carlovingian king appeared in\\nLouis IV d Outremer, son of Charles the Simple, whom\\nHugh the Great, Duke of France, twice seated on the\\nthrone and twice overthrew. His son, Lothaire, succeeded\\nhim (954), but was reduced to the possession of the single\\ncity of Laon. On his deathbed he entreated Hugh Capet,\\nDuke of France, to protect his son Louis V. The latter\\nreigned only one year. Hugh Capet was proclaimed king\\nin an assembly of the principal bishops and nobles of north-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "a.d. 987.] THE LAST CARLOVINGIANS 37\\nern France. Two important factors of this enthronement\\nmust be noted. They are, that the Capetians had the\\nChurch for an ally from the very beginning, and that the\\ncrown, now united to a great fief, could thenceforth defend\\nitself unaided.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "38 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 800-850.\\nVII\\nTHE THIRD INVASION\\nThe New Invasion. The invasion which assailed the\\nsecond Western Empire four centuries after the Germans\\nhad destroyed the first or Western Roman Empire, was a\\npowerful cause in the dissolution of the Carlovingian mon-\\narchy. The movement of attack proceeded from three\\npoints, from the north, south and east, and was so pro-\\nlonged toward the west as to envelop the whole empire.\\nThe Northmen were the first to appear.\\nThe Northmen in France. The Franks, after attaining\\nthe western limits of Gaul, had voltefaced and swept back\\nfrom west to east the floods of men who had poured upon\\nthe Roman provinces. Then they undertook to subjugate\\nThuringia, Bavaria and Saxony. Their foes retreated tow-\\nard the north to the Cimbrian and Scandinavian penin-\\nsulas, where dwelt populations of their own blood. The\\nNorthmen, restrained by the military organization which\\nCharlemagne had given his eastern frontier, and by the\\nSlavs who occupied the country of the Oder, found every-\\nthing before them shut up except the sea. So they launched\\nupon the water, the path of the Swans. Familiar with\\nits tempests, the vikings or children of the fiords were\\ndaunted by no peril. The hurricane bears us on, they\\nsaid, wherever we wish to go. At first coasting along\\nthe shores for pillage and slaughter, they gradually estab-\\nlished themselves at favorable points and thence roamed all\\nover the country.\\nIn this way they took possession of the Walcheren\\nIslands at the mouth of the Scheldt, and of other places\\nat the mouths of the Rhine, Seine and Loire. In 840 they\\nburned Rouen. Three years later they pillaged Nantes,\\nSaintes and Bordeaux. Repeatedly they ravaged the out-\\nskirts of Paris, sacked Tours, Orleans and Toulouse, and\\nreached the Mediterranean. A royal edict ordered the\\ncounts and vassals to repair the castles and build new ones.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "A.D. 850-1066.] TEE TEIRD INVASION 39\\nSoon the country was well fortified. The invaders, checked\\nat every step, began to wish to settle in some safe and fer-\\ntile spot. In 911 Neustria was assigned them. Their dev-\\nastations, continued almost a century, had prepared the\\nway for feudalism.\\nThe Northmen Danes in England. The Northmen had\\nrobbed France and the Netherlands of both security and\\nproperty. From England they took her independence be-\\nsides. In 827 the Saxon Heptarchy formed but one mon-\\narchy under Egbert the Great. He repulsed the first Danes\\nwho landed upon his shores. After his death they occupied\\nNorthumberland, East Anglia and Mercia. Alfred the\\nGreat (871) arrested their progress and gave his kingdom\\nan organization, the main features of which have been pre-\\nserved. These are division of the country into counties\\ndispensation of justice by twelve freeholders as a jury;\\ndecision of general affairs by the wittenagemot or assembly\\nof the wise, aided by a half-elective, half-hereditary mon-\\narchy. Athelstane, one of his successors, vanquished the\\nDanes on the day of the great fight and drove them from\\nEngland. But they soon reappeared led by Olaf, king of\\nNorway, and Swein or Sueno, king of Denmark, who\\ncarried off enormous booty. Gold not proving an effectual\\nmeans of getting rid of them, Ethelred devised a vast plot.\\nAll the Danes who were settled in England were massacred\\non Saint Brice s day in 1002. Swein avenged his country-\\nmen by expelling Ethelred and assuming the title of king\\nof England in 1013. Edmund II Ironsides fought heroi-\\ncally but in vain against Canute, who succeeded Swein, and\\nthe whole country recognized the Danish sway. Canute\\nwas at first cruel, but grew milder. By wedding Emma, the\\nwidow of Ethelred, he paved the way for the union of the\\nvictors and the vanquished. He made wise laws or enforced\\nthose of Alfred the Great and prevented the Danes from\\noppressing the Saxons. To Scandinavia he sent Saxon\\nmissionaries who hastened the fall of expiring paganism.\\nIn 1027 he made a pilgrimage to Rome, where in behalf\\nof all England he assumed the obligation of paying each\\nyear one penny per hearth to the Pope. This contribution\\nwas called Peter s Pence.\\nThus in Prance the Northmen took only a province. In\\nEngland they seized a kingdom. On both sides of the\\nChannel these robbers showed the same aptitude for civili-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "40 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 850-950.\\nzation, and the fierce heathen became excellent Christians.\\nRollo in Normandy was a stern judicial officer and Canute\\ndeserved the name of the Great.\\nThe Northmen in the Polar Regions and in Russia. The\\nlarger number of these hardy adventurers descended toward\\nthe south where they found wine and gold. Others worked\\ntheir way through the Baltic to the very end of the Gulf of\\nFinland, or climbed above the North Cape, for the joy of\\nseeing the unknown and doing the impossible. In 861 they\\nmade their appearance in the Faroe Islands in 870 in Ice-\\nland, and a century later in Greenland whence they reached\\nLabrador and Vinland, the country of the Vine. Thus they\\nwere in America four or five centuries before Columbus\\nTheir exiles, the Varangians, penetrated at the same time\\nby way of the Baltic to the centre of the Slavs, and sold\\ntheir services to the powerful city of Novgorod, which their\\nleader, Rurik, subjugated (862). He assumed the title of\\ngrand prince, and began the state which has become the\\nRussian Empire.\\nAs the Arabs, when they emerged eastward and westward\\nfrom their parched peninsula, had spread from India to\\nSpain without quitting their native southern regions, so the\\nNorthmen, starting from their sterile peninsulas, reached\\nAmerica and the Volga and still remained in northern\\nlatitudes. The former had in certain respects an original\\ncivilization. The latter, mastered by Christianity, were in\\nno way different from the rest of the Christian nations.\\nThe Saracens and the Hungarians. The Saracens were\\nthe Arabs of Africa who, leaving their brethren to conquer\\nprovinces, took the sea for their domain and ravaged all\\nthe shores of the western Mediterranean. Tunis, or the\\nancient province of Carthage, was their point of departure.\\nAs early as 831 they subdued Sicily and passed over to the\\nGreat Land, as they called Italy. They seized Brindisi,\\nBari and Tarentum, repeatedly laid waste southern Italy\\nand even ravaged the outskirts of Rome. Malta, Sardinia,\\nCorsica and the Balearic Isles belonged to them. They\\nsettled permanently in Provence at Fraxinet, which they\\nretained until toward the close of the tenth century. They\\nhad posts in the defiles of the Alps to exact toll from com-\\nmerce and pilgrimage. Thence their raids extended into the\\nvalleys of the Rhone and Po. This piracy was more terrible\\nand more audacious than that organized in the sixteenth cen-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "A.D. 9.50-1000.] THE THIRD INVASION 41\\ntury by Khaireddin Barbarossa, whicli France suppressed\\nonly in 1830.\\nIn the valley of the Danube, through which came the\\nHungarians, the invasion had not ceased since the time of\\nAttila. .There the human streams had pressed upon each\\nother like successive waves of the sea, driven on by the\\ntempest. After the Huns came the Slavs who still remain\\nthere; then the Bulgarians, the Avars whom Charlemagne\\nexterminated, the Khazars, the Petchenegs who have dis-\\nappeared, and lastly a mixture of Hunnic and Ugrian tribes,\\nwhich the Latins and the Greeks called Hungarii or Hunga-\\nrians and who gave themselves the name of Magyars. Sum-\\nmoned by Arnulf, king of Germania, against the Slavs of\\nMoravia, they quickly subjected the plains of the Theiss\\nand of Pannonia. In 899 they ravaged Carinthia and\\nFriuli. The following year they launched their bold horse-\\nmen on both sides of the Alps into the basin of the Po, the\\nupper valley of the Danube, and even to the other side of\\nthe Rhine. Alsace, Lorraine and Burgundy were devas-\\ntated. The hordes of the third invasion, the Northmen,\\nSaracens and Hungarians, seemed to have appointed a\\nmeeting-ground in the heart of France and they left there\\nan awful memory. Germany at last made mighty efforts to\\nrid herself of these invaders. Henry the Fowler defeated\\nthem on the field of Merseburg (934), and his son Otto I\\nslew, it is said, 100,000 at the battle of Augsburg (955).\\nThis disaster hurled them back into the country which\\nthey still inhabit.\\nThe ruinous expeditions of the Magyars had the same\\nresult as those of the Northmen. In Italy the cities sur-\\nrounded themselves with walls for the purpose of defence,\\njust as the country districts of France bristled with castles,\\nand the Italians reorganized their military forces, which\\nenabled them to regain their municipal independence.\\nAustria was in the beginning a margrave s fief, formed for\\nmilitary purposes against the Hungarians. The margravate\\nof Brandenburg, in which Prussia originated, played the\\nsame part against the Slavs. These two immense .territorial\\nfortresses at last arrested the Eastern hordes in that west-\\nward march which had begun in the early periods of history.\\nThe Mongols in the thirteenth century and the Ottoman\\nTurks in the fifteenth, still obeying this primitive impulse,\\nwill make mere temporary inroads upon the Slavic world", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "42 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1000.\\nand will be forced to halt at the frontiers of the Teutonic\\nrace. No more new peoples are to be received into the\\ncountries which formed the Western Roman Empire.\\nThe invasion of the ninth century had as a consequence\\nthe foundation of new governing forces in Russia, Pannonia,\\nNormandy and England. All these countries were situated\\non the outer verge of the ancient world. Within that\\nancient world its attacks had disturbed the states founded\\nby the Germans, produced confusion and hastened the\\nprogress of feudal anarchy.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "A.D. 850-1100.] FEUDALISM 43\\nVIII\\nFEUDALISM\\nFeudalism, or the Heredity of Offices and Fiefs. We have\\njust seen how the empire was divided into kingdoms. The\\nkingdoms are about to dissolve into seigniories. The great\\npolitical masses are crumbling into dust.\\nThe officers of the king, of whatever rank, under the last\\nCarlovingians asserted the heredity of their offices or pub-\\nlic duties as well as of their fiefs or land-grants. Hence\\nwas formed a hierarchy of possessors, peculiar in this\\nrespect that every parcel of land was a fief of some lord\\nabove the tenant and that every lord was a vassal recogniz-\\ning some suzerain. Naturally in this hierarchy the pos-\\nsessors or proprietors were unequal. Moreover, various\\nconcessions or exemptions had given these landed pro-\\nprietors control of the public taxes and administration of\\nthe royal justice. Hence the king no longer was master\\nof either lands or money or judicial rights. This system\\nwas called feudalism. It was first recognized by the edict\\nof Kierry-sur-Oise (877), whereby Charles the Bald recog-\\nnized the right of a son to inherit the fief or the office of his\\nfather.\\nOne man became the vassal of another by the ceremony\\nof homage and faith. That is to say, he declared himself\\nthe man of the new lord to whom he swore fidelity. The\\nlord granted him the fief by investiture, often accompanied\\nby some symbolic rite such as gift of a sod, a stone, or staff.\\nWithout mentioning the moral obligations of the vassal to\\ndefend and respect his lord, insure him deference from\\nothers and aid him by good counsel, he was bound by cer-\\ntain material obligations. These were (1) Military ser-\\nvice, a fundamental principle of this society which was\\nunacquainted with permanent salaried armies. The number\\nof men to be furnished on requisition of the lord and the\\nlength of service varied according to the fief, here sixty\\ndays, there forty, elsewhere twenty. (2) Obligation to", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "44 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 850-1100.\\nserve the suzerain in his court of justice and attend his\\nsessions. (3) The aids or assistance, in some forms legal\\nand obligatory, in others benevolent or voluntary. The\\nlegal assistance was due, when the lord was a prisoner and\\na ransom must be provided, when knighthood was conferred\\nupon his eldest son, and when he gave his eldest daughter\\nin marriage. Such assistance took the place of public taxes.\\nCertain other services were required. These duties once\\nrendered, the vassal became almost the master of his fief.\\nHe could enfeoff or let the whole or a part of it to vassals\\nof inferior rank.\\nThe suzerain also had his obligations. He could not\\narbitrarily and without sufficient cause deprive a vassal of\\nhis fief. He was bound to defend him if attacked and to\\ntreat him justly. Judgment by one s peers was the princi-\\nple of feudal justice. The vassals of the same suzerain\\nwere equal among themselves. If the lord refused justice\\nto his vassal, the latter could appeal to the superior suze-\\nrain. He even exercised at need the right of private war,\\na right of which the lords were very tenacious and which\\nrendered feudalism a violent system, opposed to all pacific\\ndevelopment of human society and injurious to commerce,\\nagriculture and industry. This same principle caused the\\nadmission into legal procedure of the judicial combat in\\nclosed lists. The Truce of God, which forbade private\\nwars between Wednesday evening and Monday morning,\\nwas an effort on the part of the Church to moderate the\\nviolence which it could not entirely prevent.\\nJurisdiction did not appertain to all lords in the same\\nmeasure. In France three degrees were recognized, high,\\nlow and intermediate. The first alone conferred the right\\nof life and death. In general the largest fiefs possessed\\nthe most extensive jurisdiction. Among seigniorial rights\\nwe must note that of coming money, exercised at the advent\\nof Hugh Capet by not less than 150 lords. Moreover,\\nwithin the limits of his own fief each made the law. The\\ncapitularies of Charles the Bald are the last manifestations\\nof public legislative power. Thenceforward to the time\\nof Philip Augustus general laws no longer existed in\\nFrance, being superseded by local customs. The clergy\\nitself entered this system. The bishop, formerly the\\ndefender of the city, often became its count and hence\\nthe suzerain of all the lords of his diocese. Moreover the", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "A.D. 850-1100.] FEUDALISM 45\\nbishop or abbot, through, donations made to his church or\\nconvent, received great possessions which he enfeoffed.\\nThis ecclesiastical feudalism became so powerful that in\\nFrance and England it held more than one-fifth, and in\\nGermany nearly one-third of all the land.\\nBelow the warlike society of the lords was the toiling\\nsociety of the villeins and serfs. The freemen had disap-\\npeared. The villeins, or free tenants, and the serfs culti-\\nvated the land for the lord under the shadow of the feudal\\nkeep around which they clustered, and which sometimes de-\\nfended but more often oppressed them. The villein had\\nonly to pay his fixed rents like a farmer and to perform\\nthe least onerous forced labor. He could not be detached\\nfrom the land which had been assigned him to cultivate,\\nbut he had the right to hold it as his own. A s for the serfs,\\nThe sire, says Pierre de Fontaine, can take all that\\nthey have, can hold their bodies in prison whenever he\\npleases, and is forced to answer therefor only to God alone.\\nIn spite of this the condition of the serf was better than\\nthat of the slave in antiquity. He was regarded as a man.\\nHe had a family. The Church, which declared him a son\\nof Adam, made him, before God. at least, the equal of the\\nproudest lords.\\nTo sum up the abandonment of every right to the lord,\\nsuch is the principle of feudal society. As royalty no\\nlonger fulfilled the office for which it was founded, protec-\\ntion could no longer be expected from either the law or\\nthe nominal head of the state, and was now demanded\\nfrom the bishops, the barons and powerful persons. It\\nwas the sword which afforded this protection. Hence arose\\nthose interminable wars which broke out everywhere in\\nfeudal Europe, and which through their inevitable results\\nof murder and pillage were the scourge of the period.\\nNevertheless many persons admire those days which\\npressed so heavily upon the poor. They admit that com-\\nmerce and industry had fallen very low, that social life\\nseemed to have returned to elementary conditions, that\\nthere was much outrage and little security, that, despite the\\nexhortations of the Church, in this miserable intellectual\\nstate passions were more brutal than in our age and vices\\nas numerous. But, they say, the serf of the soil was\\nhappier than the serf of modern industry competition did\\nnot rob him of his meagre pittance j setting aside the", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "46 BISTORT OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 850-1100.\\nchances of private war and brigandage, he was more\\nassured of the morrow than are our laborers his needs\\nwere limited, like his desires he lived and died under the\\nshadow of his bell-tower, full of faith and resignation.\\nAll this is true. Yet nature has not made man a plant\\nto vegetate in the forest or an animal to be led by his appe-\\ntites.\\nOn many points the Middle Ages were inferior to antiq-\\nuity. As to a few they were in advance. They made many\\nmen miserable, but they provided many asylums in the\\nmonasteries. Under the beneficent influence of Christian-\\nity the family was reconstituted. Through the necessity of\\ndepending upon one s self the soul gained vigor. Those\\nlovers of battle recovered the sentiments of courage and\\nhonor which the Romans of the decline no longer knew.\\nThough the state was badly organized, there existed for\\nthe vassal strong legal maxims, which through a thousand\\nviolations have come down to us: no tax can be exacted\\nwithout the consent of the taxpayers no law is valid unless\\naccepted by those who have to obey it no sentence is legit-\\nimate unless rendered by the peers of the accused. Lastly,\\nin the midst of this society which recognized no claims but\\nthose of blood, the Church by the system of election as-\\nserted those of intelligence. Furthermore, by its God-man\\nupon the cross and its doctrine of human equality, it was\\nto the great inequalities of earth a constant intimation of\\nwhat shall be carried into effect when the principle of reli-\\ngious law passes into civil law.\\nGreat French, German and Italian Fiefs. The feudal\\norganization, which was complete only at the end of the\\neleventh century, reigned in all the provinces of the Car-\\nlovingian empire. Yet the great names of France, Germany\\nand Italy survived, and great titles were borne by the so-\\ncalled kings of those countries. Yet these were show kings,\\nnot real kings. They were mere symbols of the territorial\\nunity which had vanished, and not genuine, active, powerful\\nheads of nations. The Italian royalty disappeared early.\\nThe royalty of France fell very low. The crown of Ger-\\nmany, however, shed a brilliant light for two centuries after\\nOtto I had restored the empire of Charlemagne. Yet the\\ncopy shrank in proportion as the model became more remote.\\nCharlemagne reigned over fewer peoples than Constantine\\nand Theodosius. The Ottos, the Henrys, the Fredericks,", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "A.D. 850-1100.] FEUDALISM 47\\nreigned over less territory than Charlemagne and their\\nauthority was less unquestioned.\\nThe king of France possessed the duchy of France, which\\nhad become a royal domain. Enclosing this territory on every\\nside between the Loire, the ocean, the Scheldt, the upper Meuse\\nand the Saone stretched vast principalities, whose princes\\nrivalled him in wealth and power. These were the counties of\\nFlanders, Anjou and Champagne, and the duchies of Nor-\\nmandy and Burgundy. Between the Loire and the Pyrenees\\nlay the ancient kingdom of Aquitaine, divided into the four\\ndominant fiefs of the duchies of Aquitaine and Gascony\\nand the counties of Toulouse and Barcelona. These great\\nfeudatories, immediate vassals of the crown, were called\\npeers of the king. To these lay peers, six ecclesiastical\\npeers were added the archbishop-duke of Reims, the bishop-\\ndukes of Laon and Langres, and the three bishop-counts\\nof Beauvais, Chalons and Noyon. Among the secondary\\nfiefs were reckoned not less than 100 counties and a still\\ngreater number of fiefs of inferior order. The kingdom\\nof Aries included the three valleys of the Saone, Rhone and\\nAar.\\nThe nominal boundaries of the kingdom of Germany\\nwere on the west, the Meuse and Scheldt on the north-\\nwest, the North Sea; on the north, the Eyder, the Baltic\\nand the little kingdom of Slavonia on the east, the Oder\\nand the kingdoms of Poland and Hungary on the south,\\nthe Alps. It comprised nine main territorial divisions the\\nvast duchy of Saxony, Thuringia, Bohemia, Moravia, the\\nduchies of Bavaria and Carinthia, Alemannia or Suabia,\\nFranconia and lastly Friesland on the shores of the North\\nSea.\\nThe kingdom of Italy comprehended Lombardy, or the\\nbasin of the Po, with its great republics of Milan, Pavia,\\nVenice and Genoa the duchy or marquisate of Tuscany,\\nthe States of the Church also the four Norman states, the\\nprincipalities of Capua and Aversa and of Tarentum, the\\nduchy of Apulia and Calabria, and the grand county of\\nSicily.\\nIn Christian Spain we find in the centre the kingdom of\\nCastile and Leon in the west, the county of Portugal,\\ndependent upon the crown of Castile on the north and\\nnortheast, the kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon. In Great\\nBritain are the kingdoms of England and Scotland and the", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "48 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 850-1100.\\nprincipality of Wales. Between the North Sea and the\\nBaltic are the three Scandinavian states of Sweden, Nor-\\nway and Denmark. Among the Slavs are the kingdoms of\\nSlavonia on the Baltic, of Poland on the Vistula, the grand\\nduchy of Russia with its multitude of divisions, and the\\nduchy of Lithuania. In the year 1000 Pope Sylvester II\\nsent a royal crown to Saint Stephen who had just con-\\nverted the Hungarians. Soon Christian Europe is to rush\\nin the direction of the Eastern Empire, from which the Arabs\\nhave stripped Africa and Egypt and on whose provinces of\\nSyria and Asia Minor the Turks are encamped.\\nCivilization from the Ninth to the Twelfth Century. The\\nrevival of letters under Charlemagne did not survive him.\\nHincmar, the great bishop of Reims, the monk Gottschalk,\\nadvocate of predestination, and his adversary, Joannes\\nScotus Erigena, still agitated burning questions. After\\nthem silence and thick darkness covered the tenth century.\\nThe physical like the moral wretchedness was extreme. So\\nmiserable was the world that mankind believed it would\\nend in the year 1000. The future seeming so brief, build-\\nings were no longer erected, and those existing were allowed\\nto fall in ruin. After that fatal year was past, men began\\nagain to hope and live. Human activity awoke. Numerous\\nchurches were constructed. Sylvester II cast abroad in\\nEurope the first intimation of the Crusade which was about\\nto set the world in motion.\\nA literary movement awoke more powerful than that\\nunder Charlemagne. The vulgar tongues were already\\nassuming their place at the side of the learned and universal\\necclesiastical Latin. The latter was still employed in the\\nconvents, which rapidly multiplied. It continued as the\\nmedium of theology and of the grave discussions which\\nbegan to resound. Lanfranc, abbot of Bee and afterwards\\narchbishop of Canterbury, and his successor, Saint Anselm\\nwho composed the famous treatise of the Monologium,\\nimparted fresh animation to the movement of ideas. The\\neleventh century had not closed when the fierce battle com-\\nmenced between the realists and the nominalists in which\\nAbelard took such brilliant part.\\nThe vulgar tongues were as numerous as the newly\\nformed nations. Teutonic idioms prevailed in Germany, the\\nScandinavian states and England. In Italy arose Italian,\\ndestined to attain perfection before the others. In France", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "A.D. 850-1100.] FEUDALISM 49\\nwas fashioned the Romance, already distinguished as the\\nnorthern Romance or Walloon or language of o il, and the\\nsouthern Romance or Provencal or language of oc, which\\nwas also spoken in the valley of the Ebro.\\nThe first literary use of the Romance was made by the\\npoets of the time, the trouveres in the north, the troubadours\\nin the south, and the jongleurs. The trouvere and troubadour\\ninvented and composed the poem which the jongleur recited.\\nSometimes the same person was both composer and reciter.\\nThey roamed from castle to castle, relieving by their songs\\nthe ennui of the manor. The trouveres generally composed\\nchansons de gestes, epics of twenty, thirty or fifty thousand\\nverses. They treated the subjects in cycles according to the\\nperiod represented. First was the Carlovingian cycle with\\nCharlemagne and his twelve peers as the heroes and the\\nClianson de Roland as its masterpiece. Then came the\\nArmorican cycle with King Arthur, the champion of Breton\\nindependence, and the exploits of the knights of the Round\\nTable. The principal poet of this theme is Robert Wace,\\nwith his Roman de Brut. To the third cycle belong all\\nthose ancient subjects which now take their place in popular\\npoetry like a distant and confused prophecy of the Re-\\nnaissance. These heroic lays are the poetry of feudalism\\nand also of the chivalry which followed it.\\nThe lords delighted in gathering their vassals around\\nthem. To some they confided services of honor as constable,\\nmarshal, seneschal, or chamberlain. The vassal brought his\\nsons to the court of his suzerain, where as pages and es-\\nquires they were trained for knighthood. Into that exalted\\nrank they were initiated by a ceremony, partly religious and\\npartly military. The fast for twenty-four hours, the vigil,\\nthe bath, the accolade, the assumption of sword and spurs,\\nwere among its rites. To pray, to flee from sin, to defend\\nthe Church, the widow, the orphan, to protect the people,\\nto make war honorably, to do battle for one s lady, to love\\none s lord, to pay heed to the wise, such were the duties of\\nthe knight. The tournament was his diversion.\\nThis new and original society not only produced scholasti-\\ncism, the vulgar tongues, feudalism and chivalry, but also\\nmade innovations in art. To the Roman architecture, indif-\\nferently called Byzantine or Lombard and distinguished by\\na rounded arch supported on columns, succeeded a pointed\\narchitecture, wrongly termed gothic. The pointed arch, an", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "50 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 850-1100.\\nelementary and easier style than the rounded arch, belongs\\nto all times and countries, but it was monopolized in the\\ntwelfth century and became the essential element in that\\nnew architecture which has imparted to mediaeval cathe-\\ndrals their imposing grandeur.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "a.d. 887-1000.] THE GERMAN EMPIRE 51\\nIX\\nTHE GERMAN EMPIRE. STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE\\nPAPACY AND THE EMPIRE\\nGermany from 887 to 1056. While France was calling\\nto the throne her native lords, Eudes and Hugh Capet,\\nGermany, on the deposition of Charles the Fat (887), elected\\nArnulf, the bastard son of Carloman and a descendant of\\nCharlemagne. As heir of the Carlovingian claims this\\nprince received the homage of the kings of France, Trans-\\nJurane Burgundy, Aries and Italy. Finally he caused him-\\nself to be crowned king of Italy and emperor. Thereby he\\nonly gained an additional title. He repulsed several bands\\nof Northmen and set against the Moravians the Hungarians,\\nwho were beginning to make as devastating raids through\\nEurope as those of the northern pirates. With his son,\\nLouis the Child, the German Carlovingian branch became\\nextinct. Hence Germany began to choose sovereigns from\\ndifferent families, and election took root among German\\npolitical customs at the very time when French royalty was\\nbecoming hereditary like the possession of a fief. There-\\nfore the two royalties had a different experience in store.\\nConrad I was elected in 911. Under him began that con-\\nflict, which filled all the German Middle Ages, between the\\ngreat feudatories and the Franconian emperor. He wished\\nto weaken Saxony, the rival of Franconia, and to deprive it\\nof Thuringia. Vanquished at Ehresburg by Duke Henry,\\nhe gained an advantage over the Duke of Lorraine whom\\nhe despoiled of Alsace, and over the governors of Suabia\\nwhom he beheaded.\\nAfter him the crown passed to the house of Saxony, where\\nit remained for more than 100 years. Conrad on his death-\\nbed had designated for his successor his former conqueror\\nas the man most capable of defending Germany against the\\nHungarians. So Duke Henry was elected.\\nHe brought order out of disorder and gave Germany\\ndefinite boundaries. He forced every man above sixteen to", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "52 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 934-1050.\\nbear arms and founded fortresses on the frontiers. The great\\nvictory won by him near Merseburg (934) announced that the\\ndepredations of the Hungarians were near their end. His\\nson, Otto I the Great, inflicted on them a decisive defeat at\\nAugsburg (955), which compelled them to remain quiet in\\nthe country they still inhabit. The dukes of Franconia and\\nBavaria had rebelled and were supported by the French\\nking, Louis IV. Otto defeated the rebels and penetrated\\nFrance as far as Paris.\\nThe restoration of the empire is the most important\\nachievement of his reign. The last titular emperor, Be-\\nranger, had been assassinated. Otto wedded his queen,\\nwas proclaimed king of Italy at Milan and crowned em-\\nperor at Rome (962). He undertook to maintain the dona-\\ntions made the Holy See by Charlemagne, the Romans\\npromising not to elect a Pope except in the presence of the\\nemperor s envoys. By a single blow he thus restored the\\nempire to the benefit of the kings of Germany, and founded\\na German domination over Italy. The southern part of the\\nItalian peninsula remained in the possession of the Greeks.\\nTo obtain this territory without combat he secured the hand\\nof the Princess Theophania for his son Otto. His succes-\\nsors, Otto II, Otto III and Henry II, were unable to retain\\nthe predominance which he had exercised. Under Otto III\\nthe tribune Crescentius tried to overturn the papal authority\\nand restore the Roman republic. Under Henry II Italy\\ngave to herself for a moment a national king.\\nIn 1024 the imperial crown departed from the house of\\nSaxony and entered that of Franconia. Conrad II compelled\\nthe king of Poland to recognize him as his suzerain, made\\nprisoner the king of Bohemia and reunited to the empire\\nthe two Burgundies. The convention which he signed with\\nthe aged king of Aries is invoked by German writers to-day,\\nas a claim on behalf of the present German Empire to the\\ntwo valleys of the Saone and Rhone. In Italy Conrad\\nruined the Italian system of feudalism by his edict of 1037,\\nwhich declared that all fiefs depended directly from the\\nprince. His son, Henry III (1039), was the one emperor\\nwhose authority was best assured in Germany and Italy.\\nHe forced the king of Bohemia to pay tribute, restored to\\nAlba, Royale, the banished king of Hungary, and received\\nhis homage. In Italy he dominated even the papacy.\\nThe Monk Hildebrand. A monk, the counsellor of many", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1050-1073.] THE GERMAN 1 EMPIRE 53\\nPopes before he himself succeeded to the Holy See, pro-\\nposed to deliver the papacy and Italy from German control.\\nIn 1059 Hildebrand caused a decree to be issued by Nicho-\\nlas II, which announced that the election of the Popes\\nshould be made by the cardinal priests and cardinal\\nbishops of the Roman territory that the other clergy and\\nthe Roman people should then give their assent that the\\nemperor should retain the right of confirmation and lastly,\\nthat in election a member of the Roman clergy should be\\npreferred. Another decree forbade any ecclesiastic to re-\\nceive the investiture of an ecclesiastical benefice from a\\nlayman. These decrees freed the Pope from dependence\\nupon the emperor and placed all the temporal power of the\\nChurch in the hand of the pontiff thus emancipated.\\nGregory VII and Henry IV (1073-1085).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In 1073 Hilde-\\nbrand was elected Pope under the name of Gregory VII. The\\nPope was about to complete the work of the monk. His plans\\nenlarged with his opportunity. Charlemagne and Otto the\\nGreat had rendered the Pope subordinate to themselves,\\nand had placed the church within the state as the Greeks\\nand Romans had done. But royalty, the central power,\\nwas declining throughout Europe because of the invading pro-\\ngress of the feudal system or the increasing local powers of\\nthe dukes, counts and barons. The clergy, on the other\\nhand, had beheld popular faith and confidence in the Church\\nincrease in that same century. Its leader decided that the\\nmoment had come for restoring to those charged with the\\nsalvation of the soul the influence necessary for imparting\\nthe best direction to civil society, and for repressing moral\\ndisorders, violations of justice and all the causes of perdition.\\nIn a priest, such an ambition was great and legitimate.\\nBut had this attempt succeeded, the state in consequence\\nwould have been placed within the church. A sacerdotal\\nautocracy would have formed to prevent all movement in\\nthe world, in thought, science and art.\\nGregory VII desired four things. He wished to deliver\\nthe papal throne from German suzerainty to reform the\\nChurch in its manners and discipline; to render it every-\\nwhere independent of the temporal power and, lastly, to\\ngovern the laity, both peoples and kings, in the name and\\ninterest of their salvation. The first point was attained by\\nthe decree of Nicholas II and the refusal to submit the\\nelection of Popes to the imperial sanction. The second", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "54 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1073-1122.\\nobject was favored by many acts of Gregory VII for the\\nreformation of the clergy and the abolition of simony. To\\naccomplish the third, the non-clerical princes had been\\nforbidden to bestow, and the clergy to receive from their\\nhands, the investiture of any ecclesiastical benefice. The\\nlast was to be brought about by the pontiff s haughty\\ninterference in the government of kingdoms.\\nIn the attempt to render the Church independent of the\\nempire, there arose between the two the famous so-called\\nquarrel of investitures.\\nDuring the minority of Henry IV, all sorts of disorders\\nhad invaded the German priesthood. Gregory, imputing\\nthese scandals to the unhappy selection of prelates, called\\nupon Henry to renounce the bestowal of ecclesiastical digni-\\nties and to appear at Rome to justify himself for his pri-\\nvate conduct. The emperor retorted by having Gregory\\ndeposed by twenty-four bishops in the Synod of Worms\\n(1076). Thereupon the Pope launched against him a bull\\nof excommunication and forfeiture. The Saxons and Sua-\\nbians, traditional enemies of the Franconian house, executed\\nthis sentence in the Diet of Tribur, which suspended the\\nemperor from his functions, and threatened him with depo-\\nsition if he did not become reconciled to Rome. Henry\\nyielded. He hurried to Italy and sought the Pope in the\\ncastle of Canossa on the lands of the Countess Matilda, who\\nwas an adherent of the Holy See. Barefoot in the snow he\\nwaited three days for an audience with the pontiff. He\\nretired, absolved but furious, and opened war. The battle\\nof Volkshein, where his rival, Rodolph of Suabia, was slain\\nby Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine and\\nbearer of the imperial standard, made him master of Ger-\\nmany (1080). He could then return to Italy in triumph.\\nThe Countess Matilda was despoiled of part of her posses-\\nsions, Rome was captured and the bishop of Ravenna was\\nappointed Pope as Clement III. Gregory himself would\\nhave fallen into the hands of the man he had so contemned,\\nif the Normans who had just conquered southern Italy had\\nnot come to his aid. He died among them, saying, Because\\nI have loved justice and chastised iniquity, therefore I die\\nin exile (1085).\\nConcordat of Worms (1122). Henry IV was victor, but\\nthe Church roused his own son against him and he perished\\nmiserably. Nevertheless it was this parricidal son, Henry V,", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "a.d. 1122-1150.] THE GERMAN EMPIRE 55\\nwho put an end to the quarrel of investitures. The Con-\\ncordat of Worms equably settled the dispute (1122). It as-\\nsigned to the temporal sovereign, the emperor, the temporal\\ninvestiture by the sceptre, and to the spiritual sovereign,\\nthe Pope, the spiritual investiture by the cross and ring.\\nThe plan of Gregory VII had only half succeeded, for the\\nbond of vassalage was still unbroken which bound the clergy\\nto the prince. But in its members, if not in its head, the\\nchurch remained within the state.\\nAs chief of the empire this same Henry inherited the\\nfiefs of Countess Matilda and as her nearest relative her\\nallodial property. Thus he became possessor of all her\\nrich estates. The nearest approach to feudal power in the\\npeninsula was thus annihilated. But the Franconian dy-\\nnasty became extinct with this emperor (1125). Despite\\nall the efforts of this house to weaken the general feudal\\nsystem in Germany by conceding direct dependence on the\\ncrown to a host of petty seigniories and by raising many\\ntowns to the rank of imperial cities, it had tolerated the\\nexistence of several powerful vassals, and above all of the\\nWelfs, dukes of Bavaria, and of the Hohenstaufens, dukes\\nof Suabia. Thus Lothaire II (1125-1138) bore himself hum-\\nbly in the presence of these princes. He was no less humble\\nbefore the Pope who, when placing upon his head the\\nimperial crown, claimed to confer it as a benefice.\\nThe Hohenstaufens. The house of Suabia ascended the\\nthrone with Conrad III. He obtained a firm footing by de-\\nstroying the power of the Welfs through the spoliation of\\nHenry the Proud, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria. His unfor-\\ntunate part in the second crusade and his death soon after\\nhis return prevented the completion of his work. But his\\nson, Frederick I, Barbarossa, caused the imperial power once\\nmore to appear with brilliancy in Italy. Instead of the\\nfeudal system which no longer existed there, had arisen a\\nmedley of petty lordships and of cities organized into repub-\\nlics with their senates, consuls and general assemblies. This\\npolitical system extended even to Rome, whence Arnaldo\\nde Brescia expelled Pope Innocent II (1141). Frederick\\nspeedily destroyed this beginning of Italian independence\\nand burned Arnaldo at the stake. But by making his author-\\nity too evident he alienated the republics and the Pope\\nhimself whom he had just restored. His despotic principles,\\nenunciated at the Diet of Roncalia by the legists of the", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "56 BISTORT OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1150-1200.\\nBolognese school, caused alarm. Milan revolted against his\\nmagistrates. He razed it to the ground and abandoned its\\nruins to the neighboring rival cities. Hardly had he re-\\nturned to Germany, when the Lombard League was formed\\nbehind him. It was joined by Pope Alexander III, the\\nDefender of Italian Liberty. Frederick, who marched has-\\ntily to destroy the coalition, was completely overthrown at\\nLegnano (1176).\\nSeven years later the Treaty of Constance definitely reg-\\nulated the quarrel between the empire and Italy, as the\\nConcordat of Worms had regulated that between the empire\\nand the papacy. The cities retained the rights which they\\nhad usurped. They could levy armies, protect themselves\\nwith fortifications, exercise civil and criminal jurisdiction\\nwithin their boundaries and form confederations with one\\nanother. The emperor retained only the right of confirm-\\ning their consuls by his legates and of placing a judge of\\nappeals for certain causes in each city.\\nBarbarossa had not everywhere been so unsuccessful. The\\nkings of Denmark and Poland acknowledged his suzerainty.\\nHenry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, was deprived\\nof his dominions. Foreign ambassadors attended the splen-\\ndid diets convoked by the emperor, at the most celebrated\\nof which, in Mayence, 40,000 knights appeared.\\nHis son Henry succeeded (1190). As the husband of Con-\\nstance, daughter and heiress of Roger II, king of Sicily, he\\nestablished the house of Suabia in southern Italy. Thus\\nan equivalent was gained for loss of authority in the north,\\nand the Holy See was enveloped on all sides. Innocent III\\n(1198-1216) resolved to avert this new danger. He had\\nexcommunicated the kings of France, Aragon and Norway\\nfor transgression of the moral code, and had set another\\nportion of Christendom again in motion by preaching the\\nfourth crusade. When he beheld kings abase themselves\\nbefore him and nations rise at his voice, the Pope naturally\\nbelieved himself strong enough to humble the ambitious\\nhouse which persistently cherished the memory of imperial\\nsupremacy over Rome. In Germany he supported Otto of\\nBrunswick against Philip of Suabia, and the fierce struggle\\nof the Guelphs, or partisans of the Church, against the\\nGhibellines, or partisans of the empire, began. Displeased\\nwith Otto, who when rid of his rival made the same claims\\nupon Italy, Innocent turned again to the house of Suabia", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1200-1240.] THE GERMAN EMPIRE 57\\nand caused the young Frederick II, son of Henry VI, to\\nbe recognized as emperor on condition of his abandoning\\nthe Two Sicilies. But this prince, a lover of art and letters\\nand a man of easy character, retained those provinces where\\nwas his favorite residence. In his palaces at Naples, Mes-\\nsina and Palermo, he and his chancellor, Pierre des Vignes,\\nvigorously organized his Italian kingdom. To possess a\\nconstant defence against the thunders of the Church, he en-\\ngaged an army of Saracens in his service.\\nThe Pope beheld with affright the firm grip of this Ger-\\nman upon Italy. In the south, Frederick held his Kingdom\\nof the Two Sicilies. In the centre he enjoyed the posses-\\nsions of the Countess Matilda. In the north his title of\\nemperor conferred both influence and rights. To remove\\nthe obnoxious ruler to a distance, the Pope ordered him to\\ntake the cross. When Frederick hesitated, he threatened\\nhim with an anathema if he did not fulfil the vow he had\\ntaken. Frederick set out on the crusade, but he did not\\nfight. A treaty with the sultan of Egypt threw open to\\nhim the gates of the Holy City (1228). He crowned him-\\nself king of Jerusalem and then hastened to return. His\\nabsence had afforded Gregory IX, the energetic old man\\nwho then occupied the throne of Saint Peter, time to re-\\norganize the Lombard League, to persuade the young prince\\nHenry to rebel against his father and to hurl an adventurer\\nwith an army upon the kingdom of Naples. Frederick\\novercame all his adversaries. The defeat of the Lombards\\nat Corte Nuova seemed to place Italy at his feet.\\nThe Pope alone did not yield. He issued a sentence of\\nexcommunication and deposition against him, and offered\\nthe imperial crown to Robert of Artois, brother to the king\\nof France. Louis IX refused this proffer to his family, and\\nreproached the Pope with wishing to trample all sover-\\neigns together with the emperor under his feet. Gregory\\nthen sought the support of a council which he convoked in\\nthe church of Saint John Lateran. At Melloria the vessels\\nof Frederick defeated the Genoese fleet, which was carry-\\ning the Fathers to the council, and two cardinals together\\nwith bishops and abbots were captured. Gregory died of\\ngrief. His successor, Innocent IV, escaped from Rome in\\ndisguise, assembled at Lyons a council which excommuni-\\ncated Frederick II, and caused a crusade against him to be\\npreached. When the tidings was told the emperor, he", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "58 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1240-1250.\\nseized his crown, planted it more firmly on his head and\\nexclaimed, It shall not fall until rivers of blood have\\nflowed. He appealed to the sovereigns of Europe If I\\nperish, you all perish. He hurled his Saracens upon cen-\\ntral Italy while his ally, Eccelino de Eomano, the tyrant of\\nPadua, fought and butchered in the north. But the cities\\neverywhere rose at the call of the priests and monks.\\nFrom one end of the peninsula to the other, the Guelphs\\nflew to arms in behalf of the Holy Father who for his own\\nfreedom needed that Italy also be free. In vain did Fred-\\nerick humble himself. He offered to abdicate, to go and\\ndie in the Holy Land, to divide his heritage on condition\\nthat it should be left to his children. Innocent remained\\nimmovable, and pursued the annihilation of that race of\\nvipers. The struggle was becoming still more envenomed\\nwhen the emperor died suddenly (1250). His death\\nheralded the fall of German domination in Italy and the\\nbeginning in the peninsula of a new period, that of inde-\\npendence.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00abesG3\u00c2\u00bbw\u00c2\u00ab a K Z- 5 1 Mil,,, k ,T\\nSl j\\nr. Y. Cr?\\\\", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "TURN\\n9\\nEr.tra.eJ l,j Culivn, Ohmai, i Cu., N.V.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "a.d. 1059-1095.] CRUSADES IN THE EAST AND WEST 59\\nTHE CRUSADES IN THE EAST AND IN THE WEST\\nThe First Crusade in the East (1096-1099). During the\\nMiddle Ages there were two worlds, that of the Gospel and\\nthat of the Koran, the one in the north and the other in the\\nsouth. At their points of contact in Spain and toward\\nConstantinople they had long been engaged, in conflict. At\\nthe end of the eleventh century the two religions grappled,\\nand their encounter is called the crusades.\\nMussulman Asia had passed from the power of the\\nArabs into that of the Seldjuk Turks. Under Alp Arslan\\n(1063) and Malek Shah (1075) they had conquered Syria,\\nPalestine and Asia Minor. At the death of Malek Shah\\nhis empire was divided into the sultanates of Syria, Persia\\nand Kerman, to which must be added that of Poum in Asia\\nMinor. The empire of Constantinople, the bulwark of\\nChristendom, had wavered at this new invasion. For a\\ntime it seemed hardly able to resist its enemies, despite the\\nvigor it manifested under several emperors of the Macedo-\\nnian and Comnenan dynasties and the victories it had\\ngained over the Persians, Bulgarians, Russians and Arabs.\\nAt the very beginning of the century, Pope Sylvester II\\nhad suggested to the Western peoples the idea of delivering\\nthe Holy Sepulchre (1002). Pilgrimages became more fre-\\nquent. Pilgrims by thousands visited the sacred places and\\non their return inflamed Europe with stories of outrages\\nand cruelties endured from the Mussulmans. Gregory VII\\ntook up the project of Sylvester, and Urban II put it into\\nexecution. At Piacenza he convened a council where am-\\nbassadors appeared from Constantinople. At a second\\ncouncil at Clermont in Auvergne, an innumerable multitude\\nassembled. Supporting his own majestic eloquence by the\\npopular eloquence of Peter the Hermit, who had just re-\\nturned from the Holy Land, Urban carried the immense\\nhost captive. With the cry God wills it each man\\nfastened to his garments the red cross, the emblem of the", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "60 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1095-1099.\\ncrusade (1095). Peasants, villagers, old men, women and\\nchildren set out, pell-mell, under the lead of Peter the\\nHermit and of a petty noble, Walter the Penniless.\\nAlmost the whole multitude perished in Hungary, and\\nthose who reached Constantinople fell under the cimeter\\nin Asia Minor.\\nIn the following year the crusade of the nobles started,\\nmore prudent, better organized, more military. Four great\\narmies, composed chiefly of Frenchmen, departed by three\\ndifferent routes. Those under Godfrey of Bouillon, Bald-\\nwin of Bourg and Baldwin of Flanders followed the track\\nof Peter the Hermit. Those under Raymond, Count of\\nToulouse, passed through Lombardy and Slavonia. The\\nrest, commanded by Robert Duke of Normandy, son of\\nWilliam I of England, Stephen of Blois and Hugh the\\nGreat of Vermandois went to Brindisi to join the Italian\\nNormans, and thence crossed the Adriatic, Macedonia and\\nThrace. These 600,000 men were to meet at Constantinople.\\nWith distrust the Emperor Alexis received into his\\ncapital guests so uncouth as the warriors of the West. As\\nsoon as possible he had them transported beyond the Bos-\\nphorus. They first laid siege to Nicsea at the entrance to\\nAsia Minor, but allowed the Greeks to plant their banner\\non the walls when the city had been forced to surrender.\\nKilidj Arslan, the sultan of Roum, tried to arrest their\\nmarch, but was vanquished at Dorylaeum (1097). On enter-\\ning arid Phrygia hunger and thirst decimated the invaders.\\nNearly all the horses perished. Bitter dissensions already\\ndivided the leaders. Nevertheless Baldwin who led the\\nvanguard took possession of Edessa on the upper Eu-\\nphrates, and the bulk of the army captured Tarsus and\\narrived before Antioch. The siege was long and the suffer-\\nings of the invaders were cruel. At last the city opened\\nits gates to the intrigues of Bohemond, who caused himself\\nto be appointed its prince but the besiegers were besieged\\nin their turn by 200,000 men who had been brought up by\\nKerboga, the lieutenant of the caliph of Bagdad. By a\\nmarvellous victory the Christians cut their way out and\\nmarched at last upon Jerusalem, which they entered on\\nJuly 15, 1099, after a siege no less distressing than that of\\nAntioch.\\nGodfrey was elected king, but would accept only the\\ntitle of defender and baron of the Holy Sepulchre, refus-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1099-1147.] CRUSADES W THE EAST AND WEST 61\\ning to wear a crown of gold on the spot where the King of\\nkings had worn a crown of thorns. The conquest was\\nassured by the victory of Ascalon over an Egyptian army\\nwhich had come to recapture Jerusalem.\\nThe majority of the crusaders returned home. The little\\nkingdom of Jerusalem organized for defence and gave itself\\na constitution in accordance with feudal principles, which\\nwere thus transported ready made into Asia. Godfrey of\\nBouillon caused the Assizes of Jerusalem to be drawn up,\\na code which gives a complete picture of the feudal system.\\nThere were established as fiefs the principalities of Edessa\\nand Antioch, afterward increased by the county of Tripoli\\nand the marquisate of Tyre, and the lordships of Nablous,\\nJaffa, Ramleli and Tiberias. The country was subjected to\\nthree judicial authorities: the court of the king, of the\\nviscount of Jerusalem, and the Syrian tribunal for natives.\\nThe defence of the state was committed to two great mili-\\ntary institutions: the Order of the Hospitallers of Saint\\nJohn of Jerusalem, founded by Gerard de Martigues in\\n1100, and that of the Templars, founded in 1148 by Hugues\\nde Payens. Through the influence of these institutions the\\nkingdom of Jerusalem continued its conquests under the\\nfirst two successors of Godfrey, Baldwin I (1100-1118) and\\nBaldwin II (1118-1131). Caesarea, Ptolemais, Byblos,\\nBeyrout, Sidon and Tyre were captured. But after these\\ntwo reigns discord brought about decline and Noureddin,\\nsultan of Syria, seized Edessa whose inhabitants he put to\\nthe sword (1144).\\nSecond and Third Crusades (1147-1189). This bloody\\ndisaster induced Europe to renew the crusade. Saint Ber-\\nnard roused Christendom by his eloquent appeals. In the\\ngreat assembly of Vezelay Louis VII, who wished to\\nexpiate the death of 1300 persons burned by him in\\nthe church of Vitry, his wife, Eleanor of Guyenne\\nand a throng of great vassals and barons assumed the\\ncross. The emperor of Germany, Conrad III, was the\\nfirst to set out. He reached the heart of Asia Minor, but\\nlosing his whole army in the defiles of the Taurus\\nreturned almost alone to Constantinople, where Louis VII\\nhad just arrived. The latter was no more fortunate, though\\nfollowing the coast-line so as to avoid the dangerous soli-\\ntudes of the interior. In Cilicia he abandoned the mass of\\npilgrims, who fell under the arrows of the Turks, and with.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "62 HISTORY OF THE 3HDDLE AGES [a.d. 1147-1202.\\nhis nobles embarked on Greek skips, arrived at Antiock,\\nand tken at Damascus which tke crusaders besieged in\\nvain. He brought back from tkis expedition only his fatal\\ndivorce.\\nThe capture of Jerusalem (1187) by Saladin, who had\\nunited Egypt and Syria under his sceptre, provoked the\\nthird crusade. The Pope imposed on all lands, including\\neven those which belonged to the Church, a tax called\\nSaladin s tithe. The Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, Philip\\nAugustus of France and Richard Coeur de Lion of England,\\nthe three most powerful sovereigns of Europe, set out with\\nlarge armies (1189). Barbarossa reached Asia by way of\\nHungary and Constantinople and had arrived in Cilicia,\\nwhen he was drowned in the Selef. Nearly the whole of\\nhis army was destroyed. Philip and Richard made a more\\nprosperous journey by a new route, the sea. The former\\nembarked at Genoa, the latter at Marseilles. They put\\ninto port in Sicily and began to quarrel. Richard halted\\nagain at Cyprus to depose a usurper, Isaac Comnenus, and\\nrejoined Philip under the walls of Saint Jean d Acre,\\nwhich the crusaders besieged. They wasted there more\\nthan two years, wholly engrossed in feats of chivalry\\nagainst the Saracens and in quarrels with each other.\\nPhilip found these discords a pretext to return to France.\\nRichard, who remained in Palestine, was unable to recapt-\\nure Jerusalem. On his way back a tempest wrecked his\\nship on the Dalmatian coast. He wished to cross Germany\\nand regain England overland. Leopold, Duke of Austria,\\nwhose banner he had caused to be contemptuously cast into\\nthe trenches of Saint Jean d Acre, kept him in prison until\\nhe paid an enormous ransom.\\nFourth Crusade (1202). Latin Empire of Constantinople\\n(1204-1261). Innocent III could not resign himself to\\nleaving Jerusalem in the hands of the infidels. He caused\\na fourth crusade to be preached by Foulques, cure of\\nNeuilly, who persuaded many nobles of Flanders and Cham-\\npagne to assume the cross. Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders,\\nand Boniface II, Marquis of Montferrat, were the leaders.\\nThe crusaders sent envoys to Venice to ask for ships. Of\\nthis embassy Geoffroy de Villehardouin, the historian of\\nthat crusade, was a member. Venice first secured payment\\nin hard cash, and then exacted of the crusaders that they\\nshould capture for her the stronghold of Zara, which be-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1202-1248.] CRUSADES IN THE EAST AND WEST 63\\nlonged to the king of Hungary. Already once diverted\\nfrom its religious purpose, the crusade was again turned\\naside by Alexis, the son of a deposed Greek emperor, who\\noffered them immense rewards if they would reinstate his\\nfather. They placed him and his father for a time upon\\nthe throne. The great capital was then a prey to anarchy.\\nForgetting Jerusalem, the original object of their march,\\nthey seized Constantinople for themselves and parcelled out\\nthe whole empire as booty. Baldwin was appointed em-\\nperor. The Venetians, seizing one quarter of Constan-\\ntinople, most of the islands of the Archipelago and the\\nbest harbors, dubbed themselves lords of a quarter and\\nhalf a quarter of the Greek Empire. The Marquis of\\nMontferrat became king of Thessalonica. The Asiatic\\nprovinces were given to the Count of Blois. A lord of\\nCorinth, a duke of Athens and a prince of Achaia were\\ncreated. Some Greek princes of the Comnenan family re-\\ntained a few fragments of the empire, such as the princi-\\npalities of Trebizond, Napoli of Argolis, Epirus and Nicaea.\\nThe Latin Empire of Constantinople lasted fifty-seven\\nyears, and was then overthrown by the Greeks, and the\\nLatins expelled.\\nLast Crusades (1229-1270). Saint Louis. Jerusalem had\\nnot been delivered. The barons of the Holy Land con-\\nstantly implored the aid of Christendom. Andrew II of\\nHungary led a fifth but fruitless crusade against Egypt.\\nThe sixth was commanded by Frederick II, who took ad-\\nvantage of the terror with which the approach of Tartar\\nhordes inspired Malek Kamel, and obtained from him with-\\nout combat a truce for ten years, together with the restitu-\\ntion of the Holy City, Bethlehem, Nazareth and Sidon. He\\neven crowned himself king of Jerusalem (1229). Hardly\\nhad he taken his departure when the Turkomans, fleeing be-\\nfore the Mongols of Genghis Khan, hurled themselves upon\\nSyria, at Gaza cut in pieces an army of crusaders and seized\\nthe Holy City. At this news Pope Innocent IV tried to\\narouse Europe and launch it against the infidels. But the\\ncrusading spirit, waxing weaker day by day, found no echo\\nsave in the soul of Saint Louis, king of France. During an\\nillness he made a vow to go and deliver Jerusalem. Despite\\nthe entreaties of his whole court and even of his mother, the\\ndevout Blanche of Castile, he embarked at Aigues Mortes\\nwith a powerful army (1248). He wintered at Cyprus. The", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "64 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1248-1270.\\ncrusaders had comprehended that the keys of Jerusalem\\nwere in Cairo. When spring came they set sail for Egypt\\nand mastered Damietta. But their sluggishness ruined\\neverything. Insubordination burst out in the army. De-\\nbauches produced epidemics. Delayed a month at the canal\\nof Aschmoum, after crossing it they suffered the disaster of\\nMansourah through the imprudence of Robert of Artois.\\nDuring the retreat they were decimated by the pest and\\nharassed by the Mussulmans who captured their king,\\nSaint Louis. He paid a million gold besants as ransom,\\nthen crossed over to Palestine and remained there three\\nyears, employing his influence in maintaining harmony and\\nhis resources in fortifying the cities.\\nHe had managed this great expedition very badly. Six-\\nteen years later he attempted another. In 1270 his brother\\nCharles of Anjou, king of the Two Sicilies, persuaded him\\nthat the Tunisian Mussulmans must be attacked, whose\\nthreats made him anxious as to the fate of the Sicilian\\nkingdom. Under the walls of Tunis the Christians en-\\ncountered famine and pestilence from which Saint Louis\\ndied. The princes who had accompanied him were paid\\nto withdraw, and Charles of Anjou made a treaty advan-\\ntageous to his Sicilian subjects. This crusade was the\\nlast.\\nResults of the Crusades in the East. Those great expedi-\\ntions, in which France played the principal part, devoured*\\nuncounted multitudes and failed in their object. The Holy\\nLand remained in the hands of the infidels. Still Europe\\nand Asia were brought closer together. In Europe itself,\\nthe Christian nations formed relations, and in each country\\nall classes of the population became somewhat united. The\\ncrusades developed commerce and enlarged the horizon of\\nthought. They opened the East to Christian travellers and\\nto the merchants of Marseilles, Barcelona, Pisa, Genoa and\\nVenice. To manufactures they revealed new processes and to\\nthe soil new plants such as the mulberry, maize and sugar-\\ncane. Feudalism was shaken by the gaps made in its ranks,\\nand by the forced sale of lands to which many crusaders had\\nrecourse to obtain the money requisite for the journey. The\\ncommunal movement derived greater strength, and the en-\\nfranchisement of the serfs received a broader interpretation.\\nFinally, the crusades gave birth to the Knights Templars\\nand to the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem who de-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "a.d. 1095-1230.] CRUSADES IN THE EAST AND WEST 65\\nfended the Holy Land, as well as to the Knights of the\\nTeutonic Order, who soon quitted the East to subdue and\\nconvert the pagans on the shores of the Baltic. Heraldry\\nas a means of distinguishing individuals and companies was\\na product of the crusades.\\nThe new religious orders which arose were an effect of\\nthe religious movement of which the crusades were them-\\nselves the consequence, and the mendicant friars are to be\\nplaced beside the soldier monks. The Franciscans who\\ngave rise to the Kecollets, the Cordeliers, and the Capucins,\\ndate from 1215; the Dominicans, or Jacobins, from 1216.\\nRemoved from the control of the bishops, they were the\\narmy of the Holy See. Possessing nothing, living on alms,\\nthey roamed the world over to carry the Gospel wherever a\\ntoo wealthy clergy no longer carried it, amid the poor,\\nalong the highways, at the cross-roads and in the public\\nsquares. The bishops disputed the right of the Pope to\\ngrant to the mendicant friars the privilege of preaching and\\nfilling the functions of parish priests. To them Saint\\nThomas Aquinas replied If a bishop can delegate his\\npowers in his diocese, the Pope has the right to do the same\\nin Christendom. It will be seen that ultramontanism is\\nnot a thing of yesterday. It is not Christian in its incep-\\ntion, for the Gospel knows it not but it is the fundamental\\nprinciple and the necessary logic of Roman Catholicism.\\nCrusades of the West. In the East the Crusades failed.\\nIn the West they succeeded for they founded the two great\\nstates of Prussia and Spain and accomplished the political\\nunity of France.\\nIn the interval between the first and second crusades,\\nthe burghers of Bremen and Lubeck founded in the Holy\\nLand a hospital under the charge of Germans for the bene-\\nfit of their fellow-countrymen. Everything at Jerusalem\\nwas taking on a religious and military form. The attend-\\nants of this hospital were transformed into an armed cor-\\nporation, called the Teutonic Order, which speedily acquired\\ngreat possessions, so that its chief was raised by Frederick\\nII to the rank of prince of the empire. To this order a\\nregent of Poland in 1230 intrusted the task of conquer-\\ning and converting the Borussi or Prussians between the\\nNiemen and the Vistula. They were successful in this\\nundertaking and built the fortresses of Konigsburg and\\nMarienburg to overawe the defeated tribe. The Knights of", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "66 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1200-1215.\\nChrist, or Brothers of the Sword, subjugated the neighbor-\\ning regions at the same time. When they united with the\\nTeutonic Order, Prussia, Esthonia, Livonia and Courland,\\nhitherto barbarous and pagan, were attached to the Euro-\\npean community. Until the fifteenth century the Order\\nexercised a preponderating power in the north. In the\\nsixteenth century its Grand Master secularized this ecclesi-\\nastical principality, which then fell to the Electors of\\nBrandenburg.\\nThe crusade against the heathen of the Baltic caused civi-\\nlization to germinate in a savage country. The crusade\\nwhich Simon de Montfort directed against the Albigenses\\nstifled civilization in a rich and prosperous region.\\nThe population of southern France was the mixed off-\\nspring of different races. There religious opinions had\\nsprung up which differed greatly from the prevailing faith.\\nThe people were called Albigenses from their capital, Albi.\\nInnocent III resolved to stamp out this nest of heresy. To\\nRaymond VI, Count of Toulouse, he sent the monk Pierre\\nde Castelnau as a papal legate to demand the expulsion of\\nthe heretics, but he obtained no satisfaction. Raymond\\nwas then excommunicated (1207), whereupon he employed\\nthreats. One of his knights assassinated the legate at a\\nford of the Rhone. The monks of Citeaux at once preached\\na crusade of extermination. The same indulgences were\\npromised as for a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. As the perils\\nwere less and the profit more sure, men rushed against the\\nAlbigenses in crowds. Among their assailants were the\\nDuke of Burgundy, the Counts of Nevers, Auxerre and\\nGeneva, the bishops of Reims, Sens, Rouen and Autun\\nand many other dignitaries. Simon de Montfort, a petty\\nnoble from the vicinity of Paris, ambitious, fanatical and\\ncruel, was the chief commander. The war was merciless.\\nAt Beziers 30,000 persons were butchered and everywhere\\nelse in proportion. Raymond VI was defeated at Castel-\\nnaudary and Pedro II, king of Aragon, was slain at the\\nbattle of Muret (1213). The Council of the Lateran be-\\nstowed the fiefs of the Count of Toulouse upon Simon de\\nMontfort. Southern France was crushed by the French of\\nthe north. The brilliant civilization of those provinces was\\nsmothered by rude hands. Like a funereal and ever-men-\\nacing spectre, the tribunal of the Inquisition established\\nitself on the blood-stained ruins, a tribunal that has slain so", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "a.d. 1215-1229.] CRUSADES IN THE EAST AND WEST 67\\nmany human beings without succeeding in destroying liberty\\nof thought.\\nLouis, the son of Philip Augustus, came finally to take\\npart in this crusade. In their misery these people of Langue-\\ndoc had bethought themselves of the king of France. Mont-\\npellier surrendered to him. When Simon de Montfort was\\nslain at the siege of Toulouse, his son ceded to Louis IX\\n(1229) the provinces which the Pope had given his father,\\nbut which he could not retain amid the universal execration\\nof his subjects. Thus neither Montfort nor his race profited\\nfrom this great iniquity. The entire political benefit of the\\ncrusade accrued to the house of France, which had at first\\nremained a stranger to it.\\nWhen Charles Martel and Pepin the Short expelled the\\nArabs from France, they were satisfied with driving them\\nover the Pyrenees into the Iberian peninsula. There Mus-\\nsulmans and Christians found themselves constantly facing\\neach other. Thus the history of Spain through the Middle\\nAges is that of a crusade six centuries long. After the bat-\\ntle of Xeres in 711, Pelayo and his comrades took refuge\\nin the Asturias, behind the Cantabrian Pyrenees, where\\nGihon was their first capital. Oviedo became their capital\\nin 760, when they had advanced a step toward the south.\\nStill later it was Leon whose name the kingdom appropri-\\nated. Charlemagne protected them. From the Marches,\\nwhich he founded north of the Ebro, emerged the Christian\\nstates of Navarre and Barcelona, between which the lords\\nof Aragon and the counts of Castile founded fiefs which\\nwere to become mighty kingdoms. So along the north of\\nSpain there was a series of Christian states, buttressed upon\\nthe mountains like fortresses, yet advancing in battle array\\ntoward the south. At the end of the ninth century Alphonso\\nthe Great, king of Oviedo, had already attained and passed\\nthe Douro. In the tenth century the caliphate of Cordova\\nshowed fresh vigor. The Christians fell back in turn before\\nthe victorious sword of Abderrahman III, who defeated\\nthem at Simancas. Likewise they were worsted by the\\nfamous Almanzor, who wrested from them all the places on\\nthe banks of the Ebro and Douro including Leon itself.\\nBut when this victor of fifty battles had himself suffered\\ndefeat at Calatanazor (998), the power of the caliphate fell\\nwith him. In the eleventh century the caliphate of Cordova\\nwas broken and the Christians drew closer together. San-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "68 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1000-1108.\\ncho III, king of Navarre, about 1000, acquired Castile by-\\nmarriage and gave it together with the title of king to his\\nsecond son, Ferdinand, who married a daughter of the king\\nof Leon (1035). In the same manner he erected the county\\nof Jacca or Aragon into a kingdom for his third son,\\nRaniiro II, while the eldest, Garcias, inherited Navarre.\\nThus four Christian kingdoms were founded and united\\nby family alliances. Three, Navarre, Castile and Aragon,\\nbelonged to the sons of Sancho. The fourth, Leon, remained\\nseparate, but the male line of the descendants of Pelayo be-\\ncoming extinct, the Council of the Asturias gave the crown\\nto Ferdinand, thereby uniting Leon and Castile (1037).\\nInternal affairs caused the Spaniards to forget for a time\\ntheir struggle against the Moors, but when the holy war\\nbecame popular in Europe Alphonso VI began again to\\ncarry forward the cross. In 1085 he seized Toledo, which\\nonce more became the capital and metropolis as it had been\\nunder the Visigoths. Henceforth the Christians, who had\\nset out from the Asturias, were established in the heart of\\nthe peninsula. Five years later Henry of Burgundy, great\\ngrandson of Robert king of France, who had distinguished\\nhimself at the taking of Toledo, took possession of Oporto\\nat the mouth of the Douro, which was erected for him into\\na county of Portugal by Alphonso. Almost simultaneously\\nthe famous Cid Rodrigo de Rivar, the hero of Spanish\\nromance, advancing from victory to victory along the\\nMediterranean, seized Valencia (1094). At last in 1118\\nAlphonso I, king of Aragon, won a capital as king of\\nCastile by mastering Saragossa.\\nThe Arabs, enervated, divided and consequently van-\\nquished, called successively to their aid two hordes of Afri-\\ncan Moors. These were the Almoravides and Almohades,\\nsectaries who claimed to simplify the religion of Mohammed.\\nThe former, summoned in 1086 by Aben Abed king of\\nSeville, arrived under the leadership of their chief Yusuf,\\nthe founder of Morocco (1069), cut in pieces the Christian\\narmy at Zalaca and repaid themselves for this service at\\nthe expense of those who had called them thither. They\\neven recaptured Valencia on the death of the Cid (1099),\\ntook possession of the Balearic Isles and in 1108 at Ucles\\nwon over Alphonso VI a battle as sanguinary as that of\\nZalaca. There however their successes ended. Toledo\\nrepulsed them many times. Alphonso, son of Henry of", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1108-1492.] CRUSADES IJST THE EAST AND WEST 69\\nBurgundy, who assumed before the combat the title of king\\nof Portugal, won a complete victory over them at Iurique\\n(1139), which rendered him master of the banks of the\\nTagus and of several places beyond that river.\\nThe Almohades did not come from Morocco until the\\nmiddle of the following century. When they made their\\nappearance in 1210, 400,000 strong, all Europe took alarm.\\nPope Innocent III caused a crusade to be preached for the\\nsuccor of the Spanish Christians. The Spanish kings formed\\na coalition and destroyed their enemies at the decisive\\nbattle of Las Navas. de Tolosa, which ended the great inva-\\nsions from Africa. This achievement had been largely aided\\nby the Spanish military Orders of Alcantara, Calatrava and\\nSaint James of Castile, and by the Portuguese Order of\\nEvora.\\nThe domination of the Almohades had finally ended in\\nbloody anarchy. Cordova, Seville, Murcia and many other\\nplaces fell into the power of the king of Castile. Mean-\\nwhile Jayme I, the Conqueror, king of Aragon, subjugated\\nthe kingdom of Valencia and the Balearic Islands (1244),\\nand Portugal, regaining the province of Algarve in 1270,\\nassumed its definite territorial form. At the close of the\\nthirteenth century the Moors possessed only the little king-\\ndom of Granada, which was completely surrounded by the\\nsea and by the possessions of the king of Castile. But in\\nthis contracted space, recruited by their coreligionists whom\\nthe Christians expelled from the conquered cities, they main-\\ntained themselves with a vigor which deferred their ruin\\nfor two centuries. Occupied with foreign affairs, the\\nSpaniards suspended the holy war until 1492.\\nThe crusade of Jerusalem failed though it contributed\\ngeneral results to the civilization of the Middle Ages. The\\ncrusade of Spain, without consequence so far as the social\\nstate of Europe was then concerned, changed the face of\\nthat peninsula and reacted in the sixteenth century upon\\nmodern Europe. It wrested the country from the Moors\\nto give it to the Christians. The little kingdom of Portu-\\ngal supposed that it was pursuing the crusade beyond the\\nseas when it discovered the Cape of Good Hope. In that\\nwar of eight centuries duration, the kings of Castile and\\nAragon developed an ambition which impelled them as well\\nas their subjects to many enterprises. Their military habits\\nwere to make them the mercenaries of Charles V and Philip", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "70 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES\\nIT, rather than the peaceful and active heirs of the manu-\\nfactures, the commerce and the brilliant civilization of the\\nArabs.\\nWhy did these two crusades result so differently Simply\\nbecause of distance. Palestine adjoined the land of Mecca.\\nSpain was in sight of Rome. Jerusalem, at the extreme\\nlimit of the Catholic world, was bound to remain in the\\nhands of the Mussulmans, just as Toledo, the last stage of\\nIslam in the West, was bound to fall into the hands of the\\nChristians. Geography explains much in history.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "A.d. 987-1200.] SOCIETY IN 12TH AND 13TH CENTURIES 71\\nXI\\nSOCIETY IN THE TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH\\nCENTURIES\\nProgress in the Cities. Since the fall of the Carlovingian\\nempire three facts have been noted: the establishment of\\nfeudalism, the struggle between the Pope and the emperor\\nfor the control of Italy and the domination of the world,\\nand lastly, the crusades. A fourth fact, resulting from the\\nother three, in its turn had serious consequences. This was\\nthe reconstitution of the class of freemen. Let us indicate\\nthe character of this fact before returning to the special\\nstudy of the states.\\nAs early as 987 the villeins of Normandy had risen.\\nBut feudalism was still too strong and they were crushed.\\nAlthough the nobles retained the control of the country dis-\\ntricts, the villeins in the cities became bold and audacious\\nbehind their walls, and because of their numbers. In 1067\\nthe city of Mans took arms against its lord. This was the\\nbeginning of that communal movement, which from the\\neleventh to the fourteenth century showed itself throughout\\nEurope. Like Mans, cities in northern France and the\\nNetherlands extorted from their civil or religious lords\\ncommunal charters which assured to the inhabitants guar-\\nantees for the security of person and property, and juris-\\ndiction to the municipal magistrates. These privileges,\\nobtained generally by insurrection in the communes, were\\ngained in the royal cities by concessions from the king.\\nSouth of the Loire many cities retained or revived the\\norganization which they had possessed under the Roman\\nEmpire. By these different causes there was formed, little\\nby little, under the shelter of these privileges and of the\\nsecurity they bestowed, a burgher class which grew rich\\nthrough manufactures and commerce. It formed powerful\\ncorporations, filled the universities and acquired learning,\\nespecially of the laws, at the same time as wealth. Its\\nmerchants will be called by Saint Louis into his council.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "12 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1200-1300.\\nIts jurists will guide the French kings in their struggle\\nagainst feudalism. Its burgesses will enter the States\\nGeneral of Philip the Fair, and will then form an order in\\nthe kingdom as the Third Estate.\\nIn England the cities sent deputies to the parliament of\\n1264. In the parliament of 1295, 120 cities and boroughs\\nwere represented. Italy early had her republics. The\\nLombard League, when victorious over Frederick Barbarossa,\\nimposed on him the Treaty of Constance (1183), which legal-\\nized their encroachments. North of the Alps the emperor,\\nwith a view to weakening feudalism, made the cities depend\\ndirectly upon himself. For the sake of mutual protection\\nthey formed unions among themselves, the most famous of\\nwhich was the great commercial Hanseatic League whose\\nbanner waved from London to Novgorod.\\nThis progress in the city population brought about similar\\nprogress in the rural population. As early as the tAvelfth\\ncentury serfs were admitted as witnesses in courts of jus-\\ntice, and the Popes had demanded their emancipation. Thus\\nenfranchisements became common, for the lords began to\\nunderstand that they would be the gainers in having upon\\ntheir lands industrious freemen, rather than serfs who\\nneglect their work and say they are working for others.\\nThe burghers, villeins and serfs found a powerful auxil-\\niary in Roman law, the study of which the kings encouraged\\nas favorable to their authority. Based upon natural equity\\nand common advantage, it permitted the legists to labor in\\na thousand ways for the overthrow of personal and terri-\\ntorial servitude, the two forms of bondage in the Middle\\nAges. In the thirteenth century began that sullen conflict\\nbetween rational rights and feudal rights, which in France\\nwas destined to end only in the French Revolution of 1789.\\nIntellectual Progress. With more order in the state,\\nmore labor in the cities, more ease in families, other and\\nintellectual wants arose, schools were multiplied, new\\nbranches of study introduced and national literatures\\nbegun.\\nThe twelfth century had resounded with the mighty\\nrival voices of the Breton philosopher Abelard, who\\nchampioned a certain degree of liberty of thought, and of\\nSaint Bernard, the apostle of dogmatic authority. The\\nthousands of scholars who thronged around Abelard were\\nthe beginning of the University of Paris. In 1200 the", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "A.d. 1100-1300.] SOCIETY IN 12TH AND 1STH CENTURIES 73\\nStudium, called later the University of Paris, was endowed\\nby Philip Augustus with its first privileges, one of which\\nmade it accountable only to the ecclesiastical tribunals.\\nIt served as a model for Montpellier, Orleans, Oxford,\\nCambridge, Salamanca and many other famous seats. It\\nsoon became a centre of scholastic learning, an arena of\\nideas. Its opinion was authoritative in the gravest con-\\ntroversies, and the most eminent men issued from its ranks.\\nThe two recently created mendicant orders, the Dominicans\\nand Franciscans, reckoned among their members men of\\ngenius like Saint Thomas Aquinas who in his Summa\\nTlieologm undertook to record all that is known touching\\nthe relations of God and man, and Saint Bonaventura, the\\nSeraphic Doctor. We must also mention the German Albert\\nthe Great the Englishman Roger Bacon, a worthy prede-\\ncessor of the other Bacon the Scotchman Duns Scotus and,\\nlastly, the encyclopedist of that century, the author of the\\nSpeculum Majus, Vincent de Beauvais.\\nBut with the exception of Bacon, who discovered or in his\\nwritings hinted at the composition of gunpowder, at the\\nmagnifying-glass and the air-pump, they all lived upon the\\nremnants of ancient learning and made no additions thereto.\\nThus old and new errors were popular. Men believed in\\nastrology, or the influence of the stars upon human life, and\\nin alchemy, which caused them to seek the philosopher s\\nstone or the means of converting other metals into gold.\\nSorcerers abounded.\\nNational Literatures. In proportion as the individuality\\nof peoples took on shape, national literatures developed. The\\nepic, or heroic ballad, indeed was declining. Martin of\\nTroyes subsequent to 1160 spun out the legend of Arthur\\ninto a tedious, eight-syllabled poem, and Guillaume de Lorris,\\nwho died in 1260, wrote the Romance of the Rose, full of\\nattenuated ideas and cold allegories. French prose had its\\nbirth with Geoffroy de Villehardouin whose quaint book,\\nThe Conquest of Constantinople, is still read, and with\\nJoinville who after the seventh crusade composed his\\nMemoirs in more finished style, thereby affording a fore-\\ntaste of Froissart. The literature of southern France after\\nfurnishing brilliant troubadours had perished, drowned in\\nthe blood of the Albigenses.\\nGerman literature shone under the Hohenstaufens, but\\nmostly as a reflection from the French. Wolfram von", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "74 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1100-1300.\\nEschenbach in Suabia imitated the epic songs of the Car-\\nlovingian or Arthurian cycles. The Nibelungenlied,\\nhowever, reveals its distinctively German origin, but the\\nmeistersingers and minnesingers, whose theme was love, drew\\ntheir inspiration from Provencal poetry. German prose is\\nhardly visible in a few rare moments of the thirteenth cen-\\ntury. In Italy Dante was born in 1265. Spain had her war-\\nsongs in the romances of Bernardo del Carpio, the children\\nof Lara, and the Cid. England was still too much engrossed\\nwith welding into a single idiom the Saxon-German and the\\nNorman-French to produce any marked literary works.\\nHer first great poet, Chaucer, belongs to the following age.\\nArchitecture, the characteristic art of the Middle Ages,\\nattained its perfection in the thirteenth century. Then it\\nwas simple, severe, grand, while in the following century\\nit was to become florid and flamboyant. In France it pro-\\nduced Notre Dame de Paris, Notre Dame de Chartres, the\\nSainte Chapelle, the cathedrals of Amiens, Reims, Strasburg,\\nBourges, Sens, Coutances and many more. Corporations of\\nlay architects were formed. Lanfranc and Guillaume de\\nSens labored together in the construction of Canterbury\\ncathedral. Pierre de Bonneuil went to Sweden to build\\nthe cathedral of Upsala (1258). Maitre Jean in the same\\ncentury erected the cathedral of Utrecht and French artisans\\nworked on that of Milan.\\nThe sculpture is heavy, but the stained glass windows of\\nthe churches were magnificent, and the miniature-painters\\nembellished the missals with delicate masterpieces.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "987.] FORMATION OF THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE 75\\nXII\\nFORMATION OP THE KINGDOM OP PRANCE\\n(987-1388)\\nFirst Capetians (987-1108). While feudal Europe was\\nthronging the roads which led to Jerusalem, the great mod-\\nern nations were assuming their outlines. Italy separated\\nfrom Germany. France sought to separate herself from\\nEngland, and Spain endeavored to rid herself of the Moors.\\nThe Capetian royal house was weak in the beginning, though\\nit undertook the first internal organization of France. Hugh\\nCapet spent his reign of nine years (987-996) in battling\\nagainst the last representative of the Carlovingian family,\\nand in seeking recognition in the south, wherein he did not\\nsucceed. His son Robert, crowned during his father s life\\nso as to assure his succession, reigned piously although ex-\\ncommunicated for having married Bertha, his relative. He\\nwas wise enough to refuse the offered crown of Italy, but\\ninherited the duchy of Burgundy. Henry I and Philip I\\nlived in obscurity. The latter took no part in the first\\ncrusade or in the conquest of England by his Norman vas-\\nsals. In fact from the ninth to the twelfth century French\\nroyalty existed only in name, because the public power\\nwhich should have rested in its hands had become local\\npower exercised by all the great proprietors. This revolu-\\ntion, which shattered the unity of the country for three\\ncenturies, was to be followed by another which would\\nstrive to unite the scattered fragments of French society\\nand deprive the lords of the rights they had usurped. This\\nrevolution was to render the king the sole judge, sole ad-\\nministrator and sole legislator of the country. It began with\\nPhilip Augustus and Saint Louis, who restored a central gov-\\nernment. It was fully accomplished only under Louis XIV,\\nbecause the Hundred Years War (1338-1453) and the reli-\\ngious wars of the sixteenth century interrupted this great\\ninternal work.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "76 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1108-\\nLouis the Fat (1108-1137).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The reign of Louis VI\\nmarked the first awakening of the Capetian royalty. That\\nactive and resolute prince put down in the neighborhood of\\nParis and the lie de France almost all the petty lords who\\nused to descend from their donjon-keeps and pillage the\\nmerchants. He favored the formation of communities on\\nthe lands of his vassals. The example set by Mans in 1066\\nwas soon followed by many other cities. But Louis, though\\ngladly aiding the cities against their lords and thereby en-\\nfeebling the latter, permitted no communes to arise on his\\nown domains. He tried to force Henry I of England to\\ncede Normandy to his nephew, Guillaume Cliton, but did\\nnot succeed. When Henry V emperor of Germany, son-\\nin-law of the king of England, menaced France in 1124,\\nLouis VI faced him with a powerful army wherein figured\\nthe men of the communes. In the north for a brief space\\nhe imposed Cliton upon the Flemings, who had just assas-\\nsinated their count (1126). In the south he protected the\\nbishop of Clermont against the Count of Auvergne. He\\ncompelled Guillaume IX, Duke of Aquitaine, to pay him\\nhomage and obtained for his son, Louis the Young, the hand\\nof Eleanor, the heiress of that powerful lord.\\nLouis VII (1137-1180). By this marriage Louis VII\\nadded to the royal domain Aquitaine, Poitou, Limousin,\\nBordelais, Agenois and Gascony and acquired suzerainty\\nover Auvergne, Perigord, La Marche, Saintonge and Angou-\\nmois. But while fighting with the Count of Champagne,\\nhe burned 1300 persons in the church of Vitry. From\\nremorse he joined the crusade. Incensed against his queen\\nEleanor, he divorced her on his return and gave her back\\nthe duchy of Guyenne, her dowry. This divorce was dis-\\nastrous to the French monarchy and to national unity.\\nEleanor soon after married Henry Plantagenet, Count of\\nAnjou, Duke of Normandy and heir to the crown of Eng-\\nland. The little domain of the king of France was thus\\nenveloped and threatened by an overwhelming force. Fort-\\nunately this king was the suzerain and feudal law, which\\nimposed respect on the vassal, still prevailed in its full\\nforce. Thus Henry, having attacked Toulouse, dared not\\nprosecute the siege because Louis threw himself into the\\nplace. The French king also found supporters against his\\npowerful adversary by allying himself with the clergy,\\nwhom the Englishman persecuted, and with the English", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "1214.] FORMATION OF THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE 77\\nprinces, who revolted against their father. He welcomed\\nThomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, whom Henry s\\nofficers afterwards assassinated when the prelate, trusting\\nthe royal word, ventured to return to England.\\nPhilip Augustus (1180-1223). This prince, the last king\\ncrowned before his accession, redeemed his father s faults.\\nBy persecuting and robbing the Jews, he obtained money.\\nBy giving up heretics and blasphemers to the Church, he\\ngained the bishops. By forming a close alliance with the\\nrebellious Richard, son of Henry II, he increased the em-\\nbarrassments of the English king. At the same time safe\\nbut profitable petty wars secured for him Vermandais, Val-\\nois and Amiens. On returning from the third crusade he\\nhad an understanding with John Lackland, brother of Rich-\\nard Coeur de Lion, to despoil the latter. Richard, being\\nreleased from prison, reached England in a rage and began\\na furious war in the south of France. Pope Innocent III\\ninterposed and caused the antagonists to sign a truce for\\nfive years. Two months later Richard was killed by an\\narrow at the siege of a castle of Limousin (1199).\\nThe crown of England reverted by right to the young\\nArthur, son of an elder brother of John Lackland. John\\nusurped it, defeated his nephew and murdered him (1203).\\nPhilip Augustus summoned the murderer to appear before\\nhis court. John took good care not to come and Philip\\nasserted his right under this forfeiture to take from him all\\nthe places of Normandy. That rich province, whence the\\nconquerors of England had set out, then became a part of\\nthe royal domain and Brittany, which was its dependency,\\nbecame a direct fief of the crown (1204). Poitou, Touraine\\nand Anjou were occupied with equal ease. These were the\\nmost brilliant conquests that a king of Erance had ever\\nmade. By way of revenge John Lackland formed a coa-\\nlition against Erance with his nephew, the Emperor Otto of\\nGermany, and the lords of the Netherlands. Philip col-\\nlected a great army, wherein the militia of the communes\\nhad their place, and gained at Bouvines a victory which\\nhad an immense influence throughout the whole land. This\\nwas the first national achievement of Erance (1214).\\nBefore Philip Augustus died, theErench monarchy reached\\nthe Pyrenees and the Mediterranean. The university had\\nbeen founded, the supremacy of the royal jurisdiction vin-\\ndicated by the verdict of the peers against John Lackland,", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "78 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 119*-\\nthe kingdom subjected to a regular organization by division\\nfor administrative purposes, and Paris embellished, paved\\nand surrounded by a wall.\\nIn 1193 Philip had married Ingeborg of Denmark. The\\nmorning after the wedding, he sent her away to give her\\nplace to Agnes de Meranie. This scandal called down the\\nreprimand of Pope Innocent III, who long threatened the\\neldest son of the Church before striking any blow, but\\nfinally to conquer his resistance placed the kingdom under\\nan interdict. Philip understood the danger of an open\\nrupture with the Church. He separated from Agnes, and\\ntook back Ingeborg in the Council of Soissons (1201).\\nPhilip Augustus had nothing to do with the crusade\\nagainst the Albigenses.\\nLouis VIII (1223) and Louis IX (1226). Louis VIII, who\\nbefore his accession had been invited to England by the\\nbarons in rebellion against John, undertook a new expe-\\ndition into the south. He captured Avignon, Nimes, Albi\\nand Carcassonne, but died in an epidemic on his return\\n(1226). His eldest son, Louis IX, was only nine years old.\\nThe barons endeavored to deprive the queen mother,\\nBlanche of Castile, of the regency. But Blanche won over\\nto her side the Count of Champagne and the war terminated\\nto the advantage of the royal house.\\nHenry III, King of England, headed a rebellion of the\\nlords of Aquitaine and Poitou. Louis, victorious at Taille-\\nbourg and Saintes, showed himself a generous conqueror\\nand thereby secured the legal possession of what he re-\\ntained. On condition of liege homage he consented (1259)\\nto restore or to leave to the king of England, Limousin,\\nPerigord, Quercy, Agenois, a part of Saintonge and the\\nduchy of Guyenne but he kept by virtue of treaty Nor-\\nmandy, Touraine, Anjou, Poitou and Maine. He followed\\nthe same principle with the king of Aragon, ceding to him\\nin full sovereignty the county of Barcelona, but compelling\\nhim to renounce his rights over his fiefs in France. Louis\\nvirtues rendered him the arbitrator of Europe, and sur-\\nrounded the French royalty with a halo of sainthood. He\\nserved as mediator between Innocent IV and Frederick II,\\nand between the king of England and his barons in refer-\\nence to the statutes of Oxford.\\nWe have related the story of his two crusades in Egypt\\nand Tunis. His domestic government aimed at putting an", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "1300.] FORMATION OF THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE 79\\nend to feudal disorder. In 1245 he decreed that in his do-\\nmains there should be a truce between offender and offended\\nfor the space of forty days, and that the weaker might\\nappeal to the king. He abolished the judicial duel in his\\ndomains. What was formerly proved by battle shall be\\nproved by witnesses or documents (1260). He conceded\\na great place to the legists in the king s courts, the juris-\\ndiction of which he extended. He fixed the standard of\\nthe royal coinage, and was the first to summon the bur-\\ngesses to his council. In short his reign may be regarded\\nas that period of the Middle Ages most favorable to learn-\\ning, art and literature, and he is well called Saint Louis.\\nPhilip III (1270) and Philip IV the Fair (1285). To-\\ngether with the body of his father, Philip III brought back\\nto France the coffin of his uncle Alphonse, whose death\\ngave to him the county of Toulouse, Eouergue and Poitou,\\nwhich were united to the royal domain. The marriage of\\nhis eldest son, Philip IV, with the heiress of Navarre and\\nChampagne paved the way for the union of those provinces\\nto the crown of France. The Massacre of the Sicilian\\nVespers (1282), which expelled the French from Sicily,\\nbrought about a war with Aragon which was finally profit-\\nable to the French of Naples. The reign of Philip III is\\nobscure.\\nIn 1292 a quarrel between some sailors caused difficulties\\nwith England of which Philip IV took advantage to have\\nthe confiscation of Guyenne declared by his Court of Peers.\\nThe war was at first carried on in Scotland and Flanders,\\none country being the ally of France and the other of Eng-\\nland. Philip supported the Scottish chiefs, Baliol and\\nWallace, and occupied Flanders, whose count he sent to the\\ntower of the Louvre.\\nQuarrel between the King and the Pope. To meet the\\nexpenses of these wars and of a constantly embarrassed\\ngovernment, much money was needed. Philip pillaged the\\nJews, debased the coinage at his will and taxed the clergy.\\nPope Boniface VIII imperiously demanded that the clergy\\nshould be exempt. He excommunicated whatever priest\\npaid a tax without the order of the Holy See, and the im-\\nposer of such tax, whoever they may be (1296). Philip\\nretorted by forbidding any money to leave the kingdom\\nwithout his permission, thus cutting off the revenues of the\\nHoly See. The great jubilee of the year 1300 caused the", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "80 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1300-\\npontiff to indulge illusions as to his power. To Philip he\\nsent as his legate Bernard Saisset, the bishop of Pamiers,\\nwho seriously offended the king by his arrogance and in\\nconsequence was arrested. The Pope immediately (1301)\\nlaunched the famous bull, Ausculta, Fill, to which Philip\\nmade an insolent reply. But feeling the need of national\\nsupport for this conflict he convoked (1302) the first as-\\nsembly of the States General, where clergy, barons and\\nburgesses pronounced in his favor. Boniface answered this\\nattack by the bull, Unam sanctum, which subordinated the\\ntemporal power to the spiritual power, and threatened to\\ngive the throne of France to the emperor of Germany.\\nThus the quarrel between the papacy and the empire\\nseemed repeated. This time it was of brief duration. The\\nweakening of the spiritual power could be measured by the\\nrapidity of its defeat. In a new States General the jurist\\nGuillaume de Nogaret accused the Pope of simony, heresy\\nand other crimes. Guillaume de Plasian, another jurist,\\nproposed that the king should himself convene a general\\ncouncil and cite Boniface before it. Nogaret started for\\nItaly to take the person of the Pope into custody, and his\\ncompanion, the Italian Colonna, with his iron gauntlet\\nsmote in the face the aged pontiff who died of grief (1303).\\nThe king was powerful enough to impose upon the car-\\ndinals the election of one of his creatures as Benedict XI\\nand afterwards of Clement V. They established the Holy\\nSee at Avignon, and began that series of Popes who re-\\nmained at the mercy of Prance for seventy years (1309-\\n1378). This period is called the Captivity of Babylon.\\nCondemnation of the Templars. Philip obtained from\\nClement V the condemnation of the memory of Boniface\\nand of the Order of the Knights Templar, a militia which\\nwas devoted to the Holy See and whose immense posses-\\nsions tempted the king. One morning the Templars were\\narrested throughout Prance without their offering any resist-\\nance. By legal process they were accused of the most\\nmonstrous crimes. Torture wrung from them such con-\\nfessions as it always extorts. The States General, convoked\\nat Tours, declared them worthy of death, and in 1309 fifty\\nfour were burned. In 1314 Jacques Molay, their Grand\\nMaster, suffered the same fate.\\nInsurrection of the Flemings. While royalty was tri-\\numphing over the great religious institutions of the Middle", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "1328.] FORMATION OF THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE 81\\nAges, the people were beginning their struggle against the\\nlords. The Flemings, driven to desperation by the extor-\\ntions of the governor whom Philip IV had imposed upon\\nthem, rose in rebellion and inflicted upon the French nobil-\\nity the terrible defeat of Courtray (1302). This disaster\\nPhilip avenged by his victory of Mons-en-Puelle (1304).\\nNevertheless in Flanders he retained only Lille, Douai and\\nOrchies.\\nThe Last Direct Capetians (1314-1328). The Salic Law.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nUnder Louis X the Quarrelsome a feudal reaction took place\\nagainst the new tendencies of royal power. The ministers\\nof the late king were its victims. The reign of Louis X is\\nremembered only for the enfranchisement, after payment,\\nof the serfs of the royal domain. On his death his brother\\nPhilip V claimed the crown to the detriment of Jeanne, his\\nniece. He caused the States General to declare that No\\nwoman succeeds to the crown of France. This declaration\\nhas been rigidly observed by the French monarchy and is\\nimproperly called the Salic Law. Philip V also died with-\\nout male heirs (1322). His brother, Charles IV the Fair,\\nsucceeded and left only a daughter. The crown was given\\nto a nephew of Philip IV, who founded the Valois dynasty\\n(1328). But Edward III of England, by his mother Isa-\\nbella the grandson of Philip the Fair, asserted a claim to the\\nthrone. Hence arose the Hundred Years War.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "82 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 106\\nXIII\\nFORMATION OP THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTION\\nNorman Invasion (1066). After Canute the Great the\\nconflict of the Saxons and Danes in England became com-\\nplicated by a new element. The princes of Saxon origin,\\ndispossessed by the Danes, found an asylum with the Nor-\\nmans of France. When Edward the Confessor ascended\\nthe throne of Alfred the Great, he invited many of these\\nNormans to his court and bestowed on them the principal\\nbishoprics. The Saxons were jealous and their leader, the\\npowerful Earl Godwin, succeeded in expelling the foreign-\\ners. His son Harold, who succeeded to his dignities and\\ninfluence, conceived the unfortunate idea of visiting William,\\nDuke of Normandy. His host, having him in his power,\\nmade him swear that he would aid William to secure the\\nEnglish throne on Edward s death. When Edward died,\\nHarold was elected king by the wittenagemote and repu-\\ndiated the promise wrung from him by force. William,\\naccusing him of perjury, undertook the conquest of England.\\nHe had the sanction of the Holy See, which complained that\\nPeter s Pence was not paid. The invaders disembarked in\\nthe south, while Harold in the north was repelling a Nor-\\nwegian invasion. A few days later the battle of Hastings\\n(1066), in which Harold perished, delivered the country to\\nthe Normans. Nevertheless for a long time the Saxons did\\nnot resign themselves to their defeat. The Welsh and the\\nNorwegians helped them to resist. In the Isle of Ely they\\nformed the camp of refuge. Rather than submit many\\nof them became outlaws and lived in the forests, where the\\nNorman lords hunted them like wild beasts.\\nStrength of Norman Royalty in England. William divided\\nEngland among his comrades. The secular and ecclesias-\\ntical domains of the Saxons were occupied by the conquerors,\\nmany of whom had been cowherds or weavers or simple\\npriests on the continent, but now became lords and bishops.\\nBetween 1080 and 1086 a register of all the properties occu-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "1119.] FORMATION OF THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTION 83\\npied was drawn up. This is the famous land-roll of Eng-\\nland, called by the Saxons the Doomsday Book. On this\\nland thus divided was established the most regular feudal\\nbody of Europe. Six hundred barons had beneath them\\n60,000 knights. Over all towered the king who appro-\\npriated 1462 manors and the principal cities and by exact-\\ning the direct oath from even the humblest knights attached\\nevery vassal closely to himself.\\nThis fact demands consideration for the whole history of\\nEngland depends upon this partition, as does French history\\nupon the inverse position occupied by the first Capetians.\\nThe English royalty, so strong on the morrow of the con-\\nquest, soon became oppressive and forced the barons in\\nself-defence to unite with the burgesses. Thus the nobles\\nsaved their own rights only by securing those of their hum-\\nble allies. In this manner by agreement between the bur-\\ngher middle class and the nobles English public liberty was\\nfounded. Hence the nobility has always been popular in\\nEngland. Liberty, the dominating sentiment of England,\\nhas created its noble institutions. The English have disre-\\ngarded equality, to which the French sacrifice everything. In\\nFrance the oppressor was not the petty sovereign who wore\\nthe royal crown, but feudalism. Against it the oppressed,\\nboth king and people, united, but the chief who directed\\nthe battle kept for himself all the profits of victory. There-\\nfore instead of general liberties was developed the absolute\\nauthority of the king. Before him villeins and nobles were\\nequally dependent, and hence arose the common sentiment\\nof equality.\\nWilliam II (1087). Henry I (1100). Stephen (1135).\\nWilliam the Conqueror died in 1087. William II. Kufus,\\nhis second son, succeeded him in England and Robert, the\\nelder son, in Normandy. Robert tried unsuccessfully to take\\nEngland from his younger brother and then set out on the\\ncrusade. He was still absent when William Rufus died\\nwhile hunting. Their youngest brother, Henry I, Fine\\nScholar, seized the crown. When Robert attempted to assert\\nhis rights, he was beaten at Tenchebray (1106) and Nor-\\nmandy was reunited to England. Louis the Fat was also\\ndefeated, who had tried to secure that duchy at least for\\nGuillaume Cliton, Robert s son (1119).\\nHenry I intended to leave the throne to his daughter,\\nMatilda, widow of the Emperor Henry V and wife of", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "84 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1135-\\nGeoffrey, Count of Anjou. He charged his nephew, Stephen\\nof Blois, with protecting the empress, as she was called.\\nStephen usurped the crown for himself and defeated the\\nScotch, Matilda s allies, at the battle of the Standard.\\nAfterwards she took him prisoner, but it was agreed that\\nhe should reign until his death and that his successor should\\nbe Henry of Anjou, surnamed Plantagenet, the empress son.\\nHenry II (1154). By the renunciation of Matilda, his\\nmother, he received Normandy and Maine. From his father\\nhe inherited Anjou and Touraine. Marrying Eleanor, the\\ndivorced wife of Louis the Young, he acquired Poitiers,\\nBordeaux, Agen and Limoges, together with suzerainty over\\nAuvergne, Aunis. Saintonge, Angoumois, La Marche and\\nPerigord. In 1154 he ascended the throne of England at\\nthe age of twenty-one, and finally married one of his sons\\nto the heiress of Brittany. This power was formidable,\\nbut Henry II frittered it away in quarrels with his clergy\\nand his sons.\\nThe clergy ever since the time of the Roman Empire\\nhad possessed the privilege of judging itself. When an\\necclesiastic was accused, the secular tribunals could not try\\nthe case. The ecclesiastical courts alone could pronounce\\njudgment. In England William the Conqueror had granted\\nto this privilege, called the benefit of the clergy, a very wide\\nextension. Numerous abuses and scandalous immunity\\nfrom punishment resulted therefrom. Henry II wished\\nto end all this. With the object of awing the clergy, he\\nappointed as archbishop of Canterbury his chancellor,\\nThomas a Becket, a Saxon by birth, and until then the\\nmost brilliant and docile of courtiers. Becket immediately\\nchanged character and became austere and inflexible. In\\na great meeting of bishops, abbots and barons the king had\\nadopted the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164), which com-\\npelled every priest accused of crime to appear before the\\nordinary courts of justice, forbade any ecclesiastic to leave\\nthe kingdom without the royal permission and intrusted to\\nthe king the guardianship and revenues of every vacant\\nbishopric or benefice. Thomas a Becket opposed these\\nstatutes and fled to France to avoid the wrath of his former\\nmaster. Louis VII having reconciled him to Henry, he\\nreturned to Canterbury but would make no concessions in\\nthe matter of ecclesiastical privileges. The patience of the\\nking was exhausted and he let fall hasty words which four", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "1215.] FORMATION OF THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTION 85\\nknights interpreted as a sentence of death. They murdered\\nthe archbishop at the foot of the altar (1170). This crime\\naroused such indignation against Henry that he was forced\\nto abolish the Constitutions of Clarendon and do penance\\non the tomb of the martyr.\\nHe submitted to this humiliation only from fear of a\\npopular uprising and excommunication at the very time\\nwhen he was at war with his three eldest sons, Henry Duke\\nof Maine and Anjou, Richard Cceur de Lion Duke of Aqui-\\ntaine and Geoffry Duke of Brittany. Even his fourth son,\\nJohn Lackland, eventually joined them. Henry II passed\\nhis last days in fighting his sons and the king of France\\nwho upheld the rebels. In 1171 he conquered the east and\\nsouth of Ireland.\\nRichard (1189). John Lackland (1199). Richard who\\nsucceeded is that Coeur de Lion, or Lion-hearted, whom we\\nhave previously seen famous in the third crusade. This\\nviolent but brave and chivalrous prince was followed by his\\nbrother, John Lackland, a man of many vices and destitute\\neven of courage. His crime in murdering his brother s son\\ncost him Touraine, Anjou, Maine, Normandy and Poitou,\\nand he foolishly renewed his father s quarrel with the\\nChurch. Refusing to accept the prelate whom the Pope\\nhad appointed archbishop of Canterbury, he was excom-\\nmunicated and threatened with an invasion, as Innocent III\\nhad authorized Philip Augustus to conquer England. He\\nhumbled himself before the Holy See, promised tribute and\\nacknowledged himself its vassal. Then he tried to take\\nrevenge for all his humiliations by forming against France\\nthe coalition which was overthrown at the battle of Bouvines.\\nWhile his allies were defeated in the north, John himself\\nwas vanquished in Poitou. On returning to his island, he\\nfound the barons in revolt, and was forced to sign the\\nMagna Charta (1215).\\nThis memorable act is the foundation of English liberty.\\nIt guaranteed the privileges of the Church, renewed the\\nlimits marked out under Henry I to the rights of relief,\\nof guardianship and marriage, which the kings had abused,\\npromised to impose no tax in the kingdom without the con-\\nsent of the great council, and lastly, established the famous\\nlaw of habeas corpus which protected individual liberty\\nand the jury law which assured to the accused a just trial.\\nA commission of twenty-five guardians was charged with super-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "86 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1216-\\nvising the execution of this charter and with compelling a\\nreform of abuses. The danger past, John wished to tear up\\nthe charter and obtained the Pope s sanction thereto. The\\nbarons invited to England Louis, the son of Philip Augustus,\\nwho might have become king of the country if after the\\nsudden death of John (1216) the barons had not preferred\\na child, his son, to the powerful heir of the Prench crown.\\nHenry III (1216). The new reign was a long minority.\\nIn it we constantly behold weakness, perjury, fits of violence\\nand every attendant circumstance to teach the nation the\\nnecessity and the means for restraining by institutions that\\nroyal will which was so little sure of itself. Abroad Henry\\nIII was defeated by Saint Louis at Taillebourg and Saintes.\\nHis brother Richard of Cornwall being elected emperor,\\nplayed a ridiculous part in Germany and one costly for\\nEngland. At home popular discontent increased at repeated\\nviolations of Magna Charta, at the favor shown to the rela-\\ntives of Queen Eleanor of Provence, who caused all the\\noffices to be conferred upon them, and at a real invasion of\\nItalian clergy sent by the Pope who monopolized all the\\necclesiastical benefices.\\nFirst English Parliament (1258). On the eleventh of June,\\n1258, convened the great national council of Oxford, the\\nfirst assembly to which the name of Parliament was officially\\napplied. The barons forced the king to intrust the reforms\\nto twenty-four of their number, only twelve of whom were\\nappointed by him. These twenty-four delegates published the\\nstatutes or provisions of Oxford. The king confirmed the\\nGreat Charter. The twenty -four annually nominated the lord\\nhigh chancellor, the lord high treasurer, the judges and other\\npublic officials and the governors of the castles. Opposition\\nto their decisions was declared a capital crime. Finally Par-\\nliament was to be convoked every three years. Henry III\\nprotested and appealed to the arbitration of Saint Louis who\\npronounced in his favor. But the barons did not accept this\\ndecision. They attacked the king in arms, having as their\\nleader a grandson of the conqueror of the Albigenses, Simon\\nde Montfort, Earl of Leicester. They took prisoners the mon-\\narch and his son Edward at the battle of Lewes (1264). Then\\nLeicester, governing in the name of the king whom he held\\ncaptive, organized the first complete representation of the\\nEnglish nation by the ordinance of 1265, which prescribed\\nthe election to Parliament of two knights for each county", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "1327.] FORMATION OF THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTION 87\\nand of two citizens or burgesses for each city or borough of\\nthe said county.\\nEdward I (1272). Under this prince the public liberties\\nwere respected and the kingdom increased by the acquisi-\\ntion of Wales. In Scotland Edward vanquished in succession\\nthe three champions of the independence of that country\\nJohn Baliol at Dunbar (1296), William Wallace at Falkirk\\n(1298) and Kobert Bruce. But the latter gained the advan-\\ntage under the reign of the feeble Edward II (1307) and\\nby the great victory of Bannockburn (1314) secured Scottish\\nindependence. The despicable Edward II was governed by\\nfavorites whom the great lords expelled or sent to the scaf-\\nfold. He himself was put to death by his wife (1327).\\nProgress of English Institutions. These convulsions con-\\nsolidated institutions which were destined after their com-\\nplete development to prevent the recurrence of disorder.\\nLet us recapitulate these constitutional steps. In 1215\\nMagna Charta, the Great Charter or declaration of the pub-\\nlic rights, was promulgated. In 1258 the statutes of Ox-\\nford established regular meetings of the great national\\ncouncil, the guardian of the charter of 1215. In 1264 there\\nentered Parliament representatives of the petty nobility and\\nof the burghers, who were subsequently to form the lower\\nchamber or the Commons, while the barons, the immediate\\nvassals of the king, were to form the upper chamber or the\\nHouse of Lords. Beginning with 1265 deputies of the\\ncounties and cities were regularly and constantly elected.\\nIn 1309 Parliament stipulated conditions to the voting of\\ntaxes, so that royalty, naturally extravagant, would be kept\\nin check and made to respect the laws. Thus in less than\\na century through the union of the nobles and the burgher\\nclass, England laid those foundations which in modern times\\nhave so firmly upheld her fortune and guaranteed her tran-\\nquillity.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "88 HISTORY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 132ft-\\nXIV\\nFIRST PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR\\n(1338-1380)\\nCauses of the Hundred Years War. England and France,\\nthe latter strong through the progress of the royal power,\\nthe former through that of public liberty, were engaged in a\\nstruggle for more than a century. This is the Hundred\\nYears War, which the rashness and incapacity of the French\\nnobility rendered so glorious for England. As grandson of\\nPhilip the Fair, Edward III had claims upon the crown of\\nFrance, for the Salic Law had not as yet acquired the im-\\nportance which it assumed later on. But at the accession\\nof Philip of Valois he appeared to renounce them. He even\\npaid him the feudal homage which was due the king of\\nFrance for the duchy of Guyenne. Nevertheless Edward\\nconstantly cherished the hope of supplanting him. He was\\nencouraged therein by the fugitive Robert of Artois, de-\\nspoiled of the county of Artois, and by the Flemings who,\\nbeing in need of English wool to feed their manufactures,\\nrebelled under the leadership of the brewer Jacques Arte-\\nveld against their count, the friend of France, and recognized\\nEdward as their legitimate king.\\nHostilities in Flanders and Brittany (1337). The only fact\\nof importance during the first eight years of war was the\\ngreat naval victory of the English at the battle of the\\nSluice (1340). Fighting was carried on chiefly in Brittany\\nwhere Charles de Blois, head of the French party, disputed\\nthe ducal crown with Jean de Montfort supported by the\\nEnglish. The death of Jacques Arteveld, killed in a pop-\\nular tumult, did not take away the Flemish alliance from\\nEngland, which maintained its superiority in Flanders and\\nBrittany.\\nBattle of Crecy (1346). In 1346 the fighting became more\\nserious. Edward invaded France and penetrated to the\\nheart of Normandy, expecting to march upon Paris. The", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "1356.] FIRST PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED TEARS WAR 89\\nlack of provisions forced him to turn northward and ap-\\nproach Flanders. Philip of Valois although commanding\\n60,000 men could not prevent his passage of the Seine\\nand Somme, but gave battle near Crecy at the head of\\ntired and undisciplined troops. The English army, not\\nhalf so numerous, was well placed upon a height supplied\\nwith cannon which then for the first time were seen in\\nbattle, and was covered by a dense line of skilful archers.\\nThe French chivalry, thrown at random against this strong\\nposition, were riddled with arrows and strewed the field of\\nbattle with their dead. Edward though victorious con-\\ntinued his retreat upon Calais, which he captured after a\\nyear s siege, and which the English held for two centuries.\\nHe obtained at the same time important advantages in Scot-\\nland and Brittany. David Bruce was made prisoner at\\nNevil Cross and Charles de Blois at Koche Derien.\\nJohn the Good (1350). Battle of Poitiers (1356). At the\\naccession of John the Good, France was already in a sad\\nstate. Calais and a great battle had been lost. Charles the\\nBad, king of Navarre, was intriguing to assert rights to the\\nthrone which he claimed to inherit from his mother, Jeanne\\nd Evreux. The States General convoked in 1355 raised\\npretensions which recalled and exceeded the Great Charter\\nof England. They pretended to collect the public dues\\nthrough their agents, to superintend the expenditures and\\nto impose their orders on every one. The nobles refused to\\nsubmit to the impost and formed a plot in which Charles\\nthe Bad was the leader. John arrested many of the con-\\nspirators at a banquet at the very table of his own son\\nCharles, and struck off their heads. The English judged\\nthe occasion favorable. Edward sent the Duke of Lan-\\ncaster to Normandy, and the Black Prince to Guyenne. The\\nlatter advanced toward the Loire. After devastating the\\ncountry he retreated, but found his road cut off by King\\nJohn, who with 50,000 men completely surrounded his\\nlittle army. But skilful measures taken by the prince\\nupon the hillock of Maupertuis near Poitiers, and the usual\\nrashness of the French nobles gave him a most brilliant\\nvictory. The king himself was captured.\\nFrench Attempt at Reforms. The Jacquerie. The great\\ndisasters of Crecy and Poitiers, caused by the incapacity of\\nkings, generals and nobles, brought about a popular commo-\\ntion. As the king and the great majority of the lords were", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "90 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1356-\\nprisoners, the nation took in hand the guidance of public\\naffairs. The States General, convened by the Dauphin\\nCharles, expressed their will through Fltienne Marcel, provost\\nof the merchants for the Third Estate, through the Bishop\\nof Laon for the clergy, and through the Lord of Vermandois\\nfor the nobility. Before granting any subsidy, they de-\\nmanded the removal and trial of the principal officers of\\nfinance and justice, and the establishment of a council,\\nchosen from the three orders, and charged with the direc-\\ntion of the government. The States became bolder still.\\nThey established a commission of thirty-six members to\\nsuperintend everything, and caused the Great Ordinance of\\nReformation to be issued. Thereby they asserted their\\nright to levy and expend the taxes, to reform justice and\\ncontrol the coinage. Even a mild political reform was\\ndangerous in the face of the victorious English. Moreover\\nthis ordinance, accomplished by a few intelligent deputies,\\nwas neither the work nor even the desire of France. Not a\\nsingle arm outside Paris was raised in its support. The\\nrevolution seemed only a Parisian riot. When the dauphin\\ntried to escape from the obligations imposed upon him,\\nEtienne Marcel assassinated his two ministers, the marshals\\nof Champagne and Normandy, before his very eyes. Such\\nacts of violence discredited the popular movement, which\\nwas furthermore disgraced by the excesses of the mob or\\nthe Jacquerie. Finally Marcel, forced to seek other support,\\nwas on the point of delivering Paris to Charles the Bad,\\nwhen the plot was discovered. He was killed and his party\\nfell with him.\\nTreaty of Bretigny (1360). The dauphin, being rid of\\nMarcel, signed a treaty with Charles the Bad and re-\\nmained sole master. With the consent of the States he\\nrepudiated the disastrous treaty which John, weary of his\\ncaptivity, had just concluded and agreed to that of Bretigny\\nwhich was slightly less onerous. Thereby Edward re-\\nnounced his claim to the crown of France, but received thir-\\nteen provinces in direct sovereignty. Dying in 1364, John\\nended a reign equally fatal in peace or war. The duchy of\\nBurgundy had escheated to the crown, the first ducal house\\nhaving become extinct. Instead of joining it to the national\\ndomain, John alienated it in favor of his fourth son, Philip\\nthe Bold. Thus he founded a second ducal house which on\\ntwo occasions came near destroying the kingdom.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "1380.] FIRST PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED YEARS 9 WAR 91\\nCharles V (1364-1380) and Duguesclin.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This Charles the\\nWise rescued France from the abyss of misery. He al-\\nlowed the foreign invasion to waste itself in the ravaged\\nprovinces, and shut up his troops in the strongholds, whence\\nthey harassed the enemy and rendered it impossible for\\nthem to obtain fresh supplies. Duguesclin, a petty gentle-\\nman of Brittany, whom he had taken into his service and\\nwhom he afterwards appointed constable of France, by the\\nvictory of Cocherel (1364) rid him of Charles the Bad. He\\nalso delivered the country from the free companies, lead-\\ning them to the succor of the king of Castile, Henry de\\nTranstamara, against his brother, Pedro the Cruel, whom\\nthe English were supporting and whom he subsequently\\noverthrew (1369).\\nIn 1369 the Gascons, irritated by the extortions of the\\nBlack Prince, appealed against him to Charles V, the feudal\\nsuzerain of the duchy of Aquitaine. The king caused the\\nCourt of Peers to declare this great fief confiscated. This\\nwas a declaration of war. Charles V was ready, but Edward\\nwas not. Nevertheless a powerful English army disem-\\nbarked at Calais. It marched through France as far as\\nBordeaux, but found itself reduced on the way to 6000\\nmen. When the Prince of Wales died in 1376 and Edward\\nIII in 1377, almost the entire fruit ot their victories\\nwas already lost. Bayonne, Bordeaux and Calais alone re-\\nmained in the hands of the English.\\nCharles was equally skilful and equally fortunate against\\nCharles the Bad, from whom he took Montpellier and\\nEvreux. He failed however in the attempt to unite\\nBrittany to the royal domain. Influenced by the memories\\nof his youth, he avoided assembling the States General.\\nStill he strengthened Parliament by permitting it to fill\\nvacancies in its own body. He favored letters which had\\nFroissart, the inimitable chronicler, as their principal repre-\\nsentative. He also began the Royal Library, which under\\nhim numbered 900 volumes. He died in 1380.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "92 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 13S0-1405.\\nXV\\nSECOND PERIOD OP THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR\\n(1380-1453)\\nCharles VI. Internal troubles almost suspended the\\nstruggle between France and England for thirty-five years.\\nDuring the minority of Charles VI his uncles wrangled over\\nthe regency, and the people of Paris beat the tax collectors\\nto death. Rouen, Chalons, Reims, Troyes and Orleans\\njoined in a communal movement which started from\\nFlanders, but which was put down by the French nobility\\nat the bloody battle of Roosebec. The Flemish leader,\\nPhilip van Arteveld, was there slain. The princes learned\\nno lessons from these events. Squandering of the public\\nfunds and disorders of every sort continued. Suddenly the\\nyoung king lost his reason and was lucid afterwards only at\\nrare intervals. His uncle, the Duke of Burgundy, and his\\nbrother, the Duke of Orleans, disputed the control of\\naffairs. The former, surnamed John the Fearless, decided\\nthe matter by assassinating his rival.\\nThe Armagnacs and the Burgundians. The Count of\\nArmagnac, father-in-law of the new duke of Orleans, headed\\nthe faction to which a portion of the nobility adhered and\\nwhich took his name. The Duke of Burgundy was sup-\\nported by the cities. A civil war broke out marked by\\nabominable cruelties. John the Fearless flattered Paris\\nand specially the mob whose ferocious passions he allowed\\nfull play. The butcher Caboche deluged the city with the\\nblood of the Armagnacs, or of those who were called so.\\nThe duke encouraged this hideous demagoguery. However,\\nthe shrewd men of the party and the University devised\\nthe Cabochian Ordinance for the reform of the kingdom.\\nThis sagacious code was of brief continuance. Two years\\nlater the Hundred Years War began again.\\nWicliffe. A general effervescence was then agitating\\nWestern Europe. Everywhere the people were chafing", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "SECOND PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED YEARS* WAR 93\\nagainst a social order which, overwhelmed them with\\nmiseries. In the cities the burghers, enriched by their\\nsmall beginnings in manufactures and commerce, wished\\nto secure their property from the caprice and violence of\\nthe great. Some even laid presumptuous hands on the\\nthings of the Church.\\nIn 1366 Pope Urban V demanded from England 33,000\\nmarks, arrears of the tribute which John Lackland had\\npromised to the Holy See. Parliament refused payment;\\nand a monk, John Wicliffe, took advantage of the popular\\nindignation to attack in the name of apostolic equality the\\nwhole hierarchy of the Church. In the name of the Gospel\\nhe also assailed such dogmas, sacraments and rites as were\\nnot found expressly stated in the New Testament. His\\ntranslation of the Bible into English rapidly disseminated\\nthose ideas which Lollard, burned at Cologne in 1322, had\\nalready taught.\\nOne of Wicliffe s partisans even drew political conse-\\nquences from his doctrine. John Ball went about through\\nthe cities and towns, saying to the poor\\nWhen Adam delved and Eve span,\\nWhere was then the gentleman\\nDangerous thoughts were fermenting everywhere. They\\nexisted in the minds of those who, about this same time,\\nwere exciting the riots of Kouen, Eeims, Chalons, Troyes and\\nParis and the insurrection of the White Caps in Flanders.\\nThus premonitory signs always herald great storms. The\\nunthinking protests of the fourteenth century against\\nmediaeval double feudalism, the secular and the religious,\\nannounced the deliberate revolt of Luther and Calvin in\\nthe sixteenth in the realm of faith, of Descartes in the\\nseventeenth in philosophy, and of the whole world in the\\neighteenth in politics.\\nRichard II (1380). One year after the accession of\\nRichard II, son of the Black Prince, 60,000 men marched\\nto the gates of London, demanding the abolition of serfdom,\\nthe liberty to buy and sell in the markets and fairs and,\\nwhat was more unreasonable, the reduction of rents to a\\nuniform standard. They were put off with fair promises.\\nAfter they had dispersed, 1500 of them were hanged and\\neverything went on as before.\\nThe young king had three ambitious and greedy uncles.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "94 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1397-1422.\\nThey stirred up opposition to him. He rid himself of the\\nmost turbulent, the Duke of Gloucester, by assassination.\\nMany nobles were slain or exiled, and England bowed her\\nhead in terror. Henry of Lancaster, a descendant of a third\\nson of Edward III, and then in exile, organized a vast con-\\nspiracy. Richard was deserted by all and deposed by Par-\\nliament for having violated the laws and privileges of the\\nnation. So, thus early, England through her Parliament\\nhad already succeeded in forming a people and in resuming\\nthe ancient idea of national rights superior to dynastic\\nrights. The next year Richard was assassinated in prison.\\nHenry IV. Battle of Agincourt (1415). Treaty of Troyes\\n(1420). Henry IV devoted his reign of fourteen years to\\nsettling the crown securely in his house. On his death-bed\\nhe advised his son to recommence the war against France,\\nso as to occupy the turbulent barons. In 1415 Henry V\\nrenewed at Agincourt the laurels of Crecy and Poitiers.\\nThis defeat, again due to the rashness of the nobility, over-\\nturned the Armagnac government. The Burgundians re-\\nentered Paris, which they again deluged with blood. After\\nthe English archers and men-at-arms had safely placed their\\nbooty on the other side of the Strait, they returned to the\\nquarry, pillaging Normandy systematically and capturing\\nits cities one after the other. In 1419 Rouen fell into their\\nhands. The assassination of John the Fearless at the bridge\\nof Montereau also served their interests. This murder,\\nauthorized by the dauphin, threw the new duke of Bur-\\ngundy, Philip the Good, into the English party. Henry V,\\nonce master of Paris and of the person of Charles VI, caused\\nhimself by the treaty of Troyes to be acknowledged as heir\\nto the king, the daughter of whom he married. This lady\\nwas to avenge France by transmitting to the son whom she\\nbore to Henry V the imbecility of his French grandfather.\\nCharles VII and Joan of Arc. Henry and Charles both\\ndied in 1422. They were succeeded by two kings in France,\\nthe English infant Henry VI at Paris, and the Valois\\nCharles VII south of the Loire.\\nThe little court of the latter, whom the English derisively\\ncalled king of Bourges, cared only for pleasure and gayety.\\nThe constable of Richemont sought in vain to rouse the\\nking from his unworthy occupations. Meanwhile petty de-\\nfeats chased his armies from Burgundy and Normandy.\\nBedford, the English regent, managed affairs skilfully and", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "SECOND PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR 95\\nin 1428 laid siege to Orleans the key of the south. The\\ndisgraceful battle of the Herrings completed the discourage-\\nment of the French party, and Charles VII was contem-\\nplating retreat to the extreme south when Joan of Arc made\\nher appearance.\\nThis peasant girl, born at Domremy on the frontier of\\nLorraine, presented herself at court, claiming that it was\\nher mission to deliver Orleans and crown the king. Her\\nvirtues, her enthusiasm and her confidence inspired confi-\\ndence. The most valiant captains threw themselves into\\nOrleans, following in her train. Ten days later the English\\nafter several defeats evacuated their camp. Next she won\\nthe battle of Patay, where the English commander Talbot\\nwas captured, and conducted the king to Reims, where\\nhe was crowned. Believing her wonderful mission accom-\\nplished, she wished to return home but was dissuaded. In\\nMay, 1430, while defending Compiegne, she fell into the\\nhands of the Burgundians, who sold their prisoner to the\\nEnglish for 10,000 francs. Tried and condemned for witch-\\ncraft, she was burned alive at Rouen on May 30, 1431.\\nSuccess and Reforms of Charles VII. This crime marked\\nthe close of English good fortune. Affected by French\\nreverses, the Duke of Burgundy remembered that he was a\\nFrenchman and abandoned the English. His defection was\\nprofitable for himself, as he obtained several cities and coun-\\nties, as well as exemption from all homage. Thus he became\\nking in fact in his fiefs. In the following year Paris opened\\nher gates to Charles VII. Transformed by his many mis-\\nfortunes and ably supported by the Chancellor Juvenal, the\\nsilversmith Jacques Coeur, the artilleryman Bureau, and\\nthe soldiers Dunois, Lahire and Xaintrailles, he triumphed\\neverywhere. In 1444 the English, through the influence\\nof the Cardinal of Winchester who headed the peace party,\\nconcluded a truce of two years with France, and sealed it\\nby the marriage of Henry VI with Margaret of Anjou. At\\nthe same time Charles VII put down a rebellion of the\\nnobles, who were alarmed at the progress of his authority,\\nand had the Bastard of Bourbon tied up in a sack and\\nthrown into the water. By the creation of a permanent\\narmy, he dealt a death-blow at feudal power. This army\\ncomprised fifteen companies of 100 lances each and of\\nfree archers. The States of Orleans suggested the idea\\nand voted a perpetual tax of 10,200,000 francs for the pur-", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "96 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1450-1453.\\npose. In consequence of this strictly national force, Charles\\nwas no longer dependent on the mercenaries and highway-\\nmen who devastated, rather than defended, France.\\nSoon he found himself strong enough to finish with the\\nEnglish. By the battle of Formigny (1450) he drove\\nthem from Normandy, and by that of Castillon (1453) from\\nGuyenne. They retained only Calais. So ended the Hun-\\ndred Years War, which had heaped so many calamities upon\\nFrance. It had strengthened public liberty in England and\\nenforced the dependence upon Parliament of victorious kings\\nwho needed money and men for their expeditions. While\\nit continued, the two peoples advanced farther in the differ-\\nent paths which we have seen them enter. Amid the ruins\\nof France royalty was finding absolute power. Despite\\ntheir triumphs of Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt, the Eng-\\nlish kings learned submission to Parliament and the law.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "Copy i B lit. 1898. by T. Y. Crowell Co\\nEog.nuoi Collon. Oilman Si Co.. N. V.", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "a.d. 125O-1300.J SFAIN AND ITALY FROM 12 0-1463 97\\nXVI\\nSPAIN AND ITALY FROM 1250 TO 1453\\nIntermission of the Spanish Crusade. Domestic Troubles.\\nThe Moors were now crowded upon the Alpujarras as the\\nChristians had formerly been upon the Pyrenees. Instead\\nof continuing the struggle and driving them into the sea, the\\nSpanish kings forgot the conflict which had made their fort-\\nune, and yielded to the temptation of meddling in Euro-\\npean affairs.\\nNavarre, which had been unable to increase its territory\\nin the religious wars, looked northward toward France, and\\ngave itself to the Capetians when its heiress married Philip\\nthe Fair.\\nAlphonso X, king of Castile, wished to be emperor of\\nGermany. While he wasted his money in this vain candi-\\ndacy, the rival houses of Castro, Lara and Haro kept the\\nkingdom in turmoil and even sought aid from the Moors.\\nThreatened with insurrection, the king himself solicited the\\nsupport of the African Merinides. The nation deposed\\nhim and put in his place his second son, Don Sancho, a\\nbrave soldier (1282). Nevertheless Alphonso X was sur-\\nnamed the Wise. He knew astronomy, and published a\\ncode wherein he tried to introduce the right of representa-\\ntion, prevalent in the feudal system, but not in Spain.\\nSancho availed himself of the ancient law and claimed\\nthe succession in preference to his nephews, sons of his\\ndeceased elder brother. Therefrom troubles ensued with\\nthe king of France, uncle of the dispossessed young princes.\\nThe stormy minorities of Ferdinand IV and Alphonso XI\\nsaw disorders again in Castile. The latter prince, however,\\nrendered himself illustrious by the great victory of Rio\\nSalado over the Merinide invasion and by the capture of\\nAlgiers. After him Pedro the Cruel and his brother,\\nHenry II of Transtamara, disputed the throne. By the aid\\nof Duguesclin Transtamara succeeded, after he had himself\\nstabbed his brother in his tent. Henry III vainly tried to", "height": "2834", "width": "1669", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "98 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1410.\\nrepress the Castilian nobility, who under John II and\\nHenry IV tyrannized over the country and court. Royalty\\nbecame independent only about the close of the fifteenth\\ncentury under Isabella and Ferdinand the Catholic, as we\\nshall see later on.\\nWhile the energies of Castile were dissipated in civil\\ndissensions, Aragon acquired Roussillon, Cerdagne and the\\nlordship of Montpellier, and interfered in the affairs of the\\nAlbigenses. It also gained Sicily after the Sicilian Ves-\\npers, which it retained despite the stipulations of the treaty\\nof Anagni, and added Sardinia to its dominions. In 1410\\nthe glorious house of Barcelona became extinct. Its various\\ncrowns passed to a prince of Castile, who left two sons\\nAlphonso V, who became king of the Two Sicilies through\\nhis adoption by Joanna of Naples and John II, who for a\\ntime united Navarre and Aragon by poisoning his son-in-\\nlaw, Don Carlos of Viana. To Ferdinand, the successor of\\nthis monster, it was reserved to accomplish the unity and\\ngrandeur of Spain by his marriage with Isabella of Castile.\\nThe feudal system never was really established in Castile.\\nAmid the risks of a desperate struggle against the Moors,\\nthe nobles and cities, fighting separately, acquired inde-\\npendence and fortified themselves in their castles or behind\\ntheir walls. Many of these cities obtained fueros, or\\ncharters of liberty, and the king merely placed an officer or\\nregidor in them for general supervision. But three distinct\\nclasses existed in Castile: the ricos hombres or great\\nlanded proprietors the caballeros or hidalgos, or petty\\nnobles, exempt from imposts on condition of serving on\\nhorseback the pecheros or taxpayers who formed the\\nburgher class. As every one had fought in the Holy War,\\nthere were no serfs as in feudal countries and the gulf be-\\ntween the classes was less profound than elsewhere. Be-\\nginning with 1169 the deputies of the cities were admitted\\nto the Cortes, the national parliament.\\nAragon had more of the feudal system, perhaps because\\nof the former Carlovingian domination in the Marches of\\nBarcelona. The ricos hombres received baronies, which\\nthey divided up and sub-enfeoffed. Next were the mes-\\nnaderos or lesser vassals, the infanzones or plain gentlemen,\\nand the commoners. These four orders were represented\\nin the Cortes. But Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia had\\ntheir separate cortes. The royal authority was greatly", "height": "2829", "width": "1689", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1385-1434.] SPAIN AND ITALY FROM 1250-1453 99\\nhampered by the jurisdiction of the justiza or grand justi-\\nciary.\\nPortugal at the extremity of Europe opened out new\\nways for herself. John I, head of the house of Avis\\nwhich succeeded the extinct house of Burgundy, maintained\\nthe independence of Portugal against the pretensions of\\nCastile by the victory of Aljubarotta (1385). He then\\nturned the attention of his people toward Africa and in\\n1415 conquered Ceuta. This expedition taught his youngest\\nson, Henry, that Portugal, shut off from the land by Castile,\\nhad no future except toward the sea. He established him-\\nself in the village of Sagres on Cape Vincent, summoned\\nmariners and geographers, founded there a naval academy,\\nand at last launched his navigators upon the ocean. In\\n1417 they discovered Porto Santo, one of the Madeira Is-\\nlands, where the prince planted vines from Cyprus and\\nsugar-canes from Sicily. Pope Martin V granted him\\nsovereignty over all the lands which should be discovered\\nfrom the Canary Isles as far as the Indies, with plenary\\nindulgence for whoever should lose their lives in these\\nv expeditions. Zeal redoubled. In 1434 Cape Bojador was\\npassed, then Cape Blanco and Cape Verde. The Azores\\nwere discovered. They were on the road to the Cape of\\nGood Hope, which the Portuguese Vasco de Gama was to\\nsail round half a century later.\\nThe Kingdom of Naples under Charles of Anjou (1265).\\nIn the strife for universal dominion which the chiefs of\\nChristendom, the Pope and the Emperor, had waged, Italy,\\nthe theatre and the victim of the struggle, could not attain\\nindependence. When the empire and the papacy declined,\\nshe seemed at last about to control her own destiny. Such\\nhowever was not the case. Her old habits continued of\\nintestine discords and of mixing strangers with her quarrels.\\nShe repeated the spectacle once presented by the turbulent\\ncities of ancient Greece. She was covered with republics,\\nwaging incessant war with each other, and yet she shone\\nwith a vivid glow of civilization that was the first revival\\nof letters and arts.\\nThe death of Frederick II (1250) marked the end of the\\nGerman domination in Italy. But he left a son at Naples,\\nManfred, who, strong by his talents, his alliance with the\\npodestats of Lombardy and the aid of the Saracens of\\nLucera at first braved the ill-will of the Pope. Alexander", "height": "2829", "width": "1689", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "100 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1265-1310.\\nIV had, it is true, been driven from Rorne by Brancaleone,\\nwho had restored momentarily the Soman republic.\\nUrban IV, resolved to extirpate the race of vipers,\\nhad recourse to foreign aid. He bestowed the crown of\\nNaples upon Charles of Anjou, the brother of Saint Louis,\\non condition of his doing homage to the Holy See, paying\\nan annual tribute of 8000 ounces of gold and ceding Bene-\\nventum. In addition to this Charles swore never to join\\nto this kingdom the imperial crown, Lombardy or Tuscany\\n(1265). The excommunicated Manfred was vanquished and\\nslain, and the Pope s legate caused his body to be thrown\\ninto the Garigliano. Conradin, a grandson of Frederick\\nII, came from Germany to claim his paternal inheritance.\\nBeaten and captured at Tagliacozzo, he was beheaded by\\norder of Charles of Anjou, together with his friend Fred-\\nerick of Austria. With him the glorious house of Suabia\\nbecame extinct.\\nThe conqueror strengthened his power in the kingdom of\\nNaples by executions. Despite his promises he ruled over\\nmost of Italy under the various titles of imperial vicar,\\nsenator of Rome and pacificator. He dreamed of a fortune\\nstill more vast and meditated restoring for his own benefit\\nthe Latin empire of Constantinople, which had recently\\nfallen. After being diverted for a time from this project by\\nthe Tunisian crusade (1270) and by the opposition of Greg-\\nory X and Nicholas III, he was at last about to put it into\\nexecution when the massacre of the Sicilian Vespers (1282)\\ngave Sicily to Peter III, king of Aragon, one of the accom-\\nplices in the great conspiracy of which the physician Pro-\\ncida was the head. Then began the punishment of this\\nambitious and pitiless man. Admiral Roger de Loria\\nburned his fleet. His son Charles the Lame was captured\\nin another naval battle, and the king of France, his ally,\\nwas repulsed from Aragon. The treaty of 1288 secured\\nSicily to a son of the Aragonese. In 1310 Pope Clement\\nV compensated the house of Anjou by placing one of its\\nmembers upon the throne of Hungary.\\nItalian Republics. Guelphs and Ghibellines. During\\nthis conflict in the south the little states of the north,\\nfreed from both the German and the Sicilian domination,\\nwere engaged in continual revolutions. The government\\npassed in Lombardy into tyrannies in Tuscany into democ-\\nracies j in Venetia into aristocracies in Romagna into all", "height": "2829", "width": "1689", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1297-1M8.] SPAIN AND ITALY FEOM 1250-1453 101\\nthese various systems. In 1297 Venice declared that only\\nthe noble families of councillors then in office were eligible\\nfor the Great Council. This measure was shortly afterward\\ncrowned by the completion of the Golden Book, or register\\nof Venetian nobility, and the establishment of the Council\\nof Ten. In 1282 Florence raised the Minor Arts, or infe-\\nrior trades, almost to the level of the Major Arts by setting\\nup an executive council composed of the chiefs of all the\\nArts. This was to the disadvantage of the nobles, who\\ncould be admitted to public employments only on renounc-\\ning their rank. A little later the population was divided\\ninto twenty companies, under a like number of gonfaloniers\\nor standard-bearers commanded by one supreme gonfalonier.\\nThe majority of the Tuscan cities adopted this organization\\nwith little change. So, too, did Genoa. But this was not a\\nsource of harmony. Genoa, which disputed Pisa s rights\\nto Corsica and Sardinia, destroyed the military force of the\\nPisans in the decisive battle of Melloria (1284). The un-\\nhappy defeated city was at once attacked by all Tuscany.\\nIt resisted for a while and intrusted all power to the too\\nfamous Ugolino. When he had perished together with his\\nfour children in the Hunger Tower, prostrate Pisa was able\\nto exist only by renouncing every ambition. Florence then\\ncontrolled all Tuscany, but she turned her arms against her\\nown breast. Under the name of Ghibellines and Guelphs\\nher factions carried on a relentless war. Dante the great\\nFlorentine poet, the father of the Italian language, in exile\\nlamented these dissensions and sought everywhere for some\\npower capable of restoring peace to Italy. He found it\\nneither in the papacy, then captive at Avignon, nor in the\\nemperor to whom Italy was simply a source of profit.\\nHenry VII, Louis of Bavaria, John of Bohemia, extorted\\nwhat they could from the unhappy land.\\nThe tribune Bienzi, filled with classic memories which\\nwere then reviving, tried to restore liberty to Borne (1347)\\nand to render her the protectress of Italian independence.\\nHe set up a so-called Good State, but this merely ephemeral\\nenthusiasm was powerless to overcome local passions, or the\\nterror caused by the horrible black pest or the Plague of\\nFlorence which Boccaccio has described in his Decameron\\n(1348). At the instigation of the papal legate he was\\nmassacred by that very populace of Borne by whom he had\\nbeen so often applauded.", "height": "2829", "width": "1689", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "102 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 137*-1453.\\nReturn of the Papacy to Rome (1378) The Principalities.\\nThe revolution of 1347 warned the papacy of the discontent\\ncaused by its absence. It finally returned to Koine in 1378.\\nStripped of the power and prestige which it had formerly\\npossessed, it was incapable of giving rest to revolutionary\\nItaly. In Florence there were constant troubles between\\nthe Major Arts or upper class, led by the Albizzi, and the\\nMinor Arts, led by the Medici. Hostile to both were the\\nciompi or petty tradesmen. The latter put Michael Lendo,\\na wool-carder, at their head, who seized the power but was\\nunable to retain it. The commercial rivals, Venice and\\nGenoa, were waging against each other the so-called war\\nof Chiozza, which Venice, at first besieged in her own lagoons,\\nfinally terminated by the destruction of the Genoese marine.\\nShe also subdued Padua and Vincenza, but did not ruin them\\nas Florence had done to Pisa, destroying it from top to\\nbottom.\\nIn Lombardy skilful leaders took advantage of civil dis-\\ncords and converted the republics into principalities. Thus\\ndid Matteo Visconti at Milan, Cane della Scala at Verona\\nand Castruccio Castracani at Lucca. In 1396 Gian Galeozzo\\nVisconti bought from the Emperor Wenceslas the titles of\\nduke of Milan and count of Pavia, with supreme authority\\nover twenty-six Lombard cities. The condottieri, or merce-\\nnaries, another scourge of Italy, handed over everything to\\nthe first adventurer who was able to lead or pay them. A\\nformer peasant, Sforza Attendolo, became a mercenary,\\nentered the service of Philip Marie Visconti, married his\\ndaughter and at his death seized the duchy of Milan (1450).\\nNorthern Italy was falling under the sword of a mercenary.\\nFlorence bowed her head beneath the yardstick of an opulent\\nmerchant, Cosmo de Medicis, who supplanted the Albizzi.\\nWith the support of that same Sforza, whose banker he was,\\nhe established in his city an analogous system, though less\\ndespotic and more brilliant than that of Milan. The cry\\nfor liberty which the Roman Porcaro lifted in the peninsula\\nin 1453 found no echo.\\nThe Aragonese at Naples. As far as the welfare of Italy\\nwas concerned, there was nothing to hope for from the Nea-\\npolitan kingdom, itself a prey to endless wars of pretenders.\\nAgainst the guilty Joanna I, Queen of Naples, Urban VI\\nsummoned Charles of Durazzo, the son of the king of Hungary,\\nand offered him the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Joanna", "height": "2829", "width": "1689", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1381-1442.] SPAIN AND ITALY FROM 1250-1453 103\\nrecognized as her successor Duke Louis of the second house\\nof Anjou. Charles, victorious in 1381, smothered Joanna\\nunder a mattress. For a time he exercised an important\\ninfluence over Italy. But when he died in Hungary, the\\nKingdom of Naples relapsed into anarchy, fought over by\\nthe princes of Anjou, Hungary and Aragon. Alphonso V of\\nAragon, who was adopted by Joanna II, finally prevailed\\n(1442).\\nBrilliancy of Letters and Arts. Despite her wretched\\npolitical condition, Italy shone in her letters, arts, manu-\\nfactures and commerce. Her language, already formed at\\nthe court of Frederick II, became fixed under the pen of\\nDante, Petrarch and Boccaccio. She welcomed the Greek\\nfugitives. Her learned men, Petrarch, Chrysoloras, Braccio-\\nlini and Leonardo Bruni, gave the signal for the search after\\nmanuscripts and the revival of ancient letters. Nicholas V\\nfounded the Vatican library Cosmo de Medicis founded the\\nMedicean library, and had Plato commentated by Marcilio\\nFicino. Venice had her church of Saint Mark (1071) Pisa\\nher famous cathedral (1063), her Baptistery (1152), her lean-\\ning tower (1174), her gallery of the Campo Santo (1278)\\nFlorence, her churches of Santa Croce, of Santa Maria Del\\nFiore, and that wonderful cathedral of Brunelleschi, opposite\\nwhich Michael Angelo wished to be buried. Cimabue, Giotto,\\nand Masaccio were creating painting.\\nAt the end of the thirteenth century Venice had 35,000\\nsailors and monopolized the commerce of Egypt, while\\nGenoa controlled that of Asia Minor, the Dardanelles\\nand the Black Sea. Milan was a great industrial city in\\nthe middle of a rich country. Florence manufactured\\n80,000 pieces of cloth a year, and Verona one-fourth as\\nmany. Canals fertilized Lombardy. Banks put money\\nin circulation. No other European state was so advanced\\nin civilization, but no country was so divided. Conse-\\nquently it possessed much wealth to excite the greed of\\nforeigners, but not a citizen or a soldier to defend it.", "height": "2829", "width": "1689", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "104 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1250-1278.\\nXVII\\nGERMANY. THE SCANDINAVIAN, SLAVIC AND TURKISH\\nSTATES\\n(1250-1453)\\nThe Interregnum. The House of Hapsburg (1272). In\\nstead of employing its forces to organize Germany, the\\nimperial authority had worn itself out in Italy. After the\\ndeath of Frederick II, the former country endured twenty-\\nthree years of anarchy (1250-1273). This is called the\\nGreat Interregnum. The throne, disdained by the German\\nprinces and sought by such foreign or feeble competitors as\\nWilliam of Holland, Richard of Cornwall and AlphonsoXof\\nCastile, was practically vacant. While the supreme author-\\nity was thus eclipsed, the kings of Denmark, Poland, and\\nHungary and the vassals of the kingdom of Burgundy,\\nshook off the yoke of imperial suzerainty. The petty nobil-\\nity and the cities ceased payment of their dues. The lords\\nbuilt donjons which became lairs of bandits. To protect\\ntheir possessions against violence, the lesser lords formed\\nconfederations and so did the cities. About the same time\\nthe Hanseatic League came into existence. This confedera-\\ntion had Lubeck, Cologne, Brunswick and Dantzic as its\\nheadquarters, and its chief counting houses were London,\\nBruges, Berghen and Novgorod. In the country districts\\nmany serfs acquired liberty or sought an asylum in the\\nsuburbs of the cities.\\nThe great interregnum ceased with the election of Ru-\\ndolph of Hapsburg, an impoverished lord who did not seem\\nformidable to the electors (1273). Abandoning Italy\\nwhich he called the lion s den, he centred his attention upon\\nGermany. He defeated and slew on the Marchfeld (1278)\\nOttocar II, King of Bohemia, who refused him homage.\\nHe annulled many grants made by successors of Frederick\\nII, forbade private wars, made the states of Franconia,\\nSuabia, Bavaria and Alsace take an oath to keep the public", "height": "2829", "width": "1689", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "a.d. 1308-1414.] GERMANY 105\\npeace of the empire. He founded the power of his house\\nby investing his sons, Albert and Rudolph, with the duchies\\nof Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola.\\nSwitzerland (1315). The Hapsburgs had lands in Swit-\\nzerland, and their bailiffs were hard upon the mountaineers.\\nIn 1307 the cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden united\\nto end this oppression. To this period attaches the heroic\\nlegend of William Tell. Albert was assassinated by his\\nnephew at the passage of the Reuss when about to give\\nthe confederates battle. Leopold, Duke of Austria, lost the\\nfight at Morgarten (1315), where the Swiss laid the founda-\\ntions of their independence and of their military renown.\\nThe three original cantons were joined by Lucerne, Zurich,\\nGlaris, Zug and Berne (1332-1353). The victories of Sein-\\npach (1386) and of Naefels (1388) consolidated Helvetian\\nJiberty.\\nPowerlessness of the Emperors. The German princes who\\nnow disposed of the crown desired to give it only to penni-\\nless nobles, so that the emperor should not be able to call\\nthem to account. For this reason they elected Henry VII\\nof Luxemburg (1308). Louis IV of Bavaria belonged to a\\nstronger house but, excommunicated by Pope John XXII\\nand threatened by the then all powerful king of France,\\nhe was on the point of resigning a title which brought him\\nonly annoyance. Then the princes, ashamed of the situa-\\ntion forced upon the man of their choice, drew up the Prag-\\nmatic Sanction of Frankfort, which declared that the Pope\\nhad no rights whatever over the empire or over the em-\\nperor. The reign of Charles IV (1346-1378) is remarkable\\nonly for the greed of that needy prince, who made money\\nout of everything, plucking and peddling out the imperial\\neagle like a huckster at a fair. Nevertheless Germany\\nowes him the Golden Bull, which determined the imperial\\nelective system. It named seven Electors, three of them\\necclesiastics, the archbishops of Mayence, Cologne and\\nTreves, and four laymen, the king of Bohemia, the Count\\nPalatine, the Duke of Saxony and the Margrave of Branden-\\nburg (1356).\\nWenceslas disgraced the imperial throne by ignoble vices,\\nand was deposed in 1400. Under Sigismund the Council\\nof Constance assembled and the Hussite War broke out.\\nThe council was convened in 1414 to reform the Church\\nand to terminate the schism which had arisen from the", "height": "2829", "width": "1689", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "106 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1414-1444.\\nsimultaneous election of two popes, one at Rome and the\\nother at Avignon. \\\\lt barely attained the second object\\nand failed in the first. It sent to the stake John Huss,\\nrector of the University of Prague. He had attacked the\\necclesiastical hierarchy, auricular confession and the use of\\nimages in worship. His followers, called the Hussites,\\nrevolted under the leadership of a blind general, John\\nZisca. All Bohemia was aflame and for fifteen years peo-\\nple religiously cut one another s throats\\nAt the death of Sigismund (1438) the Hapsburgs again\\nascended the imperial throne, which they occupied until\\n1806. Albert II died in 1439 while fighting the Ottoman\\nTurks, and his posthumous son Ladislas inherited only\\nBohemia and Hungary. But Frederick, another Austrian\\nprince of the Styrian branch, succeeded to the empire\\n(1452). He was the last emperor who went to Rome for\\ncoronation. However the resonant title did not confer\\neven the shadow of power. The head of the empire had\\nas emperor neither revenues nor domains nor military\\nforces nor judicial authority, except in rare cases. His\\nright to veto the decisions of the Diet was generally a\\nmockery. The Diet, divided into the three colleges of the\\nelectors, the princes and the cities, was the real govern-\\nment of Germany. Still it governed as little as possible,\\nand did in reality govern very little the seven or eight hun-\\ndred states of which the empire was composed.\\nHungary, then the bulwark of Europe against the Otto-\\nman Turks, was attached to the German political system.\\nUnder the reign of Sigismund it had been united for a\\nbrief period to Austria, but became separated therefrom\\nunder Ladislaus, king of Poland, who was defeated and\\nslain by the Ottomans at Varna (1444). John Hunyadi,\\nvoevode of Transylvania and regent of the kingdom, for\\na long time held the Mussulmans in check.\\nUnion of Calmar (1397). Scandinavia comprised the\\nthree kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden and Norway. These\\ncountries, whence the pagan Northmen had set out, were\\nconverted in the tenth and eleventh centuries. Denmark\\nwas powerful under Canute the Great, who reigned also\\nover England, and under the two brothers, Canute VI and\\nWaldemar the Victorious (1182-1241) who conquered Hol-\\nstein and Nordalbingia. Waldemar had large revenues, a\\nfine navy and a numerous army. He published the Code", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1254-1466.] GERMANY 107\\nof Scania. Danish students went in quest of learning to\\nthe University of Paris. Later on Sweden in turn became\\npowerful under the dynasty of the Folkungs, who founded\\nStockholm (1254). Norway suffered from long continued\\ndisturbances, due to the elective character of its monarchy\\nwhich became hereditary only in 1263.\\nIn 1397 under Margaret the Great, daughter of the\\nDanish Waldemar III, it was stipulated by the Union of\\nCalmar that the three northern kingdoms should form a\\npermanent union, each retaining its own legislation, consti-\\ntution and senate. This union, the condition of their\\ngreatness and security, unhappily did not last. After the\\ndeath of the Semiramis of the North (1412), it was\\nweakened by the rebellion of Schleswig and Holstein and\\nwas broken in 1448 by Sweden, which then gave itself a\\nking of its own. Denmark and Norway remained united.\\nPower of Poland. The Slavic states between the Bal-\\ntic and the Black Sea furnish very little to history before\\nthe ninth century. The Poles on the banks of the Vistula\\nand Oder had as their first duke Piast, the founder of a\\ndynasty which reigned for a time under the suzerainty of\\nthe German empire. Boreslav I the Brave (922) declared\\nhimself independent and assumed the title of king. Boles-\\nlav III the Victorious (1102-1138) subdued the Pomera-\\nnians. But after him Silesia withdrew. The Knights of\\nthe Teutonic Order were called to succor Poland against\\nthe Borussi or Prussians, an idolatrous tribe which sacri-\\nficed human beings. They established a new state between\\nthe Vistula and the Niemen, which became a dangerous\\nenemy. Poland was compelled to cede to it Pomerelia\\nand Dantzic. She indemnified herself under Casimir the\\nGreat by the conquest of Red Russia, Volhynia and Podolia\\nand extended her frontiers as far as the Dnieper (1333-\\n1370). Yet under this sagacious prince the pacta conventa\\ntook its rise. This was a system of capitulations imposed\\nby the nobility on new kings, and destined to become a\\nsource of that anarchy which finally delivered Poland to\\nher enemies. The election to the throne of Jagellon, Grand\\nDuke of Lithuania, in 1386, rendered Poland the dominant\\nstate of Eastern Europe. Erom the Knights of the Teutonic\\nOrder he seized many provinces, and by the Treaty of Thorn\\ntheir dominions were reduced to eastern Prussia (1466).\\nThe Mongols in Russia. Russia, which absorbed a", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "108 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES [a.d. 1223-1395.\\ngreat part of Poland later on, had as yet done little. We\\nhave seen how the Northmen pirates led by Rurik entered\\nthe service of the powerful city of Novgorod, which they\\neventually occupied as masters (862). Gradually spreading\\nout, they descended the Dnieper, to seek at Constantinople\\nlucrative service or adventure. In the eleventh century\\nthe grand principality of Kief was already a respectable\\npower. In the twelfth the supremacy passed to the grand\\nprincipality of Vladimir. In the following century Russia\\nwas invaded by the Mongols of Genghis Khan, who in 1223\\nfought a battle in which six Russian princes perished.\\nBaty captured Moscow in 1237 and advanced as far as\\nNovgorod. The grand principality of Kief ceased to\\nexist; that of Vladimir paid tribute. Poland, Silesia,\\nMoravia and Hungary were conquered or devastated.\\nEven the Danube was crossed and for a time all Europe\\ntrembled. The Mongols halted at last before the mountains\\nof Bohemia and Austria, but Russia remained under their\\nyoke for two centuries.\\nThe Ottoman Turks at Constantinople (1453). Toward\\nthe same period a less noisy but more tenacious invasion\\nwas taking place south of the Black Sea. Descending from\\nthe Altai or Golden Mountains, the Turks had invaded\\nIndia, Persia, Syria and Asia Minor. Othman, the chief of\\none of their smaller tribes, obtained possession of Brousa in\\n1325, and his son Orkhan gained Nicomedia, Nicaea and Gal-\\nlipoli on the European side of the Dardanelles. Mourad I,\\nendowed the Ottomans with a terrible army by developing\\nthe corps of the janissaries. This soldiery was composed of\\ncaptive Christian youth, who were reared in the Mussulman\\nreligion. Special tracts of land were assigned them. En-\\nforced celibacy and life in common gave them some re-\\nsemblance to a military order. Before directly attacking\\nConstantinople, the sultans outflanked it. Mourad I took\\nAdrianople and attacked the valiant peoples of Bulgaria,\\nServia, Bosnia and Albania. Victor at Cossova, he fell by\\nassassination on the field of battle (1389). His successor,\\nBayezid I, reaped the fruits of his victory. Macedonia and\\nBulgaria submitted and Wallachia acknowledged itself\\ntributary.\\nOn the banks of the Danube Bayezid I encountered a Eu-\\nropean crusade, commanded by Sigismund. Many French\\nknights, and among them John the Fearless, took part.", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "A.D. 1396-1453.] GERMANY 109\\nThose brilliant nobles ruined their cause by their obstinate\\nrashness at the fatal battle of Nicopolis (1396). More effi-\\ncacious aid reached the Greeks from an unexpected quarter.\\nTamerlane had restored the empire of Genghis Khan, and\\nruled from the Ganges to the Don. Assailing the growing\\nOttoman power, he overthrew and captured Bayezid I at the\\ngreat battle of Angora (1402). The rapid disappearance\\nof the Mongols enabled the Ottomans to recover. In 1422\\nMourad II laid siege to Constantinople but in vain. He\\nfailed also in Albania against Scanderbeg, but won the bat-\\ntle of Varna, where Ladislaus, king of Poland and Hungary,\\nwas slain (1444). Fortunately the Hungarians and Hun-\\nyadi, though sometimes defeated but always in arms, through\\ntheir repeated efforts checked the conquerors. Moreover the\\nOttomans could not hurl their whole strength upon West-\\nern Europe so long as Constantinople resisted them. Mo-\\nhammed II resolved to free himself from this determined\\nenemy. He besieged the imperial city with an army of over\\n200,000 men, an immense artillery and an enormous fleet.\\nHis ships he transported overland into the harbor across\\nthe isthmus which separates the Golden Horn from the Bos-\\nphorus. The Emperor Constantine XIII maintained a he-\\nroic though hopeless resistance for fifty-seven days. A\\nfinal assault, on May 29, 1453, accomplished the fall of the\\nEastern heir of the Roman Empire.", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "110 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES\\nXVIII\\nSUMMARY OP THE MIDDLE AGES\\nIf now we sum up this history, apparently so confused,\\nwe perceive that the ten centuries of the Middle Ages natu-\\nrally divide into three sections.\\nFrom the fifth to the tenth century the Roman Empire\\ncrumbles away. The two invasions from the north and the\\nsouth are accomplished. The new German Empire which\\nCharlemagne attempts to organize is dissolved. We behold\\neverywhere the destruction of the past and the transition\\nto a new social and intellectual condition.\\nFrom the tenth to the fourteenth century feudalism has\\nits rise. The crusades take place. The Pope and the Em-\\nperor contend for the world. The burgher class is reconsti-\\ntuted. This is the mediaeval period, simple in its general\\noutlines, which reaches its fullest flowering in the time of\\nSaint Louis of France, with customs, institutions, arts and\\neven a literature peculiar to itself.\\nIn the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries this feudal so-\\nciety descends into an abyss of misery. The decay seems\\nthat of approaching death. But death is the condition of\\nlife. If the Middle Ages vanish, it is to make way for\\nModern Times. A little charcoal, saltpetre and sulphur\\nwill restore equality on the battlefield, a prophecy of ap-\\nproaching social equality, either under royal omnipotence\\nor under the protection of public liberties. Hence power\\nchanges its place. No longer the monopoly of the man of\\narms or of the noble, it passes first to the kings as later on\\nit will pass to the people. Thought becomes secularized\\nand quits the cloister. The genius of ancient civilization\\nis about to spring forth. Already artists and writers are\\non the road of the Eenaissance, as the Portuguese are on\\nthat of the Cape of Good Hope. Audacious voices are\\nheard arguing about obedience and even about faith. The\\nMiddle Ages have indeed come to an end since things are\\nbecoming new.", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "SUMMARY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 111\\nBut did the Middle Ages wholly die They bequeathed\\nto Modern Times virile maxims of public and individual\\nrights, which then profited only the lords, but which now\\nprofit all. The Middle Ages developed chivalrous ideas, a\\nsentiment of honor, a respect for woman, which still stamp\\nwith a peculiar seal those who preserve and practise them.\\nLastly, mediaeval architecture remains the most imposing ma-\\nterial manifestation of the religious sentiment, an architect-\\nure we can only copy when we wish to erect the fittest\\nhouses of prayer.", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "IE DEX\\nAbbassides, dynasty of the, 21.\\nAbderrantnan I, 22.\\nAbderrahman II, 22.\\nAbderrahman III, 22, 6T.\\nAbelard, 48, 72.\\nAbou-Bekr, 19.\\n^Egidius, 12.\\nAetius, 6, 11.\\nAgincourt, battle of, 94.\\nAgnes de Meranie, 78.\\nAi znadin, battle of, 20.\\nAlani, 4, 5.\\nAlaric, 4, 5.\\nAlaric II, 8, 13.\\nAlbert II of Germany, 106.\\nAlbert the Great of Germany, 73.\\nAlbigenses, 1, 66.\\nAlbizzi, 102.\\nAlcantara, Order of, 69.\\nAlcuin, 81.\\nAlemanni, 2, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 33.\\nAlexander III, Pope, 56.\\nAlexander IV, Pope, 99, 100.\\nAlexandria, 20.\\nAlfred the Great, 39.\\nAl-Hakam I, 22.\\nAli, 19, 20.\\nAljubarotta, battle of, 99.\\nAl-Mamoun, 21.\\nAlmanzor, 21, 22, 23, 67.\\nAlmohades, 68, 69.\\nAlmoravides, 63.\\nAlp Arslan, 59.\\nAlphonso V of Aragon, 103.\\nAlphonso X of Castile, 97, 104.\\nAlphonso XI of Castile, 97.\\nAlphonso V, king of the Two Sicilies, 98.\\nAmalric, 8.\\nAmrouk, 20.\\nAndrew II of Hungary, 63.\\nAngles, 2, 7, 8.\\nAnglo-Saxon Heptarchy, 8.\\nAngora, battle of, 109.\\nAnselm, Saint, 4S.\\nAntioch, 60, 61, 62.\\nAquileia, destroyed by Attila, 6.\\nAquinas, Saint Thomas, 73.\\nAquitanians, 27.\\nArabs, 17-23. 68.\\nArbogast, 11.\\nArcadius, 4.\\nArchitecture, Byzantine, 49 mediaeval, 3!\\nAries, 8.\\nArmagnacs, 92, 94.\\nArnaldo de Brescia, 55.\\nArnulf, 41, 51.\\nArteveld, Jacques van, 88.\\nArteveld, Philip van, 92.\\nArts, Major and Minor, 101, 102.\\nAscalon, battle of, 61.\\nAssizes of Jerusalem, 61.\\nAtaulf, 5.\\nAthelstane, 39.\\nAttendolo, Sforza, 102.\\nAttila, 4, 6.\\nAugsburg, battle of, 41.\\nAugustine, Saint, 5.\\nAusculta Fili, 80.\\nAustrasia, 14, 28.\\nAvars, 29, 41.\\nAverroes, 22, 23.\\nAvicenna, 22.\\nAvignon, Holy See at, 80.\\nAvitus, 13.\\nBacon, Roger, 73.\\nBagdad, Caliphate of, 21.\\nBaldwin I and II, kings of Jerusalem, 61.\\nBaldwin IX, Count of Flanders, 60, 62.\\nBaldwin of Bourg, 60.\\nBaliol, John, 79, 87.\\nBall, John, 93.\\nBannockburn, battle of, 87.\\nBarbarossa, 55, 62.\\nBastard of Bourbon, 95.\\nBavaria, 29.\\nBayezid I, 108.\\nBeauvais, Vincent de, 73.\\nBecket, Thomas a, 77, 84-85.\\nBedford, English regent, 94.\\nBedr, battle of, 18.\\nBenedict XI, Pope, 80.\\nBenedict, Saint, 25.\\nBenefit of clergy, 84.\\nBernard, Saint, 61, 72.\\nBernard, Saisset, 80.\\nBernardo del Carpio, 74.\\nBeziers, massacre at, 66.\\nBishop of Laon, 90.\\nBlack Prince, Edward the, 89, 91.\\nBlanche of Castile, 78.\\nBlois, Charles de, 89.\\nBoccaccio, 101, 103.\\nBoethius, 9.\\nBohemia, 106.\\nBohemond, 60.\\n113", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "114\\nINDEX\\nBonaventura, Saint, 73.\\nBoniface, Count, 5.\\nBoniface II, Marquis of Montferrat, 62.\\nBoniface VIII, Pope (Saint Boniface), 25,\\n79.\\nBoreslav I the Brave, King, 107.\\nBoreslav III the Victorious, King, 57.\\nBourhon, Bastard, 95.\\nBouvines, battle of, 77.\\nBracciolini, 103.\\nBrandenburg, margravate of, origin of\\nPrussia, 41.\\nBretigny, treaty of, 90.\\nBritain, 7, 8.\\nBruce, David, 89.\\nBruce, Robert, 87.\\nBrunehaut, 14-15.\\nBrunelleschi, 103.\\nBuekholz, battle of, 28.\\nBureau, Jean, 95.\\nBurgundians, 2, 7, 9 and Armagnacs, 92.\\nBurgundy, 7, 36, 75.\\nCaboche, 92.\\nCabochian Ordinance, 92.\\nCalais, siege of, 89.\\nCalatanazor, battle of, 67.\\nCalatrava, Order of, 69.\\nCalinar, Union of, 107.\\nCalvin, 93.\\nCamp of Refuge, 82.\\nCanossa, 54.\\nCanterbury, Archbishop of, 48, 84.\\nCanute the Great, 39, 106.\\nCanute VI, 106.\\nCapetians, 75-81.\\nCaptivity of Babylon, 80.\\nCapucins, 65.\\nCaribert, 14.\\nCarloman, brother of Charlemagne, 28.\\nCarloman, son of Charles Martel, 27.\\nCarlovingians, the, 27-37.\\nCarthage, 20.\\nCasimir the Great, 107.\\nCassiodorus, 9.\\nCastillon, battle of, 96.\\nCastracani, Castruccio, 102.\\nChalons, battle of, 6, 12.\\nChansons de geste, 49.\\nChanson de Roland, 49.\\nCharlemagne, 10, 27-32.\\nCharles II the Bald, of France, 34-35.\\nCharles III the Simple, 36.\\nCharles IV the Fair, 81.\\nCharles V the Wise (dauphin), 90; (king),91.\\nCharles VI of France, 92.\\nCharles VII of France, 94, 95.\\nCharles the Fat, Emperor. 36, 51.\\nCharles IV of Germany, 105.\\nCharles the Bad, king of Navarre, S9, 91.\\nCharles of Anjou, king of Naples, 100.\\nCharles the Lame of Aragon, 100.\\nCharles Martel, 20, 26.\\nChaucer, 74.\\nChildebert, 14.\\nChilperic, 14.\\nChiozza, war of, 102.\\nChrysoloras, 103.\\nChurch, from its beginning to the Middle\\nAges, 24-26; and the Empire, 51-58;\\nand Philip IV of France, 79-80.\\nCid Rodrigo de Rivar, 68, 74.\\nCiraabue, 103.\\nClement III, Pope, 54.\\nClement V, Pope, 80, 100.\\nClodimir, 14.\\nClodion, 11.\\nClotaire, 14-15.\\nClotaire II, 15.\\nClotilde, 12.\\nClovis, 4, 7, 12-13.\\nCocherel, battle of, 91.\\nCode, Justinian, 10; of Scania, 106, 107;\\nTheodosian, 9.\\nCffiur, Jacques, 95.\\nColonna, SO.\\nCommons, 87.\\nConcordat of Worms, 55.\\nCondottieri, 102.\\nConquest of Constantinople, The, 73.\\nConrad I of Germany, 51.\\nConrad II, 52.\\nConrad III, 55, 61.\\nConradin, 100.\\nConstance, treaty of, 56 Council of, 105.\\nConstantine XIII, Emperor, 109.\\nConstantinople. 9, 10, 20, 59, 63, 108.\\nConstitution, English, 82-87.\\nConstitutions of Clarendon, 84, 85.\\nCordeliers (religious order), 65.\\nCordova, Caliphate of, 21, 22, 67.\\nCorte Nuova, battle of, 57.\\nCossova, battle of, 108.\\nCouncil of Ten, 101.\\nCourtray, battle of, 81.\\nCrecy, battle of, S9.\\nCrescentius, 52.\\nCrusades, 59-70.\\nCzechs. See Bohemia.\\nDagobert, 15.\\nDante, 74, 101, 103.\\nDecameron, Boccaccio s, 101.\\nDescartes, 93.\\nDetmold, battle of, 29.\\nDidier, king of the Lombards, 28.\\nDigest of Justinian, 10.\\nDominicans, 65.\\nDoomsday Book, 83.\\nDorji\u00c2\u00bbum, battle of, 60.\\nDuguesclin, 91, 97.\\nDunbar, battle of, 87.\\nDunois, Count of, 95.\\nDuns Scotus, 73.\\nEast Anglia, 8.\\nEbroin, 16.\\nEccelino de Romana, 58.\\nEdmund II Ironsides, 39.\\nEdward the Confessor, 82.\\nEdward I of England, 87.\\nEdward II, 87.\\nEdward III, 81, 88, 91.\\nEdward the Black Prince.\\nPrince.\\nEgbert the Great, 39.\\nSee Black;", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n115\\nEginhard, 31.\\nEgypt, Louis IX in, 64 Napoleon in, 64.\\nEhresburg, battle of, 51.\\nEleanor of Guyenne. 01, 84.\\nEleanor of Provence, 86.\\nEmpire, Charlemagne s, 29 of the Franks,\\n24-32 German founded (8ST), 51.\\nEngland, Northmen in, 39 invaded bv\\nNormans, 82; 1066 to 1327, 83-87; in\\nHundred Years War, 8S-96. See Britain.\\nEnnodius, Bishop, 9.\\nEsehenbach, Wolfram de, 73, 74.\\nEssex, 8.\\nEthelred, 39.\\nEuclid, 23.\\nEudes, son of Robert the Strong, 36.\\nEvora, Order of, 69.\\nFalkirk, battle of, 87.\\nFatimites, 19, 21.\\nFerdinand of Aragon, 98.\\nFerdinand IV of Castile, 97.\\nFiesole, battle of, 5.\\nFlemings, insurrection of the, 80, 81.\\nFlorence, 101, 102, 103.\\nFolkungs, dynasty of the, 107.\\nFontanet, battle of, 34.\\nFormigny, battle of, 96.\\nFoulques, 62.\\nFrance, foundation of modern state of, 35\\nboundaries in 1100, 47 formation of\\nkingdom of, 75-S1 in the Hundred\\nTears War, S8-91, 93-96.\\nFranciscan friars, 65.\\nFranconian dynasty, 51-55.\\nFranks, 2, 6, 7.\\nFredegonde, 14-15.\\nFrederick I Barbarossa, Emperor, 55.\\nFrederick II, Emperor, 57, 63, 99.\\nFree companies, 91.\\nFroissart, 73, 91.\\nGenghis Khan, 108.\\nGenoa, 101.\\nGenseric, 4, 5, 6.\\nGermany, in the fourth century, 2-3 con-\\nquered by Charlemagne, 2:1-29 first de-\\nmarcation of modern nation of, 35\\nboundaries in ninth century, 47 old\\nEmpire of, founded, 51 and the Papacy,\\n51-58 in the Crusades, 61-62 and house\\nof Hapsburg, 104-105 dissolving of\\nEmpire, 105-106.\\nGhibellines, 56, 101.\\nGiotto, 103.\\nGodfrey of Bouillon, 60, 61.\\nGodwin, Earl, 82.\\nGolden Book, 101.\\nGolden Bull, 105.\\nGon train, 14.\\nGothic architecture, 49.\\nGoths, 2, 4.\\nGottschalk, 48.\\nGreat Britain, 47.\\nGreat Interregnum, 104.\\nGreat Ordinance of Reformation, 90.\\nGregory the Great, Pope, 25.\\nGregory III, Pope, 26.\\nGregory VII, Pope, 53-54.\\nGregory X, Pope, 100.\\nGuelphs, 56, 58, 101.\\nGuillaume de Lorris, 73.\\nGuillaume de Sens, 74.\\nGundobad, 13.\\nHanseatic League, 72, 104.\\nHapsburg, house of, 104.\\nHarold of England, 82.\\nHaroun-al-Raschid, 21.\\nHastings, battle of, 82.\\nHegira, 18.\\nHengist, 8.\\nHenry (Duke), Emperor, 51-52.\\nHenry II, Emperor, 52.\\nHenry V, Emperor, 76.\\nHenry I of England, 83.\\nHenry II of England (Henry Plantagenet),\\n76, 84-85.\\nHenry III of England, 78, 86.\\nHenry IV of England, 94.\\nHenry V of England, 94.\\nHenry VI of England, 94.\\nHenry I of France, 75.\\nHenry the Fowler, 41.\\nHenry the Lion, 56.\\nHenry VII of Luxemburg, 105.\\nHenry the Proud, 55.\\nHenry de Transtamara, 91.\\nHenry II of Transtamara, 97.\\nHeptarchy, Saxon, 39.\\nHeraclius, 18, 20.\\nHeristal, Martin, 16.\\nHeristal, Pepin, 16, 26.\\nHermann-Saul, 28.\\nHermanric, 5.\\nHerrings, battle of the, 95.\\nHeruli, 8, 9.\\nHescham I and II, 22.\\nHidalgos, 98.\\nHildebrand, the monk, 52-53.\\nHincmar, 48.\\nHippo, 5.\\nHohenstaufens, 55, 73.\\nHonorius, 4.\\nHorsa, 8.\\nHospitallers, 61.\\nHugh Capet, 36.\\nHugh the Great of Vermandois, 60.\\nHugues de Payen, 61.\\nHundred Years War, 75, 81, 88-96.\\nHungary, 41, 106.\\nHunger Tower, 101.\\nHuns. 3-4, 6.\\nHunyadi, John, 106, 109.\\nHuss, John, 106.\\nHussite War, 105.\\nInfanzones, 98.\\nIngeborg of Denmark, 78.\\nInnocent II, Pope, 55.\\nInnocent III, Pope, 56, 62, 68, 77, 78, 85.\\nInnocent IV, Pope, 57, 63.\\nInquisition in France, 66.\\nInstitutes of Justinian, 10.\\nInvestitures, quarrel of, 54.\\nIrminsul, 28.", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "116\\nINDEX\\nIsaac Comnenus, 62.\\nIsabella of Castile, 98.\\nItaly, barbarians invade, 4-6. 8, 41 king-\\ndom of, 47 republics in, 100-101.\\nIurique, battle of, 69.\\nJacquerie, 89, 90.\\nJacques Ceeur, 95.\\nJagellon, 107.\\nJanissaries, 108.\\nJayme I the Conqueror, 69.\\nJerusalem, 60.\\nJoan of Arc, 95.\\nJoanna I, queen of Naples, 102.\\nJoannes Scotus Erigena, 48.\\nJohn the Fearless, 92, 94, 108.\\nJohn the Good, 89, 90.\\nJohn (Lackland) king of England, 77, 85-\\n86.\\nJohn II of Aragon, 98.\\nJohn I of Portugal, 99.\\nJohn XXII, Pope, 105.\\nJoinville s Memoirs, 73.\\nJongleurs, 49.\\nJudith, Empress, 33.\\nJustinian, 10.\\nJustinian II, 26.\\nJutes, 2, 7.\\nJuvenal, Chancellor, 95.\\nKaaba, temple of the, 17.\\nKhaireddin Barbarossa, 41.\\nKbaled, 20.\\nKierry-sur-Oise, edict of, 43.\\nKilidj Arslan, 60.\\nKing Arthur, 49.\\nKnights of Christ, 66.\\nKnights of Saint John of Jerusalem, 64.\\nKnights Templar, 61, 64, 80.\\nKnights of the Teutonic Order, 65, 107.\\nKoran, 18.\\nLadislaus, king of Poland, 106, 109.\\nLahire, 95.\\nLanfranc, 48, 74.\\nLara, the children of, 74.\\nLas Navas de Tolosa, battle of, 69.\\nLeger, Saint, bishop of Autun, 16.\\nLegists, 55, 72,\\nLegnano. battle of. 56.\\nLendo, Michael, 102.\\nLeo the Iconoclast. 26.\\nLeonardo Bruni, 108.\\nLeopold, Duke of Austria, 62.\\nLeudes, 3. 30.\\nLewes, battle of, 86,\\nLibrary, French Royal, 91 Vatican, 103.\\nLibuin, Saint, 2S.\\nLnegrians, 7.\\nLollard, 93.\\nLombard League, 56.\\nLombards, 2, 25, 26, 33.\\nLombardy, 1112, 103.\\nLoria, Admiral Roger de, 100.\\nLothaire, son of the Debonair, 33-34.\\nLothaire II of Germany, 55.\\nLotharingia. 35.\\nLouis the Child, 51.\\nLouis the Debonair, 33-34.\\nLouis the German, 35.\\nLouis I the Pious, of France, 29, 83.\\nLouis II the Stammerer, 35.\\nLouis III, 36.\\nLouis IV d Outremer, 36.\\nLouis VI the Fat, 76, 83.\\nLouis VII, 61, 76, 84.\\nLouis VIII, 78.\\nLouis IX (Saint Louis), 63 -64, 78-79, 86.\\nLouis X the Quarrelsome, 81.\\nLouis XIV, 75.\\nLouis IV of Bavaria, 101, 105.\\nLuitprand, 26.\\nLuther, 93.\\nMacedonia, 4.\\nMagna Charta, 85, 86, 87.\\nMaitre Jean, 74.\\nMajor Arts, 101, 102.\\nMalek Kamel, 63.\\nMalek Shah, 59.\\nManfred, 99, 100.\\nMarcel, :Etienne, 90.\\nMarchfeld, the, 104.\\nMarcilio Ficino, 103.\\nMargaret of Anjou, 95.\\nMargaret the Great of Denmark, 107.\\nMartigues, Gerard de, 61.\\nMartin of Troyes, 73.\\nMartin V, Pope, 99.\\nMasaccio, 103.\\nMatilda, Countess, 54.\\nMatilda, Empress, 83, 84.\\nMayence, Diet of, 56.\\nMayors of the palace, 15, 16.\\nMecca, 17, 19.\\nMedici, the, 102.\\nMedici, Cosmo de, 102.\\nMedina, IS.\\nMeistersingers, 74.\\nMelloria, battle of, 57, 101.\\nMendicant friars, 65.\\nMercia, 8.\\nMerinides, 97.\\nMerovig, 12.\\nMerovingians, 11-16.\\nMerseburg, battle of, 41, 52.\\nMesnaderos, 98.\\nMichael Angelo, 103.\\nMiddle Ages, 1-111.\\nMilan, 47, 102, 103.\\nMinnesingers, 74.\\nMinor Arts, 101, 102.\\nMissi dominici, 80.\\nMoaviah, 20.\\nMohammed, 17-19.\\nMohammed II, 109.\\nMolav, Jacques, 80.\\nMongols, 41, 107, 108.\\nMonologium. the, 48.\\nMons-en-Puelle, battle of, 81.\\nMontfort, Simon de, Earl of Leicester, 66,\\n86.\\nMoors, 2, 20 invade Spain, 68-69 power\\nof, reduced, 97, 9S, 103.\\nMorgarten, battle of, 105.\\nMorocco founded, 68.", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n117\\nMount Ohud, battle of, 18.\\nMourad I, Sultan, 109.\\nMourad II, Sultan, 109.\\nMythology, German, 3.\\nNaefels, battle of, 105.\\nNaples. 99-100.\\nNavarre, 47, 79, 97, 98.\\nNetherlands, 34, 71.\\nNeii stria, 14, 36.\\nNevil Cross, battle of, 89.\\nNibelungenlied, 74.\\nNlcsea, besieged by Crusaders, 60.\\nNicholas n, Pope, 53.\\nNicholas III, Pope, 100.\\nNicholas V, Pope, 103.\\nNicopolis, battle of (1396), 109.\\nNorgaret, Guillaume de, 80.\\nNormandy, 47, 77, 78, 83-85.\\nNormans, 82, S3, 84.\\nNorthmen, 2, 38, 40.\\nNorthumberland, 8.\\nNorway, 39, 48, 106.\\nNoureddin, 61.\\nNovellm of Justinian, 10.\\nNoyon, 47.\\nOath of Strasburg, 34.\\nOdoacer, 6.\\nOlaf, king of Norway, 39.\\nOmar, 19.\\nOmmiades, 20.\\nOrkhan, 108.\\nOrleans, besieged by Alaric, 6; by the Eng-\\nlish, 95.\\nOsnabriick, battle of, 29.\\nOstrogoths, 4, 8-9.\\nOthman, successor of Mohammed, 19.\\nOthman, a chief of the Ottoman Turks, 108.\\nOtto of Brunswick, 56.\\nOtto the Great, Emperor, 41, 52.\\nOtto II, Emperor, 52.\\nOtto III, Emperor, 52.\\nOttocar II, 104.\\nOttoman Empire, formation of, 109.\\nOttoman Turks, 41, 106 conquest of Con-\\nstantinople bv, 108-109,\\nOxford, statutes of, 78, 86, 87.\\nPacta Conventa, 107.\\nPaderborn, 28.\\nPadua, 102.\\nPandects, 10.\\nPapacy, 25-26 and German Empire, 52-\\n58 and the Crusades, 59, 62 and Philip\\nIV of France, 79-80 at Avignon, SO.\\nSee Church.\\nParis, Council of, 15 University of, 72, 73.\\nParliament, British, 86.\\nPatay, battle of, 95.\\nPavia, 47, 102.\\nPecheros, 98.\\nPedro the Cruel, 91, 97.\\nPelavo, 67.\\nPepin the Short, 27.\\nPeter the Hermit, 59, 60.\\nPeter III of Aragon, 100.\\nPeter s Pence, 39, 82.\\nPetrarch, 103.\\nPharamond, 11.\\nPhilip the Good of Burgundy, 94.\\nPhilip II Augustus, of France, 62, 77, 85.\\nPhilip III the Bold, of France, 79, 90.\\nPhilip IV the Fair, of France, 79, 88, 89.\\nPhilip V of France, 81.\\nPhilip of Suabia, 56.\\nPiast, Duke, 107.\\nPicts, 7.\\nPierre de Bonneuil, 74.\\nPierre de Castelnau, 66.\\nPierre de Fontaine, 45.\\nPierre des Vignes, 57.\\nPisa, 101, 103.\\nPlague of Florence, 101.\\nPlasian, Guillaume de, 80.\\nPoitiers, battle of, 89.\\nPoland, 47, 48 dominant power of eastern\\nEurope, 107.\\nPorcaro, Stephen, 102.\\nPortugal, 99.\\nPragmatic Sanction, 105.\\nProbus, 11.\\nProcida, 100.\\nProvencal language, 49.\\nPrussia, 41, 65.\\nPulcheria, 9.\\nQuadi, the, 2.\\nEadagaisus, 4.\\nRamazan, fast of, 19.\\nRaoul, Duke of Burgundy, 36.\\nRaymond, Count of Toulouse, 60.\\nRechiarius, 7.\\nRechila, 7.\\nRecollects, the, 65.\\nRemi, Saint, 12.\\nRepublics, Italian city-, 100-101.\\nRichard of Cornwall, Emperor, 86, 104.\\nRichard Coeur de Lion, 62, S5.\\nRichard II of England, 93.\\nRicos hombres, 98.\\nRienzi, 101.\\nRing, the camp of the Avars, 29.\\nRio Salado, battle of, 97.\\nRobert, Duke of France, 36.\\nRobert, Duke of Normandy, 60.\\nRobert the Strong, 35.\\nRobert Wace, 49.\\nRoche Derien, battle of, 89.\\nRoger II of Sicily, 56.\\nRollo, 36.\\nRoman de Brut, 49.\\nRomance of the Rose, 73.\\nRome, Alaric captures, 5-6 the Church in,\\n24-26, 102 and Rienzi, 101.\\nRome, Bishop of. See Papacy.\\nRoncalia, Diet of, 55.\\nRoncesvaux, 29.\\nRoosebec, battle of, 92.\\nRound Table, 49.\\nRoyale, 52.\\nRoyalty, Frankish, 11 Merovingian, 12-16\\nCarlovingian, 26-37 Capetian, 251-257\\nNorman, in England, 258-259 progress\\nof Spanish, 97-99.", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "118\\nINDEX\\nRudolph of Hapsburg, 104.\\nRurik, 40, 108.\\nKussia, foundation of state of, 40 Mon-\\ngols in, 107, 108.\\nSaint-Clair-sur-Epte, treaty of, 36.\\nSaint James of Castile, Order of, 69.\\nSaint Jean d Acre, besieged by Crusaders,\\n62.\\nSaint Louis. See Louis IX of France.\\nSaintes, battle of, S6.\\nSaladin, 62.\\nSaladin s tithe, 62.\\nSalic Law, 81.\\nSatnarcand, 22, 23.\\nSancho of Castile, Don, 97.\\nSancho III, king of Navarre, 68.\\nSaracens, 27, 40-11.\\nSaxons, 2, 6, 7-8, 26, 27, 28, 29.\\nSaxony, 51.\\nScala, Cane della, 102.\\nScandinavia, 106, 107.\\nScania, Code of, 106, 107.\\nScotland, 47, 79.\\nScots, 7.\\nScourge of God. See Attila.\\nSemiramis of the North, 107.\\nSempach, battle of, 105.\\nSerfs, 45.\\nSergius, Pope, 26.\\nShiites, the, 20.\\nSicilian Vespers, massacre of the, 79, 9S,\\n100.\\nSigebert, 14.\\nSigismund, Emperor, 105.\\nSimancas, battle of, 67.\\nSlavs, 2, 29, 41, 107, 108.\\nSluggard Kings, 16.\\nSluice, battle of the, 88.\\nSoissons, Council of, 78.\\nSpain, extent in ninth century, 47 1250 to\\n1453, 97-99.\\nSpeculum 3/ajus, 73.\\nStates General 80, 89, 90.\\nStephen II, Pope, 27.\\nStephen of Blois, 60, 84.\\nStilicho, 4.\\nStockholm founded, 107.\\nSuabia, house of, established in southern\\nItaly, 56 extinction of, 100.\\nSuevi, the, 2, 5, 7, 9.\\nSwmma Theologies, 73.\\nSunnites, 20.\\nSussex, 8.\\nSweden, 48, 106.\\nSwein, 39.\\nSwitzerland, 105.\\nSyagrius, 6, 12.\\nSylvester II, Pope, 48.\\nSymrnachus, 9.\\nTagliacozzo, battle of, 100.\\nTaillebourg, battle of, 86.\\nTalbot, Lord, 95.\\nTamerlane, 109.\\nTarik, 20.\\nTartars 6\\nTemplar, knights, 61, 64, 80.\\nTenchebray, battle of, 83.\\nTestry, battle of, 16.\\nTeutonic Order, 65.\\nTheodoric, S-9, 13.\\nTheodosian Code, 9.\\nTheodosius II, 9.\\nTheophania, Princess, 52.\\nThierry, king of Austria, 14.\\nThorn, treaty of, 107.\\nThuringia, 47.\\nTogrul Beg, 21.\\nTours, battle of, 20, 26.\\nTribur, Diet of (SS7), 36, (1076) 54.\\nTroubadours, 49.\\nTrouveres, 49.\\nTroyes, treaty of, 94.\\nTruce of God, 44.\\nTunis, 64.\\nTuscany, 47, 100. j\\nTwo Sicilies, 57, 98.\\nTyre, 61.\\nTIgolino, 101.\\nUnam sanctum, papal bull, 80.\\nUnion of Calmar, 107.\\nUniversity of Paris, 72, 73.\\nUnterwalden, 105.\\nUrban II, Pope, 59.\\nUrban IV, Pope, 100.\\nUrban V, Pope, 93.\\nUrban VI, Pope, 102.\\nUri, 105.\\nValentinian II, 11,\\nValois dynasty, 81.\\nVandals, 2, 5, 9, 10.\\nVarna, battle of, 106, 109.\\nVasco de Gama, 99.\\nVatican library, 103.\\nVenedi, 15.\\nVenice, 47, 64, 101, 102, 103.\\nVerdun, treaty of, 84.\\nVermandois, Lord of, 90.\\nVezelay, assembly of, 61.\\nVikings, 38.\\nVillehardouin, Geoffrey de, 62, 73.\\nVilleins, 45.\\nVincent de Beauvais, 73.\\nVincenza, 102.\\nVisconti, the, 102.\\nVisconti, Gian Galeozzo, 102.\\nVisconti, Matteo, 102.\\nVisconti, Philip Marie, 102.\\nVisigoths, 4, 6, 20, 25.\\nVolkshein, battle of, 54.\\nWaldemar the Victorious, 106.\\nWallace, William, 79, 87.\\nWallia, 5.\\nWalloon language, 49.\\nWalter the Penniless, 60.\\nWar of the Nations, 18,\\nWelfs, 55.\\nWelsh, 7.\\nWenceslas, Emperor, 102, 104.\\nWessex, 8.\\nWhite Caps, insurrection of the, 93\\nWicliffe, John, 93.\\nBD-181", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n119\\nWilliam the Conqueror, 82, 83.\\nWilliam II Eufus, 83.\\nWilliam Tell, 105.\\nWinchester, Cardinal of, 95.\\nWitikind, 28.\\nWittenagemot, 39.\\nWorms, Synod of, 54 Concordat of, 55.\\nXaintrailles, 95.\\nXeres, battle of, 20, 67.\\nTermouk, battle of the, 20.\\nTezdegerd, 20.\\nZacharias, Pope, 27.\\nZalaca, battle of, 68.\\nZeno, 8, 9.\\nZisca, John, 106.\\nZug, 105.", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2829", "width": "1609", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2829", "width": "1609", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proce\\nNeutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide\\nTreatment Date: M/jy _\\nPreservationTechnoIogie\\nA WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATII\\n111 Thomson Park Drive\\nCranberry Township, PA 16066\\n(724)779-2111", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "y\\nJ0\\n\u00c2\u00a3g^ 32084", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2829", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "condensedhistory00duru_0154.jp2"}}