{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3637", "width": "2410", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "Book FSS\\nCOPYRIGHT DEPOSIT", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "EDUCATIONAL AIMS AND\\nMETHODS", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0080\u00a2The", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "EDUCATIONAL AIMS\\nAND METHODS\\nLECTURES AND ADDRESSES\\nBY\\nSIR JOSHUA FITCH, M.A., LL.D.\\nLATE HER MAJESTY S INSPECTOR OF TRAINING COLLEGES\\nAUTHOR OF LECTURES ON TEACHING, NOTES ON AMERICAN\\nSCHOOLS AND TRAINING COLLEGES\\nTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY\\nLONDON: MACMILLAN CO., Ltd.\\n1900\\nAll rights reserved", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "TWO COPIES \u00c2\u00abiicEivao.\\nyff)c6 at tll\u00c2\u00ab\\nio3^\\n57571\\nCopyright, 1900,\\nBy the MACMILLAN COMPANY.\\nNortoooti 5Pics3\\nJ. S. Gushing Co. Berwick Smith\\nNorwood Mass. U.S.A.\\nr\\nSECOND COPY. /OCSy", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "PREFACE\\nThe lectures and addresses collected in this volume\\nhave been given at various times within the last few\\nyears before different academic audiences in England or\\nAmerica, including the University of Cambridge, the Col-\\nlege Association of Pennsylvania, the American Institute\\nof Instruction, the Oxford Conference on University Ex-\\ntension, the College of Preceptors, the Teachers Guild,\\nand other bodies interested in educational questions.\\nIn my former volume, Lectures on Teaching, an\\nattempt was made to discuss in succession the principles\\nwhich should be borne in mind in connexion with each\\nof the subjects of ordinary school instruction, and with\\nthe methods of teaching and discipline generally. The\\npresent volume is more miscellaneous and less systematic\\nin its character. But it deals with some aspects of edu-\\ncational work to which my own attention, during a long\\nofficial life, has been specially directed, and which, though\\nnot usually dealt with in formal treatises on pedagogy,\\ndeserve and often demand the consideration of those w^ho\\nas teachers, school trustees, or legislators possess influence\\nin determining the goal to be attained in public education,\\nand the processes by which that goal can best be reached.\\nIn forming our ideal of the function of a school, we\\ncannot afford to overlook the border-land which separates\\nits corporate life from the larger life of the family and the", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "vi Preface\\ncommunity, nor the light which is shed on educational\\nproblems by history, by social and industrial necessities,\\nby religious controversies, and by political events. It has\\nbecome more and more evident of late that the true science\\nof education of the future must include within its scope\\nthe history of former speculations, ideas, and experiments,\\nand the reasons why some of them have succeeded and\\nothers failed. I have therefore thought it right to include\\nin this volume two or three monographs on the life and\\nwork of prominent teachers. These studies may serve to\\nshow how varied are the instruments, and how widely dif-\\nferent the motive forces which have in successive periods\\nof our history contributed to the establfshment of insti-\\ntutions and to the formation of opinion on educational\\nsubjects. They will, I hope, leave on the reader s mind\\na conviction of the great debt we owe to those who, under\\ndivers conditions, with more or less imperfect vision of the\\nfuture, but with an honest desire to meet the intellectual\\nneeds of their own times, brought their best powers and\\nresources to bear on the elucidation of the principles, and\\nthe improvement of the practice of public instruction.\\nAnd if this retrospect also leaves on the mind of the\\nreader a strong sense, not only of the value, but of the\\ninadequacy, of what has hitherto been done, and also\\nserves to show how boundless and full of promise is the\\nfield which yet lies open to the future worker and explorer,\\nmy purpose in consenting to the collective publication of\\nthese occasional lectures will have been amply fulfilled.\\nEaster, 1900.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nLECTURE I\\nMETHODS OF INSTRUCTION AS ILLUSTRATED IN THE BIBLE\\nThe Bible a teaching book. Teaching by Symbol. Limitations to the value\\nof symbolic acts, in ethical training. Direct injunction. Peremptoriness.\\nThe Law repeated with new sanctions and personal appeals. The Sermon\\non the Mount. Rewards. The true ambition of life. Poetry as a factor\\nin education. Matthew Arnold s use of the Book of Isaiah. What poetry\\nis suited for children. Characteristics of Hebrew poetry. Reduplication\\nof thought. Stereotyped formularies and creeds. Proverbs better suited\\nto older than to younger learners. Biography. National portraits. Ex-\\namples of greatness. Narrative power. Parables. Illustrations from\\nNature. False and strained moralizing from Nature. Co-operation of\\nteacher and taught in the solution of problems. Vision and medita-\\ntion. Dreamy and imaginative scholars not to be discouraged. Con-\\nclusions 1-45\\nLECTURE II\\nSOCRATES AND HIS METHODS OF TEACHING\\nState of Athens in the time of Socrates. The intellectual discipline of the\\nAthenians. The art of Oratory. Socrates and his conversations. His\\ndisciples and reporters. A Socratic dialogue. Negative results not nec-\\nessarily fruitless. Investigation of words and their meanings. Some\\nmethods more fitting for adults than for young learners. Ambiguity and\\nverlial confusion. Gorgias. Relation of virtue to knowledge. The\\n8aiix(i3v of Socrates. Oracles. Conversation an educational instrument.\\nNeed for occasional colloquies with elder scholars. Subjects suited for\\nsuch colloquies. Handicraft. Physical Science. The doctrine of remi-\\nniscence. Pre-natal existence. Socrates a preacher of righteousness.\\nThe accusation against him. His death 46-80\\nvii", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "viii Contents\\nLECTURE III\\nTHE EVOLUTION OF CHARACTER\\nCharles Darwin. The main doctrines of Evolution. Their application to\\nsocial life. Limits to the use of analogy. Character a growth, not a\\nmanufacture. Intellectual food and digestion. Punishments. Moral\\nprecepts. When general rules are operative. Didactic teaching. Expe-\\nriences of childhood. The law of environment. The conditions of our\\nlife as determinants of character. How far these conditions are alterable\\nat will. The moral atmosphere of a school. Influence of the teacher s\\npersonal character. Natural selection. Conscious selection of the fittest\\nconditions. Degeneration. Unused faculties. Progression or retrogres-\\nsion. The law of divergence in plants and animals, in social institutions,\\nand in intellectual character. Special aptitudes and tastes. How far\\nthey should be encouraged. Eccentricity. Evolution a hopeful creed.\\nThe promise of the future 81-113\\nLECTURE IV\\nTHE TRAINING OF THE REASON\\nThe art of thinking. Reason v. understanding. Two processes of arriving\\nat truth. The deductive process, e.g. in geometry, and in arithmetic. An\\narithmetical example. Measures and multiples. The number nine. Oral\\ndemonstration of arithmetical principles. Inductive reasoning. Practical\\nwork essential in the study of the physical sciences. Two neglected\\nbranches of physical enquiry. Natural History. Astronomy. Meteor-\\nology. Object lessons. Inductive exercises in language. Examples\\nof verbal analysis. Apposition. Induction the test of the value of edu-\\ncational methods. Child study. The three stages of progress in inductive\\nscience. The Kindergarten. Religious teaching to be largely judged by\\nits results on character. The School a laboratory. Results 1 14-144\\nLECTURE V\\nHAND WORK AND HEAD WORK\\nManual and technical instruction. Why it is advocated. Apprenticeship.\\nEcoles d Apprentissage. Technological Institutes. The Yorkshire College\\nof Science. French technical schools, (i) for girls, (2) for artizans.\\nThe Frobelian discipline. Sweden and sloyd work. The ^cole Modele at\\nBrussels. Drawing and design. Educational influence of manual train-", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "Contents ix\\ning. The psychological basis for it. Variety of aptitude. The dignity\\nof labour. Limitations to the claims of manual training. Needlework.\\nGeneral conclusions 145-176\\nLECTURE VI\\nENDOWMENTS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON EDUCATION\\nTurgot and the Encyclopedie. Charitable foundations in France. Avoidable\\nand unavoidable evils. Almshouses. Religious charities Tests and dis-\\nqualifications. Colston s Charity in Bristol. The Girard College in Phila-\\ndelphia. Charities with restricted objects. Doles. Illegal bequests and\\nuseless charities. Educational charities. The early Grammar Schools.\\nCharity Schools. Contrast between the educational endowments of the\\nsixteenth and those of the eighteenth century. Causes of decadence.\\nInfluence on the teachers. The Endowed Schools Act of 1869. Origin\\nof charitable endowments. The equitable rights of founders. The State\\ninterested in maintaining these rights. Endowments may encourage\\nvariety and new experiments but sometimes prevent improvement. Con-\\nditions of vitality in endowed institutions: That the object should be a\\nworthy one that the mode of attaining it should not be too rigidly\\nprescribed. The Johns Hopkins University. Sir Josiah Mason s foun-\\ndations. Supervision and needful amendment the duty of the State.\\nConstitution of governing bodies. Publicity. Summary of practical con-\\nclusions. England and America 177-214\\nLECTURE VII\\nASCHAM AND THE SCHOOLS OF THE RENAISSANCE\\nThe Modern English school the product of growth, not of legislation. The\\ninfluence of religion. Greek served to shape the Creeds and theology.\\nBut Latin more studied and valued by the Church. The revival of Greek\\nlearning not due to the Church. Pre-Reformation Grammar Schools.\\nRoger Ascham. The Scholemaster. Ascham s royal pupils. His experi-\\nence in Italy. St. Paul s School. Examples of Sixteenth century Statutes.\\nChester, Manchester, Louth. Choice. of masters. The scheme of study.\\nDetails of the Grammar School curriculum. Disputations. Hours of\\nStudy and of Teaching. Vacations. Punishments. Payment of fees.\\nNo provision for Girls education. The Grammar School theory. How\\nshould it be modified by later experience? How much of it should\\nsurvive? 215-248", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "Contents\\nLECTURE VIII\\nteachers institutes and conventions in AMERICA\\nConditions of education in the United States, Teachers trained and un-\\ntrained. Institutes. Henry Barnard. Scope and aim of the Institutes.\\nVoluntary associations of teachers. Co-operation of the clergy and public\\nmen. Summary of general purpose of Conventions. Newport, Rhode\\nIsland. The College Association of Philadelphia. St. John, New\\nBrunswick. Chautauqua. Reading Circles. Absence of educational\\npolitics. The corporate spirit among teachers. The Teachers Guild and\\nits future 249-271\\nLECTURE IX\\nEDWARD THRING\\nThe biographical method of studying educational history. Arnold and Thring.\\nOutlines of Thring s life. His biographers. Fellowships at King s Col-\\nlege, Cambridge. Early practice in a National School. True principles\\nof teaching applicable to schools of all grades. Uppingham. Boarding-\\nhouses. The School largely the product of private adventure. The Royal\\nCommissioners. The Hegira. Uppingham by the sea. The teaching\\nof English. Every boy good for something. Variety of employment and\\nof games. Encouragement of music and the fine arts. The decoration\\nof the school-room. Honour to lessons, Thring s books. His fancies.\\nCharacteristic extracts. Diaries. The Head-Masters Conference. Head-\\nMistresses. Women as teachers. Settlement at North Woolwich. The\\nUppingham School Society. The prize system 272-309\\nLECTURE X\\nTHE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION MOVEMENT, AND ITS RELATION\\nTO SCHOOLS\\nThe University Extension Scheme. Its missionary character. Its possible\\ninfluence on Schools, and on Training Colleges. Elementary teachers.\\nSome special disadvantages in their life. Their extra-professional inter-\\nests. Certificate hunting. The study of history. English literature. Eco-\\nnomic science. The study of nature and art. Teachers societies. 310-325", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "Contents xi\\nLECTURE XI\\nJOSEPH LANCASTER\\nPublic education in England at the end of the eighteenth century. Philan-\\nthropic work. Private adventure schools for the poor. Crabbe s Borough.\\nDay schools. Joseph Lancaster. His early life. His first educational\\nexperiment. Interview with the King. Successes. Dr. Andrew Bell.\\nHis work at Madras. The National Society. The monitorial system.\\nLancaster s plans of discipline. Their defects. His methods of instruc-\\ntion. The schools of the National Society. Training of teachers. The\\nNational and Lancasterian systems compared. The treatment of the\\nreligious question. Lancaster s disappointments. Efforts of his friends to\\nhelp him. His removal to America. Characters of Bell and Lancaster\\ncompared. Their work estimated 32^-357\\nLECTURE XII\\nPESTALOZZI\\nThe anniversary. Characteristics of Pestalozzi s teaching. Sense training.\\nHow he differed from Rousseau. His religious purpose. His rebellion\\nagainst verbalism. No finality in his system 358-364\\nLECTURE XIII\\nTHE SUNDAY SCHOOL OF THE FUTURE\\nPhilanthropic efforts in England. Robert Raikes. The changed position\\nof the Sunday Schools. The problem of the future. The Lord s Day\\nand its purpose. The working man s Sunday. Home influence more\\npotent than that of any school. Sunday in the home. The teacher.\\nConversation. Reading aloud. The School Library. Religious instruc-\\ntion. A teacher s equipment. Need of preparation. Questioning.\\nVerbal memory. Formularies. Catechising in church. Work for the\\neducated laity. Children s services. Formation of a habit of attending\\npublic worship. General conclusions. The Sunday School not only a\\nplace for religious instruction, but a centre of civilization and social\\nimprovement 3*^5~393", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "xii Contents\\nLECTURE XIV\\nWOMEN AND UNIVERSITIES\\nA notable feature in the reign of Queen Victoria, Opening of professions to\\nwomen. Public employments. Higher education. Women s education\\nnot provided by ancient endowments. Defoe s protest. Recent reforms.\\nWhy so slowly effected. The Schools Inquiry Commission. Ancient\\nendowments made available to girls. The Universities Local Examina-\\ntions. Girls Public Day Schools. Social effects of this movement. The\\nUniversity of London. Provincial Colleges of University rank. The older\\nUniversities. Girton and Newnham. Health of students. A Woman s\\nUniversity. The true iiitcllectual requirements of women. The unused\\nresources of life 394-420\\nLECTURE XV\\nTHE FRENCH LEAVING CERTIFICATE\\nCertificat d Etudes Primaires\\nThe French law authorizing the award of leaving certificates. Its influence\\non the attendance of scholars. Constitution of the local Commission.,\\nThe standard of examination. Les Ecoles primaires superieures. The\\nexaminations not competitive. Statistics. Practical results. The English\\nproblem. The standards. Individual examination. Its uses and de-\\nfects. Certificates for special subjects. Labour certificates. The Scotch\\ncertificate of merit. The ideal primary school course. Optional subjects.\\nOral examination. The relation between school and home 421-444\\nIndex 445-448", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "EDUCATIONAL AIMS AND\\nMETHODS", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "LECTURE I\\nMETHODS OF INSTRUCTION AS ILLUS-\\nTRATED IN THE BIBLE!\\nThe Bible a teaching book. Teaching by S}Tnbol. Limitations to\\nthe value of symbolic acts, in ethical training. Direct injunc-\\ntion. Peremptoriness. The Law repeated with new sanctions\\nand personal appeals. The Sermon on the Mount. Rewards.\\nThe true ambition of life. Poetry as a factor in education.\\nMr Arnold s use of the Book of Isaiah. What poetry is suited\\nfor children. Characteristics of Hebrew poetry. Reduplica-\\ntion of thought. Stereotyped formularies and creetls. Proverbs\\nbetter suited to older than to younger learners. Biography.\\nNational portraits. Examples of greatness. Narrative power.\\nParables, Illustrations from Nature. False antl strained mor-\\nalizing from Nature. Co-operation of teacher and taught in the\\nsolution of problems. Vision and meditation. Dreamy and\\nimaginative scholars not to be discouraged. Conclusions,\\nIt has seemed to me that in inviting you to enter The Bible\\nupon some further considerations on the principles of ^^^^f^^^^-g\\nteaching and on the application of those principles to\\nthe practice of your profession, it might not be unfitting\\nto devote one of our meetings to an enquiry into the\\nways in which the problem has been dealt with in the old-\\nest educational book in the world. The Bible has many\\nclaims upon our attention claims which are universally\\nrecognized in all Christian nations at least. There is\\n1 Delivered in the University of Cambridge, Lent Term, 1898.\\nB I", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "2 Methods of Instruction as illustrated in tJie Bible\\nin it history, poetry, philosophy, theology. Critical dis-\\ncussion on these aspects of the Scriptures would be out\\nof place here. Yet it is a collection of books which has\\nhad a large share in the education of the world and\\nwhile we may properly leave to the antiquarian, to the\\nscholarly critic and to the theologian the duty of com-\\nmenting on the substance of Bible teaching, we who are\\nin quest of the best methods of communicating truth and\\nof influencing character may well fasten our attention\\nupon the forms into which the sacred writers have cast\\ntheir lessons, upon the processes by which they have\\nimparted truth, and upon the light shed in those writings\\non some problems, still, though under altered conditions,\\nconstantly presented to those who are concerned with\\nthe instruction and moral discipline of the young.\\nTeaching Now some of the earliest lessons employed in the\\nby Symbol, education of our race took the form not of direct moral\\nteaching, but of injunctions relating to specific acts. The\\npatriarchs were instructed to perform sacrifices or to set\\nup a stone oi^a monument. Abraham, when he needed\\na lesson on the necessity of obedience and self-surrender,\\nwas not lectured on the importance of those virtues, but\\nwas bidden to go up to a mountain, and to perform an act\\nof sacrifice. The institution of the Passover and of other\\nJewish festivals represents to us a form of teaching rather\\nby symbolical acts than by direct explanation or counsel.\\nThe Jews were intended to keep in memory their great\\ndeliverance, their years of discipline, their dependence on\\na Divine and governing providence, but long before we\\nhear of any definite exhortation on these points we find\\na number of ceremonial observances which put all such\\nexhortations in a concrete form. The unleavened bread,\\nthe Paschal lamb, the feast of tabernacles carry in them-\\nselves their own memories, and their own ethical teaching.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "TeacJiijig by Symbol\\nTo this hour they serve as the chief bonds of the whole\\nJewish community, and the main safeguards for the\\npreservation of the historical Hebrew faith. They may\\nremind us that the x:hosen nation in its childhood was\\nlargely taught by means of picturesque and representative\\nacts, and that these acts were to be performed before\\ntheir full significance was understood, and before the\\nconscience or the power of reflection had been awakened\\ninto life by persuasion or argument.\\nWhat is true in the infancy of society and of nations\\nis true also of the childhood of every human being. It\\nis at first easier to enforce the observance of particular\\nacts than to make their meaning intelligible. This may\\nbe observed in secular hfe, in domestic life, and in\\nreligious life alike. In America there are the Fourth of\\nJuly and Washington s birthday in a home the birthday\\nof its members, the little acts of deference to the heads\\nof the household, the simple ritual of family prayer in\\nthe Church the observance of the first day of the week\\nand the outward acts of religious worship. We let our\\nchildren share in these observances we do not try to\\nexplain all the reasons for them, but we know that latent\\nin them there is teaching which will become intelhgible\\nhereafter, and which meanwhile must remain undisclosed.\\nThus we value Sunday, not only because it is an oppor-\\ntunity for religious instruction and worship, but because\\nby its comparative hush and calm, and by all the social\\narrangements which separate it from other days, it stands\\nout to the child s mind as a permanent symbol of the\\nclaims of the higher life. It is a visible representation\\nand a continual memento of the truths that man does\\nnot live by bread alone, that our days must not all be\\nspent in work or in enjoyment, but that thought, rest, and\\nspiritual culture are among the necessaries of life. So all", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "4 Methods of Instruction as illustrated in the Bible\\nethical\\ntraining.\\nthe outward symbolical acts which imply reverence for\\nsacred things, respect and courtesy to elders have their\\nvalue. Manners makyth man because they beget habits,\\nand habits in their turn form character. Such acts as\\nimply and also encourage self-respect yet self-abnegation\\nand deference to the wishes and feelings of others,\\nwhen habitually practised in the school or in the home,\\ntend to keep ahve in the young scholar a sense of duty,\\nlong before any rational principles of conduct, such as\\nhe can understand, can be enforced upon him in an\\nexplicit form.\\nLimita- We may not forget, however, that there is a deep and\\ntions to the ygj-y real danger in the multiplication of ceremonial acts,\\nTyinboHc d that life may be rendered complicated and artificial\\nact^s in by the use of them. They come in time to be regarded\\nas ends in themselves rather than as means to the\\nhigher end of true ethical discipline. It is observable\\nhow, both in regard to belief and practice, there is a\\ntendency in human nature to be satisfied with the mate-\\nrial symbols of faith and duty, and with the outward\\nand visible sign rather than with the inward and\\nspiritual grace. Forms of superstition have flourished\\nand will continue to flourish in all ages, in just the pro-\\nportion in which men shrink from the task of exercising\\ntheir best faculties on great subjects, and take refuge in\\nthe performance of a ceremony, the oral recitation of a\\nformula, or the observance of a day. It is always much\\neasier to do any one of these mechanical acts than to\\nthink about its meaning, or to appropriate the truth which\\nit embodies. And we shall do well in our intercourse\\nwith children to keep in mind the essentially provisional\\nand incomplete nature of all symbolical teaching. It is\\nvaluable only in the proportion in which it leads the\\nlearner to something better than itself and to a recogni-", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "Direct and positive injunction 5\\ntioii of its underlying moral or spiritual significance.\\nWhen it is a substitute for reflection, instead of an aid to\\nreflection, it becomes a fetish. We must deal with it, as\\nHezekiah found it necessary to do when he brake in pieces\\nthe brazen serpent which Moses had made, and which\\nhad once been a legitimate object of veneration, because\\nin those days the children of Israel did burn incense to\\nit, and he called it Nehushtan, a mere piece of brass.\\nBut let us once be sure that the duty or the truth\\nsymbolized by some outward form or usage is one in\\nwhich we entirely believe, and which we wish the young\\nscholar hereafter to make his own, and we need not fear,\\nfor a time at least, to adopt the method by which belief\\nwas strengthened and conduct shaped in the primitive\\nstage of the world s history. It is observable that Moses\\nin all his injunctions about the Passover ordained that\\nthe ritual in all its details should be observed during the\\nwandering in Egypt. And it shall come to pass that\\nwhen you be come to the land which the Lord will give\\nyou, and when your children say unto you, What mean\\nyou by this service? that ye shall say. It is the sacrifice\\nof the Lord s Passover, who passed over the houses of\\nthe children of Israel when He smote the Egyptians, and\\ndehvered our houses. That therefore is one of the pro-\\ncesses of the Divine education. Practise for the present\\nthe representative acts which recall great events, or\\nsymbolize great truths and duties, and some day their\\nfull meaning shall be revealed to you.\\nLater on we find the great lawgiver employing an- Direct in-\\nother method that of direct and positive injunction.\\nThe commandments of the two tables possess two\\nprominent characteristics (i) they are mainly negative\\nthey denounce certain special forms of wrong-doing, and\\n1 2 Kings xviii, 4.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "6 MetJiods of Instruction as illiLstrated in the Bible\\nthey say definitely respecting each of them, This must\\nnot be done. But (2) with only two or three exceptions\\nno reason is assigned for the prohibition the sanction\\non which the Law rests is not discussed. The tables of\\nthe Law forbid wrong acts, but they do not enjoin any\\nform of virtue. They tell what a good man should\\nabstain from and not what he should do. And it is\\nremarkable that in the case of the two or three com-\\nmandments for which Moses furnishes any ethical basis\\nor explanation, the reason given happens to be one which\\nis local, tribal, or temporary, and not one which is of\\nuniversal application. the Second Commandment,\\nfor example, the prohibition is not directed against\\nidolatry generally, but against the making of images, or\\nthe imitation in any form, of natural objects. To Moses,\\nwho knew the people well, and who had much experience\\nof their constant relapses into the grosser forms of fetish\\nworship then prevalent among the neighbouring nations,\\nthere seemed to be an awful and very real danger in the\\nmere making of a picture or a graven image, whatever\\nmight be the use intended to be made of it. To us, all\\nof whose temptations to idolatry lie in other directions,\\nthe argument that God is a jealous God, who will not\\ntolerate as a rival a sculptured or a molten image, is\\nscarcely relevant. The warning against idolatry is, in-\\ndeed, eternally necessary, but it is not in our day the\\nlove of the fine arts which is likely to seduce us from our\\nallegiance to the King of kings. The Christian Church\\nhas never in any age attempted a literal obedience to the\\ninjunctions of the Second Commandment. To do so\\nwould betoken on her part a total incapacity for dis-\\ntinguishing between the letter and the spirit, between the\\ntemporary and the permanent elements in the Mosaic\\nlaw. So also the obligation to keep one day in seven", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "Pereinptoriness of tJic Contmandniciits 7\\nfree from work is based by Moses not on general\\nexpediency, nor on any considerations respecting the\\nreligious value of a weekly respite from ordinary pursuits,\\nbut on the statement that in six days the Lord made\\nheaven and earth, and rested on the seventh day an\\nargument which, however weighty to those to whom it\\nwas first addressed, has been deprived of much of its\\nsignificance by all subsequent additions to our knowledge\\nof cosmogony. Again, the Fifth Commandment enjoins\\na duty which is of perennial obligation, but the particular\\nmotive appealed to, that thy days may be long in the\\nland which the Lord thy God giveth thee, had clearly a\\nspecial application to a nomadic people on their way to\\na home in which they hoped to abide. At best, the\\nmotive suggested for honouring and obeying parents was\\nfounded on considerations of self-interest and not on\\nany one of those higher sanctions which the enlightened\\nconscience in all ages of the world would be most ready\\nto recognize.\\nWe may conclude therefore that the force of the Ten Peremp-\\nCommandments, and their claim to be still embodied \\\\x)^^\\nthe service of the modern Church, does not lie in the\\nkind of justification which the lawgiver has in one or two\\ninstances attached to them, but in their directness and\\nperemptoriness. There was a stage, a very early stage,\\nin the history of the chosen people, wherein what they\\nneeded most was positive injunction respecting absti-\\nnence from certain faults, to which, owing to the special\\ncircumstances of their lives, they were most prone.\\nThere is a similar stage in the lives of the young learners\\nunder our charge. The language of the domestic law-\\ngiver or of the teacher must sometimes be that of Moses\\nand Aaron Do this, abstain from that, because I am\\nin authority and I tell you. We will not discuss the", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "8 Methods of Instrtiction as illustrated in the Bible\\ngrounds of the prohibition. The thing is wrong and\\nmust not be done. Some day you will understand why\\nit is wrong. Meanwhile it must suffice for you to know\\nthat I forbid it. Thou shalt not steal. Thou shalt not\\nbear false witness. That is enough for you.\\nThe Law But even as Moses when he had once promulgated\\nrepeated Commandments was not satisfied to leave the people\\n70 it a new\\nsanctions, whom he was called upon to help and guide in a con-\\nand per- ^jitjon of moral serfdom, so the teacher who is rightly\\nsotial ap- o y\\npeals. impressed with a sense of the obligations of his own\\noffice will not be content when he has merely laid down\\nrules and secured submission to them. Observe how\\nMoses, when he was old, set about the further task of\\nexplaining the nature and grounds of his precepts, and\\nclaiming the intelligent sympathy of those who were\\ncalled on to practise them. Deuteronomy the dupli-\\ncated, re-stated and amplified law represents a later\\nand most memorable stage in the education of the Jewish\\npeople. Throughout the whole of the book bearing that\\nname you will find an effort to vindicate the essential\\nequity of the Divine commands, to abandon the ground\\nof mere authority and to appeal to the conscience, the\\nloyalty, the experience and the good sense of the people\\nthemselves. Listen to the voice of Moses, as he enume-\\nrates the blessings those people had enjoyed under the\\nDivine government, and seeks to awaken in them a sense\\nof gratitude and of moral obligation\\nFor tliis commandment which 1 command thee this day, it is\\nnot hidden from thee, neither is it far off. It is not in heaven, that\\nthou shouldest say, Who shall go up for us to heaven and bring it\\nunto us that we may hear it and do it? Neither is it beyond the\\nsea that thou shouldest say, Who shall go over the sea for us, and\\nbring it unto us, that we may hear it and do it? But the word is\\nvery nigh thee, in thy mouth and in thine heart, that thou mayest do\\nit. See, I have set before thee this day life and good, and death and", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "The Laiv repeated zvitJi nezu sanctions 9\\nevil that thou mayest love the Lord thy God, and that thou\\nmayest obey his voice, and that thou mayest cleave unto him, for\\nhe is thy life and the length of thy days, that thou mayest dwell in\\nthe land which the Lord sware unto thy fathers, to Abraham, to\\nIsaac, and to Jacob, to give them.\\nHere is still, we observe, the motive of self-interest\\nthe offered reward of peace and prosperity in the\\npromised land but it is much less prominent than\\nbefore. This language may serve as a reminder a very\\ninstructive and powerful reminder to a teacher, of the\\nkind of sanction he should seek for all the orders and\\nrules he gives. His work as a legislator and administrator\\nin the little world in which he reigns supreme is not\\naccomphshed until he has done what Moses did with the\\npeople of Israel, appealed to their intelligence and sought\\nto awaken in them a sense, not only of the moral claims\\nof the lawgiver, but also of the necessity and the beauty\\nof law. Enforced obedience does not deserve to be\\ncalled obedience at all certainly it cannot be regarded\\nas moral discipline. He who obeys a law because he is\\nobHged under penalty to obey it, is but a slave after all.\\nYou want to bring up a race of free agents,^ of children\\n1 Deuteronomy xxx. ii 20.\\n2 Here is your child. Wrong as all children are, just because\\nthey are human creatures, how shall you set him right? Is not the\\nwhole problem of your education this to educate the will and\\nnot to break it. Perhaps it might be easy, with all the tremendous\\npurchase of your parental power, to break your child s will if\\nyou chose. But what have you got then? A poor, spiritless, will-\\nless creature incapable of good as he is incapable of evil, with\\nnothing to contribute to either side of the great battle of humanity\\nwhich is going on about him. That is not what you want. To\\nkeep the will, to fill it with more and more life, but to make it so\\nwise that it shall spend its strength in goodness that is your true\\nambition as the trainer of your child. And when some friend\\ndisheartened with your slowness comes to you and says, Why do", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "o Methods of Instruction as illustrated in the Bible\\nwho as they grow will so incorporate into their own lives\\nthe law of duty that they will need no physical or\\nexternal restraint, but will understand something of that\\nspirit of self-surrender, which finds expression in Words-\\nworth s Ode to Duty\\nOft, when in my heart was heard\\nThy timely mandate, I deferr d\\nThe task imposed from day to day;\\nBut thee I now would serve more strictly, if I may.\\nThrough no disturbance of my soul,\\nOr strong compunction in me wrought,\\nI supplicate for thy control;\\nBut in the quietness of thought;\\nMe this unchartered freedom tires,\\nI feel the weight of chance-desires.\\nMy hopes no more must change their name,\\n1 long for a repose that ever is the same.\\nVery nearly akin is this language of a nineteenth\\ncentury poet to the language of the Hebrew king, Oh\\nhow I love Thy law it is my meditation all the day.\\nThy testimonies are my delight and my counsellors.\\nThy statutes have been my songs in the house of my\\npilgrimage. The law of Thy mouth is dearer to me than\\nthousands of gold and silver. All through these and\\nthe like outpourings you hear little or nothing about the\\npenalties of breaking the law, or about the good land\\nyou not settle the whole matter once f(jr all by breaking the child s\\nwill to pieces and compelling obedience whether he wants to obey\\nyou or not? you reply, I cannot do that; obedience won in\\nthat way would not be obedience. To prevent badness so, would\\nbe to prevent goodness also. What is that conversation but the\\ntranslation into household language of the old conversation of the\\nfarmer and his servants Wilt thou that we go and gather up the\\ntares? Nay, lest while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also\\nthe wheat with them. Bishop Phillips Brooks.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "The Sermon on the Mount 1 1\\nand the long life of which Moses says so much. The\\nPsalmists had got beyond that stage of educational dis-\\ncipline. Read the hundred and nineteenth Psalm, which\\nis a sustained poean on the majesty and beauty of the\\nDivine law. Consider that the chief literature of the\\nJewish people the Talmud and the Targums consists\\nof comments and amplifications of the statutes and\\nordinances as given by Moses, and it will be plain that\\nall that is best in Jewish history connects itself with\\nreverence for the Law and with a desire to interpret and\\nto apply it. Grant then that during the period of our\\npupil s life, before conscience and sympathy can be\\naroused, many of our commands must necessarily be\\nunexplained we may not forget that the training of the\\nresponsible human being must ever remain incomplete\\nuntil he is made to recognize the value of the injunctions\\nhe is expected to obey. As occasion offers, and as\\nscholars grow in years and experience, we do well to let\\nthem see as far as we can why we impose our own will\\non theirs. We need not fear that doing this implies any\\nloss of dignity, or of personal authority. It merely implies\\nthat you are leading them by degrees to rely on something\\nbetter than your personal authority, upon the intuitions of\\nconscience and on the law of God.\\nThe whole drift and purpose of the Sermon on the The Scr-\\nMount He in this direction. It aims throughout at the V^\\nmount.\\nsubstitution of a principle or a general law of action for\\nthe authoritative enforcement of specific rules. Ye\\nhave heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt not kill,\\nand whosoever shall kill shall be in danger of the judg-\\nment. But I say unto you, that whosoever is angry\\nwith his brother without a cause shall be in danger of\\nthe judgment. In this spirit, each of the specific in-\\njunctions of the old law is considered in turn and shewn", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "1 2 Methods of Instruction as illustrated in the Bible\\nto be practically absorbed and superseded by the higher\\nlaw, which concerns itself with the motives of human\\naction. When once this higher law is duly recognized\\nand welcomed all formal rules and ordinances become\\nwell-nigh superfluous. And indeed the whole Sermon\\non the Mount is characterized by the way in which\\nconcrete examples are treated in the light of large general\\nprinciples, although those principles are not themselves\\nenunciated in an abstract form. On this point Professor\\nSeeley appositely remarks\\nThe style of the Sermon on the Mount is neither purely philo-\\nsophical nor purely practical. It refers throughout to first princii-les,\\nbut it does not state them in an abstract form on the other han^l,\\nit enters into special cases and detail, but never so far as to lose\\nsight of first principles. It is equally unlike the early national\\ncodes, which simply formularized without method existing customs,\\nand the early moral treatises, such as those of Plato and Aristotle,\\nwhich are purely scientific. Of Jewish writers it resembles most the\\nbook of Deuteronomy, in which the Mosaic law was recapitulated\\nin such a manner as to make the principles on which it was\\nfounded apparent; of Gentile writings it may l)e compared with\\nthose of Epictetus, Aurelius, and Seneca, in which we see a\\nscientific morality brought to bear upon the struggles and details of\\nactual life. It uses all the philosophical machinery of generalization\\nand distinction, but its object is not philosophical but practical\\nthat is, not truth, but good.\\nThe framers of the English Liturgy in one of th.e\\ncollects address Him Whose service is perfect freedom,\\nand in another, pray that we may love the thing tliat\\nthou commandest and desire that which thou dost\\npromise. This certainly was the thought of St Paul\\nwhen after describing the Law as a schoolmaster he\\nclenched the whole of a memorable argument with\\nthe words, Stand fast in the liberty wherewith Christ\\nhath made us free, and be not entangled again with the\\nEcce Homo.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "Rewards 1 3\\nyoke of bondage. If our schemes of moral discipline\\ndo not contemplate this result as the ultimate goal to\\nbe attained, however halting and imperfect are the steps\\nby which it is approached, those schemes themselves are\\nnecessarily faulty. It is good of course that our scholars\\nshould shape their conduct according to the rules which\\nwe prescribe, but it is still better that they should acquire\\nthe power of self-government and become in the highest\\nand best sense a law unto themselves.\\nIn considering the methods of moral discipline Reivards.\\nadopted or described in the Bible, it is well to refer for\\na moment to the light thrown by the sacred writers on\\nthe manner in which the rewards of life are distributed.\\nBacon has said, Prosperity is the blessing of the Old\\nTestament; adversity the blessing of the New. He\\nshews that this general statement is subject to some\\nexceptions, for he adds that even if you listen to David s\\nharp, you shall hear as many hearse-hke airs as carols.\\nLong life, corn and wine, flocks and herds, honour and\\nwealth are more frequently referred to as the rewards of\\nobedience in the Old than in the New Testament. But\\nhere again the generalization must be qualified. There\\nis a remarkable episode in the life of Solomon, which\\nillustrates the inadequacy of merely material prosperity as\\nan object of ambition. The young sovereign is repre-\\nsented as seeing a vision, and hearing a voice, Ask what\\nI shall give thee, and his answer was, O Lord, my God,\\nI am but a little child Give therefore thy servant a\\nwise and understanding heart, to judge thy people, that I\\nmay discern between good and bad for who is able to judge\\nthis thy so great people? And this speech pleased the\\nLord that Solomon had asked this thing. And God said\\nunto him, Because thou hast asked this thing, and hast\\n1 Galations. v. i. Essay on Adversity.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "14 methods of Iiistructioji as illustrated in the Bible\\nnot asked for thyself long life, neither hast asked riches\\nfor thyself, nor hast asked the life of thine enemies, but\\nhast asked for thyself understanding to discern judgment\\nbehold I have done according to thy words. Lo, I have\\ngiven thee a wise and understanding heart. And I\\nhave also given thee that which thou hast not asked, both\\nriches and honour, so that there shall not be any among\\nthe kings like thee all thy days. And Solomon woke\\nand behold it was a dream. But it was a dream of\\nprofound significance, for it reveals to us the true and\\nenduring connexion between the duties of life and the\\nrewards of life. Success, wealth and prosperity, if sought\\nfor their own sakes, may often elude the seeker but he\\nwho first of all desires the wisdom and the power needed\\nfor the right fulfilment of duty is often found to obtain\\nthem and also something which he has not asked, both\\nriches and honour. In the New Testament the same\\ngreat law of the Divine ruler of the world is expressed in\\nthe words, Seek ye first the kingdom of God and his\\nrighteousness, and all these things what ye shall eat and\\nwhat ye shall drink shall be added unto you.\\nT/ie true The words used in the parable of the Talents illus-\\nainoiiioij\\ntrate a further view of the true nature of rewards and\\npunishments. From the unprofitable servant the talent\\nwas taken away that he might no longer misuse or hide\\nit, but the diligent and conscientious servant is told,\\nThou haSt been faithful over a few things, I will make\\nthee ruler over many things. Have thou authority over\\nten cities. Herein lies a key to the Divine economy as\\nregards human service, and to the whole philosophy of\\nhuman ambition. The faithful servant is not offered rest\\nor luxury, or any immediate visible compensation; but\\nmore duty, higher responsibility, the rule over a larger\\n1 I Kings iii. 5 15.\\no/li/e.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "The true ambition of life 1 5\\nprovince, power to become a still more honoured and\\nuseful servant. I think this is a view of the relations\\nbet\\\\veen duty and reward which we shall be wise to keep\\nprominently in view of our scholars, who at the threshold\\nof life are looking wistfully forward into the unknown\\nfuture, and are filled with vague ambitions and with\\nhopes of success. Books such as those of Dr Smiles,\\nwith stories of great engineers and of men who have\\nrisen, possess a very intelligible fascination for many\\nboys but they present, after all, a somewhat ignoble, or\\nat least an incomplete view of life s meaning and purpose.\\nGetting on should be set before the young and hopeful\\npupil, not merely as rising to higher social rank or larger\\nfortune, though it may and often does mean this but\\nrather getting to that work which we can do best, and\\nwhich calls into exercise our highest faculties. The true\\nprizes of life are not gifts or large salaries, or material\\nadvantages but honour, influence, opportunities of use-\\nfulness, power to be of service to others, and especially to\\nadd to the happiness of those whom we love. Fortunately\\nthese prizes are not competitive no one in winning them\\nprevents another from gaining them. They are accessible\\nto every earnest and honest student, whether he gains\\nschool distinctions and a prosperous career or not. In\\norganizing a school, and in assigning duties, a teacher has\\nmany opportunities of keeping this principle in view.\\nHe is subject to special temptation to over-rate talent\\nthe sort of mental endowment which saves himself\\ntrouble as a teacher, and brings repute to his school\\nbut one of his highest duties is to recognize the merit of\\ncommonplace abilities, and to furnish full encourage-\\nment and opportunity for their use. The worship of\\nmere cleverness is often fatal to the growth of what is\\nmorally excellent in a place of education. So although a", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "1 6 Methods of Iiistriictio7i as illustrated i)i tJie Bible\\ngood teacher will not deem it necessary to say much on\\nthis subject, he will none the less effectually make his\\npupils aware that in the microcosm of school there is\\nroom for the exercise of varied talents and for generous\\nambition and that possibilities of being useful to others\\nare within reach of all the scholars, whether distinguished\\nor undistinguished. To one the Master has given five\\ntalents, to another two, and another one, but for all\\nalike there is the promise of the crowning recompense,\\nWell done, good and faithful servant.\\nPoetry as a The reader of the Bible who traces with care the\\nfactor in processes by which the Jewish people were gradually\\neducation. j i i o y\\ntaught and guided, cannot fail to be impressed with the\\npart played by song and poetry in that educational\\ndiscipline. Recall the exulting song of Miriam, after the\\nfirst deliverance at the Red Sea, the wild coronach of\\nDeborah the prophetess, the lament of David over Saul\\nand Jonathan, and it will become evident that passion,\\nfervour, melody, and lofty imagery, were often employed\\nby the sacred writers to deepen sentiments of gratitude or\\npatriotism which else would have proved evanescent.\\nHebrew poetry finds its highest artistic expression in the\\nBook of Psalms, which have proved not only to the\\nJewish nation but to devout souls in all subsequent ages\\na help and solace, and a source of spiritual exaltation.\\nThe Book of Isaiah also, with its rich and eloquent\\nprophecies of Israel s restoration, may remind us that his\\nglowing language not only bore a large part in the educa-\\ntion of the Hebrew race, but also did much to shape its\\nhistory and its fortunes. He of all the prophets appealed\\nmost powerfully to the patriotism, the imagination and\\nthe religious instincts of his countrymen, because his lips\\nhad been touched with the sacred fire, and because in\\nhis utterances instruction became Divine illumination and", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "Mr ArnohVs use of t lie Book of Isaiah 17\\nhope became rapture. St Jerome called him an evange-\\nlist rather than a prophet, and St Ambrose s first counsel\\nto Augustine after his conversion was that he should read\\nthe prophecies of Isaiah.\\nI have elsewhere referred to the use which the late Mr M.\\nMatthew Arnold desired to make of some parts of the ^^^fj\\nuse oj the\\nBook of Isaiah as a poetic utterance of which even our Book of\\nown generation could not help feehng the glow and\\nanimation. The prophet s profound belief that the great\\nunrighteous kingdoms of the heathen could not stand, and\\nthat the world s salvation lay in recourse to the God of\\nIsrael gave to his words a dignity which made them of\\nuniversal application. Speak ye comfortably to Jeru-\\nsalem, and cry unto her that her warfare is accomplished,\\nand that her iniquity is pardoned, is a proclamation not\\nconfined in its meaning to the history of the Israelites.\\nAnd when Matthew Arnold edited the latter portion of\\nthe prophecy of Isaiah and cast it into the form of\\na school reading-book, he did not of course expect that\\nEnglish children would understand all its meaning. He\\ncertainly would have been disappointed to know that the\\nbook had been got up for analysis, or that its words\\nand allusions had been studied with a view to an exami-\\nnation. But he knew how much the imagination of a\\nchild may be kindled by large thoughts and lofty\\nlanguage, and he thought it a sin to overlook the educa-\\ntive influence of the Hebrew poetry, merely because it\\nmight be difficult for a modern teacher to interpret the\\nwhole of its meaning. As we read the impassioned\\nsentences of the older seers and prophets, listen to the\\nroll and musical cadence of their verse, and mount up with\\nthem to the Pisgah heights from which they were able to\\nTJwHias and Matthew Arnold and their influence on English\\niLiiiuation, p. 195.\\nC", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "1 8 MetJiods of Instruction as illnstyated iii the Bible\\nsurvTy the history and the destiny of mankind, we become\\naware that the culture of the imagination plays a great part\\nin determining the character of a race and the develop-\\nment of a human being. A system of teaching which is\\npurely scientific, which deals with no truth but that which\\nis known and can be verified, is essentially incomplete.\\nHerbert Spencer, in his well-known book on Education,\\ndwells with just emphasis on science reasoned, organized\\nknowledge as the main object of instruction. But he\\nleaves out of view the thoughts that breathe and words\\nthat burn, the poetry which gladdens and ennobles life,\\nand carries us into the region of the unseen and the con-\\nceivable a region unexplored by the philosopher, the\\nphysicist and the moralist, and lying beyond their ken. We\\niV/iat have to recognize that there lies, more or less suppressed\\nsuited for Overlaid, in every human being, the faculty which\\nchildren, responds to noble words and inspiring thoughts, and that\\nit is a high duty of a teacher to find worthy exercise for\\nthis faculty. Hence it has come to be generally admitted\\nthat the learning of poetry by heart should form part of\\nthe course of instruction in all good schools. But we\\nhave to take care that what is so learned shall be real\\npoetry, and not ornamental nonsense. The childish\\nnarrative and trite morality disguised in pretty rhymes\\nmay serve, with very young children, to please the ear\\nand to furnish a relief from graver employments. But as\\nan educational instrument, to be employed with scholars\\nwho are old enough to think, the only poetry which has\\nany value is that which does something to refine the taste,\\nto quicken the imagination and to hft the learner on to a\\nhigher plane of thought and feeling than that on which\\nhe habitually dwells. This condition is not fulfilled\\nwhen a writer tries to put as much theology as he can\\ninto the sacred poetry which children are asked to learn,", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "CJiaracteristics of Hebreiv poetry 19\\nor when the teacher confines his choice to those verses\\nwhich seem to him to embody the most valuable moral\\ntruths. It is not so much the office of poetry to give\\ninstruction as to supply inspiration and to excite right\\nemotion. In all scientific and didactic lessons, harm is\\ndone no doubt when we soar beyond the comprehension\\nof the learner, and call upon him to assent to proposi-\\ntions which he does not understand. But in that part of\\nintellectual discipline which concerns the training of the\\nimagination there is no harm, but much advantage in\\ntranscending the boundaries of a child s present knowl-\\nedge and experience, and in filling him with a vague\\nsense of the mystery and the richness of the world which\\nlies beyond them. In choosing a poem to be read or\\ncommitted to memory, we should beware of taking the\\nscholar s actual mental condition and surroundings as the\\nmeasure of its appropriateness. We should seek for\\nstrong thoughts, for noble or devout aspiradon, for a\\nwidened horizon, and for artistic beauty of form and if\\nthese be secured we need feel no regret that the poetry\\nis not wholly intelligible by any faculty of the pupil,\\nor wholly explicable by any faculty of ours. Let us\\nleave some room for the exercise of wonderment, for the\\nconsciousness of present limitations and inferiority, and\\nfor the hope that the meaning, which is now obscure, will\\nsome day be disclosed and then we may rest assured\\nthat we have made a substantial addition to the mental\\nand spiritual outfit of the pupil, even though the imme-\\ndiate result of our teaching fails to satisfy any test which\\nwe or the most skilful of examiners could devise.\\nThere is one characteristic of the Hebrew poetry Character\\nwhich 2;ives it special value in the eyes of teachers, f f\\nHebrew\\nI mean the way in which the same thought is often poetry.\\nrepeated in at least two different forms. You do not", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "20 MetJiods of histniction as illtist rated in the Bible\\nRednpli-\\ncation of\\nthought.\\nneed to be reminded that the intellectual influence of\\npoetry is not altogether dependent on the value of the\\nfact or thought which it embodies, but largely results\\nfrom a certain charm and grace in the form into which\\nit is cast. For example our English verse is distinguished,\\nas to its metrical structure, by the symmetrical arrange-\\nment of its lines, by the regular recurrence of accented\\nand unaccented syllables, and by the use of certain verbal\\nassonances which we call rhymes. Take a single stanza\\nfrom the Ancient Mariner in illustration\\nIt ceased, yet still the sails made on\\nA pleasant noise till noon,\\nA noise like of a hidden brook\\nIn the leafy month of June,\\nThat to the sleeping woods all night\\nSingeth a quiet tune.\\nWe recognize here that the regular recurrence of\\nsimilar sounds and accents gives a musical setting and\\nan added charm to whatever is attractive in the descrip-\\ntion itself. In like manner our Anglo-Saxon and Norse\\nforefathers found gratification to the ear in what is called\\nalliteration, the regular repetition of similar sounds at\\nthe beginning of the several lines and words. In Greek\\nand Roman poetry the rhythm depended neither on\\naccent nor on rhyme, but on the quantity the length\\nor shortness of syllables recurring according to a pre-\\nscribed law, and thus specially suiting the verse for\\nmusical accompaniment. But in the Hebrew poetry\\nthere are none of these artifices. In their stead we\\nhave the regular recurrence of the same thought in two\\ndifferent forms, so that the result is a metrical system\\nrather of ideas than of words and syllables. But this\\nsort of reduplication is not less impressive nay, it is\\nnot less musical when the ear once becomes attuned", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "Reduplication of thoiigJit 2 1\\nto it than the more mechanical forms of versification\\nin use among other nations. Even in our Enghsh trans-\\nlation this characteristic of the Hebrew poetry is audible\\nto us\\n(i) The heavens declare the glory of God,\\nAnd the firmament sheweth liis handiwork,\\n(ii) Day unto day uttereth speech,\\nAnd night unto night sheweth knowledge,\\n(iii) I have considered the days of old\\nThe years of ancient time,\\n(iv) Is his mercy clean gone for ever?\\nAnd will he be favourable no more?\\n(v) Hath God forgotten to be gracious?\\nHath he in anger shut up his tender mercies,\\n(vi) Thy word is a lamp unto my feet\\nAnd a light unto my path,\\n(vii) He niaketh me to lie down in green pastures,\\nHe leadeth me beside the still waters,\\n(viii) Thy righteousness is like the strong mountains,\\nThy judgments are like the great deep.\\nAs these and the like resounding sentences fall upon\\nour ears we cannot help feeling that the reduplication\\nof the thought is at least as effective a poetical device\\nas any of the merely verbal assonances and uniformities\\nto which we are accustomed in other poetry. But to\\nteachers this characteristic of the Hebrew verse is especi-\\nally suggestive, for it may remind us of one principle of\\npedagogic science which is true everywhere and in all\\nages of the world. Iteration and reiteration are the\\ndistinguishing marks of the process adopted by the Bible\\nteachers. But it is the reiteration of thought rather\\nthan of words. The image, the precept, the prayer, are\\nrepeated, but the language is varied. Now this practice\\nmight be defended if defence were needed on two\\ndifferent grounds. Minds differ no less in their receptive\\nthan in their cognitive powers. Truth, which in one", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "22 Methods of Instruction as illustrated in the Bible\\nform finds ready entrance into some minds, needs to be\\ncast into another form in order to appeal to minds of a\\ndifferent stamp. Hence to present the same idea in two\\naspects and under two or more forms of language is to\\ngive it an additional chance of obtaining admission into\\nthe understanding of some of those whom we teach.\\nAnd a deeper reason still is to be found in the fact that\\nevery truth admits of being stated in more than one\\nshape, and that the resources of language, great as\\nthey are, are far from being commensurate with all the\\ndemands of the human reason, or with the many-sided\\nnature of truth itself. There is no one form of words\\nwhich will adequately embody the whole meaning of any\\ndoctrine or precept we wish to enforce and we ourselves\\nare never quite sure that we have grasped a truth, until\\nwe have turned it round in our minds, and learned to\\nexpress it in different forms.\\nStereotyped Herein lies a warning against relying too much on\\npnnua- formularies, and against the excessive use of catechisms\\nries ana\\ncreeds. and memory lessons. They often serve rather as sub-\\nstitutes for real teaching than as aids to it. It is observ-\\nable that the only formulary in the New Testament is\\na prayer a form of devotion, not a creed or an explicit\\ndeclaration of belief in certain propositions. It was not\\nconsistent with our I^ord s method of instruction to write\\na book or to dictate a code or articles of faith. No\\ndoubt in the later stages in the development of the\\nChristian Church, it has been found both useful and\\nexpedient to put together in a formal shape a group of\\ntheological statements, and to require that they should\\nbe accepted by the members of the Church as a symbol\\nof religious unity. The Council of Nicaea, the West-\\nminster Assembly, and the framers of the Church\\nCatechism, have set forth detailed declarations of the", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "Creeds and formularies 23\\narticles of Christian belief, and have made the intellectual\\nreception of these articles the condition and the test of\\nChurch membership. Experience has shewn the con-\\nvenience of this practice. The desire for definiteness\\nand certitude is always strong in the minds of many,\\nespecially in those who are least instructed and least\\naccustomed to the exercise of thought. Creeds and\\nformularies satisfy this desire. They are easily harboured\\nin the memory, whether they have found their way to\\nthe understanding or not. Yet they embody for us only\\nwhat some society or council has decreed to be the\\nessentials of the Christian faith, and do not profess to\\nhave the same authority as the Scriptures themselves.\\nAnd whatever may be the ])ractical advantages of pre-\\nsenting to the Christian child a condensed summary of\\nthe theological propositions to which he is called on to\\ndeclare his assent, this usage cannot be said to derive any\\nsanction either from the precepts or the practice of our\\nLord and His apostles.\\nBut in religious teaching, as in all other teaching, the\\nvalue of formal statements of truth depends entirely on\\nthe degree in which tliey are understood and mentally\\nassimilated. The learning by heart of such formal state-\\nments, so far from being a help, is often a mere substitute\\nfor thinking, and to that extent a hindrance to the actual\\nacceptance and assimilation of the doctrine involved.\\nAnd whatever care may have been taken to express a\\ntruth in the tersest and most appropriate language, that\\nlanguage itself requires to be paraphrased and restated\\nin the scholar s own language, if it is to be of any real\\neducational value. And herein, as in all else we teach, we\\nhave to beware of verbalism, and to abstain from identi-\\nfying the substance of our lessons with any particular\\nphraseology however choice. In this way we follow the", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "J4 Methods of Instruction as illustrated in the Bible\\nexample of the Hebrew writers who habitually turned\\nthe subject round, so to speak, looked at it in several\\nlights, surveyed both facets of the diamond, and thus\\nwere enabled to add to the beauty and attractiveness,\\nand also to the moral effectiveness of their teaching.\\nWhence then cometh wisdom?\\nAnd where is the place of understanding?\\nIt cannot be gotten for gold,\\nNeither shall silver be weighed for the price thereof.\\nGod understandeth the way thereof,\\nAnd he knoweth the place thereof.\\nAnd unto man he saith,\\nBehold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom;\\nAnd to depart from evil is understanding.^\\nProverbs. A less effective, but still very prominent instrument\\nof teaching in the Old Testament, is the Proverb.\\nSolomon is generally credited with the authorship of\\nthe book, in which his large experience of mankind, and\\nsome shrewd worldly wisdom, are concentrated into brief\\ntelling sentences generally antithetical in form, and dupli-\\ncated after the manner of the Hebrew poetry\\n(i) A wi -e son maketh a glad father,\\nBut a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother,\\n(ii) The full soul loatheth a honeycomb,\\nBut to the hungry soul, every bitter thing is sweet,\\n(iii) The wicked flee when no man pursueth,\\nBut the righteous are bold as a lion,\\n(iv) The full soul loatheth an honeycomb, but to the hungry soul\\nevery bitter thing is sweet.\\nThere is something very striking in the aphoristic\\nform in which truths and maxims of conduct are here\\npresented, and in all nations proverbs are often quoted\\nand have a recognized value. Why is it however that\\nthey are so little effective as means of instruction The\\n1 Job xxviii.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "Proverbs 25\\nreason probably lies in the fact that there is often in\\nthem more of wit than of wisdom, and more of alliteration\\nand of point than of sterling worth. There is apt to be\\nan air of paradox and unreality about them. Truth, as\\nwe have said, is many-sided. Present it how you will,\\nit has its nuances, its quahfications, its exceptions. You\\ncannot condense it into formiilce. The epigrammatic\\nform often hides a fallacy. The proverb enunciates itself\\nboldly, without compromise or misgiving. It probably\\nfounds itself on a more or less restricted area of ex-\\nperience, yet it asserts itself as if it were a statement\\nof a permanent and universal law. Moreover, if you\\nstudy collections such as George Herbert s Jacula Pru-\\ndentiim, and the abundant store of Oriental and of\\nSpanish, of Arabic, of French, and of Italian proverbs,\\nyou will often find that different proverbs, both ap-\\nparently true, and indeed containing half-truths, are\\nmutually destructive and contradictory\\n(i) Answer not a fool according to his folly,\\nLest thou also be like unlo him.\\n(ii) Answer a fool according to his folly,\\nLest he be wise in his own conceit.\\nOn this point Mr John Morley has truly said\\nThe worst of maxims, aphorisms and the like is that from the\\nsayings of Solomon and the son of Sirach downwards, that for\\nevery occasion of life or perplexity, there is a brace of them, the\\none pointing one way and another the exact opposite. The finger-\\npost of experience has many arms at every cross-way. One\\nobserver tells the disciple that in politics perseverance always wins,\\nanother that men who take the greatest trouble to succeed are those\\nwho are most sure to miss. To-day the one essential appears to be\\nboldness of conception Totijoiirs Vandace. To-morrow the man of\\ndetail is master of the hour. To-day the turn of things inclines a\\nman to say that in politics nothing matters; to morrow some other\\nturn teaches him that in politics everything matters.\\nArticle on Guicciardini, Nineteenth Century, Nov. 1897.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "26 Methods of Instruction as illustrated in the Bible\\nProverbs Moreover, the proverb is much more interesting and\\nbetter intelHgible to older people than to children. It is a\\nsuited to\\nolder than generalization often founded on an extensive observation\\nto younger Q^ the world, or a knowledge of good and evil, and it\\nlearners. ri-ri i\\npresupposes a much larger experience oi lite than boys\\nand girls have had opportunities of obtaining. To the\\nyoung scholar, whatever principles of duty are presented\\nshould come in a concrete form and should be connected\\nwith the persons and the incidents of his own neces-\\nsarily restricted life. Aphorisms, abstract truths, large\\ngeneral maxims affecting mankind as a whole have little\\nmeaning for him. He has for the present no more\\ninterest in mankind as a whole, or in the human race\\nconsidered collectively, than he has in ethical and political\\ntruths set out in the form of universal propositions. He\\nmay perhaps arrive at these as Hfe advances, but it is\\nbeginning at the wrong end to force them upon his atten-\\ntion in youth. It is observable that very little of our\\nLord s own teaching took the form of proverbs, or of\\nphrases which were to abide in the memory. He relied\\nmuch more on stories and concrete illustrations of moral\\nduty and religious truth than on bare and abstract\\ngeneralizations about either. And we are fain to con-\\nclude that of all the manifold devices by which instruction\\nis imparted by the writers of the Bible, the proverb is one\\nof the least important, and is certainly least likely to\\nprove helpful to the teacher of the young.\\nBiography. I have elsewhere commented more fully on the use\\nmade by the sacred writers of biography as ancillary to\\nthe study of history. In fact the historical portions of the\\nOld and New Testamer.ts consist rather of a series of\\nbiographies than of a connected chronological narrative\\nof events. What you and I know of the pastoral life of\\nIn Lectures on Teaching, Chapter xui.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "Biography 27\\nthe patriarchal times, we have learned in connexion with\\nthe story of Abraham and his children. If we have\\nbefore our minds a vivid picture of Ancient Egypt, its\\npolity, its social and industrial condition, it is not because\\nwe have read a treatise on these subjects, but because they\\nare all illustrated incidentally in the story of Joseph and\\nhis brethren. So the subsequent events in the Jewish an-\\nnals are known to us in connexion with the lives of Moses,\\nof Samuel, of David, of Hezekiah, and of Judas Maccabaeus.\\nHeld in solution, so to speak, in the biographies of these\\nmen are not only facts about the national history, but\\nillustrations of human character and duty, and the princi-\\nples of the Divine government. These illustrations are\\nall the more impressive when thus presented in the\\nconcrete, as part of the story of lives in which we are\\ninterested, and in which are to be seen records of failures\\nand successes, of great faults and great virtues, the\\nglory and the littleness of man. If we look into our own\\nexperience we shall be reminded that we did not first of\\nall feel an interest in historical events and afterwards\\nenquire who the people were who had a hand in them.\\nWhat happened was this we were first attracted to some\\ngreat person s character or deeds of heroism, and having\\nonce felt interested in him, we began to care about the\\nevents in which he took part. The practice now adopted\\nin the public elementary schools of England corresponds\\nto this experience. Children in the lower classes are not\\nasked to read connective narratives of events beginning\\nand proceeding by regular sequence from the Ancient\\nBritons to the age of Victoria. But their earliest lessons\\nin history are anecdotal and biographical, and are asso-\\nciated with the most dramatic incidents in the annals of\\nEngland, and the personal characteristics and adventures\\nof the leading actors. Herein the course of instruction", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "28 MetJiods of Instruction as illustrated in the Bible\\nThe\\nNational\\nPort]- a it\\nGallery.\\nExamples\\nof great-\\nness.\\nprescribed by authority in our primary schools, and\\nadopted so largely by good teachers elsewhere, follows the\\nprecedent set by the Bible historians for it presents to\\nthe learner a series of biographical sketches as the chief\\nlinks in the chain of historical testimony, connected with\\nthe more conspicuous national events and it assumes\\nthat future and more systematic knowledge will, as it is\\nacquired, fit itself readily into the intervening spaces.\\nA noble addition has recently been made to the\\neducational resources of London in the form of the\\nNational Portrait Gallery, in which are arranged in\\nchronological order the portraits of all the most famous\\nsovereigns, statesmen, divines, writers, and military and\\nnaval commanders of the last four centuries. As a\\nmeans of fixing and strengthening the impressions de-\\nrived from history, this gallery, though its possibilities of\\nusefulness are at present insufficiently appreciated, has\\nalready proved of great value to many London teachers.\\nA class, for example, which has lately been engaged in\\nthe study of the Stuart period, is taken to the three\\nSeventeenth Century rooms, and invited to look at the\\npictures of all the famous men and women of the time,\\nto notice their dress, the insignia of their various offices,\\nand so to recall the parts they have respectively played\\nin the drama of our national history. Thus the personal\\ninterest in the actors is awakened or revived, further\\nenquiry is stimulated, and impressions conveyed in class\\nleading, or in oral lessons become more vivid and\\npermanent.\\nThere is a remarkable chapter in the Epistle to the\\nHebrews, in which the writer unfolds to his countrymen\\nwhat is in fact a National Portrait Gallery, as he enume-\\nrates, one by one, the heroes and saints of the Jewi h\\nhistory, and adds to his catalogue these inspiring words", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "Narrative pozver 29\\nAnd what shall I more say? for the time would fail me to tell\\nof those who through faith subdued kingdoms, wrought\\nrighteousness, obtained promises, stopped the mouths of lions,\\nquenched the violence of fire, escaped the edge of the sword, out\\nof weakness were made strong, waxed valiant in fight, turned to\\nflight the armies of the aliens.^\\nAnd finally he draws this conclusion from his long\\nretrospect\\nWherefore seeing we are compassed about with so great a\\ncloud of witnesses, let us lay aside every weight and the sin which\\ndoth so easily beset us, and let us run with patience the race that is\\nset before us.^\\nHow much of the philosophy of history is condensed\\ninto that single sentence It is suggestive to us of the\\nethical purpose which should dominate all our historical\\nteaching. To what end do we live in a country whose\\nannals are enriched by the story of great talents, high\\nendeavours and noble sacrifices, if we do not become\\nmore conscious of the possibiHties of our own life, and\\nmore anxious to live worthily of the inheritance which\\nhas come down to us\\nWe are thus reminded of one remarkable character- Narrative\\nistic of the sacred historians their gift of the art of poiuer.^-\\nsimple and artistic narrative. Read the story of Jacob\\nand his fraudulent acquisition of his^^ father s blessing\\n(Genesis xxxix.), of Samson (Judges xvi.), of Samuel\\n(i Samuel ii. and iii.), of the calling of David (i Samuel\\nxvi.), of the death of Absalom (2 Samuel xviii.), of the\\nQueen of Sheba (i Kings x.), of Elijah s sacrifice (i Kings\\nxviii.), of the building of the Temple (i Chronicles xxviii.\\nand xxix.), of Solomon s choice (2 Chronicles i.), of Daniel\\nand Nebuchadnezzar (Daniel ii. vi.) and in the New\\nTestament the narrative of the Passion and the Crucifixion\\n(Matthew xxvi., xxvii.), of the first Whitsuntide (Acts ii.\\n1 Hebrews xi. 32 34. 2 Hebrews xii. i.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "30 Methods of Instruction as illustrated in the Bible\\nand iii.), of St Paul s defence before Agrippa (Acts xxv.,\\nxxvi.), and his voyage and shipwreck (Acts xxvii.)\\nand then consider critically in each case what the writer\\nwas simply as a raconteur, and how the story is to be\\nregarded simply as a work of art. I think you will be\\nstruck with the skill, the reticence, and the clearness\\nby which the narratives are distinguished. All the little\\nincidental facts are kept in their due perspective, and\\nyet contribute to the effectiveness of the main story.\\nThe narrator keeps the chief purpose full in view, steers\\nclear of all moralizing or rhetoric, which might impair\\nthe unity and force of the impression he wishes to\\nconvey, and yet he does- not disdain to adorn the\\nnarrative with picturesque detail. To all teachers this\\nsame power of telling a good story is a very useful gift,\\nand the occasions for its exercise are very numerous.\\nIt is a power which seems to come naturally and without\\neffort to some people who are gifted with a vivid imagina-\\ntion and with the dramatic instinct but it may be acquired\\nor at least greatly improved by any one who begins by\\nthinking the power worth acquiring, and who will study\\nthe best models and try to imitate them.\\nNote, too, that in story-telling there are other differ-\\nences. Mere sequence of facts in right order does not\\nmake a good narrative. Unless there is a guiding motif,\\nsome purpose in view, some warmth, colour, feeling, the\\nnarrative is very ineffective. There were once two men\\nconversing sadly as they walked along from Jerusalem\\nto a village called Emmaus, when a Stranger drew near\\nand talked to them. He heard their story, sympathized\\nwith their bewilderment, and, beginning at Moses and\\nthe prophets, interpreted to them many things in history\\nand in the Scriptures which they had never perceived\\nbefore. At the end of the interview, when their", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "Parables 3 1\\ncompanion had left them, they said one to another, Did\\nnot our heart burn within us while He spoke. The\\ndiscourse had been narrative and expository only, not,\\nwe may suppose, making any appeal to emotion, yet it\\nmade the hearts of the hearers burn. You cannot ac-\\ncount for the use of this expression without recognizing\\nthat there had been a story indeed, but something more\\nthan a story inspiration, and such a presentation of\\ntruth as called out responsive sympathy, and appealed\\nto the conscience as much as it informed the imder-\\nstanding. And in like manner our owai narrative and\\nhistorical lessons may become very dry and barren if\\nthere does not lie behind them some enthusiasm for\\nwhat is right and noble, and some scorn for what is\\nbase, and some sense that there is a moral and spiritual\\nsignificance in the facts of human life. While I was\\nmusing, said David, the fire kindled, and at last\\nI spake with my tongue. Mere utterance of words,\\neven the best w^ords, comes to little unless there has\\nbeen not only the previous musing and study, but also\\na genuine warmth and strong interest in relation to the\\nsubject taught.\\nOf all the methods employed by the sacred w^xxi^x^s^ Parables.\\nfor elucidating and enforcing truth, one of the most\\ncharacteristic is the parable or apologue. Jotham s fable\\nabout the trees, Nathan s story addressed to David about\\nthe rich man and the ewe lamb, are examples of this\\nparabolic teaching in the Old Testament. And such\\nteaching was the sole distinctive feature of our Lord s\\ndiscourses, Without a parable spake He not unto\\nthem. The reasons assigned by the Evangelists for\\nthis practice may not be perfectly intelligible or very\\nobviously consistent with one another. But the impress-\\niveness of the method has been recognized perhaps in", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "32 Methods of Instruction as illustrated in the Bible\\nthe highest degree by Oriental races, but also in large\\nmeasure among the less imaginative Teutonic and Latin\\ncommunities. To this hour Christian children are more\\nattracted by the parables than by any other portion of\\nthe Evangelical record and Christian teachers in select-\\ning for the young such portions of Scripture as do not\\ninvolve theological controversy or difficulties of belief\\nfind the stories which form so large a portion of the\\nGospels best suited for their purpose. They deal with\\nsubjects of universal human interest. Some of them,\\nsuch as the Parable of the Sower, are striking represen-\\ntations of the facts of spiritual experience. Others,\\nsuch as the Prodigal Son and the Good Shepherd, are\\npicturesque illustrations of the Divine character and of\\nthe relation of the Heavenly Father to His erring children.\\nOthers, such as the Good Samaritan, enforce powerfully\\nour dependence on one another for succour in trouble.\\nEvery such parable carries hidden in it some ethical or\\nreligious significance, but its significance is not set forth\\nin formal language. The preacher does not appear to\\nobtrude His moral the hearer is left to make the appli-\\ncation for himself. Herein lies the special force of the\\nallegorical method of teaching. The learner is attracted\\nby the story, and regards it at first as a story only. Soon\\nhe begins to perceive its underlying meaning. He\\nchanges the attitude of his mind, transfers the interpre-\\ntation from the material to the moral and spiritual world,\\nand to the inner sphere of his own experience, and then\\ndraws the conclusion which, though unexpressed, was\\nintended by the teacher. David listened to the apologue\\nof Nathan till his anger was greatly kindled against the\\nman, and he listened to all the more purpose because\\nhe did not perceive throughout that the story related to\\nhimself. De te fahula nan-atur, Thou art the man,", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "TJie use of allegory in teaching 33\\ncame as a revelation to him, all the more impressive\\nbecause it was unexpected, and because he had reached\\nby his own efforts a right moral judgment. In a parable\\nthe learner finds his own way to a conclusion, and for\\nthis reason the conclusion when arrived at is found to\\nbe impressive. He has been invited to take a prin-\\ncipal share in tliinking out the question, and so he\\nfeels when the inference is arrived at that it is his own.\\nWhen a critical hearer put to the Master the question\\nWho is my neighbour? the answer was not the direct\\ncategorical definition he probably expected, but it took\\nthe form of a story about a man on a journey who\\nfell among thieves. And at the end of the story the\\nquestioner was himself confronted with the enquiry,\\nWhich now of these three tliinkest thou was neighbour\\nunto him who fell among thieves? The apologue had\\nhelped the enquirer to discover his own answer to a\\ndifficult question in practical ethics. Such an answer\\nwas much more likely to be remembered than if it had\\nbeen given in a direct and didactic form.\\nAnd to the end of time teachers will find that fables TJie use of\\nand allegories form an attractive and useful part of their ^S\\neducational apparatus: (i) because the truth that s ing.\\nhidden in them is not visible at first sight, but has to\\nbe discovered by the indirect method of analogy and\\n(2) because when we thus discover the meaning of a\\nparable we cease to be mere disciples or recipients, and\\nbecome our own teachers. And he who becomes his\\nown teacher has a very interesting and docile pupil, and\\nhis lessons have a better chance than others of be-\\ncoming effective. There are of course necessary limits to\\nthe application of any analogies between the phenomena\\nof the visil)le and those of the spiritual world. We must\\nnot force into allegories meanings which they will not\\nD", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "34 Methods of Instruction as illnstrated in the Bible\\nreasonably bear, nor use unreal stories evidently manu-\\nfactured for a didactic purpose. This form of instruc-\\ntion must be used sparingly, and only when the story\\nis striking and self-consistent with its moral honestly\\ninterwoven in its fabric and not a pU7-pureus panmis\\ntacked on for ornament. Subject only to these pre-\\ncautions, we may well look out in our own general\\nreading for good stories or apologues, and have them\\nready for use when the suitable occasion offers, and we\\nshall find that the method of instruction adopted by the\\ngreatest of all teachers nineteen centuries ago has not\\nlost its force, but may still be employed with excellent\\neffect in English schools and nurseries.\\nParables Closely akin to narrative parables are the references\\nwhich abound in the Bible to the facts and phenomena\\nof Nature as means of enforcing moral and religious\\ntruth. Our Lord constantly availed Himself of the\\nfamiliar incidents of daily life the blowing of the\\nwind, the farm yard, the birds nests, the fishing-vessel.\\nConsider the lillies of the field, how they grow. Be-\\nhold the fowls of the air, for they sow not, neither do\\nthey reap nor gather into barns. Yet your heavenly\\nFather feedeth them. There are beauty and point here,\\nbut there is reticence too. The analogy is not forced,\\nand is not made to sustain more meaning than it can\\nproperly bear. As an illustration of the brooding tender-\\nness of the Saviour over His wayward people, the image\\nof the mother-bird protecting her young is felt by all\\nof us to be simple, affecting and appropriate. As a\\nmeans of confirming belief in the providential care of\\nGod over His creatures the references to flowers and\\ntrees and to the lower animals, which without forethought\\nare preserved in health and beauty by a care not their\\nown, find their way to the teachable heart and consci^ence", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "Less oils from Natttre 35\\nwith great effect. And within the limits which our Lord\\nHimself observed, in using these simple and touching\\nsimilitudes, good teachers may wisely use Nature s lessons\\nas auxiliary to their own. But there is a temptation\\namong some teachers to overstep the true boundary of\\nanalogy and illustration, and to deduce lessons from the\\nfacts and aspects of Nature wdiich the premisses will not\\njustify. I hear teachers sometimes who are so bent on\\npointing a moral that they seem to think it necessary,\\nin every lesson on a plant or animal, to wind up with\\nsome moral reflection. Solomon has in part set them\\nthe example, Go to the ant, thou sluggard, consider her\\nways and be wise, which having no guide, overseer or\\nruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth\\nher food in the harvest. Isaiah too rebukes the sinful\\nnation, a people laden with iniquity, a seed of evil-doers,\\nby reference to the behaviour of the lower animals.\\nThe ox knoweth his owner and the ass his master s\\ncrib, but Israel doth not know my people doth not\\nconsider. In like manner, it has not been uncommon\\nfor writers of books for the young to refer to the habits\\nof animals as if they furnished precepts and examples\\nfor the conduct of human beings. Here, for example, is False and\\nan extract from a poem much admired in the eiditeenth ^^f^\\ncentury ing from\\nThe daily labours of the bee Nature.\\nAwake my soul to industry;\\nWho can observe the careful ant\\nAnd not provide for future want?\\nIn constancy and nuptial love\\nI learn my duty from the dove.\\nThe hen that from the chilly air\\nWith pious wing protects her care\\nAnd every fowl that flies at large\\nInstructs me in a parent s charge.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "36 MetJiods of Instruction as illust^ ated in the Bible\\nThus every object of creation\\nCan furnish hints to contemplation,\\nAnd from the most minute and mean\\nA virtuous mind can morals glean.\\nAnd we are all familiar with Dr Watts s instructive little\\nhomilies e.g.\\nHow doth the little busy bee\\nImprove each shining hour\\nTjf TF 7p\\nSo, like the sun, would I fulfil\\nThe business of the day.\\nCowper, moralizing on human vanity, is to the same\\neffect\\nThe self-applauding bird, the peacock, see;\\nMark what a sumptuous Pharisee is he.\\nNo doubt there is something attractive in these references\\nto Nature but there is after all little or no basis for the\\ninferences which are often drawn from them. A child\\nof ordinary intelligence and healthy conscience rebels\\nagainst such teaching. He does not put his objection\\ninto words, that would be rude and disrespectful to you.\\nBut he knows that the premiss will not sustain the con-\\nclusion. The industry of the bee, the forecast of the\\nant, the skill of the spider or the silkworm, the air with\\nwhich birds wear rich plumage, he knows to be the\\nresults of inherited animal instinct, which has no moral\\nsignificance at all, and which forms no guide for respon-\\nsible human beings, who are endowed with power to\\ncontrol their own actions. That the lark rises early in\\nthe morning is no reason why we should do the same.\\nThat the bee buzzes about all the summer day among\\nthe flowers is a pleasing fact in Natural history, but it\\nhas no bearing whatever on the industry of your life or\\nGay, Introduction to Fables.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "Strained and iJiisleadijig analogies 37\\nmine. Let us beware of confusing the moral perceptions\\nof children by assuming a connexion here which does\\nnot really exist. We must not mistake illustration for\\nproof. Whatever happens, let us at least be honest with\\nthe little ones, and not offer to them arguments which\\nwe should reject as invalid, or analogies which we should\\nknow to be fallacious, if they were addressed to our-\\nselves. By way of picturesque and occasional references\\nthese allusions may have a certain petty appositeness,\\nbut if it is seriously proposed to employ them for the\\nenforcement of doctrine or precept, we may easily defeat\\nour own purpose. A formidable Nemesis awaits the\\nteacher or the parent who fails to bear this in mind,\\nfor the day soon comes when the young scholar detects\\nthat there was a moral falsetto in such teaching, and\\nhis confidence in the good sense and honesty of his\\nteacher is permanently weakened.\\nIt is especially instructive to observe the method^ of 77^^ r\\nour Lord s teaching when enquirers came to Him \\\\v\\\\\\\\.\\\\iy.^^^j^^.\\ndifficulties, and with ethical problems to be solved, and taught\\nMen approached Him, expecting to be referred to some J\\ndefinite rule or formula, but were disappointed to find problems.\\nthemselves referred instead to some larger principle of\\naction, which they were first to see in all its breadth and\\nthen to apply for themselves to the particular case in hand.\\nIs it lawful to heal on the Sabbath day? To this\\nappeal the answer came in the form of a counter ques-\\ntion, What man shall there be of you that shall have\\none sheep, and if this fall into a pit on the Sabbath day,\\nwill he not lay hold on it and hft it out? In other\\nwords, try to see clearly the great law of humanity and\\nduty, and then look at this case in the light of that\\nlaw. Simon the Pharisee had some misgivings about\\nMatthew xii. 11,", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "38 Methods of histruction as illustrated in the Bible\\nrecognizing a certain sinful woman, and the Master\\nrejoined, Simon, I have somewhat to say to thee, and\\nHe then tells a story about a creditor and two debtors,\\nand appeals to his host to say which of the two, after\\nthey have been generously forgiven, will love the creditor\\nmost. Afterwards comes the response, Thou hast rightly\\njudged, and this is followed up by a clear exposition,\\nnot only of the particular course which ought to be\\ntaken in this case, but also of the great law of Christian\\ncharity and tolerance which ought to dominate all such\\ncases.\\nIn these and many other of our Lord s recorded\\nconversations, it will be observed that He often asked\\nfor the co-operation of the learner, and gave him some\\nof the thinking to do for himself. His answer was\\nseldom oracular or conclusive. He did not wish to save\\nthe disciple from the responsibility of working out the\\nrequired conclusion for himself. His attitude was that of\\none who takes the disciple into his confidence and says\\nin effect The question is hard, perhaps harder than\\nit looks. Come and let us examine it together. How\\nthink you? At another time the question is asked,\\nWho is the greatest in the kingdom of Heaven?\\nInstead of giving a direct categorical answer He calls\\na litde child unto Him and sets him in the midst,-\\nand then leads up to the truth that he wlio seems to\\nbe the greatest is often the least, and that the humblest\\nis nearest to the kingdom of Heaven. Who do men\\nsay that I am? There are many rumours current,\\nbut they matter litde. Who do j say that I am?\\nThen look at the sequel of that pathetic acted parable\\nrecorded among the latest incidents in His life, and\\nyou will observe that after girding Himself and washing\\n1 Luke vii. 41. Matthew xviii. I.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "Co-operation of teacher and learner 39\\nthe feet of His disciples, He turns to them with the\\npersonal appeal, Know ye what I have done unto\\nyou Here and often He refused to be didactic,\\nand became conversational and interrogative, challenging\\nthe hearer s attention and sympathy at every step and\\nmaking him take a substantial share in the evolution\\nof the lesson and in the attainment of the result. And\\nthus we have the special sanction of the Master for the\\nmain principle of all true pedagogy, a principle con-\\nstantly enforced, but still daily overlooked in practice,\\nthat the measure of a teacher s success lies not merely in\\nthe amount of useful exhortation and truth which he can\\npour into the recipient mind, but in the amount of effort\\nhe has called forth and in the degree in which the\\nlearner is made master of the process whereby, when his\\nteachers are withdrawn, he may be able to discover truth\\nfor himself.\\nOne other striking characteristic of the Gospel teach- Hozu many\\ning deserves special notice. It was our Lord s habit,\\nwhen an enquirer came before Him, to begin by asking\\nhim some question with a view to find out what he\\nalready knew. What shall I do to inherit eternal\\nlife? asked one. What is written in the Law? How\\nreadest thou? was the response. The method of teach-\\ning is here seen to correspond closely to that adopted in\\nHis beneficent miracles in regard to the supply of man s\\nphysical wants. Take for example the story of the feed-\\ning the four thousand. How vividly the scene comes\\nbefore us The hungry multitude, the desert place, the\\ncompassionate Teacher who would not have the people\\ndepart at once lest they faint by the way, and who pur-\\nposes to work a miracle in their behalf. But His first\\nquestion is, How many loaves have ye? What have\\n1 John xiii. 14.\\nve", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "40 Methods of histructiofi as illustrate din the Bible\\nyou got already? Let us use that provision and make\\nthe most of it, and I will then cause the store to be\\nincreased.^ This is the method of the Divine economy\\nin spiritual and intellectual as in material things. Before\\nadding to our present resources, our Lord asks what they\\namount to and what use we are making of them. He\\nwould not work a miracle to provide that which might\\nhave been provided by the exercise of ordinary human\\nforethought. And I have often been reminded of this\\nsimple and significant episode in the Gospel history when\\nit has been my duty to listen to lessons given by teachers\\nin their classes. Some of these lessons begin by pre-\\nsupposing the possession of knowledge which the scholars\\nhave never acquired, and so they merely bewilder them,\\nand completely fail to fulfil their purpose. And others\\nbegin by elaborately teUing the class what is already\\nknown, and these fail in their purpose, too, and may\\neasily alienate and dishearten the learners. What is\\nhere needed is the transference to the school-room of\\nthe simple enquiry addressed to the disciples in the\\ndesert: How many loaves have ye? A few minutes\\nmay be fitly spent at the beginning of every lesson, in\\nthe preliminary questions which will serve to shew the\\nteacher in what state the learner s mind already is,\\nwhat previous knowledge is actually possessed and re-\\nmembered, and how the new knowledge intended to be\\ntaught can best be linked on to the old. As, in all\\ncharitable work, we do not know how to help a man,\\nwe certainly cannot help him wisely, until we know\\nhim, and have found out what he has got already\\nso every teacher before he begins to teach is bound to\\ndiscover and to measure carefully the substratum on\\n1 Mark vi. 38.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "Vision and vieditation 41\\nwhich he has to build. The neglect of this simple pre-\\ncaution often leads in teaching to enormous waste of\\ntime.\\nEven the most cursory student of the Bible cannot Vision\\nfail to notice how large a portion of the teaching described f J^.\\nin it takes the form of visions and revelations. The\\nladder was seen by Jacob in the wilderness, with the\\nangels of God ascending and descending on it/ and on\\nwaking he exclaimed, Surely the Lord was in this place\\nand I knew it not, and afterwards went on his pilgrimage\\nwith firmer resolution and surer hope. Samuel and\\nSolomon, too, were among those who in clear dream\\nand solemn vision heard things that no gross ear can\\nhear, and received impressions which changed the course\\nof their whole lives and made them conscious of a Divine\\ncall and a new consecration. Other instances are to be\\nfound in the visions of Ezekiel, the weird utterances\\nwhich came to Eliphaz in the time when deep sleep\\nfalleth on men, the great sheet let down from heaven\\nbefore the startled eye of Peter,^ in whose experience\\nit was needful that he should henceforth learn to regard\\nnothing as common or unclean the unclosing of the\\nspiritual eye which was granted to Paul, whether in\\nthe body or out of the body he could not tell; and\\nthe ecstatic vision which was revealed to the aged seer\\nof Patmos when he beheld a city that had no need of\\nthe sun or of the moon to lighten it, because the glory\\nof God did lighten it, and the Lamb is the light thereof.\\nRevelations in these forms do not come to you or to me,\\nbut we have all had some experiences which are closely\\nakin to them. There have been moments in our lives,\\nand in those of our pupils, when we seem to be lifted up.\\n1 Genesis xxviii. 12. 2 job iv. 13. Acts x. ii.\\n2 Corinthians xii. 2. Revelation xxi. 2t^.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "42 ]\\\\IctJiods of Instvjiction as illustrated in the Bible\\non to a higher plane of thought and emotion than is\\nhabitual to us when great things seem greater, and\\nlittle things smaller, beauty more beautiful, and evil\\nmore hateful than ever, when we feel ourselves capable\\nof something better than we are doing every day, and\\nwhen the whole atmosphere in which we live becomes\\nsuffused with a new sense of the nobler possibilities of life.\\nSuch moments are rare, but they come to all of us some-\\ntimes. They may be brought about by reading a very\\npowerful or inspiring book, by some scene of extraordinary\\nloveliness, by some domestic or public event which stirs\\nour sympathies profoundly, or perhaps by that strong and\\nindefinable emotion which is produced by the presence\\nof large numbers, all animated by one spirit and con-\\ntrolled by the same overmastering impulse. Whatever\\nbe the cause we know well that times of refreshing like\\nthese are among the best in our lives. We would fain\\nprolong them. We feel as the three disciples did, when\\nfor a moment they were favoured with a glimpse of\\nMoses and Elias and of the upper world. Methinks it\\nis good to be here. We cannot stay, however, but must\\npresently descend into the arena of daily duty, perhaps to\\nthe valley of humiliation.\\nFull soon thy soul shall have her earthly freight,\\nAnd custom lie upon thee with a weight\\nHeavy as frost and deep almost as life.\\nThe Story of the Transfiguration is a parable revealing\\nthe significance of those moments of exaltation which\\ncome to most of us at some times in our lives. The brief\\nand transient experience gives us the true measure by which\\never after we may judge our powers and our motives.\\nIt shews us what our best self is capable of becoming.\\nIt leaves in us memories by which all the rest of our life\\nmay be brightened and ennobled. Ever after when we", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "Dreamy and imaginative scholars 43\\nare tempted to be content with a low standard of duty,\\nto waste opportunities, and to let our faculties be soiled\\nby ignoble use, those memories come back to rebuke us\\nand to recall us to the right way. Thus strong emotions,\\nand even the vague sense of undeveloped power, may\\nplay an important part in the education of a life.\\nIs it not true that children who seem to us a little Dreamy\\nodd and eccentric, and who indulge in reveries and\\naginative\\nfancies, are often among the best scholars we \\\\\\\\3,vq scholars\\nThere was once a family of twelve brothers, of whom\\ndiscour-\\neleven were rather hard and prosaic, and perhaps ^t^^^/.\\ncommon-place men, who, when the young brother\\ncame among them, were wont to greet him with the\\nmocking salutation, Behold, this dreamer cometh.\\nThe boy had indulged in visions which they could not\\nunderstand had, in tending sheep in the solitary hills,\\nnurtured great vague ambitions which differed essentially\\nfrom theirs. Yet this dreamer was he who became the\\nchief of his family, a ruler of men, the saviour of his\\nfather and his brethren. It is ever thus. The deeper\\ninsight, the inspiring hopes, the thoughts that wander\\nthrough eternity, when they are granted to us, are great\\nand divine gifts. In the rare cases in which we see\\nevidences of them manifested in childhood let us wel-\\ncome them as among the best omens, and not discourage\\nthe dreamer because his mental activity takes unexpected\\nforms, and because he seems less amenable to ordinary\\nroutine discipline than his fellows.\\nHere then is a hint for us, of the value of genuine\\nappeal to the feelings in dealing with children. All great\\nemotion, provided only that it be unselfish, does some-\\nthing to purify and ennoble character. Incidents occur\\nin a child s life which help to kindle such emotion the\\nthrill of a solemn music, the first gHmpse of the sea,", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "44 Methods of histruction as illnstratcdiii the Bible\\nthanksgiving at a jubilee or for some great national\\nblessing, the sympathy evoked on the occasion of some\\ngreat social misfortune or pubhc loss. A good teacher\\nis ever on the watch for incidents of this kind in the\\npublic life of the nation, or in local events, or in the\\nhistory of the school itself, such as may serve to rouse\\nthe apathetic to enthusiasm, or make one who generally\\ncares for material pleasures only, forget himself for a\\ntime at least. The teacher who looks into his own life\\nknows well that he has become what he is, not only in\\nvirtue of what he knows and can do, but of what he has\\nfelt, and of what he has striven for and imagined in his\\nbest moments. In the teacher s profession it is truer\\nthan perhaps in any other that the sum of human duty\\nis to aim high and to work hard. Without hard work all\\ngreat aims are apt to become futile and to evaporate in\\nmere sentiment. But without a high aim, and a noble\\nideal of what is possible both in ourselves and in our\\npupils, mere hard work is the purest drudgery, and will\\ninevitably degenerate ere long into a barren and joyless\\nroutine.\\nConclii- Thus we have had before us some of the more prom-\\ninent methods by which truth has been enforced and char-\\nacter shaped by the Bible writers. They are (i) symbol\\nand ritual, (2) direct injunction, (3) appeals to the intui-\\ntions of conscience, (4) iteration and reiteration, (5) prov-\\nerbs, (6) biography and example, (7) story, figure and\\nparable, (8) poetry, (9) searching questions, and lastly\\n(10) vision and inspiration. These methods are not all\\nequally applicable at all times, or to all learners, or to the\\nsame people at every stage in their mental and spiritual\\ndevelopment. But all of them have been employed by\\nour Divine teacher from time to time in the education of\\nthe race, and every one of them is suggestive to us\\nsions.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "Practical conclusions 45\\nof processes which we may in some degree imitate.\\nWe may at least infer from this review of the chief\\ncharacteristics of Bible teaching that the ways of access\\nto the human conscience and understanding are many\\nand varied that they have not all been found out yet\\nthat new modes of adapting former methods to meet\\nmodern needs have yet to be discovered, and that it is\\nthe duty of every good teacher to take at least a share\\nin making such discoveries for himself.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "LECTURE II\\nSOCRATES AND HIS METHOD OF\\nTEACHING\\nState of Athens in the time of Socrates. The intellectual discipline\\nof the Athenians. The art of Oratory. Socrates and his con-\\nversations. His disciples and reporters. A Sccratic dialogue.\\nNegative results not necessarily fruitless. Investigation of\\nwords and their meanings. Some methods more fitting for\\nadults than for young learners. Ambiguity and verbal confu-\\nsion. Gorgias. Relation of virtue to knowledge. The dai/xcju\\nof Socrates. Oracles. Conversation an educational instru-\\nment. Need for occasional colloquies with ehler scholars.\\nSubjects suited for such colloquies. Handicraft. Physical\\nScience. The doctrine of reminiscence. Pre-natal existence.\\nSocrates a preacher of righteousness. The accusation against\\nhim. His death.\\nWe may profitably devote our time to-day to the\\nconsideration of the Hfe and influence of the most illus-\\ntrious of the Greek teachers. Socrates name is identified\\nwith some of the earliest dialectical exercises on record,\\nand the arts of evolving and imparting truth and of\\nestablishing a right relation between learner and teacher\\nwere the arts to which he devoted his chief attention.\\nThese too are the arts which most of my hearers desire\\nto acquire for themselves, and to communicate to others,\\nand although our circumstances, after the lapse of cen-\\nturies, differ much from those in which he lived, it will\\nbe found on examination that there is a substantial\\n46", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "Athens in the Socratie age 47\\nresemblance between the problems with which he was\\nconfronted and some of those which we in this age are\\ntrying to solve.\\nAt the risk of recounting some things which are State of\\nalready very familiar to most of my audience, it may\\nnot be unfitting to remind you of one or two facts Socrates.\\nrespecting the condition of Athens in the fourth and\\nfifth centuries before Christ. The state, of which it\\nformed the capital, was little larger than a moderate\\nEnglish county, and the whole of its subject territories\\nwere not equal in area to Great Britain. In the time\\nof Pericles, however, it was the most influential city in\\nthe world. Its outward aspect was, as you know, very\\nremarkable. The houses of the private citizens were,\\nfor the most part, plain wooden tenements, in striking\\ncontrast to all the buildings associated with the public\\nlife of the state for these were costly and magnificent.\\nNear was a fair harbour, teeming with commercial life\\nand down the slope, leading to the Piraeus, were two\\nsturdy parallel walls, which secured access to the sea in\\ntime of war, and which, as they betokened the prudence\\nof the citizens, had also borne witness to their prowess\\nin many a conflict. And towering high above the city,\\noverlooking the common paths and homes of men,\\nstood the sacred citadel, the dwelling of the gods.\\nThere was the Parthenon, dedicated to the virgin god-\\ndess Athene, whose name the city bore and near it\\nwere the temples of Jupiter Olympus, of Theseus, and\\nApollo buildings splendid even in ruins, but then all\\nfresh and perfect, overlaid with gilding and bright colour.\\nYet, 2,300 years ago, the stranger who had sailed from\\nTyre or from Syracuse, to see the city, would not have,\\ngathered from all these outward signs of prosperity a\\ntrue conception of the power of Athens, or have under-", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "48 Socrates and his method of teaching\\nstood why she dominated the world. The greatness\\nof Athens lay in the character of her people, in her\\nfreedom, and in the way in which she maintained it,\\nin her mental activity, and in that desire for new\\nknowledge which, long afterwards, so impressed St Paul\\nwhen he addressed the people from Mars Hill. You\\nremember how much struck the Apostle was as he\\nwalked through the city or stood on the Acropolis, and\\nsaw around him so many signs of restlessness and of\\nintellectual activity and enterprise. The people, St Luke\\ntells us, spent their time in nothing else but either to\\ntell or to hear some new thing. That did not mean\\nnews in our sense of the word, news from a far country,\\nthe story of a great discovery or new fact. It meant a\\nnew truth or speculation, some fresh or original opinion\\nabout government, about the duties of citizens, the rights\\nof subject states, or the proper use of human faculties in\\nthe family and in the State.\\nAthens had, at the time of Socrates, lately succeeded\\nin baffling the counsels and dispersing the host of the\\nKing of Persia. With the little band of confederated\\nGreek patriots, she had resisted an army twenty times\\nthe size of her own. The names of Plataea and Salamis\\nwere keenly remembered by the Greeks and the\\ntactics of Marathon and Thermopylae were often can-\\nvassed by them. Indeed, every matter of public con-\\ncern was freely discussed. It is true the people had\\nno press, either to furnish them with materials for\\nforming their opinions, or to save them that trouble by\\npresenting them with opinions already formulated. All\\ndiscussion was oral not only in the legitimate popular\\nassemblies, but in the market-place, in the forum, and\\nunder the porticoes of temples, groups of eager dis-\\nActs xvii. 21,", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "TJie intellectual discipline of tJie Athenians 49\\nputants might be seen anxiously investigating some\\ndifficult problem in morals or politics. Every act of\\nthe governing body, every detail of administration,\\nevery judicial decision, became, in turn, the subject of\\nopen public disputation. And the Athenians prided\\nthemselves on doing everything with their eyes open,\\nand on being able to give a reason, not only for the\\nacts of themselves and their party, but also for all the\\npublic policy of their beloved State. A man who had\\nnot an opinion on these matters, or who could not defend\\nit, was considered to be a discredit to the community.\\nWe are the only people, said Pericles, in one of his\\nimpassioned orations to the citizens at the funeral of\\nsome heroes who had died in a conflict,\\nWe are the only people who regard him that does not meddle\\nin State affairs as good for nothing. Yet, methinks, we pass sound\\njudgments and are quick in catching the right apprehension of\\nthings, and we think that words are not prejudicial to action, but\\nrather the not being prepared by previous debate before we proceed\\nto action. Herein lies the true excellence of our people, that in the\\nhour of action we can shew great courage, and yet we debate before-\\nhand the expediency of our measures. The courage of other\\nnations may be the result of ignorance or blind impulse; delibera-\\ntion makes them cowards. But those, undoubtedly, must lie\\ndeemed to have the greatest souls who, being most acutely sensible\\nof the miseries of war and the sweets of peace, are not hence in the\\nleast deterred from facing danger. This whole earth is the\\ngrave of illustrious men; but, of all those who are buried in it, there\\nare none nobler than those whom we commit to the ground to day,\\nfor they are the intelligent citizens of a free State.\\nThe sort of mental discipline through which an I he iniel-\\nAthenian citizen passed, differed very much from that ^5/\\nii pi I lie 0/\\nwith which we are familiar in the nineteenth centur\\\\ tke Aiken-\\nHe could not read or write, but he could listen to the\\nharangues of the orator, or join a group of enquirers\\nwho surrounded a philosopher pacing the groves of\\nE", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "50 Socrates and Jus method of teaching\\nAcademus. He saw the plays of Sophocles and Aristo-\\nphanes, of which representations were often gratuitously\\nprovided by rich citizens, as an honourable public duty,\\nand as a contribution to national education. He walked\\namidst the friezes of Phidias and the paintings of Zeuxis\\nhe heard the rhapsodist at the street corner declaiming\\nabout the heroism of Hector or the wanderings of the\\nmuch-enduring Ulysses. He was a legislator, conversant\\nwith high questions of international right and of public\\nrevenue he was a soldier, carefully trained by the State\\nunder a severe but generous discipline he was a judge,\\ncompelled often to weigh hostile evidence, and to decide\\ncomplex questions of right and wrong. These things\\nwere themselves an education, well fitted, if not to form\\nexact or profound thinkers, at least to give quickness to\\nthe perceptions, delicacy to the taste, fluency to the ex-\\npression, and politeness to the manners. An Athenian\\nknew that his beloved city was dedicated to Athene, the\\ngoddess of Wisdom, and he wished to make the citizens\\nworthy of this distinction. Hence, to many of the people,\\nphilosophy was a pastime, and the search after wisdom\\none of the main duties of life. And, as some men would\\ngo to a bath or a gymnasium to brace up their physical\\nenergies, others would resort to the rhetor or the sophist\\nto gather strength for intellectual contests, and to practise\\nin the porch or the agoj-a the noble art of self-defence.\\n77ie art of And here it may not be unfitting to reflect for a\\noiaiory. jjjonient on the fact that 23 centuries have not, in this\\none respect, witnessed the improvement which we may\\nhope has been visible in other departments of instruc-\\ntion. Education in citizenship, training in the art of\\nforming and expressing opinions on matters of high\\npublic interest, the discipline which helps a man to\\n1 Macaulay, Essay on Boswell s Johnson.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "Socrates and his conversations 5 1\\nexplain, and, if needful, to maintain and defend the\\nopinions he is supposed to hold where is our pro-\\nvision for attaining these objects? Where are the\\nteachers, who, not content with making their pupils\\nreceivers of truth, help them also to elucidate it, and\\nto enforce it upon others? I think that from Athens\\nwe have still, in this one respect, something to learn.\\nIt was in the midst of this busy, prosperous, and Socrates\\ninquisitive community that you might have seen, had\\nyou lived about 400 B.C., a short, thick-set, and some- tions.\\nwhat ugly man, going about from one part of the city to\\nanother, entering into conversation with persons of all\\nranks, and apparently very anxious to extend the circle\\nof his acquaintance. Yet he was no stranger to the\\npeople of Athens. They knew him well. He hac^ been\\nbrought up among them. His father had been a sculptor\\nof no great repute or wealth, but of good and honourable\\nlineage. He himself had served in early hfe as a soldier\\nwith some credit, and had subsequently filled several of\\nthose posts in which the Athenian constitution, hke our\\nown, gave, even to undistinguished citizens, opportunities\\nof rendering service to the State. He lived a blameless\\nand somewhat uneventful life, and attracted little public\\nnotice until about the age of 40. But about this time\\nhe began to be remarked for the frequency and earnest-\\nness of the conversations which he held with the leading\\npeople of Athens, Wherever a public disputation was\\ngoing on, wherever any rhetor was discoursing to a group\\nof hearers, this rugged, meanly clad man would be seen\\nattentively listening. In a modest and respectful way,\\nhe would venture to put a question to the orator on the\\nsubject of his harangue. An answer would generally be\\ngiven off-hand. On this Socrates would found another\\nquestion and, as he very carefully remembered the", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "52 Socrates and his method of teaching\\nseveral answers, fastened mercilessly on any inconsistency\\nbetween one answer and another, and would permit no\\ndeviation from the matter in hand he would often embar-\\nrass the speaker very much, and make it appear that he\\nwas talking about something which he did not under-\\nstand. Throughout he assumed the rather provoking\\nattitude of a mere enquirer, never that of one who had a\\ntheory of his own to propound. Close, searching inter-\\nrogation was his chief employment, and if the result was\\nunsatisfactory he seemed surprised and disappointed, as\\none who had expected information and guidance he\\ncould not obtain. For Socrates was possessed with the\\nconviction that there is a great deal of unreal and pre-\\ntentious knowledge in the world. He thought that,\\ndown at the root of even the most familiar subjects that\\nmen discuss, there lie difficulties which are scarcely\\nsuspected. He believed that men come to false conclu-\\nsions, not because they reason badly or dishonestly, but\\nbecause their premisses are wrong because, at the ery\\noutset of their argument, they have assumed as true some\\ndata which they have never sufficiently examined. He\\nthought that, before any one could attain a high standard\\nof intellectual excellence, he had much to unlearn and\\nthat it was necessary for him to clear his mind, not\\nmerely of falsehood or error, but of beliefs which, though\\nthey might appear self-evident, were unsupported and\\nunverified. We err, he said, by not taking the true\\nmeasure of ourselves and of our own ignorance; and,\\nuntil we have tried to do this, we are not in a condition\\nto receive new knowledge in a right spirit, or to turn it to\\nprofitable account. He did not think that men wilfully\\ndeceived one another, but rather that unconsciously they\\ndeceived themselves. Hence, he regarded it as the first\\nbusiness of a philosopher to convey to the learner, by", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "His disciples and reporters 53\\nsome process, however painful, a true estimate of the\\nvalue and extent of his own knowledge.\\nWe are to remember that he wrote no book, and that His disci-\\nall our knowledge of him is \u00c2\u00a3?ained from the records\\nreporters.\\nfurnished by his affectionate disciples Plato and Xeno-\\nl)hon. Herein we are reminded of the greatest of all\\nteachers, who is known to us not by any writings of His\\nown, but by His acts and discourses as they have been\\nhanded down to us by those who received His teaching.\\nAnd the parallel is remarkable in other ways. Three of\\nthe Evangelists give to us plain matter-of-flict narratives\\nof what they saw and heard. It is true we may trace in\\nMatthew a desire to make the mission of his Lord intel-\\nligible and acceptable to the Jews, and in Luke, who\\nwrote under the guidance of Paul, a wish to edify Gentile\\nconverts. But in the three synoptic Gospels there is\\nstraightforward narrative, biography, reports of conversa-\\ntions and discourses, but little or no reflection or theory.\\nIn the fourth Gospel you have an utterance of another\\nkind. The writer of St John s Gospel is essentially a\\nPlatonist. He sees the whole of the facts of the Saviour s\\nlife through the medium of the large spiritual truths\\nwhich seem to him of paramount importance. He lays\\ndown, in the first words of his book, his theory of the\\ninner relationship of the Father, the Word, and the\\nhuman soul and throughout his narrative, particularly in\\nthe long discourses between the Great Teacher and His\\ndisciples, he accentuates this theory, and keeps steadily\\nin view the ideal of spiritual union, of supernatural\\nagency, and Divine influence. It is thus also with Plato.\\nHe is an idealist. He sees all truth of mere fact, in the\\nlight of what he conceives to be the larger truths of\\nphilosophy. He looks on human and social life as\\nhaving its own ideal and purpose, no less than each", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "54 Socrates and his niethod of teaching\\nprofession or craft. His views on the ultimate ground\\nof all ethics in science or reasoned truth and on the\\ndoctrine of reminiscence are constantly illustrated in the\\nSocratic dialogues, as he presents them. But to Xeno-\\nphon, a soldier rather than a philosopher, a man of\\nbusiness and of robust common sense, the dialectic of\\nSocrates was chiefly valuable because of the light it\\nthrew on the practical problems of life. He was con-\\ncerned to hear it so often said of his revered master,\\nthat his teaching ended in mere doubt and negation.\\nHe desired to vindicate Socrates from such a charge, and\\nto shew that, after all his searching questions, he ceased\\nto embarrass his hearer, and gave him, by way of con-\\nclusion, counsels of a practical and useful character.\\nAnd all through the Platonic and Xenophontic repre-\\nsentations, as between the narratives of Matthew and of\\nJohn, and even in the tivo accounts of the Apology before\\nthe judges, you will find the same diversity, the one\\ndwelling rather on the negative and speculative side,\\nthe other on the practical and positive side of the\\nmaster s teaching both representations being in a sense\\nfundamentally true, but both coloured by the intellectual\\nmedium through which the disciple recognized the truth.\\nA Socratic Here, for example, is a fragment from one of Xeno-\\ni/ialogue. pi^Qj^ g dialogues, in which you will observe that the\\nmoral aim and purpose of the Socratic dialectic is kept\\nprominently in view, and in which the reporter of the\\nconversation is chiefly concerned to vindicate his master\\nagainst the charge so often made against him of corrupt-\\ning the Athenian youth. It is an account of a conversa-\\ntion with Glauco, the son of Aristo, who was so strongly\\npossessed with the desire of governing the republic, that\\nAlthough not yet twenty he was continually making orations\\nto the people; neither was it in the power of his relations, however", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "A Socj atic dialogue 55\\nnumerous, to prevent his exposing himself to ridicule. Socrates,\\nwho loved him on the account of Plato and Charmidas, had alone\\nthe art to succeed with him. For, meeting him, he said, Your\\ndesign then, my Glauco, is to be at the very head of our republic?\\nIt is so, replied the other.\\nBelieve me, said Socrates, a noble aim For, this once ac-\\ncomplished, you become, as it were, absolute you may then serve\\nyour friends, aggrandize your family, extend the limits of your\\ncountry, and make yourself renowned, not only in Athens, but\\nthroughout all Greece nay, it may be, your fame will spread\\nabroad among the most barbarous nations, like another Theniistocles,\\nwhile admiration and applause attend wherever you go 1\\nSocrates, having thus fired the imagination of the young man,\\nand secured himself a favourable hearing, went on, But, if your\\ndesign is to receive honour from your country, you intend to be of\\nuse to it, for nothing but that can secure its applause Undoubt-\\nedly, replied Glauco. Tell me, then, I entreat you, what may be\\nthe first service you intend to render the republic\\nGlauco remained silent, as not knowing what to answer. I\\nsuppose, said Socrates, you mean to enrich it for that is generally\\nthe method we take, when we intend to aggrandize the family of\\nsome friend. This is indeed my design, returned the other,\\nliut the way to do this, said Socrates, is to increase its revenues.\\nIt is so. Tell me then, I pray you, whence the revenues of the\\nrepublic arise, and what they annually amount to; since I doubt\\nnot of your having diligently enquired into each particular, so as to\\nbe able to supply every deficiency, and, when one source fails, can\\neasily have recourse to some other.\\nI protest to you, said Glauco, this is a point I never considered.\\nTell me, then, only its annual expenses; for I suppose you intend to re-\\ntrench whatever appears superfluous? I cannot say, replied Glauco,\\nthat I have yet thought of this affair any more than of the otiicr.\\nWe must postpone, then, our design of enriching the republic\\nto another time, said Socrates, for I see not how a person can\\nexert his endeavours to any purpose, so long as he continues\\nignorant both of its income and expenses. Yet a State may l)e en-\\nriched by the spoils of its enemies. Assuredly, replied Socrates,\\nbut, in order to do this, its strength should be superior, otherwise\\nit may be in danger of losing what it hath already. Me, therefore,\\nwho advises war, ought to be well acquainted not only with the forces\\nof his own country, but those of the enemy; to the end that, if he", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "56 Socrates and his method of teaching\\nfinds superiority on his side, he may boldly persist in his first\\nopinion, or recede in time and dissuade the people from the\\nhazardous undertaking. It is very true, returned the other.\\n*I pray you, then, tell me what are our forces by sea and land;\\nand what are the enemy s? In truth, Socrates, I cannot pretend\\nto tell you, at once, either one or the other. Possibly you may\\nhave a list of them in writing? If so, I should attend to your\\nreading it with pleasure. No, nor this, replied Glauco, fori\\nhave not yet begun to make any calculation of the matter. I per-\\nceive, then, said Socrates, we shall not make war in a short time;\\nsince an affair of such moment cannot be duly considered at the\\nbeginning of your administration. But I take it for granted, con-\\ntinued he, that you have carefully attended to the guarding our\\ncoasts; and know where it is necessary to place garrisons, and what\\nthe number of soldiers to be employed for each; that, while you are\\ndiligent to keep those complete which are of service to us, you may\\norder such to be withdrawn as appear superfluous.\\nIt is my opinion, replied Glauco, that every one of them should\\nbe taken away, since they only ravage the country they were appointed\\nto defend. But what are we to do, then, said Socrates, if our\\ngarrisons are taken away? How shall we prevent the enemy from\\noverrunning Attica at pleasure? And who gave you this intelligence,\\nthat our guards discharge their duty in such a manner? Have you\\nbeen among them? No, but I much suspect it. As soon, then,\\nsaid Socrates, as we can be thoroughly informed of the matter,\\nand have not to proceed on conjecture only, we will speak of it to\\nthe Senate. Perhaps, replied Glauco, this may be the best way.\\nI can scarcely suppose, continued Socrates, that you have visited\\nour silver mines so frequently as to assign the cause why they have\\nfallen off so much of late from their once flourishing condition?\\nI have not been at all there, answered Glauco.\\nAfter many other questions had brought out clearly\\nthe need of more accurate, practical knowledge as the\\nequipment of a statesman, Socrates concludes\\nIf, therefore, you desire to be admired and esteemed by your\\ncountry beyond all others, you must exceed all others in the know-\\nledge of those things which you are ambitious of undertaking; and,\\nthus qualified, I shall not scruple to insure your success, whenever\\nyou may think proper to preside over the Commonwealth.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "Negative results 57\\nThe school of a philosopher, says Epictetus, is ^Negative\\nsurgery. You do not come to it for pleasure, but for j\\\\gcessayily\\npain. If one of you brings me a dislocated shoulder, /;-wzV/^jj.\\nand another divers disorders, shall I sit uttering trifling\\nexclamations and let you go away as you came? You\\nobserve that Socrates method of interrogation was often\\nof a humbling and painful kind; it forced home to his\\ncollocutor the very unwelcome conviction that he was\\nmore ignorant than he supposed. There are three stages\\nin the intellectual history of a man in relation to the\\nknowledge of any subject. The first, and lowest, is\\nunconscious, satisfied ignorance. The next stage is one\\nof ignorance too, but of ignorance unmasked, awakened\\nand ashamed of itself. The third, and highest, is that\\nwhich follows the possession of clear and reasoned truth.\\nBut the second condition is necessary to the last. \\\\Ve\\ncannot vault out of ignorance into wisdom at one bound,\\nwe must travel slowly and toilsomely along the intermedi-\\nate steps and Socrates thought he did a service to an\\nenquirer if he could only succeed in helping him to reach\\nthe second step, and so to be fairly on the right road.\\nA very significant feature of his teaching was the The invcs-\\ngreat importance he attached to the right and accurate ly^rlh^and\\nuse of words. Many of the dialogues which Plato h s, their\\nrecorded for us turn almost wholly on the definition of S^-\\nsome word or phrase. Few of us know, until we try,\\nhow hard it is to give a concise and perfect definition of\\neven the most familiar word, and how much harder it is\\nto make sure that we always attacli precisely the same\\nmeaning to it. Now Socrates thought that an examina-\\ntion of these difiiculties would be of great use to peo})le\\ngenerally, and to disputants in particular. So he would\\ntake a man who either in his business or in liis argumen-\\ntation was in the habit of employing some particular", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "58 Socrates and Ids uictJiod of teaching\\nterm. He would gently ask him to define that term.\\nWhatever answer was given he would quietly accept and\\nrepeat. He would then propose a question or two,\\nintended to illustrate the different senses in which the\\nword might be applied and, in doing this, would make\\nit evident, either that the definition was too wide and\\nneeded to be restricted a little, or that it was too narrow\\nand did not comprehend enough. The respondent\\nwould then ask leave to retract his former definition,\\nand to amend it. When this was done, the inexorable\\nquestioner would go on cross-examining on the subject,\\nai3plying the amended definition to new cases, until\\nanswers were given inconsistent with each other and\\nwith the previous reply. And, at the end of this pitiless\\ncross-examination, it would often appear that the respon-\\ndent, after vain efforts to extricate himself, admitted that\\nhe could give no satisfactory answer to the demand\\nwhich at first had appeared so simple.\\nAnd I am sure that we, as teachers, have a special\\ninterest in that part of the Socratic teaching which bore\\nupon the exact connotation and the right use of words.\\nGrammar, verbal and logical analysis, rhetoric, style all\\nthese things will still, notwithstanding the occasional\\nsatire and remonstrances of the modern professors of\\nscience, hold their own as among the chief instruments\\nin the training of a human being or an active and a\\nthoughtful life. And why? Because a copious vocabu-\\nlary is a storehouse of thoughts. Because, whatever we\\nare hereafter to learn, whether about History, Politics,\\nAstronomy, or Physics, must, to a large extent, be\\nlearned from books and because v/hatever gives us\\ngreater command of the language of books, and a more\\nexact conception of the significance of that language,\\nenlarges our resources as thinking beings.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "Mcajiings of ivords 59\\nYet the philosopher s method of pursuing a general 6\\nterm into all its hiding-places, of amending, expanding, ^^^^f^!^\\nand contracting a definition, until it fitted exactly the ting for\\nqualities of the thing defined was though useful asj?),\\na method of confutation with grave men, especially with youiig\\nsuperficial pretenders not a model for us to imitate ha-\\nbitually in a school. Nor is the Socratic dpu veia a lawful\\nexpedient for use in teaching young learners. They do\\nnot need to have their ignorance exposed. We do not\\nhelp them by plying them with questions and humbling\\nthem with a sense of their own inferiority to ourselves.\\nOccasionally, I have no doubt, it is useful to take a lesson\\non a single word, I will say, constitution, virtue, experience,\\nproof, laiu, influence J trace it through all the stages of its\\ndevelopment, and the shades of its meaning and then\\nask the scholar himself, after this inductive exercise, to\\ndefine the word, and to take care that the definition shall\\ncover all its legitimate applications. We want, of course,\\nthat our scholars shall know the meaning of the words\\nthey use. But the meaning of a word as learned by heart\\nfrom a dictionary or a spelling-book is of no value. It\\nis, indeed, owing to its necessary brevity, often worse\\nthan useless. The true way to teach young learners\\nthe significance of a word is, after a brief explanation,\\nto tell them to take the word and use it. Write four\\nor five sentences containing the word. Give a short\\nnarrative in which this word shall be used three times in\\ndifferent senses. Or, Take these two words, which are\\napparently synonymous, and employ them in such a way\\nas to show that you see the less obvious distinctions in\\ntheir meaning. The object aimed at by the Socratic\\nelenchus among grown-up controversialists may be at-\\ntained, among young scholars, by this simpler and less\\nirritating process.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "6o Socrates and his method of teachitig\\nAmbiguity But, to the philosopher, the duty of looking straight\\nand verbal- ^j^^ \\\\it2.xX. of a word s meaning, of stripping it of all\\nthe vague associations which might have clustered round\\nit, seemed indispensable as part of the mental purgation\\nwhich should precede the acquisition of true wisdom.\\nHe would not discuss a subject until the exact sense in\\nwliich the leading words were to be used was fixed. He\\nwould allow none of that verbal legerdemain by which\\nthe same word could be used in two senses in different\\nstages of the argument. He would not permit the dis-\\ncussion to be mystified by a metaphor, however familiar\\nand apposite, until the hmits to which the analogy\\nextended, and the point beyond which it did not extend,\\nwere clearly marked. At one time, one of the professors\\nof Rhetoric would be found seeking to attract pupils by\\ndeclaiming in favour of the art he taught\\nGoff^ias. What is rhetoric? said Socrates calmly to Gorgias one day.\\nA grand science, was the reply. But the science of what? *Of\\nwords. But of what words? Is it the science, for example, of such\\nwords as a physician would use to a patient No, certainly. Then\\nrhetoric is not concerned with all words? No, indeed. Yet\\nit makes men able to speak? Undoubtedly that is its purpose,\\nDoes it help them to think, too, on the subject of which they speak\\nCertainly. But, surely, the science of medicine is designed to\\nhelp a man both to think and to speak on those matters which con-\\ncern diseases. Is this science therefore rhetoric? No, indeed.\\nSo he goes on mentioning one science after another\\nin which speech and thought are alike necessary, and\\ncompelling Gorgias to admit that rhetoric is none of\\nthese. At last he takes refuge in the general statement\\nthat rhetoric is the art of persuasion, and instances the\\nfact that, in all public movements, a fluent speaker\\nexercises more influence over the multitude than any\\none else. Socrates proceeds to enquire whether, if the\\nquestion related to ship-building, a rhetorician or a ship-", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "TJic Rhetor s art 6 1\\nbuilder would be the best guide and, after a few more\\nquestions, convicts his interlocutor of professing an art\\nwhich seeks to produce persuasion without knowledge,\\nand therefore only useful for the unthinking and the\\nignorant. Gorgias afterwards shifts his ground, and says\\nthat the true province of rhetoric is that persuasion\\nwhich relates to the highest matters, that which is\\nrequired in courts of justice, and in determining ques-\\ntions of right and wrong, of virtue and its opposite. A\\nfew more questions lead up to the admission that, if this\\nbe the case, rhetoricians ought to know more than other\\npeople about these great subjects, and to be holier and\\nbetter persons than their fellow-citizens. Gorgias did\\nnot like this. He could only chafe, and fret, and be\\nirritated. He could not deny that it was precisely in\\nthis sort of word-warfare it was his profession to be\\nvictorious, and that in this case he had not been the\\nconqueror. Perhaps, if he were a vain pedant, he would\\ntake care to come no more in the way of Socrates and\\nhis pitiless dialectics but, if he were a modest and\\nsincere searcher after truth, he would be the wiser after\\nall this bewilderment, even though the conversation had\\nonly led to a negative and unsatisfactory result. Per-\\nplexity is the beginning and first product of philosophy.\\nIt is necessary that all excepted truths should be put to\\nthe question, and all suppositions given up, in order that\\nthey may hereafter be recovered and placed in their true\\nlight by means of the philosophic process. This process\\nwas in Socrates s time beginning to be applied to moral\\nproblems- chiefly, and to the recognized hypotheses about\\nethics and sociology. It was reserved for a later age\\nfor Bacon and for Descartes, and Boyle and Leibnitz,\\ntheir successors, to see the true function of the sceptical\\nspirit in the domain of physics, and of the natural world.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "62 Socrates and his method of teaching\\nRelation of The little dialogue I have just summarized illustrates\\nknowledge\\nto virtue.\\nknowledf^e feature, and that perhaps the most vulnerable feature,\\nof the teaching of Socrates. He insisted that all virtue\\nwas ultimately knowledge, and resolved all vice into\\nignorance and folly. This is a favourite doctrine of Plato,\\nand is indeed only found in the Platonic dialogues.\\nAristotle describes him as teaching that all virtues are\\nreally sciences f povi^(T\u00e2\u0082\u00acL lirL(jTrjixa i clvac Traaas ra?\\nd/oeras). Herein, no doubt, Socrates tells the truth, but\\nnot the whole truth. A certain state of the affections\\nand of the will is not less indispensable as a condition of\\nvirtue than a certain state of the intelligence. Aristotle\\nis justified in complaining that two elements seem to be\\nwanting in the teaching ascribed to Socrates the Tra^o?,\\nor feeling in favour of what was right, and the yOo^, or\\nthe habit of right doing. Still, Socrates was right in\\ninsisting that there can be no true virtue without an\\nintelhgent consciousness of what we are doing and of\\nthe reasons for doing it. Stupid, helpless acquiescence\\nin the mode of conduct prescribed for us by others, may\\nbe very convenient to rulers, to schoolmasters, and to\\nparents but it is not virtue.\\nOn this point Mr Grote has well said,^ Socrates meant\\nby knowledge something more than is directly implied in\\nthe word. He had present to his mind as the grand\\ndepravation of a human being, not so much vice as mad-\\nness that state in which a man does not know what he\\nis doing. Against the vicious man securities both public\\nand private may be taken with considerable effect\\nagainst the madman there is no security except perpetual\\nrestraint. ..Madness was ignorance at its extreme pitch.\\nThere were many varieties and gradations in the scale of\\nignorance, which if accompanied by false conceit of\\n1 History of Greece^ Vol. VII. p. 136,", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "The hal^KDv of Socrates 63\\nknowledge differs from madness only in degree. The worst\\nof all ignorance was when a man was ignorant of himself.\\nPerhaps it was in regard to his theory on this point, T/ie\\nand to his general view of ethical questions, that Socrates ^^J^^J\\nincurred most dislike on the part of the Athenian people,\\nand was most often misunderstood. He was wont to talk\\nmuch of his SatixMv or genius, as if he had within him\\na divine guide in matters of conduct, a prophetic or\\nsupernatural voice nearly always prohibiting or warning,\\nrarely stimulating or instructive a tutelary influence such\\nas was peculiar to himself, and was not always accessible\\nto others. Hegel truly interprets this, when he says that\\nby it the philosopher only meant to symbolize the peculiar\\nform in which private judgment appeared in Socrates him-\\nself. Many Greeks, however fond of merely intellectual\\nspeculation, were little used to determine their actions\\nby a process of reflection. Still less were they \\\\vont to\\nrefer to anything analogous to \\\\vhat we call conscience.\\nIts place was supplied by habitual conformity to law and\\nusage. The path of duty was so accurately marked as\\nto leave little room for hesitation. And as to cases\\nnot expressly determined by legitimate authority or\\ncustom, neither the State nor its individual members\\npresumed to decide for themselves, but they sought the\\nguidance of the gods by consulting an oracle or by\\ndivination. There have been many speculations about\\nthe meaning of the Socratic Sai/xwy, but they all resolve\\nthemselves into this, that the revolt from public opinion\\non the one hand, and from oracles on the other, took\\nthe form of insisting on individual responsibility, on the\\nneed for a clear unclouded judgment, on a belief that\\nthe voice of truth, the whisper of moral warning and\\nencouragement, might be heard by those who were\\nrightly prepared and disciplined to listen.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "64 Socrates and J lis method of teaching\\nBut while this muddy vesture of decay\\nDoth grossly close us in, we cannot hear it.\\nIt is the analogous doctrine to that which is found in\\nthe dreams and visions of the Hebrew prophets, and to\\nthe sweef and gracious legend which tells of the music\\nof the spheres. There is the confession of man in all\\nages, of his need of access to something higher, truer,\\ndiviner than himself. Grant that it means nothing but\\nthe purified conscience, the truth heard in silence and\\nmeditation, is it not, under all these forms, the Divine\\nvoice, audible, like the music of the spheres, to the\\ndevout and reverent hearer, and to him alone? And,\\nas you read the dialogues of Socrates, and find him so\\noften appealing to something in his hearer and in himself\\nnearer than a custom, a law, a teacher, or an oracle, you\\nare reminded of One of whom we spoke in the last lecture,\\nwho never paced the groves of Academus, but whose\\nsteps were in the streets of Jerusalem or over the hills\\nof Galilee, and who, when questioned about some moral\\nor casuistical question, directed His answer straight to\\nthe inner conscience of the questioner himself. We saw\\nillustrations of this in our last Lecture. Let me add\\nanother, which is curiously characteristic of the Socratic\\nmethod. A questioner asks Who is my neighbour?\\nand the answer comes, not in a categorical shape, but in\\nthe form of a story A certain man went down from\\nJerusalem to Jericho, and then, when the whole story\\nis told, comes the home thrust, W1iich now of these\\nthree thinkest thou was neighbour unto him that fell\\namong thieves We, too, may well desire, when dealing\\nwith our pupils, to abstain from telling them what, with\\na little trouble, they might find out for themselves, and to\\nappeal more often from prescription and authority to the\\ninner sense of right, which, however overlaid or silenced.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "Oracles 65\\nis to be found deep down in all their hearts. Thus we\\nmay feel that we are working in harmony with the\\ngreatest teachers in all ages of the world. But this was\\nnot the view which the contemporaries of Socrates held\\nabout him and his SuLfxaiv. To them it seemed that he\\nwas setting up a new divine being, and inviting the\\nAthenians to exchange for this object of worship their\\nold gods. And Socrates did not care to correct this\\nimpression, although the main accusation made by\\nAnytus at the trial was that he had sought to overthrow\\nthe belief in the national divinities and oracles.\\nHe did not, however, denounce oracles, although he Oracles.\\ndid not consult them for himself or recommend his\\ndisciples to appeal to them. One day, one of those\\ndisciples, named Chierephon, went to Delphi, and pro-\\nposed to the god the question whether any man was\\nwiser than Socrates. The answer was in the negative.\\nLong after, in his defence at the trial, he described the\\neffect of this news on himself. He said\\nWhy, what enigma is this? For I am not conscious to myself\\nthat I am wise, either much or little. What can the god mean by\\nraying that I am the wisest? So I went for myself to one of those\\nwho have the reputation of being wise, thinking that there, if any-\\nwhere, I should confute the oracle. But, when I came to question\\nhim, he appeared indeed to be wise in the opinion of most other\\nmen, and especially in his own, though indeed he was not so. So 1\\ntried to show him that what he took for knowledge was only opinion\\nand conjecture, and in this way 1 became odious to him and to\\nmany others present. When I left him 1 reasoned thus with myself:\\nI am wiser than this man, for neither of us appears to know any-\\nthing great or true, but he fancies he knows something, whereas I,\\nas I do n(it know anything, do not fancy that I do. In this trifling\\nparticular only do I appear to be wiser than he.\\nAfterwards I went to the poets, but a little close cross-examina-\\ntion brought me to a like conclusion respecting them. l ut when I\\nwent to the artizans, I said to myself, Here, indeed, is something\\nin which I am inferior to these men, for they possess some very\\nF", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "66 Socrates and his tnethod of teaching\\nbeautiful knowledge. And in this I was not deceived, for they\\nknew things which I did not, and, in this respect, were wiser than I.\\nBut even the best of these men, because he excelled in the practice\\nof his art, thought himself knowing in most other matters, and this\\nmistake obscured the wisdom he already possessed. So I asked\\nmyself, on behalf of the oracle, whether I should prefer to continue\\nas I am, possessing none, either of their special knowledge or of their\\nignorant estimate of themselves, or to have both as they have. And\\nit seemed to me, on the whole, that I had best continue as I am,\\nHandi- Yoli will see that, on one point much discussed\\namong the educational reformers of our time the\\neducative virtue of mere handicraft Socrates would\\nprobably not have agreed with the current opinion. He\\nwould not have regarded manual training as a good\\nsubstitute for intellectual disciphne. He had seen that\\ncertain mechanical dexterities might easily co-exist with\\ncomplete stagnation of mind, with great poverty of ideas,\\nand with a curious conceit as to the proportion and\\nrelative worth of the sort of knowledge the artizan did\\nnot happen to possess. I think, if he were to be con-\\nsulted in our day by the advocates of technical education,\\nhe would say, Train people s hands and eyes by all\\nmeans, but train the understanding at the same time.\\nLet your pupil know well the properties of the materials\\nhe is using, and the nature and limits of the forces he\\nemploys. Let your handwork be made subservient to\\ncareful measurement, to the cultivation of taste and\\nintelligence, to the perception of artistic beauty, and\\nthen it will play a real part in the development of what\\nis best in the human being but, unless you do this, you\\nwill get little or no true culture out of carpentering,\\nmodelling, or needlework.\\nPhysical Mr Grote says, Physics and Astronomy belonged in\\nthe opinion of Socrates to the divine class of phenomena,\\nin which human research was insane, fruitless and even\\nScience.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "TJie Physical Sciences 6/\\nimpious. He protested against the presumption of Anax-\\nagoras who had, he said, degraded HeHos and Selene into\\na sun and moon of calculable motions and magnitudes.^\\nNor from any of those studies which have of late\\nyears appropriated the name of Science, did Socrates\\nhope very much. He tells us, in the Fhcedo, that he had\\nin early life felt great interest in enquiries concerning\\nnatural phenomena. I was eager, he said, for the\\ninvestigation of Nature. I thought it a matter of pride\\nto know the causes of things. At length, fatigued with\\nstudying objects through the perceptions of the senses\\nonly, I looked for the ideas, or reflections of them, in\\nthe mind, and turned my attention to words and dis-\\ncourses. It must be owned that what he called the\\ninvestigation of Nature was not physical science in the\\nmodern sense of the term the discovery, recordation,\\nand systematic arrangement of facts. It was rather the\\nsearch for some primary principles by which the flicts of\\nNature might be explained. Be this as it may, he found\\nthe enquiry fruitless and unsatisfying, and he concluded,\\nthough somewhat rashly, that the mysteries of the\\nphysical world were not fitting subjects for human\\ninvestigation.\\nThe example of Socrates is specially instructive, as Converse.\\nit regards his method of inviting the co-operation of his^^^\\ndisciples in the discussion of difficulties and in the search\\nfor truth. Mr Grote has said, His object w\\\\as not to mul-\\ntiply proselytes or to procure authoritative assent, but to\\ncreate earnest seekers, analytical intellects, foreknowing\\nand consistent agents, capable of forming conclusions\\nfor themselves as well as to force them into that path\\nof inductive generalization whereby alone trustworthy\\nconclusions are to be formed. And this object he\\n1 Grote s History of Greece, Vol. vil. p. 130.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "68 Socrates and his method of teaching\\nsought to attain not by didactic lectures but by the\\nheuristic and conversational method, by making a theory\\nor a philosophical problem the subject of free talk, by\\nstarting difficulties, by citing examples and by what\\nJohnson called a brisk reciprocation of objections and\\nreplies.\\nNeed for This is not a method adapted for a teacher s use in\\nc oUoqmes dealing with young children but with elder scholars it\\nivith elde7 may often be employed with great advantage. Much\\nof the hesitation and confusion which characterize the\\naverage Englishman, in expressing his own thoughts on\\nserious subjects or in public, arises from the fact that in\\nour education there has been, on the part of his teachers,\\nabundant use of monologue, but very little of dialogue.\\nWe do not often enough challenge a scholar to tell in\\nhis own words what he thinks or what he knows. Still\\nless do we ask him to give a reason for any opinion he\\nholds. Now although much of Socrates s teaching was\\ndirected against sophistry, and false rhetoric, there runs\\nthrough it all a conviction of the importance of clear\\nstatement, and the desire to encourage accurate expres-\\nsion for whatever thoughts the learner had in his mind.\\nAnd the main instrument in achieving this end was\\nconversation. It is manifestly better suited for some\\nsubjects than for others. It would seldom be needed for\\nthe discussion of facts in physical science, for mathe-\\nmatics, or for the grammar of a language. Nor should we\\nask a learner to express an opinion on a topic on which\\nhe has had no means of forming one. But after lessons in\\nhistory, or philosophy, or any of the sciences which bear\\non morals or conduct, an informal colloquy between the\\nteachers and the members of a small upper class will be\\nfound to give an excellent stimulus not only to thinking,\\nbut also to the practice of correct and forcible expression.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "Subjects suited for colloquy 69\\nFor example, I have known a teacher who reserved Some\\nhalf-an-hour a week for a conversational lesson with the\\nstatea jor\\nhighest class on a character in history, on some book, or on such collo-\\nthe elementary truths of economic science. Such topics\\nas wages, the values of various kinds of work, division of\\nlabour, taxes, money, interest, and the conditions of\\nprofessional success, are specially interesting to elder boys\\nbeginning to think about the business of life. The role\\nof pedagogue is for the time laid aside by the teacher,\\nand he and his scholars talk round the ethical or the\\neconomic problem on equal terms. In like manner, to\\nelder girls of the upper and middle class, who look for-\\nward to a life of usefulness, and who ha\\\\e philanthropic\\ninstincts, these and the cognate questions of charity,\\nforethought, thrift, the right way of organizing relief,\\nthe best way to administer the Poor Law, and to help\\npeople to help themselves, are matters of great moment,\\nand are demanding and receiving increased attention.\\nIn all this domain of thought and of human experience,\\n.there are many current popular fallacies, which a little\\nSocratic investigation would soon detect and remove. A\\nFrench writer, Frederic Bastiat, wrote a book once called\\nCe qu on voit, et ce que non voit pas, and exposed by a\\nseries of ilkistrations the difference between what is seen\\nand what is not seen in the practical economy of life. At\\nfirst sight men conclude, e.g. that war is good for trade\\nbecause it makes the money fly that the saving and\\ncareful master of a fortune is not so good a friend to the\\ncommunity as the spendthrift that almsgiving is always\\na virtue that capital and labour have antagonist inter-\\nests that the State ought to have nothing to do with\\neducation, with art, with public recreation and that all\\nthese things should be left to private enterprise. It is\\ngood that elder scholars at least should \\\\v\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ to tliink", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "JO Socrates and Ids method of teaching\\nabout these and the hke topics, and to balance the\\nconsiderations which may be urged for and against any\\ngeneral conclusions on such subjects. They need to\\nbring examples and experience together, from different\\nsources, to examine apparent exceptions to general\\nrules, and to suspend judgment. And for all these\\npurposes, conversational lessons are the best lessons in\\nwhich the scholars are invited to suggest difficulties, to\\nstart hypotheses and to examine plausible fallacies. Here\\nis a feature of Greek education which, to say the truth,\\nis somewhat lacking in ours. One part of school train-\\ning should be directed to the art of forming conclusions\\non matters of high public interest, to the discipline which\\nhelps a man to explain, and, if needful, to maintain and\\ndefend the opinions he is supposed to hold. Here is\\na region in which one familiar with Socratic dialectics\\nwill be at a great advantage over all others, and in\\nwhich that method of intellectual enquiry will be found\\nspecially applicable. Only it deserves to be noticed that\\nto conduct such a conversation to good purpose requires\\nno little skill and alertness of mind on the part of the\\nteacher and that sympathetic insight and a sense of\\nhumour are also indispensable.\\nA dialogue The well-known story of the sophist Meno and the\\noj search, ^lave-boy illustrates one conspicuous feature in the\\nSocratic teaching as it is expounded in Plato. You will\\nremember, Meno has been complaining that Socrates s\\nconversations had the effect of preventing him from\\nfeeling any confidence in himself. You remind me,\\nSocrates, of that broad sea-fish, the torpedo, which\\nbenumbs those whom it touches. For, indeed, I am\\nbenumbed both in mind and mouth, and do not know\\nwhat or how to answer. Whereupon, Socrates calls a\\nslave-boy to him, draws on a line two feet long a square", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "A dialogue of search yi\\non the grouiul with a stick, and asks him first whether it is\\npossible to have a square double the size, and next what\\nshould be the length of the line on which such a square\\nshould be drawn. The boy answers promi)tly, that for\\nthe double square the line should be of double the\\nlength, or four feet. Socrates turns to Meno and says,\\nYou see that this boy thinks he knows, but does not\\nreally know. He then goes on to draw another square\\non the double line, and teacher and pupil observe to-\\ngether that this is not twice but four times the size. The\\nboy is puzzled and suggests a line three feet long but\\nfurther trial shows that the square thus formed contains\\nnine square feet instead of eight. Whereupon Socrates\\nenquires of the boy, since neither a line of three feet,\\nnor a line of four feet, will serve as the base of the re-\\nquired double square, What is the true length? and the\\nanswer is, By Jove, Socrates, I do not know. Here\\nthe master again turns to Meno, and says, Observe,\\nthis boy at first knew not the right length of the desired\\nline, neither does he yet know but he then fancied he\\nknew, and answered boldly, as a knowing person would.\\n]]nt he is now at a loss, and, as he knows not, does not\\neven think he knows. True, says Meno. But\\nthen, replies Socrates, is he not in a better condition\\nnow than at first, in regard to the matter of which he\\nwas and is still ignorant Certainly. So in benumb-\\ning him like the torpedo, and making him speechless for\\na time, have we done him any harm? Then by a series\\nof experimental drawings, which Socrates makes partly\\nby help of suggestions on the part of the boy, he comes\\nat last to draw the diagonal of the first square, and to\\nerect a second square on that, and so to reveal clearly\\nto the learner the true method of solving the problem\\nproposed.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "Socrates and his method of teaching\\nKftojv-\\nledge,\\nimplicit\\nas ivell as\\nexplicit.\\nThe doc-\\ntrine of\\nreminis-\\ncence.\\nYou will notice one important point in connexion\\nwith tliis dialogue with Meno. Socrates held that all\\nteaching need not come in the shape of teaching.\\nYou see, said he, that I teach this boy nothing.\\nI only help him to find and express what is already in\\nhis mind. The truth is there. It is discoverable if we\\nonly put him on the right track. It is better that he\\nshould find it for himself, or at least take a fair share\\nin the investigation, than that we should give him\\nany information about it in an explicit or didactic\\nform.\\nThis belief that a true educational discipline con-\\nsisted rather in searching and finding knowledge,\\nthan in passively receiving it, was a prominent item\\nin vSocrates s creed. He thought that a great part of\\nwhat men wanted to know they might find out by self-\\ninterrogation, by meditation, and by purely internal\\nmental processes. And if you had asked Socrates or\\nPlato how he accounted for this fact, his answer would\\nhave been a curious one. He would have said that\\nwhile it was the duty of a teacher to make our knowledge\\nexplicit, much of it was in fact implicit, a survival of\\nwhat had been known in a former state of existence. He\\nbelieved that the human soul has not only a great future,\\nbut also a great past and that many of our thoughts are,\\nin fiict, reminiscences faint echoes and memories of\\nthose which we have had in a former life. There are\\ntruths, he said, which, when we search down into the\\ninner mind, we recognize dimly as old acquamtances,\\nand yet which we have never consciously perceived since\\nwe were born. All the occupations and interests of this\\nlife, no doubt, tend to overlay these truths, to bury\\nthem out of their sight but they are there, requiring\\nonly the purified vision and the dialectical discipline to", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "TJie doctrine of rcininiscciicc 73\\nbring them into consciousness again. INIuch of what we\\ncall knowledge is, in fact, recollection. It would not be\\nright to say that Socrates formulated this notion of a pre-\\nexistent Hfe into a creed, it was not the habit of his\\nmind to dogmatize on such subjects, but it seems\\ncertain that he believed it, and that he accounted for\\nmany of the facts of our intellectual life on this hypo-\\nthesis. The whole doctrine, however, has, as I need\\nhardly tell you, no place in modern philosophy. It takes\\nno account of experience none, of associations or the\\nreflex action of sensation and thought none, of hereditary\\ntendencies none, of the daily discipline through which\\nthe least observant child is passing, even when he is not\\nconscious that he is learning anything. And, as a philo-\\nsophical theory, it has the serious defect that it offers to\\nus a fanciful and wholly unverified hypothesis to account\\nfor mental phenomena which are explicable by much\\nsimpler and more natural considerations. What the dia-\\nlogue really does is, not to unearth buried or forgotten\\nknowledge but only to formulate and bring into clearer\\nvision elementary truths hitherto seen obscurely, half\\nknown by intuition and contact with objects, but not\\nknown consciously as truths intellectually expressible.\\nBut, though the doctrine of a pre-natal existence has Pre-natal\\ndisappeared from philosophy, it lingers still where,\\nindeed, the finer aroma and essence of all speculation\\nought to linger in our poetry. Perhaps the noblest burst\\nof poetic inspiration which our century has witnessed,\\nis to be found in ordsworth s ode, Intimations of\\nImmortality from Recollections of Early Childhood.\\nAnd in that well-known poem there are some echoes of\\nthe Socratic, or rather the Platonic, theory of reminis-\\ncence, which, though faint, will yet be very audible to\\nus, as I read some of the lines", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "74 Socrates ajid his method of teaching\\nOur birth is but a sleep and a forgetting;\\nThe Soul that rises with us, our life s Star,\\nHath had elsewhere its setting,\\nAnd Cometh from afar\\nNot in entire forgetfulness\\nAnd not in utter nakedness,\\nBut trailing clouds of glory, do we come\\nFrom God who is our home.\\nHeaven lies about us in our infancy.\\nShades of the prison-house begin to close\\nUpon the growing boy;\\nBut he beholds the light and whence it flows^\\nHe sees it in his joy.\\nThe youth who daily farther from the East\\nMust travel, still is Nature s priest,\\nAnd, by the vision splendid,\\nIs on his way attended.\\nAt length the man perceives it die away\\nAnd fade into the light of common day.\\nEarth fills her lap with pleasures of her own,\\nYearnings she hath in her own natural kind,\\nAnd even with something of a mother s mind,\\nAnd no unworthy aim,\\nThe homely nurse doth all she can\\nTo make her foster-child, her inmate man.\\nForget the glories he hath known,\\nAnd that imperial palace whence he came.\\nHence, in a season of calm weather.\\nThough inland far we be.\\nOur souls have sight of that immortal sea\\nWhich brought us hither,\\nCan in a moment travel thither\\nAnd see the children sport upon the shore.\\nAnd hear the mighty waters rolling evermore.\\nSocrates a But it is not alone as a dialectician, but as a preacher\\npreai leroj righteousiiess that Socrates best deserves to be re-\\nrtgkteous-\\njiess. membered. His high ideals, his scorn of unreality and\\npretence, the constant strain in;,^ of his eyes after the", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "Socnifcs a preacher of rigJiteousjicss 75\\ndiscovery of truth, and his efforts to remove all hindrances\\nwhich conventionahties and prejudices placed in the way\\nof such discovery, are after all the qualities which entitle\\nhim to rank among the world s noblest teachers. That\\nis a touching and characteristic picture which Plato\\ngives of the conversation of the old philosopher with\\nPhaedrus, as they walked by the Ilissus, and after cooling\\ntheir feet in the stream and finding a seat under a tower-\\ning plane tree, occupied themselves during the long hours\\nof a summer s day discoursing of duty, and immortahty,\\nof knowledge and ignorance, of truth and falsehood, of\\nholiness and virtue. And at the end of their talk on\\nthese high matters they rise to depart homewards and\\nSocrates says, My dear Phaedrus, would it not be well to\\noffer up a prayer to the gods before we go? And when\\nPhaedrus assents, the old sage lifts up his voice and says\\nBeloved Pan and all ye other gods who here abide,\\ngrant me to be beautiful in the inner soul, and all I have\\nof outward things to be in harmony with those within.\\nMay I count the wise man alone rich. And may my own\\nstore of gold be only such as none but the good can bear.\\nAs I read these words you are reminded of another\\nteacher who prayed for those whom he taught and\\nloved that they might be strengthened with might\\nin the inner man. Paul it is true did not regard Pan\\nand the Sylvan deities as the sources of the help he\\nneeded, but he and Socrates were alike in looking for\\nstrength and inspiration to the highest source they knew,\\nand opening their hearts to the best and noblest influ-\\nences which they believed to be accessible to them.\\nWhat more can any of us hope to do?\\nWe all know that Socrates became an object of The accu-\\npopular hatred. Men like to see their disbeliefs as welH\\nas their beliefs incarnate. Abstract principles excite in Socrates.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "^jd Socrates and his method of teaching\\nthem a comparatively languid interest and but little\\nenthusiasm. But, let principles be represented in the\\nperson of a man, and there is at once something to love\\nor to hate, something to adore or to denounce. Now,\\nSocrates stood to the Athenian people as the living\\nsymbol of the principle of nonconformity, of intellectual\\nunrest, of the spirit which doubts and questions the\\nperfection of established institutions and the truth of\\nestablished beliefs. In all ages of the world, such\\npersons are unpopular, because their presence is incon-\\nvenient. I suppose in no other, city than Athens would\\nthe community so long have tolerated a man who be-\\nlonged to no party, but who regarded some of the pet\\nbeliefs of all parties to be equally untenable. Accord-\\ningly, you are not surprised that Anytus, Melitus, and\\nLykon, presented to the Dikastery, and hung up in the\\nappointed place in the portico of the Archon, a formal\\naccusation charging him with the twofold crime of not\\nbelieving the popular faith, and of corrupting the youth\\nby leading them also to be sceptical. The accusation\\nwas made in open court the case was tried by one of\\nthose enormous Athenian juries, which consisted of 550\\nmembers, who, by a majority of five, condemned him\\nand sentenced him to death.\\nHis trial. On the circumstances of the trial, on the terms of\\nhis defence or Apologia, which are to be found, though\\ndifferently told, in Plato and in Xenophon, I have no\\ntime now to dwell. The philosopher disdained to employ\\nany of the usual artifices of rhetoric in his defence, made\\nno appeal to the compassion of his judges, and calmly\\nsaid that he believed he had a divine calling to the work\\nwhich he had done, and that even if they would acquit him\\non condition of his ceasing to interrogate them, he could\\nnot accept his liberty on such terms. If, he said, they", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "Trial of Socrates yy\\nreally desired to know what was the recompense to which\\nhe was entitled, it would be a home in the Prytanaeum\\na dignified almshouse in which those Athenian citizens\\nwho had done the State eminent service, were honourably\\nlodged at the public expense.\\nDuring the interval between his conviction and death,\\nsome of his friends devised a plan for his escape, and\\nCrito, one of the warmest of them, is deputed to go to\\nhim and ask his consent to the scheme. So the master\\nbegins calmly to question him in the old way as to the\\nduty of a good citizen in regard to obedience to the laws.\\nHe brings Crito to admit that to defy the tribunal which\\nhe had always taught men to hold sacred, would be to\\nneutralize all his former teaching\\nWithin my own mind, Crito, he said, the accustomed voice\\nof my guardian deity, which has led me for nearly eighty years,\\nhas been very audible of late. Do you think, Socrates, it said, to\\nlive for the sake of your children, that you may rear and educate\\nthem? What sort of education can you give them in another\\ncountry, where they will be aliens, and yourself a dishonoured\\nexile? Will they not be better educated by the memory of their\\nfather s rectitude, and by the loving care of his disciples and\\nfriends? Do not, therefore, be persuaded to set a higher value on\\nyour children or your life than on that justice you have so long\\ntaught men to respect. For, be assured, that the heroes and sages\\nof our land, who are now in Hades, will receive you favourably if\\nyou depart out of this life with honour; and the gods, who gave\\nyou your commission, are looking lovingly upon you to see how\\nfaithfully you discharge it. These words, my dear Crito, I have\\nseemed to hear in my solitude, just as the votaries of Apollo seem to\\nhear the music of his divine choir. And the sound of them comes\\nringing in my ears, and makes me almost incapal)le of listening to\\nanything else. W^hat say you, my Crito, shall we discuss your\\nplans of escape now? Indeed, said the sorrowful disciple, 1\\nhave no more to say.\\nIt was on the last day of his imprisonment that", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "yS Socrates and Jiis method of teacJiing\\nthe most memorable of his recorded conversations the\\nPhcBdo took place. It related to the immortaUty of the\\nsoul and in it are to be found, logically drawn out, yet\\nnot without an overhanging sense of pathos and sadness,\\nmany of the merely natural arguments, on which in later\\ndays Christian writers, from St Augustine to Bishop\\nButler, have relied by way of antecedent proof of the\\nsoul s immortality and of the existence of a future state.\\nHis death. The sentence was that the philosopher should die by\\npoison, and that it should be administered at sunset.\\nWe may picture to ourselves the scene in the little cell\\non the afternoon of the final day. Socrates sat upon the\\nside of his bed talking as in old days, and round him\\nwere grouped some six or seven of his most affectionate\\ndisciples. As the shadows grew longer, and ray by ray\\nthe sun descended to the west, the conversation became\\nmore earnest, and the voices of the friends became more\\ntremulous. Each looked into himself in search of the\\nparting thought which he could not find each strove\\nto fashion the farewell words he could not utter. The\\nmaster alone seemed unmoved. Perhaps a little more\\neagerness than usual to bring the argument to a point\\nmight be observed but otherwise, he was as of old,\\ndisentangling subtleties and fallacies with the accustomed\\npertinacity, and striving rather to put his hearers in the\\nright way to arrive at truth, than to give them a creed of\\nhis own.\\nWhen near sunset, the gaoler entered and said, I\\nam come by order of the archons to bid you drink the\\nhemlock. I have always found you to be the meekest,\\nthe most noble man that ever came into this place. Do\\nnot upbraid me, therefore, for you know it is not I that\\nam to blame. And, bursting into tears, he withdrew.\\nTurning to his friends, Socrates said, How courteous", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "His death 79\\nthis man is He has visited me, and proved the\\nworthiest and kindest of men, and now you see how\\ngenerously he weeps for me. Is the hemlock ready\\nOne of his friends remarks, I think, Socrates, that the\\nsun is still upon the mountains and has not yet set, and\\nI have known some men even who have drunk the potion\\nvery late, and have had time to sup and drink freely\\nfirst.\\nThose men whom you mention, said Socrates, do\\nthese things with good reason, and I, with good reason,\\nwill not do so for I think I shall gain nothing by\\ndrinking a little later, except to become ridiculous to\\nmyself in being so fond of life, and so sparing of it,\\nwhen none remains. And now farewell. We part our\\nseveral ways, you to live and I to die, but whether the\\none or the other is the better way none of us yet can\\nknow.\\nThis is an ancient and a familiar story so ancient\\nand so familiar, that I felt a little diffidence in bringing it\\nunder the notice of this audience, among whom are some\\nwho know it much better than I do. Yet it has not\\nwholly lost its moral significance. Much of the teaching\\nof Socrates is now obsolete. Some of the objects he\\nsought to attain, we have long learned to regard as unat-\\ntainable. But the difficulties with which he was con-\\nfronted exist more or less in all ages of the world. He\\nsaw around him men who had never harboured doubts\\nsimply because they had never examined, who held con-\\nvictions all the more angrily simply because those con-\\nvictions had never been verified. The mere associations\\naccidentally connected with the truths men loved, he\\nsaw were constantly mistaken for the real living truths\\nthemselves. He chose for the objects of his attack\\nopinions without knowledge, acrjuicscence without insight.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "8o Socrates and J lis method of teacJiiiig\\nwords without meaning, and dogmas without proof.\\nAnd, until these phenomena shall have become wholly\\nextinct in the world, there will always be use in phi-\\nlosophy for the Socratic dialectics, and an honoured\\nplace in our educational history for the life of the phi-\\nlosopher himself.", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "LECTURE III\\nTHE EVOLUTION OF CHARACTERS\\nCharles Darwin. The main doctrines of Evolution. Their appli-\\ncation to social life. Limits to the use of analogy. Character\\na growth, not a manufacture. Intellectual food and digestion.\\nPunishments. Moral precejits. When general rules are ojiera-\\ntive. Didactic teaching. Exjjeriences of childhood. The law\\nof environment. The conditions of our life as determinants of\\ncharacter. How far these conditions are alterable at will. The\\nmoral atmosphere of a school. Influence of the teacher s personal\\ncharacter. Natural selection. Conscious selection of the fittest\\nconditions. Degeneration. Unused faculties. Progression or\\nretrogression. The law of divergence in plants and animals,\\nand in social institutions, and in intellectual character. Special\\naptitudes and tastes. How far they should be encouraged.\\nEccentricity. Evolution a hopeful creed. The promise of the\\nfuture.\\nIn the great Natural History Museum in London Charles\\nthere are illustrations, collected from all lands, of the I)^^ -i^ tn.\\ndifferent forms of animal life, from the tiniest insect\\nto the ichthyosaurus and in all the halls of that vast\\nand varied collection there is but one representation\\nof man himself. It is a sitting figure in marble of\\nCharles Darwin. Many naturalists before him had\\ninvestigated the phenomena of the animal kingdom,\\nand sought to classify and describe its denizens but\\n1 An Address to the American Institute of Instruction, Newport,\\nRhode Island, July, i88S.\\nG 8l", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "82 The Evolution of Character\\nto him it was given in a supreme degree to perceive\\nthe nature of animal and vegetable existence and to\\ntrace some of the laws of its development. Other writers\\nmay have dealt skilfully with problems of more or less\\nephemeral or local interest, with this or that particular\\ncountry, literature, or religion but it was Darwin s\\nvocation to search out the nature of Ufe itself to in-\\nquire into the laws of being, of growth, and of develop-\\nment in the animal and vegetable world. And these are\\nsubjects of profound and universal interest. They appeal\\nto the living sympathies, the imagination, of all mankind,\\nand to that concern about the past and future of his race\\nwhich characterizes, in various degrees, every intelligent\\nhuman being.\\nThe main You are all probably familiar with the main items\\n^of Evohi- modern creed of evolution. Varieties and different\\nHon. species of animals and plants are not accounted for by\\nthe hypothesis of separate acts of creation, but are the\\nproduct partly of the conditions of environment, and\\npartly of natural selection. Certain organs and qualities\\nbecome strengthened by exercise and more and more\\nfully developed in successive generations certain others\\nbecome weakened by disuse, and gradually disappear or\\nsurvive only in a rudimentary form. Lamarck had pointed\\nout before Darwin that new wants in animals gave rise to\\nnew movements which in time produce organs, and that\\nthe development of these organs was in proportion to\\ntheir employment. In the struggle for existence the\\nweaker organisms are conquered, the stronger and the\\nfitter prevail, and transmit their special qualities to\\nposterity. Favourable variations in certain circumstances\\ntend to be preserved and unfavourable to be destroyed,\\nand the result is the formation from time to time of what\\nare called new species and varieties.", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "Social Evolution S\\nSuch are in briefest outline some of the generalizations\\nto which the researches of biologists have at present led\\nus. They may possibly be absorbed and superseded\\nhereafter by some larger and more comprehensive in-\\nductions but at present they are accepted by men of\\nscience as at least the best provisional hypotheses we\\npossess for explaining the genesis of the various forms of\\norganic hfe on the earth. And when once the student\\nof Darwin s writings grasps the meaning of these simple\\nstatements, he begins to perceive that they are far-reaching,\\nand applicable to other departments of enquiry besides\\nthat which concerns the lives of animals and plants.\\nIn Herbert Spencer s writings on Sociology you will Their ap-\\nfind analogous methods of enquiry and of reasoning-J*\\napphed to the growth of laws and customs, to the history /z/^.\\nof institutions, to the development of our social and\\npolitical life. These things have not been shaped by\\naccident they have not, so far as we can ascertain, had\\ntheir forms consciously predetermined by any authority\\nhuman or divine. They have become what they are by\\nprocesses not unlike those which operate in the region\\nof animated nature, by the conditions of existence, by\\nclimate, soil, circumstance by the motives which have\\ndetermined the putting forth of energy and by the\\ndirection in which that energy has exerted itself. Into\\nthis wide and fruitful region of speculation we will not\\nnow attempt to travel. I am speaking to a body of\\nteachers to whom the one subject of primary interest\\nis the nature of the material on which they have to\\nwork the mind, the character, the conduct of those\\nwhom they try to teach. And the question the very\\nlimited and definite question we have to ask is, What\\ndo the latest doctrines of scientific biology teach or\\nsuggest to us? What analogies are there between the", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "\u00c2\u00a74 The Evolution of Character\\nworld of the naturalist and the world of the teacher?\\nCan we get from the experience of the deep-sea explorer,\\nof the physicist in his laboratory, or of the observer with\\nhis microscope, any practical counsels which will be of\\nservice to us in the manipulation of the finest piece of\\norganism in the world, the character of a human being?\\nLimits to Before answering these questions we are confronted\\nthe use of consideration which may well make us pause.\\nanalogy.\\nAnalogy is very interesting, but it may prove very mis-\\nleading. We are not to mistake resemblances for iden-\\ntity. There is at least one remarkable difference in the\\nconditions under which the observant teacher and the\\nobservant naturalist must work. In the animal and\\nvegetable worlds the separate organs and functions are\\nall susceptible more or less of separate observation and\\nof separate treatment. True, even here, there is what\\nDarwin calls the law of concomitant variations, in\\nvirtue of which change in one part of a complex structure\\nis accompanied by certain marked and often unexpected\\nchanges in other parts. And this law actually holds\\ngood in a far higher degree in the region of mind than in\\nthat of organic matter. We frequently talk of attention,\\nof memory, and of imagination, as if they were separate\\nfaculties, and when we are discussing the nature of the\\nhuman mind we may easily make each faculty the subject\\nof a separate effort of thought. But we cannot experi-\\nment upon them separately, or see them at work inde-\\npendently, as a surgeon can treat the eye or the ear, or\\nas a biologist can deal with a seedling or a nerve. The\\nbrain is not a congeries of cells with different names and\\nuses each demanding separate treatment. The powers\\nand functions of the human mind are so interwoven, that\\nyou cannot in practice treat them apart, or strongly\\ninfluence any one of them without exerting an important", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "Characfer a GroivtJi 85\\nreflex influence upon others. And hence the need of\\nsome caution when we are tempted to push too far the\\nanalogy between what goes on in the hot-house, the\\nzoological gardens or the biological laboratory, and\\nwhat goes on in the nursery or the school-room.\\nNevertheless when we have taken this precaution, Characfer\\nthere is one cardinal i)oint of resemblance between the\\nnot a\\nworld of the naturalist and the world of the schoolmaster, mannfac-\\nWe are safe in taking for certain this one truth, that^\\nhuman character, whether we look at it from its ethical\\nor from its intellectual side, is the result of growth and\\nnot of manufacture. It is a living organism, and not a\\nhighly delicate and curious machine. And if we can\\nfirmly grasp this truth, we shall find it full of useful\\nsuggestion. Nothing that you can do to your pupil is\\nof any use unless it touches the springs of his life. You\\nare concerned with what he knows, because every fact\\nor truth which is actually received and assimHated is\\ncapable of developing, becoming the germ of other\\nknowledge, and so of forming and strengthening his in-\\ntellectual character. You are concerned with what he\\ndocs, because every act is an exercise of power, and every\\nsuch exercise of power helps to form a habit, and to\\nmake all future efforts of a similar kind easier and more\\nprobable. And you are concerned with what he/^vA,\\nbecause it is on his tastes and preferences, on what he\\nlikes and cares about, that his power of moral movement\\ndepends. Which of the influences which surround liim\\nshall ultimately prove most attractive and which of them\\nhe will resist what in fact will be in his case the kind of\\nnatural selection which will control his future destiny\\nmust be determined in tlie long run by his likes and dis-\\nlikes, by the strength and direction of sucli will-])ower\\nas he possesses. In all these three ways the life of the", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "86 TJie Ezwhitioji of Character\\nhuman organism may be affected, and its future develop-\\nment may be aided. But observe, it is necessary, if this\\nis to be done, that your treatment shall go down deep\\nenough to touch the inner life. A gardener cannot rear\\na variety of red flowers by painting the petals red, or by\\nputting them under a strong red light. He must adopt\\nquite other methods. So if what your scholar knows is\\nonly impressed on him by authority, learned without\\ninterest, received without sympathy, and accepted with\\nthe intention of remembering it only till the next exami-\\nnation and forgetting it directly afterwards, it is not for\\nany true purpose of development known at all. And if\\nwhat your scholar does at your bidding is done reluctantly,\\ndone because you are looking, and not intended to be\\ndone again when the pressure of authority has been\\nremoved, the act has not helped to form a habit and\\nhas been of no service whatever in the development of\\ncharacter. So too a feeling or emotion in favour of what\\nis right is of httle or no formative value if it be merely\\ntransient. Unless it affects the permanent character of\\nyour scholar s tastes and moral preferences it does\\nnothing, and your labour, in so far as you are seeking\\nto form in him a strong and manly character, is abso-\\nlutely thrown away.\\nIntel- That which is digested wholly, says Coleridge, and\\nfj^^f P which is assimilated and part rejected, is food,\\ndigestion. That which is digested wholly and the whole of which is\\npartly assimilated and partly not is medicine. That which\\nis digested but not assimilated vs, poison. That which is\\nneither digested nor assimilated is mere obstruction.\\nThis is as true in the spiritual and intellectual as in\\nthe physical organism. What is learned in such a way\\nthat is neither digested nor assimilated is not food at\\nall, it is mere obstruction, there is no nourishment in it", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "PunisJinicnts ^y\\nits presence disturbs or deranges other healthy functions\\nit does nothing to affect character or to sustain life.\\nNow in the light of these general reflections, wh^tPuHish-\\nhave we to say of punishments They affect conduct\\ncertainly. But conduct does not make character unless\\nour acts are habitual, unless it comes to pass that certain\\nforms of action become by degrees more natural to\\nus, so to speak, than others. Single isolated acts have\\nlittle or no influence on the character. It is the repeated\\nact the often repeated act, the act so often repeated\\nthat it becomes almost automatic and spontaneous,\\nwhich alone can be said to shape the future life of the\\nman, and possibly to be reproduced in his posterity. We\\nmay well think of this if we try to inflict punishment.\\nIt may deter, it undoubtedly does deter from certain\\nspecific acts, so long as the fear of the punishment or\\nthe watchfulness of the person who inflicts it lasts. But\\nthe moment these are withdrawn, the motive for doing or\\nrefraining from doing a given act disappears; and it is\\nfound that the punishment has never touched the inner\\nlife of the pupil at all it has done nothing to affect\\nthe character which will be assumed and perpetuated in\\nfuture. Nay, perhaps it has done something. It may\\nhave roused a spirit of rebellion and reaction, in conse-\\nquence of which the kind of act which you have checked\\nand punished will become more habitual than before.\\nAnd what are we to say of the moral precepts, those Moral\\nbroad general aphorisms about moral conduct, which fill\\nso large a space in all good books, especially those good\\nbooks that are written for children? To us who are\\ngrown people, who have had some experience of life,\\nmuch of the experience thus gathered up by careful\\ninduction assumes the form of general propositions,\\nmaxims, rules of conduct. But of what avail are these", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "88 The Evolution of Character\\nto a little child? He has had none of this experience.\\nHe is concerned at present with specific acts, hut large\\ngeneralizations about principles of conduct do not affect\\nhim. Did you ever hear of a boy who was deterred\\nfrom (juarrelling because he had written Cancel ani-\\nmosities twenty times in his copy-book? Do you\\nthink Laertes, in his green youth, was much impressed\\nwith the aphorisms of his pedantic old father,\\nGive thy thoughts no tongue,\\nNor any unprojiortiuncd thought, his act?\\nDo you think that any child in a vSunday School\\nbecomes reverent and obedient because he learns by\\nheart a formula enjoining him to order himself lowly\\nand reverently before his betters The truth is that\\nthese universal maxims presuppose a riper age, and a\\nlarger experience, before they can be felt to have any\\nvalidity, nay, before they have any meaning. I o a few\\nprematurely thoughtful children such maxims may be\\nintelligible and useful. Of an average child it may be\\naffirmed that he knows something of individuals, and\\ncan understand something of his relations to them; but\\nabout humanity, about mankind as a whole, about the\\nclaims of society, he neither knows nor cares. Nor can\\nhe, as a rule, appreciate large universal rules of conduct or\\nof human duty in any sense. I can think of only three\\nconditions under which such general rules can influence\\nWhen his character at all. Those who enjoin them may folKnv\\nrules are P ^^Y w^atchhil supervision of specific acts,\\noperative, and l)y such guarded arrangements for preventing wrong-\\ndoing, that in time it may become easier for the scholar\\nto obey than to disobey, and the general law of conduct\\nmay fix itself on your pupil, not because he has learned\\nit by heart, but because he has practised it by heart.\\nThere is a second condition on which it is possible that", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "General Maxims often inoperative 89\\na universal rule or precept may become operative. It is\\nthat in expressing it you have so appealed to the intel-\\nligence and the conscience of the child, so enabled him\\nto see its meaning or its direct application, that he\\nrecognizes its force, admires it, sympathizes with your\\nmotive in inculcating it, and makes up his mind that\\nit will be well with him if through life he obeys it.\\nThe third possible condition under which a general\\nmaxim can be of use is that he who enforces it inspires\\nso much affection and reverence, that without under-\\nstanding it fully or seeing its bearing on conduct, the\\npupil accepts it as a matter of course. This is the sort\\nof influence which leads a man to say in after life, Ah,\\nI remember my dear old master used to tell us, If you\\ndo not want to be known to do a thing, don t do it.\\nSo a general maxim of conduct may become impressed\\non a child by challenging his intelligence, his affection,\\nor his experience. But if it comes to him in none of\\nthese three ways, if it is only urged on him by authority,\\ncommitted to memory, and enforced as an abstract ethical\\ntruth, it simply comes to nothing. It may be very satis-\\nfactory to you to hear it accurately recited or to see it\\nwritten down in a copy-book. But it has no vital force,\\nno value, and for the child at the beginning of life,\\nscarcely any interest or meaning.\\nThe bright, audacious Shelley astonished his father\\nat nineteen by some startling expressions of heterodox\\nopinion and by shewing himself in flat rebellion against\\nall the conventional beliefs and usages in which he had\\nbeen brought up. His father insisted on making Percy\\nread Paley s Evidences. When young Coleridge, in the\\nfervour of his young republicanism, had just read Voltaire s\\nPhilosophical Dietionary, and declared himself converted,\\nhis schoolmaster, old Bowyer of Christ s Hospital, called", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "90\\nTJie Evohition of Character\\nhim into his private room and gave him a thrashing.^\\nCan anyone suppose for a moment that in either case\\nthe boy was tamed or convinced? The remedy was\\nutterly unadapted to the disorder. It was neither\\nnourishing nor medicinal. It was rejected. It left the\\npatient heated, irritated, and rebellious, farther from\\northodoxy than ever.\\nDidactic Didactic and formal moral teaching is often strangely\\nteaching, overvalued. To those who are unskilled in the art of\\ncommunicating truth to young children, it appears the\\nmost obvious and easy form of instruction. Nothing\\nseems simpler than to set a lesson containing precepts or\\nreligious truths to be learned by heart. Yet it is often\\nthe least effective of expedients. For after all, acqui-\\nescence is not knowledge. It is not even opinion, still\\nless does it deserve to be called faith. We may assent\\nto any number of propositions, without being in the least\\ndegree the wiser or better for such assent, if they have\\nnot secured the adhesion of the intellect or of the moral\\nsympathies. And such adhesion can only be secured\\nwhen the proposition is brought into consciousness by\\nclear statement, and by an effort to understand it.\\nTruths, says Coleridge, of all others the most awful\\nand interesting are too often considered as so true that\\nthey lose all the power of truth, and lie bedridden in the\\ndormitory of the soul, side by side with the most despised\\nand exploded errors.\\nExperi- In seeking to ascertain for ourselves what forms\\netices of f.\\nchildhood. mstruction and disciphne are really operative upon\\nthe life of a pupil and carry in them the germs of\\nfuture growth and on the other hand what teaching\\nit is that touches only the shell and husk of his being.\\nBiographia Litei aria.\\n2 Aids to Kcjlectioii, Aphorism I.", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "Experiences of Childhood 91\\nand never penetrates to the sources of life at all, we\\ndo well to recur more often than we do to our own\\nexperience as learners. Those of you who are young\\nteachers are not so far removed from childhood as to\\nhave lost the power to do this. Older teachers must\\nsupply the lapse of memory by imagination and experi-\\nence. But in one way or another we should seek to\\nput ourselves in the attitude of mind which is occupied\\nby our pupils, to hear lessons with their ears and to see\\nillustrations with their eyes. The elementary teacher is\\ngoing, let us say, to give a lesson on some new fact\\nin Natural History. He gets together his whole for-\\nmidable apparatus of black-board, pictures, diagrams,\\nand specimens. But the testing question for him is not\\nHow does the sketch of this lesson look in my notes\\nor on the board? How will the lesson display my\\npowers to the best advantage? In what light will it\\nappear in the eyes of the head master, the inspector, or\\nthe adult critic? but What should I have thought of\\nthis lesson when I was a child sitting on that bench?\\nHow would it have impressed me How should I have\\nliked it? How much of it should I have remembered\\nor cared to remember? In like manner, it may be,\\nhe is about to select a piece of poetry for recitation. He\\nis tempted to think first of its length, the appropriateness\\nof its moral, the ease with which it may be explained,\\nthe sort of exercise it will give in elocution and in taste.\\nBut it will be well also to put the question, How far\\nshould I have been stimulated and enriched if, at that\\nage, I had learned the same verses? Would they have\\nremained in my memory now? Should I, at any time\\nin the interval, have found my leisure brightened or my\\nthoughts raised by remembering them? That is a very\\nvaluable test. Understand as well as you can contrive to", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "92 TJie Evolution of Character\\ndo, the learner s point of view, and criticise yourself from\\nthat stand-point. Ah if preacher and congregation, if\\nteacher and class could change places now and then, and\\nif those who sit before us could only frankly tell us what\\nthey are thinking of us and our teaching, what interesting\\nrevelations we should obtain Perchance that look of\\ndumb bewilderment and vacuity with which we sometimes\\nfind ourselves confronted, would, were it to shape itself\\ninto articulate utterance, be fain to find expression in\\nsome such words, as those once used with a very diff erent\\nmeaning Sir, thou hast nothing to draw with, and the\\nwell is deep.\\n7 he laiv Qne of the most important of the laws revealed\\n,-J,!l^! Z^ in recent biological researches is that of environment.\\noii/Hl III. o\\nNew variations and new species of plants and animals\\nare evolved, and the nature of their development is largely\\nthough not wholly determined by the conditions in\\nwhich they live. Soil, light, climate, the nearness or\\ndistance from other bodies, affect the growth of plants.^\\nThe same conditions and many others affect that of\\nanimals, whether there is an abundance or a scarcity\\nof food within reach, whether the animal is in a wild or\\n1 The process of modification has effected and is effecting decided\\nchanges in all organisms subject to modifying influences. In succes-\\nsive generations these changes continue until ultimately the new\\nconditions become the natural ones. In cultivated plants, domes-\\nticated animals, and in the several races of men such alterations have\\ntaken place. The degrees of difference so produced are often, as in\\ndogs, greater than those on which distinctions of species are in other\\ncases founded. The changes daily taking place in ourselves, the\\nfacility that attends long practice, and the loss of aptitude that\\nbegins when practice ceases, the strengthening of passions habitually\\ngratified, and the weakening of those habitually curbed, the develop-\\nment of every faculty bodily, moral, or inttllectual according to\\nthe use made of it, are all explicable on this same principle.\\nEdward Clodd, Pioneers of Evolution, p. 1 1 2.", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "TJic Law of environment 93\\ndomesticated state, whether its habits are soHtary or\\ngregarious, all these are circumstances which have to\\nbe regarded in explaining the evolution of new character-\\nistics or of new species. And it is manifest that similar\\nconsiderations cannot be absent wl ken we are trying to\\ntrace the development of human institutions or of human\\ncharacter. In past ages, one of the problems of pro-\\nfoundest interest has always been, How far are man s\\ncharacter and destiny controlled by circumstances, and\\nhow far is it in his power to control them? The Greek\\ntragedians were continually trying to present this problem\\nin new lights, and to invite their countrymen to reflect\\non it. You have an Orestes or an GLdipus impelled by\\na pitiless Fate to the commission of crimes which they\\nabhorred, or a Prometheus enduring unmerited sufferings\\nwith heroic dignity, even though he knows that the man\\nwho is to deliver him is not yet born; and all the while\\nthe gods looking down with sublime impassiveness, or\\nwith a pity near akin to contempt. The Greek hero has\\nno alternative. He must either contend vainly against a\\nremorseless fate, or must submit and shew the world\\nHow sublime a thing it is\\nTo suffer and be strong.\\nModern science and experience are presenting to us T/ie con-\\nthe same problem in a different form. Mr Buckle has\\nour ijjcas\\ntaken pains to demonstrate the uniformity of human detcrmi-\\naction under L(iven conditions. He shews you that tlie\\nnumber of murders, of suicides, even the proportion of\\naccidents and follies, is curiously unvarying from year to\\nyear. He leaves on you the impression that, granted a\\ncertain set of conditions, man s action can pretty well\\nbe predicted, in flict that he cannot do otherwise than\\nhe does. Another philosopher expounds the doctrine\\nof heredity, and shews how some people come into the", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "94 TJie Evolution of Character\\nworld weighted with the effect of the folUes and vices of\\ntheir ancestors, and practically unable to fight the battle\\nof life on fair terms with their competitors. Thus the\\nconditions of man and of his environment come to be\\nthe substitute for the cruel Fate or Nemesis of Greek\\ntragedy and even as the Athenian was brought to the\\nconviction that it was vain to war against the decrees of\\nthe high gods, so the man of the nineteenth century is\\nhalf persuaded by the sociologists to believe that his life\\nand character are moulded by conditions which he did\\nnot make, that he, too, is the sport of Fate and of\\ncircumstance, and has no responsibility for either. At\\nfirst sight this is the most disheartening of all conclusions.\\nOne is fain to rebel against it and to say, I came into the\\nworld without my own consent. I did not choose my\\nparents. I find myself encompassed by influences which\\nare very unfavourable to the development of what is best\\nin me, which are shaping me into something I do not\\napprove and have not desired. I cannot fight against\\nthese conditions. I succumb to them, and must leave\\nthe responsibiHty to be borne elsewhere.\\nHow far Second thoughts, however, will go far to modify these\\nthese con- ^\\\\^v^\\\\Y\\\\\\\\.mQ, conclusions. Grant that we and our children\\nditions are r o\\nalterable are the products to a large extent of the conditions under\\nat ivill. ^vhich we live. It is at least in our power to alter those\\nconditions. Say that the amount of theft and of drunken-\\nness is uniform under the existing social arrangements.\\nEverything you do to make those arrangements better,\\nby diminishing temptation, by increased vigilance in de-\\ntecting crime, every hbrary you open, every good book\\nyou cheapen, every new form of innocent outlet you can\\nfind for the natural activity and restlessness which, in the\\nabsence of innocent exercise, takes the form of turbulence\\nor vice, is a new factor in the problem, and makes the", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "The Moral AtviospJicre of a School 95\\nconditions of the life of the next generation more favour-\\nable tlian those of the present. Herein He the solace and\\nthe inspiration of all true philanthropists. The character\\nof our successors will be, let us admit, determined not so\\nmuch by our wishes, nor by our exhortations. It will be\\nlargely the resultant of all the powers and tendencies which\\nwill make up the conditions of their environment. Then\\nlet us improve those conditions. That at least is in our\\npower to do to some extent, for society and for ourselves.\\nWho can tell what effect the multiplication of good schools\\nwill have on the next generation? A young man finds\\nhimself placed by the accident of his birth in the midst\\nof uncongenial surroundings. He cannot wholly escape\\nfrom them but he can do something to alter them for\\nthe better. He attaches himself to a society in which\\nthere is a higher tone of thinking and of acting than his\\nown. He joins a library, a reading party, or a field\\nnaturalist s club. By any one of these acts he does in\\nfact place himself in a new environment, and gives some\\nof his better faculties a new chance for development.\\nAnd what is true of a teacher s own life is true in The moral\\nregar/i to the life of a school. Given a place of instruc- ^^P f\\n_ i of a sc/iool.\\ntion in which there is an unskilled and unobservant\\ndiscipline, and you may safely predict that there will be\\na curious uniformity in the percentage of rebellious and\\neven of vicious acts. But alter the conditions. Let the\\nnew teacher be wary and watchful, let him be in sympathy\\nwith every effort to do right let him make carefully\\nconsidered plans and resolutely adhere to them, and the\\nphenomena will be altered and the proportion of wrong\\nacts will steadily diminish. The character of pui)ils is\\nunconsciously moulded by the sort of moral atmosphere\\nwhich is breathed in a school. We inspectors and\\neducational critics are sometimes laughed at for talking", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "96 TJie Evolution of Character\\nof the tone of a school. This is, we are told, an in-\\ntangible entity, incapable of measurement, not to be set\\ndown in schedules or reports. That is very true. But\\nthe tone of a school is something very real nevertheless.\\nIt means, as I understand it, the prevaiHng spirit of the\\nplace, its cheerfulness, the mutual helpfulness of its\\nmembers, its love of work, its orderly freedom, its well-\\ndirected ambition, its scorn of meanness or subterfuge\\nthe public opinion of an organized body of fellow-\\nworkers, all in their several degrees helping one another\\nto fulfil the highest purposes of a school. The scholar\\nwho enters a community favourably conditioned in these\\nrespects, and who inhales its atmosphere, is in a training\\nschool of virtue and of self-knowledge, whatever may\\nhappen to be the subjects taught or professed in it.\\nYears hence the man may indeed look back and say,\\nI could not recall any lesson I learned in that school\\nin the form in which I learned it; but I shall all my\\nlife feel grateful for the bright and encouraging example\\nof the master, for the strenuous and honest spirit in\\nwhich work was done, for the intellectual stimulus which\\nthe place afforded, for the high ideal of duty and of\\nhonour which dominated all its work. Let those of us\\nwho are teachers, now and then criticise ourselves and\\nour schools from this point of view. Let us ask our-\\nselves not only. What do these pupils learn, how do they\\nsucceed in examinations, what triumphs do they win?\\nbut also. What sort of influences are those which, though\\nthey work unconsciously, make the moral environment of\\nthe learner, and will determine his future growth\\nInjiiicnce Nor will a true teacher ever lose sight of the fact\\n/^^f that the most important of the factors that make up\\nteacher s ^c -r-u\\npersonal this moral and spiritual environment is himselt. ihe\\ncharacter, gchool is influenced not only by what he says and does.", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "Natural Selection 97\\nbut by what he is, by his tastes, his preferences, his\\nbearing, his courtesy, the breadth of his sympathy, the\\nlargeness and fuhiess of his hfe. Boys do not respect\\ntheir master s attainments unless they are sure that he\\nknows a great deal more than he undertakes to teach.\\nThese things are not talked about in a school, but they\\nare felt. So his first duty is to cultivate himself, to give\\nfull play to all that is best and worthiest in his character,\\nbefore he can hope to cultivate others and bring out\\nwhat is best and worthiest in them.\\nAnd this reminds us of what is, after all, the cardinal Natural\\narticle in the Darwinian hypothesis the doctrine of\\nnatural selection. Animals and plants are indeed in-\\nfluenced by surrounding conditions but from among\\nthose conditions there is in almost every organism a\\nselective power so that the nature of the growth is more\\ninfluenced by some of those conditions than by others.\\nA flower turns towards the light, a climbing plant stretches\\nforth its tendrils in the direction in which strength and\\nsustenance can be had. The organs of many an animal\\nbecome in successive generations better and better\\nadapted to its wants, by means of the selection from\\nsurrounding conditions of those best fitted for its own\\nneeds and development. Slight variations of form, of\\nstructure, or of colour occur from time to time those of\\nthem which are most suitable and useful are accumulated\\nand transmitted to successive generations and it is found\\nthat those organisms which have been thus developed\\nand improved have a better chance than others of\\nsurvival after the struggle for existence. Sometimes this\\nnatural selection operates in a mysterious way, almost\\nautomatically nnd without conscious volition at all. The\\nwoodpecker or the mistletoe undergoes variations by\\nwhich its structure is gradually adapted to the various\\nH", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "98 The Evolution of Character\\ncircumstances of its existence. In regard to the plumage\\nof birds, the perpetuation of particular colours is due to\\nsomething more like conscious preference, and is ex-\\nplained by Darwin s well-known phrase, sexual selection.\\nBut in the case of those organisms which are useful to\\nman, there has often been intentional selection. The\\nbreed of race-horses has been improved from time to\\ntime by the selection of the fleetest. The gardener finds\\nout the character of the soil and other conditions best\\nfitted to rear plants possessing the peculiar qualities\\nwhich have the highest commercial value. He wants, for\\nexample, to find which varieties of peach will best resist\\nmildew what kinds of vine culture are best fitted to with-\\nstand the deadly attack of the phylloxera, and with this\\nview he tries various experiments in cross-fertilization\\nand in culture. Darwin describes one very significant\\nexperiment tried with much success at the time of the\\nprevalence of the potato disease. A farmer reared a\\ngreat number of seedlings, exposed them all to infection,\\nobserved the effect, then ruthlessly destroyed all that\\nsuffered, saved those which succeeded best in resisting\\nthe infection, and then repeated the process. In this\\nway, he believed it possible to rear a new variety\\nof this vegetable which w^ould resist the attacks of\\ndisease more successfully than any variety previously\\nknown.\\nNow to the innumerable phenomena of this kind in\\nthe world of the naturalist, is there anything analogous\\nin the world with which you and I are chiefly concerned\\nthe world of human experience and training? Much\\nevery way. It is certain that man s powers and faculties\\nmay, by due cultivation, be strengthened and transmitted\\nto posterity. It is certain also that of the numerous\\nconditions and circumstances that encompass a human", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "Conscious selection of Jit conditions 99\\nlife, some are fovoiirable and some are unfavourable to\\nthe development of what is best in it and that it is\\npossible by the selection of what is favourable and the\\nrejection of what is unfavourable, a people, a nation, a\\nrace, a single being may gradually improve. But what is\\nmore important than all, man is, so far as we know, the\\nonly being in the universe that knows anything of this\\nlaw, or is able consciously to use his power of selection\\nwith a distinct moral purpose. I say so far as we\\nkaow, for it is right to be guarded here against un-\\nverified assumptions. As Sydney Smith once said, The\\nlower animals are at a disadvantage, since they have no\\nlecturers to discourse on our faculties. I wish they had.\\nIt would be worth something if we could have only five\\n;^iinutes insight into the interior of a dog s mind, and\\n^arn what view he takes of us, and of the universe.\\njBut in the absence of evidence to the contrary, we are at\\nliberty to say that to man alone is it given to use the law\\nof natural selection with a real forecast of its meaning\\nand tendency, and that while with the lower animals\\nthere is the struggle for mere existence, it is given only\\nto him to struggle intentionally after a higher and better\\nexistence both for himself and for posterity.\\nLet us view the bearing of these combinations on the Conscious\\ndevelopment of human character, and especially on o\\\\\\\\x^,i^^ ^^J\\nthe Jilt est\\nown efforts after self-improvement. I speak in the presence conditions.\\nof some young teachers, who have very recently taken\\nupon themselves the perilous responsibility of managing\\ntheir own life and fashioning their career. Well, you find\\nyourself surrounded by a variety of conditions, and you\\nknow that some of them are favourable and that some are\\nhostile to the development in you of that character which\\nyou wish to form. Without entering into the ancient\\nand thorny controversy about the frecMJoni of the will.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "lOO TJie Evolution of Character\\neveryone knows that it is in his power to choose the good\\nand to refuse the evil. See, said Moses, I have set\\nbefore you this day hfe and good, and death and evil.\\nTherefore choose life, that ye may live. And this is as\\ntrue now as in the patriarchal days. You are not bound\\nto drift along in life, succumbing merely to the strongest\\nand nearest of these conditions. It is at least in your\\npower to choose by which of these you mean to be most\\ninfluenced, and which of them it will be best to resist.\\nYou have access to many books. You will not read\\nthem all. But you know well that there are some\\nbooks from the perusal of which you rise refreshed and\\nstrengthened, with higher aims and purer resolutions\\nand there are others, from which you rise with a sense\\nthat you have been in a stifling, heated, and unwhole-\\nsome atmosphere, and which leave you with weakened\\nfaculties or a lower ideal of life. You are surrounded\\nby acquaintances and associations. They are not of\\nyour making. You are not responsible for this environ-\\nment. But you are responsible for the selection you\\nmake. Among those with whom you are thrown into\\ncontact, there are some whose influence you feel to be help-\\nful and ennobling in whose presence your best qualities\\nare called out into exercise. There are others from whom\\nyou get no help, and in whose presence there is noth-,\\ning to encourage your highest aspirations or your most\\nstrenuous efforts. It is by deliberately stretching forth\\nthe tendrils, so to speak, of your own nature, by cHnging\\nto the best of what is within your reach, and shrinking\\nfrom that which is worst, that you are able, as the Bible\\nsays, to go from strength to strength and to make\\neach step in life a new point of departure for your social\\nand spiritual improvement. It is a trite thing to remind\\nyou of Shakespeare s well-worn comparison of the world", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "Degciie7 atioii i o i\\nto a stage, and ourselves, the men and women in it, to\\nthe players. But I do it for the purpose of quoting to\\nyou a remark of George Eliot which is not trite, but\\nwhich seems to me to have a profound meaning. How\\nhappy, she says, is that man who is called on to play\\nhis part in the presence of an audience which habitually\\ndemands his best. Now among the surrounding con-\\nditions which determine the growth of a character, one\\nof the most potent is the character of the audience before\\nwhich our work is done. Some of us are compelled to\\ndo our work under the fierce light of public criticism\\nlet us be thankful if it is so but many others live and\\nmove in the midst of a sheltered and uncritical community.\\nIt is one of the special dangers of a teacher s calling that\\nmany hours of every day are necessarily passed by him\\nin the presence of a young audience, which not only does\\nnot demand from him his best, but will often be very well\\ncontent with his worst. We are not in this respect the\\nmasters of our own circumstances. But within certain\\nlimits, it is in our power to choose the witnesses of our\\nown work and unless some part of that work at least\\nis performed under the eye of those who challenge the\\nexercise of our best and highest powers, we may be sure\\nthat those powers will either be imperfectly exercised or\\nnot exercised at all.\\nFor there is in Nature a law of degeneration working Z\\nside by side with the law of development. An organ or^^^^\\na faculty may, by constant exercise, be strengthened and\\nperpetuated or by continuous neglect and disuse it may\\nin time perish altogether. If you abstain for a time from\\nthe exercise of any power you possess, you find ere long\\nthat this power is well nigh incapable of exercise. There\\nare in the human organism, as in that of many inferior\\nI^liddletnanJi.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "1 03 The Evolution of Character\\ncreatures, traces and survivals of organs once active, but\\nnow existing only in a rudimentary state. I can, e.g., by\\nan effort of will, move my eyelids and the skin of my\\nforehead but I cannot in hke manner twitch or move\\nthe skin of the scalp at the back of my head. Yet there\\nare traces of a muscular apparatus \\\\he pannicu/us car-\\n77osi(s by which other parts of the skin were voluntarily\\nmoveable, and probably were moved by some remote\\nancestor of mine. For centuries, however, my fore-\\nfathers have failed to make use of this apparatus, and\\nnow it is practically dead. I could not bring it into\\nplay if I would.\\nUmise i there is much that is analogous to this in the\\nfaculties, history of our own minds, and in the mental and spiritual\\nphenomena around us. We sit down to read a novel\\nor a newspaper. The eye glances hastily down the page.\\nAll that we want to gain we acquire in the most cursory\\nway and without any consciousness of effort. Let us\\nsuppose we do this for a few days together, and that then\\nwe try to take in hand a book which demands real\\nintellectual exertion say Sir William Hamilton s Dis-\\nsertations or John Stuart Mill s Political Economy. The\\neye traverses the page at the same rate as before, and we\\nfind at the end that we have gained no idea whatever.\\nWe have to brace our minds to a real effort of attention,\\nand to begin again. We are startled to discover that the\\npower of concentrating the whole of our mental forces\\non one subject at a time, and of following the train of a\\ndifficult piece of argument seems for the time to have\\ndeparted from us. At any rate we know well that it has\\nbeen enfeebled for want of exercise, and that if we go\\non much longer reading nothing but what is easy and\\nagreeable, that power will perish altogether, beyond\\nreach of recovery. Nature will not be trifled with. She", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "Pivgrcssioji or retrogression 103\\ngives us powers and faculties but she does not undertake\\nto keep them bright and vigorous and always fit for use.\\nAn unused faculty becomes in time an unusable faculty.\\nSo the practical conclusion for all those who care about\\nthe regulation of their own minds is, that even in miscel-\\nlaneous reading there should be some subject or some\\nbook which challenges the employment of all the best\\npowers, and forces the reader to bring his whole strength\\nto bear in understanding it. Otherwise he will be doing\\ninjustice to his own faculties and slowly but surely\\nreducing them to the rank of rudimentary organs in the\\nanimal structure, interesting but wholly worthless sur-\\nvivals of what once might have been potent instruments,\\nbut will never be so again.\\nIn the natural world, it must be remembered, evolution Progres-\\ndoes not always imply progress towards perfection. r7tro-\\nmay mean progress in the other direction. There is, 2i?,gression.\\nMr Huxley once said, a constant re-adjustment of the\\norganism in adaptation to new conditions but it depends\\non the nature of those conditions, whether the direction\\ntaken by those modifications is upward or downward.\\nRetrogressive change is quite as possible as progressive\\nchange. And this is true and still more manifest in the\\nmoral world. Hence every power with which teachers\\nare concerned, as a part of the organic equipment of\\ntheir pupils, is constantly undergoing change in the\\ndirection either of development or deterioration. The\\nprocess of evolution in a human character never stops.\\nAttention, memory, observation and reasoning power,\\nreverence, affection, aspiration after better things all\\nthe attributes which you want to see exemplified in the\\nlife of your pupils, are day by day either enfeebled or\\nstrengthened by what happens in your school. Vou\\nhave, it may be, nothing in your course of studies which", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "I04 The Ev oh it ion of C/ia leader\\nspecially cultivates observation the art of seeing care-\\nfully, noting resemblances and differences, and describing\\nafterwards with perfect accuracy what has been seen.\\nFor all the higher purposes of education, it matters very\\nHttle what kind of natural objects are selected with a\\nview to the proper exercise of this faculty. Flowers in a\\nfield, trees in a forest, pictures in a gallery, statues in\\na cathedral, machines in a factory, or shop windows in\\nHigh Street, would all serve the purpose, if only the\\npower of seeing clearly, and of knowing well what had\\nand what had not been seen, were once encouraged. But\\na school course which includes no one item designed\\nspecially to cultivate this one faculty, is seriously deficient\\nas a means of training, however much Latin or mathe-\\nmatics or other useful knowledge has been gained. The\\nboy brought up in such a school suffers from the slow\\ndeterioration of his observant faculty, and becomes a less\\naccurate and trustworthy person for the rest of his life.\\nIt is not a little curious to notice that the life of\\nDarwin himself illustrates the way in which certain\\nmental powers and aptitudes degenerate and become\\nuseless. In early life he enjoyed poetry, and read\\nThomson, Byron, Scott and Shelley with genuine dehght,\\nbut the taste for poetry gradually disappeared. He\\nwas once fond of Shakespeare, especially of the historical\\nplays, but in his old age he found the same plays so\\nintolerably dull that they nauseated him. Long after,\\nhe mourned over these limitations and of the loss which\\nhe had thus sustained\\nThis curious and lamentable loss of the higher Dssthetic tastes\\nis all the odder, as books on history, biographies and travels\\n(independently of any scientific facts they may contain) and essays\\non all sorts of subjects interest me as much as ever they did. My\\nmind seems to have become a machine for grinding general laws out", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "TJic law of divergence 105\\ni)f large collections of facts, but why this should have caused the\\natn phy of thai jiart of the brain alone on which the higher tastes\\ndepend, I cannot conceive. iV man with a mind more highly\\norganized or better constituted than mine would not, I suppose,\\nhave tlius suffered, ami if I had to live my life again 1 would have\\nmade a rule to read some poetry, and listen to some music at least\\nonce every week, for perhaps the parts of my brain now atrophied\\nwould thus have been kept active through use. The loss of these\\ntastes is a loss of happiness and may possibly be injurious to the\\nintellect and more probably to the moral character by enfeebling\\nthe emotional part of our nature.\\nThere are no facts more familiar to the student of The law of\\nevolution than those which are grouped together bv S\\nT^ V in planls\\nDarwm under what he calls the law of divergence, kandani-\\nplot of land will yield a greater weight if cropped with\\nseveral species of grass than with one or two species\\nonly. An organism becomes more perfect and more\\nfitted to survive, when by division of labour the different\\nfunctions of life are performed by different organs. In\\nthe same way a species becomes more efficient and\\nbetter able to survive, when different sections of the\\nspecies become differentiated so as to fulfil different\\nfunctions. The more diversified the descendants\\nfrom any one species become in structure, constitution\\nand habit, by so much will they be better enabled to\\nseize on many and widely diversified places in the polity\\nof nature, and so be enabled to increase in numbers.\\nIn the general economy of any land, the more widely\\nand perfectly the animals are diversified for different\\nhabits of life, so will a greater number of individuals be\\ncapable of supporting themselves. A set of animals\\nwith their organization but little diversified could hardly\\ncompete with a set more perfectly diversified in structure.\\nDarwin s Life and Letters. Autobiographical Chapter.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "social in\\nsH tut ions,\\n1 06 T/ic Evolution of Character\\nIt may be doubted, for instance, whether the AustraHan\\nmarsupials, which are divided into groups differing but\\nHttle from each other, and feebly representing our car-\\nnivorous ruminant and rodent mammals, can success-\\nfully compete with these well-developed orders. In the\\nAustralian mammals we see the process of diversification\\nin an early and incomplete stage of development.\\nand in In this respect the history of the human race has\\nclosely resembled that of animals and plants. During\\nthe period in which the earth has been peopled, the\\nhuman organism has grown more heterogeneous among\\nthe civilized natives of the species, and the species as a\\nwhole has been made more heterogeneous by the multi-\\nplication of races and the differentiation of these races\\nfrom each other. We may see this in comparing\\nprimitive and savage races with those which are more\\ncivihzed. In the former, life is very monotonous. The\\nmen hunt and kill, they build huts all of one pattern,\\nthe women perform certain household duties, one day is\\nlike another one family like another. Each portion\\nof the community performs the same duties with every\\nother portion, much as each slice of the polyp s body is\\nahke stomach, muscle, skin and lungs. Even the chiefs,\\nin whom a tendency towards separateness of function\\nfirst appears, still retain their similarity to the rest in\\neconomic respects. The next stage is distinguished by\\na segregation of these social units into a few distinct\\nclasses warriors, priests, or slaves. A farther advance\\nis seen in the sundering of the labourers into different\\ncastes having special occupations, as among the Hindoos.\\nFrom these inferior types of society up to our own com-\\nplicated and more perfect one, the progress has ever\\n1 Origin of Species, p. 40.", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "special aptitudes and tastes 107\\nbeen of the same nature. Thus the whole tendency of\\ncivilization is towards diversity. New forms of human\\nactivity and ambition, new styles of building, new occu-\\npations, new interests, come into view. The world\\nbecomes enriched by the multiplication of new types of\\ncharacter, of taste, of employment, and of intellectual\\nlife. Variation begets variation. I do not think that\\nTennyson s is a true forecast when he says that\\nThe individual withers and the world is more and more.\\nUniformity, whether of manners, of pursuits, of conduct,\\nor of belief, is not the goal towards which we are tending\\nnor, if we consider the matter rightly, is it the goal to-\\nwards which we should wish to tend. The resources of\\nNature are not exhausted. In the moral and spiritual\\nworld, as in the world of outward nature, there is yet\\nroom for the development of new forms of beauty and of\\nworthiness, far transcending any that have hitherto been\\nknown or even suspected.\\nNow in view of this universal experience, let us and in in-\\nconsider for a moment what should be the attitude of a ^^j^^^^ ^J\\nc/iaracicr,\\nteacher s mind towards the scholars who surround him\\nand towards their varied idiosyncrasies and types of\\ncharacter. Is he to think it a high triumph to be able\\nto say, The boys in my school or in my house are all\\nof one mind. They all take an interest in my pet\\nsubject they have all accepted my creed, they all have\\nthe cachet, the stamp of character which I admire most\\nand which I have sought to impress upon them\\nThat after all seems a poor sort of professional success.\\nSubject of course to those general conditions as to\\ninstruction and discipline which apply to all scholars\\n1 Herbert Spencer, Social Statics.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "io8 The Evolution of Character\\nalike, the more varied the tastes, the aptitudes, and\\neven the opinions of those scholars are, the better.\\nWith the voice of all nature as his guide, the wise\\nschoolmaster will be less anxious to enforce on his\\npupils the truth as he knows it than to encourage in\\nthem the habit of veracity, the spirit of honest enquiry\\nthe openness and fairness of mind which will enable\\nthem to recognize and to welcome all truth, whatever\\nform it may take, and even to discover new truths,\\nhitherto unsuspected. The measure of his success and\\nof the degree in which as a teacher he is enriching the\\nworld and posterity, is the amount of variation in the\\ntypes of ability and goodness which are developed\\namong his pupils. No doubt it is very pleasant and\\nflattering to the natural man to find one s own favourite\\nideal of excellence reproduced in one s scholars. But\\nthe best teachers are those who recognize the fact that\\nthere are other possible forms of excellence not con-\\ntemplated in their own programme, and who rejoice to\\nfind any new and unexpected manifestations of the\\npresence of exceptional powers.\\nSpecial I know how difficult it is for a hard-worked teacher\\naptuudcs ^yjj^i^ large class to concern himself much with the\\nana tasks.\\nspecial aptitudes of individual scholars. I know how\\nconvenient it is to find all our good scholars good in\\nour own way and all our clever scholars clever in doing\\nthe work which we prescribe. Eccentricity, dreaminess,\\nindulgence in fancies and in impossible ideals these are\\napt to be troublesome phenomena to a teacher and to\\ndisturb his plans. But they may nevertheless be the\\nvery best part of the equipment of the young soul. They\\nmay perchance be indications of (lod-given power and\\ngenius, destined, in their after fulfilment, to effect great\\nends, which are beyond our ken. Let us not discourage", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "How far they sJiould be eneou raged 109\\nor repress them. One of the most affectionate parents\\nof whom history has preserved a record once said, as\\nyou will remember, on an occasion on which her child\\nseemed to be entering on a line of conduct which she\\nhad not planned for him, Son, why hast thou thus dealt\\nwith us? behold, we have sought thee sorrowing. And\\ntlien, as you know, came the grave and tender rebuke\\nHow is it that ye sought me? wist ye not that I\\nmust be about my Father s business? Our Father s\\nbusiness What boundless possibilities of hope and\\nenergy, of high endeavour and noble achievement are\\ncomprised in that simple phrase How far its meaning\\ntranscends any conceivable programme of life which the\\nwisest teacher or parent can devise\\nThe practical conclusion from these considerations Ho-v far\\nis that we should try to give to each of the varied powers^\\nand aptitudes of pupils whether they have been already r\u00c2\u00a3?\u00c2\u00ab;-a^W.\\ndisclosed or are yet latent a good chance of healthy\\nlife. Herein lies the justification of the American plan\\nof elective studies the multiplication of different\\nalternative departments or triposes in which a degree\\nmay be taken in our English Universities and the\\nestablishment of modern sides in our public schools.\\nThey all help the differentiation of faculties and of\\ntypes of character. To this end a teacher has first of all\\nto take care that his ordinary course of instruction in-\\ncludes for every scholar the rudiments of language, of\\nmathematics, and of physical science, and some form of\\naesthetic or art culture then as soon as special prefer-\\nence reveals itself, he should encourage the adoi)tion\\nthough not the exclusive adoption of the chosen line.\\nAnd for the rest, it is well to surround and supplement\\nthe school life with as many and varied encourage-\\nments to wholesome activity as possible. Athletic clubs,", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "1 1 o TJie Evolution of Character\\ndramatic and musical societies, field excursions, a maga-\\nzine, a workshop, a discussion class, a French conversa-\\ntion class, a sketching club all these have their use;\\nnearly all of them can easily be provided in a great\\nboarding school, and some of them are found to work\\nadmirably in day schools of different grades. Of course\\nno boy will be attracted to them all but every one of\\nthem is a legitimate outlet for mental activity, and for\\nthe taste and natural preference of some pupil or other.\\nWe need not take too much pains to determine these\\npreferences nor feel disheartened when even our favourite\\npupils are attracted most to those particular objects\\nwhich seem to us to be least valuable or appropriate.\\nLet us take care only that all the forms of intellectual\\nactivity which are placed within the reach of a pupil are\\nin themselves healthy and free from evil, and then let the\\nlaw of natural selection operate freely. Congratulate\\nyourself when you find him showing a genuine interest in\\nanything. Despair only when you find him interested in\\nnothing. For then indeed there must be some serious\\ndefect in your plans or your influence, and both need to\\nbe amended. We are safe at least in deducing this one\\nconclusion from the teaching of natural history that\\na human character, like other organisms, thrives best\\nwhen exposed to variable conditions, for then only has it\\na chance of selecting those which are most favourable to\\nthe development of what is best and fittest in and for\\nitself.\\nEccentric- But while urging on you the duty of encouraging\\n^^y- varieties of character and leaving full scope for the\\nexercise of special gifts I would not have you try to\\nstimulate eccentricity or to aim at the production of\\nabnormal phenomena among your scholars. Monstrosi-\\nties are nearly always sterile. A giant or a dwarf, or a", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "The pro)}iise of tJic future ill\\ntwo-headed nightingale, is an amusing nay even an\\ninteresting phenomenon, but is in no wise an exemplar.\\nAn Admirable Crichton, a John Stuart Mill, who could\\nread Plato at eight, a George Bidder, the calculating boy,\\nwho could mentally extract the cube root of a line of ten\\nfigures, are exceptional. They are not types which you\\ndesire to reproduce. Natui-a non facit saltiim. It is\\nnot by leaps and bounds, or by the occasional pro-\\nduction of prodigies, that the progress of the race is to be\\nattained. It is the healthy, well-nurtured boy, enabled\\nand helped by means of circumstance and training to\\nbecome a little better than his father, who is most likely\\nin his time to become the parent of something better\\nstill. It is disputed among naturalists, whether acquired\\nqualities are transmissible by inheritance. But whether\\nthis is so or not in the domain of organic nature, it is\\ncertainly true in the realm of the philosopher and the\\nteacher, and in relation to human character. There is\\na sense in which all the scholars who come within the\\nsphere of your influence may be regarded as your intel-\\nlectual posterity. For they will certainly inherit from\\nyou, scarcely less than from their parents, attributes and\\ntastes which, consciously or unconsciously, will go far to\\nmould the character of those who come after them.\\nAnd from this point of view the Darwinian hypo- Evolution\\nthesis and all the facts which biologists have accumulated ^^^PfP\\ncreed.\\nare full of illimitable promise for the future of the race,\\nand of encouragement to the true and earnest teacher.\\nIt may be that within the narrow span of history known\\nto us we have seen few examples of new physical\\ntypes, and no tendency to the production of new\\nspecies of humanity. Yet the law of evolution is\\nvisibly at work in the spiritual, the social, and the\\nmental world. New forms of cerebral development.\\n-I", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "1 1 2 The Evolution of Character\\nnew types of goodness, wiser forms of philanthropy,\\nnew triumphs over the material world, new insight into\\nthe moral world, greater knowledge of the forces which\\nare at work around us, greater skill in the manipulation\\nof these forces, broader sympathies, and truer conceptions\\nof the brotherhood of man, all these are possible. In\\nall these respects, as in nature herself, progress tends\\ntowards differentiation, not to uniformity. And every\\nearnest, faithful teacher in the world, however small\\nthe area of his work, however humble his sphere, is\\nhelping forward this beneficent process.\\nThe Say not thou, says the Hebrew king, what is the\\ni nlT^ cause that the former days were better than these? for\\nfuture. thou dost not enquire wisely concerning this. In the\\ntwilight of history, the outlines of many ugly things\\nbecome softened, and some good things become magni-\\nfied by distance. Much of insolence and brutality may\\nhave been sheltered under the name of chivalry a help-\\nless and ignorant acquiescence may easily have assumed\\nthe disguise of unity of faith. To an old man with a\\nfeeble imagination and strong self-love it seems natural\\nthat he should become a laudator iemporis acti; should\\nbe impatient of modern movements and underneath a\\ngeneral reluctance to change should conceal an unex-\\npressed conviction that a world in the shaping of which\\nhe can have no part, must necessarily be worse than its\\npredecessor. But I believe that the most hopeful forecasts\\nof the future are on the whole the truest. The wisest\\nold men I know are not those who are ever moaning\\nover the degeneracy of the age, but those who beheve\\nthat the world is visibly growing better and that in the\\nmidst of many discouragements, the general march of\\nevents is steadily towards righteousness and intelligence,\\ntowards moral and social amelioration.", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "The proDiisc of tJie future 1 1 3\\nIn this respect Charles Darwin differed widely from\\nCarlyle and Ruskin. Nothing has struck me more in brief\\nconversation with all three of these eminent persons,\\nthan the contrast between the deep gloom and hopeless-\\nness with which Carlyle and Rnskin regarded the ten-\\ndencies of our age and the cheerful hope and faith in the\\nfuture which marked all Darwin s utterances.\\nI know no more animating thought for a young man\\nentering life and conscious of power than the reflection\\nthat he is not living for himself alone, but that all his\\nown strivings after excellence and after a higher life are\\ndistinct even though humble contributions to the im-\\nprovement of the race to which he belongs. Every truth\\nhe learns, every sweet and graceful image wliich a i)oet\\nmay have helped him to harbour in his heart, every piece\\nof good work he achieves, does something to alter for the\\nbetter the conditions of life for those with whom he\\ncomes in contact. It helps to make the path of duty and\\nof honourable ambition easier, safer, more accessible,\\nmore attractive to all who come after him. And per-\\nchance it may enable some of them to say years hence,\\nWe are grateful for his memory. This world is a better\\nworld for us to live in because he lived in it.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "LECTURE IV\\nTHE TRAINING OF THE REASON\\nThe art of thinking. Reason v. understanding. Two processes\\nof arriving at truth. The deductive process, e.g. in geometry,\\nand in arithmetic. An arithmetical example. Measures and mul-\\ntiples. Tlie number nine. Oral demonstration of arithmetical\\nprinciples. Inckictive reasonnig. IVactical work essential in\\nthe study of the physical sciences. Two neglected branches of\\nphysical encpiiry. Natural History; Astronomy. Meteorology.\\nObject lessons. Inductive exercises in language. Examples of\\nverbal analysis. Apposition. Induction the test of the value\\nof educational methods. Child study. The three stages of\\nprogress in inductive science. The Kindergarten. Religious\\nteaching to be largely judged by its results on character. The\\nSchool a laboratory. Results.\\nThe art of I SUPPOSE it will be admitted that one of the main\\nthinking, objects to be attained in education is to teach our pupils\\nhow to think to think consecutively, closely, and effec-\\ntively and so to receive the discipline which will enable\\nthem to arrive at truth. This is a necessity au fond, it\\nhas relation not to this or that subject of instruction, but\\nto all subjects alike. Man is a reasoning animal, and\\nthe one thing which distinguishes him from all other\\nanimals is his power to reflect and to reason. Kant has\\ninsisted strongly on the philosophical importance of the\\nReasflHv. ^|i,.ti,-,ction between Reason and Understanding, between\\nunder-\\nstanding Vemuuft and Verstand. The latter, says Coleridge,\\n114", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "Reason v. Understanding 1 1 5\\nsuggests the materials of reasoning the former decides\\nupon them. The Understanding can only say, This is or\\nperhaps will be so the Reason says, It must be so. And\\nit is to this large discourse, this looking before and\\nrd ter, the power of generalizing, of inferring, of tracing\\nevents and facts to their causes and their consequences\\nthat Shakespeare refers when he says that the capability\\nand God-like reason must not be permitted to rust in\\nus unused. Strictly speaking, there is in the lower\\nanimals no such faculty as reason, of which traces can\\nbe found but of understanding, that is, the knowledge\\nof particular facts, and the power to profit by experi-\\nence and to adapt actions to circumstances, you have\\nabundant evidence. In different degrees we find the\\npresence of this lower faculty exhibited by dogs, horses,\\nmonkeys and other animals and moreover we discover\\nfrom inductions suppHed by zoologists that the under-\\nstanding appears as a general rule in an inverse propor-\\ntion to the instinct. We hear litde or nothing of the\\ninstinct of what Pope, by a poetic hyperbole, calls the\\nhalf-reasoning elephant, and as little of the understand-\\ning of caterpillars and butterflies. But reason, in its\\ntrue sense, appears to be denied equally to the highest\\nand to the lowest of the brutes otherwise we should\\nwholly attribute it to them and with it, therefore, self-\\nconsciousness, personality or moral being.\\nLeaving, however, all speculations as to the degree of\\nmental power possessed by the lower animals, and the\\nproper name which should be given to that power we\\nare all agreed that the development of the thinking fiiculty\\nin our pupils is one of our highest duties. Too many\\nof our school lessons address themselves to the memory\\nColeridge, The rie iti, I. 208.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "Ii6 The Training of the Reason\\nand the receptive power only. So long as lessons are\\nthus restricted, we are dealing with the understanding\\nverstand only. The higher faculty the reason,\\nverminft, the power of advancing from one truth to\\nanother claims its own special and appropriate culti-\\nvation and demands fuller recognition in our school\\nsystem. That men and women are richer, stronger,\\nmore fit to encounter the problems of life, and to fulfil\\nits duties, in proportion to their power of orderly and\\naccurate thinking, is a truism which we need not discuss,\\nand which we may safely postulate as the basis of our\\npresent enquiry.\\nTwo pro- It is a familiar truth, that there are two distinct pro-\\ncesses of ceg^es by which the mind advances from one acquisition\\narriving\\nat truth, to another, and proceeds from the known to the un-\\nknown. They are the deductive or synthetic process and\\nthe inductive or analytical process.\\nBy the former of these we mean the starting from some\\ngeneral and accepted axiom or postulate, and the dis-\\ncovery, by means of syllogism or pure inference, of all\\nthe detailed facts and conclusions which may be logically\\ndeducible from it. By induction we mean the process of\\nproceeding from the particular facts which observation\\nand experience bring into cognizance, to the larger\\ngeneral truth which co-ordinates and explains them all.\\nIn short, the deductive method starts with general pro-\\npositions and proceeds to investigate them, but the\\nmethod of induction is an operation for discovering and\\nproving general propositions. It is true that these two\\nmethods of procedure are not so sharply divided in\\npractice as in philosophic theory. For the axiom or\\npostulate with which the geometrician starts is itself the\\nproduct of an induction from experience. That the\\nwhole is greater than its part, that things which are", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "TJie deductive process 1 1 7\\nequal to the same things are equal to one another, that\\nseven times four yields the same product as four times\\nseven are not recognizable as self-evident propositions\\nuntil a little thought and experience have shewn them to\\nhe necessarily true. And such thought and experience\\nare in their nature examples of the inductive process.\\nHut once let these and the like fundamental truths be\\naccepted, whether they are dependent on pure intuition,\\nor are general statements seen to be involved even in\\nthe very meaning of the terms employed, they are no\\nlonger open to discussion and may be safely used hence-\\nforth as the legitimate bases of a deductive argument.\\nThey are so obviously trustworthy that they stand in no\\nneed of further verification from experience.\\nNow the typical example of the deductive process 77^^\\nand of the methods by which the reasoning power\\nadvances from one truth to another by its means, is \u00c2\u00a3\u00c2\u00a3^7;^\\ndemonstrative geometry. Here the only hypotheses that geometry,\\ncan be taken for granted are distinctly and concisely\\nstated at the outset and nothing else is permitted to\\nbe assumed. You are not at liberty to say of two lines\\nthat they are equal because if you measure them you find\\nthem to be so, or because the diagram before you shews\\nplainly that they look so. I remember my old mathe-\\nmatical teacher Professor De Morgan used purposely to\\ndistort the diagrams out of all recognizable shape, before\\nhe set us to demonstrate a proposition. He did this on\\nprinciple, because he would not have us rely in any way\\non the help of the eye, when the whole exercise was to\\nbe one of pure thought and logical inference. There is\\na story of a student who reading Geometry witli a tutor,\\nand sorely puzzled with the 47th proposition, interrupted\\nthe lesson with the enquiry Was Euclid a good man?\\nOh yes, I believe so. I mean was he an honourable,", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "T 1 8 TJie Training of the Reason\\ntruthful man, who would not willingly deceive any one?\\nI have no reason to doubt it. Well then, don t you think\\nwe might take his word for this proposition? Of course\\nthe absurdity of this story Hes in the fact that the result,\\nthe proved statement, has no value or interest in itself;\\nand that the only use of the exercise is to be found in\\nthe process by which the result has been obtained. In\\nthat process, the student has been called on to follow a\\nsevere course of ratiocination, to shut out from his mind\\nevery irrelevant consideration, to proceed from one step\\nto another by strictly scientific processes, and to believe\\nnothing which he cannot prove. And these are ex-\\nperiences through which every one must go, if he would,\\nin relation to any of the problems speculative or practical,\\nwhich occur in life, understand well the difference between\\nvalid and invalid argument, between conclusions which are\\nonly plausible and those which are safe and trustworthy.\\nand in I have in a former lecture in this place expressed my\\narithr.ietic. opinion that intellectual discipline of this kind is in its\\nown way just as valuable to scholars in the earlier as in\\nthe later stages of their training, and that even in the\\nhumblest schools the subject of arithmetic offers the best\\nmaterial for deductive exercise, and may be made to\\nfurnish training in the art of reasoning which relatively\\nto the age of the pupil is fully as appropriate as exercise\\nin the higher mathematics is to an older student. But\\none s voice is like that of one crying in the wilderness.\\nIn this country there is no practical recognition of the\\nfact. Arithmetic is not treated as a branch of mathe-\\nmatics. We teach it as a contrivance for getting correct\\nanswers to problems and questions. Our mode of testing\\nthe results of arithmetical teaching is to set sums to be\\nworked, and if the answer is right examiners do not\\n1 Lectures on Teaching:.", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "DcDioiistrativc aritJiuictic 119\\nenquire too curiously as to the reasons of the methods\\nemployed, or as to the principles which those methods\\npresuppose. Hence our methods of teaching are domi-\\nnated by the methods of examiners, and the science of\\narithmetic is often unheeded in both. It is otherwise in\\nFrance. There the humblest examination that for the\\nleaving certificate at the age of 12 or 13 at the end of\\nthe primary school course requires not only the working\\nout of problems, but a solution raisonnee. The notion\\nthat mathematical exercises have as their chief object\\nthe solution of problems is as little satisfying to the\\nskilled teacher in a French elementary school as it is to\\na high wrangler. The rationale of arithmetical processes\\nis to him a matter of more importance than with us.\\nSo at the risk of repeating an oft-told tale, I ask your An arith-\\nleave further to illustrate the way in which even elementarv\\nexample.\\nexercises in Arithmetic may be made subservient to the Measures\\ntraining of young scholars in the art of reasoning. Take\\nthe subject of measures and multiples. I purposely\\nchoose this, because there is nothing commercial or\\nvisibly useful and practical in it, but simply because of\\nits suitableness as an intellectual exercise. You need\\nnot begin by giving rules but simply by describing the\\nthing to be dealt with. Three is called a measure of 12,\\nbecause a certain number of threes make 12; and 12\\nfor tills reason is called a multiple of 3. You call for\\nother examples, 5 a measure of 20, 20 a multiple of 5,\\nand you soon arrive at the proposition that if A is a\\nmeasure of B, B in a. multiple of A. Tlien in succession,\\nyou elicit, through questions and through examples sup-\\nplied by pupils, the following axioms in succession\\n(i) That if one number measure another it\\nmust measure all multiples of that other. For if 3 is a\\nmeasure of 6 it must be a measure of any number of sixes.", "height": "3538", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "120 The Training of tJie Reason\\n(2) That if one number measure two others it\\nmust measure their sum. For if 5 be a measure of 20\\nand also of 15 it must be a measure of 35.\\n(3) That if one number measure two others it\\nmust measure their difference. For if 6 be a measure of 48\\nand also of 12, the difference between these two numbers\\nmust consist of a certain number of sixes. Hence\\n(4) That if a number measure both divisor and\\ndividend it must measure the remainder. For the\\nremainder is the difference between the dividend and\\na multiple of the divisor.\\n(5) If one number measure the divisor and re-\\nmainder it must measure the dividend. For the dividend is\\nthe sum of the remainder and of a multiple of the divisor.\\nWith these truths before you, you next ask what is to\\nbe done when we want to find the Common Measure of\\ntwo numbers, say 266 and 637. We do not know and\\ncannot easily tell by simple inspection what is the g. c. m.\\nor even whether they have a Common Measure or not. So\\nwe will make one the divisor and the other the dividend\\n266)637(2\\n105)266(2\\n210\\n56)105(1\\n_56\\n49)56(1\\n49\\n7)49(7\\n49\\nProceeding step by step, we observe the number\\nof which we are in search, if it exist, i.e. if 266 and 637\\nhave a Common Measure, must also be a c. m. of 266 and\\n105 (Axiom 4). Apply the same test by making one of", "height": "3527", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "The niunbcr nine I2i\\nthese the dividend and the other the divisor, and it then\\nappears successively that it must also be a cm. of 56\\nand 49. But the number seven is found to fulfil this\\ncondition. Hence it is a measure of 266 and 637.\\nBut it is also the greatest c. m. P^or if there be a greater\\nthan 7 let it be .v. Then .v must be a measure also\\nof 105, also of 56, also of 49, also of 7 itself, and this\\nis plainly impossible. Wherefore the last divisor in such\\na series is always the Greatest Common Measure of the\\ntwo numbers, y. e. d.\\nLet us take one other example. In old books of The\\nArithmetic much is often said of the properties of the\\n)iinc.\\nnumber nine. There were rules for casting out nines,\\npuzzles and conundrums were set inv^olving the use of\\nthat number, and learners came to regard it as having\\nsome mysterious and occult qualities, which might serve\\nas a sort of Whetstone of Witt, but otherwise were\\nobjects rather of curious than of practical enquiry. Now\\nof course there is no mystery or enigma about the number\\nnine at all. What seems to be exceptional about it arises\\nfrom two facts, (i) That ours is a system of notation\\nwhich has ten for its base, and (2) that 9 is one less than\\nten. And on investigation it is seen that if our arithmetic\\nhad, say an octary instead of a decimal base, every one\\nof the peculiar properties of the number 9 would belong\\nto the number 7, or if ours were a duodecimal system the\\nproperty would belong to the number eleven because\\nin each case the number would be one less than the\\nnumber chosen as the base. Let us invite scholars to\\nlook at a line of figures taken at random\\n732,865.\\nI ask would that number if tested prove to be\\ndivisible by nine? I do not know, but I add together the\\ndigits 7 -f 3 2 8 6 5, and I find they equal 31.", "height": "3505", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "122 TJie Training of tJic Reason\\nNow 31 when divided by 9 would leave a remainder 4.\\nSo it is also true that the number itself if divided by\\n9 leaves a remainder 4. We can test this statement by\\nactual trial. For example,\\n9 I 732865\\n81429 4\\nWhy should this be? The result is seen to be a\\nnecessary conclusion from the fact that we have a decimal\\nsystem. For take each figure in succession. The first\\nmeans 700000, but looooo is made of 99,999 i. If\\n1 00000 were divided by 9, it would leave a remainder i.\\nTherefore if 7 times 100000 were divided by 9 it would\\nleave a remainder 7. In like manner 30000 which is\\nrepresented by the next figure would if divided by 9\\nleave a remainder 3, 2000 a remainder 2, 800 a remainder\\n8, 60 a reniainder 6, and the 5 would remain undivided.\\nEvery digit in the whole number 732865 therefore\\nrepresents a remainder after division by 9. Now if\\nwe add all these remainders together they make 31,\\nand this number if divided by 9 leaves a remainder 4.\\nConsequently the whole number if divided by 9 would\\nleave the same remainder. Once seen in this way the\\ninterpretation of all the puzzles connected with this\\nnumber becomes simple. Other applications of the\\nsame truth would soon become visible if the truth itself\\nwere once grasped. And many ingenious exercises might\\nbe devised both by teachers and pupils, so as to turn\\nenquiries into the pro})erties of the number nine into\\na really intellectual discipline.\\nSo I counsel teachers when they have once given a\\nstration demonstrative lesson of this or the like kind, and made\\nof aruh- ^i-jgji- cri-ound sure by questioning, and by the right use\\nprinciples, of examples furnished by their pupils, to call out one", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "Oral demonstration 123\\nscholar at a time and bid him lake the numbers, and go\\nthrough the explanation in the i)resence of tiie class. It\\nis not enough that he should be able to reproduce a\\nwritten demonstration in an examination paper. What\\nyou want is to secure that close attention, that keen\\nperception of the several steps of an argument, and that\\ndue continuity of thought, which is only to be tested\\norally. In luritin^ out a demonstration, there is room\\nfor delay, for after thoughts, for correction, possibly for\\nthe use of merely verbal memory. But it is only by\\nchallenging the scholar to stand up and reproduce your\\nexplanation in his own words, that you can secure the\\npromptitude, the clearness of thought, and the stedfast\\nconcentration of the mental powers on the one subject in\\nhand, which are necessary to make him a good reasoner\\nand so get out of mathematical exercise, whether in an\\nelementary or a higher school, all the advantage which\\nsuch exercise is capable of giving. Nothing struck me\\nso much in the American schools as the large extent to\\nwhich the scholars are trained to the habit of telling in\\ntheir own words, and in sentences of their own construc-\\ntion, what they mean and what they know. This ie a\\ndiscipline very insufficiently cultivated here. We in\\nEngland are often content to get from our pupils\\nanswers to questions, often in single words; and to infer\\nfrom certain marks of sympathy, from the way in which\\nthe scholars fill up the laciinic in our own sentences, that\\nthey are following us, and assimilating what we have\\ntaught. We get the pupil s assent to propositions, and\\narc apt to think that enough. But the true teacher\\nknows that mere acquiescence is not knowledge. So\\nin America the teacher generally insists on having the\\nanswers in whole sentences, and it is a common practice\\nto send the scholars one by one to the continuous black-", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "124 The Training of tJie Reason\\nboard which runs all round the class-room walls, and\\ncall on each to repeat in the presence of the class the\\ndemonstration of a theorem or the explanation of an\\narithmetical rule. At first, of course, it will be difficult\\nto adopt this practice and it will consume a good deal\\nof time. The pupils will be shy and awkward and\\nunready. It is so much easier to sit in a desk and listen,\\nand to make signs of assent than to face the class, and\\nto draw on one s own resources. But once let the practice\\nbe recognized as part of the habitual discipline of the\\nclass it will become easier every time and will be found\\nto have an excellent effect. It will not only assure you\\nthat what has been taught has been really learned, but\\nalso serve to quicken the attention and the intelligence\\nof the Scholars, because they know that this form of\\ntest is likely to be applied to them at the end of the\\nlesson.\\nInductive The Other great instrument in thinking and reasoning\\nis the Iiiductive method, that of proceeding from the\\nobservation of particulars to the discovery and proof of\\ngeneral propositions. The processes by which this result\\nis attained are (i) observing of facts, (2) recording the\\nfacts which have been observed, (3) grouping and co-ordi-\\nnation, (4) suspension of judgment while the facts remain\\nunverified, (5) experiment, (6) openness of mind to\\nreceive new evidence, (7) discrimination between rele-\\nvant and irrelevant facts, (8) what Bacon in the New\\nAtlantis calls raising the result of former discoveries\\ninto greater observations, axioms and aphorisms in\\nother words, arriving at large general truths, these truths\\nthemselves being only held provisionally, since they may\\npossibly be absorbed or superseded by larger generaliza-\\ntions hereafter.\\nAll these mental operations come into play at every\\nreasonius:.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "Collocatioi of facts y not inductions 125\\nturn in our lives. Their value is most conspicuous in\\nthe pursuit of physical science, and no doubt it is in that\\nregion that the highest triumphs of the inductive method\\nhave been achieved. But we as teachers have also to\\nthink of the inductive method of study rather as genera-\\nting a certain habit of mind, and as calling forth powers\\nwhich are applicable to our views of history and morals,\\nto our judgments of books and of one another, and to\\nmuch of the business and conduct of our daily life. And\\niu the formation of our own character and in fitting us to\\ndeal wisely with the problems that every day presents,\\nit is of for more consequence that we should know how\\nto use particular experience as a means of arriving at\\ngeneral truths, than that we should argue correctly from\\ngiven premisses to correct conclusions. We go wrong\\nmore often by arriving too hastily at general assumptions,\\nfrom insufficient data, than by reasoning illogically from\\ndata already ascertained. This being so, it behoves us\\nto enquire whether the habits of mind brought into\\nexercise by the inductive method may not be encouraged\\nby ordinary school studies, and made operative on the\\nformation of character even in the early years devoted\\nto instruction. Is there not opportunity for strengthening\\nthe inductive powers in connexion with some of the\\nordinary school studies, as well as in the laboratory of the\\nchemist or the electrician\\nIt is well to bear in mind that the mere grouping Grouping\\nand collocation of a number of facts does not necessarily\\nnccessarilv\\ndeserve the name of induction. I find on looking at the indiuiion.\\nsheep in a field, that all of them have wool of a certain\\ncolour, and that the feet of all of them shew a divided\\nformation. But this is merely a collective statement true\\nof all the sheep under observation. There is generaliza-\\ntion but no induction, for no light is thrown upon any-", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "126 TJie Training of tJie Reason\\nthing beyond the field itself. But if after larger obser-\\nvation and experience, and some knowledge of animal\\nanatomy and physiology, I arrive at the conclusion that\\nall sheep have divided hoofs, I transcend the boundaries\\nof my actual experience, I assume that there is a certain\\nuniformity in Nature, and thus infer that what we know to\\nbe true in a particular restricted area, will be true in all\\ncases under similar conditions, and that what may be\\nasserted of the individual members of a class may be\\nsafely predicated of the whole class to which those\\nmembers belong. An induction of this kind includes\\nmore than a description and explanation of certain facts.\\nIt extends farther than the phenomena actually observed.\\nIt gives a key to the interpretation of other facts in\\nNatural History, and to the prediction of what will be\\nfound to be true under like conditions. Only in this\\nway does induction become an instrument of reasoning,\\nand a help to the attainment of yet unknown and\\nundiscovered truth.\\nPractical Intellectual exercise of this kind is specially and\\nxvork es- y\\\\^\\\\^\\\\^, provided in such studies as Natural History,\\nsential in\\nthe study Physical Geography, Botany, and in each of the Physical\\ny-J^^ Sciences. It would tire you to illustrate in detail the\\nscience.\\nways in which each of these studies offers opportunities\\nto the learner for bringing his powers of observation, of\\ncomparison, of classification, and of generalization into\\n1 lay. But in every one of them it is a mistake to suppose\\nthat the facts and the principles of the science are all\\nlie wants. He should be made to take his own part in\\narriving at such facts and principles. The little child to\\nwhom you give a packet of various-coloured beads or\\nl)apers, and who is told to match them and to sort them,\\nhas an early lesson in observing, and in comparing, and\\nin classifying. The older learner who is told to dissect", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "Practical ivork in science 127\\na flower, and to set apart the pistil, the stamens, the\\ncorolla and the seed vessels, and to discover how many\\nof the organs in a plant are vital and what are their\\nseveral functions the student in a laboratory who makes\\nby himself an analysis of a compound, and knows how\\nto separate carbon from oxygen and from hydrogen,\\npasses through a kintl of training which could not be\\nacquired by reading, or by hearing lectures. He learns\\nin this way patience and minuteness of observation\\nand he thus becomes acquainted not only with the\\nresult of other people s investigations into the secrets\\nof nature, but also with the operations by means of\\nwhich these investigations have been conducted to a\\nsuccessful issue, and by which he himself may hope some\\nday to add to the store of truth which has been accumu-\\nlated in the world.\\nAll the best modern scientific teachers insist now\\non the necessity of practical work in the teaching of\\nphysics in its several departments. The intellectual\\ndiscipline to be had in the pursuit of the inductive\\nor experimental sciences is not to be had from books\\nalone, nor even from witnessing the demonstrations of\\nthe most inspiring teacher. It can only be obtained by\\nthe active co-operation of the student himself, through\\nhis mistakes and failures as well as his successes, and\\nthrough the actual handling of the materials whose\\nproperties he wants to discover. A few years ago the\\nearliest exercises we had in mechanics were largely\\nmathematical. One learned the parallelogram of forces,\\nand a number of formulae respecting impact, friction,\\nstatical and dynamical energy and the like. And all this\\n])receded tlie learner s actual contact with machines. But\\nthe modern teacher takes his pupil to look at the piece\\nof meclianisin. the printing-press, the air pump, or the", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "1 28 The Trai7ihig of tJic Reason\\nbarometer as a whole. He first asks what purpose it has to\\nserve, then investigates each part, and seeks to show how\\nand why it contributes to the fulfilment of that purpose.\\nAnd this method of inductive or analytical procedure,\\nfrom the concrete to the simple, from the whole to the\\npart, is found in practice to be much more effective, and\\nmore in harmony with the constitution of the human\\nunderstanding than that which begins with what are\\noften called the elementary principles of Science. That\\nwhich seems first in the order of logic, is often last in the\\norder of discovery. So the modern scientific teachers put\\ninstruments into the student s hands, make him measure\\nor dissect for himself, require him to keep a written\\nrecord of such experiments, and to tell afterwards in\\nhis owm words what he has learned and how he learned\\nit. The best teachers ask that he shall accept nothing\\non their authority and they are less concerned with the\\nvalue and utility of the result attained than with the\\ndiscipline of the enquiring and even the sceptical spirit,\\nand with the formation of that habit of mind which is\\nready to accept all verified truths however unwelcome\\nand unexpected they may be.\\nTiuo As to the material on which the inductive faculty is\\nneglected ^q work, we mav say that there is no one department of\\nbranches\\n(5// //t j^/(V?/ ini^ i^^n knowledge in which it will not find scope for\\nenquiry, exercise. Yet it is in the domain of Nature, and in\\nconnexion with physical and material forces that, by\\ncommon consent the true scientific spirit is best to be\\ncultivated. Nevertheless in the modern curricula laid\\ndown by Science and Art Departments, and by the\\nUniversity authorities who shape the Natural Science\\nTripos, as well as in the humbler regulations which\\nprescribe the course of alternative teaching for ele-\\nmentary schools, one cannot fail to notice the practical", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "Natural History 129\\nexclusion of two l)ranclK s of knowledge, which afford,\\neach in its own way, an admirable field for careful\\nobservation, for recording facts and phenomena, and for\\nthe discovery of new and beautiful general laws. I mean\\nNatural History and Astronomy.\\nThe boundless and multiform experience which lies Xatiiral\\nopen to the view of the patient and enthusiastic naturalist y-\\nis well illustrated in Sir John Lubbock s books on Ants\\nand Bees. The child who is led to feel an interest in\\nthe lower animals, otherwise than for sport or ])lay,\\nand is shewn how to observe their habits and to learn\\nhow their structure is adapted to the life thev live, and\\nto the part they have to play in Nature s economy who\\nmakes and arranges his own collection of caterpillars, of\\nleav^es, of ferns, or of shells is unconsciously a minister\\nand to some extent an interpreter of Nature, and is\\nundergoing some of the training in the inductive phi-\\nlosophy which will certainly do much to strengthen his\\nintellectual life. And even if it does not lead to the\\nmaking of new discoveries, the habit of making col-\\nlections is one which has a great influence in developing\\nthe observant faculty, and in bringing the learner into\\nloving coninumion with Nature. Mr Ruskin for example\\nhas said, i he leaves of the herbage at our feet take\\nall kinds of strange shapes as if to invite us to examine\\nthem. Star shaped, heart shaped, spear shaped, arrow\\nshaped, fretted, fringed, cleft, furrowed, serrated, sinuated,\\nin whorls, in tufts, in spires, in wreaths, endlessly ex-\\npressive, deceptive, fantastic, never the same from foot-\\nstalk to blossom, they seem perpetually to tempt our\\nwatchfulness and take delight in outstripjiing our wonder.\\nA boy who hunts through the woods and makes a collec-\\ntion of leaves, arranging them according to their shapes,\\nassigning the names to the trees and shrubs that bear\\nK", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "130 TJie Training of the Reason\\nthem, who observes how in their arrangement, the length\\nof their stalks and the exposure of their surfaces, they\\nsecure to the plant the maximum of light and air, is\\nunconsciously receiving a discipline in the elements if\\nnot of reasoning at least in the processes by which the\\nmaterial for reasoning and for scientific conclusions may\\nbe accumulated and used. But it happens that know-\\nledge of this kind does not pay. No examination\\ntests it, no form of honour or degree is to be gained by\\nit, no money value attaches to it. And hence perhaps\\nit is that it is so little recognized as an educational\\ninstrument, and so seldom practised. There was a\\nremarkable collection of Natural History in connexion\\nwith the St George s Free Library in London. It had\\nbeen open several years, it was admirably arranged, all the\\nobjects were duly labelled, grouped and classified, and the\\nwhole was under the care of an enthusiastic naturalist\\nwho had collected the principal part of the objects, and\\nwho was delighted to find any visitors who cared about\\nanimal life, and to explain the wonders of the collection\\nto them. Yet he tells me sadly that though a few persons\\nstroll aimlessly through the rooms from time to time, he\\nhas hardly known one visitor who shews a genuine\\ninterest in the objects and makes them the material for\\nserious systematic study.^\\nAstronomy. And of all the sciences, the grandest and most\\nsublime is Astronomy. No study is better calculated\\nto exalt the imagination, to enlarge the mental horizon,\\nand to give to us a true sense of the richness and vastness\\nof the visible creation, and of our own true place in it.\\nYet it is far less studied in our schools than it was many\\nyears ago. When I was young, I remember in what were\\n1 This collection has now been accepted by the London County\\nCouncil, and forms the Natural History Museum at lioxton.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "Astronomy 131\\ncalled seminaries for young ladies that though much of\\nthe teaching was pretentious and absurdly lacking in\\nthoroughness and reality, astronomy and the use of the\\nglobes were always put forth in advertisements as integral\\nparts of the school course. It is true that the teaching\\nwas unscientific, that the pupils spent much time in\\nlearning lists of names, and in finding latitudes and\\nlongitudes, and the names and positions of the fixed\\nstars. I believe that this sort of teaching has gone\\ncompletely out of fashion mainly, we may suspect,\\nbecause nobody examines in it, nobody gives prizes for\\nit, and there is no commercial value in the result. Yet\\nafter all even the crude and shallow teaching of the use\\nof the globes had its value. It enlarged the horizon of\\nthe pupils thoughts. It gave them a new interest in the\\nmystery of the heavens, a new sense of the grandeur of the\\nuniverse, and an awed consciousness of the silence that is\\nin the starry sky. It led them to lift up their eyes with the\\nfeeling of the old prophet, and to say, Who hath created\\nthese things, that bringeth out their host by number, that\\ncalleth them all by their names, not one faileth It\\ncarried the students out of themselves and the smaller and\\nprosaic interests of their own lives, and led them to care\\nabout what was vast and eternal and infinitely remote.\\nBoth from the moral and the intellectual point of view,\\nthis experience is healthfiil and inspiring. It is worth\\nwhile to know how to find the polar star, and how to\\ndistinguish planets from fixed stars, to look through the\\ntelescope and see the moons of Jupiter, and to distinguish\\nthe several constellations in the heavens. And the\\nknowledge of these things will go fiir to cultivate the\\nobservant faculty, and to indicate to learners the methods\\nby which the laws of nature have been studied. Astro-\\nnomy is one of the most disinterested of sciences, because,\\nIsaiah xl. 26.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": ".132 TJie Training of the Reason\\nif pursued at all, it is not because money is to be made\\nout of it, but simply because of the delight, and the\\nsense of expansion which the study gives.\\nMeteor- Akin to purely astronomical studies there is another\\noiogy. matter of inexhaustible and of universal interest the\\nweather. In travelling through the cities of Europe,\\nespecially in Switzerland and Italy, one sees in central\\npublic places, a barometer, a thermometer, a rain gauge,\\na wind register, and a daily forecast of the weather. And\\nI have watched groups of scholars, boys and girls, on\\ntheir way home consulting it, enquiring and discussing,\\nor copying down a figure to take home with them. It\\nseems to me that in England our municipal bodies do\\nnot avail themselves, as they should do, of this simple\\nand inexpensive device for increasing the public intelli-\\ngence and interesting the young in the phenomena of\\nnature. But in boarding schools, in which the teacher\\nhas the control of leisure hours, as well as of lessons, there\\nought to be kept all these instruments, and if possible a\\ntelescope also, and when careful observation is regularly\\nmade and organized, and certain scholars are entrusted\\nwith the duty of keeping the daily register, a new source\\nof interest and of useful enquiry is opened up. There\\nare many curious popular fallacies current about meteor-\\nology for example, the old and utterly unverified notion\\nthat the moon s phases affect the weather. Now, in-\\nstead of dismissing this as absurd and untrue, suppose\\nyou invite the elder scholars to help you in refuting or\\nverifying it by keeping, say for six months, a careful\\nrecord of atmospheric changes, as well as of the lunar\\nchanges and seeing by actual experience whether they\\ncoincide or not. You cannot fail to give in this way\\nan elementary lesson in inductive philosophy, though you\\nwill not call it by so pretentious a name.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "Object lessons 1 3 3\\nEven in the elementary schools it is possible to make Object\\nthe object lesson an instrument of scientific method.\\nThe first thing aimed at in the best schools is to secure\\naccurate observation of familiar things. The senses\\nmust first be cultivated. But unless the sense perception\\nis succeeded by what Herbart rather pedantically calls\\napperception, or rather by mental assimilation unless\\nthe mind recognizes what the eye sees, there is no educa-\\ntion in it at all. Hence it is sometimes said that the first\\nsfage in teaching physical science \\\\Si presentation the next\\nrepresentation, or the recognition by means of words, of\\nwhat has been presented, and the third, reflection with\\ngeneralization, the perception of the truth which the fact\\nillustrates, and of the relation in which the fact stands to\\nother flicts. Unless indeed the learner is led by some\\nsuch steps, to pass from the region of visible experience,\\ninto that of intellectual experience, and to perceive the\\nbroader truths which underlie the facts, those studies\\nwhich have of late contrived to appropriate the name of\\nscience are of little intellectual value, and will carry the\\nlearner no great way.\\nBut there is, in fact, no single subject we teach which\\ndoes not furnish opportunities for exercise in thinking and\\nfor shewing the difference between true and false inference.\\nAfter all, our minds are not enriched so much by what\\nwe know, or by what we are told to remember, as by the\\ndegree in which we think and reflect on what we know.\\nIn history, for example, how often a wise teacher will\\npause and say, We must not be too hasty in accepting\\nthe current estimate of this event or of this man s\\ncharacter. The data are not sufficient. The sources of\\nthe testimony are a little suspect and doubtful. This\\nparticular act may have been exceptional, not charac-\\nteristic, it may have been brought about by special", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "134 Tlie Ti ainiiig of the Reason\\ncircumstances of which we know but little. We must\\nnot treat it as if it were typical, or as if it justified a\\ngeneral statement. Those who have been accustomed to\\nform their judgments about historical personages, with this\\ncaution and reserve, have received a lesson in reasoning\\nwhich will find itself indirecdy but yet effectually appli-\\ncable to current events, to political partizanship, to the\\nestimates formed of public men, as well as to the\\nopinions formed about one another.\\nInductive Let me borrow one other illustration of the inductive\\nexercises ^-^^\\\\}^q^ gf advancing through the known to the unknown,\\nlanguage, from a region of experience, which does not claim the\\nname of Science I mean from the study of the English\\nlanguage, and particularly that form of mental exercise\\nwhich we may call verbal analysis. I purposely choose my\\nillustrations to-day rather from the lower than the higher\\ndepartments of school work. You ask the scholars to\\ngive you a few instances of words ending with the letters\\ntioii. Well, they give you in succession\\nExaminatiott, Addition, Illustration^ Composition. You\\nwrite down on the black-board a list of such words as\\nthe pupils supply them. You next take two or three of\\nthem and ask to have them placed in sentences. After\\nthis you ask in each case what part of speech the word is,\\nand receive in answer that they are all nouns. Next you\\ncut off the final syllable, and ask what is left. In each\\ncase you will be told, examine, add, illustrate, compose,\\nthat the word is a verb. Then you ask, if the noun is\\nderived from a verb, what sort of a noun must it be? It\\ndoes not represent any visible thing but an act, an idea,\\na notion which is in the mind it is therefore in every\\ncase an abstract not a common substantive. You pro-\\nceed to shew in each case what the word means the\\nact of doing something, e.g. of examining, of adding, of", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "luihictivc lessons in language 135\\ncomposing, or the like. You then recapitulate, and with\\nthe scholars help arrive at four conclusions, (i) that the\\nwords are all nouns, (2) that they are all derived from\\nverbs, (3) that they are therefore all abstract nouns, (4)\\nthat they all mean the act of doing someUiing, Now you\\nadd, I will tell you a fifth thing about them which you\\nmay not already know. They are all derived from Latin,\\nand are not purely English words. Observe here that you\\nhave a very elementary but typical example of induction\\nas an intellectual process. You first find your examples,\\nthe more numerous the better you next group them\\ntogether, notice wherein they differ and wherein they are\\nalike, then try experiments upon them by putting them\\nsuccessively into sentences, then generalize upon them,\\nthen formulate your results. And these results, when\\nperceived, are found to apply to other cases which are\\nnot included in our list. The learner concludes when\\nI meet with a new word of this formation, I must seek the\\norigin and explanation of it in the Latin, not the English\\nvocabulary.* Notice too how much the value of the\\nwhole operation consists in the fact that teacher and\\ntaught have been working together in an effort of dis-\\ncovery no theory was started at first the theory as it\\nhas been evolved has been suggested by the facts, and\\nhas grown out of them. Take another example.\\nThe syllable ly if added to a noun makes an adjective Other\\nif added to an adjective makes an adverb. \\\\Vrite down v\\noj7 cybal\\nmanly at the top of a column and sivectly at the top of analysis.\\nanother, put each of them into a sentence, and call\\nattention to its form and use. Then ask for a number\\nof words ending in ly and suggested to you at random,\\nand in each case ask the scholars to determine in which\\ncolumn it should be placed and why. The exercise is\\nvery simple no doubt but it is a good example of an", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "I ^6 TJic Traiiiing of tJic Reason\\nelementary lesson in logical discernment, and in classifi-\\ncation, and therefore in the art of thinking. By looking\\nat the groups of words, as they are written down, the\\nscholars, with these data before them, will be able to\\nsupply the generalized statement in their own words.\\nThat words with certain endings are Greek, that others\\nare always Latin, others purely English, that certain\\nformations are hybrid, and therefore signs of false com-\\nposition that in so composite a language as ours there\\nare a few exceptions to almost every general rule and\\nthat therefore our generalizations must be expressed with\\ndue reserve all these are useful lessons for even the\\nyoungest child to learn, and they may be learned in an\\neffective way not alone by observing and classifying the\\nphenomena of the visible and tangible world, but also by\\ndealing with the material which we have always close at\\nhand, the vocabulary of our own native tongue.\\nIndeed I doubt if teachers have yet realized the\\nimportance of the analytical or inductive method in its\\napplication to language teaching. The common practice\\nof treating the ivord as the unit, of giving rules and\\ndefinitions first and their practical applications afterwards,\\nis less effective and certainly far less interesting than the\\ntreatment of the sentence as the unit, investigating its\\ncomponent parts and their relation to each other, com-\\nparing sentences having like characteristics, and deducing\\nall the laws of concord, and of syntactical arrangement\\nas the result of such comparison. Why certain Latin\\nverbs should govern a dative, or certain connective par-\\nticles should be followed by the subjunctive, and what is\\nthe true function of the ablative absolute or of the Greek\\naorist, is to be found best in the collocation of well-\\nchosen examples, and not by laying down authorita ive\\nrules to be followed blindly. Yet many teachers begin", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "Ap/osiiioH and disputation 137\\nwith definitions, and attempt in the region of language,\\nwhich is essentially a region of experience, to employ\\nthe methods adopted in mathematics, wherein axioms,\\npostulates and general principles may be safely taken\\nfor granted at first.\\nOne exercise which has a bracing and healthy action Apposi-\\non the power of reasoning was more common and was\\nheld in greater esteem in the middle ages than in our time.\\nI mean the practice of public speech and disputation,\\niii which the scholar was called on to affirm or deny a\\nparticular proposition, and to give reasons for his opinion.\\nThe Apposition at St Paul s and other schools was\\nan occasion for a public exercise of this kind. Pepys\\ntells us how he went to St Paul s School to hear the\\nboys in the Ui)per form appose one another and what he\\nthought of the merits of the posers. This form of oral\\nexercise has largely disappeared from schools and survives\\nonly in the higher classes of the great public schools and\\nin the Union of the Universities. No one doubts its\\nvalue as a means of encouraging fluency, self-possession,\\nand mastery in the art of argument. It enforces on the\\nyoung aspirant the need of accuracy in accumulating\\nfacts, of orderly arrangement of his matter, and of logical\\nmethod and a persuasive style. But there is no good\\nreason why it should not be adopted more frequently in\\ngrammar and other intermediate schools, if appropriate\\nsubjects are selected, and opportunities found. As a\\nmethod of calling out latent talent, and furnishing prac-\\ntical discipline in the formation of right opinions, and in\\nhelping the holders to maintain and defend them, it well\\ndeserves increased attention on the part of teachers.\\nNothing, said Robert de Sorbon, the founder of the\\nSorbonne, is perfectly known, unless it is masticated by\\nthe tooth of disputation. Here again it is necessary to", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "138\\nTJic Training of the Reason\\nInduction\\na test of\\nthe valtie\\nof educa-\\ntional\\nmethods.\\nobserve that the business of a school is not to enforce\\nopinions, but to give the clearness and openness of\\nmind, by means of which opinions, if they are worth\\nanything, are alone to be rightly formed. In just the\\nproportion in which a community is composed of in-\\ntelligent persons, uniformity of opinion becomes less\\npossible and even desirable. But the fearless and honest\\npursuit of truth, the readiness to follow it wherever it\\nmay lead, are in themselves of more importance than\\nany conclusions on disputable points. There is a story\\nof Carlyle who after a long walk and argument with a\\nfriend said, We have had a delightful afternoon, and\\nexcept in opinion, we agreed perfectly.\\nWe have said that the inductive method is indispen-\\nsable as an instrument of teaching but it is not less so\\nas a guide for ourselves in forming an estimate of our own\\nprocedure, and of the principles on which our work\\nshould be done. Education is said to be a science but\\nit is essentially an inductive science, a science of obser-\\nvation and experiment. It is not one which will be\\nbrought to perfection by the study of speculative psycho-\\nlogy alone by accepting what are called first principles\\nby walking worthy of the doctrines laid down by Comenius,\\nby Ascham, or Quintilian or Rousseau or Pestalozzi or\\nSpencer or Herbart. All such doctrines have their value,\\nand a very high value to the professional practitioner in\\nthe art but they do not serve alone as the basis for a\\nscience, any more than the theory of vortices, or the\\nspeculations of Thales about moisture, or the old doctrine\\nthat all matter is coniposed in different proportions of\\nthe four elements of earth, air, fire, and water. We must\\nlook a little nearer at the actual phenomena the school-\\nroom presents if we would arrive at a true science of\\neducation.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "CJiild study 139\\nFrom this point of view we may regard with much Child\\nsympathy and hope the efforts which are now being\\nmade in America by Dr Stanley Hall and Mr Barnes,\\nand in our own country by Professor Sully, to observe\\nchiklren s ways and character more carefully and to\\nderive if we can practical guidance, from child-study, as\\nwell as from the a priori speculations of the philosophers.\\nBut though we may regard these experimental enquiries\\nwith hope, we must not blind ourselves to possible\\n.sources of error, unless those enquiries are conducted\\nwith due caution and a careful observance of the laws of\\ninductive science. There is a danger of encouraging\\nintrospection and self-consciousness on the part of httle\\nchildren, when we ask them to tell us their motives or\\ntheir thoughts. There is, in many of the experimental\\nexercises of which I have read reports, a tendency on\\nthe part of the teacher to ask children for their opinions\\non subjects on which they have never thought, and on\\nwhich in fact they have formed no opinion at all. Hence\\nhe sometimes gets random and foolish answers, some-\\ntimes mere guesses, and sometimes answers which are\\nframed because the little one has some suspicion of\\nwhat it is that the teacher wants. More often answers\\nare given so various and so inconsistent with one\\nanother, that it is impossible to base any trustworthy\\nconclusion upon them. So although the desire of many\\nteachers to engage in child study evinces a true philo-\\nsophic instinct we must in pursuing it guard ourselves\\nagainst its dangers, and must be aware of its hmitations.\\nWe must not be probing the minds of children to discover\\nwhat is not there nor encourage them to attach exag-\\ngerated importance to their own little experiences and\\nopinions. We must beware of unreality, of confusing the\\nreal relations which should subsist between teacher and", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "140 TJic Training of the Reason\\ntaught. Above all we have to guard ourselves against\\nmistaking accidental and exceptional phenomena for\\ntypical facts against drawing general conclusions too\\nhastily from insufficient data. When I read in Ameri-\\ncan books the contradictory, confused, and grotesque\\nreplies which have been so diligently compiled, I am\\nmore than ever convinced that generalizations founded\\non such data may often prove useless and sometimes\\nmisleading, and that they need therefore to be held in\\nsuspense for the present, until they shall be verified or\\ncorrected by a larger experience.\\nSome of the plans adopted in these investigations\\nseem to me highly ingenious, and a few of the generaliza-\\ntions obtained from them to be fruitful and suggestive.\\nThe experiments made in connexion with the earliest and\\ncrudest attempts of little children to draw familiar objects\\nhave shewn clearly how common it is to attempt to\\npourtray not what they actually see, but what they know\\nto be there. Such experiments are most instructive to\\nteachers of drawing and design. But when we get into\\nthe region of morals, and of conduct, when we seek to\\nmeasure the forces which are at work in the formation\\nof the child s character and sentiments, it does not\\nappear to me that the enquiries have yet conducted us\\nto any valuable results. This is not a reason for aban-\\ndoning the quest, or for discouraging researches into this\\ninteresting region of experience. But it is a strong reason\\nfor caution, and patience, and for resisting all temptation to\\naccept general conclusions while the data are incomplete.\\nThe three FinaUty has not yet been reached. True progress\\nstages of \\\\y^^ development of educational science can only be\\ninductive attamed by means of a fuller application 01 the mduc-\\nscience. |_iyg method. Comte has taught that there are three\\nstages in the history of science. At first men lay down", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "Three stages of scientific progress 141\\nlarge general principles, and expect them to be taken as\\naxiomatic and accepted truths, which contain in them\\nthe explanation of all which has to be explained. Next\\ncomes the stage at which phenomena are observed and\\nan attempt is made to fit the explanation of them to the\\nfirst principles which have been already accepted. Lastly\\ncomes the sense of dissatisfaction expressed by Bacon\\nor Darwin with these explanations and the detennina-\\ntion to investigate the facts alone, to let them suggest\\nthe theories and to accept no theories which do not\\ngrow out of the phenomena themselves and cannot be\\nverified by actual experience. AVe have however not yet,\\nin educational philosophy, got far beyond the first of\\nthese stages. We start from what seem to be first prin-\\nciples then we look hesitatingly at the facts of experience\\nin our schools and colleges and see how far they can be\\nmade to fit into our theories, and are disposed to say if\\nwe are unsuccessful taut pis pour les faits. At last we\\ncome to the humbler task which we ought to have put at\\nthe beginning of our enquiries, and are foin to ask again\\nCharles II. s question when the Royal Society brought him\\na scientific discovery, Are you quite sure of your facts?\\nSo if the ([uestion arises, for instance, Can Psycho-\\nlogy help us much? We must answer, That depends\\non the other questions, (i) Is it a true psychology?\\n(2) Is it verifiable, and has it been actually verified by the\\nfacts of daily experience in our families and schools? and\\n(3) Are the teachers who i)rofess it and have studied it\\nfound to be more skilful and more successful than others\\nin the management of scliolars and of schools? To this\\ncrucial test all theories ought in the end to be submitted.\\nAgain in determining the educational value of the The Kin-\\nFrobelian method of training young children, we cannot\\ncome to a riglit conclusion b) speculating on the order", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "142 TJie Training of tJic Reason\\nin which the faculties are developed it would be well\\nalso to take two groups of children at the age of ten or\\ntwelve, of whom those in one group have, and those in\\nthe other have not been subjected to the Kindergarten\\ndiscipline, and ask ourselves on which side the advantage\\nHes, in respect to general brightness and intelligence,\\ndesire to learn, and fitness to enter upon the studies\\nappropriate to a later age I beheve that the answer to\\nsuch questions will be reassuring. I think it will confirm\\nour faith in the value of the Frobelian training and will\\nprove that the awakening of faculty, the exercises of eye\\nand hand, and the introduction of activity and joyousness\\ninto the early school life, have often served to make the\\nsubsequent school exercises easier and more effective.\\nBut if this does not prove to be the result, let us honestly\\nconfess it and revise our theories.\\nManual In like manner the educational value of manual and\\ninstrtu- technical as distinguished from literary instruction cannot\\nbe estimated a prion. U e want to know what is the\\nplace which such instruction ought to hold in a rounded\\nand complete system of general education and in order\\nto be sure of our conclusions, it is needful to enquire (i)\\nof teachers, what is the reflex influence of manual work\\nupon inteflectual employments, and upon the habits of\\nmind which the scholars are acquiring? and (2) of em-\\nployers of skilled labour, do they find that the school\\nexercises have been actuafly helpful in producing more\\nskilled artizans? Have these exercises tended to make\\nthe pupils more industrious, more accurate, more open-\\neyed, and fonder of mechanical work? The true justifi-\\ncation of the workshop and the laboratory as adjuncts to\\nthe modern school-room can only be found in a satis-\\nfactory reply to these questions, and, at present, we await\\nsuch a reply.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "Re/igioKS tiacJiing 143\\nEven in regard to the highest of all our educational Religions\\ninterests those which concern the discipline of character, l^^^yl^if\\nand the teaching of religion, we cannot safely shrink from judgl d v\\nthe test of experience. It ought not to suffice for us to f\\n1 on charac-\\nreason from what appear to be first principles and to ter.\\nassume, for example, that the religious life is to be formed\\nby the early and authoritative inculcation of certain\\ntheological beliefs. It is also necessary that, freeing our-\\nselves sometimes from all prepossessions on this subject,\\n.we should look around us and ask, x \\\\re the scholars who\\nhave been taught on this hypothesis found to be in after-\\nlife attached to the communion to which they owe their\\nspecial religious teaching? Can we trace in their sub-\\nsequent history any enduring results of such teaching?\\nIs any difference recognizable afterwards between those\\nwho have and those who have not been subject to a\\nparticular kind of dogmatic teaching? And as regards\\nour own personal experience, when we look back on the\\ninfluences which have shaped our lives, we may profitably\\nask. Were those which took the form of didactic lessons\\nafter all the most potent and enduring? Whether the\\nresult of honest self-interrogation confirms our precon-\\nceived opinion of the value of creeds and formularies, or\\nleads us to modify that opinion, the enquiry will prove\\nequally valuable.\\n(iibbon s ;/^y/ retrospective estimate of the influence\\nof his early studies on the formation of his own tastes\\nand character is an example of a department of literature\\nhitherto very imperfectly explored. To search through\\nthe autobiographies of flimous writers and statesmen and\\nto learn what in their opinion has been the worth of their\\nschool learning would be in itself an instructive study,\\nand a test of the soundness of many cherished opinions.\\nThis is a task which yet awaits the enterprising explorer.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "144 TJie Training of the Reasoji\\nResults. The principle of paytneiit by results has been by\\ngeneral consent abandoned, as a contrivance for estimat-\\ning the amount of money-grant which should be awarded\\nto schools from public funds. But the right estimation\\nof results will always be the best way of determining the\\nstatus of a school and the value of its methods. Grant\\nonly that our conception of what constitute the best re-\\nsults is a wide and true one, and also that the mode of\\nestimating the results is duly intelligent and sympathetic,\\npublic authorities who may be charged with the supervision\\nof schools on behalf of the State will always be justified\\nin seeking to know what is the outcome of their work.\\nIn obtaining this knowledge they will not rely wholly on\\nthe quality and the number of written answers to ques-\\ntions, nor wholly on the general impressions of an\\ninspector, as to the methods and discipline and tone of\\na school. But they will seek to combine the two pro-\\ncesses of inspection and examination, and so to get the\\nmaximum of advantage from both methods.\\nThe sum of all I have sought to enforce on this point\\nis that education is a progressive science, at present in a\\nvery early stage of development. Hence it is the duty\\nof all the practitioners of that science to be well aware\\nof its incompleteness, and to do something to enlarge its\\nboundaries and enrich it with new discoveries. Every\\nschool is a laboratory in which new experiments may be\\ntried and new truths may be brought to light. And\\nevery teacher who invents a new method or finds a new\\nchannel of access to the intelligence, the conscience and\\nthe sympathy of his scholars will do a service not only\\nto his professional brethren and successors, but to the\\nwhole community.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "LECTURE V\\nHAND WORK AND HEAD WORK\\n^lanual and technical instruction. Why it is advocated. Appren-\\nticeship. Ecoles tVApprentissage. Technological Institutes.\\nThe Yorkshire College of Science. French technical schools,\\n(i) for girls, (2) forartizans. The Frobelian discipline. Sweden\\nand sloyd work. The icole Modele at Brussels. Drawing and\\ndesign. Educational influences of manual training. The\\npsychological basis for it. Variety of aptitude. The dignity\\nof labour. Limitations to the claims of manual training.\\nNeedlework. General conclusions.\\nI PROPOSE now to invite your attention to the sub- Manual\\nject of manual training, which of late has been amP^\\nprominent in public discus iion, and will certainly \\\\yt technical\\nbrought under the notice of younsj teachers enterins: now\\ntion.\\non their profession. Such teachers may soon be con-\\nfronted with the question in many different ways. But\\nit is one on which it is very desirable that they should\\nmake u}) their minds, and pos.sess themselves not only\\nwith opinions but also with the reasons which justify\\ntheir opinions.\\nThe phrases Technical Instruction, Hand-ar/wil, and\\nManual Training, are used in various senses, sometimes\\nwith much vagueness, and often by persons who have\\nvery different objects in view. But they have become\\npopular, and we do well to think of tlie two or three very\\ndifferent meanings which are assigned to them.\\nL 145", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "146 Hand 7Vork and J wad i^ ork\\nWhy it is First of all, we have to reckon with those advocates\\nadvocated. niaiiual training who see it chiefly in connexion with\\ndifferent forms of skilled industry. They desire to obtain\\nfor the artizan such instruction in handicraft as may pre-\\npare him for the special employment of his life, and as\\nmay make all the difference between the skilled and the\\nunskilled workman. They say with much truth that the\\nmaterial prosperity of a country depends largely on\\nthe skill and knowledge of its workers, and that in this\\ncountry we have paid too little attention to the sciences\\nwhich are most closely connected with manual industry.\\nThey urge the need of more technical instruction in\\norder to obtain for this country a better place in the\\nlabour market and a larger share of the trade and manu-\\nfactures of the world.\\nThere are others who, without seeking to prepare the\\nyoung scholar for the particular form of handicraft by\\nwhich he is to get his living, wish to provide for him the\\nmeans of obtaining such general tactual skill, such know-\\nledge of the properties of the substances which have to\\nbe handled, and such aptitude in the use of tools, as\\nshall make him readier for any form of mechanical\\nindustry which he may happen to choose.\\nA third class of advocates of manual training urge\\nthat in all our systems of general education the memory,\\nthe judgment, and the purely intellectual faculties have\\nbeen too exclusively cultivated, and that the discipline of\\nhand and eye and of the bodily powers generally has been\\ntoo much neglected. The Spartan training of the bow\\nand the palaestra proceeded on the assumption that, in\\nfitting a man for the business of life, we have to consider\\nnot only what he knows but what he can do. Is he deft\\nwith his fingers? Can he run and swim, handle tools,\\nuse all his physical powers with promptitude and energy?", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "Dijfirciit views of uianual h(Uinii r 147\\nIf not, the Greeks would have said he is not a well-\\ntrained or conii)lete man: his education is deficient.\\nThere is a fourth class of i)crsons who rank as\\nadvocates of industrial education because they dislike\\nintellectual training for the poor and the humbler classes\\naltogether. I hey say, in effect, We must have a prole-\\ntariat. It is fitting that there should be hewers of wood\\nand drawers of water. I-ct us train the lowest class of\\nour j)coi)le on the supposition that they are to fulfil this\\nfunction. l*or them, strength of limb, hardihood, handi-\\nness are needed. Books, and the sort of asi)iration which\\nis encouraged by books, would only tempt them into\\nemployments wherein, possibly, they might compete with\\nl)ersons of a higher social level, and become inconvenient\\nrivals. The education of the artizan should not be too\\nambitious. It should be designed to fit him for the\\nhumble work to which the circumstances of his birth\\nhave called him, and to keep him in this lower rank. This\\nsort of reasoning is hardly avowed, but it certainly under-\\nlies some of the arguments we occasionally hear used on\\nthis subject, lender the disguise of a solicitude in favour\\nof more i)ractical training for the ploughman or the\\nlabourer, there exists in many minds a deep distrust of\\nthe value of mental training altogether a desire to use\\nschools as a means of maintaining the established order\\nof society, and of rei)ressing inconvenient social or intel-\\nlectual ambition. In short, there is latent in the thoughts\\nof many people, who would hardly like to acknowledge it,\\na wisii to restrict the instru(ti(jn of arti/.ans to the special\\nwork of tlieir trades, not necessarily because they will\\ntiiereby do that work better, but because it is believed\\nthat they will be practically dis(|iialifie(l for attemj)ting\\nanything else.\\nFor the jjresent, we need not dwell either on the", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "148 Hand luork and head zvork\\nmotives or the projects of this last class, except perhaps\\nfor the purpose, with which I hope this audience at least\\nwill sympathize, of earnestly repudiating them. But we\\nought not to overlook the fact that the class is neither\\nsmall nor uninfluential in the world in which we live,\\nand that its existence as a potent though unacknowledged\\nfactor in our educational controversies cannot altogether\\nbe disregarded.\\nFirst of all, it is well to look at the industrial and\\ncommercial side of the problem, and to consider how\\nour material wealth may be increased by a fuller and\\nmore systematic manual training. This is not the first\\nbusiness of a school teacher, but it is one which cannot\\nbe overlooked.\\nAppren- In earlier times the skilled workman was trained as\\nticeship. apprentice. No one could, in the Middle Ages, hope\\nto become a member of any trade guild who had not\\nserved a regular apprenticeship under a master. An\\napprenticeship was a reality. The relations which sub-\\nsisted between Edward Osborne, or the apprentices of\\nSimon the Glover, in the Fair Maid of Perth, or young\\nTappertit, the locksmith s apprentice, and their masters,\\nwere, in an industrial sense, those of sons to a parent.\\nThe master worked side by side with the youths, cared\\nfor them as inmates of his house, and was proud of their\\nsuccesses when they joined the ranks of skilled workmen.\\nThat state of things has passed away, never to return.\\nThere are, all over England, endowments for apprentice-\\nship, survivals from a time when they served a valuable\\npurpose; but they serve no such purpose now. They\\nare more often disguised doles to parents, contributions\\nto a lad s maintenance before he is able to earn the whole\\nof his living; but they do not help him to obtain system-\\natic instruction in tlie art and iiiystery of an honest craft.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "Apprenticeship 149\\nThe conditions of industrial life are wholly changed.\\nThe concentration of manufactures into large establish-\\nments, increased use of machinery, the division of labour,\\nthe keenness and restlessness of modern competition,\\nare all inconsistent with the old conception of appren-\\nticeship. The master does not live with his young\\nassistants; he hands them over to foremen who are often\\nthemselves comparatively untaught mechanics, familiar\\nonly with one particular department of work, and in-\\ncapable of giving instruction in the trade as a whole.\\nNow, what should be the modern substitute for this\\ninteresting but now obsolete system of apprenticeship?\\n\\\\Ve want as much as ever, nay much more than ever, intel-\\nligence and good training on the part of our workmen.\\nBut it is clear that this must now be sought in a different\\nway. We must begin recognizing that it is discreditable\\nto a man of any self-respect to handle every day materials\\nof whose qualities he is ignorant, and to employ natural\\nforces, machines, and instruments, the nature of which he\\nhas never cared to investigate. There is a science under-\\nlying every art however humble; and the main difference\\nbetween the unskilled and the skilled workman is, that\\nthe one knows, and the other does not know, something\\nabout that science and about the meaning of what he is\\ndoing. And for the acquisition of this knowledge, as\\nwell as for due practice in the right manipulation of\\ntools and instruments, we must look in these days rather\\nto schools and technical institutes, than to the industrial\\nl)Uj)il-teachership which was once known under the name\\nof the apprentice system.\\nOn the continent of luirope, especially in France and 6.coles\\nBelgium, there are institutions known as Kcoles des\\ntissage.\\nArts et des Metiers which seek to supply this want. I\\nvisited, some time ago, a very chr.iacteristic establish-", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "150 Hand ivork and head luork\\nment of this kind at Courtrai. Its professed object is to\\nencourage the introduction of new industries, to form\\ngood workmen and good foremen, to inspire them with\\nthe love of work and with habits of order, to impress\\nthem with the sense of social and religious obligation,\\nto increase the means of subsistence, and to arrest the\\nprogress of pauperism.\\nThe institution with this large and comprehensive\\nprogramme has an extensive building devoted partly to\\nthe purposes of general instruction and partly to the\\nateliers or workshops. The minimum age of admission\\nis twelve, but the ordinary age is fourteen. The course\\nlasts three years. No one is admitted who has not\\nreceived a fair elementary education.\\nThe course of general instruction comprises, in the\\nfirst year. Drawing, Arithmetic, French Language, Prac-\\ntical Geometry; in the second year. Drawing, French,\\nExperimental Physics, Mechanics, Geometry, Inorganic\\nChemistry; and in the third year. Drawing, Applied\\nMechanics in its application to trades. Knowledge of\\nMaterials, Organic Chemistry, Industrial Economy, the\\nCalculus.\\nSix ateliers are attached to the Institute (i) Me-\\nchanical construction; (2) a Foundry; (3) Furniture;\\n(4) Electricity and its applications; (5) Hosiery; (6)\\nWeaving. Each of these is under the care of a skilled\\ndirector, chosen partly for his practical knowledge of the\\nbusiness, and partly for his scientific acquaintance with\\nthe principles on which the particular industry depends.\\nThe workshops are real places of business, and are not\\neducational only. They produce machines, electrical\\nand other apparatus, furniture, and articles of many\\nkinds, which are sold in the market at a profit. A sub-\\nstantial part of every day is spent by each student in the", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "Ecolcs iV Apprcntissage 151\\nworkshops, the work being regukuly graduated in diffi-\\nculty, and carried on under supervision. But it is notable\\nthat from two to three hours per day are devoted to\\nancillary studies, not exclusively industrial or mechani-\\ncal, but calculated to ^tcwit pari passu the development of\\nthe students intelligence. Hence, exercises in language\\nare continued during the whole course. Drawing, design,\\nand geometry are part of the routine prescribed for every\\nstudent; while courses on electricity, chemistry, strength\\nof materials, mechanics, etc., are given to each group of\\nlearners to correspond to the special character of the\\ndepartment of industry to which they are severally\\nattached. In the last year there is a special course of\\nlectures on Economic Science and the laws which regulate\\nindustrial life and progress e.g. Production, Division\\nof Labour, Capital, Money, Banking, Partition of Profits,\\nPartnership, Wages, Trades Unions, Strikes, Savings,\\nInvestment, Credit, Direct and Indirect Taxation. Visits\\nto neighbouring factories and industrial centres are regu-\\nlarly organized, especially in the third year of training,\\nand after each visit a full account, with illustrative draw-\\nings and descriptions, is required of every pupil. An\\nelaborate scientific and general library, with abundance\\nof drawings and plans of famous machines and factories,\\nis accessible to the students.\\nNow, the object of such an institute is technical\\ninstruction in its definite relation to the particular form\\nof skilled industry which the student ]:)roposes to adopt\\nas the business of his life. It has an essentially\\neconomic and industrial purpose. That purpose is, to\\nprovide for the future masters, foremen, and captains of\\nindustry a sound professional training. But it is to be\\nobserved that, from the first, mental cultivation by means\\nof language and abstract science, and the investigation", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "152 Hand work and head work\\nof principles, is regarded as an indispensable part of\\nthis training. There is, on the part of the enlightened\\nfounders of this institution, even though its object is so\\ndistinctively utilitarian, no belief in any antagonism or\\ninconsistency between hand work and head work. The\\ntwo are regarded as inseparably connected.\\nTechno- And the same may be said, in different degrees, of\\nlogical those other institutions which are now coming into pro-\\nInStltllteS. 1 I r 1 1 11 r\\nminence on both sides of the Atlantic under the name of\\nTechnical or Science Schools. These are in no sense\\nfactories, and do not profess to carry on a business, but\\ntheir aim is more purely educational. The most remark-\\nable example of the kind in the United States is the Massa-\\nchusetts Institute of Technology in Boston. Here there\\nis a sumptuous building, admirably equipped, not only\\nwith chemical and physical laboratories, but also with\\ndepartments for the study of mechanical engineering, of\\nelectricity, of architecture, of biology with a view to the\\nrequirements of medical students, of heat and ventilation,\\nof mining and metallurgy. The characteristic feature of\\nthe institution is that in every department practical work\\nsupplements oral or book-teaching. The student is\\nrequired, as soon as he knows anything, to do something\\nwhich requires the application of his knowledge. There\\nare upwards of 800 students in the three departments of\\nPractical Design, Mechanic Art, and Industrial Science.\\nAll of them must have passed successfully through a\\ngood course of grammar and high school instruction\\nbefore entering; and all of them are looking forward to\\nbecoming either masters or superintendents in factories\\nor houses of business.\\nThe York- In England a characteristic example of the many\\nshire Col- i^-jodern institutions of a similar type is the Yorkshire\\nlege of\\nScience. College of Science. It is situated in Leeds, in the centre", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "Technological Ins!itutcs 153\\nof the great cloth industry, where dyeing, weaving, and\\ncognate processes form the chief employments of the\\npeople. Besides costly and elaborate provision in the form\\nof laboratories, lecture-rooms, and libraries, designed both\\nfor theoretical and practical instruction, there are large\\ndepartments especially devoted to dyeing and weaving.\\nIn on^ room you may see a group of students each before\\nhis own table manipulating his apparatus, and making\\nhis own experiments in the application of different\\ncolouring matters to different fabrics. Each student\\nmakes a written statement of the nature of the material\\non which he works, the chemical composition of his\\npigments, the time occupied by the process, the pheno-\\nmena of change observable while it lasted. Then he\\nplaces his memoranda with a specimen of the coloured\\npiece of cloth itself in a book as a permanent record of\\nthe experiment for future reference. The weaving labo-\\nratory is, in some respects, a still more curious and novel\\ndepartment. Each student has a small hand-loom, on\\nwhich he himself works, and on which he is encouraged\\nlo try all kinds of new artifices for combining warp and\\nwoof of different textures and colours, and for inventing\\nnew patterns. In another laboratory, which can be\\nwholly or partially darkened for the purpose, there is a\\nspecial series of investigation into the nature of light and\\ncolour, and students are helped to understand truths\\nabout the science of optics, not only by actual experi-\\nment, but also to a large extent by making for themselves\\nsome of the aj^paratus by which those experiments are\\nconducted. In short, in this and many more great\\nmodern institutions than I have time here to enumerate,\\nwe ha\\\\e alniost a full realization of Bacon s dream in\\nthe New Atlantis, of Solomon s House, with its mani-\\nfold chambers of experiment and observation. It is", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "1 54 Hand work and head ivork\\na distinct addition to the material resources of our own\\ntime, and a solution to many economical difficulties.\\nThe Technical Institute of the City and Guilds of\\nLondon is in like manner a noble example of an institu-\\ntion in which it is sought successfully to give to those\\nwho are to be leaders and captains of industry, a fuller\\nknowledge of the sciences connected with their several\\ntrades. Men thus trained will on entering the ranks of\\nlabour make fewer mistakes, will initiate more fruitful\\nexperiments, and will economize better the materials on\\nwhich they have to work. But it can hardly be said that\\nat present either in such institutes nor in the various\\nclasses carried on with so much vigour by the London\\nCounty Council, for the teaching of building construction,\\nmetal trades, book and printing work, leather, carpen-\\ntering and other industries, so much attention has been\\npaid as in Germany, in Switzerland, and in France to\\nthe need of general mental cultivation as the basis of\\ntechnical instruction. Our technical schools are for the\\nmost part places of manual and scientific instruction only;\\nand the constant complaint of the authorities is that the\\nscholars come to the institutes too soon, before they have\\nreceived that discipline in general intelligence which is\\na necessary preliminary for making a right use of the\\nspecific training proper to particular trades.\\nFrench In France this difficulty is met partly by insisting that\\nno one shall enter the apprentice school unless he or she\\nhas obtained the certificat d etudes priinaires\\\\Q. sX\\\\{y\\\\wg that\\nthe ordinary primary school course has been success-\\nfully completed; and partly by requiring that intellectual\\nexercises shall in all cases be carried on pari passu with\\nmanual exercises.\\nOn this point let me cite some of my own experience\\nwhen engaged in an official enquiry into some conti-\\ntechiiical\\nschools.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "FrencJi tccJinical scJiools 1 5 5\\nnental schools. It is taken from a paper presented to\\nParliament in tlie year 1891.\\nOf the institutions with a well-defined and directly (i) r\\npractical object, the Ecole professioncUe inhiai^cre in the^^\\nRue Fondary, for girls, and the ^V6 i?/V/.f/7^/ for boys are\\nsufficiently remarkable to justify a brief description here.\\nI^ach of them may be regarded mainly as an apprentice\\nschool in which the pupil is learning the particular art or\\ntrade by which he or she intends to get a living. But\\nneither is a mere trade school, for intellectual instruction\\nreceives much attention in both. In the girls school,\\nthe day is divided into two parts, the morning being\\ndevoted to the general education presumably required\\nby all the pupils alike, and the afternoon to the special\\nbusinesses which they have respectively chosen. From\\nhalf-past eight to half-past eleven the work includes\\nadvanced elementary instruction generally, exercises in\\nFrench language and composition, book-keeping (for\\nFrench women are very largely employed in keeping\\naccounts), one foreign language, English or German at\\nthe parents choice, and such practice in drawing and\\ndesign as has a special bearing on the trade or employ-\\nment to which the pupil is destined. Thus, those who\\nare to be dressmakers or milliners draw patterns of differ-\\nent articles of dress, are taught to paint them artistically,\\nand to invent new patterns and combinations of colour\\nand ornament; those who are to be fleiiristes draw and\\npaint flowers from nature, and group and arrange them\\nafter their own designs. Besides this, r cnscigncment du\\nmencif^e or household management and needlework form\\npart of the instruction given to all the pupils. Articles\\nof dress are cut out, and made for sale or use, and on\\ncertain days clothing which needs repair may be brought\\nfrom home and mended under the direction of the", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "156 Hand work and head work\\nmistress. The pupils are told off eight at a time to spend\\nthe mornings of a whole week in the kitchen. Since all\\nthe pupils take their dejeuner daily in the establishment,\\nthere is necessarily a large demand for the services of\\nthese cooks. The sum to be expended per day is care-\\nfully restricted, and the pupils learn under the direction\\nof the head of the kitchen how to prepare a menu, and\\nto vary it from day to day, and are expected to go out in\\nturn and make the necessary purchases in the market.\\nThe girls who are responsible for the week s provision\\nare required to keep full accounts of the expenditure,\\nand as they become more experienced each is invited in\\nturn to devise a new menu, and to suggest ways in which\\nthe sum granted by the municipality can be best econo-\\nmized. For their services, the eight chosen pupils of the\\nweek receive their own meals gratuitously, all other\\nscholars paying for theirs at cost price. The afternoon\\nof every day is devoted to the practice, under skilled\\ninstructresses, of millinery, dressmaking, artificial flower\\nmaking, embroidery, and other feminine aits. Orders\\nare received from ladies, and articles are made and\\nornamentea by the pupils and sold at a profit.\\n{2) for In the Ecole Diderot for youths from 13 to 16 a\\nariizans. gj^-^-^^j^j. general plan prevails. There is an entrance\\nexamination, which is practically competitive. The\\nmornings are spent in the class or in lecture-rooms under\\nthe care of professors in language, mathematics, chemistry\\nand physics, history, geography, design, geometrical and\\nartistic, and comptahilite. The pupil elects one modern\\nlanguage, German or English, at his discretion. A\\\\ ritten\\nreports are also required of visits to factories, and\\ndescriptions with drawings of machines and instruments.\\nThe afternoons are spent in the workshops. During the\\nfirst year a boy visits each of these in turn, gets some", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "French tcc/uiical schools 157\\nelementary knowledge about tools and their uses, but\\ndoes not select his uietier until the beginning of the\\nsecond year. Then, when he has been helped to dis-\\ncover his own special aptitude, the choice is before him.\\nThere are the forge, the engine house, the carpenter s\\nshop, the modelling room, the turning lathes, the uphol-\\nsterer s department, and the work-room in which instru-\\nments of precision are used for making electrical or other\\nscientific apparatus. When he has selected one of these,\\nhe devotes the afternoons of the remaining two years of\\nhis course to learning, under a skilled director, the art\\nand mystery of his special craft. In the workshops,\\narticles are made anci finished for the market, many of\\nthe desks, forms, and black-boards, for exami)le, required\\nin the Paris school-rooms being manufactured in the\\ncarpenter s department. In this way some part of the\\ngenerous provision made by the municipality for afford-\\ning gratuitous technical instruction is rendered back in\\nthe form of profit.\\nThe most striking feature of these two great trade The trade\\nschools is the association in them of general and ^V^^^ ^^^cxdmivel\\ntraining. There is in them no attempt to divorce \\\\\\\\2LXiA technical\\nwork from head work, or to treat the first as a substitute\\nfor the second. The girl who is to be a modiste or a\\nbrodfuse is to be that and something more. The boy\\nwho is to be a joiner or an engineer is also to know\\nsomething of literature and science. The morning of\\nevery day is devoted to intellectual exercise, and no\\npupil who fails to attend the morning classes is permitted\\nto enter the atelier in the afternoon. I think, said\\nM. Boctjuet, the very able director of the Ecole Diderot,\\nto me, that the training in art, in science, and in litera-\\nture in our morning classes is the best part of our day s\\nwork. I should not value any technical or manual", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "158\\nHa7td woi^k and head ivork\\nEduca-\\ntional\\nvalue of\\nmanual\\ntraining.\\ntraining which was carried on without it. While I was\\ntalking to him a youth brought up a design he had been\\nmodelling to shew his master. Ah said M. Bocquet,\\nI see, that has been done with your hands there has\\nbeen no head work in it. Take it back, and think about it\\na little more, and I do not doubt that you will improve it.\\nIt is in this spirit that manual training appears to me to\\nbe finding its true place in the French schools, not as a\\nnew instrument of education in rivalry with the old, but\\nas part of a rounded and coherent system of discipline,\\ndesigned to bring into harmony both the physical and\\nintellectual forces of the future workman, and to make\\nthem helpful to each other.\\nI spoke of a third view of the subject of technical\\ninstruction that which regards hand and eye training\\nper se as an essential part of human culture, apart alto-\\ngether from its value as a help in doing the business of\\nlife. The advocates of this view cite Rousseau, and\\nFrobel, and Pestalozzi, and urge with truth that the\\nbrain is not the only organ which should be developed\\nin a school; that, to do justice to the whole sum of\\nhuman powers and activities, there should be due exercise\\nfor the senses, and definite practice in the use of the\\nfingers and the bodily powers. They do not want to\\nspecialize the work of the primary school with a view to\\nthe production of economic results. One of the ablest\\nwriters on this subject, Mr James MacAlister, Superin-\\ntendent of the Public Schools of Philadelphia, puts the\\ncase clearly: The object of the public school is educa-\\ntion in its broadest sense. If industrial training cannot\\nbe shewn to be education in this sense, it has no place\\nin the public school. We have no more right to teach\\ncarpentry and bookbinding than we have to teach law\\nand medicine. The supreme end of education is the", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "Educational value of manual training 1 59\\nharmonious development of all the powers of a human\\nbeing. Whatever ministers to this end is education; what-\\never interferes with its accomplishment, no matter how\\nvaluable it is, lies outside of the province of the school.\\nI think this is the aspect of the whole controversy\\nwhich is most interesting and significant to us as teachers.\\nGrant that the Trade School and the ^J echnological Insti-\\nture are fulfilling an important economic purpose, yet they\\ndo not belong to our immediate domain. The question\\narises. Can hand work claim a place in a well-considered\\nscheme of general school education; and, if so, what place?\\nSome of the experience in the English elementary 77^^\\nschools is very significant in its bearing on this question, lydbehan\\nr 111 r 1 ihscipline.\\nIn nearly all of these schools there is an infant department\\nor class for scholars below and up to the age of 7. Up to\\n1880 the mainsubjectsof instructioninthese infant depart-\\nments were the rudiments of reading, writing, and arith-\\nmetic, with a few occasional lessons on objects, and on\\nform and colour; and the chief test of the efficiency of\\nsuch schools applied by the inspector was an examination\\nin the elements of reading, writing, and arithmetic. But\\nwhen the Code of instruction was recast in 1881, the\\nrequirements of the infant school were so enlarged as to\\ninclude not only reading, writing, and arithmetic and\\nlessons on subjects and on the phenomena of nature and\\nof common life, but also varied and interesting manual\\nexercises and employments. And since that date no\\ninfant school has been able to claim the highest rank\\nunless it satisfied the inspector in this last particular. In\\nother words, the kindergarten system and the little gifts\\nand manual occupations devised by Frobel have become\\na recognized part of the system of early training in the\\nEnglish schools. So you have marching and drill, plait-\\ning and moulding, the building \\\\\\\\y of wooden bricks in", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "1 60 Hand work and head work\\ndifferent forms, drawing, cutting little patterns, weaving,\\nand many other employments designed to give delicacy\\nto the touch, keenness to the observant powers, a sense\\nof beauty in form and colours, and the power to use the\\nfingers with dexterity and care. Teachers have been\\nspecially warned in the Instructions to Her Majesty s\\nInspectors that it is of no use to adopt the gifts and\\nmere mechanical exercises of the kindergarten unless\\nthey are so used as to furnish real training in observa-\\ntion, in accuracy of hand and eye, and in attention and\\nobedience.\\nTwo results have followed the trial of this experiment.\\nIt has been found that the infant schools have become\\nmuch more attractive to the little ones and to their\\nparents, that order is more easily obtained, and that the\\ninfant schools are happier and more cheerful places than\\nthey once were. And the other result is not less impor-\\ntant. It is seen also that children who have been thus\\ntrained pass the simple examinations in reading, writing,\\nand arithmetic, appropriate to the eighth year, not less\\nsatisfactorily and much more easily than before. The\\nwithdrawal of some of the hours of the day for varied\\nmanual occupations, so far from diminishing the chance\\nof progress in the ordinary departments of scliool instruc-\\ntion, has had the effect of accelerating that progress,\\nby means of the general quickening of intelligence and\\nincrease of power developed by the kindergarten.\\nSweden This view of the relation between manual work and\\n-^general culture may be further illustrated by what is done\\n%vork. _\\nin Sweden under the name of Slojd. There is much\\nexercise in wood-carving and in the use of tools. At\\n(Gothenburg and at Naas, manual instruction is begun at\\nthe age of ten or eleven, and the scholars are drafted into\\nthe workshops for two or three hours of every week.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "The Bnisst ls Ecolc jMocUIc i6i\\nThere is a carpenter s shop, a forge, a room for the cut-\\nting and nianipuhiting of i)aper i)atterns and oinauients,\\na painting and decoration school, and a factory for the\\nmaking of baskets, toys, and other fabrics. The object\\nof the first year s course is mainly to give to the pupil\\nnot merely general aptitude but a resj^ect for manual\\nlabour. In this way he is heli)ed in his second year to\\ndiscover his own me tier and to devote himself to it. In\\nthe words of one of the ablest writers and observers of\\ntli e system, AT. Sluys, of Brussels: The object aimed\\nat is purely pedagogic. Manual labour is considered as\\nan educative instrument, iiolding a rank equal to that of\\nother branches of the programme.\\nThere is a remarkable school in Brussels called the The\\nModel School, which i)rovides for ])upils from the aa:e of h^ ^lf,\\nModele at\\nSIX to sixteen, and gives a very efficient and liberal Brussels.\\neducation, including language, mathematics, and physical\\nscience, according to the most approved modern types.\\nIn this school the experiment has been tried of carrying\\nforward the theories of Frobel all through the classes\\nfrom the lowest to the highest. Up to six, the ordinary\\nemployments of the Kindergarten are systematically\\npursued. From six to eight, similar exercises of a more\\nartistic character, chiefly modelling, are used. From\\neight to ten, the chief employments are those, included\\nunder the general heading eartoiinai^e, the cutting out\\nand fixing of paper patterns in all sorts of geometrical\\nand ornamental forms. l- rom ten to twcKe, wood-\\ncarving is the chief employment; while in the higher\\nclasses artistic and decorative work in wood, metal, and\\nother materials is recpiired from every ])upil.\\nLet me give you, from my own evidence before a\\nrecent Royal Commission, a dcscrijjtion of what was\\ngoing on in a class of children about ten years old whom\\nM", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "1 62 Hand work and head zvork\\nI found at work in the Ecole Modele. There was a con-\\ntinuous black-board round the room; it was marked off in\\nsections, and each child stood in front, and had on a shelf,\\nclay, a graduated metrical rule, a little wooden instrument\\nfor manipulating the clay, compasses, and chalk. The\\nmaster stood in the middle of the room and said, Now\\ndraw a horizontal line five centimetres long, and he\\nwalked round and saw that it was done. Now draw,\\nat an angle of 45\u00c2\u00b0, another line three centimetres long.\\nAnd so by a series of directions he got them all to pro-\\nduce a predetermined geometrical pattern of his own.\\nNow, he said, take clay and fasten it on to the\\noutside, making of it an ornamental framework, and let\\nit be exactly such a fraction of a metre thick. They\\nworked it round with the help of the instrument. Then\\nhe said at the end, Now which of you thinks he can do\\nanything to improve it, and make it more ornamental?\\nAnd some by means of the compasses, and some by\\nmeans of the rule or by fixing pieces of clay, placed little\\nadditional decoration at the corners or round the border.\\nAt the end of the lesson every child had before him a\\ndifferent design. That was throughout an exercise, not\\nin hand work only, but in intelligence, in measurement,\\nin taste, and in inventiveness. It illustrated a real educa-\\ntional process. I should like very much to see some-\\nthing of that sort introduced into the English schools.\\nWe have not, it is true, yet advanced so far. Indeed,\\nit is observable that, even in Belgium, the school I refer\\nto is an exceptional institution, in no sense typical of the\\nordinary Communal School. But all the recent regu-\\nlations of our English Education Department emphasize\\nstrongly the importance of drawing, and offer increased\\n1 Report of Royal Coniviissioii on Education, Vol. Hi., Question\\n57,667.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "TJic Brussels Ecole Modele 163\\nencouragement to its universal adoption in our primary\\nschools. And of drawing it may at least be said, that it\\nis the one form of manual art most certainly educational\\nin its aim and character, most generally applicable to\\nall the business of life, and least likely to degenerate into\\nmechanical routine. Carpentering, work in metal, or in\\npaper, may easily, when the difficulty of handling tools\\nhas once been overcome, become very unintelligent and\\nmonotonous processes. But drawing and design afford\\ninfinite scope for new development and varied inven-\\ntion. Whatever educational value they possess at first,\\nthey continue to possess as long as they are pursued at\\nall. And this is more than can be safely said of many\\nother forms of hand work.\\nThe chief points noticeable in all these exercises are\\n(i) That they are always connected with drawing,\\nmeasurement, accurate knowledge, and some exercise in\\nthinking; and are never isolated, or simply manual.\\n(2) That they are superintended by the director of studies\\nand co-ordinated with other work, not handed over to\\nartizan specialists; and (3) that the manual exercises do\\nnot occupy more than two hours a week of the ordinary\\nschool course. They supplement the usual intellectual\\ninstruction, but are in no sense substitutes for it.\\nI found, for each of the several forms of manual F.duca-\\nexercise adopted in the Ecole Modele for modelling, ^S^^\\ntil flue nee\\nfor basket-making, for wood-carving, and for working of manual\\nmetals the teachers had been at the pains to make out\\nfrom tlie results of their experience a special tabulated\\nreport, showing the effect of the exercise on general\\npower, on the habit of attention, on order, on cleanliness,\\non the aesthetic faculty, on physical vigour generally,\\nand on manual skill. All the exercises did not profess\\nto serve equally the same purpose, but each was found in", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "164 Hand work and head zvork\\nits own way to serve one or more of these purposes in\\ndifferent degrees.\\nThe tabulated statement of the results which is here\\ngiven (p. 165) is not a little curious.\\nThe psv- Some larger principles than those affecting handi-\\ncJiologual j-jggg Qj. nianual skill are involved when we proceed to\\nreason for\\nit^ inquire whether the modern demand for hand-culture is\\na passing fashion, or whether it is to be justified by a\\nreal insight into the philosophy of education, and the\\nconstitution and needs of human nature. I think there\\nis a good answer to this question. A true psychology,\\nwhen it comes to be applied to the practical business of\\nteaching, shows us that the acquisition of knowledge is\\nnot the only means by which the human soul can be\\nenriched and the future man provided with his outfit for\\nthe business of life. His training should, of course,\\nenable him to know much that he would not otherwise\\nknow; but it should also enable him to see much that\\nhe would not otherwise see, and to do what he would not\\notherwise do. Books alone cannot fulfil this purpose.\\nIt is not only by receiving ideas, but by giving them\\nexpression, that we become the better for what we learn.\\nA thought received, and not expressed or given out again\\nin some form, can hardly be said to have been appro-\\npriated at all. We have long recognized this truth within\\nthe limited area of book-study, for we demand of our\\npupils that they shall use a language as well as acquire\\nit. But, after all, language is not the only instrument of\\nexpression. There are many other ways in which thought\\ncan find utterance. It may take the form of delineation,\\nof modelling, of design, of invention, of some product of\\nthe skilled hand, the physical powers, or the finer sense.\\nOf course, the value of any vehicle of expression depends\\nentirely on what you have to express. If the mind is", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "Educational results of uianual traiiujig 165\\nU\\naMSsaaSojd\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a25\\n.ti\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03\\n3\\nH\\n3HPS\\nc\\ns\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^3\\nc\\nC\\n4;\\n/O-\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0suii- jua sap\\nc\\nC!\\nc\\n.r4\\n3\\no\\nSaipjodJOD S3DJ0J\\nxnu puuoiiiodojj\u00c2\u00a3\\n1^\\nc\\nc\\n12\\nC\\nc\\nH-\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a231Bjpii3\u00c2\u00a7 jnanSiA ej\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a05\\nr\\nr\\nc\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03\\nr\\n2.\\ngddopApQ\\n;z\\niz;\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2liEABJj np\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03\\n3\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03 3\\nuois iAip ap sB(j\\n;z\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2snbijpujsa\\n3\\n3\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03 3\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03 3\\nJU3lunU3i3\\nPi\\no\\nOJ\\n1\\nV(U\\nc\\nMU\\n-fl\\nIT)\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a23iEipu3\u00c2\u00a7 pinnn\\ns\\ns\\nE\\n3\\nS.\\niz;\\nJ\\nJ\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2pj3jdOJ(J\\nc\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03\\n3 3\\n3 3\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2UOUD3ii03\\n3\\n3\\n3\\najpiQ\\nc\\nCT\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2sDuaSiipjuj\\n-fl\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03\\n3\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03\\nuouiiailV\\nc\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03[UJ^U.7\u00c2\u00a7\\nc\\nfl\\nr\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03\\nc\\nc\\n3|pnuuuj piajiqi^H\\nA\\n;z;\\n;z\\nu\\n7\\nbjO\\n3 ij\\nOJ\\n^=1\\ni-i o;\\nU T\\nOJ\\nL\\n6\\n-^f\\n4\\nt-l\\nC\\ne\\n^3 U\\n1-\\nt X)\\nZ\\n(L\\nu\\n:fl u\\np\\nrt\\nrt\\n3\\nc\\ng-i:\\nc\\nu\\ndj\\nrt (u\\nv-\\nv^\\n)-i\\nr^\\nH\\nX.\\nc-", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "1 66 Hand work and Jicad work\\nbarren of ideas, there can be no worthy outcome, either\\nthrough hand or voice. Ideas and materials for thinking\\nare no doubt largely obtainable from books. But the\\nstudy of form and colour is in its way as full of suggestion\\nas the study of history. The love of the beautiful is as\\ninspiring and ennobling a factor in human development\\nas the love of the true. Drawing, representation, con-\\nstruction, and decorative work are educational processes\\nas real and vital as reading and writing; they touch as\\nnearly the springs of all that is best in human character.\\nThey may have results as valuable and as far-reaching.\\nProfessor Fiske has wisely said, In a very deep sense,\\nall human science is but the increment of the power of\\nthe eye, and all human art is but the increment of the\\npower of the hand. Vision and manipulation these in\\ncountless, indirect, and transfigured forms, are the two\\nco-operating factors in all intellectual progress. We may\\nsafely admit all this, and yet not lose sight of the fact\\nthat, after all, the main factors in both art and science\\nare the intellectual power, the reflection, the number of\\nideas, the spiritual insight which lie behind the merely\\nphysical powers of vision and manipulation, and which\\ngive to those powers all their value.\\nVariety of One of the strongest arguments which justify the\\nap I lu e. j.g^gj^^ popularity of manual training is that, by means of\\nit, we are able to offer an opportunity for the development\\nof special talents and aptitudes for which there is no\\nadequate scope in the ordinary school course. Every\\nschool numbers among its scholars some who dislike\\nbooks, who rebel against merely verbal and memory\\nexercises, but who delight in coming into contact with\\nthings, with objects to be touched and shaped, to be\\nbuilt up and taken to pieces in short, with the material\\nrealities of life. And a school system ought to be so", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "\\\\xricty of aptitude 1 6\\nfashioned as to give full recognition to this fact. We\\ncannot i)ciinit ourselves, of course, to be wholly domi-\\nnated by the special preferences and tastes of indiviilual\\nscholars; but we ought to allow them fuller scope than\\nhas usually been accorded to them in educational pro-\\ngrammes. Every wise teacher knows that in the most\\nperverse and uninteresting scholar there are germs of\\ngoodness, aptitudes for some form of useful activity, some\\npossibilities even of excellence, would men observingly\\ndistil them out: and that it is the duty of a teacher to\\ndiscover these, encourage their development, and set\\nthem to work. Wc make a grave mistake if we suppose\\nthat all good boys should be good in one way, and that\\nall scholars should be interested in the same things, and\\nreach an c(pial degree of proficiency in all the subjects of\\nour curriculum. This is, in fact, not possible. Nor,\\neven if it were possible, would it be desirable. So one\\nof the strongest arguments in favour of the recognition of\\nmanual and artistic exercises in our schools is, that by\\nthem we call into play powers and faculties not evoked\\nby literary studies, and so give a better chance to the\\nvaried aptitudes of different scholars. School-boys do\\nnot always like the same things. The world would\\nbe a much less interesting world than it is if they did.\\nA school course, therefore, should be wide enough, and\\ndiversified enough, to give to the largest possible number\\nof scholars a chance of finding something which is attrac-\\ntive to them, and which they will find pleasure in doing.\\nI think, too, that a legitimate argument in favour of The\\nmore hand work in schools may be found in the fact that /f\\nby it we may, if it is wisely managed, overcome the\\nfrequent and increasing distaste of many young people for\\nmanual labour. In progressive countries there is often\\na vague notion that such labour is in some way servile", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "1 68 Hand work and head work\\nand undignified, and less respectable than employments\\nof another kind. In America, especially, this feeling\\nprevails even to a larger extent than in this country.\\nPerhaps the stimulating climate, the general restlessness\\nand eagerness with which life is carried on, the numerous\\nopportunities for rapidly acquiring wealth, have had a\\ntendency to discourage young and aspiring men and to\\nrepel them from handicrafts. There is much in our\\ncommon conventional phraseology, which implies that\\nphysical labour has been imposed on man as a curse,\\nand is a sign of his degradation.^ It is hard, under these\\nconditions, to awaken in any active-minded community\\na true respect for the dignity of labour. How is it to be\\ndone Mainly, in my opinion, by associating manual work\\nwith intellectual work; by recognizing in our systems of\\neducation that all art, even the humblest, rests ultimately\\non a basis of science, and that hand work, when guided\\nand controlled by knowledge, becomes ennobled, and\\ntakes a high rank among the liberal employments of life,\\neven among the pursuits of a gentleman. Take a single\\nexample. A century or two ago blood-letting was part\\nof the business of barber-surgeons. They were trades-\\nmen, and their trade was not one of the highest repute.\\nBut in time it came to be understood that the operation\\nof bleeding was one which ought neither to be recom-\\n1 Jeremy Taylor had learned a higher lore. If it were not for\\nlabour, men neither could eat so much, nor relish so pleasantly, nor\\nsleep so soundly, nor be so healthful nor so useful, so strong nor so\\npatient, so noble nor so untempted. God hath so disposed of the\\ncircumstances of this curse, that man s affections are so reconciled to\\nit, that they desire it and are delighted in it. And so the anger of\\nGod is ended in loving kindness; and the drop of water is lost in\\nthe full chalice of the wine; and the curse is gone (mt into a multi-\\nplied blessing. (Sermon on the Miracles of the Divine Mercy.)", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "Liviilatious to tJic value of manual exercise 169\\nmendetl nor practised by any but a properly qualified\\nsurgeon; and the art, such as it was, ceased to belong to\\na trade and became part of a profession, and in this way\\nlost all ignoble associations. And, in like manner, it is\\nargued with some truth that, when you make manual\\ndexterity and the right use of tools a part of general\\neducation, and duly connect it with a study of form, of\\nbeauty, of the properties of the materials employed, and\\nof the laws of mechanical force, you are doing something\\nto surround handicraft with new and more honourable\\nassociations, to disarm vulgar prejudice, and to impress\\nthe young with a true sense of the dignity of skilled\\nlabour.\\nSuch are some of the considerations which justify the I.imita-\\nfuller recoij;nition of finger-traininej and sense-trainins\\nclaims of\\ngenerally as parts of a liberal education. But these very manual\\nconsiderations are, at the same time, well calculated to\\nwarn us not to expect too much from such training if it\\nis not duly co-ordinated with discipline of another kind.\\nThe true teacher will not seek to make physical train-\\ning a rival or competitor with intellectual exercise, but\\nwill desire rather to make the whole training of his pupil\\nmore harmonious. He will hold fast to the belief that,\\nafter all, mental culture is the first business of a school,\\nand ought never to be permitted to become the second.\\nThe reaction from excessive bookishness, from the rather\\nabstract character of mere scholastic teaching, is, on the\\nwhole, well justified. But the opposite of wrong is not\\nalways right; and it would be very easy to make a grave\\nmistake by emphasizing too strongly the value of manual\\nexercise, and making too great claims for it.\\nWhat, after all, is the main function of the teacher\\nwho is seeking to give to his pupil a right training, and a\\nproper outfit for the struggles and duties of life? It is,", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "1 70 Hand ivork and Jiead zvork\\nno doubt, to give a knowledge of simple arts, and of\\nthose rudiments of knowledge which, by the common\\nconsent of all parents and teachers, have been held to\\nbe indispensable; but it is also to encourage aspiration,\\nto evoke power, and to place the scholar in the fittest\\npossible condition for making the best of his own faculties\\nand for leading an honourable and useful life.\\nIf this be so, we have to ask, what, among all pos-\\nsible exercises and studies, are the most formative and\\ndisciplinal. It has been before shown that, by the law of\\nwhat are called concomitant variations, there is such a\\nrelation between powers and organs, that the cultivation\\nof one leads, by a reflex action, to the strengthening of\\nthe other; you cannot, in fact, call into active exercise\\nany one power without, pro tanto, making the exercise of\\nother powers easier. But herewemust discriminate. This\\ncorrelation and this mutual interchange of forces do not\\nact uniformly. Take an example. You want, it may be,\\nto give to a large number of recruits, none of whom have\\nhad any previous practice, a knowledge of military evolu-\\ntions, the power to handle a rifle, and to do the duties\\nof camp life. Say that half of them are clowns fresh\\nfrom the plough, and the other half are men of similar\\nage who have had a liberal education. Both groups are\\nequally unfamiliar with what you have to teach, but there\\nis no doubt as to which group will learn most quickly.\\nThe clowns will need hard work to bring them into\\ndiscipline. They will misunderstand commands and be\\nclumsy in executing them. The greater intelligence of\\nthe second group will be found to tell immediately on\\nthe readiness with which they see the meaning of the\\nmanoeuvres, and on the promptitude and exactness with\\nwhich they perform them. Here the mental training has\\nbeen a distinct help to the mere physical exercise. But", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "LiDiitatLons to the value of iiianual exejxise i/i\\nit cannot be said in like manner that the handicraftsman\\nis a likelier person than another to take up intellectual\\nlabour with zest, and to be specially fitted to do it well.\\nIntelligence helps labour much more than labour promotes\\nintelligence. Nobody who knows the British workman\\nwould contend that the practice of a skilled industry\\neven though it be the successful practice has carried\\nhim very far in the general education of his faculties and\\nthe development of his full power as a man and a citizen.\\nEver since the time when Socrates paid his memo-\\nrable visit to the workshops of Athens, it has been a\\nfamiliar fact of experience that your mere workman may,\\nthough skilled, be, so far as his understanding is con-\\ncerned, a very poor creature, borne right and left by the\\ntraditions of his craft, and by rules of thumb, and with\\nvery confused and imperfect ideas about matters outside\\nthe region of his own trade. The truth is that the con-\\nstant repetition of the same mechanical processes, when\\npractice has enabled us to perform them without further\\nthought, may be rather deadening than helpful to the\\npersonal intelligence and capability of the worker. The\\nuse of tools, though a good thing, is not the highest, nor\\nnearly the highest thing to be desired in the outfit of a\\ncitizen for active life. The difference between a handy\\nand an unhandy man is no doubt important all through\\nlife; but the difference between an intelligent, well-read\\nman and another whose mind has been neglected, is fifty\\ntimes more important, whatever part he may be called on\\nto play hereafter. It is quite possible so to teach the use\\nof tools that the teaching shall have little or no reflex\\naction on other departments of human thought and\\nactivity, that it shall appeal little to the reflective, the\\nimaginative, or the reasoning power, and that it may\\nleave its possessor a very dull fellow indeed.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "1/2 Hand work and head work\\nLet us revert for the moment to the experience of\\nSocrates as it is recounted in the Apologia. I betook\\nmyself, he says, to the workshops of the artizans, for\\nhere, methought, I shall certainly find some new and\\nbeautiful knowledge, such as the philosophers do not\\npossess. And this was true, for the workman could\\nproduce many useful and ingenious things. But he\\ngoes on to express his disappointment at the intellectual\\ncondition of the artizans; their bounded horizons, their\\nincapacity for reasoning, their disdain for other know-\\nledge than their own, and the lack among them of any\\ngeneral mental cultivation or of any strong love of\\ntruth for its own sake. He thought that mere skill in\\nhandicraft and mere acquaintance with the materials,\\nand with the physical forces employed in a trade, could\\ncarry a man no great way in the cultivation of himself\\nand might leave him a very ill-educated person; that,\\nin fact, the man was more important even than the\\nmechanic or the trader, and that in order to be qualified\\nfor any of the employments of life, and to be prepared\\nfor all emergencies, mental training should go on side\\nby side with the discipline needed for the bread-winning\\narts.\\nNeedle- We have at hand some more recent experience illus-\\nwork. trating the same truth. There has been for many years\\nin our elementary schools one kind of manual and\\ntechnical work specially subsidized by the State, and\\nindeed enforced as an indispensable condition of receiv-\\ning any aid or recognition from the Education Depart-\\nment at all. I mean needlework in girls schools.\\nIt fulfils for girls all the conditions which the advocates\\nof technical instruction have in view for boys. It has\\nunquestionable utility. It affords training for eye and\\nhand. It demands attention, accuracy, and dexterity;", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "Needlework 173\\nand it has an economic value, as one of the means by\\nwhich the home may be improved, and money earned.\\nIt enlists a good deal of sympathy among managers, and\\nthe Lady Bountiful or the vicar s wife in a country village\\nis often well content to see the half of every school day\\nspent, not indeed in learning to sew, but in manufactur-\\ning garments for home use or for sale. It is thought by\\nmany good people to be the most appropriate of all\\nschool exercises for girls. It looks so domestic, so\\nfeminine, so practical. Perhaps it may seem ungracious\\nto enquire too curiously into the effect of this kind of\\nexercise upon the general capacity of the scholars and\\nupon the formation of their characters. But as a matter\\nof fact, the exercise is often dull and mechanical; it keeps\\nchildren dawdling for hours over the production of\\nresults which, with more skilful and intelligent teaching,\\nmight be produced in one-fourth of the time. The place\\nin which the work is done becomes rather a factory\\nthan a school, and measures its usefulness rather by the\\nnumber of garments it can finish than by the number of\\nbright, handy, and intelligent scholars it can turn out.\\nIn fact, it is found that proficiency in needlework may\\nco-exist with complete intellectual stagnation, and that\\nthe general cultivation of the children, their interest in\\nreading and enquiring has been too often sacrificed to\\nthe desire for visible and material results. Some of the\\nsewing is designated with curious irony, ?;/r) work, pjut\\nthere is little or no room in it for fancy or inventiveness,\\nor even for the exercise of any originality or taste. So\\nwhile fully conceding the importance of needlework as\\nan integral part of the primary education of the girls in\\nour schools, I think we are all interested in econo-\\nmizing the time devoted to this work, in seeking to\\nemploy better methods of obtaining results, and above", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "SIOJIS.\\n1 74 Hand zvork and head work\\nall in remembering that the educational value of mere\\nhandiwork is in itself very limited, and that it ought to be\\nsupplemented by other discipline if we desire to make the\\nbest of our material and to send into the world capable\\nand thoughtful women, ready for the varied duties of\\ndomestic and industrial life.\\nGeneral You will anticipate the inference, which from my own\\nconclu- point of view, as an old inspector of schools and training\\ncolleges, I am inclined to deduce from these considera-\\ntions. I entirely admit that our school instruction has\\nlong been too bookish, too little practical, and that\\nthe friends of technical instruction are fully justified in\\ncalling attention to the grave deficiencies in our system,\\nespecially to the want of sounder teaching in physical\\nscience, and of better training in the application of those\\nsciences to the enrichment of the community and to the\\npractical business of life. And we are all agreed, too, in\\nthe belief that apart from the industrial and economic\\nresults of better manual instruction, there may be in such\\ninstruction a high educational purpose, that it may tell\\non character, awaken dormant faculty, teach the better\\nuse of the senses, and increase the power of the human\\ninstrument over matter, and over the difficulties of life.\\nThis is the aspect of the problem which naturally is most\\ninteresting in the case of scholars who are not intending\\nto get their living by manual industry. Only do not let\\nus exaggerate the educational value of hand work or sup-\\npose that all our difficulties are to be solved by turning\\nour schools into workshops. Without co-ordinate intel-\\nlectual training and development, manual training will\\nonly accomplish a part, and not the highest part, of the\\nwork which lies before the teachers of the future. There\\nare necessary limitations to its usefulness and it is\\nexpedient for us to recognize them.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "General conclusions 175\\nAs to those scholars who are likely hereafter to enter\\nthe industrial ranks as the less skilled or inferior workers,\\nwe have to bear in mind some of the special disadvantages\\nwhich are conse(|uent upon modern industrial conditions.\\nDivision of labour, specialization of function in factories\\nand workshops, improved machinery, are unquestionable\\nadvantages. They are economically valuable; they\\ncheapen production, and we cannot do without them.\\nBut educationally they have a narrowing and hurtful\\neffect. A boy or girl set to mind a machine, or feed it\\nwith bobbins, a man or woman required to concentrate\\nthe whole attention on some minute detail of manufac-\\nture or some one article of commerce, fails altogether to\\nobtain that general knowledge of the whole of a trade or\\nbusiness which the obsolete system of apprenticeship\\ndemanded, and tended to encourage. He sees parts, he\\ndoes not see the whole or the relation of his own restricted\\nshare of duty to anything larger than itself. He has\\ntherefore little or no motive for trying to improve\\nmethods, or for concerning himself with the general\\nresult. There is no scope for much intelligence or for\\nany inventiveness in connexion with his labour. As\\nSir Philip Magnus has well said, Production on a large\\nscale has increased the demand for unskilled labour,\\nand has had the effect of keeping the workman to one\\nroutine of mechanical industry, until some machine is\\ndevised to take his place. Thus the very perfection\\nto which machinery has been brought has reduced the\\nhuman machine to a lower position, and has tended to\\nmake the work of the rank and file of artizans less\\ninteresting to themselves, less helpful in developing the\\nbest attributes of manhood, and less relatively important\\nas an industrial factor. Since this result is inevitable, it\\nEncyclopLcdia Britainiica. Article, Tcclmical Education.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "I jG Hand work ami Jicad ivot k\\nbehoves us to hold fast by all the means and opportunities\\nof intellectual culture, which are compatible with the\\nchanged conditions of modern industrial life.\\nThere are at least two ways in which employers of\\nlabour and others who are interested in the career of\\nmanual workers can render effective service in the\\ndirection here indicated. The first of these is to aim at\\na higher standard of general knowledge and intellectual\\ndiscipline in the schools from which technical institutions\\nare recruited, and to insist on evidence of a solid ground-\\nwork of elementary acquirement as a condition precedent\\nto the admission of any candidate into the apprentice\\nschool or the technical institute.\\nAnd a second duty is to urge, whenever possible,\\nupon each of the young people in trade and evening\\nclasses, that he should take up one subject at least it\\nmay be history, mathematics, philosophy, poetry, litera-\\nture, or a foreign language which has no direct or\\nvisible relation to his trade or to the means whereby he\\nhopes to get a living, but is simply chosen because he likes\\nit, because his own character is enriched and strength-\\nened by it, because it helps to give him a wider outlook\\nupon the world of nature, of books, and of men, and\\nbecause he may thus prepare himself better for the duties\\nof a citizen and a parent, as well as for an honoured\\nplace in the ranks of industry.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "LECTURE VI\\nENDOWMENTS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON\\nEDUCATION\\nurgot and the Encyclopi die. Charitable foundations in France.\\nAvoidable antl unavoidable evils. Almshouses. Religious\\ncharities: Tests and disqualifications. Colston s Charity in\\nBristol. The Girard College in Philadelphia. Charities\\nwith restricted objects. Doles. Illegal bequests and useless\\ncharities. Educational charities. The early Grammar Schools.\\nCharity Schools. Contrast between the educational endow-\\nments of the sixteenth and those of the eighteenth century.\\nCauses of decadence. Iniluence on the teachers. The En-\\ndowed Schools Act of 1869. Origin of charitable endowments.\\nThe ecjuitable rights of founders. The State interested in\\nmaintaining these rights. Endow ments may encourage variety\\nand new experiments but sometimes jnevent improvement.\\nConditions of vitality in endowed institutions: That the\\nobject should be a worthy one that the mode of attaining it\\nshould not be too rigidly prescribed. The Johns Hopkins\\nUniversity. Sir Josiah Mason s foundations. Supervision and\\nneedful amendment the duty of the State. Constitution of\\ngoverning bodies. Publicity. Summary of practical conclu-\\nsions. England and America.\\nIn a memorable article entitled Fondations, con- Turgot\\ntributed by Turgot to the French Encyclopi die in ^ISl ]T f\\nbut for some unexplained reason either modesty, or Xhtpcdie.\\nfear of identifying himself in too pronounced a manner\\nThis lecture was delivereil in the Pennsylvania University at\\nthe Annual Meeting uf the College Association of Philadelphia.\\nN 177", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "1 78 Riidozvuicnts and tJicir iufliicucc on Education\\nwith the enemies of vested interests not acknowledged\\nby him until many years after, there is a forcible and\\nthoughtful argument respecting endowments and their\\npractical effect. He contends that the motive which\\nleads a founder to perpetuate his own name and his own\\nnotions is often to be traced to mere vanity. The testa-\\ntor, he says, is apt to be ignorant of the nature of the\\nproblem he desires to solve and of the best way of solving\\nit. He is seldom gifted with a wise foresight of the\\nfuture and of its wants. He puts into his deed of gift\\ntheories, projects and restrictions which are found by his\\nsuccessors to be utterly unworkable. He seeks to propa-\\ngate opinions which posterity disbelieves and does not\\nwant. He takes elaborate precautions against dangers\\nwhich never arise. He omits to guard against others\\nwhich a little experience shows to be serious and inevit-\\nable. He assumes that his own convictions and his own\\nenthusiasm will be transmitted to subsequent generations\\nof trustees and governors, when in fact he is only placing\\nin their way a sore temptation, at best to negligence and\\ninsincerity, at worst to positive malversation and corrup-\\ntion. In fine, Turgot shows by an appeal to history that\\nendowments often foster and keep alive many of the very\\nevils they profess to remedy, and that instead of enrich-\\ning and improving posterity, they not seldom liave the\\ndirect effect of demoralizing it.\\nCharitable T\\\\\\\\Q fo/idafions d peipctititl which Turgot had in view\\nJo It IK a- ^yj^gj-^ \\\\^Q wrote this remarkable essay were hospitals,\\ntlOllS III J I\\nIrance. convents, religious houses, masses, academies, professor-\\nships, prizes, the encouragement of games and sports, and\\nother forms of public benefaction. He did not object on\\nprinciple to large and generous gifts for such purposes,\\nbut it was indispensable, he contended, that such gifts\\nshould be made and expended in the donor s lifetime,", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "Avoidable aud unavoidable evils 179\\nand adapted to present needs rather tlian to conjectural\\nand [)ossibly mistaken forecasts of future events. His\\nwhole argument is directed against the perpetuation of\\nrules and ordinances, not against their enactment by\\nbenefactors who coukl watch their operation and see that\\nthey were obeyed. Had he lived a century later he\\nmight have found the most striking confirmation of his\\nviews in the history of endowments in England. A few\\nof these he would have seen were of undoubted public\\nutility, but a great many existed for objects which were\\nmanifestly mischievous; others were kept up rather in\\ntiie interests of those who administered them than of\\nthose for whom the original charity was intended; others\\nwere designed as permanent remedies for evils which in\\nthe course of time had wholly disappeared; while others,\\nthough contemj)lating lawful and even laudable ends,\\nsought to attain them by means so antiquated and\\ncumbrous that they were utterly useless. In short, every\\nsuccessive generation has enriched the history of charities\\nwith new examples and new warnings. These things are\\nwritten for our instruction. They ought to enable men\\nbetter than in the age of Turgot to discriminate between\\nthe wise and the foolish, the useless and the mischievous\\nforms of charitable endowment.\\nFor example, there is no more important distinction Avoidable\\nto be kept in view by the truly charitable than that\\nbetween avoidable evils and those which are inevitable, evils.\\nPoverty and all its attendant ills belong to the former\\nclass. They cannot always be remedied. Hut within\\ncertain limits they are always ])reventable. With more\\nskill, more industry and more prudence they might in\\nmost cases have been avoided. Yet ])overty, as we\\nknow, is one of the commonest and most conspicuous\\nof human misfortunes, and it is the one to the cure of", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "1 80 Endozvmcnts and tJieir influence on Education\\nwhich charity of tenest addresses itself. A benevolent man\\nis distressed as he sees the evidences of it all around\\nhim, and he longs to alleviate it. He is unwilling to see\\nthat his gifts will probably produce more poverty than\\nthey will heal. For they may help to diminish, in the\\nclass from which the recipients are drawn, the spirit of\\nself-control and independence, and to give a new motive\\nfor idleness to the unthrifty and the vicious. It may be\\nthat in early life he has experienced the inconveniences\\nof poverty, and in later life the relief and blessing of\\ncompetence. He desires that others who have reached\\nthe later stage of their journey should enjoy, as he has\\ndone, the tranquillity and freedom from care which\\nbeseem old age. It may seem ungracious to remind him\\nthat he himself has earned his repose by strenuous exer-\\ntion and self-denial, and that it is this one fact which\\nentitles him to his r-est, and gives dignity and appro-\\npriateness to it. Yet it is needful that he should con-\\nsider this, for unless he takes many and wise precautions,\\nhis gift may be the means of preventing other men from\\nfollowing his own excellent example; and may, not\\nimprobably, be appropriated by idle and shiftless loafers\\nwho have never earned the right to honourable retire-\\nment, and in whose case old age is without dignity and\\nrepose without charm.\\nAlms- There is, for example, no form of posthumous charity\\nwhich appeals more impressively at once to the imagina-\\ntion and to the benevolent instinct than an Almshouse or\\nHome for the aged. Pope says admiringly of Kyrle, the\\nphilanthropist of his day, well known as the Man of Ross\\nBehold the market place with poor o erspread,\\nThe Man of Ross divides the weekly bread;\\nHe feeds yon almshouse neat, devoid of state,\\nWhere age and want sit smiling at the gate.\\nhouses.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "AbiisJiouses i8i\\nThis pretty picture is one which to the superficial\\nobserver is not without attraction, although it cannot fail\\nto bring into some minds the suspicion that the town of\\nRoss, after all, was likely to become the refuge of mendi-\\ncants from all the country side. However, one sees in\\nmany a town in England a quaint and picturesque build-\\ning, with its quadrangular court-yard, its many gables and\\nits chg^l, all dedicated to the repose and sustenance of\\nold peopTe, the decayed members of a trade, a guild or a\\niiiunicipality. But one enters the precincts and finds\\ntoo often a querulous and unhappy community, chafing\\nunder religious and social restraints which are foreign to\\nall their previous habits, and distracted by small jealousies\\nand quarrels. The truth is that a community of old\\npeople who have nothing in common but their age and\\ntheir poverty is a wholly artificial product of so-called\\nbenevolence. And it is not a satisfactory product, be-\\ncause it is not founded on a true estimate of the needs of\\nold age. Nature would rather teach us that the proper\\nhome for old people is among the young and the happy,\\nfrom whom, on the one hand, they may receive pleasure\\nand cheerfulness, and to whom they may in turn impart\\nwhat is best in their own experience. This view receives\\nstriking confirmation from the history of Greenwich\\nHospital, a stately institution of which Englishmen have\\nbeen for two centuries not a little proud. It occupies a\\nlordly site on the Thames. Macaulay designated it the\\nnoblest of European hospitals, a memorial of the virtues\\nof the good Queen Mary, of the love and sorrow of\\nWilliam, and of the great victory of La Hogue. Until\\nrecently this great palatial institution sheltered i,6oo old\\nseamen, who were maintained at a total annual cost of\\nabout ;({^i 25,000, or more than ^75 per man. About", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "1 82 Endoivnicnts and tJieii influence on Education\\nhalf of this sum, however, was found on inquiry to be\\nconsumed in expenses of management. The seamen of\\nthe better class were unwilling to enter the hospital\\nowing to the domestic restraints which the discipline\\nof the institution imposed, and because they were\\nunwilling to sacrifice the friendships and associations\\nof their lives. When these facts were brought to\\nlight, a measure was passed in 1865 enabling the\\nAdmiralty to offer to the sailors as an alternative to\\nresidence in the hospital a moderate pension, with liberty\\nto reside with their own relatives. The annuity was fixed\\nat ^45. The proposal was at once gladly embraced by\\ntwo-thirds of the inmates, and it is greatly preferred by\\nall the new pensioners. Since the change was made\\nthere has been considerable improvement in the health\\nof the men, and the annual death-rate has been much\\nreduced. The sum saved by abandoning the more\\npicturesque for the more prosaic and practical form of\\nbenevolence has nearly sufTficed to double the number of\\nseamen assisted by the charity.\\nReligious There are in England many endowments impressed\\nstrongly with a religious character, and designed for the\\ndouble purpose of relieving distress and of promoting\\nthe interests of the religious body to which the founder\\nhappened to belong. One need not go far to seek the\\nreasons for the existence of such foundations. A man\\nwho is earnestly attached to his own communion feels\\nhimself in special sympathy with the needs of his fellow-\\nworshippers and prefers them to any other recipients of\\nsuch bounty as he may have to bestow. What more\\nnatural than that he should bequeath gifts of clothes or\\ndoles of bread to be distributed among those who attend\\nthe services of his own church! What more reasonable\\ncharities.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "Rc/igioNS charities 183\\nthan for him to suppose that in this way he is not only\\nhelping the poor, but that he is also encouraging them\\nto feel an interest in the religious worship which he most\\napproves But soon a result occurs which he probably\\nhas not foreseen. Claimants for his bounty come to the\\nchurch and profess conformity to its creed, for the sake\\nof obtaining his gifts. I know a London clergyman who\\nfound on entering upon his duties a number of poor\\npeople regularly coming on Sunday to receive the Sacra-\\nment. This seemed to him a gratifying incident in a\\nparish in which there was a good deal of religious apathy\\nand other discouragements. He expressed to the clerk\\nhis pleasure at seeing so many poor communicants.\\nOh, sir, was the reply, of course they come for\\nthe doles. It has long been our custom to distribute\\nthe parochial charities only to those who partake of the\\nLord s Supper. i he new vicar was shocked, and desired\\nit to be made known that for the future attendance at\\nthe Sacrament would not be regarded as constituting any\\nclaim on the charities, and that absence from it would\\nbe no disqualification, but that all future claims on the\\nfund would be inquired into on their own merits, and\\nwithout any reference to church attendance. From that\\nday not one of these applicants has ever come to church\\nto receive the Sacrament. Cases like this may well\\nremind us how fatal to true religion, as well as to true\\ncharity, is any attempt to make the distribution of alms\\nserve even indirectly as a religious propaganda. All\\nbounties and premiums on the profession of belief have\\nan inevitable tendency to profane and vulgarize sacred\\nordinances, and to encourage insincere religious pro-\\nfession, if not actual hypocrisy and falsehood.\\nIn the history of civil institutions in Kncfland, ex-\\nfc tests and\\nperience has revealed to us the mischief and even the religious", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "184 Endowments and tJieir inflnence on Education\\ndisquali- profanity of religious tests. It was during a century and\\nfications. j^^j^ national scandal that the Test and Corporation\\nActs, and all the formidable penalties of the Clarendon\\nCode, made conformity to the Established Church,\\nsigning the Thirty-Nine Articles, or participation in eu-\\ncharistic services indispensable to the holding of offices.\\nOne by one all such Acts have, during the present cen-\\ntury, been repealed, and the ancient universities have\\nbeen freed from the necessity of imposing subscription\\nto the Articles or other religious tests on candidates for\\ndegrees. But although Parliament has not hesitated to\\nrectify the mistakes of its predecessors, it has always\\nshown reluctance to interfere with the legislation of\\nprivate founders, and accordingly we have seen illiberal\\nand mischievous regulations surviving in charitable insti-\\ntutions long after the good sense and practical experi-\\nence of statesmen have succeeded in removing similar\\nregulations from the Statute Book. Let me give to you\\ntwo illustrations of this assertion, the one drawn from an\\neducational foundation in my own country, and the other\\nfrom one in this city of Philadelphia.\\nColston s Early in the eighteenth century there lived in Bristol\\ncJiay^ty tn ^j^g Edward Colston, who, at his death, made large\\nBristol.\\nbequests to his native city. To this day his memory is\\nrevered by the citizens, and pious orgies in his honour\\nare annually celebrated on his birthday. Among other\\ngood works he founded a hospital-school. He was a\\nvery zealous member of the Established Church, and he\\nwas determined that his new foundation should subserve\\nthe interests of that boeiy. Tn his deed he not only gave\\norders respecting the learning of the Catechism and the\\ndiligent attendance of the children at church twice on every\\nSunday and saints days, but further ordained that the\\napprentice fee to be given to a boy on leaving school should", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "Colston and Girard 185\\nbe paid only if the master to whom he was bound was\\nin all respects conformable to the Established Church.\\nHe further ordered that in case the parents of any\\nboy in the hospital shall prevail on him to go or be\\npresent at any conventicle or meeting ott pretence of\\nreligious zuorship, or by word or action prevail with or\\ndeter any child from attending the public worship accord-\\ning to the religion established in the Church of England,\\nthen it shall be lawful for the trustees to expel such child\\nand to take away his clothing. He proceeds to add\\nseveral minatory clauses addressed to any possible future\\ntrustees who should consent to the education of the boys\\nin any but the fashion thus prescribed, it being entirely\\ncontrary to my inclinations that any of the boys should\\nbe educated in fanaticism, or in principles any way\\nrepugnant to those of the present Established Church.\\nThese ordinances were carried out in all their rigour from\\n1708 until the enactment of the Endowed Schools Act\\nof 1869, under which a scheme was framed revoking\\nmany of the trusts, and releasing the trustees from any\\nobligation to give effect to those of the founders wishes\\nwhich were plainly out of harmony with the needs and\\nthe circumstances, and, indeed, with the public con-\\nscience of the nineteenth century.\\nIn this city of Philadelphia you have a very noble and T/ie\\nrichly endowed hospital, called Girard College, which, rJ//J^l,\\nin its own way, illustrates the point now under discussion. Philadel-\\nWhen I went to visit it I was asked first if I was a^\\nminister of religion, and a copy of an extract from the\\nwill of Stephen Girard, the founder, was put into my\\nhands: I enjoin and require that no ecclesiastic, mis-\\nsionary or minister of any sect whatsoever shall ever\\nhold or exercise any station or duty whatever in the said\\nCollege, nor shall any such person ever be admitted as", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "1 86 E7idoiv})icnts and their influence on Education\\na visitor within the premises appropriated to the said\\nCollege. Now it is quite certain that if such an ordi-\\nnance as this had at any time been enacted by the State\\nlegislature, or laid down by a Court, it would have been\\nrepealed long ago. Common sense, right feeling and\\nexperience would have shown its absurdity. JBut because\\nStephen Girard is beyond reach, and there are no means\\nof consulting him and convincing him of its absurdity,\\nand because the superstition which attaches inordinate\\nsacredness to founders intentions is prevalent in the New\\nWorld as well as in the Old, whatever evil he may have\\ndone by this ordinance of his is practically irremediable.\\nAnd I suppose this splendid foundation will for years to\\ncome be deprived of the services and the sympathy of\\nmany persons whose aid would be much valued by the\\ntrustees if they were at liberty to invoke it; and that\\nregulations will continue to be in force which are a stand-\\ning and public insult to all the ministers of religion,\\nand which will cause thousands of children at the most\\nimpressionable period of their lives to be alienated not\\nonly from communion with Christian Churches, but\\nfrom religion itself.\\nCharities It frequently happens that a fund is left with strict\\nf injunctions that it shall be applied for ever to a very\\nobjects. limited purpose; and in due time the fund is augmented\\ntill its amount is out of all proportion to the need it is\\nintended to supply. I know a village in England to\\nwhich a former inhabitant bequeathed the rent of a small\\nestate with directions that it should be annually spent in\\ngifts to the poor widows of the parish. Time went on, a\\nvaluable vein of brick earth was found on the estate, the\\nannual income was increased nearly ten-fold; but the\\npopulation of the village remained stationary. That is\\nto say, it would have remained so but for an extensive", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "Doles 1 8;\\nimmigration of widows from the neighbouring towns and\\nvilla ^es, who have contrived to dislocate all the social\\narrangements of the little parish, and to introduce into it\\na disturbing and not always reputable element. The\\ntrustees were embarrassed, and after a long time sought\\nrelief from the Legislature, with power to enlarge and\\nvary the trusts. But this was a strong and very unpopular\\nmeasure; the claimants technically entitled under the\\nfounder s will, though as a class they were probably\\nlowered and demoralized by his gifts, loudly proclaimed\\ntheir right to receive them; and long before the trusts\\nwere altered grave evils had arisen, and the whole\\ndistrict had learned to look on the endowment as a\\ncurse rather than a blessing.\\nDole funds and small charities for distribution among Doles\\nthe poor have been very favourite forms of benevolence,\\nand they are to be found in hundreds of English parishes.\\nEverywhere they are the despair of the clergy and of all\\nwho have the real interests of the labouring class at\\nheart. These gifts, it has been repeatedly shown, pau-\\nperize the people and destroy their sense of shame.\\nOne witness adds: The poor people spend more time\\nlooking after such gifts than would suffice to gain the\\nsame sums by industry. In a remarkable speech, in the\\nHouse of Commons, in 1863, Mr Gladstone said: The\\ndead hand of the founder of an annual dole does not\\ndistinguish between the years of prosperity among the\\nlabouring classes and years of distress: in prosperous\\nyears it leads those who are not in need to represent\\nthemselves to be so; it holds out annual hopes to im-\\nprovidence, it more frequently excites jealousy and ill-\\nfeeling than good-will, both on the part of the recipients\\ntowards the distributors of the charity, and among the\\nrecipients themselves. For one person who receives", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "1 88 Endowments and their injlnence on Edncation\\nsubstantial benefit from these doles, many feel their\\ndemoralizing effect.\\nIt would be an endless task to enumerate the various\\nforms of charitable endowment which subsequent experi-\\nence has shown to be either useless or positively harmful.\\nOne man provides a house for lepers and an estate the\\nincome of which is to be devoted for ever to the mainte-\\nnance of that house. Another bequeaths a large sum\\nfor the redemption of prisoners taken captive by pirates\\non the Barbary coast. Now it is plain that when it\\ncomes to pass that there are no lepers to be found in the\\ncountry, and that Barbary pirates have ceased to infest\\nthe Mediterranean, there arises the need for some new\\ndisposition of the testator s bounty. But long after that\\nday arrives it is found that there are persons concerned\\nmore or less with the administration of the fund, and\\ninterested in its continuance, who plead that perchance\\nthe evil provided against by the founder may re-appear,\\nand that meanwhile it is a sin and sacrilege to divert\\nthe fund to objects which he did not specify.\\nlUegaland There are some forms of posthumous gifts which,\\nuse ess tenderly as the English law regards the will of testators,\\nare nevertheless held to be illegal and inconsistent with\\npublic policy. A sum of money bequeathed to pay the\\nfines of offenders under the game laws was held to be an\\ninvalid charity, because it directly encouraged a breach\\nof the law. Another bequest providing funds for the\\npolitical restoration of the Jews to Jerusalem, to their\\nown land, was ruled by the judges to be illegal, because,\\nif carried into effect, it was calculated to create a revolu-\\ntion in a friendly country and to embroil the English with\\nthe Ottoman Empire. At the Reformation, and after-\\nwards, many statutes were enacted declaring void all gifts\\nfor superstitious uses, a term which has been variously", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "Illegal and useless charities 1 89\\ninterpreted within the last three centuries, according to\\nthe degrees of toleration prevalent at the time, but which\\nstill extends in England to masses, and to prayers for\\nthe dead. On the other hand, so great a sacredness has\\nattached in England to the intentions of founders, that\\nmany bequests have been accepted and scrupulously\\nobserved, which nevertheless it would obviously be the\\ninterest of the community to reject. A foundling hospital\\noffers a direct encouragement to illegitimate births. A\\npermanent dole fund tempts poor people to falsehood or\\nto exaggeration, and its very existence diminishes one\\nof the motives of thrift and self-restraint. An apprentice\\nfund which was once well adapted to the industrial needs\\nof the community continues to exist long after the system\\nof apprentice premiums has been abolished in ordinary\\ntrade. Such funds are found in practice to furnish in\\ndisguise a charitable dole to certain parents and to be\\nof no service whatever in qualifying children to become\\nskilled artizans. At a small village in Yorkshire I found\\nan endowment of nearly ^Tiooo a year carefully ad-\\nministered in precise accordance with the will of the\\nfounder, who two hundred years ago had enjoined his\\nexecutors to see that the letter R, the initial of his own\\nname, should be conspicuously embroidered on the dress\\nof all the recipients of his bounty. His injunctions were\\nstill obeyed. Three old men, three old women and\\ntwelve boys walked about the village thus decorated, in\\npious remembrance of their venerated founder, and on\\nhis birthday listened annually to a sermon extolling his\\nmerits. In all these, and hundreds of similar cases,\\nendowments characterized from the first by vanity, by\\nwant of true foresight, and by their tendency to aggravate\\nthe very evils they profess to remedy, have been per-\\nmitted to survive whatever of usefulness they originally", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "190 Endoiv 111 cuts and their iiifliience on Education\\npossessed. Eripiiur persona, manet res. The property\\nremainSj the short-sighted regulations of a past century\\ncontinue in force; but the intelligent direction, the spirit\\nof genuine philanthropy which would probably have\\nmodified these regulations, has disappeared, and the\\nmen of this generation are half reluctant, half unable to\\nfind an effective substitute for it.\\nEduca- But it is in regard to the history of education in\\ncharities England that some of the most remarkable and instruc-\\ntive lessons have been furnished to us as to the working\\nof the principle of endowment. Here, at least, we seem\\nto be in a region in which there is less danger of abuse.\\nPoverty, destitution, crime, are, it may be admitted, evils\\nthat may be fostered and increased by gifts which are\\nclumsily designed to prevent them. But ignorance is an\\nevil which admits of a remedy, and which he who suffers\\nfrom it cannot always remedy without help. Nobody\\nvoluntarily becomes ignorant in order that he may share\\na gift intended to provide him with knowledge. In\\nestablishing universities or schools for the young, and\\nin providing instruction of a quality which the parent\\nwould be unable to procure for his children, the pious\\nfounder would seem at least to be on safer ground, and\\nto be in a position to render a real service to his country.\\nAnd as a fact, some of the noblest foundations in England\\nare its universities and public schools. They have, on\\nthe whole, originated in higher motives, and their\\nfounders have been animated by a more enlightened\\nperception of the public interest than charities of almost\\nany other kind. But a brief glance at their history\\nwill show that even here the incurable vices that are\\nwont to breed in all foundations have thriven hardly\\nless than elsewhere stagnation, corruption, negligence,\\nand a fatal incapacity to adapt themselves to the", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "The early Grammar Scliools 191\\nchanged circumstances and needs of successive genera-\\ntions.\\nThe ancient grammar schools of England owe 77ie early\\ntheir origin mainly to the Tudor period. Before the\\naccession of Henry VIII there were but thirty-five such\\ninstitutions in England, including Eton, Carlisle and\\nWinchester, and a few others, which had been founded\\nas chantries, or were otherwise connected with ecclesias-\\ntical establishments. But it was the dissolution of the\\njnonasteries which at once gave the impetus to the\\nestablishment of such schools, and furnished the means\\nof sustaining them. And it is a fortunate circumstance\\nfor England that the same event which set free large\\nresources for these special uses happened to coincide\\nwith the revival of learning, with the Protestant Reforma-\\ntion and with the quickening of intellectual energy and\\nof the spirit of inquiry throughout the land. During\\nsuccessive generations, down to the period of the Civil\\nWar, nearly eight hundred grammar school founda-\\ntions were created. One uniform purpose is manifest in\\nthe testaments, the deeds of gift and the early statutes\\nby which the character of these schools was intended to\\nbe shaped. It is to encourage the pursuit of a liberal\\neducation founded on the ancient languages then the\\nonly studies which had been so far formulated and\\nsystematized as to possess a disci plinal character. It is\\nalmost invariably stipulated in the instrument of founda-\\ntion that the master is to be a learned man; that he\\nshall be apt and godly, qualified to instruct in good\\nletters and good manners; and that he shall receive as\\nhis pupils children of all ranks.\\nBut it is notable that by the end of the seventeenth Charity\\ncentury a great change seems to have come over the\\nminds of testators and benevolent ])eople in regard to", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "192 Endoivmeiits and their influence on Education\\nthis matter of education. The endowed schools, which\\now^e their origin to this period, aim no longer at the\\ngeneral diffusion of a liberal education, or at the en-\\ncouragement of all classes in the common pursuit of\\nknowledge and culture. They are for a limited number\\nof the poor, but for the poor alone. They are designed\\nrather to repress than to stimulate intellectual ambition;\\nand, consciously or unconsciously, they were adapted\\nless to bring rich and poor together than to set up new\\nbarriers between them. There has been no period of\\nour history in which the social separation of classes has\\nbeen more marked and more jealous than at the begin-\\nning of the eighteenth century. The disappearance of\\nthe last vestiges of feudalism, under the legislation of\\nCharles II and of William, synchronized with the steady\\ngrowth among the upper and middle classes of a kind of\\nsocial and religious conservatism, which was none the\\nless strong because the legal securities for its mainte-\\nnance were passing away. The Act of Uniformity had\\nbeen designed to crush out Dissent. The Toleration Act\\nof the next generation was in fact a legal admission that\\nthis design had failed, and that Nonconformity was a\\nforce which must now be recognized. To the resolute\\nChurchmen of the beginning of the eighteenth century,\\nto such men as Edward Colston, of whom I have already\\nspoken, and Robert Nelson, the author of the Fasts\\nand Festivals, this was a sad and ominous fact, and\\nthey and their friends sought to neutralize its effect by\\nmore diligent teaching of the liturgy and formularies of\\nthe Church of England in schools for the poor. The\\nprevalence of Dissent, it w^as feared, would imperil the\\nsocial order. A fear lest the poor should be encouraged\\nby it to forget the duties of their station and to encroach\\nupon the privileges of the rich is very evident in much", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "Later educational endoivuuiits 193\\nof the literature and some of the legislation of the age.\\nAnd there is no more significant token of the changed\\nfeeling with which the rich had come to regard the poor\\nthan the simple fact that, whereas in the sixteenth\\ncentury Englishmen founded grammar schools, in the\\neighteenth they founded charity schools.\\nSchools of the latter class rapidly multiplied during Contrast\\nthe last century and the beginning of the present. They\\nthe eauca-\\nare founded on a conception of education partly religious Honal en-\\nand partly feudal, but almost wholly ignoble and humili- wt-w/^\\nof the\\nating, and some of them exist to our own day in ^ixiKin^ sixteenth\\ncontrast to the grammar school foundations of earlier\\noj the\\ngenerations. The charity school children were to hQ eighteenth\\nsedulously discouraged from learning more than was sup-\\nposed to be necessary for the discharge of the humblest\\nduties of life. But the scholars in the grammar schools\\nwere either to be the sons of gentlemen, or were to be\\ntreated as such. They were to be brought within the\\nreach of the highest cultivation that the nation can\\nafford; they were to be encouraged to proceed from\\nschool to the universities; and special provision was\\nalways made to tempt into this higher region of learning\\nand gentleness the child of the yeoman and the peasant,\\nin order that, if quickwitted and diligent, he too might\\nbe trained up to serve God in Church and State.\\nYet upon nearly all these institutions alike the curse\\nof barrenness seems to have fallen. An official investi-\\ngation, in which it was my duty to take an active share\\nin 1865, extended over the whole country and revealed\\nthe fact that nearly all these schools, whether designed to\\nfurnish a liberal education, or only to give to the hewers\\nof wood and drawers of water the humble training\\nsupposed to be needed in order to fit them for the\\nmeanest duties, were in a lamentnble state of decay and\\no", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "194 llndoivments mid the 17 inJliLcnce on Edncation\\ninefficiency. The body of testimony obtained by the\\nSchools Inquiry Commission is especially conclusive\\nin regard to the endowed Grammar Schools. The build-\\nings and school furniture were, in a majority of cases,\\nmost unsatisfactory; the number of scholars who were\\nobtaining the sort of education in Latin and Greek con-\\ntemplated by the founders was very small, and was\\nconstantly diminishing; the general instruction in other\\nsubjects was found to be very worthless, the very existence\\nof statutes prescribing the ancient learning often serving\\nas a reason for the absence of all teaching of modern\\nsubjects; and, with a few honourable exceptions, the\\nendowed schools were found, in 1865 7, to be character-\\nized by inefficient supervision on the part of the govern-\\ning bodies and by languor and feebleness on the part of\\nteacljers and taught. I know no more melancholy chapter\\nin English history than is supplied by the ponderous\\nvolumes of the Schools Inquiry Commission. It is a\\nhistory of great resources wasted, of high hopes frus-\\ntrated, and of means and plans wholly unsuited to the\\nends proposed to be attained.\\nCauses of When the causes of this decadence came to be\\ninvestigated, it was found that much of it was owing to\\nthe faulty constitution of the trusts. Some were close\\ncorporations of private friends, with power of perpetual\\nrenewal by co-optation; some were small bodies of\\nvestrymen; others were municipal or trading companies,\\nwholly destitute of educational experience. In some the\\ntrustees were too remote from the place to have any\\nvital interest in the welfare of the charity; in others they\\nwere so closely identified with the town or village that\\nthey were incapable of taking a general view of the\\ninterests of the whole district and of its educational\\nwants. In all, they were isolated from each other, self-\\niecadence.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "Injinoicc on the teachers 195\\n4\\ncontrolled, and often practically self-constituted, without\\nmotive for activity, or any external aid or guidance as\\nto the form which a wise activity should assume. The\\nmasters generally held freehold offices and were practi-\\ncally not removeable, even for serious inefficiency, with-\\nout costly litigation. Above all, the governing bodies\\nwere in every case hampered by traditions, by founders\\nwills and statutory provisions, which they could not\\ncarry out if they would, but which effectually prevented\\nthem from making any organic improvement.\\nAnd the pressure of the dead hand on the teachers Influence\\nwas not less heavy. One can understand and respect Jy^J^._^\\nthe position of a schoolmaster who takes his stand\\nresolutely J- vias aniiquas, who refuses to be beguiled\\nby modern innovations into a neglect of the clearly\\nexpressed will of the school founder, and who steadfastly\\nnarrows his own aims in the direction of an ideal of\\nscholarship, which he has learned from Ascham, from\\nMilton, or from Busby. And one may view, not with-\\nout respect, though perhaps with less sympathy, the\\nteacher who, finding the ancient grammar school theory\\nhopelessly untenable, determines to disregard it alto-\\ngether, and to lay himself out to meet the importunate\\nand not always intelligent demands of a restless and\\nmercantile age. But the saddest part of the experience\\nof the Commissioners appears to have been the discovery\\nthat four-fifths of the endowed schools were fulfilling\\nneither the one purpose nor the other; and that the\\nwhole machinery, while in some cases producing positive\\nmischief, by occupying the ground and preventing the\\nestablishment of good modern schools, was even in the\\nbest cases yielding results sadly inadequate to its costli-\\nness, and unsuited to the educational wants of the com-\\nmunity for whose benefit it was designed.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "196 Endoivments and their injluejice on Education\\nThe These evils have been to a large extent remedied.\\nScliods revelations of the Schools Inquiry Commissioners\\nAct of led, in 1869, to the establishment of a new Executive\\ni8bg. Commission, with large powers to alter the schemes of\\ninstruction, to reconstruct the governing bodies, to set\\nfree funds for providing scholarships and exhibitions,\\nand generally to bring the endowed schools into harmony\\nwith modern needs. But it required a very drastic and\\nrevolutionary Act of Parliament to effect this an Act\\nwhich shocked many prejudices, and was passed not\\nwithout difhculty; which came into rude conflict with\\nmany venerable and touching local associations, and\\nwhich could not in fact have been enacted at all had not\\nthe evils of the old state of things become intolerable.\\nThe Commission which reported in 1894 furnished\\nample evidence of the beneficent effect of this Act and\\nrecommended the continuance and even the enlargement\\nof the powers possessed by public authority to remedy\\nsuch evils. It showed, too, that the public was being\\nreconciled, far more than it was in 1869, to the freer\\nhandling by the- State in regard to ancient trusts. But\\nthis occasional legislation is not that which a wise states-\\nman prefers, or contemplates with any satisfaction. It is\\nnot by the periodical removal of a mountain of accu-\\nmulated abuses, but by such prudent provisions as shall\\nprevent abuses from accumulating that the true interests\\nof the body politic are best secured. And we shall be\\nhelped to understand the nature of those provisions if\\nwe look a little further into the origin and the practical\\nworking of endowments generally.\\nOrigin of It were to inquire too curiously, to peer into the\\nciaritable j^Q^-jygg in which endowments originate. Mr Lecky\\nendow- _\\nmenis. in his History of European Morals has shown that in\\nvery early Christian ages the substitution of devotion for", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "Origin of charitable cndozvnients igy\\nphilanthropy generated a belief in the expiatory or meri-\\ntorious nature of eleemosynary gifts. A love of what\\nmay be called selfish charity arose, he says, which\\nassumed at last gigantic proportions, and exerted a most\\npernicious influence upon Christendom. Men gave\\nmoney to the poor simply and exclusively for their own\\nspiritual benefit, and the welfare of the sufferer was alto-\\ngether foreign to their thoughts. And it must be owned\\nthat Christian teachers in all ages have done much to\\nencourage the belief that almsgiving and charitable\\nfoundations were a profitable form of investment. Spare\\nnot, says Sir Thomas Browne, when thou canst not\\neasily be prodigal, and fear not to be undone by mercy;\\nfor since he who hath pity on the poor lendeth unto the\\nAlmighty rewarder, who observes no ides but every day\\nfor his payments, charity becomes pious usury. Christian\\nliberality the most thriving industry, and what we adven-\\nture in a cock-boat may return in a carrack to us. He\\nwho thus casts his bread upon the waters shall surely find\\nit again. Considerations of this cynical kind have been\\nurged with more or less of insistence upon rich people\\nin all ages, and have been found so potent, especially in\\nthe near approach of death, that society, notwithstanding\\nits general approval of charity in all its forms, has been\\ncompelled in its own defence to enact from time to time\\nlaws of moriniain, forbidding the permanent alienation\\nof lands to quasi-religious or charitable uses within a\\nyear before the donor s death. But when once the gift\\nhas taken legal effect the English law, and still more the\\nI^nglish custom, have always been in favour of treating\\nwith special sacredness and reverence the intentions and\\ndispositions of the giver. And thus it would seem that,\\nwe actually elevate to the rank of legislators a body of\\n1 Religio MeJiii.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "198 Endowments and their infinence on Education\\nmen who have had no other qualification to exercise\\nsuch a function than is represented by the accident that\\nthey had money to dispose of. Much of the education\\nof England, and many of its most important public and\\nsocial interests have, during many centuries, been domi-\\nnated by a code of laws which has never been deliberately\\nsanctioned by the legislature, but is the creation of a\\nnumber of amateur statesmen, few of whom possessed\\nmuch political foresight, and most of whom were destitute\\nof any strong sense of reponsibility to the public. Yet\\nit is to this parliament of dead men, self-constituted,\\nheterogeneous and sometimes incompetent, that we have\\nbeen accustomed to pay as much deference and to assign\\nas much real power as to King, Lords and Commons\\nput together. We have dealt more tenderly with its\\ncaprices, we have sought more anxiously to interpret its\\nutterances, and we have been in far greater dread of over-\\nruling or revoking its decisions. The explanation of the\\ndeep-rooted instinct which underlies this policy is not far\\nto seek. It is the name of benevolence which beguiles\\nour judgment. We have a natural but rather vague\\nimpression that charity, almsgiving and provision for the\\nignorant or the helpless are very sacred things, and it is\\nexceedingly difificult for us to look with fresh eyes on the\\nquestion whether after all there is any real sacrifice or\\nself-denial in trying to control the expenditure of our\\nmoney when it is no longer in our power to enjoy it.\\nSays the Duke to Claudio,\\nIf thou art rich, thou art poor;\\nFor, like the ass whose back with ingots bows,\\nThou bearest thy heavy riches but a journey,\\nAnd Death unloads thee. 1\\nBut this is precisely the arrangement to which many\\n1 Measure for Measure, ill. i. 25.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "Equitable rigJits of founders 199\\na charitable founder declines to submit. He refuses to\\nbe unladen by death of his wealth or of the influence\\nwhich wealth gives. He will not leave his successors at\\nliberty to use their own discretion as to the disposal of\\nwhat will fall to their share, but claims to control it\\npermanently, and thus to purchase a quasi-immortality\\nfor himself. He is more concerned to erect a big, im-\\npressive institution which may loom large in the eyes of\\nposterity and bear his name than to enquire what is the\\nwisest and most effective way of providing educational\\nor other help for those he most desires to benefit. In a\\nsense not contemplated by the Apostle, charity is thus\\noften made to cover a multitude of sins.\\nIt is often argued that a man has a right to do what 7//^\\nhe will with his own, whether what is his own has become\\nJ rights of\\nso by inheritance or by acquisition. Grant, it is ^2i\\\\Qiy founders.\\nthat it is for the public interest to leave the privilege of\\nbequest unfettered in relation to children or private\\nfriends, and you are equally bound to concede that right\\nin respect to any public objects which the testator may\\nprefer. There is, however, an important distinction here.\\nIf a man leaves money to me, or even if he leaves me\\nonly a life interest in an estate, I am at least at liberty\\nto spend the income as I will. If, in bequeathing an\\nincome to me, he also prescribed minutely the way in\\nwhich I should spend it if, for example, he desired that\\nI should employ the whole revenue in the purchase of\\ncoats of a particular cut and pattern, with his initials\\nembroidered on the collar, I should probably decline to\\naccept the legacy. But when the community or some\\nsection of it is the legatee, it is always assumed that it is\\nbound to accept the gift, and to observe as a sacred trust\\nall the conditions, however fanciful, which the giver has\\nchosen to impose. Endowments come to the public on", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "200 Endowmejits and tJieir injiueiice on Education\\na condition which never applies to private benefactions\\nat all; viz., on the condition that the beneficiaries shall\\nspend the annual income in the way prescribed by the\\ngiver. In both of these cases he exercises the very reason-\\nable right of nominating his successor. But in one case\\nhe does more than this, for he not only names the public\\nas his heir, but he undertakes to determine for all future\\ntime, the mode in which the revenue of his estate shall\\nbe expended. There is, in fact, no analogy between a\\nprivate gift or bequest on the one hand, and a permanent\\nendowment for a public purpose on the other. Nor\\nwould the equitable conditions of the two kinds of\\nbenevolence admit of fair comparison, unless the State,\\nas representing the community, which is after all the\\nlegatee supposed to receive the advantage of the benefac-\\ntion, asserted for herself the twofold right which belongs\\nto every private legatee (i) To judge for herself whether\\nthe conditions attached to the gift are such as to make it\\nworth acceptance; and (2) to spend the income of the\\nendowment in the way which she deems best for her\\nown interest and for meeting her own needs.\\nThis second condition, of course, cannot in practice\\nbe fulfilled without undermining the foundation of en-\\ndowments altogether. If it were, and not until it were\\nfulfilled it would be possible to apply the same reasoning\\ninforo conscientice to the validity and sacredness of private\\nand of public bequests. But as a matter of fact and of\\nhuman experience, all civilized States are found in dif-\\nferent degrees willing to accept gifts from dying men, and\\nto give to the provisions of their deeds of gift the force\\nof law. It is needless to discuss the question of natural\\nright in this case. Probably if we could look on the\\nquestion with eyes purged rom all prejudice and consult\\nNature herself, she would reply that no man has a right", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "TJie interest of tJie State in endowments 20 1\\nto do more than administer such resources as he pos-\\nsesses; and that when he ceases to live he ceases to be\\na fitting director of the expenditure derived from pro-\\nperty, and ought to leave the control of that expenditure\\nto his heirs, or, failing heirs, to the community as repre-\\nsented for the time being by its responsible government.\\nWe may, however, leave to speculative philosophers the\\ndiscussion of the question. How far is the power of\\ndistribution by bequest based on natural right? For\\npractical purposes we know that this power is the creation\\nof law and of expediency, and that all civilized States\\nrecognize it and protect its exercise. It is, therefore,\\nopen to us to consider, on grounds of expediency and\\nexperience only, what are the reasons which justify\\nStates in thus protecting the privilege of bequest, and\\nwithin what limits, if any, that privilege should be\\nrestricted.\\nIt is obvious, in the first place, that the State is The State\\ninterested in encouraging the acquisition of property. _\\nAlmost every man who succeeds in amassing a fortune tainiu^\\nby honourable means must, in the act of amassing it, ^]^l^j\\nhave put forth power and exercised virtues which have\\nhelped to enrich the State. The whole community is\\nconcerned to diminish the temptation to idleness on the\\npart of its members, and to put all reasonable bounties\\nand premiums upon those efforts by which wealth is\\naccumulated. And among such bounties and premiums,\\nthe legal right to make a man s wishes operative after his\\ndeath, and so to secure, what we all value, a little share\\nof posthumous influence, a small fragment of immortality,\\nis one of the most effective. Apart, therefore, from all\\nconsiderations respecting the ultimate value of a gift to\\na beneficiary, it is certain that the power to dispose of\\nproperty is itself a great incentive to accumulation, and", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "202 Endozvments and their i)ifluence on Education\\nis one which, in her own interest, the State does well\\nto provide.\\nWe have all, as citizens, a further motive for giving a\\nreasonable encouragement to public benefactions. It is\\ngood that a man should care about some larger interests\\nthan those which concern his own person and family.\\nThese last have, no doubt, the first claim upon him; but\\nunless his sympathies extend further, he is a poor creature,\\nand unworthy to be the inheritor of great benefits and\\ngreat traditions. Our debt to parents cannot, of course,\\nbe fully paid to parents; the largest part of it must be\\npaid to those towards whom in time we shall occupy the\\nplace of ancestors. This is Nature s provision for the\\ntransmission of nearly all that is good in the world.\\nGratitude to one s predecessors must in practice be\\nshown by acts which will excite the gratitude of our\\nsuccessors. And the legal sanction given to endowments\\nis one mode of keeping alive this feeling of moral obli-\\ngation to posterity, this recognition of the fact that each\\nhuman being is a link by which what is best in the past\\nshould be united with what shall be still better in the\\nfuture. Without such recognition mankind would slowly\\ndegenerate. If there be a man who thinks that, as soon\\nas he has done with the .world, it matters not what\\nbecomes of it, the sooner the world has done with him\\nthe better. The enthusiasm of humanity, which is\\nthe product of the Christian faith, and the sense of duty\\nto posterity which Comte inculcated and which forms\\none of the cardinal items in the Positivistcode, arealike\\nin this, that they seek to awaken in man some solicitude\\nabout the future of his race, and some desire to have an\\nhonourable share in the moulding of that future. All\\nour polity, legal and social, all our history and all our\\nexperience ought gradually to deepen and enlarge this", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "Eiidoivniciits encourage neiv experiuients 203\\nsense of obligation towards posterity. If it be not deep-\\nened and enlarged, then Christianity and civilization\\nalike fail to fulfil their purpose.\\nApart from the moral influence on national character Eudow-\\nand on the spirit of citizenship, which may be maintained ^y\\n_ _ encourage\\nby preserving the right of endowment, there is a practical variety,\\nadvantage which we cannot overlook. The tendency of\\nall improvement is towards differentiation, not to urn- tnenfs.\\nformity.^ Every nation is interested in encouraging new\\nvarieties of enterprise and new forms of experiment in\\nregard to the solution of its public problems. An auto-\\ncratic government seeks to mould all institutions after\\none of^cial pattern; undertakes to deal with such matters\\nas railways, poverty, education and religion in accord-\\nance with a fixed plan, and thus pj o tan to discourages\\nall private initiative. But the government which best\\nsuits free men welcomes the co-operation of all citizens\\nin efforts for social amelioration. It has no horror of\\nfads and crotchets and new types of institutions. It\\nknows well that the originality and inventiveness of pri-\\nvate citizens make up a large part of the public wealth;\\nand that out of experiments, which at first appeared to\\nbe useless, and even ridiculous, some of the most valu-\\nable results have grown. J. S. Mill has said Since trial\\nalone can decide whether any particular exi)eriment is\\nsuccessful, latitude should be given for carrying on the\\nexperiment until the trial is complete. For the length\\nof time, therefore, which individual foresight can reason-\\nably be supposed to cover, and during which circum-\\nstances are not likely to have so totally changed as to\\nmake the effect of the gift entirely different from what\\nthe giver intended, there is an obvious propriety in\\n1 See aute, p. 106.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "204 E7idowments ajid their iiifliience on Education\\nabiding by his disposition. Within the probable limits\\nof human foresight, the more scope that is given to the\\nvarieties of human individuality, the better.\\nBut so7ne- The energetic plea of Mr Mill for endowments as a\\n^to ^revent of perpetuating new, original, possibly eccentric\\nimprove- and unpopular, but ultimately valuable forms of public\\njuenL benevolence and educational activity would be more\\nweighty if his argument had not been tested in England\\nby centuries of experience. It was my duty to examine\\nand report upon upwards of one hundred endowed\\ngrammar schools before the great reform of 1869, and\\ntheir most notable feature was their curious sameness.\\nWhatever was striking and novel in the original concep-\\ntion of the founder had long ago disappeared; but the\\nrestrictions remained in full force. The founder s direc-\\ntions that the instruction should be confined to Latin\\nand Greek had the effect of furnishing a reason why\\nnothing else should be taught; but in very rare cases did\\nthey have the effect of teaching even those languages\\nwell. The dead hand everywhere repressed originality,\\ndiscouraged all effort on the part of teachers to get out\\nof the groove; but in no case was it an instrument of\\nimprovement. Variety, enterprise, freshness, enthusiasm,\\neven eccentricity, are all of them, in their way, potent\\nfactors in the improvement of education. We cannot\\nafford to dispense with them. The more we can have of\\nthem the better. But sad experience leads us to con-\\nclude that none of these have been produced by endow-\\nments. There is nothing more monotonous than the\\nroutine practised by mere pedants, who are repressed\\nand hampered by statutes and ordinances to which\\nthey must pay a nominal respect, but which it is now\\nJohn Stuart INI ill, Dissertations, Vol. I v. p. 6.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "Conditions of vitality 205\\nimpossible to obey either in the spirit or the letter. For\\nhowever enlightened the view of the founders may have\\nbeen relating to the needs of their own contemporaries,\\nthe very fact that those views are embodied in statutes\\nand ordinances renders them difficult if not incapable\\nof modification when new and unexpected circumstances\\narise. Hence come stagnation, rigidity and a sort of\\ndull decorum, a disposition to rest rather upon the\\ntraditions of the past than upon any obligations to the\\npresent or the future; a vague notion that in some way\\nan ancient foundation is a more respectable institution\\nthan one which has to assert its own right to recognition\\nby making itself useful to the present generation. And\\nall these influences combine to produce, not the variety\\nof type which is held in such just esteem by Mill and\\nother abstract thinkers, but a dead level of monotony.\\nWith the teaching of history for our guidance, what Condition\\nare the conditions under which charitable foundations\\ncan best be made to fulfil their highest purposes and to dowed in-\\nbecome blessings rather than curses to posterity? \\\\Ve\\ncannot repress the instinct which leads founders to endow\\ninstitutions. A wise statesman would not do so if he\\ncould. Nor can we safely put any hindrances in the way\\nof new experiments either in philanthropy or education.\\nBut we can deduce from past experience a few practical\\ninferences; and so may be helped to guard against the\\nrecurrence at least of some of the more serious evils\\nwhich seem to be inherent in all fondations a perpetiiite\\nunless due precautions are taken.\\nThe first condition to be filled is that the object or That the\\npurpose of the gifts should be such that it is for the public\\nshould be\\nadvantage that they should be received. The communi ty a worthy\\nas a whole should in fact exercise the same risht that\\nbelongs to any private legatee, the right to decline", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "206 Endowments and tJieir injlnence on Education\\nany gift which is clogged by unsuitable and unworkable\\nconditions, or which is designed for a useless object.\\nPrivate persons, as I have said, can, if a bequest be made\\nto them, choose either to accept or to reject the gift. The\\nState is the only legatee which is ready to accept in the\\nname of the community any gift, and to enforce the pro-\\nvisions of any trust, whether such acceptance is or is not\\ndesirable m se. We need, therefore, clear conceptions as\\nto the kind of gifts which the public are interested in\\nreceiving and those which it would be wiser for the public\\nto reject. All gifts which purport to redress the evils of\\npoverty or improvidence need to be received with much\\ncaution and misgiving. The provision of funds for the\\npropagation of the testator s opinions by means of preach-\\ning, lectures, publications or other forms of intelligent\\npersuasion are legitimate enough, but all forms of charity\\nwhich even indirectly operate as rewards or bribes for\\nholding or professing such opinions are clearly mis-\\nchievous. Charities, limited as regards their future and\\npermanent destination to founder s kin, or to the in-\\nhabitants of a particular district, are apt to lead to litiga-\\ntion and other practical evils. But gifts for the blind,\\nfor the sick, for the deaf, for the aged; endowments for\\npublic instruction in the form of schools, libraries, pro-\\nfessorships and the encouragement of research; provision\\nfor public recreation in the form of parks, playgrounds,\\npicture galleries and museums all precautions, in short,\\nagainst evils and disadvantages which those who suffer\\nfrom them did not bring upon themselves, and which,\\ntherefore, are not likely to be aggravated by the existence\\nof an endowment, are legitimate, and will, under right\\nconditions, always be acceptable gifts to a well-ordered\\nThat the c\u00c2\u00b0m \u00e2\u0084\u00a2i y-\\nmode of But the true value even of such legitimate provision", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "The Johns Hopkins University 207\\ndepends entirely on the mode in which it is made. The attainiiv^\\nfirst condition of a useful endowment is that the end it^ -oui\\nnot be too\\npurposes to attain is a worthy one, and conducive to the rigidly\\npublic advantage. But the second is no less important.\\nIt is that the means and machinery by which the end is\\nto be attained shall not be too rigidly prescribed. Unless\\nthis second condition be fulfilled it is to little purpose\\nthat we secure the first. And in practice, the second is\\nmore rarely attained than the first. It is far easier to\\nhave a clear vision as to the worthiness of an object than\\nto forecast the best of the many different ways by which\\nthat object may be accomplished. Now and then we\\nare fortunate enough to receive gifts from testators who\\nhave had the wisdom to recognize this fact and to leave\\nlarge liberty to their successors to adapt their regulations\\nto future needs. Let me choose two examples of this\\nenlightened liberality, one from each side of the Atlantic.\\nFrom an admirable address by President QAXxsxd^w The Johns\\nbefore the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore I take iJll/J -i\\nthis extract sity.\\nJohns Hopkins devoted his fortune to a University\\nand to a Hospital, intending that as far as medical educa-\\ntion was concerned, the two institutions should be the\\nclosest allies, but he did not prescribe the conditions\\nunder which these two ideas should be developed. He\\nknew that the promotion of knowledge by charity would\\ncall for very large outlays in all future generations, but in\\nplanning for the remote as well as for the present, he was\\nsagacious enough to perceive that methods must change\\nwith changing circumstances, and he left to the trustees\\nall the freedom which was requisite for the administration\\nof their work, consistently with adherence to the noble\\npurposes which he had in mind. He provided with\\nequal liberality for the promotion f an educational", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "2o8 Etidowments and their influence on Education\\nfoundation of the highest name, and for a medical\\nfoundation, where the utmost skill should be employed\\nin the alleviation of bodily infirmities. But the mode\\nin which these establishments should be organized he\\nleft to the wisdom of others.\\nSir Josiah The second example I shall cite is that of Josiah\\n1 asons ]\\\\/[jjgQj^ tl^e eminent and successful manufacturer in\\njounaa-\\ntions. Birmingham, who devoted a large part of his fortune\\nto public objects. Perhaps I may, without egotism, best\\ntell his story by an extract from my own evidence given\\nin 1886 before a Committee of the House of Commons,\\ncharged with the duty of enquiring into the working of the\\nCharitable Trusts Acts and the Endowed Schools Acts.\\nThe questioner was Mr C. S. Parker, a distinguished\\nmember of the Parliamentary Committee\\nEvidence 1435- Speaking generally, should you say that since 1869 very\\nbefore great public benefit has been conferred by the revision of educa-\\nLomnnttee endowments by public authorities Enormous public bene-\\nof the\\nHouse of fit, I should think.\\nCof?imons 1 436- Vou are aware, of course, that there have been some\\non educa- strong objections made to that kind of interference; for instance,\\nf* in such interference there has been necessarily much free hand-\\ndowments.\\nling of the endowments, has there not much change of the pur-\\nposes to which they were directed Yes, no doubt, and alteration\\nof the trusts under which the governors were bound to carry on the\\nwork of a school.\\n1437. within certain limits departures horn founders in-\\ntentions Necessarily.\\n1438. There is one general objection made, that such depar-\\nture from founders intentions has a direct tendency to discourage\\nsimilar foundations for the future; should you say, from your expe-\\nrience, that there is such a result from this public revision of endow-\\nments I should say that the modern interference with the trusts\\nestablished by founders has probably had the effect of discouraging\\nsome of the more selfish and ostentatious forms of endowment, those\\nwhich the public is least interested in receiving. But I have no\\ndoubt that it has given a very remarkable impulse to all the truer and", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "Sii^ JosiaJi Mason 209\\nwiser forms of endowment; and perhaps the best proof of that is to\\nbe found in the fact that there never have been in the history of Eng-\\nland, as far as I know, such large bequests and gifts to public pur-\\nposes as within the last few years, and since the Charitable Trusts\\nActs and the Endowed Schools Acts have been in full operation.\\n1439. If I understand you rightly, your view is, that with the\\nbest class of founders, so far from discouraging, this public super-\\nvision positively encourages them to spend their money in endow-\\nments Certainly, I think the best proof of that is, as I have just\\nsaid, the very large number of munificent gifts and bequests that\\nhave been made within the last few years.\\n1440. Could you give any striking instances to illustrate that\\nstatement I may refer to the Peabody Trust that was not, it is\\ntrue, for education, but for a very large public purpose then tliere\\nwere Sir Joseph Whitworth s scholarships then there is the muni-\\nficent foundation of Mr HoUoway, at Egham and there are the very\\nremarkable institutions founded by Sir Josiah Mason, at Birmingham\\nto say nothing of the large number of splendid gifts that have been\\nmade to the Universities since University legislation has been in\\nprogress. If the chairman will permit me I should like to mention\\none circumstance which seems to me very significant in relation to\\nthe question of the honourable member. In 1869, when I was\\nengaged on a special Parliamentary inquiry into the condition of\\neducation in Birmingham, the late Sir Josiah Mason said he should\\nlike to show me over his orphanage, which he had then very\\nrecently founded, and he described to me on that occasion the very\\nbountiful provision he had made for the future maintenance of this\\ninstitution. He also told me what schemes he then had in his mind\\nfor the endowment of the great Science College which has since\\nbeen established. I said to him then Are you not afraid of leaving\\nsuch large bequests to posterity when you see the modern tendency\\nto overhaul and revise the wills of founders He replied That\\nis the very reason why I feel such confidence in leaving these sums\\nof money. If it were not that public authorities are likely to Ije\\nvigilant and to correct any mistake that I make, and to take care\\nto keep these institutions in full working efficiency, I should feel\\nvery much hesitation in leaving such large sums to my successors.\\nIt was in this spirit that in the following year, 1870, he introduced\\ninto his deed of foundation for the Science College this provision\\nProvided always, that it shall be lawful for the said Josiah Mason at\\nP", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "210 Eiidozvments and tJieir infitiejice on Education\\nany time during his life, and after his decease for the trustees, within\\ntwo years after the expiration of every successive period of fifteen\\nyears, to alter or vary the trusts or provisions herein contained in\\nall or any of the following particulars. Then he enumerates every\\none of the particulars, except the general object of the foundation,\\nnamely, the improvement of scientific instruction. The obvious\\nintention of this was to take care to provide for the periodical\\nrevision and modification of every one of the ordinances and arrange-\\nments which he had laid down, stipulating only that the main\\nobject of the foundation should be kept in view. I do not want to\\nattach too much importance to a single incident, but I think it\\nsignificant that this clause occurs in the deed which he executed in\\nthe year 1870 for the Science College, and does not occur in the deed\\nwhich he executed for his orphanage in the year 1868. It was\\nexactly within that interval that all those public discussions and\\nrevelations went on in reference to the abuses of ancient endow-\\nments and the propriety of revising the founders wills.\\n1441. So you think it reasonable to infer that he was partly\\nguided in his latter will by the wish to see public revision from\\nexperience of its benefits That is certainly the impression I gained\\nfrom the history of his endowments and from what he said to me.\\n1442. Do you think that that would be the case with many en-\\nlightened and intelligent founders, that they would be more disposed,\\ninstead of being less disposed to give their money, if they thought\\nthere would be future public revision? With all the wisest and\\nmost truly benevolent founders, I think it would.\\nBut dispositions of this kind are only made when to\\nbenevolent instincts are united wisdom, forethought, and\\nmodesty. And this is a rare combination. You cannot\\nexpect it in all testators, or in very many of them. And\\nsociety must, when these are wanting, take its own\\nmeasures to supply a substitute for them.\\nSuper- Hence, whether the testator provides for the revision\\nof his ordinances or not, it is absolutely necessary that\\namend- his institutions should not be permitted to survive their\\nment, the usefulness and to cumber the ground. To this end the\\nduty of the\\nState. State should have the power to do what in his un-", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "Constitution of govcrniiig bodies 211\\navoidable absence it may be presumed that the testator,\\nif he were as benevolent and wise as we like to think\\nhim, would himself have done had he lived, i.e., revise\\nhis ordinances and adapt them to the changed condition\\nof society. It is a poor compliment to a departed bene-\\nfactor to assume that, if now living, he would be less\\namenable to the teaching of experience or less anxious\\nto meet the actual wants of the present than he was in\\nhis own time, or than we are in ours. His means and\\nmethods, therefore, should both be subject to periodical\\nreconsideration, and, if necessary, to resolute and drastic\\nreform. And so long as the general object and purposes\\nof a foundation presuming that it is in itself a worthy\\none is kept in view, the adaptation of new and improved\\nmethods of attaining that object, is the most honourable\\ntribute posterity can pay to a founder s memory; because\\nit is the only condition on which the vitality and useful-\\nness of his charity can be preserved.\\nBut the most important of all the securities for the Cointitu-\\nefificiency of foundations is the provision for a good and^ ^J\\n_ _ govermng\\nresponsible governing body. It is to the wrong constitu- bodies.\\ntion of the governing bodies that more than half of the\\nevils of endowments have been due. A testator confides\\nthe administration of his fund to a small group of trustees,\\nwith power to fill up vacancies as they occur. By this\\nprocess of co-optation or self-election, the body becomes\\nyear by year more narrow, whatever of party exclusive-\\nness belongs to the original trustees becomes stereotyped\\nand rendered permanent, and the trust becomes more and\\nmore completely out of sympathy with the public and\\nless conscious of responsibility. In fact, it is not un-\\ncommon to hear the members of such governing bodies\\nspeak of the fund they administer as tJieir property, and\\nof the right which they have to administer it in their own", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "212 Eiidozvments and their injiueitct on Education\\nway and without interference. In no European country\\nknown to me, except England, is such an arrangement\\nlegally possible. In France, e.g.^ a bequest for a public\\npurpose, whether local or national, must be confided to\\nthe care of a municipality, a university, or some public\\nbody known to the law and responsible to it. It is not\\nlawful to create a perpetual private trust.\\nIn England, governing bodies composed of various\\ningredients have been found to work best and to be most\\ncongenial to the spirit of our national institutions. Expe-\\nrience has shown that the staple of a good governing\\ncouncil should be provided by members appointed\\nfrom time to time by election or by responsible public\\nauthorities who represent the interests of the several\\nclasses for whom the benevolence was designed. The\\nbody thus formed should have the power of adding to\\nits own number a limited contingent of outside members,\\nknown to possess special knowledge or special interest\\nin the objects of the charity. Co-optation, as we have\\nshown, is mischievous when it applies to the whole of\\na body, or even to the majority of it, for then it may\\ncause trustees to degenerate into a narrow clique. But\\nco-optation when it affects only a minority among trustees\\nmost of whom are themselves the product of popular or\\nofficial selection is only an indirect form of representative\\ngovernment, and often has the effect of strengthening a\\ntrust by enlisting in its management the services of\\nvaluable members, who might not for various reasons\\nhave been candidates for popular election.\\nFinally, one of the main safeguards which modern\\nlegislation has in England sought to provide, though as\\nyet it has only provided it imperfectly, is that of publicity.\\nIt has been found indispensable that every endowed in-\\nstitution should annually publish its accounts, and that", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "Practical Conclusions 213\\nthere should be a periodical and public record made of\\nits efficiency and of the kind and amount of public work\\nwhich it is actually accomplishing. Whatever difference\\nof opinion may exist on the abstract right of the\\nGovernment as the representative of the community to\\ncontrol an endowment and to override the intentions\\nof founders, there can at least be no room for doubt\\non one point: the community for whose benefit the\\nendowment has been designed has in its capacity of\\nlegatee the strongest interest in learning what use is\\nmade of its inheritance, and an unquestionable right to\\nknow it.\\nSuch, then, are the antiseptics by means of which, in Summary\\nEngland, it has been found that endowments, especially\\nthose of an educational character, can be kept sweet and elusions.\\nwholesome and without which abuses and corruption are\\ninevitable. They are undoubted public usefulness in\\nthe object; elasticity in the means; periodical revision,\\nand, if needful, reconstruction of the scheme of adminis-\\ntration; responsibility of governors and trustees to the\\ncommunity for whose benefit the gift was intended;\\nample publicity and constant vigilance. In fine we need\\na full recognition of two principles: (i) that the endow-\\nment exists only for the benefit of the community and\\nhas no other right to exist at all, and (2) that the State,\\nas the supreme trustee of all endowments, has the right\\nthough in a cautious and reverential spirit to make, from\\ntime to time, such changes in the destination and manage-\\nment of charity estates as the experience of new social\\nneeds and circumstances may show to be necessary,\\nand in this way to secure for that community the full\\nbenefit of what has been bestowed on it.\\nI am speakinsr in a land which cannot vet have S-^\\nexperienced the mischief attendant on ancient charitable America.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "214 Endowments and their injlitejice on Education\\nfoundations, but which possesses in a high degree all the\\nmaterials out of which such foundations are constructed\\nopulence, public spirit and an honourable desire to be\\nremembered by posterity and to do service to it. In\\nEngland the man who amasses great wealth often sets his\\nheart on founding a family, on getting a large landed\\nestate and on taking a permanent place for his posterity\\namong the territorial aristocracy. But in this country\\nthe possessor of a colossal fortune often conceives the\\nmuch nobler ambition of founding some great institution\\nfor the public benefit, and so of perpetuating his name.\\nI do not presume, in a country whose traditions and\\nexperience are so different from those of England, to\\noffer any counsel to the recipients of such gifts. But\\nI have thought it possible that this brief record of a few\\nof our English experiences might serve some useful\\npurpose even here. At any rate, some of the main con-\\nclusions which I have ventured to enforce are applicable\\nto both the Eastern and the Western hemispheres, to the\\ntwentieth century as well as to the sixteenth. They are\\nbriefly these First, That the intellectual and social\\nwants of each age differ, and always must differ, from\\nthose of its predecessors, and that no human foresight\\ncan possibly estimate the nature and extent of the\\ndifference. Next, That the value of a gift for public\\npurposes depends not on the bigness of the sum given,\\nbut upon the wisdom of the regulations and upon the\\nelasticity of the conditions which are attached to the gift\\nand Finally, That every institution which is to maintain\\nits vitality, and to render the highest service to successive\\ngenerations of living men should be governed by the\\nliving and not by the dead.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "LECTURE VII\\nASCHAM AND THE SCHOOLS OF THE\\nRENAISSANCE\\nThe Modern English school the product of growth, not of manu-\\nfacture. The influence of religion. Greek served to shape tlie\\nCreeds and theology. But Latin more studied and valued by\\nthe Church. The revival of Greek learning nut due to the\\nChurch. Pre-Keformatiun Grammar Schools. Roger Ascliam.\\nThe Scholemaster. Aschain s royal pupils. His experience\\nin Italy. St Paul s School. Examples of Sixteenth Century\\nStatutes. Chester, Manchester, Louth. Choice of masters.\\nThe scheme of Study. Details of the Grammar School cur-\\nriculum. Disputations. Hours of .Study and of Teaching.\\nVacations. Punishments. Payment of fees. No provision\\nfor Girls education. The Grammar School theory. How\\nshould it be modilied by later experience How much of it\\nshould survive\\nIn further illustration of the debt we owe to the\\nfounders of ancient educational endowments, it may be\\nwell to enquire a little into the state of England at the\\ntime of the revival of learning and immediately before it.\\nWe may do this in p:irt by considering in a little detail,\\nthe life and doings of one typical English scholar, Roger\\nAscham.\\nBefore attempting this task we must observe that the\\neducational institutions of England, like its political J/^^\\ninstitutions, and its vocabulary, have been the product of school a\\n215", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "2i6 AscJuxni and the Schools of the Retiaissancc\\nproduct of long historical development, have grown out of the neces-\\n}^io7t ti no jjjgg ^j^^ experience of our forefathers, and have shaped\\npj /name-\\nfacturc. themselves from time to time in conformity with that\\nexperience. They have become what they are by a\\nprocess of growth and evolution, not of manufacture.\\nWe cannot point to the period when they originated, or\\nto any. thinker or statesman who may be said to have\\ncreated them. VVe have no Code Napoleon, nothing in\\nour history analogous to the foresight of John Knox, who\\nfounded the parish school system of Scotland and made\\npossible that connexion between the primary schools nnd\\nthe Universities which still exists. We cannot name a\\nStatesman like Stein or Falk in (lermany who has orga-\\nnized the whole system of public instruction, nor liad we\\nat any time such provision as that made by the Puritan\\nfathers of the New England States, or by the framers of the\\nAmerican Constitution for setting apart for ever land and\\nresources for the maintenance of the common schools.\\nOur system, if so it maybe called, is the resultant not of\\nany statesman s or philosopher s insight into the future,\\nbut mainly of tradition and accident. It has not the\\nsymmetry and completeness of the Swiss or German or\\nFrench system; and its history is a record of anomalies\\nand compromises, of adaptations to the wants and theories\\nof the hour rather than of large and comprehensive\\nstatesmanship. It were idle to regard this as a thing to\\nboast of, on the one hand, or to be ashamed of, on the\\nother. Iwery nation has its own idiosyncrasy, and must\\nsolve its problems in its own way, and in accordance\\nwith its own genius and traditions. And the luiglish\\ngenius it must be owned is not one which lends itself\\nreadily to constitution making, to the framing of a\\nphilosophical scheme either of government or of educa-\\ntion. It i)roceeds cautiously and tentatively. In slowly", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "TJie influence of religion 2 1 7\\nbuilding its constitutional system it seeks to add what is\\nnew to the best of what is old; and it is not ashamed or\\ndisappointed when the resulting edifice is found to be\\nrather rambling and shapeless in design, so long as it is\\nroomy and convenient.\\nAnd so it has come to pass that the history of educa- 77ie injlu-\\ntion in this country is closely associated with the history ^ff\\nreligion.\\nof religion, and still bears traces of the influences which\\nprevailed when the chief object of all instruction was to\\nfit men for the service of the Church. Before the Refor-\\nmation, when such educational advantages as were acces-\\nsible were the privilege of rich men or of priests there\\nwere mainly two forms of discipline, that of the cloister,\\nand that of the castle or the manor house. The young\\nsquire or nobleman was sufficiently educated if he could\\nride and hunt, and was skilful in athletic exercises and\\nin the arts of w^ir. Very little book knowledge was\\naccessible to the country gentleman, or would have\\nseemed desirable either to society or to himself. Scott\\nmakes the Earl of Douglas express a very prevalent dis-\\ntrust of book learning when he said of young Mar-\\nmion.\\nAt first in heart it liked me ill,\\nWhen the King praised his clerkly skill;\\nand added,\\nThanks to St Bothan, son of mine,\\nwSave Gawain, ne er could pen a line.\\nGawain was designed for the priesthood. The very word\\nclerk with its ambiguous modern meaning may re-\\nmind us that the power to write was once considered\\nthe special prerogative of the clergy and of those edu-\\ncated in monasteries.\\nIndeed it is plain that the whole theory of classical Greek\\neducation is closely connected with the relations in", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "2i8 AscJiani and tJic Schools of the Renaissance\\nshape the which the Greek and Latin tongues have stood in early\\nIheolo v^^^ times to the intellectual, scientific, and spiritual life of\\nChristendom. The treasures of Jewish literature as\\nfound in the Old Testament, and the Greek Gospels\\nas found in the New, furnished the equipment of the\\nearly Christian Church. Greek was, so to speak, the\\nmother tongue of the Church. St Paul wrote in it;\\nthe Founder of Christianity spoke a dialect of it; the\\nChurches which were first established in Europe were\\nGreek religious colonies. The first Councils of the\\nChurch were conducted in that language, and, when\\ncreeds were first formulated, they, and the speculative\\ndiscussions out of which they arose, took their shape\\nfrom the Greek language and Greek forms of thought.\\nThe translation of the books of the Old Testament into\\nGreek was one of the earliest tasks of the Christian\\nfathers. The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius were\\nwritten in Greek, and for several centuries jurisprudence\\nwas the only branch of learning which was cultivated in\\nLatin.\\nBut as the influence of the Church extended farther\\ninto the ^V^estern world Latin became more and more\\nstudied. From the time when Pope Damasus com-\\nmissioned Jerome to examine and correct such Latin\\nversions of the Gospels as then existed, and to revise\\nthe Septuagint version of the Old Testament, and thus\\nto produce the authoritative version of the whole Bible\\nwhich is known as the Latin Vulgate, the language of\\nancient Rome gradually became dominant, Latin\\nschools were numerous among the Western nations, and\\nHallam thinks that a knowledge of Latin was more\\ncommon by the end of the twelfth century than it had\\never been before. And it is to be observed that this\\nlanguage was the basis of mediceval education, not merely", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "Revival of Greek learning 219\\nbecause of the beauty or worth of the ancient Roman\\nliterature, which was thus made intelligible to a later age,\\nnor because of its value as an intellectual gymnastic, nor\\nindeed because it was regarded as the best mode of\\nobtaining a thorough command of a modern tongue, but\\nbecause it was the common language of educated people\\nthroughout Western Europe the language, to a large\\nextent, of philosophy and science and even of commerce,\\nbut chiefly the language of religious worship and instruc-\\ntion, enforced by authority as the one visible and most\\neffective means of securing the unity of the Church.\\nDuring a long period the study of the ancient Greek But Latin\\nauthors of Plato and Aristotle was greatly disregarded. J%f//^^J\\nThe fears entertained by Gregory the Great of the pos- andvalued\\nsible dangers of secular learning and of heathen specula- ;V^^\\ntions were largely shared by his successors, and from the\\ntwelfth to the fourteenth centuries the Latin which was\\nlearned in the monasteries and schools was not classical,\\nbut a debased form of language, written and spoken for\\npractical purposes for conference, or for ecclesiastical\\ncontroversy, by persons who were mainly indifferent to\\nliterary form. It was not till a later date that Dante s\\naffectionate homage to Virgil, and Petrarch s efforts to\\nresuscitate a taste for the great writers of the Augustan\\nage, helped to make classical Latin again an object of\\ngeneral study, especially in the Universities of Northern\\nItaly.\\nAnd, with the revival of an interest in the master- The\\npieces of Roman literature, there soon came under the ^JJ^\\ninfluence mainly of Italian scholars, and towards the end learning\\nof the fourteenth century a corresponding awakening J^ ^^J^\\nof desire to study the philosophy and the poetry of Greece.\\nIt took another century before this revived interest in\\nletters reached our own land, and it is to Luther in", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "220 Ascham and the Schools of the Renaissance\\nGermany, and to Erasmus and his friends and associates\\nin England, that we must attribute the zeal for classical\\nscholarship which we generally associate with the Renais-\\nsance in Western Europe. With these men however\\nit was no indifference to religion, nor any relapse into\\nheathenish modes of thought, which led them to the\\ncourse they took. In their case it was a profound belief\\nthat the interests of true religion would be well served\\nby sounder and more generous education. Luther says,\\nin his famous letter to the burgomasters of Germany:\\nWhen first God sent the apostles throughout the world, He\\ngave tliem the tongues also. Aye and beforehand, l)y the Roman\\nrule, lie had spread the Greek and Latin tongues in all lands, tliat\\nHis Gospel might bear fruit far and wide. So hath He done now.\\nNo one knew to what end God was bringing forth the tongues\\nagain, till now it is seen that it was for the Gospel s sake. As\\nwc hold the Gospel dear then, so let us hold the languages fast. If\\nwe do not keep the tongues, we shall not keep the Gospel. As\\ntlie sun to the shadow, so is the tongue itself to all the glosses of\\nthe Fathers. Ah, how glad the dear Fathers would have been if\\nthey could have so learned Holy Scripture.\\nx-^nd Erasmus too, whose profound spiritual enthusi-\\nasm furnishes the key both to his educational reforms and\\nto his pitiless satires, makes his well-known Colloquies\\nthe vehicle for denunciations against the corruption of\\nthe Church, and shows in other ways that he regarded\\nthe light which learning could throw upon religious and\\nScriptural studies, as of far more importance than the\\nelegancies of scholarship, or of mere literary style.\\nIndeed there was a fundamental difference between\\nthe educational theory of Erasmus and that of Ascham\\nand his fast friend Sturm of Strasburg. The former\\nsought to treat Latin as a living language, and to make\\nhis scholars speak and think in it. But Sturm and\\nAscham regarded it of chief importance to aim at", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "Latin the tang it age of tJic CJiurcJi 221\\nelegance in the choice and use of Latin as a vehicle\\nof literary expression. And while Melancthon, Luther,\\nand Sturm in Germany, and Erasmus, Ascham, Cheke,\\nColet, and Smith, in England, were in very different\\nways urging the claims of Greek and Latin scholarship\\neither as instruments of general cultivation and as aids\\nto religious reform, the Jesuits resolved to fight heresy\\nwith the same weapons, and the schools which they\\nestablished on the Continent differed mainly from others\\nin their insistence on Latin as the great factor in educa-\\ntion, to the practical exclusion of Greek. As Mr Charles\\nParker says in the Essays on a Liberal Education\\nThey (the Jesuits) knew but one end, the interests of the\\nCliurch; one sacred text, the Vulgate; one Breviary, the Roman;\\none will, their General s. So in their schools, they would have hut\\none spoken language, Latin; one style, that of Cicero; one theology,\\nthat of Aquinas; one philosophy, that of Aristotle, read in Latin\\ntranslations and interpreted when possible by Aquinas. All this\\nwas matter of obedience. Read, write, speak Latin, was one rule.\\nImitate Cicero, was another. An independent style might foster\\nindependent thought, which might possibly ripen into independent\\naction. Every class spoke Latin, every class read Cicero for jirose,\\nand Virgil for verse. Three classes learned grammar, the fourth\\nhumanity, and the fifth rhetoric. The study of Latin was mainly\\ndirected to the formation of an eloquent style to lje used in the\\nservice of the Church.\\nIt must be added that the rules laid down by the\\nJesuit fathers in the jRatio Studionnn contain many wise\\nand valuable suggestions about methods of teaching, and\\nmay still be studied with advantage by those who desire\\nto make Latin an effective instrument of literary culture.\\nBut schools of this type, founded by the zeal of the\\nfirst members of the Society of Jesus, after the establish-\\nment of that society by Loyola in 1540, were, though\\ncommon in Germany and France, unable to find a foot-\\ning in England. The Reformation and the revival of", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "222 Aschatn and the Schools of the Renaissance\\nGreek learning combined to give a definite and peculiar\\nlocal character to the educational foundations of the\\nsixteenth century in England. Winchester and Eton had\\nbeen founded by William of Wykeham and by Henry VI.\\nrespectively. Both were ecclesiastical foundations, with\\nprovision for choristers and chaplains, a warden and\\nfellows and were rather designed to be communities\\nof adult and youthful scholars than schools in the modern\\nsense. A connexion was established between Eton and\\nKing s College, Cambridge, and between Winchester and\\nNew College, Oxford. Of the other foundations anterior\\nto the sixteenth century, the greater part were attached\\nto cathedral or other religious foundations.\\nPrc-Refor- Mr A. T. Leach in his interesting and laborious\\nmation researches into the history of g^rammar schools has\\nGrammar\\nSchools. shown that before the Reformation there were many\\nsuch schools connected with cathedrals, chantries,\\nmonasteries, hospitals, and guilds of various kinds,\\nbesides a few founded by private benevolence. Under\\nthe Protector Somerset many of these, especially those\\nwhich came within the provisions of the Chantries Act,\\nwere dissolved, rather on religious grounds, because in\\nthe view of the Parliament of Edward VI. superstitions\\nand errors were taught in them, than with any desire to\\ndiscourage or impoverish general education. It was at\\nleast the ostensible design of the Edwardian legislation\\nto promote learning rather than to encourage a few men\\nto spend their time in saying masses and singing psalms.\\nA Royal Commission was formed in this reign to secure\\nthe continuance of ancient grammar schools on another\\nfooting, but it is clear from Mr Leach s investigations\\nthat this measure was not always effective, and that in\\nthe process of reconstruction and in the attempt to free\\n1 Leach s English Schools at the Keforniation.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "Roger AscJiam 223\\nthe grammar school from ecclesiastical influence, much\\nvaluable property was lost or alienated from education,\\nand some abuses crept in. Latimer loudly complained\\nthat the Act for the Continuing or Re-forming of the\\nGrammar Schools had not been properly carried into\\neffect. But now many grammar schools be taken, sold\\nand made away to the great slander of you and your\\nlaws, to the grievous offence of the people, to the most\\nmiserable drowning of youth in ignorance, and to the\\ndecay of the Universities.\\nPerhaps the best and most characteristic example oi Roger\\nthe new influences which helped to shape the educational\\nideals of the sixteenth century is Roger Ascham, a scholar,\\na man of affairs, an adherent of the reformed faith, as\\nwell as a tutor and lecturer. He was born in Yorkshire\\nin the year 1515. He came of an ancient and substantial\\nfamily, entered the University of Cambridge at what was\\nthen the not unusual age of fifteen, and, after a very\\nhonourable academic career, was admitted to a fellowship\\nat St John s College. He became a college lecturer,\\nread Greek publicly in the University, and was chosen\\nPublic Orator. He also filled the office of instructor in\\nthe learned languages to the Princess Elizabeth, after-\\nwards queen, in whose favour he remained until his\\ndeath in 15 68, During three years, from 1550 to 1553,\\nhe served as secretary to Sir Richard Morysine at the\\ncourt of the Emperor Charles V., and in this capacity\\nacquired the experience which was afterwards recounted\\nin his Report and Diseoiirse of the Affairs and State of\\nGermany. In his absence he was appointed Latin\\nSecretary to Edward VL an office which he continued\\nto hold during the two subsequent reigns. It is much\\nto the credit of Mary and of Bishop (Gardiner and\\nCardinal Pole that Ascham, though he adhered to the", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "224 Asc/iam and the Schools of the Renaissance\\nReformed faith, retained his Latin secretaryship through\\nher reign.\\nThus his life presented unusual and very varied\\nopportunities of acquiring knowledge respecting the\\nsocial and intellectual movements of his time. That\\ntime was, both in the political and the religious spheres,\\none of unusual activity and unrest. The capture of\\nConstantinople by the Turks had caused the dispersion\\nof many scholars, some of whom fled to Italy, and be-\\ncame famous teachers, especially of the Greek language\\nand literature. In this way a desire for learning had\\nspread into Europe, and some of the more eminent\\nEnglish scholars Sir John Cheke, Grocyn, Linacre,\\nSir Thomas Smith, Latimer, Warham, and Grindal,\\nafterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, Dean Colet, the\\nfounder of St Paul s School, and Lyly its first head-\\nmaster. Sir Thomas More, and Erasmus became the\\npioneers of the revival of classical learning in England.\\nWith nearly all of these Ascham was intimate. They\\nhad, like himself, visited Italy, and studied Greek under\\nprofessors there. But it is remarkable, and not wholly\\naccidental, that the Renaissance was coincident with the\\nReformation, and that the group of scholars and thinkers\\nwith whom Ascham was associated were all greatly\\ninfluenced by the teaching of Luther, and by his de-\\nnunciations of the negligence and corruption into which\\nthe Roman Church of that day had fallen. The dis-\\nsolution of monasteries, and the introduction of Greek\\nteaching in the English Universities, were parts of the\\nsame movement which made the sixteenth century so\\nmemorable for the emancipation of the intellect of\\nEurope and for the beginnings of English literature.\\nThe love of learning, and freedom of thought in religion,\\nwere naturally akin.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "TJie ScJiolemasier 225\\nThe book which gives Ascham his chief title to a The\\nplace in the history of Education was written later,\\nmaster\\nand was not published till after his death. It is called\\nthe Scholemaster; Or, A Plain and Perfect Way of\\nTeaching Children to Understand, Write, and Speak the\\nLatin Tongue. The ends to which his suggestions were\\ndirected extended far beyond the limits of the mere ac-\\nquirement of a language. In writing this book, he says,\\nI have had earnest respect to three special points truth\\nof religion, honesty in living, and right order in learning.\\nThe moral aim of all intellectual discipline is conspicuous\\nthroughout his pedagogic treatise The character he\\nwants to form is that of one grave, stedfast, silent of\\ntongue, secret of heart, not hasty in making, but constant\\nin keeping, any promise; not rash in uttering, but wary\\nin considering every matter, and thereby not quick in\\nspeaking, but deep of judgment, whether they write or\\ngive counsel in all weighty affairs His wit should be\\nquickwithout lightness, sharp withoutbrittleness, desirous\\nof good things without new fangleness, diligent in painful\\nthings without wearisomeness, and constant in good-will\\nto do all things well. In reference to school discipline,\\nAscham s book is an earnest vindication of the need of\\ngentleness and sympathy in dealing with children, and\\na strong protest against the cruelties often practised by\\npedagogues of the type of Nicholas Udal, the head-\\nmaster of Eton, whose pitiless flogging was a scandal\\neven in that age. A school, Ascham thought, should\\nbe, as its name implies, Ludus litterarum, the house\\nof play and pleasure, not of fear and bondage. Love\\nis better than fear, gentleness better than beating, to\\nbring up a child rightly in learning.\\nThe admirable description and analysis of Ascham s\\nmethod of teaching which is to be found in Mr Quick s\\nQ", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "226 Ascham and the Schools of the Renaissance\\nEducational Reformers makes it unnecessary for me to\\nenter into any detailed criticism of tlie pedagogical\\nteaching of the Scholemaster. Ascham s discussion of\\nthe several values of imitation, paraphrase, and translation,\\nenters into much detail. Language was, in his view, the\\none staple element in all education, because it was helpful\\nto many other objects than itself, and had relation to all\\nreading, to all acquirement, and to all the experience of\\nlife. Other studies, he thought, might in their way be\\nuseful, but with some reserve. Some wits, moderate\\nenough by nature, be many times marred by overmuch\\nstudyanduseof some sciences; namely, music, arithmetic,\\nand geometry. These sciences, as they sharpen men s\\nwits overmuch, so they change men s manners over soon,\\nif they be not moderately mingled and wisely applied to\\nsome good use of life. Mark all mathematical heads\\nwhich be only and wholly bent to those sciences, how\\nsolitary they be themselves, how unfit to live with others,\\nand how unapt to serve in the world\\nAscham Apart from the main purpose of the book, some\\nand his curious flashes of light are shed by it upon the social\\n7-oval _\\npupils. and religious life of the period. One of these comes from\\nthe charming picture of Ascham s interview with Lady\\nJane Grey, whom he found once at her father s house at\\nBradgate, in Leicestershire, reading the Plicedo of Plato\\nin Greek, while all the rest of the courtly company were\\nhunting in the park. On asking her why she denied\\nherself a share in the pastime, the young lady spoke\\nearnestly of the pleasure she derived from her Greek\\nstudies, and added, My book hath been so much my\\npleasure, and bringeth me daily more pleasure and more,\\nthat in respect of it all other pleasures in very deed be\\nbut trifles and troubles unto me. And the panegyric\\non his own pupil. Queen Elizabeth, though not free from", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "AscJiams experience in Italy 227\\nthe exaggeration of a courtier, is interesting as a proof\\nthat the ladies of the sixteenth century were not indifferent\\nto the higher learning It is to your shame, you young\\ngentlemen of England, said Ascham, that one maid\\nshould go beyond you all in excellency of learning and\\nknowledge of divers tongues. Point forth six of the best\\ngiven gentlemen of this court, and all they together shew\\nnot so much good will, spend not so much time, bestow\\nnot so many hours daily, orderly, and constantly, for the\\nincrease of learning and knowledge as doth the Queen s\\nMajesty herself.\\nA pleasant light is thrown upon the manners of the\\ntime by the story of the old tutor s regular visits to the\\nQueen, that they might read Latin and Greek books\\ntogether, and diversify their exercises by games of chess\\nand draughts.\\nIt was with less satisfaction that the serious and His expe-\\nscholarly Ascham recounted other incidents which accom- j^^,\\\\\\npanied the revival of learning. Italy had become the\\nresort of scholars, and the chief channel through which\\nGreek erudition found it way to Western Europe. But\\nit had also become the favourite haunt of pleasure-loving\\nyoung noblemen and gentlemen from England, and the\\nstate of society and of morals in that country filled him\\nwith anxiety. He once spent nine days in Venice, and\\nin that little time he saw in that one city more liberty\\nto sin than ever I heard tell of in our noble city of\\nLondon in nine years. Time was when Italy and\\nRome have been to the great good of us that now live,\\nthe best breeders and bringers up of the worthiest men,\\nnot only for wise speaking, but also for well doing in all\\ncivil affairs that ever was in the world. But now that\\ntime is gone, and, though the place remain, yet the old\\nand present manners do differ as far as black and white.\\nrience in,", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "228 Ascham and the Schools of the Renaissance\\nas virtue and vice. He thought that the atheism,\\nidleness, and extravagance of Italy at that period in our\\nhistory were of evil example to rich young men coming\\nfrom England, and were exercising an unwholesome\\ninfluence on our social life at home; and he denounced\\nsome of the new fashions with vigour, and with a grave\\nsadness which had no puritanical rigour in it. These\\nbe the enchantments of Circe brought out of Italy to\\nmar men s manners in England.\\nHis other Of his Other writings, the best known were a trans-\\n%o} itings. jg^i-JQj-j from a commentary on some of the New Testament\\nepistles, and his own Latin letters, of which Fuller, in\\nhis Worthies, says that they were the only Latin\\nletters extant of any Englishman, the more the pity.\\nThese letters furnish the history of the difficulties and\\nanxieties of the scholar s life, his serious illnesses which\\ntwice sorely interrupted the course of his academic duties,\\nand the encouragement he gave to his royal pupil to\\npursue with avidity her liberal studies.\\nHis place in the history of education is that of one\\nwho regarded with sympathy the older classical discipline,\\nas well as the new revival of interest in Greek, but who\\nlooked with fresh eyes upon the traditional methods of\\nteaching, and suggested some rational and practical im-\\nprovements. He was a humanist of the same type as\\nMilton, who thought it the first business of teaching to\\nmake a man an accomplished and thoughtful gentleman,\\nhigh-minded, courageous, and industrious in the pursuit\\nof truth, and who considered that the study of language,\\nlogic, rhetoric, and the related sciences, were the best\\ninstruments for the attainment of this end.\\nIt was to the influence of such men as Ascham and\\nhis friends scholars and statesmen, who were deeply\\npenetrated with the reforming spirit in religion, and who", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "Sf PaiiVs School 229\\ncared for the promotion of learning for its own sake, and\\nnot as a means of promoting the interests of the Church,\\nthat we owe the regenerate educational foundations of\\nthe sixteenth century.\\nOf these, Dean Colet s great school of St V^.\\\\\\\\V?, st Pauis\\n(15 10) was almost the first which distinctly aimed ^ii\\na high secular education, and deliberately disavowed any\\nspecial ecclesiastical purpose. Though the founder was\\nDean of St Paul s, he gave in his statutes no share of the\\ngovernment to his successors in the Chapter, but confided\\nthe whole future administration to a trading guild, to the\\nCompany of Mercers, who have since honourably fulfilled\\nfor nearly four centuries the duty he assigned to them.\\nHis scholars who were for ever to number exactly 153,\\nin commemoration of the number of fishes in the net of\\nthe Apostles were to be drawn from all nations and\\ncountries, and to be instructed freely in the ancient\\ntongues. Scholastic Latin was strictly excluded by the\\nstatutes, but Christian writers were admissible, if in good\\nLatin. The High Master was to be learned in good\\nand clean Latin literature, and also in Greek, if such 7nay\\nbe gotten, This conditional regulation significantly\\nreminds us that at that date the Greek revival had made\\nbut little effective way.\\nBy the end of the century, founders such as Laurence Examples.\\nSherriff at Rugby, and John Lyon of Harrow, felt freer\\nto insist on Greek as a necessary element of their course, fouuda-\\nHesiod, however, being the only Greek poet named \\\\^^^ons.\\nthe Harrow statutes.\\nThe founder of Chester Grammar School, 1558, en- Chester.\\njoins:\\nI will there were always taught good literature, both Latin and\\nGreek, and good authors, such as have the Roman eloquence joined\\nwith wisdom, especially Christian authors, that wrote their wisdom", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "230 AscJiant and the Schools of the Rejiaissmtce\\nwith clean and chaste Latin, either in prose or verse for mine intent\\nis by founding this school specially to increase knowledge and\\nworshipping of God, and good Christian life and manners in the\\nchildren, and then he enumerates the Colloquies and Insti-\\ntutes of Erasmus, Ovid, Cicero, Terence, Horace, and Virgil, and\\ntrue Latin speech all Barbaric, all corruption and filthiness, and\\nsuch abuses as the blind world brought in, to be entirely banished\\nand excluded, so that the master shall only teach what is best, and\\nsuch authors as have with wisdom joined the pure eloquence.\\nManches- So the Indenture of Feoffment of the Manchester\\nGrammar School sets forth that\\nthe liberal science or art of Grammar is the ground and fountain of\\nall the other liberal arts or sciences, which source and spring out of\\nthe same; without which science, the others cannot perfectly be had,\\nfor Science of Grammar is the Gate by the which all other hath\\nbeen learned and known. And further the deed complains that\\nthe teaching of children in school had not been practised in that\\ntime for want of a sufficient schoolmaster or usher, so that the chil-\\ndren having pregnant wits, have been for the most part brought up\\nrudely and idly, and not in virtue, cunning, erudition, literature, and\\ngood manners.\\nLouth. The preamble of the Charter of Edward VI., in\\nfounding a grammar school at Louth a school which\\nin later times has had the distinction of producing the\\npoet Tennyson sets forth the conception of a grammar\\nschool with more of breadth and liberality than was\\ngenerally expressed, however distinctly intended, by many\\nprivate founders. It is probable that the views of the\\nProtector Somerset are traceable in the words:\\nWhereas we have always coveted, with a most exceeding\\nvehement and ardent desire, that good literature and discipline\\nmight be diffused and propagated through all the parts of our King-\\ndom, as wherein the best government and administration of affairs\\nconsists, and therefore with no small earnestness have we been\\nintent on the liberal institution of youth, that it may be brought up\\nto science in places of our Kingdom most proper and suitable for\\nsuch functions, it being as it were the foundation and growth of our\\nCommonwealth, and having certain and unquestionable knowledge", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "CJioice of Masters 231\\nthat our town of Louth is a place most fit and proper for such\\nteaching and instructing, and is very populous, and well stocked\\nwith youth.\\nAnd then follow the usual regulations about Latin, Greek,\\ngrammatical science, and godly learning generally.\\nFifty-one such foundations, including Sedbergh, Bir\\nmingham, Tonbridge, Christ s Hospital, and Shrewsbury^\\nowe their origin to the six years of Edward VI. Twenty\\nmore were established during the reign of Philip and\\nMary, and no less than 136 others, including West-\\nminster, Merchant Taylors Bedford, Bristol, Colchester,\\nWakefield, and Aldenham in the reign of Elizabeth.\\nWith what seriousness of purpose the early reformers CJwice of\\nof learning set about their task may be judged f rom\\nthe efforts made by Dean Colet to obtain masters well\\nequipped with the necessary knowledge and teaching\\npower. He had before founding St Paul s made choice,\\nfor the first High Master, of John Lyly, the friend and\\nfellow-student of More, who had mastered the Latin\\nlanguage in Italy, and even travelled farther East, and\\nlived in the island of Rhodes, to perfect his knowledge\\nof Greek. He had at one time very nearly accepted the\\nvows of a Carthusian monk; he was, however, thoroughly\\nimbued with the pedagogic spirit, and was, in the opinion\\nof Erasmus, a thorough master in the art of educating\\nyouth. I have often longed, said Colet, in a letter\\nto Erasmus, that the boys of my school should be\\neducated in the way in which you say that they should be\\ntaught, and having found Lyly to possess needful quali-\\nfications, he made, by his statutes, provision for what in\\nthose days was a very handsome stipend, in order to\\nshow his sense of the dignity of the office.\\nBut an under-master was not so easy to find. Colet had\\nwritten to Erasmus in September, 15 1 1, wishing him to look one out", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "232 As chant and the Schools of the Renaissance\\nfor him. Erasmus wrote in October, and informed him that he had\\nmentioned his want to some of the college dons. One of them had\\nreplied by sneeringly asking Who would put up with the life of\\na schoolmaster who could get a living in any other way Where-\\nupon Erasmus modestly urged that he thought the education of\\nyouth was the most honourable of all callings, and that there could\\nbe no labour more pleasing to God than the Christian training of\\nboys. At which the Cambridge doctor turned up his nose in con-\\ntempt, and scornfully replied If any one wants to give himself up\\nentirely to the service of Christ, let him enter a monastery.\\nErasmus ventured to question whether St Paul did not place\\ntrue religion rather in works of charity in doing as much good as\\npossible to our neighbours The other rejected altogether so crude\\na notion, Behold, said he, we must leave all in that is perfection.\\nHe scarcely can be said to leave all, promptly returned Erasmus,\\nwho, when he has a chance of doing good to others, refuses the task\\nbecause it is too humble in the eyes of the world. And then, wrote\\nErasmus, lest I should get into a quarrel, I bade the man good-bye.\\nIn nearly all the instruments of foundation great\\nstress is laid upon the qualifications of the master;\\nhe is always to be a grave and godly man, and of good\\nrepute. Archbishop Harsnet, in founding Chigwell,\\nspecially records his wish that the headmaster shall\\nbe a graduate of one of the Universities, not under\\ntwenty-seven years of age, skilful in the Greek and\\nLatin tongues, a good poet, of a sound religion, neither\\nPapist nor Puritan, of a grave behaviour, of a sober and\\nhonest conversation, no tippler nor haunter of ale-houses,\\nno puffer of tobacco, and, above all, one apt to teach,\\nand severe in his government.\\nThe scheme It will be observed that in all the statutes and testa-\\nof siudy. i;^-ients Qf this century the Greek and Latin languages are\\nspoken of as the staple of the instruction to be given\\nin grammar schools. Yet there was no theory about the\\ndisciplinal value of linguistic studies, no conscious selec-\\n1 Seebohm, The Oxford Reformers.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "The Grammar School Qirriaihcm 233\\ntion and preference for such studies, after weighing the\\nclaims of physics or mathematics or modern literature.\\nThese languages were to be taught because they were\\nthe key and passport to all the learning which was then\\nextant, because they formed the only kind of study which\\nhad then been formulated and made definite. The Tri-\\n^ium Grammar, Dialectics, Rhetoric, and the Qiiadri-\\ni,inffi Music, Arithmetic, Geometry and Astronomy,\\nbesides philosophy, ethics, history, might all in their way\\nbe useful parts of a gentleman s education; but no one\\nof them could be learned at all except in the languages\\nof Greece and Rome. Nor was the moral training to be\\ndissociated in any way from the educational system. A\\nserious religious purpose is frequently visible in the\\nordinances of the founders; grammar, good manners,\\nvirtue, religion, and purity of life are constantly enume-\\nrated together, not as things to be taught independently\\nby catechisms or creeds, but as objects to be obtained\\nin and through the diligent study of language and the\\nreading of the best ancient authors.\\nWhen the founders and framers of statutes descended Deiails of\\nto particulars, they often displayed a curious lack of^^^ ^X\\nimagination and forethought, and insisted on details of curricu-\\ninstruction which appeared to them at the moment the\\nmost in vogue, as if they were to become perpetual and\\nwere incapable of improvement. The subjects of instruc-\\ntion, and even the books to be used, are often prescribed\\nwith great minuteness. For example the Ordinances of\\nSt Bees (1583) enjoin\\nthe master to make his scholars perfect in the Latin and Greek\\ngrammar using the Queen s grammar and accidence, as set forth by\\nauthority Esop s Fables, then certain books of Cicero, then Sallust\\nand Csesar, and afterwards Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and the poets, and\\nthe Greek Grammar of Cleonard.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "234 AscJiam and the Schools of the Renaissafice\\nAt Bruton all scholars were to be taught gram-\\nmar, after the form of Magdalen College, Oxford, or\\nSt Paul s, London, and not songs or polite learning,\\nnor English reading; but to be made perfect Latin\\nmen.\\nAt East Retford (1551) the Statutes framed by an\\nArchbishop of York enter fully into detail, and specify\\nnot only the books, but also the exact amount and\\norder of the classical work for each form and class in\\nthe school.\\nThe said Schoolmaster and Usher, or one of them to every Form\\nof scholars, within the said Grammar School, shall teach these books\\nand authors in order hereafter following, that is to say, unto their\\nscholars of the First Form within the said Grammar School the figures\\nand characters of letters, to join, write, sound, and pronounce the\\nsame plainly and perfectly. And immediately to learn the inflection\\nof nouns and verbs, which, if it be done with diligence, a good and\\napt nature in one year may attain a perfect reading, pronouncing,\\nand declining of nouns and verbs; and the more prone natures may\\nspare some part of the first year to hear the explication of Tully s\\nEpistles, and write and repeat certain Latin words out of them.\\nItem, in the Second Yoxwi, after usual repetition of the inflection of\\nnouns and verbs, which is attained in the First Form, a more full\\nexplication of the Syntaxis of Construction must be shewed, and\\nthe other hours of reading may be spent in the Colloquia Erasnii,\\nand some harder Epistles of Tully, which must be dissolved and\\ndiscussed verbatim, and the reason of every construction shewed.\\nThis Form is required to turn sentences from English to Latin.\\nAnd further we ordain, that in this Form be taught the Scriptures,\\nboth the Old and New Testaments, Sallust, and Justinian s Institutes,\\nif the Schoolmaster and Usher be seen in the same. Item, the\\nsaid Schoolmaster or Usher shall read and teach unto the Third\\nForm of scholars within the said Grammar School, the King s\\nMajesty s Latin Grammar, Virgil, Ovid, and Tully s Epistles, Copia\\nErasmi verborum et rerum, or so many of the said authors as the\\nsaid schoolmaster shall think convenient for the capacity and profit\\nof his scholars, and every day to give unto his said scholars one\\nEnglish to be made into Latin. Item, the said Schoolmaster or", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "Disputations 235\\nUsher shall teach to the Fotir/h Form of scholars within the said\\nGrammar School to know the breves and longs, and make verses,\\nand they of this P orm shall write every week some epistle in Latin,\\nand give it to the said Master or Usher at the end of the week.\\nAnd also the said Master shall teach the scholars of this Form the\\nGreek Grammar, and also the Hebrew Grammar, if he be expert in\\nthe same, and some Greek authors, so far as his learning and con-\\nvenient time will serve thereunto.\\nDisputations, or public exercises or appositions, were Disputa-\\na. favourite form of intellectual exercise, and were often\\ninsisted on in deeds or statutes e.g., Sir Roger Manwood\\n(1580), in his regulations for the Sandwich Grammar\\nSchool, ordains that\\nthere shall annually be kept in the school disputations from 7\\nto 9 in the forenoon, and the Master shall desire the Parsons and\\nVicars of the town, with one or two others of knowledge, to be\\npresent, if it please them, to hear the same. The disputation\\nbeing ended, to determine which three of the whole number of\\nforms have done best by the judgments of the Master and learned\\nhearers.\\nThen he makes further provision for prizes of silver pens\\nto the best debaters, and wills\\nthat the whole company go in order decently by two and two\\nto the parish Church, the three victors to come last, next to the\\nMaster and Usher, each of them having a garland on his head, and\\nthen in the Church to kneel or stand, and to say or sing some con-\\nvenient Psalm or Hymne, with a Collect making mention of the\\nChurch, the realm, the prince, the town, and the founder.\\nThe ordinances of St Bees prescribe that every week\\ntwo shall be appointed to declaim upon some theme an\\nhour before dinner, and afterwards exhibit verses upon\\nthe same theme to the Master.\\nThere were also in many schools contentions as to\\nthe principles of grammar capping or potting verses.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "I fig.\\n236 Aschavi and the Schools of the Renaissance\\nStrype, in his edition of Stow s Survey of Londo?i, says,\\nspeaking of Merchant Taylors School\\nI myself have yearly seen the scholars of divers Grammar\\nSchools repair unto the churchyard of St Bartholomew the Priory in\\nSmithheld, where upon a bank boarded about under a tree, some\\none scholar hath stepped up and there hath opposed and answered\\ntill he were by some better scholar overcome and put down; and\\nthen the overcomer taking the place did like as the first, and in the\\nend the best opposers and answerers had rewards. It made both\\ngood schoolmasters and also good scholars diligently to prepare\\nthemselves for the obtaining of such reward.\\nHours of It is very characteristic of the strenuous character of\\nstudy and the discipline enjoined in the ancient grammar schools,\\nand of the high not to say severe standard of duty\\nand of work set up before the scholars, that the hours of\\nstudy, and the days of relaxation, are often regulated in\\na rigid fashion which would be thought intolerable by\\nthe schoolmasters and pupils of later and more soft\\nand self-indulgent times. The father of Francis Bacon\\n(Sir Nicholas, the Lord Keeper in 1570) drew up the\\nstatutes of St Alban s School, in which inter alia it is\\nprescribed\\nThe Schoolmaster shall every learning day from the 25th of\\nMarch unto the 30th of September be at the school by the stroke\\nof 6 of the clock in the morning, and from September 30th to March\\n25th by 7, and continue in teaching until 1 1 of the clock, and shall\\nbe at the school again by i of the clock in the afternoon, and shall\\nabide there until 5 of the clock teaching.\\nSir Thomas Fanshaw s statutes for Dronfield, in\\nDerbyshire, contain a like limitation as to the lawful\\nholidays:\\nI strictly inhibit the Schoolmaster and Usher, upon penalty of\\nloss of their places, that they grant no otium or play days to their\\nschofars upon any pretext, but I appoint that the scholars do every", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "Vacatiojis 237\\nThursday and Saturday, at 3 o clock in the afternoon, play of course.\\nAnd that there be no breaking up nor leaving of school, save only\\ntwo days before the feast of Easter, two days before the feast of\\nPentecost, and four or five days before Christmas, and the school to\\nbegin again upon the Wednesday in Easter week, the Wednesday\\nin the feast of Pentecost, and the first Monday after the twelfth\\nday in Christmas, without delay.\\nThe long summer vacation, so dear to the modern Vacations.\\nschoohTiaster, was unknown in the Elizabethan times,\\nand if known would have been sternly denounced as\\neffeminate and unreasonable. The Sandwich statutes\\nordain\\nThat neither the master nor usher, without license of the\\ngovernors shall absent himself above twenty days in the year from\\nthe school, nor so much but upon good and urgent cause, and in\\nthat vacant time the one to supply the other s office upon some good\\nconvenient allowance as they can agree, so as both at once may not\\nin any wise be absent from the said school.\\nIndeed, holidays in any form are allowed as a rather\\ngrudging concession to human weakness, and when\\nallowed are rather for the teachers than for the boys.\\nSir John Deane (1558), in the statutes for Wilton School\\n(Cheshire), which he founded, is considerate enough to\\nsay:\\nBecause nothing that is perpetual is pleasant, I will that the\\nschoolmaster shall have liberty once in every year thirty days to\\nbe altogether absent to recreate himself he always providing that\\nhis scholars lose no time in his absence, but they be occupied in\\ntheir books till his return.\\nIt need hardly be said that the rod was an essential Punish-\\npart of the school apparatus. The corporate seals of\\nsome endowed schools, e.g. of Uppingham (1584) and\\nLouth (1552), represent the master with a rod in his\\nhand. But the Chigwell ordinances, which, as I have", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "238 AscJiain and the Schools of the Renaissance\\nbefore said, were made by an Archbishop, and were\\nof a later date, were humaner in their protest against\\nseverity.\\nWe constitute and ordain that the schoolmasters do not exceed\\nin their corrections above the number of three stripes with the rod at\\nany one time that they strike not any scholar upon the head or the\\ncheek with their fist or the palms of their hands upon pain or loss\\nof forty shillings, to be defaulted by the governors out of their yearly\\nwages; that they do not curse nor revile their scholars; that for\\nspeaking English in the Latin school, the scholar be corrected with\\ntho^ ferula, and for swearing with the rod that monitors be appointed\\nto note and present their rudeness, irreverent and indecent de-\\nmeanour in the streets, in the church, or their public sports.\\nHerein we recognize one of the cardinal faults of the\\ngrammar school system, or at least one of the serious\\nlimitations to its usefulness. Except in Ascham s writings\\nand in those of Mulcaster, who was (1561) the first head-\\nmaster of Merchant Taylors School, one finds little or no\\nrecognition of the importance of a good method of teach-\\ning. Certainly, there is no evidence that anybody thought\\nit necessary to facilitate the early efforts of a schoolboy,\\nor to make learning interesting or pleasant to him.\\nAscham indeed was a signal exception to this general\\nrule. So much of the old spirit of monastic austerity\\na spirit which measured the value of all discipline by\\nits hardness and painfulness survived in the schools,\\nthat one of the merits often claimed for classical\\nteaching was the difficulty it presented to the learners.\\nMany of the pedagogues of those centuries, down to\\nIchabod Crane, the switch of whose rod Washington\\nIrving heard through the woods of Sleepy Hollow, as\\nthe schoolmaster urged tardy loiterers over the flowery\\npaths of learning, seem never to have been quite sure\\nthat they were doing justice to their scholars unless the\\nlessons were made repulsive and distasteful. The belief", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "Payment of Fees 239\\nthat the ^^/difficulties of life are grave enough without\\nburdening it with artificial difficulties, that time and\\nlabour might easily be economized by securing the willing\\nco-operation of the student, and by adopting methods\\nwhich should be pleasant as well as rational, has to some\\nextent, but alas! not yet to the full extent, been at last\\nrecognized by modern teachers. But until this belief\\nbecame prevalent, one could hardly expect that the tra-\\nditional gerund-grinding and memory work would be\\ngreatly improved.\\nBut, after all, the characteristic note of the schools Paymejti\\nof the Renaissance was the generous desire of the\\nfounders to make learning accessible to all scholars who\\ncould receive and make a right use of it, whether they\\nwere poor or rich. Most of the statutes are very impera-\\ntive on this point. There is often a positive prohibition\\nagainst the exaction of fees in any form. Sometimes a\\nspecial fee or gratuity the cockpenny or an Easter gift\\nis recognized as legitimate; and sometimes learning\\nother than Latin and Greek e.g., even reading and\\narithmetic are permitted to count as extras, and to be\\npaid for. But, as a rule, free grammar schools although\\ntechnically the word free does not exactly mean\\ngratuitous, but often simply signifies exemption from\\necclesiastical control were understood to be places in\\nwhich every scholar could claim admission without money\\nor reward. Peter Blundell of Tiverton (1599), the founder\\nof a school still famous, was very explicit in his directions\\non this subject. He limited the number of scholars to\\none hundred and fifty, and gave a preference for admis-\\nsion to those brought up in the parish, but adds\\nIf the same number be not filled up, the want shall be supplied\\nwith the children of foreigners if with the consent often householders\\nof Tiverton. And my desire is that they will make choice of the", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "240 As c ham and the Schools of the Renaissance\\nchildren of such foreigners as are of honest reputation and fear God,\\nwithout regarding the rich above the poor.\\nAnd then, after providing a stipend of ;^5o to the head-\\nmaster, and 20 marks for the usher, he adds:\\nAnd my hope and desire and will is that they hold themselves\\nsatisfied and content with that recompense for their travail, without\\nseeking or exacting any more either of parent or children, which\\nprocureth favour to givers and the contrary to such as do not or\\ncannot give, for my meaning is that it shall be for ever a/r^v scJiool,\\nand not a school of exaction.\\nIt is to Cranmer that we owe the first distinct utter-\\nance of the generous policy which afterwards inspired\\nthe sixteenth century donors and testators. It came\\nto pass, says Strype, that when they should elect the\\nchildren of the grammar school, in the newly-converted\\ncathedral church of Canterbury, there were of the com-\\nmissioners more than one or two who would have none\\nadmitted but sons and younger brethren of gentlemen,\\nurging that husbandmen s children were more meet for\\nthe plough, and to be artificers, than to occupy the place\\nof the learned sort; for we have as much need of plough-\\nmen as of any other state, and all sorts of men may not\\ngo to school. To which Cranmer replied\\nI grant much of your meaning herein as needful in a Common-\\nwealth, but yet utterly to exclude the ploughman s son and the poor\\nman s son from the benefit of learning is as much as to say that\\nAlmighty God should not be at liberty to bestow His great gifts of\\ngrace upon any person, nor nowhere else but as we and other men\\nshall appoint them to be employed according to our fancy, ami not\\naccording to His most godly will and pleasure, who giveth His gifts\\nboth of learning and other perfections in all sciences unto all kinds\\nand states of people indifferently. Even so doth He many times\\nwithdraw from them and their posterity again those beneficial gifts\\nif they be not thankful. Wherefore, if the gentleman s son be apt\\nto learning, let him be admitted; if not apt, let the poor man s\\nchild, that is apt, enter his room.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "No provision for gii ls e ducat ioji 241\\nAnd this sentiment of Cranmer s happily remained\\nfor generations the chief and most honourable charac-\\nteristic of the ancient grammar schools. The education\\nthey afforded was suited to the sons of gentlemen; but\\nit was not restricted to the sons of gentlemen. It might\\nqualify a boy of any rank to acquire University distinc-\\ntion, and to become a judge or a bishop. But no money\\nwas to be required of the pupil; no social distinctions\\nwere to be recognizable in the school itself; and it was\\none of the highest triumphs of the whole system, when\\nthe governors of a grammar school were able to point to\\na scholar of humble origin, who had been led by a love\\nof learning, and tempted by the scholarships and en-\\ncouragements which the school offered, to quit the rank\\nof artizan or ploughman, to acquire distinction, and to\\nbecome able to serve God eminently in Church or State.\\nBut it need not be said, that for the sisters of these iVo pro-\\nfavoured scholars the grammar school made no provision \u00e2\u0080\u00a2v\\ngirls edu-\\nwhatever. They were not wanted to serve God in Church cation.\\nor State. If they are mentioned at all in wills and\\nstatutes, it is that they may be definitely excluded from\\nall participation in the benefits of the schools. Thus,\\nJohn Lyon, in founding Harrow, says expressly, though,\\nas it seems, quite superfluously, that no girls shall be\\nreceived or taught in his school: and in Peter Blundell s\\nstatutes, relating to his foundation at Tiverton, he makes\\nhis own meaning on this point clear by stating that there\\nshall be no scholars but boys. The truth is that the\\nordinary founder thought that there was no chance of\\nmistake on this head, and that his will would be inter-\\npreted as indeed it always was to apply as a matter\\nof course to boys only. There was generally no intentional\\nor explicit exclusion of their sisters, but the question of\\ntheir inclusion scarcely ever arose, and does not seem to\\nR", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "242 AscJiam and the Schools of the Renaissance\\nhave occurred to anyone. At any rate, the Commis-\\nsioners of 1865, who investigated the history and actual\\ncondition of endowed foundations, could not find one\\nwhich had been deliberately designed to furnish a\\nliberal education for girls, though they found many of the\\nCharity schools of a later date admitting both boys and\\ngirls, and giving them the meagre rudiments of instruction\\nsupposed to be appropriate for labourers and servants.\\nAnd if in this age we have arrived at the conclusion that\\na good and generous education is just as much needed\\nby girls as by their brothers, and that it would in their\\ncase be quite as properly provided, and turned to equally\\nvaluable account, it is to the later experience, the awak-\\nened conscience, and the enlarged conception of duty in\\nthe nineteenth century, that the change is to be attributed,\\nand not to any recourse to the measures or the ideals of\\nthe sixteenth.\\nThe It is mainly owing to the existence of the mediaeval\\n5^7 grammar schools, to the explicit directions in their\\nSchool\\ntheory. Statutes and deeds of gift, and to their intimate con-\\nnexion with the Universities, that the type of education\\nwhich they represented has survived so long, and has so\\ndominated the popular conception of what scholarship\\nand learning mean. A man who has been duly instructed\\nin Latin and Greek is regarded as a scholar/^zr excellence,\\nhowever ignorant he may be of other things; and another\\nman skilled in science, accomplished in modern lan-\\nguages, literature, and philosophy, but knowing no\\nGreek, has no claim to be considered a scholar at all.\\nYet since the establishment of grammar schools,\\nFrench, German, and English have acquired a literary\\ncharacter. Each has opened out to the student a noble\\nliterature, and has been made the subject of philological\\ninvestigation. Our own language especially has been", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "Modification of the Gi ammar School theory 243\\ntraced to its source. What we still call (in spite of the\\nlate Professor P reeman) Anglo-Saxon, with its fuller\\ninflections and synthetic structure, has revealed to the\\nEnglish student the true meaning of those fragments of\\naccidence and syntax which survive in our current speech.\\nAnd in the presence of our existing resources, it is diffi-\\ncult to deny that the student of one ancient language and\\none modern say Latin and German, or Greek and\\nFrench, or either Latin Greek and Anglo-Saxon is in\\na better position, as far as philology is concerned, than if\\nhe confined all his linguistic studies to Latin and Greek.\\nHe will know at least as much of the philosophy of\\ngrammar, and of the principles which underlie the\\nstructure of all language, and he will certainly not have\\nbeen less successfully disciplined in accuracy of expres-\\nsion and of thought.\\nIt is impossible for us to overlook the claims of other\\nsubjects, and, as a matter of fact, one modern language\\nat least, mathematics, and some acquaintance with the\\nliterature and history of the later centuries, form part of\\nevery scheme of liberal education, even when the claims\\nof physical science are neglected altogether. But the\\neffect of undertaking to do all this, and at the same time\\nto maintain the superstition that Latin lUtd Greek must\\nform the staple of every gentleman s education, is that\\nsome of these things must be learned imperfectly. And\\nit often results that Greek and Latin are the subjects so\\nlearned. How many of the scholars of the grammar\\nschools, or even of the Universities, could talk, write\\neasily, or think in Latin? What proportion of those\\nwho learn Greek, read Sophocles or Homer with ease\\nand pleasure and catch the full flavour and spirit of the\\nlanguage? A very large percentage of the scholars who\\ngo out from the Universities have carried their studies", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "244 AscJiam and the Schools of the Renaissance\\nfar enough to acquire a knowledge of the grammar, and\\nto read, by means of helps and commentaries, certain\\nwell-known and well-annotated authors; but they have\\nstopped short at the point at which the learning of a\\nlanguage becomes a real instrument of literary culture,\\nand produces an educational result at all commensurate\\nwith the time and effort expended in acquiring it.\\nHow far AVhen schoolmasters and professors insist on the\\nshould It importance of learning both the ancient lano^uages, and\\nbeinodified 007\\nby later talk of them as the keys by which the whole literature of\\nexpert- Europe is to be opened, it would seem that they overlook\\nence? 1 1 j\\nthe fact of the great differences in the claims of the two.\\nThe praise of symmetry and regularity of form does not\\napply equally to Greek and to Latin. There is in Greek\\na frequent tendency to deviate from rules and from the\\nnormal type, and to indulge in constructions which are\\nnot explicable by formal grammatical rules. The spirit\\nof the Latin language has indeed entered deeply into the\\nheart of our literature; has influenced the structure and\\nvocabulary of our own language, and fashioned the\\nmodes of thought of all our greatest writers. But the\\nsame cannot be said of Greek. Except in our scieniific\\nterminology, Greek has hardly influenced the English\\nvocabulary at all. For the purpose of understanding\\nthat terminology it is in no sense necessary to learn the\\nGreek language a few days would suffice to give to the\\nstudent enough of a dictionary or vocabulary to enable\\nhim to understand every English derivative from Greek.\\nThere remains of course the higher aim, that of acquir-\\ning an insight into the meaning of the philosophy, the\\noratory, and the poetry of ancient Greece. And it may\\nwell be admitted, that whenever this is possible of attain-\\nment, the study may prove of priceless value. But,\\nexcept to the comparatively rare scholar, it is 7iot attain-", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "Later Experience 245\\nable. The literature of any language, if studied to any\\npurpose, should be stimulating; it should give ideas, it\\nshould form taste, it should inspire the reader with a love\\nof eloquence and poetry. Can it be seriously contended\\nthat the study of Greek in modern grammar schools and\\nUniversities carries the rank and file of the students to\\nthis point? The school-boy or the undergraduate, if he\\nfeels the beauty of ancient writing at all, recognizes the\\nbeauty of parts often of very minute parts but he sees\\nand knows little or nothing of the literary product as a\\nwhole. He is preparing his mind for exercises in com-\\nposition and verse-making; his attention is devoted to\\nminute points of quantity, to well-sounding epithets,\\nto circumlocutions and mannerisms; and he is forced\\nto regard his author under conditions as unfavourable as\\npossible to the development of a true taste and the habit\\nof just criticism.\\nThis point has been well insisted on and illustrated\\nby Mr Henry Sidgwick, who adds\\nIt is only at a certain stage in a youth s progress that Latin and\\nGreek begin to give training in literature. In many cases the boy\\nor the undergraduate never becomes able to extract and feed on the\\nbeauties of his authors. A mind exhausted with linguistic struggles\\nis not in a state to receive delicate literary impressions instead of\\nbeing penetrated with the subtle and simple graces of form, it is\\nfilled to the brim with thoughts of gender, quantity, tertiary predi-\\ncates, and the uses of the subjunctive mood.\\nSuch is the inbred conservatism of English scholar-\\nship, that there still remain many who are content with\\nthe ideal of the sixteenth century, whose sense of propor-\\ntion is so imperfect that they look upon any product of\\nmore recent thought and experience as necessarily hav-\\ning in it a flavour of the upstart, the bourgeois^ and the\\n1 Essay on the Theory of a Classical Education.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "246 AscJiaiu and the Schools of the Rejiaissance\\nsecond-rate. Such persons and they are many would\\nstill maintain, in grammar and public schools, the con-\\nception of liberal study, and of the humanities, which\\nprevailed when those schools were founded. That\\ntheory may be summed up shortly in three assumptions\\n(i) That the study of language is not only the one form\\nof discipline which is supremely important, but it is\\nimportant enough to justify the devotion of from three-\\nfourths to five-sixths of the whole time of a learner from\\nthe age of six or seven to the end of his University course\\n(2) that this discipline can only be rightly obtained by\\nthe study of /zt: (9 ancient languages; and (3) that in order\\nto obtain a true mastery of these two languages, it is\\nessential that the scholar should not only read them, but\\nwrite, and, in particular, should compose verses in them.\\nThis is the form in which the ideal of liberal study\\ninherited from the sixteenth century still exists among\\nus. It is not to be believed that the founders of ancient\\ngrammar schools, if they lived now and could fashion their\\nplans in the presence of modern facts and experience,\\nwould ask us to accept such a theory of education as\\nthis. Nor is it easy to believe that the theory in the\\nsame form can survive much longer.\\nIloivvuich What, then, can survive, or ought to survive, from\\nof it should sixteenth-century scheme of a liberal and humane\\ntraining? Much, it may be hoped. This in the first\\nplace That the systematic study of language ought to\\nhold a high place, perhaps even the highest place, among\\nformative educational agencies. Moreover, such study is\\nindispensable, not only because language is the instru-\\nment for the expression of our thoughts, but because it is\\nthe main instrument for accurate thinking on any subject\\nat all. Further, the fullest and best insight into the\\nphilosophy of language is not to be had from the study\\nsurvive", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "Hoiv miicJi should survive 247\\nof a modern and analytic language alone, but is to be\\nbest attained by the comparison of such a language with\\na synthetic and highly inflected language. The best and\\nmost fruitful studies are those which are not limited to\\ntheir immediate object, but those which tend to carry\\nthe learner further into other regions of thought, and to\\nshed light on subjects other than themselves. And the\\nstudy of language fulfils this condition in an eminent\\ndegree. For, since all possible human know^ledge\\nrequires language for its exponent, there are no sciences\\nwith which grammar and philology are not concerned, or\\nwhich do not gain help and light from whatever exercises\\ngive precision and clearness to a student s use of words.\\nLastly, it is to be borne in mind that, of all forms of\\nintellectual exercise, those which touch the imagination,\\nwhich refine the taste and literary perception, which\\nplace the learner in closer sympathy with the great writers\\nand thinkers of former ages, the humanities, in short\\nfurnish the best possible corrective to much of the\\nmaterialism of modern science, and are a standing and\\never-needed vindication of the truth that a man s life\\nconsisteth not in the abundance of things that he pos-\\nsesseth, but chiefly in ideas, in high and large thoughts,\\nin memories of what is best in the past, and in visions of\\nwhat is best in the future. All this was recognized and\\naimed at, more or less successfully, by the founders of\\ngrammar schools. All this, we may hope, English\\nschools and schoolmasters will continue to aim at for\\ngenerations yet to come, even though the traditional\\nsupremacy of Greek and Latin, and the belief in the\\neducative value of Latin versification, may come to be.\\nrudely questioned, and even to a large extent abandoned.\\nWhatever happens, we may not forget that what the\\nsixteenth century gave to her children was her very best.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "248 AscJiam and the Schools of the Renaissance\\nThe founders of grammar schools and framersof statutes\\nlooked round them at such intellectual resources as were\\nthen in existence. They asked themselves what had\\nbeen the influences which had contributed most to\\nthe making of the writers, the lawyers, the divines, the\\nstatesmen of their time, and they sought to place these\\ninfluences within the reach of every member of the\\ncommunity who coveted them, and who would know\\nhow to use them. No higher standard of duty can be\\npresent to us who are their successors. We too are\\nbound to give to our children the best we have. But\\nour best is not the same as that which Colet and Erasmus,\\nwhich Cecil or Somerset, which Ascham or Sidney knew.\\nBetween us and them there lie three centuries of unex-\\nampled mental activity and productiveness. The world\\nhas been enriched by new knowledge and new thoughts,\\nwith material discoveries, with poetry, with history, with\\nspeculations unknown to the contemporaries of Elizabeth.\\nWe have simply to do with our resources and experience\\nwhat they did with theirs what they would certainly\\nhave done had they lived in our time. We have to clear\\nour minds of illusions, to ask ourselves which of all these\\nresources is best calculated to help our children in living\\na noble, useful, and intelligent life. Having done this,\\nit behoves us to use these resources to the utmost, in the\\nfull belief that our successors in their turn will be able to\\nemancipate themselves from all which is not really helpful\\nin the traditions of the past, and will shape their plans in\\nthe light of their own experience, and of the altered\\nconditions and new wants of the coming generations.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "LECTURE VIII\\nTEACHERS INSTITUTES AND CONVENTIONS\\nIN AMERICA 1\\nConditions of education in the United States. Teachers trained and\\nuntrained. Institutes. Henry Barnard. Scope and aim of the\\nInstitutes. Voluntary associations of teachers. Co-operation\\nof the clergy and public men. Summary of general purpose of\\nConventions. Newport, Rhode Island. The College Associa-\\ntion of Philadelphia. St John, New Brunswick. Chautauqua.\\nReading Circles. Absence of educational politics. The cor-\\nporate spirit among teachers. The Teachers Guild and its\\nfuture.\\nWhen I was honoured with a request from your\\nCouncil to give a lecture at this meeting, I could not\\nhelp being reminded that since I last addressed any-\\nmeeting of the Guild, I had enjoyed opportunities of\\nwitnessing several gatherings of teachers on the other\\nside of the Atlantic; and it seemed to me that a brief\\naccount of some of this experience might not be in-\\nappropriate or unwelcome to-day. The Teachers Guild\\nrepresents the first serious attempt in England to bring\\ntogether teachers of all ranks, and to enable them to\\ninterchange experience. It aims at helping them to feel\\n1 Address at the Annual Meeting of the Teachers Guild. June,\\n1889.\\n249", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "250 Teachers Institutes and Ccviventions\\nconfidence in each other, and to co-operate, not so much\\nfor the defence of professional interests, as for the\\nfurtherance of the public interests the interests of the\\nchildren committed to their charge, and the improve-\\nment in the aims and methods of education generally.\\nNow these objects are sought in a large degree by many\\nAmerican teachers; but they are attained by means very\\ndifferent from those which would be available in this\\ncountry. We cannot hope to make true progress by\\nsimply imitating the institutions and usages which seem\\nto us admirable in other lands. Every nation has its\\nown problems, its own traditions, and history, and it\\nmust shape its course in a wholly eclectic fashion;\\nstudying, no doubt, with respectful interest, institutions\\nand methods which have succeeded elsewhere; but using\\nsuch observations rather with a view to find suggestion\\nand right impulse, than with any intention to become\\ncopyists. All institutions which are worth anything must\\ngrow and adapt themselves to their environment, and to\\nthe special needs and experience of those who have to\\nuse them. They cannot be manufactured all at once.\\nConditions have, in another place, described in some detail\\nin the special conditions under which education is con-\\nUnited ducted and organized in America. It will sufifice here\\nto mention two or three preliminary facts which need to\\nbe taken into account whenever we try to discuss edu-\\ncational phenomena in that country. There is, to begin\\nwith, no such thing as an American system of education.\\nThe Federal Government has accepted no responsibility\\nin the matter of public instruction. Each of the 42 States\\nis, we must remember, in many respects, a sovereign State,\\nmaking its own laws, raising its own taxes, appointing\\n1 In Notes on American Schools and Training Colleges appended\\nto the Reports of the Education Department for 1889.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "Education in the United States 251\\nits own public officers, and perfectly free to form its own\\nconception of what education ought to be, how it is to\\nbe provided, and how far it shall be enforced. And\\neven the States are subdivided; for often a single county,\\nor township, and always a city of any consequence, has\\nits own separate Board or School Committee, charged\\nwith the administration of the school fund of the district,\\nand practically independent of all other bodies. There\\nis no central authority, which can co-ordinate these\\nvarious agencies or bring them into harmony. The\\nschool system is an essentially local organization. One\\nState or City may be favourable to normal training, and\\nmay make a liberal provision for training colleges.\\nAnother may be without them altogether. And every\\nnormal college is exclusively a local institution. It trains\\nteachers for employment in the particular city or district\\nin which it is established, and its certificate or diploma\\nis valid only in that city or district. There is no gen-\\nerally recognized standard of qualification for the pro-\\nfession of a teacher. Nor, indeed, is any well-known\\nstandard of scholarship connoted by a university degree;\\nfor every one of the separate colleges and universities\\nin the States confers its own distinctions on its own\\npupils in accordance with regulations made by itself.\\nIn like manner each of the several provinces of\\nCanada has its legislature, which raises and appropriates\\nthe school fund, and makes its own laws. There are\\nnormal schools, and arrangements for the certification of\\nqualified teachers; but all these depend on the initiative\\nof the several provinces. So neither the Dominion\\nParliament at Ottawa nor the Federal Government at\\nWashington is concerned with the organization of public\\ninstruction for the whole country. That is the business\\nof the province, the state, the city, or some still smaller", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "252 Teachers Institutes and Conventions\\nadministrative unit. Hence, there are to be found in all\\nparts of tiie North American Continent, local patriotism,\\nlocal rivalry, and often very original and vigorous enter-\\nprise, but also great inequalities. As in the great broad\\nland itself, so you have in the field of education, many\\nfertile and promising, but some comparatively barren\\nand neglected tracts; and the first duty of everyone who\\nattempts to speak on such a subject is to guard himself\\nagainst the temptation to generalize too rapidly, or to\\nmake comprehensive inductions on data in themselves\\nso various and so widely separated.\\nTeachers, Another point which should be borne in mind is,\\ntrained or number of persons who, in America, devote\\nuntrained.\\ntheir lives to the profession of teaching, is, relatively to\\nthe population, smaller than in England, and the average\\nstay of teachers in the ranks is proportionately smaller.\\nUnless a man has special ability such as justifies him in\\nexpecting to be a master in a high school, or a professor\\nin a college, he is much more likely than his English\\nbrother to be attracted, after two or three years teaching,\\nto commerce, to the press, or to the pulpit. And the\\nperiod during which female teachers who constiUiie\\nabout five-sixths of the staff of what in England we should\\ncall elementary schools remain in the profession is much\\nshorter. Very few women remain, or would be allowed\\nto remain, in the profession after marriage, and it is\\ncomputed that the average duration of their service in\\nelementary schools does not exceed three years. In\\nthese circumstances it is not surprising that com-\\nparatively few of the teachers are willing to undergo any\\nlaborious training by way of preparation for so transi-\\ntory an employment. As a matter of fact, not more\\nthan one-tenth of the teachers in the common schools of\\nAmerica have been specially trained in normal seminaries;", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "Institutes 253\\nand of these some have devoted two or four years, but\\nsome only twelve, six, or only three months to such\\nspecial preparation. The normal schools are seldom or\\nnever residential institutions; much of their training is\\ngeneral and academical, and has no exclusive bearing\\non professional work; and many of them are attended\\nby considerable numbers of students who do not propose\\nto follow the calling of a teacher, but who wish to avail\\nthemselves of the excellent teaching of the lecturers in\\nnon-professional subjects.\\nNevertheless, a belief in the paramount importance\\nof special preparation for the teacher s ofifice, is very\\nstrong throughout all parts of America, and is daily\\nbecoming stronger and more general. This belief finds\\nexpression in many ways, notably in the existence of\\ninstitutes, teachers associations, and conventions, read-\\ning circles, and other means whereby the lack of regular\\nnormal training and discipline is, in some cases, largely\\ncompensated, and the training itself, in the case of\\nthose who have enjoyed it, is supplemented and made\\neffective.\\nBy an institute in America is meant a normal Institutes.\\nclass, held periodically for the teachers of a district, and\\nfurnishing instruction in the art and practice of edu-\\ncation, and an opportunity for the discussion of methods.\\nThese institutes are, in fact, migratory and occasional\\nacademies, and they were brought into existence before\\nany regular normal schools were founded. The first\\nmeeting of this kind was held in Hartford, in Con-\\nnecticut, as far back as 1839, by Henry Barnard, who\\nwas the Secretary to the State Board of Education, and\\nwho gathered together twenty-six young teachers in the\\npublic schools, and provided for them, during several\\nweeks, a course of lectures, reviewing the topics usually", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "2 54 Teachers Institutes and Conventions\\ntaught in the common schools, and furnishing some in-\\nstruction in method, supplemented by visits of observa-\\nHenry tion to the public schools of the city. I ought, in passing,\\nto say how much the literature of education owes to\\nMr Barnard, who has during a long life spent himself,\\nand, I fear, much of his fortune too, in efforts to reprint\\ncostly works and monographs on education. It was a\\ngreat pleasure to me to see this educational veteran at\\na meeting of teachers in Rhode Island, and to find him\\nstill, in his honoured old age, as keenly interested as\\never in the advancement of educational science and in\\nthe practical improvement of scholastic methods. The\\nexample he set was imitated at first in a rather fitful\\nand hesitating way, but afterwards more systematically.\\nThe earliest of these gatherings w^ere purely volun-\\ntary on the part of the teachers, and grew out of\\nthe endeavour to qualify themselves for their work;\\nbut soon, during the first decade, several of the New\\nEngland States began to make it an obligation on the\\nyounger teachers to attend them, and the management\\nof them was placed in the charge of the school superin-\\ntendents, or other officers appointed for the purpose.\\nBy degrees the system spread, at first to the Southern,\\nand afterwards to the Western States, and the Teachers\\nInstitute is now a recognized factor in the educational\\nsystem throughout the Union, and in the Dominion of\\nCanada. The data for any safe general statement in\\nreference to them are somewhat scattered, diverse, and\\nobscure. In a few States institutes are not legally re-\\nquired to be held at all; in some, institutes are incorpo-\\nrated into State or District systems, and in others into\\nCounty systems. In some they are held under State\\nauthority, and in others under local authority. In some\\ncases the expenses are paid by State funds, in others by", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "TJieii Scope and Aim 255\\ncounty funds, in others by contributions from the teachers,\\nand in others by the fees for teachers licenses. In some\\ncases the institutes are held at a fixed time, when the\\nschools are closed, and in others they are held at any\\ntime the local authorities may choose, and when the\\nschools are in session. In some, the schools are closed\\nduring the sessions of the institute, in others they remain\\nopen. In some, the teachers are paid for attending,\\nor fined for not attending; in others neither course is\\npursued. Some of them are held by voluntary or private\\npersons, and others now by far the greater number\\nby the official superintendent of the district, or under his\\ndirection. The time devoted to them also varies ma-\\nterially. In many States provision is made for an annual\\nsession of from three to six days, and in a few for a session\\nof two, or even three weeks. In other States the teachers\\nare required to meet monthly, or once in two months,\\nfor two or three hours in the evening or on Saturday.\\nBut, though diverse in all these respects, the oh]tQXScope and\\nto be attained and the method of attaining it are practi-\\ncally uniform. They are designed, in the first place\\nand mainly, for the help of the large number of teachers\\nwho have not been trained in normal seminaries; and, in\\nthe second place, for the help of those who have been so\\ntrained. Their aim, says a recent report of the Com-\\nmissioner, is to revive the spirit and confidence of\\nteachers, awaken a pride in the profession, stimulate to\\nself-improvement, and by a progressive course of study\\nand instruction review the branches taught in the schools,\\nand increase the practical requirements of the teachers.\\nAccordingly it is the duty of each official school super-\\nintendent, or district inspector, to classify the teachers\\nof his district, and to gather into their several classes\\nthose who take up the work of each standard or grade.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "256 TcacJicrs Listitutcs and Conventions\\nA young teacher, it must be observed, is, on admission,\\nexamined and certified, with a view to her service in\\na class of a given grade. She cannot take charge of a\\nhigher class without a further examination, and a higher\\ndiploma. While attached to a particular class, it is her\\nduty to attend the lessons at the Institute s] )ecially\\nadapted to the work of that particular grade, so that\\nin each department the young people are receiving in-\\nstruction in method, in so far as it is applicable to\\nthe work of their own classes. Besides this, collective\\ninstruction is given occasionally on larger questions\\nrelating to the general principles of teaching and organi-\\nzation. But, on the whole, it may be said that Insti-\\ntutes, in the American sense, while not designed in\\nany way to supersede regular normal training, furnish,\\nin many cases, a useful supplement to it, and in many\\nmore, help in an appreciable degree, to supply the lack\\nof such training. I should add that the various boards\\nand school authorities seldom appoint a man to the\\noffice of school Superintendent or Inspector who is not\\ncompetent to direct and hold such institutes, and to\\nlecture to the teachers on method.\\nVoluntary Besides these local institutes, which are essentially\\nassocia- normal classes, engaged in a good deal of merely technical\\ntions of 1 11\\nteachers, work, there are in America other and larger organizations,\\nof a wholly voluntary kind, which, though mainly, are\\nnot exclusively composed of teachers, and which seek\\nto elucidate the higher and more general aspects of\\neducation, and to bring the teaching profession into\\ndue relations with all the more advanced thought of the\\ncountry, with the prof essors of her universities, and with\\nthe best of her writers and her clergy. Foremost amongst\\nthese was the New England Association of Teachers,\\nwhich has subsequently changed its name to the American", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "Co-operation of public men 257\\nInstitute of Instruction. It was founded in 1830 at\\nBoston, and the first meeting, attended by 300 persons,\\nchiefly from the Eastern States, was presided over by\\nthe well-known Dr Wayland, the President- of IJrecon\\nUniversity. In his introductory address he struck the\\nkeynote of the whole enterprise, and foreshadowed with\\nclear insight the future history of an Association, which,\\nafter 58 years of growth, is to-day more flourishing and\\ninfluential than ever. He said\\nIn the long train of her joyous anniversaries New England has\\nyet beheld no one more illustrious than this. We have assembled\\nto-day, not to proclaim how well our fathers have done, but to\\nenquire how we may enable her sons to do better. We have\\ncome up here, to the City of the Pilgrims, to ask how we may ren-\\nder their children more worthy of their ancestors, and more pleasin,*;\\nto their God. We meet to give to each other the right hand of\\nfellowship in carrying forward this all-important work, and here to\\nleave our professional pledge, that if the succeeding generations do\\nnot act worthily the guilt shall not rest upon those who are now the\\ninstructors of New England.\\nIn the four days during which the meeting lasted these\\nwere the subjects discussed: Physical education; the\\ndevelopment of the intellectual faculties in connexion\\nwith the teaching of geography; the infant school system;\\nthe spelling of words, and a rational method of teaching\\ntheir meaning; lyceums and literary societies, and their\\nconnexion with the school; practical methods of teaching\\nrhetoric, geometry, and algebra; the monitorial system;\\nvocal music; classical learning; arithmetic; the con-\\nstruction and furnishing of school-rooms. Very early Co-opera-\\nin the history of the Association it was resolved that\\n11 r 11 1 11 clergy ana\\nthe clergy of all denominations, and the representatives ofpzMic\\nof the press in the neighbourhood in which the meeting\\nwas held should be invited. Among the lecturers who\\nspoke before the Association, during its early years.\\ns", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "258 Teachers histitittes and Conventions\\nI find the names of Jacob Abbott, whose books many of\\nus delighted in as children; of Noah Webster, the lexicog-\\nrapher; of George Ticknor; of Spurzheim, the German\\nphilosopher; of Calhoun, the statesman, who lectured\\non the duties of school committees; of Lowell Mason,\\nwho advocated the introduction of music into the common\\nschool; of Judge Story, on the science of Government\\nas a branch of general education; of Ralph Waldo\\nEmerson, on the best mode of inspiring a correct taste\\nin English literature; of Horace Mann, on the necessity\\nof previous study to parents and teachers; of John\\nPhilbrick, on school government; of George Sumner, on\\nthe state of education in some countries of Europe; of\\nGideon Thayer, on the means of awakening in the minds\\nof parents a deeper interest in the education of their\\nchildren; of Miss Peabody, on Kindergarten, the Gospel\\nfor children; and of Henry Ward Beecher, on the New\\nProfession. From the numerous other topics treated\\nat these annual meetings I select a few characteristic\\nexamples\\nThe study of the classics; training the human voice;\\nthe number of hours a day to be devoted to instruction;\\nthe sources of personal power; the self -education of the\\nteacher; the legitimate influence of schools on com-\\nmerce, on agriculture, on manufactures, on civil polity,\\nand on morals; the cultivation of a sense of honour among\\npupils; the right and wrong use of text-books; the rights\\nof the taught; oral teaching; the co-education of the\\nsexes; drawing not an accomplishment, but a language\\nfor the graphic representation of facts and a means of\\ndeveloping taste; psychology in relation to teaching.\\nof general As I look down through the annals of this Association\\nptirposes J struck with two or three facts: (i) That it has suc-\\noj suck\\nmeetings, ceeded in enlisting the co-operation and sympathy, not", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "Meeting at Nezvporty Rhode Island 259\\nonly of teachers of all ranks, from the primary school\\nto the University, but of nearly all the most prominent\\nthinkers, public writers, clergy, statesmen, and lawyers\\nin the States. (2) That its peripatetic character has\\nenabled it from year to year to break new ground, to\\nawaken new local interest, and to exercise a missionary\\ninfluence on the improvement of education throughout\\nthe whole country. (3) That the subjects of discussion\\nare mainly practical, and have a direct bearing on the\\nimprovement of school methods, but that many of them\\nare of a larger and more speculative kind, selected with a\\nview to enlarge the intellectual horizon of the members,\\nand to find new meeting-points between the world of the\\nschool-room and the world of thought and of commercial\\nand intellectual activity outside of the school. (4) That\\nin all the topics of discussion I fail to find one which\\ntouches the question of the payment of the teacher or\\nhis pecuniary or professional interests.\\nI had the great pleasure in 1888 of attending \\\\.\\\\\\\\t Meeting at\\n58th annual gathering of this thriving Association. At^^^^^^\\nNewport, in Rhode Island, there were assembled during\\nfour days about a thousand members, including the\\nteachers of primary and grammar schools, the professors\\nin the chief colleges and universities in the New England\\nStates, the principal teachers and authorities of the nor-\\nmal schools, and nearly all the school superintendents\\nand ofificial inspectors. With these were associated a\\nfew public men, such as the Mayor of Newport, and the\\nState Commissioner, members of School Boards and\\nCommittees, and the like. There were animated general\\nmeetings at the beginning and end of each day, for\\nlectures and addresses on the more popular aspects of\\neducation; and throughout the day sectional meetings,\\nin three or four groups, for papers and discussions on", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "26o Teachers Institutes and Coitventio7is\\nspecial topics. A simple and touching religious exercise\\nintroduced each day s proceedings, and there was at\\ntimes hearty choral singing, which, with one or two\\nexcursions at the end, constituted the only dissipations\\nof the assemblage. The subjects were of the same\\ngeneral character as I have already described, and I\\nwas especially struck in observing the terms of perfect\\nfreedom and equality subsisting between the teachers of\\nall classes and the public officials concerned in the\\nadministration of the various State systems.\\nThe Another very characteristic meeting at which I had\\n/s-uifa- opportunity of being present, was that of the College\\nHon at Association of Pennsylvania, now enlarged in its scope\\nthla include the Colleges and Universities of the\\nMiddle States and Maryland. It was held in the magni-\\nficent University buildings in Philadelphia, and after an\\naddress of welcome from the Provost of the University,\\nproceeded to discuss seriously, during two or three days, a\\nnumber of topics especially concerned with higher educa-\\ntion. Among these were the place of History in a college\\ncourse; the influence of Endowments on education; the\\nGerman University of to-day; Post-graduate courses;\\nPedagogics as a part of a college curriculum the educa-\\ntion of Women in colleges; the proper requirements for\\nadmission to a college course. The treatment of these\\ntopics was serious, and both scientific and practical;\\nthere was full recognition of great principles, and yet an\\nanxious attempt to see those principles in the light of the\\nactual problems of a professor s life.\\nSt John, An equally significant experience awaited us when\\nBruns- crossed the northern boundary of the State of Maine,\\n-Mick. and found ourselves in the Dominion of Canada. At\\nSt John, New Brunswick, was held in July a conven-\\ntion of all the teachers of the maritime provinces of New", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "St JoJin^ New Brunswick 261\\nBrunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward s Island.\\nHere, again, the gathering comprehended teachers of all\\nranks, from the primary teacher to the University prin-\\ncipal and professor, the State superintendents, all the\\ninspectors of schools, and a number of public men,\\nincluding the Governor of the Province, and Ministers\\nboth of the Provincial and of the Dominion Govern-\\nments. There were some twelve hundred persons at the\\nopening and closing meetings. But the sectional dis-\\ncussions throughout the day were largely attended, and\\nwere concerned with many important points of detail,\\nwhich were earnestly debated. There was a special\\nsection devoted to the investigation of infant teaching\\nand discipline, and at this meeting some papers, read\\nby female teachers of experience, were of unusual merit\\nand suggestiveness. Another section devoted itself to\\nthe consideration of the work of normal schools; another\\nto questions relating to the teaching of different branches\\nof natural science; another to the ornamentation, fur-\\nnishing, and equipment of the common school, and to\\nthe right use of its playgrounds and accessories; and\\nanother to the consideration of modes of inspecting and\\nexamining school organization and work.\\nIt was interesting to observe, in Canada, no less than\\nin the States, how much of stimulus and encouragement\\nteachers, especially the younger members of the pro-\\nfession, derived from these gatherings; how many new\\nand germinating ideas were disseminated, how many\\nvaluable friendships were formed, and to how large an\\nextent public opinion, both within and without the pro-\\nfession, was helped, strengthened, and ennobled. All\\nthrough the Dominion of .Canada, as well as through the\\nStates of the Union, scores of such local meetings are\\nto be found seriously at work during the first, second.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "262 Teachers Institutes and Conventioiis\\nand third weeks of the summer holiday; and it was\\nspecially cheering to see such eager and enthusiastic\\ncompanies of hard-worked teachers, who, after a long\\nsession, and in the hot weather of July, voluntarily dedi-\\ncated the first few days of their well-earned vacation to\\nself-improvement and to professional fellowship. It must\\nbe owned that the American has a genius for organizing\\nconventions, and that all sections of the community find\\ngreater delight in attending them than we of the old world\\nare wont to experience. The popularity of such conven-\\ntions seems to increase year by year. There is now, besides\\nthe various local gatherings in States and in groups of\\nStates, a National Educational Association, which or-\\nganizes every year a collective gathering on a huge\\nscale at some great centre, one year at Chicago, another\\nat Boston, another at St Louis, and once at San Fran-\\ncisco. Some thousands of teachers spent three, four,\\nor five days in travelling across the continent from\\ndifferent parts, in order to attend the great congress,\\nwhich lasted from the 17th to the 28th of July. Ihe\\nprogramme is so elaborate that a mere summary of it\\nwould if I were so rash as to attempt to give it\\noccupy all the time at my disposal to-day. I can only\\nask those of you who have ever attended a British\\nAssociation Meeting here at home, and who remember\\nits elaborate arrangements for receptions, sections, de-\\npartments, sub-committees, public harangues, excursions,\\nand social arrangements, to imagine such a meeting on\\na still larger scale, if you wish to form a notion of the\\nNational Convention of Teachers. Such great gatherings\\nare suited to the soil, and fit in better with the habits\\nand social arrangements of America than with those of\\nEngland. But I think they grow out of a genuine zeal\\nfor the improvement of education, and out of a re pub", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "CJiautauqna 263\\nlican sentiment that every man who has got anything\\ngood to say, or has made a useful invention or discov-\\nery, is bound to communicate it to his fellow-teachers,\\nand to invite their criticisms upon it.\\nI have elsewhere described the curious, but very chautau-\\ncharacteristic American institution known as the Chau-\\ntauqua Summer Assembly. In the north-west of the\\ngreat State of New York a clearance has been made\\nin the forest primaeval, and near the shore of a little\\nlake. Here during July and August may be seen an\\nencampment of from eight to ten thousand persons, living\\nin tents or wooden cottages, and forming themselves daily\\ninto classes and reading parties, working in laboratories,\\nstudying in small companies in a library, or listening\\nto lectures. They have a number of separate rooms for\\ndifferent kinds of study or manual work, a gymnasium,\\nand a vast amphitheatre, rudely fashioned on the curved\\nslope of a hill, with a roof, and one wall on the side of\\nwhich there is an organ and a platform, but otherwise\\nopen to the air and the woods. It is one of the most\\nmemorable and affecting of my American experiences to\\nhave addressed six thousand people in this sheltered\\nplace, to have heard their voices as they uplifted a psalm,\\nwhile the ancient trees waved and rustled all round them\\nin the summer twilight, and to have witnessed the hearty\\nenthusiasm, wherewith the whole of this large company,\\ncomprising persons of all ages, shared the simple recrea-\\ntions of the place, and yet seemed all bent on efforts\\nafter self-improvement. The Assembly is, as many of\\nyou know, the parent of many similar local assemblies,\\nand the headquarters of a vast organization, extending\\nthrough the whole length and breadth of the Union, and\\nof the Canadian Dominion, and known as the Chautauqua\\n1 In the AHncteenth Century for October, 18S8.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "264 Teachers Institutes and Conventions\\nReading Circle. Its members, upwards of 100,000 in\\nnumber, are scattered all over the American Continent,\\nand their one tie of association is that they all pledge\\nthemselves to read every year a certain set of four or five\\nbooks, to write papers in the form of resume, criticism,\\nor account of what they have read. Afterwards, when\\nopportunity offers, they meet from time to time, to read the\\nbooks together, to discuss their contents, and, if possible,\\nto obtain from some competent professor or schoolmaster\\nan occasional lecture in elucidation of one of the pre-\\nscribed books. This is not the occasion for any detailed\\ndescription of the Association. It has, as many of you\\nknow, been a remarkably successful enterprise, has de-\\nveloped among many persons who have had few oppor-\\ntunities of early study a sense of intellectual fellowship\\nwith other self-taught and striving students, and has\\nexercised a far-reaching influence on the mental life and\\nthought of the American people. A very characteristic\\naddress delivered to the assembled students by the late\\nrevered Bishop Phillips Brooks of Massachusetts, con-\\ntained a passage which well describes the influence\\nexerted by the great Reading Union on the home life of\\nthe American community and on its educational ideals\\nI see busy households, where the daily care has been lightened\\nand inspired by the few moments caught every day for earnest study.\\nI see chambers which a single open book fills with light like a\\nburning candle. I see workshops where the toil is all the more\\nfaithful because of the higher ambition which fills the toiler s heart.\\n1 see parents and children drawn closer to one another, in their\\ncommon pursuit of the same truth, their common delight in the same\\nideas. I see hearts young and old kindling with deepened insights\\ninto life and broadening with enlarged outlooks over the richness of\\nhistory, and the beauty of the world. Happy fellowships in study,\\nself conquests, self discoveries, brave resolutions, faithful devotions\\nto ideals and hopes all these I see as I look abroad upon this", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "Reading Circles 265\\nmultitude of faces of the students of the great College of Chau-\\ntauqua.\\nBut it is notable that the whole movement began\\n18 years ago in the form of a voluntary association of\\nteachers chiefly connected with Sunday-schools, who met\\ntogether for the study of the Bible, and for mutual con-\\nference about the best mode of giving religious instruc-\\ntion. Very soon it was found that masters and mistresses\\nemployed in the primary schools and grammar schools\\nof the States wished to associate themselves with the\\nAssembly; and the Teacheis Retreat was organized, partly\\nfor summer rest and congenial fellowship, but mainly for\\nthe systematic reading of the best educational literature,\\nand for the discussion of the methods and processes of\\neducation. So, during the two months of the Assembly,\\nabout two weeks are annually appropriated to the mem-\\nbers of the teaching profession, and year by year the\\nnumber of such persons to be found at Chautauqua\\nincreases. Out of this experiment grew in time a\\nTeachers^ Reading Union, for the benefit of those who\\nwere too widely scattered to give personal attendance\\nat the meeting. This department of the whole work of\\nthe institution is separately organized\\nIt suggests the names of suitable books, facilitates the circula-\\ntion of them among the members, provides three regular and several\\nadvanced courses of professional reading the book-work being\\nsupplemented by written correspondence, and records of experience,\\nand by special counsels forwarded by the professors to the members.\\nFor the annual fee of one dollar, each member is entitled to receive\\nduring the year seven such communications in answer to questions,\\nor in explanation of difficulties.\\nThis example has been extensively followed. The\\nTeachers Reading Circle is now recognized every-\\nwhere as the most valuable agency for the improvement\\nof the rural schools, and as a humble, but not ineffective,", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "i66 Teachers Institutes and Conventions\\nsubstitute for normal training. The report of the Com-\\nmissioner of Education says that, in the case of country\\nteachers, Whatever knowledge they obtain of the theory\\nof teaching, and whatever promptings they receive to\\nenter on the study of mind, and to learn something of\\nthe laws of its growth, may be set down largely to the\\ncreditof theReadingCircle. President AUyn, of Illinois,\\nsays, The work of the Teachers Reading Circles is in\\nthe direction of healthful mental and moral progress. No\\none can read a good book without profit, and when such\\na book is in the line of one s life-work, it is both insj)ira-\\ntion and motive power. As these views have i)tcv;iik(l,\\nthe system has, during the last seven or eight years, becu\\nlargely extended. Ohio and Wisconsin were among the\\nearliest States to form State Teachers Reading Circles.\\nIndiana soon followed, and at present more lluin twenty\\nStates have formally adopted the \\\\A\\\\.\\\\\\\\\\\\. It is estimated\\nthat at least 75,000 teachers in the United States are\\nreading methodically and systematically works having\\nspecial relation to professional and general culture.\\nKran iiig J abridge from the last Rej^ort presented to Congress\\nby the Commissioner of I xlucation the following par-\\nticulars respecting the formation and work of these\\nassociations\\nThe objects of the .State Teachers Reading Circles are sub-\\nstantially the same, namely, the improvement of the members in\\nliterary, scientific, and iM\\\\)fossional kno\\\\vk (lij;e, and the promotion\\nof habits of self-cultvire. This end is souj;ht by prescribing a cer-\\ntain course of study, securing bt)oks at reduced rales, preparing lists\\nof the best educational publications, by oflcring atlvice and directit^n\\nas to the methods of reading and study, by examinations of the work\\ndone, and by certificates of proficiency.\\nThe act of organizing the State Circle has generally been\\naccomplished at the annual assem])ly of the State Teachers Associa-\\ntions, anil the work is usually ranird on under the control of this\\nCirc/cs.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "The Teachers National Reading Circle 267\\nassociation. Directors and boards of management are chosen, wlio\\nmap out the course and direct the work of the circle. County and\\nlocal circles are also formed, subsidiary to the general or State cir-\\ncle, and even individual members may pursue the course alone.\\nThe conditions of membership are liberal, any teacher or other\\nperson being received who promises to pursue the prescribed course\\nof study, and pays the small fee usually 25 cents or 50 cents\\nannually. Meetings of local circles for conference, discussion, and\\nreview are held once a week in some States, and bi-weekly in others.\\nThe course of study is usually outlined and published in the educa-\\ntional journals, and in the county papers.\\nIn the preparation of these outlines, a department of study is\\nunder the special supervision of some member of the State Board.\\nThe object of this study is twofold, namely, professional and general\\nculture. As for the prominence given to one or the other of these\\nsubjects, that is determined by the actual needs of the teachers.\\nThe fourth year s reading (1886 87) for the Ohio Teachers Reading\\nCircle is given herewith, to indicate the general scope of such studies.\\nPsychology. Sully s Teacher s Handbook of Psychology.\\nLiterature. Hamlet, and As You Like It. Selections\\nfrom Wordsworth.\\nHistory. Barnes s Brief General History of the World, or\\nThalheiner s General History.\\nPolitical Economy. Gregory s Political Economy, or Cha-\\npin s First Principles of Political Economy, with at least one\\neducational periodical.\\nIn a majority of the States provision is made for stated exami-\\nnations of the work performed, and certificates are awarded with\\ndiplomas upon completion of the course. \u00c2\u00abv\\nThe Union Reading Circle, z. paper published in the interests\\nof this work, reports (June, 1887) three new societies in Georgia,\\ntwo in Kentucky, five in Iowa, and twelve others in as many difter-\\nent States. Memorial days are now the fashion; the poets lUyant,\\nLongfellow, and Tennyson, with Dickens and other literary men,\\nreceiving their share of honour in various places. The Agassiz\\nSociety of Philadelphia promises to make the summer vacation an\\nopportunity for scientific research and study, and each one will\\ncontribute towards the common museum. The Gesenius, a new\\ncircle of Cleveland, makes Hebrew a specialty, as the Xenophon\\nSociety carries on the systematic study of Greek. The Curtis", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "268 Teachers Institutes and Convejitions\\nSociety of Buffalo, N. Y. studies politics, and discusses all questions\\nof reform. The Tulane Home Study and Reading Society is organ-\\nized, with headquarters at Tulane University, New Orleans, La.\\nBesides the State associations, others claiming a national char-\\nacter have been organized. In 1885, the Teachers National Read-\\ning Circle was legally incorporated under the laws of New York.\\nProf. W. H. Payne, of Michigan, was chosen President, supported\\nby 18 directors, constituting the official board. This organization\\nprovides 18 courses of reading, 6 being professional, 3 in general\\nculture, and 9 non-professional. In the first, 27 books are recom-\\nmended. Each course includes 3 groups of studies, 2 books in\\neach group, and any course (3 books for the year) may be\\ntaken by the reader. Diplomas will be granted to members who\\npass the three different examinations in some one prescribed course,\\nand who prepare an accepted thesis on some educational topic\\nconnected with the reading. One or two of the educational\\ndepartments of Canada prescribe a course of reading for teachers,\\npurely voluntary, and hence followed by no examinations. The\\ndepartment provides, however, that should the teachers of any\\ninspectorial division agree to read the course with this end in view,\\nand should the county board of examiners make adequate provi-\\nsion for such examination, the department would recognize, by spe-\\ncial certificate, this additional element of professional culture.\\nAbsence of It will be observed that all the organizations I have\\ncduca- described local institutes, general conventions, readin^^\\npolitics, circles, teachers retreats set before them two objects,\\nand two objects only, self -improvement, and the improve-\\nment of education. There is a remarkable absence in\\nAmerica of discussions on what may be called the politics\\nof education, or on the means of obtaining professional\\ninfluence outside the profession itself. And it is to this\\nsingleness of purpose, to the essentially practical aim of\\nthese organized meetings, that one may fairly attribute\\nthe interest which is universally shown in them, the\\nwarm and respectful vvelcome which they receive from\\nparents and local authorities as they itinerate from town\\nto town, the large share of importance assigned to the", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "TJie corporate spirit among teachers 269\\nmeetings in the local press, and the extent to which the\\ninfluence of the teaching body has steadily been enlarged\\nduring the last sixty years. Public opinion, after all,\\nevinces a true instinct when it shows as it always does\\na certain distrust of trading and professional associa-\\ntions, obviously designed to keep up the scale of remu-\\nneration, to assert corporate rights and privileges, or\\notherwise to protect class interests. Outsiders have a\\nsuspicion that these interests are not necessarily or always\\nidentical with the larger interests of the community.\\nThe Teachers Guild in England, we may confidently\\nhope, will do much to dispel this suspicion.\\nIt cannot, of course, be doubted that the creation of The\\na corporate spirit, a consciousness of brotherly unity\\namong all classes of teachers, is in itself a worthy oh]ec\\\\. among\\nto attain. But esprit de corps, though a good thing,\\nis a thing of which one can easily have too much,\\nand there are at least some callings in which a body of\\ntraditional and professional etiquette has grown up and\\nproved to be rather a hindrance than a help to public\\nusefulness. So, also, it is natural that to some minds the\\ngreat attraction of a corporate body like this is the hope\\nthat it holds out of winning for the teaching profession\\na higher social position and influence. But, after all,\\nsocial status and influence are not to be had by demand-\\ning them, or by complaining that they are withheld, but\\nsimply by deserving them, and by the silent and sure\\nmethod of improving the personal qualifications of those\\nwho wish for them. Much is often said, too, of the\\nimportance of an organization which will bring the col-\\nlective opinion of the great teaching body to bear on the\\nsolution of public questions, and enable scholastic author-\\nities to speak with one voice on points on which outside\\nopinion has to be formed, and public measures are", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "270 Teachers Institutes and Conventions\\ncontemplated. There may, no doubt, be times when such\\nexpressions of opinion are needed; but they are rare;\\nand when they occur, it will probably be found that\\nunanimity of judgment is as little attainable within the\\nprecincts of the profession as without them, and that it\\nis by the utterances of a few of the wisest, rather than by\\nthe resolutions of large bodies, that, in the long run,\\nopinion is formed, great measures are initiated, and\\nreforms are effected. There is, for example, the much-\\ndebated question, how the aid granted by Parliament\\nshould be assessed, and on what conditions it should be\\ndistributed among our common schools. There are the\\nrelative merits of inspection and of examination as tests\\nof school work. These are, of course, legitimate and\\ninteresting subjects of public discussion. But, after all,\\nthey chiefly concern Parliament, which makes the grant,\\nand managers, who receive and expend it. It is only in\\na very limited degree that these matters affect those who,\\nas members of the Teachers Guild, are concerned chiefly\\nwith the interior work and efficiency of schools. Under\\nany imaginable regulations for dispensing the public\\ngrant, it will always be true that good teaching is possible,\\nand that improvement is possible. To teachers it will\\never be the first duty to make the school efficient, by\\nbringing to bear upon it all their highest powers, their\\nwidest reading, and the best of their thought and ex-\\nperience. To examiners, universities, inspectors, and\\npublic authorities who are called on to direct education,\\nor to test, or to criticise, the first duty is to be fair and\\njust, to recognize impartially all forms of good work, and\\nto encourage every honest effort. And for all classes\\nalike, the main business is to co-operate cordially in the\\ntrial of new experiments, in the making of fruitful dis-\\ncoveries, and in the fulfilment of a great public duty.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "TJie Teachers Guild 27 1\\nThe Teachers Guild has before it, I believe, a great The\\nTeac\\nGtnld.\\ncareer of honour, and of public beneficence. By the\\ncomprehensiveness of its aim it may hope to enlist the\\nco-operation of teachers of all ranks, to break down\\nartificial barriers, such as tend to keep the labourers in\\nthe different parts of the scholastic field apart, and to\\nshow that every true principle in the philosophy of\\neducation, when once understood, is applicable alike to\\nall real teaching, from the kindergarten to the universities.\\nBy means of its libraries, and its local conferences, as\\nwell as in other ways, the Guild can do much to encourage\\nyounger teachers in their efforts after self-improvement,\\nand to make them familiar with the best experience of\\ntheir predecessors. And by the help of its public dis-\\ncussions, by the welcome it gives to all new speculations,\\nby its readiness to diffuse right principles, it can help\\nto make the work of teaching in schools easier, more\\ndelightful, and more efficient. It may also sustain, in the\\nteaching profession and out of it, a loftier purpose, and a\\nlarger and nobler ideal than has ever yet been realized,\\nof what a complete and generous education ought to be.\\nOther forms of honourable ambition may yet disclose\\nthemselves; other claims on public estimation and grati-\\ntude may yet be established. Higher claims it can never\\nhave. And it is only by stedfastly aiming at the highest\\nthat the lower aims, either in the life of a man or of an\\ninstitution, can be understood in their true proportions,\\nor can ever be successfully attained.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "LECTURE IX\\nEDWARD THRING^\\nThe biographical method of studying educational history. Arnold\\nandThring. Outlinesof Thring s life. His biographers. Fel-\\nlowships at King s College, Cambridge. Early practice in a\\nNational School. True principles of teaching applicable to\\nschools of all grades. Uppingham. Boarding-houses. The\\nSchool largely the product of private adventure. The Royal\\nCommissioners. The Hegira. Uppingham by the sea. The\\nteaching of English. Every boy good for something. Variety\\nof employment and of games. Encouragement of music and\\nthe fine arts. The decoration of the school-room. Honour to\\nlessons. Thring s books. His fancies. Characteristic extracts.\\nDiaries. The Head-Masters Conference. Head-Mistresses.\\nWomen as teachers. Settlement at North Woolwich. The\\nUppingham School Society. The prize system.\\nThe bio- Student of educational history and of the opinions\\ngraphical which have from time to time prevailed respecting the\\n^l\\\\udvinz prii iciples and methods of teaching does well to fasten his\\neduca- attention occasionally on the career of some representa-\\nMst^rv teacher whose doings and ideas may be regarded\\nas characteristic of the times in which he lived, or\\nwhose personal influence may have helped to deter-\\nmine the course of thought and of action pursued by\\nother teachers. This is a method of investigation which\\nhas been adopted with singular success by Compayr^, by\\n1 Address before the College of Preceptors.\\n272", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "Arnold and Thring 273\\nMr Quick and by Mr Oscar Browning, and in Mr Heine-\\nmann s Series of Great Educators, and it has the great\\nadvantage of setting before us, in a concrete and personal\\nform, views and tendencies which would otherwise be\\nless intelligible.\\nTwo names will always remain prominently associated Arnold\\nwith the public school education in the England of the Vjl,\\nnineteenth century, those of Dr Arnold and Edward\\nThring. Both men were educated in ancient Grammar\\nSchools, steeped in the traditions of the ^j-enaissance\\nthe one at Eton and the other at Winchester. Both owed\\ntheir best intellectual possessions to the classical training\\nthey had thus received. Yet both were conscious of the\\ndefects of that training, and each sought in his own way\\nto enlarge and ennoble the conception of what a great\\npublic school ought to be; and while holding fast to the\\nbelief that the study of the languages of Greece and\\nRome should form the staple of a liberal education, both\\nendeavoured to understand the changed circumstances\\nand the new requirements of our own age, and to adapt\\ntheir systems of teaching and discipline to those require-\\nments. Both were characterized by intense earnestness\\nof purpose, by profound faith in the importance of their\\nown office, and by a religious consecration of their best\\npowers to the duties of that office. But they differed\\ngreatly in temperament and in personal gifts; and also in\\nthe width and range of their sympathies. Arnold was a\\nfighting Paladin, entering with ardour into the political\\nand theological controversies of his time. Both as a\\npublic writer and as Professor of Modern History at\\nOxford, he was a conspicuous figure in the world outside\\nof Rugby. Thring on the contrary was identified heart\\nand soul with Uppingham, and is known to the outer\\nworld only in connexion with it and not as a student or\\nT", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "274 Edward Thring\\nas an author. All his literary work also had relation to his\\nprofession as a schoolmaster; and he is one of that small\\nclass of eminent teachers who have not only achieved\\npractical success, but have also written copiously on the\\nprinciples and practice of the art which they professed.\\nHe never obtained or sought ecclesiastical preferment.\\nAll the combative powers of his life were employed\\nin contests with the governing body of his school, with\\nparents, with masters, and with Royal Commissions,\\nand other public authorities. There are few more notable\\nexamples in the history of English public schools, of the\\nentire concentration of all the powers and ambition of a\\nlife upon one school. I have elsewhere sought to esti-\\nmate the influence of Thomas Arnold on education; and\\nwithin the necessary limit of one lecture, we may with\\nadvantage try to unfold the reasons why the name of\\nThring will always be honourably associated with his in\\nthe history of this waning century.\\nOutline of There is the less reason to enter into general biogra-\\nThring s p^ical detail, because the story of his life has been written\\nlife.\\nwith care and sympathy, and with somewhat unusual\\nfulness of detail, by his friend Mr G. R. Parkin; and has\\nbeen further elucidated in a volume entitled A Memory\\nof Edward Tlirijig^ by his affectionate friend Mr J.\\nH. Skrine, at first a pupil, afterwards a colleague as\\nmaster in the School. Another writer, one who knew and\\nunderstood him well the Rev. H. D. Rawnsley has\\nwritten a small monograph entitled Edward Thring,\\nTeacher and Poet, which is characterized by delicate\\nand just appreciation. All these books deserve a perma-\\nnent place in the hagiology of the scholastic profession.\\nIt will therefore suffice for my present purpose to assume\\n1 In Thomas and Matthew Arnold and their influence in Eng-\\nlish Education.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "OiLtline of TJiring s life 275\\nthat their contents are generally known and to recall\\nhere in briefest summary the main incidents of his life.\\nHe was born in 182 1, and was the son of John dale\\nThring, the Rector and Squire of the parish of Alford in\\nSomersetshire. Part of his education was received at\\nthe small endowed grammar school at Ilminster, and\\npart at Eton, where he became by the end of his school\\nlife the head boy of the Collegers, and Captain of Monten\\nin 1 84 1, nearly the last year of that famous celebration.\\nHe proceeded duly to King s College, Cambridge, gained\\nthe Porson prize for Greek Iambics, and was elected a FidlowsJdp\\nFellow of the College. It is very characteristic of him\\nthat, being a distinguished Etonian and a Fellow of\\nKing s College, he was foremost in denouncing and\\nin ultimately abolishing a special privilege to which,\\nin accordance with the traditions of the University, he was\\nentitled. For three centuries. Scholars of King s had been\\nallowed to proceed to a degree without examination.\\nBut Thring while yet in residence as a Fellow, objected\\nstrongly to the continuance of this anomalous and\\nantiquated usage, and wrote more than one pamphlet\\npointing out the mischief done by it to the true interests\\nof learning, and advocating its entire abolition. It was\\ngenerally believed that had he been subjected to the\\nordinary degree examination, he would have proved\\nhimself the most distinguished Classical Scholar of his\\nyear. His protest therefore against the continuance of\\nthe exceptional privilege enjoyed by his own College\\nwas all the more effective. But Universities are habitu-\\nally cautious and conservative; and it was not till three\\nyears after^ in 185 1, that the full consent to this reform\\nwas obtained from the Provost and Fellows. Ever rrince\\nthe King s Scholars from Eton have obtained their\\ndegrees, like other undergraduates, by passing the ordi-\\nnary examinations of the University.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "2j6 Edward Thring\\nIn 1846 he was ordained, and took a curacy in\\nGloucester, and after a short interval, in which like Arnold\\nhe was engaged privately as a tutor preparing candidates\\nfor the public schools, he was appointed in 1853 to be\\nHead Master of the School at Uppingham an ancient\\nfoundation of the sixteenth century, with a modest en-\\ndowment of less that ^1000 per annum, which then\\nsustained a small school in mean and narrow buildings,\\nwith twenty-five boys and two masters and very little\\nreputation. How in the course of thirty-four years, he\\ncontrived to develop this poor obscure little institution\\ninto one of the most influential public schools in England,\\nW4th upwards of three hundred scholars, thirty masters,\\neleven boarding-houses, a noble chapel and library, and\\nample equipment for recreation and teaching, may be\\ngathered from the books I have named. It will here\\nsufifice to refer to those features of his life s work, which\\nseem to have special value by way of example and sug-\\ngestion to those who are to be his successors.\\nEarly Among these, one may cite his earliest experience as\\naNathnal^ teacher. When a Curate in the city of Gloucester it\\nSchool. was part of his duty to teach regularly in the elementary\\nschool of the parish; and he ever afterwards regarded\\nthe expedience thus gained as the most important part of\\nhis professional training.\\nEverything, he said, I most value of teaching thought, and\\nteaching practice, and teaching experience, came from this teaching\\nwork daily in the National Schools. Never shall I forget those\\nschools in the suburbs of Gloucester, and their little class-room, with\\nits solemn problem, no more difficult one in the world how on\\nearth the Cambridge Honour man, with his success and his brain-\\nworld, was to get at the minds of those little labourers sons, with\\ntheir unfurnished heads, and no time to give. They gave me the\\ngreat axiom The worse the material, the greater the skill of the\\nworker. They called out the useful dictum Avith which I ever silently\\nstepped over the threshold: If these fellows don t learn, it s my", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "Practice in a National School 2^^\\nfault. 77iey disentangled all the loose threads of knowledge in my\\nbrain, and forced me to wind each separately in its place, with its\\nbeginning and its end. 77iey bred in me a supreme contempt for\\nknowledge-lumps, and for emptying out knowledge-lumps in a heap,\\nlike stones at the roadside, and calling it teaching. They made me\\nhate the long array of hne words, which lesson-givers ask, and pupils\\nanswer, and neither really know the meaning of. They taught me\\nhow different knowing is from being able to make others know.\\nNay, they taught me the more valuable lesson still, how different\\nknowledge which can be produced to an examiner is from knowledge\\nM hich knows itself, and understands its own life and growth. There\\n1 learnt the great secret of St Augustine s golden key, which, though\\nit be of gold, is useless unless it fits the wards of the lock. And I\\nfound the wards I had to fit, the wards of my lock, which had to be\\nopened, the minds of those little street boys, very queer and tortu-\\nous affairs and I had to set about cutting and chipping myself into\\nthe wooden key, which should have the one merit of a key, how-\\never common it might look, the merit of fitting the lock, and unlock-\\ning the minds, and opening the shut chambers of the heart.\\nIt may well be doubted whether the truth which\\naccident thus brought home to Thring s life- long con-\\nviction is sufficiently recognized by teachers. We are\\nhampered too much by pedantic attempts at the exact\\ndelimitation of primary, secondary, and academic educa-\\ntion. The members of the teachers profession them-\\nselves are tempted to regard the practitioners in these\\nseveral departments, as if they formed distinct classes\\nsocially and intellectually, having few or no common\\ninterests. The truth is that the teaching which seems\\nlowest and most elementary requires the highest gifts\\nand make the largest demands on the genius and power\\nof a teacher. The ways of approach to the intelligence,\\nthe sympathies, and the conscience of learners may\\noften be learned more thoroughly among those of the\\nhumblest rank, than among those whose standard of life\\nPresidential Address to the Education Society in 1886.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "278 Edwm^d T living\\nand thought is already determined by the fact that they\\ncome from intelligent homes. And when right methods\\nare discovered, it is always found that they are applicable\\nto all grades of learners alike.\\nTrtie Thring s personal experience on this point throws\\nof teachiiKr light on a problem which in the near future will\\napplicable demand the serious consideration of educational author-\\np-rades of i^^^^- accustomed to deplore the mistakes made\\nschools. by young assistant masters in public schools, who come\\nfresh from the Universities and try their prentice hand\\nupon the lower forms, before attempting to obtain any\\ntraining or guidance in the art of teaching and even\\nbefore believing that such training would be of any\\nservice to them. Ere long we may hope that the need\\nof systematic preparation for the schoolmaster s work will\\nbe as universally recognized in the upper as in the lower\\nregions of educational experience. And in the millen-\\nnium when this principle is once admitted and the ques-\\ntion arises, What sort of training will best suit the needs\\nof those who are destined to be the teachers in higher\\nand intermediate schools? it will be seen that a truly\\nscientific pedagogy takes little heed of conventional and\\nsocial distinctions, and does not care much to enquire\\nto what grade of schools or even to what group of sub-\\njects a teacher intends to devote himself. Principles\\nand methods which are right in the primary school, are\\ncapable, with very little modification, of being applied\\nin schools of the highest rank and pretensions. After\\nall, natural endowments are happily to be found impar-\\ntially distributed among children of all ranks. Hence,\\nthe young graduate fresh from the contest for University\\nhonours, who aspires to the highest place in his pro-\\nfession, will not do well to disdain to spend a little\\ntime and gather a little experience in a good elementary", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "Upp ingham 2 79\\nschool. He will there learn some things which as a\\nform-master at Eton or Harrow he could not learn. He\\nwill gain notions respecting organization and the handling\\nof large classes, and will see in action some devices for\\nplanning lessons, and for securing attention and disci-\\npline, which will help much to widen his own view of\\nthe possibilities of his profession, and to suggest to him\\nsome modifications of the time-honoured routine of a\\npurely classical school.\\nFrom the first when at the age of 32 he assumed the Upping-\\nferule at Uppingham he formed a very clear conception\\nof the work of a public school, and determined to make\\nUppingham in some respects an example of what such a\\nschool should be. He thought that most of the schools of\\nthe highest rank were too large; and that consequently\\ndue regard to the character and needs of the individual\\nscholar was impossible in them. He regarded 300 as\\nthe maximum number for such a school, and he reso-\\nlutely resisted all temptation to exceed 320. Up to this\\nnumber, every boy added to the efifiiciency of the school,\\nbut beyond this number he deemed every additional pupil\\nwas a drag and a hindrance and rendered it less possible\\nfor the masters to know and study special capabilities.\\nThis maximum was reached in 1865, when he had been in\\noffice eleven years. I have no right, he said, to take\\na boy away from his parents and accept the responsibility\\nof training him unless I can know him well. A mob\\nof boys cannot be educated. Every boy should feel\\nthat he is known. For this reason he also desired to\\nlimit the number of boarders in any house to thirty.\\nThis rule was very unwelcome to some of his masters,\\nseeing that they derived their chief income from the\\nboarding fees, and it served as an occasion for some\\nfriction between him and his staff. His diary, Nov. 3,", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "28o Edzvard TJiring\\n1874, contains this entry: I said to the masters that\\nnothing would induce me to admit an extra boy in any\\nhouse. This last I think most of; because I feel sure\\nthat my work here will be overthrown on this very point\\nof numbers, and I am glad therefore of every opportunity\\nof bearing witness to my conviction that it is destruc-\\ntion of all my work.\\nBoarding- In fact the conditions under which the masters were\\nlouses. appointed were not without danger. His colleagues were\\nnot salaried assistants, but men who possessed capital\\nand had been invited by him to invest considerable sums\\nin the building of boarding-houses, and to contribute\\nliberally to the general equipment and development of\\nthe school. They were thus not only assistant masters,\\nbut partners in a commercial venture. Probably this was\\nthe only way in which Thring could realize his ideal in a\\nschool with a small endowment, an apathetic governing\\nbody, and no great traditions or repute. But it was not\\na good way; and the fact that he was obliged to adopt\\nit, illustrates a weak point in the polity of many of our\\npublic schools. The masters look to the profits on\\nboarders as their chief source of revenue their pecuniary\\nsuccess depends at least as much on their skill as caterers\\nand lodging-house keepers as on their gifts and powers\\nas teachers. The fact that they have invested money in\\na private enterprise gives them a vested interest; and\\nmakes it very difficult to dismiss them if they prove\\neducationally incompetent. It is manifest that these are\\nconditions which might prove highly unfavourable to the\\ninterests of a school. Boarding-houses should be the\\nproperty of the school governors, and the masters should\\nbe tenants merely holding ofifice quavidiu se be7ie gesseiint,\\ntheir tenure being dependent on their proved fitness and\\npersonal influence as teachers, and not on any other", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "Boa rding-Jiotiscs 281\\nconsideration. This arrangement was impossible at\\nUppingham, owing to the special circumstances of its\\nhistory and resources, and to the financial risks which\\nhis colleagues had incurred. But the readers of Thring s\\ndiary will be made painfully aware that his relations to\\nthose colleagues were often seriously complicated by the\\nconditions under which he was obliged to work, and by\\nthe fact that notwithstanding the pains he took to select\\nas colleagues, men in sympathy with his own aims, and\\nqualified by character and enthusiasm, their personal\\ninterests were not always identical with what he thought\\nto be the interests of the school, or with the fulfilment of\\nhis own most cherished ideal. The truth is that Upping-\\nham School as we now know it occupies the unusual\\nposition of a public institution that has largely grown out\\nof a private enterprise.\\nIn a letter to Lord Lyttelton quoted by Mr Parkin The school\\nthe head-master says truly Other schools have as they l^^ g^jytj^^\\nproduct of\\ngrew, and it became possible to do so, employed private ^rzVa/^\\nproperty gradually, and when any large sum has been\\nthus invested, the expenditure has been spread over\\nseveral generations and most of the original contributors\\nare in their graves. But Uppingham is an instance of a\\nspecial school system, based on most distinct principles,\\nbeing begun when a school was at its lowest ebb, carried\\nout steadily through adversity and prosperity, till all the\\neducational work has practically become quite indepen-\\ndent of any necessity of foundation aid, though for\\nreasons other than pecuniary, such aid seems to me very\\nimportant. The work too has been done in one gener-\\nation, and the men still live whose property and lives\\nhave been thus contributed to the work, when most unex-\\n1 Parkin s Life of Edward Thring, Vol. i. p. 180.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "282 Edward Thring\\npectedly Government steps forward to deal with the ques-\\ntion. It is not wonderful that Thring should regard\\nthe legislation of 1869 as mischievous, or at least inop-\\nportune, although the revelations made by the previous\\nCommission of Inquiry showed tne absolute need for such\\nlegislation, in the case of scores of decaying and worth-\\nless educational endowments in all parts of the country.\\nBut the case of Uppingham was wholly exceptional. In\\none sense it was virtually a proprietary school, owing\\nits creation to the genius and courage of one man and\\nto the capital and the personal efforts of his partners and\\nhimself.^ It owed little to the accident of its possessing\\na small endowment, an ancient foundation, a pious\\nfounder, and an external governing body. With these\\nalone, it might have long remained an obscure little\\ncountry grammar school of the second or third rank.\\nYet these were the circumstances which brought the\\nfoundation within the purview of the Endowed Schools\\nAct, and gave to it its only chance of recognition among\\nthe historical public schools of England.\\nRoyal Thring s mistake lay in the supposition that he could\\nCoinmis- secure at the same time for himself all the prestige and\\ninfluence of a great public institution, and all the freedom\\nand independence of a private schoolmaster carrying on\\na commercial venture of his own. He did not consider\\nthat if Uppingham had been merely the product of his\\nown enterprise and that of his friends, it would have been\\nuntouched by legislation or by the Royal Commission.\\nHe would have been perfectly free to carry out his own\\nplans, to be the chief manager of a joint-stock establish-\\n1 A document prepared by the assistant-masters for the informa-\\ntion of the Commissioners stat d, that of the present school-build-\\nings the Trust has contributed 8| per cent., and Mr Thring and his\\nmasters 91^- per cent.\\nSIOJIS.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "Royal Commissions 283\\nment which at his death might become extinct, or be\\nsold in the market. But it could not then have aspired\\nto become, what in fact he contrived to make it, a public\\nschool. Yet all his life he chafed under the restrictions\\nimposed by his Board of Governors, the requirements\\nof Commissioners, and the supposed intentions of the\\nEndowed Schools Act, some of which he did not even\\ntake the pains to understand. Yet these were the\\nonly conditions under which the great ambition of\\nhis life could possibly be fulfilled. He never ceased to\\ndenounce the dead hand of outside power thrust into\\nthe heart-strings of a living work. Speaking of the\\nSchools Inquiry Commission he said: How ridiculous\\nit will seem in years to come appointing a lot of squires\\nand a stray lord or two to gather promiscuous evidence\\non an intricate professional question, and sum up, and\\npronounce an infallible judgment upon it. However,\\nthis is the English panacea now, this witches caldron,\\nand small hope it gives. I claim that the skilled\\nworkers, each in his own trade, shall be well represented\\nin the management of the trade and not interfered with\\nby external unintelligent power in carrying on the trade.\\nThat a strong and sensitive man, conscious of power,\\njustly proud of the success he had achieved, and confident\\nin himself and in the principles on which he had acted,\\nshould thus feel a distrust of all outside educational\\nauthority, is intelligible enough. He was wholly out of\\nsympathy with all modern movements for the legal\\norganization of secondary education and for the exami-\\nnation and inspection of schools by public authority.\\nAll such expedients appeared to him to restrict harmfully\\nthe lawful liberty of the teacher. But he left out of view\\n1 Letter to Lord Lyttelton, December 6, 1872.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "284 Edzvard Thriiig\\nother considerations not less important. Country gentle-\\nmen and members of Parliament have after all some\\ninterest in the efficiency of national education, and are\\ncompetent to form some judgment on the feelings and\\nwishes of parents and on the educational needs of the\\ncommunity. A man need not be a tailor, to know\\nwhether his coat fits and is well made or not. Nor is it\\nnecessary to be a schoolmaster, in order to be a valuable\\nmember of the governing body of a school. If all schools\\nwere like Uppingham there would be little or no need\\nfor legal control; but for the rank and file of teachers\\nand of schools, all the accumulated testimony served to\\nshow that some such control is salutary. Moreover, the\\nextent and nature of this control were carefully restricted.\\nThere is no conclusion on which the members of Royal\\nCommissions have been more decided, than that it\\nwas the business of trustees to elect the best man they\\ncould obtain, and that having got him they should trust\\nhim and leave him practically responsible and unfettered.\\nIndeed every scheme issued by the Commissioners under\\nthe Endowed Schools Act contains the distinct provision\\nthat the Head Master shall have under his control the\\nmethod of teaching, the arrangement of classes and\\nschool hours, and generally the whole internal organiza-\\ntion, management, and discipline of the school, and shall\\nhave authority over all scholars attending the same in all\\nplaces and at all times during the school terms. All\\nexperience proves that under these provisions, the head-\\nmasters of endowed schools enjoy much more of prac-\\ntical independence, than the proprietors of private\\nschools whose only concern is to satisfy the parents of\\ntheir scholars.\\nThe One memorable incident in the history of the school\\nHe^ira. illustrates well the masterfulness and courage as well as", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "The flight to Borth 285\\nthe administrative skill which distinguished Thring. All\\nwas going well in 1875 difficulties financial and other\\nhad been overcome, the school was full, and was becom-\\ning recognized as the pioneer of a new era in public edu-\\ncation; but in the autumn symptoms of serious illness\\nbegan to appear, many boys sickened and three died of\\nwhat proved to be typhoid fever. It was evident that\\nthe drainage of the town, which had been greatly neglected\\nby the local authorities, was responsible for the epidemic,\\nand the boys were hastily dismissed early in November.\\nFor three months the unwonted vacation lasted, and\\nduring this time some more or less futile efforts were\\nmade, though reluctantly, by the ratepayers, to improve\\nthe sanitary condition of the town. At the end of the\\nnext January the school re-assembled, but in less than a\\nmonth the danger re-appeared and the final dispersal of\\nthe scholars and the financial ruin of the house masters\\nseemed to be imminent; when Thring promptly took his\\nstaff into council, and said to them boldly, We cannot\\nstay here, we must flit. One of them, Mr J. H. Skrine,\\nwriting long after, said:\\nReader, you perhaps have never spent four or five months\\nwatching your fortunes crumble to pieces, while you asked help of\\nlocal authorities and got vituperation, while at the doors of metro-\\npolitan departments you waited on the law s delays while scrib-\\nblers in county journals vented an ancient spleen in rancid jokes,\\nand you bit your tongue, while you could neither do anything nor\\nmake others do it, though a child could see what wanted doing, l)ut\\nmust dangle about in melancholy malodorous streets, or daily tramp\\nto the borings for news of clean water, to be daily disappointed;\\nand all this hateful while must watch an inglorious ruin drawing\\nnearer and nearer for hopes to which men had given the best of a\\nlife. Why then you may hardly guess, with what a bound of spirit\\nwe sprang at something to do.\\n1 J. H. Skrine, p. 177.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "286 Edward TJiring\\nWith the alacrity and promptitude of a soldier, Thring\\nat once prepared his plan, I want to dismiss the school\\nfor a three weeks holiday and then call it together on\\nsome healthy spot, by the sea ii possible, which we must\\nfind and get ready for them in that time. You all see the\\nrisks and responsibilities of the venture. Will you take\\nthem And all the members of his loyal staff responded\\nAye. Fortunately a little village was found on the\\nCardiganshire coast, with a big empty hotel, and some\\nunused lodging-houses. Thither he decided to flee.\\nTen days later a goods train unloaded there the belong-\\nings of three hundred boys, as well as of thirty masters\\nand their families, and in a few days all the needful\\nfurniture and equipment of a school were added, so that\\nat the end of the prescribed three weeks, all was ready\\nfor opening and the exodus was an accomplished fact.\\nYou are on a campaign, he said to the boys, and must\\nplay the soldier and put up with hardship without\\ngrumble. Remember you are making history. This is a\\ngreat experiment, and perhaps others will some day imi-\\ntate it. Shew them how to do it Hazardous as the\\nexperiment was it proved to be signally successful. The\\nboys were loyally determined to adapt themselves to\\ntheir new circumstances. Parents were stedfast and\\nsympathetic, so that hardly one pupil was withdrawn,\\nand Thring himself rejoiced to find in the moun-\\ntains and the sea, and the large liberty which could be\\nenjoyed on this remote coast, new educational resources,\\nof which he availed himself to the utmost. Out of the\\nnettle danger, he like many another brave spirit contrived\\nto pluck the flower safety. His exhilaration expressed\\nitself in a characteristic manner in certain Borth lyrics.\\nHere is a stanza from one of them", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "UppingJiani by the Sea 287\\nEast and West and North and South,\\nAs if we were shot from a cannon s mouth.\\nHurrah, Hurrah, here we all are.\\nNever was heard in peace or war,\\nThe first in the world are we.\\nNever, oh never, was heard before,\\nSince a ball was a ball\\nAnd a wall a wall,\\nAnd a boy to play was free,\\nThat a school as old as an old oak tree,\\nFast by the roots was flung up in the air,\\nUp in the air \\\\\\\\ithout thought or care.\\nAnd pitched on its feet by the sea, the sea,\\nPitched on its feet by the sea.\\nSo Uppingham was left, and faces were set towards Borth.\\nAt Borth, of course, everyone was on the qui vive about the strange\\ncolony that was coming in so suddenly in this rolling lump. Very\\nkind and very willing was the reception given by the little village\\nto the school pioneers; and right well they worked. Workers,\\nindeed, were wanted, for, if anyone wishes for a new experience,\\nlet him try the unloading and re-arranging eighteen railway trucks,\\nand the distribution of their contents among twelve or fourteen\\nhouses in a fierce match against time. This was all done and\\nfinished off between Tuesday, 28th March, and Tuesday, 4th April.\\nThe great hotel was arranged to receive 150 boys, the head-master\\nand his family, an assistant-master, and two matrons. A row of\\nlodging-houses flanking the hotel take another 150 boys, and most\\nof the masters; long narrow tables are run down the hotel passage\\non the ground floor, the large coffee-rooms and the billiard-room\\nbelow are treated in the same way, and 350 people boys, masters\\nand masters families dine at one time by this extemporized ar-\\nrangement. Twenty-seven lodging-houses in all, and a large public\\nhall, have been secured for school use. A room, 83 feet by 20 feet,\\nis being put up of rough shingle behind the hotel, in order to hold\\nthe whole school when needed. The stables are turned into the\\nschool carpentry, the large coach-house shed into a gymnasium\\na lavatory, with thirty basins, is being roughly put up; and al-\\ntogether the school has shaken into place and got its working\\nmachinery in most unexpectedly good order. A beach, 4 miles\\nlong, with splendid sands, stretches away in front of the hotel, with", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "288 Edzvard TJiring\\nplenty of pebbles, and the sea to throw them into. An aquarium\\nwill be started this week. An octopus, most liberal of its sepia,\\nhas been already caught. The beach is closed on the south by the\\nhills, on the north by the river Dovey and the hills beyond it.\\nThese hills seem to form an amphitheatre behind, round a broad\\nstretch of peat which Ues between them and the sea. The views\\nare lovely, and the place is suggestive of shells and aquariums and\\nsea-birds in front, and of botany and rambles in the rear, while\\nAberystwith, with a railway running to it, forms a good base of\\noperations for the colony to shop in and fall back on. Cricket goes\\non on the sand in a bay, and an excellent held, unfortunately 4 miles\\noff, but on the railway, has been secured for half-holiday practice\\nand matches. Everybody, high and low alike, has given ready help\\nand welcome. The Bishop of St David s, who owns some land near\\nthe hotel, has allowed the school to have what they want for cricket\\nthere, if practicable so Uppingham by the Sea can do something\\nbesides throwing stones into the water. One short week saw this\\nall done. It was like shaking the alphabet in a bag, and bringing\\nout the letters into words and sentences, such was the sense of abso-\\nlute confusion turned into intelligent shape.\\nThere are many of the old resources at Borth, but, whatsoever\\npastime may flourish or languish transplanted to this strange soil,\\nthere are two sources of enjoyment unfailing here, unknown to the\\nschoul in its Midland home the mountains and the sea. The boys\\nwander out from the hotel doors, swarming like bees round a bee-\\nhive, down to the broad reach of shingle and sand. Tea is over,\\nand all the school is flocking to enjoy the sunset and watch the\\nrising tide. They are doing what boys always do on the sea-shore\\ndodging the waves, hurling pebbles at them as they come in,\\nburrowing in the sand for shells, cracking stones in the vain hope\\nof finding jewels inside, or poring over the wooden reefs that rise so\\nstrangely from the sand, as the tide is not yet up the long-buried\\nfragments, so says the legend, of the lost Lowland Hundred. Those\\nclear colours in the west where the sun sets in the sea, the rippling\\nlight beneath the clouds, the scattered groups of figures moving in\\nthe twilight somewhat darkly, with a pleasant freshness of boyhood\\nall round, form a scene not easily forgotten. The dusky headlands\\nstand out to seaward, with a white gleaming of broken waves at\\nThring s own account in the Times newspaper quoted by Parkin,\\nII. p. 49.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "Borth 289\\ntheir feet and landward shadowy mountains beyond the purple still\\ncatch a little glory from the sun. The low talk of pensive strollers,\\nthe rattle of pebbles, the laughter of those who chase each other in\\nmerry vein, all mixed with the roar of the sea, and perchance some\\nstrains of music from the choir at practice thrown in, give sights and\\nsounds that may make the school, if not unfaithful to Uppingham it\\nhas left, yet more than half-reconciled to the new land.\\nNew, indeed, and strange enough it all is. The whole scene\\nand circumstances, both in and out of doors, have to be re-adapted\\nto the old familiar work in unfamiliar ways. A partial shaking\\ndown has been accomplished; and, as if to make the first week\\ntruly represent the old school life, the last football match of the\\nseason, a broken-off fragment of the Uppingham left behind, was\\nplayed out on the Saturday half-holiday; and the champion cup of\\nthe year awarded to the winners. So the jerseys, white or red, met\\nin their mimic war in the new land. Thus ended the first week,\\nand its evening closed on a quiet scene of school routine; as if\\ndoubt, and risk, and turmoil, and confusion, and fear, weary head\\nand weary hand, had not been known in the place. The wrestling\\nmatch against time was over, and happy dreams came down on\\nUppingham by the Sea.\\nThe stay at Borth, though occasioned by a misfortune,\\nbrought many compensations with it. It lasted more\\nthan a year, since Thring steadily refused to return until\\nevery precaution was taken against a recurrence of\\ndisease. It is true he had little or no help or sympathy\\nfrom the Governors. But the whole dramatic incident\\ntested the fidelity of his colleagues, and the confidence\\nof the boys and their parents in the courage and wis-\\ndom of the Head Master. It interfered very little with the\\ncourse of instruction, and opened out new sources of\\ninterest and new fields of experience both to scholars\\nand teachers. Moreover it added a new and picturesque\\nchapter to the school s history one of which Uppingham\\nboys will long be proud. Every school is the richer for\\npossessing great and interesting traditions, and the flight\\n1 Parkin s Life, n. 50.\\nU", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "290 Edward TJiriiig\\nfor life to Uppingham by the Sea will always remain\\nmemorable in the school annals. Mr Skrine, one of\\nThring s most constant and loyal helpers, has told the\\nstory with a simplicity and a charm which leave nothing\\nto be desired, and from it, it must here suffice to take\\none characteristic extract:\\nWe returned to Uppingham in May, 1877, fourteen months\\nafter our exodus. We came back to an Uppingham much changed,\\nabove ground as well as under. Distance had lent us endearment,\\nand our re-entry was an ovation. The horses were unyoked from\\nthe coaches outside the town, and the freight of boys, hauled by the\\nhands of townsmen up the street, under triumphal arches of greenerv,\\nenscrolled with mottoes of welcome and union. An address of\\nsympathy was presented to the head-master and his staff, in an\\nhistoric scene now blazoned on the great window of the school-room\\nunder which it was enacted.\\nSalt and sand and rocking wave,\\nSalt and sand and sky,\\nAll ye had to give, ye gave,\\nBut good bye, good bye.\\nGrey old school house consecrate\\nOn thy hill afar;\\nChapel keeping solemn state\\nHome, we go, hurrah\\nHey the robin, the lark, and the green, green grass,\\nAnd the ivy that clings to the wall;\\nHey the robin, the lark, and the green, green grass,\\nAnd the oak and the ash-tree tall.\\nHis One characteristic distinguishing his language teach-\\n/iJj ffT^ ing from that of most of his contemporaries, was his\\ninsistence on the value of English Grammar as the basis\\nof philology. While finding his highest ideal of training\\n1 A Afemory of Echvard Thring, p. 618.\\n2 Borth Lyrics.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "Teaching of English 291\\nas distinguished from mere instruction, in a thorough\\ngrounding in Greek and Latin, he believed that the\\nfundamental laws of human speech admitted of ample\\nillustration in the study of our own vernacular, especially\\nwhen treated analytically. So early as 1852 he published\\na Child s Gfajfima?; which is an excellent example of\\nthe inductive method applied to the elements of English.\\nInstead of beginning with an array of vowels and con-\\nsonants, and with detinitions of parts of speech, he takes\\nfirst a simple sentence consisting of nothing but a subject\\nand a predicate, helps the scholar to recognize them as\\nthe necessary elements in all sentences, and then pro-\\nceeds to add others, e.g. the preposition, case-link,\\nmoods, tenses, inflections and amplifications, illustrating\\neach by examples. He thought that the principles of all\\ngrammar should be first taught in connexion with our\\nmother tongue, and should afterwards be shown, by con-\\nstant comparison of idioms and constructions, to be\\nillustrated in Latin and Greek. To many members of\\nhis staff accustomed to the traditional method of teaching\\nthe Latin grammar by way of synthesis, beginning with\\nrules and definitions, Thring s notions seemed to be\\nflat heresy, and were highly unwelcome. One of his best\\nmasters speaks contemptuously of his appalling system\\nof analysis with its unfamiliar terminology.\\nYet, in the main, Thring was right. Rules and 77^^\\nterms, he said, which are not thoroughly understood y\\nin principle first, may seem to be knowledge but are\\nbarriers. What he called sentence anatomy was in fact\\nan elementary lesson in the philosophy of language, and\\nonce learned in the investigation and comparison of\\nEnglish sentences, was found to tell on Latin and Greek\\nlessons in an unexpected way. English grammar to him\\nmeant common sense applied to language. He saw", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "292 Edward TJiring\\nwith more clearness than most contemporary teachers,\\nthe importance of a thorough study of the mother tongue,\\nand he lamented the neglect into which that study had\\nfallen in some of our public schools. In German and\\nin French colleges and schools of the highest rank,\\ndiscipline in the structure, history, and right use of the\\nvernacular speech receives far more attention than in\\nour own. The common assumption that the classically\\ntrained boy has learned English indirectly and inci-\\ndentally, through the medium of his Latin and Greek\\nstudies, and need not attend much to English, per se,\\nis not found to be verified by experience. It is not\\nunfrequently observed that when youths educated in\\npublic schools offer themselves as candidates for admis-\\nsion to the public service, their performances are marred\\nby gaucherie, by bad spelling and writing, by false and\\nconfused metaphors, by colloquialisms and slang, and\\nby that most offensive of all slang, the use of pretentious\\nwords and phrases, the exact meaning of which is only\\nimperfectly understood. To whom ought we to look\\nexcept to those who have had the advantage of a liberal\\neducation, to be the chief guardians of the purity of\\nour native language, and exemplars of accuracy without\\npedantry and ease without slovenliness? Yet at present\\nthere is much to be desired, in this respect, even in\\nschools and colleges of the highest standing. On this\\npoint Thring was wont to dwell with much emphasis.\\nFor example, in his address to the Education Society, of\\nwhich he was President, he said\\nMake every child master of the one instrument by which all\\nhuman life moves, speech, the mother tongue. The moment\\ngrammar is dealt with as thought working into words, and using\\nthe word-creations it gives birth to and making them live, insteod\\nof as a kind of strait-waistcoat to pinch thought into shape, a nov", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "Every boy good for something 293\\nworld is opened. If grammar is only thought taking shape, gram-\\nmar is already in the mind, waiting to be called out. And it can\\nbe called out without any book work by a good teacher. A class\\ncan be made to frame its own rules by a little questioning.\\nHe was fastidious about the perfection of style in all\\ntranslations into English; but although his methods did\\nnot succeed in teaching to write the very best Latin and\\nGreek prose or verse such as a classical examiner desires,\\nthey did teach us, as one of his best pupils acknow-\\nledged, how to exert our minds in attempting it. To\\nEnglish composition practised /^n /^j j with compo-\\nsition in an ancient language he assigned an unusually\\nhigh place in his curriculum.\\nAnother marked characteristic of Thring was his belief Every boy\\nthat every boy is good for something. There is no-^ ^7/\\nJ J o sofjiet/nng.\\nsuch thing in the world, he used to say, as a good-for-\\nnothing boy.\\nThere is some soul of goodness in things evil,\\nWould men observingly distil it out.\\nand the way to distil it out was in his opinion to\\ndiscover as many chances as possible of doing right and\\nto put them in the way of each scholar, for his voluntary\\nchoice. He had, it was said, a power of finding where\\nthe spark of fire lay hid in the coarsest human clay.\\nHe had in fact the prime requisite of a schoolmaster\\nthe faith that even in the least promising and least inter-\\nesting scholar, there was a power for good which ought\\nto find exercise, and which it was the business of the\\nteacher to discover.^ Hence large freedom for special\\naptitudes and tastes were offered to boys both in work\\nand in play. As to school work, the staple of instruction\\nin the humanities occupied the morning, beginning at 7\\nand ending at 12; but for the rest of the day provision\\n1 See ante, p. 109.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "294\\nEdward TJiring\\nemploy-\\n7nent,\\nwas made for mathematics, for drawing, for chemistry,\\nfor French and German, for physical science or for music;\\nand among these, options were freely permitted. No\\nattempt was made to fix the choice, and no one was\\nexpected to care for all these subjects; but every one\\nwas expected to care about something.\\nVariety of Herein, I think Thring laid hold of a sound principle,\\nand established a precedent which might well be more\\ngenerally followed. A modern teacher is apt to be\\ndistracted by the importunate claims of new subjects for\\nrecognition as part of the ordinary school course. He\\nfears to overweight his time-table and his curriculum.\\nHe rightly desires to give fair scope to the abilities of\\nscholars who have different aptitudes and who are looking\\nforward to different destinations. But he also sees the\\ndanger of wasting his resources, and sacrificing the unity\\nof his school by encouraging too much and too early\\nspecialization. At Uppingham an attempt was made to\\nsolve the difficulty by adopting this rule Adhere reso-\\nlutely, and for all scholars alike, to the one course of\\nformative studies, which experience has shown to be the\\nbest for the general development of the intellectual\\ncharacter. Devote the best part of every day to these\\nstudies. But provide what Americans call elective\\nstudies and occupations to meet the special wants of\\nindividual pupils. In no other way can you hope to\\ndo justice to varied personal gifts, and to give every\\nboy a chance of developing what is best in him.\\nThe same principle applies to games and recreations.\\nThere are some public schools in which a single game\\nsuch as football is the favourite sport, and every boy\\nwho does not happen to like the game is set down as a\\ncraven or a milksop. This is often very unjust to\\nscholars, who are not deficient in energy or manliness.\\nand of\\ngames.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "The Fine Arts 295\\nbut to whom other forms of activity are more attractive.\\nThe school should therefore provide alternative recrea-\\ntions, and when it has done so, the master has a right to\\nassume that the boy who cares for none of them is\\nprobably a loafer whose habits need to be corrected.\\nAt Uppingham, which under Thring was the first public\\nschool in England to start a gymnasium, games were so\\norganized as to suit all the boys and not only the heroes\\nof the cricket or the football field. There was the\\ncarpenter s shop, the laboratory, the garden, an aviary,\\nthe field naturalists club, and liberty to wander at will\\nover the Rutland hills and pastures. There was little or\\nno wrong doing. Rules were few, and there were many\\nthings to be done more amusing than breaking them.\\nThus there was in his mind a clear division of the\\ntime of a scholar into main working time and leisure\\ntime; or rather into regular scholarly lessons on the one\\nhand, and sub-industries and non-compulsory recreation\\non the other. Underlying this arrangement was the\\nbelief that in the long run the pursuits of leisure often\\naffect the character most. But all this presupposed a\\nknowledge of the idiosyncrasies and the peculiar charac-\\nteristics of every boy. And it was because such know-\\nledge was not attainable in a large school, that as we\\nhave seen he firmly resisted all temptations to increase\\nthe numbers, although such increase was much desired\\nby his colleagues, and would manifestly have been con-\\nvenient on financial grounds.\\nIt is notable also that Thring attached high value to En-\\nthe formative and refining influence of the fine arts. l f^r\\nPersonally he was deficient in the musical faculty, but he music and\\nbelieved that music had been unduly neglected in public\\nschool education, and that the pursuit of it would have\\nthe effect of interesting boys who had no strong Intel-", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "296 Edward T living\\nlectual interests. From the first Mr Parkin tells us he\\ndetermined that the music given to the boys should be\\nof the best. By the offer of liberal salaries he was\\nenabled to secure men of a high stamp. We want,\\nsaid he, not only a first-rate musician who has made\\nmusic his profession and is a master in it, but a man of\\npersonal power and go, who can inspirit the boys and\\nbreathe some enthusiasm into them. One of his most\\naccomplished helpers in this work, Herr David, has\\nthus described the working of this notable and novel\\nexperiment\\nFifty years ago music had no place whatever in the curriculum\\nof the great English schools, and it may be boldly asserted that\\nThring was the first of head-masters who fully recognized the value\\nof the subject, and who assigned to it a not unimportant place in\\nhis scheme of education. It is true, an organist, who also gave\\nsome private lessons, was generally attached to school chapels, and\\nchoirs were connected with the colleges of Eton and Winchester.\\nBut they were professional and salaried choirs, and no gentleman s\\nson ever thought of joining them. It is also true that school con-\\ncerts were not quite unknown, but they were merely got up for\\nthe annual festivities they had no connexion with the work of\\nthe school and the programmes usually consisted of music of the\\nlightest descriptions songs, airs, glees, now and then, perhaps,\\nan oratorio chorus. The fact was, in those days, music was gen-\\nerally looked upon as an agreeable accomplishment for young ladies\\nand as a rule an English boy would as little think of singing or play-\\ning as he would of working embroidery or knitting stockings. To\\ndo so was considered rather unmanly.\\nThat Thring, himself quite unmusical, should have been the\\nfirst to introduce music into such schools is certainly very remark-\\nable. Like every great innovator, he was in this point, as in many\\nothers, in advance of his time. That he should have recognized the\\npower of music the perceptive organ for which, a musical ear,\\nnature had absolutely denied him is certainly a wonderful testi-\\nmony to the man s intuitive judgment. But the deficiency caused\\n_\\n1 Parkin s Life of E. Thring, chapter X.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "Music 297\\nby the absence of a musical ear was with him to some extent\\nbalanced by the extreme sensitiveness of his organization, and by\\nthat power of human sympathy which pervaded everything he did\\nand said and wrote. Although he would, as a rule, candidly con-\\nfess his inability to make anything of, or derive any enjoyment from\\nmusic, yet on some rare occasions he would be deeply impressed,\\nand then invariably by something really great and striking. No-\\nbody who saw his face light up through a spirited chorus like the\\nHallelujah from the Messiah, or Rise up, arise from St Paul,\\ncould doubt that he was deeply impressed. Certainly the under-\\nlying words assisted him in such instances to grasp something of the\\nmusic, and the manifest enthusiasm of the performers also touched\\nhim.\\nThe means by which he gave to music a prominent place in\\nhis school were simple enough. In the first place, he made the\\nattendance on singing classes and music lessons compulsory, and\\nsubject to the same discipline as any regular school subject. But,\\nabove all, he gave to his music masters his full personal support and\\nsympathy. He would frequently attend the choir rehearsals, and\\nplainly manifest at all times his interest in the musical work done in\\nthe school. He especially gave his music masters a completely free\\nhand in the choice of methods and the selection of works to be\\nstudied and performed. He knew how true it is that for the\\nyoung the best is just good enough. As he himself, being quite\\nunmusical, could not judge, he wisely left the management in the\\nhands of those he had reason to believe could judge. He would\\nnever listen to outside suggestions and complaints. In early days\\nthe cry for more popular and less classic music was not un-\\nfrequently raised even within school circles. But, like all men\\nwho are really masters of their craft, he had a strong distrust t f\\ndilettantism, and in the case of music would not allow it to meddle\\nwith the work of the professional musician. The results of this\\nsystem soon became apparent. Music good, serious music be-\\ncame a prominent feature of Uppingham, more so than of any other\\npublic school in England, and it may confidently be asserted that\\nthe example of Uppingham in this respect has largely been followed\\nelsewhere. Men like the late Sterndale Bennett, Joachim, and\\nVilliers Stanford became warmly interested in Uppingham music,\\nand by their frequent visits to the school, and actual participation\\nin school concerts, gave an invaluable stimulus to the subject.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "298 Edivard Thring\\nThe In like manner and for similar reasons Thring at-\\ndecoration\\nif the Cached great importance to the artistic decoration of the\\nschool- school-room and the chapel, and he made ample pro-\\nooin. vision for the study of drawing and design. The various\\nclass-rooms were adorned with pictures, photographs, and\\nmodels; the studio with portraits of various artists; the\\nclassical room, with pictures of Athens and of Rome and\\nillustrations of Greek and Roman art; another room with\\nportraits of eminent historians and representations of\\nmemorable historic scenes. There was a twofold pur-\\npose in this. To surround the scholar in his daily life\\nwith graceful ornament, and with examples of artistic\\ncolour and design is to furnish a silent yet not ineffective\\ndiscipline to the tastes; and to help a boy all through his\\nlife to detect ugliness and vulgarity and to rebel against\\nHonour them. But a still stronger reason in Thring s mind was\\nlessons.\\nthat he was doing honour to lessons, by surrounding\\nthem with as many dignified and beautiful accessories as\\npossible.^ This is a point of view too often overlooked.\\nHappily even in our best elementary schools particularly\\nin some of those under the London School Board much\\nhas been done by means of picture decoration to serve\\nas an unconscious lesson in good taste; but it must ever\\nbe remembered to Thring s honour that he was the first\\nhead-master of a great public school to perceive tlie\\nimportance of pictorial associations calculated to touch\\nthe imagination of the scholar, and to give him a store of\\npleasant memories for the enrichment of his after life.\\nThritig s Thring s views on the philosophy and practice of\\neducation are set forth with much fulness in his books,\\nwhich though they do not profess to be text-books or\\nLord Carnarvon said on Founder s day, Since the days of the\\npainted porch in Athens, I doubt whetlier training has ever been\\ninstalled more lovingly or more truly, or in a worthier home,", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "Thrino;s ivritings 299\\npedagogic manuals of rules and formulae, have proved\\neminently inspiring and practical to English-speaking\\nteachers at home and in America. He wrote, in fact,\\non no other subjects than those which were closely con-\\nnected with his own profession; and he will deserve to\\nbe remembered rather as a man of action, and as one\\nwho concentrated his whole force upon the practical\\nproblems of school life, than as a contributor to general\\nliterature. Yet his books are entitled to a permanent\\nplace in all educational libraries. The earliest was\\nwritten under the pseudonym of Benjamin Place and was\\ncalled Thoughts on Life Science, a work dealing generally\\nwith the relation of Christian faith to knowledge and to\\nhuman progress. His other books. Education and School,\\nand The Theory and Practice of Teaching, and a posthu-\\nmous volume of miscellaneous Addresses delivered to\\nvarious bodies of teachers, represent his later convictions\\non educational science. He cannot be credited in a high\\ndegree with the faculty of humour, but he had a very\\nnimble fancy, and in his books and in his teaching he\\nconstantly employs metaphor to an extent which reminds\\none of Sir Hudibras, who\\ncould not ope\\nHis mouth, but out there flew a trope,\\nand his peculiar genius thus betrayed him often into the His\\nuse of paradox and exaggeration. But there was always\\na serious meaning in what he wrote. As I have else-\\nwhere said,i All his writings are characterized by a deep\\nsense of the moral and religious purpose which should\\nbe served in education, by fine enthusiasm, by intuitive\\ninsight into child nature, by happy and pregnant aphor-\\nisms, and by an active and often grotesque fancy, which,\\n1 In the Dictionary of National Biography.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "300 Edward Thring\\nthough it illuminated his talk and his books, led him to\\nindulge in analogies occasionally remote and, it must be\\nowned, somewhat tantalizing. There are chapters e.g. in\\nhis book on The Theory and Practice of Teachings headed\\nThe school-boys briar patch, Legs not wings, The\\nblurred Chromograph, Run the goose down, which\\nrequire the reader to be attuned to the writer s peculiar\\nform of thought before their meaning becomes fully\\nintelligible. It is right to add that his books are also\\ncharacterized by a melancholy impression that he was\\nfighting for a lost cause; that the liberty which he valued\\nso much for himself was in danger from the interference\\nof statesmen and examiners, and of an imperfectly in-\\nstructed public. In a private letter thanking me in 1884\\nfor a review which I had written of his book he says,\\nPessimist as I am as regards England in this matter,\\nand believing that the cause is already lost, and sadly\\nfamiliar with the facts which make me believe this, I\\nmarvel now how I was induced to break my resolution of\\nholding my tongue, and when I did so, it was with a\\nheavy consciousness of useless effort for the present.\\nI have however a foothold in America, Canada, and\\nHungary which cheers me. I will not thank you, because\\nthe help given to me was the outcome of a common\\ncause; but I will thank and trust the common cause\\nwhich has brought me so valued a recognition.\\nCharacter- Here are a few characteristic sentences by which one\\nmay learn to judge of the fertility of his illustration, and\\nthe strength of his convictions\\nI feel more and more disinclined to have anything to do with\\npublic life and all its noisy clatter, where everyone is playiiJg his\\nown tune, and barrel-organs which can go with a handle are worth\\nmuch more than violins which want a soul.\\nDiary, Dec. 14, 1874.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "Characteristic extracts 301\\nEducation is not bookworm work, but the giving the subtle\\npower of observation the faculty of seeing, the eye and mind to\\ncatch hidden truths and new creative genius. If the cursed rule-\\nmongering and technical terms could be banished to limbo, some-\\nthing might be done. Three parts of teaching and learning in\\nEngland is the hiding common sense and disguising ignorance under\\nphrases. Diary.\\nKnowledge worship and the lust of the head are deadly enemies\\nto the loving eye and the humble spirit.\\nAddress to the Teachers Guild.\\nHere I spend my days leading jackasses up Parnassus.\\nThe whole tendency of the present day is to glorify quick\\nreturns, various knowledge cram, in fact, and to depreciate thought\\ntraining and strength.\\nEducation and School.\\nThe most pitiful sight in the world is the slow, good boy,\\nlaboriously kneading himself into stupidity because he is good.\\nAddress to Teachers of Minnesota.\\nAll my life long the good and evil of the Ilminster School has\\nbeen upon me. It is even now one of my strongest impressions,\\nwith its misery, the misery of a clipped hedge with every clip\\nthrough flesh and blood, and fresh young feelings, its snatches of\\njoy, its painful but honest work grim, but grimly in earnest, and\\nits prison morality of discipline. The most lasting lesson of my\\nlife was the failure of suspicion and severity to get inside the boy\\nworld, however much it troubled our outsides. It was my\\nmemories of that school and its severities which made me long to\\ntry if I could not make the life of small boys at school happier and\\nbrighter.\\nParkm, Vol. i. p. 13.\\nThe great point of internal discipline is to make every boy\\ninterested in the conduct of his fellows. They are their own law-\\ngivers, inasmuch as the more they shew themselves worthy of trust,\\nthe more rules are relaxed.\\nNotes, 1858.\\nTo-day I signed the contract for the chapel. Every stone\\nhere is laid in sorrow and fear, and mortared with sweat and blood\\nand perplexity.\\nDiary, May 17, 1862.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "302 Edzvard TJiring\\nI have observed lately no unnatural desire here to claim a\\nposition among English schools. Now you cannot claim it. It must\\ncome. Indeed we are very far from wishing that the school should\\ncome forward on the false ground of mere increase of numbers, which\\nmay be an increase of shame^ for a mob is not an army, or of mere\\nidentity with other schools, which is not what has made us what we\\nare. Yet be sure there are the means here of being great. Have\\nyou so soon forgotten the motto in your head room\\nSelf-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control,\\nThese three alone lead life to sovereign power.\\nYes, power must come, and there are two ways for it to come.\\nMost of all, and first, the winning a character for truth and honour.\\nMost of all that no lie in word or deed, no shams, no underhand\\ndeceits, shall harbour here nothing that will not bear the light.\\nLet this be the school character, as I trust it is, and fear not. The\\nschool is great.\\nAddress to Boys on the Opening of the New School Building,\\n1863.\\nI don t want the cricket to get too powerful here, and to be\\nworshipped and made the end of life for a considerable section of\\nthe school Diary, May, 1872.\\nThe distinction between mechanic work and life work, and\\nbetween force and true power, forms the basis of educational\\nscience.\\nTheory and Practice of Teaching, p. 32.\\nThe limits are narrow indeed within which the whip is master,\\nwhether it be the whip of breadwinning and the hard necessity of\\nworking to live, or of intellect and the pride of strength.\\nIbid.\\nIf training is indeed the object, no useless punishment should\\nbe inflicted, that is, no punishment which shall not have something\\nin it beneficial in the doing. The common school punishment\\nof setting a boy to write out and translate his lessons signally fails.\\nIt is not beneficial, but the contrary. It is wearisome without\\nexercising the mind. This is not good. It injures the handwriting;\\nthis is not good. It encourages slovenly habits; this is not good.\\nIt contains no corrective element, except that it is a disagreeable\\n1 Tennyson s QLnone.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "Extracts contimted 303\\nway of spending time but time is very precious; a chief part of\\ntraining is teaching a right use of time, wasting time therefore is not\\nsatisfactory in a good school. The one advantage it possesses, and\\nthat is not unimportant, is this, it gives no trouble to masters, and\\ndoes not take up their time.\\nEducation and School, p. 241.\\nGenius is the power of getting inside a subject by loving it,\\nnot a power of flying above it.\\nTheory and Practice, p. 234.\\nNotes taken in school should be very sparingly allowed; a\\nnote-book is not attention, neither is it a boy s mind.\\np. 227.\\nIf one afternoon a week is set apart for a lecture to the whole\\nschool on any subject whatever worth lecturing on, much general\\nknowledge of common but unknown things can be given. Grand\\nbattues of carnivorous stags, and other such game, take place,\\ninterest is excited, and freshness poured into the school routine.\\nNot the least valuable part of this plan is the advantage it is to the\\nmasters themselves. Has any one of them a hobby, a favourite\\npursuit, he is able to bring it out and air it before an appreciative\\naudience, to exhibit himself as a human being with human sympathies,\\nand not merely a mummified paste of Greek and Latin verbs.\\np. 207.\\nAttention rises or falls in the barometer in proportion to the\\nmaster s ability. Inattention is a master s sin. It is a weed which\\nabove all others grows on badly farmed ground.\\np. 176.\\nAll speak a language. Everything in the world passes through\\nlanguage. Clear and widen the language-pipe first.\\nA teacher is a combination of heart, head, artistic training and\\nfavouring circumstances. Like all other high arts, there must be\\nfree play or there can be no teaching.\\nAny fool with knowledge can pour it into a clever boy, but it\\nneeds a skilled teacher to teach a stupid one. Break down the\\nknowledge idol. Smash up the idolatry of knowledge.\\nAddress to Teachers of Minnesota.\\nLife is what has to be dealt with, not lessons, or lessons only\\nso far as they inspirit life, enrich it, and give it new powers.\\nAddress to Education Society.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "304 Edward TJiring\\nThe best way to form the pictorial mind I believe to be to\\nset a boy before a picture or a scene; tell him to look at it, to fix it\\nin his mind; and then turn him round, make him shut his eyes,\\nand describe what he sees in his mind.\\nA Workman s Hints on Teaching Work.\\nHis It may well be doubted whether the affectionate zeal\\nof his biographer Mr Parkin has not unintentionally\\ndone some disservice to Thring s permanent repute, by\\nplacing on record so large a number of extracts from his\\npersonal diary. They leave on the reader s mind a\\nstrong impression, that the keeping of a diary except as\\na record of memorable facts and incidents is often a\\ngrave mistake, especially when, as in Thring s case, the\\nresult is given to the world. Mr Parkin s extracts reveal\\nwith pitiless candour the weaker and less noble side of\\nhis hero s strong and original character his irritability,\\nhis impatience of control, his frequent unwillingness\\nto do justice to the views of other people, and his\\ntendency to exaggerate the importance of petty daily\\nincidents in the school life, and to be needlessly worried\\nby them. Many of these details are given with somewhat\\ndisproportionate fulness in the biography, and are ill-\\ncalculated to convey a true picture of Thring s character\\nas a whole.\\nThe Head- Although all the activity and ambition of his life were\\nConfer- ^^i^ concentrated on the school, there were\\nence. two or three external interests which excited much of\\nhis enthusiasm, and to which he devoted much thought.\\nOne of these was the Head-Masters Conference, a\\nthing unknown before 1869, but now well understood to\\nbe an institution of great value, and a factor of much\\nimportance in the history of English Schools. Thring\\nhad thought much about the need of more solidarity in\\nthe teacher s profession; and the passing of the Endowed", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "Head-Mistresses Conference 305\\nSchools Act in that year, while it made him feel great\\ndistrust of Government and a somewhat exaggerated\\nalarm at the prospect of its action, rendered him more\\nthan ever sensible of the need for united counsel on the\\npart of his brethren, and of the advantages which might\\naccrue from the establishment of a sense of corporate\\nunion, and from deliberation on the methods of instruction\\nand on the interests of the profession generally. Accord-\\ningly it was at his instance and on his invitation that the\\nfirst meeting was held at Uppingham in December 1869.\\nIn his speech he laid down the broad lines and scope of the\\nConference, dwelt on the pleasantness and profitableness\\nof brotherly intercourse, and proposed that the Confer-\\nence should become an annual institution. It need not\\nsurprise us that among so conservative a body and one\\nwhose members were so little accustomed to collective\\naction, many Head-Masters showed much misgiving and\\nreluctance, and that only thirteen of them attended the\\nfirst meeting: successive gatherings in later years at\\nWinchester, Dulwich, at Eton, Harrow, and Marlborough\\nwere attended by increasing numbers, and as the business\\nbecame systematized, the usefulness and the public\\ninfluence of the body increased year by year. One of\\nhis most distinguished colleagues in a letter to me says,\\nWe always regarded Thring as our founder, and for\\nyears he took a leading part in its meetings and on its\\ncommittees; but being both autocratic and eccentric,\\nhe was not an ideal committee man; but then what\\ngenius is? Thring had in him, though much alloyed, an\\nelement of genius; and I love and respect his memory.\\nIt was his conviction of the value of such opportuni- Ilead-\\ntiesof mutual intercourse, and his experience of their prac-^ esses.\\ntical success, that led him to welcome with keen interest\\nthe establishment among the Head-Mistresses of Girls", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "3o6 Edward TJiring\\nPublic Schools of a similar association; and with charac-\\nteristic chivalry he invited the whole party of ladies to\\nhold their meeting at Uppingham in June 1887. On that\\noccasion he entertained the late Miss Buss and the prin-\\ncipal members of the Conference, and delivered to them\\na stirring and suggestive address. He had always set a\\nhigh value on the services of women in education, and\\nhe rejoiced much at the many new openings for their\\nusefulness and intellectual influence, which have charac-\\nterized the present age. In the address which he had\\nwritten to the American teachers assembled at Minnesota\\nhe had congratulated them on the large and increasing\\nnumber of wotnen engaged in the work of higher education\\nin the States, and had said\\nWomen as I hold that nature to be the highest which in a true way has\\nteachers. got the farthest in recognizing woman s mission and works, whose\\nsimple power it is to undermine and discredit force, to make work\\nlovely, to present a living example of the highest influence depend-\\ning on gentleness and helpfulness.\\nFrom his address to the lady-teachers at Uppingham,\\nit must sufifice if I take two or three sentences.\\nIf spiritual influence is the primary power which sets movement\\ngoing, the sovereign power of woman in the world is manifest.\\nIn many fields of refined feeling and delicate power in art and\\nliterature, women will excel men when fair play is given them.\\nLeave men to do the coarser work. Be content with the\\nqueenly power that moulds and rules.\\nSettlement Uppingham was the first of the great public schools\\nJ to establish a school mission or settlement in one of the\\npoorest parts of London, and to invoke in its aid the\\nsupport of the boys as well as the masters. Thring\\nbegan the work at the North Woolwich settlement in\\n1869, and the precedent was followed seven years later\\nby Winchester and afterwards by most of the larger public", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "The prize system 307\\nschools. He saw in the working of the experiment a means\\nof calling out in the boys more sympathy and a higher\\nstnse of responsibility towards the poor and others whose\\nintellectual advantages were small; and it interested him\\nkeenly on other grounds: The more I think of North\\nWoolwich the more my heart rests on it. There is such\\na taste of life in it.\\nThe same desire to interest the boys in philanthropic\\nwork led him to form the Uppingham School Society\\n^to encourage the efforts after self-improvement made\\nby persons engaged in the different industries of the\\nlittle town. There were classes, lectures, a cookery\\nschool, and other popular devices for interesting the\\ninhabitants. The Society was managed and sustained\\nmainly by old boys; and it has, during many years, proved\\nof much service to the town, and furnished a useful link\\nof association between the school and the residents.\\nThus in more ways than one Thring may be regarded\\nas the pioneer of some of the most important educational\\nimprovements of our time in regard to methods and\\naims of teaching, to the enlargement of the curriculum\\nof instruction, to the opportunities for the employ-\\nment of special faculties, and to the discovery of new\\nrelations between the work of a school and that of home\\nand professional life. At a time when the worship of The prize\\nmere cleverness seemed to him unduly in the ascendant, ^y^^^\\nwhen it was part of the policy of some great schools to\\ncompete with each other for the possession of boys\\nlikely to distinguish themselves, and by means of severe\\nentrance examinations to discourage the admission of\\nothers; and when the usefulness and repute of a school\\nwere apt to be estimated by the number of prizes, exhibi-\\ntions, and academic successes it could win, Thring reso-\\nlutely vindicated the rights of the rank and file of ordinary", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "3o8 Edivard TJiring\\nscholars. He thought it a higher triumph to maintain\\na good average of capable and industrious, even though\\nundistinguished, boys, than to win a few prizes which\\nwould help Uppingham to achieve notoriety, and to\\noutstrip other schools in competitive examinations.\\nFasten your attention, he would say to his assistants,\\non the stupidest and least promising learners, and\\nmeasure your success by what you can do with them.\\nThis was not a view calculated to satisfy the ambition of\\nall his colleagues; and there is evidence in his diary of\\noccasional friction between him and them in consequence.\\nA masterful, pugnacious, and withal very sensitive\\nman, he had an almost morbid habit of introspection, and\\na tendency to chafe under small vexations and rebuffs.\\nDisappointments came to him from injudicious parents\\nand from unsympathetic trustees, as well as from col-\\nleagues; but the worst disappointment of all was the\\nfailure of any boy to sustain either in the University or\\nin after-life, the hope and promise of his early youth.\\nSometimes in playful sadness he would compare himself\\nto Aaron, who in giving account of the treasure that had\\nbeen placed in his hands, was fain to own, I cast the\\ngold into the fire, and thei^e came out this calf. Rut when\\nthe details of his failures and successes fall into their\\ntrue perspective, the fact will remain that his thirty-two\\nyears of work at Uppingham left an enduring mark on\\nthe history of education in the nineteenth century; and\\nthat, except Arnold, there was no one of his contempo-\\nraries who did more to raise the popular ideal of what a\\ngreat boarding-school ought to be and to do; and to\\nillustrate in his own person the spiritual and moral\\nrelation which ought to subsist between teacher and\\ntaught. The last time in which his voice was heard in\\nthe school chapel which he loved so well, was on the", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "Mr Skrines book 309\\nSunday before his death, when it fell to him to read the\\nconcluding verse of the psahns for the evening service,\\na passage deeply significant of the work and the secret\\nmeaning of his whole life, So he fed them ivith a\\nfaithful and a true hearty and ruled them prudently ivith\\nall his poiver.\\nI ought not to conclude without counselling all my\\nhearers to read, if they can obtain it, Mr Skrine s book, A\\nMemory of Edward Thring. It has never I think received\\neither from teachers or from literary critics the recognition\\nit deserves. It is animated by the true spirit of disciple-\\nship; and amore graceful, tender, and touching tribute has\\nseldom been paid by a loving pupil and colleague to a lost\\nleader and friend. The book is distinguished not only\\nby literary charm, but by delicate insight and sympathy,\\nand is entitled to a high and permanent place in the\\nbibliography of education. From it the reader will gain\\neven more vividly than from Mr Parkin s fuller and more\\nofificial biography, a picture of the inner life of Thring\\nand of the meaning and purpose of his whole career.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "LECTURE X\\nTHE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION MOVEMENT,\\nAND ITS RELATION TO SCHOOLS^\\nThe University Extension Scheme. Its missionary character. Its\\npossible influence on Schools and on Training Colleges. Ele-\\nmentary teachers. Some special disadvantages in their life.\\nTheir extra-professional interests. Certificate hunting. The\\nstudy of history. English literature. Economic science. The\\nstudy of nature and art. Teachers societies.\\nThe Uni- T HAVE been asked to say a few words concerning the\\nverstiy special bearing of University Extension work on the\\nExtension\\nSchefne. interests of teachers, and on the expansion and improve-\\nment of public education. But I desire first of all to\\nrenew the expression of my strong sympathy with the\\nwork which, under the name of University Extension,\\nthe ancient foundations of Oxford and Cambridge have\\nof late years taken in hand. I know of no more honour-\\nable or cheering fact in our educational history than\\nthat these two great Universities, with the traditions of a\\nthousand years behind them, and with many inducements\\nto restrict themselves to the duty of promoting learning\\nby time-honoured academic methods, should nevertheless\\nhave made efforts to extend their influence, and to en-\\ncourage the appetite for knowledge among persons who\\n1 Address delivered at Oxford at the Summer Meeting of Uni-\\nversity Extension Students. August, 1899.\\n310", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "Its missionary character 311\\nlive remote from the great seats of learning, and who are\\nnever likely to become graduates, or members of the\\nUniversity in any technical sense. I hope nothing will\\nhappen to hinder or discourage this work, or to cause\\nthe University authorities to lose faith in the soundness\\nof the principles on which the whole of this Extension\\nmovement is based.\\nPedants may tell you that the people who attend Fis rnis-\\nyour provincial lectures are not in the strict sense of the y\\nJ cliaracter\\nword University students, and that the University is\\ndescending from its true dignity when it concerns itself\\nwith the reading and with the more or less feeble efforts\\nafter self-improvement of non-residents who never come\\nin any real sense within the sphere of academic influence.\\nBut we need not listen to such objections. Every\\ninstitution in the world which has true vitality in it,\\npossesses the power ainpliare jmisdictionem and to find\\nnew opportunities of usefulness and expansion. And the\\ntrue test of its vitality is to be found in its readiness to\\nwelcome such opportunities, and to make the most of\\nthem. In hundreds of places remote from the great\\ncentres of learning, the advent of your lecturer and the\\norganization of a series of lectures are memorable and\\nstimulating events. They set people reading, thinking,\\nand enquiring. They promote a higher tone of conver-\\nsation, and they lift up the standard of intellectual life in\\nthe local society. They help your students to take a\\nnew and fresh outlook into the world of nature and of\\nbooks; and they furnish guidance as to the choice of\\nreading and the right methods of study. Whether this\\nsort of missionary effort is, in the historical and conven-\\ntional sense, University work or not, seems to me an\\nidle question. It is good, honest work; it is closely akin\\nto the true intent and purpose of a great University; it", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "312 University Extension\\ndoes not interfere in any way with the cultivation of\\nlearning by the traditional academic methods and within\\nits ancient and venerable halls; and it opens out to the\\nScholars and Fellows who have enjoyed the blessings of\\nresidence here new possibilities of rendering public ser-\\nvice, and of exercising influence on the life of the nation.\\nSometimes, too, the effect of a successful course of\\nlectures is to create an appetite for systematic study, to\\nbring recruits into actual touch with the University, and\\notherwise to establish permanent centres in which, under\\nhelpful supervision and sympathy from headquarters,\\nstudies of a genuine University type may be regularly\\npursued. At Exeter, Reading, and Colchester valuable\\nexperiments in this direction have already been made,\\nwith high promise of future stability and usefulness. By\\nall means, let the University encourage such experiments.\\nBut do not let her disdain the humbler work which is\\nbeing done among students who are not qualified to pass\\nexaminations, and whose studies cannot be said to con-\\nform to any approved academic type. If you succeed in\\ninspiring such students with new motives for intellectual\\nexertion, and in awakening in them not only an increased\\ninterest in high and worthy objects of thought, but also\\na consciousness of increased power to fashion and regu-\\nlate their own minds, the University Extension movement\\namply vindicates its own existence and, in fact, needs no\\nhigher vindication. The work originally undertaken and\\ncarried on for a time with signal success by the Society\\nfor the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge and by the\\nkindred agency of Dr Birkbeck and the Mechanics\\nInstitutes, will at all times be indispensable, though it\\nmay be carried on under different names. The Uni-\\nversity Extension Scheme is the legitimate modern\\nsuccessor to those institutions, and it possesses this", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "Its iiifluencc on Schools 313\\ngreat advantage over them, that its lectures are not single,\\nbut i?i courses, that its teachers have the power to deal\\ncontinuously with a great subject, and to treat it ex-\\nhaustively, and thus to help real students who are not\\ncontent to have their intellectual appetites stimulated\\nby occasional lectures on new and unrelated topics.\\nBut I am to-day especially concerned with the \\\\w- Its possible\\nfluence which the whole scheme may exert on public T^f\\non schools.\\neducation generally, and with the way in which it may fit\\nin and become incorporated with the best work of our\\nSchools. It is essential that the Extension movement\\nshould not be regarded by any of us as a thing apart.\\nIt should become duly co-ordinated with other agencies,\\nand take its place as a permanent and integral factor in\\nthe system of national education.\\nWe may admit that for scholars while they remain in\\ngreat public classical schools, or higher proprietary and\\nintermediate schools, the popular lectures of the Univer-\\nsity Extension Society are well-nigh superfluous. Such\\npupils are in daily contact with scholarly teachers, who are\\nquite capable of indulging in an occasional excursus\\ninto the region lying all round the prescribed routine of\\nschool studies, and who do not need the aid of the\\nUniversity Extension Lecturer to interest their scholars\\nin enquiries beyond those necessarily connected with\\ntheir form work. But even here, the best of our\\nteachers are discovering that the occasional services of\\noutside lecturers on some subject of public interest, on the\\nresults of foreign travel and enterprise, or on the history\\nof art, not only afford a welcome relief to severer studies,\\nbut have a distinctly favourable effect on the general life\\nof the school, by giving the boys something fresh to talk\\nabout, and by inspiring some of them to seek distinction\\nin new fields of action and of thought.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "314 University Extension\\nFor the elder pupils in schools of a lower and inter-\\nmediate character, and for the pupil-teachers and assist-\\nants in our public elementary schools, there is work to be\\ndone which it is specially fitting for the University\\nExtension lecturers to undertake. They should place\\nthemselves in communication with all the high schools\\nand local colleges, and learn from their authorized\\nteachers what is the kind of help which would be most\\nappreciated and would act most beneficially on the\\ngeneral interests and life of the students.\\nTraining My own experience as Inspector of Trainins; Colleges\\nColleges.\\nhas often led me, while expressmg a hearty appreciation\\nof the many merits of those institutions, to* deplore what\\nI have called a certain ^closeness in their intellectual\\natmosphere a too exclusive absorption of the students\\ntime and thoughts in the prescribed syllabus of exami-\\nnation. This narrowness of view is characteristic of\\nprofessional seminaries generally; and it can be partially\\ncorrected by requiring that some part of the learners\\ntraining should be obtained in common with other\\nstudents who are not intending to be teachers. In this\\nrespect, a course of University Extension lectures may\\nrender great service. Sometimes when it can be so\\narranged, such a course may well deal with a subject\\nakin to that prescribed in the syllabus; but if this be\\ndone the treatment of the subject should be broad and\\nphilosophical, not directed to the purpose of passing an\\nexamination, but rather to enable the students to see\\nthe bearing of their studies on other than professional\\nnecessities or ideals. By thus supplementing the ordinary\\nprelections of the College Professors, the University may\\noften give freshness and much needed variety to the\\nregular and specific normal training.\\nBut after all, it is to the trained teacher, after he or", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "Elementary teacJiers 315\\nshe has obtained the needful professional diploma, and Element-\\nis fairly occupied with school routine, that the Extension\\nteachers.\\nmovement is often most valuable.\\nOwing to the special circumstances of my own ofificial\\nexperience, I feel peculiar interest in the teachers both\\nhead-masters and mistresses and their assistants of our\\npublic elementary schools. Except within the walls of\\ntheir own school-rooms, they often live very sequestered\\nlives. In country places they have few opportunities of\\nintercourse with fellow teachers. Their social advantages\\nare not great. They cannot, of course, find congenial\\nfriends and companions in the class to which their\\nscholars belong, and from which many of them as pupil-\\nteachers themselves have been selected. And they are\\nnot always received on a footing of equality into the\\ncircles in which men of the learned professions clergy,\\ndoctors, and lawyers move freely and determine the\\ntone and standard of the best social life. However we\\nmay deplore the exclusiveness which often dominates\\nEnglish society, we must accept it as a fact: and one\\nresult of it is that the trained and qualified elementary\\nteacher, however well instructed and well mannered,\\noccupies practically a rather uncertain and anomalous\\nstatus, and finds himself both intellectually and socially\\nin a position of isolation, which is not wholly favour-\\nable to the development of his best qualities, or to the\\ndignity and happiness of his life.\\nThere are other disadvantages incident to the career Some\\nof elementary teachers. They have all passed through a ^pcf^^^f^^-\\ny 1 o advantages\\nprescribed course of study, which to many of them seems in their\\nlaborious. They have been repeatedly examined, and\\nthey have passed the examination for a Government\\ncertificate. That certificate cannot be truly said to\\nrepresent a standard of knowledge equivalent to what is", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "3i6 University Extension\\nunderstood in other professions to be a liberal education.\\nYet it represents the irreducible minimum exacted by\\nthe Education Department, and when once acquired, it\\ngives to the certificate holder a legal qualification to\\nbecome the head teacher of any school under Govern-\\nment inspection. What wonder, therefore, if by many\\nteachers this legal minimum is mistaken for the maxi-\\nmum? It satisfies the Government. It satisfies school\\nmanagers. There is for the average teacher no strong\\nmotive for further study or intellectual exertion. His\\ndaily duties make no pressing or very obvious demand\\non him for more knowledge than he possesses. The\\ncertificate examination has covered all the subjects he\\nhas to teach in the ordinary routine of school duty. He\\nspends his days in the presence of his intellectual\\ninferiors, of children who look upon him as a prodigy of\\nerudition, and who know nothing of his limitations. It\\nis a fine thing for anyone, in playing his part on the\\nstage of life, to perform in the presence of an audience\\nwhich habitually demands his best. But the schoolmaster\\nworks, for the most part, before an uncritical audience,\\nwhich, so far from challenging his highest powers, and\\ndemanding his best, is often well content with his\\nworst.\\nTheir I know many admirable and laborious teachers who\\nextra-pro- ^gj-y conscious of the depressing effect of these and\\nfessional i i\\ninterests, the like conditions, and who are making strenuous efforts\\nto improve those conditions, or at least to neutralize\\ntheir narrowing influence. Many of the most ambitious\\nseek for such scholarly help as is within their reach,\\nand plan out for themselves a course of study which\\nwill enable them to pass the open examinations of the\\nUniversity of London, and in due time to attain a degree\\nin art or science. These are very honourable efforts.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "Extra-professional ijiterests 317\\nThey imply diligence, self-restraint, self-conquest; they\\nwiden the range of the teacher s knowledge; they bring\\nto him personally, and to the profession to which he\\nbelongs, higher public estimation, and they are unques-\\ntionably useful as helps to promotion. But it is, after\\nall, only a few exceptional teachers who are competent\\nto undertake this enterprise, and are prepared to make\\nthe sacrifices needed to ensure success. For the rank\\nand file of our elementary teachers this particular path of\\nambition is inaccessible. And it is for them that the\\nUniversity Extension agency is especially appropriate.\\nYet to them the prospect of more examinations is not\\nattractive. They have been examined enough. At every\\nstage of their career as scholars in the standards, as\\npupil teachers, as Queen s scholars, as students in training\\ncolleges, and ultimately as candidates for certificates\\nthey have been subjected to ofificial examination, and\\ntheir success has been measured by their place in a class\\nlist or by the report of H. M. Inspector. It is inevitable\\nthat they should have come to regard all knowledge\\nwhether their own or that of their scholars as a market-\\nable or at least as an examinable commodity; something\\nto be enforced, measured, and appraised by an outside\\nauthority, rather than as an inner and precious possession\\nfor the enrichment of their own lives. I do not see how\\nwe can wholly escape from the action of the examination\\nsystem, and I am certainly not one of those who would\\ndenounce examinations as wholly bad; but it is well that\\nwe should all recognize fairly the limitations to their\\nusefulness, and the price we pay for whatever good we\\nobtain from them. So, after all, that part of your own\\narrangement which contemplates the holding of an\\nexamination, and the award of a certificate at the end of\\na course of lectures, however valuable it may be as a", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "3i8 University Extension\\nmeans of giving definiteness to the aims of other students,\\nis not the part which will most commend itself to the\\nelementary teacher, nor the part which will prove most\\nhelpful to him.\\nCertificaie Certificate hunting is one of the most subtle snares of\\nxuu tig. ^1^^ public teacher. He is tempted to say of all new\\nknowledge that is presented to him, What shall I gain\\nby this? What value will be assigned to my certificate\\nby school managers or other public authorities? How\\nwill this new knowledge pay, and help my promotion?\\nAnd the state of mind which suggests these questions is\\nfatal to any true conception, not only of professional life,\\nbut of that higher and larger life which consisteth not\\nin material advantages of any kind, but is made up of\\nideas, of intellectual hopes and aspirations, of the love\\nof truth, and of the desire to give full scope to our best\\nfaculties.\\nBy all means, when the school master or school mis-\\ntress becomes conscious of the need of further mental\\ncultivation than is contemplated by merely ofificial re-\\nquirements, and when he is disposed to satisfy this w^ant\\nby joining a Latin, a French, or a Science Class, and\\nreading under the guidance of one of your lecturers,\\nwith a view to the passing of an examination, and the\\nattainment of a certificate, let him be welcomed, and let\\nhis ambition be encouraged. But I have in view mainly\\nthe average teacher, who is not prepared to make this\\nkind of effort and who yet feels the need of some\\nstimulus to exertion, and some enlargement of his intel-\\nlectual interests. And for him the chief need is not\\nalways for regular study on the scholastic lines with\\nwhich he is already so familiar, but for general mental\\nculture, literary taste, and capacity for self-improvement.\\nThe technical studies which have been enforced upon", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "History 3i9\\nhim, as conditions of becoming recognized as a qualified\\nteacher, have done much for him. But they have in\\nmany cases failed to place him on a level with cultivated\\npersons in other professions, or to qualify him to share\\nfreely and on equal terms in their talk and pursuits.\\nLet me mention two or three of the topics which are\\noften handled with conspicuous success by your Uni-\\nversity Extension lecturers, and which are from this\\npoint of view specially valuable to teachers, because they\\nhave not been included in official programmes, and have\\nvery little to do with pedagogy.\\nOf these one of the most important is history. Of The shtdy\\ncourse, all our teachers have studied it, and have ac-\\nquired a certain knowledge of its main outlines. But\\nit has not, as a rule, been presented to them in its most\\nattractive aspects. The history read up from text-books\\nand student s manuals is not inspiring. It is not forma-\\ntive and philosophical. It is knowledge of facts only,\\nand appeals rather to the memory than to the imagi-\\nnation, the reason, or the conscience. We must not\\ncomplain of this. It could not be otherwise. The\\nstudent who is to enter the higher region of thought\\nwhich the philosophy of history occupies must first\\nhave obtained a substratum of dates and facts; must\\nhave had presented to him a carte dii pays, by means\\nof which he may assign its right place to any new\\ninformation he may be able to obtain. But this is only\\nthe beginning. President Eliot, of Harvard, says truly\\nIf any study is liberal and liberalizing, it is the study of history\\nthe study of the passions, opinions, behefs, arts, laws, and institu-\\ntions of different races or communities, and of the joys, sufferings,\\nconflicts, and achievements of mankind. Philology and polite\\nliterature arrogate the title of humanities, but what study can\\nso justly claim that honourable title as the study which deals with\\nthe actual experience on this earth of social and progressive man?", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "320 University Extension\\nWhat kind of knowledge can be so useful to a legislator, ad-\\nministrator, journalist, publicist, philanthropist, or philosopher as\\na well-ordered knowledge of history? The study of our own\\nannals in particular shows the young the springs of public honour\\nand dishonour, sets before them the national failings, weaknesses,\\nand sins; warns them against future dangers by exhibiting the\\nlosses and sufferings of the past, enshrines in their hearts the national\\nheroes, and strengthens in them the precious love of country.\\nNow there are some among your Extension lecturers\\nwho have shown a real grasp of historical science in\\nthis its higher aspect, and who are competent to illumi-\\nnate our annals by fresh thought and by large and sure\\ngeneralizations. And this is precisely the kind of help\\nwhich is most needed by teachers whose knowledge of\\nhistory has been acquired mainly for examination pur-\\nposes, and who are yet conscious of the need of some-\\nthing more inspiring. If by your help, such teachers\\nare led to take a stronger interest in the great and\\ncritical periods of history, and in the lives of our most\\nfamous statesmen, you will have done them a great\\npermanent service, one which will re-act in many unex-\\npected ways on their school lessons, and give additional\\nenjoyment and dignity to their own leisure. Good trans-\\nlations of Herodotus and Thucydides and Tacitus exist,\\nand, if instead of learning our own national story through\\ncompendiums, you are able to awaken the appetite for\\nBacon, for Hume, for Gibbon, for Froude, for Lecky, for\\nBuckle, for Seeley, and for Pearson, so that their books\\nshall be studied at first hand, and not in extracts, there\\nwill be an abiding result.\\nEnglish Similar considerations apply to the study of English\\nf^^^.^^ Literature. There is no need for us to disparage the\\nimportance of the course of instruction through which,\\nEliot, Addresses on Educational Reform, p. 104.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "Literature 321\\nin accordance with the syllabus of the Education Depart-\\nment, the certificated teacher has been required to pass.\\nHe has taken up Comus or Lear, has worked at it line\\nby line, has hunted out all its historical allusions, has\\nstudied the etymology of its most difficult words, has\\nread what the best critics have said about the drama,\\nand the place which it occupies in literature, has para-\\nphrased some of the more memorable passages, and\\nanalyzed them both grammatically and logically. All\\nthis has unquestionable utility, and I do not see how you\\ncan dispense with exercises of this kind, while the\\nstudent is vt statu pupillari. But it is not necessarily\\nthe best it is certainly not the only way of generating\\nin his mind an abiding, an affectionate interest in the\\ngreat masters of literary expression, and in the best that\\nhas been written and thought in the world. This can\\nonly come when a great masterpiece is studied as a whole\\nand not subjected to verbal and grammatical analysis,\\nwhen the reader becomes penetrated with its spirit, and\\nfinds out for himself the motive and aim of the author,\\nand the place the book holds in literature.\\nHerein lies the need of personal contact with a\\nscholarly mind, and the inspiration which can only come\\nfrom the living voice of an effective lecturer. Thus a\\nstudent may be helped to take a broad and comprehensive\\nview of a great book; and to find his appetite whetted\\nfor the fuller enjoyment of it in his leisure. And the true\\ntest of the success of a lecture on literature is: Does it\\nsend the hearer home with a determination to make at\\nfirst hand a fuller acquaintance with the poet or the phi-\\nlosopher concerned Does it make him dissatisfied with\\ncritical essays, with beauties, with extracts, with re-\\nviews, and still more with reviews of reviews in a\\nword, with what clever people have said about a great\\nY", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "322 Ujii versify Extension\\nEnglish classic, and so does it lead him to form his\\nown judgment, and make his own extracts, or still better,\\nhis own criticism? It is only \\\\vhen these conditions\\nare fultilled that courses of lectures on literature can\\nserve their highest purpose. But here is a boundless\\nregion of thought and suggestion and usefulness, which\\nmany of your lecturers have occupied with signal suc-\\ncess, and into which the elementary teacher might be\\ncordially invited. How much the possession of a wider\\nand more intimate knowledge of the great dramatists, and\\nof Milton, of Johnson, of Macaulay, or of Wordsworth,\\nwould do to increase the variety of his illustrations, and\\nthe interest of his school lessons, it is not necessary\\nfor me to say; but it will do much more to add dignity\\nto his leisure, to enrich and enlarge his own thoughts,,\\nand to add to the happiness of his life.\\nEconomic It will often be found that, besides lectures on chem-\\nistry, geology, physiography, and other subjects, which\\nhave an obvious bearing on the ordinary work of school,,\\na course of good lectures on social and economic science\\nwill be especially awakening and helpful to teachers.\\nThey occupy a public position and their co-operation\\nand advice are occasionally sought in connexion with\\nthe administration of local charities, with efforts for the\\nencouragement of thrift, and even of philanthropic\\nagencies for providing food, clothing, and medical at-\\ntendance for the poorer children attending the public\\nschools. But the right administration of charity is a fine\\nart; it depends on ascertained and verified facts and on\\na scientific method of dealing with those facts. It is not\\na business which can be safely undertaken by persons\\nwho have no other equipment than kindliness and sym-\\npathy with suffering and who have neglected to trace out\\nthe effects, often not visible at first sight, of crude and", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "The Study of Nature 323\\ninconsiderate schemes of benevolence. The economic\\nlaws which concern the right accumulation and dis-\\ntribution of wealth, the nature of the obligations which\\ndifferent members of a community owe to each other,\\nand which each member owes to himself, the need of\\nthrift, forethought, and self-restraint, and the mischief\\ndone by any public measures which tend to discourage\\nthe practice of such virtues, the proper spheres re-\\nspectively of the charity provided by public taxation on\\nthe one hand and of private and voluntary beneficence\\non the other all these are topics which if treated in\\na philosophic and yet sympathetic spirit, are of great\\ninterest to teachers; because in a higher degree than\\nmost other men they are likely to have opportunities\\nof turning knowledge of these problems to practical\\naccount.\\nThere are other wide regions of thought and of The study\\nintellectual experience, which the lectures of the Uni-\\nversify Extension Society have made accessible, and yet\\nwhich have been necessarily excluded from the course of\\nstudies as laid down by oi^cial authority; for example,\\nthe study of nature and the study of art. In particular I\\nmay mention the courses of lectures, some of which I\\nhave heard, on the history of architecture and the charac-\\nteristics of the styles prevalent in different ages and\\ncountries. The student who follows such a course of\\nlectures has his eyes opened and becomes conscious of\\na new power, I might almost say a new sense. Every\\npublic building he sees has henceforth a new meaning.\\nHe knows by what tokens he can recognize its date, its\\npurpose, and the several elements which make up its\\nbeauty or utility, and the way in which the building\\nsymbolizes the wants, the tastes, or the religious belief\\nof those who erected it. Ever afterwards, when oppor-", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "324 University Extension\\ntunities of foreign travel come, he knows how to make\\nbetter use of them.\\nandofArt. The history of pictorial art, too, the symbolism of\\nthe early Christian painters, and the different forms in\\nwhich national character and belief have found expression\\nin great paintings, is a most stimulating form of mental\\nexercise. Modern facilities for lime-light and other illus-\\ntrations have done much to increase the interest and\\nvalue of such lectures. And in fine, for the special\\npurpose I have now in view, it matters little what subject\\nis chosen, or whether it can claim to be visibly connected\\nwith the work of the schoolmaster s daily life or not. But\\nit matters much whether or not he can be helped by\\nyour lectures to take a strong interest in some form of\\nlearning or enquiry outside of his profession, and so to\\nwiden his mental horizon as to become conscious of\\nthe richness of the world of nature, of art, and of human\\ncharacter, as well as of the world of books. In other\\nwords, one chief function of the Extension lectures will\\nbe to tempt teachers to over-step the boundaries of that\\nsomewhat arid region which is dominated by a code or\\na syllabus, and to conduct them to fresh woods and\\npastures new. In the long run the improvement in our\\nnational education must come, not from Royal Commis-\\nsions and Acts of Parliaments, but from the improved\\npersonal qualifications of our teachers, and from the\\nenlargement of their own range of intellectual interests.\\nAnd this is the work in which the agency of the Univer-\\nsity Extension is specially fitted to take a leading and\\nhonourable part.\\nTeachers Hence, I hope that special pains will be taken by\\nthe authorities to keep themselves in close and friendly\\n1-appori with the various local associations connected\\nwith the Union of Teachers that they will endeavour to", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "Teachers Associations 325\\nlearn what is the form of help which those associations\\nthink most likely to prove useful and acceptable to the\\nmembers; and that they will seek to enlist the services\\nof School Boards and Voluntary managers in making\\nknown in each district the subjects of the proposed\\ncourses, and the conditions of admission. Where the\\nfinancial arrangements admit, it may often be a boon if\\ntickets can be granted to assistants and pupil-teachers at\\na reduced fee. I do not doubt that it is the custom of\\nmany of your lecturers to give to their audiences a list of\\nbooks to be read in the intervals, and also to offer some\\nhints about plans of regular reading and study, the\\nwriting of abstracts, comments, and criticisms not for\\npurposes of examination, but mainly for the purpose of\\nfixing and assimilating the contents of the books read.\\nAll this kind of suggestion and guidance will be\\nwelcomed with particular interest by solitary teachers\\nengaged in efforts after self- improvement. But these are\\ndetails.\\nThe main thing to be kept in view is that the\\nteachers of our popular schools form a class who have\\nalready acquired habits of application, and who are\\nsometimes in danger of losing those habits. When\\nthey desire help in pursuing systematic study, the\\nassociation should be ready to give it; but even when\\nthey desire no such help as may be turned to professional\\naccount, but only seek for new intellectual resources by\\nwhich to occupy their leisure, and give variety, freshness,\\nand happiness to their own domestic and intellectual life,\\nthey are entitled to the special sympathy of the University\\nExtension lecturer, and will be able richly to repay any\\nefforts which may be made in their behalf.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "LECTURE XI\\nJOSEPH LANCASTER\\nPublic education in England at the end of the i8th century.\\nPhilanthropic efforts. Private adventure schools for the poor.\\nCrabbers Boroiig/i. Day schools. Joseph Lancaster. His early\\nlife. His first educational experiment. Interview with the\\nKing. Successes. Dr Andrew Bell. His work at Madras.\\nThe National Society. The monitorial system. Lancaster s\\nplans of discipline. Their defects. His methods of instruction.\\nThe schools of the National Society. Training of teachers.\\nThe National and Lancasterian systems compared. The treat-\\nment of the religious question. Lancaster s disappointments.\\nEfforts of his friends to help him. His removal to America.\\nCharacters of Bell and Lancaster compared. Their work\\nestimated.\\nPublic The eighteenth century was not distinguished, in our\\nin Ens- country at least, by any important educational enter-\\nland at the ^^i\\\\ ~,Q,, Voluntary associations and endowments had in\\n^ehiiteenth time of Queen Anne brought into existence a con-\\ncentury. siderable number of Charity schools providing gratui-\\n.tous instruction, clothing, and apprentice premiums. In\\nthis way a few children selected by local trustees received,\\nunder somewhat humiliating conditions, education which\\nthough mainly directed to secure the allegiance of the\\nscholars to the Established Church was, so far as all secular\\n1 Ante, p. 193. Endowments.\\n326", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "Elementary Education in 1800 327\\nsubjects were concerned, somewhat narrowly restricted to\\nthe humblest rudiments. The provision for higher educa-\\ntion of the Grammar or Classical type had not received\\nany material augmentation during the century. Dry-rot\\nthe curse which falls so frequently upon endowed insti-\\ntutions when they are left wholly without supervision\\nhad already begun to reveal itself. The restrictions\\nlaid down in testaments and deeds of gift were often\\nfound to be unworkable, and ill-adapted to the changed\\nnecessities of the time, and there was neither in public\\nopinion nor in legislation any force available for\\nreform. Such laws as the statute-book retained were\\nrather designed to check than to encourage educational\\nexperiments.\\nThe provision for general public education was in\\nfact deplorably inadequate in supply, and defective in\\nquality at the end of the century. There were no\\nGovernment grants, no public arrangements for the\\nsupply of necessary elementary schools. It was not till\\nnearly ten years afterwards that the two great voluntary\\nsocieties the National Society and the British and\\nForeign School Society were founded and entered on\\nwhat proved to be a career of extensive public usefulness;\\nnor until fifty years later that Parliament began to be\\nsensible of the importance of providing, subsidizing, and\\ndirecting the schools of the people. Such schools as\\nwere accessible to the poor were the product of private\\nenterprise. The character of that enterprise may be\\ninferred from the following extracts. Crabbe, in writ- private\\ning in 1780, describes the schools of his time. Of the\\nschools for\\nDame School he says the poor.\\nWhere a deaf, poor, patient widow sits\\nAnd awes some thirty infants as she knits.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "328\\nJoseph Lancaster\\nCrabbe s\\nBorough.\\nDay\\nSchools.\\nHer room is small, they cannot widely stray\\nHer threshold high, they cannot run away.\\nThough deaf, she sees the rebel-hearers shout\\nThough lame, her white rod nimbly walks about.\\nWith band of yarn she keeps offenders in,\\nAnd to her gown the sturdiest rogue can pin.\\nAided by these, and spells, and tell-tale birds.\\nHer power they dread, and reverence her words.\\nThe poet s sketch of the keeper of a boys school is\\nevidently made from life and is hardly more inviting\\nPoor Reuben Dixon has the noisiest school\\nOf ragged lads who ever bowed to rule\\nLow in his price the men who heave our coals\\nAnd clean our causeways send him boys in shoals.\\nTo see poor Reuben with his fry beside\\nTheir half-checked rudeness, and his half-scorned pride,\\nTheir room, the sty in which the assembly meet.\\nIn the close lane behind the Northgate Street\\nTo observe his vain attempts to keep the peace\\nTill tolls the bell, and strife and troubles cease.\\nCalls for our praise. His labour praise deserves,\\nBut not our pity Reuben has no nerves.\\nMid noise and dirt and stench and play and prate\\nHe calmly cuts the pen or views the slate.\\nHere is another picture by a contemporary writer, of\\nthe elementary schools of the time\\nInitiatory ScJiooh. These are schools that abound in every\\npoor neighbourhood about London they are frequented by boys\\nand girls, indiscriminately, few of them above seven years of age\\nthe mistress is frequently the wife of some mechanic, induced to\\nundertake this task from a desire to increase a scanty income, or to\\nadd to her domestic comforts. The subjects of tuition are comprised\\nin reading and needlework. The numl)er of children that attend a\\nschool of this class is very fluctuating, and seldom exceeds thirty\\ntheir pay is very uncertain. Disorder, noise, c. seem more the\\ncharacteristic of these schools than the improvement of the little\\nones who attend them.\\n1 Crabbe s Borough^ Letter xxiv. Schools.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "Private advcntitre schools 329\\nSecond Class of Schools. The masters of these are often the\\nrefuse of superior schools, and too often of society at large. The\\npay and number of scholars are alike low and fluctuating; of course\\nthere is little encouragement for steady men either to engage, or\\ncontinue in this line, it being impossible to keep school, defray its\\nexpenses, and do the children regular justice, without a regular\\nincome. Eventually many schools, respectable in better times, are\\nabandoned to men of any character, who use as much chicane to fill\\ntheir pockets as the most despicable pettifogger. Writing-books, c.,\\nscribbled through, whole pages filled with scrawls, to hasten the\\ndemand for fresh books. These schools are chiefly attended by the\\nchildren of artificers, c., whose pay fluctuates with their employ,\\nand is sometimes withheld by bad principle. Debts are often\\ncontracted that do not exceed a few shillings; then the parents\\nremove their children from school and never pay it, the smallness\\nof the sum proving an effectual bar to its recovery the trouble\\nand loss of time being worse than the loss of money in the first\\ninstance.\\nIt is not much to be wondered at if these discouraging\\ncircumstances often produce deviations from strict rectitude, where\\nprinciple is not deeply rooted in the mind, which prove very\\noppressive to parents and scholars, as in some instances, permitting\\nthe boys to write five or six copies in an afternoon, obviously that\\nmore books may be bought of the master to his profit. In some\\nschools the pens are scarcely ever mended, and in general the poor\\nchildren are much stinted in this article. It is very essential to their\\nimprovement that their pens should be good, and it operates on their\\nminds in a very discouraging manner when otherwise. I am credibly\\ninformed that some masters use pinions in their rough state, neither\\ndutched nor clarified; of course they spHt up, with teeth Hke a saw,\\nand write just as well.\\nThe desks children write at are often badly suited for that\\npurpose, the school-rooms close and confined, and almost all the\\naccommodations unfit for the purpose. Independent of the bad\\neffects such places produce on the children s health, many having to\\ndate the ruin of their constitutions from confinement therein the\\ndrunkenness of a schoolmaster is almost proverbial. Those who\\nmean well are not able to do so poverty prevents it and the\\nnumber of teachers who are men of liberal minds, are few yet, not\\nbeing sensible of the incalculable advantages arising from system\\nand order, it is no wonder if it is at a very low ebb among them.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "330 Joseph Lancaster\\nThe poor parent often becomes sensible that something is amiss, but\\nknows not what and, induced by this motive, hurries the child from\\none school to another frequently, and thereby makes bad worse and\\nis eventually disappointed as much as ever. The want of system\\nand order is almost uniform in every class of schools within the\\nreach of the poor, whose indifferent attainments at school often arise\\nas much from equal impatience and unsettled disposition in their\\nparents, as deficiency of care in the masters, or want of order in their\\nschools. In fact there is little encouragement for masters, parents,\\nor scholars; and while this is the case it is no wonder that ignorance\\nprevails among the poor.\\nJoseph These extracts are taken from a pamphlet entitled\\nLancaster. Improvements in Education as it respects the indus-\\ntrious classes of the community, which was published\\nin 1802 by Joseph Lancaster, a young man of 24 years of\\nage who had begun to take a keen interest in the educa-\\ntion of the poor. He was the son of a Chelsea pensioner,\\nan old soldier who had served in the American War, and\\nhis childhood had been passed in a very humble but an\\norderly and God-fearing household. It is very pathetic\\nto find how early and how deeply his heart was stirred\\nwith love to God, and with a desire to be useful to\\nchildren. One incident will furnish a key to much else\\nin his strange impulsive character, and his wayward and\\ndiversified life.\\nHis early At the age of 14, Clarkson s Essay on the slave trade\\nhad fallen in the boy s way; and alone, without taking\\nanyone into his counsel, he determined to go to Jamaica\\nto teach the poor blacks to read the Word of God. He\\nquitted his father s house in the Borough Road, without\\nthe knowledge of his parents, and determined to walk to\\nBristol, having only with him a Bible, a Pilgrim^ s Progress,\\nand a few shillings in his pocket. The first night he\\nslept under a hedge and the next under a haystack. On\\nhis journey he fell in with a mechanic who was also going", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "His early life 331\\nto Bristol. They walked together, and as Joseph s money\\nwas all expended, his companion sustained him. On\\narriving at his destination, he was penniless and almost\\nshoeless. He entered himself as a soldier and was sent\\nto Milford Haven the next morning. On board he was\\nthe object of much ridicule, and was contemptuously\\nstyled parson. The captain being absent one day,\\nthe officers asked him if he would preach them a sermon.\\nHe replied, Yes, if you will give me leave to go below\\nfor half-an-hour to read my Bible. They said, Oh cer-\\ntainly, an hour if you choose. When he came up there\\nwas a cask placed upon deck, and the ship s company\\nwere all assembled. Having placed him on the cask he\\nproceeded to lecture them on their habits of profane\\nswearing and drunkenness, at first much to their mirth\\nand amusement, but after a little they began to droop\\ntheir heads, when he told them if they would leave off\\ntheir wretched practices, repent and turn to the Lord,\\nthey might still be happy here and hereafter. After the\\nsermon he was treated kindly, no one was suffered to\\nlaugh at him or use him ill during the three weeks he\\nremained on board.\\nBy the interposition of friends he soon obtained his\\ndischarge and returned home. But he was restless and\\nuneasy, unwilling to devote himself to any trade, and\\nlonging to be at more congenial work.\\nIt was my early wish, he said in his autobiography,\\nto spend my life to the glory of Him who gave it, and\\nin promoting the happiness of my fellow men. With this\\nview I looked forward to the dissenting ministry at the\\nage of 16, but it pleased God to favour me with such\\ndifferent views of things that I became a frequenter of\\nthe religious meetings of the Society of Christians called\\n1 Sketches by Henry Dunn.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "332\\nJosepJi Lancaster\\nHis first\\neduca-\\ntional ex-\\nQuakers, and ultimately a member of that society. Soon\\nafter this my attention was directed to the education of\\nthe poor.\\nIn 1798, when only 20 years of age, he made his\\nfirst public effort in this direction. Even this effort\\nperiment. was not wholly tentative and experimental, since he had\\ntwo years earlier already gathered a few children at his\\nfather s house, and had been for several months busy in\\ninstructing them, and gaining confidence in himself and\\nhis work. He hired a large room in the Borough Road,\\nand put up an announcement, All that will may send\\ntheir children and have them educated freely, and those\\nwho do not w^ish to have education for nothing may pay\\nfor it if they please. This invitation was largely ac-\\ncepted, and even in his twenty-first year he had nearly\\na thousand children round him. They come to me for\\neducation like flocks of sheep, he said. The attention\\nof several eminent men, among whom were the Duke of\\nBedford, Lord Somerville, and Mr Whitbread, was directed\\nto him, and the report of his usefulness began to spread.\\nNevertheless, the undertaking was full of difficulties.\\nSuccess came faster than he was prepared to meet it.\\nAlthough a few private friends assisted him with money,\\nthe responsibility which came upon him was heavy\\nenough to have appalled a far-seeing or judicious man.\\nLancaster, however, was neither far-seeing nor judicious.\\nHe was elated by his success. He was upheld through\\nall the difficulties of his bold enterprise not only by\\nan earnest faith in his own powers, but by an affec-\\ntionate interest in the children whom he taught. Like\\nall true teachers, he loved his work, and entered into it\\nwith all his soul. A loving heart, some one has said,\\nis the beginning of all knowledge. It is also the\\nbeginning of all teaching power. There is something", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "First educational experiments 333\\nvery simple and touching in the stories which are told of\\nhis personal intercourse with the poor and ragged little\\nones whom he gathered from the streets. He rejoiced\\nto share in their play. If he found that any of them\\nwere hungry or destitute, he would raise a subscription,\\nand provide dinner for them, himself presiding at their\\nmeal. On Sunday evenings he would have large com-\\npanies of pupils to tea, and after enjoying very pleasant\\nintercourse, would conclude with reading a portion of\\nthe Scriptures in a reverential manner. Nothing\\ndelighted him more than to place himself at the head\\nof his whole troop, and to march out with them for a\\nholiday ramble in the country. He was never weary of\\ndevising new forms of gratification for them. He\\nthought no personal sacrifice great which helped to\\nincrease his own knowledge of the scholars, and to give\\nhim greater power of being useful to them. He illus-\\ntrated in his own person Coleridge s well-known lines\\nSweet is the tear that from some Howard s eye\\nDrops on the cheek of one he Ufts from earth.\\nHe that does me good with unmoved face\\nDoes it but half, he chills me while he aids\\nMy benefactor, not my brother man.\\nTo this remarkable sympathy with children was\\nnaturally united a rare power of gaining their affections\\nand securing their obedience. It is not surprising there-\\nfore, that his friends were very soon able to point to\\nsome very striking and tangible results of his scheme.\\nThe large school-room in the Borough Road, into which\\nhe marched in high triumph at the head of 1000 boys,\\npresented to the visitors who thronged to see it, an orderly\\nand beautiful spectacle. It is true, that for several hun-\\n1 Meditative Poems.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "334 JosepJi Lancaster\\ndred children there was but one master, but he had for\\nhis assistants a picked company of the elder boys, who\\nlooked up to him with reverence, and rejoiced to carry out\\nhis plans. The material appliances for teaching were of\\nthe scantiest kind; a few leaves torn out of spelling books\\nand pasted on boards, some slates, and a large fiat desk\\non which the little ones wrote with their fingers in sand.\\nBut such work as was possible with these materials was\\nfaithfully and energetically done. It is no small thing to\\nsay, that by his method reading, writing, and simple arith-\\nmetic were really taught. The children were indeed unpro-\\nmising and often unshod, and had been gathered together\\nfrom dirty and ill-ordered homes; but there was a cheer-\\nfulness in their deportment, and a military precision in\\ntheir order and movements which were very remarkable\\nand which formed a striking contrast, not only to the\\nhabits from which they had been rescued but also to the\\nusual aspect even of the best schools of the day. Joseph\\nLancaster had the skill which gains the loyalty of subor-\\ndinates, and he knew how to inspire his monitors with\\nfondness for their work, and with pride in the institution\\nof which they formed a part. As these youths became\\nmore trustworthy, he felt himself more at leisure to\\naccept some of the many invitations which crowded\\nupon him, and to expound his system by lectures in\\nvarious towns. His popularity increased: his school\\nexcited daily more sympathy and public attention, and\\nwas visited, as he himself said with pardonable vanity,\\nby persons of the first rank in the nation.\\nInierviezv His fortunes may be said to have reached their\\nA inp-^^ highest point in 1805, when the King sent for him to\\nWeymouth, and desired to have an account of his doings.\\nThe interview is thus described in a memoir left behind\\nhim by Mr William Corston, one of Lancaster s most", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "Interviezv with the King 335\\nfaithful and disinterested friends: On entering the\\nroyal presence, the King said, Lancaster, I have sent\\nfor you to give me an account of your system of educa-\\ntion, which I hear has met with opposition. One master\\nteach 500 children at the same time How do you keep\\nthem in order, Lancaster Lancaster replied, Please\\nthy Majesty, by the same principle thy Majesty s army is\\nkept in order, by the word of command. His Majesty\\nreplied, Good, good; it does not require an aged gen-\\neral to give the command; one of younger years can\\ndo it. Lancaster observed that in his schools the\\nteaching branch was performed by youths, who acted as\\nmonitors. The King assented, and said, Good. Lan-\\ncaster then described his system, and he informed me\\nthat they all paid great attention and were highly de-\\nlighted; and as soon as he had finished, his Majesty said,\\nLancaster, I highly approve of your system and it is my\\nwish that every poor child in my dominions should be\\ntaught to read the Bible; I will do anything you wish to\\npromote this object.\\nPlease thy Majesty, said Lancaster, if the system\\nmeets thy Majesty s approbation, I can go through the\\ncountry and lecture on the system, and have no doubt\\nbut in a few months I shall be able to give thy Majesty\\nan account where ten thousand poor children are being\\neducated, and some of my youths instructing them.\\nHis Majesty immediately replied, Lancaster, I will\\nsubscribe ^100 annually; and, addressing the Queen,\\nyou shall subscribe ^50, Charlotte; and the princesses\\n^25 each, and then added Lancaster, you may have\\nthe money directly. Lancaster observed, Please thy\\nMajesty, that will be setting thy nobles a good example.\\nThe royal party appeared to smile at this observation:\\nbut the Queen observed to his Majesty, How cruel it is", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "336 JosepJi Lancaster\\nthat enemies should be found who endeavour to hinder\\nhis progress in so good a work. To which the King\\nreplied, Charlotte, a good man seeks his reward in the\\nworld to come. Joseph then withdrew.\\nSuccesses. The success and popularity which attended him may\\nbe judged from the fact that in his report for 1810 he\\nsums up his work by stating that he has given 67 lectures,\\nhas travelled 3,775 miles, and addressed 23,840 hearers,\\nraised ^1,660 in subscriptions after his lectures, besides\\ni,440 contributed afterwards, and that fifty new schools\\nhad been opened, with 14,200 scholars. A deputation\\nfrom one of the South American republics had visited the\\nBorough Road and afterwards sent young men to learn\\nthe system and introduce it into the Caracas. Schools\\non the monitorial system were introduced into the lead-\\ning American cities, and the Duke of Kent our Queen s\\nfather adopted the Lancasterian methods in the Army\\nSchools.\\nDr All this while, another and parallel movement was\\nBdl going on, in the same general direction, but in a some-\\nwhat different spirit. Andrew Bell, the son of a barber\\nin S. Andrews, was 25 years older than Lancaster, and\\nafter a short course of education in the University of his\\nnative city, went out into the world as a private tutor.\\nHe travelled first with a pupil to Virginia, where he\\ncontrived by tobacco speculations to make a little fortune\\nof ^900 in four or five years. He returned to England,\\ntook orders in the Church, and in 1787 went out to India\\nwith a rather vague intention of lecturing on natural\\nphilosophy and doing other work by way of tuition. He\\nwas always very skilful in self-assertion and he achieved\\nunexpected success in bringing his merits under the\\nnotice of governors and people of influence. He was\\nappointed to one or two lucrative military chaplaincies,", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "Dr A ndrcw Bell 337\\nand also to the office of Superintendent of the Military\\nMale Orphan Asylum at Madras. It was in this institu-\\ntion that owing to the difficulty of getting suitable adult\\nassistants, and of managing and retaining them, he was\\ndriven to the device of breaking up the school into small\\nclasses and setting the elder boys to teach the younger.\\nThe success of this experiment during nine years was\\nunexpectedly encouraging. I think, he said, I have\\nmade great progress and almost wrought a complete\\n^change in the morals and character of a generation of\\nboys.\\nThe year after returning home in 1796 he published The\\na pamphlet, An Experiment in Education made at the J^^J^^\\nMale Asylum of Madras, suggesting a system by which a\\nschool or family may teach itself under the superintend-\\nence of the master or parent. He had during his resi-\\ndence in India succeeded in more ways than one; for by\\nsome of those inscrutable methods by which fortunes\\nwere sometimes made in India in the old Company\\ndays, he a clergyman and a schoolmaster managed to\\nget together and to bring home ^26,000. His pamphlet\\nwas dedicated to the Directors of the East India Com-\\npany and was largely circulated among the clergy, many\\nof whom were becoming awake to the importance of pub-\\nlic education. Thus schools on what was called his sys-\\ntem began to be founded in various parts of England.\\nIt will be seen that in point of time his publication\\npreceded Lancaster s first tract by four or five years.\\nLancaster read it with much interest, acknowledged his\\nobligations to it for many hints, and wrote to Bell in 1804\\nmentioning some of his difficulties, asking for advice, and\\nproposing to come down for consultation to Swanage,\\nwhere Bell had been comfortably installed in a good liv-\\ning. The meeting was friendly, and up to this time no\\nz", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "338 JosepJi Lancaster\\nanger or rivalry had arisen. When it did arise, it must\\nbe owned that it shewed itself rather in the controversies\\nof the friends and partizans of the two men, than in any\\npersonal antagonism between themselves. For by this\\ntime the alarm had been sounded in what is technically\\ncalled the religious world. Lancaster was a Quaker,\\nhis system, though animated by an intensely religious\\nspirit, and though the reading and explanation of the\\nBible were strongly insisted on, was avowedly unsectarian,\\nand all creeds and formularies of faith, all attempts to\\nturn the school into a propaganda for the tenets of any\\nparticular denomination of Christians were rigidly inter-\\ndicted. Hence to some of the dignitaries of the Church,\\nto Southey and the writers of the Quarterly Review, and\\nespecially to Mrs Trimmer, a courageous, facile, but nar-\\nrow and fanatical writer, much in favour with our grand-\\nfathers and mothers, the system of Lancaster seemed\\nfraught with terrible peril to Church and State. Lan-\\ncaster was described as an infidel and atheist by preachers\\nand in archidiaconal and episcopal charges. For ex-\\nample, Archdeacon Daubeny in his Visitation Charge\\nat Salisbury in 1806 denounced Lancaster as an infidel,\\nand his system of education as deism under the impos-\\ning guise of philanthropy, making a covert approach to\\ntne fortress of Christianity with a view to be admitted\\nwithin her walls.\\nThe Thus the system of Bell, with which, though it was\\nationa organic part of his original plan, the rigorous dogmatic\\nteaching of the Prayer Book and Catechism became\\nidentified, was believed by many good people to be the\\nonly possible system of religious education. In 181 1\\nthe National Society for the Education of the Poor\\nin the principles of the Established Church set up\\nits head-quarters at the Sanctuary at Westminster,", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "TJic Monitorial System 339\\nattracted powerful episcopal and social patronage, and\\npursued its course in avowed hostility to Lancaster and\\nhis system. Exaggerated denunciation of that system\\nas godless and politically mischievous, provoked an\\nequally exaggerated estimate of its claims and merits on\\nthe other side.-^ Not only Quakers and other dissenters,\\nbut liberal Churchmen, Whig statesmen, the Edi)iburgh\\nReview, Sydney Smith, Lord Brougham, and the whole\\nof that educational party which ultimately founded the\\nSociety for the Diffusion of L^seful Knowledge, and\\nthe London University College, besides one or two of\\nthe Royal princes, notably the Duke of Sussex and the\\nDuke of Kent, identified themselves with Lancaster and\\nhis system, and repaid with interest the acrimony of\\northodox criticism.\\nThe Edinbin-gh Review said of the Monitorial System The Moni-\\nthat Lancaster had devised a method and brought ^^sv^tem\\nvery near to perfection, by which education could be\\nplaced within the reach of the poorest. From time\\nto time it was lauded by Whig writers as a beautiful\\ndiscovery, an inestimable discovery, a most valuable\\nmethod.\\nThe Society, at first called the Royal Lancasterian\\nSociety, was founded in 1808 and received large sub^^^\\nscriptions and constant accessions of powerful friends.\\nIn this way the world began to think that there were\\ntwo fundamentally different systems of education\\n1 In algebra and geometry, even the sublime theorems of\\nNewton and La Place may be taught by this method. We do\\nnot hesitate to say that it is applicable or may soon be applied to\\nthe whole circle of human knowledge. Edinburgh Revieiv, iSii.\\nI confess that I recognize in Lancaster the benefactor of the human\\nrace. I consider his system as creating a new era in education.\\nDe Witt Clinton at the opening of a new Free School in New York,\\n1810.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "340 Joseph Lancaster\\ncarried on under the names of these rivals. Yet the\\ndifferences were not essential but were rather accidental\\nproducts of later circumstances. Rival societies are\\nvery naturally tempted to accentuate their differences\\nand to develop work, even though it be the same\\nwork, in different ways. To both men the idea had\\noccurred to teach by means of monitors, and the method\\nof teaching writing on sand desks which had been sug-\\ngested to Bell by seeing the native boys make drawings\\nwith their fingers on the sandy fields of Madras, had been\\nadopted by both of them. Otherwise the two men\\nworked independently.\\nLan- Lancaster, though a Friend, evolved an elaborate\\n^tfamof system of military drill, reduced the whole school to\\ndiscipline, companies, and specially prided himself on having solved\\nmany practical difficulties by applying to a school the\\norganization of a regiment, with all its evolutions under\\nthe word of command. His system of badges, tickets,\\nand rewards were designed expressly to cultivate in\\nevery child the ambition to play a useful part in the\\norganization of the whole school. He believed that\\nboys, whose activity when ill-regulated becomes a source\\nof nothing but mischief, liked order, method, and the\\nresponsibilities of office, when a little honour and emolu-\\nment could be had in exercising them. He sought to\\nmultiply little offices and to give every scholar plenty to\\ndo, and a motive for getting higher, and doing something\\nbetter. The gradation of ranks among the monitors, the\\nconfidence which was placed in them, and the rewards\\nand honours which were accessible to them, rendered\\nthe office an object of general ambition. They furnished\\na stimulus to the efforts of the younger children and\\nfostered in the monitors themselves a spirit of manliness\\nand self-respect, which though apt to assume here and", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "Lancaster^ s methods 341\\nthere the form of tyranny and conceit contrasted strik-\\ningly with the sullen, hopeless way in which school work\\nwas often done. The discipline of Lancaster s schools\\nwas not marked alone by beauty and military precision.\\nThe whole tone of the place was joyous, duties were agree-\\nably varied from hour to hour, and though the noise often\\nbewildered and stunned a visitor, it was at least the noise\\nof animated work, and was succeeded in an instant at the\\nword Halt by perfect stillness. Those who remember\\nthe aspect of the old Lancasterian School have testified\\nthat a brighter and happier scene could scarcely be wit-\\nnessed; a place for everything and everything in its\\nplace, a large multitude of children all busy and de-\\nlighted, and an army of monitors loyal to their master,\\nfull of zeal to please him, and proud of the beauty and\\nfame of the spectacle of which they formed a part.\\nIt is impossible, however, for a modern teacher to fheir\\nimitate, or even to justify all his plans of discipline. His J^^\\ndislike of flogging was so great that he taxed his ingenuity\\nto devise other forms of punishment. The result as\\nprinted in his tracts is sufficiently grotesque. There\\nare chapters gravely headed of Logs, of Shackles,\\nof the Basket (a contrivance in which refractory\\nboys were slung up into the roof of the schoolroom by a\\npulley, and remained suspended there, for the ridicule of\\nthe rest, as birds in the cage). These and other expe-\\ndients by which he sought to avoid the actual infliction\\nof bodily pain appear to us puerile and mischievous.\\nThey appealed to the sense of shame only, they must\\noften have wounded sensitive children and hardened\\nrude ones; and they had the fatal defect of encouraging\\nthat habit of laughing at wrong-doing and getting\\namusement out of it, which is so hurtful to the con-\\nscience of a child.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "342 Joseph Lancaster\\nHis As to what was called his method of instruction,\\ninetioi there is after all little to be said. His aims were very\\noj^ in-\\nstrudion. humble, they did not go beyond the reading of the Bible,\\nwriting, spelling, and casting accounts. And his notion\\nof the way in which these things were to be taught were\\nsomewhat crude and mechanical. There was none of the\\nphilosophy of education to be traced in it. Here for\\nexample is the account which he gives in his Improve-\\nments in Education of his method of teaching to spell.\\nAfter describing the way in which monitors could most\\nexpeditiously look over the slates of a large class he says\\nIf 20 boys thus spell 200 words each, the same\\nnumber spelt by 60 boys must produce a great increase\\nof total. Each boy can spell 100 words in a morning.\\nIf 100 scholars can do the 200 mornings yearly, the\\nfollowing will be the total of their efforts towards im-\\nprovement. And then he sets forth in triumph with a\\nnote of admiration at the end this multiplication sum\\n100 words\\n200 mornings\\n20,000 words spelt by each boy per annum.\\n100 boys\\n2,000,000 total words spelt in one year.\\nThis rather absurd calculation, put forth gravely and\\nin perfect good faith, was characteristic of his notion of\\neducation. His mode of teaching arithmetic was\\nequally mechanical. A plan which would save the time\\nof boys in computing, secure the supervision needful to\\nprevent copying and so cause a greater number of sums\\nto be done in a given time, seemed to him the chief thing\\nto be desired. Of the understanding of the rules there\\nis no hint. If, however, the instruction in the schools\\nwas limited to the barest rudiments, if it included little", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "The Natiojial Schools 343\\nor nothing which appealed to the understanding or the\\ntaste, two or three things must be considered. The\\nwork was done at a very small expense and with very\\npoor material. His school of 1,000 boys was carried on\\nunder one master at the annual cost of five shillings per\\nhead. Moreover the boys and girls did undoubtedly\\nlearn to read, write, and bring out the answers in arith-\\nmetic, and to do these things well. If to this we add\\nthat they also learned order and obedience, acquired the\\nsense of corporate life, became conscious of their duty\\nto others, and were constantly and affectionately ad-\\ndressed by their master about their duty to God, we\\nmust own that the results even from an educational point\\nof view were not insignificant.\\nIn the schools of the National Society, which were The\\nconducted on what was called the Madras system, \\\\_\\\\\\\\q ^^oajs\\nof the\\nresults were not dissimilar. It is true Bell himself found National\\nit necessary very early to soothe the apprehensions of Society.\\nsome of his friends, by declaring that the children of the\\npoor ought not to have too much education, and by\\nexpressing grave doubts whether writing and ciphering\\nwere not rather dangerous arts, which would make the\\npoor too good for their station, and undermine the\\nfoundations of society. Rather with a view to reassure\\nsome of his influential friends than to express his own\\nconvictions, one of his pamphlets contains this sen-\\ntence It is not proposed to educate the poor in an\\nexpensive manner; for in Utopian schemes for the uni-\\nversal diffusion of general knowledge, there is a risk of\\nelevating those who are doomed to the drudgery of daily\\nlabour, above their station; and rendering them unhappy\\nand discontented with their lot. To read the Bible and\\nlearn the Catechism, and to betaken to church on Sundays,\\nmade up a programme which satisfied the supporters of", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "344 JosepJi Lancaster\\nthe National Society for many years. If f.ancaster failed\\nto teach Grammar or Geography or the principles of\\nArithmetic, it was not because he would not gladly have\\ngiven these things to the poor children if he could; but\\nsimply because his resources and his agents were unequal\\nto the work. But Bell s friends, inheriting the feeling\\ntowards the poor which was dominant in the mind of\\nthe founders of Charity Schools a century earlier,^ were\\noften wont to describe their own schemes of education\\nas calculated rather to repress than to stimulate intel-\\nlectual activity. The modest curriculum of the National\\nSchools and of the British Schools alike was limited\\nin its range, but in the one case it was limited by\\ncircumstances only, in the other by deliberate intention\\nand on principle. At all events Bell was able to assure\\nthose of his supporters who had misgivings about his\\nscheme, that nothing dangerously ambitious or subver-\\nsive of the social order would be taught in his schools.\\nOtherwise the differences between the two plans were\\nunimportant. Lancaster liked small classes of ten or\\ntwelve, standing in a semicircle; Bell arranged a rather\\nlarger number in three sides of a square and seated on\\nforms. Lancaster grouped all his writing-desks in one\\nlarge mass, filling up the middle of the room, and facing\\na high platform with an cstradc for the master; Bell\\nplaced his desks round the walls of the room. Lancaster\\nbelieved in the stimulus and corporate life which are\\nassociated with large numbers. Bell and the National\\nSociety preferred schools of moderate size, not exceeding\\ntwo or at most three hundred.\\nTraining Very early in the development of both experiments,\\nof teachers. question how to provide a race of teachers qualified\\n1 Ante, p. 193.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "The National and British systems 345\\nto carry on monitorial schools became urgent, and each\\nof the two societies made an attempt to train school-\\nmasters and mistresses for their work. The training,\\nhowever, was very crude and inadequate, and in the light\\nof modern experience hardly deserves to be called train-\\ning at all. Men and women went to the Borough Road\\nor to Westminster for three months to learn the system\\nas it was termed; and tliis learning of the system con-\\nsisted in spending a week or more in each of the classes\\nfrom the lowest to the highest, and towards the end\\nof the time, spending a few days in taking the general\\noversight in turns of one section of the school, and finally\\nconducting its collective drill and evolutions as a whole.\\nThere were no private studies, no regular instruction for\\nthe candidates in the subjects they had to teach, no lec-\\ntures or exposition of method. The system was to be\\nlearned by seeing it in oi)eration, and by that alone.\\nHere, again, there was a difference between the practice\\nof the Lancasterian, and of the National Society s Model\\nSchool. At the Borough Road, each candidate in train-\\ning put himself beside the monitor, and after a short\\ntime took the monitor s place occasionally, and so be-\\ncame ac(piainted with all the details of the monitorial\\nwork from the bottom of the school to the top. But the\\nNational Society made the poor trainee take the i)lace\\nof a scholar, in each class in succession, and 1 have been\\ntold by those who have witnessed it, how absurd a spec-\\ntacle was presented when tall, full-grown men were seen\\nsitting meekly in their places with little children, being\\noften taken down by them to a lower ])lace, and directed\\nin their movements by an upstart little boy who was\\nmonitor of the class.\\nBell was very proud of his system, seriously believed\\nit to l)e the grandest and most beneficent discovery ever", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "34^ Joseph Lancaster\\nmade, and went about the country lecturing in order to\\npropagate his views and to encourage the establishment\\nof new Church schools. Yet all the while he had a very\\nkeen eye to the main chance, and found that fame and\\nfortune came to him together. In 1801 he became\\nRector of Swanage, then a valuable preferment. After-\\nwards he was nominated to the Mastership of a rich\\nendowed Hospital at Sherburn in Durham, then to a\\nCanonry at Worcester, then to a Canonry at Westminster.\\nMr Meiklejohn, the present able occupant of the Chair\\nof Education in St Andrews University, founded by Bell s\\nTrustees, quotes in his interesting life of Bell a letter\\nfrom one of his friends who knew him and his character\\nwell, Don t moderate your ambition to Sherburn Hospi-\\ntal, but continue your progress to the mitre. For very\\nlittle money you may be paragraphed up to the episcopal\\nthrone. Indeed there were many people so sensible\\nof the services Bell had rendered to the Church, that he\\nwas regarded as a very deserving candidate for the highest\\necclesiastical preferment. He himself was strongly of\\nthat opinion, but the whole of his ambition was not\\ngratified. He contrived, however, to accumulate a for-\\ntune of ^120,000. His virtues were lauded in a flatter-\\ning biography by Southey, and by a yet more enduring\\nmonument in Westminster Abbey, representing him seated\\nby the side of a class of poor boys while the monitor is\\nteaching them to read. His life, though privately not\\nhappy, nor eminently estimable, was undoubtedly one of\\nmuch honour, prosperity, and public usefulness.\\nLan- Very different was the career of poor Joseph Lancas-\\n^misfor- fortunes reached their highest point in 1805\\ntimes. when he had his memorable interview with the King.\\nPowerful friends took him by the hand; contributions\\nflowed in; but he had never been accustomed to the", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "Lancaster s misfortimcs 347\\nmanagement of money and he did not know its value.\\nHe had no foresight, and the sums which he could com-\\nmand, though often large, came into his hands in a fitful\\nand uncertain way which only served to encourage his\\nimprovident habits. When a good subscription came in\\nhe would spend it recklessly in treats and presents to his\\nscholars, or would take a whole party of his favourite\\nyouths into the country with him to illustrate his lectures,\\nand show how the system was worked. In 181 1 he\\nvisited Ireland, gave many lectures, and was instrumental\\nin establishing a model school in Dublin, which was\\nplaced under the care of one of his young men from the\\nBorough Road, and which achieved some permanent\\nsuccess. At Hull, Newcastle, York, and Leeds, he was\\ngenerously welcomed, and during a single year was able\\nto say that a new Lancasterian School had been opened\\nin every week. His letters during this period are filled\\nwith expressions of enthusiasm and hope. But the least\\nrebuff or opposition wounded his vain and sensitive\\nnature to the quick, and overwhelmed him with despair.\\nHis enthusiastic temperament led him to exaggerate both\\nhis failures and his successes, and to fancy that every\\nincident which depressed or gladdened him was a special\\nDivine visitation.\\nI called at the Borough Road, wrote one of his\\nfriends, to enquire about the training of a master, and\\nafter some conversation with Lancaster relating to the\\nnecessary arrangements for the man s attendance, I\\nslipped a ^10 note into his hand as an acknowledgment\\nof my obligations. What was my astonishment to see\\nthis quiet man with whom I had a moment before been\\ncalmly conversing, at once turn pale, tremble, stand fixed\\nas a statue, and then flinging himself upon my shoulder,\\nburst into a flood of tears, exclaiming, Friend, thou", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "348 Joseph Lancaster\\nknewest it not, but God hath sent thee, to keep me from\\na gaol, and to preserve my system from ruin.\\nFits of deep depression alternated with other fits of\\nwild hope and religious fervour. When pressed for\\nmoney, he says he cannot believe that if the Almighty\\nhas designed the education of the poor of London, a few\\npitiless creditors can prevent it, only let the eyes of his\\nfriends be opened and they will soon see the mountain\\nfull of horses of fire and of chariots of fire round about\\nElijah. He is arrested for debt, and remains three\\ndays in the spunging house and no one has been to see\\nhim, but he is as happy as Joseph was in the King s\\nprison in Egypt. After a while, he asked for a sheriff s\\noflficer to take him to the King s Bench prison, but ob-\\ntained leave to call at home on the way thither. When\\nhe got home his wife and child, and all his young\\nmonitors were assembled, overwhelmed with grief be-\\ncause he was going to prison. After being with them a\\nlittle he opened the parlour door and said to the man,\\nFriend, when I am at home, I read the Scriptures with\\nmy family, hast thou any objection to come in He re-\\nplied, No Sir, and went in. After he had read a chapter\\nor two he went to prayer. The man soon became deeply\\naffected and joined in the common grief. After prayer,\\nJoseph rose and said, Now, friend, I am ready for thee.\\nGreatly touched, the ofificer on this occasion actually\\noffered to become bail for his prisoner. This was not\\nthe only episode of the like kind. In turn poor Joseph\\nexperienced the vicissitudes of\\nToil, envy, want, the patron and the gaol.\\nEfforts of In 1808 a few noblemen and gentlemen came to his\\naid, paid his debts, became his trustees and organized\\nhim. the Society which was at first known as the Royal Lancas-\\nterian Society and afterwards as the British and Foreign", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "His later career 349\\nSchool Society. But their generous and business-like\\ninterposition did not put an end to his troubles. They\\nfound him impatient of control, and incurably wayward\\nand extravagant. They desired to retain his services\\nand to treat him with liberality and respect, but his wild\\nimpulses and heedless projects needed constant check,\\nand it was very difficult to make any check effective.\\nHe resented every arrangement which sought to restrain\\nhis expenses, or to enable him to work with other people.\\nHe declared that they degraded him to the position of a\\nhireling. I thought, he afterwards said bitterly, in\\nreferring to his friends who had set up the British and\\nForeign School Society, that my sunshine friends had\\nbeen birds of paradise, but the first winter season proved\\nthem to be birds of passage. In a fit of anger he shook\\nthe dust from off his feet and betook himself to Tooting,\\nwhere he set up a private school. This undertaking\\nfailed miserably, he became a bankrupt and emigrated\\nin 18 18 to America.\\nThere he met with a kindly welcome. His cowx^qs His later\\nof lectures in the United States were at first well\\nattended, and a new career of honour and usefulness\\nseemed to be opening before him. He wrote home\\nletters full of bitter reviling for the false friends who\\nhe said had betrayed him at home, and declared that\\nfor the first time the Divine work which had been\\nentrusted to him would be truly appreciated. But\\nthe bubble of his fame soon collapsed. He alienated\\nhis new friends, and fell once more into debt and\\npoverty. Sickness overtook him and he went for a time\\nto the warmer climate of the West Indies, and after a\\nfew months returned to New York, where the Corporation\\nin pity for his lamentable condition made him a grant\\nof 500 dollars. He was then induced to go to Canada,", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "350 Joseph Lancaster\\nand at Montreal recommenced his lectures and basked\\nfor a while in new gleams of public favour. But here\\nagain he is soon found opening a private school for the\\nmeans of subsistence and not succeeding very well. It\\nis very pathetic to read his letters and diary, written\\ntowards the close of his life. Though he had been\\ndisowned by the Friends on account of his pecuniary\\nand other irregularities, and though his wife and children\\nwent to church, he could not help yearning after the\\nspiritual privileges of a happier time; and in his bare\\nschool-room he would on Sundays hold a silent meet-\\ning, sitting all alone and meditating: and listening, if\\nperchance he might once more hear the Divine voice.\\nHere, he writes, I sometimes found the chief things\\nof the ancient mountains and the precious influences of\\nthe everlasting hills resting indeed on the head of Joseph,\\nand on the crown of the head of him who was separated\\nfrom his brethren, by distance, by faults, by circum-\\nstances, and by the just but iron hand of discipline. I\\nlonged again and again to come under the purifying and\\nbaptizing power of the truth which had been the dew of\\nmy youth, and the hope of all my life in its best\\nmoments whether of sorrow or joy. A little annuity\\nwas raised for him by friends in England and for a time\\nhe subsisted on it; but he again became restless, anxious\\nto return to England, and indulging wildly in the pros-\\npect of repeating his former triumphs. He describes\\nhimself once more as ready to confound all his adver-\\nsaries, to teach ten thousand children not knowing their\\nletters all to read fluently in three weeks to three months.\\nThe fire that kindled Elijah s sacrifice had kindled his,\\nand all true Israelites would in time see it.\\nThese visions, however, were not to be realized. He\\nwas run over by a waggon in the streets of New York, in", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "Bell and Lancaster compared 35 1\\nOctober, 1838, and died after a few hours from the effects\\nof the accident, in the fifty-first year of his age.\\nThe characters of the two men were as sharply con- Characters\\ntrasted as their worldly careers. Dr Bell was ^^^^^^/^^j^^ast er\\novertaken by religious enthusiasm. His whole life was r^;;//(^z?W.\\ndisfigured by vanity and self-seeking. He was to the\\ninner core of his nature what Mr M. Arnold calls a Philis-\\ntine. He went once to Yverdun to see Pestalozzi, but he\\ncaught no inspiration, saw nothing in his methods, and\\nspoke with contempt of a man who wanted several teachers\\nfor a hundred boys, while he could have taught twice that\\nnumber alone. Mr Meiklejohn, whom many of you\\nknow so well as the accomplished and able occupant of\\none of the Chairs of Education founded by Bell s Trustees\\nand endowed with Bell s money, might perhaps be sup-\\nposed under some official obligation to make the best of\\nthe pious founder. Yet he shows a merciless frankness\\nin estimating Bell s character, a frankness which it\\nmust be owned is not usual among endowed professors\\nwhen building the tombs of the prophets. It is thus\\nthat he paints his hero s portrait. He was not an\\ninteresting man. He was not a great man; he had very\\nlittle insight into human nature, though here and there\\nare to be found glimpses of truth; he was singularly\\nnarrow-minded, and he was in several respects a terrible\\nbore. There is in his own mind hardly a trace of edu-\\ncation, or the smallest sign of literary culture. He had\\nread Cicero and Quintilian, Milton and Locke, but he\\nhad read them only for the purpose of digging out of\\nthem mottoes for the chapters of his works or passages\\nin support of his own conclusions. There is no more\\ntrace of literature in all his voluminous writings than\\nthere is in the minutes of a corporation, or the report of\\na banking company. He remained to the end of his", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": ",35^ Joseph Lancaster\\ndays of the opinion which he expressed when he was\\nacting as tutor to his two American pupils, I thought\\nthat a good handwriting was better than all the Greek or\\nLatin in the universe and even after he was a richly\\nbeneficed clergyman, he looked upon Grammar Schools\\nand Universities chiefly as places where people contract\\nprejudices. His whole mind and soul were absorbed in\\nthe one idea of extending to the whole world the blessings\\nand peculiarities of the Madras system.\\nThe difference in the views of religious education\\nentertained by the two men was profound; and it still\\nsurvives in a strongly marked form in two sections of the\\nfriends of religious education. Bell and his followers\\nbelieved it to be the first business of a religious teacher\\nto enforce the creed and to attach the scholar to the\\ncommunion of the Church of England. Lancaster\\nconstantly sought to vindicate the need and the possi-\\nbility of a comprehensive and yet Christian system of\\nnational education. Except through his efforts, and\\nthose of his friends, all the popular education of this\\ncountry had been given in connexion with some particu-\\nlar section of the Christian Church; and the catechisms\\nand formularies which are distinctive of sects and\\nChurches, were regarded by the members of those sects\\nas the basis of all possible religious instruction. But\\nLancaster thought that there were deeper truths than\\nthose which Christians regard as disputable, and that\\nit was precisely to those truths that the attention of\\nchildren ought first to be directed. Though a Quaker, he\\nnever sought to a]:)point persons of his own communion\\nto help him as teachers, and he refused to use his school\\nas a ])ropaganda for the peculiar tenets of the Friends.\\nHe believed that national education could be Christian\\nAndrew Bell, l)y Professor Meiklejohn.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0370.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "Their work estimated 353\\nwithout being sectarian. He sought in the British schools\\nto teach children to read the Bible, to understand it, to\\nlove it, and to take it as the guide of their lives; and at\\nthe same time he carefully abstained from dogmatizing\\non those questions of doctrine and discipline which\\ndivide Churchman from Dissenter, or Presbyterian from\\nBaptist. And this scheme was not a political device for\\nconciliating the support of all parties, or for pleasing the\\nwavering and indifferent. It grew out of the experience\\nQf a devout and earnest man, who, loving his own form\\nof religious worship with passionate zeal, loved Chris-\\ntianity and the interests of children more earnestly still.\\nIn future days when the principle of comprehensive and\\nunsectarian instruction becomes yet more generally ad-\\nmitted than at this moment, it ought not to be forgotten\\nthat Lancaster was the first to enunciate it, and that he\\nendured more odium for it than any of his contempo-\\nraries or successors.\\nNevertheless I am afraid we must admit that neither Their\\nBell nor Lancaster is entitled toaveryhidi place amons;^\\nthe great teachers of the world. Both were vain and\\nignorant; both saw one particular aspect of educational\\nwork in false perspective, and were incapable of taking a\\nlarge or generous view of the business of teaching and\\ntraining as a whole. Neither contributed anything of\\nvalue to the literature of education. I do not really\\nknow which to a modern reader are more barren of\\ninterest, the pompous and pretentious tracts of Bell,\\nor the incoherent, confused writings of Lancaster, dis-\\nfigured as they all were by the vehemence with which the\\nwriters put forth their personal claims. Each of the two\\ngreat societies with which their names were identified has\\nsince done much valuable work; and during the period\\nfrom 1846 to 1870 it was mainly through the agency of\\n2A", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0371.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "354 Joseph Lancaster\\nthese societies that the Government distributed the\\nParliamentary grant. Each is at this moment playing an\\nhonourable, though of course a less relatively important\\npart in the work of popular education. Nearly all the\\nvoluntary effort was directed before the Act of 1870\\neither to National or to British schools; the Roman\\nCatholic Poor School Committee, and the Wesleyan\\nEducation Committee, having been formed later for\\nthe maintenance of primary schools adapted for the\\nchildren of their several communions, though other-\\nwise conducted on the same educational lines. But\\neach of the two great societies has long ago abandoned\\nwhatever was distinctive in the views of the man who\\ngave it a name; and to say the truth, both societies,\\nthough for very different reasons, have become half\\nashamed of their founders. Bell was the more successful\\nman and was more praised both in life and after death.\\nLancaster s life was a failure and his death was ignoble.\\nBut I think he had the finer nature of the two, and\\nmore of the enthusiasm of humanity. He had drunk\\nmore deeply of the spirit of Him who said, Take heed\\nthat ye despise not one of these little ones. In the\\nmidst of all the distractions of his confused and ill-\\nmanaged life, I think he honestly tried to listen to the\\nteaching of conscience and the sound of the Divine voice,\\nand with more or less of halting and waywardness to\\nfollow its guidance.\\nBut in a great house, there are not only vessels of\\ngold and of silver, but also of wood and of earth, some\\nbeing meant for greater and some for lesser honour.\\nAnd it is a very happy thing for some of us to reflect\\nthat in this world to which we have been sent, our great\\nTaskmaster is willing to find a use for very humble\\nservices and for very imperfect instruments. The work", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0372.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "Results 355\\nof these men was not work of the highest quality. It\\nwas sorely marred and tarnished in the handling; but it\\nwas in its way honest and good pioneer work; its many\\nfailures helped to block up some of the roads to future\\nfailure; and it served to make the next steps to improve-\\nment easier, safer, and more clearly visible than they\\nwould otherwise have been ^Vhat more can any of us\\nhope to do than thus to be a link between the days, to\\nachieve, not that which is supremely the best, but the\\nbest within our own power and knowledge, in view of the\\ncircumstances, needs, and opportunities of our own time,\\nand then to leave posterity to take as much or as little\\nof it as may prove to be of use?\\nOur little systems have their day,\\nThey have their day, and cease to be\\nThey are but broken lights of Thee,\\nAnd Thou, O God, art more than they.\\nMoj-e than they Yes, in the larger and nobler\\nsystems of the future, the results of the experiments of\\nBell and Lancaster will be absorbed or superseded. But\\nsomething will survive something always does survive,\\nand ought to survive from strenuous and honourable\\nendeavour to achieve a right purpose. It is only in the\\ntender twilight of history, that the outlines of obsolete\\nsystems are softened, and that controversies can be\\nviewed in their true proportions, so that we become able\\nto see how much was ephemeral and how much in them\\ndeserved to be permanent. We can now ask ourselves\\nquite calmly: What was the monitorial system, or as it\\nwas called the mutual system, which for a time seemed\\nto the educational enthusiasts of the first half of this\\ncentury as if it was the greatest discovery of the age?\\nTo say the truth it was not a method of teaching. It\\nwas nothing but a method of drill, a contrivance for", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0373.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "35^ yoseph Lancaster\\nutilizing a certain rough and imperfect kind of agency.^\\nYet it did not shew the agents how to teach; it revealed\\nno principles as to the difference between good teaching\\nand bad, or as to the way in which knowledge can best\\nfind entrance into the mind. But, at a time of great\\npublic apathy, it awakened the national conscience in\\nregard to the need of general education for the poor;\\nand it greatly helped this awakening by shewing how\\ncertain simple results could be achieved at a very small\\ncost. It unquestionably taught reading, writing, and\\narithmetic and the virtue and the beauty of order. Each\\n1 Here for example is the programme of one of his lectures\\nRoyal Lancasterian System of Education.\\nJoseph Lancaster the Inventor of the above System intends\\nto deliver a Lecture on its Nature and advaiitages^ at the Freemasoti s\\nTavern, Great Queen Street Lincolns Inn Fields, on the Evening\\nof the Day called Monday, the ist of Seventh Alonth. [July] i8ii.\\nThe peculiar advantages of this System are that One Master\\n[often a lad from fourteen to eighteen years of age] can be rendered\\ncompetent to the government of a school containing from 200 to\\n1000 Scholars. The Expense of Education for each Individual will\\nalso diminish in proportion as the Number under the care of the\\nsame master increases.\\nThe System of Order and Tuition serves in lieu of experience\\nand discretion in the Teacher, whose qualification consists only of a\\nsmall degree of Elementary Knowledge. Five Hundred children\\nmay spell at the same time. A whole school however large may\\nread and spell from the same Book. The Master will be wholly\\nrelieved from the duty of Tuition and have for his charge that of\\nfrequent inspection of the Progress made by the Pupils. In no case\\nwill this be more conspicuous than in teaching Arithmetic. The\\npreceding Points will be clearly explained during the Lecture, and\\nparts of the System will be practically exemplified by a number of\\nBoys who will attend for that purpose. A number of Drawings\\nwill be exhibited to illustrate the peculiar Principles of Rewards\\nand Punishments, which form Addenda to the System of Tuition.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0374.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "TJie Monitorial System 357\\nof the two men, in his own way, succeeded in impressing\\na decidedly religious character on the voluntary Schools\\nof England. And they had a clear grasp of one cardinal\\nprinciple, too often overlooked. They regarded a school\\nnot merely as a place to which scholars should resort to\\nget knowledge for themselves, but as an organized com-\\nmunity for mutual aid and encouragement in the work of\\ninstruction. The scholar was made to feel that his first\\nbusiness was to learn, and his next to help others to\\nlearn.\\nAnd this principle of mutual help, this solidarity, this\\nsense of corporate life, and of the obligation on one\\nwho knows to make his knowledge useful to others, is\\nof abiding importance. This principle at least we may\\nhope will survive in all our schools, even when the\\nmonitorial or mutual system of instruction once so\\nextravagantly lauded, is wholly forgotten.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0375.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "LECTURE XII\\nPESTALOZZI 1\\nThe anniversary. Characteristics of Pestalozzi s teaching. Sense\\nTraining. How he differed from Rousseau. His religious\\npurpose. His rebellion against verbalism. No finality in his\\nsystem.\\nThe atini- The Son of Sirach introduces a chapter of Ecclesias-\\nversary. ^j^^^g book which is less read than it deserves to be\\nwith the words: Let us now praise famous men and\\nour fathers that begat us leaders of the people by\\ntheir counsels, and by knowledge and learning meet for\\nthe people, wise and eloquent in their instructions\\nthe Lord hath wrought great glory by them. And the\\napocryphal writer then proceeds to enumerate the great\\nHebrew teachers, heroes, and poets, and to celebrate\\ntheir achievements. So this commemorative instinct,\\nwhich leads men to recall the deeds and writings of\\ndeparted worthies, and which has drawn you together to-\\nnight to honour the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary\\nof Pestalozzi s birth, is a very old instinct and it is a\\n1 Presidential Address at the Memorial Conference in the College\\nof Preceptors on the hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the birth of\\nPestalozzi, October 7, 1896.\\n358", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0376.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "Pestalozzi s anniversary 359\\nvery true one. We have no better means of keeping\\nalive what is memorable in the history and character of a\\nman, and what is of permanent value in his teaching, than\\nby availing ourselves of these periodical occasions for\\nretrospect, and by recalling from time to time what we\\nowe to those who have gone before us. A jubilee, a\\nbirthday, a centenary, furnishes suitable opportunity for\\ndoing this, and it is very necessary in the case of those\\nwho, like Pestalozzi, are identified with principles pe-\\nculiarly liable to be overlaid with routine and petrified\\ninto formulas, and therefore needing constantly to be\\nreviewed, subjected to new tests, and enforced by help\\nof new illustrations. It is in every way fitting that the\\ntask of recalling to this generation what we all owe to\\nPestalozzi should be undertaken by the authorities of this\\nCollege, an institution which has for many years been\\nforemost in its recognition of the fact that education is a\\nscience, and which has, by means of lectures and con-\\nferences, done so much to elucidate the principles, the\\nhistory, and the art of teaching. And I think those\\nauthorities have been well advised in determining that\\nthe fittest way to celebrate this occasion is to invite a\\nfew persons specially conversant with improved methods\\nof teaching to address you, respectively, on some special\\naspects of Pestalozzi s work and its relation to the needs\\nof our modern life. This is a sure way of avoiding\\ndiscursiveness and of giving definiteness to our meeting.\\nYour attention will be directed to-day to the spirit and\\ninfluence of Pestalozzi s teaching generally, to some\\nfeatures of his personal biography, especially to his\\nfailures and disappointments and to his manful and\\ncourageous determination to overcome difficulties, to his\\ninfluence in Germany, and to the development of his\\nprinciples in our own country. You could not possibly", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0377.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "360 Pestalozzi\\nhave the whole subject brought before you under more\\nfavourable auspices or on a more practical and business-\\nlike plan. The Council of the College has done well to\\nselect for the purpose of our discussion some of the most\\ndistinguished teachers and thinkers of the younger gen-\\neration, each of whom in his or her own way has done\\nvaluable work in elevating the public estimate of a true\\nand rational education; and each of whom is specially\\nqualified to distinguish between what is ephemeral or\\nobsolete and what is of enduring value in Pestalozzi s\\nwork.\\nCharac- For myself, as one of the older school who has\\n/J^^^^J^^Jv^ nevertheless not lost his faith in the future, or his deep\\nteaching, sympathy with the best and most fruitful of modern\\neducational ideals, my task is a much humbler and\\nsimpler one. It is to introduce to you in turn the\\nreaders of the several papers, and to bespeak for them\\nthat intelligent attention which the audiences in this hall\\nare accustomed to give, and to which both the subject of\\ndiscussion and the reputation of the speakers are emi-\\nnently entitled. I will not stand except for a very brief\\nperiod between you and them. But I may be permitted\\nto refer, in the fewest words, to the two or three features\\nof Pestalozzi s teaching which have always appeared to\\nme among the most valuable, and which, in my opinion,\\nought never to be permitted to become outworn or\\nobsolete.\\nSense The first of these is his insistence on the necessity of\\ntraining for the senses and for the physical powers as\\nwell as for the memory and the understanding. The old\\ndoctrine, Nihil in intellecttc quod non prius in sensu, was\\nwith him more than an academic proposition. It was\\nthe key to his practical methods. It dominated much\\nof what is called his system. Hence all the simple", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0378.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "Rousseau 361\\ndevices by which he led children to see clearly, to\\nexercise the faculty of observation, to draw, to touch, to\\nhandle, to discover, to imitate, to invent. He did not\\nregard the use of printed words and letters as the true\\nbeginning of all knowledge, but he relied rather on\\nintuition, the development of faculty, the rousing of\\ncuriosity, as the first objects to be achieved in the\\neducation of a child. Now here is a principle of per-\\nmanent importance, one of which we do not yet see all\\nthe practical applications, but one which will guide us in\\ncoming to right conclusions, in respect, for example, to\\nthe place which manual training ought to hold as part of\\na scheme of liberal education, as well as to other yet\\nunsolved problems of our own time. Raumer, one of\\nhis affectionate disciples, said of him: He compelled\\nthe scholastic world to revise the whole of their task, to\\nreflect on the nature and destiny of man, and on the\\nproper ways of leading him from his youth towards that\\ndestiny. This was in fact the main purpose of Pesta-\\nlozzi s life. He sought to find for himself and to help\\nothers to find, a basis for his plans of education, in a\\nfresher study of nature and experience.\\nOliver Wendell Holmes once said of Emerson that Ho-v he\\nhe was an iconoclast without the hammer; that the\\np om\\nidols he sought to dethrone he took down from \\\\}i\\\\t.\\\\x Rousseau.\\npedestals so gently and reverently that he seemed more\\nlike one performing an act of worship. In some sense\\nthis is true of Pestalozzi. He too was an iconoclast, but\\nhe went about his work in a very different spirit from\\nthat which animated Rousseau, to whom he was in other\\nrespects so nearly akin. Compare Rousseau s Emile\\nwith Pestalozzi s Leonard and Gertrude, and you will\\nbe conscious of a difference of tone as well as of sub-\\nCabot s Life of Emerson.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0379.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "362 Pestalozzi\\nstance. There is in Pestalozzi little or no denunciation,\\nnone of the fierce revolt against established notions and\\nusages which characterized Rousseau, only an earnest\\nappeal to parents and teachers all the more effectual\\nbecause so restrained and modest to follow books and\\ntraditions less and to study nature and childhood more.\\nHis You cannot in any survey of Pestalozzi s career\\nre jgious Q^JQY\\\\ook the deep religiousness of his nature. To him\\npurpose. A\\nthe teacher s ofhce was a sacred, indeed a priestly,\\nfunction. The moral purpose of a school was its highest\\npurpose. No teacher or writer on education has ever\\nmore strongly emphasized the truth that character is\\nmore important even than knowledge, that knowledge is\\nonly a means to the higher end, not itself an end; and\\nthat the first business of a school, as of a home, is not so\\nmuch to give formal religious lessons as to provide an\\natmosphere of love and purity and goodness, in which\\nall that is gracious and beautiful in a child s character\\nmay have room to grow. Man, he said, in one of his\\nlatest writings, the Swan song, develops the funda-\\nmental elements of his moral life his love and faith\\nby the exercise of love and faith, just as those of his\\nintellectual life his thought and reflection by the\\nexercise of thought, and those of his practical or indus-\\ntrial life the power of his organs and muscles by\\nthe exercise of this power. Everywhere you find him\\ninsisting on the need of spontaneous activity, and on the\\nfact that the learner is not passively to receive and to\\nreproduce the opinions or the emotions of other people,\\nbut to be a free and living agent. A school could on\\nPestalozzi s principles do nothing better than to place\\nthe learner in conditions favourable to the full expansion\\nof whatever is best in his intellectual powers and his\\nmoral and spiritual aspirations.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0380.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "Verbalism 363\\nPerhaps the most notable feature of Pestalozzi s^2\\nsystem was his earnest and constant protest against\\nagainst\\nverbalism and teaching by rote. He was very sensible verbalism.\\nof the importance of language culture and of the right\\nuse of words, but he desired in all cases to make the\\nword or the technical term come after some knowledge\\nof the subject or the distinction which the word repre-\\nsented, and not before it or independently of it. In par-\\nticular, he warred against the use of formularies, manuals,\\nand text-books which professed to present the whole of\\nwhat was to be known on a given subject, and so to\\nsupersede the necessity of actual intellectual contact\\nbetween a teacher and pupil. He distrusted all such\\nmethods. The habit of putting printed questions and\\nanswers in a book to be committed to memory seemed\\nto him deadening and mischievous, and, indeed, destruc-\\ntive to any real and vital communication between teacher\\nand taught. Happily, his opinions on this topic have\\nbeen generally accepted by all good modern teachers.\\nExcept in regard to one subject, books of questions and\\nanswers, scientific dialogues, and the like, have been\\nwell-nigh abandoned, and are only now used as the last\\nresort of examiners who do not know how to examine,\\nand of teachers who cannot teach. You know well what\\nthat one subject is. There is still a fond belief, on the\\npart of many good people, that the method of learning\\nby heart answers to questions which the teacher reads\\nout of a book a method which has been discredited in\\nall other departments of instruction istJie best method\\nof teaching religion. Some day, perhaps, we may eman-\\ncipate ourselves from this curious superstition, and learn\\nhow to apply the principles of Pestalozzi not only to\\narithmetic, and grammar, and history, but to the highest\\nand most sacred of all the subjects we have to teach.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0381.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "364 Pestalozzi\\nNo finality Meanwhile, one thing remains to be said. There is\\nm his finality in the system of Pestalozzi. He was a pioneer\\nsystem.\\nonly. He saw, with intense clearness, some fundamental\\ntruths, but he could not foresee all the practical applica-\\ntions of those truths. His simple life s experience among\\npeasants in Germany and Switzerland did not qualify\\nhim to understand thoroughly the needs of great and\\ncrowded towns, or to take a full view of the larger educa-\\ntional horizon which we have to deal with now. Had he\\nknown London, or Paris, or Manchester, their new intel-\\nlectual and industrial conditions would certainly have\\ninterested him deeply and suggested to him new and\\nfruitful devices for meeting them. It is for us, who have\\nthis experience, to adapt what is best in his teaching to\\nthe changed circumstances and needs of our own time.\\nWe must remember that it is just as possible for Pesta-\\nlozzianism as for any other system to lose its vitalizing\\npower, to be stiffened into formulas, and to become\\nwooden, pedantic, and uninspiring. I have had occasion,\\nduring my official life, to know how easy it is to use all\\nthe phraseology of Pestalozzi, to imitate his object\\nlessons, and to accept his technique and his theories,\\nand yet to be hopelessly uninfluenced by the spirit of the\\nmaster, and to fall into unintelligent and unsympathetic\\nroutine. The true way to guard against this danger is to\\nperpetuate his spirit as well as his methods, to re-state,\\nfrom time to time, the principles he advocated, to view\\nthem with fresh eyes in the light of later experience, and\\nto seek for the best means of applying and illustrating\\nthem. That is the purpose for which we are met to-day,\\nand I congratulate you on the fact that the task has been\\nconfided to some of those on whom I have now to call,\\nand who are specially qualified to be the exponents of\\nhis principles and the critics of his work.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0382.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "LECTURE XIII\\nTHE SUNDAY SCHOOL OF THE FUTURE\\nVoluntary philanthropy in England. Robert Raikes. The changed\\nposition of the Sunday Schools. The problem of the future.\\nThe Lord s Day and its purpose. The working man s Sunday.\\nHome influence more potent than that of any school. Sunday\\nin our homes. The teacher. Conversation. Reading aloud.\\nThe School Library. Religious instruction. A teacher s equip-\\nment. Need of preparation. Questioning, Verbal Memory.\\nP ormularies. Catechising in church. Work for the educated\\nlaity. Children s services. Formation of a habit of attending\\npublic worship. General conclusions. The Sunday School\\nnot only a place for religious instruction, but a centre of civili-\\nzation and social improvement.\\nIn the history of English education, nothing strikes Voluntary\\nus more than the large share taken in it by private\\nvoluntary agency and the comparatively small part played England.\\nin it by the Government or by legislation. In this respect\\nour own country differs materially from most Continental\\nnations and especially from Germany; certainly from\\nAmerica where the Puritan fathers of the Eastern States\\nmade it their first business to provide schools, and\\nto set apart a portion of the public land and thus to\\n1 Address to the Women s Diocesan Conference at the Church\\nHouse, Westminster.\\n365", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0383.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "366 TJic Sunday School of tJic Future\\nsecure means for maintaining them. Here at home,\\nsome of our educational resources are an inheritance from\\nmonasteries, chantries, and other religious houses; for a\\nfew we are indebted to the benefactions of kings and\\nnobles, to the pious benevolence of rich men who have\\nfounded schools, and to municipal and corporate action\\non the part of those who as parents or otherwise felt con-\\nscious of a public want, and sought to supply it. But\\nthe end of the i8th century, and beginning of the pres-\\nent, were distinguished by the efforts of a few men who\\nwere not rich, and could not be classed as pious founders\\nin the ordinary sense, but who gave to philanthropic work\\nsomething better than money personal service and\\nenthusiasm. The spirit which led John Howard and\\nElizabeth Fry to visit prisons, and to bring unofficial\\npressure to bear on prison authorities with a view to the\\nalleviation of the sufferings of prisoners, the spirit which\\nat the same period animated Clarkson, Wilberforce, and\\nthe poet Cowper to denounce the African Slave trade,\\nand to claim in the name of humanity the emancipation\\nof our West Indian slaves, indicated the growth of an\\nuneasy feeling in the public conscience in regard to\\ngreat social wrongs.\\nRobert In the year 1781 Robert Raikes, a printer, and the\\nKaikes. publisher of a local journal in Gloucester, distressed to\\nsee the large number of untaught and squalid children\\nroaming about the streets of that city, opened a refuge\\nfor them on Sunday afternoons, and engaged two or three\\nwomen at a shilling per day to take care of the children\\nand teach them to read the New Testament. With the\\nhelp of the clergy, children were induced to come in great\\nnumbers, and many voluntary teachers were soon found.\\nThe only necessary condition of admission was that the\\nchildren should come with clean hands and faces. Some", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0384.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "Robert Raikes 367\\nof the parents who could afford it paid small fees. The\\ninstruction was of the humblest kind reading, spelling,\\nwriting, and a little simple arithmetic. There were then\\nfew day schools of any kind open to the children of the\\npoor, except the Endowed Charity Schools, which often\\ngave clothing as well as gratuitous elementary instruction,\\nand admission to which was obtained by the choice and\\nprivate patronage of local trustees.^ The great societies\\nfor promoting popular instruction the British and\\nForeign School Society, and the National Society for the\\nEducation of the Poor in the principles of the Established\\nChurch did not come into existence till ten years later.\\nThe Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge had\\nbeen founded in 1698 but had not established schools of\\nits own. And no obligation on the part of Parliament\\nto concern itself with popular education began to be\\nrecognized until the middle of the present century.\\nRaikes success at Gloucester was remarkable. Among\\nhis more influential supporters were Jonas Hanway, John\\nHoward, Henry Thornton, Mrs Trimmer, and Hannah\\nMore; but he found imitators in all parts of the country.\\nThese were chiefly members of religious bodies, the\\nschools were held in churches and chapels, and so\\nit came to pass that the Bible furnished the staple of\\ninstruction in the schools. In later times, as the means\\nof secular instruction have been increased by the multi-\\nplication of day schools, the Sunday teaching has become\\npractically limited to religious subjects. But it ought\\nnot to be forgotten that the first efforts of Raikes and his\\nfriends were wider and more general. They did not\\nthink the teaching of spelling and arithmetic a merely\\nsecular business inconsistent with the claims or the\\nsacredness of the Lord s day; in fact they regarded the\\n1 Ante^ p. 191.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0385.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "368\\nTJie Sunday School of the Future\\nThe\\nchanged\\nposition\\nof the\\nSunday\\nSchool.\\nSunday afternoon school not as a supplement to a system\\nof day schools, but as the best available substitute for it.\\nIt was as an expedient for making a small inroad upon the\\nmass of ignorance around him that the institution founded\\nby Robert Raikes was eminently successful, not only\\nbecause it brought large numbers of neglected children\\nwithin the reach of moral and civilizing influences, but\\nalso because it awakened among many benevolent and\\nreligious people a new sense of their responsibility\\ntowards their less fortunate brethren, and enlisted their\\nservices as voluntary teachers. In this way a public\\nopinion was gradually formed in favour of popular edu-\\ncation, which soon afterwards began to express itself in\\naiding Bell and Lancaster, and in efforts to establish\\nvoluntary day schools.\\nIt is evident that the history of the present dying\\ncentury has done much to alter the relative position of\\nSunday Schools. They are no longer needed to teach\\nreading and writing. The law of 1870 which provides\\nadequate day-school accommodation for all the children\\nrequiring elementary instruction that is to say for one-\\nsixth of the population and the subsequent legislation\\nwhich compels the attendance of the scholars, have gone\\nfar to render the Sunday School in one sense superfluous.\\nAnd it must be remembered too, that with very few\\nexceptions, our public elementary schools are all im-\\npressed with a religious character. In the voluntary\\nschools, which have been established by the religious\\nbodies, there is systematic instruction in faith and Chris-\\ntian duty, and in the formularies of the several Churches.\\nAnd in the municipal schools those controlled by the\\nSchool Boards the Bible is nearly always read and\\nexplained, and religious instruction, of substantially the\\nkind contemplated in many of the best Sunday Schools,", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0386.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "Purpose of the LonV s Day 369\\nis regularly provided. The statutory period not devoted\\nto secular instruction, is consecrated under the Time\\nTable Conscience Clause exclusively to religious teach-\\ning in Board Schools and Voluntary Schools alike.\\nWhat then is the area of usefulness still left vacant, The\\nwhich the Sunday School of the future should be ready to K^^^^\\noccupy? How does the new provision which has under future.\\nthe Education Act become so abundant and so effective\\nmodify or how far ought it to modify our views as to\\nthe true scope and object of the Sunday School? The\\nanswer to this question is not easy. But it suggests to\\nus other enquiries, and some considerations which bear\\nin a very real though at first sight not an obvious sense\\nupon its solution.\\nWhy is it that among all Christian communities the The\\nrecognition of the first day of the week as a time of rest^ J^^^\\nis so much valued? Why and in what manner do we zV^\\nfeel it to be precious to ourselves? Of course in the first\\nplace it is an opportunity for religious edification and\\nworship. But that is not the whole. Sunday changes\\nthe current of our thoughts, releases us for a few hours\\nfrom the ordinary routine of the week, from our business\\nor profession, and breaks the continuity of that eager,\\nfretful, and anxious struggle which occupies our minds in\\npolitics, in industry, and in society during the rest of the\\nweek. It gives us leisure for reading, for thinking, and\\nfor happy family intercourse. It is a standing symbol to\\nus all of the fact that the life is more than meat, that\\nthe higher life has its own claims, that rest, refreshment,\\nchange of intellectual employment, are among the neces-\\nsaries of that life.\\nNow it is in the light of our own experience that we The work-\\nare best able to judge, what the Sunday ought to be to Sunday.\\nchildren, and especially to the families of those who\\n2B", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0387.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "370 1 Jie Sunday School of tJie Future\\nbelong to the industrial classes. We do not spend the\\nwhole of our own Sunday in listening to religious instruc-\\ntion, nor have we any reason to suppose that others are\\nin this respect different from ourselves.\\nIf we try to picture the ideal Sunday for a working\\nman and his household, we should consider how he is\\nengaged during the rest of the week in labour which\\nbegins early in the day, and that he often returns home\\nafter his children have gone to sleep. Except on Sunday,\\nhe scarcely sees his family, or has much opportunity of\\ntalking to them. Then when the day comes, the happiest\\nthing we could desire both for him and his children is\\nthat he should take the elder ones with him to a place\\nof worship, should sit down with them in the afternoon,\\nand ask them what they are doing at school, should hear\\nthem repeat to him the hymns or lessons they have\\nlearned, and then talk to them, and encourage them to\\ntalk in their turn. He may ask the eldest to read some\\nshort story aloud to the rest; or if the day be fine can\\ntake them with him for a walk and talk by the way.\\nDoes any one of us doubt, that in the strengthening of\\nfamily affection, in its influence on the characters of the\\nfather and mother by drawing out some of their best\\nqualities, and in the enduring memories which will help\\nto form the children s character and habits for life, a\\nSunday thus spent is far more precious than if passed\\namong strangers, however skilful their theological in-\\nstruction may be. Let us acknowledge once for all that\\neven the best Sunday School is but a substitute, and a\\nvery poor substitute, for the ennobling influence of an\\norderly Christian home. The sympathetic interest of\\nthe father and mother in the children s lessons, in their\\nthoughts, and in their progress, though it be not the\\ninterest of skilled or professional teachers, is far more", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0388.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "Home influence 371\\ninfluential in the development of the religious character,\\nthan all the formal lessons of any school however good.\\nAnd in so far as the existence of Sunday Schools has\\ngiven to many parents, who are quite capable of exer-\\ncising such influence, an excuse for evading their own\\nresponsibilities and handing them over to others, there\\nis no doubt in my mind that the multiplication of such\\nschools has done harm as well as good. It seems a\\nhard saying in this audience; but in just the proportion\\nin which we can obtain the co-operation of parents in\\nthe religious nurture of their children, we may be well\\ncontent in the next century to see the need for Sunday\\nSchools steadily diminish.\\nLet us begin therefore by recognizing the superior Home\\nclaims and sacredness of the home life and by a deter- T\\nmination to do nothing which will interfere with the potent\\nlegitimate function of the parent and the family, con- t\\n0/ any\\nsidered as instruments of education, in the best and school.\\ntruest sense. It is very easy for those of us who are\\ninterested in a society or an institution which has done\\ngreat service, to over-estimate it, and to become so\\nenamoured with a particular form of machinery, that we\\nlose sight of the purpose which the machine is meant to\\nfulfil. But we must beware of mistaking means for ends.\\nIt is a mistake to become so proud of the extension of\\nour Sunday School system, as to think it a high triumph\\nto record the addition of thousands to the roll of scholars\\nyear by year. It would be a much higher triumph if we\\nwere able to record that the number of instructed parents\\nand of God-fearing households, among the working\\nclasses, had so increased that the Sunday School was\\nbecoming a superfluous institution. But unfortunately\\nwe are a long way from this goal. The ideal household\\nsuch as I have described is not always possible. The", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0389.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "372 The Sunday School of the Fittiire\\nchildren of idle, negligent, and ignorant parents, who\\nare simply glad to be rid of an encumbrance on Sunday\\nafternoons, are still to be found and are likely to be\\nfound for a long time to come. For these the Sunday\\nSchool is a beneficent institution, and for them it is our\\nduty to make the Sunday School as efficient for its\\npurpose as we can.\\nSunday in But in trying to do this, we shall do well to fashion\\nour own course of procedure, in view of the fact that the\\nschool is rather the imperfect substitute for the home,\\nthan a supplement, or even a substitute for the day\\nschool. We should not like, in the case of our own\\nchildren, to fill their Sunday leisure with lessons or\\nformal teaching. We prefer for their sake to get rid of\\nthe associations connected with the school and its\\ndiscipline, and to place them within the reach of other\\ninfluences calculated to awaken their sympathies, broaden\\ntheir intellectual horizon, and encourage their aspirations\\nafter higher and better things than those which challenge\\ntheir attention all through the rest of the week. With\\nthis view we do not encumber them with rigid rules\\nas to what is or what is not permissible on the Sunday;\\nwe do not insist on a Puritanical identification of that\\nday with the Jewish Sabbath; but we place within their\\nreach books, pictures, employments, which though they\\nare quite compatible with serious thought do not look\\ndidactic and forbidding, or challenge the children for\\nmore gravity than can reasonably be expected at their\\nage. Nothing tends more to give to children a sense of\\nunreality in religious lessons, than the habit of exacting\\nfrom them professions of faith, or acts of worship, which do\\nnot honestly correspond to their present stage of religious\\nexperience. Above all, we try to establish in their\\nminds happy associations with the day, so that they may", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0390.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "Sunday m the home 373\\nlook back on it not as the time of restraint or of gloom\\nbut as the most interesting episode in the week, none\\nthe less but all the more delightful because of an over-\\nhanging sense of seriousness and detachment, which dis-\\ntinguishes the day s pursuits from those of ordinary life.\\nA wise parent does not talk to children about the claims\\nof Sunday, or the obligation of observing it. He rather\\nseeks to let it be seen indirectly that such observance is\\nto be regarded as a privilege and not as a duty. Indeed\\nif it were not felt to be a privilege, we can hardly make\\nchildren see how it can be a duty.\\nGeorge Herbert s verses well describe the ideal\\nSunday in a Christian household\\nO day most calm, most bright,\\nThe fruit of this, the next world s bud;\\nThe couch of time care s balm and bay\\nThe week were dark, but for thy light\\nThy torch doth shew the way.\\nThou art a day of mirth\\nAnd where the week-days trail on ground,\\nThy flight is higher, as thy birth\\nO let me take thee at the bound,\\nLeaping with thee from seven to seven,\\nTill that we both, being toss d from earth,\\nFly hand in hand to heaven\\nNow the more nearly we can approach this ideal in\\nthe Sunday School of the future the better. Of course\\nthere must be lessons and some formal teaching. But in\\nview of the fact that lessons and formal teaching are\\naccessible to the children all the rest of the week, I am\\ninclined to think that we need less of them in the Sunday\\nSchools of the future, and more of those civilizing and\\nreligious influences which though they operate indirectly\\n1 The Temple.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0391.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "374 The Sunday School of the Future\\nThe go farther in the formation of character. Foremost\\nteaciei ^mong these influences is that derived from the presence\\nand the personal qualifications of the teacher himself.\\nHe or she should be a person of cultivated mind, one\\nwho reads much, and who knows the temptations which\\nassail his scholars. His attainment and manners should\\nbe such as command respect, he should have a deep\\nsense of the realities of religion and of its importance, and\\nabove all should have a genuine love for children, and\\nfaith in the boundless possibilities of good, which lie\\nmore or less hidden, even in the dullest and least\\ninteresting scholar in his class. He derives great in-\\nfluence from the fact that he is not a paid or professional\\nteacher, but is drawn to the children simply by good will\\nand a desire to be useful to them. His attitude to the\\nchildren should be less that of an instructor or a lecturer,\\nthan that of a friend and companion. Given these\\nconditions, and you may be sure that the mere contact\\nwith such a person for an hour or two in the week will\\ndo much to raise the tone of the scholars, to awaken in\\nthem feelings of loyalty and personal affection, and to\\nproduce unconsciously a sentiment of reverence for the\\nreligion of which the teacher is for the time the principal\\nexponent and representative. Since the classes in a\\nSunday School are small there is the possibility of a\\ncloser intellectual intimacy between teacher and taught\\nthan is possible in a day school, and the character of\\nindividual scholars can be better studied.\\nConversa- In such a class, conversation is one of the most\\neffective instruments of culture To sit a passive bucket\\nto be pumped into, as Carlyle said, is not an ex-\\nhilarating process, nor, it must be added, a very useful\\none. The story of great teachers from Socrates down to\\nArnold and Thring, and even that of the Pastor", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0392.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "Reading aloud 375\\nPastorum our great Teacher and Master, shows us how\\nmuch is done by conversation, by inviting the pupil to\\nexpress his thought, to state his difficulties, and to take a\\nshare in thinking out the subject for himself. How often\\nour Lord abandoned altogether the didactic and impera-\\ntive method, so dear to all merely mechanical instructors,\\nand became conversational and suggestive. What think\\nyou? How readest thou? The true measure of our\\nsuccess in teaching religion, as in the teaching of every-\\nthing else, is not to be found in the number of facts and\\ntruths which the scholar has received and learned on our\\nauthority; but in the degree in which the teaching has\\ncalled out power, mental activity, and sympathy on the\\npart of the scholar himself.\\nA part of each Sunday s schooltime might well h^ Reading\\ndevoted to a reading of some story, or poem, some\\nepisode from history or some new fact in the annals of\\nour own time; and then to a conversation not neces-\\nsarily an examination upon it. To make this exercise\\nreally helpful and inspiring it is very necessary that the\\nteacher should in his own reading, whether in books\\nor newspapers, keep his eyes open and make a note of\\nany incident or anecdote which is likely to interest the\\nchildren and to set them thinking. There should be a\\nmoral meaning an element of religious edification in it.\\nBut this meaning need not be obtrusive. It should be\\nthere, held in solution so to speak, and left to make its\\nown impression. We are to remember that the best\\nlessons of our life do not always come to us in the form\\nof lessons; and that all knowledge does not necessarily\\nassume the shape of knowledge. A second requisite\\nis that the teacher should himself acquire the art of\\n1 An^e, pp. ss, 44.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0393.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "376 The Sunday School of the Fj it tire\\nreading. Children enjoy listening to reading, if the reader\\nknows his art, and can give in a pleasing dramatic yet\\nnot theatrical way, the meaning of a story. Of course\\nwe can all read; but the power to read with such dis-\\ntinctness and intelligence that no syllable and no part of\\nthe meaning of the writer fails to be communicated, and\\nthat there is an added charm in the expression which\\ndelights the hearer, is a very rare power indeed. It may\\nbe acquired by anyone who thinks it worth acquiring,\\nand when acquired it will add greatly to the usefulness\\nof the Sunday School teacher. You want to give the\\nchildren pleasant associations with the thought of books,\\nand an appetite for reading and personal cultivation when\\nthey are at home. So the books you have read, the\\nnarrative of a war, examples of valour and self-devotion,\\nthe holiday journey you have lately taken, may all in turn\\nbe made the subject of a friendly and easy conversational\\nlesson and the means of encouraging the children to talk\\nin their turn. Often the scholars in an elder class may be\\nasked to give their own account of any book they have\\nread, or any new experience they have gained. They m ight\\nbe shown pictures of Bible scenes, of historical incidents,\\nand of domestic life, and asked if they could construct or\\ntell the story which the picture illustrates. They might\\nbe invited to write an occasional letter, not as a school\\nexercise to be examined and marked as for competition,\\nbut mainly as a means for cultivating reflection, winning\\nand promoting confidence, and enabling the teacher to\\nknow better the individual character of his scholars.\\nDo not let us hamper ourselves with theories as to\\nwhich of all these devices is likely to be most instruc-\\ntive. Try them alio Make experiments. Discover what\\nit is that interests the scholars, and then use it and\\nmake the most of it. For that, after all, is the best and", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0394.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "The ScJi 00 1 L ib j a ry 377\\nthe fullest of promise, which the young people like and\\nenjoy most.\\nThen there is the School Library. The teacher The\\nshould know something of its contents, and be able to iW^y^-^^.y\\nadvise the scholars especially in the upper classes as to\\nwhat books they should choose, not necessarily goody\\nnor even what are especially called religious books, but\\nbooks such as he himself has read with profit and\\nenjoyment. And the scholars who have read a library\\nbook might well be asked to talk of it and to say whether\\nand why they liked it. Among the scholars also there\\nwill be many who will soon be leaving you, and in whose\\nfuture you are interested. It is well therefore to ac-\\nquaint yourself with the Continuation schools, the Young\\nMen s Christian Association, or the Bible Class, the\\nPolytechnics, or the Home Reading circles, or other\\ninstitutions in the neighbourhood, in order that you may\\nbe in a position to give opportune advice to promising\\nand thoughtful scholars. And if you encourage them\\nafter leaving the school to write to you and tell you what\\nthey are doing, you forge a new link of sympathy between\\nthem and yourself. Nothing is more likely to prove a\\nmoral safeguard to young people, just entering into\\nthe world, than the knowledge that they have one friend\\nin a superior position to their own, a friend who will be\\nglad of their successes, and will be pained to hear of any\\nmisconduct. And the poorer and less fortunate in their\\nsurroundings the scholars are, the more valuable will such\\na safeguard become.\\nIt may be said that all this is not the business of a\\nschool. Then we should try to enlarge our conception\\nof what the business of a school is and might be,\\nespecially of one held on Sunday. Let us ask ourselves\\nwhat we should like to talk about to our own children on", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0395.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "3/8 The Sunday School of the Future\\nSunday at home. And thus we shall be led to admit\\nthat our talk would not be all about theology; and that\\nanything which enlarged the range of their ideas, gave\\nthem new intellectual resources, gave them a heightened\\ninterest in the richness and beauty of the world, in the\\nlives and doings of heroes and saints, and helped to\\nintroduce them into the society of great writers, would\\nseem to us to be a legitimate part of the Sunday occupa-\\ntion. But all this comes of free unrestrained intellectual\\nintercourse between parent and child and it is precisely\\nto that kind of intercourse that we should desire, as far\\nas circumstances will allow, that the relation of teacher\\nand scholar in the Sunday School should be assimilated.\\nReligious But while I desire to emphasize the importance of\\nHon. those features of Sunday School work which differentiate\\nit from the work of an ordinary school; and while I\\nshould like to introduce any employments which serve to\\nbring the young people into closer sympathy with culti-\\nvated persons, and to promote a real interchange of\\nthought and experience between them, we may not forget\\nthat after all the chief raisoii d etre of a Sunday School in\\nthe minds of most persons is that it should be a place of\\nreligious instruction. Now, viewed in this aspect, there\\nis much to be learned from the experience of good day\\nschools; and it is worth while to consider in what\\nrespects that experience should furnish hints and guidance\\nto the voluntary and unprofessional teachers who under-\\ntake the charge of our Sunday scholars.\\nA teacher s And the first of the facts which such experience brings\\nbefore us, is that this business of teaching is not an easy\\none, not one to be undertaken without previous thought\\nand preparation, or merely in a kindly amateurish spirit.\\nTeaching is a fine art. It has its rules and principles.\\nThere are right ways and wrong ways of beginning and", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0396.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "The teachei s equipment 379\\nending a lesson, of awakening interest, of putting ques-\\ntions, of recapitulation, of finding the nearest avenue to\\nthe understanding, the conscience, and the sympathy of\\nchildren of different ages; and there are reasons to be\\ngiven why some ways are right and others wrong. In\\nour public schools, whether primary or secondary,\\nwe are becoming more and more convinced that some\\nknowledge of these things is indispensable and makes\\nall the difference between the skilled and the unskilled\\npractitioner in his art. The best educational literature,\\nthe lives of great teachers, the records of their successes\\nand their failures, and some acquaintance with the laws\\nof mind, the growth of the mental faculties, the conditions\\non which memory, the reasoning power, and the appetite\\nfor knowledge can best be cultivated, are all included in\\nthe course of professional instruction laid down in our\\ntraining colleges, and in the requirements of the l^niver-\\nsities for the diploma of competency as a teacher. It would\\nbe an unreasonable burden to lay upon the kindly Chris-\\ntian men and women who now undertake Sunday School\\nwork, if anyone insisted on their becoming systematic\\nstudents in this sense. Moreover, any attempt to make\\nan examination in the philosophy or methods of educa-\\ntion, a condition of becoming recognized as a qualified\\nSunday School teacher, would exclude from the ranks\\nmany of the most valuable of our workers, men and\\nw^omen qualified by personal cultivation, by religious\\nconviction, by insight into child-nature, and by a love for\\nchildren, to exercise in a high degree that kind of indi-\\nrect influence to which as we have said more importance\\nshould be attached than to actual formal teaching. But\\nwe cannot hope to secure this kind of influence if we are\\nsatisfied to fill the teachers chairs with persons, who\\nin age, refinement, or social position are only a little", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0397.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "3 8o TJic Simday ScJiool of tJic Future\\nremoved from the class to which the scholars belong.\\nNevertheless it is safer to say to all teachers, however\\nthey maybe equipped in other ways, that they will become\\nstill better fitted to discharge their duties, if they will\\nwhen opportunity occurs acquaint themselves with some\\nof the best books which have been written on the theory\\nand practice of teaching.\\nNeed of One of the first particulars in which the trained is\\ntion^ distinguished from the untrained teacher, is that he does\\nnot attempt to give an unpremeditated lesson. He thinks\\nout the whole of it beforehand, tries to anticipate the\\ndifficulties which may arise as the lesson proceeds,\\nbrings together such illustrations, visible or merely oral,\\nas are likely to be useful, determines how long the lesson\\nought to be, and makes up his mind not to attempt more\\nthan can be properly dealt with in the time. It is from\\nthis point of view that we value the schemes of systematic\\nBible lessons which are published periodically by the two\\ngreat Societies the Sunday School Union and the\\nChurch of England Sunday School Union. Those lessons\\nare consecutive, they are properly linked together, and\\nthey are a check upon desultoriness. Nevertheless, it is\\nnot well to be enslaved by them or to follow them too\\nrigidly. Occasions often arise when it is well to depart\\nfrom the prescribed programme, and when some other\\nsubject is more appropriate and more useful. But at any\\nrate the formal lesson if given should be well rehearsed\\nin advance. The main test of a lesson is the interest\\nexcited on the part of the scholars, and unless they are\\ninterested the lesson is a failure. The skilled teacher\\nknows, too, that the needful interest is never aroused\\nunless the scholar is made to think, nor unless his facul-\\nties are set to work and required to do something. Half\\nthe lessons which it was once my business to hear from", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0398.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "Qiiestionijig 381\\nstudents in the Training College erred in attempting to\\ndo too much, and in leaving no room, first for a few-\\npreparatory questions to ascertain what the children\\nalready knew on the subject, and to find what basis there\\nwas on which to build the lesson; and next for due recapi-\\ntulation and for bringing the lesson to such a point, that\\nit left a coherent and definite impression on the memory.\\nAnd if this is true in secular teaching, it is still more\\ntrue in moral and religious instruction. A lesson is a\\ngood one if it enforces and illustrates some single\\ncardinal truth. It is a bad one if it attempts to enforce\\nmore facts or truths than can reasonably be held together\\nin the mind, or than have unity or cohesion of their own.\\nTo an inexperienced teacher the easiest and most obvious\\nway of communicating knowledge is to preach. But of\\nall methods, this is the least effective to young children.\\nBe sure once for all that preaching in a class is not\\nteaching.\\nAgain, it is one of the most familiar results of experi- Question-\\nence in good schools that the exercise of questioning is\\nof little or no value, so long as the answers consist of\\nsingle words only. It is very easy to supply by mere\\nknack or by watching the suggestions of a teacher, a\\nsingle word which he asks for, without knowing anything\\nof the sentence of which that word forms a part. And\\nquestions which require no reply but yes and *no, are\\nnot in fact questions at all.-^ The answer is purely\\nmechanical; the tone in which you put the question\\nshows what you expect, and when you have got it, you\\nhave got what is of little value. For acquiescence is not\\nknowledge. It is not even belief. A good child will\\nassent to any propositions you bring before him. But\\nhis mere assent means nothing, and is w^orth nothing.\\nLectures on Teaching, Chapter VI.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0399.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "382 TJie Sunday School of the Future\\nHence the practice of the best American teachers, who\\nalways insist on receiving whole sentences for answers.\\nVerbal Another inference which may be usefully drawn from\\nmemory. experience of good secular teachers is that there is a\\ngreat difference between good and bad methods of culti-\\nvating the verbal memory. Among those who are not\\nfamiliar with the science of education, nothing seems a\\nmore obvious method of teaching than to tell the pupil to\\nlearn something out of a book and then come up to say his\\nlesson. Now of course memory is a faculty which needs\\nto be cultivated; but there is a great deal of difi erence\\nbetween remembering the substance of what is taught, and\\nremembering one particular form of words, in which that\\nsubstance is expressed. What we want most is that the\\ntruth, or the argument, or the fact which we value shall\\nbe understood, so that the pupil shall be led to think\\nabout it, and to make it his own, and to be helped to\\nexpress it in his own words. Learning by heart a formula\\nof words may easily become a substitute for thinking and\\nnot a help to it. The only formulary of words in the\\nNew Testament is a formulary of devotion, not of belief.\\nThere is no compendium of definite propositions, analo-\\ngous to our Creed, set forth in Scripture by authority and\\nrequired as a condition of membership in the Christian\\nChurch. We are therefore free to ask ourselves, in the\\nlight of experience, what is the share that mere memory\\nlessons, the learning by heart of particular words, ought\\nto take in Christian education? And I think the\\nanswer is clear. When the object of the teacher is to\\nexplain a truth or doctrine, to picture out a scene or an\\nevent, or to enforce a moral lesson, he does well to pre-\\nsent the lesson under several aspects, to illustrate it in\\ndifferent ways, and to ask to have it reproduced in the\\n1 Lectures on Teaching, Chapter V. p. 138.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0400.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "Forutiilaries 383\\nscholar s own language. But when a truth is expressed\\nin the most concise and clear language of which it is\\ncapable, when the words are, so to speak, consecrated\\nby long usage, and by great authority, or when there is\\nbeauty of form and expression, which makes it fall\\npleasantly on the ear, and linger lovingly in our after\\nrecollections, then the verbal memory may very wisely\\nbe appealed to. These conditions are fulfilled, for\\nexample, by many passages of Scripture; but in selecting\\nthese for repetition, we should choose only those which\\nare short and which embody in them some one precept\\nor idea, in the clearest and most telling form. So also\\ngood hymns and religious poetry have real value in the\\nreligious culture of the young. But in selecting verses\\nfor repetition, it is well to take only those which are\\nreally poetry; where the imagery is of a kind likely to\\nappeal both to the understanding and to the taste; and\\nwhere the author has not been anxious to pack as much\\ntheology as he can into his verse. It is the proper ofhce\\nof religious poetry to purify the religious emotions, to\\nexalt and broaden the imagination, and to touch the heart.\\nIt is not the chief function of such poetry to teach\\ndoctrinal truth at all. Following our Lord s own precept,\\nwe do well to commit to memory forms of prayer, and\\nfor this purpose the practice in most Sunday Schools of\\nlearning by heart the Collect for each Sunday is worthy\\nof universal adoption. For besides their conciseness and\\nthe devout aspiration after holiness which they embody,\\nmany of the collects in the Prayer Book are distinguished\\nby singular grace of literary expression, which adds much\\nto their beauty, and to their chance of being permanently\\nfixed in the memory.\\nI am afraid that some of you will think me a heretic, Formu-\\nwhen I repeat here what I have often said before, that I", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0401.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "384 TJie Snnday School of the Fjitttre\\nattach small value to catechisms, as educational instru-\\nments. We never employ them in teaching any other\\nsubject than religion.^ And the reasons are obvious.\\nThere are stereotyped questions and stereotyped answers,\\nboth in a fixed and unalterable form of words. They\\nleave no room for the play of intelligence upon and\\naround the subject, or for the suggestion and removal of\\ndifBculties. They stand between the giver and the re-\\nceiver of knowledge and do not help either of them much.\\nThey rather keep them apart than bring them together.\\nThey furnish to all unskilful teachers an excuse for not\\ntaking the trouble to frame questions of their own. More-\\nover a printed question and its answer taken together\\nform a statement, either of doctrine or of fact; but either\\nthe question or the answer by itself is only half of that\\nstatement. And we ask our children to learn the answ^er,\\nwithout learning the question. Thus the passage com-\\nmitted to memory is incomplete and often unintelligible.\\nHere again I would fain appeal to your own experience.\\nWe are all tempted to fall back on mechanical methods,\\non verbalism, and on set lessons. They are all so much\\neasier than real exercises of thought. But, as a matter of\\nfact, do you, or would you if you did not happen to be\\nteachers, find that the fragmentary answers which you\\nlearned in the Catechism abide in your memory, and\\nhelp you much in your religious life? On the other\\nhand, what hymns, texts, and verses are they which have\\nbecome, as years went on, substantial and permanent\\nfactors in the formation of your character, in solacing you\\nin hours of weakness, in helping your devotions, and in\\ninspiring your life? It is to this test that we ought\\noftener to bring our own theories as to what should and\\nwhat should not be learned by heart in a Sunday School.\\nAnte, p. 362.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0402.jp2"}, "403": {"fulltext": "Catechising in CJiiirck 385\\nLet us ask ourselves honestly the questions Was I\\naided much in the formation of my religious convictions,\\nby being called upon in youth to stand up and af^rm a\\nnumber of theological propositions which I only im-\\nperfectly understood? When religious truths came home\\nto my intelligence or my conscience as a child, did they\\ncome more effectively as abstract statements of truth, or\\nin the form of concrete examples? When I look back\\non the work of my own religious instructors, do I find\\nthat I learned most from their formal lessons, or from\\nthe influence of their character and their sympathy, the\\nnear contact established between their mature and my\\nimmature intelligence, and the affectionate interest they\\nshowed in my spiritual welfare? The replies to these\\nquestions will be found most instructive to those who\\nhope to succeed as Sunday School teachers.\\nThe ancient and edifying practice of catechising Catechis-\\npublicly in the church on Sunday afternoons has fallen ^l]f^^]^J^\\nin many places into practical disuse. Yet the injunctions\\nof the Church of England are unmistakeable. And you\\nwill observe that the rubric does not content itself with\\nthe saying of the Catechism, but desires the Curate\\nopenly to instruct and examine the children in some\\nparts of the Catechism. That is to say, he shall take\\nthe Catechism, and make it the basis of explanation\\nand of such further questioning as may be necessary\\nto make its meaning clear and effective. No series of\\ngood questions can ever be predetermined. There must\\nbe room for a reasonable amount of discursiveness, for\\ngive and take, for dealing with unexpected difficulties,\\nfor letting the new question grow out of the preceding\\nanswer; and all this is clearly contemplated by the\\nrequirements of the Prayer Book, which would certainly\\nnot be satisfied by treating the Catechism as a memory\\n2C", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0403.jp2"}, "404": {"fulltext": "386 The Sunday School of the Future\\nWork\\nfor the\\neducated\\nlaily.\\nlesson only, and learning by heart printed answers to\\nprinted questions. Catechisms and formularies of faith\\nare only valuable when used for the purpose of showing\\nthe points to be aimed at, and the fixed truths round\\nwhich explanations and spontaneous questions may\\ncluster. But they must not be regarded as self-contained\\nand complete educational instruments.\\nWe may suspect that the real reason why the rubric\\non this point is so generally disregarded by the clergy, is\\nthe undoubted difficulty of the task. To conduct such\\nan exercise well requires exceptional skill, mental alacrity,\\nfertility of illustration, promptitude in dealing with un-\\nexpected answers, and building new questions upon them,\\ntact in seizing upon incidents in the public life of the\\nnation, or in the narrower life of the school and the\\nchildren s homes, in order to show the working out into\\npractice of Christian principles. And thus it comes to pass\\nthat the exercise is a hard one for the man who conducts\\nit. I suppose, though I have not tried, that it is rather\\nharder than preaching a sermon. Yet it is one of\\nthe best instruments for Christian edification which the\\nChurch possesses. Let me frankly own to a wish that\\nsome of the zeal shewn by the younger clergy, in the\\nmultiplication of Eucharisticand other services for adults,\\ncould be diverted into this channel and made to tell on\\nthe younger members of their flock. No doubt this\\nmeans more careful preparation and greater intellectual\\neffort than is called for in ordinary clerical routine, but\\nthe effort is worth making and would be richly repaid.\\nWe must confess however that this effort is made less\\nfrequently than could be desired.\\nThere is therefore all the more room for the educated\\nlaity to take a substantial share in this most necessary\\nwork. And to some of those whose piety, refinement,", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0404.jp2"}, "405": {"fulltext": "Attendance at public worsJiip 387\\nand personal qualities will be of the highest service,\\nthe work will certainly prove no less attractive, because\\nthere is no visible honour nor profit to be gained from\\nit, because there is no notoriety or distinction associated\\nwith it nothing to give you assurance of success except\\nthe kindling eye and the glowing cheek of the little\\nchild who receives a new truth, or becomes conscious\\nof a new power. For the results of the teaching are\\nnot tested by examiners, or made the subjects of official\\ninspection or other public recognition. The work is\\ndone in a comparatively obscure and unnoticed region,\\nin which personal influence is silently exercised and in\\nwhich Christian endeavour is its own reward.\\nChildren s services have been introduced very wisely Children s\\nand with excellent effect into many churches. The con-\\ndition of their effectiveness are that they shall be short,\\nshall enlist from the first the co-operation of the children\\nin singing and in prayer; and that the addresses or short\\nsermons shall be less directed to the exposition of\\ntheological truths than to the awakening of the slumber-\\ning conscience, to the elucidation of our Lord s life and\\nteaching, to the poetry and the dramatic incidents of Bible\\nstory, and to the application of Christian truths to the\\nconduct and daily life of the child. Above all a children s\\nservice should excite interest, and give to them bright and\\nhappy associations with the act of public worship.\\nHere is one test by which the efficiency of our Sunday Formation\\nSchools may fairly be measured and from which ouryy^\\nteachers ought not to shrink. Do the scholars in our attending\\nSunday Schools afterwards become attached to the^^ f.,\\n_ wors/np.\\nChurch which has instructed them; and when they are.\\nfree, do they voluntarily attend her services? Unless\\nthey do, there is something defective in the methods we\\nadopt, or in the influence we exert. Now let us be quite", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0405.jp2"}, "406": {"fulltext": "388 TJie Sunday School of the Future\\ncandid with ourselves on this point. Considered as an\\ninstrument for attaching children to Christian churches\\nand interesting them permanently in public worship, the\\nSunday School of the past has proved to be a failure.\\nI once met a young workman in whom I had felt some\\ninterest, and asked him among other things whether he\\nattended a place of worship on Sunday. O Sir, he\\nreplied, I have left school now. You see he associated\\nthe act of going to church with part of the school disci-\\npline. Perhaps he had been required to sit with others\\nin a gallery, and look good, during a long service which\\nwas not well suited for him, and which he felt to be\\nwearisome. At any rate, he had failed to acquire a liking\\nfor public worship, and to that extent his early school\\ntraining had proved unavailing to fulfil one of its chief\\nobjects, to introduce him into the Christian Church, and to\\nmake him desire and value its privileges. What those\\nprivileges are and what they are worth, will become\\nclearer to him, in proportion as public worship is made\\ninteresting and attractive, and is not enjoined by\\nauthority as a matter of obligation.\\nTheologi- And with regard to that part of your own teaching\\nwhich is specially religious or theological, it is well to\\nkeep ever in view the fact that you cannot hope to convey\\ninto the minds of young children convictions stronger\\nthan your own, or even as strong as your own. If there\\nbe Bible stories, about the historic truth or the ethical\\nvalue of which you have any private misgivings, do not\\nattempt to teach them. The plea often urged that chil-\\ndren should be asked to believe more than adults believe;\\nthat it is good for them at first to accept the traditional\\northodoxy, even though in after life when the critical\\nfaculty is duly awakened, their views will be corrected,\\nis not one which will bear the test of practical experience,\\ncat teach\\ning.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0406.jp2"}, "407": {"fulltext": "TJieological teaching 389\\nnor indeed is it quite defensible from the point of view\\nof Ctiristian honesty. So if your own knowledge of\\nscience or history makes it difficult for you to accept\\nliterally the truth of any details of the Scripture narrative,\\nor to see clearly its moral significance, it is wise to\\nconfine your lessons to those portions of the Bible about\\nwhich you have no difficulties, and which you have felt\\nto be of most value in the formation of your own spiritual\\nlife. The field thus open to you is still very wide. There\\nare stories and parables, poetry and devotion, the narra-\\ntive of a Saviour s life and teaching, the deeds of heroes,\\nand the utterances of prophets. If we can teach these\\nthings well, and if we find that the teaching of them\\ninterests ourselves as well as the scholars, we may be well\\ncontent to make such topics the staple of our religious\\ninstruction. But if we cannot teach doctrines ex animo\\nand with the full consent both of our intelligence and of\\nour hearts, it is better not to attempt to teach them.\\nIt is above all things necessary that we should observe\\nperfect candour towards the children, and not ask their\\nacceptance of statements of truth which we expect them\\nto unlearn when they grow up. On this point let me\\ncommend to you the weighty words of a late American\\nprelate\\nThere is a class of books and teachers the ordinary Sunday\\nSchool teacher is often of that sort who, it seems to me, does very\\nmuch, partly from timidity, partly from laziness, partly from sensa-\\ntionalism, to keep a certain unreality and insincerity in the religious\\nteaching of the young. Everywhere but in religion in history, in\\nscience each new and truer view, as soon as it is once established,\\npasses instantly into the school books of the land. Am I not right\\nin saying that there are great convictions about Scripture and the\\nChristian faith which are heartily accepted by the great mass of\\ntliinking Christian people now which are not being taught to the\\nchildren of to-day If that is so, as I fear it is, then this new", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0407.jp2"}, "408": {"fulltext": "390 TJie Sunday School of the Future\\ngeneration has got to fight over again the battle that our generation\\nhas fought, and fight it too less hopefully, because there will have\\nbeen less of sincerity in its education. It is always a better and\\nsafer process to outgrow a doctrine that we have been sincerely\\ntaught, than to abandon one that had no real hold upon our teacher s\\nmind. In the first case we keep much of the sincerity, even if we\\nlet the doctrine go. In the second case, when we let go the\\ndoctrine, there is nothing left. Is there not here the secret of much\\nof the ineffective religious teaching of the young, of the way they\\ncast our teaching off when they grow up No my dear friends, all\\nof you anywhere who are called to teach, with larger faith in truth,\\nwith larger faith in God, with wise love for his children, I beg you\\nto make truthfulness the first law of your teaching. Never tell a\\nchild that he must believe what you do not believe, nor teach him\\nthat he must go through any experience which you are not sure is\\nnecessary to his conversion and his Christian life.\\nSo if much of the current teaching in our Sunday\\nSchools has failed to interest children, let us try to find\\nsomething that will interest them. We must remember\\nthat they need to be humanized, softened, and inspired,\\nas well as taught; and that whatever will effect this\\npurpose is within the legitimate province of a Sunday\\nSchool. We are safe in resolving to give to them of our\\nbest the best of our reading, of our thinking, and of our\\nexperience in life so long as it is fitted for their age and\\ncan be made to tell on their taste and character; whether\\nit is set down in a scheme of formal lessons or not.\\nAnd as to our very natural wish to make good Church-\\nmen as well as good and intelligent Christians, I think the\\nless prominently we set that before us as the end to be\\nattained the better. Be sure that the indirect influence\\nof your character and sympathy will do more to attract\\nyour scholars to the Christian community with which\\nyou are identified, than any amount of controversial\\n1 Bishop Phillips Brooks of Massachusetts.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0408.jp2"}, "409": {"fulltext": "stons.\\nGeneral Conclusions 391\\nteaching consciously designed to combat heterodoxy or\\nto strengthen particular denominational interests.\\nThe conclusions to which I have sought to lead this General\\naudience, among whom I know there are very many*^^^^^\\ndevoted teachers in Church Sunday Schools, may be thus\\nbriefly recapitulated\\n(i) That the general diffusion of elementary educa-\\ntion has profoundly altered the character of the whole\\nproblem, and diminished the force of some of the argu-\\nments which led to the establishment of Sunday Schools\\na century ago.\\n(2) That in proportion to the increase of orderly and\\nGod-fearing homes among the people, and to advancing\\nintelligence and sense of responsibility among parents, we\\nmight be well content to see the need for Sunday Schools\\ngradually disappear.\\n(3) That meanwhile it should be the ofifice of the\\nSunday School to act as a substitute even though an\\nimperfect one for a Christian home, rather than as a\\nsupplement to the day school.\\n(4) That, since religious instruction must always be\\na part of the work of Sunday Schools, the methods of\\ninstruction in them should be revised and improved. In\\nso far as they are schools, efforts should be directed to\\nmake them good schools, and to adopt the best known\\ndevices by which interest is excited and order secured by\\nskilled teachers in good secular schools.\\n(5) That so long as distinctive religious instruction\\ncan be effectively given, it may rightly claim to form the\\nstaple of a Sunday School teacher s work. But that if it\\nis not done well, and if the teacher has not the gift of\\ninspiring children with a liking for it, he should not\\ndisdain to seek other means of stirring their consciences\\nand attracting their sympathetic attention.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0409.jp2"}, "410": {"fulltext": "392 TJie Sunday School of the Ftititre\\n(6) For after all, a Sunday School is not only\\na place for formal religious teaching, but also a con-\\ntrivance for exercising personal influence and of bringing\\nthe young into nearer relations with some one who lives\\nhabitually on a higher plane than their own, and who yet\\ncan without any show of condescension put himself or\\nherself into the position of a friend and counsellor, in-\\nterested not only in the school and the Church, but in\\nthe relation of both to the home, and to the conduct and\\nfuture prospects of the scholar.\\n(7) Hence it is expedient that one portion of the\\nSunday afternoon s meeting should be employed in read-\\ning and conversation, not necessarily wdth a didactic\\npurpose, but with a view to open the mind, and to form\\nthe love of reading, and to awaken an interest in intel-\\nlectual pursuits. And in the selection of topics it is well\\nthat the teacher should not hamper himself with any\\nformal rules, but should follow to some extent his own\\ntastes and preferences. That which has enriched his own\\nthoughts most, and in which he feels the strongest\\ninterest is probably that on which he can talk to his\\nscholars most effectively, and in which he is most likely\\nto kindle in them a responsive interest.\\nThe There are among those who hear me, some who have\\nSunday serious misgivinsjs lest in thus widening the area of\\nSchool not 00 o\\nonly a Sunday School work, they should be departing from the\\nplace for purely religious purpose wTiich has hitherto been under-\\nreii^ious\\ninstriic- stood to control that work. But such persons will do\\ntion, but ^Q consider how very imperfectly even that purpose\\nalso a\\ncentre of has hitherto been fulfilled, and how little it is likely to\\nciviliza- \\\\^Q fulfilled, so long as special religious edification or the\\ntlOn and r r^^ 1 i i\\nsocial promotion of Churchmanship is regarded as something\\nimprove- apart from the general character and life of the child,\\n1!l\u00c2\u00a3Jtt,\\nand as constituting the sole business of the first day of\\nthe week. They will also recognize the truth that after", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0410.jp2"}, "411": {"fulltext": "General Conclusions 393\\nall, intellectual culture is closely akin to religion and is\\nindeed part of it. When this is considered, it will be\\nseen that the Sunday School of the future can occupy a\\nplace in our system of public education, which the public\\nelementary school can never fill; because its teaching\\nis less formal, more intimate, more inspiring, and can\\nconnect itself more closely with the personal character\\nand daily life of the individual scholar.\\nEvery institution which has the secret of true life in\\nit, has in it possibilities of adapting itself to new con-\\nditions; and its right to survive depends largely on the\\ndegree in which these possibilities are understood and\\nutilized. Here then is part of the task which lies before\\nthe Sunday School teachers of the next century. But it\\ndemands from them some freshness of mind, and some\\nfreedom from traditional ideals and methods, in order\\nthat the work may be well done. The harvest truly is\\ngreat but the labourers the skilled, earnest, and sym-\\npathetic labourers are few. Pray ye therefore the Lord\\nof the harvest, that he may send forth more of such\\nlabourers into his harvest.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0411.jp2"}, "412": {"fulltext": "LECTURE XIV\\nWOMEN AND UNIVERSITIES\\nA notable feature in the reign of Queen Victoria. Opening of pro-\\nfessions to women. Public employments. Higher education.\\nWomen s education not provided by ancient endowments.\\nDefoe s protest. Recent reforms. Why so slowly effected.\\nThe Schools Inquiry Commission. Ancient endowments made\\navailable to girls. The Universities Local Examinations.\\nGirls Public Day Schools. Social effects of this movement.\\nThe University of London. Provincial Colleges of University\\nrank. The older Universities. Girton and Newnham. Health\\nof students. A Women s University. The true intellectual\\nrequirements of women. The unused resources of life.\\nA notable It is one of the most noteworthy facts in the annals\\n{/I e reitn^ the beneficent and memorable reign of our present\\nof Queen Queen that in it there has been an unprecedented\\nittoia. (leygiopment in the intellectual influence and public\\nusefulness of women. There is peculiar appropriateness\\nin the circumstance that the most renowned of female\\nSovereigns should have been able to witness this deve-\\nlopment and to associate it, in a very special sense, with\\nthe history of her long reign.\\nProfessions There are several aspects under which this social\\nrevolution for it is little short of a revolution may be\\nwomen.\\n1 Reprinted, with additions, from the Contemporary Reviexv.\\n394", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0412.jp2"}, "413": {"fulltext": "Pj ofessional employments for ivome7i 395\\nviewed. Much has been done to open out new industrial\\ncareers which were heretofore closed to women. In\\nthe medical and literary professions, in engraving and\\ndecorative art, in clerkships in the Post Office and other\\ndepartments of the public service, at the Royal Academy,\\nas book-keepers, journalists, type- and shorthand-writers,\\nsecretaries, as skilled hospital nurses, and in other\\nways, women have of late been admitted to honour-\\nable and comparatively lucrative employment. Fifty\\nyears ago, almost the only resource open to a girl\\nwho was above the rank of domestic servant, and who\\ndesired to earn her own living, was the profession of\\nteaching. That profession accordingly became over-\\nstocked with practitioners, many of whom had received\\nno adequate preparation, and had evinced no aptitude\\nfor the work but relied mainly on their manners, and\\ntheir genteel connexions to justify them in opening a\\nladies seminary and in soHciting the confidence of\\nparents. Happily the ranks of the teacher s profession\\nare being gradually cleared of these encumbrances, partly\\nin consequence of the higher estimate which the public\\nhas at last learned to form of the necessary qualifications\\nof a teacher, but mainly in consequence of the enlarged\\nopportunities for interesting and appropriate employment\\nwhich are now offered to women in other directions.\\nIncidentally this enlargement of the range of profes-\\nsional and industrial employment has had a valuable\\nreflex effect on the social position as well as the self-\\nrespect and happiness of women themselves. When\\nsuch employments were unattainable, or much restricted\\nin number, women were sometimes tempted into undesir-\\nable marriages, merely in order to secure a home and\\nmaintenance. There is now less danger in this direction,\\nand many women, though they have no desire for a life", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0413.jp2"}, "414": {"fulltext": "39^ Women and Universities\\nof independence, are nevertheless enabled, now that they\\nhave access to the means of earning a livelihood, to\\npause before making the most momentous decision of\\ntheir lives, and to enquire more carefully into the char-\\nacter and qualities of a suitor as well as his means and\\nsocial position. Anything which makes it more difficult\\nfor an idle or vicious man to secure the hand of a good\\nwoman will have a useful influence on the standard both\\nof morahty and intelligence among men themselves.\\nPublic em- Y\\\\\\\\q social and intellectual position of women has in\\nthe nineteenth century been greatly modified by the large\\nshare of public and quasi-public duties which they liave\\nbeen enabled to undertake. As trustees of endowed\\nschools, as members of School Boards, as guardians of\\nthe poor, as pioneers and helpers in the organization of\\ncharity, ladies are now to be found in all parts of England\\nrendering to the public priceless services which once\\nwould neither have been invoked nor appreciated, and\\nwhich Fanny Burney or Jane Austen would have regarded\\nas inappropriate, if not undignified.\\nIt is not easy, however, to escape from the trammels\\nof long-established tradition, even when reason and\\nexperience call clearly for change. In many institutions,\\na compromise has been adopted by which a small com-\\nmittee of ladies has been formed, to sit separately from\\nthe rest of the trustees and to make representations for\\nthe consideration of the real governing body composed\\nof men only. Those representations are, however, often\\nentirely ignored. A far better course is adopted when\\ntwo or three women are elected to serve as members of\\nthe governing body itself, and are invested with the same\\nfull responsibility for the policy and working of the insti-\\ntution, as that shared by the other Governors. The\\ncareful restriction in the duties of one section of a body", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0414.jp2"}, "415": {"fulltext": "Means of advanced edncation 397\\nof trustees to a particular department of its work,\\ndeprives the sectional members of all real responsibility\\nnot only for their own special work but also for the\\nefficiency of the institution as a whole.\\nBut a third and most important change that in fact Means of\\nwhich has served to make the other two to which I have\\neaucanon.\\nreferred possible is to be seen in the increased attention\\npaid to the education of girls and women, and in the\\nenlarged facilities which have, of late, been open for\\nplacing superior educational advantages within their reach.\\nFrom the time of Lady Jane Grey down to Mrs Somer-\\nville and Miss Anna Svvanwick, numerous examples of\\nerudite and accomplished women are to be found, bright-\\nening and variegating the history of learning in England.\\nBut the instances have been comparatively rare and\\nwhen they have occurred they have been traceable to the\\nexceptional opportunities enjoyed, here and there in a\\nscholarly home, or in a literary coterie, and not to any very\\ngeneral recognition of the need of a sound education for\\nwomen. Mrs Malaprop, who did not wish a daughter of\\nhers to be a progeny of learning, and whose artless de-\\nscription of a gentlewoman s curriculum, while it excluded\\nGreek, Hebrew, Mathematics, and the like inflamma-\\ntory branches of learning extended as far as to a super-\\ncilious knowledge of accounts, to some knowledge of\\nthe contagious countries, and above all to orthodoxy,\\nwas not a bad representative of those who in the\\neighteenth century dominated the public opinion and set\\nup the educational ideal in relation to girls. And this\\nideal, when attained, was sought by the help of domestic\\ngovernesses, or in small sheltered boarding schools, ex-\\nclusively composed of scholars of one social class, and not\\nby means of any provision of a larger and freer kind, cor-\\nresponding in character to that provided for boys and men.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0415.jp2"}, "416": {"fulltext": "39^ Women and Universities\\nWomen s Indeed, it cannot be safely said that an advanced\\neducation\\nnot pro- o^ academic education for women was ever recognized\\nvided by as a legitimate object of any of our ancient scholastic\\nl^udo-cv- foundations. There is no reason to suppose that at any\\nments in time the English Universities were attended by women.\\nngan Y)\\\\x l\\\\ traditions of female professors and pupils exist in\\nconnection with the Universities of Bologna and Padua,\\nand in one or two of the Spanish Universities, but\\nnothing analogous to these traditions is to be found in\\nthe records of Oxford and Cambridge. The fifteenth\\nand sixteenth centuries, as has been shewn, witnessed\\nthe foundation in England of most of the great Grammar\\nSchools.^ The revival of learning and the dissolution of\\nthe ancient monasteries occurred almost simultaneously,\\nthe first served to create a new desire for classical educa-\\ntion, and the second to provide the means for endowing\\nit. But whether the great endowed schools were enriched\\nby the spoils of older foundations, or provided by private\\nmunificence, their design in almost every case was to\\ngive to boys such instruction in Latin and Greek as would\\nenable them to proceed to the Universities. The classical\\nculture which was so generously provided by the first\\nfounders of the old Grammar Schools was offered to boys\\nonly. Their sisters were to have no share in it. They\\nwere not meant to proceed to a University, or to enter\\nthe learned professions or any public employment.^\\nAccordingly they were not to be encouraged to pursue\\nthe studies which were characteristic of a liberal educa-\\ntion. They might, if their parents chose, obtain instruc-\\ntion privately at home but of public provision, either\\nin endowed schools or ecclesiastical foundations, there\\nwas none. In the long list of charitable endowments for\\nthe purpose of secondary education we can scarcely find\\n1 Ante, p. 192. 2 /(^,v/, p, 241.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0416.jp2"}, "417": {"fulltext": "Defoe s protest 399\\none which dehberately contemplated the admission of\\ngirls to the foundation, or which recognized any claim on\\ntheir part to the letters and good learning so bountifully\\nprovided for their brothers.\\nSome of the most valuable of these endowments owe\\ntheir origin to the munificence of women. The bequest\\nof Lady Betty Hastings, for instance, which provided a\\nsystem of exhibitions for the encouragement in learning\\nof the scholars in twelve of the northern schools, and\\nwhich provided a singularly elastic and skilfully devised\\nscheme of competitive examination, was carefully re-\\nstricted to the boys of the three counties of Yorkshire,\\nCumberland, and Westmoreland. It never occurred to\\nthis wise and generous lady that children of her own sex\\nmight possibly be glad to avail themselves of a superior\\neducation, and be able to make a good use of it. But,\\non the other hand, the Charity Schools w^ere from the\\nfirst open to boys and girls ahke. Girls might be wanted\\nas domestic servants, and they were therefore permitted\\nto learn the horn-book and the Catechism, to be dressed\\nin the picturesque livery of the Charitable Grinders, and\\nto sing hymns in the gallery at church. In so far as the\\neducation provided was that suited to domestics, and to\\nthe humbler offices of life, the daughters of the labouring\\nclass were permitted to share it. But nothing higher or\\nmore ambitious seems to have been ever contemplated\\nby the founders of educational endowments.\\nNor can I find that this anomaly touched the cow- Defoe s\\nscience of any part of the community, or attracted any P\\npublic remonstrance, or even attention. One solitary\\nvoice that of Daniel Defoe was raised in 1697 in his\\npamphlet on the Education of Women.\\nI have often thought it one of the nmst barbarous customs in\\nthe world, he says, considering us a civilized and a Christian", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0417.jp2"}, "418": {"fulltext": "400 Women and Universities\\ncountry that we deny the advantages of learning to women. Their\\nyouth is spent to teach them to stitch and sew and to make baubles.\\nThey are taught to read, indeed, and perhaps to write their names\\nor so, and that is the height of women s education. And I would\\nbut ask any who slight the sex for their understanding, what is a\\nman good for that is taught no more\\nHe goes on to speak strongly of the natural capacity\\nof women, and of the rich return which would be reaped\\nfor any pains taken with their mental cultivation.\\nThey should be taught, he says, all sorts of breeding suitable\\nto their age and quality. Especially he recommends the teaching\\nof history, and wishes girls so to read as to make them understand\\nthe world and judge of things when they hear of them. To such\\nwhose genius would lead them to it, I would deny no sort of learn-\\ning but the chief thing in general is to cultivate the understandings\\nof the sex that they may be capable of all sorts of conversation that\\ntheir parts and judgments being improved they may be as profitable\\nin their conversation as they are pleasant.\\nIt need not be added that Defoe spoke to deaf\\nears, and that at least a century and a half had to elapse\\nbefore his views met with any general acceptance or\\nlegislative recognition.\\nRecent Thus when in 1867 the Schools Inquiry Commission\\nreforms. j|-g elaborate investigation into the condition of\\nSecondary Education in England and, in particular,\\ninto the history and condition of educational endowments,\\nthat body was fain to report that while in many of the\\nlater endowed schools which offered to the children of\\nthe labouring poor an education supposed to be suited\\nto their condition^ scholars of both sexes were to be\\nfound, there was hardly a single endowed school in\\nEngland which had been deliberately designed to offer\\neven the rudiments of a liberal education to the sisters of\\nthe boys in Grammar Schools. As a fact no case could\\n1 Ante, p. 192.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0418.jp2"}, "419": {"fulltext": "Reform slowly efftxted 401\\nbe cited in which at the time of the inquiry an endowed\\nfoundation was actually affording to girls an education of\\na character higher than elementary. Christ s Hospital,\\nthe richest educational charity in the country, was indeed\\nreported as one on which girls had an ancient and un-\\ndoubted claim but the share of revenue allotted to them\\nhad been in the opinion of the Commissioners, unfairly\\nreduced to a minimum. This is, to say the least, a very\\ntemperate and guarded inference from the simple fact that\\nwhereas there were then on the foundation 1,192 boys, of\\nwhom many were provided with an education adapted to\\nprepare them for the Universities, there were eighteen girls\\nat the Hertford establishment, all of whom were receiving\\nthe training and education suited to domestic servants.\\nThe truth is that so long as the founders of schools Why so\\nregarded it as the main purpose of education to prepare J J y\\nits possessor for a business or profession, it was not\\nunreasonable that provision should be made for boys\\nonly. Girls were excluded from the opportunities of\\nhigher education, not by any conscious act of injustice,\\nbut simply ?r iiicimafn, and because during many ages\\nthe need of advanced education was not present to the\\nminds of English parents or the public. And if this great\\ninequality is now to be redressed, recourse must not be\\nhad to the pious founder he at least will do nothing to\\nhelp us. We must rely on other and more modern con-\\nsiderations and experience.^ That human beings, whether\\nmen or women, come into the world not only to get a\\nliving but to live that the life they live depends largely\\non what they know and care about, upon the breadth of\\ntheir intellectual sympathy, upon their love of truth,\\nupon their power of influencing and inspiring other\\nminds and that for these reasons mental culture stands\\n1 Ante, p. 241.\\n2D", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0419.jp2"}, "420": {"fulltext": "ston\\n402 Wo7nen and Uiiiversities\\nin just as close relation to the needs of a woman s career\\nin the world as to that of a man all these are propositions\\nwhich, if not self-evident, are at least seen in a clearer\\nlight by the people of our generation than by their\\npredecessors and it is on those who have arrived at\\nsuch conclusions that there Hes the responsibihty of\\ngiving effect to them.\\nThe The Schools Inquiry Commission was the first public\\nInqinry ^ody boldly to give expression to these and the like\\nCommis- beliefs. We consider, says the Report, that in any\\nenactment or constitution that may be brought into\\noperation on this question, the principle of the full\\nparticipation of girls in endowments should be broadly\\nlaid down. And they proceed to recommend in detail\\nmany plans for placing the means of a generous and\\nscholarly education within the reach of girls.\\nThose who would understand the nature of the pro-\\nvision which existed a quarter of a century ago for the\\neducation of women, and would measure the remarkable\\nprogress which has since been made, would do well to\\nunearth the volume containing the Report of the Schools\\nInquiry Commission, published in 1868, and to read in\\nit the clear and striking chapter on girls schools, con-\\ntributed to the Report by the late Lord Lyttelton.\\nThat report, with its melancholy record of waste and\\nnegligence, of the paralysis with which many ancient\\nfoundations had been smitten, and of the inadequate\\nand ill-organized provision which existed for intermediate\\nand higher education in England, produced a profound\\nimpression on the public; and when in 1869 it became\\nthe duty of Mr Forster, as Vice-President of the Coun-\\ncil, to introduce the Endowed Schools Act, he found\\nno difficulty in persuading Parliament to assent to the\\nintroduction into that statute of the well-known twelfth", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0420.jp2"}, "421": {"fulltext": "Endozvineiits made available for girls 403\\nsection. In framing schemes under this x^ct, provision\\nshall be made, as far as conveniently may be, for extending\\nto girls the benefits of endowments.\\nThe Commissioners to whom the administration oi Ancient\\nthe Act has been entrusted have sought with considerable\\nsuccess, though not with so great success as liad been ffi\\ngenerally anticipated, to give effect to this enactment, f^y ^i^i^^\\nLocal difficulties have, in many cases, proved formidable\\nthe number of scholastic foundations whose resources\\nadmitted of division without seriously impairing their\\nusefulness was not found to be large but the lists\\npresented by the Commissioners from year to year and\\nin the Report of the Select Committee of the House of\\nCommons on the Endowed Schools Act, shew that\\nsubstantial work has been done. In London and its\\nneighbourhood alone twenty-five endowed foundations\\nhave become available for girls schools in which higher\\nthan elementary instruction is provided and the last\\nReport shews that upwards of a hundred such schools\\nhave been established by means of the funds derived\\nfrom old grammar-school endowments in different parts\\nof the country. The report shews also that in many cases\\na liberal apportionment of the total revenue of many\\nrich foundations has been made for this purpose. At\\nBedford, Birmingham, Exeter, Bristol, and Bradford, sec-\\nondary and higher schools have been founded. Schemes\\nfor the greater foundations, such as Christ s Hospital and\\nSt. Paul s, have all included in their scope, provision,\\neither present or prospective, for the education of girls.\\nAnd in many places in which the resources were in-\\nsufficient for the actual estabhshment of new schools,\\nthe funds set aside for scholarships and exhibitions have\\nbeen so distributed as to give substantial advantages in\\nfair proportion to scholars of both sexes.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0421.jp2"}, "422": {"fulltext": "404 Women and Universities\\nThe Utii- Concurrently with these reforms, all of which required\\n^)P 7 K7 fl P\\\\\\nlocal legal sanction, other movements on the part of public or\\nKxaniina- quasi-public bodies have tended in the same direction.\\nIn 1863, a voluntary committee was formed, with a view\\nto secure for girls schools a share in the advantages\\nwhich the then new system of Local Examinations was\\nproposing to confer on secondary schools for boys. The\\nUniversity of Cambridge proceeded cautiously and ten-\\ntatively, and at first simply gave to this committee\\npermission to conduct a trial examination of the pupils\\nin girls schools with the same papers which had been\\nused for boys. Two years afterwards, the success of\\nthis experiment was sufficiently assured to justify the\\nauthorities of the University in opening its Junior and\\nSenior local examinations on equal terms to scholars of\\nboth sexes. Oxford soon followed, and during twenty-\\nfive years the number of school-girls who have presented\\nthemselves at the examinations has steadily increased.\\nSince the year 1870, in which the Oxford Local Examina-\\ntions were first thrown open to girls, the results have\\ncontinued to justify the experiment, and in 1899 there\\nwere 1,293 Senior candidates, of whom 867 passed and\\n1,885 Juniors, of whom 1,386 passed. The total number\\nof girls within the twenty years has been 34,735, of\\nwhom 24,756 have satisfied the examiners. At Cam-\\nbridge still larger results are recorded, the number during\\nthe same period having been 29,078 Seniors and 44,708\\nJunior candidates, the proportion of those who succeeded\\nin the examination varying from 70 to 80 per cent.\\nBut the influence of this action of the two Universities\\non secondary education cannot be accurately measured\\nby the mere enumeration of statistics shewing how many\\nhundred pupils annually satisfy the examiners and obtain\\ndistinction. The local examinations have set before", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0422.jp2"}, "423": {"fulltext": "Girls Public Day Schools 405\\nthe conductors of girls schools a higher standard of work\\nthan that which was recognized before. They have helped\\npupils to that most valuable of all knowledge self-\\nknowledge, and a truer estimate of their own standing\\nand acquirements. Above all they have had a beneficent\\ninfluence on parents, many of whom were slow to recog-\\nnize the value of a truly liberal education for their\\ndaughters. Swift s cynical remark, the reason why so\\nmany marriages are unhappy is because young ladies\\nspend their time in making nets, not in making cages,\\nhas not even yet wholly lost its significance.\\nThe establishment of the Girls Public Day School Girls\\nCompany in 1874, mainly through the energetic efforts\\nof Mrs William Grey, her sister Miss Shirreff, and Miss Schools.\\nMary Gurney, has perhaps had a larger influence on the\\nimprovement of feminine education than any single mea-\\nsure. The lines of its action had been traced and much\\nof the pioneer work had been done by the skilful and\\nsuccessful exertions of Miss Beale of Cheltenham and the\\nlate Miss Buss of the North London Collegiate School.\\nFollowing the precedents thus set, the Company has\\nfamiliarized parents with institutions of a comparatively\\nnew type, each under the administration of a responsible\\ngoverning body, whose duty it is to select skilled teachers,\\nand to remove any who are found to be inefficient.\\nThese schools are large enough to admit of proper\\nclassification, and as their educational aim has always\\nbeen high and generous, they have attained remarkable\\nsuccess. The Company has now 34 flourishing schools\\nof its own, with upwards of 7,000 pupils. These figures,\\nhowever, do not represent the whole or nearly the whole\\nof the work which it has done. For in numerous places\\nindependent bodies of local governors have been formed\\nfor the establishment of girls high scliools of the same\\ncharacter, though not actually incorporated with the", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0423.jp2"}, "424": {"fulltext": "4o6 Women mid Universities\\nCompany and at present there is hardly an important\\ntown in England which has not its Public Day School for\\nGirls. The whole enterprise has greatly helped to raise\\nthe standard of instruction, to encourage the due training\\nand preparation of highly qualified teachers, and to\\nremove from girls education the reproach which the\\nSchools Inquiry Commission of 1867 declared to be\\nwell founded Want of thoroughness and foundation,\\nwant of system, slovenliness, and showy superficiality,\\ninattention to rudiments, undue time given to accom-\\nplishments, and those not taught intelligently or in any\\nscientific manner, and a complete absence of proper\\norganization.\\nSocial Incidentally, too, the establishment of the public day\\nthis schools has been attended by beneficent social conse-\\nmovement. quences. Until these schools were founded, girls whose\\nparents could not afford to employ private governesses\\nwere generally sent to schools which were conducted on\\na small scale, and which called themselves educational\\nhomes, although, to say the truth, places of instruction\\nconducted by strangers are very little like any home from\\nwhich a pupil could come, or which she is likely ever\\nto enter. The average British matron is keenly sensitive\\non the subject of caste and social position. She objects\\nstrongly to any association of her girls with those belonging\\nto a lower stratum of society, although she has no objec-\\ntion to secure for them a place in a school frequented\\nby scholars of higher rank than her own. Hence the\\ntypical school thirty or forty years ago was an exclusive\\nseminary with about twenty girls, all drawn from the\\nsame social class, and presided over by a gentlewoman,\\nwho, whether intellectually qualified or not, might be\\nsafely relied on for attention to all the convenances and\\nproprieties of life. The teaching in such schools was\\neither narrow and uninspiring, or if skilled teachers were", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0424.jp2"}, "425": {"fulltext": "TJie University of London 407\\nemployed was exceedingly costly. Now, the wisest\\nparents are beginning to discover that, if they exercise\\nreasonable care about the associations their daughters\\nform out of school, there is no harm, but much good, to\\nbe found in the freer life, the varied intellectual interests,\\nthe larger numbers and the better classification of a good\\nday school. In this way much foohsh prejudice has\\nbeen removed children in different ranks have learned\\nto respect one another, and to help one another and\\nthe sentiment of republican equality, the disciphne of a\\ncommunity in which the only recognizable distinctions\\nare those founded on differences of character, knowledge,\\nand ability, has been found to play as useful a part in the\\neducation of girls as in that of their brothers in a great\\npublic school.\\nIn close connexion with this movement, the steps The\\ntaken by the University of London may deserve some ^J-^y\\nof London.\\nrecord here. In 1866, the Senate resolved to establish\\nsome special examinations for women and accordingly\\ncourses of instruction were framed, and special regula-\\ntions adopted for the examination of women in those\\nsubjects which, at that period of our educational history,\\nwere assumed to be peculiarly appropriate to the sex.\\nModern languages, history, literature, and certain branches\\nof science were made prominent in the curriculum in\\nobedience to a supposed demand. But it soon became\\nevident that this was not what the best schoolmistresses\\nor their pupils wanted. With unexpected perversity, the\\nwomen who presented themselves for examination were\\nfound to be seeking distinction in the ordinary subjects\\nof a liberal education in classics, logic, mathematics, and\\nphysical science, and not in those alternative subjects\\nwhich had been offered to them as specially feminine.\\nThe women s certificates were but little valued by the", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0425.jp2"}, "426": {"fulltext": "4o8 Women and Universities\\npublic, or coveted by the students, because, rightly or\\nwrongly, they were supposed to be awarded on more\\nlenient terms than the distinctions accessible to men.\\nExperience led to the belief that the true solution of the\\nproblem could only be found by the simple expedient of\\nthrowing open all the examinations, degrees, honours, and\\nprizes of the University to women on precisely the same\\nconditions as to men and in 1878, the Senate, with the\\nconcurrence of Convocation, obtained a charter from the\\nCrown, enabling persons of both sexes, who fulfilled the\\nnecessary requirements, to graduate in all the Faculties.\\nIn June 1879, at the first Matriculation opened to\\nwomen, 68 entered and 51 passed, of whom eleven were\\nplaced in the Honours Division. It should be remem-\\nbered that the average age of the women was rather\\nhigher than that of the men, and that at first only a few\\nwomen, who had either unusual ambition or had enjoyed\\nexceptional advantages, were tempted to become candi-\\ndates for University Examinations. Thus the proportion\\nof successful women at the next Matriculation was\\n68-4 per cent., but as time has gone on the percentage of\\npasses has continuously approached that of the men. If\\nthe results up to 1898 be taken, we find there have been\\n59,275 entries of male candidates, of whom 31,589 have\\npassed,, and 9,599 entries of female candidates, of whom\\n5,185 passed, i.e. 53-2 per cent, and 54 per cent, re-\\nspectively, giving a small difference in favour of women\\ncandidates.\\nDuring the first twenty years in which degrees have\\nthus become accessible, women have become candidates\\nfor every degree the University has to offer except one\\nthe Doctorate of Laws and every degree to which they\\nhave aspired again except one, the Doctorate of Music\\nhas been obtained by some woman 5,185 have passed", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0426.jp2"}, "427": {"fulltext": "Provincial Colleges 409\\nthe Matriculation Examination, 1,383 the Intermediate\\nExamination in Arts, 861 have proceeded to the degree\\nof Bachelor of Arts, (i2 higher degree of M.A. In\\nthe Science Faculty, 266 have passed the Intermediate\\nExamination, and 145 have obtained the degree of B.Sc.\\nand 9 that of Doctor of Science. In addition to these\\n120 women have passed the Intermediate Examination\\nin Medicine, 74 have become Bachelors of Medicine,\\n23 Bachelors of Surgery, and 21 have won the full degree\\nof M.D. Bedford College, London, is now recognized as\\na constituent college of the newly organized University\\nof London. It receives an annual subsidy of ^1,200\\nfrom the Government. It numbers 180 female students,\\nand has achieved very remarkable success in examina-\\ntions.\\nThis example has been followed by many o^\\\\i^x Provincial\\nacademic bodies more recently constituted. The Durham ^J\\nUniversity\\nUniversity, with which the great College of Science vdrank.\\nNewcastle is connected, has made special provision for\\nthe admission of women to its degrees the University of\\nWales, and the Victoria University which unites into one\\nfederation the flourishing University Colleges at Man-\\nchester, Liverpool, and Leeds, have also adopted the same\\nliberal provisions and the proposed new Midland Uni-\\nversity, of which Birmingham will be the home, and with\\nwhich the Colleges at Nottingham and others will probably\\nbe incorporated, also proposes to open its degrees freely\\nand on equal terms to candidates of both sexes. The\\ngreat provincial colleges which have of late sprung up\\nin the principal industrial towns, and are distinctly of a\\nUniversity type, have not yet all received Charters of\\nincorporation empowering them to confer degrees but\\nall of them are likely to be federated with some local\\nUniversity ere long, and meanwhile women are fully", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0427.jp2"}, "428": {"fulltext": "410 Women and Universities\\neligible for admission both to the college classes, and\\nto such distinctions as the authorities are able to give.\\nThe older But the most remarkable, and in some respects the\\nsities. most effective encouragement which has been given to\\nthe cause of women s academic education, is that which\\nhas been afforded in the ancient Universities of Oxford\\nand Cambridge. The authorities of a modern institution\\nlike the University of London deserve no special honour\\nfor adapting their requirements to modern wants, because\\nthey had, in fact, little or no difficulty to surmount. The\\nfunctions of that institution have been long limited to the\\nframing of schemes of study, and to the examination of\\nstudents. No conditions of residence, no ancient usages\\nor statutes, existed to obstruct the great reform of 1878,\\nor to hinder the admission of women to full membership\\nof the University, and to the enjoyment of all the schol-\\narships, prizes, and distinctions it had to bestow. But\\nOxford and Cambridge have behind them the traditions\\nof many centuries. They have been enriched by benefac-\\ntions at various periods, and have been controlled by Royal\\nCharters and by the terms of founders deeds. These facts\\nought to be borne in mind, whether, on the one hand,\\nwe may feel disposed to complain of the hesitating and\\npartial measures yet adopted by the older Universities\\nin their corporate capacity, or whether we gratefully\\nrecognize, as we have good reason to do, the generous\\naid and sympathy which leading members of both Uni-\\nversities, and especially of Cambridge, have personally\\nextended from the first to the whole movement.\\nGirton In 1869 the first attempt was made to establish in\\nNezvnham England a College of University rank for women. A\\nColleges, house was taken at Hitchin, so as to be reasonably acces-\\nsible to tutors both fro.n London and Cambridge, and\\nit was adapted for the reception of six students. In 1869", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0428.jp2"}, "429": {"fulltext": "Girt oil and NezvnJiam 41 1\\nthe College was removed to a new building erected\\nfor the purpose at Girton, near Cambridge. Little by\\nlittle the premises have been enlarged, and the numbers\\nhave increased, so that there are now upwards of 100\\nstudents. Large and cosdy additions to the College\\nbuildings are now in progress and there will shortly be\\nample room for 200 resident students.\\nNewnham College under its first Principal Miss A. J.\\nClough began in 187 1, when a house was taken for the\\naccommodation of students attending those lectures which\\nwere open to women in Cambridge. It expanded rapidly,\\none hall being opened in 1875, a second called Sidgwick\\nHall in 1879, and a third called Clough Hall in 1888.\\nThe total number of residents in these three halls is now\\n167 and the Hst of those who have studied at Newn-\\nham, many of whom have proceeded to the Tripos\\nExamination, includes twelve hundred names.\\nIt is, of course, to be noted that these Colleges are\\nnot the product of any action on the part of the Univer-\\nsities, but owe their existence to the vigorous initiative\\nof Miss Emily Davies, Miss Clough, Lady Stanley of\\nAlderley, and others, with the help of some resident\\nmembers of the University. From the first the friends\\nand promoters of the colleges sought recognition by the\\nUniversity, and admission to the degree examinations.\\nBut during the early years it was only by a friendly and\\ninformal arrangement that the female students were\\npermitted to take the same papers which were set to\\nordinary candidates, the results being communicated\\nprivately to the governing body of the College. Memo-\\nrials were presented to the Senate praying that the privi-\\nlege thus granted by way of exceptional favour might be\\nformally recognized under the express sanction of the\\nUniversity, and in 1880 a Syndicate was formed to", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0429.jp2"}, "430": {"fulltext": "412 Women and Universities\\nreport on the whole subject. It was in accordance with\\nthe report of that Syndicate that the present regulations\\nof the University respecting women received the final\\napproval of the Senate in February 1881.\\nCambridge These regulations concede to the students of Girton\\nregula-^ Newnham, and of any similar institution which may\\nf ons. hereafter be recognized by grace of the Senate, several\\nsubstantial privileges. They admit women who may\\nhave satisfied the ordinary conditions respecting length\\nof residence and standing which members of the Univer-\\nsity are required to fulfil, to the Previous Examination\\nor Little Go, and to the Tripos Examinations, and they\\nprovide, for the female students who pass, a published\\nlist under the authority of the University, shewing the\\nplace in order of standing and merit which such students\\nwould have occupied if they had been men. But they\\ndo not permit the University actually to confer upon\\nwomen the time-honoured degree of B.A. or M.A., and\\nthey do not admit them to the standing of Members of\\nthe University, and so to a share in its government.\\nThese privileges could not be granted by a grace of the\\nSenate, nor without obtaining new powers from the Crown.\\nAnd at present, notwithstanding the good will of a large\\nbody of the resident members, the grant of such new\\npowers has not been sought by the University.\\nOxford. The University of Oxford has followed the example\\nof Cambridge somewhat tardily and tentatively but\\nwith valuable and encouraging results. Three Colleges\\nfor female students have been established Somerville\\nCollege, Lady Margaret Hall in 1879, and St. Hugh s\\nHall in 1886. The University instituted special exami-\\nnations for women in 1875 having passed through\\nsimilar experience to that already described in London,\\n1 Ante^ p. 407.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0430.jp2"}, "431": {"fulltext": "Oxford 4 1 3\\ndetermined by a new Statute in 1884 to open to women\\nthe ordinary examination of the University, for Moder-\\nations (Classics and Mathematics), Natural Science, and\\nModern History. From that time the Special Ex-\\naminations for women except for English and Modern\\nLanguages were abolished and the students were\\nexamined in the same papers as those set to under-\\ngraduates. In 1886 women were admitted to Respon-\\nsions in 1888 to the Honour School of Litei-te Hiuna-\\nniores in 1840 to the Honour School of Jurisprudence\\nand the final Examination for Bachelor of Music in\\n1893 to the Honour Schools of Theology and Oriental\\nStudies, and in 1894 to the remaining examinations for\\nthe degree of B.A.\\nOn the successes which women have obtained and of\\nthe use they have made of the privileges accorded to them\\nby the Universities, it would be superfluous to dwell.\\nEvery year since 1881 has witnessed an increased num-\\nber of women attaining distinction in the examinations.\\nGirton alone has received 725 residential students, of\\nwhom 468 have obtained Honours according to the\\nCambridge University standard, 188 having obtained\\nHonours in the Classical Tripos, 127 in ]\\\\Iathematics,\\nand the rest in History, Natural Science, or Mediaeval\\nand Modern Languages. In the single year 1899,\\nNewnham sent up 65 students, of whom 12 obtained First\\nClass, 29 Second Class, and 20 Third Class Honours.\\nAt Oxford, ten women have already passed in the First\\nClass at Moderations and ^,6 in the Second Class\\nwhile at the Final Honour School 56 have passed in the\\nFirst Class and 119 in the Second.\\nThe opponents of the proposal to admit women to\\ndegrees often aver that women ought to be content\\nwith the honorary recognition which the University has", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0431.jp2"}, "432": {"fulltext": "414 Women and Universities\\nconceded and that it is unreasonable for them to expect\\nany share in University revenues or emoluments, since\\nthe testators and donors who have enriched the Univer-\\nsity from time to time deliberately designed their gifts\\nfor the purpose of helping the education of men, and\\nnever contemplated any division of the funds between men\\nand women. But to this it may be replied, that neither\\ndid these benefactors contemplate the recognition by the\\nUniversity of women s colleges, or of feminine wranglers.\\nThe steps already taken by the University constitute as\\ncomplete a departure both from the letter and the spirit\\nof ancient deeds and ordinances as would be effected by\\na readjustment of University revenues. Moreover, the\\ntwelfth section of the Endowed Schools Act, to which\\nreference has already been made here, constitutes an\\nimportant precedent for it expresses clearly the will of\\nthe Legislature in reference to the future appropriation\\nof some share of educational revenues, whatever was\\ntheir original intention, to the instruction of girls. Those\\nwho have the greatest reverence for the pious founder\\nwill be the last to doubt that if he were as wise and\\nbenevolent as we like to consider him, he would probably,\\nhad he lived in our time, have shown as enlightened a\\nregard to the wants and special circumstances of our age,\\nas he exercised in reference to the educational require-\\nments of his own. In his absence we are entitled to\\nconjecture that he would not have disapproved, but\\nwould probably have welcomed, any modification in\\nthe conditions of his gift which would have adapted\\nit more completely to the changed circumstances\\nand new intellectual interests of the present gene-\\nration.\\nHealth Many anxious misgivings were at first entertained\\nstudents, ^^en by those who had the strongest interest in the", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0432.jp2"}, "433": {"fulltext": "Health of Students 415\\nacademic education of women, in regard to its possible\\neffect on the health and physical vigour of the students.\\nIt was feared that the opening of new facilities for study\\nand intellectual improvement would result in the crea-\\ntion of a new race of puny, sedentary, and unfeminine\\nstudents, would destroy the grace and charm of social life,\\nand would disqualify women for their true vocation, the\\nnurture of the coming race, and the governance of well-\\nordered, healthy, and happy homes. All these predic-\\ntions have been emphatically falsified by experience.\\nThe really fatal enemy to health among young women\\nis the aimless, idle, frivolous life into which, for want\\nof better employment, they are so often tempted to drift.\\nIntellectual pursuits, when duly co-ordinated with other\\nforms of activity, are attested by all the best medical\\nauthorities to be eminently conducive to health. Such\\nrecords as exist in regard to the strength and general\\ncapacity of the students, to their marriages, and to the\\nusefulness of their subsequent careers, are curiously con-\\ntradictory of the dismal anticipations which were at first\\nexpressed on this subject. The period over which statis-\\ntical data on this point extend is at present short and\\nit would be premature to dogmatize confidently on the\\nsubject. But those who would learn what experience,\\nso far as it has gone, has to teach us, would do well to\\nconsult the weighty testimony collected by the late Mrs\\nEmily Pfeiffer from medical and educational authorities\\nin her interesting volume entitled, Women and Work,\\nor the still more striking facts and figures which have\\nbeen collated by Mrs Henry Sidgwick, in her pamphlet,\\nentitled, Health Statistics of Women Students of Cam-\\nbridge and Oxford, and of their sisters. It will be\\nplain to all who will study this evidence, that there is no\\nantagonism between serious study and a healthy and", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0433.jp2"}, "434": {"fulltext": "41 6 Women and Universities\\njoyous life; and that the widening of women s intellectual\\ninterests is more likely to add to the charm and grace\\nand happiness of the home than to diminish it.\\nIt has been publicly urged by some persons of\\nUniversity, i^nuence that the desire of women for academic privi-\\nleges would best be satisfied by the creation of a separate\\nWomen s University with which the various Colleges for\\nwomen might be federated. But this would be a very\\nunsatisfactory solution of the problem, and would cer-\\ntainly prove to be unwelcome to women themselves.\\nDegrees conferred by a feminine University upon women\\nonly, would be universally regarded as inferior in value\\nto others. In so far as the standard of attainment was\\nconcerned, it would be difficult to persuade the public\\nthat there was no exceptional leniency and lowering of\\nthe standard to meet the students needs. And in so far\\nas the degrees depended on a different curriculum or\\na specially devised selection of subjects, the system\\nwould be based on a wholly unverified hypothesis.\\nFor one truth has been brought into clear light by\\nthe history of educational development in England\\nduring the last thirty years. It is that in our present\\nstate of knowledge and experience all attempts to dif-\\nferentiate the studies and the intellectual careers of men\\nand women are premature and probably futile. Educa-\\ntion is essentially an inductive science, a science of\\nexperiment and observation. A priori theories are as\\nmuch out of place here as in chemistry or astronomy.\\nWhat knowledge will prove of most worth to women,\\nwhat they will value most, what they will best be able to\\nturn to account, and what is best suited to their own\\nintellectual and spiritual needs, we do not know, and\\ncannot yet safely judge. Neither the philosophers nor\\nthe practical teachers have yet been able to formulate a", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0434.jp2"}, "435": {"fulltext": "The intellectual claims of women 41 7\\ncoherent scheme of doctrine on these points. The ten-\\ntative and empirical efforts of those who have tried their\\nhands at framing a course of study exchisively adapted\\nto women have all proved failures. As we have seen,\\nthe special women s examination of the University of\\nLondon was not greatly valued, and was soon abandoned.\\nThe University of St Andrews, which has invented a\\nspecial distinction that of LL.A., for female candidates\\nonly would have proved more generally useful, and\\ncertainly more attractive, if it had simply offered to\\ncandidates of both sexes examinations of the same\\nacademic value and under the same conditions.\\nIt would of course be rash to afifirm that there are no The tri^e\\ndifferences in the moral and mental endowment of men\\nreqidVc-\\nand women which ought to exercise an influence on omx ments of\\nmethods of education. In some future age, it niay\\nbecome possible to map out the whole field of human\\nknowledge, and to say what part of it should be cultivated\\nby one sex, and what part by the other. But at present\\nthe materials for a decision do not exist, and any assump-\\ntion that we are in a position to decide will serve only\\nto make the future solution of the problem in a wise and\\nsatisfactory way more difificult. Meanwhile, women have\\na right to say to all in authority Make your own\\nschemes of instruction and your tests of scholarship for\\nmen as perfect as you can. Devise as many new and\\neffective forms of mental discipline, and courses of\\ninstruction, as you think can be wisely offered to men\\nof various aptitudes and careers; and then permit us, if\\nwe fulfil the same preliminary conditions, to exercise the\\nsame choice, and to avail ourselves of just so much of\\nyour system as we feel will be helpful to us. We do not\\nwant your ideal of a liberal education to be lowered or\\nmodified to suit us. But we want to know liow far our\\n2E", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0435.jp2"}, "436": {"fulltext": "41 8 Women and Universities\\nown aims and achievements correspond to that ideal,\\nand we ask leave to be measured by the recognized\\ntests.\\nMen will be helped in giving a wise and generous\\nresponse to this appeal in just the proportion in which\\nthey view it in the light of their own personal history and\\nexperience. If a man who is destined, for example, to\\nthe Law or the Church were to take up some subject,\\nsuch as Botany or Chemistry, were to write a treatise on\\nGrimm s law, orontheFourthdimension, and if any public\\nauthority were to interpose with a reminder that such\\nstudies had no relation to the proper business of his life,\\nand ought therefore not to be undertaken, he would regard\\nsuch interference as impertinent. He would claim to be\\nthe best judge of his own interests. In like manner we\\nare not entitled to affirm respecting any one department\\nof intellectual effort that it is unsuited to the nature or\\nto the probable destiny of a woman. There is no kind\\nof knowledge, if honestly acquired, which may not be\\nfound available in unexpected ways, for the enrichment\\nand the adornment of life, whether the life be that of a\\nman or of a woman. And even though the knowledge\\nor power which are the product of a liberal education\\nmay seem to have no bearing at all upon the special\\ncareer or definite duties of a woman, yet if it be felt\\nby its possessor to make life more full, more varied, and\\nmore interesting and better worth living, no other justi-\\nfication is needed for placing the largest opportunities\\nwithin her reach. She has a right to exercise a free\\nchoice, and to solve the problem for herself. Neither\\nthe professional duty of a man nor the domestic duty of a\\nwoman occupies the whole of life. Beyond it lies a wide\\nregion of activity, of honourable ambition, and of possible\\nusefulness. There is leisure to be filled, thought and", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0436.jp2"}, "437": {"fulltext": "Unused res ota ces 419\\ntaste to be nurtured, influence to be exerted, and good\\nto be done. And it is the business of man and woman\\nalike to recognize the claims of this larger life, and to\\nbecome qualified to make a right use of such occasions\\nas fortune may offer for meeting those claims.\\nThere is no more familiar fact in human experience, The\\nnor one which suggests more pathetic reflection, than the\\n\u00c2\u00b0o resources\\nlarge store of unused capacity in the world. Hundreds\\nof men and thousands of women carry with them down\\nto their graves great gifts which are well nigh wasted,\\nnoble aspirations which are unrealized, powers of use-\\nfulness which are unsuspected by the world and hardly\\nknown to their possessors, simply because the right\\nmeans for development and encouragement have not\\nbeen supplied, and because opportunity has been want-\\ning. It cannot be doubted that in the intelligence of\\nmany women, in their desire for truth, in their high aims,\\nand in their power to render service to the world in\\nwhich they live, there is a great store of wealth, which\\nhas never been adequately recognized or turned to pro-\\nfitable account. The worid is made poorer by every\\nrestriction whether imposed by authority, or only\\nconventionally prescribed by our social usages which\\nhampers the free choice of women in relation to their\\ncareers, their studies, or their aims in life. It is probable\\nthat in many ways yet undiscovered in certain depart-\\nments of art, of scientific research, of literature, and of\\nphilanthropic work the contributions of women to the\\nresources of the world will prove to be of increasing\\nvalue to mankind. And it may also be that experience\\nwill prove certain forms of mental activity to be unsuit-\\nable. Nature, we may be sure, may be safely trusted to\\ntake care of her own laws. The special duties which she\\nhas assigned to one half of the human race will always", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0437.jp2"}, "438": {"fulltext": "420 Women and Universities\\nbe paramount; but of the duties which are common to\\nthe whole human race, we do not know, and cannot yet\\nknow, how large a share women may be able to under-\\ntake. It is probably larger than the wisest of our con-\\ntemporaries anticipate. If there be natural disabilities\\nthere is all the less reason for imposing artificial disabil-\\nities. Hitherto every step which has been taken in\\nopening out new forms of active work and increased\\ninfluence to women has been a clear gain to society, and\\nhas added much to the happiness of women themselves.\\nIt is, therefore, not merely the chivalry nor even the\\nsense of justice but also the enlightened self-interest of\\nman, that are concerned in the solution of this problem.\\nIt is not his duty to urge women in the direction of\\nemployments they feel to be uncongenial to them. But\\nit is his duty to remove as far as possible all impediments\\nand disqualifications which yet remain in restraint of\\ntheir own discretion, to leave the choice of careers as\\nopen to them as it is to himself, and to wait and see\\nwhat comes of it. Nothing but good can come of it.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0438.jp2"}, "439": {"fulltext": "LECTURE XV\\nTHE FRENCH LEAVING CERTIFICATE\\nCeiiificat d Etudes Primaires\\nThe French law authorizing the award of leaving certificates. Its\\ninfluence on the attendance of scholars. Constitution of the\\nlocal Commission. The standard of examination. Les Acoles\\nprimaires snperieures. The examinations not competitive.\\nStatistics. Practical results. The English Problem. Our\\nStandards. Individual examination. Its uses and defects.\\nCertificates for special subjects. Labour certificates. The\\nScotch certificate of merit. The ideal primary school course.\\nOptional subjects. Oral examination. The relation between\\nschool and home.\\nBy the Law of March 28, 1882, the Minister of Public The law\\nInstruction in France was empowered and directed io ^-^J^/J^\\nprovide, both in the capital and in the provinces, for the aican/ 0/\\naward of certificates to scholars at the end of the primary\\nschool course. The purpose of this measure was partly\\nto attest that the holder had received a fair elementary\\neducation, and partly to facilitate his entrance into the\\nranks of labour.\\nThis law has now been in operation for sixteen years,\\nand has proved to be highly successful. Its influence on\\nthe social and industrial condition of the people, on the\\nschools, the teachers, and the parents, has been so\\nReprinted with the permission of the Controller of Her\\nMajesty s Stationery Office, from the Special Reports on Educational\\nSubjects issued by the Education Department, 1897.\\n421", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0439.jp2"}, "440": {"fulltext": "422 The FrencJi Leavijig Certificate\\nmarked that it well deserves the serious attention of\\nEnglish teachers and public authorities, and of all others\\ninterested in the expansion and improvement of our own\\nschool system.\\nFormer In a Parliamentary paper which I was instructed to\\n^Julubjlct prepare in 1891, I gave the following account of the\\nworking of the plan up to that date\\nThe most potent instrument in maintaining a high\\nstandard of school attendance in France is probably the\\ncertificat d^ etudes or leaving certificate, for it applies not\\nmerely to the picked scholars who prolong their educa-\\ntion in the higher grade schools but to the rank and file\\nof French children. Any boy or girl, however or wherever\\neducated, can, after the age of eleven, be presented to\\nthe local authority, and can claim, after passing a success-\\nful examination in elementary subjects, a certificate which\\nwill exempt him from the legal obligation to attend\\nschool and qualify him to obtain employment. The\\nplan came into use as early as 1836, but was not\\nlegalized until the statute of 1882, which provided in\\nevery part of France for the establishment of a local\\ntribunal or jury empowered to examine candidates and\\nto grant certificates. In that year the number of boys\\npresented was 80,301, of whom 53,156 passed, the number\\nof girls being 54,138, of whom 47,077 passed. During\\nthe last decade the numbers have steadily increased, and\\nin 1889 123,598 boys and 97,012 girls were examined,\\nof whom 90,663 boys and 74,458 girls passed, making a\\ntotal of 165,211 children between the ages of 11 and 16,\\nwho in a single year satisfied the requirements of the\\nexaminers and received certificates. A similar leaving\\nexamination has been devised for the end of the course\\nin the higher grade schools, and in 1889 there were", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0440.jp2"}, "441": {"fulltext": "The FreiicJi Law 423\\n2,550 candidates (1,652 boys and 898 girls) presented at\\nthese examinations, of whom 1,491 (960 boys and 531\\ngirls) were successful. In Paris alone in 1888 the total\\nnumber of candidates for the advanced leaving certificate\\nwas 5,873 boys and 4,427 girls, 81 percent, of the former\\nand 78.3 of the latter having succeeded in the examination.\\nIt is to be observed that the proportion of successful\\nscholars from the private or unaided schools is not less\\nfavourable than that of pupils from the public schools.\\nThe local jury or board empowered by law to issue\\nthese leaving certificates is variously composed of official\\nand representative personages but in every case much\\nof the practical business of examination is done by the\\nGovernment inspector, aided by the head teachers of the\\ndistrict, provision being made in every case that no\\nteacher shall examine his own pupils. The law does not\\npermit any child under 15 to work in a factory or work-\\nshop more than six hours a day, unless he or she has\\nobtained the certificate. In Paris the examination ex-\\ntends to reading, writing, and arithmetic, the elements of\\ngeography, history, and natural science, and a composi-\\ntion on some familiar subject, especially the rights and\\nduties of citizens a branch of instruction much insisted\\non in French schools. A scholar of 13 or 14 unprovided\\nwith his certified f d etudes has no chance of admission to\\na higher grade or technical school, and year by year such\\na scholar finds himself at a greater disadvantage when he\\npresents himself in the industrial market. Employers\\neverywhere seem to value the certificate, and the number\\nof such employers who regard its possession as a con-\\ndition to be fulfilled by appUcants increases every year.\\nIt is hardly necessary to say that in public companies, in\\nmost large business establishments, and in all branches\\nof the public service, the certificate is indispensable.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0441.jp2"}, "442": {"fulltext": "424 The French Leaving Certificate\\nM. Greard speaks strongly of its moral effect C est le\\nbenefice des examens du certificat d etudes qui tiennent\\nles esprits en haleine et concourent ainsi a d^velopper\\nles habitudes de perseverance et de ponctualit^ dans le\\ntravail.\\nThere can be Httle doubt that the leaving certificate\\nsystem and the state of public opinion which sustains it,\\ncombine to exercise a strong influence on the regular\\nattendance of the children. A scholar who is irregular\\nhas little chance of succeeding at the examination at all,\\nand has certainly no chance of obtaining it so early as\\nII or 12, and so of acquiring the right to go to work\\nbefore he is 13. And since the scholars of the private\\nand confessional schools are all alike eligible for the\\nexamination and have the same motives for attending it,\\nthe indirect effect of the law of 1882 is to improve the\\ncharacter of the instruction in those schools, and to\\nsecure a high average of frequentation in them, although\\nthey are not directly subject to any State control. The\\none criticism which I have heard most frequently in\\nFrance on the working of the system is that the local\\nauthorities often grant the certificate on rather too easy\\nterms, especially where the demand for juvenile labour\\non farms is active. But the standard of proficiency is\\nsaid to be improving.\\nFurther inquiries and experience have since con-\\nfirmed the hopeful forecast which was thus expressed,\\nand justify a fuller explanation of some administrative\\nand other details.\\nThe law prescribes that in every canton there shall\\nbe an Examining Commission composed of: (i) The\\n1 Memorandum on the working of the Free School System in\\nAmerica, France, and Belgium. 189 1.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0442.jp2"}, "443": {"fulltext": "TJie Standard of Examination 425\\nInspector of Primary Schools for the district, who acts as Constitn-\\npresident, (2) several head teachers of Primary Schools,\\nlocal com-\\n(3) two or more persons, e.g. lawyers, doctors, professors, mission\\nor other local residents, specially nominated by the examen.\\nRector of the Provincial Academy and known to be\\ninterested in the schools. These Cantonal Commis-\\nsioners form a Board, which meets regularly at the end\\nof each scholastic year.\\nIt is expressly enjoined that the level of the educa- The\\ntional requirements shall not rise above the cours j?ioyen^^V\\nof a good primary school. The examination is partly ?^\u00c2\u00ab/zV?;2.\\noral and partly written. It includes:\\n{a) A dictation exercise of about fifteen lines of\\nprint, which serves also as a test of hand-\\nwriting.\\n{B) Questions on arithmetic, the metric system and\\nits simple applications, avec solution raisoniiee.\\n{c) A composition exercise on one of these subjects\\n(i) Moral and Civic Duty; (ii) History and\\nGeography; (iii) Elementary notions of\\nScience and its applications.\\nid) For girls an exercise in needlework, and for\\nboys in rural schools an examination in agri-\\nculture, and in urban schools, one in drawing\\nand design.\\nThe oral part of the examination includes reading\\naloud, recitation of some choice literary extract, either in\\nprose or verse, with questions on its meaning, besides\\ngeneral questions in history and geography.\\nA scale of marks is officially prescribed, and no\\ncandidate receives his certificate unless he scores at least\\nhalf the marks attainable under each of the heads of the\\nexamination.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0443.jp2"}, "444": {"fulltext": "426 The .French Leaving Cei tijicate\\nBesides these obligatory subjects, the candidate may\\npresent himself or herself for an additional examination\\nin one or two optional (^facultative) subjects, e.g. drawing\\nand design. Special mention is made on the certificate\\nof any success thus attained.\\nThe higher Besides the ordinary leaving certificate, another of a\\nI crtiftcate has been provided for scholars of the higher\\nfor grade school. No candidate is admissible to this ex-\\n7h7^co\\\\Q amination who has not previously obtained the elementary\\nprimaire certificate; and therefore no minimum age has been\\nsupeiieure. ^^^^j^ f^j. admission. The Commissioners to whom the\\nhigher duty of awarding this certificate has been entrusted\\nare named in each Department by the Rector of the Pro-\\nvincial Academy. They include inspectors, professors\\nin colleges or secondary schools, and lecturers in training\\ncolleges. Two ladies at least are nominated as members\\nof each Commission, and are specially charged with\\nthe direction and supervision of the examinations for\\ngirls.\\nThe examination for these higher certificates is\\nattended for the most part by scholars at the end of the\\nfifteenth or sixteenth year, who have pursued their studies\\nin some higher grade school. It is open, however, to\\nother candidates who fulfil the necessary conditions as to\\nage and previous certification. These higher grade\\nschools are, as has been fully and very clearly shown by\\nMr Morant,^ not secondary schools, but primary schools\\nwith a developed programme, intended to carry forward\\nthe elementary school work on the same lines up to the\\nage of 16. As I have explained in the Memorandum\\nalready quoted: They are officially described as de-\\nsigned for those scholars for whom elementary education\\n1 The French System of Higher Primary Schools, p. 287 in\\nSpecial Reports on Educational Subjects, 1897.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0444.jp2"}, "445": {"fulltext": "Subjects for advanced Schools 427\\nproperly so called is not sufficient and for whose needs\\nsecondary education would be inappropriate. I hey are\\nnot, in fact, secondary schools, the instruction in them\\nis perfectly gratuitous, and they form an integral part of\\norganized primary instruction. No Latin or Greek is\\ntaught in them; they stand in no relation to the lycees or\\nthe colleges, and they form no part of a scheme providing\\na ladder from the Kindefgafien to the University.\\nTheir aim is not to lift the pupil out of the ranks of the\\nindustrial class, but to enable him to occupy a higher\\nand more honourable place within that class. They\\nseek to provide education specially fitted for the skilled\\nartizan or merchant s clerk, and their chief attention is\\ngiven to drawing, \\\\o couiptabilite, to science, especially to\\nphysics, chemistry, and mathematics; and to the acqui-\\nsition of one modern language. In several of these\\nschools special attention is given to manual training, to\\nthe use of tools and instruments, and to the learning of\\ntrades.\\nThis being the general aim of the higher grade 77z^ jm(5-\\nprimary school, the Certificat d Etudes priniaires supc-\\nrieures corresponds in the main to the curriculum of ofexami-\\nthose schools. The examination, which is partly oral\\nand partly by written papers, extends to five sub-\\njects:\\n{a) A composition in French, consisting of a letter,\\na narrative {recit, compte rendu on rapporty\\ndeveloppement d une inaxime, etc.).\\n(d) A paper on history and geography.\\n(c) An exercise in mathematics and in the elements\\nof physical and natural science.\\n(d) Design and geometrical drawing.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0445.jp2"}, "446": {"fulltext": "428 The French Leaving Certificate\\nf) An exercise in one modern language at the\\nchoice of the candidate, German, English,\\nItalian, Spanish, or Arabic. An easy piece\\nof translation is given of some passage not\\nprescribed beforehand, but the candidate is\\npermitted to use a lexicon.\\nUnder each of these five heads there are three\\ndistinct forms of examination corresponding to three\\nseveral programmes adopted in the schools, viz.\\n(i) the section for general instruction, (2) the industrial\\nsection, and (3) the commercial section. Candidates in\\ninserting their names at the outset are required to specify\\nthe section in which they severally desire to be included.\\nThe fifth of the departments of the examination\\n(modern languages) may be dispensed with in the case\\nof those who select the industrial or agricultural section,\\nbut is obligatory on all who present themselves in section\\n(i) or (3). There are further special practical tests of\\nproficiency in music, manual work, or gymnastics; and\\nsuccess attained in one of them is recorded to the credit\\nof the student. The certificates thus awarded are de-\\nlivered to the candidates in a public ceremony by the\\nRector of the Provincial Academy, and in the presence\\nof the municipal authorities and the parents.\\nThe It is an important feature of the whole scheme that\\neavin^ the examinations are not competitive, and are not de-\\ntion not signed to single out scholars for special distinction. That\\ncompeti- purpose a very legitimate one is to be fulfilled, if\\nat all, by other agencies. On this point M. Greard\\nsays\\nQue certaines recompenses soient mises au concours, cela est\\ndesirable et n a rien de dangereux. Mais, trop souvent renouvele\\net applique au resultat proprement dit des etudes, le concours a pour\\neffet d incliner les mattres et les eleves a la recherche des succes", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0446.jp2"}, "447": {"fulltext": "Statistics mid results 429\\nd eclat, et rien ne serait plus prejudiciable au developpement sage-\\nraent entendu de I instruction primaire. Les elites arriveront tou-\\njours k sortir du rang. C est sur la masse des enfants que I interet\\nsocial commande d exercer une action efficace. Qu ils sachent que\\nc est par le travail de tous les jours, par la bonne conduite de tous\\nles jours, sous les yeux de leurs camarades ordinaires et de leurs\\nmattres habituels, leurs juges^ I examen, qu ils obtiendront I avance-\\nment de classe propose a leur application ou le certificat qui en\\nconstate le profit supreme c est la seulement que peuvent etre la\\nforce et la moralite des etudes primaires.\\nThe extent to which this system prevails in France Statistics.\\nmay be estimated from the fact that during the sixteen\\nyears in which it has been in existence the number of\\ncandidates and the proportion of successes have steadily\\nincreased. In 1897 the total number of scholars pre-\\nsented for examination was 236,859, of whom 129,460\\nwere boys and 107,355 were girls. The number of\\ncertificates awarded was 101,309 to boys and 84,726 to\\ngirls, making a total of 186,035, showing an average\\nof 78.5 per cent, of successful candidates. Besides these,\\nthe number of scholars presenting themselves for the\\nhigher examination was 2,064, of whom 1,224 passed\\nand obtained the diploma.\\nIn practice, the system is found to fulfil several im- The prac-\\nportant purposes. It gives to teachers a clearly defined\\nstandard of the proper work of an elementary school, system.\\nand indicates the goal which ought to be reached in the\\ntwelfth or thirteenth year by every fairly instructed child\\nin such a school. It strengthens the hands of the teacher\\nby supplying his scholars with an additional motive for\\ndiligence, and with a new interest in their own improve-\\nment. It is specially valued by parents, as an attestation\\nof the progress of their children, and as a passport to\\n1 Education et instruction par Oct. Greard, Vice-Recteur de\\nI Academie de Paris, Membre de I Academie Fran5aise, p. 85.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0447.jp2"}, "448": {"fulltext": "430 The FrencJi Leaving Certificate\\nhonourable employment. It serves as an entrance ex-\\namination for admission to higher and technical schools,\\nand prevents those schools from being encumbered by\\nthe presence of pupils who are deficient in the rudiments\\nof learning. It is year by year more highly appreciated\\nby the heads of firms and other employers of labour, who\\nare accustomed to ask for it before admitting young\\npeople into their service. Moreover it furnishes a\\nmeasure of the efficiency of the primary schools, and a\\nmeans of estimating the comparative success and ability\\nof the teachers.\\nA very effective illustration of the actual working of\\nthe system, and its influence on the home life of the\\nindustrial population, is furnished to me in a letter just\\nreceived from a friend who has been travelling some time\\nin rural France. He says\\nWhile in France, I came across, in a little village\\nhome, an interesting proof of the value set by parents\\nand children on the primary certificates, and a young\\ngirl gave me a graphic account of the incidents of, and\\nquestions set in the examinations which she and her\\nsister had in different years succeeded in passing. She\\nwas now about seventeen, but the examination five years\\nbefore had evidently been one of the most important\\nevents of her life. I was much struck by the effect\\nwhich this all-round test had evidently had on the course\\nof her education. So far as her training went, she was\\nan educated girl, her school studies had not been patchy\\nor disconnected, but formed a well-balanced whole.\\nI shall never forget the delightfully refined peasant\\nmother, the beautifully clean living-room of the cottage,\\nthe neatly framed certificates on the wall, or the radiant\\npride with which she spoke when I noticed them and\\nthen our talk with the young girl herself, one of the", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0448.jp2"}, "449": {"fulltext": "The EiiglisJi Staiidai ds 431\\ndaughters who had won the certificates, her self-posses-\\nsion, her modest pleasure in recalling all the circumstances\\nof that memorable examination, and the cultivated\\nbalance of mind and bearing which shewed itself in\\nall her conversation.\\nThis French experience is not without a special The\\nsignificance for ourselves at the present stage of our Jr^JJ^f\\neducational history. We have arrived by a series of experience\\ntentative efforts at a point at which it is desirable to\\nreview the work of our elementary school system to ask that have\\nwhether it has accomplished all that it was hoped to-^ ^f^^,\\nsolved in\\nachieve or is capable of achieving and to set before England.\\nourselves a more clearly defined ideal of the purposes\\nwhich a good primary school ought to fulfil.\\nHitherto the Education Department has sought to Our\\nattain its end by laying down with great precision the\\nsteps by which the elementary course should be graduated\\nand by defining the subjects and the degrees of attain-\\nment which are appropriate respectively to the years of\\nstudy from the seventh year to the age of fourteen. For\\na time, these regulations were practically enforced through\\nthe plan of assessing the amount of public grant payable\\nto each school by counting the number of passes after\\nindividual examination. Although this plan has been\\nabandoned, the amount claimable by the several bodies\\nof local managers, as their share of the Parliamentary\\ngrant, is still to some extent determined by the number\\nof subjects taken up in a school, and by the results of\\nindividual examination, as recorded in the Inspector s\\nreport. Experience has shown that these regulations\\nhave had some effects, both favourable and unfavourable,\\non the general progress of education.\\nOn the one hand, it has been found that prescribed", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0449.jp2"}, "450": {"fulltext": "432 TJie FrencJi Leaving Certificate\\nTheir standards of examination and attainment for each year,\\ndefects\\neven with the large range of options permitted by the\\nCode, often interfered injuriously with the hberty of\\nclassification, and with the teacher s power to adapt his\\nmethods to the varied requirements of his scholars. The\\nconnexion of the results of each examination with the\\naward of a money payment, and often with the amount\\nof a teacher s salary, introduced a disturbing mercenary\\nelement into his calculations, and sometimes tempted\\nhim to adopt measures designed too consciously rather\\nwith a view to obtain the maximum grant than to\\nsubserve the best interests of the scholars.\\nT/ieir ad- On the Other hand, schedules of graduated instruction\\nz un ages. g^^|^ appear in the appendices to the English Code\\nhave their value, as showing what is the amount of\\nacquirement which can reasonably be expected of children\\nat the successive stages of their school career. They\\nserve as a guide both to teachers and inspectors they\\ngive definiteness to the plans of all the members of a\\nschool staff; and they could not be dispensed with\\nexcept at the risk of much looseness and incoherence,\\nboth in the aims and in the practice of primary instruc-\\ntion.\\nIndividual Moreover, individual examination, though an un-\\nsatisfactory method of computing a money grant, un-\\nquestionably acts as a safeguard for thoroughness and\\nexactness, and as the best measure of a scholar s progress.\\nIt is held to be indispensable in all higher schools and\\nuniversities, that such examination should be conducted,\\nin part at least, by external authority and not wholly by\\nthe teachers themselves. Nobody proposes to substitute\\na mere general inspection of methods and organization\\nfor actual individual examination in our secondary and\\npublic schools. No parent in such a school would be\\nexamina\\ntion.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0450.jp2"}, "451": {"fulltext": "Individual Exam ina Hon 433\\nsatisfied to learn that his son belonged to a class which\\nwas certified by an inspector to be well ordered and\\ntaught. He would desire to know in fuller detail the\\nstatus and progress of the particular pupil in whom he\\nwas most interested.\\nIt is to be feared that the association in the minds of\\nEnglish elementary teachers between individual examina-\\ntion and a wrong and discredited mode of distributing\\npublic money, has led to a belief that the examination of\\nthe actual attainments of individual scholars is in itself\\nan error in our educational policy and even a grievance to\\nteachers. Yet it is one of the truest tests of the efficiency\\nof an educational system. The inductive method of in-\\nvestigation and verification, which is now employed in all\\ndepartments of science, which judges the worth of theories\\nand methods, by asking what is their practical outcome and\\nresult, and which refuses to assume that any one method\\nis necessarily the best until it is subjected to the test of\\nexperiment, must ever find its due place in any system\\nof organized public instruction. Provided that we secure\\nin the first place a right conception of the results which\\nought to be attained, and in the second a skilful and\\nimpartial method of appraising those results, schools\\nand educational processes must always to some extent\\nbe estimated by the results which they can produce.\\nCareful individual examination is needed for the due\\nsatisfaction of parents and of school managers, for the\\nproper award of any prize or distinction which the school\\nmay provide, and for the protection of the interests of\\nthe less forward scholars who are not hkely to win any\\ndistinction. And it is difficult to see how responsible\\npublic authorities can dispense with it, if they would\\nmaintain a high standard of excellence in either the work\\nor the methods of our schools.\\n2 F", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0451.jp2"}, "452": {"fulltext": "434 The Fjrnch Leaving Certificate\\nThe Ihni- But it is desirable that we should recognize fairly the\\ntations to i r i i i\\nits useful- iiecessary nmits to any system of indiviaual examination.\\nness. All good teachers know that the best part of their work\\ncannot be measured by any examiners, however skilful\\nand sympathetic. The kindling of interest, the forma-\\ntion of taste and character, the habits of observation and\\nof appHcation, the love of reading, and the aspiration\\nafter further knowledge and self-improvement are among\\nthe best and highest results of school training. Although\\nthese things are of supreme importance, they are pre-\\ncisely the results which cannot be adequately tested by\\nexamination. At the same time the history of the past\\nshows that these results are generally secured incident-\\nally and most effectively in those schools in which the\\nintellectual level is highest, and in which work of the\\nordinary educational type is most honestly and syste-\\nmatically done. We have to admit, once for all, that\\nthere is an inevitable and very serious drawback to the\\nusefulness of examinations. We can only measure what\\nis measurable. Yet while some of the more precious and\\nless palpable results of instruction may escape observation\\nand defy the analysis of examiners, the part of education\\nwhich takes the form of direct instruction and is capable\\nof being tested by individual examination, is, though not\\nthe highest part, yet a very substantial factor in the\\neducation of the child. We have learned by experience\\nthat it is a mistake to make 2. fetish of the examination\\nsystem, or to regard it as a satisfactory or final solution\\nfor all our educational problems. But we may yet have\\nto learn that it would be an equally grave mistake to\\ndiscard it altogether, or to lose sight of its legitimate\\nuses. The opposite of wrong is not necessarily right,\\nand it must be manifest to all who are intimately ac-\\nquainted with the subject that in our present stage of", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0452.jp2"}, "453": {"fulltext": "An English Leaving Certificate 435\\neducational progress we cannot safely part with an\\ninstrument which constitutes the most effective safeguard\\nwe have yet known both against superficial teaching and\\ninadequate inspection.\\nThis paper is written in the belief that such a safe- An\\nguard may be provided by one thorough and well-^\\nconsidered final examination, adapted to test the xt%\\\\A\\\\.ceriificate\\nof the primary school course, at its ordinary termination f\\nabout the fourteenth year. If the standard which 7i schools.\\nwell-instructed child ought to reach by that age is once\\nclearly defined, and teachers become substantially agreed\\nas to the end to be attained, the necessity of an authori-\\ntative annual examination in standards to a large extent\\ndisappears; the freedom of classification and the choice\\nof methods remain with the teacher, and such communi-\\ncation to parents as is desirable respecting the details of\\na scholar s advancement from year to year may be left\\nwholly to the local school authorities. But it is essential\\nthat the Education Department, which is responsible not\\nonly for the distribution of large public funds, but also\\nfor the maintenance of a high and improving ideal of\\nelementary education in the country, should know from\\nyear to year what is the outcome of the methods pursued\\nin the schools, and how many scholars are turned out\\nfairly equipped with the instruction needed for the\\nbusiness of life.\\nSeparate certificates for proficiency in certain selected Certificates\\nsubjects, such as the Science and Art Department h^^ ;//;f\\nbeen accustomed to award, do not wholly meet the need, special\\nThe encouragement which has been given to elder\\nscholars and pupil teachers to work for a science certifi-\\ncate, and as soon as it is obtained to try for another in\\na different subject, has not been helpful but often mis-\\nchievous in its influence on the general education of the", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0453.jp2"}, "454": {"fulltext": "436 The French Leaving Certificate\\nstudent. The practice of dealing with the parts of\\ninstruction piecemeal and making separate reports and\\npayments in respect of each subject, has often served to\\ndislocate the plans of good teachers, and to prevent\\nthem from considering the education of the scholar as a\\nwhole. The plan adopted by the Scotch Education\\nDepartment of awarding to the scholar from a secondary\\nschool leaving certificates, e.g. in mathematics, in Latin,\\nGreek, or English, at the choice of the candidate, may be\\njustified by the fact that he has generally reached the\\nage at which it is legitimate for him to select the subject\\nin which he desires to distinguish himself. But such\\na leaving certificate carries with it no assurance that the\\nholder. possesses a good general foundation for a liberal\\neducation. And it would clearly not be a suitable prece-\\ndent for the leaving certificate of the elementary school.\\nLaboia- Nor can the labour certificates at present awarded by\\nCO ijica es. Department be regarded as a satisfactory test of\\nschool work from an educational point of view. So long\\nas the Elementary Education Act of 1876, and the\\nseveral Acts which regulate the employment of children\\nin factories and workshops remain in force, the award of\\nwhat are called certificates of proficiency must con-\\ntinue under the present conditions. But these certifi-\\ncates attest nothing but a meagre outfit of reading, writing,\\nand arithmetic. To reach a standard which will sat-\\nisfy the Act of Parliament or by-laws of a School Board\\ndistrict is to give little or no evidence of general know-\\nledge or intelligence; and the state of the law and of\\npublic opinion which accepts the passing of the third or\\nfourth standard in the three elementary subjects as a\\nreason for the early withdrawal of a child from school to\\nlabour for which he is ill-prepared is as injurious in its\\neffect on the schools as it is inimical to the true interests", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0454.jp2"}, "455": {"fulltext": "TJie Scotch Certificate 437\\nof the scholars and their parents. A legal minimum is\\noften interpreted by poor parents as if it were the maxi-\\nmum, or at least as if it were sufficient; and the official\\nuse of the word proficiency in connexion with the bare\\nrequirements of a low standard according to the first\\nschedule in the appendix of the Code sometimes conveys,\\nto those whose sympathy with educational authorities it\\nis of the utmost importance to secure, a false and mis-\\nleading impression. Moreover, the fact that the labour\\ncertificate has a pecuniary value and that to withhold it\\nfrom a family struggling with poverty seems unkind or\\ninconsiderate, often causes a not unreasonable leniency\\nin the examination, and materially diminishes the educa-\\ntional value of the certificate. It may well be doubted\\nwhether the imposition of legal restraints and disabilities\\non ill-instructed children, or the encouragement of early\\nexemption from school attendance in the case of scholars\\nwho happen to be precocious is a wise expedient for\\nsecuring the true improvement which we all desire.\\nProbably it will be found in the long run that we may\\nrely more safely on measures serving to keep prominently\\nin public view the goal which ought to be reached, and\\na just estimate of the work which throughout its whole\\ncourse a good school ought to do for its pupils.\\nFrom this point of view, the merit certificate provided The Scotch\\nin the regulations of the Scotch Education Department\\nof merit.\\ndeserves the attentive consideration of school authorities\\non this side of the Tweed: Article 29 of the Scotch\\nCode contains this provision\\nA certificate of merit will be granted once only by the Depart-\\nment to any scholar over 12 years of age who satisfies the Inspector\\nthat he has attained a standard of thorough efficiency in the three\\nelementary subjects, as well as in the class subjects (at least two)\\nprofessed in the school.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0455.jp2"}, "456": {"fulltext": "438 TJie French Leaving Certificate\\nThe managers will furnish a list (on a schedule supplied by the\\ndepartment on special application by the managers) of the scholars\\nto be presented for merit certificates and the teacher must certify\\nto the character and conduct of each pupil admitted to the examina-\\ntion.\\nThe merit certificate will attest thorough efficiency in the three\\nelementary subjects, and will state the class subjects and specific\\nsubjects (if any) taken by the scholar to whom it is granted. No\\nmerit certificate will be issued to a scholar who has not mastered all\\nthe standards set forth in Article 28 (elementary subjects) or who\\ndoes not shew ease and fluency in reading, considerable fluency in\\nwriting and composition, and the power of applying the rules of\\narithmetic in a way likely to prove useful in the common affairs of\\nlife. Some test of mental arithmetic will also be applied.\\nConditions Thus the experience gained in Foreign countries,\\nespecially that of the Ce7-tificat d etudes piijjiaires in\\napplying France and Belgium, coincides with that acquired in\\nthis ex- ^j-^g northern part of our own island, and reveals the\\nperience\\nto Eng- existence of a want which our English system does not\\nland. supply. In seeking to apply this experience to our\\nown special circumstances and needs, two or three\\npreliminary considerations appear to deserve some\\nweight:\\n(i) The examination should not be competitive,\\nand should not have for its prominent object the dis-\\ncovery or reward of exceptional merit. Its purpose\\nshould be to set before schools and scholars generally\\nthe nature and scope of a good elementary education,\\nand to offer such a test as a boy or girl of average\\ndiligence and intelligence ought to attain.\\n(2) No prize or immediate pecuniary advantage\\nshould be associated with it. No legal enactment need\\nenforce it, and no penalty should be incurred by those\\nwho do not possess it. Its value should depend entirely\\non the quality of the attainments it professed to attest,", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0456.jp2"}, "457": {"fulltext": "The Primary School Course 439\\non the fairness and thoroughness of the examination,\\nand on the increased appreciation year by year of the\\nworth of a good education on the part of parents and the\\npublic. Considered as an instrument for raising and\\nmaintaining the standard of instruction, the award of a\\nleaving certificate should be regarded as an educational\\nmeasure only; and the less teachers and examiners are\\nliable to be influenced by compassion to individuals, or\\nhy regard to the pecuniary effect of the award, the\\nbetter.\\n(3) In measuring the claims of a scholar to receive\\na certificate regard should not be had to the number of\\nsubjects he takes up, or to the grants he has enabled the\\nschool to earn. Nor should any authority fix the relative\\nimportance of certain subjects, or seek to enforce, e.g.\\nin rural districts, the study of agriculture, or in great\\ntowns the study either of commercial account keeping\\nor of any particular local handicraft. The chief objects\\nto be kept in view are to secure that a satisfactory use\\nhas been made of a good elementary course, and that this\\ncourse, while including all the necessary rudiments of\\nlearning, shall leave room for optional subjects adapted,\\nin different places, to the local requirements and to the\\nparticular aptitudes and qualifications of teachers.\\nThese general conditions being premised, it remains T/ie ideal\\nto consider what it is that education so far as its results\\nare ascertainable by examination should have accom- course.\\nplished for a scholar who quits an elementary school at\\nthe age of thirteen or fourteen. We cannot escape the\\nenumeration of details or the authorization of some sort\\nof syllabus, although we may admit that the attention of\\nteachers has too often been directed rather to the list of\\nseparate subjects than to a rounded and complete scheme\\nof discipline and training as a whole.", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0457.jp2"}, "458": {"fulltext": "440 TJie Fr cnch Leaving Certificate\\nNow the curriculum of every school ought to com-\\nprise\\n(i) Reading, writing, and arithmetic, as laid down\\nin the several standards of the Education Department,\\nup to the seventh.\\n(2) The Enghsh language, with the elements of\\ngrammar and exercises in English composition.\\n(3) The outhnes, at least, of British geography and\\nEnglish history.\\n(4) The rudiments of physical and experimental\\nscience.\\n(5) Some acquaintance with good literature, and the\\nlearning by heart of choice passages from the best\\nauthors.\\n(6) Drawing, needlework (for girls), and for boys\\nsome other form of manual instruction.\\n(7) Moral and religious instruction.\\nThis item is not placed last through any doubt of its\\nsupreme importance, but simply because of the impossi-\\nbility of estimating it accurately, and because, even if it\\nadmitted of exact measurement, the officers of the State\\nare not the persons to perform the task.\\nSome In regard, to the items marked i, 2, 3, and 5, it is\\n\\\\^Hyjrll i reasonable to expect that satisfactory evidence of a\\ntolerably uniform kind might be expected from all candi-\\ndates alike. As to 4 and 6, considerable diversities of\\nplan and practice may properly be looked for and en-\\ncouraged. In science, for example, one school may\\ncultivate mechanics, chemistry, or some other subject\\nhaving a visible and immediate application to industry\\nand to success in business and another may prefer the\\nsciences which, intellectn illy, have a higher value though\\nthey have no obvious bearing on money-getting, or the\\nsubjects.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0458.jp2"}, "459": {"fulltext": "optional Subjects 441\\nbusiness of life. It may suffice to mention two examples\\nof what is here meant. Natural history the study of\\nplants and animals, the classification and arrangement of\\nspecimens is well calculated to exercise the observant\\nfaculty, and to train the scholar to accuracy and to\\nsystematic thinking, although its immediate utility is not\\nobvious at first sight. Astronomy, too, has been strangely\\nneglected in school curricula, probably because it is of no\\ncommercial importance and no prizes are obtainable for\\npursuing it. Yet there is no study better calculated to\\nexalt the imagination, to enlarge the mental horizon of the\\nstudent, and to help him to know the universe he lives\\nin, and his own place in it. A teacher who is interested\\nin this subject, and who helps his scholars to observe the\\nmotion of the stars, to discriminate fixed stars from\\nplanets, and to know something of the moon and its\\nphases, ought to find that his efforts are encouraged\\nand that any results he can achieve are duly recog-\\nnized.\\nBesides its regular course of lessons, as prescribed in\\nits time-table, every good school ought to do something\\nto call forth latent power and sympathy, and to stimulate\\nthe love of reading and enquiry, and the desire for further\\nknowledge. The teacher who devises any new plan for\\nsecuring these objects should have the opportunity of\\nsubmitting his plan to the official examiner, and securing\\ndue credit for any optional subject which has a truly\\nformative and educational character. In no other way\\ncan we hope to escape from a stereotyped and barren\\nroutine, and to enlist in the development of national\\neducation the sympathies, the inventiveness, and the varied\\nknowledge of the best teachers.\\nIt is highly desirable that some part of the examina- Oral cx-\\ntion should be oral, and should be designed rather to", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0459.jp2"}, "460": {"fulltext": "442 The French Leaving Certificate\\ntest a scholar s general intelligence, his knowledge of the\\nmeaning of what he reads, and his interest in his school\\nwork, than the accuracy of his information. It is also\\nimportant that a certificate of good character and at-\\ntendance at school should be a condition precedent to\\nadmission to examination.\\nThe One great need in our present social and educational\\nh,f.,..\u00e2\u0080\u009e arransfements is the establishment of closer relation\\nschool ajid between the school and the scholar s home. The public\\nopinion which in Scotland, and in France, Germany, and\\nSwitzerland, has led to a high appreciation of the bless-\\nings of a good education, hardly exists to the same\\nextent among the poorer EngHsh parents, although it is\\nyearly becoming more pronounced. It is greatly helped\\nby school lending libraries, by school savings banks, by\\nscholarships and exhibitions obtainable by merit, and\\ntenable in technical or other higher schools. It was in\\nsome degree assisted by the now disused duplicate\\nschedule, which furnished year by year particulars acces-\\nsible to the parents, and enabled them to tell the progress\\nof their children. It would probably be helped yet\\nmore, if as in America the parents were annually invited\\nto a public ceremony, at which opportunity was afforded\\nto see something of the methods pursued in the school,\\nand of the results produced. But it would be most\\neffectually encouraged, if there were clearly set forth,\\nand intelligible to the public a standard of attainment\\nwhich every scholar ought to reach before quitting the\\nelementary school, and if the co-operation of the parents\\nwere sought in the efforts of school authorities to main-\\ntain that standard. It is to be feared that among the\\nwage-earning classes there is at present a very imperfect\\nrecognition of the fact that the practical difference be-\\ntween the successful and the unprosperous man is largely", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0460.jp2"}, "461": {"fulltext": "The relation between Sehool and Home 443\\nlependent on the time spent in preparation for the busi-\\nness of Ufe. Every year at school adds to the worth of\\na youth on entering the labour market, and gives him a\\nbetter chance of future advancement. And as it would\\nbe a serious mistake to increase the inducements to\\nshorten the period of school life, the Leaving Certificate\\nshould in no case be granted before the thirteenth year,\\nand should always be given on conditions which pre-\\nsuppose regular application up to that age.\\nIt may be added that the value of the certificate The\\nwould be far greater, if it were granted under the direct ^^^J-^*^\\nauthority of the State, than if School Boards, Managing ^r^/z/if^/ by\\nCommittees, or individual teachers awarded it. There\\nrather\\nwould be better security for the maintenance of a uniform than by\\nand impartial standard, and for the absence of local ^f\\nthoritics.\\nand personal influence. Moreover, allowance must\\nbe made for a very natural and not unreasonable sen-\\ntiment, which causes the average parent and scholar to\\nregard a certificate signed by a pubhc officer, such as\\nHer Majesty s Inspector of Schools, as a document\\npossessing special dignity and as an object of honourable\\nambition.\\nIn summing up the arguments of this brief paper, it\\nis not difficult to forecast some of the consequences\\nwhich might be expected to follow from the official issue\\nof leaving certificates by the Education Department to\\nthe scholars in public elementary schools. It would\\ncertainly have the effect of defining more exactly the\\ncourse of instruction which should be adopted in such\\nschools and would afford an additional and much-\\nneeded safeguard for thoroughness and exactness in\\ninstruction. It would help teachers in securing discipline\\nand regular attendance, if they were able to say that\\nwithout these they would not feel justified in certifying", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0461.jp2"}, "462": {"fulltext": "444 French Leaving Certificate\\nthat the scholar was ehgible to be examined. It would\\narouse the interest and sympathy of the parents, and\\ngive them a new motive for co-operating with the school\\nteachers. It would greatly faciliate the work of secondary\\nand technical schools, by furnishing them with an appro-\\npriate entrance examination. It would help the em-\\nployers of labour to discriminate among the applicants\\nfor situations. And it is not too much to hope that by\\ndegrees the influence of the system would serve to make\\nclearer in the eyes of the public the relations between\\ncharacter, knowledge, and intelligence, on the one hand,\\nand, on the other, the honour, prosperity, and usefulness\\nof the citizen s life.", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0462.jp2"}, "463": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nAllegories, 33\\nAlmshouses, 180\\nAmbiguity, 60\\nAmerica its schools for manual\\ntraining, 152; its educational\\nprovision, 250; Institute of In-\\nstruction, 256\\nAnalogy, its uses and limitations, 84\\nAnalysis v. Synthesis, 115\\nAnytus, 65\\nApprenticeship, 148, 149\\nApposition, 135\\nArithmetic, 117\\nArnold, Dr Thomas, 273\\nArnold, M., quoted, 17\\nArt, lectures on, 324\\nAscham, Roger, 215, 220, 223, 225\\nAstronomy, 129, 441\\nAthens, its condition at the time of\\nSocrates, 47\\nAtmosphere, the moral, of a school,\\n95\\nBacon quoted, 13, 61, 123, 155\\nBacon, Sir Nicholas, quoted, 236\\nBaltimore University, 207\\nBarnard, Henry, 254\\nBastiat, Frederic, 69\\nBeale, Miss, of Cheltenham, 405\\nBedford, Duke of, 332\\nBelgian apprentice schools, 149\\nBell, Dr Andrew his career in\\nIndia, 337; his system, 338; his\\npreferments, 345; his character,\\n351\\nBequest, the right of, 199\\nBible, a teaching book, i\\nBiography, its use in teaching his-\\ntory, 20\\nBirkbeck, Dr, 312\\nBlundell, Peter, of Tiverton, quoted,\\n239, 241\\nBoarding schools and houses, 279\\n280\\nBorth, 286\\nBotany, 125\\nBritish and P oreign School Society,\\n327\\nBrooks, Bishop Phillips, quoted,\\n10, 264\\nBrowne, Sir Ihomas, quoted, 197\\nBrou ning, Mr Oscar, 273\\nBrussels, Ecole Modele, the, 161\\nBuckle, Mr, 93\\nBuss, Miss, 405\\nCanada and its educational pro-\\nvision, 251\\nCanadian Institutes, 260\\nCarlyle, 1 1 2\\nCatechisms, 384\\nCatechising in Church, 385\\nCertijicat d etudes pri7)iaires, 422\\nCertificate hunting, 318\\nChffirephon, 65\\nCharitable foundations, 182\\nCharity Schools, 191\\nChautauqua, 263\\nChigwell School ordinances, 237\\nChild study, 139\\nChildren s Services, 387\\nChrist s Hospital, 401\\nClarendon Code, the, 184\\nClodd, Edward, quoted, 92\\nCode Napoleon, the, 216\\nColeridge quoted, 20, 89, 90, 114\\nColet, Dean, 229\\nColston s charities, 184\\nCommandments, the Ten, 6\\nComte, 140, 202\\nConference: the Head Masters\\n304; the Head Mistresses 305\\nCo-optation, 212\\nCorporate spirit among teachers,\\nthe, 269\\nCrabbe, his description of private\\nschool, 328\\nCranmer, 240\\nCreeds and formularies, 22\\nCrito, 77\\n445", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0463.jp2"}, "464": {"fulltext": "446\\nIndex\\nDarwin, Charles, 8i, 98, 104, 112\\nDavid, 31\\nDavid, Herr, on Musical teaching,\\n296\\nDecoration of the school-room, 298\\nL)eductive reasoning, 115, 116\\nDefoe, on the education of women,\\n399\\nDegeneration, lOi\\nDegrees, for women, 412\\nDelphic oracle, the, 65\\nDeuteronomy, 8\\nDidactic teaching, 90\\nl)ide7 ot, VEcole, 156\\nDiffusion of Useful Knowledge, the\\nSociety for, 311\\nDisputations, 235\\n1 )ivergence, the law of, 104\\nDoles, 187\\nDrawing, 162\\nEcoles professionellesm France, 155\\nEconomic Science, 322\\nEdinburgh Review, 339\\nEducational charities, 190\\nI ^lective studies, 108\\nElementary teachers, 315\\nEHot, George, quoted, loi\\nElizabeth, Queen, 227\\nEndowed Schools Commission, 196\\nEndowed Schools Act, 403\\nEndowments, 177; for women, 398\\nEnglish, the teaching of, 290\\nEnvironment, the law of, 92\\nEpictetus quoted, 57\\nErasmus, 220, 231\\nEuclid, 116\\nEvolution, the doctrine of, 82\\nExamination, individual, 432\\nFalk, 216\\nFanshaw, Sir Thomas, quoted, 239\\nFees, payment of, 239\\nFellowships at King s College, Cam-\\nbridge, 273\\nFormularies, 383\\nFrench leaving certificate 421\\nFrench technical schools, 155\\nFrobel, 140, 158\\nFuller quoted, 228\\nGay quoted, 35\\nGeometry, 116\\nGeorge III., 334\\nGibbon, 142\\nGiiman, President, quoted, 207\\nGirard College, Philadelphia, 185\\nGirls education, 241\\nPublic Day School Company,\\nGirton College, 410\\nGlauco, 54\\nGorgias, 60\\nGoverning bodies of schools, 211\\nGrammar Schools, 141\\nGrammar school theory, the, 242\\nGreard, M., quoted, 428\\nGreek language, the, 218, 244\\nGreenwich Hospital, 182\\nGrey, Eady Jane, and her studies,\\n226, 397\\nGrote, ]\\\\Ir, quoted, 62, 66, 67\\nGuild, the Teachers 249\\nHandicraft, 66, 146\\nHastings, Lady Betty, 399\\nHebrew Poetry, characteristics of,\\n19\\nHegel, 63\\nHerbart, 133\\nHerbert s Jacula Priidentwn, 25\\nHistory, 318, 319\\nH ^nies, Oliver W., quoted, 361\\nHome influence, 371\\nHuxley, Mr, quoted, 103\\nInductive exercises in language, 134\\nInductive reasoning, 115, 123\\nInstitutes, Teachers in America,\\n253, 255\\nIsaiah s prophecies, 16, 35\\nItaly, state of, in 1 6th century, 227\\nJesuits, the, 221\\nJohn, St, a Platonist, 53\\nJohn, St, New Brunswick, meeting\\nat, 260\\nKent, Duke of, 336\\nKindergarten, the, 140\\nKnox, John, 216", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0464.jp2"}, "465": {"fulltext": "Index\\n44;\\nLabour certificates, 436\\nLancaster, Joseph his early hfe,\\n330; his books, 328; his methods,\\n340 his successes, 336; his fail-\\nures, 347; his character, 352\\nLanguage studies, 247\\nLatin the language of the Medieval\\nChurch, 218\\nLeach, Mr A. F., 222\\nLecky, Mr, quoted, 196\\nLectures, University Extension, 312\\nLeeds and the Yorkshire College,\\n53.\\nLibraries, Sunday School, 377\\nLiterature, English, 320\\nLouth Grammar School, 230\\nLuther, 219, 220\\nLykon, 76\\nLyly, John, first High Master of\\nSt. Paul s School, 231\\nLyon, John, founder of Harrow, 229\\nMacaulay, Lord, quoted, 50\\nMadras system, 337, 343\\nMagnus, Sir Philip, quoted, 175\\nManchester Grammar School, 230\\nManual training, 147, 160, 164,\\n440\\nMason, Sir Josiah and his gifts, 208\\nMeasures and multiples, 118\\nMechanics Institutes, 312\\nMelitus, 76\\nMemory, Verbal, 382\\nMeno, the Sophist, 70\\nMeteorology, 130\\nMill, J. S., quoted, 102, 203\\nMilton, 228\\nMistresses, the Conference of Head,\\n305\\nMonitorial system, the, 339\\nMorant, Mr, quoted, 426\\nMore, Hannah, 367\\nMorley, Mr John, quoted, 25\\nMoses as a lawgiver, 6 8\\nMulcaster, 238\\nMusic at Uppingham, 295\\nNarrative power, 29\\nNational Society, the, 327, 338, 343\\nNatural history, 125, 127, 322\\nNatural selection, 97\\nNeedlework, 172\\nNewnham College, 411\\nNewport, R. I., meeting at, 254\\nObject lessons, 131\\nOptional subjects, 441\\nOral demonstration, 1 21\\nExaminatiun, 441\\nPaley s Evidences, 89\\nParables, 31 32; of Nature, 34\\nParker, Mr C. S., quoted, 208, 221\\nParkin, Mr G. R., 274, 281\\nPaul, St, his vision, 41 his sermon\\nat Athens, 48\\nPaul s, St, School, 136, 403\\nPennsylvania, College Association,\\n260\\nPericles, 49\\nPestalozzi, 158, 358; characteristics\\nof his teaching, 360; his religious\\npurpose, 362\\nPfeiffer, Mrs E., 415\\nPhtedo, the, 67\\nPhiedrus, 75\\nPlato, 53, 76\\nPoetrv, as a lesson, 18; of the Bil)le,\\n16\\nPortrait Gallery, the National, 28\\nPrecepts, Moral, 87\\nPre-natal existence, 73\\nPreparation for Sunday-school work,\\n381\\nPrimary School Course, the, 439\\nPrize system, the, 307\\nProfessions for women, 395, 418\\nProverbs, 24\\nProvincial Colleges in England, 409\\nPunishments, 87, 237\\nQuadrivium, the, 233\\nQuestioning, 381\\nQuick s Educational Reformers, 226\\nRaikes, Robert, 366\\nRawnsley, Rev. H. D., 274\\nReading Circles in America, 265\\nReason v. Understanding, 114\\ntraining uf, 114 144", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0465.jp2"}, "466": {"fulltext": "448\\nIndex\\nReligious tests, 183\\nReminiscence, the doctrine of, 72\\nRenaissance, the, 219\\nRetford, East, School, 234\\nRewards, 13\\nRhetor s Art, the, 61\\nRousseau, 361\\nRuskin, Mr, 113, 129\\nSc/iolei/iasler, The, 225\\nSchools Inquiry Commission, the,\\n193, 283; Report cjuoted, 406\\nScience and Art Department, the,\\n435\\nScotch leaving certificate, 437\\nScott, Sir Walter, quoted, 217\\nSeebohm, Mr, quoted, 232\\nSeeley, Prof. Sir John, quoted, 12\\nSense training, 360\\nSermon on the Mount, the, 1 1\\nShelley, 89\\nSherriff, Laurence, 229\\nSidgwick, Mr Henry, quoted, 245\\nSidgwick, Mrs, 415\\nSkrine, Mr J. H., 274, 285, 290,\\n308, 309\\nSlojd, 160\\nSmiles s, Dr, books, 15\\nSmith, Sydney, quoted, 99\\nSpencer, Mr Herbert, 83\\nSociety for the Diffusion of Useful\\nKnowledge, 312\\nSocrates, his hfe, 51; his conver-\\nsations, 52; his disciples, 53;\\nhis dai/xojv, 63; his view of\\nphysical science, 67, 171; his\\ntrial, 76; death, 78\\nSocratic dialogue. A, 54\\nSolomon s dream, 13, 41\\nSorbon, Robert de, quoted, 136\\nStein, 216\\nStrype, quoted, 236\\nSturm of Strasburg, 220\\nSunday, 3, 369\\nSunday Schools, 365\\nSymbolical teaching, 2\\nTeachers societies, 324\\nTechnical Institute, the London, 154\\nTechnical instruction, 145\\nTheological teaching in a Sunday\\nSchool, 389\\nThring, Edward, his life, 274;\\nhis experience in an elementary\\nschool, 276; his books, 298;\\nand diaries, 304; his work gene-\\nrally, 30S\\nToleration Act, the,, 192\\nTone, the, of a school, 96\\nTragedy, the Cireek, 93\\nTraining Colleges in England, 313\\nTraining of teachers in Ahierica,\\n252\\nTrivium, the, 233\\nTurgot, 177\\nUdal, Nicholas, 225\\nUniversity degrees open to women,\\n408, 413\\nExtension, 309, 311\\nLocal Examinations, 403\\nof London, 407\\nUppingham, 237, 279; its removal\\nto Borth, 285; its equipment,\\n297; variety of occupation, 292;\\nand of games, 294\\nVacations, 237\\nVariation of type, 106\\nVerbal analysis, 134\\nVision and meditation, 41\\nWayland, Dr, of Brecon, U.S.A. 257\\nWhitbread, Mr, 332\\nWomen and public employments,\\n396\\nWomen as teachers, 305\\nWomen and Universities, 394\\nWomen s University, A, 416\\nW^oolwich Settlement, the\\nWords, the study of, 57, 59\\nWordsworth, quoted, 10, 74\\nWorship, Pubhc, 387\\nTaylor, Jeremy, quoted, 168\\nXenophon, 53, 76", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0466.jp2"}, "467": {"fulltext": "LECTURES ON TEACHING\\nDELIVERED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE\\nBy J. G. FITCH, M.A.\\nWITH AN INTRODUCTORY PREFACE BY\\nTHOMAS HUNTER, Ph.D., President of the Normal College, New York\\ni6mo. Cloth. $i.oo\\nThis is eminently the work of a man of wisdom and experience.\\nHe takes a broad and comprehensive view of the work of the teacher, and\\nhis suggestions on all topics are worthy of the most careful consideration.\\nNew England Journal of Education.\\nThe lectures will be found most interesting, and deserve to be care-\\nfully studied, not only by persons directly concerned with instruction, but\\nby parents who wish to be able to exercise an intelligent judgment in the\\nchoice of schools and teachers for their children. For ourselves, we could\\nalmost wish to be of school age again, to learn history and geography from\\nsome one who could teach them after the pattern set by Mr^ Fitch to his\\naudience. But perhaps Mr. Fitch s observations on the general conditions\\nof school work are even more important than what he says on this or that\\nbranch of study. Saturday Review.\\nNOTES ON AMERICAN SCHOOLS AND\\nTRAINING COLLEGES\\nBY THE SAME AUTHOR\\ni6mo. Cloth. 60 cents\\nMr. Fitch is a wise and enthusiastic student of pedagogy, the author\\nof some specially excellent Lectures on Teaching delivered in the Univer-\\nsity of Cambridge, and a rarely good observer of new facts. The\\nbook is a treasure of clever description, shrewd comment, and instructive\\ncomparison of the English system and our own. The Churchman.\\nTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY\\n66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0467.jp2"}, "468": {"fulltext": "RECENT BOOKS ON EDUCATION\\nThe Meaning of Education\\nAnd Other Essays and Addresses. By Nicholas Murray But-\\nler, Columbia University. Cloth. i2mo. ^i.oo.\\nSocial Phases of Education in the School and the Home\\nBy Samuel T, Button, Superintendent of Schools, Brookline, Mass.\\nCloth. i2mo. $1.25.\\nEducation of the Central Nervous System\\nA Study of Foundations, especially of Sensory and Motor\\nTraining. By Reuben Post Halleck, Author of Psychology and\\nPsychic Culture. i2mo. Cloth. )^i.oo.\\nHe has succeeded admirably in presenting the subject in a simple, clear, logical\\nway. It is just the book, it seems to me, for the reading of all persons interested in\\nChild Study. Francis W. Parker, Chicago Normal School.\\nEducational Aims and Educational Values\\nBy Paul H. Hanus, of Harvard University. Cloth. i2mo. $1.25.\\nA very readable book. His insight into educational problems is good, his ex-\\nperience wide, and his power of expression admirable\\nISIyron T. S. Scudder in The Educational Review.\\nThe Development of the Child\\nBy Nathan Oppenheim, M.D., Attending Physician to the Children s\\nDepartment, Mt. Sinai Hospital Dispensary. Cloth. $1.25.\\nInteresting and suggestive. The Tribune, New York.\\nThe Physical Nature of the Child and How to Study It\\nBy Stuart H. Rowe, Ph.D., New Haven, formerly Professor of\\nPedagogy and Director of Practice in the State Normal School, Man-\\nkato, Minn. Cloth. i2mo. $1.00.\\nThe average school-teacher could read no better work on school hygiene.\\nC. H. Thurber in The School Review.\\nThe Teaching and Study of Elementary Mathematics\\nBy David Eugene Smith, Ph.D., Principal of the State Normal\\nSchool at Brockport, New York. Cloth. i2mo. ^i.oo.\\nThe first issue in a series to be known as The Teacher s Professional Library,\\nedited by Nicholas Murray Butler, Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia\\nUniversity.\\nThe Study of Children and Their School Training\\nBy Dr. Francis Warner, Author of The Growth and Means for\\nTraining of the Mental Faculty. Cloth. i6mo. ^i.oo.\\nThe Nervous System of the Child\\nIts Growth and Health in Education. A handbook for\\nteachers. By the same author.\\nTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY\\n66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0468.jp2"}, "469": {"fulltext": "Recent Books on Philosophy, Etc*\\nThe flaking of Character\\nSome Educational Aspects of Ethics. By John MacCunn, of\\nUniversity College, Liverpool. Cambridge Series.\\nCloth. i2mo. fi.25.\\nThe subject is divided into four general parts Congenital Endowment,\\nEducative Influences, Sound Judgment, and Self-development and Self-\\ncontrol. Each of these parts contains several chapters dealing with the\\nvarious phases of character-building and its influence upon education.\\nTeachers will find much that is new and stimulating in these pages.\\nThe World and the Individual\\nGifFord Lectures delivered before the University of Aberdeen.\\nFirst Series. The Four Historical Conceptions of Being. By\\nJosiAH RoYCE, Ph.D. of Harvard University.\\nCloth. 8vo. $3.00.\\nA Brief Introduction to flodern Philosophy\\nBy Arthur Kenyon Rogers, Ph.D. Cloth. i2mo. $1.25.\\nriethods of Knowledge\\nAn Essay in Epistemology. By Walter Smith, of Lake\\nForest University. Cloth. i2mo. $1.25.\\nA definition of knowledge and theory of the method by which knowl-\\nedge may be attained.\\nAn Outline of Philosophy\\nWith Notes Historical and Critical. By John Watson, of\\nQueen^s University, Kingston, Canada. Second Edition.\\nCloth. 8vo. $2.25.\\nTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY\\n66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0469.jp2"}, "470": {"fulltext": "a\\nTyipr^", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0470.jp2"}, "471": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0471.jp2"}, "472": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3549", "width": "2137", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0472.jp2"}, "473": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3549", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0473.jp2"}, "474": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3690", "width": "2403", "jp2-path": "educationalaimsm01fitc_0474.jp2"}}