{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3570", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "Class\\nBook\\nt) S\\nj) i(giii i l?.\\nCOPyRIGHT DEPOSIT.", "height": "3372", "width": "2194", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3372", "width": "2194", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3302", "width": "1989", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3292", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3302", "width": "2021", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "til", "height": "3308", "width": "2209", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3303", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "BARNES GENERAL HISTORY\\nA BRIEF HISTORY\\nOF\\nANCIENT, MEDIEVAL, AND\\nMODERN PEOPLES\\nWITH SOME ACCOUNT OK THEIK MONUMENTS, INSTITUTIONS\\nARTS, MANNEKS, AND CUSTOMS\\nJOEIi DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D., F.G.S.\\nAND\\nESTHER BAKER STEELE, Lit.D.\\nNEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO\\nAMERICAN BOOK COMPANY\\n1", "height": "3334", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "Lfbrary of Coiigrdi%\\nOfffco of tht\\nM\u00c2\u00abY 1 1900\\nS\u00c2\u00bb(fl\u00c2\u00abt.r of Copyrlgit*\\ny^^/ SECOND COPY,\\n61514\\nBAli^iES BRIEF HISTORY SERIES.\\nr2M0. ILLUSTUATEI).\\nBy Joel Dorman Steele and Esther B. Steele.\\nBARNES BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES,\\nFOK THE Use of schools and for PiaVATE KEAUINO.\\nBARNES BRIEF HISTORY OF FRANCE, fou the Use\\nOF SCIIOOI-S AND FOU PltlVATE KEADING.\\nBARNES BRIEF HISTORY OF GREECE, with Select\\nReadings fuoai Standard autiious.\\nBARNES BRIEF HISTORY OF ROME, with Select\\nReadings fuoji Standard Althoks.\\nBARNES BRIEF HISTORY OF ANCIENT PEOPLES,\\nFOR THE Use of Schools and for riavATK Reading.\\nBARNES BRIEF HISTORY OF MEDIAEVAL AND\\nMODERN PEOPLES, roii the Use of Schools and\\nFOR PRIVATE READING.\\nBARNES BRIEF GENERAL HlfSTORY, Ancient, Mk-\\nDI.? :VAL, AND MODERN PEOl I^ES.\\nCopyright, 1883, hy A. S. Barnes Co.\\nCopyright, 1809, hy American Book Company.", "height": "3303", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "f^\\nPKEFAGE\\nmmm\\nw\\nM\\nTHE plan of the Barnes Brief History Series has been\\nthoroughly tested in the books already issued, and their\\nextended use and approval are evidence of its general ex-\\ncellence. In this work the political history, which occu-\\npies most if not all of the ordinary school-text, is condensed\\nto the salient and essential facts, in order to give room for\\nsome account of the literature, religion, architecture, char-\\nacter, and habits of the different nations. Surely, it is as\\nimportant to know somethmg about Plato as all about Caesar;\\nto learn how the ancients wrote their books as how they\\nfought their battles and to study the virtues of the old\\nGermans and the dawn of our own customs in English\\nhome-life, as to trace the petty squabbles of Alexandei- s\\nsuccessors or the intricacies of the Wars of the Roses.\\nThe general divisions on Civilization and Manners\\nand Customs were prepared by Mrs. J. Dorjnian Steele.\\nThe chapters on ^Manners and Customs and Scenes in\\nReal Life represent the people of history as men and women\\nsubject to the same wants, hopes, and fears as ourselves,\\nand so bring the distant past near to us. The Scenes,\\nwhich are intended only for reading, are the result of a\\ncareful study of the monuments in foreign museums, of the\\nruins themselves, and of the latest authorities on the do-", "height": "3334", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "IV PREFACE.\\nmestic life of the peoples of other lands and times. Though\\nintentionally written in a semi-romantic style, they are\\naccurate pictures of what might have occurred, and some\\nof them are simple transcriptions of the details sculptured\\nin Assyrian alabaster, or painted on Egyptian walls.\\nIt should be borne in mind that the extracts here made\\nfrom The Sacred Books of the East are not comprehen-\\nsive specimens of their style and teachings, but only gems\\nselected from a mass of matter, much of which is absurd,\\nmeaningless, and even revolting. It has not seemed best\\nto cumber a book like this with selections conveying no\\nmoral lesson.\\nThe numerous cross-references, the abundant dates in\\nparentheses, the blackboard analyses, the pronunciation of\\nthe names in the index, the genealogical tables, the choice\\nreading references at the close of each general subject, and\\nthe novel Historical Recreations in the appendix, will be\\nof service to both teacher and pupil. An acknowledgment\\nof indebtedness in the preparation of this history is hereby\\nmade to the works named in the reading references.\\nIt is hoped that a large class of persons who desire to\\nknow something about the progress of historic criticism as\\nwell as the discoveries resulting from recent archasological\\nexcavations, but who have no leisure to read the ponderous\\nvolumes of Brugsch, Layard, Grote, Mommsen, Rawlinson,\\nIhne, Lanfrey, Froude, Martin, and others, will find this\\nlittle book just what they need.", "height": "3303", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nANCIENT PEOPLES.\\nPAGE\\nIntroduction 9\\nEgypt 15\\nBabylonia and Assyria 45\\nPhoenicia 73\\nJUDEA 80\\nPAGft\\nMedia and Persia 8S\\nIndia 105\\nChina 10\\nGreece 113\\nRome 205\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nPAGE\\nIntroduction 315\\nRise of the Saracens 326\\nRise of the Prankish Em-\\npire 331\\nRise of Modern Nations 337\\nEngland 337\\nFrance 354\\nPAGB\\nGermany 373\\nSwitzerland 387\\nItaly in the Middle Ages 390\\nThe Crusades 39?\\nThe Moors in Spain 404\\nAsii.. IN the Middle Ages 405\\nMedieval Civilization 408\\nMODERN PEOPLES.\\nPAGE\\nIntroduction 423\\nThe Sixteenth Century 430\\nThe Frencli in Italy 430\\nThe Age of Charles V 433\\nRise of the Dutch Re-\\npublic 445\\nCivil-Religious Wars of\\nFrance 450\\nEngland under the Tudors 455\\nPAGE\\nThe Civilization 467\\nThe Seventeenth Century, 480\\nThe Thirty- Years War 480\\nFrance in the Seven-\\nteenth Century 486\\nEngland under the Stu-\\narts 494\\nThe Civilization 513", "height": "3334", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "VI\\nCONTENTS.\\nPAGE\\nThe Eighteenth Century. 520\\nPeter the Great of Russia,\\nand Charles XII. of\\nSweden 520\\nRise of Prussia in the Age\\nof Frederick the Great 526\\nEngland under the House\\nof Hanover 532\\nThe French Revolution 536\\nThe Civilization 553\\nPAGE\\nThe Nineteenth Century. 559\\nFrance 559\\nEngland 583\\nGermany 588\\nItaly 592\\nTurkey 596\\nGreece 598\\nThe Netherlands 598\\nRussia 599\\nJapan 600\\nAPPENDIX.\\nThe Seven Wonders and the\\nSeven Wise Men\\nPAGE\\nHistorical Recreations. ii\\nIndex xxv\\nLIST OF MAPS.\\nPAGE\\nEarly Races and Nations 11\\nAncient Egypt 16\\nAssyrian and Persian Empires 45\\nPhoenicia and Judea in Solomon s\\nTime 74\\nCanaan and the Wilderness 81\\nGreece and her Colonies 113\\nHellas in the Heroic Age 118\\nGreece in the Time of the Persian\\nWars 125\\nPlain of Marathon 126\\nVicinity of Thermopylce 130\\nVicinity of Athens and Salamis 135\\nPeloponnesiau War 142\\nEmpire of Alexander 153\\nRoman Empire and its Provinces 203\\nEarly Tribes and Cities of the\\nItalian Peninsula 210\\nPunic Wars 228\\nItalia to the Time of Augustus 255\\nAncient Rome 299\\nNations of Western Europe (Fifth\\nCentury) 317\\nPAGE\\nEmpire of the Caliphs (Eighth\\nCentury) 327\\nEmpire of Charlemagne 333\\nFour Conquests of England 338\\nFrance in the Time of Hugh Capet 357\\nBurgundy imder Charles the Bold. 370\\nGerman Empire under the Hohen-\\nstaufens, including Naples and\\nSicily 378\\nSyria in the Time of the Crusades 401\\nIberian Peninsula in the Fifteenth\\nCentury 404\\nGreat Voyages of Discovery 426\\nItaly from the Fifteenth Century. 431\\nWars in France, the Netherlands,\\nand Civil War in England 447\\nCentral Europe (the Thirty- Yeais\\nand Seven- Years Wars) 481\\nEastern Europe (Seventeenth Cen-\\ntury) 495\\nModern Nations of Europe, Western\\nAsia, and Africa 532\\nNapoleon s Wars 5(;o", "height": "3303", "width": "2139", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "ANCIENT PEOPLES.\\nExamine History, for it is Philosophy teaching by Experience.\\nCarlyie.\\nTruth comes down to us from the past, as gold is washed down\\nfrom the mountains of the Sierra Nevada, in minute but precious\\nparticles\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the debris of the centuries.", "height": "3334", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "BLACKBOARD ANALYSIS\\nEgyp-\\ntians.\\n2. Babylo-\\nnians and\\nAssyrians,\\n3. Phoeni-\\ncians.\\n4. Hebrews.\\n5. Medes\\nand\\nPersians.\\n6. Hindoos.\\n7. Chinese.\\n8. Grecians.\\n9. Romans.\\n1. political\\nHistory,\\nf 1. Origin.\\nI 2. Old Empire.\\ni .3. Middle Empire.\\nI 4. New Empire.\\n1 5. Decline.\\nCiviliza-\\ntion.\\n3. Manners\\nAND CUSl OMS.\\nKing.\\nPriests.\\n3Iilitary Class.\\nLower Classes.\\nHieroglyphics.\\nPapyrus.\\nC Book of the Bead.\\nLiterature. PhtahJiotep s Book.\\nMiscellaneous Books.\\nEducation.\\nMonuments and Art.\\nPractical Arts and Inventions.\\nGeneral Character.\\nReliuion.\\n1. Society.\\n2. Writins\\n3. Embalming.\\n4. Burial.\\n5. Scenes in\\nReal Life.\\nPyramid Building.\\nA Lord of the LV 2\\nAmenemhe III.\\nA Theban Dinner Party.\\nDynasty.\\n4. Summary.\\n5. chronology.\\n6. Reading References.\\nf 1.\\npolitical\\nHistory.\\n2. Civiliza-\\ntion.\\n3. Manners\\nand Customs.\\nOrigin.\\nClialdea.\\n3. Assyria.\\n4. Names of Kings.\\nI 5. Babylonia.\\n6. Names of Kings.\\nf 1. Society.\\nI 2. Writing.\\n3. Literature.\\nI 4. Monuments and Art.\\nI 5. Practical Arts and Inventions.\\nf 1. General Character.\\n2. Religion.\\nI 3. Curious Customs,\\nj I. A Chaldean Home.\\n4. Scenes in j 2. Horning in Nineveh.\\nReal Life. 13.^ Royal Lion Hunt.\\nAsshurbanipal going to War.\\n\\\\i\\npolitical history.\\nCivilization.\\nPolitical History.\\nCivilization.\\nPolitical History.\\nCivilization.\\nmannkus and customs.\\npolitical history.\\nCivilization,\\npolitical history.\\nCivilization.\\n[The subdivisions of tliese\\ngeneral topics may be filled in\\nfrom the titles of tlie paragraphs\\nin the text, as the student pro-\\nceeds.]\\nPOLITICAL\\nHISTORY.\\nGeographical and Early History.\\nSparta.\\nAthens.\\nPersian Wars.\\nAge of Pericles.\\nPeloponnesian War.\\nLacedajmon and Tlieban Rule.\\nMacedon.\\nAlexander s Successors.\\n2. civilization.\\n8. manners and customs.\\n1. political history.\\n2. Civilization.\\n3. Manners and customs.", "height": "3319", "width": "2106", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "iBiiS p ^i i^Xie\\ntmws \\\\mmiM\\\\\\niMllODPiflO!\\nGKEAT HALL OF KAUNAK..\\nthe central point in history.\\nHistory is a record of\\nwhat man has done. It\\ntreats of the rise and\\ngrowth of the different\\nnations which have ex-\\nisted, of the deeds of their\\ngreat men, the manners\\nand cnstoms of theu peo-\\nples, and the part each\\nnation has taken in the\\nprogress of the world.\\nDates are reckoned\\nfrom the birth of Christ,\\nTime before that event is", "height": "3345", "width": "2170", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "10 ANCIENT HISTORY.\\ndenoted as b. c. time after, a. d. {Anno Domini, in the year\\nof our Lord).^\\nThree Divisions. History is distinguished as Ancient,\\nMediasval, and Modern. Ancient history extends from the\\nearliest time to the fall of the Roman Empire (476 a. d.)\\nMediaeval, or the history of the Middle ages, covers about\\na thousand years, or to the close of the 15th century and\\nModern history continues to the present time.\\nThe only Historic Race is the Caucasian, the others\\nhaving done little worth recording. It is usually divided\\ninto three great branches the Ar yan, the Semit ic, and\\nthe Hamit ic. The first of these, which includes the Per-\\nsians, the Hindoos, and nearly all the European nations, is\\nthe one to v/hich we belong. It has always been noted for\\nits intellectual vigor. The second embraces the Assyrians,\\nthe Hebrews, the Plioenicians, and the Arabs. It has been\\nmarked by religious fervor, and has given to the world the\\nthree faiths Jewish, Christian, and Mohammedan which\\nteach the worship of one God. The third branch includes\\nthe Chaldeans and the Egyptians. It has been remarkable\\nfor its massive architecture.\\nAncient Aryan Nation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Asia was probably the birth-\\nplace of mankind. In a time far back of all history there\\nlived in Bactria (map, p. 11) a nation that had made con-\\nsiderable progress in civilization. The people called them-\\n1 Tliis metliod of reckouiug was introduced by Exigiiua, a Roman abbot, near the\\nmiddle of the fitli century. It is now thought that tlie birth of Christ occurred about\\nfour years earlier than the time fixed in our chronology. The Jews still date from\\nthe Creation, and the Mohammedans usually from the Hegira (p. 326), 622 A. u.\\n2 Tlie Clialdeans were a mixed people, and aie variously classed as Semitic.Hamitic,\\nor Turanian. Those nations of Europe and Asia that are not Aryan or Semitic are\\nfrequently termed Turanian. This brancli would then include the Mongols, Chinese,\\nJapanese, Turks, Tartars, Lapps, Finns, Magyars, etc. Iran (e -rahn), or Aria, the\\nold name of Persia (the land of light is opposed toTuran, the barbarous region\\naround (the land of darkness The Aryan (Indo-European) and Semitic languages\\nhave certain resemblances, but the so-called Turanian dialects bear little resemblance\\nto one another.", "height": "3345", "width": "2170", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3345", "width": "2170", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "12 ANCIENT HISTORY.\\nselves Aryas or Aryans, those who go straight or upward.\\nThey dwelt in houses, plowed the soil, ground their grain\\nin mills, rode in vehicles, worked certain metals, calcu-\\nlated up to 100, and had family ties, a government, and a\\nreligion.^\\nAryan Dispersion. How long our Ai-yan forefathers\\nlived united in then early home, we have no means of know-\\ning. As they increased in numbers, they would naturally\\nbegin to separate. When they moved into distant regions,\\nthe bond of union would become weaker, their language\\nwould begin to vary, and so the seeds of new tongue^ and\\nnew nations would be sown. To the south-east these Aryan\\nemigrants pushed into Persia and northern India; to the\\nwest they gradually passed into Europe, whence, in a later\\nage, they settled Australia and America. In general, they\\ndrove before them the previous occupants of the land. The\\npeninsulas of Greece and Italy were probably earhest occu-\\npied. Three successive waves of emigration seem to have\\nafterward swept over central Europe. First came the Celts\\n(Kelts), then the Teutons (Germans), and finally the Slaves.^\\nEach of these appears to have crowded the preceding one\\nfarther west, as we now find the Celts in Ireland and Wales,\\nand the Slaves in Russia and Poland.\\n1 These views are based on similarities of language. About 600,000,000 people\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lialf\\nthe population of the globe\u00e2\u0080\u0094 speak Aryan languages. These contain many words\\nwhich have a familj likeness. Thus, night, in L,atm, is noct in German, nacht and\\nin Greek, nykt. TJiree,iii Latin, is tres in Greek, treis and in Sanscrit (the ancient\\nlanguage of the Hindoos), tri. All such words aie supposed to have belonged to one\\noriginal speech, and to suggest the life of that parent race. Thus we infer that the\\nAryans had a regular government, since words meaning king or ruler are the\\nsame in Sanscrit, Latin, and English and that they had a family life, since the words\\nmeaning father, mother, brother, sister, etc., are the same in these kindred tongues.\\nSome recent theories discredit successive western migrations, place the primitive\\nAryan home in Europe, and argue that the Indo-Iranians emigrated from Europe\\nto Asia.\\n2 This word originally meant glorious, but came to have its present signification\\nbecause at one time there were in Europe so many bondsmen of Slavonic birth.", "height": "3345", "width": "2170", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION.\\n13\\nThe following table shows the principal peoples which have\\ndescended from the ancient races\\n1. IIAMITIC KACJ\\n2. SEMITIC RACE\\nCHA\\nPTIANS.\\nCHALDEANS (1)\\n3. ARYAN RACE.\\nAS8YKIAN8.\\nPlKENICIANS.\\nHKHKEWS.\\nAKABS.\\nmeue8 anu persians.\\nHindoos.\\nGreeks.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2=1 ROMANS\\nCELTS\\nFrench.\\nItalians.\\n^1 Spaniards. j\\nI Portuguese. J\\nf Welsh.\\nj Irish.\\nHighland Scots.\\nI Britons.\\nGermans.\\nDutch.\\nEnglish.\\nSwedes.\\nI Danes.\\nNorwegians.\\nRussians.\\nPoles.\\nSerbs.\\nBohemians.\\nKomanic {Romance)\\nreoples.\\nCommencement of Civil History.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 History begins\\non the banks of the Nile, the Tigris, and the Euphrates.^\\nThere the rich alluvial soil, the genial climate, and the abun-\\ndant natural products of the earth, offered every inducement\\n1 The Nile valley and the Tigris-Euphrates basin were two great oases in the\\nvast desert which extended from west to east very nearly across the ea.stern hemi-\\nsphere. These favored spots were not only the two centers of early civilization, but\\nthey were rivals of each otlier. They were connected by roads fit for tlie passage of\\nvast arniie.s. Whenever there was an energetic ruler along the Nile or tlie Tigri.s-\\nEuplirates, he at once, as if by an inevitable law, attempted the conquest of hi.s com-\\npetitor for the control of western Asia. In fact, the history of ancient as well as\\nmodern Asia is little more than one continuous record of political struggles between\\nEgypt and Mesopotamia, ending only when Europe entered the lists, 88 in tllO time\\nof Alexander the Great and the Crusaders.", "height": "3345", "width": "2170", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "14\\nANCIENT HISTORY.\\nto a nomadic people to settle and commence a national\\nlife. Accordingly, amid the obscurity of antiquity, we catch\\nsight of Memphis, Thebes, Nineveh, and Babylon,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the ear-\\nliest cities of the world. The traveler of to-day, wandering\\namong their ruins, looks upon the records of the infancy\\nof civilized man.", "height": "3345", "width": "2170", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "EGYPT\\n1. THE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\nThe Origin of the civilization wliich grew up on the\\nbanks of the Nile is uncertain. The earliest accounts repre-\\nsent the country as divided into nomes, or provinces, and\\nhaving a regular government. About 2700 B. c. Menes\\n(me -neez), the half-mythical founder of the nation, is said\\nto have conquered Lower Egypt and built Memphis, which\\nhe made his capital. Succeeding him, down to the conquest\\nof Eg^^t by the Persians under Camby ses (527 b. c), there\\nwere twenty-six dynasties of Pharaohs, or kings. The his-\\ntory of this long period of over 2000 years is divided into\\nthat of the Old, Middle, and New Empires.\\n1. The Old Empire (2700-2080 b. c.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 During this\\nOeographical Questions.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Jjocate tJie capitals of the five early kingdoms of Egypt\\nThis, Elepliantine (fan -te-na), Mem phis, Heracleop olis, Thebes the Pyramids of\\nGizeh; the Nile s first cataract. Why is southern Egypt called Upper? Describe\\nEgypt. Ans. A flat valley, 2 to 10 miles wide, skirted by low, rocky hills on the\\nwest, the desert.; ou the east, a mountainous region rich in quarries, extending to the\\nRed Sea. Through this narrow valley, for 600 miles, the Nile rolls its muddy waters\\nnorthward. About 100 miles from the Mediterranean the hills recede, the valley\\nwidens, and the Nile divides into two outlets,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the Damietta and Rosetta. These\\nbranches diverge until they enter the sea, 80 miles apart. Anciently there were seven\\nbranches, and the triangular space they inclosed was called the Delta, from the\\nGreek letter A. As the Nile receives no tributary for the last 1100 miles of its course\\nit becomes smaller toward its mouth.\\n1 Before the discoveries of the last century, the chief sources of information on\\nEgypt were (1) Herod otus, a Greek hi.storian who traveled along the Nile about\\n450 B. c. (2) Diodo rus Sic ulus, another Greek historian, who visited Egypt in the\\nist century u. c. and (:5) INfau etho, an Egyptian priest (3d century B. c.) of whose\\nhistory onl3 fragments now remain. Manetlio, who compiled his accounts from\\narchives preserved in tlie Egyptian temi)les, has been the main authority on\\nohronology. How many dynasties were contemporaneous is a subject of dispute", "height": "3345", "width": "2170", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "16\\nEGYPT.\\nnew epoch began in Egyptian history,\\nclaimed all the district watered by the\\nepoch the princi-\\npal interest clusters\\nabout the IV^ or\\nPyramid dynasty,\\nso called because its\\nchief monarchs built\\nthe three great pyra-\\nmids at Gizeh (ghe\\nzeh). The best-\\nknown of these kings\\nwas Klm fu, termed\\nCheops (ke -ops) by\\nHerodotus. In time,\\nEgypt broke up into\\nkingdoms, Memphis\\nlost its preeminence,\\nand Thebes became\\nthe favorite capital.\\n2. The Middle\\nEmpire (2080 b. c-\\n1525 B. c). When\\nthe hundred-gated\\ncity, Thebes, rose to\\nsovereign power, a\\nThe XII*^ dynasty\\nNile, and under its\\namong Egyptologists, who differ ovor 3000 years\u00e2\u0080\u0094 from 5702 i?. c. to 2601 b. c\u00e2\u0080\u0094 on the\\ndate for Meues. As the Egyptians themselves had no continuous chronolog}^ but\\nreckoned dates from the ascension of eacli king, the monuments furnish little help.\\nOf the five recovered lists of kings, only one attempts to give the length of their\\nrespective reigns, and this is in 1()4 fragments. All early Egyptian dates are there-\\nfore extremely uncertain, altliough most Egyptologists differ less than 200 years on\\nthose following the foundation of the New Empire. The Egyptian Exi)loration\\nFund (founded 1883) and the Arclueological Survey (1890) are now systematically\\ninvestigating monuments and papyri. In this book, what is called the Short Chro-\\nnology has been followed.", "height": "3345", "width": "2170", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 17\\ngreat kings, the Sesorta sens and the Amenem hes, Etliiopia\\nwas conquered. To tliis dynasty belong the famous Lake\\nMoeris and the Labyrinth (p. 39). The briUiant XII^^\u00c2\u00bb\\ndynasty was followed by the weak XIII The divided\\ncountry invited attack, and the Hyksos shepherd kings\\na rude, barbarous race that had already conquered Lower\\nEgypt, finally overran the whole region, and ruled it for 400\\nyears. Wlien at last they were driven out, they left to\\nEg3^pt a strong, centralized government.\\n3. The New Empire (1525-527 b. c.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The native\\nkings having been restored to the throne, Eg}T3t became a\\nunited people, with Thebes for the capital. Then followed\\na true national life of 1000 years. The XVIII and XIX*^\\ndynasties exalted Egypt to the height of its glory. Thoth-\\nmes I. (tot -meez) began a system of great Asiatic expedi-\\ntions, which lasted 500 years. TJiothmes III.,^ the Egyptian\\nAlexander the Great, was a magnificent warrior-king. In\\nthe sculptures, Nineveh and Babylon pay him tribute;\\nwhile his ships, manned by Phoenician sailors, sweep the\\nMediterranean. The Great Temple of Karnak (p. 26) was\\nlargely built by him. Am imo2)h III. was also a famous war-\\nrior and builder. Among his structures there remains the\\nVocal Memnon, which was said to sing when kissed by the\\nrising sun. Khu-en-A ten, the heretic king, rejected the The-\\nban gods for the one-god {Aten) sun-worship of his foreign\\nmother. He founded a new capital (now Tel-el-Amarna\\nruins), but neither capital nor religion long survived him.\\nSeti (Mineptah I.) subdued Mesopotamia, and built the Great\\nHaU of Columns at Karnak. At an early age his son,\\n1 In 1881, between 30 and -10 royal niunimiea, Including those of Thotlunes III.,\\nSeti I., and Rameses IT., were found iu a concealed niummj -pit near Thebes. The\\nofficial records on the cases and bandages show that these precious relics had been\\nmoved from tomb to tomb, probably for safety, until at some crisis they had been\\nhurriedly deposited here. The great Rameses liad thus been shifted many times,", "height": "3345", "width": "2170", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "18 EGYPT.\\nRam eses II., was made joint king with him, and they reigned\\ntogether nntil Mineptah s death. Rameses II., the Sesostris\\nthe Great of the Greek historians, carried his conquering\\narms far into Africa. The greatest builder of all the\\nPharaohs, his gigantic enterprises exhausted the nation.\\nAnnual slave-hunting expeditions were made into Ethiopia\\nprisoners of war were lashed into service and the lives of\\nthe unhappy Hebrews were made bitter with hard bondage,\\nin mortar, and in brick (Exod. i. 14). He founded a library\\ninscribed The Dispensary of the Soul, and gathered about\\nhim many men of genius, making his time a golden age of\\nart and Hterature.\\nThe Decline of Egypt began with the XX dynasty,\\nwhen it was no longer able to retain its vast conquests. The\\ntributary peoples revolted, and the country was subdued in\\nturn by the Ethiopians and the Assyrians (p. 49). After\\nnearly a century of foreign rule, Psammetichus of the XXVI^^\\ndynasty threw off the Assyrian yoke, and restored the Egyp-\\ntian independence. This monarch, by employing Greek\\nonly to land at last in tlie Gizeli museum, where his uncovered face now lies for\\nthe whole world to gaze upon. In 1891, over 60 mummies of the same period\\n(XVII* to XXI t dynasties) were found in another tomh near the first. These had\\nescaped the eyes of modern trafficking thieves, and were found as they were left over\\n3000 years ago. In 1892, Khu-en-Aten s tomh was uncovered. His enemies had shat-\\ntered his sarcophagus, toin his mummy- wrappings to slireds, and effaced every token\\nof his hated religion. Babylonian claj^-tablet dispatches (p. 65) dug up in 1887 at Tel-\\nel- Amarna fix Khu-en-Ateu s reign at about 1430 b. c.\\n1 Though most of the monuments in Egypt hear his name, it is often inscribed\\nover the erased cartouch (p. 22) of a previous king. One of his first acts after Seti s\\ndeath was to complete the unfinished temple of Ab ydus, where his father was buried.\\nA long inscription which he placed at the entrance, ostensibly in praise of the de-\\nparted Seti, is a good example of his own boastfulness and habit of self-glorification.\\nHe saj^s, The most beautiful thing to behold, the best thing to hear, is a cliild with\\na thankful breast, wlu)se heart beats for his father. Wherefore my heart urges me to\\ndo what is good for Miueptali. I will cause them, to talk forever and eternally of Ms\\nson, who has awakened his name to life. The filial zeal of Rameses so declined in\\nhis later years, that, true to his ruling propensity, he chiseled out his father s name\\nand memorials in many places on the temple walls, and substituted his own in their\\nplace. Rameses II. is supposed to be the Pharaoh of the Israelitish Oppression,\\nand his son, Mineptah II., to be the Pharaoh of the Exodus.", "height": "3345", "width": "2170", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 19\\ntroops, SO offended the native warriors that 200,000 of theni\\nmutinied, and emigrated to Ethiopia. His successor, Necho\\n(Pharaoh-Necho of the Scriptures), maintained a powerful\\nfleet. Under his orders the Phoenician ships rounded the\\nCape of Good Hope.^\\nThe internal prosperity of Egypt still continued, as is\\nshown by the magnificent monuments of this period but\\nthe army was filled with mercenaries, and the last of the\\nPharaohs fell an easy prey to the fierce-fighting Persians\\nunder Cambyses. Egypt, like Babylon (p. 51), was now\\nreduced to a Persian province governed by a satrap.\\n2. THE CIVILIZATION.\\nEgyptian Society was divided into distinct classes, so that\\nordinarily no man could rise higher than the station in which\\nhe was born.2 The priestly and militaiy classes, which included\\nthe king, princes, and all men of rank, were far above the others.\\nThe King received the most exalted titles, and his authority was\\nsupposed to come du ect from the gods. The courtiers, on approach-\\ning him, fell prostrate, rubbing the ground with their noses some-\\ntimes, by his gracious consent, they were permitted to touch his\\nsacred knee.^ That he might be kept pure, he was given from\\nchildhood only the choicest and most vhtuous companions, and no\\n1 Twice daring this voyage, says Herodotus, the crews, fearing a want of food,\\nlanded, drew their ships on shore, sowed grain, and waited for a harvest. Tlie pupil\\nwill notice that this was over 2000 years before Vasco da Gama (Hist. U. S., p. 41), to\\nwhom is generally accorded the credit of first circumnavigating Africa.\\n2 There seems to have been an exception in favor of talented scribes. Neither\\ndescent nor family hampered the rising career of the clever. Many a monument con-\\nsecrated to the memory of some nobleman who hatl held high rank at court has the\\nsimple but laudatory inscription, His ancestors were unknown people. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Brugsch.\\nRoyal preferment was also without restriction.\\n3 When they had come before the king, their noses touched the ground, and\\ntheir feet lay on the ground for joy they fell down to the ground, and with their\\nhands they prayed to the king. Tlius they lay prostrate and touching the earth\\nbefore the king, speaking thus: We are come before thee, the lord of heaven, lord\\nof the earth, sun, life of the whole world, lord of time, creator of the harvest, dis-\\npenser of breath to all men, animator of the gods, pillar of heaven, threshold of the\\nearth, weigher of the balance of the two worlds, etc. (Inscription of Rameses II.\\nat Abydus).", "height": "3345", "width": "2170", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "20\\nEGYPT.\\nhii-ed servant was allowed to approach his person. His daily con-\\nduct was governed by a code of rules laid down in the sacred\\nbooks, which prescribed not only the hourly order and nature of\\nhis occupations, but limited even the kind mid quantity of his\\nfood. He was never suffered to forget his obligations and one\\nof the offices of the High Priest at the daily sacrifice was to remind\\nhim of his duties, and, by citing the good works of his ancestors,\\nto impress upon him the nobility of a well-ordered life. After\\ndeath he was worshiped with the gods.\\nTlie Priests were the richest, the most powerful, and the only\\nlearned body of tlie country. They were not limited to sacred\\noffices, and in their caste comprised all\\nthe mathematicians, scientists, lawyers,\\nand physicians of the land. Those\\npriests who excelled in \\\\drtue and wis-\\ndom were initiated into the holy mys-\\nteries, a privilege which they shared\\nonly with the king and the prince-royal.\\nAmong the priesthood, as in the other\\nclasses, there were marked distinctions\\nof rank. The High Priests held the\\nmost honorable station. Chief among\\nthem was the Prophet, who offered\\nsacrifice and libation in the temple,\\nwearing as his insignia a leopard-skin\\nover his robes. The king himself often\\nperformed the duties of this office. The\\nreligious observancesof the priests were\\nrigid. They had long fasts, bathed\\ntwice a day and twice in the night, and\\nevery third day were shaven from head to foot, the most devout\\nusing water which had been tasted by the sacred Ibis. Beans, pork,\\nfish, onions, and various other articles of diet, were forbidden to\\nthem and on certain days, when a religious ceremony compelled\\nevery Egyptian to eat a fried fish before his door, the priests burned\\ntheirs instead. Their dress was of linen woolen might be used for\\nan outer, but never for an inner garment, nor could it be worn into\\na temple. The influence of the priests was immense, since they not\\nonly ruled the living, but were supposed to have power to open and\\nshut the gates of eternal bliss to the dead. They received an ample\\nincome from the state, and had one third of the land free of tax,\\nEOYrriAN PTIOPHKT.\\n(From Monument at Tiubes.)", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION.\\n21\\nan inheritance which they claimed as a special gift from the god-\\ndess Isis.\\nThe Military Class also possessed one third of the land, each\\nsoldier s share being about eight acres. The army, which numbered\\n410,000 men, was well disciplined and thoroughly organized. It\\ncomprised archers, spearmen, swordsmen, clubmen, and shngers.\\nEach soldier furnished his own equipments, and held himself in\\nconstant readiness for duty. He wore a metal coat of mail and a\\nmetal or cloth helmet, and carried a large shield made of ox-hide\\ndrawn over a wooden frame. The chariots, of which great use was\\nUtiVl TFAN WAR CIIAKIOT (TIIKI5KS).\\nmade in war, were sometimes richly ornamented and inlaid with\\ngold. The king led the army, and was often accompanied by a\\nfavorite lion.\\nLotver Classes. All the free population not belonging to the\\npriesthood or the military was arbitrarily classified each trade or\\noccupation having its own rank in the social scale, and inhabiting\\na certain quarter in the town, a custom still observed in Cairo.\\nScribes and architects, whose profession gave them access to\\ntemples and palaces, and who had thus a chance to win royal favor,\\nnaturally stood highest. Swine-herds were the most despised of all\\nmen the Egyptian, like the Hebrew, Mohammedan, and Indian,\\nconsidering the pig an unclean animal. Swine-herds were forbid-\\nden to enter a temple. Aj^.the entire land of Egypt was owned by", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "22 EGYPT.\\nthe king, the priests, and the soldiers, the lower classes could hold\\nno real estate; but they had strong-ly marked degrees of importance,\\ndepending upon the relative rank of the trade to which they were\\nborn, and their business success. According to Herodotus, no\\nartisan could engage in any other employment than the one to\\nwhich he had been brought up. He also tells us that every man\\nwas obliged to have some regular means of subsistence, a written\\ndeclaration of which was deposited periodically with the magis-\\ntrate. A false account or an unlawful business was punished by\\ndeath.\\nWriting. Hieroglyphics (sacred sculptures). The earhest\\nEgyptian wiiting was a series of object pictures analogous to that\\nstill used by the North American Indians (Brief Hist. U. S., p. 13).\\n__\u00e2\u0080\u009e^ Gradually this primitive system\\nI ife- yw was altered and abbreviated into\\nI (1) hieratic (priestly) writing,\\nTHii NAME OF EGYPT IN thc form lu whlch most Egyp-\\nHiEROGLYPHics. tlau litcraturc is written, and\\nwhich is read by first resolving it into the original hieroglyphs and\\n(2) demotic (writing of the people), in which all traces of the original\\npictures are lost. During these changes many meanings became\\nattached to one sign, so that the same hieroglyph might represent\\nan idea, the symbol of an idea, or an abstract letter, syllable, or word.\\nAn Egyptian scribe used various devices to explain his meaning.\\nTo a hieroglyphic word or syllable he would append one or more\\nof its letters then, as the letter-signs had different meanings, he\\n1 So called by the Greeks, who tli ^uglit them to he mystic religious symhola\\nximlerstood only by the priests. Neitlier the Greeks nor Romans attempted to\\ndecipher them. The discovery of the Rosetta stone (1799) furnished the first clew to\\ntheir reading. A French engineer, while digging intrenchments on the site of an old\\ntemple near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile (Brief Hist. France, p. 229), unearthed\\na black basalt tablet inscribed in three languages,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 hieroglyphic, demotic, and\\nGreek. It proved to be a decree made by the priests in the time of Ptolemy V.\\n(196 B. c), whom it styled the god Epiphanes, increasing his divine honors, and\\nordering that the command should be engraved in the three languages, and placed in\\nall the chief temples. By a comparison of the Greek and Egyptian texts, a principle\\nof interpretation was finally established. Hieroglyphics had hitherto been supposed\\nto represent only ideas or symbols. Twenty-three years after the discovery of tlie\\nRosetta stone, the great French scholai- Frau90Js CliarapoUion announced that they\\nexpress both ideas and sounds. The Egyptians inclosed their royal names and titles\\nin an oval ring or cartouch. Out of the four cartouches, (i^[^^^\\\\Pj Ptolemaios,\\nC^n^VCJ P.ereuike, C^^^^^^VCl Kleopatra, an.l (^^Z^rXj\\nAlexandres, Champollion obtained a partial alphabet, which was completed by\\nsubsequent analyses.", "height": "3308", "width": "1993", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 23\\nwould add a picture of some object that would suggest the intended\\nidea. Thus, for the word hread he would wiite the\\nsyllable ^^(/iq) then its complement (9), and finally, as\\na determinative, give the picture of a loaf One would\\nsuppose that the form of the loaf would itself have been sufficient,\\nbut even that had several interpretations. In like manner the\\nscribe appended the determinative 2| ^^^Y words sig-\\nnifying actions of the mouth, as eating, laughing, sjjeaking, etc., but\\nto those of the thought, as Jcnowing, judging, deciding. To under-\\nstand hieroglyphics, a knowledge of the peculiar ideas of the Egyp-\\ntians is also necessary. It is easy to see that ^3 means worship,\\nand crime; but we should hardly interpret Im^ as son,\\nor jIi as mother, unless we knew that geese were believed to\\npossess a warm filial nature, and all vultures to be females. Besides\\nthese and other complications in hieroglyphic writing, there was no\\nuniform way of arranging sentences. They were written both hori-\\nzontally and perpendicularly sometimes part of a sentence was\\nplaced one way, and part the other; sometimes the words read from\\nright to left, sometimes from left to right, and sometimes they were\\nscattered about within a given space without any apparent order.\\nPapyrus. Books were written and government records kept on\\npapyrus i (hence, paper) rolls. These were generally about ten\\ninches wide and often one hundred and fifty feet long. They were\\nwritten upon with a frayed reed clipped into black or red ink. As\\nthe government had the monopoly of the papyrus, it was very costly.\\n1 The papyrns, or paper reed, wliicli flourished in ancient times so Inxuriantlj that\\nit formed jun^ les along the hanks of the Nile, is no longer found in Egypt. The\\npaper reeds hy the brooks, by the mouth of the brooks, shall wither, be driven\\navra5% and be no more, Isa. xix. 7.) It had a large, tliree-sided, tapering stem, two\\nto three inches broad at the base. The reed was prepared for use by peeling off tlie\\nsmooth bark, and cutting the inner mass of white pith lengthways into thin slices,\\nwhich were laid side by side with their edges touching one another. A second layer\\nhaving been placed transverselj upon the first, and the whole sprinkled with the\\nmuddy Nile water, a heavy press was applied whicli united them into one mass. It\\nwas then dried, and cut into sheets of the required size. Pap.yrus was in use until the\\nend of the 7th century A. i wlien it was superseded by parchment (prepared skins).\\nThe latter was also used in Egj-pt at a verj early period and though it is generally\\nsupposed to have been invented by Kumenes, King of Pergamus, in the 2d century\\nB. c, records written upon skins and kept in the temple are mentioned in the\\ntime of the XVIII djnasty, 1200 years before Eumenes (p. 15G).", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "24\\nEGYPT.\\nbones of animals.\\nLiterature. Booh of the Dead.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The most cele-\\nbrated Egyptian book is the Book of the Manifestation to Light,\\noften called the Book of the Dead. It is a ritual for the use\\nof the soul in its journeys i after death, and a copy more or less\\n1 After cleath the soul was supposed to descend into the lower world, where, in the\\ngreat Hall of Justice, before Osiris and his forty-two assessors (p. 34), it was weighed\\nin the infallible scales of Truth. Tlie soul s defense before Osiris is elaboratelj^ de-\\ntailed in the Ritual. If accepted, it became itself an Osiris, and roamed the\\nuniverse for three thousand years, always maintaining a mysterious connection with\\nits mummied body, which it visited from time to time. In its wanderings it assumed\\ndifferent forms at will, and the Ritual gives instructions by means of which it could\\nbecome a hawk, heron, lotus-flower, serpent, crocodile, etc., all emblems of Deity.\\nVarious incantations are also given by which it could vanquish the frightful mon-\\nsters that assailed it in the nether world. The Soul, the Sliadow, and the Ka were at\\nlast re-united to the body in a blissful immoitality. The Ka (p. 38) was a man s\\nmysterious double, an ethereal counterpart distinct from the soul, which dwelt in", "height": "3298", "width": "2058", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "THE CiViLiZATlON. ZO\\ncomplete, according to the fortune of the deceased, was inclosed in\\nthe mummy-case. This strange book contains some sublime pas-\\nsages, and many of its chapters date from the earliest antiquity.\\nAs suggestive of Egyptian morals, it is interesting to find in the\\nsoul s defense before Osiris such sentences as these\\nI have not been idle; I have not been intoxicated; I liave not told secrets I\\nliave not told falselioods I have not defrauded I have not slandered; I have not\\ncaused tears; I have given food to the hungry, drink to tlie thirsty, and clothes to\\nthe naked.\\nPhtah-ho tep s Book. Good old Prince Phtah-hotep, son of a\\nking of the V* dynasty, wrote a moral treatise full of excellent\\nadvice to the young people of 4000 years ago. This book, now\\npreserved in Paris, is beUeved to be the oldest in the world. The\\nfollowing extracts are noticeable\\nOn Filial Obedience. The obedient son shall grow old and obtain favor; thus\\nhave I, myself, become an old man on earth and have lived 110 years in favor with\\nthe king, and approved by my seniors.\\nOn Freedom from Arrogance. If thou art become great, after thou hast been\\nhumble, and if thou hast amassed riches after poverty, being because of that the first\\nin thy town; if thou art known for thy wealth and art become a great lord, let not\\nthy heart become proud because of thy riches, for it is God who is the author of them.\\nDespise not another who is as tliou wast be towards him as towards thy equal.\\nOn Cheerfulness. Let thy face be cheerful as long as thou livest has any one\\ncome out of the coffin after having once entered it?\\nMiscellaneous ^oofe. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Several treatises on medicine have been\\ndeciphered. They generally abound in charms and adjurations.\\nWorks on rhetoric and mathematics, and various legal and po-\\nlitical documents, are extant. Epistolary coiTespondence is abun-\\ndant. A letter addressed by a priest to one of the would-be poets\\nof the time contains this wholesome criticism\\nIt is verj unimportant what flows over thy tongue, for tlij compositions are\\nvery confused. Thou tearest the words to tatteis, just as it comes into tliy mind.\\nThou dost not take pains to find out their force for thyself. If thou rushest wildly\\nforward thou wilt not succeed. I have struck out for thee tlie end of thy composi-\\ntion, and I return to thee thy descriptions. It is a confused medle} when one liears\\nit; an unediicated person could not understand it. It is like a man from the low-\\nlands speaking witli a man from Elephantine.\\nA few works of fiction exist which belong to the XIP^ dynasty,\\nand there are many beautiful hymns addressed to the different gods.\\nA long and popular poem, the Epic of Fcntaur, which celebrated\\nthe tomb with his mummy while his .soul performed its appointed pilgrimage. The\\nsoul which was rejected by Osiri.s and his foity-two assessors, took tlie form of a pig\\nor otlier unclean animal, aiul, if incorrigible, was finally annihilated.", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "26\\nEGYPT.\\nthe deeds of Rameses II., won the prize in its time as an heroic song,\\nand was engraved on temple walls at Abydus, Luxor, Karnak, and\\nthe Ramesseum. It is sometimes styled ^The Egyptian Iliad.\\nEducation was under the control of the priesthood. Great\\nattention was paid to mathematics\\nand to writing, of which the Egyp-\\ntians were especially fond. Geom-\\netry and mensuration were important,\\nas the yearly inundation of the Nile\\nproduced constant disputes concern-\\ning property boundaries. In music,\\nonly those songs appointed by law\\nwere taught, the children being care-\\nfully guarded from any of doubtful\\nsentiment. As women were treated\\nwith great dignity and respect in\\nEgypt, reigning as queens and serv-\\ning in the holiest offices of the temple,\\nthey probably shared in the advan-\\ntages of schoohng. The common people had little education,\\nexcept what pertained to their calling. Reading and writing were\\nso difficult as to be considered great accomplishments.\\nMonuments and Art. Stupendous size and mysterious sym-\\nbolism characterize all the monuments of this strange people.\\nThey built immense pyramids holding closely hidden chambers\\ngigantic temples whose massive entrances, guarded by great stone\\nstatues, were approached by long avenues of colossal sphinxes vast\\ntemple-courts, areas, and halls in which were forests of carved and\\npainted columns; and lofty obelisks, towers, and sitting statues,^\\nQUEKN AHIINC, KINO IX TKMfI.E\\nSEIIVICK (TIIKI5ES).\\n1 The temples were isolated by huge brick inclosures, and wore an air of solemn\\nmystery. None but priests could enter the holy precincts. The Cireat Temple of\\nKarnak (see ill. p. 9) was 1200 feet long by 360 wide; its Great Hall, 340 by 170 feet,\\ncontained 134 painted columns, some of them 70 feet high and 12 feet in diameter.\\nThis temple was joined to one at Luxor by an avenue of sphinxes two miles long,\\nother famous monuments are the Memnonium, built by Amunoph III. the Rames-\\n\u00c2\u00abeMm, by Rameses II.; andtheJfertine\u00c2\u00ab-^bo?t palace of Rameses III. The construction\\nand various reparations of some of tliese vast piles of stone cover immense periods of\\ntime. Excavations made in 1887 at Tell-Basta, the ancient Bubastis, show tliat a\\ntemple to Pasht, the cat-headed goddess (p. 30), existed there from the time of the\\nPyramid dynasty down to 150 B. C.\\n2 Rameses II. reared gigantic self-statues all over Egypt. A wall-painting discov-\\nered at Luxor in 1891 shows six colossi in front of the temple at its dedication. His\\nsitting statue at the Memnonium was 22 feet across the shoulders, and weighed nearly\\n900 tons; his standing statue at Tania towered 92 feet above the plain.", "height": "3298", "width": "2058", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION\\n27\\nwhich still endui e, though desert winds and drifting sands have\\nbeaten upon them for thousands of years.\\nSculpture, Painting, Statuary. Egyptian granite is so hard\\nthat it is cut with difficulty by the best steel tools of to-day yet\\nthe ancient sculptures are sometimes graven to the depth of\\nseveral inches, and show an exquisite finish and accuracy of detail.\\nPainting was usually combined with sculpture, the natural hue of\\nthe objects represented being crudely imitated. Blue, red, green,\\nblack, yellow, and white were the principal colors. Red, which\\ntypified the sun, and blue, the color of the sky reflected in the\\nNile, were sacred tints. Tombs, which were cut in the solid rock,\\nhad no outer ornamentation, but the interior was gayly painted\\nwith scenes from every-day life. Sarcophagi and\\nthe walls which inclosed temples were covered\\nboth inside and outside with scenes or inscrip-\\ntions. The painted scenes were sometimes taken\\nfrom the Book of the Dead often they were\\nvivid delineations of the royal conquests. The\\nproportion, form, color, and expression of every\\nstatue were fixed by laws prescribed by the\\npriests, the effect most sought being that of im-\\nmovable repose. 1 A wooden statue found at\\nSakkarah, and belonging to one of the earliest\\ndynasties, is remarkable for its fine expression\\nand evident effort at portraiture.^\\nMode of Drawing, Perspective. In drawing the\\nhuman form, the entke body was traced, after which the drapery\\nwas added (see cut). Several artists were employed on one picture.\\nThe first drew squares of a definite size, upon which he sketched in\\nred an outline of the desired figure the next corrected and improved\\nit in black the sculptor then followed with his chisel and other\\ntools and finally the most important artist of all laid on the pre-\\nscribed colors. The king was di-awn on a much larger scale than his\\nsubjects, his dignity being suggested by his colossal size. Gods and\\n1 All Egyptian statues liave a stiff, rigid pose, and are generally fastened at the\\nback to a pillar. In standing statues the arms are held close to the sides in seated,\\nthe knees are pressed together, and the hands spread out upon them, palms down.\\n2 When Mariette discovered in the Memphite necropolis this now famous statue of\\na man standing and holding in his hand the baton of authority, the fellahs (peasants)\\nsaw in it a wonderful resemblance to tlieir own rustic tax-assessor, the dignitary of\\nthe place. An astonished fellah shouted out, It s the Sheikh-el-Beled Ilis com-\\npanions took up the cry, and the statue has been called by that name ever since. This\\nincident illustrates the persistency of national type.\\nSOX OF RAMESES HI.\\n(Thebes.)", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "28\\nEGYPT.\\ngoddesses were frequently represented with the head of an animal\\non a human form. There was no idea of perspective, and the general\\neffect of an Egyptian painted scene was that of grotesque stiffness.\\nPractical Arts and Inventions. We have seen how the\\nEgyptians excelled in cutting gi anite. Steel was perhaps in use\\nas early as the IV dynasty, as pictures on the Memphite tombs\\nseem to represent butchers sharpening their knives on a bar of\\nthat metal. Great skill was shown in alloying, casting, and sol-\\ndering metals. Some of their bronze implements, though buried\\nfor ages, and since exposed to the damp of European climates,\\nare still smooth and bright. They possessed the art of imparting\\nelasticity to bronze or brass, and of overlaying bronze with a\\nrich green by means of acids.\\nGlass bottles are represented in the earliest sculptures, and\\nthe Egyptians had their own secrets in coloring, which the best\\nVenetian glass-makers of to-day are unable to discover. Their glass\\nmosaics were so delicately ornamented that some of the feathers of\\nbirds and other details can be made out only with a lens, which\\nwould imply that this means of magnifying was used in Egypt.\\nGems and precious stones were successfully imitated in glass j\\nand Wilkinson says, The mock pearls found by me in Thebes\\nwere so well counterfeited that even now\\nit is difficult with a strong lens to detect\\nthe imposition.\\nGoldsmiths washing and working gold\\nare seen on monuments of the IV dy-\\nnasty; and gold and silver wire were\\nwoven into cloth and used in embroidery\\nas early as the Xllt dynasty. Gold rings,\\nbracelets, armlets, necklaces, ear-rings,\\nvases, and statues were common in the\\nsame age, the cups being often beauti-\\nfully engraved and studded with precious\\nstones. Objects of art were sometimes\\nmade of silver or bronze inlaid with gold,\\nor of baser metals gilded so as to give\\nthe effect of solid gold.\\nVeneering was extensively practiced,\\nand in sculptures over 3300 years old workmen are seen with glue-\\npot on the fire, fastening the rare woods to the common sycamore\\nand acacia. In cabinet-work Egypt excelled, and liouse-furni-\\nture assumed graceful and elegant forms.\\n:vrriAN i;a!^y-chai", "height": "3298", "width": "2058", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION.\\n29\\nFlax and Cotton were i:i-()\\\\vn, ;iii(l ixv^ nt perfection was reached\\nin spinning and weavinj^ [jincn clotli f exquisite texture has\\nbeen found in Meniphite touil s, and the strong flax-strings used\\nKG V I ll AN I urc\\nfor fowling-nets were so finely spun that it was said ^a man\\ncould eaiTy nets enough to surround a whole wood. Finally,\\nwooden hoes, shovels, forks, and plows, toothed sickles, and drags\\naided the farmer\\nin his work the\\ncarpenter had his\\nax, hammer, file,\\nadz, hand saw,\\nchisel, di ill, plane,\\nright angle, ruler,\\nand plummet; the\\nglass-worker and\\ngem-cutter used\\nicGYi TiAN MUSICIANS cmBry powder, if\\n(THE GUITAR, HAKP, AND DOUBLE I ll K). j^Ot a lapidary s\\nwheel the potter had his wheel upon which he worked the clay\\nafter he had kneaded it with his feet the public weigher had\\nstamped weights and measures, and delicate scales for balancing\\nthe gold and silver rings used as currency; musicians played on\\npipes, ha rps, flutes,^ guitars, lyres, tambourines, and cymbals;\\nwhile di-um and trumpet cheered the soldier in his march.\\n1 In 1889 several flutes were fonnd in an Ej^yptiau tomb. These instruments, which\\nare over three thousand years old, give the exact sounds of our diatonic scale.", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "30 EGYPT.\\n3. THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\nGeneral Character. The Egyptians were mild in disposition,\\npolite in manners, reverential to their elders and superiors, extremely\\nloyal and patriotic, and intensely religious. They have been called\\na gloomy people, but their sculptures reveal a keen sense of humor\\nand love of caricature. They were especially fond of ceremonies and of\\nfestivals. Their religion formed a part of their every-day life, and\\nwas interwoven with all their customs.\\nBeligion. The Egyptian priests believed in one invisible, over-\\nruling, self-created God the immortality of the soul a judgment\\nafter death the final annihilation of the wicked and the ultimate\\nabsorption of the good into the eternal Deity.\\nGod created his own members, which are the gods, they said;\\nand so out of one great God grew a host of lesser ones, regarded by\\nthe priests as only His attributes and manifestations, but becoming to\\nthe people distinct and separate divinities. Natural objects and prin-\\nciples were thus deified, the soil, the sky, the east, the west, even\\nthe general idea of time and space. Each month and day had its own\\ngod. The Nile, as the source of the country s fertility, was especially\\nrevered and the conflict of God with sin was seen in the life-giving\\nriver, and the barren, encroaching desert.\\nTJie Sun, especially in later times, was the great exponent of\\nDeity. His mysterious disappearance each night, and his return every\\nmorning to roll over the heavens with all the splendor of the pre-\\nceding day, were events full of sj^mbolic meaning. The rising sun\\nwas the beautiful young god Horus. In his mid-day glory he was Ea,\\nas he neared the western horizon he became Tum, and during the\\nnight he was Amun. Each, of these gods, as well as the many others\\nconnected with the sun, had his own specific character. This complex\\nsun-god was imagined to float through the sky in a boat, accompanied\\nby the souls of the Supremely Blest, and at night to pass into the\\nregions of the dead.\\nTriad of Orders. There were three orders of gods. The first i\\n1 In Thebes, Amun-Ea (tlie Concealed God or Absolnte Spirit headed the\\ndeities of the fust order. He was represented as having the head of a ram, the\\nhieroglyphic of a ram signifying also concealment. In Memphis, PMaU Fatlier\\nof the Beginnings the Creator, was chief his symbol was the Scarabcens, or beetle,\\nan image of which was placed on the heart of everj^ ninmniy. Phtali was father of\\nlia, the sun-god. Ila was, in the mystic sense, that which is to-day, tlie existing\\npresent. Tlie hawk was his emblem. Paslit, his sister, one of tlie personifications\\nof the sun s strong rays, sometimes healthful, sometimes baneful, was botli loved and\\nfeared. She was especially worshiped at Bnbastis: but her statues, having the head", "height": "3298", "width": "2058", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\n31\\nwas for the priesthood, and represented the ideal and spiritual part of\\nthe religion the second impersonated human faculties and powers;\\nand the third the most popular of all among tlie people was made\\nup of forms and forces in nature.\\nTriads of Gods. Each town or city had its specially honored triad\\nof deities to whom its temples were dedicated. The triads often con-\\nsisted of father, mother, and son, but sometimes of two gods and a\\nking. Osiris, w^ho with Isis and\\nHorns formed the most celebrated\\nof these triads, was worshiped\\nthroughout the land. So popular\\nwere these deities that it has been\\nsaid, With the exception of Amun\\nand Neph, they comprise all Egyp-\\ntian mythology. l\\nAnimal Worship. As early as\\nthe 11^ dynasty certain animals\\nhad come to be regarded as em-\\nblems or even incarnations of the\\ngods. The bull Apis, whose tem-\\nple was at Memphis, was sup-\\nposed to be inhabited by Osiris\\nhimself, and the sacred presence of the god to be attested by cer-\\ntain marks on the body of the animal. Apis was consulted as an\\n15KONZE FIGUUE OK APIS.\\nof a cat, are common all over Egypt. Nepfi, often confounded with Amun, and, like\\nhim, wearing the ram s head, was the Divine Breath or Spirit pervading matter;\\nsheep were sacred to liim. Tlioth, son of Neph, was god of intelligence; tlie ibis\\nwas his emblem. Sate, the wife of Neph and one of the forms of Isis, was the god-\\ndess of vigilance she was the eastern sky waiting for the morning sun. Athor,\\ngoddess of love, was the beautiful western sky, wife of the evening sun, taking the\\nwearied traveler to rest in her arms after each day s labor the cow was her emblem.\\nNeith, wife of Phtah, was goddess of wisdom she was the night skj which induces\\nreflection. 3Iaut, the Mother Goddess and greatest of the sky divinities,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 which\\nwere all feminine,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 was the cool night sky tenderlj^ brooding over the hot, exhausted\\nearth the shrew-mouse was sacred to her. TypJion was the common enemj of all\\nthe other gods his emblems were the pig, the ass, and the hippopotamus.\\n1 It was related that Osiris once went about the earth doing good that he was\\nslain by Set (Typhon), his brother that his Avife, Isis, by prayers and invocations,\\nassisted in his resurrection; and that finally Ilorus, his son, avenged his wrongs\\nand destroj ed Set. In this myth Osiris represents Divine Goodness; Isis is the\\nLove of Goodness Set, tlie principle of Evil and Horus, Divine Triumph. Osiris\\nhad a multitude of characters. He was the Nile he was the sun he was the judge\\nof the dead from him all souls emanated, and in him all Justified souls were swal-\\nlowed up at last. To know the mysteries of Osiris was the glory of the priesthood.\\nIsis, too, appeared in many forms, and was called by the Greeks she of the ten-\\nthousand names. Mystic legends made lier the mother, wife, sister, and daughter\\nof Osiris while Horus was their son and brother, and was Osiris himself.", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "32 EGYPT.\\noracle, and his breath was said to confer upon children the gift of\\nprophecy. When an Apis died, great was the mourning until the\\npriests found his successor, after which the rejoicing was equally\\ndemonstrative. The cost of burying the Apis was so great as some-\\ntimes to ruin the officials who had him in charge, l The calf Mnevis\\nat Heliopolis, and the white cow of Athor at Athribis, were also rev-\\nerenced as incarnations of Deity. Other animals were considered as\\nonly emblems. Of these, the hawk, ape, ibis, cat, 2 and asp were every-\\nwhere worshiped; but crocodiles, dogs, jackals, frogs, beetles, and\\nshrew-mice, as well as certain plants and vegetables, were venerated\\nin different sections of the country. Those sacred in one nome were\\noften in others hated and hunted or used for food. Thus, at Thebes\\nthe crocodile and the sheep were worshiped, while the goat was\\neaten at Mendes the sheep was eaten and the goat worshiped and\\nat Apollinopolis the crocodile was so abhorred as an emblem of the\\nevil spirit, that the people set apart an especial day to hunt and kill\\nas many crocodiles as possible, throwing the dead bodies before the\\ntemple of their own god.\\nThe crocodile was principally worshiped about Lake Moeris in the\\nFayoom. A chosen number of these animals was kept in the tem-\\nples, where they were given elegant apartments, and treated to every\\nluxury, at public expense. Let us imagine a crocodile fresh from\\na warm, sumptuous bath, anointed with the most precious oint-\\nments, and perfumed with fragrant odors, its head and neck glittering\\nwith jeweled ear-rings and necklace, and its feet with bracelets, wal-\\nlowing on a rich and costly carpet to receive the worship of intelligent\\nhuman beings. Its death was mourned as a public calamity its body,\\nwrapped in linen, was carried to the embalmers, attended by a train of\\npeople, weeping, and beating their breasts in grief then, having been\\nexpensively embalmed and bandaged in gayly colored mummy-cloths,\\namid imposing ceremonies it was laid away in its rock sepulcher.\\nEmbalming. This art was a secret known only to those priests\\n1 Ancient antliovities state that no Apis -was allowed to live over twentj-^-tive\\nyears. If he attained that age, he was drowned with great ceremony in the Nile.\\nThe following inscription upon a recently discovered memorial stone erected to an\\nApis of the XXI I dj uasty, shows that at least one Apis exceeded that age This is\\nthe day on which the god was carried to his rest in the beautiful region of the west,\\nand was laid in the grave, in his everlasting house and in liis eternal abode.\\nHis glory was sought for in all places. After many months he was found in the\\ntemple of Phtah, beside his father, the Memphian god Phtah. The full\\nage of this god was 26 years.\\n2 When a cat died in any private dwelling the inmates shaved their eyebrows;\\nwhen a dog died, they shaved their entire bodies. Tlie killing of a cat, even acci-\\ndentally, was reckoned a capital otteuse. All sacred animals were embalmed, aud\\nburied with impressive ceremonies.", "height": "3298", "width": "2058", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\n33\\nwho lijiil it in cliaifjje. Tlu mumiiiy was more or le.ss elaborately pre-\\npared, according to the wealth and station of the deceased. In the\\nexpensive process\\nf^\\nw^^miimm\\nMLMMV IN UANDK.\\nmost\\nthe brain and intestines\\nwere extracted, cleansed\\nwith palm-wine and aro-\\nmatic spices, and either\\nretmnied to the body or\\ndeposited in vases which\\nwere placed in the tomb with the coffin. The body was also cleansed,\\nand filled with a mixture of resin and aromatics, after which it was\\nkept in niter for seventy days. It was then wrapped in bands of fine\\nlinen smeared on the inner side with gmn. There were sometimes a\\nthousand yards of bandages on one mummy. A thick pax) i us case,\\nfitted while damp to the exact shape of the bandaged body, next\\ninclosed it. This case was richly painted and ornamented, the hair\\nand features of the deceased being imitated, and eyes inlaid with\\nbrilliant enamel inserted. Sometimes the face was covered with\\nheavy gold leaf. Often a network of colored beads was spread over\\nthe body, and a winged scarabteus (p. 30) placed upon the breast. A\\nlong line of hieroglyphics extending down the front told the name and\\nquality of the departed. The inner case was inclosed in three other\\nVl TlAN !5AUtOl llA(;i is\\neases of the same form, all richly painted in different patterns. A\\nwooden or carved stone sarcophagus was the final receptacle in the\\ntomb. 2\\n1 So careful were the Egyptians to show proper respect to all that belonged to\\nthe human bodj that even the sawdust of the floor where they cleansed it was tied\\nup in small linen bags, which, to the number of twenty or thirty, were deposited in\\nvases, and buried near the tom\\\\). \u00e2\u0080\u0094Wilkimon.\\n2 In a less expensive mode of embalming, the internal parts were dissolved by-\\noil of cedar, after which the body was salted with niter, as before. The ordinary", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "34\\nEGYPT.\\nBurial. When any person died, all the women of the house left\\nthe body and ran out into the streets, wailing, and throwing dust upon\\ntheir heads. Their friends and relatives joined them as they went,\\nand if the deceased was a person of quality, others accompanied them\\nout of respect. Having thus advertised the death, they returned home\\nand sent the body to the embalmers. During the entire period of its\\nabsence they kept up an ostentatious show of grief, sitting unwashed\\nand unshaven, in soiled and torn garments,\\nsinging dirges and making lamentation.\\nAfter the body was restored to them, if\\nthey wished to delay its burial, they placed\\nit in a movable wooden closet standing\\nagainst the wall of the principal room in\\nthe house. Here, morning and evening,\\nthe members of the family came to weep\\nover and embrace it, making offerings to\\nthe gods in its behalf. Occasionally it was\\nbrought out to join in festivities given in\\nits honor (p. 42). The time having come\\nto entomb it, an imposing procession was\\nformed, in the midst of which the mummy\\nwas drawn upright on a sledge to the sacred\\nlake adjoining every large city. At this\\npoint forty-two chosen officials emblem-\\natical of the forty-two judges in the court\\nof Osiris (p. 24) formed a semicircle around the mummy, and for-\\nmal inquiries were made as to its past life and character. If no ac-\\ncusation was heard, an eulogium was pronounced, and the body was\\npassed over the lake. If, however, an evil life was proven, the lake\\ncould not be crossed, and the distressed friends were compelled to leave\\nthe body of their disgraced relative unburied, or to carry it home, and\\nWait till their gifts and devotions, united to the prayers of the priest-\\nhood, should pacify the gods. Every Egyptian, the king included, was\\nsubjected to the trial of the dead, and to be refused interment was\\nthe greatest possible dishonor. The best security a creditor could have\\nwas a mortgage on the mummies of his debtor s ancestors. If the debt\\nwere not paid, the delinquent forfeited his own burial and that of his\\nentire family.\\nA WOMAN EMIiRACINO HER\\nIIUbl{ANI \\\\S JIUMMY.\\n(Thobes.;\\nmummy-cloth was coarse, resembling our sacking. The bodies of the poor were\\nsimply cleansed and salted, or submerged in liquid pitch. These black, dry, heavy,\\nbad-smelling relics are now used by the fellahs for fuel. It is a fact that few mum-\\nmies of children have been discovered. The priests had the mout)poly of everything\\nconnected with embalming and burial, and they not only resold tombs which had\\nbeen occupied, but even traflacked in second-hand mummy-cases.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\n35\\nThe mummies of the poorer classes were deposited in pits in the\\nplain or in recesses cut in the rock, and then closed up with masonry\\nthose of the lowest orders were wrapped in coarse cloth mats, or a\\nbundle of palm-sticks, and buried in the earth or huddled into the\\nTHE FLNEUAL OK A MLMMY (AFTKU IMUnOEMAN).\\ngeneral repository. Various articles were placed in the tombs, espe-\\ncially images of the deceased person, and utensils connected with liis\\nprofession or trade (p. 38). Among the higher classes these objects\\nwere often of gi eat value, and included elegant vases, jewelry, and\\nimportant papyri.\\nSCENES IN REAL LIFE.\\nScene I. Pyramid Building (IV^ii dynasty). l Let us imagine\\nourselves in Egypt about 2400 B. c. It is the middle of November. The\\nNile, which, after its yearly custom,- began to rise in June, changing\\nits color rapidly from a turbid red to a slimy green and then again to\\nred, overflowed its banks in early August, and, spreading its waters\\non either side, made the country to look like an immense lake dotted\\nwith islands. For the last month it has been gradually creeping back\\nto its winter banks, leaving everywhere behind it a fresh layer of rich\\nbrown slime. Already the farmers are out with their Hght wooden\\n1 Over seventy Egyptian pyramids have been discovered and explored, all situated\\non the edge of the desert, west of the Nile. The three Great Pyramids of (iizeh Imilt\\nby Khufu and his successors are the most celebrated. The Cireat Pyramid built in\\nsteps at Sakkarah, and said to date from the I or 11 dynasty, is believed by many\\nto be the oldest monument in Egypt.\\nBGH-3", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "36\\nEGYPT.\\nA jModern shadoof.\\nplows and hoes, or are harrowing with bushes the moist mud on\\nwhich the seed has been thrown broadcast, and which is to be tram-\\npled down by the herds\\ndriven in for the piu\\npose. The first crop of\\nclover is nearing its har-\\nvest by proper care and\\na persistent use of the\\nshadoof, 1 three more\\ncrops will be gathered\\nfrom the same ground.\\nThe crocodile and the\\nhippopotamus haunt the\\nriver shores in the\\ndesert the wolf, jackal,\\nand hyena prowl but\\nthe greatest scourge and\\ntorment of the valley are the endless swarms of flies and gnats which\\nrise from the mud of the subsiding Nile.\\nKing Khufu of the IV^i dynasty is now on the throne, and the\\nGreat Pyramid, his intended tomb, is in process of erection near Mem-\\nphis, the city founded by Menes three hundred years ago. One hun-\\ndred thousand dusky men are toiling under a burning sun, now\\nquarrying in the limestone rock of the Arabian hills, now tugging at\\ncreaking ropes and rollers, straining every nerve and muscle under the\\nrods of hard overseers, as along the solid causeway 2 and up the inclined\\nplane they drag the gigantic stones they are to set in place. Occasion-\\nally a deta.chment is sent up the river in boats to Syene to bring fine\\nred granite, which is to be polished for casings to the inner passages\\nand chambers. Not a moment is lost from work save when they sit\\ndown in companies on the hot sand to eat their government rations of\\nradishes, onions, and garlics, the aggi*egate cost of which is to be\\nduly inscribed upon the pyramid itself. So exhausting is this forced\\nand unpaid labor that four times a year a fresh levy is needed to take\\nthe place of the worn-out toilers. When this pyramid is finished, and\\nit will continue to grow as long as the king shall live, 3 it will stand\\n1 The pole and bucket with which water was drawn from the Nile to irrigate the\\nland. It is still in use in Egypt.\\n2 It took tell years to build the causeway whereon the stone was brovight. The\\nconstruction of the pyramid required twenty years more. Herodotus thought the\\niauseway as great a work as the py ramid itself, and described it as built of polished\\nstone, and ornamented with carvings of animals.\\n3 As soon as a Pharaoh mounted his throne, he gave orders to some nobleman to\\nplan th\u00c2\u00ab work and cut the stone for the royal tomb. The kernel of the future edifice", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 37\\n480 feet high, with a base covering 13 acres. Its sides, which exactly\\nface the four cardinal points, will be cased with highly polished stone\\nfitted into the angles of the steps the workmen beginning at the apex\\nand working downward, leaving behind them a smooth, glassy sur-\\nface which cannot be scaled. There will be two sepulchral chambers\\nwith passages leading thereto, and five smaller chambers,! built to\\nrelieve the pressure of so great a mass of stone. The king s chamber,\\nwhich is situated in the center of the pyramid and is to hold the royal\\nsarcophagus, will be ventilated by air-shafts, and defended by a suc-\\ncession of granite portcullises. But Khufu will not rest here, for his\\noppression and alleged impiety have so angered the people that they\\nwill bury him elsewhere, leaving his magnificently planned tomb, with\\nits empty sarcophagus, to be wondered and speculated over, thousands\\nof years after his ambitious heart has ceased to beat.\\nMeantime other great public works are in progress. 2 Across the\\narm of the Red Sea, on the peninsula of Sinai, not sacred Sinai yet,\\nfor there are centuries to come before Moses,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 are the king s copper\\nand turquoise mines. Sculpture is far advanced and images of gold,\\nbronze, ivory, and ebony are presented to the gods. The whole land\\nswarms with a rapidly increasing population; but food is abundant,\\nraiment little more than a name, and lodging free on the warm earth.\\nBesides, the numbers are kept down by a royal policy which rears\\nenormous monuments at the price of flesh and blood. The over-\\nwrought gangs constantly sink under their burdens, and hasten on to\\ncrowd the common mummy-pits in the limestone hills.\\nwas raised on the limestone soil of the desert in the form of a small pyramid built\\nin steps, of which the well constructed and finished interior formed the king s eternal\\ndwelling, with the stone sarcophagus lying on the rocky floor. A second covering\\nwas added, stone by stone, on the outside of this kernel, a third to this second, and\\nto thi\u00c2\u00ab a fourth, the mass growing greater the longer the king lived. Every pyramid\\nhad iii own proper name. That of Khufu bore a title of honor, The Lights.\\nBrugsch s Egypt.\\n1 In one of these small chambers. Colonel Vyse, who was the first to enter tliem,\\nfound the royal name scrawled in red ocher on the stones, as if done by some idle\\noverseer in the quarry. It is a proof of the architectural skill of the Egyptians, that\\nin such a mass of stone they could construct chambers and passages which, with a\\nweight of millions of tons pressing upon them, should preserve their shape without\\ncrack or flaw for thousands of years.\\n2 Near Khufu s Pyramid is the Great Sphinx, a massive union of solid rock and\\nclumsy masonry, 146 feet long. This recumbent, human-headed lion, an image of the\\nsun-god Horus, is believed to be older than tlie pyramid itself. Under the sand close\\nby lies a vast temple constructed of enormous blocks of black or rose-colored granite\\nand oriental alabaster without sciilpturo or ornament. Here, in a well, were found\\nfragments of splendid statues of Sliafra, the successor of Khufu.\\n3 The whole expense of a child from infancy to manhood, says Diodorus, ia\\nnot more than twenty drachmas (about four dollars).", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "38 EGYPT.\\nScene II. A Lord of the IV*^ Dynasty has large estates managed\\nby a host of trained servants. He is not only provided with baker,\\nbutler, barber, and other household domestics, but with tailor, sail-\\nmaker, goldsmith, tile-glazer, potter, and glass-blower, i His musi-\\ncians, with their harps, pipes, and flutes, his acrobats, pet dogs, and\\napes, amuse his leism-e hours. He has his favorite games of chance or\\nskill, which, if he is too indolent to play himself, his slaves play in his\\npresence. He is passionately fond of hunting, and of fishing in the\\nnumerous canals which intersect the country and are fed from the\\nNile. He has small papyrus canoes, and also large, square-sailed,\\ndouble-masted boats, in which he sometimes takes out his wife and\\nchildren for a moonlight sail upon the river his harpers sitting cross-\\nlegged at the end of the boat, and playing the popular Egyptian airs.\\nBut he does not venture out into the Mediterranean with his boats.\\nHe has a horror of the sea, and to go into that impure region would\\nbe a religious defilement. On land he rides in a seat strapped between\\ntwo asses. He has never heard of horses or chariots, nor will they\\nappear in Egypt for a thousand years to come. He wears a white\\nlinen robe, a gold collar, bracelets and anklets, but no sandals. For\\nhis table he has wheaten or barley bread, beef, game, fruits and\\nvegetables, beer, wine, and milk. His scribes keep careful record of\\nhis flocks and herds, his tame antelopes, storks, and geese, writing\\nwith a reed pen on a papyrus scroll. He has his tomb cut in the rocks\\nnear the royal pyramid, where he sometimes goes to oversee the\\nsculptors and painters who are ornamenting the walls of its entrance-\\nchambers with pictures 2 of his dignities, riches, pleasures, and manner\\nof life. Directly below these painted rooms, perhaps at a depth of sev-\\nenty feet, is the carefully hidden mummy-pit. Here, in recesses cut\\n1 Such a household must have been a center of iiractical education and an enter-\\nprising Egyptian bOJ^ dearly as he loved his games of ball and wrestling, was likely\\nto be well versed in the processes of every trade. (See Brief Hist. France, p. 33.)\\n2 These pictures, with various articles stored in the tomb, served a magical\\npurpose, for tlie benefit of the Ka (p. 24). In the paintings on tlie walls, the Ka saw\\nhimself going to the chase, and he went to the chase; eating and drinking with his\\nwife, and he ate and drank with her. Tlie terra-cotta statuettes, armed with hoe, flail,\\nand seed-sack, worked the fields, drew the water, and reaped the grain, in his phantom\\nlife of industry while the painted workmen on tlie papyri made his shoes, cooked his\\nfood, and carried him to hunt in tlie desert or to fish in the marshes. Besides the\\nperiodical offerings of fresh baked meats, wine, and fruits brought by ministering\\nfriends, the Ka was sometimes furnished with mummied meats packed in sealed\\nhampers; and, to make sure of an abundance, a magical formula, placed on the\\nfunerary tablet in the entrance-chamber of the tomb, insured to him ghostly supplies\\nof thousands of loaves, thousands of beeves, thousands of geese, etc., down to the\\nend of the weary cycle of waiting. If, finally, when that glad hour came, the mummy\\nhad perished, its place could be supplied by a portrait statue, which was snugly con-\\ncealed behind the solid masonry.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 39\\nin the sides and bottom, will finally be placed the mninmies of this\\nlord and his family. Meantime lie strives to be true to his gods,\\nobedient to his king, and affectionate to his houseliold for thus he\\nhopes to pass the rigid ordeals which follow death, and to rest at last\\nin the Hoiit of the Sun.\\nScene III. Amencmlic III., the Luhyrinth, and Lake Marls (Xllf\\ndynasty, about B. c. 2080-1900). Over four centuries have passed since\\nKhufu s Pyramid was finished, and now toward the southwest, on an\\noasis in the midst of the desert, we see rising a magnificent group of\\npalaces, built about an immense twelve-courted rectangle. The stone\\nroofs and walls are covered with carvings. Here are three thousand\\nchambers, large and small, half of which are under gi-ound and are\\nto sepulcher mighty kings and sacred crocodiles. This marvelous\\nLabyrinth, where one passes from courts into chambers, and from\\nchambers into colonnades, from colonnades into fresh houses, and from\\nthese into courts unseen before, is surrounded by a single wall, and\\nincloses three sides of the large central rectangle. On the fourth side\\nstands a pyramid, engraven with large hieroglyphics, and entered by\\na subterranean passage. Amenemhe III. does not leave his identity\\nas the founder of this grand palace tomb to the chance scrawls of a\\nquarry workman, as did Khufu with his pyramid, but has his cart ouch\\nproperly inscribed on the building-stones.\\nLake Maris. There have been some gi-ievous famines 2 iu Egypt\\nproduced by the variable inundations of the Nile, and Amenemhe\\n1 These descriptions of the Labyrinth and Lake Moeris are founded on Herodotus.\\nStrabo located the Labyrinth between two pyramids. Prof. Petrie, who spent\\nnearly three years (1888-90) exploring the Fayooni, states that lie found between two\\npyramidal structures an immense bed of fine white limestone concrete, upon wliich\\nlie thousands of tons of limestone and red granite, fragments of the destroyed walls of\\nsome enormous structure. Profs. Saj^ce and INIaspero believe that in Lake Mceris\\nHerodotus saw only an overflow into a natural dei)ression. All Egyptologists concede,\\nhowever, that Amenemhat III., iu some way, greatly increased the amount of arable\\nland in this region, Petrie found here several inscribed fragments of Ameuemhat s\\nstatues and i)yramidal pedestals.\\n2 All Egypt is the gift of the Nile, wrote Herodotus. The river, however, was\\nnot left to overflow its banks without restrictions. The whole coxmtry was inter-\\nsected with canals and j)r )tected bj dikes, Menes himself, according to Herodotus,\\nhaving constructed a dike and turned aside the course of the Nile in order to found\\nMemphis. The rise of the river was closely watched, and was measured by Nilom-\\neters in various parts of the country; and the proper moment for cutting away\\nthe dams and opening the canals was awaited with intense anxiety, and decided by\\nauspicious omens. A rise of fcmrteen cubits caused joy, fifteen security, sixteen de-\\nliglit. Twelve cubits foretold a famine. An excessive Nile was as disastrous as a\\ndeficient one. A Good Nile brought harvests so abundant as to make Egyptiau\\nstorehouses the granary of the eastern world. For tliis reason, when tlie famine\\narose in Canaan, Abram and Sarai came to Egypt, probably during the reigu of the\\nXI dynasty.", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "40\\nEGYPT,\\ncauses to be constructed not far from the Labyrinthine Palace a gigan-\\ntic lake, with one canal leading to the great river, and another ter-\\nminating in a natural lake still farther to the west.\\nHe thus diverts the waters of an excessive Nile, and\\nhoards those of a deficient one to be used at need on\\nthe neighboring lands. He stocks this lake with fish,\\nand so provides for the future queens of Egypt an\\nannual revenue of over $200,000 for pin-money. The\\nbanks of Lake Mosris are adorned with orchards, vine-\\nyards, and gardens, won by its waters from the sur-\\nrounding desert. Toward the center of the lake, rising\\nthree hundred feet above its surface, stand two pyra-\\nmids, and on the apex of each sits a majestic stone\\nfigure. But pyi-amid-building is going out of favor in\\nEgypt, and the fashion of obelisks has come in. These\\nare made of single blocks of beautiful red gi-anite from\\nSyene, and are covered with delicately carved hiero-\\nglyphs. Memphis is losing her precedence. Thebes\\nis shining in her first glory, and the Temple of Kar-\\nnak, which is to become the most splendid of all times\\nand countries, is begun while, down the river, at\\nBeni Hassan, i the powerful princes have built tombs\\n^^o- which, like cheerful homes, spread their pillared\\noiiEusK. porches in the eastern rocky heights.\\nScene IV. A Tkehan Dinner- Party (time of Ra-\\nmeses II., 1311-1245 b. c). The Labyrinth has stood for nearly\\nseven centuries. During this time the shepherd kings have had their\\nsway and been expelled. The XVIIPii dynasty, including the long and\\n1 The tombs of Beni Hassan in Middle Egypt are remarliable for tlieir archi-\\ntecture, the prototype of the Grecian Doric (p. 182). They are also noticeable for\\nbeing east of the Nile, and for not being concealed, as was the almost universal\\ncustom. A recent visitor to these tombs writes: Having ascended the broad road\\nwhich leads gradually up to the entrances, we found ourselves on a sort of platform\\ncut in the cliff nearly half-way to the top, and saw before us about thirty high and\\nwide doorways, each leading into one chamber or more, excavated in the solid rock.\\nThe first we entered was a large square room, with an open pit at one end,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 tlie\\nmnmmy-pit; and every inch of the walls was covered with pictures. Coming into\\nthis tomb was like getting hold of a very old picture-book, which said in the begin-\\nning, Open me and 1 will tell you what people did a long time ago. Every group\\nof figures told a separate story, and one could pass on from group to group till a\\nwhole life was unfolded. Whenever we could find a spot where the painted plaster\\nhad not been blackened or roughened, we were surprised at the variety of the colors,\\ndelicate lilacs and vivid crimsons and many shades of green. Though these pic-\\ntures on the walls of tombs were supposed to serve the dead, they were no less repre-\\nsentations of real life. Were it not for them, we should never liave learned the secrets\\nof those homes along the Nile where people lived, loved, and died overfour thousand\\nyears ago.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 41\\nbrilliant reign of Thothmes III., lias passed away, leaving behind it\\ntemples, obelisks, and tombs of marvelous magnificence. Thebes is at\\nthe height of that architectural triumphwhich is to make her the won-\\nder of succeeding ages. Meantime, what of the people Let us invite\\nourselves to a dinner-party in Theban high life. The time is mid-day,\\nand the guests are arriving on foot, in palanquins borne by servants,\\nand in chariots, A high wall, painted in panels, surrounds the fashion-\\nable villa, and on an obelisk near by is inscribed the name of the owner.\\nWe enter the grounds by a folding-gate flanked with lofty towers.\\nAt the end of a broad avenue bordered by rows of trees and spacious\\nwater-tanks stands a stuccoed brick i mansion, over the door of which\\nwe read in hieroglyphics, The Good House. The building is made\\nairy by corridors, and columns, and open courts shaded by awnings,\\nall gayly painted and ornamented with banners. Its extensive grounds\\ninclude flower-gardens, vineyards, date-orchards, and sycamore-gi-oves.\\nThere are little summer-houses, and artificial ponds from which rises\\nthe sweet, sleepy perfume of the lotus-blossom here the genial host\\nsometimes amuses his guests by an excursion in a pleasure-boat towed\\nby his servants. The stables and chariot-houses are in the center of\\nthe mansion, but the cattle-sheds and granaries are detached.\\nWe will accompany the guest whose chariot has just halted. The\\nEgyptian grandee drives his own horse, but is attended by a train c f\\nservants one of these runs forward to knock at the door, another take s\\nthe reins, another presents a stool to assist his master to alight, ani\\nothers follow with various articles which he may desire during the\\nvisit. As the guest steps into the court, a servant receives his sandals\\nand brings a foot-pan that he may wash his feet. He is then in\\\\4tel\\ninto the festive chamber, where side by side on a double chair, to whie i\\ntheir favorite monkey is tied, sit his placid host and hostess, blandly\\nsmelling their lotus-flowers and beaming a welcome to each arrival.\\nThey are dressed like their guests. On his shaven head the Eg^^jtian\\ngentleman wears a wig Avith little top-curls, and long cues wiiich hang\\nbehind. His beard is short a long one is only for the king. His\\nlarge-sleeved, fluted robe is .of fine white linen, and he is adorned with\\nnecklace, bracelets, and a multitude of finger-rings. The lady by his\\nside wears also a linen robe over one of richly colored stuff. Her hair\\nfalls to her shoulders front and back, in scores of crisp and glossy\\nbraids. The brilliancy of her eyes is heightened by antimony and\\namulet beetles, 2 dragons, asps, and strange symbolic eyes dangle from\\n1 The brick.s were made of Nile iiiud mixed with chopped straw, and dried iu\\nthe sun.\\n2 The beetle was a favorite emblem for ornaments. No less than 180 kinds of\\nscarabaii are preserved iu tlie Turiu Museum alone. It was also engraved on the\\nprecious stones used as currency between Egypt and neighboring countries.", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "42 EGYPT.\\nher golden ear-rings, necklace, bracelets, and anklets. Having saluted\\nhis entertainers, the new-comer is seated on a low stool, where a serv-\\nant anoints his bewigged head with sweet-scented ointment, hands\\nhim a lotus-blossom, hangs garlands of flowers on his neck and head,\\nand presents him with wine. The servant, as he receives back the\\nemptied vase and offers a napkin, politely remarks, May it benefit\\nyou. This completes the formal reception.\\nEach lady is attended in the same manner by a female slave. While\\nthe guests are arriving, the musicians and dancers belonging to the\\nhousehold amuse the company, who sit on chairs in rows and chat, the\\nladies commenting on each other s jewelry, and, in compliment, ex-\\nchanging lotus-flowers. The house is furnished with couches, arm-\\nchairs, ottomans, and footstools made of the native acacia or of ebony\\nand other rare imported woods, inlaid with ivory, carved in animal\\nforms, and cushioned or covered with leopard-skins. The ceilings are\\nstuccoed and painted, and the panels of the walls adorned with colored\\ndesigns. The tables are of various sizes and fanciful patterns. The\\nfloor is covered with a palm-leaf matting or wool carpet. In the bed-\\nrooms are high couches reached by steps the pillows are made of wood\\nor alabaster (see cut, p. 29). There are many elegant toilet con-\\nveniences, such as polished bronze mirrors, fancy bottles for the kohl\\nwith which the ladies stain their brows and eyelids, alabaster vases\\nfor sweet-scented ointments, and trinket-boxes shaped like a goose, a\\nfish, or a human dwarf. Everyw^here throughout the house is a profu-\\nsion of *flowers, hanging in festoons, clustered on stands, and crowning\\nthe wine-bowl. Not only the guests but the attendants are wreathed,\\nand fresh blossoms are constantly brought in from the garden to replace\\nthose which are fading.\\nAnd now the ox, kid, geese, and ducks, which, according to custom,\\nhave been hurried into the cooking-caldrons as soon as killed, are\\nready to be served. After hand-washing and saying of grace, the\\nguests are seated on stools, chairs, or the floor, one or two at each\\nlittle low, round table. The dishes, many of wliich are vegetables,\\nare brought on in courses, and the guests, having neither knife nor\\nfork, help themselves with their fingers. Meantime a special corps\\nof servants keep the wine and water cool by vigorously fanning the\\nporous jars which contain them. During the repast, when the enjoy-\\nment is at its height, the Osiris an image like a human mummy is\\nbrought in and formally introduced to each visitor with the reminder\\nthat life is short, and all must die. This little episode does not in the\\nleast disturb the placidity of the happy guests. There is one, how-\\never, to whom the injunction is not given, and who, though anointed\\nand garlanded, and duly installed at a table, does not partake of the\\ndelicacies set before him. This is a real mummv, a dear, deceased", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "SUMMARY. 43\\nmember of the family, whom the host is keeping some montlis before\\nburial, being loath to part with him. It is in his honor, indeed, that\\nthe relatives and friends are assembled, and the presence of a beloved\\nmummy, whose soul is journeying toward the I^ools of Peace, is the\\nculminating pleasure of an Egyptian dinner-party.\\n4. SUMMARY.\\n1. Political History.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Our earliest glimpse of Egypt is of a\\ncountry already civilized. Menes, the first of the Pharaohs, changed\\nthe course of the Nile and founded Memphis. His successor was a\\nphysician, and wrote books on anatomy. Khufu, Shafra, and Menkara,\\nof the IVtii dynasty, built the three Great Pyramids at Gizeh. In their\\ntime there were already an organized civil and military service and an\\nestablished religion. From the Vltii to the XI^ii dynasty the monu-\\nments are few and history is silent. Thebes then became the center\\nof power. The XII^ii dynasty produced Lake Mceris and the Laby-\\nrinth, and waged war against the Ethiopians. Meanwhile the Hyksos\\ninvaded Lower Egypt and soon conquered the land. At last a Tlieban\\nmonarch drove out the barbarian strangers. The XVIIItii and XIX*\\ndynasties raised Egypt to the height of her glory. Thothmes, Amunoph,\\nSeti, and, chief of all, Rameses II., covered the land with magnificent\\nworks of art, and carried the Egyptian arms in triumph to the depths\\nof Asia. After the XXtii dynasty Egypt began to decline. Her weak\\nkings fell in turn before the Ethiopians, the Assyrians, and, finally,\\nthe Persians. The illustrious line of the Pharaohs was at length swal-\\nlowed up in the Empire of Persia (see note, p. 46).\\n2. General Character of Egyptian Civilization.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In sum-\\nming up our general impressions of Egypt, we recall as characteristic\\nfeatures her Pyramids, Obelisks, Sphinxes, Gigantic Stone Statues,\\nHieroglyphics, Sacred Animals, and Mummies. We think of her wor-\\nshiped kings, her all-powerful priests, and her Nile-watered land\\ndivided between king, priests, and soldiers. We remember that in her\\nfondness for inscriptions she overspread the walls of her palaces and\\nthe pillars of her temples with hieroglyphics, and erected monuments\\nfor seemingly no other purpose than to cover them with writing. We\\nsee her tombs cut in the solid rock of the hillside and carefully con-\\ncealed from view, bearing on their inner walls painted pictures of\\nhome life. Her nobility are surrounded by refinement and luxuries\\nwhich we are startled to find existing 4000 years ago and her com-\\nmon people crowd a land where food is abundant, clothing little\\nneeded, and the sky a sufficient shelter.\\nWe have found her architecture of the true Hamite type, colossal,", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "44 EGYPT.\\nmassive, and enduring; her art stiff, constrained, and lifeless; her\\npriest-taught schools giving special attention to writing and mathe-\\nmatics her literature chiefly religious, written on papyrus scrolls,\\nand collected in libraries her arts and inventions numerous, including\\nweaving, dyeing, mining and working precious metals, making glass\\nand porcelain, enameling, engraving, tanning and embossing leather,\\nworking with potter s clay, and embalming the dead. Seeing her\\nlong valley inundated each year by the Nile, she made herself pro-\\nficient in mathematics and mensuration, erected dikes, established\\nNilometers, appointed public commissioners, and made a god of the\\nriver which, since it seldom rains in Egypt, gives the land its onl^\\nfertility. Her religion, having many gods growing out of One,\\ntaught a judgment after death, with immortality and transmigration\\nof soul its characteristic form was a ceremonial worship of animals as\\nemblems or incarnations of Deity. Finally, as a people, the Egyp-\\ntians were in disposition mild, unwarlike, superstitiously religious, in\\nhabits cleanly, luxurious, and delighting in flowers in mind subtle,\\nprofound, self-poised in social life talkative, given to festivals, and\\nloud in demonstrations of grief; having a high conception of morals,\\na respect for woman, a love of literature, and a domestic affection\\nwhich extended to a peculiar fondling of their mummied dead.\\nREADING REFERENCES.\\nBrugscJi s Egypt under the Pharaohs.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Bunsen a Egypt s Place in the World s\\nHistory.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Birch s Egypt from the Earliest Titnes, and Egypt from the Monuments.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nWilkinson s Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Herodotus, Rawlin-\\nson s Translation xvith Notes.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Eaivlinson s Origin of Nations, and Manual of\\nAncient History.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lenormant and Chevallier s Ancient History of the East-Records\\nof the Past {Netv Series).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Egypt over 3300 Years Ago {Illustrated Library of Won-\\nders).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lubke s History ofArt.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Westropp s Handbook of Archceology.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Fergusson i\\nHistory of Architecture.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Early Egyptian History for the Voting (Macmillan, Lon-\\ndon). \u00e2\u0080\u0094Zerffi s Historical Development of Art\u00e2\u0080\u0094 George Ebers s Egypt (illustrated); and\\nAn Egyptian Princess, The Sisters, and Uarda {historical romances).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mariette s\\nMonuments of Upper Egypt\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Perrot and Chipiez s History of Ancient Egyptian Art\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nOoodyear s Grammar of the Lotus.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Books of the Egypt Exploration Fund and\\nArchceological Survey.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Bihlia (a current magazine).\\nCOMPARATIVE CHRONOLOGY, LONG AND SHORT.\\nB. C. B. C.\\nMenes 5700 2700\\nOld Empire 5700-3450 2700-2080\\nMiddle Empire 3450-1750 2080-1525\\nHyksos Rule 2325-1750 1900-1525\\nNew Empire 1750- 525 1525-527\\nPersian Conquest 525 527", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3329", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "J. WELLS, OEU", "height": "3286", "width": "2025", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "_ 2 leet\\nclteaied iy Hue ItnesjFrovincea\\nRMMkk \u00e2\u0080\u00a2TRVTHSfW, MQ t N.Y.", "height": "3286", "width": "2278", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.\\n1. THE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\nThe Origin of the civilization along the Tigris and\\nEuphrates may rival the Egyptian in antiquity; recent\\ndiscoveries seem to remove far into the remote past that\\npatriarchal civilization called Accadian, Sumerian, or Su-\\nmero-Accadian.\\n1. Chaldea. Om* earliest political glimpse of this\\ncountry shows us a Turanian people with important cities\\neach city governed by a priest-king, and containing a temple\\nsacred to some particular deity. Semitic peoples then enter\\nthe land. These have less culture but greater intellectual\\ncapacity than the Accadians. During the many centuries\\nwhich follow how many no one knows Sargon I., King of\\nAccad, emerges from the mist of antiquity as a builder of\\npalaces and temples, an editor of ancient Accadian literature,\\nand a founder of libraries Ur-ea (Urueh, p. 64), King of\\nUr, scatters gigantic, rudely constructed temples all over\\nChaldea and Khamninragus, patron of science and litera-\\nGeograpMcal Questions.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 L.ocsite Nineveh, Babylon, Tadmor, Accad, Erecli, and\\nCalneh. How far was it by direct line from Babylon to Memphis To Thebes?\\nDescribe the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Locate and describe Mesopotamia, Assy-\\nria, Chaldea or Babylonia, and Susiana. Ans. Mesopotamia is a name given by the\\nGreeks to the entire rolling plain between the Tigris and the Euphrates Assyria\\nwas an and plateau cut up by rocky ridges, stretching north of Babj lonia to the\\nArmenian Mountains; Babylonia was a rich alluvial plain formed by the deposit of\\nthe Tigris and Euphrates in the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf Susiana lay\\nsoutli-east of Assyria and east of Babylonia. Northern Chaldea was called Accad;\\nSouthern Chaldea, Shumir. The alluvium was niarvelously fertile. In it wheat grew\\nso rank, that, to make it ear, the people mowed it twice, and then fed it off with cattle\\nThe yield was enormous,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 fifty fold at the least, and often a hundred-fold.", "height": "3286", "width": "2214", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "46 BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. [2280 B. 0.\\nture, unites Accad and Shuniir into one kingdom and makes\\nBabylon the capital. All this occurs before 2000 B. c.^ The\\never-nomadic Semites push northward, and, later, people the\\nmiddle Tigris, where they build great cities and lay the\\nfoundations of the Assyrian Empire.\\nAs Chaldea had no natural boundary or defense, it was\\nsingularly open to attack. There were constant wars with\\nthe fast-risnig power of Assyria, and in the 13th cent-\\nury B. c. the Chaldeans were conquered by their northern\\nrival. The period of their servitude lasted nearly seven cent-\\nuries, during which they became thoroughly Assyrianized\\nin language and customs. Being, however, a sturdy, fiery,\\nimpetuous, warlike race, they often revolted. At one time\\nknown in history as the Era of Nahonassar (747 B. c.)\\nthey achieved a temporary independence, and on the fall of\\nNineveh (606 b. c.) they at once rose to power, founding\\nthe second Babylonian Empire.\\n2. Assyria, for nearly seven centuries (1298-606 b. c),\\nfrom the conquest of Babylon to the overthrow of Nineveh,\\nits own capital, was the great empire of south-western\\nAsia. It attained its glory under Sargon and his descend-\\nants, the SargonidaB. The Assyrian sway then reached to\\nthe Mediterranean Sea, and included Syria, Media, Baby-\\nlonia, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Palestine, and parts of Arabia\\nand Egypt. These conquered nations retained their laws,\\n1 Early Chaldean chronology is as uncertain as Egyptian. Berosus, a Babylonian,\\nwrote (4th century H. c.) a histoTy of his country, founded on the records in tlie\\ntemple of Belus. His work, like Manetlio s, is known only by portions quoted in other\\nbooks. Archaeological research is now as enthusiastically pressed in Chaldea as in\\nEgypt. A recently discovered cylinder at Sippara, near Accad, points to the remote\\ndate of 3800 H. c. for Sargon I.\\n2 This was the first of the successive World-Empires. Following it was the\\nPersian under Cyrus. This was conquered by Alexander, who founded the Mace-\\ndonian and it in turn gave place to the grandest of all,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the Roman. Out of its ruins\\ngrew up the Mohammedan of Asia and Africa, and Charlemagne s in Europe. The\\nformer was sliattered by tlie Turks, and the latter was broken up into several of the\\nkingdoms of modern Europe.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "625 b. c] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 47\\nkings, and religion, but, being required to pay tribute and\\nfui-nish a military contingent to the royal army, they were\\nalways ripe for revolt. The history of Assyria is therefore\\nthe record of an empire constantly falling to pieces, and as\\noften restored through the genius of some warrior-king.\\nASSYRIAN HEADS (FROM NIMKOUD).\\nAbout 606 B. c. Nineveh was cai)tured by the combined forces\\nof the Babylonians and Medes. Tradition says that its\\neffeminate king Sar -a-cus, taking counsel of his despair,\\nbui-ned himself in his palace with all his treasiu-es. The\\nconquerors utterly destroyed the city, so that there remained\\nonly a heap of ruins.\\nThe Names of the Assyrian Kings are tedious, and\\nthe dates of their reigns uncertain. Authorities differ gi-eatly\\neven in the spelling of the names. Some of the monarchs\\nare notable from their connection with Grecian or Jewish\\nhistory. Tig -lathi-nin (worshij) be to Niu, p. 62) it sup-\\nposed to be the Greek Ninus; on his signet-ring was in-\\nscribed The Conqueror of Babylon, which connects him\\nwith the overthrow of Clialdea, already mentioned. Tiglath-\\nPile ser I. (1110 b. c.) may be called ^^The Religious Con-\\nqueror. He built temples, palaces, and castles, introduced\\nI Xtuiophoii, durinf; tlie faniouH retreat of the Teu Thouauiul, only two centuries\\nafter this catastrophe, passed the site of Nineveh, yet does not even mention the\\nfact in his history, so perfectly had Nineveh disappeared.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "48 BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. [1130 B. C.\\nforeign cattle and vegetable products, and constructed canals.\\nHe multiplied the war-chariots, and carried the Assyrian\\narms to the Persian mountains on the east and to northern\\nSyria on the west 5 but he was repulsed by the Babylonians,\\nwho bore off his idols to their capital, where they were\\nkept four hundred years. Asslmr-izir-pal (Sardanapalus I.,\\n883-858), a cruel but magnificent king, made many con-\\nquests, but is chiefly to be remembered in connection with\\nthe arts, which he raised to a point never before attained.\\nHe hned his palace walls (Nimroud) with great alabaster\\nslabs, whereon were sculptured in spirited bas-rehef the\\nvarious glories he had achieved. He was a hunter as well as\\na warrior and an art patron, and kept a royal menagerie,\\nwhere he gathered all the wild beasts he could procure from\\nhis own and foreign lands.\\nSJialmane ser II. was contemporary with Ahab and Jehu,\\nkings of Israel he personally conducted twenty-four mih-\\ntary campaigns. Vul-lush III. (810-781) maiTied Sam-\\nmuramit, heiress of Babylon, and probably the original of\\n1 A lengthy document written by Tiglatli-Pileser, narrating some events of liis\\nreign, has been discovered. He writes The country of Kasiyara, a diflQcult region,\\nI passed tlirough. With their 20,000 men and their five kings I engaged. I defeated\\nthem. The ranks of their warriors in fighting the battle were beaten down as if bj^\\nthe tempest. Their carcasses covered the valleys and the tops of the moimtains. I\\ncut off their heads. Of the battlements of their cities I made heaps, like mounds of\\nearth. Their movables, their wealth, and their valuables I plundered to a countless\\namount. Six thousand of their common soldiers I gave to my men as slaves.\\nHaving restored two ancient temples, he invokes the support of the gods, and adds\\nThe list of my victories and the catalogue of my triumphs over foreigners hostile\\nto Asshur I have inscribed on my tablets and cylinders. Whoever shall abrade or\\ninjure my tablets and cylinders, or shall moisten them with water, or scorch them\\nwith fire, or expose them to the air, or in the holy place of God shall assign them\\nto a place where they cannot be seen or understood, or shall erase the writing and\\ninscribe his own name, or shall divide tlie sculptures and break them off from my\\ntablets, maj^ Ann and Vul, the great gods, my lords, consign his name to perdition\\nMay they curse him with an irrevocable curse! May they pluck out the stability\\nof the throne of his empire! May not liis oflfspring survive him May liis servants\\nbe broken May his troops be defeated May his name and his race perish\\n2 In connection with Shalmaneser and the following kings, read carefully 2 Kings,\\nxv-xix.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "810B.O.J THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 49\\nthe mythical Semiramis. According to the legend, this\\nqueen, having conquered Egypt and part of Ethiopia, invaded\\nIndia with an army of a million men, but was beaten back\\nby elephants she adorned Babylon with wonderful works,\\nand at last took the form of a dove and flew away. Tiglath-\\nPileser III. (745-727) captured Damascus and conquered\\nAliaz, King of Judah. SJiahnaneser IV. (727-722) laid siege\\nto Samaria, which was taken by his successor, Sargon (722-\\n705), who carried off its inhabitants and suppHed their place\\nwith captive Babylonians.\\nSargon founded the house of the Sargonidae, who were the\\nmost briUiant of the Assyi-ian kings, and who made aU the\\nneighboring nations feel the weight of their conquering\\narms. He himself so subdued the Egyptians that they\\nwere never afterward the powerful nation they had been\\nhe also reduced Syria, Babylonia, and a great part of Media\\nand Susiana. His son, the proud, haughty, and seK-confi-\\ndent Sennacherib (sen-nak^-e-rib, 705-681), captui-ed the\\nfenced cities of Judah, but afterward lost 185,000 men,\\nsmitten by the angel of the Lord in a single night. The\\nsculptures represent him as standing in his chariot per-\\nsonall}^ du-ecting the forced labor of his workmen, who were\\nwar-captives, often loaded with fetters. Esarhaddon, Sar-\\ngon s grandson, divided Egypt into petty states, took Ma-\\nnasseh. King of Judah, prisoner to Babylon (2 Chron. xxxiii.\\n11), and more fully settled Samaria with colonists from\\nBabylonia, Persia, and Susiana AssJmr-hani-pal (Sardana-\\npalus II., 668-626 ?),i Sargon s great-grandson, was a famous\\nwarrior, builder, and art patron. He erected a magnificent\\npalace at Nineveh, in which he founded a royal library. His\\n1 As the Greeks confounded several Egyptian monarclis under the name of\\nSesostris the Great, so the Assyrian king wliora thoy called Sardanapa liis seems to\\nhave been a union of Asshurizirpal, Asshurbanipal, and Asshuremedilin. The Greek\\nideal Sardanapalus Is celebrated in Byron s well-known play of that name.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "50 BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. [626 B. 0.\\nson, AssJiur-emed-ilm, or Saraciis, as he was called by some\\nGreek writers (p. 47), was the last Assyrian king.\\n3. Later Babylonian Empire (606-538). Nahopo-\\nlas sar, a favorite general nnder Saracus, obtained from his\\nmaster the government of Babylon. Here he organized\\na revolt, and made an alliance with Cyaxares, King of the\\nMedes; in 606 B. c. their combined forces captured Nineveh.\\nThe conquerors divided the spoils between them, and to\\nBABYLONIAN HEADS (FROM THE SCULPTURES).\\nNabopolassarfell Phoenicia, Palestine, Syria, Susiana, and the\\nEuphrates valley. Babylon, after the ruin of its rival,\\nbecame again the capital of the East. It held this position\\nfor nearly a century, when it was captured by Cyrus the\\nGreat (538 b. c).\\nThe Names of two of its kings are famihar to every\\nBible reader. Nebucliadnezzar (604-561), the son of Nabo-\\npolassar, gave the new empire its character and position.\\nWithout him Babylon would have had little if any history\\nworth recording. A great warrior, he captured Jerusalem,^\\noverran Egypt, and, after a thirteen-years siege, subdued\\nTyre. A great builder, he restored or repaired almost every\\ntemple and city in the country. By his marvelous energy\\nBabylon became five or six times the present size of London j\\n1 Israel is a scattered sheep; first the king of Assyria hath devourerl him,\\nand last this Nebuchadrezzar king of Babylon hath broken his bones. ^er 1. 17", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "538 b. c] THE CI VI I.IZ ATION. 51\\nand its wiiils and lianging o;,,rd(Mis (p. r)8) were among the\\nSeven Wonders of the World (Appendix). Immense lakes\\nwere dug for retaining the Avater of the Enphrates, whence\\na net- work of eanals distributed it over the plain to irrigate\\nthe land, while quays and breakwaters were constructed\\nalong the Persian Gulf for the encouragement of commerce.i\\nBeJshazzar held the throne jointly wdth his father, Nabona\\ndius, the last king of Babylon. Cyrus, ruler of the rising\\nempire of the Medes and Persians, invaded the country\\nwith an army wide-spreading and far-reaching, hke the\\nw^aters of a river. Having defeated the army in the open\\nfield, he besieged Babylon. One night when the Babylo-\\nnians were celebrating a festival with drunken revelry,\\nthe Persians seized the unguarded gates and captured the\\nplace. From that time Babylon was a province of the\\nPersian Empire, and its glory faded. Semitic power had suc-\\ncumbed to Aryan enterprise. To-day the site of the once\\ngreat city is marked only by shapeless mounds scattered\\nover a desolate plain.\\n2. THE CIVILIZATION.\\nSociety. In Assyria there were no castes or hereditary aris-\\ntocracy, but all subjects, foreign and native, had equal privileges,\\ndependent upon the one absolute royal wiU.\\nThe Kind, though not worshiped as a god, as in Egj^t, was\\nconsidered the earthly vicegerent of the gods, having undis-\\nputed authority over the souls as well as the bodies of his people.\\nThe chief courtiers were eunuchs, who directed the public affairs,\\nleaving the king undisturbed to enjoy his sports and pleasures.\\nThey, however, held their offices at his caprice, and were hable\\nat any moment to be removed. The people had the privilege of\\n1 Read the Scriptural account of Babylon and its kinjrs in Daniel, Isaiah (chaps.\\nX., xi., xiii., xiv., xxi., xlv., xlvi., xlvii., and especially xix., xxiii.), Jeremiah (chaps.\\nxlix., 1., and li.), 2 Kings (chaps, xxiv., xxv.), and Ezra (chaps, i.-vi.),\\nBaH-4", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "52 BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.\\nm\\n%i\\ndirect petitiou to the king in case of public wrong or\\nneglect.i\\nIn Babylonia, where there was a mixed population,\\nsociety was divided into castes, of which the highest,\\nthe ancient Chaldean, was not unlike that of the Egyp-\\ntian priesthood. The Chaldeans read the warnings of\\nrp, the stars, interpreted dreams and omens, gave instruc-\\nI tions in the art of magic and incantation, and conducted\\n\\\\y 1 the pompous religious ceremonies. They also decided\\n-H politics, commanded the armies, aud held the chief state\\nt offices. From them came all the royal rulers of Babylon.\\n^J~ 2 I The king was as despotic as in Assyria, and Baby-\\ng Ionian nobles at every slight offense trembled for their\\nI heads. The whole Chaldean caste were once ordered to\\nI be exterminated because they could not expound the\\nI dream of a king which he liimself could not recall\\nI 1 (Dan. ii. 12).\\nlY I Merchants, artisans, and husbandmen formed each a\\n^1 caste. The fishermen of the marshes near the Persian\\nYT i Griilf corresponded to the swine-herds in Egypt, as\\nbeing lowest in the social scale. They lived on earth-\\ni covered rafts, which they floated among the reeds, and\\n11 I subsisted on a species of cake made of dried fish.\\nI Writing. Cuneiform Letters {cmwus, a wedge). Clay\\ng Tablets. The earliest form of this writing, invented\\nby the Turanians, was, like the Egyptian, a collec-\\ntion of rude pictures, with this peculiarity, that they\\nTtrt were all straight-lined and angular, as if devised to be\\ncut on stone with a chisel. The Chaldeans, having no\\nstone in their country, made of the clay in which it\\nabounded tiny pillow-shaped tablets, from one to five\\ninches long. Upon these soft, moist tablets they traced\\n1 A tablet in tlie Biitisli Museum thus exposes an oiflcial peculation in the time\\nof Asshurbanipal Salutation to the king, my lord, from his humhle petitioner\\nZikar Nebo. To the king, my lord, may Asshur, Shamash, Bel, Zarpanit, Nebo,\\nTashmit, Ishtar of Nineveh, Ishtar of Arbela, the great gods, protectors of roj ^alty,\\ngive a hundred years of life to the king, my lord, and slaves and wives in great\\nnumber to the king, my lord. The gold that in the month Tashrit the minister of\\nstate and the controller of tlie palace should have given me\u00e2\u0080\u0094 three talents of pure\\ngold and four talents of alloyed gold to make an image of the king and of the\\nmother of the king, has not yet been given. May my lord, the king, give orders\\nto the minister of state and to the controller of the palace, to give the gold, to give\\nit from this time, and do it exactly\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00bar\\nt", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "TilL CIVILIZATION\\ni o\\nthe outline of the original object-picture in a series of distinct,\\nwedge-like impressions made by the square or triangular point\\nof a small bronze or iron tool. As in Egypt, the attempt to pre-\\nserve the picture outline was gradually abandoned, and the charac-\\nters, variously modified by the differ-\\nent-speaking races inhabiting Assyria\\ncame to have a variety of meanings.\\nCuneiform writing has been foun*i\\neven more difficult to interpret thai\\nEgyptian hieroglyphics. It has sonn\\nof the peculiarities of that writini:\\nbut has no letter-signs, the cuneiform\\nwriting nations never advancing so far\\nas to analyze the syllable into vowel-\\nand consonants. Nearly three hun-\\ndi-ed different characters have been\\ndeciphered, and a large number re-\\nmain yet unknown.2\\nOther Writing Materials, as Alabas-\\nter Slabs, Terra-cotta Cylinders, Cylin-\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^\\\\y^]\\nder Signets, etc. The Assyrian clay\\ntablets were generally larger than the\\nChaldean, and for the royal records\\nslabs of fine stone were prefeiTed.\\nASftVKlAN t l.AV TAIil.I-yr.\\nOeiieijilly all tiaci- of the original picture disappeared, but in a few cases, such as\\nthe outline is still visible. A curiou.s example of the picto-\\nrial origin of the letters is\\nfurnished by the character\\niy^\\nwhich is the\\nFrench une, the feiuiniiie of (\u00c2\u00bbne. This character may be traced back through\\nseveral known forms to an original picture on a Koyimjik tablet, 3 t,\\nwhere it appears a-s a double-toothed comb. As this was a toilet, article peculiar to\\nwomen, it became the sign of the feminine gender.\\n2 The Beliistun Inscription furnished the key to Assyrian literature, as diir the\\nRosetta stone to p:gyptian. This inscription was carved by order of Darius llys-\\ntasp es (p. 91) on the precipitous side of a high rock mountain in Media, lit O feet\\nabove its base. It is in three languages,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Persian, Median, and Assyrian. The Per-\\nsian, which is the simplest of the cuneiform writings, having been mastered, it\\nbecame, like the Greek on the Ilosetta stone, a lexicon to the otheitwo languages.\\nHonorably connected with tlie opening-up of the Assyrian language in the present\\ncentury, are llie names of Sir Henry Rawlinson, who at great personal risk scaled tlie\\nBehistun Mountain and made a copy of the inscription, which he afterward pub-\\nlished and M. Oppert, who systematized the ncwlj- discovered language, and founded\\nan Assyrian gramnuir for the use of modern scholars.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "54\\nBABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.\\nThese slabs were used as panels in palace walls, where they set\\nforth the glorious achievements of the Assyrian monarch s. Even\\nwhere figures were sculptured upon the panels, the royal vanity\\nwas not deterred, and the self- glorifying narrations were carried\\nuninterruptedly across mystic baskets, sacred trees, and the dresses\\nof worshiping kings and eagle-headed deities. The colossal ala-\\nbaster bulls and lions which guarded the palace\\nportals were also inscribed, and formal invocations\\nto the gods were written on hollow terra-cotta\\ncylinders, from eighteen to thirty-six inches high,\\nwhich were placed in the temple corners. The\\nlines are sometimes more closely compacted\\nthan those in this paragraph, and the characters\\nso fine that a magnifying glass is required to read\\nthem. Little cylinders made of jasper, chalcedony,\\nor other stone were engraved and used as seals by\\nrolling them across the clay tablets. There is no\\npositive proof that anything like paper or parch-\\nment was ever in use among the Assryians,though the ruins furnish\\nindirect testimony that it may have been employed in rare instances.\\nLiterature. Libraries. An Assyrian or Babylonian book con-\\nsisted of several flat, square clay tablets written on both sides, care-\\nfully paged, and piled one upon another in order. Asshurbanipal,\\nwho as patron of arts and literature was to Assyria what Rameses II.\\nhad been to Egypt 600 years before, established an extensive pubhc\\nlibrary 1 in his palace at Nineveh. Many of the books were copied\\nfrom borrowed Babylonian tablets, but a large number were evi-\\ndently composed under his royal patronage. He gathered works\\non geography, history, law, mathematics, astronomy, astrology,\\nbotany, and zoology. Complete lists of plants, trees, metals, and\\nminerals were prepared j also a catalogue of every known species of\\nanimals, classified in families and genera. We may well be aston-\\nished, says Lenormant, to learn that the Assyrians had already\\ninvented a scientific nomenclature, similar in principle to that of\\nA TERRA-COTTA\\nCYLINDER.\\n1 Palace of Assliurbanipal, king of tlie world, king of Assyria, to whom the\\ngod Nebo and the goddess Taslmiit (the goddess of wisdom) have given ears to hear\\nand eyes to see what is the foundation of government. The} have levealed to the\\nkings, my predecessors, tliis cuneiform writing, the manifestation of tlie god Nebo,\\nthe god of supreme intelligence. T liave written it upon tablets, I have signed it, I\\nhave placed it in my palace for the instruction of my subjects (Inscription). One\\nof the bricks of this library contains a notice that visitors are requested to give to the\\nlibrarian the number of the book they wish to consult, and it will be brought to them.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 55\\nLimiflBus. Here, also, were religious books explaining the name,\\nfimetious, and attributes of each god; magical incantations with\\nwhich to charm away evil spirits and sacred poems, resembling in\\nstyle the Psalms of David. Among the records copied from Baby-\\nlonian tablets, which were already antiquities in the time of As-\\nshui banipal, were the Chaldean accounts of the Creation, the\\nDeluge, and the Tower of Babel, which are strikingly like the nar-\\nrative in Genesis, though written hundreds of years before Moses\\nwas born. Most numerous of all were the various gi ammatical\\nworks. The Assyrians found their own language so complex, that\\nlexicons and grammars were multiplied in efforts to explain and\\nsimplify it and these books, written to aid the Assyrian learner\\nover 2500 years ago, have been found invaluable in opening the\\nlong-lost language to the student of to-day. All this vast collec-\\ntion of tablets, gathered with so much care by Asshurbanipal,\\nfell with the palace in its destruction under his sou, Saracus,\\nand Avere mostly broken into fragments, i\\nMonuments and Art.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 As the Chaldeans had no stone, they\\nmade their edifices of burnt or sun-di ied bricks, strengthening the\\nwalls by layers of reed matting cemented with bitumen. Their tem-\\nples were built in stories, each one smaller in area than the one\\nbelow, thus forming an irregular pyramid. In later times the\\nnumber of stories increased, and the outer walls of Babylonian\\ntemples were painted in colors consecrated to the heavenly bodies.\\nThat of Nebo at Borsippa had its lowest stage black (Satui u)\\nthe next orange (Jui)iter) then red (Mars), gold (the sun), yellow\\n(Venus), blue (Mercury), and silver (the moon). The gold and\\n1 The clay tablets lay niuler the ruined palace in such niultitudos that they\\ntilled the cliamhcrs to tlie height of a foot or more from tlie floor. Tlie documents\\ntlius discovered at Nineveh probably exceed in amount of writing all that has yet\\nbeen afforded by the monuments of Egypt (Layard s Nineveh). To Austen Henry\\nLayard, an English arclutologist, we are chielly indebted for the wonderful dis-\\ncoveries made in exploring the mounds which mark the site of Nineveh. The British\\nMuseum has a magniticent collection of Assyrian antiquities recovered from these\\nmounds, wliole rooms being lined witli the alabaster slabs exhunuMl from tlie ruins\\nof the palaces of xVssliurizirpal at Niinroud, Sennacherib and liis grandson Assliur-\\nbanipal at Koyunjik, and Sargon at ICIutrsabad. Most of the remains of Sargon s\\npalace, however, are deposited in the Louvre at Paris, having been excavated for tlie\\nFrench government by M. Botta, who has the honor of having made (in 18-13) the\\nfirst discovery of an Assyrian monument.\\n2 Borsiiipa was a town near Babylon. Some authorities include the ruins of this\\ntemple, now called the Birs-i-Nimrud, within the outer wall of Babylon, and believe\\nit to have been the true Temple of Belus (p. 59), if not tJie actual Tower of BabeL\\nA mound i jillfvl Rnbil, near the Oreat Palace, is the other dispnteil site.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "56\\nBABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.\\nsilver stages seem to liave been covered with thin plates of those\\nmetals. Either the sides or the angles of these structures exactly\\nfaced the cardinal points, and the base was streng thened by brick\\nbuttresses scientifically arranged. The royal name and titles were\\nengi aved upon each building-brick.\\nVr.VI,OMAN I .KICK.\\nTheAfssi/rians made their temples simple adjuncts to their palaces,\\nwhere they were used as observatories. Here the priestly astrolo-\\ngers consulted the stars, and no enterprise was undertaken, however\\nit might otherwise promise success, unless the heavens were de-\\nclared favorable. Following the example of their Chaldean instruc-\\ntors, the Assyrians continued to build with brick, though they had\\nan abundance of excellent stone. Their edifices, placed, like those\\nin Chaldea, upon high artificial mounds of earth, were incased with\\nbricks used while still soft, so that they adhered to one another\\nwithout cement, and formed a single, compact mass. As their\\npalaces were constructed of this same weak material, which was\\nliable to disintegrate within twenty or thirty years, they w^ere obUged\\nto make the walls enormously thick, the halls narrow and low as\\ncompared with their length, and to limit the height to one story.\\nThe roof was loaded with earth as a protection from the fierce\\nsummer sun and the heavy winter rains. Their building-plan was\\nalways the same. Around immense square courts were arranged\\nhalls or chambers of different sizes opening into one another. These\\nhalls, though never more than 40 feet wide, were sometimes 180 feet", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION\\n57\\nin length. The sides were lined with alabaster slabs, from eight to\\nfifteen feet high, covered with elaboi ate sculptures illustrating the\\nsports, prowess, and religious devotion of the king above these\\nwere enameled bricks. The\\ncourt-yards were paved\\nwith chiseled stone or\\npainted bricks, and the\\nbeams of Lebanon cedar\\nwere sometimes overlaid\\nwith silver or gold. The\\ncourts themselves were or-\\nnamented by gigantic sculp-\\ntures, and the artificial\\nmound was edged by a ter-\\nraced wall. Sennacherib s\\npalace at Koyunjik was\\nonly second in size and\\ngrandeur to the palace tem-\\nple at Karnak. The ruling\\nidea in Assyrian architec-\\nture, however, was not, as in\\nthe Egyptian, that of mag-\\nnitude, much less of dura-\\nbility, but rather of close\\nand finished ornamenta-\\ntion; the bas-reliefs being\\nwrought out with a minute-\\nness of detail which ex-\\ntended to the flowers and\\nrosettes on a king s gar-\\nment or the intricate pat-\\ntern of his carved footstool.\\nBut Assyrian alabaster was\\nfar easier to manage than\\nEgyptian granite, and where\\nmasses of hard stone like\\nbasalt were used, to which\\nthe Egyptians would give the finish of a cameo, the Assyrians pro-\\nduced only coarse and awkward effects. A few stone obelisks have\\nbeen found one only, the Black Obelisk of Nimroud, being in per-\\nfect presei-vation. In statuary, the Assyrians signally failed, and in\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0r% t^\\niKl.ISK FKOM M.MKOLi", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "58 BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.\\ndrawing- they had no better idea of perspective than the Egyptians.\\nIn their water- scenes the fishes are as large as the ships, and the\\nbirds in the woods are half as tall as the men who hunt them.\\nThey excelled in bas-relief, in which they profusely detailed their\\nreligious ideas, home life, and royal g-reatness. As compared\\nwith Egyptian art,i the A syrian was more progressive, and had\\ngreater freedom, variety, and taste.\\nWalls, Temple, Palaces, and Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The\\nwall of this great city formed a square, each side of which was,\\naccording to Herodotus, 14 miles long, 85 feet thick, and 335 feet\\nhigh.2 Twenty-five brass gates opened from each of the four sides\\nupon straight, wide streets, which extended across the city, dividing\\nit into squares. A space was left free from buildings for some dis-\\ntance next the walls j w^ithin that, beautiful gardens, orchards, and\\nfields alternated with lofty dwellings. The brond Euphrates, in-\\nstead of skirting the city as did the Tigris at Nineveh, ran midway\\nthrough the town, and was guarded by two brick walls with brass\\ngates opening upon steps which led down to the water. The\\nriver-banks were lined throughout with brick-and-bitumen quays,\\nand the stream was crossed by ferries, and, during the day, by a\\nmovable drawbridge resting on stone x^iers.\\nOn either side of the Euphrates rose a majestic palace, built upon\\na high platform, and surrounded by triple walls a quarter of a\\nmile apart. The outer wall of the larger palace was nearly seven\\nmiles in circumference. The inner walls were faced with enameled\\nbrick, representing hunting scenes in gayly colored figures larger\\nthan life. The glory of tbe palace was its Hanging Gardens, imi-\\ntated from those in Assyria, and built by Nebuchadnezzar to please\\nhis Median queen, who pined for her native hills. They consisted\\nof a series of platforms resting on arches, and rising one above the\\nother till the summit overtopped the city walls. The soil with\\nwhich they were covered w^as deep enough to sustain not only\\nflowers and shi-ubs, but the largest trees, so that the effect was that\\nof a mountain clothed in verdure. The structure was ascended by\\nbroad stairs, and on the several terraces, among fountains, groves,\\nand fragrant shrubs, were stately apartments, in whose cool shade\\n1 The Chaldean tomb (p. 65) is without inscription, bas-relief, or painting (contiast\\nwith Ejiyptian tomb). No Assyrian sepiilcher has yet (18 J2) been louutl.\\nOther authorities reduce this estimate. In Alexander s time the wall still stood\\nover seventy leet higli. Curtius asserts that nine tenths of Babylon consisted of\\ngardens, jJiirk.H, fields, and oichards.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 59\\nthe queen might rest while making the tour of her novel pleasure-\\nground. The Temple ofBelus was also surrounded by a wall having\\nbrass gates. Within the sacred inclosure, but outside the building,\\nwere two altars for sacrifice, one of stone and one of gold. At the\\nbase of the tower which was a huge, solid mass of brick-work\\nwas a chapel containing a sitting imag of Bel, a golden stand and\\ntable, and a human figure eighteen feet high, made of solid gold.\\nThe ascent was from the outside, and on the summit was the sacred\\nshrine, contaiuing three great golden images of Bel, Beltis, and\\nIshtar (p. 61). There were also two golden lions, two enormous\\nsilver serpents, and a golden table forty feet long and fifteen broad,\\nbesides drinking-cups, censers, and a golden bowl for each deity.\\nPractical Arts and In-venHoii^.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Agriculture was carried to a\\nhigh degree of perfection in both countries, and the system of ir-\\nrigation was so complete that it has been said not a drop of water\\nwas allowed to be lost. Their brilliantly dyed and ^coven stuffs\\nespecially the Babylonian carpets, were celebrated throughout the\\nancient world and the elaborate designs of their embroideries\\nserved as models for the earliest Grecian vases. In metal-work they\\nwere far advanced, and they must have possessed the art of casting\\nvast masses, since their town and palace gates are said to have been\\nof bronze. Wliere great strength was required, as in the legs of\\ntripods and tables, the bronze was cast over iron, an ingenious art\\nunknown to moderns until it was learned and imitated from Assyrian\\nantiquities. The beams and furniture of i)alaces were often cased\\nwith bronze, and long bronze friezes with fantastic figures in relief\\nadorned the palace halls. Gold, silver, and bronze vases, beautifully\\nchased, were important articles of commerce, as was also the\\nAssyrian pottery, Avhich, being enameled by an entirely different\\nprocess from that of Egypt, and having a finer paste, brighter hue,\\nand thinner body, was largely exported to the latter country during\\nthe XVIIItii dynasty. Mineral tints were used for coloring.\\nAssyrian terra cotta was remarkably fine and pure.\\nTransparent glass was in use in the time of Sargon. A roek-\\nciystal lens has been found at Nimi oud, the only object of its kind\\nas yet discovered among the remains of antiquity. In gem -cutting\\nthe Assyrians decidedly excelled the Egyptians, and the exceeding\\nminuteness of some work on seals implies the use of powerful\\nmagnifiers.\\nMost of the mechanical powers whereby heavy weights have com-\\nmonly been moved and raised among civilized nations were under-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "60 BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.\\nstood. 1 The Assyrians imported their steel and iron tools from the\\nneighboring provinces of the Caucasus, where steel had long been\\nmanufactured the carved ivories which ornamented their palaces\\nprobably came from Phoenicia. It will be seen that in all the\\ncommon arts and appliances of life the Assyrians were at least\\non a par with the Egyptians, while in taste they greatly excelled\\nnot only that nation, but all the Orientals. It must not be for-\\ngotten, however, that Egyptian civilization was over a thousand\\nyears old when Assyi ia was in its infancy.\\n3. THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\nGeneral Character. The Assyrians were brave, cruel, 2 and aggres-\\nsive. Isaiah calls them a fierce people, and Nahiim speaks of Nine-\\nveh as full of lies and robbery. The mixed people of Babylonia\\nwere more scholarly and less warlike than the purely Semitic Assyr-\\nians, but they, also, were terrible and dreadful, going through the\\nbreadth of the land with chariots like the whirlwind, and horses\\nswifter than the leopards and more fierce than the evening wolves.\\nIn war savage and pitiless, in peace they were tender and delicate,\\ngiven to pleasures, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads. Their\\neovetousness and luxurious indulgences became a proverb. They were\\nfond of giving banquets in their brilliantly painted saloons, where\\ntheir visitors, clothed in scarlet robes and resplendent in cosmetics\\nand jewelry, trod on carpets which were the envy of the ancient world,\\nand were served with rich meats and luscious fruits on gold and silver\\nplates. In Babylonia the guests were not formally garlanded, as in\\nEgypt, but a profusion of flowers in elegant vases adorned the rooms.\\nMeantime, while the air was filled with music and lieavy with per-\\nfumes, the merry revelers drank deeply of the abundant wine, and\\nloudly sang the praises of their favorite gods.\\nIn pleasant contrast to their dissipation appear their learning, enter-\\n1 Tlie Assyrians wrought all the elaborate carvings of their colossi Ijefore moving\\nthem. They then stood the fignre on a wooden sledge, supporting it by heavy frame-\\nwork, and biaciug it with ropes and beams. The sledge was moved over rollers by\\ngangs of men, levers and wedges being used to facilitate its progress. The entire\\nprocess of transporting a colossal stone bull is graphically pictured in an extensive\\nbas-relief found at Koj^unjik, and now in the British INIuseum.\\n2 The horrible atrocities inflicted (m war captives are exultantly detailed on royal\\ninscriptions. It is significant of the two civilization.s that wliile Assyrian kings were\\nthus mutilating and flaying alive their defenseless prisoners, Egypt had aboli-shed the\\ndeath penalty as a punishment for crime.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS,\\nGl\\nprise, and lioiii sly in Iradc In thcii iiitci t oursc with sli-aiiiLCcrs, thoy\\nare said to have cultivated cahuness of manner, a virtue i robaV)ly not\\nnatiu al to them, but whicli was founded upon an intense pride in\\ntheir superior culture and scientific attainments.\\nReligion. The Assyrians and Babylonians were both, in an idola-\\ntrous way, religious nations, though much less so than the Egyptians.\\nThe sun, moon, and planets were conspicuous among their gods.\\nTheir ideas of one First Cause or Deity were even more obscure tlian\\nthose of the Egyptians, and although or Ha, who stood at the head\\nof the Chaldean Pantheon, was vaguely considered as the fount or\\norigin of Deity, tliere were several other self-originated gods, each\\nsupreme over his own sphere. II was too dimly comprehended to be\\npopular, and had apparently no temple in Chaldea.\\nTwo Triads were next in rank. The first comprised Ana, the lord\\nof spirits and demons, who represented original chaos Bel or Bel-\\nNimrod, the hunter, lord and organizer of the world and Uoa, the\\nlord of the abyss, and regulator of the universe. The\\nsecond triad embraced Sin, the moon-god San (called in\\nAssyria Shamas), the sun-god and Ful, the air-god. Each\\ngod had a wife, who received her share of divine honors.\\nAfter these came the five planetary deities Xin or Saturn,\\nsometimes called the fish-god his emblem in Assyria\\nbeing the man-bull Bcl-Merodach or Jupiter Xcrgal\\nor Mars the man-lion of Assyria; /.y/ fr r or Venus and\\nNeho or Mercury. A host of inferior gods made jip the\\nPantheon. In the later Babylonian empire, Bel, Mero-\\ndach, Nebo, and Nergal w ere the favorite deities, the last\\ntwo receiving especial w^orship at Babylon. The most popular god-\\ndesses were Beltis, wdfe of Bel-Nimrod, and mother of the great\\ngods; and Ishtar, queen of the gods, who shared with Beltis the\\ntitles of goddess of fertility, of war, and of hunting.! The gods were\\nsymbolized by pictorial emblems, and also by mystic numbers. Thus,\\nHoa 40, emblem a serpent\\nemblem the moon\\nSan 20, emblem the sun\\n1 lu all tlie Pagan religions tlio characteristics of one deity often tnncli upon\\nthose of another, and in Chaldea tlie most exalted epithets were divided between a\\nnumber of gods. Tims, Bel is the father of the gods, the king of tlie spirits; Ana\\nand Merodach are each the original chief and the most ancient; Nebo is the\\nlord of lords, wlio has no equal in power; Sin is tlie king of the gods and the\\nlord of spirits, etc. The same symbol also stands for different gods, lloa and Nebo,\\neach as the god of intelligence, teacher and instructor of men, have for one of\\ntheir emblems the wedge or arrowhead characters used in cuneiloim writing.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "62 BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.\\nAmong the einbloms syml)olizing other, and to us unknown, gods, is\\na double ovoss, generally repeated three times. Religious etiquette\\nerected honorary shrines to outside gods in temples consecrated to one\\nchosen favorite and a Babylonian gentleman wore on his cylinder\\nseal, besides the emblem of his chosen god patron, the complimentary\\nsymbols of other deities.\\nIn Assyria, II was known as Assliur, and was the supreme object\\nof worship. He was the guardian deity of king and country, and in\\nthe sculptures his emblem is always seen near the monarch. In the\\nmidst of battle, in processions of victory, in public worship, or in the\\npleasures of the chase, Asshur hovers over the scene, pointing his own\\narrow at the king s enemies, uplifting his hand with the king in wor-\\nship, or spreading his wings protectingly over the scene of enjoyment.\\nIn bas-reliefs representing worship, there also appear a sacred tree,\\nwhose true symbolism is unknown, 2 and winged eagle-headed deities\\nor genii who hand to the king mysterious fruit from a sacred basket.\\nSin and SJtanias were highly honored in Assyria, and their emblems\\nwere worn by the king on his neck. Upon the cylinders they are\\nconjoined, the sun resting in the crescent of the moon.\\nBel was also a favorite god 3 but Nin and Nergal, the winged bull\\nand lion, the gods who made sharp the weapons of kings, and who\\npresided over war and hunting, were most devotedly worshiped. The\\nrace of kings was traditionally derived from Nin, and his name was\\ngiven to the mighty capital (Nineveh).\\nBelow the Great Gods were countless inferior ones, each city having\\nits local deities which elsewhere received small respect. Good and\\nevil spirits were represented as perpetually warring with one another.\\nPestilence, fever, and all the ills of life, were personified, and man\\nwas like a bewildered traveler in a strange land, exposed to a host of\\nunseen foes, whom he could subdue only by charms and exorcisms.\\nThe Assyrians apparently had no set religious festivals. When a\\nfeast was to be held in honor of any god, the king made special proc-\\nlamation. During a fast, not only king, nobles, and people abstained\\nfrom food and drink, clothed themselves in sackcloth, and sprinkled\\n1 In the original langnage, the name of the country, of the first capital, and the\\nterm an Assyrian, are all identical with the name of this god.\\n2 Recent theories identifying the Egyptian lotus with all classic ornamentation\\nassert that the sacred tree was a conventional arrangement of lotus palmettes\\nand buds, that the mysterious cone-like fruit Avas a lotus-hud, aiid that the Assyrian\\nrosette was the ovary stigma of the lotus-flower,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 all being symbols of sun-worship.\\n(See Goodyear s Grammar of the Lotus.)\\n3 It was common for both Assyrian and Babylonian kings to signify their favorite\\ngod by associating liis name with tlieir own. The gods most frequently allied\\nwith royal names in Assyria were Asshur, Bel, and Nebo; in Babylonia, Nebo and\\nMerodach.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS\\n63\\nashes on their heads, but all the animals witliin the city walls were\\nmade to join in the penitential observance (see Jonah iii. 5-9).\\n[ma jc Worship. The stone, clay, and metal images which adorned\\nthe temple shrines of Assyria and Babylonia were worshiped as real\\ngods. So identified was a divinity with its idol, that, in the inscrip-\\ntions of kings wiiere the great gods were invoked in turn, the images\\nof the same deity placed in different temples were often separately\\naddressed, as Ishtar of Babylon, Ishtar of Arbela, Ishtar of Nineveh,\\netc. In worship, living sacrifices and offerings were made and obla-\\ntions poured, the king taking the chief position, instead of the priest,\\nas in Egypt.\\nCurious Babylonish Customs. If we are to believe Herodotus, the\\nBabylonians buried their dead in honey, and married their daughters\\nby auction, the money brought by the handsome ones being given as\\na dowry to their less favored sisters. The marriage festival took place\\nonce a year, and no father could give\\nhis daughter at any other time or in\\nany other way. Each bride received a\\nciay model of an olive, on which were\\ninscribed her name and that of her hus-\\nband, with the date of the ceremony\\nthis was to be worn on her neck.\\nUnlike the Egyptians, the Babylonians\\nhad no regular physicians the sick\\nand infirm were brought out into the\\nmarket-place, where the passers-by\\nprescribed remedies which had proved\\neffectual in their own experience or\\nthat of their friends it being against\\nthe law to pass by a sick person without\\ninquiring into the nature of his disease.\\nhad a festival, called Sacces, when for five days they took command\\nof their masters, one of them, clothed in a royal robe, receiving the\\nhonors of a king.\\nASSYRIAN LAMPS.\\nEvery summer the slaves\\nSCENES IN REAL LIFE.\\nScene I. A Chaldean Home. Let us visit the home of an ancient\\nChaldean as we should have found it over 3500 years ago. Before us\\nrises a high brick platform, supporting an irregular cross-shaped house\\nbuilt of burnt or sun-dried bricks cemented with mud or bitumen.\\nThe outside is gayly adorned with colored terra-cotta cones embedded\\nin mud or plaster. Entering, we find long, narrow rooms opening one", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "64\\nBABYLONIA AND ASSYKiA.\\ninto another. If there are windows, they are set high, near the roof or\\nceiling. Upon the plastered walls, which are often broken by little\\nrecesses, are cuneiform inscriptions, varied by red, black, and white\\nbands, or rude, bright-red figures of men and birds. The chairs or\\nstools, of soft, light date-wood, have legs modeled after those of an ox.\\nThe invaluable palm-tree, as useful in Chaldea as in Egypt, has not\\nonly supplied the table itself, but much of the food upon it. Its fresh\\nor dried fruit appears as bread or sweetmeats its sap, as wine, vin-\\negar, and honey. The tableware is clay or bronze. The vases which\\ncontain the wine are mostly\\nof coarse clay mixed with\\nchopped straw; but here\\nand there one of a finer\\nglaze shows the work of the\\npotter s wheel and an idea\\nof beauty. The master of\\nthe house wears a long linen\\nrobe, elaborately striped,\\nflounced, and fringed, which,\\npassing over one shoulder,\\nleaves the other bare, and\\nfalls to his feet. His beard\\nis long and straight, and\\nhis hair either gathered in a roll at the back of his head or worn\\nin long curls. He does not despise jewelry on his own person, and\\nhis wife revels in armlets and bracelets, and in rings for the fingers\\nand toes. Bronze and iron which is so rare as to be a precious\\nmetal are affected most by the Chaldean belle, but her ornaments are\\nalso of shell, agate, and sometimes of gold. For the common people,\\na short tunic tied around the waist and reaching to the knee is a per-\\npetual fashion, suitable for a temperature which ranges from 100\u00c2\u00b0 to\\n130\u00c2\u00b0 F. in summer. In the severest winter season, when the ther-\\nmometer falls to 30\u00c2\u00b0 above zero, the Chaldean hunter dons an extra\\nwrap, which covers his shoulders and falls below his tunic then,\\nbarefooted, and with a skull-cap or a camel s-hair band on his head,\\nhe goes out, with his bronze arrowhead and bronze or flint knife, to\\nshoot and dissect the wild boar. Our Chaldean gentleman makes out\\nSIGNET CYLINDER OF L!KUCH.2\\n(The earliest Chaldean king, of whom many definite re\\nmains have been found. Date, perhaps, 2800 b. c. See\\np. 45.)\\n1 This (\\\\escT ii)tiou is based ii])on the only two Cluihlean residences which have\\nas yet, so i v as is known, been exhumed. They are supposed to date from between\\n1800 and IGOO u. v.\\n2 Uruch, King of Ur, lived perhaps before Babylon was founded. He was the first\\nto call himself King- of Shumir and Accad. From his cylinder we learn that the\\nChaldeans at this early date dressed in delicate fabrics elaborately trimmed, and\\nhad tastefully fashioned household furniture.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 65\\na deed or writes a letter with a small bronze or ivory lool sailed to his\\nminute, cuneiform script, on a hit of moist clay shaped like a tiny\\npillow (p. 52). He signs it l y rollin across tlio face the little enp-aved\\njasper or chalcedony cylinder, wliich he wears at-\\ntached by a string to his wrist. Having baked it,\\nhe incloses it in a thin clay envelojie, upon which\\nho repeats his message or contract, and bakes it\\nagain. When the Chaldean dies, his friends shroud\\nhim in fine linen, and incase him in two large stone\\njars, so that the ujsper part of his body rests in one,\\nand the lower part in the other, after which they cement the two jars\\ntogether with mud or bitumen or they lay him upon a brick plat-\\nform with a reed matting beneath him, and place over him a huge,\\nburnt-clay cover, a marvel of j^ottery, formed of a single x iece, and\\nshaped like a modern tureen cover or they put him on the mat in the\\nfamily arched vault, j)illowing liis head on a sun-dried brick covered\\nwith a tapestry cushion. About him they arrange his ornaments and\\nfavorite implements vases of wine are within his reach, and in the\\npalm of his left hand tliey rest a bronze or copper bowl filled with\\ndates or other food to strengthen him in his mysterious journey\\nthrougli the silent land.\\nScene II. A Morning in Nineveh. The Assyrian was a cedar in\\nLebanon, exalted above all the trees of the field, so that all the trees\\nthat were in the garden of God envied him, and not one Avas like unto\\nhim in his beauty (Ezek. xxxi.). Six centuries and a half have\\npassed since Chaldea was humbled by her northern neighbor; and\\nAssyria, not dreaming that her own fall is so near, is in the fullness\\nof her splendor and arrogance. It is about the year 650 b. c, and\\nthe proud Asshurbanijial is on the throne Asshurbanipal, who has\\nsubdued the land of the Pyramids and the Labyrinth, and made\\nKarnak and Luxor mere adjuncts to his glory. Nineveh, with her\\ngi eat walls one hundred feet in height^ poii wliich three chariots can\\nrun abreast, lies before us. The bright spring sun of the Orient looks\\ndown ui3on a country luxuriant with a rich but short-lived verdure.\\nGreen myrtles and blossoming oleanders fringe the swollen streams,\\nand the air is filled with the sweet odors of the citron-trees. The\\nmorning fog has loaded the dwarf oak with manna, and the rains have\\ncrowded the land with flowers. The towers, two hundred feet high,\\nwhich mark the various city gates, throw long shadows over rows of\\nwindowless houses, topped with open domes or high, steep, cone-like\\nroofs. Out from these houses come the people, dressed according to\\ntheir several stations bareheaded and barefooted laborers, clothed in\\none garment, a plain, short-sleeved tunic reaching to the knee pros-\\nperous folk in sandals and fringed tunics, and the wealthy, in long", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS\\nG7\\nfringed and elegantly girdled robes. Only tlie liif^licr orders are privi-\\nleged to cover their heads with a cap, but all, even the meanest, glory in\\nlong, elaborately dressed hair. In the dwellings of the ricli we may see\\nfurniture of elegant design canopied beds and couches, and curtains\\nof costly tapestry carved stools and tables with feet fasliioned like\\ngazelle-hoofs and, in the palace, luxurious chairs, and articles sacred\\nto gods and the king. In the west end of the city, abutting the swift-\\nflowing Tigris, is a high plat-\\nform covering one hundred\\nacres, on which stands the\\nmagnificent palace of Assliur-\\nbanipal. Near it is the still\\nlarger one built by Sennach-\\nerib, his grandfather, and\\nabout it are parks and hanging\\ngardens. The palaces have\\nimmense portals guarded by\\ncolossal winged and human-\\nheaded bulls and lions great\\ncourt-yards paved with ele-\\ngantly patterned slabs and\\narched doorways, elaborately\\nsculptured and faced by eagle-\\nheaded deities. We miss the\\nwarm, glowing colors so generously lavished on Egyptian temples.\\nTliere are traces of the painter, but his tints are more subdued and\\nmore sparingly used. It is the triumphant day of the sculptor and the\\nenameler. Asshurbanipal sits on his carved chair, arrayed in his em-\\nbroidered robe and mantle. On his breast rests a large circular orna-\\nment wrought with sacred emblems golden rosettes glitter on his red-\\nand-white tiara, and rosettes and crescents adorn his shoes. He wears\\na sword and daggers, and holds a golden scepter. Necklaces, armlets,\\nbracelets, and ear-rings add to his costume. Behind him is his parasol-\\nbearer, gi asping with both hands a tail, thick pole supporting a fringed\\nand curtained shade. His Grand Vizier who interprets his will to\\nthe people, and whose dress approaches his own in magnificence\\nstands before him in an attitude of passive reverence to receive the\\nroyal orders the scribes are waiting to record the mandate, and a\\nhost of attendants are at hand to perform it.\\nScene III. A lioi/al Lion-hunt. To-day it is a lion-hunt. At\\nthe palace gates, surrounded by a waiting retinue, stands the king s\\nchariot, headed by three richly caparisoned horses, champing bronze\\nbits and gayly tinkling the bells on their tasseled collars, while groom*\\nhold other horses to be placed before the chariots of high officials, aftei\\nBQH-fi\\nCOLOSSAL HUMAN-HEADED WINGED BULL.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "68\\nBABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.\\nthe monarch shall have mounted. As the king steps into the box -like\\nchariot, his two favorite eunuchs adjust the well-stocked quivers, put\\nin the long spears, and enter behind him the charioteer loosens the\\nreins, and the horses start at full speed. At the park, or paradise,\\na large circuit is inclosed by a double rampart of spearmen ard archers,\\nand a row of hounds held in leashes. Here the lions kept for the\\nking s sport wait in their cages. Having arrived at the park and\\nreceived a ceremonious salute, the king gives the order to release the\\nwild beasts. Cautiously creeping out from their cages, they seem at\\nfirst to seek escape but the spearmen s large shields and bristling\\nweapons dazzle their eyes the fierce dogs, struggling in their leashes,\\nhowl in their ears and the king s well-aimed arrows quickly enrage\\nthem to combat. Swifter and swifter fly the darts. The desperate\\nbeasts spring at the chariot sides only to receive death-thrusts from\\nthe spears of the attendants, while the excited king shoots rapidly on\\nTHE ROVAL U\u00e2\u0080\u009e.. ^ROM THE SCULPTURES).\\nin front. Now one has seized the chariot-wheel with his huge paws,\\nand grinds it madly with his teeth but he, too, falls in convulsions\\nto the ground. The sport fires the blood of the fierce Asshurbanipal.\\nHe jumps from his chariot, orders fresh lions to be released, grasps\\nhis long spear, selects the most ferocious for a hand-to-hand combat,\\nfuriously dispatches him, and, amid the deafening shouts of his ad-\\nmiring courtiers, proclaims his royal content. The hunt is over the\\ndead lions have been collected for the king s inspection, and are now\\nborne on the shoulders of men in a grand procession to the palace,\\nwhither the king precedes them. The chief officers of the royal house-\\nhold come out to welcome him the cup-bearer brings wine, and, while\\nthe king refreshes himself, busily plies his long fly-whisk about the\\nroyal head, the musicians meantime playing merrily upon their harps.\\nIt remains to offer the finest and bravest of the game to the god of the\\nchase and four of the largest lions are accordingly selected and\\narranged side by side before the altar. The king and his attendants,", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 69\\nall keeping time to formal music, march in stately majesty to the\\nshrine, where Asshurbanipal raises the sacred cup to his lips, and\\nslowly pours the solemn libation, A new sculpture depicting the grand\\nevent of the day is ordered, and beneath it is inscribed,\\nI, Asslmrbauipal, king of tlie -natioua, king of Assyria, in ni) great courage,\\nflgliting on foot with a lion terrible for its size, seized him by the ear, and in the\\nname of Asshur and of Ishtar, Goddess of War, with the spear that was iu my baud\\n1 terminated his life.\\nScene IV. JssJno-bavipal goinr/ to TVar. The king goes to war in\\nhis chariot, dressed in his most magnificent attire, and atteizded by a\\nretinue of fan-bearers, parasol-bearers, bow, quiver, and mace-bearers.\\nAbout these gather his body-guard of foot-spearmen, each one bran-\\ndishing a tall spear and protected by scale-armor, a pointed helmet,\\nand a great metal shield. The detachment of horse-archers which\\nfollows is also dressed iu coats of mail, leather breeches, and jack-\\nboots. Before and beliind the royal cortege stretches the army a vast\\narray of glancing helmets, spears, shields, and battle-axes war-\\nriors in chariots, on horse, and on foot heavy-armed archers in\\nhelmet and armor, w^tli the strung bow on the shoulders and the\\nhighly decorated quiver filled with bronze or iron-headed arrows on\\nthe back light-armed archers with embroidered head-bands and short\\ntunics, and bare arms, limbs, and feet spearmen who carry great\\nwicker shields, Avhich are made, in ease of need, to join and furnish\\nboats and troops of slingers, mace-bearers, and ax-bearers. The\\nmassive throne of the king is iu the cavalcade upon this, when the\\nbattle or siege is ended, he will sit iu great state to receive the prisoners\\nand spoil. Here, too, are his driuking-eups and washing bowls, his\\nlow-wheeled pleasure-chair, his dressing-table, and other toilet lux-\\nuries. Battering-rams, scaling-ladders, baggage-carts, and the usual\\nI)araphernalia of a great army make up tlie rear, where also in carefully\\nclosed arabas are the king s wives, who, with the whole court, follow\\nhim to war. The Ninevites come out in crowds to see the start the\\nmusicians who, however, remain at home play a brisk farewell on\\ndouble-pipes, harps, and drum; the women and children, standing in\\nprocession, clap their hands and sing; and so, amid the noise of the\\nrattling of the wheels, and of the prancing horses, and of the jumping\\nchariots (Nahum iii. 2), the Assyrian army sets off.\\nScene V.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Eoyal Banquet. After many days the host comes\\nback victorious (the sculptors never record defeats), bringing great\\nspoil of gold, silver, and fine furniture, countless oxen, sheep, horses,\\nand camels, prisoners of war, and captured foreign gods. Rejoicing\\nand festivities abound. A royal feast is given in the most magnificent\\nof the sculptured lialls, where the tables glitter with gold and silver\\nstai^ds laden with dried locusts, pomegranates, grapes, and citrons.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "70\\nBABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.\\nThere are choice meats, hare, and game-birds, and an abundance of\\nmixed wine in the huge vases from which the busy attendants fill the\\nbeakers of the guests. Afterward the king invites\\nthe queen from her seclusion in the beautiful harem\\nto sup v/ith him in the garden. At this banquet\\nthe luxiu ious Asshurbanipal reclines on a couch,\\nleaning his left elbow on a cushioned pillow, and\\nholding in his hand a lotus, here, as in Egypt, the\\nsacred flower. A table with dishes of incense stands\\nby his couch, at the foot of which sits his hand-\\nsome queen. Her tunic is fringed and patterned in\\nthe elaborate Assyrian style, and she is resplendent\\nwith jewelry. A grape-vine shelters the royal pair,\\nand behind each of them stand two fan-bearers\\nwith long brushes, scattering the troublesome flies.\\nMeantime the king and queen sip wine from their\\ngolden cups the attendants bring in fresh fruits\\nthe harpers play soft music and, to complete the\\ntriumph of the feast, from a neighboring tree sur-\\nrounded by hungry vultures dangles the severed head of the king s\\nnewly conquered enemy.\\nASSYKIAN KING AND\\nATTENDANTS.\\n4. SUMMARY.\\n1. Political History.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Our earliest glimpse of Chaldea is of a Tu-\\nranian people in temple cities. Later come the Semites, a nomadic\\npeople, who migrate northward, and finally build the Assyrian cities\\nupon the Tigris. Henceforth war rages between the rival sections, and\\nthe seat of power fluctuates between Babylon and Nineveh. About\\n1300 B. c. Babylon is overwhelmed, and for nearly 700 years Nineveh\\nis the seat of empire. Here the Sargonidae Sennacherib, Esarhaddon,\\nand Asshurbanipal develop the Golden Age of Assyrian rule. The\\nBabylonians, however, continue to revolt, and in 747 B. c. Nabonasser\\nascends the Babylonian throne, destroys the records of all the kings\\nbefore his time, and establishes a new era from which to reckon dates.\\nIn 606 B. c. Nineveh is finally overthrown by the Babylonians and the\\nMedes, and Nabopolasser establishes the second Babylonian Empire.\\nNebuchadnezzar subdues the surrounding nations, humiliates Egypt,\\ncaptures Tyre, crushes Judea, and with his captives brought back to\\nBabylon makes that city the marvel of all eyes. It is, however, the\\nlast of her glory. Within the next quarter of a century Babylon is\\ntaken by the stratagem of Cyrus the Great, Belshazzar is slain, and the\\nmighty city falls, never again to rise to her ancient glory.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "SUMMARY\\n71\\n2. Civilization. The EarJif Chaldeans build vast temples of sun-\\ndried brick cemented with bitumen write in cuneiform characters on\\nclay tablets engrave signet cylinders use implements of stone, flint,\\nand bronze manufacture cloth make boats and navigate the sea.\\nThey are learned in astronomy and arithmetic discover the equinoctial\\nprecession (Steele s Astronomy, p. 121) divide the day into twenty-\\nfour hours draw maps, record phenomena, invent dials, and calculate\\na table of squares. They place their houses on high platforms, make\\ntheir furniture of date-wood, and use tableware of clay or bronze.\\nThe palm-tree furnishes them food. Their dead are buried in large\\nclay jars, or in dish-covered tombs, or are laid to rest in arched brick\\nvaults.\\nliNTEKIOH COURT-YAKD OF A MODERN ORIENTAL HOUSE.\\nlite Assyrians, their Semitic conquerors, are a fierce, w\\\\arlike race,\\nskillful in agi iculture, in blowing glass and shaping pottery, in casting\\nand embossing metals, and in engraving gems. Thej^ dye, weave,\\nand are superior in plastic art. They build great palaces, adorning\\nthem with sculptured alabaster slabs, colossal bulls and lions, paved\\ncourts, and eagle-headed deities. They, too, w^rite upon clay tablets,\\nand cover terra-cotta cylinders with cuneiform inscriptions. Their\\nprincipal gods are the heavenly bodies. They do not worship animals,\\nlike the Egyptians, but place images of clay, stone, or metal in their\\ntemples, and treat them as real deities. Magic and sorcery abound.\\nThere is no caste among the people, but all are at the mercy of the\\nking. Women are not respected as in Egypt, and they live secluded\\nin their own apartments. Clay books are collected and libraries\\nfounded, but most of the learning comes from the conquered race, and\\nthe Chaldean is the classic language.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "72\\nBABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.\\nTlie liahylonians are a luxurious people. Industries flourish and\\ncommerce is extensive. Babylonian robes and tapestries surpass all\\nothers in texture and hue. Far below Assyria in the art of sculptured\\nbas-relief, Babylonia excels in brick-enameling, and is greatly the supe-\\nTHE SITE OF ANCIENT BABYLON.\\nrior in originality of invention, literary culture, and scientific attain-\\nment. From her Assyria draws her learning, her architecture, her\\nreligion, her legal forms, and many of her customs.\\nIn Babylonia almost every branch of science made a beginning. She was the\\nsource to which the entire stieam of Eastern civilization may be traced. It is\\nscarcely too much to say that, but for Babj lon, real civilization might not even yet\\nliave dawned upon the earth, and mankind might never have advanced beyond that\\nspurious and false form of it which in Egypt, India, China, Japan, Mexico, and\\nPeru, contented tlie aspirations of the people. i2awliw5on*\u00c2\u00ab Ancient Ilonarchies.\\nREADING REFERENCES.\\nEawlinson s History of Ancient Monarchies.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Fergusson s History of Architecture,\\nand Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Bestored.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Layard s Monuments of Nineveh,\\nand Nineveh and its Remains.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Secords of the Past New Series).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Say ce s Babylonian\\nLiterature; Assyria, its Princes, Priests, and People; and Fresh Lights from, An-\\ncient Momiments.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Perrot and Chipiez s History of Art in Chaldea and Assyria.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nGeorge Smith s Chaldean Account of Genesis {Revised) Assyrian Discoveries and\\nEarly History of Assyria.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Loftus s Chaldea and Susia7ia.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Also the General Ancient\\nHistories named on p. 44.\\nCHRONOLOGY.\\nB.C.\\nSargon 1 38001\\nUr6a(Uruch) 2800?\\nKhammuragus 2280?\\nRise of Assyria 1300\\nEra of Nabonassar 747\\nFall of Nineveh 606?\\nCyrus captured Babylon 538\\nAlexander captured Babylon 331", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "PHCENICIA\\nThe PhcBnicians were Semites. They inhabited a bar-\\nren strip of land on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean,\\nnot more than one hundred and eighty miles long and\\na dozen broad. The country was never united under one\\nking, but each city was a sovereignty by itself. A powerful\\naristocracy was connected with these little monarchies, but\\nthe bulk of the people were slaves brought from foreign\\ncountries. The principal cities were Sidou and Tyre/\\nwhich successively exercised a controlling influence over the\\nothers. The chief defense of the Phoenicians lay in their\\nnaval power. Situated midway between the east and the\\nwest, and at the junction of three continents, they carried\\non the trade of the world.^ The Mediterranean became the\\nmere highway of their commerce. They passed the Strait\\nof Gibraltar on one hand, and reached India on the other.\\nThey settled Cyprus, Sicily, and Sardinia. In Spain\\nthey founded Gades (now Cadiz) and in Africa, Utica and\\nCarthage, the latter destined to be in time the dreaded rival\\nof Rome. They planted depots on the Persian GuK and the\\nGeographical Questions.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Bound Phoenicia. Locate Tj^re; Sidon. Name the\\nprincipal Plioenician colonies. Where was Carthage? Utical Tarshish? Gades?\\nThe Pillars of Hercules\\n1 Tyre, which was founded by Sidonians, has been called the Daughter of Sidon\\nand the Mother of Carthage.\\n2 Read the 27th chapter of Ezekiel for a graphic account of the Phoenician com-\\nmerce in his day.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "74\\nPHCENICIA.\\nRed Sea. They obtained tin from the British Isles, amber\\nfrom the Baltic,^ silver from Tarshish (southern Spain), and\\nPHCENICIA\\nandtbe\\n^v...... o .7- DOMINION OF\\nWildekess /c JUDEA;\\nof PlraTi y TIME OF KING SOLOMON.\\nJ^ Scale of Miles\\nJ.WELL8 DEL.\\ngold from Ophir (southeastern Arabia). In connection with\\ntheir maritime trade they established great commercial\\n1 Over tlielv land trade routea. Amber also existed near Sidon. Tliey carefully\\nconcealed the source of their supplies. An outward-bound Phoenician captain once\\nfound himself followed by a Roman ship. To preserve his secret and destroy his\\nfollower, he ran his own vessel on the rocks. The government made up his loss.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "1000 B. c]\\nPHCENICIA.\\n75\\nroutes by which their merchants penetrated the interior of\\nEurope and Asia. With the growth of Carthage and the\\nrising power of Greece they lost their naval supremacy.\\nBut the land traffic of Asia remained in their hands and\\ntheir caravans, following the main traveled route through\\nPalmyra, Baalbec, and Babylon, permeated all the Orient.\\nTHE KUINS OF ANCIEiNT TYKE.\\nLoss of Independence. Rich merchant cities were\\ntempting prizes in those days of strife. From about 850\\nB. c, Phoenicia became the spoil of each of the great con-\\nquerors who successively achieved empire. It was made a\\nprovince, in turn, of Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Eg\\\\^t,\\nGreece, and finally Rome. The Phoenicians patiently sub-\\nmitted to the oppression of these various masters, and paid\\ntheir tribute at Memphis or Nineveh, as the case might be.\\nTo them the mere question of liberty, or the amount of\\ntheir taxes, was a small one compared with the opening or", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "76 PHCENICIA. [880-146 B.C.\\nclosing of their great routes of trade. The general avoid-\\nance of war, except as they entered the service of their\\nforeign masters, must have arisen from self-interest, and not\\nfrom cowardice, since the Phoenician navigator displayed a\\ncorn-age shaming that of the mere soldier.\\nCarthage,^ the most famous Phoenician colony, was\\nfounded, according to legend, about 880 B. c, by Dido, who\\ncame thither with a body of aristocrats fleeing from the\\ndemocratic party of Tyre. The location of Carthage was\\nAfrican, but its origin and language were Asiatic. The\\npolicy of the warlike daughter proved very unlike that of the\\npeaceful mother. The young city, having gained wealth by\\ncommerce, steadily pushed her conquests among the neigh-\\nboring tribes inch by inch, until, by the 7th century B. c,\\nshe reached the frontier of Numidia. No ancient people\\nrivaled her in ability to found colonies. These were all\\nkept subject to the parent city, and their tribute enriched\\nher treasury. Of the history of Carthage we know little,\\nand still less of her laws, customs, and life. No Punic\\norator, philosopher, historian, or poet has left behind any\\nfragment to tell of the thoughts that stirred or the events\\nthat formed this wonderful people. Had it not been for the\\ndesolating wars that accompanied her fall, we should hardly\\nknow that such a city and such a nation ever existed.\\n1 Carthage was built on a peninsula about three miles -wide. Across this was\\nconstructed a triple wall with lofty towers. A single wall defended the city on every\\nside nest the sea. The streets were lined with massive houses lavinhly adorned\\nwith the riclies of the Punic traders. Two long piers reached out into the sea,\\nforming a double harbor,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the outer for merchant ships, and the inner for the navy.\\nIn the center of flie inner harbor was a lofty island crowned with the admiral s\\npalace. Around this island and the entire circumference of the inner harbor ex-\\ntended a maible colonnade of Ionic pillars two stories high tJie lower story forming\\nthe fi 03t of the curved galleries for the protection of the ships and the upper, of\\nthe rooms for workshops, storehouses, etc. The limits of the city were twenty-three\\nmiles, and it was probably more populous than Rome. Its navy was the largest\\nin the world, and in the seafight with Kegulus comprised 350 vessels, carrying\\n150,000 men.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 77\\nTHE CIVILIZATION.\\nCivilization. Assyria and Egypt were the birtli places of ma-\\nterial civilization, and the Phoenicians were its missionaries. The\\ndepots of the Phoenician merchants were centers whence germs\\nof cultm-e were scattered broadcast. To Europe and Africa these\\ntraders brought the arts and refinements of the older and more\\nadvanced East.\\nLiterature. But the Phoenicians were more than mere carriers.\\nTo them we are said to owe the ali)habet,i which came to us, with\\nsome modifications, through the Greeks and Romans. Unfortu-\\nnately no remains of Phoenician literature survive. Treatises on\\nagriculture and the useful arts are said to have been numerous\\nDebir, a Canaanite (probably Phoenician) town of Palestine, was\\ntermed the book-city.\\nArts and Inventions. The Phoenicians were the first to notice the\\nconnection of the moon with the tides, and apply astronomy prac-\\ntically to navigation. They carried on vast mining operations, and\\nwere marvelous workers in ivory, pottery, and the metals, so that\\ntheir bronzes and painted vases became the models of early Gre-\\ncian art. The prize assigned by Achilles for the foot-race at the\\nfuneral of Patrocles (Iliad, XXIII., 471) was\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2k\\nA bowl of solid silver, deftly wrought,\\nThat held six measures, and iu beauty far\\nSurpassed whatever else the world coiHd boast\\nSince men of Sidon skilled in glj ptic art\\nHad made it, and Phoenician mariners\\nHad brought it with them over the dark sea. 2\\n1 According to general belief, the Phrenicians selected from the Egyptian hieratic\\ntwenty -two letters, making each represent a definite articulation. Twelve of these\\nwe retain with nearly tlieir Phoenician value. But the age and origin of the alphabet\\nare still under discussion. Mr. Petrie says that the inscribed potsherds found by him\\n(1890) in Egypt point to the independent existence of tlie Phojuician and perhaps\\nthe Greek alphabet at least 2000 n. c. wliile Pi-of. Sayce, speaking of recent dis-\\ncoveries (1890) in Arabia, remarks, Instead of seekingiu Phceniciathe primitivehome\\nof oui alphabet, wo may have to look for it in Arabia.\\n2 Until recently no specimen of pure Phfenician art was known to exist. Luigi\\nPalnia d\\\\ Cesnola, former Con.sul to the Island of Cyprus, in his excavations on that\\nisland, uncovered the sites of seventeen cities, and opened many thonsand tombs.\\nHere he found countless Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Greek, and Plia*nician\\ntreasures, dating from before the time of Thnthnios III. (p 17), whose official seal he\\nexhumed. The Phoenician tombs wore several feet below the Grecian one city hav-\\ning perished and another sprung up, which, in turn, buried its dead, unconscious of\\nthe oldev .sepulclier below. Time had left no human remains except a few sknlLs, to\\nsome of which still adhered the gold leaf placed by the Phreniciaus ovor the mouth of\\ntheir dead.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "78\\nPHCENICIA.\\nSidon was noted for its glass- working, in which the blow-pipe,\\nlathe, and graver were used. The costly purple dye of Tyre, ob-\\ntained in minute drops from shell-fish, was famous, the rarest and\\nmost beautiful shade being worn only by kings. The Phoenicians\\nwere celebrated for their perfumes, and had a reputation for\\nnicety of execution in all ornamental arts. When Solomon was\\nabout to build the great Jewish Temple, King Hiram sent, at his\\nrequest, a cunning man of Tyre, skillful to work in gold, in silver,\\nin brass, in iron, in stone, and in timber in purple, in blue, in\\ncrimson, and in fine linen also to grave any manner of graving,\\nand to find out every device which shall be put to him.\\nTheir Beligion resembled that of the Chaldeans and Assyi ians,\\nbut was more cruel. Baal and Moloch were great gods connected\\nwith the sun. They were worshiped in groves on high places,\\namid the wild cries and self -mutilations of their votaries. Before\\nand after a battle (if victorious) large numbers of liuman beings", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION.\\n79\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2were sacrificed. Melcarth, the special god of Tyre, imited the\\nattributes of Baal and Moloch. He was a Hercules who pulled back\\nthe sun to the earth at the time of the solstices, moderated all\\nextreme w^eatlier, and counteracted the evil signs of the zodiac his\\nsymbol was that of the Persian Ormazd, a never-ceasing flame\\n(p. 98). Astarte, or Ashtaroth, goddess of fire and chief divinity of\\nSidon, became the wife of Melcarth she symbolized the moon.\\nChildren were the favorite offerings to Moloch. At Jerusalem (2 Kings xxiii. 10)\\nthe hollow metal linage of the Tyrian god was heated by a fire beneath it, the\\npriest placed the child in the idol s glowing hands, and drums were beaten to drown\\nthe little sufferer s cries. So common were such sacrifices, that one liLscOriau says the\\nPhoenicians ofiered ^ome relative on the occa.siou of any great calamity and when\\nthe Carthaginians were besieged by Agathocles, t3naut of Sicily, they devoted two\\nhundred of their noblest children in a public sacrifice. Even in Roman Carthage\\nthese horrible sights were revived, and infants were publicly offered till Tiberius,\\nto put a stop to the revolting practice, crucified the priests on the same trees beneath\\nwhose shade they had performed these cruel rites.\\nREADI NG REFERENCES.\\nThe General Ancient Histories named on pp. 44 and 72.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 CJievalier and Lenor-\\nmanVs Manual of Oriental History.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Capt. Mago s Adventures, a Phoenician Ex-\\npedition 1000 Arnold s History of Rome, Vol. II., pp. 455-467 {Carthaginian\\nInstitutions).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mommsen s History of Rome, Vol. II., p. 261 (Carthage).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Rawlinson s\\nPhoenicia; and Church s Carthage {Story of the Nations Series).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Perrot and\\nChipiez 8 History of Art in Phoenicia.\\nCHRONOLOGY.\\nB.C.\\nSidon founded, about 1550\\nRise of Tyre, about 1050\\nCarthage founded, about 880\\nPhoenicia conquered by Assyria, about 850\\nTyre captured by Nebuchadnezzar 585\\nTyre captured by Alexander 332\\nA I llCKNICIAN GALLEY.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "JUDEA.\\nThe Hebrews were Semites, and related to the Ass^-rians\\nand the Phoenicians. Their history opens, in the 20th cen-\\ntury B. c with the coming of Abram from Chaldea into\\nCanaan. There he and his descendants lived, simple shep-\\nherds, like the Ai-abs of to-day, dwelling in tents among\\ntheir flocks and herds. By a singular fortune, Joseph,\\nhis great-grandson, became vizier of A-pe-pi II., one of the\\nshepherd kings of Egypt (p. 17). Being naturally desirous\\nof surrounding himself by foreigners who would support\\nhim against a revolt of the people, that monarch invited\\nthe Hebrews to settle in Egypt. Here they greatly pros-\\npered. But in time the native kings, who knew not Joseph,\\nwere restored. During the XIX*^ dynasty, Rameses II.\\ngreatly oppressed them with hard sei vice on his public works\\n(p 18). During the next reign (Mineptah s) Moses, one of\\nthe profoundest statesmen of history, who was versed in all\\nthe learning of the Egyptian court, then the center of\\ncivilization, rescued his people from their bondage.^\\nGeograpJiical Qiiestions.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Bonud Palestine Locate the Dead Sea the Sea of\\nGalilee the Kingdom of Jndah the Kingdom of Israel. Describe tlie River\\nJordan. Where was Jerusalem? Samaria? Jericho? Damascus? Palmyra (Tad-\\nmor) Joppa Why, in going from Galilee to Jerusalem, did Jesus of Nazareth\\nneeds pass through Samaria Name the five cities of the Phihstines. Ans. Ash-\\ndod, Gaza, Ascalon, Gath, Ekron.\\ni The wonderful events by which this was accomplished are familiar to every\\nBible student. The design is here to give only the political history, omitting that", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": ".rtELLS, OEL.\\nRUSSELL A STRUTHERSiENQ S N.Y.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "82 JUDEA. [1491 B.C.\\nThe Exodus (about 1300 b. c.).^ For forty years Moses\\nled the Jews through the wilderness until the 3,000,000 of\\nslaves became assimilated into a nation of freemen, were\\nwon from Egyptian idolatries to the pure worship of the\\none God of their fathers, were trained to war, and made\\nacquainted with the religious rites and the priestly govern-\\nment which were henceforth to distinguish them as a people.\\nThe Conquest of Palestine was accomplished by\\nJoshua,^ successor to Moses, in six years of fierce fighting,\\nduring which thirty-one Canaanite cities were destroyed,\\nand the country was allotted to the tribes.\\nThe Judges. Unfortunately, Joshua at his death did\\nnot appoint a new leader; and for want of a head, the\\ntribes fell apart. The old spirit of enthusiasm, national-\\nity, and religious fervor Avaned. Idolatry crept in. For a\\nwhile the conquered Canaanites made easy prey of the dis-\\nunited tribes. From time to time there arose heroic men who\\naroused their patriotism, inspired a new zeal for the Mosaic\\nlaw, and induced them to shake off the yoke of servitude.\\nThese were the days of the Judges Othniel, Ehud, Gideon,\\nSamson, the j)rophetess Deborah, and the prophet Samuel.\\nKingdom of Israel. During the last days of the\\nJudges, while the Jews and the Canaanites were at war,\\na new power grew up on their borders. The Philistines\\nprovidential oversiglit more often avowed in the case of the Jews, but not more real\\nthan in the life of every nation and individual. It is noticeable that Miueptah,\\nthe Pharaoh who, according to a common belief not supported by the Bible record,\\nperished in the Red Sea, lived many years after that disaster, and died in his bed.\\n(See 1 Kings vi. 1.)\\n1 This is the date now generally accepted by Egyptologists. Usher, whose chro-\\nnology is still jireferred by some Bible students, says 1491 B. c. (See 1 Kings vi. 1.)\\n2 Joshua s i lan of crossing the Jordan, capturing Jericho, taking the heights be-\\nyond by anight march, and delivering the crusliiug blow at Bethhoron (Joshua x. 9),\\nwas a masterpiece of strategy, and ranks him among the great generals of the world.\\nHis first movement placed him in the center of the country, where he could prevent\\nhis enemies from massing against him, and, turning in any direction, cut them up\\niu detail.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "1095-975 B. c]\\nJUDEA.\\n83\\nformed a strong confederation of five cities along the coast\\nsouth of Phoenicia, and threatened the conquest of Canaan.\\nIn order to make head against them, the people demanded a\\nking. Accordingly, three monarchs were given them in\\nsuccession, Saulj David^ and Solomon. Each reigned forty\\n3 ears. The first was merely a general, who obeyed the\\norders of God as revealed through the prophet Samuel.\\nThe second was a warrior king. He enlarged the boundaries\\nof Palestine, fixed the capital at Jerusalem, organized an\\nTOMBS OF THE JUDGES.\\narmy, and enforced the worship of Jehovah as the national\\nreligion. The third was a magnificent oriental monarch.\\nHis empire reached to the Euphrates, and the splendor of\\nhis com-t rivaled that of Egypt and Assyria. He man-ied\\nan Egyptian princess, built the temple on Mount Moriah\\nin Jerusalem, erected splendid palaces, and sent expeditions\\nto India and Arabia. This was the golden age of Judea,\\nand Jerusalem overflowed with wealth.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "84 JUDEA. [975 b. O.\\nThe Two Kingdoms. Luxury, however, brought ener-\\nvation, commerce introduced idolatry, extravagance led to\\noppressive taxation. The people, on Solomon s death, de-\\nmanded of his son a redress of their grievances. This being\\nhaughtily refused, a revolt ensued. The empire was rent into\\nthe two petty kingdoms of Israel and Juclah, the former\\ncontaining ten tribes the latter, two.\\nIsrael (975 to 722 253 years) was idolatrous from the\\nstart. It was a continued scene of turmoil and wrong. Its\\nnineteen kings belonged to nine different famihes, and eight\\nmet a violent death. Finally the Assyrians captured Sa-\\nmaria, the capital, and sent the people prisoners into Media.\\nThey vanished from history, and are known as the Lost\\nTribes. The few remaining Israelites combined with the\\nforeign settlers to form the Samaritans. With this mongrel\\npeople pure Hebrews had no dealings (John iv. 9).\\nJudah (975 to 586 389 years) retained the national\\nreligion. Its twenty kings, save one usiu-per, were all of\\nthe house of David in regular descent. But it lay in the\\npathway of the mighty armies of Egypt and Assyria. Tlu*ice\\nits enemies held Jerusalem. At last Nebuchadnezzar de-\\nstroyed the city, and carried many of the principal inhabit-\\nants to Babylon.\\nThe Captivity lasted about seventy years. The Jews\\nprospered in their adopted country, and many, like Daniel,\\nrose to high favor.\\nThe Restoration. Cyrus, after the capture of Babylon\\n(p. 51), was friendly to the Jews,^ and allowed those who\\nchose to return to Judea and rebuild their temple. They\\nwere greatly changed by their bondage, and henceforth were\\nfaithful to their religion. While they had lost their native\\n1 Tliis was owing to (1) similarity in their religions]; (2) the foretelling of the\\nvictories of Cyrus by the Jewish prophets; and (3) the influence of Daniel. Read\\nDaniel, Nehemiah, and Ezra.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "536 B. c]\\nTHE CIVILIZATION.\\n85\\nlanguage, they had acquired a love for commerce, aud numy\\nafterward went to foreign countries and engaged in trade,\\nfor which they ai e still noted.\\nTheir Later History was full of vicissitude. They\\nbecame a part of Alexandei-^s World-Empire (p. 151). When\\nthat crumbled, Palestine fell to the\\nPtolemies of Egypt (p. 154). In the\\n1st century B. c, Judea was absorbed\\nin the universal dominion of Rome.\\nThe Jews, how^ever, frequently re-\\nbelled, until finally, after a siege of untold horror, Titus cap-\\ntured Jerusalem and razed it to the ground. The Jewish\\nnation perished in its ruins.\\nOUIENTAL SANDAL.\\nTHE CIVILIZATION.\\nCivilization. The Hebrews were an agricultural people. The\\nMosaic law discouraged trade and intercourse with foreign na-\\ntions. The priests, who received a share of the crops, naturally\\nfavored the cultivation of the soil. There\\nwas no art or science developed. When\\nthe Temple was to be built, Solomon\\nobtained not only skilled laborers from\\nthe Phcfinicians (p. 78), but also sailoi*s\\nfor his fleet. Yet this people, occupy-\\ning a little ten itory 150 miles long and\\n50 broad, has, like no other, influenced\\nthe world s history. Its sacred books\\nconstitute the Bible; its religion has\\nmolded the faith of the* most progi es-\\nsive and civilized nations; while from\\nits royal family descended Jesus of Naz-\\nareth, the gi andest factor in all history.\\nTJie Hebrew Commonwealth was the first\\ndefinite knowledge.\\nANCIENT JEWISH HOOK.\\nfepublic of which we have\\nThe foundation was the house thence the\\nascent was through the family or collection of houses, and the tribe\\nor collection of famiUes, to the nation. There were twelve heads of\\ntribes, or princes, and a senate of seventy elders, but the soui ce of", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "86\\nJUDEA.\\npower was the popular assembly known as the Congregation of\\nIsrael, in which every Hebrew proper had a voice. This, Uke the\\ncenturion assembly of Rome (p. 215), formed the Jewish army.\\nThe Mosaic Laws were mild, far beyond the spirit of the age. The\\ncities of refuge modified the rigors\\nof the custom of personal retaha-\\ntion, and gave to all the benefits of\\nan imj^artial trial. The slave was\\nprotected against excessive punish-\\nment, and if of Hebrew birth was\\nset free with his children at the\\nJubilee year. Land could not be\\nsold for more than fifty years, and\\nthe debtor could always expect on\\nthe Jubilee to go back to the home\\nof his fathers. The stranger secured\\nhospitality and kindness. Usury\\nwas prohibited. For the benefit\\nof the poor, fruit was left on the\\ntree, and grain in the field, the law\\nforbidding the harvest-land or vine-\\nyard to be gleaned. Cruelty to animals was punished, and even\\nthe mother-bird with her young could not be taken.\\nLearning was held in high esteem. All Hebrews received what\\nwe should call a common-school education. With this, the\\nLevites, the hereditary teachers, blended instruction in the sacred\\nhistory, the precepts of\\nreligion, and their duties\\nto God and their coun-\\ntry. Every boy was com-\\npelled to learn a trade.\\nIgnorance of some kind\\nof handicraft was discred-\\nitable, and the greatest\\nscholars and statesmen had some regular occupation. After the\\ncaptivity, education seems to have been made compulsory.\\nHEHREW PIUEST OFFERING INCENSE.\\nJEWISH SHEKEL\\nThe Hittites, mentioned in the Old Testament, inhabited the fer-\\ntile valleys of the Orontes, and spread throughout southern Syria.\\nThey were a military and commercial nation, and made great ad-\\nvances in civilization and the fine arts. A court poet is mentioned", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION\\n87\\non the Egyptian monuments as having been among the retinue of a\\nHittite king, and the early art discoveriid in Cyprus by Di Cesnola\\nis supposed to be largely derived from this people, who longresiste l\\nl)oth the Assyi-ians and the Egyptians. The Egyptians called them\\nthe Kheta, and the victory of*\\nRameses II. over the vile chief\\nof Kheta is celebrated in the\\npoem of Pentaur (p. 25). Some\\nfamous sculptured figures along a.nciicm key.\\nthe roads near Ephesus and from\\nSmjTna to Sardis, attributed by Herodotus to Rameses II., prove\\nnow to be Hittite monuments. The language and various memo-\\nrials of this once-powerful people are being eagerly investigated\\n,1^^r -T^^^k-\\nJi: 1U AI.1..M I.N KAIM.V I l.MF.S.\\nby archaeologists, who have already discovered the site of their\\ncommercial capital, Carchemish, in a huge mound on the lower\\nEuphrates. In this mound a mass of earth, fragments of ma-\\nsonry pnd debris, surrounded by ruined walls and broken towers\\nimportant remains with inscriptions are now being found.\\nCHRONOLOGY.\\nB. C.\\nAbram migrated to Canaan, about 2000\\nThe Exodus, about 1300\\nMonarchy established 1095\\nReign of Solomon 1015-975\\nDivision of the Kingdom 975\\nSargon took Samaria 722\\nNebuchadnezzar destmycd Jerusalem 588\\nTitus took Jerusalem A. D. 70\\nBQ H\u00e2\u0080\u0094 6", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "MEDIA AND PERSIA.\\n1. THE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\nThe Medes and Persians, two Aryan nations, vfere\\nearly conquered by the Assyrians. The Medes were the first\\nto assert their indej)endence. Under Cyax ares they de-\\nstroyed Nineveh (GOG b. c.) and divided Assyria between\\nthemselves and the Babylonians, who had aided them in\\nthis conquest (p. 47). Asty ages, successor of Cyaxares, had\\nbeen acknowledged superior by the Persiali king Gambyses,\\nwhose son, Cy rus, became a hostage at the Median court.\\nBut the Medes were better fighters than organizers, and^\\nbesides, were soon enfeebled by the luxury that follows\\nconquest.\\nCyrus was bold, athletic, and ambitious, and soon came\\nGeographical Questions.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Jio\\\\nn\\\\ Persia Media. Locate Persepolis Susa Pasar-\\ngada3. Name the couutries of Asia Minor. Where was Lydia? Sardis Tlie river\\nHalys? What was the extent of the Persian Empire at the time of Alexander\\nthe Great?\\n1 According to one of many legends, Cyrus was the grandson, on his mother s side,\\nof King Astyages. His future greatness, and through him that of Media s rival,\\nPersia, were revealed to Astyages in a dream. Harpagus, who was ordered to kill\\nthe child, gave him to a herdsman to expose on a mountain (conniaro Greek and\\nRoman customs, pp. 178, 28G; and Romulus, p. 205). The herdsman, in pity, saved tlje\\nchild as his own. A boyish quarrel sent Cyrus before the Median king, who, struck\\nby his noble bearing, sent for Harpagus, and, finally learning the truth, quietlj\\ndirected him to send his son to be a companion for the ycmng prince, and himself to\\nattend a banquet at the palace. Cyrus was kept at court; but Harpagus, at the royal\\nfeast which he was directed to attend, was served with the roasted flesh of his own\\nson. In time Harpagus roused Cyrus to revolt, betrayed the Median army to the\\nyoung prince, and became his most devoted general.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "558 B. c]\\nTHE POLITICAL HISTORY\\n89\\nto despise the now effeminate Medes. Arousing liis war-\\nlike countrymen to revolt, lie not only achieved their in-\\ndependence, but conquered\\nMedia and established the\\nMedo-Persian, the second\\ngreat empire of western\\nAsia. His reign was a suc-\\ncession of wars and con-\\nquests. He defeated Croesus,\\nKing of Lydia,^ thus adding\\nto his dominions all Asia\\nMinor west of the Halys. He\\ncaptured Babylon (p. 51) and\\noverthrew the Assyi-ian Em-\\npire. With the f aU of Baby-\\nlon the fabric of Semitic\\ngrandeur was shattered, and\\nAryan Persia took the lead\\nin all western Asia. When\\nCyrus died, the Medo-Persian\\nkingdom reached from the\\nborders of Macedonia to the\\nbanks of the Indus. The ex-\\ntensive conquests and noble character of this king won for\\nhim the title of Cyrus the Great.\\nA BAS-KELIEF OF CYRUS.\\n1 Lydia was an exceedingly ricli countiy. Her nionntains abonnded in precious\\nores and the sands of the liver ractolus, wliicli coursed her capital, tSardis, were\\niieavj^ with electruni,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a mixture of gold and silver. Of this electruni, the first known\\ncoins were made in the 8th century b. c- Croesus was so rich that liis name has be-\\ncome proverbial. He was now doomed to die. licgend relates that, as lie watched\\ntlie flames surmounting liis funeral pile, he exclaimed Solon Solon tliat in response\\nto the queries of Cyrus he answered that the great Atlienian statesman (p. 122) had\\nonce visited him, and had made light of liis wonderful riches, saying, No man can\\nbe judged happy till the manner of his death is known and that Cj^rus. moved by\\ntlie incident, thereupon released him, and became his faitliful friend. Chronological\\ndifficulties in regard to Crousus and Solon have discredited this legend, so chaimingly\\ntold by Herodotus.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "90\\nMEDIA AND PERSIA.\\n[529-522 B. C.\\nCambyses (529 b. c), liis son, succeeded to tlie throne.\\nHe conquered Egypt (p. 19) in\\nsingle battle, using, it\\nis said, the stratagem\\nof placing before his\\narmy cats, dogs, and\\nother animals sacred to\\nthe Egyptians. After\\nthis victory he invaded\\nEthiopia, but his army\\nCRtESUS ON THE FUNKRAL PVHE (KKOM AN ANCIENT VASE).\\nnearly perished in the burning sands of the desert, and he\\nreturned, disgraced, to Memphis. On his journey back to\\nPersia he died (522 b. c.) in Syria of a wound from his own\\nsword.^ The Persians called the gracious Cyrus Father\\nthe reckless Cambyses was branded as Despot.\\nI He had just learned of the assumption of the False Smerdis (p. 91). Hastily\\nmounting his lioise, liis sword fell from its sheath, and, killing himself, he died, says\\nthe Behistim Inscription. Differing authorities interpret this as a suicide or an\\naccident.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "521-48GB.C.] THE POLITK AL HISTORY. 91\\nDarius I. (521 b. c.) oi-gaiiizi d the vast kiii^lom whicli\\nCyrus had conquered. There were twenty-three provinces,\\nall restless and eager to be free. Insurrections were there-\\nfore frequent. Darius divided the empire into twenty great\\nsatrapies, each governed by a satrap appointed by the king.\\nThe slightest suspicion of treachery was the. signal for their\\ninstant death. To secure prompt communication with dis-\\ntant portions of the empire, royal roads were established\\nwith com-iers to be relieved by one another at the end of\\neach day s journey. Every satrapy paid a regular tribute,\\nbut retained its native king, laws, and religion.^ The capi-\\ntal of the empire was fixed at Susa.\\nDarius I. is called the Second Founder of the Persian\\nMonarchy. To his abilit}^ as an organizer was added the\\nambition of a conqueror. Having by one masterly move\\ngrasped the riches of India on the east, he essayed the\\nconquest of Greece on the west. The story of his defeat\\nwe shall study in Greece.\\nThe Later History of Persia presents the usual charac-\\nteristics of oriental despotisms. There were scenes of cruelty,\\ntreachery, and fraud. Brothers murdering brothers, queens\\nslaying their rivals, eunuchs bartering the throne and\\nassassinating the sovereign, were merely ordinary events.\\nAt last the empire itself crumbled before the triumphant\\nadvance of Alexander.\\n1 During the absence of Caniby.ses in Egypt, the Magi made one Gomates king,\\nrepresenting him to be Smerdis, tlie son of Cyrus. Cambyses, liowever, liad secretly\\nmurdered this brother before his departure from Persia. Darius, conspiring with six\\nother nobles, slew the False Smerdis. The seven noblemen agreed to ride out at\\nsunrise of the following day, and that he whose horse tirst neighed should become\\nking. Darius secured the prize, Herodotus says, by a trick of liis groom in placing\\na horse well known to his mastei s horse near where they were to pass.\\n2 The satraps rivaled the king himself in the magnificence of their courts. Eacli\\nhad several palaces with pleasure gardens, or paradises, as they called tliem,\\nattached. The income of the satrap of Babylon is said to have been four bushels of\\nsilver coin per day.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "92 MEDIA AND PERSIA.\\n2. THE CIVILIZATION.\\nSociety. The King, as in Assyria and Babylonia, held at his\\ndisposal the lives, liberties, and property of his people. He was\\nbound by the national customs as closely as his meanest subject,but\\notherwise his will was absolute. His command, once given, conld\\nnot be revoked even by himself hence arose the phrase, Un-\\nchangeable as the laws of the Medes and Persians. His every\\ncaprice was accepted without question. If he chose, in pure wan-\\ntonness, to shoot an innocent boy before the eyes of his father, the\\nparent, so far from expressing horror at the crime, would praise\\nhis skillful archery and offenders, bastinadoed by royal order,\\ndeclared themselves delighted that his majesty had condescended\\nto notice them even with his displeasure. The king was the state.\\nIf he fell in battle, all was lost; if he were saved, it outweighed\\nevery calamity.\\nThe Seven Princes (Esther i. 14; Ezra vii. 14) were grandees next\\nto the king. One was of the royal family; the others were chiefs\\nof the six great houses from which the king was legally bound to\\nchoose his legitimate wives. No one except the Seven Princes\\ncould approach the royal person unless introduced by a court\\nusher. They sat beside the king at public festivals, entered his\\napartment at their pleasure, and gave him advice on public and\\nprivate matters.\\nThe Court was principally composed of Magi (p. 97), who judged\\nall moral and civil offenses.\\nThe People seem to have been divided into two general classes:\\nthose who lived in towns and cities and who generally cultivated\\nthe soil, and the roving or pastoral tribes. Social grades were\\nstrongly marked, and court etiquette was aped among all classes,\\nspecial modes of salutation being prescribed for a man s superior,\\nhis equal, and, his inferior. Trade and commerce were held in con-\\ntempt, and the rich boasted that they neither bought nor sold.\\nWriting. Cuneiform Letters. The Persian characters were\\nformed much more simply than the Assyrian. They were, so far\\nas now known, less than forty in number, and were written from\\nleft to right. For public documents the rock and chisel were used\\nfor private, prepared skin and the pen. Clay tablets seem never to\\nhave been employed, and papyrus brought from Egypt was too\\ncostly. As the cuneiform letters are not adapted to writing on\\nparchment, it is probable that some cursive characters were also in", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 93\\nuse. The Persian writing which has survived is almost entirely\\non stone, either upon the mountain side or on buildings, tablets,\\nvases, and signet cylinders.\\nScience and Literature. To science the Persians contributed\\nabsolutely nothing. They had fancy, imagination, and a relish for\\npoetry and art, but they were too averse to study to produce any-\\nthing which required patient and laborious research. In this\\nrespect they furnish a striking contrast to the Babylonians.\\nThe A vesta, or Sacred Text, written in Zend, the ancient idiom\\nof Bactria, is all that remains to us of their literature. It is com-\\nposed of eight distinct parts or books, compiled from various older\\nworks which have been lost, and pui ports to be a revelation made\\nby Ormazd (p. 98) to Zoroaster, the founder of the Persian reMgion.\\nThe principal books are the Vendidad and the Yagna the former\\ncontains a moral and ceremonial code somewhat corresponding to\\nthe Hebrew Pentateuch; the latter consists of prayers, hymns,\\netc., for use during sacrifice. The contents of the Zend-Avesta date\\nfrom various ages, and portions were probably handed down by oral\\ntradition for hundreds of years before being committed to writing.\\nFrom the zend-avesta.\\nZoroaster asked Aliura Mazda Ahura Mazda, holiest spirit, creator of all exist-\\nent worlds, the truth loving! Wliat was, O Ahura Mazda, the word existing before\\nthe heaven, before the water, before the eartli, before the cow, before tJie tree, before\\nthe fire, the son of Ahura Mazda, before man the truthful, before the Devas and car-\\nnivorous beasts, before the whole existing universe, before every good thing created\\nby Ahura Mazda and springing from truth\\nThen answered Ahura Mazda It was the All of the Creative Word, most h^ly\\nZoroaster. I will teach it thee. Existing before the heaven, before the water, before\\nthe earth, etc. (as before).\\nSuch is the All of the Creative Word, most holy Zoroaster, that even when\\nneither pronounced, nor recited, it is worth one hundred other proceeding prayers,\\n1 Zoroaster was a reformer who lived in Bactria, perhaps as early as 1500 B. c.\\nLittle is known of his actual history. The legends ascribe to him a seclusion of\\ntwenty j-ears in a mountain cave, where he received his doctrines direct from\\nOrmazd. His tenets, though overlaid by superstition, were remarkably pure and\\nnoble, and of all the ancient creeds approach the nearest to the inspired Hebr ?w\\nfaith. Their common hatred of idolatry formed a bond of sympathy between the\\nearly Persians aiwl the Jews, Ormazd and Jehovah being recognized as the same\\nLord God (Isa. xliv. 28; Ezra i. 2, 3). At the time of the Persian conquest by Alex-\\nander, the Zoroastrian books were said to number twenty-one volumes. Daring\\nthe five hundred years of foreign rule they were scattered and neglected. Under the\\nSassanian kings (226-Gol A. D.) the remaining fragments were carefully collected, and\\ntranslated, with explanatory notes, into the literary language of the day. This trans-\\nlation was called Avesta-u-Zend (text and comments). By some mistake the word\\nZend was applied to the original language of the text, and is now generall5 used\\nin that sense hence Zend-Avesta.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "94 MEDIA AND PERSIA.\\nneither pronounced, nor recited, nor chanted. And he, most holy Zoroaster, who in\\ntliis existing world remembers the All of the Creative Word, utters it when remem-\\nbered, chants it when uttered, celebrates when chanted, his soul will I thrice lead\\nacross the bridge to a better world, a better existence, better truth, better days.\\nI pronounced this speech containing the Word, and it accomplished the creation of\\nHeaven, before the creation of the water, of the earth, of the tree, of the four-footed\\nbeast, before the birth of the truthful, two-legged man.\\nA Hymn.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 We worship Ahura Mazda, the pure, the master of purity.\\nWe praise all good thoughts, all good words, all good deeds which are or shall\\nbe and we likewise keep clean and pure all that is good.\\nO Ahura Mazda, thou true, happy being! We strive to think, to speak, and to\\ndo only such actions as may be best fitted to promote the two lives [i. e., the life of\\nthe body and the life of the soul].\\nWe beseech the spirit of earth for the sake of these our best works [i. e., agricul-\\ntare] to grant us beautiful aud fertile fields, to the believer as well as to the unbe-\\nliever, to him who has riches as well as to him who has no possessions.\\nEducation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094^ To ride, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth,\\nwere the great ends of Persian education. When a boy was five\\nyears old, his training began. He was made to rise before dawn,\\nto practice his exercises in running, slinging stones, and the use\\nof the bow and javelin. He made long marches, exposed to all\\nweathers, and sleeping in the open air. That he might learn to\\nendure hunger, he was sometimes given but one meal in two days.\\nWhen he was seven years old, he was taught to ride and hunt, in-\\ncluding the ability to jump on and off his horse, to shoot the bow,\\nand to use the javelin, all with his steed at full gallop. At the age\\nof fifteen he became a soldier. Books and reading seem to have\\nformed no part of an ordinary Persian education. The king him-\\nself was no exception. His scribes learned his wishes, and then\\nwrote his letters, edicts, etc., affixing the royal seal without calling\\nupon him even to sign his name.^\\nMonuments and Art. As the followers of Zoroaster worshiped\\nin the open air, we need not look in Persia for temples, but must\\ncontent ourselves with palaces and tombs. The palaces at Persep-\\nolis2 were as magnificent as those at Nineveh and Babylon had\\nbeen, though different in style and architecture. Like them they\\nstood on a high platform, but the crude or burnt brick of Assyria\\n1 Occasionally, to beguile weary hours, a monarch may have had the Book of\\nthe Clironicles of the Kings of Persia and Media read before him; but the kings\\ntliemselves never opened a book or studied any branch of science or learning.\\nJiatvUnson.\\nRemains of a large palace have been discovered at Susa, whicli is supposed to\\nbe the identical one described in the Book of Esther. On the bases of the pillars it\\nis stated that the palace was erected by Darius and Xerxes, but repaired by Artaxerxes\\nMemuon, who added the iuscriptious.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION.\\n95\\nand Babylon gave place to enormous blocks of hewn stone, i\\nfastened with iron clamps. The terraced platform, and the broad,\\ngently sloping, elaborately sculptured staircases, wide enough to\\nallow ten horsemen to ride abreast, were exctedingly grand and\\nimposing. The subjects of sculpture were much like those in As-\\ns^y-ria the king in combat with mythical monsters, or seated on his\\nthrone suiTOunded by his attendants; long processions of royal\\nguards, or of captives bringing tribute and symbolical combats be-\\nTfT^\\n)fiC iCh^ r\\n\\\\r\\nVv-\\nLJ S:.\\nhm-mP-^ ^^p^\\nII.;.!-:.\\ny/U\\nII L 1,1. IM\\ntween bulls and lions. Colossal winged and human-headed bulls,\\ncopied from Assyria, guarded the palace portals. For effect, the\\nPersians depended upon elegance of form, richness of material,\\nand splendor of coloring, rather than upon immense size, as did\\ntiie Egyptians and Chaldeans. The Great Hall of Xerxes, how-\\never, was larger than the Great Hall of Karuak, and in propor-\\ntion and design far surpassed anything in Assyi ia. What enam-\\neled brick was to Babylon, and alabaster seul^^ture to Assyria, the\\nportico and pillar were to Persia. Forests of graceful columns, over\\nsixty feet high, with richly carved bases and capitals, rose in hall\\nand colonnade, between which were magnificent hangings, white,\\nI An iilea borrowed from tlio -on(iut re l E^ryptiaiis,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "96\\nMEDIA AND PERSIAo\\njji\\n^L\\nlOMli Oh CIKU.S Al rASAK(.Al A\\ngreen, and violet, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to\\nsilver rings and pillars of marble (Esther i. 6). Pavements of\\nred, blue, white, and black marble, with carpets from Sardis spread\\nfor the king to walk upon walls covered with plates of gold and\\nsilver 5 the golden throne of the king,under an embroidered canopy,\\nsupported by pillars of gold inlaid with precious stones a golden\\npalm-tree gold and silver couches; and over the royal bed a golden\\nvine, each grape being a precious stone of enormous value, are\\nrecorded as appurtenances to the royal palace. The Persian king,\\nlike the Egyptian, attended during his lifetime to the building of\\nhis last resting-place. The most remarkable of the Persian tombs\\nis that of Cyrus at PasargadfB,\\nwhich has been called a house\\n_ upon a pedestal. Upon a pyram-\\nidal base made of huge blocks of\\nbeautiful white marble was erected a\\nhouse of the same material, crowned\\nwith a stone roof. Here, in a small\\nchamber entered by a low and nar-\\nrow door, were deposited in a golden\\ncoflin the remains of the great con-\\nqueror. A colonnade of twenty -four pillars, whose broken shafts\\nare still seen, seems to have inclosed the sacred spot. With this\\nexception, all the royal sepulchers that remain are rock tombs,\\nsimilar in situation to those in Egypt. Unlike those, however, they\\nwere made conspicuous, as if intended to catch the eye of an ob-\\nserver glancing up the mountain side. A\\nspot difficult of approach having been\\nchosen, the recessed chamber was ex-\\ncavated in the solid rock, and marked by\\na porticoed and sculptured front, some-\\nwhat in the shape of a Greek cross. The\\nsarcophagi, cut in the rock floor of the\\nrecesses, were covered by stone slabs.\\nPersian Architecture is distinguished for\\nsimplicity and regularity, in most build-\\nings one half being the exact duplicate of\\nthe other. Although many ideas were bor-\\nrowed from the nations we have already\\nconsidered, Persian art, in its best features, such as the grand\\nsculptured staircases and the vast groves of tall and slender\\nTHK GKEAT STAIRCASE AT\\nPEUSEPOLIS.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 97\\npillars,! with their peculiar ornamentation, was strikingly original.\\nThe Persian fancy seems to have run toward the grotesque and\\nmonstrous. Wlien copying nature, the drawing of animals was\\nmuch superior to that of the human form. Statuary was not\\nattempted.\\nThe Practical Arts and Inventions were almost entirely want-\\ning. No enameling, no pottery, no metal castings, no wooden or\\nivory carvings, were made. A few spear and arrow heads, coins,\\nand gem cylinders are all the small objects which have been dis-\\ncovered among the ruins. Persia thus presents a marked contrast\\nto the other nations we have been studying. It was, indeed, the\\nboast of the Persians that they needed not to toil, since by their\\nskill in arms they could command every foreign production. The\\ncarpets of Babylon and Sardis, the shawls of Kashmir and India,\\nthe fine linen of Borsippa and Egypt, the ornamental metal-work\\nof Greece, the coverlets of Damascus, the mushns of Babylonia,\\nand the multiform manufactures of the Phoenician towns, poured\\ncontinually into Persia as tributes, gifts, or merchandise, and left\\namong the native population no ambition for home industries.\\n3. THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\nGeneral Character. The Persian was keen-witted and ingeni-\\nous, generous, warm-hearted, hospitable, and eom-ageous. He was\\nbold and dashing in war sparkling, vivacious, and given to repartee\\nin social life. Except in tlie presence of the king, where no sadness\\nwas allowed, he never checked the expression of his emotions, but\\nchildishly, regardless of all spectators, laughed and shouted when\\npleased, or wept and shrieked when in sorrow. In this he was very\\nunlike the Babylonian gentleman, who studied calmness and repose\\nof manner. He was self-indulgent and luxurious, but chary of debt.\\nThe early Persians were remarkable for truthfulness, lying being\\nabhorred as the special characteristic of the evil spirit.\\nReligion. That of the Persians was Mazdeism, from Ahura\\nMazda (Ormazd), their gi-eat and good god it was also called Zoroas-\\ntrianism, after its founder (p. 93). That of the Medes was Magism,\\nso named from the priests, who were of a caste called Magi.\\nMazdeism taught the existence of two great principles, one good,\\nthe other evil, which were in perpetual and eternal conflict.\\n1 In Assyria the pillar was almost uukuowu, while in Eg3 pt it was twice as broad\\nin proportion to its height as in Persia.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "98\\nMEDIA AND PERSIA.\\nOrmazd was tlio all-i)orfect, all-powerful, all-wise, all-beautiful,\\nall-pure; sole source of true knowledge, of real happiness; him who\\nhath created us, him who sustains us, the wisest of all intelligences\\n{Yagna). Having created the earth, he placed man thereon to pre-\\nserve it. He was represented by the sun, fire, and light.\\nSYMUOL OF ORMAZI).\\n(Copied by tht; Persians from tliat of the Assyrian god Asshiir.\\nAliriman was the author of evil and death, causing sin in man, and\\nbarrenness upon the earth. Hence the cultivation of the soil was con-\\nsidered a religious duty, as promoting the interests of Ormazd and\\ndefeating the malice of his opposer. Those who yielded to the seduc-\\ntions of Ahriman were unable to cross the terrible bridge to which all\\nsouls were conducted the third night after death they fell into the\\ngulf below, where they were forced to live in utter darkness and feed\\non poisoned banquets. The good were assisted across the bridge by\\nan angel, who led them to golden thrones in the eternal abode of hap-\\npiness. Thus this religion, like the Egyptian, contained the doctrine\\nof the immortality of the soul and of future reward and punishment.\\nOrmazd and Ahriman had each his councilors and emissaries, but they\\nwere simply genii or spirits, and not independent gods, like the lesser\\ndeities of the Egyptians and Assyrians.\\nZoroastrian Worship consisted mainly in prayer and praises to\\nOrmazd and his court, the recital of Gathas or hymns, and the Homa\\nceremony. In the last, during the recitation of certain prayers, the\\npriests extracted the juice of a plant called ^^homa, l formally ofifei-\\ning the liquid to the sacrificial fire, after which a small portion was\\ndrunk by one of the priests, and the rest by the worshipers.\\nMagism taught not only the worship of Ormazd, but also that of\\nAhriman, who, under another name, was the serpent-god of the Tura-\\nnians. In Media, Ahriman was the principal object of adoration,\\nsince a good god, so it was reasoned, would not hurt men, but an evil\\n1 Akiud of milkweed, sometimes called the moon-plant. In India it was called\\nsoma, and was similarly used.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 99\\none must be appeased by honor and sacrifice. Sorcery and incanta-\\ntions, which were expressly forbidden by Zoroaster, were the out-\\ngrowth of the Median faitli.\\nThe Magi apparently held their office by hereditary succession. In\\ntime, Magism and Mazdeism became so assimilated that the Magi were\\naccepted as the national priests of Persia. As wo have seen the Egyp-\\ntian religion characterized by animal and sun worshiji, and the Chal-\\ndeo-Ass}Tian by that of the sun, moon, and planets, so we find the\\nPersiau distinguished by the icorshij) of the elements. The sun, fire,\\nair, earth, and water were all objects of adoration and sacrifice. On\\nlofty heights, whence they could be seen from afar, stood the fire-\\naltars, crowned by the sacred flame, believed to have been kindled\\nfrom Heaven, and never suffered to expire. It was guarded by the\\nMagi, who so jealously kept its purity that to blow upon it with the\\nbreath was a capital offense. By these holy fires, flickering on lonely\\nmountain-tops, the Magi, clad in white robes and with half-concealed\\nfaces, chanted day after day their weird incantations, and, mysteri-\\nously waving before the awe-stricken spectators a bundle of tamarisk\\ntwigs (divining-rods), muttered their pretended prophecies.\\nSacrifice was not offered at the altar of the eternal flame, but on fires\\nlighted from it, a horse being the favorite victim. A small part of\\nthe fat having been consumed by the fire, and the soul of the animal\\nhaving been, according to the Magi, accepted by the god, the body was\\ncut into joints, boiled and eaten, or sold by the worshipers. Sacri-\\nfices to water were offered by the side of lakes, rivers, and fountains,\\ncare being taken that not a drop of blood should touch the sacred\\nelement. No refuse was allowed to be cast into a river, nor was it\\neven lawful to wash the hands in a stream. The worship of these\\nelements rendered the disposal of the dead a difficult matter. They\\ncould not be burnt, for that would pollute fire nor thrown into the\\nriver, for that would defile water nor buried in the gi ound, for that\\nwould corrupt earth. The Magi solved the problem by giving their\\nown dead to be devoured by beasts of prey. The people revolted from\\nthis, and incased the lifeless bodies of their friends in a coating of\\nwax having made this concession to the sacred earth, they ventured\\nto bury their dead in its bosom.\\nDomestic Life. The early Persians were noted for their simple\\ndiet. They ate but one meal a day, and drank only water. With\\ntheir successes their habits changed. They still ate only one meal\\neach day, but it began early and lasted till night. Water gave place\\nto wine, and each man prided himself on the quantity he could drink.\\nDrimkenness at last became a sort of duty. Every serious family\\ncouncil ended in a debauch, and once a year, at the feast of IMithras,\\npart of the royal display was the intoxication of the king. Love of", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "100\\nMEDIA AND PERSIA.\\nOKDINAKY PERSIAN\\nCOSTUME.\\ndress increased, and to the flowered robes and tunics, embroidered\\ntrousers, tiaras, and shoes of their Median predecessors, the Per-\\nsians now added the hitherto unwonted fineries of gloves and stock-\\nings. They wore massive gold collars and bracelets, and studded the\\ngolden sheaths and handles of their swords and daggers with gems.\\nThey not only drank wine from gold and silver\\ncups, as did their fallen neighbors the Babylonians,\\nbut they plated and inlaid the tables themselves\\nwith the precious metals. Even the horses felt the\\ngrowing extravagance and champed bits made of\\ngold instead of bronze. Every rich man s house\\nwas crowded with servants, each confining himself\\nto a single duty. Not the least of these were the\\nadorners, who applied cosmetics to their mas-\\nter s face and hands, colored his eyelids, curled his\\nhair and beard, and adjusted his wig. The perfume-\\nbearer, who was an indispensable valet, took charge\\nof the perfumes and scented ointments, a choice\\nselection of which was a Persian gentleman s pride.\\nWonioi were kept secluded in their own apartments, called the\\nharem or seraglio, and were allowed no communication with the other\\nsex.l So rigid was etiquette in this respect,\\nthat a Persian wife might not even see her own\\nfather or brother. When she rode, her litter was\\nclosely curtained, yet even then it was a capital\\noffense for a man simply to pass a royal litter in\\nthe street. 2\\nTJie Eing^s Household numbered 15,000 persons.\\nThe titles of some of his servants reveal the des-\\npotism and dangers of the times. Such were the\\nEyes and Ears, who were virtually spies\\nand detectives; and the Tasters, who tried\\nevery dish set before the king, to prove it not\\npoisoned. A monarch w^ho held the life of his\\nsubjects so lightly as did the Persian kings\\nmight well be on the alert for treachery and\\nconspiracy against himself. Hence the court\\nANCIENT PERSIAN customs and etiquette were extremely rigorous.\\nSILVER COIN. Even to touch the king s carpet in crossing the\\n1 Even at the present day it is considered a gross iudeconira to ask a Persian\\nafter the liealth of his wife.\\n2 It is curious to notice that the same custom obtained in Russia a few centuries\\nago. In 1674 two chamberlains were deprived of their offices for liaving accidentally-\\nmet the carriage of the Tsaritsa Natalia.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 101\\ncourts was a grave offense and to come into his chamber unan-\\nnounced, unless the royal scepter was extended in i)ardon, was punished\\nby instant death. Every courtier prostrated himself in the atti-\\ntude of worship on entering the royal presence, and kept his hands\\nhidden in his sleeve during the entire interview. Even the king was\\nnot exempt from restrictions of etiquette. He was required to live\\nin seclusion never to go on foot beyond the palace walls and never\\nto revoke an order or draw back from a promise, however he might\\ndesire it. He took his meals alone, excepting occasionally, when he\\nmight have the queen and one or two of his children for company.\\nWhen he gave a great banquet, his guests were divided into two\\nclasses the lower were entertained in an outer court, and the higher,\\nin a chamber next his own, where he could see them through the cur-\\ntain wliich screened himself. Guests were assigned a certain amount\\nof food; the greater the number of dishes, the higher the honor con-\\nferred what was left on their jilates they were at liberty to take home\\nto their families. Sometimes at a Banquet of Wine, a select num-\\nber were allowed to drink in the royal presence, but not of the same\\nwine or on the same terms wdth the king he reclined on a golden-\\nfooted couch, and sipped the costly Mdno of Helbou they were seated\\non the floor, and were served a cheaper beverage.\\nThe Persians in War. Weapons, etc. The Persian footman\\nfought with bow and arrows, a sword and si^ear, and occasionally with\\na battle-ax and sling. He defended himself with a wicker shield,\\nsimilar to the Assyrian, and almost large enough to cover him. He\\nwore a leather tunic and trousers, low boots, and a felt cap some-\\ntimes he was protected by a coat of mail made of scale-armor, or of\\nquilted linen, like the Egj^ptian corselet. In the heavy cavalry, both\\nhorse and horsemen wore metal coats of mail, which made their move-\\nments slow and hesitating the light cavalry were less burdened, and\\nwere celebrated for quick and dexterous maneuvering. The special\\nweapon of the horseman was a javelin, a short, strong spear, with\\na wooden shaft and an iron point. Sometimes he was armed with a\\nlong leather thong, which he used with deadly effect as a lasso. The\\nwar-chariots, which we have seen so popular in Egyptian and Assp ian\\narmies, were regarded by the Persians with disfavor. Kings and\\nprinces, however, rode in them, both on the march and in action, and\\nsometimes a chariot force was brought into the field. The wheels of\\nthe Persian chariot were armed with scythes, but this weapon does not\\nseem to have caused the destruction intended, since, as it was drawn\\nby from two to four horses, and always contained two or more occu-\\npants, it furnished so large a mark for the missiles of the enemy, that\\na chariot advance was usually checked before reaching the opposing\\nline of battle. Military engines seem rarely if ever used, and the", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "102\\nMEDIA AND PERSIA,\\nsiege-towers and battering-rams, so familiar in Egyptian and Assyrian\\nsculptures, are never mentioned in Persian inscriptions. Elephants\\nwere sometimes employed in battle and at Sardis, Cyrus gained his\\nvictory over Croesus by frightening the Lydian horses with an array\\nof camels.\\nOrganization of the Army. The Persians trusted for success mainly\\nto numbers. The army was commanded personally by the king, or\\nsome one appointed by him. In the division of men under officers a\\ndecimal system prevailed, so that, grading upward, there were the cap-\\ntains of tens, of hundreds, of thousands, and of tens of thousands.\\nSometimes a million men were brought into service.\\nTEIWIAN KOOT-SOLDIEUS.\\nOn the March. The Persians, like the Assyrians, avoided fighting\\nin winter, and led out their armies in early spring. They marched\\nonly by day, and, as before the time of Darius there were neither\\nroads nor bridges, their immense cavalcade made slow progress. The\\nbaggage-train, composed of a vast multitude of camels, horses, mules,\\n1 Tlie troops were drawn from the entire empire, ami were marslialecl in tlie\\nfield according to nations, eacli tribe accoutered in its own fasliion. Here were seen\\nthe gilded breastplates and scarlet kilts of the Persians and Medes there the woolen\\nshirt of the Arab, the leathern jerkin of tlie Berber, or the cotton dress of the native\\nof Hindustan. Swart savage Ethiops from the Upper Nile, adorned with a war-paint\\nof white and red, and scantily clad with the skins of leopards or lions, fought in one\\nplace with huge clubs, arrows tipped with stone, and spears terminating in the horn\\nof an antelope. In another, Scyths, with their loose, spangled trousers and their\\ntall pointed caps, dealt death around from their unerring blows; while near them\\nAssyrians, helmeted, and wearing corselets of qrilted linen, wielded the tough spear\\nor t le still more formidable iron mace. Rude weapons, like cane bows, unfeathered\\narrows, and stakes hardened at one end in the fire, were seen side by side with keen\\nswords and daggers of the best steel, the finished prof uctions of the worksliops of\\nPdoenicia and Greece. Here the bronze helmet was surmounted with the ears and\\nho- ns of ar ox there it was superseded by a fox-skin, a leathern or wooden skull-cap,\\nor a head-dress fashioned out of a liorse s scalp. Besides horses and mules, elephants,\\ncamels, and wild asses diversified the scene, and rendered it still more strange anti\\nwonderful to the eye of a European.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 jBawlin\u00c2\u00abon.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "SUMMARY. 103\\noxen, etc., dragging heavy carts or bearing great packs, was sent on\\nin advance, followed by about half the troops in a long, continuous\\ncolumn. Then, after a considerable break, carne a picked guard of a\\nthousand horse and a thousand foot, preceding the most precious\\ntreasures of the nation, its sacred emblems and its king. The former\\nconsisted of the holy horses and cars, and perhaps the silver altars\\non whieli flamed the eternal fire. The monarch followed, riding on\\na car drawn by Nisa?an steeds. After him came a second guard of a\\nthousand foot and a thousand horse then ten thousand picked foot\\nprobably the famous ^Immortals (p. 130) and ten thousand picked\\nhorsemen. Another break of nearly a quarter of a mile ensued, and\\nthen the remainder of the troops completed the array. The wives of\\nthe chief officers often accompanied the army, and were borne in\\nluxurious litters amid a crowd of eunuchs and attendants. On enter-\\ning a hostile land, the baggage-train was sent to the rear, horsemen\\nwere throwm out in front, and other effective changes made.\\nIn Battle the troops were massed in deep ranks, the bravest in front.\\nChariots, if used, led the attack, followed by the infantry in the center,\\nand the cavalry on the wings. If the line of battle were once broken,\\nthe army lost heart the commander usually set the example of flight,\\nand a general stampede ensued.\\n4. SUMMARY.\\n1. Political History. In the 7th century B. c. the hardy Medes\\nthrew off the Assyrian yoke and captured Nineveh. But the court of\\nAstyages became as luxurious as that of Asshurbanipal had been, and\\nthe warlike Persians pushed to the front. Under Cyrus they conquered\\nMedia, Lydia, Babylonia, and founded an empire reaching from India\\nto the confines of Egypt. Cambyses, helped by Phoenicians, subdued\\nEgypt, but most of his army perished in the Ethiopia desert. Mean-\\nwhile a Magian usurped the throne in the name of Smerdis, the mur-\\ndered brother of Cambyses. Darius unseated the Pseudo-Smerdis, and\\norganized the empire which Cyrus had conquered. He invaded India,\\nScythia, and finally Greece, but his hosts were overthrown on the field\\nof Marathon (see p. 126).\\n2. Civilization. Every Persian, even though one of the Seven\\nPrinces, held his life at the mercy of the king. Truthful and of simple\\ntastes in his early national life, he grew in later days to be luxurious\\nand effeminate. Keen-witted and impulsive, having little love for\\nbooks or study, his education was with the bow, on the horse, and m\\nthe field. In architecture he delighted in broad, sculptui-ed staircases,\\nand tall, slender columns. He expressed some original taste and de-\\nB Q H\u00e2\u0080\u0094 7", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "104\\nMEDIA AND PERSIA.\\nsign, but his art was largely borrowed from foreign nations, and his\\ninventions were few or none. He wrote in cuneiform characters, using\\na pen and prepared skins for epistles and private documents his public\\nrecords were chiseled in stone. He had little respect for woman, and\\nkept his wife and daughters confined in the harem. He went to war\\nwith a A^ast and motlev oavalr ade. armed by nations, and relied upon\\nI HE RUINS OF I EKSEl OMS.\\noverwhelming numbers for success. He worshiped the elements,\\nand the Magi his priests guarded a holy flame on mountain heights.\\nWhen he died, his friends incased his body in wax and buried it, or\\nexposed it to be destroyed by the vultures and wild beasts.\\nREADING REFERENCES.\\nThe General Ancient Histories named on pp. 44 and 72.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Eaivlinso7Vs Five Great\\nMonarchies.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Vaux s Nineveh and Persepolis.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Fergusson s Palaces of Nineveh and\\nPersepolis restored.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Loftus s Chaldea and Susiana.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Haug s Essays on the Sacred\\nLanguage, Writings, and Religion of the Parsees.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Ehers s Egyptian Princess (p. 44)\\ncontains a vivid description of the times of Cambyses and the PseudoSmerdis.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Eaw-\\nlinson s Translation of Herodotus.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Miiller s Sacred Books of the East Vols. IV. and\\nv.). \u00e2\u0080\u0094Benjamin s Story of Persia.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Media and Persia in the various Cyclopcedias.\\nCHRONOLOGY.\\nB.C.\\nCyaxares destroyed Nineveh Oe\\nCyrus subdued the Medes\\nCyrus defeated Croesus, aud captured Sardis 547?\\nCyrus subdued the far East 553-540\\nCyrus captured Babylon 538\\nCambyses ascended the Throne 529\\nCambyses conquered Egypt 527\\nDarius Hystaspes ascended the Throne 521\\nDarius invaded Greece 490", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "INDIA.\\nThe Hindoos, like the Persians, were Aryans. In all\\nrespects, except color, they resemble the Europeans. They\\nare thoug-ht to have emigrated from Iran (p. 12) earlier than\\n1500 B. c. They never materially influenced the steady flow\\nof histor}^,^ and are only incidentally mentioned when for-\\neigners went thither for purposes of trade or conquest. The\\nfirst authentic event recorded is that of the invasion of\\nDarius (518 b. c), and the next that of Alexander (p. 152).\\nTHE CIVILIZATION.\\nCivilization. The character of their civilization was early\\nstereotyped. By mixing with the dark races of the country, the\\nfair-skinned invaders lost the Aryan progressiveness and energy.\\nWhat Alexander found in India meets the traveler there to-day,\\na teeming, peaceable population; fabulous riches; arts and in-\\ndustries passing unchanged from generation to generation and\\na rehgion whose rigorous rules and ceremonies regulate all the\\ndetails of life. The products of Indian looms were as eagerly\\nsought anciently as now; and the silks, pearls, precious ^-^^tones,\\nspices, gold, and ivory of India have in successive ages enriched\\nPhoenicia, the Italian republics, and England.\\nSociety. Castes were established by the early Aryans: (1) the\\nBrahmans, or priests, who had the right of interpreting the sacred\\nbooks, and possessed a monopoly of knowledge (2) the Kshatriyas,\\n1 There is little, if anything, in the Indian annals worthy the name of history.\\nThe Hindoo mind, though acute and intelligent, is struck, not bj the reasonableness\\nor truth of a statement, but by its grandeur. Thus, in the Brahman mythology we\\nhear of Rdhu, an exalted being, 76,800 miles high and 19,200 miles across the shoul-\\nders. Wliile the Egyptian engraved on stone the most trivial incident of dailj lite,\\nthe Uindoo disregarded currcut cveuts, and was absorbed in uietaphysical subtleties.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "106 INDIA.\\nor soldiers; (3) the Vaisya, or traders and farmers; and (4) the\\nSudras, or laborers, who consisted of the conquered people, and\\nwere slaves. The Pariahs, or outcasts, ranked below all the others,\\nand were condemned to perform the most menial duties. Inter-\\nmarriage between the castes was forbidden, and occupations de-\\nscended rigidly from father to son.\\nLiterature. The Sanskrit (perfected), the language of the\\nconquerors, is preserved among the Hindoos, as is the Latin with\\nus, through grammars and dictionaries. Its hterature is rich in\\nfancy and exalted poetry, and embalms the precious remains of\\nthat language which was nearest the speech of our Aryan fore-\\nfathers. Thousands of Sanskrit works are still in existence. No\\nman s life is long enough to read them all. A certain Hindoo\\nking is said to have had the contents of his library condensed into\\n12,000 volumes A portion of the Vedas, the sacred books of\\nBrahma, was compiled 1200 B. c. The Rig-Veda contains 1028\\nhymns, invoking as gods the sun, moon, and other powers of\\nnature. The following extract is a beautiful litany:\\n1. Let me not yet, O Varnna [tlie god of water], enter into the house of clay.\\nHave mercy. Almighty, have mercy!\\n2. If I go along trembling, like a cloud driven by wind, have mercy. Almighty,\\nhave mercy\\n3. Tlirough want of strength, thou Strong One, have I gone to the wrong shore.\\nHave mercy, Almighty, have mercy\\n4. Thirst came on the worshiper, in the midst of the waters. Have mercy.\\nAlmighty, have mercy\\n5. Wherever we men, O Varuna, commit an offense before the heavenly host;\\nwherever we break thy law through thoughtlessness, have mercy, Almighty, have\\nmercy\\nReligion. Brahmanism, the Hindoo faith, teaches pantheism,\\na system which makes God the soul of the universe, so that ^what-\\never we taste, or see, or smell, or feel, is God. It also contains\\nthe doctrine of the transmigration of souls; i. e., that after death\\ngood spirits will be absorbed into the Supreme Being, but wicked\\nones will be sent back to occupy the bodies of animals to begin\\nafresh a round of purification and elevation. The idea of prayer,\\nmeditation, sacrifice, and penance,^ in order to secure this final\\n1 The doctrine of the Hindoo Trinity, i. e., that God reveals himself in three forms,\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nBrahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 is now known\\nto be a modern one. It grew out of an attempt to harmonize all the views that were\\nhostile to Buddhism.\\n2 Travelers tell us that Hindoo fanatics carry this idea of penance to such an\\nextent as to keep their hands clinched until the nails grow through the palms, and to\\nhold their arms upright until they become paralyzed.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION,\\n107\\nabsorption which is the highest good, constitutes the key to Brah-\\nmanisni, and explains why in its view the hermit and devotee\\nare the truly wise. By\\nacts of benevolence and\\nsacrifice performed in\\ndifferent stages of trans-\\nmigration, one may ac-\\ncumulate a vast stock of\\nmerit, so as finally to at-\\ntain to a godlike intelli-\\ngence. Several of these\\ndivine sages are believed\\nto have arisen from time\\nto time.\\nBuddhism (500 B. c.)\\nwas an effort to reform\\nBrahmanism by incul-\\ncating a benevolent and\\nhumane code of morals.\\nIt teaches the necessity\\nof a pure life, and holds\\nthat by the practice of\\nsix transcendent virtues\\nalms, morals, science,\\nenergy, patience, and\\ncharity a person may\\nhope to reach Nirvana or\\neternal repose. Buddha,\\nthe founder of this sys-\\ntem, is said to have previously existed in four hundred millions\\nof worlds. During these successive transmigrations he was almost\\nevery sort of fish, fly, animal, and man. He had acquired such a\\nsanctity millions of centuries before as to permit him to enter Nir-\\nvana, but he preferred to endure the curse of existence in order to\\nbenefit the race. Buddha is an historic character. His life was\\nmarvelously pure and beautiful; but his religion was a practi-\\ncal atheism, and his teachings led to a belief in annihilation and\\nnot absorption in Brahma, or God, as the chief end of existence. The\\nBuddhists were finally expelled from India. But they took refuge\\nin Ceylon their missionaries earned their doctrines over a large\\npart of the East, and Buddhism now constitutes the religion of\\nBUUDH18T PKIESIS.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "108\\nINDIA.\\nover one fourth of the world s population. There are almost end-\\nless modifications of both these faiths, and they abound in senti-\\nments imaginative and subtle beyond conception. Mingled with\\nthis lofty ideality is the grossest idolatry, and most grotesque\\nimages are the general objects of the Hindoo worship.\\nThe Sacred Writings of the Hindoos contain much that is simple\\nand beautiful, yet, like all such heathen literature, they are full of\\nsilly and repulsive statements. Thus the Institutes of Vishnu declare\\nthat cows are auspicious purifiers that drops of water falling\\nA HUAllMAN AT I UAVRK.\\nfrom the horns of a cow have the power to expiate all sin and\\nthat scratching the back of a cow destroys all guilt. The Brah-\\nmans assert that prayer, even when offered from the most unworthy\\nmotives, compels the gods to grant one s wishes. The Institutes of\\nGautama (Buddha) forbid the student to recite the text of the Veda\\nif the wind whirls up the dust in the day-time. The Buddhists\\ndeclare that all animals, even the vilest insects, as well as the\\nseeds of plants, have souls.\\nREADI NG REFERENCES.\\nMiiller s Sacred Books of the East, and History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nWhitney s Oriental and Linguistic Studies.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 LenormanVs Manuel, etc.. Vol. III.\\nJohnson s Oriental Religions, India.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Taylor s Student s 3Ianual of the History of\\nIndia.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Bayard Taylor s India, China, and Japan.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Articles on India, etc., in Apple-\\ntons Zell s, and Johnson s CyclopoHlias, and Encyclopcedia Britannica.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "CHINA.\\nThe Chinese were Turanians (p. 10). Their historical\\nrecords claim to reach far back of all kno^\\\\ii chronology,\\nbut these are largely mythical. Good authorities place the\\nfoundation of the empire at about 2800 B. c. Since then\\nmore than twenty dynasties of kings have held sway. From\\nearly times the country has been disturbed by incursions\\nof the Tartars (Huns or Mongols). The Emperor Che\\nHwang-te, the Chinese national hero, expelled these wild\\nbarbarians, and to keep them out began (214 b. c.) the Great\\nWall of China along the northern frontier. This wall is fif-\\nteen to thirty feet high, mde enough for six horsemen to ride\\nabreast upon the top, and extends over mountains and valleys\\na distance of over twelve hundred miles. Che Hwang-te\\ndied six years before it was finished.\\nIn the 13th century the great Asiatic conqueror Genghis\\nKhan invaded the empire, and paved the way for the estab-\\nlishment of the first Mongol dynasty, which held the king-\\ndom for nearly one hundi ed years. During this period the\\nfamous traveler Marco Polo (Brief Hist. U. S., p. 19) visited\\nChina, where he remained seventeen years. On his return\\nto Europe he gave a glo\\\\Wng description of the magnificence\\nof the Eastern mcmarch s court. Again, in the 17tli century,\\nthe Tartars obtained tlie throne, and founded the dynasty\\nyhich now governs the empu^e.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "110\\nCHINA.\\nTHE CIVILIZATION.\\nCivilization. The Chinese have always kept themselves isolat-\\ned from the other nations consequently China has influenced his-\\ntory even less than has India. Law and tradition have done for the\\nformer what a false religion has for the latter. Everything came to\\na stand-still ages ago.^ The dress, the plan of the house, the mode\\nof bowing, the minutest detail of life, are regulated by three thou-\\nTHE GREAT WALL OF CH\\nsand ceremonial laws of almost immemorial usage. No man pre-\\nsumes to introduce any improvement or change. The only hope is to\\nbecome as wise as the forefathers by studying the national classics.\\n1 Herodotus says that in dealing with foreigners the Chinese were wont to deposit\\ntheii wool or silk in a certain place, and then go away. The merchants came np, laid\\nbeside the goods the snm of money they were willing to pay, and retired. The Chi-\\nnese then ventured out again, and, if satisfied, took the money and left the goods;\\nif not, they left the money and carried off the goods. There is a marked resemblance\\nbetween this people and the ancient Egyptians. Both have the same stereotyped\\ncharacter, tlu^ same exceptional mode of writing, the same unwillingness to mingle\\nwith surrounding nations, the same mode of reckoning time by dynasties, apd th\u00c2\u00a9\\nsame enjoyment in the contemplation of death.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION,\\n111\\nSuch is the esteem in which agriculture is held, that once a year\\nthe emperor exhibits himself in public, holding a plow. The in-\\ngenuity of the Chinese is proverbial. They anticipated by centu-\\nries many of the most important inventions of modern Europe,\\nsuch as gunpowder, printing, paper, porcelain, and the use of the\\ncompass. A Chinese chart of the stars represents the heavens\\nas seen in that country 2300 b. c, thus showing how early astron-\\nomy was cultivated by this people.\\nTlie Literature is very extensive.\\nThe writings of Confucius (551^78\\nB. c.) are the chief books perused\\nin the schools. All appointments\\nto the civil service are based on ex-\\naminations, which include the prep-\\naration of essays and poems, and\\nthe writing of classical selections.\\nThree Beligions, Buddhism, Tao-\\nism or Rationalism, and Confu-\\ncianism, exist. Such is the liberty\\nof faith, that a man may believe\\nin them all, while the mass of the\\npeople will pray in the temples of\\nany one indiscriminately. All these\\nfaiths agree in the worship) of one s\\nancestors. Buddhism was introduced\\nfrom India (p. 107), and by its gor-\\ngeous ritual and its speculative doc-\\ntrines, powerfully appeals to the\\nimagination of its devotees. Taoism traditional i.um.m..-.-. vi- wm\\nis a religion of the supreme reason\\nalone. Confucianism is named from its founder, who taught a\\nseries of elevated moral precepts, having reference solely to man s\\npresent, and not his future, state. Confucius died eight years\\nbefore the birth of the Greek philosopher Socrates (p. 17J:).\\nSayings of Confucius.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 He who exercises government by means of his virtue\\nmay be comparefl to the north polar star which keeps its place, au l all tlio (other)\\nstars turn towards it.\\nWhat you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to otlurs.\\nI am not concerned that I liave no place (office) I am concerned how I may fit\\nmyself for one. I am not concerned that I am not known I seek to be worthy to be\\nknown.\\nSlow in words and earnest in action. Act before speaking, and then speak ac-\\ncording to your actions,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "112\\nCHINA.\\nExtract from the Classic of Filial piety.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The services of love and rev-\\nerence to parents when alive, and those of grief and sorrow to them -when dead\\nthese completely discharge the fundamental duty of living men.\\nThe Chinese call their country the Middle Kingdom, from a notion that it is\\nin the center of the world. Their map of the globe is a parallelogram, of the habit-\\nable part of which China occupies nine tenths or more. I felicitate myself, says a\\nChinese essayist, that I was born in China, and not beyond the seas in some remote\\npart of the earth, where the people, far removed from the converting maxims of the\\nancient kings, and ignorant of the domestic relations, are clothed with the leaves of\\nplants, eat wood, and live in the holes of the earth.\\nREADING REFERENCES.\\nDooUttle s Social Life of the Chinese\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Loomis s Confucius and tTiP. Chinese\\nClassics.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Collie s Four Books (a Translation of Chinese Classical Works).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Thornton s\\nHistory of China.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Williams s Middle Kingdom.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Legge s Religions of China.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 John-\\nson s Oriental Religions China.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Articles on China and Confucius in Appletons\\\\\\nZell 8, and Johnson s Cyclopcedias and Encyclopcedia Britannica.\\nCHINESE TEMPLE", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "J.WELLS, DEL,", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "Colophot\\nSAMOS\\n?*V ^n Sta^^C?/ M/ ^E08l. SAMOS\\no~.=3J^ %4* *D0NU8A., CALrMNA..SL\\neos -ifl/./. _\\nX w *W PAROS I. _\\nV 8ERIPH0S I. c rtp J(#%NAXOS I\\nON s,PH.08..t .^C^fl. *oo......\\nCIMOCOS I I\\n*a^^ HER ^cv.^iS- -,\u00c2\u00ab;i\u00c2\u00bb\u00c2\u00bb uebinThos I.\\nME.offP ^^^^.OS,. ^\u00e2\u0080\u009e,,3, COS\\nA ^Malea Prom. pholegandros i. ^os fiLA,^\\nCYTHERA\\nASTYPAL/tA I.\\nANAPHE I. 4te TEL08 iT^\\nCriumetopo\\nProm.\\nVCARPATHOS\\nRUSSELL eTRUTHfins, EMQ-ft N.Y.", "height": "3324", "width": "2122", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "GREECE.\\n1. THE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\nSeat of Civilization Changed. Thus far we have\\ntraced the beginnings of civilization among the oldest peoples\\nof antiquit3^ Oin* study has been confined to the Orient.\\nWe now tui n to Europe. Its history, so far as we know,\\nbegan in Greece. The story of that little peninsula became,\\nabout the time of the Persian wars (p. 91), the record of\\nci\\\\alization and progress, to which the history of the East is\\nthenceforth but an occasional episode.\\nThe Difference between Eastern and Western\\nCivilization is marked. The former rose to a considerable\\nheight, but, fettered by despotism, caste, and polygamy, was\\nsoon checked. The monarchs were absolute, the empii-es\\nvast, and the masses passive. In Greece, on the contrary,\\nwe find the people astir, every power of the mind in f idl\\nplay, and little states aU aglow with patriotic ardor. Assy-\\nrian art, Egyptian science, and the Phoenician alphabet w^ere\\nabsorbed, but only as seeds for a new and l)etter growth.\\nMuch of the life we live to-day, with its political, social, and\\nGeographical Questions.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ^onrnX Greece. Name the principal Grecian states\\nthe principal Grecian colonies (map, p. 11) the chief islands in the jEge an Sea.\\nLocate the Peloponnesus; Arcadia. Where was Ionia? ^Eolis? Athens? Sparta?\\nThebes? Argos? Corinth? Delphi? Marathon? Plataea? The pass of Ther-\\nmopylai? Uinm The Hellespont? The isle of Rhodes? Mount Parnassus?\\nValeofTempel MountOssa? Mount Pelion? Salamis Island? Syracuse? Magna\\nGraicia? Chajrouea?", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "114 GREECE.\\nintellectual advantages j its music, painting, oratory, and\\nsculpture; its thirst for knowledge, and its free institu-\\ntions, was kindled on the shores of the ^ge^an Sea, was\\ntransmitted by the Greek to the Roman, by him to the Teu-\\nton, and so handed down to us.\\nThe Geographical Features of Greece had much to\\ndo with fixing the character of its inhabitants. The coast\\nwas indented, like no other, with bays having bold promon-\\ntories reaching far out to sea, and forming excellent harbors.\\nNature thus afforded every inducement to a sea-faring life.\\nIn striking contrast to the vast alluvial plains of the Nile\\nand the Euphrates, the land was cut up by almost impassable\\nmountain ranges, isolating each little valley, and causing\\nit to develop its peculiar life. A great variety of soil and\\nclimate also tended to produce a versatile people.\\nThe Early Inhabitants were our Aryan kinsfolk\\n(p. 12). The Pelasgians,^ a simple, agricultural people, were\\nthe first to settle the country. Next the Helle nes, a warlike\\nrace, conquered the land. The two blended, and gave rise to\\nthe Grecian language and civilization, as did in later times\\nthe Norman and Anglo-Saxon to the English.\\nHellas and Hellenes. The Greeks did not use the\\nname by which we know them, but called their country\\nHellas, and themselves Hellenes. Even the settlements in\\nAsia Minor, and in the isles of the ^ge an and Mediter-\\nranean, were what Freeman happily styles patches of\\nHellas. All those nations whose speech they could not\\nunderstand they called Barbarians.\\nGrecian Unity. The different Grecian states, though\\nalways jealous and often fighting, had much in common.\\n1 Remaifls of the Pelasgian architecture still survive. They are rude, massive\\nstone structures. The ancients considered them the work of the Cyclops,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a fabulous\\nrace of giants, who had a single eye in the middle of the forehead.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 115\\nAll spoke the same language, though there were several\\ndialects. They had many common customs, and a com-\\nmon inheritance in the poems of Homer (p. 162) and the\\nglory of the Hellenic name. There were, moreover, two\\ngreat holding-points for all the Greeks. One was the\\nhalf-yearly meeting of the Amphictyonic Council,^ and the\\nother the national games or festivals (p. 186). All Hellenes\\ntook part in the latter, and thus the colonies were united to\\nthe parent state. The Grecian calendar itself was based on\\nthe quadrennial gathering at Olympia, the First Olyimpiad\\ndating from 776 B. c.^\\nLegendary History. The early records of Greece are\\nmythical. It is not worth the effort to pick out the kernels\\nof truth around which these romantic legends grew. They\\nchronicle the achievements of the Heroic Age of the poets.\\nThen occurred the Ai-gonautic Expedition in search of the\\nGolden Fleece, the Twelve Labors of Hercules, the Siege of\\nTroy divine, the Hunt of the Calydonian Boar, and the\\nexploits of heroes whose adventures have been familiar to\\neach succeeding age, and are to-d^ studied by the youth of\\nevery civilized land.^\\n1 In early times twelve tribes in the north agreed to celebrate sacrifices together\\ntwice a year,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 in the spring to Apollo at Delphi, and in the autumn to Ceres at An-\\nthela, near Thermopylfe. Their deputies were called the Amphictyonic Council\\n(council of the neighbors or co-religionists), and the meetings, from being at first\\npurely religious, became great centers of political influence. The temple at Delphi\\nbelonged to all the states, and the Delphic Oracle attained celebritj not only among\\nthe Greeks, but also among foreign nations.\\n2 This was twenty-nine years before the era of Nabonassar (p. 46), and half a\\ncentury before the Captivity of the Ten Tribes by Sargon (p. 84).\\n3 Thus read the legends (1) Jason, a prince of Thessaly, sailed with a band of\\nadventurers in the good ship Argo. The Argonauts went through the Dardanelles,\\npast tlie present site of Constantinople, to the eastern coast of the Euxine Sea. Jason\\nthere planted a colony, took away the famous Golden Fleece, carried oflf the beautiful\\nprinc(^s8 Medea, and returned to Thessalj in triumph. (2) Jiercules was the son of\\nJupiter and Alcmena. Juno, Queen of Heaven, sent two serpents to strangle him\\nin his cradle, but the precocious infant killed them both, and escaped unharmed.\\nAfterward his half-brother, Eurystheus, imposed upon him twelve difficult under-\\ntBikings, all of which he successfully accomplished. (3) Soon after the return of the", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "116\\nGREECE.\\nPrimitive Governments. In legendary times, as we\\nlearn from tlie Iliad, each little city or district had its he-\\nreditary king, supposed to be descended from the gods. He\\nTHE DEPAUTUUE OF ACHII.LES (FROM AN ANCIENT VASE).\\nwas advised by the Council of the Elders and the Assemhly,\\nthe latter being a mass meeting, where all the citizens gath-\\nArgouautic expedition several of tlie Grecian waniors\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Meleager, Theseus, and\\nothers\u00e2\u0080\u0094 joined in an ^olian war, wliich the poets termed the Hunt of the Calj do\\nnian Boar. ^neus, king of Calydon, father of Meleager, liaving neglected to pay\\nhomage to Diana, that goddess sent a wild boai which was impervious to the spears\\nof ordinary liuntsmen, to lay waste his country. All the princes of the age assembled\\nto hunt him down, and he was at last killed by tlie spear of Meleager. (4) The story\\nof the Siege of Troy is the subject of Homer s Iliad. Venus had promised Paris, sou\\nof Priam, King of Troy, that if he would pronounce lier the most beautiful of the\\ngoddesses, he sliould have for wife tlie handsomest woman of his time, Helen, wife\\nof Menelaus, King of Sparta. Paris granted the boon, and then going to Sparta\\ncarried off Helen to Troy. Menelaus, smarting under this wrong, appealed to the\\nGrecian princes for help. They assembled\\nunder his brother Agamemnon, King of My-\\ncenae. A hundred thousand men sailed away\\nin eleven hundred and eighty-six ships across\\nthe Mge im, and invested Troy. The siege\\nlasted ten years. Hector, of the beamy\\nhelm, son of Priam, was the bravest leader\\nof the Trojans. Achilles, the first of Grecian\\nwarriors, slew him in single combat, and\\ndragged his bodj at his chariot- wheels in in-\\nsolent triumph around the walls of the city.\\nBut the lion-hearted Acliilles fell in turn,\\nfor so the Fates liad decreed. Troy was finally taken by stratagem. The Greeks\\nfeigned to retire, leaving behind them as an offering to Minerva a great wooden horse.\\nThis was reported to be purposely of such vast bulk, in order to prevent the Trojans\\nfrom taking it into the city, as that would be fatal to the Grecian cause. The deluded\\nI KOVV OF AN EAIU.V (ilU -EK", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 117\\nered about the king and the elders to diseuss political\\naffairs. The power of the kings gradually diminished until\\nmost of the cities became republics, or commonwealths.\\nIn some cases the authority was held by a few families. If\\ngood, it was styled an aristocracy {aristos, best) but if bad,\\nan oligarchy {oligos, few). In a democracy any citizen could\\nhold office and vote in the assembly. At Sparta there were\\nalways two kings, although in time they lost most of then*\\npower.\\nThe Dorian Migration was one of the first clearly\\ndefined events of Grecian history. After the Trojan war\\nthe ties which had temporarily held the princes together\\nwere loosed, and a general shifting of the tribes ensued.\\nThe Dorians a brave, hardy race descended from the\\nmountains, and moved south in search of new homes.^ They\\nconquered the Achgeans in the Peloponnesus, and occupied\\nthe chief cities, Argos, Corinth, and Sparta. This was\\nabout the 11th century b. c.\\nGrecian Colonies. Hellas was greatly extended in con-\\nsequence of these changes. A part of the Achaeans fled\\nnorthward, dispossessing the lonians, many of whom emi-\\ngrated to Asia Minor, where they founded the Ionic colonies,^\\namong which were Ephesus (Acts xix. 1 xx. 15) and Mile\\niuhabitauts fell into the suare, and eagerly dragged the unwieldy monster within tlieir\\nwalls. That night a body of men concealed in tlie horse crept out, threw open the\\ngates, and admitted the Grecians, who had quietly returned. From the terrible mas-\\nsacre which ensued, ^ne as, a famous Trojan chief, escaped with a few followers.\\nHis subsequent adventures form the theme of Virgil s -Ene id. Homer s Odyssey tells\\ntlie wanderings of the crafty Ulysses, king of Ithaca, on his journey home from Troy,\\nand the trials of his faithful wife Penelope during his absence.\\n1 The word politics is derived from the Greek word for city, and meant in its\\noriginal form only the afifairs of the city. Tlie Hellenes, unlike most other Aryans\\n(except the Italians), from the very first gatliered in cities.\\n2 This event is known in Grecian history as Tlie Return of the Heraclei da;.\\nThe Dorians were induced by the descendants of Hercules to support their claim to\\nthe throne of Argos, whence their ancestor had been driven by the family of Pelops.\\n3 Some authorities make the Ionic colonies the parents of Greece.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "118 GREECE.\\ntus. SimDarly, the ^olians had already founded the JSolic\\ncolonies. Finally the Dorians were tempted to cross the sea\\nand estabhsh the Boric colonies, chief of which was Rhodes\\n(map, p. 11). In subsequent times of strife many Greek\\ncitizens grew discontented, and left their homes to try their\\nfortune in new lands. The colonial cities also soon became\\nstrong enough to plant new settlements. Every opportunity\\nto extend their commerce or political influence was eagerly\\nseized by these energetic explorers. In the palmy days of\\nGreece, the Euxine and the Propontis (Sea of Marmora)\\nwere fringed with Hellenic towns. The Ionian cities, at the\\ntime of the Persian conquest (p. 125), extended ninety miles\\nalong the coast in an almost uninterrupted line of magnificent\\nquays, warehouses, and dwellings. On the African shore\\nwas the rich Gyrene, the capital of a prosperous state. Sicily,\\nwith her beautiful city of Syracuse, was Like a Grecian island.\\nSouthern Italy was long called Magna Grsecia (Great Greece).\\nThe Phoenicians, the seamen and traders of these times,\\nalmost lost the commerce of the eastern Mediterranean. On\\nthe western coast the Greeks possessed the flourishing colony\\nof Massiha (Marseilles), and, had it not been for the rising\\npower of Carthage, would have secured nearly the entire\\nshore, and transformed the Mediterranean into a Grecian\\nlake.\\nWherever the Greek went, he remained a Greek. He\\ncarried with him into barbarian lands the Hellenic language,\\nmanners, and civihzation. In the colonies the natives learned\\nthe Grecian tongue, and took on the Grecian mode of thought\\nand worship. Moreover, the transplanted Greek matured\\nfaster than the home growth. So it happened that in the\\nmagnificent cities which grew up in Asia Minor, philosophy,\\nletters, the arts and sciences, bloomed even sooner than in\\nGreece itself.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "HELLAS or GREECE.\\nIN THE HEROIC AGE\\nyColians I I lonians\\nAchaeansl I Dorians\\n^11^%*^:\\nT asnarium P 1*^\\nHELLAS 01 (fKEECE.\\nAFTER THE DORIC MIGRATION.\\nI /Eolians i I lonians\\nI I Ar.hanans QBI DorianS\\nDWELLS, DEL.\\nRHOOES\\nCABPATH06 I.\\nnU i i(r\u00c2\u00ablA\u00c2\u00abr.,\u00c2\u00a3\u00c2\u00abiir i.A .r.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3303", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 119\\nSparta and Athens. The Dorians and the lonians\\ncame to be the leading races in Greece. Their diverse\\ncharacteristics had a great influence on its history. The\\nDorians were rougli and phxin in their habits, sticklers for\\nthe old customs, friends of an aristocracy, and bitter ene-\\nmies of trade and the fine arts. The lonians, on the other\\nhand, were refined in their tastes, fond of change, demo-\\ncratic, commercial, and passionate lovers of music, painting,\\nand sculpture. The rival cities, Sparta and Athens, repre-\\nsented these opposing traits. Their deep-rooted hatred was\\nthe cause of numerous wars which convulsed the country;\\nfor in the sequel we shall find that the Grecians spent\\ntheir best blood in fighting among themselves, and that\\nGrecian history is mostly occupied with the doings of these\\ntwo cities.\\nSPARTA.\\nEarly History. One of the Dorian bands occupied\\nLacedaemon, called also Sparta from its grain-fields [spartej\\nsown land). The former owners (termed ^6 r/cB H, dwellers-\\naround) were allowed to keep the poorest of the lands, and\\nto be tradesmen and mechanics. But they could neither\\nhave voice in the government nor intermarry with their\\nDorian conquerors, who now came to be called Spartans.\\nThe latter took the best farms, and compelled theii* slaves\\n(helots) to work them. The helots were captives or rebels,\\nand were at first few, but in the succeeding wars rapidly\\nincreased. The Spartans (only nine thousand strong in the\\ntime of Lycurgus), planted thus in the midst of a hostile\\npopulation, were forced to live like soldiers on guard.\\nIn the rest of the Peloponnesus the Dorians betook\\nthemselves to peaceful pursuits, and mingled with the nar\\nBGH\u00e2\u0080\u0094 8", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "120 GREECE. [850 b. c.\\ntives. But in Sparta there was no relaxation, no blend-\\ning. The Dorians there kept on their cold, cruel way. They\\nwere constantly quarreling among themselves, and so little\\ngain did they make, that two centuries and a half passed and\\nthe Ach^ans were still fortified only little over two miles\\naway from Sparta.\\nLycurgus,^ according to tradition, was a statesman of\\nroyal birth who crystaUized into a constitution all the pecu-\\nUarities of the Spartan character. His whole aim was to\\nmake the Spartans a race of soldiers. Trade and travel\\nwere prohibited. No money was allowed except cumbrous\\niron coins, which no foreigner would take. Most property,\\nas slaves, horses, dogs, etc., was held in common. Boys\\nwere removed from home at the age of seven, and educated\\nby state officers. The men ate at public tables, slept in bar-\\nracks, and only occasionally visited their homes. Private\\nhfe was given up for the good of the state, and devoted to\\nmilitary drill.\\nThe two kings were retained but their power was limited\\nby a senate of twenty-eight men over sixty years old, and an\\nassembly of all the citizens. The five eplwrs (overseers)\\nchosen annually by the assembly were the real rulers. No\\npopular discussion was allowed, nor could a private citizen\\nspeak in the assembly without special leave from a magis-\\ntrate. Thus the government became in fact an ohgarchy\\nunder the guise of a monarchy. The people having prom-\\nised to live under this constitution until he should return,\\nLycurgus left Sparta, never to return.\\nThe Supremacy of Sparta dates from this time. A\\nmere garrison in a hostile country, she became the mistress\\n1 Lycurgus, like many other legendary lieroes, has been banished by modern\\ncritics into the region of myth. There seems, however, good evidence t4at he existed\\nabout tlie 9th century b. c. Just what his laws included, and how far they were his\\nown creations, is uncertain.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "743-668 B.C.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\n121\\nof Laconia. The conquest of Messenia, in two lon^, bloody\\nwars, made her dominant in tlie Peloi)()nnesu8. This was\\npreceded and followed by several minor wars, all tending\\nto increase her territory and establish her authority over her\\nneighbors. At the beginning of the 5th century b. c. the\\nSpartans had already repeatedly carried their arms across\\nthe isthmus into Attica, and were ready to assert their posi-\\ntion as the leaders in Grecian affairs, when, at this juncture,\\nall Greece was threatened by the Persian forces (p. 124).\\nATHENS\\nEarly History. Athens, like the other Grecian cities,\\nwas governed for a time by kings. Cecrops^ the iii*st ruler,\\naccording to the legends, taught the\\npeople of Attica navigation, marriage,\\nand the culture of the olive. Codrus,\\nthe last monarch, fell (1050 B. c.) while\\nresisting the Dorians. After his death\\nthe nobles selected one of the royal\\nfamily as arclion, or chief. At first the\\narchon ruled for life; afterward the\\nterm was shortened to ten years, and\\nfinally to one, the nobles choosing nine\\narchons from their ow^n number. Thus\\nAthens became an aristocratic republic.\\nDraco s Code (621 b.c.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 But demo-\\ncratic spirit was rife. The people com-\\nplained that they got no justice from\\nthe nobles, and the demand for written laws became so ur-\\ngent that Draco was directed to prepare a code. His laws\\nwere so merciless that they were said to have been written\\nCOIN OK ATHENS.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "122\\nGREECE.\\n[624 B. c.\\nSOLON S TABLETS.\\nin blood, every offense being punished with death. To avoid\\nthe popular indignation, Draco fled, and his name is to this\\nday synonymous with cruelty. His code shows (1) the bar-\\nbarity of the age, and its lack of sympathy with the poor\\n(2) the growing spirit of democracy.\\nSolon s Constitution^ (594 b. c). Party strife was\\nnow prevalent. The state being threatened with anarchy,\\nSolon was appointed\\n^d ^.-;/.^a ^vp1 \u00e2\u0096\u00a0\u00e2\u0096\u00a0:^:1L\u00c2\u00ae to draft a new constitu-\\ntion. He repealed the\\nharsh edicts of Draco 5\\nrelieved debtors 5 re-\\ndeemed many slaves;\\nforbade parents to sell\\nor pawn their children\\nordered every father to teach his sons a trade and required\\nsons to support their aged father if he had educated them.\\nHe aimed to weaken the nobles and strengthen the people.\\nHe therefore gave every free-born native of Attica a vote in\\nthe assembly, where laws were enacted, archons elected, and\\nthe conduct of officers reviewed. The business presented in\\nthis assembly was prepared by a senate of four hundred,\\nselected annually by lot.\\nProperty, instead of birth, now gave rank. The people\\nwere divided into four classes, according to their income.\\nOnly the three richest classes could hold office, but they\\nhad to pay the taxes and to equip themselves as soldiers.\\nThe wealthiest could serve as archons those who had thus\\nserved were eligible to the Court of Areopagus.^ This court\\n1 This famous Athenian lawgiver, descended from the ancient kings, was forced\\nby poverty to earn a liveliliood. He gained a fortune by commerce, retired from busi-\\nness, and then traveled to the East in search of knowledge. He was reckoned one of\\nthe Seven Wise Men of Greece (Appendix).\\n2 In that age a debtor might be sold into slavery (Nehemiah v. 3, 5 2 Kings iv. 1).\\n3 So called because it met on the hill known by that name (Acts xvii. 19).", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "560 b. c] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 123\\nrepealed laws hurtful to the state, looked after public morals,\\nand rebuked any person who was not properly bringing up\\nhis children, or who otherwise lived unworthy an Athenian.\\nTyrants. Athens prospered under Solon s wise man-\\nagement. The people got their rights. The mortgage-pil\\nlars^ disappeared. But moderate measures pleased neither\\nextreme of society. Class factions strove for power. One\\nday Pisis tratuSy a noble aspiring to office, rushed, besmeared\\nwith blood, into the market place, and, pointing to his self-\\ninflicted wounds, asked for a guard, pretending that the\\nother nobles had attacked him because he was the people s\\nfriend.^ Solon detected the sham, but the people granted\\nthe request. Pisistratus soon seized the Acropohs (p. 194),\\nand became the first t}Tant of Athens. His use of his\\ncraftily secured place was beneficent. He estabhshed Solon s\\nlaws, erected beautiful public buildings, encouraged art,\\nand founded the fii st library.\\nThe Pisistrat idce, Hippias and Hipparchus, trod in their\\nfathei- s steps. But the assassination of Hipparchus im-\\nbittered his brother, so that he became moody and cruel.\\nHis enemies, led by the Alcmseon id^,* bribed the oracle\\n1 The Greeks applied this name iit first to a person who became king in a city\\nwhere the law did not authorize one. Afterward the Tyrants became cruel, and the\\nword took on the meaning which we now give it.\\n2 A mortgaged farm was known by a stone pillar marked with amount of loan\\nand name of lender.\\n3 Solon, though under obligations to his kinsman, Pisistratus, resisted his am-\\nbitions. He now exclaimed You are but a bad imitation of Ulysses. He wounded\\nliimself to delude his enemies, you to deceive your countrymen.\\n4 At the time Draco s laws aroused so much feeling, a noble named Cylon at-\\ntempted to make himself tyrant. He seized tlie Acropolis, but was defeated; and\\nhis followers, half dead with hunger, were forced to take refuge at the altars of the\\ngods. The archon Megacles induced them to surrender on the promise of tlieir lives\\nbut they had scarcely left the altars, when his soldiers cut them down. Soon after-\\nward a plague broke out, and tlie Athenians, believing tliat a judgment had fallen\\non their city, forced the Alcma onida (tlio clan of Mejracles) into exile. To atone for\\ntheir impiety, the Alcm;eonidie, who were rich, relmilt tlie burned temple at Delphi.\\nThe contract called for common stone, but they faced the building with fine marble,\\nand thus gained the favor of the Delphic oracle.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "124 GREECE. [510 B.C.\\nat Delphi, so that when the Lacedaemonians consulted the\\npriestess, they received the reply, Athens must be freed.\\nThe Spartans accordingly invaded Attica and drove away\\nthe tyrant (510 b. c). Hippias went over to the Persian\\ncourt, and was henceforth the declared enemy of his native\\ncity. We shall hear from him again.\\nDemocracy Established. Aristocratic Sparta had\\nonly paved the way for a republic. Solon s work now bore\\nfruit. Cleis thenes, an Athenian noble, head of the Alcmte-\\nonidao but now candidate of the people s party, became ar-\\nchon. All freemen of Attica were admitted to citizenship.\\nTo break up the four old tribes, and prevent the nobles from\\nforming parties among the people of their clans, or accord-\\ning to local interests, he divided the country into districts,\\nand organized ten new tribes by uniting non-adjacent dis-\\ntricts; each tribe sent fifty representatives to the senate,\\nand also chose a strategus, or general, the ten generals to\\ncommand the army in daily turn. To protect the rising\\ndemocracy from demagogues, he instituted ostracism,^ or\\nbanishment by popular vote (p. 129).\\nThe triumph of democracy was complete. Four times a\\nmonth all Athens met to deliberate and decide upon ques-\\ntions affecting the public weal. The Athenians then, says\\nHerodotus, grew mighty, and it became plain that liberty\\nis a brave thing.\\nIt was now near the beginning of the 5th century B. c.\\nBoth Sparta and Athens had risen to power, when all Greece\\nwas threatened by a new foe. The young civilization of the\\nWest was for the first time called to meet the old ci\\\\ iliza-\\ntion of the East. In the presence of a common danger, the\\nwarring states united. The next twenty years were stirring\\nones in the annals of freedom.\\nstrangely enough, Cleiathenes was the first man ostracized.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "500 B. c]\\nTHE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\n125\\nTHE PERSIAN WARS.\\nCause. The Persian empire now reached tlie borders of\\nThessaly. The Grecian colonies in Asia Minor had fallen\\ninto the hands of Cyrus; and the conquering armies of\\nDarius were already threatening the freedom of Greece\\nitself, when an act of Athens hastened the struggle. The\\nGREECE,\\nTIME OF THE PERSIAN WARS\\n^i^ .YiyE\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Eoli\\nI -I Iimianx\\nr-~l T nrin.nJi\\nIonian cities having tried to throw off the Persian yoke, the\\nmother city sent them aid.i The Great King subdued the\\nIonic revolt, and then turned to punish the haughty f oreign-\\n1 During the brief campaign of the Atlienians in Asia Minor, Sardis, the capital\\nof Lydia, was accidentally burned. When Darius received this news, he took a bow\\nand shot an arrow to the sky, with a prayer to Ahura Mazda (p. 93) for help and that\\nhe might not forget the insult, he ordered that at dinner each day a servant should\\ncall out thrice, Master, remember the Athenians.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "126\\nGREECE.\\n[49S C,\\ners who had dared to meddle in the affairs of his empire,\\nand also to force the Athenians to receive back Hippias\\n(p. 124) as their tyrant.\\nThe First Expedition (493 b. c.) against Greece was\\nsent out under Mardonius, the son-in-law of Darius. The\\nland troops were defeated in TJirace, and the fleet was shat-\\ntered while rounding Mount Athos. Mardonius returned\\nwithout having set foot into the region he went to conquer.\\nThe Second Expedition. Darius, full of fury, be-\\ngan at once raising a new army. Meanwhile heralds were\\ndispatched to demand the surrender of the Grecian cities.\\nMany sent back earth and water, the oriental symbols of\\nsubmission; Sparta and Athens refused, Sparta throwing\\nthe envoys into a deep well, and bidding them find there\\nthe earth and water they demanded.\\nBattle of Marathon (490 b. c). The Persian fleet of\\nsix hundred triremes (p. 192) safely crossed the Mgenn, and\\nlanded an army of over a hundred thousand on the field\\nof Marathon, twenty-two\\nmiles from Athens. Mil-\\ntiades (to whom the other\\nstrategi had been led by\\nAristides to surrender\\ntheir command) went out\\nto meet them with but\\nten thousand soldiers.\\nThe usual prayers and\\nsacrifices were offered.\\n^o ad to\\nPLAIN OF MARATHON\\nbut it was late in the day before the auspices became favor-\\nable to an attack. Finding that the Persians had placed their\\nbest troops at the center, Miltiades put opposite them a weak\\nline of men, and stationed heavy files of his choicest soldiers\\non the wings. Giving the enemy no time to hurl theii jave-", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "490 B. c]\\nTHE rOTilTinATi HISTORY\\n127\\nr*\u00c2\u00abP%8|iis\u00c2\u00bb\u00c2\u00abl*e**.\\nM\\\\:,\\nVIEW UK TllK I LAINS OK MAUATHON.\\nlins, he iinniediately charged\\nat full speed, and came at once\\nto a hand-to-hand fight. The\\npowerful wings swept every-\\nthing before them, and then,\\nwheeling, they fell upon both\\nflanks of the victorious Persian center. In a few moments\\nthe Asiatic host were \\\\Wldly fleeing to their ships.^\\n1 The Spartans had promiaoa aid, but from religious scruples the troops were\\nunwilling to march until the full nioou, and so did not arrive till after the battle. A\\nthousand men from Plat.ua\u00e2\u0080\u0094 all the little city had-stood by the side of the Athenians\\non that memorable day. When the victory was gained, Eucles, the swiftest runner\\nin Greece, ran witli the tidings, and, reaching Athens, had breath only to tell tlie\\nnews, when he fell dead in the street. Seven of the Persian vessels were captured by\\nthe pursuing Greeks. The brother of yEschylus, the poet, is said to have caught a\\ntrireme by the stern, and to have held it until his hand was hacked off by the enemy.\\nHardly had the Persians and Athenians separated from the last conflict on the beach,\\nwhen the attention of both was arrested r\u00c2\u00bby a flash of light on the summit of Mount\\nPentelicus. It was the reflection of the setting sun on the glittering surface of an\\nuplifted shield. Miltiades at once saw in this a signal from the traitors in Athens,\\ninviting the fleet to join them before he returned. Not a moment was to be lost, and\\nlie ordered an instant marcli to the cit} When the Persian ships arrived, they found\\nthe heroes of Marathon drawn ujj on the beach, awaiting them.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "128 GREECE. [490 B.C.\\nThe Effect of this victory was to render the reputation\\nof Athens for valor and patriotism equal, if not superior, to\\nthat of Sparta. The Persian invasion had made a union of\\nthe Hellenic states possible, and Marathon decided that\\nAthens should be its leader.\\nGreece was saved, and her deliverer, Miltiades, was for a\\ntime the favorite hero but a disgraceful expedition to the\\nIsle of Paros cost him his popularity, and soon after his\\nreturn he died.\\nThemistocles and Aristides, generals associated with\\nMiltiades at Marathon, now came to be the leading men in\\nAthens. The former was an able but often uii scrupulous\\nstatesman the latter, a just man and an incorruptible patriot.\\nThemistocles foresaw that the Persians would make another\\nattempt to subdue Greece and that Athens, with its excellent\\nharbor and commercial facilities, could be far stronger on sea\\n1 So ended wliat may truly be called the birthday of Athenian erreatness. It\\nstood alone in their annals. Other glories were won in alter times, but none ap-\\nproached the glory of Marathon. It was not merely the ensuing generation that felt\\nthe effects of that woudeiful deliverance. It was not merely Themistocles whom\\nthe marble trophy of Miltiades would not suffer to sleep. It was not merely ^schy-\\nlus, who, when his end drew near, passed over all his later achievements in war and\\npeace, at Salamls, and in the Dionysiac theater, and recorded in his epitaph only the\\none deed of his earl.v days,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 that he had repulsed the long-haired Medes at Marathon.\\nIt was not merely the combatants in the battle who told of supernatural assistance\\nin the shape of the hero Theseus, or of the mysterious peasant, wielding a gigantic\\nplowshare. Everywhere in the monuments and the customs of their country, and\\nfor centuries afterward, all Athenian citizens were reminded of that great day, and\\nof that alone. The frescoes of a painted portico\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the only one of the kind in,\\nAthens\u00e2\u0080\u0094 exhibited in lively colors the scene of the battle. The rock of the Acropolis\\nwas crowned on the eastern extremity by a temple of Wingless Victoiy, now sup-\\nposed to have taken up her abode forever in the city and in its northern precipice,\\nthe cave, which up to this time had remained untenanted, was consecrated to Pan,\\nin commemoration of the mj sterious voice which rang through the Arcadian moun-\\ntains to cheer the forlorn messenger on his empty-handed return from Sparta. The\\none hundred and ninety-two Athenians who had fallen on the field received the\\nhonor\u00e2\u0080\u0094 tinique in Athenian historj of burial on the scene of their death (the\\ntumulus raised over their bodies by Aristides still remains to mark the spot), their\\nnames were invoked with hymns and sacrifices down to the latest times of Grecian\\nfreedom; and long after that freedom had been extinguished, even in the reign of\\nTrajan and the Antonines, the anniversary of Marathon was still celebrated, ana\\nthe battle-field was believed to be haunted night after night by the snorting of\\nunearthly chargers and the clash of invisible combatants.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "482 b. C] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 129\\nthan on land. He therefore urged the building of a fleet.\\nAi-istides, fond of the old ways, condemned this measure.\\nThemistocles, dreading the opposition, secured the ostra-\\ncism of his rival.\\nThird Expedition. Darius died before he could make\\na new attempt to punisli Athens. But his son Xerxes assem-\\nbled over a million soldiers, whom he led in person across\\nthe Hellespont and along the coast of Thrace and Macedonia.\\nA fleet of twelve hundred war-ships and three thousand\\ntransports kept within easy reach from the shore.^\\nBattle of Thermopylae (480 b. c.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 At the Pass of\\nThermopylae his march was checked by seven thousand\\nGreeks under Leonidas, a Spartan. Xerxes sent a messen-\\nger to demand their arms. He received the laconic reply,\\nCome and take them. For two days the Greeks repulsed\\nevery attack, and the terrified Persians had to be driven to\\nthe assault with whips. On the third day, a traitor having\\npointed out to Xerxes a mountain-path, he sent the Immor-\\ntals over it, to the rear of the Grecian post. Spartan law\\nbade a soldier to die rather than yield. So Leonidas, learn-\\ning of the peril, sent away his allies, retaining only three\\nhundred Spartans and seven hundred Thespians, who wished\\nto share in the glory of the day. The little band prepared\\n1 For the origin of ostracism see p. 124. Into an urn placed in the assembly any\\ncitizen could drop a shell (ostrakon) hearing the name of the person he wished exiled.\\nSix thousand votes against a man banished him for ten years. It is said that on this\\noccasion a countryman coming to Aristides, wliom he did not know, asked him to\\nwi-ite Aristides on his shell. Why, what wrong has he done? inquired the patriot.\\nNone at all, was the reply, only I am tired of hearing him called the Just. Six\\nyears later Aristides was recalled.\\n2 Two magnificent bridges of boats which he built across the Hellespont having\\nbeen injuied in a storm, the story is that Xerxes ordered the sea to be beaten with\\nwhips, and fetters to be thrown into it to show that he was its master. The vast\\narmy was seven days in crossing. The king sat on a throne of -rhite marble, in-\\nspecting the army as it passed. It consisted of forty-six different nations, each\\narmed and dre.s.scd after its own manner, while ships manned by Plu^nicians covered\\nthe sea. Xerxes is said to have burst into tears at the thought tliat in a few years\\nnot one of all that immense throng would be alive.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "130\\nGREECE.\\n[480 B. C.\\nfor battle, the Spartans combing their long hair, according\\nto custom, and then, scorning to await the attack, dashed\\nVrCIT^ITY\\nOO; ir\u00c2\u00bb I C v: iV\\nON; PARKASSU, ^V^ I\\nPASS OF THERMOPYL/E.\\ndown the defile to meet the on-coming enemy. All per-\\nished, fighting to the last.i\\n1 Xerxes could not believe Demaratiis, wlio assured him tliat the Spartans at\\nleast were come to dispute the Pass with him, and that it was their custom to trim\\ntheir hair on the eve of a combat. Four days passed before he could be convinced\\nthat his army must do more than show itself to clear a way for him. On the fifth day\\nhe ordered a body of Median and Cissian troops to fall upon the rash and insolent\\nenemy, and to lead them captive into his presence. He was seated on a lofty throne\\nfrom which he could survey the narrow entrance of the Pass, which, in obedience to\\nhis commands, his warriors endeavored to force. But they fought on ground where\\ntheir numbers were of no avail, save to increase their confusion, when their attack\\nwas repulsed their short spears could not reach their foe the foremost fell, the\\nhinder advancing over their bodies to the charge their repeated onsets broke upon\\nthe Greeks idly, as waves iipon a rock. At lengtli, as the day wore on, the Medians\\nand Cissians, spent with their efforts and greatly tliinned in tlieir ranks, were recalled\\nfrom the contest, which the king now thought worthy of the superior prowess of his\\nown guards, the ten thousand Immortals. They were led up as to a certain and easy\\nvictory the Greeks stood their ground as before or, if they ever gave way and turned\\ntheir backs, it was only to face suddenly about, and deal tenfold destruction on their\\npursuers. Thrice during these fruitless assaults the king was seen to start up from\\nhis throne in a transport of fear or rage. The combat lasted the whole day the\\nslaughter of the barbarians was great on the side of the Greeks a few Spartan lives\\nwere lost; as to the rest, nothing is said. The next day the attack was renewed\\nwith no better success the bauds of the several cities that made up the Grecian\\narmy, except the Phociaus, who were employed in defending the mountain-path by\\nwhich the defile was finally turned, relieved each other at the post of honor all stood\\nequally firm, and repelled the charge not less vigorously than before. The confidence\\nof Xerxes was changed into despondence and perplexity.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "480 B. c]\\nTHE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\n131\\nThe Sacrifice of Leonidas became the inspiration of all\\nGreece, and has been the admiration of the lovers of free-\\ndom in every age. The names of the three hundred were\\nLEOMDAS AT THE I ASii OF Til KUMCl VLiK.\\nfamiliar to their countrymen, and, six hundred years after,\\na traveler spoke of seeing them inscribed on a pillar at\\nSparta. Upon the mound where the last stand was made", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "132 GREECE. [480 B.C.\\na marble lion was erected to Leonidas, and a piUar to the\\nthree liundred bore this inscription, wiitten by Simonides\\n(p. 164)\\nGo, stranger, and to Laceda mon (ell\\nTliat here, obeying her behests, we fell.\\nBattle of Sal amis. At first, however, the loss at Ther-\\nmopylae seemed in vain, and the Asiatic deluge poured south\\nover the plains of Greece. Warned by the oracle that the\\nsafety of Athens lay in her wooden walls, the inhabitants\\ndeserted the city, which Xerxes then burned. The ocean,\\nhowever, seemed to fight for Greece.- In a storm the\\nPersian fleet lost two liundred ships. But it was still so\\nmuch superior, that the Greeks were fearful, and as usual\\nquarreling,^ when Themistocles determined to bring on the\\nbattle, and accordingly sent a spy to the enemy to say that\\nhis countrymen would escape if they were not attacked\\nimmediately. Thereupon the Persians blockaded the Hel-\\nlenic fleet in the harbor of Salamis. Animated by the spirit\\nof Thermopylae, the Grecians silenced their disputes and\\nrushed to the fray. They quickly defeated the Phoenician\\nships in the van, and then the very nmltitude of the vessels\\ncaused the ruin of the Persian fleet for while some were\\n1 All the Thessaliaua, Locrians, and Bneotians, except the cities of Thespiae\\nand Plataia, sent earth and water to the I ersian king at the first call to submit,\\nalthongh tliese tokens of subjection were attended by the curses of the rest of the\\nGreeks, and the vow tliat a tithe of their estates should be devoted to the city of\\nDelphi. Yet of the Greeks who did not favor I ersia, some were willing to assist only\\non condition of being appointed to conduct and command the whole others, if their\\ncountry could be the lirst to be protected; others sent a squadron, which was ordered\\nto wait till it was certain which side would gain the victory and others pretended\\nthey were held back by the declarations of an oracle. An oft-told story, given in con-\\nnection witli this engagement, illustrates the jealousj of the Grecian generals. Thej^\\nwere met to decide upon the prize tor skill and wisdom displayed in the contest.\\nWhen the votes were collected, it appeared that each commander had placed his own\\nname first, and that of Themistocles second. While the Grecian leaders at Salamia\\nwere deliberating over the propriety of retreat, and Themistocles alone held firm, a\\nknock was heard at the door, and Themistocles was called out to speak with a\\nstranger. It was the banished Aristides. Themistocles, said he, let us be rivals\\nstill, but let our strife be which best may serve our country. Ho had crossed from\\n^gina in an open boat to inform his countrymen thJit they were snrroiinileci by the\\nenemy.", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "480 b. C] THK POLITICAL HISTORY. 133\\ntrying to escape, and some to come to tlic front, the Greeks,\\namid the confusion plying every weapon, sunk two hundred\\nvessels, and put the rest to fliglit.\\nXerxes, seated on a lofty throne erected on the beach,\\nwatched the contest. Terrified by the destruction of his\\nfleet, he fled into Asia, leaving three hundred and fifty thou\\nsand picked troops luider Mardonius to continue the war.\\nBattle of Ilimera. While the hosts of Xerxes were pour-\\ning into Hellas on the northeast, she was assailed on the\\nsouthwest by another formidable foe. An immense fleet,\\nthree thousand ships-of-war, saihng from Carthage to Sicily,\\nlanded an army under Hamilcar,^ who laid siege to Himera.\\nGelo, tyrant of Syracuse, marched to the relief of Himera,\\nand on the very day of Salamis utterly routed the Phoenician\\nforces. The tyranny of the commercial oligarchy of Carthage\\nmight have been as fatal to the liberties of Europe as the\\ndespotism of Persia.\\nBattle of Flatcea (479 b. c). Mardonius wintered in\\nThessaly, and the next summer invaded Attica. The half-\\nrebuilt houses of Athens were again leveled to the gi-ound.\\nFinally the allies, over one hundred thousand strong,\\ntook the field under Pausanias, the Spartan. After the two\\narmies had faced each other for ten days, w^ant of water\\ncompelled Pausanias to move his camp. While en routej\\nMardonius attacked his scattered forces. The omens were\\nunfavorable, and the Grecian leader dare not give the signal\\nto engage. The Spartans protected themselves with their\\nshields as best they could against the shoW er of aiTows.\\nMany Greeks were smitten, and fell, lamenting, not that they\\nmust fall, but that they could not strike a blow for their\\ncountry. In his distress, Pausanias Ufted up his streaming\\neyes toward the temple of Hera, beseeching the goddess, that,\\n1 This was an ancestor of the Haiuilcar of Punic fame (p. 230).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "134 GREECE. [479 b. a\\nif the Fates forbade the Greeks to conquer, they might die\\nlike men. Suddenly the sacrifices became auspicious. The\\nSpartans, charging in compact rank, shield touching shield,\\nwith their long spears swept all before them. The Athenians,\\ncoming up, stormed the intrenched camp. Scarcely forty\\nthousand Persians escaped. The booty was immense.\\nWagons were piled up with vessels of gold and silver, jewels^\\nand articles of luxury. One tenth of all the plunder was\\ndedicated to the gods. The prize of valor was adjudged to\\nthe Plataeans, and they were charged to preserve the graves\\nof the slain, Pausanias promising with a solemn oath that\\nthe battle-field should be sacred forever.\\nThat same day the Grecian fleet, having crossed the\\n^gean, destroyed the Persian fleet at Mycale in Asia Minor.\\nThe Effect of Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, Platsea,\\nand Mycale was to give the death-blow to Persian rule in\\nEurope. Grecian valor had saved a continent from eastern\\nslavery and barbarism More than that, the Persian wars gave\\nrise to the real Hellenic civilization, and Marathon and Sala-\\nmis may be looked upon as the birthplaces of Grecian glory.\\nAthenian Supremacy. Greece was now, to para-\\nphrase the language of Diodorus, at the head of the world,\\nAthens at the head of Greece, and Themistocles at the head\\nof Athens. The city of Athens was quickly rebuilt. During\\nthe recent war the Spartan soldiers had taken the lead, but\\nPausanias afterward proved a traitor, and, as Athens was so\\nstrong in ships, she became the acknowledged leader of all\\nthe Grecian states. A league, called the Confederation of\\nDelos an B. c), was formed to keep the Persians out of the\\nMgesm. The different cities annually contributed to Athens\\na certain number of ships, or a fixed sum of money for the\\nsupport of the navy. The ambition of Themistocles was to\\nform a grand maritime empire, but, his share in the treason", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "478 B.C.]\\nTHE POLITICAL HISTORY\\n13D\\nof Paiisanias having been discovered, he was ostracized.\\nAristides, seeing the drift of affairs, had ch^inged his views,\\nand was ah eady the popuhir commander of the fleet.\\nT VICINITYOF\\nATHENS\\nSALAMIS\\nThough the head of the party of the nobles, he secured a\\nlaw abolishing the property qualification, and allowing any\\nperson to hold office. i\\nAGE OF PERICLES.\\n(479-429 B. c.)\\nThe Leading Men at Athens, after the death of Aris-\\ntides, were Pericles and Cimon. The heroes of the Persian\\ninvasions had passed from the stage, and new actor^ now\\nappeared.\\n1 Tlie thonjriitfnl student of history cannot btit pause here to consider the fate\\nof these three great contonipoi-ary men,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Paiisanias, Thoniistocles, and Aristides.\\nPausanias fled to tlio temple of Minerva. The Spartans, not darinc: to violate this\\nsauctuaiy, blocked the door (tlie traitor s motlier laying the llrst stone), tore off the\\nroof, guarded everj avenue, and left tlie wretch to die of cold and hungei Themis-\\ntocles vp^as welcomed by Artaxerxes, then King of Persia, and assigned the revenue\\nof three cities. He lived like a prince, but finally ended his pitiable existence, it is\\nsaid, with poison. .Aristides the Just went down to his grave full of lumors. The\\ntreasurer of the league, he liad yet been so hoiKJst that traditiou says he did not leave\\nenough mouej to meet his funeral expenses. The grateful republic paid these rites,\\nfinished the education of his sou, and portioned his daughters.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "136 GREECE. [466 b. C.\\nCimon renewed the glory of his father Miltiades, the\\nvictor at Marathon. He pushed on the war in Asia Minor\\nagainst Persia with great vigor^ finally routing her land and\\nsea forces in the decisive battle of the Enrymedon (466 b. c).\\nAs the head of the nobles, he was natui ally friendly to aris-\\ntocratic Sparta. The Helots and Messenians, taking advan-\\ntage of an earthquake which nearly destroyed that city,\\nrevolted, and a ten-years struggle (known in history as\\nthe Third Messenian War) ensued. The haughty Spartans\\nwere driven to ask aid from Athens. By the influence of\\nCimon, this was granted. But the Spartans became fearful\\nof their allies, and sent the army home. AU Athens rose in\\nindignation, and Cimon was ostracized (461 B. c.) for expos-\\ning his city to such insult.\\nPericles, 2 who was the leader of the democracy, now\\n1 Ciraou was the richest man in Athens. He kept open table for the public.\\nA body of servants laden witli cloaks followed him throngh the streets, and gave a\\ngarment to any needj person whom iie met. His pleasure-garden was free for all to\\nenter and pluck fruit or flowers. He planted oriental plane-trees in the market place\\nbequeathed to Athens the groves, afterward the Academy of Plato, with its beautiful\\nfountains; built marble colonnades where the people were wont to promenade; and\\ngave magnificent dramatic entertainments at his private exi^ense.\\n2 To all students of Grecian literature, Pericles must always appear as tlie central\\nfigure of Grecian history. His form, manner, and outward appearance are well\\nknown. We can imagine that stern and almost forbidding aspect which repelled\\nrather than invited intimacy; the majestic stature; the long head,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 long to dispro-\\nportion,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 already, before his fiftieth year, silvered over with the marks of age; the\\nsweet voice and rapid enunciation\u00e2\u0080\u0094 recalling, thougli by an unwelcome association,\\nthe likeness of his ancestor Pisistratus. We knew the stately reserve which reigned\\nthrough his whole life and manners. Those grave features were never seen to relax\\ninto laughter, twice only in his long career to melt into tears. For the whole forty\\nyears of his administration he never accepted an invitation to dinner but once, and\\nthat to his nephew s wedding, and then staid only till the libation [p. 199]. That\\nprincely courtesy could never be disturbed by the bitterest persecution of aristocratic\\nenmity or popular irritation. To the man who had followed him all the way from the\\nassembly to his own house, loading him with the abusive epithets with which, as\\nwe know from Aristophanes, the Athenian vocabulary was so richly stored, he paid\\nno other heed than, on arriving at his own door, to turn to his torch-bearer with an\\norder to light his revilerhome. In public it was the same. Amidst the passionate\\ngesticulations of Athenian oratory, amidst the tempest of an Athenian mob, his self-\\npossession was never lost, his dress was never disordered, his language was ever\\nstudied and measured. Every speech that he delivered he wrote down previously.\\n1 ery time that he spoke he offered up a prayer to Heaven that no word might escape\\nhiH Jips which he should wish unsaid. But when he did apeak the effect was almost", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "461 B.C.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 137\\nhad everything his own way. A mere private citizen, living\\nplainly and unostentatiously, this great-hearted man, by his\\neloquence, genius, adroitness, and wisdom, shaped the policy\\nof the state. Opposing foreign conquest, he sought home\\ndevelopment. He was bent on keeping Athens all-powerful\\nin Greece, and on making the people all-powerful in Athens.\\nHe had perfect confidence in a government by the people,\\nif they were only properly educated. There were then no\\ncommon schools or daily papers, and he was forced to use\\nwhat the times supplied. He paid for all service in the\\narmy, on juries, at religious festivals and civil assemblies,\\nso that the poorest man could take part in public affairs.\\nHe had the grand di-amas of ^schylus, Euripides, and\\nSophocles performed free before the multitude. He erected\\nmagnificent public buildings, and adorned them with the\\nnoblest historical paintings. He enriched the temples of the\\ngods with beautiful architecture and the exquisite sculptures\\nof Phidias. He encom-aged poets, artists, philosophers, and\\norators to do their best work. Under his fostering care, the\\nAge of Pericles became the finest blossom and fruitage of\\nHellenic civilization.\\nAthens Ornamented and Fortified. Matchless\\ncolonnades and temples were now erected, which are yet the\\nwonder of the world. The Acropolis was so enriched with\\nawful. The fierce deinoci acy was struck down before it. It could be compared to\\nnothing short of the thunders and lightnings of that Olympian Jove whom in majesty\\nand dignity he resembled. It left the inesistible impression that he was always in\\nthe riglit. He not oulj throws me in tlie wrestle, said one of his rivals, but when\\nI have thrown him, he will make the people think that it is I and not he who has\\nfallen. What Themistocles, what Aristides, what Cimon, said, has perished from\\nmemory; but tlie condensed and vivid rhetorical images of Pericles were handed\\ndown from age to age as specimens of tliat eloquence which had lield Athens and\\nGreece in awe. The lowering of the storm of war from Peloponnesus\u00e2\u0080\u0094 tlie spring\\ntaken out of the year in the loss of the flower of Athenian jouths\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the comparison\\nof Greece to a chariot drawn by two horses \u00e2\u0080\u0094of ^T^gina to the eyesore of the\\nPiraeus of Athens to the school of Greece -were traditionary phrases wliich later\\nwriters preserved, and which Thucydides either introduced or imitated in the\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Funeral Oration which he has put in his mouth.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "138\\nGREECE.\\n[455 B. c.\\nmagnificent structures that it was called ^the city of the\\ngods. The Long Walls were built two hundi-ed yards\\napart, and extended over four miles from Athens to Piraeus\\n^its harbor. Thus the capital was connected with the sea,\\nand, while the Athenians held the command of the ocean,\\ntheu ships could bring them supplies, even when the city\\nshould be suiTounded by an enemy on land.\\nA SCENE IN ATHENS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES.\\nThe Wonderful Spirit and enterprise of the Athenians\\nare shown from the fact that, while they were thus erecting\\ngreat public works at home, they were during a single year\\n(458 B. c.) waging war in Cyprus, in Egypt, in Phoenicia, off", "height": "3324", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "450 B. c]\\nT1[E POLITKJAli UlSToliV.\\n13d\\n^giiia, aiul on tlie coast of Peloponnesus. Tlie Corinthians,\\nknowing that the Athenian troo})s were occnpied so far from\\nhome, invaded Megara, tlien in aUiance with Athens, Init\\nthe boys and okl men of Atliens salUed out and routed\\ntliem. So completely was the tide turned, that (450 b. c.)\\nArtaxerxes T. made a treaty with Athens, agreeing to the\\nindependence of the Grecian cities in Asia Minor, and\\npromising not to spread a sail on the ^gean Sea, nor bring\\na soldier within tln*ee davs march of its coast.\\nPELOPONNESIAN WAR.\\n(431-404 B. c.)\\nCauses of the War. The meddling of Athens in the\\naffairs of her allies, and the use of their contributions\\n(p. 134) to erect her own public buildings, had aroused bitter\\nhatred. Sparta, jealous of the glory and fame of her rival,\\nwatched every chance to interfere. At last an opportunity\\ncame. A quarrel arose between Corinth and her colony\\nof Corcyra. Athens favored Corey ra Sparta, Corinth.\\nNearly all Greece took sides in the dispute, according to race\\nor political sympathy the real question at issue being the\\nbroad one, whether the ruHng power in HeUas should be\\nAthens Ionic, democratic and maritime or Sparta Doric,\\naristocratic and military. The lonians and the democracy\\nnaturally aided Athens; the Dorians and the aristocracy,\\nSparta. Both parties were sometimes found within the same\\ncity, contending for the supremacy.\\nAllies of Athens.\\nAll the islands of the iEgean (except\\nMelos and Thera), Corcyra, Zacynthos,\\nhios, Lesbos, and Samos the nu-\\nmeroiis Greek colonies on the coast\\nof Asia Minor, Tlirace, and Macedon\\nNaupactus, Platsea, and a part of Acar-\\nuania.\\nAllies of Sparta.\\nAll the states of the Peloponnesus\\n(except Argos and Achaia, whicli ri--\\nmained neutral) Locris, Phocis, ami\\nMegara; Ambracia, Anactoriuiu, and\\nthe island of Leucas; and the stronK\\nBoeotian League, of which Thebes was\\nthe head.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "140 GREECE. [431b. C.\\nConduct of the War. The Spartan plan was to invade\\nAttica, destroy tlie crops, and persuade the Athenian aUies to\\ndesert her. As Sparta was strong on hind, and Athens on\\nwater, Pericles ordered the people of Attica to take refuge\\nwithin the Long Walls of the city, while the fleet and army\\nravaged the coast of the Peloponnesus. When, therefore,\\nArchida^mus, king of Sparta, invaded Attica, the people\\nflocked into the city with all their movable ^possessions.\\nTemporary buildings were erected in every vacant place in\\nthe public squares and streets, while the poorest of the\\npopulace were forced to seek protection in squalid huts\\nbeneath the shelter of the Long Walls. Pitiable indeed was\\nthe condition of the inhabitants during these hot summer\\ndays, as they saw the enemy, without hindrance, burning\\ntheir homes and destroying their crops, while the Athenian\\nfleet was off ravaging the coast of Peloponnesus. But it\\nwas worse the second year, when a fearful pestilence broke\\nout in the crowded population. Many died, among them\\nPericles himself (429 B. c.).^ This was the greatest loss of\\nall, for there was no statesman left to guide the people.\\n1 Wlien, at the opening of the Peloponneaian war, the long enjoyment of every\\ncomfort which peace and civilization could bring was interrupted hy hostile invasion\\nwhen the whole population of Attica was crowded within the city of Athens when,\\nto the intlamniahle materials which the populace of a Grecian town would always\\nafford, were added the discontented land-owners and peasants from the country, who\\nwere obliged to exchange the olive glades of Colonus, the thymy slopes of Hymettus,\\nand the oak forests of Acharnae, for the black shade of the Pelasgicum and the\\nstifling huts along the dusty plain between the Long Walls when without were\\nseen the Are and smoke ascending from the ravage of their beloved orchards and\\ngardens, and within the excitement was aggravated by the little knots which gath-\\nered at every corner, and by the predictions of impending evil which were handed\\nabout from mouth to mouth,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 when all these feelings, awakened by a situation so\\nwholly new in a population so irritable, turned against one man as the author of the\\npresent distress, then it was seen how their respect for that one man united with\\ntheir inherent respect for law to save the state. Not only did Pericles restrain the\\nmore eager spirits from sallying forth to defend their burning property, not only did\\nhe calm and elevate their despondency by his speeches in the Pnyx and Ceramicus,\\nnot only did he refuse to call an assembly, but no attempt at an assembly was ever\\nmade. The groups in the streets never grew into a mob, and, even when to the hor-\\nrors of a blockade were added those of a pestilence, public tranquillity was never for\\na moment disturbed, the order of the constitution was never for a moment infringed.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "429 B. C] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 141\\nDemagogues now arose, chief among whom was Cleon^ a\\ncruel, ari ogant boaster, who gained power by flattering the\\npopulace. About this time, also, the Spartans began to\\nbuild ships to dispute the empire of the sea, on which Athens\\nhad so long triumphed.\\nThe Memorable Siege of Plataea, which began in the\\nthird year of the war, illustrates the desperation and destruc-\\ntion that characterized this terrible struggle of twenty-\\nseven years. In spite of Pausanias s oath (p. 134), Archida\\nmus with the Spartan army attacked this city, which was\\ndefended by only four hundred and eighty men. First the\\nSpartan general closed every outlet by a wooden palisade,\\nand constiiicted an inclined plane of earth and stone,\\nup which his men (^ould advance to hurl theii- weapons\\nagainst the city. This work cost seventy days labor of the\\nwhole army, but the garrison undermined the mound and\\ndestroyed it entii-ely. Next the Spartans built around the\\nAiu\\\\ yet the man who thus swayed the minds of his fellow-citizens was the reverse\\nof a demagogue. XTnlike his aristocratic rival, Cinion, he never won their favor by\\nindiscriminate bounty. Unlike his democratic successor, Cleon, he never infiuencet.\\ntheir passions bj coarse invectives. Unlike his kinsman, Alcibiades, he never sought\\nto dazzle them by a display of his genius or his wealth. At the very moment when\\nPericles was preaching the necessity of manful devotion to the common country, he\\nwas himself the greatest of sufferers. The epidemic carried off his two sons, his\\nsister, several other relatives, and his best and most useful political friends. Amidst\\nthis train of calamities he maintained his habitual self-command, until the death of\\nhis favorite son Paralus left his house without a legitimate representative to maintain\\nthe family and its hereditary sacred rites. On this final blow,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the greatest that,\\naccording to the Greek feeling, could befall any human being,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 though he strove to\\ncommand himself as before, yet at the obsequies of the young man, when it became\\nhis duty to place a garland on the dead body, his grief became uncontrollable, and he\\nburst into tears. Every feeling of resentment seems to have passed away from the\\nhearts of the Athenian people before the touching sight of the marble majesty of\\ntheir great statesman yielding to the common emotion of their own excitable nature.\\nEvery measure was passed which could alleviate this deepest sorrow of his declining\\nage. But it was too late, and he soon sank into the stupor from which he never\\nrecovered. As he lay apparently passive in the hands of tlie nurse, who had hung\\nround his neck the amulets which in life and health he had scorned, whilst his\\nfriends were dwelling with pride on the nine trophies which on Ba otia and Samos, and\\non the shores of Peloponnesus, bore witness to his success during his forty-years\\ncareer, the dying man .suddenlj broke in with the emphatic words, That of which\\nam most proud you have left unsaid No Athenian, through my fault, was ever\\nclothed in the black garb of mourning. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Quarterly Review.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "429-427 B.C.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 143\\ncity two concentric walls, and roofed over tlie space between\\nthem so as to give shelter to the soldiers on guard. For two\\nlong years the Plata^ans endured all the horrors of a siege.\\nProvisions ran low, and one stormy December night a part\\nof the men stole out of the gate, placed ladders against the\\nSpartan wall, climbed to the top, killed the sentinels, and\\nescaped through the midst of the enemy with the loss of only\\none man. The rest of the garrison were thus enabled to\\nhold out some time longer. But at length their food was\\nexhausted, and they were forced to surrender. The cruel\\nSpartans put every man to death, and then, to please the\\nThebans, razed the city to the ground. Heroic little Platgea\\nwas thus blotted out of the map of Greece.^\\nAlcibi ades, a young nobleman, the nephew of Pericles\\nand pupil of Socrates, by his wealth, beauty, and talent,\\nnext won the ear of the crowd. Reckless and dissolute,\\nwith no heart, conscience, or principle, he cared for nothing\\nexcept his owm ambitious schemes. Though peace had then\\ncome through the negotiations of Nicias, the favorite\\nAthenian general, it was broken by the influence of this\\ndemagogue, and the bloody contest renewed.\\nExpedition to Sicily (415 b. c). The oppressions of\\nthe tyrants of Syracuse, a Dorian city in Sicily, gave an ex-\\ncuse for seizing that island, and Alcibiades advocated this\\nbrilliant scheme, which promised to make Athens irresistible.\\nThe largest fleet and army HeUas had yet sent forth were\\naccordingly equipped. One morning, just before their de-\\nparture, the busts of Hermes, that were placed along the roads\\nof Attica to mark the distance, and in front of the Athenian\\nhouses as protectors of the people, were found to be muti-\\nlated. The populace, in dismay, lest a curse should fall on\\nthe city, demanded the punishment of those who had com-\\n1 It was restored 387 b. c, again destroyed 374 u. c, and again rebuilt 338 b. c.\\nBO H\u00e2\u0080\u0094 9", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "144 GREECE. [415 B.C.\\nmitted this sacrilegious act. It was probable that some\\ndrunken revelers had done the mischief but the enemies of\\nAlcibiades made the people believe that he was the offender.\\nAfter he sailed he was cleared of this charge, but a new one\\nimpended. This was that he had privately performed the\\nEleusinian mysteries (p. 184) for the amusement of his\\nfriends. To answer this heinous offense, Alcibiades was\\nsummoned home, but he escaped to Sparta, and gave the\\nrival city the benefit of his powerful support. Meanwhile\\nthe exasperated Athenians condemned him to death, seized\\nhis property, and called upon the priests to pronounce him\\naccursed.\\nThe expedition had now lost the only man who could\\nhave made it a success. Nicias, the commander, was old\\nand sluggish. Disasters followed apace. Finally Gylippns,\\na famous Spartan general, came to the help of Syracuse.\\nAthens sent a new fleet and army, but she did not furnish a\\nbetter leader, and the reenforcement served only to increase\\nthe final ruin. In a great sea-fight in the harbor of Syracuse\\nthe Athenian ships were defeated, and the troops attempt-\\ning to flee by land were overtaken and forced to surrender\\n(413 B. c).\\nFall of Athens. The proud city was now doomed.\\nHer best soldiers were dying in the dungeons of Syracuse.\\nHer treasury was empty. Alcibiades was pressing on her\\ndestruction with aU his revengeful genius. A Spartan gar-\\nrison held Decelea, in the heart of Attica. The Athenian\\nallies dropped off. The Ionic colonies revolted. Yet with\\nthe energy of despair Athens dragged out the unequal con-\\ntest nine years longer. The recall of Alcibiades gave a\\ngleam of success. But victory at the price of submission\\nto sush a master was too costly, and he was dismissed.\\nPersian gold gave weight to the Lacedaemonian sword and", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "405 b. C] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 145\\nequipped her fleet. The last sliips of Athens were taken\\nby Lysander, the Spartan, at ^gospotanii in the Hellespont\\n(405 B. c). Sparta now controlled the sea, and Athens, its\\nharbor blockaded, suffered famine in addition to the horrors\\nof war. The proud city surrendered at last (404 b. c). Her\\nships were given up and the Long Walls were torn down\\namid the playing of flutes and the rejoicings of dancers,\\ncrowned with garlands, as for a festival. That day was\\ndeemed by the Peloponnesians, says Xenophon, the com-\\nmencement of liberty for Greece.\\nThus ended the Peloponnesian war, twenty-sever years\\nafter its commencement, and seventy-six years after Salamis\\nhad laid the foundation of the Athenian power. Athens\\nhad fallen, but she possessed a kingdom of which Sparta\\ncould not deprive her. She still remained the mistress of\\nGreece in literature and art.\\nThe Thirty Tyrants. A Spartan garrison was now\\nplaced on the Acropolis at Athens, and an oUgarchy of thirty\\npersons established. A reign of terror followed. The\\nThiity Tyrants put hundreds of citizens to death without\\nform of trial. After they had ruled only eight months, the\\nAthenian exiles returned in arms, overthrew the tyrants, and\\nreestablished a democratic government.\\nRetreat of the Ten Thousand (401 b. c). Now that\\npeace had come at home, over ten thousand restless Greeks\\nwent away to help Cyrus the Younger, satrap of Asia Minor,\\ndethrone his elder brother, Artaxerxes. At Cunaxa, near\\nBabylon, they routed the Persians. But Cyrus feU, and, to\\ncomplete their misfortune, their chief officers were induced\\nto visit the enemy s camp, where they were treacherously\\ntaken prisoners. Left thus in the heart of the Persian Em-\\n1 Greece at tliis time was full of soldiers of fortune,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 men who made war a trade,\\nand served anybody wlio was able to pay them.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "146 GREECE. [401 B.C.\\npire, the little army chose new captains, and decided to cut\\nits way home again. All were ignorant alike of the route\\nand the language of the people. Hostile troops swarmed\\non every side. Guides misled them. Famine threatened\\nthem. Snows overwhelmed them. Yet they struggled on\\nfor months. When one day ascending a mountain, there\\nbroke from the van the joyful shout of The sea The\\nsea It was the Euxine, a branch of that sea whose\\nwaters washed the shores of their beloved Greece.\\nAbout three-fourths of the original number survived to\\ntell the story of that wonderful march (p. 172). Such an\\nexploit, while it honored the endurance of the Greek soldier,\\nrevealed the weakness of the Persian Empire.\\nLACED^MON AND THEBAN DOMINION.\\nLacedaemon Rule (405-371 b. c). Tempted by the glit-\\ntering prospect of Eastern conquest, Sparta sent Agesila us\\ninto Asia. His success there made Artaxerxes tremble for\\nhis throne. Again Persian gold was thrown into the scale.\\nThe Athenians were helped to rebuild the Long Walls, and\\nsoon their flag floated once more on the ^gean. Conon, the\\nAthenian admiral, defeated the Spartan fleet off Cnidus,\\nnear Rhodes (394 b. c). In Greece the Spartan rule, cruel\\nand coarse, had already become unendm*able. In every\\ntown Sparta sought to estabhsh an oligarchy of ten citizens\\nfavorable to herself, and a harmost, or governor. Wherever\\npopular Uberty asserted itself, she endeavored to extinguish\\nit by military force. But the cities of Corinth, Argos,\\nThebes, and Athens struck for freedom. Sparta was forced\\nto recall Agesilaus. Strangely enough, she now made friends\\n.with the Persian king, who dictated the Peace of Antalci-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "387 B.C.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 147\\ndas (387 B. c). This ended the war, and gave Asia Minor\\nto Persia. So low had Hellas fallen since the days of Salamis\\nand Platipa\\nTheban Rule (371-362 b. c.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 At the very height of\\nSparta s arrogance her humiliation came. The Boeotian\\nLeague (p. 139) having been restored, and the oligarchical\\ngovernments favorable to Sparta overtlu-own, a Spartan\\narmy invaded that state. At this juncture there arose in\\nThebes a great general, Epaminondas, who made the Theban\\narmy the best in the land. On the famous field of Lenctra\\n(371 B. c), by throwing heavy columns against the long\\nlines of Spartan soldiers, he beat them for the first time in\\ntheir history.- The charm of Lacedaemonian invincibility\\nwas broken. The stream of Persian gold now tui*ned into\\nThebes. The tyrannical Spartan Jiarmosfs were expelled\\nfrom all the cities. To curb the power of Sparta, the inde-\\npendence of Messenia, after three centuries of slavery, was\\nreestablished (p. 121). Arcadia was united in a league,\\nhaving as its head Megalopolis, a new city now founded. A\\nwise, pure-hearted statesman, Epaminondas sought to com-\\nbine Hellas, and not, like the leaders of Athens or Sparta,\\n1 So named from the Spartan envoy who managed it. This peace was a monrnful\\nincident in Grecian liistory. Its true character cannot be better described than by a\\nbrief remark and reply cited in Plutarch Alas, for Hellas! observed some one to\\nAgesilaus, when we see our Laconiaus Medizing Nay, replied the Spartan\\nking, say rather the Medes (Persians) Laconizing.\\n2 The Spartan lines were twelve ranks deep. Epaminondas (fighting en echelon)\\nmade his, at the point where he wished to break through, flf tj ranks deep. At his\\nside always fought liis intimate friend Pelopidas, wlio commanded the Sacred Band.\\nThis consisted of three hundred brothers-inarms,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 men who had known one another\\nfrom childhood, and were sworn to live and die together. In the crisis of the struggle\\nEpaminondas cheered his men with the words, One step forward Wliile the by-\\nstanders after the battle were congratulating him over his victorj^ he replied tliat\\nhis greatest pleasure was in thinking how it wouhl gratify liis father and mother.\\nSoon after Epaminondas returned from the battle of Leuctra, his enemies secured\\nhis election as public scavenger. The noble-spirited man immediately accepted the\\noffice, declaring tliat tlie place did not confer dignity on tlie man, but the man on\\nthe place, and executed the duties of this unworthy post so efficiently as to baffle\\nthe malice of his foes.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "148 GREECE. [362 b. c.\\nselfishly to rule it. Athens at first aided him, aud then,\\njealous of his success, sided with Lacedt^mon. At Manfinea\\n(362 B. c), in Ai cadia, Epaminondas fought his last battle,\\nand died at the moment of victory.^ As he alone had made\\nThebes great, she di-opped at once to her former level.\\nThree states in succession Athens, Sparta, and Thebes\\nhad risen to take the lead in Greece. Each had failed.\\nHellas now lay a mass of quarreling, struggling states.\\nMACEDONIAN EMPIRE.\\nRise of Macedonia. The Macedonians were aUied to\\nthe Greeks, and their kings took part in the Ol^Tupian\\ngames. They were, however, a very different people. In-\\nstead of living in a nniltitude of free cities, as in Greece,\\nthey dwelt in the country, and were aU governed by one\\nking. The polite and refined Athenian looked upon the\\ncoarse Macedonian as almost a barbarian. But about the\\ntime of the f aU of Athens these rude northerners were fast\\ntaking on the Greek civilization.\\nPhilip (359-336 b. c.) came to the throne of Macedonia\\nwell schooled for his career. A hostage for many years at\\nthe Theban court, he understood Grecian diplomacy and\\nmilitary art. He was now determined to be recognized not\\nonly as a Greek among Greeks, but as the head of all Greece.\\nTo this he bent every energj^ of his strong, wily nature.\\nHe extended his kingdom, and made it a compact empii-e.\\nHe thoroughly organized his army, and formed the famous\\n1 He was pierced with a jaTelin, and to extract the weapon would cause his death\\nby bleeding. Being carried out of the battle, like a true soldier he asked tirst about\\nhis shield, then waited to learn the issue of the contest. Hearing the cries of vic-\\ntory, he drew out the shaft with his own hand, and died a few moments after.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "359 B. c]\\nTHE POLITICAL HISTOItY\\n149\\nI OlillCAl 1 Ol- I i 111,11 OF\\nMACfeDON.\\nMa(;eclonian phalanx,^ that, for two centuries after, decided\\ntlie day (ju every field on which it appeared. He. craftily\\nmixed in Grecian affaii-s, and took such an active part in tlie\\nSacred War 2 (355-34G B. c), that he\\nwas admitted to the Amphictyonic\\nCouncil (p. 115). Demosthenes, the\\ngreat Athenian orator, seemed the\\nonly man clear-headed enough to\\ndetect Philip s scheme. His eloquent\\nPliihppics (p. 202) at last aroused\\nhis apathetic countrj^men to a sense\\nof their danger. The Second Sacred\\nWar, declared by the Amphictyons\\nagainst the Locrians for alleged sacri-\\nlege, having been intrusted to Philip,\\nthat monarch marched through Ther-\\nmopylae, and his designs against the\\nliberties of Gfeece became but too evident. Thebes and\\nAthens now took the field. But at CJicerone a (338 B. c.) the\\nMacedonian phalanx annihilated theii* armies, the Sacred\\nBand perishing to a man.\\nGreece was prostrate at Philip s feet. In a congress of\\n1 The peculiar feature of this body was that the men were armed witli huge\\nlances twenty-one feet long. The lines were placed so that tlie front rank, composed\\nof the strongest and most experienced soldiers, was protected by a hiistling mass of\\nfive rows of lance-points, tlieir own extending fifteen feet before them, and the rest\\ntwelve, nine, six, and three feet respectively. Fonned in a solid mass, tisually six-\\nteen ranks deep, shield touching shield, and marching with the precision of a ma-\\nchine, the phalanx charge was irresistible. The .Spartans, canying spears only about\\nhalf as long, could not reach the Macedonians.\\n2 The pretext for the First Sacred War is said to have been that the Phocians\\nhad cultivated lands consecrated to Apollo. The Amphictyonic Council, led by\\nThebes, inflicted a heavy fine upon them. Thereupon they seized the Temple at\\nDelplii, and finally, to furnish means for prolonging the struggle, sdld the riches\\naccumulated from the pious offerings of the men of a better daj Tlie Grecians\\nwere first shocked and then demoralized by this impious act. Tlie holiest objects\\ncirculated among the people, and were put to conim m uses. All reverence for the\\ngods and sacred things was lost. The ancient patriotism went with the religion^\\nand Hellas was forever fallen from her high estate. Jivery where her sous were ready\\nto sell their swords to the highe-f i j.M.r", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "150\\nQREECE.\\n[337-336 B. C.\\nall the states except Sparta, he was appointed to lead their\\nunited forces against Persia. But while preparing to start\\nhe was assassinated (336 B. c.) at his daughter s marriage feast.\\nA TETRADUACHM OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.\\nAlexander,^ his son, succeeded to Philip s throne and\\nambitious projects. Though only twenty years old, he was\\n1 On the day of Alexander s birth, Philip received news of the defeat of the\\nIllyrians, and that his horses had won in the Olyminan chariot-races. Overwhehned\\nby such fortune, the monarch exclaimed, Great Jupiter, send me only some slight\\nreverse in return for so many blessings That same day also the famous Temple\\nof Diana, at Ephesus, was burned by an incendiar3^ Alexander was wont to consider\\nthis an omen that he should himself kindle a flame in Asia. On his father s side he was\\nsaid to be descended from Ilercules, and on his mother s from Achilles. He became\\na pupil of Aiistotle (p. 176), to whom Philip wrote, announcing Alexander s biith,\\nsaying that lie knew not which gave him the greater pleasure,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 that he had a son, or\\nthat Aristotle could be his son s teacher. The young prince at fourteen tamed the\\nnoble horse Bucephalus, which no one at the Macedonian court dared to mount at\\nsixteen he saved his father in battle, and at eighteen defeated the Sacred Band\\nupon the field at Chaeronea. Before setting out upon his Persian expedition, he con-\\nsulted the oracle at Delphi. The priestess refused to go to the shrine, as it was an\\nunlucky day. Alexander thereupon grasped her arm. Ah, my son, exclaimed\\nshe, thou art irresistible! Enough, shouted the delighted monarch, I ask\\nno other reply. He was equally happy of thought at Gordium. Here he was shown\\nthe famous Gordian knot, which, it was said, no one could untie except the one des-\\ntined to be the conqueror of Asia. He tried to unravel the cord, but, failing, drew\\nhis sword and severed it at a blow. Alexander always retained a warm love for his\\nmother, Olympias. She, however, was a violent woman. Antip ater, who was left\\ngovernor of Macedon during Alexander s absence, wrote, complaining of her conduct.\\nAh, said the king, Antipater does not know that one tear of a mother will blot\\nout ten thousand of his letters. Uufoi-tunately, the hero who subdued the known\\nworld had never conquered himself. In a moment of drunken passion he slew Clitus,\\nhis dearest friend, who had saved his life in battle. He shut liimself up for days\\nafter this horrible deed, lamenting his crime, and refusing to eat or to transact any\\nbusiness. Yet in soberness and calmness he tortured and hanged Callisthenes, a\\nGreek author, because he would not w^orship him as a god. Carried away by his\\nsuccess, he finally sent to Greece, ordering his name to be enrolled among the deities.\\nSaid the Spartans in reply, If Alexander will be a god, let him-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "336 B. C.J THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 151\\nmore tlian liis father s equal in statesmanship and military\\nskill. Thebes having revolted, he sold its inhabitants as\\nslaves, and razed the city, sparing only the temples and the\\nhouse of Pindar the poet. This terrible example quieted\\naU opposition. He was at once made captain-general of the\\nGrecian forces to invade Persia, and, soon after, he set out\\nupon that perilous expedition from which he never returned.\\nAlexander s Marches and Conquests. In 334 b. c.\\nAlexander crossed the Hellespont with thirty thousand in-\\nfantry and four thousand five hundred cavalry. He was the\\nfirst to leap on the Asiatic shore. Pressing eastward, he\\ndefeated the Persians in two great battles, one at the river\\nGraniciis, and the other at Issus.^ Then he turned south\\nand besieged Tyre. To reach the island on which the city\\nstood, he built a stone pier two hundi-ed feet mde and half\\na mile long, on which he rolled his ponderous machines,\\nbreached the wall, and carried the place by a desperate\\nassault. Thence passing into Egypt, that country fell with-\\nout a blow. Here he founded the famous city of Alexandria\\n(p, 154). Resuming his eastern march, he routed the Persian\\nhost, a million strong, on the decisive field of Arhela. Baby-\\nlon was entered in triumph. Persepolis (p. 94) was burned\\nto avenge the destruction of Athens one hundi^ed and fifty\\nyears before (p. 132). Darius was pursued so closely, that,\\nto prevent his falling into tHe conqueror s possession, he was\\nslain by a noble.\\n1 Alexander was a great lover of Homer (p. lf)2), and slept with a copy of the Iliad\\nunder liis pillow. While his army was now landing, he visited the site of Troy, offered\\na sacrilico at the tomb of Acliilles, hung up his own shield in the temple, and, taking\\ndown one said to have belonged to a hero of the Trojan war, ordered it to be\\nhenceforth carried before him in battle.\\n2 Just before this engagement Alexander was attacked by a fever in consequence\\nof bathing in the cold water of the Cydnus. While sick he was informed that his\\nphj sician Philip had been bribed by Darius to poison him. As Philip came into the\\nroom, Alexander handed him tlie letter containing the warning, and then, before the\\ndoctor could speak, swallowed the medicine. His contidence was rewarded by a\\nspeedy recovery.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "152 GREECE. [326B.C.\\nThe mysterious East still alluring him on, Alexander,\\nexploring, conqiiering,i founding cities, at last reached the\\nriver Hyph asis, where his army refused to proceed fm^ther\\nin the unknown regions. Instead of going directly back,\\nhe built vessels, and descended the Indus; thence the fleet\\ncruised along the coast, while the troops returned through\\nGedro sia (Beloochistan), suffering fearful hardships in its\\ninhospitable deserts.^ When he reached Babylon, ten years\\nhad elapsed since he crossed the Hellespont.\\nThe next season, while just setting out from Babylon\\nupon a new expedition into Arabia, he died (323 B. c).\\nWith him perished his schemes and his empire.\\nAlexander s Plan was to mold the diverse nations\\nwhich he had conquered into one vast empire, with the\\ncapital at Babylon. Having been the Cyrus, he desired to\\nbe the Darius of the Persians. He sought to break down\\nthe distinctions between the Greek and the Persian. He\\nmarried the Princess Roxana, the Pearl of the East,\\nand induced many of his army to take Persian wives. He\\nenlisted twenty thousand Persians into the Macedonian\\nphalanx, and appointed natives to high office. He wore the\\nEastern dress, and adopted oriental ceremonies in his court.\\nHe respected the rehgion and the government of the various\\ncountries, restrained the satraps, and ruled more beneficently\\nthan their own monarchs.\\nThe Results of the thii-teen years of Alexander s reign\\nhave not yet disappeared. Great cities were founded by\\n1 Porus, au Indian prince, heici the banks of the Hydaspes with three hundred\\nwar-chariots and two liundred elephants. The Indians being defeated, Porns was\\nbrought into Alexander s presence. When asked what he wished, Porus replied,\\nNothing except to be treated like a king. Alexander, struck by the answer, gave\\nhim his liberty, and enlarged his territory.\\n2 One day while Alexander was parched with thirst, a drink of water was given\\nhim, but he tlirew it on the ground lest the sight of his pleasure should aggravate the\\nsuffering of his men.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "336-323 B.C.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY,\\n153\\nhim, or his generals, which are still marts of trade. Com-\\nmerce received new life. Greek culture and civilization\\nspread over the Orient, and the Greek language became, if\\nnot the common speech, at least the medium of communi-\\ncation among educated people from the Adriatic to the\\nIndus. So it came about, that, when Greece had lost her\\nnational liberty, she suddenly attained, through her con-\\nquerors, a world-wide empire over the minds of men.\\nBut while Asia became thus Hellenized, the East exerted a\\nreflex influence upon Hellas. As Rawlinson well remarks,\\nThe Oriental habits of servility and adulation superseded the old free-spoken\\nindependence and manliness; patriotism and public spirit disappeared; luxury-\\nincreased literature lost its vigor art deteriorated and the people sank into a\\nnation of pedants, parasites, and adventurers.\\nALEXANDER S SUCCESSORS.\\nAlexander s Principal Generals, soon after his\\ndeath, divided his empire among themselves. A mortal\\nstruggle of twenty- two years followed, during which these\\nofficers, released from the strong hand of their master,\\nfought, quarreled, grasped, and wrangled like loosened\\ntigers in an amphitheater. The greed and jealousy of the\\ngenerals, or kings as they were called, were equaled only\\nby the treachery of their men. Finally, by the decisive battle\\nof Ipsus (301 B. c), the conflict was ended, and the following\\ndistribution of the territory made\\nPtolemy\\nreceived Egypt, and\\nconquered all of\\nPalestine, PhCEuicia,\\nand Cyprus.\\nLysim achus\\nreceived Thrace and\\nnearly all of Asia\\nMinor.\\nSeleucus\\nreceived Syria and\\nthe East, and he af-\\nterward conquered\\nAsia Minor, Lysim-\\nachus being slain.\\nCassander\\nreceived Macedon\\nand Oreece.\\nPtolemy founded a flourishing Greek kingdom in Egypt.\\nThe Greeks, attracted by his benign rule, flocked thither in", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "154 GREECE. [323 b. c.\\nmultitudes. The Egyptians were protected in their ancient\\nreligion, laws, and customs, so that these stiff-necked rebels\\nagainst the Persian rule quietly submitted to the Macedonian.\\nThe Jews in large numbers found safety under his paternal\\ngovernment. This threefold population gave to the second\\ncivilization which grew up on the banks of the Nile a pe-\\nculiarly cosmopolitan character. The statues of the Greek\\ngods were mingled with those of Osii is and Isis the same\\nhieroglyphic word was used to express a Greek and a lower\\nEgyptian and even the Jews forgot the language of Pales-\\ntine, and talked Greek. Alexandria thus became, under the\\nPtolemies, a brilliant center of commerce and civilization.\\nThe building of a commodious harbor and a superb light-\\nhouse, and the opening of a canal to the Red Sea, gave a\\ngreat impetus to the trade with Arabia and India. Grecian\\narchitects made Alexandria, with its temples, obelisks,\\npalaces, and theaters, the most beautiful city of the times.\\nIts white marble lighthouse, called the Pharos, was one of\\nthe Seven Wonders of the World (p. 601). At the center of\\nthe city, where its two grand avenues crossed each other, in\\nthe midst of gardens and fountains, stood the Mausoleum,\\nwhich contained the body of Alexander, embalmed in the\\nEgyptian manner.\\nThe Alexandrian Museum and Lihrary founded by\\nPtolemy I. (Soter), but greatly extended by Ptolemy II.\\n(Philadelphus), and enriched by Ptolemy III. (Euergetes),\\nwere the grandest monuments of this Greco-Egyptian\\nkingdom. The Library comprised at one time, in aU its\\ncollections, seven hundred thousand volumes. The Museum\\nwas a stately marble edifice surrounded by a portico, beneath\\nwhich the philosophers walked and conversed. The pro-\\n1 They had a temple at Alexandria similar to the oue at Jerusalem, and for their\\nuse tlie Old Testannint was translated into Greek (275-250 B. c). From the fact that\\nseventy scholars perfoimed this work, it is termed the Septuagint.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "323-222 B.C.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 155\\nfessors and teachers were all kept at the public expense.\\nThere were connected with this institution a botanical and\\na zoological garden, an astronomical ol^servatory, and a\\nchemical hiboratory. Tp this grand university resorted the\\nscholars of the world (see Steele s New Astronomy, p. 9).\\nAt one time in its history there were in attendance as many\\nas fourteen thousand persons. Wliile wars shook Europe\\nand Asia, Archimedes and Hero the philosophers, Apelles\\nthe painter, Hipparchus and Ptolemy the astronomers, Euclid\\nthe geometer, Eratosthenes and Strabo the geographers,\\nManetho the historian, Aiistophanes the rhetorician, and\\nApollonius the poet, labored in quiet upon the peaceful\\nbanks of the Nile. Probably no other school of learning\\nhas ever exerted so wide an influence. When CaBsar wished\\nto re\\\\dse the calendar, he sent for Sosigenes the Alexandrian.\\nEven the early Christian church drew, from what the ancients\\nloved to call the divine school at Alexandria, some of its\\nmost eminent Fathers, as Origen and Athanasius. Modern\\nscience itseK dates its rise from the study of nature that\\nbegan under the shadow of the P^^amids.\\nLast of the Ptolemies. The first three Ptolemies were\\nable rulers. Then came ten weak or corrupt successors.\\nThe last Ptolemy married his sister,^ the famous Cleopatra\\n(p. 254), who shared his throne. At her death Egypt became\\na pro\\\\ ince of Rome (30 b. c).\\nSeleucus was a conqueror, and his kingdom at one time\\nstretched from the ^gean to India, comprising nearly all\\nthe former Persian empire. He was a famous founder of\\ncities, nine of which were named for himself, and sixteen\\nfor his son Antiochus. One of the latter, Antioch in SjTia\\n(Acts xi. 26, etc.), became the capital instead of Babylon.\\nThe descendants of Seleucus (Seleucidae) were unable to\\n1 This kind of faiuily intermarriiige was coinnion among the Pharaohs.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "156 GREECE. [65 B.C.\\nretain his vast conquests, and one province after another\\ndropped away, until the wide empire finally shrank into\\nSyria, which was grasped by the Romans (65 B. c).\\nSeveral Independent States arose in Asia during\\nthis eventful period. Fergamus became an independent\\nkingdom on the death of Seleucus I. (280 b. c), and, mainly\\nthrough the favor of Rome, absorbed Lydia, Phrygia, and\\nother provinces. The city of Pergamus, with its school of\\nliteratiu-e and magnificent public buildings, rivaled the\\nglories of Alexandria. The rapid growth of its library so\\naroused the jealousy of Ptolemy that he forbade the export\\nof papyrus whereupon Eumenes, king of Pergamus, resorted\\nto parchment, which he used so extensively for writing that\\nthis material took the name of pergamena. By the will\\nof the last king of Pergamus, the kingdom fell to Rome\\n(p. 237). Farthia arose about 255 b. c. It gradually spread,\\nuntil at one time it stretched from the Indus to the Euphra-\\ntes. Never absorbed into the Roman dominion, it remained\\nthroughout the palmy days of that empire its dreaded foe.\\nThe twenty-ninth of the Ai sacidae, as its kings were called,\\nwas driven from the throne by Artaxerxes, a descendant of\\nthe ancient line of Persia, and, after an existence of about\\nfive centuries, the Parthian Empire came to an end. It was\\nsucceeded by the new Persian monarchy or kingdom of the\\nSassanidae (226-652 a. d.). Fontus, a rich kingdom of Asia\\nMinor, became famous through the long wars its great king\\nMithridates V. carried on with Rome (p. 243).\\nGreece and Macedonia, after Alexanders time, pre-\\nsent little historic interest.^ The chief feature was that\\nnearly aU the Grecian states, except Sparta, in order to make\\n1 In 279 B. c. there was a fearful irruption of the Gauls under Biennus (see\\nBrief Hist. France, p. 10). Greece was ravaged by the barbarians. They were finally\\nexpelled, and a remnant founded a province in Asia Minor named Galatia, to whose\\npeople in later times St. Paul directed one of his Epistles.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 157\\nhead against Macedonia, formed leagues similar to that of\\noui- government dming the Revolution. The principal ones\\nwere the Achcean and the ^-EtoUan. But the old feuds and\\npetty strifes continued until all were swallowed up in the\\nworld-wide dominion of Rome, 146 B. c. (p. 236).\\nAthens under the Romans was prosperous. Other\\ncenters of learning existed, Alexandria, Marseilles, Tarsus\\nbut scholars from all parts of the extended empire of\\nRome still flocked to Athens to complete then- education.\\nTrue, war had laid waste the groves of Plato and the garden\\nin which Epicui us lived, yet the charm of old associations\\ncontinued to linger around these sacred places, and the\\nFour Schools of Philosophy (p. 175) maintained their hold\\non public thought.^ The Emperor Hadi ian (p. 261) estab-\\nlished a hbrary, and built a pantheon and a gymnasium.\\nThe Antonines endowed university professorships. So late\\nas the close of the 4th century a. d. a wi iter describes the aii s\\nput on by those who thought themselves demigods, so proud\\nare they of having. looked on the Academy and Lyceum,\\nand the Porch where Zeno reasoned. But with the fall\\nof Paganism and the growth of legal studies so peculiar to\\nthe Roman character Athens lost her importance, and her\\nschools were closed by Justinian (529 a. d.).\\n1 It is strange to hear Cicero, in De Finibus, speak of tliese scenes as already classic\\nground After hearing Antiochus in the Ptolemaeum, with Piso and my brother\\nand Pomponius, we agreed to take our evening walk in the Academy. So we all\\nmet at Piso s house, and, chatting as we went, walked the six stadia between the Gate\\nUipylum and the i^ca lemy. When we reached the scenes so justly famous, we\\nfound the quietude w craved. Is it a natural sentiment, asked Piso, or a mere\\nillusion, which makes i-s more affected when we see the spots frequented by men\\nworth remembering than when we merely hear their deeds or read their works? It\\nis thus tliat I feel touched at present, for I think of Plato, who, as we are told, was\\nwont to lecture here. Not only do those gardens of his, close by, remind me of him,\\nbut I seem to fancy him before my eyes. Here stood Speusippus, here Xenocrates,\\nhere his hearer Polemon. Yes, said Quintus, what you say, Piso, is quite\\ntrue, for as I was coming hither, Colonus, yonder, called my thoughts away, and made\\nme fancy that I saw its inmate Sophocles, for whom you know my passionate admi-\\nration. And I, too, said Pomponius, whom you often attack for my devotion to\\nEpicurus, spend much time in hia garden, which we passed lately in our walk.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "158 GREECE.\\n2. THE CIVILIZATION.\\nAthens is the school of Greece, and the Athenian is best fitted, by diversity of\\ngifts, for the graceful performance of all life s Autiea. Pericles.\\nAthens and Sparta.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Though the Greeks comprised many\\ndistinct tribes, inhabiting separate cities, countries, and islands,\\nhaving different laws, dialects, manners, and customs, Athens and\\nSparta were the great centers of Hellenic life. These two cities\\ndiffered widely from each other in thought, habits, and tastes.\\nSparta had no part in Grecian art or literature. There was no\\nSpartan sculptor, no Laconian painter, no Lacedaemonian poet.\\nFrom Athens, on the contrary, came the world s masterpieces in\\npoetry, oratory, sculpture, and architecture.\\nGREEK GALLEY WITH THREE BANKS OK OARS.\\nSociety.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Athenians boasted that they were Autochthons,\\nt. e., sprung from the soil where they lived j and that their descent\\nwas direct from the sons of the gods. The ancient Attic tribes were\\ndivided into phratries, or fraternities the phratries into gentes, or\\nclans and the gentes into hearths, or families. The four tribes\\nwere bound together by the common worship of Apollo Patrons,\\nreputed father of their common ancestor. Ion. Each phratry had\\nits particular sacred rites and civil compact, but all the phratries\\nof the same tribe joined periodically in certain ceremonies. Each\\ngens had also its own ancestral hero or god, its exclusive privilege\\n1 In recognition of this belief, they wore in their hair, as an ornament, a golden\\ngrasshopper,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 an insect liatched from eggs laid in the ground.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 159\\nof priesthood, its compact of protection and defense, and its spe-\\ncial burial-place. Last of all, every family had its private worship\\nand exclusive ancestral rites. Thus their religfion both unified and\\nseparated the Greeks while the association of houses and brother-\\nhoods powerfully influenced their early social and political life.\\nAthens in her golden days had, as we have already seen, neitlier\\nking nor aristocracy. Every free citizen possessed a voice in the\\ngeneral government, and zealously maintained his rights and\\nliberty as a member of the state. Although to belong to an old and\\nnoble house gave a certain position among all true-born Athenians,\\nthere was little of the usual exclusiveness attending great wealth or\\nlong pedigree. An Athenian might be forced from poverty to wear\\nan old and tattered cloak, or be only the son of a humble image-\\nmaker, as was Socrates, or of a cutler, as was Demosthenes, yet, if\\nhe had wit, bravery, and talent, he was as welcome to the brilliant\\nprivate saloons of Athens as were the richest and noblest.\\nTrade and Merchandise were as unpopular in most parts of\\nGreece as in Persia. The Greeks regarded arms, agi iculture,\\nmusic, and gymnastics as the only occupations worthy a freeman.\\nTo profit by retail trade was esteemed a sort of cheating, and\\nhandicrafts were despised because they tied men down to work,\\nand gave no leisure for athletic exercises or social cultui*e. In\\nSparta, where even agriculture was despised and all property was\\nheld in common, an Artisan had neither public influence nor\\npolitical rights J while in Thebes no one who had sold in the\\nmarket within ten years was allowed part in the government.\\nEven in democratic Athens, where extensive interests in ship-\\nbuilding and navigation produced a strong sentiment in favor\\nof commerce, the poor man who lived on less than ten cents a\\nday, earned by serving on juries^ or in other pubUc caj)acities,\\nlooked with disdain on the practical mechanic and tradesman.\\nConsequently most of the Athenian stores and shops belonged to\\n1 There were ten courts in Athens, employing, ^hen all were open, six thousand\\njurymen. The Athenians had such a passion for hearing and deciding judicial and\\npolitical questions, that they clamored for seats in the jury-box. Greek literature\\nabounds with satires on this national peculiarity. In one of Lucian s dialogues,\\nMenippus is represented as looking down from the moon and watching the character-\\nistic pursuits of men. The northern hordes were fighting, the Egyptians were\\nplowing, the Phcenicians were carrj ing their merchandise over the sea, the Spartans\\nwere whipping their cliildreu, and the Athenians were sitting in the jury-box. So\\nalso Aristophanes, in his satire called The Clouds, has his hero (Strepsiades) visit the\\nSchool of Socrates, where he is shown a map of the world.\\nStudent.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 And here lies Athens.\\nStuep.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Athens I nay, go to That cannot be. I see no law-courts tittinyt\\nB G H\u00e2\u0080\u0094 10", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "160\\nGREECE.\\naliens, who paid heavy taxes and made large profits. Solon sought\\nto encourage manufacturing industries, and engaged in com-\\nmerce, for which he traveled Aristotle kept a druggist s shop\\nin Athens j and even Plato, who shared the national prejudice\\nagainst artisans, speculated in oil during his Egyptian tour.\\nSparta, with her two kings, powerful ephors, and landed aris-\\ntocracy, presents a marked contrast to Athens.\\nThe Tivo Kings were supposed to have descended by different\\nlines from the gods, and this belief preserved to them what little\\nauthority they retained under the supremacy of the ephors. They\\noffered the monthly sacrifices to the gods, consulted the Delphian\\noracle, which always upheld their dignity, and had nominal com-\\nmand of the army. On the other hand, war and its details were\\ndecided by the ephors, two of whom accompanied one king on the\\nmarch. The kings were obhged monthly to bind themselves by\\nan oath not to exceed the laws, the ephors also swearing on that\\ncondition to uphold the royal authority. In case of default, the\\nkings were tried and severely fined, or had their houses burned.\\nThe population of Laconia, as we have seen, comprised Spar-\\ntans, perioeki, and helots (p. 119).\\nThe Spartans lived in the city, and were\\nthe only persons eligible to public office. So\\nlong as they submitted to the prescribed\\ndiscipline and paid their quota to the public\\nmess, they were Equals. Those who were\\nunable to pay their assessment lost their\\nfranchise, and were called Inferiors; but by\\nmeeting their public obligation they could\\nat any time regain their privileges.\\nThe Periceki were native freemen. They in-\\nhabited the hundred townships of Laconia,\\nhaving some liberty of local management,\\nbut subject always to orders from Sparta,\\nthe ephors having power to inflict the death\\npenalty upon them without form of trial.\\nThe Helot was a serf bound to the soil, and\\nbelonged not so much to the master as to the\\nstate. He was the pariah of the land. If he\\ndared to wear a Spartan bonnet, or even to\\nsing a Spartan song, he was put to death. The old Egyptian\\nkings thinned the ranks of their surplus rabble by that merciless\\nGUECIAN PEA8ANJ", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 161\\nsystem of forced labor which produced the pyramids the Spar-\\ntans did not put the blood of their helots to such useful account,\\nbut, when they became too powerful, used simply the knife and the\\ndagger.i The helot served in war as a light-armed soldier attached\\nto a Spartan or perioekian hoplite.^ Sometimes he was clothed in\\nheavy armor, and was given freedom for superior bravery. But\\na freed helot was by no means equal to a perioekus, and liis\\nknown courage made him more than ever a man to be wak;hod.\\nLiterature.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In considering Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian,\\nand Persian literature, we have had only fragments, possessing\\nlittle value for the present age except as historical curiosities, or\\nas a means of insight into the life and attainments of the people.\\nGrecian literature, on the contrary, exists to-day as a model.\\nFrom it poets continue to draw their highest inspiration its first\\ngreat historian is still known as the Father of History; its\\nphilosophy seems to touch every phase of thought and argument\\nof which the human mind is capable and its oratory has never\\nbeen surpassed. So vast a subject should be studied by itself,\\nand in this book Ave can merely furnish a nucleus about which the\\npupil may gather in his futm-e reading the rich stores which\\nawait his industry. For convenience we shall classify it under\\nthe several heads of Poetry, History, Oratory, and Philosophy.\\nPoetry. Epics (Nan-ative Poems). The earliest Grecian litera-\\nture of which we have any knowledge is in verse. In the dawn of\\nHellas, hymns of praise to the gods were performed in choral dances\\nabout shrines and altars, and heroic legends woven into ballads\\nwere musically chanted to the sound of a four- stringed lyi-e.\\nWith this rhythmical story-telling, the Rhapsodists {ode- stitchers)\\nused to delight the listening multitudes on festive occasions in\\n1 Tlie helots wave once free Greeks like their masters, whom they hated so bitterly\\ntliat there was a saying, A helot could eat a Spartan raw. They wore a sheep-skin\\ngarment and dog-skin cap as the contemptuous badge of their slavery. There waa\\nconstant danger of revolt, and from time to time the bravest of them w-jre secretly\\nkilled by a band of detectives appointed by the government for that purpose. Some-\\ntimes a wholesale assassination was deemed necessarj During the Peloponnesian\\nwar the helots had shown so much gallantry in battle, that the Spartan authorities\\nwere alarmed. A notice was issued that two thousand of the bravest\u00e2\u0080\u0094 selected by\\ntheir fellows\u00e2\u0080\u0094 should bo made free. There was great rejoicing among the deluded\\nslaves, and the happy candidates, garlanded with flowers, were marched proudly\\nthrough the streets and around the temples of the gods. Then they mysteriously\\ndisappeared, and were never heard of more. At the same time seven hundred other\\nlielots were sent oflf to join the army, and the Spartans congratulated themselves on\\nhaving done a wise and prudent deed.\\n2 A hoplite was a heavy-armed infantryman. At Platsea every Spartan had seven\\nhelots, and every perioekus one helot to attend him.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "162\\nGREECE\\nprincely halls, at Ampliictyonic gatherings, and at religious as-\\nsemblies. Among this troop of wandering minstrels there arose\\nHomer (about 1000 B.C.),\\nan Asiatic Greek, whose\\nname has become immortal.\\nThe Iliad and Odyssey are\\nthe grandest epics ever ^vT\\\\t-\\nten. The first contains the\\nstory of the Siege of Troy\\n(p. 115); the second narrates\\nthe wanderings of Ulysses,\\nking of Ithaca, on his return\\nfrom the Trojan Conquest.\\nHomer s style is simple, ar-\\ntistic, clear, and vivid. It\\nabounds in sublime descrip-\\ntion, delicate pathos, pure\\ndomestic sentiment, and no-\\nble conceptions of character. His verse strangely stirred the Gre-\\ncian heart. The rhapsodist Ion describes the emotion it produced\\nWhen that which I recite is iiathetic, my eyes fill with tears when it is awful\\nor terrible, my hair stands on end, and my heart leaps. The spectatois also weep in\\nsympathy, and look aghast with terror.\\nAntiquity paid divine honors to Homer s name; the cities of\\nGreece owned state copies of his works, which not even the treas-\\nuries of kings could buyj and his poems were then, as now, the\\nstandard classics in a literary education (p. 179).\\n1 According to tradition, Homer was a schoolmaster, who, wearying of confine-\\nment, began to travel. Having become blind In the course of his wanderings, he re-\\nturned to his native town, where he composed his two great poems. Afterward he\\nroamed from town to town, singing his lays, and adding to them as his inspiration\\ncame. Somewhere on the coast of the Levant he died and was buried. His birth-\\nplace is unknown, and, according to an old Greek epigram,\\nSeven rival towns contend for Homer dead,\\nThrough which the living Homer begged his bread.\\nMany learned writers have doubted whether Homer ever existed, and regard the two\\ngreat poems ascribed to him as a simple collection of heroic legends, recited by differ-\\nent bards, and finally woven into a continuous tale. The three oldest manuscripts\\nwe have of the Iliad came from Egypt, the last having been found under the head of a\\nmummy excavated in 1887 at Hawara, in the Fayoom. Some critics assert that the\\nstory of tlie Siege of Troy is allegorical, a repetition of old Egyptian fancies, founded\\non the daily siege of the east by the solar powers that every evening are robbed of\\ntheir brightest treasures in the west. Dr. Schliemanu, a German explorer, un-\\neartlied (1872-82) in Asia Minor what is believed to be the Homeric Ilium. His dis-\\ncoveries are said to refute all skepticism as to the historic reality of the Siege of Troy.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 163\\nHesiod, who lived after the time of Homer, wrote two long\\npoems, Works aad Days and Theogony. In the former he\\ndetails his agricultural experiences, enriching them with fable,\\nallegory, and moral reflections, and also furnishes a calendar of\\nlucky and unlucky days for the use of farmers and sailors the\\nlatter gives an account of the origin and history of the thirty\\nthousand Grecian gods, and the creation of the world. The Spar-\\ntans, who despised agriculture, called Hesiod the poet of the\\nhelots, in contrast with Homer, the delight of warriors. In\\nAthens, however, his genius was recognized, and his poems took\\ntheir place with Homer s in the school education of the day.\\nAfter Homer and Hesiod the poetic fire in Greece slumbered for\\nover two hundred years. Then arose many lyric, elegiac, and\\nepigi ammatic poets, Avhose works exist only in fragments.\\nTyrtceuSy the lame old schoolmaster, invented the trumpet,\\nand gained the triumph for Sparta in the Second Messenian War\\nby his impassioned battle-songs.\\nArchil ochus^ was a satirical poet of great reputation among\\nthe ancients. His birthday was celebrated in one grand festival\\nwith that of Homer, and a single double-faced statue perpetuated\\ntheir memory. He invented many rhythmical forms, and wrote\\nwith force and elegance. His satire was so venomous that he is\\nsaid to have driven a whole family to suicide by his pen, used in\\n1 Tlie Works and Daj-s was an earnest appeal to Ilcsiod s dissipated brother,\\nwhom he styles the simple, foolish, good-tor-naught Perses. It abounds with\\narguments for lionest iudustrj gives numerous suggestions on the general conduct\\nof society, and occasionally dilates on tbo vanity, frivolity, and gossip, which the\\nauthor imputes to womankind.\\n2 The story is that, in obedience to an oracle, the Spartans sent to Athens for a\\ngeneral who should insure them success. The jealous Athenians ironically answered\\ntheir demand with tlie deformed Tyrtoius. Contrary to their design, the cripple poet\\nproved to be just what was needed, and his wise advice and stirring war-hymns\\nspun-ed the Spartans on to victory.\\n3 One of the greatest of soldier poets, Archilochus proved himself a coward on\\nthe battle-field, afterward proclaiming the fact in a kind of apologetic bravado,\\nthus _\\nJ. he foeman glories o er my shield,\\nI left it on the battle-field.\\nI threw it down beside the wood.\\nUnscathed by scars, unstained with blood.\\nAnd let him glorj-- since from death\\nEscaped, I keep my forfeit breath.\\nI soon may find at little cost\\nAs good a shield as that I lost.\\nWhen lie afterward visited Sparta, the authorities, taking a dififerent view of shield\\ndropping, ordered him to leave the city in an hour.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "164 GREECE.\\nrevenge for his rejection by one of the daughters. He likened\\nhimself to a jjorcupine bristling with quills, and declared,\\nOne great thing I know.\\nThe man who wrongs me to requite with woe.\\nSappho, the Lesbian Nightingale, who sang of love, was put\\nby Aristotle in the same rank with Homer and Archilochus. Plato\\ncalled her the tenth muse, and it is asserted that Solon, on hearing\\none of her poems, prayed the gods that he might not die till he had\\nfound time to learn it by heart. Sappho s style was intense, bril-\\nliant, and full of beautiful imagery; her language was said to\\nhave a marvelous suavity. She sought to elevate her country-\\nwomen, and drew around her a circle of gifted poetesses whose\\nfame spread with hers throughout Greece.\\nAlccsus, an unsuccessful lover of Sappho, was a polished, pas-\\nsionate lyrist. His political and war poems gained him high\\nrepute, but, like Archilochus, he dropped his shield in battle and\\nran from danger. His convivial songs were favorites with the clas-\\nsic topers. One of his best poems is the famihar one, beginning,\\nWhat constitutes a state 1\\nNot high-raised battlement or labored mound,\\nThick wall or moated gate.\\nAnacreon, a courtier of Hipparchus (p. 123), was a society\\npoet. Himself pleasure-loving and dissipated, his odes were\\ndevoted to the muse, good humor, love, and wine. He lived\\nto be eighty-five years old, and his memory was perpetuated on\\nthe Acropolis at Athens by a statue of a drunken old man.\\nSimonides was remarkable for his terse epigrams and. choral\\nhymns. He was the author of the famous inscription upon the\\npillar at Thermopylae (p. 132), of which Christopher North says,\\nTis but two lines, and all Greece for centuries had them by heart. She forgot\\nthem, and Greece was living Greece no more.\\nPindar, the Theban Eagle, came from a long ancestry of poets\\nand musicians. His fame began when he was twenty years old,\\nand for sixty years he was the glory of his countrymen (p. 151).\\nAs Homer was the poet, and Sappho the poetess, so Pindar was the\\nlyrist, of Greece. Of all his compositions, there remain entire only\\nforty-five Triumphal Odes celebrating victories gained at the\\nnational games. His bold and majestic style abounds in striking\\nmetaphors, abrupt transitions, and complicated rhythms.\\nThe Drama. Rise op Tragedy and Comedy. In early times\\nthe wine-god Dionysus (Bacchus) was worshiped with hymns and", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 165\\ndances around an open altar, a g:oat being the usual sacrifice. i\\nDuring the Bacchic festivities, bands of revelers went about with\\ntheir faces smeared with wine lees, shouting coarse and bantering\\nsongs to amuse the village-folk. Out of these rites and revels grew\\ntragedy (goat-song) and comedy (village-song). The themes of the\\nTragic Chorus were the crimes, woes, and vengeance of the fate-\\ndriven heroes and gods, the murderous deeds being commonly\\nenacted behind a curtain, or narrated by messengers. The gi eat\\nGreek poets esteemed fame above everything else, and to write for\\nmoney was considered a degradation of genius. The prizes for\\nwhich they so eagerly contended were simple crowns of wild olives.\\n^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, the great tragic trio of\\nantiquity, belong to the golden Age of Pericles. The first ex-\\ncelled in the sublime, the second in the beautiful, and the third\\nin the pathetic. 2\\n^schylus (525-456 b. c.) belonged to a noble family in Eleusis, a\\nvillage near Athens famous for its secret rites of Demeter (p. 184).\\nHere, under the shadow of the sacred mysteries, a proud, earnest\\nboy, he drank in from childhood a love of the awful and sublime.\\nA true soldier poet, he did not, like Archilochus and Alcaeus, vent\\nail his courage in words, but won a prize for his bravery at Marathon,\\nand shared in the glory of Salamis. In his old age he was publicly\\naccused of sacrilege for having disclosed on the stage some details\\n1 Grecian raythology represented Bacchus as a melTJ^ rollicking god, whose\\nattendants were fauns and satyrs,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 beings half goat and half man. The early Tragic\\nCliorus dressed in goat-skins. Thespis, a strolling player, introduced an actor or\\nstory-teller between the hj mns of his satyr-chorus to fill up the pau.ses with a nar-\\nrative. JEschylus added a second, and Sophocles a third actor; more than that never\\nappeared together on the Athenian stage. Women were not allowed to act. A poet\\ncontesting for the prize generally offered three plays to be produced the same da3 in\\nsuccession on the stage. This was called a trilogy a farce or satyr-drama often\\nfollowed, closing the series.\\n2 Oil, our ^schylus, the thunderous\\nHow he drove the bolted breath\\nTlirough the cloud, to wedge it ponderous\\nIn the gnarl6d oak beneath.\\nOh, oar Sophocles, the roj al,\\n\\\\Vho was born to mou arch s place,\\nAnd who made the whole world loj ^al\\nLess by kingly power than grace.\\nOur Euripides, the human.\\nWith his droppings of warm tears,\\nAnd his touclies of things common\\nTill they rose to touch the splieres.\\nMrs. Browning, in Wine 0/ Cyprus.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "166\\nGREECE\\nof the Eleusinian mysteries. Becoming piqued at tlie rising success\\nof Sopliocles, who bore a prize away from him, he retired to Syra-\\ncuse, where, at the court of Hiero, with Pindar, Simonides, and\\nother Uterary friends, he passed his last years, ^schylus wrote\\nover seventy tragedies, of which only seven are preserved.\\njEsfhylus\\nTHR GREAT THAGIC TKIO.\\nPrometheus Bound is perhaps his finest tragedy. In the old myth, Prometheus\\nsteals fire from lieaven to give to man. For this crime Zeus sentences him to be\\nbound upon Mount Caucasus, where for thirty thousand years an eagle sliould feed\\nupon his vitals. Tlie taunts and scoffs of the brutal sheriffs, Strength and Force,\\nwho drag him to the spot the reluctant riveting of his chains and bolts by the sym-\\npathizing Vulcan the graceful pity of the ocean-nymphs who come to condole with\\nhim the threats and expostulations of Mercury, who is sent by Zeus to force from\\nthe fettered god a secret he is withholding the unflinching defiance of Prometheus,\\nand the final opening of the dreadful abyss into which, amid fearful thunders, light-\\nnings, ami gusts of all fierce winds, the rock and its sturdy prisoner drop suddenly\\nand are swallowed up,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 all these are portrayed in this drama with a force, majesty,\\nand passion which in the whole range of literature is scarcely equaled.\\nFrom Prometheus Bovisv.^(Frometheus to Mercury.)\\nLet the locks of the lightning, all bristling and Avhitening,\\nFlash, coiling me round,\\nWhile the ether goes surging neath thunder and scourging\\nOf wild winds unbound\\nLet the blast of the firmament wliirl from its place\\nThe earth rooted below,\\nAnd the brine of the ocean, in rapid emotion.\\nBe it driven in the face\\nOf the stars ui in heaven, as they walk to and fro\\nLet him hurl Tue anon into Tartarus\u00e2\u0080\u0094 on\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nTo tlie blackest degiee,\\nBut he cannot join death to a fate meant for me.\\nMrs. Browning s Translation.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 167\\nSophocles (495^06 b. c), the sweetness and purity of whose style\\ngained for him the title of the Attic Bee, was only twenty-seven\\nyears old when he won the prize away from ^schylus, then ap-\\nproaching sixty, ^schylus had been a gallant soldier Sophocles\\nwas a polished gentleman. Less grand and impetuous, more\\ngraceful and artistic, than his gi*eat competitor, he came like sun-\\nshine after storm. The tragedies with which the elder poet had\\nthrilled the Athenian heart were tinctured with the unearthly\\nmysteries of his Eleusinian home the polished creations of Sopho-\\ncles reflected the gentle charm of his native Colo nus, a beautiful\\nhill -village i near Athens, containing a sacred grove and temple.\\nSophocles improved the style of the Tragic Chorus, and attired\\nhis actors in splendid robes, jeweled chaplets, and embroidered\\ngirdles. Of him, as of ^schylus, we have only seven tragedies\\nremaining, though lie is said to have composed over one hundred.\\nCEdipus the King was selected by Aristotle as the masterpiece of tragedy.\\n(Edipus, so runs the plot, was son of Laius, king of Thebes. An oracle having fore-\\ntold that he should slay his father and marry his mother, Jocasta, the queen,\\nexposes him to die in the forest. A shepherd rescues him. He groAvs up unconscious\\nof his story, and journeys to Thebes. Ou the way he meets an old man, whose chariot\\njostles him. A quarrel ensues, and he slays the gray -haired stranger. Arrived at\\nThebes, he finds the whole city in commotion. A friglitful monster, called the\\nSphinx, has propounded a riddle which no one can solve, and every failure costs a\\nlife. So terrible is tlie crisis that the hand of the widowed queen is offered to any one\\nwho will guess the riddle and so save the state. CEdipus guesses it, and weds Jocasta,\\nLis mother. After many years come fearful pestilences, which the oracle declares\\nshall continue until the murderer of Laius is found and punished. The unconscious\\nCEdipus pushes the search, and is confronted with the revelation of his unhappy\\ndestiny. Jocasta hangs herself in horror; CEdipus tears a golden buckle from lier\\ndress, thrusts its sharj) point into both his eyes, and goes out to roam the earth.\\nIn CEdipus at Colonus the blind old man, attended by his faithful daughter\\nAntig one, has wandered to Colonus, where he sits down to rest within the precincts\\nof the sacred grove. The indignant citizens, discovering who the old man is, command\\nhim to depart from their borders. Meantime war is raging in Thebes between his\\ntwo sons, and an oracle declares that only his bodj will decide success. Everymeans\\nis used to obtain it, but the gods have willed that his sons shall slay each other.\\nCEdipus, always driven by fate, follows tlie Queen of Night, upon whose borders\\nhe has trespassed. The last moment comes a sound of subterranean thunder is\\nheard Ills daughters, wailing and terrified, cling to him in wild embrace a mys-\\nterious voice calls from beneath, CEdipus! King CEdipus! come hither; thou art\\nwanted The earth opens, and the old man disappears forever.\\n1 Here, two years before the fall of Athens (p. H5), he closed his long, prosperous,\\nluxurious life. We can imagine Sophocles in his old age recounting the historic\\nnames and scenes with which he had been so fnmiliar; how he had listened to the\\nthunder of Olympian Pcncles liow he had been startled by the chorus of Furies in\\nthe play of .Eschylus how lie had talked with the garrulous and open-hearted\\nHerodotus; how he liad followed Anaxagoras, the great skeptic, in the cool of the\\nday among a throng of his disciples how lie liad walked with Phidias and supped with\\nAspasia. CoWin\u00c2\u00ab.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "168 GREECE.\\nThe following is from a famous chorus in (Edipus at Colonus, describing the\\nbeauties of the poet s home\\nHere ever and aye, througli tlie greenest vale,\\nGush the wailing notes of the nightingale.\\nFrom her home where the dark-hued ivy weaves\\nWith the grove of the god a night of leaves;\\nAnd the vines blossom out from the lonely glade,\\nAnd the suns of the summer are dim in the shade.\\nAnd the storms of the winter hare never a breeze\\nThat can shiver a leaf from the charmed trees.\\nAnd wandering there forever, the fountains are at play.\\nAnd Cephissus feeds his river from tlieir sweet urns, day by day\\nThe river knows no dearth\\nAdown the vale the lapsing waters glide,\\nAnd the pure rain of that pelucid tide\\nCalls the rife beauty from the heart of earth.\\nBiiliver 8 Translation.\\nEuripides (480-406 B. c), the Scenic Philosopher, was born in\\nSalamis on the day of the great sea-fight.2 Twenty-five years after-\\nward \u00e2\u0080\u0094the year after ^schyhis died his first trilogy was put upon\\nthe stage. Athens had changed in the half-century since the poet\\nof Eleusis came before the pubhc. A new element was steadily\\ngaining ground. Doubts, reasonings, and disbehef s in the marvel-\\nous stories told of the gods were creeping into society. Schools of\\nrhetoric and philosophy were springing up, and already to use\\ndiscourse of reason* was accounted more important than to recite\\nthe Iliad and Odyssey entire. To ^schylus and to most of his\\nhearers the Fates and the Fuiies had been di ead realities, and the\\ngods upon Olympus as undoubted personages as Miltiades or The-\\nmistocles Sophocles, too, serenely accepted all the Homeric deities\\nbut Euripides belonged to the party of advanced thinkers, and\\n1 Fragments of Antiope, one of the lost plays of Euripides, have recently come to\\nlight in a curious manner. At Ciurob, in the Egyptian Fayoom, Prof. Petrie thought\\nhe detected writing on some of the papyrus scraps that were stuck together to form\\ntlie papier-mache mummy-cases. Among these fragments, after they had been care-\\nfully separated, clean.sed, and deciphered, were found portions of Plato s Phaedo, and\\ntliree pages of Antiope. The writing belongs to a period almost contemporary with\\nPlato and Euripides themselves. Thus, in some of these Egyptian miimmy-cases,\\nmade up of old waste paper, may yet be found the very autographs of the great mas-\\nters of Greek literature. If a bit of Euripides has leaped to light, why not some\\nof the lo.st plays of iEschylus and Sophocles, or some songs of Sappho? (For inter-\\nesting account, see Biblia, September, 1891.)\\n2 The three great tragic poets of Athens were singularly connected by the battle\\nof Salamis. .Eschylus, in the heroic vigor of his life, fought there; Euripides,\\nwhose parents had fled from Athens on the approach of the Persians, was bom near\\nthe scene, probably on the battle-day; and Sopliocles, a beautiful boy of fifteen,\\ndanced to the choral song of Simonides, celeb? nti fig the victory.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 169\\nbelieved no more in the gods of the myths and legends than in the\\nprophets and soothsayers of his own time. Discarding the ideal\\nheroes and ht roines of Sophocles, he modeled his characters after\\nreal men and women, endowing them with human passions and\\nalfections.i Of his eighty or ninety plays, seventeen remain.\\nMede a is his most celebrated tragedy. A Colcliiau princess skilled in sorcerj\\nbecomes the wife of Jason, the hero of the Golden Fleece. Being afterward thrust\\naside for a new love, she finds her revenge by sending the bride an enchanted robe\\nand crown, in whicli she is no sooner clothed than they burst into flame and con\\nsunie her. To complete her vengeance, Medea murders lier two young sons,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 so deeply\\nwronged by tlieir father, so tenderly loved by herself,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 and then, after hovering over\\nthe palace long enough to mock and jcvv at the anguish of the frantic Jason, she is\\nwhirled away with the dead botlies of her children in a dragon-borne car, the chariot\\nol her graudsire, the sun.\\nFkom Mevea.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 (Medea to her sons.)\\nWliy gaze you at me with your eyes, my children\\nW^hy smile your last sweet smile Ah me ah me\\nWhat shall I do My heart dissolves within me.\\nFriends, when I see the glad eyes of my sons\\nYet whence this weakness Do I wish to reap\\nThe scorn that springs from enemies uxipunished\\nDie the} must this must be, and since it must,\\nI, I myself will slay them, I who bore them.\\nO my sons\\nGive, give your mother your dear hands to kiss.\\nO dearest hands, and mouths most dear to me.\\nAnd forms and noble faces of my sons\\nO tender touch and sweet breath of my boys\\nSyinonds s Traiulation.\\nComedy. When Anstophanes appeared with the first of his\\nshai-p satires, Euripides had been for a quarter of a century before\\nthe public, and the Pelopomiesian war was near at hand. The new\\npoet whose genius was so full of mockery and mirth was a rich,\\naristocratic Athenian, the natm-al enemy of the ultra-democratic\\nmob-orators of his day, whom he heartily hated and despised. In\\nthe bold and brilliant satires which now electrified all Athens,\\n1 Aristophanes ridiculed his scenic art, denounced his theology, and accused him\\nof corrupting society by the falsehood and deceit shown by his characters. The line\\nin one of his plaj S,\\nThough the tongue swore, the heart remained unsworn,\\ncaused his arrest for seeming to justify perjury. When the people were violent in\\nCensure, Euripides would sometimes appear on the stage and beg them to sit the\\nplay through. On one occasion, when their displeasure was extreme, he tartly ex\\nclaimed, Good people, it is my business to teach j-ou, and not to be taught by you.\\nTradition relates that he was torn to pieces by dogs, set up\u00c2\u00abm him by two lival poets,\\nwhile he was walking in the garden of the Macedonian king, at Pella. The Athenians\\nwere eager to honor him after his death, and erected a statue in the theater where he\\nbad been so often hissed as well as applauded.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "170 GREECE.\\nevery prominent public man was liable to see his personal pecu-\\nliarities paraded on the stage.i The facts and follies of the times\\nwere pictured so vividly, that when Dionysius, the Tyrant of Syra-\\ncuse, wrote to Plato for information as to affah S in Athens, the\\ngreat philosopher sent for answer a copy of The Clouds.\\nAristophanes wrote over fifty plays, of which eleven, in part or\\nall, remain.\\nOf these, The Frogs and the Woman s Festival were direct satires on Eu-\\nripides. The Knights was written, so the author declared, to cut up Cleon tlie\\nTanner into shoe leather. 2 The Clouds ridiculed the new-school philosophers;\\nand The Wasps, the Athenian passion for law-courts.\\nFrom the Clouds.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 (-Scene: Socrates, absorbed in thought, swinging in a basket,\\nsurrounded by his students. Enter Strepsiades, a visitor.)\\nStk. Who hangs dangling in yonder basket?\\nSTUD. HIMSELF. STU. And who s Himself? Stud. Wliy, Socrates.\\nStr. Ho, Socrates! Sweet, darling Socrates\\nSOC. Why callest thou me, poor creature of a day 1\\nSTR. First tell me, pray, what are you doing up there 1\\nSOC. I walk in aii- and contemplate the sun\\nSTR. Oh, that s the way that you despise the gods\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nYou get so near them on your perch there\u00e2\u0080\u0094 eh\\nSOC. I never co.uld have found out things divine.\\nHad I not hung my mind up thus, and mixed\\nMy subtle intellect with its kindred air.\\nHad I regarded such things from below,\\nI had learnt nothing. For the earth absorbs\\nInto itself the moisture of the brain.\\nIt is the same with water-cresses.\\nSTR. Dear me So water-cresses grow by thinking\\nThe so-called Old Comechj, in which individuals were satirized,\\ndied with Aristophanes; and to it succeeded the New Comedy, por-\\ntraying general types of human nature, and dealing with domes-\\ntic life and manners.\\nMenandm- {M2r-2Ql B.C.), founder of this new school, was a\\n1 Even the deities were burlesqued, and the devout Athenians, who denounced\\nEuripides for venturing to doubt the gods and goddesses, were wild in applause when\\nAristophanes dragged them out as absurd cowards, or blustering braggarts, or as\\nBaking peck-loaves and frying stacks of pancakes.\\n2 The masks of the actors in Greek comedy were made to caricature the features\\nof tlie persons represented. Cleon was at this time so powerful that no artist dared\\nto make a mask for his character in the play, nor could any man be found bold\\nenough to act the part. Aristophanes, therefore, took it himself, smearing his face\\nwith wine lees, which he declared well represented the purple and bloated visage of\\nthe demagogue.\\n3 It is said that Socrates, who was burlesqued in this play, was present at its per-\\nformance, wliich he heartily enjoyed and that he even mounted on a bench, that every\\none might see the admirable resemblance between himself and his counterfeit upon\\nthe stage.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION.\\n171\\nwarm friend of Epicurus (p. 177), whose philosophy he adopted.\\nHe admired, as heartily as Aristophanes had disliked, Euripides,\\nand his style was manifestly influenced by that of the tragic poet.\\nHe excelled in delineation of character, and made his dramatic\\npersonages so real, that a century afterward it was written of him,\\nO Life, aud O ISIenander Speak and say\\nWhich copied whicli Or Nature, or the play 1\\nOf his works onlj-- snatches remain, many of which were houseliohl proverbs\\namong tlie Greeks aud Romans. Such were: He is well cleansed that liath his con-\\nscience clean, The workman is greater than his work, and the memorable one\\nquoted by St. Paul, Evil communications corrupt good manners.\\nMkf0\\nTHE GREAT IIISTOIUANS OK GREECE.\\nHistory. Here is another illustrious trio: Herodotus (484-420),\\nThucydides (471-400), and Xenophon (about 445-355). Herodotus,\\nFather of History, we recall as an old friend met in Egyptian\\nstudy (p. 15). Having rank, wealth, and a passion for travel, he\\nroamed over Egypt, Phoenicia, Babylon, Judea, and Persia, study-\\ning their history, geography, and national customs. In Athens^\\nwhere he spent several years, he was the intimate friend of Sopho-\\ncles. His history was di\\\\dded into nine books, named after the nine\\nMuses.i The principal subject is the Greek and Persian war but,\\nby way of episode, sketches of various nations are introduced.\\nHis style is artless, graphic, flowing, rich in description, and inter-\\n1 Lconidas of Tarentum, a favorite writer of epigrams, who lived two hundred\\nyears after H^-rodotus, thus accounted for their names:\\nThe Muses nine came one daj to Herodotus and dined.\\nAnd in return, their host to pa^ left each a book behind.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "172 GREECE.\\nspersed with dialogue. He has been described as having the head\\nof a sage, the heart of a mother, and the simpHcity of a child.\\nThuci/dides is said to have been won to his vocation by hearing\\nthe history of Herodotus read at Olympia, which charmed him to\\ntears. Rich, noble, and educated, he was in the prime of his man-\\nhood, when, at tlie opening of the Peloponnesian war, he received\\ncommand of a squadron. Having failed to arrive with his ships\\nin time to save a certain town from surrender, Cleon caused his\\ndisgrace, and he went into exile to escape a death penalty. Dur-\\ning the next twenty years he prepared his History of the Pelo-\\nponnesian war. His style is terse, noble, and spirited as an\\nhistorian he is accm*ate, philosophic, and impartial. His book,\\nsays Macaulay, is that of a man and a statesman, and in this\\nrespect presents a remarkable contrast to the delightful childish-\\nness of Herodotus.\\nXenopJioii s historical fame rests mostly on his Anabasis, which\\nrelates the expedition of Cyi us and the Retreat of the Ten Thou-\\nsand. He was one of the generals who conducted this memorable\\nretreat, in wliich he displayed great fii mness, coui*age, and military\\nskill. A few years later the Athenians formed their alhance with\\nPersia and Xenophon, who still held command under his friend and\\npatron, the Spartan king Agesilaus, was brought into the position\\nof an enemy to his state. Having been banished from Athens,\\nhis Spartan friends gave him a beautiful country residence near\\nOlympia, where he spent the best years of his long hfe. Next to\\nthe Anabasis ranks his Memorabilia (memoirs) of Socrates,^ his\\nfi iend and teacher. Xenophon was said by the ancients to be the\\niu st man that ever took notes of conversation. The Memo-\\nrabilia is a collection of these notes, in which the character and\\ndoctrines of Socrates are discussed. Xenophon was the author\\nof fifteen works, all of which are extant. His style, simple, clear,\\nracy, refined, and noted for colloquial vigor, is considered the\\nmodel of classical Greek prose.\\nOratory. Eloquence was studied in Greece as an art. Pericles,\\n1 This word means the march up, viz., from the sea to Babylon. A more ap-\\npropriate name would he Katahasis (march down), as most of the hook is occupied\\nwith the details of the return journey.\\n2 There is a story that Xenophon, when a hoy, once met Socrates in a lane.\\nThe philosopher, harriiifr the way with his cane, demanded, Where is food\\nsold? Xenophon having replied, Socrates asked, And where are men made\\ngood and noble? The lad hesitated, whereupon Socrates answered himself by\\nsaying, Follow me, and learn. Xenophon obeyed, and was henceforth his devoted\\ndisciple.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION.\\n173\\nDEM0STHENK8.\\nthough he spoke only upon great occasions, Isoc rates, and ^s\\nchiues were all famed for powers of address, but\\nDemosthenes (385-322 B. c.)\\nwas the unrivaled orator of\\nGreece, if not of the world.\\nAn awkward, sickly, stam-\\nmering boy, by liis deter-\\nmined energy and persever-\\nance he placed himself at\\nthe head of all the mighty\\nmasters of speech unap-\\nproachable forever {Lord\\nBrougham). His first address\\nbefore the public assembly was\\nhissed and derided; but he\\nwas resolved to be an orator,\\nand nothing daunted him. He\\nused every means to overcome\\nhis natural defects, i and at last was rewarded by the palm of\\neloquence. He did not aim at display, but made every sentence\\nsubservient to his argument. We never think of his words,\\nsaid Fenelon Sve think only of the things he says. His oration\\nUpon the Crown 2 is his masterpiece.\\nPhilosophy and Science. The Seven Sages (Appendix),\\nCleobu lus, Chile, Perian der, Pit tacus, Solon, Bias, and Tha les,\\nlived about 600 B. c.^ They were celebrated for their moral,\\nsocial, and political wisdom.\\n1 That he might study without liindrauce, ho .shut himself up for months in a\\nroom under {ground, aud, it is said, copied the History of Thucydides eight times, that\\nlie might bo infused with its concentrated thought and energy. Out on the seashore,\\nwith his mouth filled with pebbles, he exercised his voice until it sounded full and\\nclear above the tumult of the waves; while in the privacj of his own room, before\\na full-length mirror, he disciplined his awkward gestures till he had schooled them\\ninto giace aud aptness.\\n2 It had been proposed that his public services should be rewarded by a golden\\ncrown, the custom being for an orator to wear a crown in token of his inviolability\\nwhile speaking. yE.schines, a fellow-orator, whom ho hud accused of favoring Philip,\\nopposed the measure. The discussion lasted six years. When the two finally appeared\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2before a va^t and excited assembly for the closing argument, the impetuous eloquence\\nof Demostlienes swept everything before it. In after years, though his whole life had\\nproved him a zealous patriot, he was charged with having received bribes from\\nMacedon. Exiled, and under sentence of death, he poisoned himself.\\n3 About this time lived ^sop, who, though born a slave, gained liis fieedom and\\nthe friendship of kings and wise men by his peculiar wit. His fables, long preserved\\nby oral tradition, were the delight of the Athenians, who read in them many a pithy", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "174 GREECE.\\nThales founded a school of thinkers. He taught that all things\\nwere generated from water, into which they would all be ulti-\\nmately resolved.\\nDuring the two following centuries many philosophers\\narose\\nAnaximan der, the scientist, invented a sun-dial, an instrument\\nwhich had long been used in Egypt and Babylonia, and wrote a\\ngeographical treatise, enriched with the first known map.\\nAnaxag oras discovered the cause of eclipses, and the difference\\nbetween the planets and fixed stars. He did not, like his prede-\\ncessors, regard fire, air, or water as the origin of all things, but\\nbelieved in a Supreme Intellect. He was accused of atheism,!\\ntried, and condemned to death, but his friend Pericles succeeded\\nin changing the sentence to exile. Contemporary with him was\\nHippoc rates, the father of physicians, who came from a family of\\npriests devoted to ^sculapius, the god of medicine. He wrote\\nmany works on physiology, and referred diseases to natural causes,\\nand not, as was the popular belief, to the displeasure of the gods.\\nPytliag oras, the greatest of early philosophers, was the first to\\nassert the movement of the earth in the heavens he also made\\nsome important discoveries in geology and mathematics. At his\\nschool in Crotona, Italy, his disciples were initiated with secret\\nrites one of the tests of fitness being the power to keep silence\\nunder every circumstance. He based all creation upon the numer-\\nical rules of harmony, and asserted that the heavenly spheres roll\\nin musical rhythm. Teaching the Egyptian doctrine of transmi-\\ngration, he professed to remember what had happened to himself\\nin a previous existence when he was a Trojan hero. His fol-\\nlowers reverenced him as half divine, and their unquestioning\\nfaith passed into the proverb. Ipse dixit (He has said it).\\nSoc rates (470-399 B. c). During the entire thirty years of the\\nPeloponnesian war a grotesque-featured, ungainly, shabbily\\ndressed, barefooted man might have been seen wandering the\\nstreets of Athens, in all weathers and at all hours, in the crowded\\nmarket place, among the workshops, wherever men were gathered,\\nincessantly asking and answering questions. This was Socrates,\\npublic lesson. His statue, the work of Lysippus (p. 183), was placed opposite to those\\nof the Seven Sages in Athens. Socrates greatly admired ^sop s Fables, and during\\nl)is last days in prison amused liimself hy versifying them.\\n1 The Greeks wei e especially angry because Auaxagoras taught that the sun is\\nnot a god. It is a curious fact that they condemned to death as an atheist the first\\nman among them who advanced the idea of One Supreme Deity.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 175\\na self -taught philosopher, who believed that he had a special mis-\\nsiou from the gods, and was attended by a divine voice which\\ncounseled and directed him. The questions he discussed pertained\\nto hfe and morality, and were especially pointed against Sophists,\\nwho were the skeptics and quibblers of the day.i His earnest elo-\\nquence attracted all classes, and among his friends were Alci-\\nbiades, Euripides, and Aristophanes. A man who, by his irony\\nand argument, was continually driving men to their wits end,\\nnaturally made enemies. One morning there appeared in the\\nportico where such notices were usually displayed the following\\nindictment Socrates is guilty of crime first, for not worshiping\\nthe gods whom the city worships, but introducing new divinities\\nof his own secondly, for corrupting the youth. The penalty due\\nis death. Having been tried and convicted, he was sentenced to\\ndrink a cup of the poison-hemlock, which he took in his prison\\nchamber, surrounded by friends, with whom he cheerfully con-\\nversed till the last. Socrates taught the unity of God, the immor-\\ntality of the soul, the beauty and necessity of virtue, and the moral\\nresponsibility of man. He was a devout believer in oracles, which\\nhe often consulted. He left no writings, but his philosophy has\\nbeen preserved by his faithful followers, Xenophon and Plato.\\nThe Four Great Schools of Philosophy (-ith century B.C.).\\n1. The Academic school was founded by that devoted disciple\\nof Socrates, Plato (429-347), who delivered his lectures in the\\nAcademic Gardens. Plato is perhaps best known from his argu-\\n1 Their belief that what I iliiuk is true is true; what seems right is right,\\ncolored state policy and individual action in the Peloponnesiau wai-, and was respon-\\nsible for much of its cruelty and baseness. The skeptic Pyrrho used to sa} It may\\nbe so, perhaps I assert nothing, not even that I assert. Socrates taught his pupils\\nby a series of logical questions which stimulated thought, cleared i\u00c2\u00bberception, and\\ncreated in the learner a real hunger for knowledge. The Socratic Method of teach-\\ning is still in use. When addressed to braggarts and pretenders, the apparently\\ninnocent Questions of Socrates were a terror and a confusion.\\n2 Gradually the crowd gathered round him. At first he spoke of the tanners, and\\nthe smiths, and the drovers, wlio were plying their trades about him and they shouted\\nWilli laughter as he poured forth his homely jokes. But soon the magic charm of his\\nvoice made itself felt. The peculiar sweetness of its tone had an effect which even\\nthe thunder of Pericles failed to produce. The laughter ceased\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the crowd thick-\\nened\u00e2\u0080\u0094the gay youth, whom nothing else could tame, stood transfixed an(^ awe-\\nstruck \u00e2\u0080\u0094the head swam\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the heart leaped at the sound\u00e2\u0080\u0094 tears rushed from\\ntheir eyes, and they felt that, unless they tore themselves awaj from that fascinated\\ncircle, they should sit down at his feet and grow old in listening to the marvelous\\nmusic of this second Marsyas.\\n3 The Greeks had no family or clan names, a single appellation serving for an\\nindividual. To save confusion the father s name was frequently added. Attic wit\\nB. G. H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 11.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "176 GREECE.\\nments in regard to the immortality of the soul. He believed in one\\neternal God, without whose aid no man can attain wisdom or vir-\\ntue, and in a previous as well as a future existence. All earthly-\\nknowledge, he averred, is but the recollection of ideas gained by\\nthe soul in its former disembodied state, and as the body is only\\na hindrance to perfect communion with the eternal essences,\\nit follows that death is to be desired rather than feared. His\\nworks are written in dialogue, Socrates being represented as the\\nprincipal speaker. The abstruse topics of which he treats are en-\\nlivened by wit, fancy, humor, and picturesque illustration. His\\nstyle was considered so perfect that an ancient writer exclaimed,\\nIf Jupiter had spoken Greek, he would have spoken it hke\\nPlato. The fashionables of Athens thronged to the Academic\\nGardens to hsten to the sweet speech of the master, melodious as\\nthe song of the cicadas in the trees above his head. Even the\\nAthenian women shut out by custom from the intellectual\\ngroves shared in the universal eagerness, and, disguised in male\\nattire, stole in to hear the famous Plato.\\n2. The Peripatetic school was founded by Aristotle (384-322),\\nwho delivered his lectures while walking up and down the shady\\nporches of the Lyceum, surrounded by his pupils (hence called\\nPeripatetics, ivalkers). An enthusiastic student under Plato, he\\nremained at the academy until his master s death. A few years\\nafterward he accepted the invitation of Philip of Macedon to be-\\ncome instructor to the young Alexander. Returning to Athens in\\n335 B. c, he brought the magnificent scientific collections given him\\nby his royal patron, and opened his school in the Lyceum Gym-\\nnasium. Suspected of partisanship with Macedon, and accused of\\nimpiety, to avoid the fate of Socrates he fled to Euboea, where he\\ndied. Aristotle, more than any other philosopher, originated ideas\\nwhose influence is still felt. The Father of Logic, the princi-\\nples he laid down in this study have never been superseded. His\\nbooks include works on metaphysics, psychology, zoology, ethics,\\npolitics, and rhetoric. His style is intricate and abstruse. He\\ndiffered much from Plato, and, though he recognized an inflnite,\\nimmaterial God, doubted the existence of a future life.\\nsuppliod abundaut nicknames, suggested by some personal peculiarities or cir-\\ncumstance. Thus this philosopher, whose real name was Aris tocles, was called\\nPlato because of his broad brow. He was descended on his father s side from\\nCodrus, the last hero-king of Attica, and on his niotlier s from Solon; but his ad-\\nmirers made him a son of the god Apollo, and told how in his infancy the bees had\\nsettled on his lips as a prophecy of the honeyed words which were to fall from them.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 177\\n3. The Epicure ans were the followers of Epicurus (340-270),\\nwho tiiught tliat the chief end of life is enjoyment. Himself strict-\\nly moral, he lauded virtue as a road to happiness, but his fol-\\nlowers so perverted this that ^Epicurean became a synonym for\\nloose and luxurious living. The Cynics {kunikos, dog-like) went\\nto the other extreme, and, despising pleasure, gloried in pain and\\nprivation. They scoffed at social courtesies and family ties. The\\nsect was founded by Antisthenes, a disciple of Socrates, but its\\nchief exponent was Diogenes, who, it is said, ate and slept in a tub\\nwhich he carried about on his head.i\\n4. The Stoics were headed by Zeno (355-260), and took their\\nname from the painted portico {stoa) under which he taught. Pain\\nand pleasure were equally despised by them, and indifference to all\\nexternal conditions was considered the highest virtue. For his\\nexample of integrity, Zeno was decreed a golden chaplet and a\\npublic tomb in the Ceramicus.\\nGrecian philosophy culminated in Neo-Platonism, a mixture of\\nPaganism, mysticism, and Hebrew ethics, which exalted revela-\\ntions and miracles, and gave to reason a subordinate place. In\\nAlexandria it had a fierce struggle with Christianity, and died\\nwith its last gi eat teacher, the beautiful and gifted Hypatia, who\\nwas killed by a mob.\\nLater Greek Writers.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Plutarch (50-120 a.d.) was the great-\\nest of ancient biographers. His Parallel Lives of Greeks and\\nRomans still dehghts hosts of readers by its admirable portrait-\\nure of celebrated men. Lucian (120-200 a.d.), in witty dialogues,\\nridiculed the absurdities of Greek mythology and the foUies of\\nfalse philosophers. His Sale of the Philosophers humorously\\npictures the founders of the different schools as auctioned off by\\nMercury.\\nLibraries and Writing Materials. Few collections of books\\nwere made before the Peloponnesian war, but in later times it be-\\ncame fashionable to have private libraries,^ and after the days of\\n1 He was noted for his caustic -wit and rude manners. Tradition says that Alex-\\nander the Great once visited him as he was seated in liis tub, basking in the sun. I\\nam Alexander, aid the monarch, a.stonished at the iudifforence witli which he was\\nreceived. And I am Diogenes, returned the cynic. Have you no favor to ask of\\nmef inquired the king. Yes, growled Diogenes, to get out of my sunlight. He\\nwas vain of his disregard for social decencies. At a sumptuous banquet given by\\nPlato he entered uninvited, and, rubbing his soiled feet on the rich carpets, cried out,\\nThus T trample (tn your pride, O Plato! The polite host, who knew his visitor s\\nweakness, aptly retorted, But with still greater pride, O Diogenes\\n2 Aristotle had an immense library, which was sold after his death. Large", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "178\\nGREECE.\\nthe tragic poets Athens not only abounded in book-stalls, but a\\nplace in the Agora was formally assigned to book-auctioneering.\\nManuscript copies were rapidly multiplied by means of slave\\nlabor, and became a regular article of export to the colonies.\\nThe Egyptian papyrus, and afterward the fine but expensive\\nparchment, were used in copying books; the papyrus was writ-\\nten on only one side, the parchment on both sides.\\nThe reed pen was used as in Egypt,\\nand double inkstands for black and\\nred ink were invented, having a ring-\\nby which to fasten them to the girdle\\nof the writer. Waxed tablets were\\nemployed for letters, note-books, and\\nother requirements of daily life. These\\nwere written upon with a metal or\\nivory pencil (sti/lus), pointed at one\\nend and broadly flattened at the\\nother, so that in case of mistake the\\nwriting could be smoothed out and\\nthe tablet made as good as new. A\\nlarge burnisher was sometimes used\\nfor the latter purpose. Several tab-\\nlets joined together formed a book.\\nEducation. A Greek father held the lives of his young children\\nat his will, and the casting-out of infants to the chances of fate\\nwas authorized by law throughout Greece, except at Thebes. Girls\\nwere especially subject to this unnatural treatment. If a child\\nwere rescued, it became the property of its finder.\\nThe A thenian Boy of good family was sent to school when seven\\nyears old, the school-hours being from sunrise to sunset. Until he\\nwas sixteen he was attended in his walks by a pedagogue, usually\\nA GREEK TABLET.\\ncollections of books have beeu fomid in the remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum.\\nSome of these volumes, although nearly reduceil to coal, have by great care been\\nunrolled, and have been published.\\n1 The width of the manuscript (varying from six to fourteen inches) formed the\\nlength of the page, the size of the roll depending upon the number of pages in a\\nbook. When finished, the roll was coiled around a stick, and a ticket containing the\\ntitle was appended to it. Documents were scaled by tying a string aiound them and\\naffixing to the knot a bit of clay or wax, which was afterward stamped with a seal.\\nIn libraries the books were arranged in pigeon-holes or on shelves with the ends cut-\\nward sometimes several scrolls were put together in a cylindrical box with a cover.\\nThe reader unrolled the scioll as lie advanced, rolling up the completed pages with\\nhis other hand (see illustration, p. 279).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION,\\n179\\nsome trusty, intelligent slave, too old for hard work, who\\nnever entered the study room, no visitors, except near relatives\\nof the master, being allowed therein on penalty of death. The boy\\nwas first taught grammar, arithmetic, and writing. His chief books\\nwere Hesiod and Homer, which he committed to memory. The\\nmoral lessons they contained were made prominent, for, says Plato,\\nGreek parents are more careful about the manner\\nand habits of the youth than about his letters and\\nmusic. Discipline was enforced with the rod. All\\nthe great lyric poems were set to music, which was\\nuniversally taught. Rhythms and harmonies,\\nagain says Plato, are made famihar to the souls\\nof the young, that they may become more gentle,\\nand better men in speech and action. Symmet-\\nrical muscular development was considered so im-\\nportant that the young Athenian between sixteen\\nand eighteen years of age spent most of his time\\nin gymnastic exercises. During this period of pro-\\nbation the youth s behavior was carefully noted by\\nhis elders. At eighteen he was ceremoniously\\nenrolled in the list of citizens. Two years were\\nnow given to pubhc service, after which he was\\nfree to follow his own inclinations. If he were\\nscholarly disposed, and had money and leisure, i\\nhe might spend his whole life in learning.\\nThe little an Athenian girl was required to know was learned\\nfrom her mother and nurses at home.\\nThe Spartan Lad of seven years was placed under the control of\\nthe state. Henceforth he ate his coarse hard bread and black broth\\nat the public table, 2 and slept in the public dormitory. Here he\\nA GRECIAN YOUTH.\\n1 Our word school is derived from the Greek word for leisure. The education\\nof the Greeks was obtained not so mucli from books as from tlie philosopliical lec-\\ntures, the public assembly, the theater, aud the law courts, wliere much of their time\\nwas spent (p. 159).\\n2 Tlie public mess was so compulsor} that when, on his return from vanquishing\\ntlie Atlieuians, King Agis ventured to send for his commons, that he might take his\\nfirst meal at home with his wife, he was refused. The princijial dish at the mess-\\ntable was a black brotli, made from a traditional recipe. WMne mixed with water\\nwas drunk, but toasts were never given, for the Spartans thought it a sin to use\\ntwo words when one would do. Intoxication and the S3 mposium (p. 199) were\\nforbidden by law. Fat men were regaided with suspicion. Small boys sat on low\\nstools near their fathers at meals, and were given half rations, which they ate in\\nsilence.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "180\\nGREECE\\nwas taught to disdain all home affections as a weakness, and to\\nthink of himself as belonging only to Sparta. He was brought up\\nto despise not only softness and luxury, but hunger, thirst, torture,\\nand death. Always kept on small rations of food, he was some-\\ntimes allowed only what he could steal. If he escaped detection,\\nhis adi oitness was applauded; if he were caught in the act, he\\nwas severely flogged; but though he were whipped to death, he\\nmust neither wince nor groan.i\\nEAST ENU UF TUli rAKTllENON (AS KESTOKEU bV FEUGUtSON).\\nMonuments and Art.-The three styles of Grecian architecture\\n-Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian-are distinguished by the shape of\\ntheir columns (see cut, p. 182). w Am +v.a\\nThe Doric was originally borrowed from Egypt (p. 40), the\\nParthenon at Athens, and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia were\\namong its most celebrated examples. The Parthenon or House\\nof the Maiden, situated on the Acropolis, was sacred to Pallas\\ndesperate fox reached bis heart, and he dropped dead-but a beio", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 181\\nAthena, the patron goddess of Attica. It was built throughout\\nof fine marble from the quarry of Mount l*entelicus, near Athens,\\nits glistening whiteness being here and there subdued by colors\\nand gilding. The magnificent sculptures which adorned it were\\ndesigned by Phidias,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 that inimitable artist whom Pliny desig-\\nnates as before all, Phidias, the Athenian. The statue of the\\nvii gin goddess, within the temple, was forty feet high her\\nface, neck, arms, hands, and feet were ivory; her drapery was\\npure gold.2 The temple at Olympia was built of porous stone,\\nthe roof being tiled with Pentelic marble. It stood on the banks\\nof the Alpheus, in a sacred grove (Altis) of plane and olive trees.\\nNot io have seen the Olympian statue of Zeus, by Phidias, was\\nconsidered a calamity.\\nThe most celebrated loyiic temple was that of Artemis (Diana)\\nat Ephesus, which was three times destroyed by fii e, and as often\\nrebuilt with increased magnificence.\\nCorinthian architecture was not generally used in Greece before\\nthe age of Alexander the Great. The most beautiful example is\\nthe Choragic Monument of Lysicrates (pp. 188, 194), in Athens.\\n1 These sculptures, illustrating events in the mythical life of the goddess, are\\namong the finest in existence. Some of them were sent to England by Lord Elgin\\nwhen he was Britisli ambassador to Turkey, and are now in the British Museum,\\nwhere, with various other sculptures from the Athenian Acropolis, all more or less\\nmutilated, they are known as the Elgin Marbles.\\n2 Tlie Greeks accused Phidias of liaving purloined some of the gold provided him\\nfor this purpose; but as, by the advice of his shrewd friend Pericles, he had so at-\\ntached the metal that it could be removed, he was able to disprove tlie charge. He\\nwas afterward accused of impiety for having placed the portraits of Pericles and him-\\nself in the group upon Athena s shield. He died in prison.\\n3 Tlie statue, sixty feet high, was seated on an elaborately sculptured throne of\\ncedar, inlaid with gold, ivory, ebony, and precious stones like the statue of Athena\\nin the Parthenon, the face, feet, and body were of ivory; the eyes were brilliant\\nJewels, and the hair and beard pure gold. Tlie drapery was beaten gold, enameled\\nwith tlowers. One hand grasped a scepter composed of precious metals, and sur-\\nmounted by an eagle; in the other, like Athena, he held a golden statue of Nike (the\\nwinged goddess of victory). The statue was so high in proportion to the building,\\nthat tlie Greeks used to say, If the god shouhl rise, he would burst open the roof.\\nThe effect of its size, as Phidias had calculated, was to impress the beliolder with\\nthe pent-up majestj-- of the greatest of gods. A copy (tf the head of this statue is\\nin the Vatican. Tlie statue itself, removed by Tlieodosius I. to Constantinople, was\\nlost in the disastrous th-e (A. D. -IT.j) which destroyed the Library in tliat city. At\\nthe same time perished tlie Venus of C liidus, by Praxiteles (p. 183), which the an-\\ncients ranked next to the Pliidiau Zeus and Athena.\\nTlie invention of the Corinthian capital is ascribed to Callimachus, who, seeing\\na small basket covered with a tile placed in the center of an acanthus plant which\\ngrew on the grave of a young lady of Corinth, was so struck witli its beauty that he\\nexecuted a capital in imitation of it.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Wrftfropp s Handbook o/ Architecture.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "182\\nGREECE.\\nThe Propyla?a, or entrance to the Athenian Acropolis, was a\\nmagnificent structure, which opened upon a group of temples,\\naltars, and statues of surpassing beauty. All the splendor of\\nGrecian art was concentrated on the state edifices, private archi-\\ntectural display being forbidden by law. After the Macedonian\\nconquest, dwellings grew luxurious, and Demosthenes rebukes\\ncertain citizens for living in houses finer than the public buildings.\\nCoiiiithian.\\nTHREE ORDERS OK GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE.\\n(1, shaft; 2, capital; 3, architrave; 4, frieze; 5, cornice. TTie entire part above the\\ncapital is the entablature. At the bottom of tJce shaft is the base, tohich rests npvn\\nthe pedestal.)\\nThe Athenian Agora (market place), the fashionable morning\\nresort, was surrounded with porticoes, one of which was decorated\\nwith paintings of glorious Grecian achievements. Within the\\ninclosure were grouped temples, altars, and statues.\\nNot one ancient Greek edifice remains in a perfect state.\\nPaintings were usually on wood j wall-j)ainting was a separate\\nand inferior art. The most noted painters were Apollodorus of\\nAthens, sometimes called the Greek Rembrandt Zeiixis and Par-\\nrhasius, who contended for the prize\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Parrhasius producing a\\npicture representing a curtain, which liis rival himself mistook for\\na real hanging, and Zeuxis offering a picture of grapes, which de-\\nceived even the birds Apelles, the most renowned of all Greek\\nartists, who painted with four colors, blended with a varnish", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 183\\nof his own invention his friend Protogenes, the careful painter,\\nsculptor, and writer on art; Niciaft, who, liaving refused a sum\\nequal to seventy thousand dollars from Ptolemy I. for his master-\\npiece, bequeathed it to Athens; and Pausias, who excelled in\\nwall-painting, and in delineating children, animals, flowers, and\\narabesques. The Greeks tinted the background and bas-reliefs\\nof their sculptures, and even painted their inimitable statues,\\ngilding the hair, and inserting glass or silver eyes.\\nIn marble and bronze statuary, and in graceful vase-jjainting,\\nthe Greeks have never been surpassed. All the arts and orna-\\nmentation which we have seen in use among the previous nations\\nwere greatly improved upon by the Greeks, who added to other\\nexcellences an exquisite sense of beauty and a power of ideal ex-\\npression peculiar to themselves. Besides Piddias, whose statues\\nwere distinguished for grandeur and sublimity, eminent among\\nsculptors were Praxiteles, who excelled in tender grace and finish\\nScopas, who delighted in marble allegory and Lysippiis, a worker\\nin bronze, and the master of portraiture.\\n3. THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\nReligion and Mythology.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Nothing marks more strongly the\\npoetic iuiagiiiatioii of the Greeks than the character of their rehgious\\nworship. They learned their creed in a poem, and told it in marble\\nscnlpture. To them nature overflowed with deities. Every grove\\nhad its presiding genius, every stream and fountain its protecting\\nnymph. Earth and air were filled with invisible spirits, and the sky\\nwas crowded with translated heroes,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 their own half-divine ancestors.\\nTheir gods were intense personalities, endowed with Inuiiau passions\\nand instincts, and bound by domestic relations. Sncli deities ai)pealed\\nto the hearts of their worshipers, and the Greeks loved their favorite\\ngods with the same fervor bestowed upon tlieir earthly friends. On the\\nsummit of Mount Olympus, in Thessaly, beyond impenetrable mists,\\naccording to their mythology, the twelve 2 great gods lield council.\\n1 Tlie luasterpieces of Praxiteles were an nudraped Venus sold to tlie people\\nof Ciiulus, and a satjT or faun, of which the best antique cop3 is preserved m the\\nCapitoliiie Miiseuni, Rome. Tliis statue suggested Hawthorne s chainiing romance,\\nTlie Maible Kaiin. The celebrated Niobe (Jroiip in the Uflizi Gallery, Florence, is the\\nwork of either Praxiteles or Scojjas. The latter was one of the artists employed on\\nthe Mausolemn at llalicarnassus (Appendix). Lysippus and A pelles were favorites\\nof Alexander the Great, who would allow only them to carve or paint his image.\\n2 They were called the Twelve Gods, but the lists vary, increasing the actual\\nnumber. Roman mythology was founded on Greek, and, as the Latin names are now\\nin general use, they have been interpolated to assist the pupil s association.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "184 GREECE.\\nZeus (Jove or Jnpiter) was supreme. He ruled with the thunderbolts, and was\\nking over gods and men. His symbols were the eagle and the lightning, both asso-\\nciated witli great height. His two brothers,\\nPoseidon (Neptuue) and Hades (Pluto) held sway respectively over tlie sea and the\\ndeptlis under ground. As god of the sea, Poseidon had tlie dolphin for his sj uibol\\nas god over rivers, lakes, and springs, his symbols were the trident and the horse.\\nHades had a helmet which conferred invisibility upon the wearer. It was in much\\ndemand among the gods, and was his symbol. The shades of Hades, wherein the\\ndead were received, were guarded by a three-headed dog, Cerberus.\\nHera (Juno), the haughty wife of Zeus, was Queen of the Skies. Her jealousy\\nwas tlio source of much discord in celestial circles. The stars were her ej es. Her\\nsymbols were the cuckoo and the peacock.\\nDenieter (Ceres) was the bestower of bountiful harvests. Her worship was con-\\nnected with the peculiarly sacred Eleusinian mysteries, whose secret rites have never\\nbeen di.sclosed. Some tliink that ideas of the unity of God and the immortality of\\nthe soul were kept alive and handed down by them. Demeter s symbols were ears\\nof corn, tlie pomegranate, and a car drawn bj^ winged serpents.\\nHestia (Vesta) was goddess of the domestic hearth. At her altar in every house\\nwere celebrated all important family events, even to the purchase of a new slave,\\nor the undertaking of a short journey. The famil}^ slaves joined in this domestic\\nworship, and Hestia s altar was an asylum whither tliey might flee to escape punish-\\nment, aud where the stranger, even an enemy, could find protection. She was the\\npersonification of purity, and her symbol was an altar-flame.\\nHephcestns (Vulcan) was the god of volcanic fires and skilled metal- work. Being\\nlame and deformed, liis parents, Zeus and Hera, threw him out of 01ymi)us, but his\\ngenius finally brouglit about a reconciliation. Mount Etna was his forge, wlience\\nPrometheus stole tlie sacred fire to give to man. His brotlier,\\nAres (Mars) was god of war. His symbols were the dog aud tlie vulture.\\nAthena (Minerva) sprang full-armed from the imperial head of Zeus. She was the\\ngoddess of wisdom and of celestial wars, and the especial defender of citadels.\\nAthena and Poseidon contested on the Athenian Acropolis for the supremacy over\\nAttica. The one who gave the greatest boon to man was to win. Poseidon with his\\ntrident brouglit foith a spring of water from the barren rock but Athena produced\\nan olive-tree, and was declared victor. As a war-goddess she was called Pallas\\nAthene. Her s.vmbol Avas the owl.\\nAphrodite (Venus) was goddess of love and beauty. She arose from the foam of\\nthe sea. In a contest of personal beauty between Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite,\\nParis decided for Aphrodite. She is often represented with a golden apple in her\\nhand, the prize offered by Eris (strife), who originated the dispute. Her symbol was\\nthe dove.\\nApollon (Apollo), the ideal of manly beauty, was the god of poetry and song. Ho\\nled the Muses, and In this character his symbol Avas a lyre as god of the fierce rays\\nof the sun, which was his chariot, his symbol was a bow with ariows.\\nArtemis (Diana), twin-sister to Apollo, was goddess of the chase, and protector\\nof the water-nymphs. All young girls were under her care. The moon was her\\nchariot, and her symbol was a deer, or a bow with arrows.\\nHermes (Mercury) was the god of cunning and eloquence. In tlie former capacity\\nhe was associated with mists, and accused of thieving. The winged-footed messen-\\nger of the gods, he was also the guide of souls to the realms of Hades, and of lieroes\\nin difficult expeditions. As god of persuasive speech and success in trade he was\\npopular in Athens, where he was worshiped at the street-crossings. i His symbol\\nwas a cock or a ram.\\n1 The Hermes placed at street-corners was a stone jiillar, surmounted by a\\nhuman head (p. 143).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\n185\\nDionysus (Bapclius), god of wiiio, witli lii8 wife Ariadiif, ruled the fruit season.\\nJlebe was a cup-beaier iu Olj iiipn.s.\\nThere was a host of luiuor deities and personifications, often appearing in a\\ngroup of three, sucli as the Three (J races,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 beautiful women, who represented the\\nbrightness, color, and perfume of summer; the Three Fates,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 stern sisters, upon\\nwhose spindle was spun the thread of every human life; the Three Uesperides,\\ndaughters of Atlas (upon whose shoulders the sky rested), in whose western garden\\ngolden apples grew the Three Harpies,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 mischievous meddlers, who jiersonated the\\neffects of violent winds; Three Gorgons, -whose terrible faces turned to stone all who\\nbeheld them and Three Furies, whose mission was to pursue criminals.\\nThere were nine Muses, daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne (Memory), who dwelt\\non Mount Parnassus, and held all gifts of inspiration: Clio presided over histoiy;\\nMelpomene, tragedy Thalia, comedy Calliope, epic poetry; Urania, astronomy\\nEuterpe, music Polyhymnia, song and oratory; Erato, love-songs; and Terpsichore,\\ndancing.\\nFKESENTl.NG OFFERINGS AT I ilE TEMl LE OF DELFHl.\\nDivination of all kinds was universal. Upon signs, dreams, and\\nportents depended all the weighty decisions of life. Birds, especially\\ncrows and ravens, were watched as direct messengers from the gods,\\nand so much meaning was attached to their voices, habits, manner of\\nflight, and mode of alighting, that even in Homer s time the word bird\\nwas synonymous with omen. The omens obtained by sacrifices were\\nstill more anxiously regarded. Upon the motions of the flame, the\\nappearance of the ashes, and, above all, the shape and aspect of the\\nvictim s liver, hung such momentous human interests, that, as at\\nPlataea, a great army was sometimes kept waiting for days till success\\nshould be assured through a sacrificial calf or chicken.\\nOracles. The temples of Zvus at Ihxhnui (Epirus), and of Apollo at\\nDelphi (Phocis), were the oldest and most venerated prophetic shrines.\\nAt Dodoua three priestesses presided, to whom the gods spoke in the", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "18G GREECE.\\nrustling leaves of a sacred oak, and the murmurs of a holy rill. But\\nthe favorite oracular god was Apollo, who, besides the Pythian temple\\nat Delphi, had shrines in various parts of the land.i The Greeks had\\nimplicit faith in the Oracles, and consulted them for every important\\nundertaking.\\nPriests and Priestesses shared in the reverence paid to the gods.\\nTheir temple duties were mainly prayer and sacrifice. They occu-\\npied the place of honor in the public festivities, and were supported\\nby the temple revenues.\\nGrecian religion included in its observances nearly the whole range\\nof social pleasures. Worship consisted of songs and dances, proces-\\nsions, libations, festivals, dramatic and athletic contests, and various\\nsacrifices and purifications. The people generally were content with\\ntheir gods and time-honored mythology, and left all difficult moral and\\nreligious problems to be settled by the philosophers and the serious-\\nminded minority who followed them.\\nReJigioas Games and Festivals. The OJyntj)lan Gaines were held\\nonce in four years in honor of Zeus, at Olymjiia. Here the Greeks\\ngathered from all parts of the country, protected by a safe transit\\nthrough hostile Hellenic states. The commencement of the Festival\\nmonth having been formally announced by heralds sent to every state,\\na solemn truce suppressed all quarrels imtil its close. The competitive\\nexercises consisted of running, leaping, wrestling, boxing, and chariot-\\nracing. The prize was a wreath from the sacred olive-tree in Olympia.\\nThe celebration, at first confined to one day, came in time to last\\nfive days. Booths were scattered about the Altis (p. 181), where a gay\\ntraffic was carried on while in the spacious council-room the ardent\\nGreeks crowded to hear the newest works of poets, philosophers, and\\nhistorians. All this excitement and enthusiasm were heightened by\\nthe belief that the pleasure enjoyed was an act of true religious worship.\\nThe Pytliian Games, sacred to Apollo, occurred near Delj hi, in the\\nthird year of each Olympiad, and in national dignity ranked next to\\nthe Olympic. The prize-wreath was laurel. The Nemean and the\\nIsthmian Games, sacred respectively to Zeus and Poseidon, were held\\nonce in two years, and, like the Pythian, had prizes for music and\\npoetry, as well as gymnastics, chariots, and horses. The Nemean\\n1 A volcanic site, having a fissure throngli wlncli gas escaped, was usually\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2elected. The Delphian priestess, having spent three days in fasting and bathing,\\nseated lierself on a tripod over the chasm, where, under the real or imaginary effect\\nof the vapors, she uttered her prophecies. Her ravings were recorded by the attend-\\ning prophet, and afterward turned into hexameter verse by poets hired for the pur-\\npose. The shrewd priests, tlirough their secret agents, kept well posted on all matters\\nlikely to be urged, and when tlieir knowledge failed, as in predi tions for the future,\\nmade the responses so ambiguous or unintelligible tliat they would seem to be verified\\nby any result.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 187\\ncrown was of parsley, the Isthmian of pine. Sparta took interest\\nonly in the Olympic games, with which she had been connected from\\ntheir beginning, and which, it is curious to note, were the only ones\\nliaving no intellectual competition. Otherwise, Sparta had her own\\nfestivals, from which strangers were excluded.\\nThe Pavathence al which took place once in four years at Athens,\\nin honor of the i atron goddess, consisted of similar exercises, ternn-\\nnating in a grand procession in which the whole Athenian population\\ntook part. Citizens in full military equipment; the victorious con-\\ntestants with splendid chariots and horses; priests and attendants\\nleading the sacrificial victims dignified elders bearing olive-boughs;\\nyoung men with valuable, artistic jilate and maidens, the purest\\nand most beautiful in Athens, with baskets of holy utensils on their\\nheads, all contributed to the magnificent display. Matrons from the\\nneighboring tribes carried oak-branches, while their daughters bore\\nthe chairs and sunshades of the Athenian maidens. In the center of\\nthe procession was a sliip resting on wheels, having for a sail a richly\\nembroidered mantle or })cplof portraying the victories of Zeus and\\nAthena, wrought and woven by Attic maidens. The procession, having\\ngone through all the principal streets round to the Acropolis, marched\\nup through its magnificent Propyla?a, past the majestic Parthenon, and\\nat last reached the Erechtheion, or Temple of Athena Polias (p. 194).\\nHere all arms were laid aside, and, amid the blaze of burnt-oti erings\\nand the ringing paeans of praise, the votive gifts were placed in the\\nsanctuary of the goddess.\\nTlie Feast of Dionysus was celebrated twice during the spring\\nseason, the chief festival continuing for eight days. At this time\\nthose tragedies and comedies which had been selected by the archon\\nto whom all jdays were first submitted were brought out in the\\nDionysiac Theater 2 at Athens, in competition for prizes.\\n1 The Pauatheiiaic Proccssiou formed the subject of tlie sculpture on the frieze\\naround the Parthenon celhi, in which stood the goddess sculpture*! by Phidias. Most\\nof this frieze, much mutilated, is with the Elgin Marbles.\\n2 This theater was built on the sloping side of the Acropolis, and consisted of a\\nvast number of semicircular rows of seats cut out of the solid rock, accommodating\\nthirty thousand persons. The front row, composed of white marble aini-chairs,\\nwas occupied by the priests, the judges, and the archous, each chair being\\nengraved with tlie name of its occupant. Between the audience and the stage was\\nthe orchestra or place for the chorus, in the center of which stood the altar of\\nDionysus. Movable stairs led from the orchestra up to the stage, as the course of\\nthe drama frequently required the conjunction of the chorus witli the actors. The\\nstage itself extejided the whole widtli of tlie theater, but was quite narrow, excejit\\nat the center, where the representation took place. It was supported bj a white\\nmarble wall, handsomely carved. There was a variety of machinery for change of\\nscenes and for producing startling effects, sucli as the rolling of thunder, the descent\\nof gods from heaven, the rising of ghosts and demons from below, etc. The theater", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "188 GREECE.\\nEach tribe fnraishecl a chorus of dancers and musicians, and chose\\na choragus, whose business was not only to superintend the training\\nand costumes of the performers, but also to bear all the expense of\\nbringing out the play assigned to him. The office was one of high\\ndignity, and immense sums were spent by the choragi in their efforts\\nto eclipse each other; the one adjudged to have given the best enter-\\ntainment received a tripod, which was formally consecrated in the\\ntemples, and placed upon its own properly inscribed monument in the\\nStreet of Tripods, near the theater.\\nThe Actors, to increase their size and enable them the better to per-\\nsonate the gods and heroes of Greek tragedy, wore high-soled shoes,\\npadded garments, and great masks which completely enveloped their\\nheads, leaving only small apertures for the mouth aiul eyes. As their\\nstilts and stage-attire impeded any free movements, their acting con-\\nsisted of little moi e than a series of tableaux and recitations, while\\nthe stately musical apostrophes and narrations of the chorus filled\\nup the gaps and supplied those parts of the story not acted on the\\nstage. 1\\nTlie Performance began early in the morning, and lasted all day,\\neating and drinking being allowed in the theater. The price of seats\\nvaried according to location, but the poorer classes were supplied free\\ntickets by the government, so that no one was shut out by poverty\\nfrom enjoying this peculiar worship. 2 Each play generally occupied\\nfrom one and a half to two hours. The audience was exceedingly\\ndemonstrative; an unpopular actor could not deceive himself; his\\nvoice was drowned in an uproar of whistling, clucking, and hissing,\\nwas open to the sky, but had an awning which might be drawn to sluit out the direct\\nrays of the sun, while little jets of perfumed water cooled and refreshed the air. To\\naid the vast assembly in hearing, brazen bell shaped vases were placed in differeui\\nparts of the theater.\\n1 In comedy, the actors themselves often took the audience into their confidence,\\nexplaining the situation to them somewhat after the manner of some modern comic\\noperas.\\n2 Tragedy, which dealt with the national gods and heroes, was to the Greeks a\\ntrue religious exercise, strengthening their faith, and quickening their sympathies\\nfor the woes of their beloved and fate-driven deities. When, as in rare instances,\\na subject was taken from contemporaneous history, no representation which would\\npain the audience was allowed, and on one occasion a poet was heavily lined for\\npresenting a play which touched upon a recent Athenian defeat. Some great public\\nlesson was usually hidden in the comedies, where the fashionable follies were merci-\\nlessly satirized; and many a useful hint took root in the hearts of the people when\\ngiven from the stage, that would have fallen dead or unnoticed if put forth in the\\nassembly. Quick of thought and utterance, of hearing and apprehension, living\\ntogether in open public intercourse, reading would have been to the Athenians a slow\\nprocess for the interchange of ideas. But the many thousands of auditors in the\\nGreek theater caught, as with an electric flash of intelligence, the noble thought, the\\nwithering sarcasm, the flash of wit, and the covert innuendo. PTitfip Smith.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\n189\\nand he might esteem himself happy if he escaped from the boards\\nwithout an actual beating. The favorite, whether on the stage or as\\na spectator, was as enthusiastically applauded. l In comedies, tumult\\nwas invited, and the })eople were urged to shout and laugh, the comic\\npoet sometimes throwing nuts and tigs to them, that their scrambling\\nand screaming might add to the evidences of a complete success.\\nGKECIAX FEMALE HEADS.\\nMarriage. Athenians could legally marry only among themselves.\\nThe cereniony did not require a priestly official, but was preceded by\\nofferings to Zeus, Hera, Artemis, and other gods who presided over\\nmarriage. Omens were carefully observed, and a bath in water from\\nthe sacred fountain, Kallirrhoe, was an indispensable preparation. On\\nthe evening of the wedding-day, after a merry dinner given at her\\n1 At the Olympian games, when Themistocles entered, it is related that the whole\\nassembly rose to honor him.\\n2 In nonier 3 time the groom paid to the lady s father a certain sum for his bride.\\nAfterward this custom was reversed, and the amount of the wife s dowry greatly\\naflfected her position as a married woman. At the formal betrothal preceding every\\nmarriage this important question was settled, and in case of separation the dowry\\nwas usually returned to the wife s parents.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "190 GREFCE.\\nfather s house, the closely veiled bride was seated in a chariot between\\nher husband and his best man, all dressed in festive robes and\\ngarlanded with flowers. Her mother kindled the nuptial torch at the\\ndomestic hearth, a procession of friends and attendants was formed,\\nand, amid the joyful strains of the marriage-song, the whistling of\\nflutes, and the blinking of torches, the happy pair were escorted to\\ntheir future home. Here they were saluted with a shower of sweet-\\nmeats, after which followed the nuptial banquet. At this feast, by\\nprivilege, the women were allowed to be present, though they sat at a\\nseparate table, and the bride continued veiled. The third day after\\nmarriage the veil was cast aside, and wedding-presents were received.\\nThe parties most concerned in marriage were seldom consulted, and it\\nwas not uncommon for a widow to find herself bec[ueathed by her\\ndeceased husband s will to one of his friends or relatives.\\nDeath and Burial. As a portal festooned with flowers an-\\nnounced a wedding, so a vessel of water placed before a door gave\\nnotice of a death within. l As soon as a Greek died, an obolus was\\ninserted in his mouth to pay Ids fare on the boat across the River\\nStyx to Hades. His body was then washed, anointed, dressed in\\nwhite, garlanded with flowers, and placed on a couch with the feet\\ntoward the outer door. A formal lament 2 followed, made by the female\\nfriends and relatives, assisted by hired mourners. On the third day\\nthe body was carried to the spot where it was to be buried or burned.\\nIt was preceded by a hired chorus of musicians and the male mourners,\\nwho, dressed in black or gray, had their hair closely cut. 3 The female\\nmourners walked behind the bier. If the body were burned, sacrifices\\nwere offered; then, after all was consumed, the fire was extinguished\\nwitii wine, and the ashes, sprinkled with oil and wine, were collected\\nin a clay or bronze cinerary. Various articles were stored with the\\ndead, such as mirrors, trinkets, and elegantly painted vases. Tlie\\nburial was followed by a feast, which was considered as given by the\\ndeceased (compare p. 42). Sacrifices of milk, honey, wine, olives, an l\\n1 The water was always bronglit from some other dwelling, and was used for the\\npurificatiou of visitors, as everything within the house of mourning was polluted by\\nthe presence of the dead.\\n2 Solon sought to restrain these ostentatious excesses by enacting tliat, except\\nthe nearest relatives, no women under sixty years of age should enter a house of\\nmourning. In the heroic days of Greece tlie lament lasted several days (that of\\nAchilles continued seventeen), but in later times an early burial was thought pleasing\\nto the dead. The funeral pomp, which afterwjird became a common custom, was\\noriginally reserved for heroes alone. In the earlier Attic burials the grave was dug\\nby the nearest relatives, and afterward sown with corn that the body might be recom-\\npensed for its own decay\\n3 W^heu a great general died, the Lair and maues of all the arnw horses were\\ncropped.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\n191\\nflowers were periodically offered at the grave, where slaves kept watch.\\nSometimes a regular bauquet was served, and a blood-sacrifice offered\\nby the side of the tomb. The dead i ersoii was supposed to be con-\\nscious of all these attentions, and to bo displeased when an enemy\\napproached his ashes. Malefactors, traitors, and people struck by\\nlightning,! were denied burial, which in Greece, as in Egypt, was the\\nhighest possible dishonor.\\nGKFX IAN WAltKIOUS AND ATTENDANT.\\nWeapons of War and Defense.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Greeks fought with long\\nspears, swords, clubs, battle-axes, bows, and slings. In the heroic\\nage, chariots were employed, and the warrior, standing by the side of\\nthe charioteer, was driven to the front, where he engaged in single\\ncombat. Afterward the chariot was used only in races. A soldier\\nin full armor wore a leather or metal helmet, covering his head and\\nface a cuirass made of iron plates, or a leather coat of mail over-\\nlaid with iron scales bronze greaves, reaching from above the knee\\n1 Sucli a death was supposed to be a direct punishment from the gods for some\\ngreat offense or hidden depravity.\\nB O H-l\u00c2\u00ab", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "192 GREECE.\\ndown to the ankle and a shield i made of ox-hides, covered with\\nmetal, and sometimes extending from head to foot. Thus equipped,\\nthey advanced slowly and steadily into action in a uniform phalanx of\\nabout eight spears deep, the warriors of each tribe arrayed together,\\nso that individual or sectional bravery was easily distinguished. The\\nlight infantry wore no armor, but sometimes carried a shield of willow\\ntwigs, covered with leather. In Homer s time, bows six feet long\\nwere made of the horns of the antelope. Cavalry horses were pro-\\ntected by armor, and the rider sat upon a saddle-cloth, a luxury not\\nindulged in on ordinary occasions. Stirrups and horseshoes were un-\\nknown. The ships of Greece, like those of Phoenicia and Carthage,\\nwere fiat-bottomed barges or galleys, mainly propelled by oars. The\\noarsmen sat in rows or banks, one above the other, the number of\\nbanks determining the name of the vessel. 2 Bows and arrows, jave-\\nlins, ballistas, and catapults were the offensive weapons used at a\\ndistance but the ordinary ship tactics were to run the sharp iron\\nprow of the attacking vessel against the enemy s broadside to sink\\nit, or else to steer alongside, board the enemy, and make a hand-to-\\nhand fight.\\nSCENES IN REAL LIFE.\\nRetrospect. We will suppose it to be about the close of the\\n5th century b. c, with the Peloponnesian war just ended. The world\\nis two thousand years older than when we watched the building of the\\nGreat Pyramid at Gizeh, and fifteen centuries have passed since the\\nLabyrinth began to show its marble colonnades. Those times are even\\nnow remote antiquities, and fifty years ago Herodotus delighted the\\nwondering Greeks with his description of the ancient ruins in the\\nFayoom. It is nearly two hundred and fifty years since Asshurbani-\\npal sat on the throne of tottering Nineveh, and one hundred and fifty\\nsince the fall of Babylon. Let us now visit Sparta.\\nScene I. A Day in S^mrta. A hilly, unwalled city on a river\\nbank, with mountains in the distance. A great square or forum\\n(Agora) with a few modest temples, statues, and porticoes. On the\\nhighest hill (Acropolis), in the midst of a grove, more temples and\\n1 These shields were soiuetimes richly decorated with emblems and inscriptions.\\nThus ^schylus, in The Seven Chiefs against Thehes, describes one warrior s shield\\nas bearing a flaming torch, with the motto, I will burn the city and another as\\nhaving an armed man climbing a scaling-ladder, and for an inscription, Not Mars\\nhimself shall beat me from the towers.\\n2 A ship with three banks of oars was called a trireme; with four, a quadrireme,\\netc. In the times of the Ptolemies galleys of twelve, fifteen, twenty, and even forty\\nbanks of oars were built. The precise arrangement of the oarsmen in these large\\nships is not known (see cut, p. 158).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 193\\nstatues, among them a brass statue of Zeus, the most ancient in Greece.\\nIn the suburbs the hippodrome, for foot and horse races, and tlie\\nplatanista a grove of beautiful palm-trees, partly inclosed by run-\\nning streams, where the Spartan youth gather for athletic sports. A\\nscattered city, its small, mean houses grouped here and there its\\nstreets narrow and dirty. This is Sparta.\\nIf we wish to enter a house, we have simply to announce ourselves\\nin a loud voice, and a slave will admit us. We shall hear no cry of\\npuny infants within the little boys, none of them over seven years\\nold (p. 179), are strong and sturdy, and the girls are few; their weak\\nor deformed brothers and surplus sisters have been cast out in their\\nbabyhood to perish, or to become the slaves of a chance rescuer.\\nThe mother is at home, a brawny, strong-minded, strong-fisted\\nwoman, whose chief pride is that she can fell an enemy with one\\nblow. Her dress consists of two garments, a chiton; l and over it a\\npeplos, or short cloak, which clasps above her shoulders, leaving her\\narms bare. She appears in public when she pleases, and may even\\ngive her opinion on matters of state. When her husband or sons go\\nforth to battle, she sheds no sentimental tears, but hands to each his\\nshield, with the proud injunction, Return with it, or upon it. No\\ncowards, whatever their excuses, find favor with her. When the blind\\nEurytus was led by. his slave into the foremost rank at TliermopylsB,\\nshe thought of him as having simply performed his duty; when\\nAristodemus made his blindness an excuse for staying away, she re-\\nviled his cowardice and though he afterward died the most heroic of\\ndeaths at Plat^ea, it counted him nothing. She educates her daughters\\nto the same unflinching defiance of womanly tenderness. They are\\ntrained in the palsestra or wrestling-school to run, wrestle, and fight\\nlike their brothers. They wear but one garment, a short sleeveless\\nchiton, open upon one side, and often not reaching to the knee.\\nThe Spartan gentleman, who sees little of his family (p. 120), is\\ndebarred by law from trade or agriculture, and, having no taste for art\\nor literature, spends his time, when not in actual warfare, in daily\\nmilitary drill, and in governing his helots. He never appears in public\\nwithout his attendant slaves, but prudence compels him to walk be-\\nhind rather than before them. In the street his dress is a short, coarse\\ncloak, with or without a chiton perhaps a pair of thong-strapped\\nsandals, a cane, and a seal-ring. He usually goes bare-headed, but\\nwhen traveling in the hot sun wears a broad-brimmed hat or bonnet.\\nHis ideal character is one of relentless energy and brute force, and his\\n1 The Doric chiton was a simple woolen shift, consisting of two short pieces of\\ncloth, sewed or clasped together on one or both sides up to the breast; the parts\\ncovering the breast and back were fastened over each shoulder, leaving the open\\nspaces at the side for arm-holes. It was contiued about the waist with a girdle.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "194 GREECE.\\nstandard of excellence is a successful defiance of all pain, and an\\nability to conquer in every fight.\\nScene II. A Day in Athens (4th century b. c), To see Athens\\nis, first of all, to admire the Acropolis, a high, steep, rocky, but\\nbroad-crested hill, sloping toward the city and the distant sea ascended\\nby a marble road for chariots, and marble steps for pedestrians en-\\ntered through a magnificent gateway (the Propylsea) and crowned on\\nits spacious summit one hundred and fifty feet above the level at its\\nbase with a grove of stately temples, statues,! and altars.\\nStanding on the Acropolis, on a bright morning about the year 300\\nB. c, a magnificent view opens on every side. Away to the southwest\\nfor four miles stretch the Long Walls, five hundred and fifty feet apart,\\nleading to the Pir^ean harbor beyond them the sea, dotted with sails,\\nglistens in the early sun. Between us and the harbors lie the porticoed\\nand templed Agora, bustling with the morning commerce the Pnyx,\\nwith its stone bema, from which Demosthenes sixty or more years ago\\nessayed his first speech amid hisses and laughter; the Areopagus,\\nwhere from time immemorial the learned court of archons has held\\nits sittings the hill of the Museum, crowned by a fortress the tem-\\nples of Hercules, Demeter, and Artemis the Gymnasium of Hermes\\nand, near the Pireean gate, a little grove of statues, among them one\\nof Socrates, who drank the hemlock and went to sleep a hundred years\\nago. At our feet, circling about the hill, are amphitheaters for mu-\\nsical and dramatic festivals elegant temples and colonnades and the\\nfamous Street of Tripods, more beautiful than ever since the recent\\nerection of the monument of the choragus Lysicrates. Turning toward\\nthe east, we see the Lyceum, where Aristotle walked and talked\\nwithin the last half century and the Cynosarges, where Antisthenes,\\nthe father of the Cynics, had his school. Still further to the north\\nrises the white top of Mount Lycabettus, beyond which is the plain of\\nMarathon and on the south the green and flowery ascent of Mount\\nHymettus, swarming with bees, and equally famous for its honey and\\n1 Towering over all the other statues was the bronze Athena Proniachus, by\\nPhidias, cast out of spoils won at Marathon. It was sixty feet high, and represented\\nthe goddess with her spear and shield in the attitude of a combatant. The remains\\nof the Ereehtheion, a beautiful and peculiar temple sacred to two deities, stood near\\nthe Parthenon. It had been burned during the invasion of Xerxes, but was in process\\nof restoration wlien the Peloponnesian war broke out. Part of it was dedicated to\\nAthena Polias, whose olive-wood statue within its Avails was reputed to have fallen\\nfrom heaven. It was also said to contain the sacred olive-tree brought forth by\\nAthena, the spring of water which followed the stroke of Poseidon s trident, and\\neven the impression of the trident itself.\\n2 The two hills, the Pnyx and the Areopagus, were famous localities. Upon the\\nformer the assemblies of the people were held. The stone pulpit (bema), from which\\nthe orators declaimed, and traces of the leveled arena where the people gathered to\\nlisten, are still seen ou the Pnyx.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\n195\\nits marble. Tlirough tlio city, to tho soutlieast, flows the river Ilissus,\\nsacred to the Muses. As we look about us, we are struck by the ab-\\nsence of spires or pinnacles. There are no high towers as in Babylon\\nno lofty obelisks as on the banks of the Nile the tiled roofs are all flat\\nor slightly gabled, and on them we detect many a favorite promenade.\\nGRECIAN LADIES AND ATTENDANT.\\nA Greek Home. The Athenian gentleman usually arises at dawn,\\nand after a slight repast of bread and wine goes out with his slaves l\\nfor a walk or ride, previous to his customary daily lounge in the market\\nplace. While he is absent, if w^e are ladies we may visit the house-\\nhold. We are quite sure to find the mistress at home, for, especially\\nif she be young, she never ventures outside her dwelling without her\\nhusband s permission nor does she receive within it any but her lady-\\nfriends and nearest male relatives. The exterior of the house is very\\nplain. Built of common stone, brick, or wood, and coated with plaster,\\nit abuts so closely upon the street that if the door has been made to\\nopen outward (a tax is paid for this privilege) the comer-out is obliged\\nto knock before opening it, in order to warn the passers-by. The dead-\\nwall before us has no lower windows, but a strong door furnished with\\n1 No gentloTiian in Alliens went out unless lie was accompanied by his servants.\\nTo be unattended b.v at least one slave was a sip^n of extreme indifjence, and no more\\nto be thought of than to be seen without a cane. As to the latter, a gentleman\\nfojind going about witlicnit a walking-stick was presumed by the police to be dis-\\norderly, and was imprisoned for the night.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "196 GREECE.\\nknocker and liandle, and beside it a Hermes (p. 143) or an altar to\\nApollo. Over the door, as in Egypt, is an inscription, here reading,\\nTo the good genius, followed by the name of the owner. In re-\\nsponse to our knock, the porter, who is always in attendance, opens the\\ndoor. Carefully placing our right foot on the threshold, it would be\\nan unlucky omen to touch it with the left, we pass through a long\\ncorridor to a large court open to the sky, and surrounded by arcades or\\nporticoes. This is the peristyle of the andronifis, or apartments be-\\nlonging to the master of the house. Around the peristyle lie the ban-\\nqueting, music, sitting, and sleeping-rooms, the picture galleries and\\nlibraries. A second corridor, opening opposite the first, leads to another\\nporticoed court, with rooms about and behind it. This is the gynw-\\nconitis, the domain of the mistress. Here the daughters and hand-\\nmaidens always remain, occupied with their wool-carding, spinning,\\nweaving, and embroidery, and hither the mother retires when her\\nhusband entertains guests in the andronitis. The floors are plastered\\nand tastefully painted,! the walls are frescoed, and\\nthe cornices and ceilings are ornamented with\\nstucco. The rooms are warmed from fireplaces, or\\nbraziers of hot coke or charcoal they are lighted\\nmostly from doors opening upon the porticoes. In\\nthe first court is an altar to Zeus, and in the second\\nthe never-forgotten one to Hestia. The furnitiu-e\\nis simple, but remarkable for elegance of design.\\nAlong the walls are seats or sofas covered with\\nANCIENT ijRAziER. gldus or purplc carpets, and heaped with cushions.\\nThere are also light folding-stools 2 and richly\\ncarved arm-chairs, and scattered about the rooms are tripods support-\\ning exquisitely painted vases. In the bedrooms of this luxurious\\nhome are couches of every degree of magnificence, made of olive-wood\\ninlaid with gold and ivory or veneered with tortoise-shell, or of\\nivory richly embossed, or even of solid silver. On these are laid\\nmattresses of sponge, feathers, or plucked wool and over them soft,\\ngorgeously colored blankets, or a coverlet made of peacock skins,\\ndressed with the feathers on, 3 and perfumed with imported essences.\\n1 In later times flagging and mosaics were used. Before the 4th century b. c. the\\nplaster walls were simply whitewashed.\\n2 The four-legged, backless stool was called a diphros when an Athenian gentle-\\nman walked out, one of his slaves generally carried a diphros for the convenience of\\nhis master when wearied. To the diphros a curved back was sometimes added, and\\nthe legs made immovable. It was then called a klismos. A high, largo chair, with\\nstraight back and low arms, was a thronos. The thronoi in the temples were for the\\ngods; those in dwellings, for the master and liis guests. A footstool was indispen-\\nsable, and was sometimes attached to the front legs of the thronos.\\n8 One of the greatest improvements introduced by the Greeks into the art of", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 197\\nThe mistress of the house, who is superintending the domestic labor,\\nis di essed in a long chiton, doubled over at the top so as to form a kind\\nof cape which hangs down loosely, clasped on the shoulders, girdled\\nat the waist, and falling iu many folds to her feet. When she ventures\\nabroad, as she occasionally does to the funeral of a near relation, to\\nthe great religious festivals, and sometimes to hear a tragedy, she\\nwears a cloak or iiiinatiouA The Athenian wife has not the privileges\\nof the Spartan. The husband and father is the complete master of his\\nhousehold, and, so far from allowing his wife to transact any inde-\\npendent bargains, he may be legally absolved from any contract her\\nrequest or counsel has induced him to make. This is a busy morning\\nin the home, for the master has gone to the market place to invite a\\nfew frientts to an evening banquet. The foreign cooks, hired for the\\noccasion, are already liere, giving orders, and preparing choice dishes.\\nAt noon, all business in the market place having ceased, the Athenian\\ngentleman returns to his liome for his mid-day meal and his siesta. 2\\nAs the cooler hours come on, he repairs to the crowded gjnnnasium,\\nwhere he may enjoy the pleasures of the bath, listen to the learned\\nlectures of philosophers and rhetoricians, or join in the racing, mili-\\ntary, and gymnastic exercises.^ Toward sunset he again seeks his\\nhome to await his invited guests.\\nThe Banquet. As each guest arrives, a slaved meets him in the\\ncourt, and ushers him into the large triclinium or dining-room, where\\nhis host warmly greets him, and assigns to him a section of a couch.\\nBefore he reclines, 5 however, a slave unlooses his sandals and washes\\nsleepiug was the practice of undressing before going to bed,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a thing unheard of until\\nhit upon bj- their inventive genma. \u00e2\u0080\u0094FeUon.\\n1 The dress of both sexes was nearly the same. The hiniation was a large, square\\npiece of cloth, so wrapped about tlie form as to leave only tlie right arm free. Much\\nskill was required to drape it artisticall3 and the taste and elegance of the wearer\\nwere decided by liis manner of carrying it. The same hiniation often served for both\\nhusband and wife, and it is related as among the unamiable traits of Xantippe, the\\nslirewish wife of Socrates, that she refused to go out in lier husband s hiination. A\\ngentleman usuallj wore a chiton also, though he was considered fully dressed in the\\nhimatiou alone. The lower classes wore only the chiton, or were clothed in tanned\\nskins. Raiment was cheap in Greece. In the time of Socrates a chiton cost about a\\ndollar and an ordinary himation, two dollars.\\n2 The poorer classes gathered together in groups along the porticoes for gossip\\nor slumber, where indeed they not unfrequently spent their nights.\\n3 Ball-playing, which was a favorite game with the Greeks, was taught scien-\\ntifically in the gymnasium. The balls were made of colored leather, stuffed with\\nfeatliers, wool, or fig-seeds, or, if very large, were hollow. Cock-and-quail fighting\\nwas anotlier exciting amusement, and at Athens took place annually by law, as an\\ninstructive exhibition of bravery.\\nA guest frequently brought his own slave to assist in personal attendance upon\\nhimself.\\nB The mode of reclining, which was similar to that In Assyria, is shown in the", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "198\\nGREECE.\\nhis feet in perfumed wine. The time having arrived for dinner, water\\nis passed around for hand ablutions, and small, low tables are brought\\nin, one being placed before each couch. There are no knives and forks,\\nno table-cloths or napkins. Some of the guests wear gloves to enable\\nA GKEEK SVMrOSIUM.\\nthem to take the food quite hot, others have hardened their fingers by-\\nhandling hot pokers, and one, a noted gourmand, has prepared him-\\nself with metallic finger-guards. The slaves now hasten with the first\\ncourse, which opens with sweetmeats, and includes many delicacies,\\ncut, A Greek Symposium. The place of liouor was next the host. The Greek wife\\nand daughter uever appeared at these banquets, and at their every-day meals the\\nwife sat on the couch at the feet of her master. The sous Avere not permitted to\\nrecline till they were of ago.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 199\\nsuch as thrushes, hares, oysters, pungent herbs, and, best of all,\\nCopaic eels, cooked crisp and brown, and wrapped in beet-leaves.\\nBread is handed around in tiny baskets, woven of slips of ivory. Little\\ntalking is done, for it is good breeding to remain quiet until the sub-\\nstantial viands are honored. From time to time the guests wipe their\\nfingers upon bits of bread, throwing the fragments under the table.\\nThis course being finished, the well-trained slaves sponge or remove\\nthe tables, brush up the dough, bones, and other remnants from the\\nfioor, and pass again the perfumed water for hand-washing. Garlands\\nof myrtle and roses, gay ribbons, and sweet-scented ointments are\\ndistributed, a goldeu bowl of wine is brought, and the meal closes\\nwith a libation.\\nThe Symposium is introduced by a second libation, accompanied by\\nhymns and the solemn notes of a flute. The party, hitherto silent,\\nrapidly grow merry, while the slaves bring in the dessert and the wine,\\nwhich now for the first time appears at the feast. The dessert con-\\nsists of fresh fruits, olives well ripened on the tree, dried figs, imported\\ndates, curdled cream, honey, cheese, and the salt-sprinkled cakes for\\nwhich Athens is renowned. A large crater or wine-bowl, ornamented\\nwith groups of dancing bacchanals, is placed before one of the\\nguests, who has been chosen archon. He is to decide upon the proper\\nmixture of the wine, 2 the nature of the forfeits in the games of the\\nevening, and, in fact, is henceforth king of the feast. The sport be-\\ngins with riddles. This is a favorite pastime every failure in guessing\\nrequires a forfeit, and the penalty is to drink a certain quantity of\\nwine. Music, charades, dancing and juggling performed by profes-\\nsionals, and a variety of entertainments, help the hours to fiy, and\\nthe Symposium ends at last by the whole party inviting them-\\nselves to some other banqueting-place, where they spend the night\\nin revel. 3\\n1 The Greeks were extravagautly fond of fish. Pork, the abhorierl of the Egyp-\\ntians, was tlieir favorite meat. Bread, more tlian anything else, was tlie stafl of\\nlife, all other food, except sweetmeats\u00e2\u0080\u0094 even meat\u00e2\u0080\u0094 being called relish. Sweetmeats\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0were superstitiouslj regarded, and scattering them about the house was an invitation\\nto good luck.\\n2 To drink wine clear was di8rei)utable, and it was generally diluted with two\\nthirds water.\\n3 The fashionable Symposia were usually of the character described above, but\\nBometimes they were more intellectual, affording an occasion for the brilliant disj)laj\\nof Attic wit and learning. The drinking character of the party was always the\\nsame, and in Plato s dialogue, The Symposium, in which Aristoplianes, Socrates, and\\nother literary celebrities took part, the evening is broken in upon by two different\\nbauds of revelers, and daylight finds Socrates and Aristophanes still diinking with\\nthe host. Parasites (a recognized class of people, who lived by sponging tlieir\\ndinners) and mountebanks always took the liberty to drop in wherever there was\\na feast, a fact which they ascertained by walking through the streets and snuffing at\\nthe kitchens. /Te\u00c2\u00abon.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "200 GREECE.\\n4. SUMMARY.\\n1. Political History. The Pelasgians are the primitive inhab-\\nitants of Greece. In time the Hellenes descend from the north,\\nand give their name to the land. It is the Heroic Age, the era of the\\nsons of the gods, Hercules, Theseus, and Jason, of the Argouautie\\nExpedition and the Siege of Troy. With the Dorian Migration\\nReturn of the Heraelidas and their settlement in the Pelopon-\\nnesus, the mythic stories end and real history begins. The kings\\ndisappear, and nearly all the cities become little republics. Hellenic\\ncolonies arise in Asia Minor, rivaling the glory of Greece itself. Ly-\\ncurgus now enacts his rigid laws (850 B. c). In the succeeding\\ncenturies the Spartans \u00e2\u0080\u0094pitiless, fearless, haughty warriors conquer\\nMessenia, become the head of the Peloponnesus, and threaten all\\nGreece. Meanwhile --^pite of Draco s Code, the Alcma?onidae s curse,\\nthe factions of the men of the x^lain, the coast, and the mountain, and\\nthe tyranny of the Pisistratida? Athens, by the wise measures of\\nSolon and Cleisthenes, becomes a powerful republic.\\nAthens now sends help to the Greeks of Asia Minor against the\\nPersians, and the Asiatic deluge is precipitated upon Greece. Miltiades\\ndefeats Darius on the field of Marathon (490 B. c,)- Ten years later\\nXerxes forces the Pass of Thermopylae, slays Leonidas and his three\\nhundred Spartans, and burns Athens but his fleet is x ut to flight at\\nSalamis, the next year his army is routed by Pausanias at Plataea,\\nand his remaining ships are destroyed at Myeale. Thus Europe is\\nsaved from Persian despotism.\\nThe Age of Pericles follows, and Athens, grown to be a great com-\\nmercial city, its streets thronged with traders and its harbor with\\nships, is the head of Greece. Sparta is jealous, and the Pelopounesian\\nwar breaks out in 431 B. c. Its twenty-seven years of alternate vic-\\ntories and defeats end in the fatal expedition to Syracuse, the defeat\\nof ^gospotami, and the fall of Athens.\\nSparta is now supreme but her cruel rule is broken by Epaminon-\\ndas on the field of Leuctra. Thebes comes to the front, but Greece,\\nrent by rivalries, is overwhelmed by Philip of Macedon in the battle\\nof Cha?ronea. The conqueror dying soon after, his greater son,\\nAlexander, leads the armies of united Greece into Asia. The battles\\nof Granicus, Issus, and Arbela subdue the Persian Empire. Thence\\nthe conquering leader marches eastward to the Indus, and returns to\\nBabylon only to die (323 B. c). His generals divide his empire among\\nthemselves while Greece, a prey to dissensions, at last drops into the\\nall-absorbing Roman Empire (146 b. c).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "SUMMARY. 201\\n2. Civilization.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Athens and Sparta differ widely in thought,\\nhabits, and taste. Tlic Spartans care little for art and literature, and\\nglory only in war and patriotism. They are rigid in their self-dis-\\ncipline, and cruel to their slaves. They smother all tender home sen-\\ntiment, eat at the public mess, give their seven-year-old boys to the\\nstate, and train their girls in the rough sports of the pahestra. They\\ndistrust and exclude strangers, and make no effort to adorn their\\ncapital with art or architecture.\\nThe Athenians adore art, beauty, and intellect. Versatile and\\nbrilliant, they are fond of novelties and eager for discussions. Law\\ncourts abound, and the masses imbibe an education in the theater,\\nalong the busy streets, and on the Pnyx. In their democratic city,\\nfilled with magnificent temples, statues, and colonnades, wit and talent\\nare the keys that unloc^j the doors of every saloon. Athens becomes\\nthe center of the world s history in all that pertains to the fine arts.\\nPoetry and philosophy flourish alike in her classic atmosphere, and all\\nthe colonies feel the pulse of her artistic heart.\\nGrecian Art ami Literature furnish models for all time. Infant\\nGreece produces Homer and Hesiod, the patriarchs of epic poetry.\\nComing down the centuries, she brings out in song, and hymn, and ode,\\nSappho, Simonides, and Pindar; in tragedy, ^sehylus, Sophocles,\\nand Euripides in comedy, Aristophanes and Menander in history,\\nHerodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon in oratory, Pericles and\\nDemosthenes in philosophy, Thales, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, and\\nAristotle in painting, Apelles in sculpture, Phidias, Praxiteles, and\\nLysippus.\\nGreek Mythology invests every stream, grove, and mountain with\\ngods and goddesses, nymphs, and naiads. The beloved deities are\\nworshiped with songs and dances, dramas and festivals, spirited\\ncontests and gorgeous processions. The Four Great National Games\\nunite all Greece in a sacred bond. The Feasts of Dionysus give birth\\nto the drama. The Four Great Schools of Philosophy flourish and\\ndecay, leaving their impress upon the generations to come. Finally\\nGrecian civilization is transported to the Tiber, and becomes IJlended\\nwith the national peculiarities of the conquering Romans.\\nREADING REFERENCES.\\nOrote 8 History of Oreece.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Arnold s History of Greece.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Curtius 8 History of\\nGreece.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Felton 8 Ancient and Modern O recce.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 History Primers; Greece, and Greek\\nAntiquities, edited by Green.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Smith s Student s History of Greece.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Becker s Chart-\\ncles.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Guhl and K dner s Life of the Greeks and Romans.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Br yce s History of Greece,\\nin Freeman s Series.- Freeman s General Sketch of European History.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Collier 8\\nHistory of Greece \u00e2\u0080\u0094Heeren s Historical Researches. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Futz s Hand-book of Ancient", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "202\\nGREECE.\\nHistory.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Buhver 8 Mse and Fall of Athens.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Williams s Life of Alexander the\\nGreat\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ThirlwalVs History of Greece.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Schliemann s Ilios, and Troja.-NiebuJir s\\nLectures on Ancient History.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Xenophon s Anabasis, Meinorabilia, and Cyropcedia.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094St. John s The Helle7ies.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Fergusson s History of Architecture.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Stuart s Antiqui-\\nties of Athens.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mahaffy s History of Greek Literature.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Murray s Hand-book of\\nGreek Archaeology.\\nCHRONOLOGY.\\nB. C.\\nDorian Migration, about 1100\\nLycurgus, about 850\\nFirst Olympiad 776\\n[It is curious to notice how many important events cluster about this period,\\nviz.: Rome was founded in 753; the Era of Nabonassar in Babylon began\\n747; and Tiglath-Pileser II., the great military king of Assyria, ascended\\nthe throne, 745.]\\nFirst Messenian War 743-724\\nSecond Messenian War 685-668\\nDraco 621\\nSolon 594\\nPisistratus 560\\nBattle of Marathon 490\\nBattles of Thermopylae and Salamis 480\\nPlataea and Mycale 479\\nAge of Pericles 479-429\\nPeloponnesian War 431-404\\nRetreat of the Ten Thousand 400\\nBattle of Leuctra 371\\nDemosthenes delivered his First Philippic (Oration against Philip) 352\\nBattle of Chseronea 338\\nAlexander the Great 336-323\\nBattle of the Granicus 334\\nIssus 333\\nArbela 331\\nOration of Demosthenes on TheCrown 330\\nBattle of Ipsus 301\\nGreece becomes a Roman Province 146\\nBAS-KEI-IEK OF THE NINE MUSES.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "J.WELLS, DEL.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2208", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "ROME.\\n1. THE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\nWhile Greece was winning her freedom on the fields of\\nMarathon and Plata?a, and building up the best civilization\\nthe world had then seen while Alexander was carrying the\\nGrecian arms and culture over the East; while the Con-\\nqueror s successors were wTangling over the prize he had*\\nwon; while the Ptolemies were transplanting Grecian\\nthought, but not Grecian freedom, to Egyptian soil,\\nthere was slowly growing up on the banks of the Tiber a\\ncity that was to found an empu-e wider than Alexander^Sj\\nand, molding Grecian civilization, art, and literature into\\nnew forms, preserve them long after Greece had fallen.\\nContrasts between Greece and Italy. Duration.\\nGreek history, from the First Olympiad (776 B. c.) to the\\nRoman Conquest (146 B. c), covers about six centuries, but\\nthe national strength lasted less than two centimes Roman\\nhistory, from the founding of Rome (753 B. c.) to its down-\\nfall (476 A. D.), stretches over twelve centuries.\\nGeographical Questions. \u00e2\u0080\u0094^a^ maps, pp. 210 and 255. Describe the Tiber. Locate\\nRome; Ostia; Alba Longa; Veii (Veji) the Sabines the Etruscans. Where was\\nCarthage? New Cartliage? Saguntum Syracuse? Lake Trasimeuus? Capua?\\nCannae? Tarentum? Cisalpine Gaul? lapygia (the heel of Italy, reaching toward\\nGreece)? Bmtium (the toe of Italy What were the limits of the empire at the\\ntime of its greatest extent? Name the principal countries which it then inclu^led.\\nLocate Alexandria Autioch Smyrna Pliilippi Byzantium.", "height": "3393", "width": "2208", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "204 ROME.\\nManner of Growth. Greece, cut up into small valleys,\\ngrew around many little centers, and no two leaves on her\\ntree of liberty were exactly alike Italy exhibited the un-\\nbroken advance of one imperial city to universal dominion.\\nAs a result, we find in Greece the fickleness and jealousies\\nof petty states in Italy, the power and resources of a mighty\\nnation.\\nDirection of GroivtJi.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Greece lay open to the East, whence\\nshe originally drew her inspiration, and whither she in time\\nreturned the fruits of her civilization Italy lay open to the\\nWest, and westward sent the strength of her civiHzation to\\nregenerate barbarian Europe.\\nCharacter of Influence. The mission of Greece was to ex-\\nhibit the triumphs of the mind, and to illustrate the prin-\\nciples of liberty; that of Rome, to subdue by irresistible\\nforce, to manifest the power of law, and to bind the nations\\ntogether for the coming of a new religion.\\nTJltiniate Results. When Greece fell from her high estate,\\nshe left only her history and the achievements of her artists\\nand statesmen when the Roman Empire broke to pieces, the\\ngreat nations of Europe sprang from the ruins, and their\\nlanguages, civilization, laws, and religion took their form\\nfrom the Mistress of the World.\\nThe Early Inhabitants of Italy were mainly of the\\nsame Aryan swarm that settled Greece. But they had be-\\ncome very different from the Hellenes, and had split into\\nvarious hostile tribes. Between the Arno and the Tiber\\nlived the Etruscans or Tuscans, a league of twelve cities.\\nThese people were great builders, and skilled in the arts.\\nIn northern Italy, Cisalpine Gaul was inhabited by Celts,\\nakin to those upon the other side of the Alps. Southern\\nItaly contained many prosperous OreeJc cities. The Italians\\noccupied central Italy. They were divided into the Latins", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\n205\\nand Oscans. The former comprised a league of thii ty\\ntowns (note, p. 117) south of the Tiber; the hitter consisted\\nof various tribes living eastward, Samnites, Sabines, etc.^\\nRome was founded (753 b. c.) by the Latins, perhaps\\n1 Some authorities group the Samnites, Sabines, Umbrians, Oacaus, Sabclliaus,\\netc., as the Umbrians,- and others call them the Umbro-Sabellians. They were\\ndoubtless closely related.\\n2 Of the early I1I8T0UY OF ROME there is no reliable account, as the records\\nwere burned when the city was destroyed by the Gauls (390 b. c), and it was five\\nhundred years after the founding of the city (A. U. C, anno urbis conditce) before the\\nfirst rude attempt was made to write a continuous narrative of its origin. The names\\nof the early monarchs are probably personifications, rather than the appellations of\\nreal persons. The word Home itself means border, and probably had no relation to\\nthe fabled Romulus. The history which was accepted in later times by tlie Romans,\\nand has come down to us, is a series of beautiful legends. In the text is given the\\nreal history as now received by the best critics, and in the notes the mythical stories.\\n^NEAS, favored by the god\\nMercury and led by his mother\\nVenus, came, after the destruc-\\ntion of Troy, to Italy. There his\\nson Ascanius built the Long\\nWhite City (Alba Longa). His\\ndescendants reigned in peace for\\nthree hundred years. When it\\ncame time, according to the de-\\ncree of the gods, that Rome\\nshould be founded,\\nROMULUS AND REMUS Were\\nborn. Their mother, Rhea Silvia,\\nwas a priestess of the goddess\\nVesta, and their father, Mars, the\\ngod of war. Amulius, who had\\nusurped the Alban throne from\\ntheir grandfather Numitor, or-\\ndered the babes to be thrown\\ninto the Tiber. Thej were, how-\\never, cast ashore at the foot of\\nMount Palatine. Here they were\\nnursed by a wolf. One Faustulus,\\npassing near, was struck by the\\nsight, and, carrying the children\\nhome, brought them up as his\\nown. Romulus and Remus, on\\ncoming to age, discovered their\\nKOMAN WOLF STATUE\\ntrue rank, slew the usurper, and restored their grandfather Numitor to liis throne.\\nFOUNDING OF ROME.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Tlie brothers then determined to found a city near tho spot\\nwhere they had been so wonderfully preserved, and agreed to Avatch the flight of\\nbirds in order to decide which should fix upon the site. Remus, on the Aventine\\nHill, saw six vultures but Romulus, on the Palatine, saw twelve, and was declared\\nvictor. He accordingly began to mark out the boundaries with a brazen plow,\\ndrawn by a bullock and a heifer. As the mud wall rose, Remus in scorn jumped", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "206\\nROME.\\na colony sent out from Alba Longa, as an outpost against\\nthe Etruscans, whom they greatly feared. At an early date\\nit contained about one thousand miserable, thatched huts,\\nsurrounded by a wall. Most of the inhabitants were shep-\\nherds or farmers, who tilled the land upon the plain near\\nby, but lived for protection within their fortifications on\\nthe Palatine Hill. It is probable that the other hills, after-\\nward covered by Rome, were then occupied by Latins, and\\nthat the cities of Latium formed a confederacy, with Alba\\nLonga at the head.\\nover it; whereupon Roiiinhis slew liim, exclaiming, So perish everyone who may\\ntry to leap over these ramparts The new city he called Rome after his own name,\\nand became its first king. To secure inhabitants, he opened an asylum for refugees\\nand criminals; but, lacking women, he resorted to a curious expedient. A great\\nfestival in honor of Neptune was appointed, and the neighboring people were invited\\nto come with their families. In the midst of the games the young Romans rushed\\namong the spectators, and each, seizing a maiden, carried her ofif to be his wife. The\\nindignant parents returned home, but only to come back in arms, and thirsting for\\nvengeance. The Sabines laid siege to the citadel on the Capitoliue Hill. Tarpeia,\\nthe commandant s daughter, dazzled by the glitter of their golden bracelets and\\nrings, promised to betray the\\nfortress if the Sabines would\\ngive her what they wore on\\ntheir left arms. As they\\npassed in through the gate,\\nwhich she opened for them\\nin the night, they crushed her\\nbeneath their heavy shields.\\nHenceforth that part of the\\nhill was called the Tarpeian\\nRock, and down its precipice\\ntraitors were hurled to death.\\nThe next day after Tarpeia s\\ntreachery, the battle raged in\\nthe valley between the Capi-\\ntoliue and Palatine Hills. In\\nhis distress, Romulus vowed\\na temple to Jupiter. The Ro-\\nmans thereupon turned, and\\ndrove back their foes. In the\\nflight, Mettius Curtius, the\\nleader of the Sabines, sunk\\nwith his horse into a marsh,\\nand nearly perished. Ere the contest could be renewed, the Sabine women, with\\ndisheveled hair, suddenly rushed between their kindred and new-found husbands,\\nand implored peace. Their entreaties prevailed, the two people united, and their\\nkings reigned Jointly. As the Sabines came from Cures, the united people were\\ncalled Romans and Quirites.\\nTHE TARrEIAN ROCK (FROM AN OLD PRINT).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTORY,\\n207\\nThe Early Government was aristocratic. It had a\\nking, a senate, and an ass( nd)ly. The priest-kin offered\\nsaerifiees, and presided over the senate. The senate had the\\nright to discuss and vote the assembly, to discuss only.\\nEach original family or house {gem) was represented in\\nthe senate by its head. This body was therefore composed\\nof the fathers (patres), and was from the beginning the\\nsoul of the rising city while throughout its entire history\\nthe intelligence, experience, and wisdom gathered in the\\nsenate determined the poUcy and shaped the puljlic life\\nRomulus, after the death of Tatius, became sole king. He divided the people into\\nnobles aud commons; the former he called patricians, and the latter plebeians. The\\npatricians were separated into tliree tribes^,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Hamnes, Titles, and Luceres. In each of\\nthese he made ten divisions, or curice. The thirty curiae formed the assembly of the\\npeople. The plebeians, being apportioned as tenants and dependants among the\\npatilcians, were called clients. One hundred of the patricians were cliosen for age and\\nwisdom, and styled fathers (patres). After Ilomulus had reigned thirtj -seven years,\\nand done all these things according to the will of the gods, one day, during a violent\\nthunder-storm, he disappeared from sight, and was henceforth worsliiped as a god.\\nNUMA POMi iLius, a pious Sabine, was the second king. Numa was wise from\\nhis youth, as a sign of which his hair was gray at birth. He was trained by Pythag-\\noras (p. 174) in all the knowledge of the Greeks,\\nand was wont, in a sacred grove near Rome, to\\nmeet the nymph Egeria, who taught him lessons\\nof wisdom, and how men below should worship\\nthe gods above. By pouring wine into the spring\\nwhence Faunus and Picus, the gods of the wood,\\ndrank, he led them to tell him the secret charm\\nto gain the will of Jupiter. Peace smiled on the\\nland during his happy reign, and the doors of the\\ntemple of Janus remained closed.\\nTULLUS HosTiLius, the third king, loved war\\nas Numa did peace. He soon got into a quarrel\\nwith Alba Longa. As the armies were about to\\nfight, it was agreed to decide the contest by a\\ncombat between the Horatii (three brothers in\\nthe Roman ranks) and the Curatii (three brothers\\nin the Alban). They were cousins, and one of the\\nCuralii was engaged to be Tuarried to a sister of one of the Horatii. In the fight\\ntwo of the Horatii were killed, when the third pretended to run. The Curatii, be-\\ncause of tlieir wounds, followed him slowly, and, becoming separated, he turned\\nabout and slew them one by one. As the victor returned laden with tlie spoils, he\\nmet his sister, who, catching sight of the robe which she had embroidered for her\\nlover, burst into tears. Horatius, unable to bear her reproaches, struck her dead,\\nsaying, So perish any Roman woman who laments a foe The murderer was con-\\ndemned to die, but the people spared him because his valor had saved Rome. Alba\\nsubmitted, but, the inhabitants proving treacherous, the city was razed, and the people\\nwere taken to Rome and located on the CcElian Hill. The Albans and the Romana\\nTEMPLE OF JANUS.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "20S\\nROME.\\nthat made Rome tlie Mistress of the World. The assembly\\n{comitia curiafa) consisted of the men belonging to these\\nancient families. Its members voted by curim; each curia\\ncontained the voters of ten houses (gentes).\\nSabine Invasion and League. The Sabines, coming\\ndown the valley of the Tiber, captured the Capitohne and\\nQuirinal Hills. At first there were frequent conflicts be-\\ntween these near neighbors, but they soon came into aUiance.\\nFinally the two tribes formed one city, and the people were\\nthereafter known as Romans and Quirites. Both had seats in\\nnow became one nation, as the Sabines and the Romans had become in the days of\\nRomulus. In liis old age, Tullus sought to find out the will of Jupiter, using the spells\\nof Numa, but angry Jove struck him with a thunderbolt.\\nANCUS^ Makcius, the grandson of Numa, conquered many Latin cities, and,\\nbringing the inhabitants to Rome, gave them homes on\\nthe Aventine Hill. He wrote Numa s laws on a white\\nboard in the Forum, built a bridge over the Tiber, and\\nerected the Mamertine Prison, the first in the city.\\nTarquinius Pkiscus, the fifth king, was an Etruscan,\\nwho came to Rome during the reign of Ancus. As he\\napproached the city, an eagle flew, circling above his\\nhead, seized his cap, rose high in air, and then returning\\nreplaced it. His wife, Tanaquil, being learned in augury,\\nforetold thathe was coming to distinguished honor. Her\\nprediction proved true, for he greatly pleased Ancus,\\nwho named him as his successor in place of his own\\nchildren. The people ratified the choice, and the event\\nproved its wisdom. Tarquin built the famous Drain\\n(cloaca), which still remains, with scarce a stone dis-\\nplaced. He planned the Great Race-Course (Circus\\nMaximus) and its games. He conquered Etruria, and\\nthe Etruscans sent him a golden crown, a scepter,\\nan ivory chair, a purple toga, an embioidered tunic,\\nand an ax tied in a bundle of rods. So the Romans\\nadopted these emblems of royal power as signs of\\ntheir dominion.\\nNow, there was a boy named Servius Tullius brought\\nup in the palace, who was a favorite of the king. One\\nday while the child was asleep lambent flames were seen\\nplaying about his head. Tanaquil foresaw from this\\nUIIIIIJjjLIJU that he was destined to great things. He was hence-\\nforth in high favor; he married the king s daughter,\\nand became his counselor. The sons of Ancus, fearing\\nlest Servius should succeed to the throne, and being\\nwroth with Tarquin because of the loss of their paternal\\ninheritance, assassinated the king. But Tanaquil re-\\nported that Tarquin was only wounded, and wished that\\nServius might govern until he recovered. Before the deception was discovered,\\nROMAN FASCES.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 209\\nthe senate, and the king was taken alternately horn each.\\nThis was henceforth the mode of Rome s gi-owth she ad-\\nmitted her allies and conquered enemies to citizenship, thns\\nadding their strength to her own, and making her victories\\ntheir victories.\\nAlba Lionga, the chief town of the Latin League and\\nthe mother city of Rome, was herself, after a time, destroyed,\\nand the inhabitants were transferred to Rome. The Alban\\nnobles, now perhaps called Liiceres, with the Sabines {Titles),\\nali-eady joined to the original Romans (Ranmes), made the\\nServius was liriuly fixed in his seat. He made a league witJi the Latins, and, as\\na sign of the union, built to Diana a teniiile on the Aventine, where both peoples\\noflfeied annual sacrifices for Rome and LatiuTn. He enlarged Rome, inclosing tlie\\nseven hills with a stone wall, and divided the city into four parts,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 called tribes, after\\nthe old division of the people as instituted by Romulus,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 and all the land about into\\ntwenty-six districts. The son of a bond-maid, Servius favored the common people.\\nThis was shown in his sepaiatiou of all the Romans\u00e2\u0080\u0094 patricians and plebeians\u00e2\u0080\u0094 into\\nfive classes, according to their wealth. These classes were .subdivided into centuries,\\nand tliey were to assemble in this military order when the king wished to consult\\nconcerning peace or war, or laws. In the centuriate assembly the richest citizens\\nhad the chief influence, tor they formed eighty centuries, and the knights (equites)\\neighteen centuries, each having a vote; while fewer votes were given to the lower\\nclasses. But this arrangement was not unjust, .since the wealthy were to provide\\nthemselves with lieavj armor, and fight in the front rank while the poorest citizens,\\nwho formed but one century, were exempt from military service.\\nThe hoo daughters of Servius were married to the two sons of Tarquinius the\\nElder. The couples were ill matched, in each casp the good and gentle being mated\\nwith the cruel and haughty. Finallj-, Tullia murdered her husband, and Lucius\\nkilled his wife, and the.se two partners in crime, and of like evil instincts, were mar-\\nried. Lucius now conspired with the nobles against the king. His plans being ripe,\\none day he went into the senate and sat down on the throne. Servius, hearing the\\ntumult which aro.se, ha.steued thither, whereupon Lucius hurled the king headlong\\ndown the steps. As tlie old man was tottering homeward, tlie usurper s attendants\\nfollowed and murdered him. Tullia hastened to the senate to salute her liu-sband as\\nking but he, somewhat le.ss brutal than she, ordered her back. While returning,\\nher driver came to the prostrate body of the king, and was about to turn aside, when\\nshe fiercely bade hira go forward. Tlie blood of her father spattered lier dress as\\nthe chariot rolled over his lifeless remains. The place took its name from this horrible\\ndeed, and was thenceforth known as the Wicked Street.\\nLucius TAUQirixiLS, who thus became the seventh and last king, was surnamed\\nSuperbus (the Proud). He erected massive edifices, compelling the workmen to re-\\nceive .such pitiable wages that many in despair committed suicide. In digging the\\nfoundations of a temple to Jupiter, a bleeding head {captit) was discovered. This the\\nking took to be an omen tliat the city was to become the lieadof the world, and so gave\\nthe name Capitoline to tlie temi)le, and the liill on which it stood. In the vaults of\\nthis temple weredeposited the Sibylline books, concerning which a singular story was\\ntold. One day a sibyl from Cum e came to tlie king, offering to sell him for a fabu-\\nlous sum nine books of prophecies. Tarquin declined to buy, whereupon she burned", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "EAELY TRIBES\\nAND CITIES\\nOF THE\\nITALIAN\\nPENINSULA,\\nbefore the\\nadvent of the Gaulsi\\nPLAN OF THE\\nR03IAN HILLS\\n1 Suburra 4 Circus Maximus\\n2 Roman Forocx 5 Colosseum\\nVelabrum 6 Pantheon\\n7 Amphitheater of Taurus\\n8 Mausoleum of Augustus\\nJ.aurenlunr-frtMloir\u00c2\u00bb ^-CT0\\nRUSSELL i STRUTHERS, ENG S, N-V.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 211\\nnumber of tribes three; of curite, thirty; and of houses,\\n(probably) three hundred.\\nEtruscan Conquest. The rising city was, in its turn,\\nconquered by the Etruscans, who pkced the Tarquins on\\nthe throne. This foreign dynasty were builders as well as\\nwarriors. They adorned Rome with elegant edifices of\\nEtruscan architecture. They added the adjacent heights to\\nthe growing capital, and extended around the seven-hilled\\ncity a stone wall, which lasted eight centuries. Rome,\\nmthin one hundred and fifty years after her founding, be-\\ncame the head of Latium.\\nthree of the books, and demanded the same price for the remaining six. Tarquin\\nlaughed, thinking her mad; but when she burned three more, and still asked the\\noriginal amount for the other volumes, the king began to reflect, and finally bought\\nthe books. They were thereafter jealously guarded, and consulted in all great state\\nemergencies.\\nThe Latin town of Gabii was taken by a stratagem. Sextus, the son of Tarquin,\\npretending to have fled from his father s ill usage, took refuge in that city. Hav-\\ning secured the confidence of the people, he secretly sent to his father, asking\\nadvice. Tarquin merely took the messenger into his garden, and, walking to and fro,\\nknocked ofi with his cane the tallest poppies. Sextus read his father s meaning, and\\nmanaged to get rid of the chief men of Gabii, when it was easy to give up the place to\\nthe Romans.\\nTarquin was greatly troubled by a strange omen, a serpent having eaten the sacri-\\nfice on the royal altar. The two sous of the king were accordingly sent to consult\\nthe oracle at Delphi. They were accompanied by their cousin Junius, called Brutus\\nbecause of his silliness which, however, was only assumed, through fear of the tyrant\\nwho had already killed his brother. The king s sons made the Delphic god costly\\npresents Brutus brought only a simple staff, but, unknown to the rest, this was\\nhollow and filled with gold. Having executed their commission, the young men\\nasked the priestess which of them should be king. The reply was, The one who\\nfirst kisses his mother. On reaching Italy, Brutus, prt-tending to fall, kissed the\\nground, the common mother of us all.\\nAs the royal princes and Tarquiuius Collatinus were one day fea.sting in the camp\\na dispute arose concerning the industrj of their wives. To decide it they at once\\nhastened homeward through the darkness. They found the king s daughters at a\\nfe.stival, while Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, was in the midst of her slaves, dist.nff\\nin hand. Collatinus was exultant but soon after, Lucretia, stung by the insults\\nshe received from Sextus, killed herself, calling upon her friends to avenge her\\nfate. Brutus, casting ofi the mask of madness, drew forth the dagger she used, and\\nvowed to kill Sextus and expel the detested race. The oath was repeatcMl as the red\\nblade passed from hand to hand. The people rose in indignation, and drove the\\nTarquins from tlie city. Henceforth tlie Romans hated the ver5 name of king. Rome\\nnow became a free citj after it liad been governed by kings for two hundred and forty-\\nfive years. Tlie i)eople chose for ruleis two consuls, elected yearly and to otlor\\nsacrifices in place of the king, they selected a priest who should have no power in the\\nstate.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "212 ROME.\\nThe Servian Constitution. The Tarquins diminished\\npatrician power and helped the plebs by a change in the\\nconstitution. Servius p. 209) divided all the Romans into\\nfive classes, based on property instead of birth, and these\\ninto one hundred and ninety-three centuries or companies.\\nThe people were directed to assemble by centuries [comitia\\ncenturiata), either to fight or to vote. This body, in fact,\\nconstituted an army, and was called together on the field of\\nMars by the blast of the trumpet. To the new centuriate\\nassembly was given the right of selecting the king and en-\\nacting the laws. The king was deprived of his power as\\nBrutus and Collatinus were the first consuls. Soon after this the two sons of\\nBrutus plotted to bring Tarquin back. Their father was sitting on the judgment-seat\\nwhen they were brought in for trial. Tlie stern old Roman, true to duty, sentenced\\nboth to death as traitors.\\nTarquin now induced the Etruscans of the towns of Veil and Tarquinii to aid\\nhim, and they accordingly marched toward Rome. The Romans went forth to meet\\nthem. As the two armies drew near, Aruns, son of Tarquin, catching sight of Brutus,\\nrushed forward, and the two enemies fell dead, each pierced by tlie other s spear.\\nNight checked the terrible contest which ensued. During the darkness the voice of\\nthe god Silvauus was heard in the woods, saying that Rome had beaten, since the\\nEtruscans had lost one man more than the Romans. Tlie Etruscans fled in dismay.\\nThe matrons of Rome mouined Brutus for a whole year because he had so bravely\\navenged the wrongs of Lucretia.\\nTSText came a powerful armj of Etruscans under Porsenna, king of Clusium. He\\ncaptured Janiculum (a hill just aross the Tiber), and would liave forced his way into\\nthe city with the fleeing Romans had not Horatius Codes, with two brave men, held\\nthe bridge while it was cut down behind them. As the timbers tottered, his com-\\npanions rushed across. But he kept the enemy at bay until the shouts of the Romans\\ntold him the bridge was gone, when, with a prayer to Father Tiber, he leaped into the\\nstream, and, amid a shower of arrows, swam safely to the bank. The people never\\ntired of praising this hero. They erected a statue in his honor, and gave him as\\nmuch land as he could plow in a day.\\nAnd still his name sounds stirring\\nUnto the men of Rome,\\nAs the trumpet-blast that cries to them\\nTo charge the Volscian home.\\nAnd wives still pray to Juno\\nFor boys with hearts as bold\\nAs his who kept the bridge so well\\nIn the brave days of old.\\nMacatilay s Lays.\\nPorsenna now laid siege to the city. Then Mucins, a young noble, went to the\\nEtru.scau camp to kill Porsenna. By mistake ho slew the treasurer. Being dragged\\nbefore the king, and threatened with death if he did not confess liis accomplices, he\\nthrust his right hand into an altar-tire, and held it there until it was burned to a", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "509B.C.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 213\\npriest, this office being- conferred on tlie cliief pontiff. The\\nhiglier classes, aggrieved l)y tliesc clianges, at last coiM])ined\\nwith other Latin cities to expel their Ktrnscan rulers.\\nKings now came to an end at Rome. This was in 509 b. c,\\na year after Hippias was driven out of Athens (p. 124).\\nThe Republic was tlien established. Two chief magis-\\ntrates, eousuls (at first called pni^tors), were chosen, it being\\nthought that if one turned out badly the other would check\\nhim. The constitution of Servius was adopted, and the\\nsenate, which had dwindled in size, was restored to its ideal\\nnumber, three hundred, by the addition of one hundred and\\nsixty-four life-members (conscripti) chosen from the richest\\nof the knights (eqnites), several of these being plebeians.\\nThe Struggle between the Patricians and the\\nPlebeians w^as the characteristic of the first two hundred\\nyears of the republic. The patricians were the descendants\\nof the first settlers. They were rich, proud, exclusive,\\nand demanded all the offices of the government. Each of\\nthese nobles was supported by a powerful body of clients\\nor dependants. The plebeians were the newer families.\\nThey w^ere generally poor, forbidden the rights of citizens,\\ncrisp. Porsenna, amazed at his firmness, gave liim liis liberty. Mucins thereupon\\ntold the kiug that three hundred Roman youths had sworn to accomplish his death.\\nPorsenna, alarmed for his life, made peace with Rome. Among the hostages given\\nby Rome was Cloelia, a noble maiden, who, escaping from the Etruscan camp, swam\\nthe Tiber. The Romans sent her back, but Porsenna, admiring her courage, set her\\nfree.\\nTarquin next secured a league of thirty Latin cities to aid in liis restoration. In\\nthis emergency the Romans appointed a dictator, who sliould possess absolute power\\nfor six months. A great battle was fought at Lake Regillus. Like most ancient con-\\ntests, it began with a series of single encounters. First, Tarquin and the Roman\\ndictator fouglit; then the Latin dictator and the Roman master of horse. Finally\\nthe main armies came to blows. The Romans being worsted, their dictator vowed a\\ntemple to Castor and Pollux. Suddenly the Twin Brethren, taller and fairer tlian\\nmen, on snow-white horses and clad in rare armor, were seen fighting at his side.\\nEverywhere the Latins broke and fled before them. Tarquin gave up his attempt in\\ndespair. Tliat night two liders, their horses wet with foam and blood, rode up to a\\nfountain before the Temple of Vesta at Rome, and, as they washed otf in the cool\\nwater the traces of tlie battle, told how a great victory had been won over the Latin\\nhost (see Steele s New Astronomy, p. 227).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "214 ROME. [494 b. C.\\nand not allowed to intermarry with the patricians. Obliged\\nto serve in the army without pay. during their absence their\\nfarms remained untilled, and were often ravaged by the\\nenemy. Forced, when they returned from war, to borrow\\nmoney of the patricians for seed, tools, and food, if they\\nfailed in their payments they could be sold as slaves, or cut\\nin pieces for distribution among their creditors. The prisons\\nconnected with the houses of the great patricians were full\\nof plebeian debtors.\\nSecession to Mons Sacer.^ Tribunes (494 b. c).\\nThe condition of the plebs became so unbearable that they\\nfinally marched off in a body and encamped on the Sacred\\nMount, where they determined to build a new city, and let\\nthe patricians have the old one for themselves. The pa-\\ntricians,^ in alarm, compromised by canceling the plebeian\\ndebts and appointing tribunes of the people, whose persons\\nwere sacred, and whose houses, standing open day and\\nnight, were places of refuge. To these new officers was after-\\nward given the power of veto (I forbid) over any law passed\\nby the senate and considered injurious to the plebs. Such\\nwas the exclusiveness of the senate, however, that the trib-\\nunes could not enter the senate-house, but were obliged to\\nremain outside, and shout the v^to through the open\\ndoor.\\nThere were now two distinct peoples in Rome^ each with\\nits own interests and officers. This is well illustrated in tlK^\\nfact that the agreement made on Mons Sacer was concluded\\nin the form of an international treaty, with the usual oaths\\nand sacrifices and that the magistrates of the plebs were\\n1 Piso mentions the Aventiiie as the probable Mons Sacer, or Sacred Mount.\\n2 OW Menenins Agrippa tried to teach the plebeians a lesson in a fable: Oucenpon\\na time the various human organs, tired of serving so seemingly idle a member as the\\nstomach, struck work accordingly the hands would carry no food to the mouth,\\nand the teeth would not chew. Soon, however, all the organs began to fail, and then,\\nto their suiprise, they leained that they all depen^led on tliis very stomach.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "494 B.C.]\\nTHE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\n211\\nUOMAN FI.KBEIANtJ.\\ndeclared to be inviolate,\\nlike the ambassadors of\\na foreign power.\\nThe Three Popu-\\nlar Assemblies of\\nRome, with tlieir pecu-\\nliar organization and\\npowers, marked so many\\nstages of constitutional\\ngrowth in the state.\\nThe AssemUy of Curi-\\nes (comitia curiata), the\\noldest and long the\\nonly one, was based on\\nthe patrician separation\\ninto tribes {Ramnes, Ti-\\ntles, and Ijiiceres). No plebeian had a voice in this gather-\\ning, and it early lost its influence, and became a relic of\\nthe past.\\nTJie Assenihhj of Cen furies (comitia centiu-iata), which came\\nin with the Etruscan kings, was essentially a mihtary organi-\\nzation. Based on the entire population, it gave the plebe-\\nians their first voice, though a weak one, in public affairs.\\nThe Assemhhj of the Tribes (comitia tributa), introduced\\nwith the rising of the plebs, was based on the new separa-\\ntion into tribes, i. e., wards and districts. The patricians\\nwere here excluded, as the plebeians had been at first and\\nRome, which began with a purely aristocratic assembly, had\\nnow a iDurely democratic one.\\nThe original number of the local tribes was twenty\\nin all, four city wards and sixteen country districts.\\nWith the growth of the republic and the acquisition of new\\nterritory, the number was increased to thirty-five (241 b. c).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "216 ROME. [486 b. C.\\nThe Roman citizens were then so numerous and so scattered\\nthat it was impossible for them to meet at Rome to elect\\nofficers and make laws but still the organization was kept\\nup till the end of the repubUc,\\nAn Agrarian Law {a(je)% a field) was the next measure\\nof relief granted to the common people. It was customary\\nfor the Romans, when they conquered a temtory, to leave the\\no^vmers a part of the land, and to take the rest for them-\\nselves. Though this became public property, the patricians\\nused it as their ow^l. The plebeians, who bore the brunt of\\nthe fighting, naturally thought they had the best claim to\\nthe spoils of war, and with the assertion of their civil rights\\ncame now a claim for the rights of property.\\nSpurins Cassius (486 B. c), though himself a patrician,\\nsecured a law ordaining that part of the public lands shoidd\\nbe di^4ded among the poor plebeians, and the patricians\\nshould pay rent for the rest. But the patricians were so\\nstrong that they made the law a dead letter, and finally,\\non the charge of wishing to be king, put Spurius to death,\\nand leveled his house to the ground. The agitation, how-\\never, still continued.\\nThe Decemvirs (451 b. c). The tribunes, through\\nignorance of the laws, which were jealously guarded as the\\nexclusive property of the patricians, wei e often thwarted\\nin their measures to aid the common ]:)eople. The plebs\\nof Rome, therefore, like the common people of Athens\\nnearly two hundred years before (p. 121), demanded that\\nthe laws should be made public. After a long struggle\\nthe senate pelded. Ten men {(Ipcpinrirs) were appointed\\n1 Property at that early date eonsisted almost entirely of land and cattle. The\\nLatin word for money, pecunia (cattle), indicates tliis ancient identity.\\n2 Spnrius wa.s the author of the famous League of the Romans, Latin.s and Her-\\nnicans, hy means of which the .^Equians and Volscians were long held in check.\\nThe men of the Latin League fought side by side until after the Gallic invasion.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "451 B.C.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 217\\nto revise and publish the laws. Meanwhile the regular\\ngovernment of consuls and tribunes was suspended. The\\ndecemvirs did their work well, and compiled ten tables\\nof laws that were acceptable. Their year of office having\\nexpired, a second body of decemvirs was chosen to write the\\nrest of the laws. The senate, finding them favorable to the\\nplebeians, forced the decemvirs to resign, introduced into\\nthe two remaining tables regidations obnoxious to the com-\\nmon people, and then endeavored to restore the consular\\ngovernment without the tribuneship. The plebs a second\\ntime seceded to the Sacred Mount, and the senate w^as forced\\nto reinstate the tribunes.\\nThe Laws of the Twelve Tables remained as the\\ngi-and result of the decem\\\\dral legislation. They were\\nengraved on blocks of brass or ivory, and hung up in the\\n1 The account of this transactiou giveu in Livj s Historj is doubtless largely\\nlegendary. Tlie stoiy runs as follows: Tliree ambassadors were appointed to visit\\nAthens (this was during the Age of I ericles and examine the laws of Solon. On\\ntheir return the decemvirs were chosen. They were to be supreme, and the consuls,\\ntribunes, etc., resigned. Tlie new rulers did admirably dunng one term, and com-\\npleted ten tables of excellent laws that were adopted by the A.ssembly of Centuries.\\nDecemvirs were therefore chosen for a second term. Appius Claudius was the most\\npopular of the first bodj- of decemvirs, and tlie only one reelected. Now all was\\nquickly changed the ten men became at once odious tyrants, and Appius Claudius\\nchief of all. Each of the decemvirs was attended by twelve lictors, bearing the\\nfasces with the axes wherever he went in public. Two new tables of oppressive laws,\\nconfirming the patricians in their hated privileges, were added to the former tables.\\nWhen the 5 ear expired the decemvirs called no new election, and held their office in\\ndefiance of the senate and the people. Xo man s life was safe, and many leading\\npersons fled from Rome. The crisis soon came. One day, seeing a beautiful maiden,\\nthe daughter of a plebeian named Virginias, crossing the Forum, Claudius resolved\\nto make her his own. So he directed a client to seize her on the charge that she was\\nthe child of one of his slaves, and then to bring the case before the decemvirs for\\ntrial. Claudius, of course, decided in favor of his client. Thereupon Viiginius drew\\nhis daughter one side from the judgment-seat as if to bid her farewell. Suddenly\\ncatching up a butcher s knife from a block near by, he plunged it into his daughter s\\nheart, crying, Thus only can I make thee free Then brandishing the red blade,\\nhe liastened to the c.imp and roused the soldiers, who marched to the city, breatliijig\\nvengeance. As over the body of the injured Liicretia, so again over the corpse of the\\nspotless Virginia, thepojuiliice swore that Utmie should be free. The plel\u00c2\u00bbeians flocked\\nout once more to the Sacred Mount. Tlie decemvirs were forced to resign. The\\ntribunes and consuls were restored to power. Appius, in despair, committed suieid*-.\\n(The version of this stoiy given in the text above is that of Ihne, the great Gerniat\\ncritic, in his new work on Early Rome.)", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "218 ROME. [451 B.C.\\nForum, where all could read them. Henceforth they con-\\nstituted the foundation of the written law of Rome, and\\nevery schoolboy, as late as Cicero s time, learned them by\\nheart.\\nContinued Triumph of the Plebs. Step by step the\\nplebeians pushed their demand for equal privileges with\\nthe patricians. First the Valerian and Horatian decrees\\n(449 B. c), so called from the consuls who prepared them,\\nmade the resolutions passed by the plebeians in the Assembly\\nof the Tribes binding equally upon the patricians. Next\\nthe Canuleian decree (445 b. c.) abolished the law against in-\\ntermarriage. The patricians, finding that the plebeians were\\nlikely to get hold of the consulship, compromised by abol-\\nishing that office, and by choosing, through the Assembly of\\nCenturies, from patricians and plebeians alike, three military\\ntribunes with consnlar powers. But the patricians did not\\nact in good faith, and by innumerable arts managed to cir-\\ncumvent the plebs, so that during the next fifty years (until\\n400 B. c.) there were twenty elections of consuls instead of\\nmilitary tribunes, and when mihtary tribunes were chosen\\nthey were always patricians. Meanwhile they also secured\\nthe appointment of censors, to be chosen from their ranks\\nexclusively, Avho took the census, classified the people, and\\nsupervised public morals. Thus they constantly strove to\\noffset the new plebeian power. So vindictive was the strug-\\ngle that the nobles did not shrink from murder to remove\\npromising plebeian candidates.^ Bnt the plebs held firm,\\n1 Thus the Fabii a powerful patrician house, having taken the side of the plebs,\\nand fimling that thej^ could not thereafter live in peace at Rome, left the citj% and\\nfounded an outpost on the Cremera, below Veii, where they could still serve their\\ncountry. This little body of three hundred and six soldiers\u00e2\u0080\u0094 including the Fabii, their\\nclients and dependants\u00e2\u0080\u0094 sustained for two years the full brunt of the Veientine war.\\nAt length they were enticed into an ambuscade, and all were slain except one little\\nboy, the ancestor of the Fabius afterward so famous. During the massacre the con-\\nsular army was near by, but patrician hate would not permit a rescue.\\nAgain, during a severe famine at Home (440 u. c), a rich plcbeiau, named 8purius", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "3G7B. C] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 219\\nand liiially secured the iaiiious Liciuiaii Ro(j ition (8(57 H. c),\\nwhich ordered,\\nI. That, in case of debts on which interest had been met, the sum of tlio interest\\npaid should be deducted from tlic principal, and the remainder become due in three\\nsuccessive years. (This bankrupt law was designed to aid the poor, now overwhelmed\\nwith debt, and so in the power of the rich creditor.)\\nII. That no citizen should hold more than live hundred jugera (about three hun-\\ndred and twenty acres) of the public land, and should not feed on the public pastures\\nmore than a limited number of cattle, under penalty of fine.\\nIII. That henceforth consuls, not consular tribunes, should be elected, and tliat\\none of the two consuls must be plebeian.\\nIV. That instead of two patricians being chosen to keep the Sibylline books (p. 209),\\nthere should be ten men, taken eqiially from both orders.\\nFor years after its passage the patricians struggled to pre-\\nvent the decree from going into effect. But the common\\npeople finally won. They never lost the gi ound they had\\ngained, and secured, in rapid succession, the dictatorship, the\\ncensorship, the pragtorship, and (300 B. c.) the right to be\\npontiff and augur. Rome at last, nearly two centuries\\nafter the republic began, possessed a democratic govern-\\nment. Civil concord, says Weber, to which a temple\\nwas dedicated at tliis time, brought with it a period of civic\\nvirtue and heroic greatness.\\nWars with Neighboring Tribes. While this long\\ncivil contest was raging wdthin the w^alls of Rome, her\\narmies were fighting without, striving to regain her lost\\nsupremacy over Latium, and sometimes for the very exist-\\nen(^e of the city. There was a constant succession of wars\\nMfElius, sold grain to the poor at a very low rate. The patricians, finding that he\\nwas likely to be a successful candidate for office, accused him of wishing to be king,\\nand as he refused to appear before his enemies for trial, Ahala, the master of\\nhorse, slew him in the Forum with his own hand.\\n1 Various beautiful legends cluster around these eventful wars, and they have\\nattained almost the dignity, though we cannot tell how much thej contain of the\\ntruth, of historj\\nCOKlOLANUS.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 W^hile the Romans were besieging Corioli, the Volscians made a\\nsally, but were defeated. In the eagerness of the pursuit, Caius Maicius followed the\\nenemy inside the gates, which were closed upcm him. But with his good sword he\\nhewed his way back, and let in the Romans. So the city was taken, and the hero", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "220\\nROME.\\n[390 B. 0.\\nwith the Latins, JEquians, Volscians, Etruscans, Veientes,\\nand Samnites. Connected with these wars are the names,\\nfamous in Roman legend, of Coriolanus, Cincinnatus, and\\nCamillus.\\nThe Gallic Invasion. In the midst of these contests\\na horde of Gauls crossed the Apennines, and spread like a\\ndevastating flood over central Italy. Rome was taken, and\\nnearly all the city burned (390 B. c). The invaders con-\\nleceived the naine Coriolanus. Afleiward tliere was a famine at Rome, and, grain\\narriving from Sicily, Cains would not sell any to the plebs unless they would submit\\nto tlie patricians. Thereupon the tribunes sought to bring him to trial, but he lied,\\nand took refuge among the Volsci. Soon after, he returned at the head of a great\\narmy, and laid siege to Rome. The city was in peril. As a final resort, his mother,\\nwife, and children, with many of the chief, women, clad in the deepest mourning,\\nwent forth and fell at his feet. Unable to resist their entreaties, Coriolanus ex-\\nclaimed, Mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost tliy .son. Having given the order\\nto retreat, he is said to have been slain by the angry Volsci.\\nCINX-INNATUS RECEIVINli TUli LllCTA lOUSIlU\\nCINCINNATUS.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 One day news came that the ^(luians had surrounded tlie consul\\nMinucius and his army in a deep valley, whence they could not escape. Tlie cmly one\\nin Rome deemed fit to meet this emergency was Titus Quinctius, sunuimed Cincin-\\nnatus (the Curly-haired), who was now declared dictator. The officers who went to", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "390 b. C] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. ZZl\\nsented to retire only on tlie payment of a heavy ransom.\\nSo deep an impression was made upon the Romans by the\\nsize, strength, courage, and enormous number of tliese bar-\\nbarians, that they thenceforth called a war with the Gauls\\na tumult^ and kept in the treasury a special fund for su(;h a\\ncatastrophe.\\nThe Final Effect of all these wars was beneficial to\\nl\\\\onie. The plebeians, who formed the strength of her\\narmy, frequently carried their point against the patricians\\nby refusing to fight until they got theu rights. These long\\n-struggles, too, matured the Roman energy, and developed\\nannounce his appointment found liim plowing on his little farm of four acres,\\nwhich he tilletl himself. He called for his toga, that lie might receive the commands\\nof the senate with due resi)ect, when he was at once hailed dictator. Repairing to\\ntlie city, he assembled fresh tioops, bidding each man carry twelve wooden stakes.\\nThat very night he surrounded the ^quians, dug a ditch, and made a palisade about\\ntlieir camp. Minucius, hearing the Roman war-cry, rushed up and fell upon th\u00c2\u00a9\\nenemj with all his might. When day broke, the yEquians found themselves hemmed\\nin, and were forced to surren ler and to pass under the j-oke. Ciucinnatus, on hi8\\nreturn, was awarded a golden crown. Having saved his country, he resigned his\\noffice and went back to his plow again, content witli the quiet of his rustic home.\\nTHE Siege of Veii\u00e2\u0080\u0094 tlie Troy of Roman legend\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lasted ten years. Before that\\nthe Roman wars consisted mainly of mere foraj-s into an enemy s country. Now the\\ntroops remained summer and winter, and for the first time received regular pay. In\\nthe seventh year of the siege, Lake Albanu.s, though in the heat of summer, over-\\nflowed its banks. Tlie Delphic oracle declared tliat Veii would not fall until the lake\\nwas dried up, whereupon the Roman army cut a tunnel tlirough the solid rock to\\nconvey tlie surplus water over the neighboring fields. Still the citj did not yield.\\nCamillus, having been appointed dictator, dug a passage under the wall. One day the\\nking of Veii was about to offer a sacrifice, when the soothsayer told him that the city\\nshould belong to him who slew the victim. The Romans, who were beneath, heard\\nthese words, and, forcing their way through, hastened to the shrine, and Camillus\\ncompleted the sacrifice. The gates were thrown open, and the Roman army, rushing\\nin, overpowered all opposition.\\nThe City of Faleuii had aided the Veientes. When Camillus, bent on revenge,\\nappeared before the place, a schoolmaster secretly brought into the Roman camp his\\npupils, the children of the chief men of Falerii. Camillus, scorning to receive the\\ntraitor, tied his hands behind his back, and, giving whips to the boys, bade them flog\\ntheir master back into the city. The Falerians, moved by such magnanimity, sur-\\nrendered to the Romans. Camillus entered Rome in a chariot drawn by white horses,\\nand I .aving his face colored with vermilion, as was the custom when the gods were\\nborne in procession. Unfortunately, he offended the plebs by ordering each man to\\nrestore one tenth of his booty for an oflfering to Apollo. He was accused of pride,\\nand of appropriating to his own use the bronzt^ gates of Veii. Forced to leave the\\ncity, he went out praying that Rome might yet need his help. That time soon came.\\nFive years after, the Gauls defeated the Romans at\\nThe RIVEK ALLIA, where the slaughter was so great that the anniversary of the", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "222 ROME. [390 b. c.\\nthe Roman character in all its stern, nnfeeling, and yet\\nheroic strength.\\nAfter the Gallic invasion Rome was soon rebuilt. The sur-\\nrounding nations having suffered still more severely from\\nthe northern barbarians, and the Gauls being now looked\\nupon as the common enemy of Italy, Rome came to be con-\\nsidered the common defender. The plebs, in rebuilding\\ntheir ruined houses and buying tools, cattle, and seed, were\\nreduced to greater straits than ever before (unless after the\\nexpulsion of the Etruscan kings) and to add to their bur-\\ndens a double tribute was imposed by the government, in\\nbattle became a black day in the Roman calendar. The wreck of the army took refuge\\nin Veil. The people of Rome fled for their lives. Tlie young patricians garrisoned\\nthe citadel; and the graj^-haired senators, devoting themselves as an offering to the\\ngods, ljut on their robes, and, sitting in their ivory chairs of magistracy, awaited\\ndeath. The barbarians, hurrying through the deserted streets, at length came to the\\nForum. For a moment tliey stood amazed at the sight of those solemn figures. Then\\none of the Gauls put out his hand reverently to stroke the white beard of an aged\\nsenator, when the indignant Roman, revolting at the profanation, felled him with his\\nstaff. The spell was broken, aud tlie senators were ruthlessly massacred.\\nThe Siege of the Capitol lasted for montlis. One night a party of Gauls clambered\\nup the steep ascent, and one of them reached the highest ledge of the rock. Just\\nthen some sacred geese in the Temple of Juno began to cry and flap their wings.\\nMarcus Manlius, aroused by the noise, rushed out, saw the peril, and dashed the\\nforemost Gaul over the precipice. Other Romans rallied to his aid, and the imminent\\nperil was arrested. Finally the Gauls, weary of the siege, offered to accept a ran-\\nsom of a thousand pounds of gold. This sum was raised from the temi)le treasures\\nand the ornaments of the Roman women. As they were weighing the articles, the\\nRomans complained of the scales being false, when Brennus, the Gallic chief, threw\\nin his heavy sword, insolently exclaiming, Woe to the vanquished! At that\\nmoment Caniillus strode in at the head of an army, crying, Rome is to be bought\\nwith iron, not gold! drove out the enemy, and not a man escaped to tell how low\\nthe city had fallen on that eventful daj\\\\ When the Romans returned to their devas-\\ntated homes, they were at first of a mind to leave Rome, and occupy the empty dwell-\\nings of Veil but a lucky omen prevailed on them to remain. Just as a senator was\\nrising to speak, a centurion relieving guard gave the command, Plant your colors\\nthis is the best place to stay in. Tlie senators ruslied forth, shouting, The gods\\nhave spoken we obey The people caught the enthusiasm, and cried out, Rome\\nforever\\nMarcus Manlius, who saved the Capitol, befriended the people in the distress\\nwhich followed the Gallic invasion. One day, seeing a soldier dragged off to prison\\nfor debt, he paid the amount and released the man, at the same time swearing that\\nwhile he had any property left, no Roman sliould be imprisoned for debt. The patri-\\ncians, jealous of his influence among the plebs, accused him of wishing to become\\nking. He was brought to trial in the Campus Martins but the hero pointed to the\\nspoils of thirty warriors whom he had slain; forty distinctions won in battle; his\\ninnumerable scars and, above all, to the Capitol he had saved. His enemies, finding", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "396 b. C] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 228\\norder to rcphi(!e the sacred ^old used to Yniy off tlie Gauls.\\nBut this very misery soon led to the Licinian Rogations\\n(p. 219), and so to the growth of liberty. Thus the plebs\\ngot a consul twenty-four years after the Gauls left, just as\\nthey got the tribunes fifteen years after the Etruscans left\\nthe succeeding ruin both times being followed by a triumph\\nof democracy.\\nThe Capture of Veil (396 B. c.) gave the Romans a foothold\\nbeyond the Tiber and, only three years after the Gallic in-\\nvasion, four new tribes, carved out of the Veientine land,\\nwere added to the republic.\\na conviction in that place impossible, adjourned to a grove where the Capitol could\\nnot be seen, and there the man who had saved Rome was sentenced to death, and at\\nonce hurled from the Tarpeiau Rock.\\nQuiNTUS CUKTius.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Not loug after the Licinian Rogations were passed, Rome\\nwas alflictedby aplague, in which Camillas died; by an overflow of the Tiber; and\\nby an earthquake, which opened a great chasm in the Forum. The augurs de-\\nclared that the gulf would not close until there were cast into it the most precious\\ntreasures whereupon Quiutus Curtius mounted his horse, and, riding at full speed,\\nleaped into the abyss, declaring that Rome s best treasures were her brave men.\\nThk Battle of Mount Vesuvius (340 b. c.) was the chief event of the Latin\\nwar. Prior to this engagement the consul Manilas ordered that no one should quit\\nhis post under pain of death. But his own son, provoked by the taunts of a Tusculau\\noflBoer, left the ranks, slew his opponent in single combat, and brought the bloody\\nspoils to his father. The stern parent ordered him to be at once belieaded by the\\nlictor, in the presence of the army. During the battle which followed, the Romans\\nwere on the point of yielding, when Decius, the plebeian consul, who had promised,\\nin case of defeat, to offer himself to the infernal gods, fulfilled his vow. Calling the\\npontifex maximus, he repeated the form devoting the foe and liimself to death, and\\nthen, wrapping his toga about him, leaped upon his horse, and dashed into the thickest\\nof the fight. His death inspired the Romans with fresh hope, and scarce one fourth\\nof the Latins escaped from that bloody field.\\nBattle of the Caudine Forks.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 During the second Samnite war there arose\\namong the Samnites a famous captain named Caius Pontius. By a stratagem he en-\\nticed the Roman army into the Caudine Forks, in the neighborhood of Caudium. High\\nmountains here inclose a little plain, having at each end a passage through a narrow\\ndefile. When the Romans were fairly in the basin, the Samnites suddenly appeared\\nin both gorges, and forced the consuls to surrender with four legions. Pontius, having\\nsent liis prisoners under the yoke, furnished them with wagons for the wounded, and\\nfood for their journey, and then released them on certain conditions of peace. The\\nsenate refused to ratify the terms, and ordered the consuls to be delivered up to the\\nSamnites, but did not send back the soldiers. Pontius replied that if the senate would\\nnot make peace, then it should place tlie army back in the Caudine Forks. The\\nRomans, who rarely scrupled at any conduct that promised their advantage con-\\ntinued the war. But when, twenty-nine years later, Pontius was captured by Fabius\\nMaximus, that brave Samnite leader was disgracefully put to death as the triumphal\\nchariot of the victor ascended to the Capitol.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "224 ROME. [337 B.C.\\nThe final result of the Latin war (340-338 B. c.) was\\nto dissolve the old Latin League,^ and to merge the cities of\\nLatium, one by one, into the Roman state.\\nThe three Sat)nufe wars (343-290 b. c.) occupied half a\\ncentmy, with brief intervals, and were most obstinately\\ncontested. The long-doubtful struggle cidminated at the\\ngi*eat battle of Sentinimi, in a \\\\dctory over the combined\\nSamnites, Gaids, and Greek colonists. Samnium became a\\nsubject-ally. Rome was now mistress of central Italy.\\nWar with Pyrrhus (280-276 b. c.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The rich city\\nof Tarentum, in southern Italy, had not joined the Samnite\\ncoalition. Rome had therefore made a treaty with her,\\npromising not to send ships of war past the Lacinian Prom-\\nontory. But, having a garrison in the friendly city of Thurii,\\nthe senate ordered a fleet to that place so one day, while the\\npeople of Tarentum were seated in their theater witnessing\\na play, they suddenly saw ten Roman galleys sailing upon\\nthe forbidden waters. The audience in a rage left their\\nseats, rushed down .to the shore, manned some ships, and,\\npushing out, sank four of the Roman squadron. The senate\\nsent ambassadors to ask satisfaction. They reached Taren-\\ntum, so says the legend, during a feast of Bacchus. Postu-\\nmius, the leader of the envoys, made so many mistakes in\\ntalking Greek, that the people laughed aloud, and, as he was\\nleaving, a buffoon threw mud upon his white toga. The\\nshouts only increased when Postumius, holding up his soiled\\nrobe, cried, This shall be washed in torrents of your\\nblood War was now inevitable. Tarentum,^ unable to\\n1 The Latin League (p. 216) was tlissolved in the same year (338 b. c.) with tlie\\nbattle of Chjeronea (p. 149).\\n2 The Greek colonists retained the pride, though they had lost the simplicity, of\\ntheir ancestors. Tliey were effeminate to the last degree. At Tarentum there weie\\nnot enough days in the calendar on which to hold the festivals, and at Sybaris they\\nkilled all the cocks lest they should disturb the iuhabitauts in their sleep.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "280 B. C] THE I Oi.rnCAL HISTORY. 225\\nresist the barbarians of the Tiber, appealed to tlie mother\\neouutry for help. Pyi-rhus, King of Epirus, came over with\\ntwenty-five thousand soldiers and twenty elephants. For\\nthe fii st time the Roman legion (p. 271) met the dreaded\\nMacedonian phalanx. In vain the Roman soldiers sought\\nto break through the l)ristling hedge, with their swords\\nhewing off the pikes, and with their hands bearing them\\nto the gi-ound. To complete their discomfiture, Pyrrhus\\nlaunched his elephants upon their weakened ranks. At\\nthe sight of that new^ kind of oxen, the Roman cavahy\\nfled in dismay.\\nPyiThus won a second battle in the same way. He then\\ncrossed over into Sicily to help the Greeks against the Car-\\nthaginians. When he returned, two years later, while at-\\ntempting to surprise the Romans by a night attack, his\\ntroops lost their way, and the next morning, when weary\\nwith the march, they w^ere assailed by the enemy. The\\nonce-dreaded elephants were frightened back by fire-brands,\\nand driven through the Grecian lines. Pyi-rhus was defeated,\\nand, having lost nearly all his army, returned to Epirus.\\nThe Greek colonies, deprived of his help, w^ere subjugated in\\nrapid succession.\\n1 Many romautic incidents are told of this war. As Pyrrhns walked over the\\nbattle-fieM and saw the Romans lying all with wounds in front, and their countenances\\nstern In death, he cried out, With such soldiers I could conquer the world!\\nCiueas, whom Pyrrhus sent to Rome as an ambassador, returned, saying, The city is\\nlike a temple of tlie gods, and the senate an assembl}-- of kings. Fabricius, who\\ncame to Pyrrhus s camp on a .similar mission, was a sturdy Roman, who worked his\\nown farm, and loved integrity and honor more than aught else, save his country.\\nThe Grecian leader was surprised to find in this haughty barbarian tliat same great-\\nness of soul that liad once made the Hellenic cliaracter so famous. He offered him\\nmore gold than Rome had ever possessed if he would enter his service, but Fabri-\\ncius replied that poverty, with a good name, is better than wealth. Afterward\\nthe physician of Pyrrhus offered to poison the king; but tlie indignant Roman sent\\nback the traitor in irons. Pyrrlius, not to be outdone in j-enerosity, .set free all his\\ncaptives, saying tliat it was ea.sier to turn the sun from its course than Fabricius\\nfrom the path of honor. Deutatus, the consul wlio defeated Pyrrhus, was offered\\nby the grateful senate a tract of land. He replied that he already had seven acres,\\nand that was sufficient for any citizen.\\nB Q H\u00e2\u0080\u0094 14", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "226 ROME. [265 B.C.\\nRome ivas now 7m stress of peninsular Italy. She was ready\\nto begin her grand career of foreign conquest.\\nThe Roman Government in Italy was that of one city\\nsupreme over many cities. Rome retained the rights of de-\\nclaring war, making peace, and coining money, but permitted\\nher subjects to manage then- local affairs. All were required\\nto furnish soldiers to fight under the eagles of Rome. There\\nwere three classes of inhabitants, Roman citizens Latins^\\nand Italians. The Roman citizens were those who occupied\\nthe territory of Rome proper, including others upon whom\\nthis franchise had been bestowed. They had the right to\\nmeet in the Forum to enact laws, elect consuls, etc. The\\nLatins had only a few of the rights of citizenship, and the\\nItalians or aUies none. As the power of Rome grew, Roman\\ncitizenship acquired a might and a meaning (Acts xxii. 25\\nxxiii. 27 xxv. 11-21) which made it eagerly sought by every\\nperson and city and the prize constantly held out, as a\\nreward for special service and devotion, was that the ItaUan\\ncould be made a Latin, and the Latin a Roman.\\nThe Romans were famous road-builders, and the gi-eat\\nnational highways which they constructed throughout their\\nterritories did much to tie them together (p. 282). By\\ntheir use Rome kept up constant communication with all\\nparts of her possessions, and could quickly send her legions\\nwherever wanted.\\nA portion of the land in each conquered state was given\\nto Roman colonists. They became the patricians in the\\nnew city, the old inhabitants counting only as plebs. Thus\\nlittle Romes were built aU over Italy. The natives looked\\nup to these settlers, and, hoping to obtain similar rights,\\nquickly adopted their customs, institutions, and language.\\nSo the entire peninsula rapidly assumed a uniform national\\ncharacter.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "264 b. 0.] THE POLITICAL HISTOKY. 227\\nTHE rUNIC WARS.\\nCarthage (p. 76) was now the great naval and colonizing\\npower of the western Mediterranean. She had established\\nsome settlements in western Sicily, and these were almost\\nconstantly at war with the Greeks on the eastern coast. As\\nSicily lay between Carthage and Italy, it was natnral that\\ntwo such aggressive powers as the Carthaginians and the\\nRomans should come to blows on that island.\\nFirst Punic War (264-241 b. c). Some pirates seized\\nMessana, the nearest city to Italy, and, being threatened by\\nthe Carthaginians and the Syracusans, asked help of Rome,\\nin order to retain their ill-gotten possessions. On this\\nwretched pretext an army was sent into Sicily. The Car-\\nthaginians were driven back, and Hiero, king of Syracuse,\\nwas forced to make a treaty with Rome. Agrigentum, an\\nimportant naval depot belonging to Carthage, was then cap-\\ntured, in spite of a large army of mercenary soldiers which\\nthe Carthaginians sent to its defense.\\nRome^s First Fleet (260 b. c.).^ The Roman senate, not\\ncontent with this success, was bent on contesting with Car-\\nthage the supremacy of the sea. One hundred and thirty\\nvessels were accordingly built in sixty days, a stranded\\nPhoenician galley being taken as a model. To compensate\\nthe lack of skilled seamen, the -ships were provided with\\ndrawbridges, so that coming at once to close quarters their\\ndisciplined soldiers could rush upon the enemies deck, and\\ndecide the contest by a hand-to-hand fight. They thus beat\\n1 From punicus, an adjective derived from Pa iii, the Latin form of tlie word\\nPhceuiciaiKS.\\n2 The Romans 1)ogan to construct a fleet as early as 338 B. c, and in 267 we read\\nof the qviestors of tlic navy but the ves.sols were small, and Homo was a land-power\\nuntil 260 B. c.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "256 b. C] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 229\\nthe Carthaginians in two great naval battles within four\\nyears.\\nRomans cross the Sea. Under Regulus the Romans then\\ncrossed the Mediterranean, and carried the war into Africa.\\nThe natives, weary of the oppressive rule of the Carthagin-\\nians, welcomed their deliverers. Carthage seemed about to\\nfall, when the presence of one man turned the tide. Xan-\\nthippus, a Spartan general, led the Carthaginians to victory,\\ndestroyed the Roman army, and captured Regulus.^\\nAfter this the contest dragged on for several years but a\\nsignal victory near Panormus, in Sicily, gave the Romans\\nthe ascendency in that island, and finally a great naval defeat\\noff the ^gu^sae Islands cost the Carthaginians the empire\\nof the sea.\\naffects. Carthage was forced to give up Sicily, and pay\\nthii-ty-two hundred talents of silver (about four million\\ndollars) tow^ard tlie war expenses. The Temple of Janus\\nwas shut for the first time since the days of Numa (p. 207).\\nEome^s First Province was Sicily. This was governed, like\\nall the possessions which she afterward acquired outside of\\nItaly, by magistrates sent each year from Rome. The peo-\\nple, being made not allies but subjects, were required to pay\\nan annual tribute.\\n1 It is said that Regulus, wliile at tlic height of his success, asked permission to\\nreturn home to his little farm, as a slave had run away with the tools, and his family\\nwas likely to suffer with want during his absence. After his capture, the Cartlia-\\nginians sent him to Rome with proposals of peace, making him swear to return in\\ncase the conditions were not accepted. On his arrival, he refused to enter the city,\\nsaying that he was no longer a Roman citizen, but only a Carthaginian slave. Having\\nstated the terms of the proposed peace, to the amazement of all, ho urged their re-\\njection as unworthy of the glory and honor of Rome. Then, without visiting his\\nhome, he turned away from weeping wife and cliildrcn, and went back to his prison\\nagain. The enraged Carthaginians cut off his eyelids, and exposed him to the burn-\\ning rays of a tropic sun, and then thrust him into a barrel .studded with sharp nails.\\nSo perislied tliis martyr to his word and his country.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Historic research tlirows\\ndoubt on the truth of this instance of Punic cruelty, and asserts tliat the storj- was\\nInvented to excuse the barbaritj with wliicli tlie wife of Regulus treated some Car-\\nthaginian captives who fell into her hands but the name of Regulus lives as the per-\\nsoniflcation of sincerity and patriotic devotion.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "230 ROME. [218 b. C.\\nSecond Punic War (218-201 b. c). During the ensu-\\ning peace of twenty-three years, Haniilcar (surnamed Barca,\\nlightning), the great statesman and general of Carthage,\\nbuilt up an empire in southern Spain, and trained an army\\nfor a new struggle with Rome. He hated that city mth a\\nperfect hatred. When he left home for Spain, he took with\\nhim his son Hannibal, a boy nine years old, having first\\nmade him swear at the altar of Baal always to be the enemy\\nof the Romans. That youthful oath was never forgotten,\\nand Hannibal, like his father, had but one purpose, to\\nhumble his country s rival. When twenty-six years of age,\\nhe was made commander-in-chief of the Carthaginian army.\\nPushing the Punic power northward, he captm*ed Saguntum.\\nAs that city was her ally, Rome promptly declared war\\nagainst Carthage.^ On the receipt of this welcome news,\\nHannibal, with the daring of genius, resolved to scale the\\nAlps, and carry the contest into Italy.\\nInvasion of Italy. In the spring of the year 218 b. c. he\\nset out from New Carthage. Through hostile tribes, over\\nthe swift Rhone, he pressed forward to the foot of the Alps.\\nHere dangers multiplied. The mountaineers rolled down\\nrocks npon his column, as it wearily toiled up the steep as-\\ncent. Snow blocked the way. At times the crack of a Avhip\\nwoidd bring down an avalanche from the impending heights.\\nThe men and horses slipped on the sloping ice-fields, and slid\\nover the precipices into the awful crevasses. New roads had\\nto be cut througli the sohd rock by hands benumbed with\\n1 An embassy came to Carthage demandiug that Hannibal should be surrendered.\\nThis being refused, M. Fabius, folding up his toga as if it contained something,\\nexclaimed, I bring you peace or war; take Avhich you will! The Cartliaginians\\nanswered, Give us which you wish Sliakingopen liis toga, the Roman haughtily\\nreplied, I give j ou war So let it be shouted the assembly.\\n2 Before starting on this expedition, Hannibal went with his immediate attendants\\nto Gades, and offered sacrifice in the temples for the success of the great work to\\nwhich he had been dedicated eighteen years before, and to which he had been looking\\nforward so long.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "218 B. c]\\nTHE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\n231\\ncold, and weakened by scanty rations.\\nWhen at last he reached the smiling plains\\nof Italy, only twenty-six thousand men were\\nleft of the one hundred and two thousand\\nwith whom he began the perilous march five\\nmonths before.\\nHANNIUAL CUOSSING THE ALPS.\\nBattles of Tre hia,\\nTrasime nus, and Can-\\nnce. Ai-riving at the\\nriver Trehia in Decem-\\nber, Hannibal found\\nthe Romans, under\\nSempronius, ready to\\ndispute his progi ess.\\nOne stormy morning, he sent the\\nlight Numidian cavaliy over to", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "232 ROME. [218 b. o.\\nmake a feigned attaek cm the enemy s camp. Tlie Romans\\nfell into the snare, and pnrsned the hoi semen back across\\nthe river. When the legions, stiff with cold and faint\\nwith hunger, emerged from the icy waters, they found the\\nCarthaginian army drawn up to receive them. Undismayed\\nby the sight, they at once joined battle ;\u00c2\u00abbut, in the midst\\nof the struggle, Hannibal s brother Mago fell upon their\\nrear with a body of men that had been hidden in a reedy\\nravine near by. The Romans, panic-stricken, broke and\\nfled.\\nThe fierce Gauls now flocked to Hannibal s camp, and\\nremained his active allies during the rest of the war.\\nThe next year Hannibal moved soutlnvard.^ One day in\\nJune, the consul Flaminius was eagerly pursuing him along\\nthe banks of Lalie Trasimemis. Suddenly, through the mist,\\nthe Carthaginians poured down from the heights, and put the\\nRomans to rout.^\\nFabius was now appointed dictator. Keeping on the\\nheights where he could not be attacked, he followed Hanni-\\nbal everywhere,^ cutting off his supplies, but never hazarding\\na battle. The Romans became impatient at seeing their\\ncountry ravaged while their army remained inactive, and\\nVarro, the consul, offered battle on the plain of Cannce.\\nHannibal di-ew up the Carthaginians in the shape of a half-\\nmoon having the convex side toward the enemy, and tipped\\n1 In the low flooded grounds along tbe Aino the army suffered fearfully. Hanni-\\nbal himself lost an eye by intlamniation, and tradition says that liis life was saved\\nby the last remaining elephant, which carried him out of the swamp.\\n2 So fierce was this struggle that none of the combatants noticed the shock of a\\nsevere earthquake which occurred in the midst of the battle.\\n3 While Hannibal was ravaging the rich plains of Campania, the wary Fabius\\nseized the passes of the Apennines, tlirough which Hannibal must recross into Sam-\\nnium witli his booty. Tlie Carthaginian was apparently cauglit in the trap. But his\\nmind was fertile in devices. He fastened torches to the horns of two thousand oxen,\\nand sent men to drive them up the neighboring heights. The Romans at the defiles,\\nthinking the Carthaginians were trying to escape over the hills, ran to the defense.\\nHannibal quickly seized the passes, and marched through with his army.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "216 b. c]\\nTHE POLITICAL HISTORY. 233\\nthe horns of the crescent with his veteran cavalry. The\\nmassive legions quickly broke through his weak center. But\\nas they pressed forward in eager pursuit, his terrible horse-\\nmen fell upon their rear. Hemmed in on all sides, the\\nRomans could neither fight nor flee. Twenty-one tribunes,\\neighty senators, and over seventy thousand men, fell in that\\nhorrible massacre. After the battle, Hannibal sent to Car-\\nthage over a peck of gold rings, the ornaments of Roman\\nknights. At Rome all was dismay. One fifth of the cit-\\nizens abla to bear arms had fallen Avithin eighteen months,\\nand in every house there was mourning. All southern\\nItaly, including Capua, the city next in importance to the\\ncapital, joined Hannibal.\\nHannihaVs Be verses. The tide of Hannibal s victories,\\nhow^ever, ebbed from this time. The Roman spirit rose in\\nthe hour of peril, and, while struggling at home for exist-\\nence, the senate sent armies into Sicily, Greece, and Spain.\\nThe Latin cities remained true, not one revolting to the Car-\\nthaginians. The Roman generals had learned not to fight\\nin the open field, where Hannibal s cavalry and genius Avere\\nso fatal to them, but to keep behind walls, since Hannibal\\nhad no skill in sieges, and his army was too small to take\\ntheir strongholds. Hannibal s brother Hasdrubal was busy\\nfighting the Romans in Spain, and could send him no aid.\\nThe Carthaginians also were chary of Hannibal, and re-\\nfused him help.\\nFor thirteen years longer Hannibal remained in Italy, but\\nhe was at last driven into Brutium, the toe of the Italian\\nboot. Never did his genius shine more brightly. He con-\\ntinually sallied out to protect his allies, or to plunder and\\ndevastate. Once he went so near Rome that he hurled a\\njavelin over its walls. Nevertheless, and in spite of his\\nefforts, Capua was retaken. Syracuse promised aid, but was", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "234 ROME. [212 B.C.\\ncaptured by the Roman army.^ Hasdrubal finally managed\\nto get out of Spain and cross the Alps, but at the 3\u00c2\u00a3etaurus^\\n(207 B. c.) he was routed and slain. The first notice Hannibal\\nhad of his brother s approach was when Hasdrubal s head\\nwas thrown into the Carthaginian camp. At the sight of\\nthis ghastly memorial, Hannibal exclaimed, Ah, Carthage,\\nI behold thy doom\\nHannihal Recalled. P. Scipio, who had already expelled\\nthe Carthaginians from Spain, now carried the war into\\nAfrica. Carthage was forced to summon her great general\\nfrom Italy. He came to her defense, but met the first defeat\\nof his life in the decisive battle of Zama. On that fatal field\\nthe veterans of the Italian wars fell, and Hannibal himself\\ngave up the struggle. Peace was granted Carthage on her\\npaying a crushing tribute, and agreeing not to go to war\\nwithout the permission of Rome. Scipio received the name\\nAfricanus, in honor of his triumph.\\nFate of Hannihal. On the return of peace, Hannibal,\\nwith singular wisdom, began the reformation of his native\\ncity. But his enemies, by false representations at Rome,\\ncompelled him to quit Carthage, and take refuge at the\\ncourt of Anti ochus (p. 237). When at length his patron\\nwas at the feet of their common enemy, and no longer able\\nto protect him, Hannibal fled to Bithynia, where, finding\\nhimself still piu sued by the vindictive Romans, he ended his\\n1 Tlie siege of Syracuse (214-212 B. C.) is famous for the genius aisplayed in its\\ndefense by tlie mathematician Archimedes. He is said to have fired the Roman fleet\\n1)y means of immense burning-glasses, and to have contrived machines that, reaching\\nliuge arms over the walls, grasped and overturned the galleys. The Romans became\\nso timid that they would flee at tlie sight of a stick thrust out at them. When the\\ncity was finally taken by storm, Marcellus gave orders to spare Archimedes. But a\\nsoldier, rushing into the philosopher s study, found an old man, wlio, ignoring his\\ndrawn sword, bade him Noli turbare circulos meos (Do not disturb my circles).\\nEnraged by his indifference, the Roman slew him on the spot.\\n2 This engagement, which decided tlie issue of Hannibal s invasion of Italy, is\\nreckoned among the most important in the history of the world (see Creasy s Fif-\\nteen Decisive Battles, p. 96).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "183 b. C] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 235\\ndays by taking poison, which lie had carried about with\\nhim in a lioHow rin\\nThird Punic War (149-14G b. c.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Half a century\\npassed, during- which Carthage was slowly recovering her\\nformer prosperity. A strong party at Rome, however, was\\nbent upon her destruction.^ On a slight pretense war was\\nagain declared. The submission of the Carthaginians was\\nabject. They gave up three hundred hostages, and surren-\\ndered their arms and armor. But when bidden to leave the\\ncity that it might be razed, they were driven to desperation.\\nOld and young toiled at the forges to make new weapons.\\nVases of gold and silver, even the statues of the gods, were\\nmelted. The women l)raided their long hair into bow-strings.\\nThe Romans intrusted the siege to the younger Scipio.^ He\\ncaptured Carthage after a desperate struggle. Days of con-\\nflagration and plunder followed. The city, which had lasted\\nover seven hundred years and numbered seven hundred\\nthousand inhabitants, was utterly wasted. The Carthaginian\\nterritory was turned into the province of Africa.^\\n1 Prominent among these was Cato the Censor. This rough, stern man, -with his\\nred hair, projecting teeth, anrt coarse robe, was the swora foe to luxury, and the per-\\nsoniticatiou of the old Roman character. Cruel toward his slaves and revengeful\\ntoward his foes, he was yet rigid in morals, devoted to his country, and fearless in\\npunishing crime. In the discharge.of his duty asceusor, rich furniture, jewels, and\\ncostly attire fell under his ban. He even removed, it is said, the cold-water pipes lead-\\ning to the private houses. Jealous of auy rival to Rome, he finished every speech\\nwith the words, Delenda est Carthago! (Carthage must be destroyed!) In\\nPlutarch s Lives (p. 177), Cato is the counterpart of Aristides (p. 128).\\n2 (1) Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major (p. 234) was the conqueror of\\nHannibal. (2) Fitblius Cornelius Scipio ^Emiliantis Africanus Minor, the one spoken\\nof in the text as the Destroyer of Carthage, was the sou of Lucius ^Emilius Paullus,\\nthe conqueror of Macedon (p. 236) he was adopted by P. Scipio, the son of Africanus\\nMajor. (3) Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus, Avho defeated Antiochus (p. 237), and\\nhence received his last title, was tlie brother of Africanus Major.\\n3 When Scipio beheld the ruin of Carthage, he is said to have burst into tears, and,\\nturning to Polybius the liistorian, to have quoted tlie lines of Homer,\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe day will come when Tr()y shall sink in fire.\\nAnd Priam s people with himself expire,\\nand, reflecting on the mutati(\u00c2\u00bbU3 of time, to have declared tliat Hector s words might\\nyet prove true of K \u00c2\u00bbme herself.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "236 ROME. [146 B.C.\\nRome was at last victor over her great rival. Events had\\ndecided that Europe was not to be given over to Punic civili-\\nzation and the intellectual despotism of the East,\\nWars in Macedon and Greece. While Hannibal\\nwas hard-pressed in Italy he made a treaty with Philip, king\\nof Macedon, and a descendant of Alexander. In the First\\nWar which ensued (214-207 b. c), not much of importance\\noccurred, but Rome had begun to mix in Grecian affaii s,\\nwhich, according to her wont, meant conquest by and by.\\nThe Second War (200-197 B.C.) was brought about by\\nPhilip attacking the Roman allies. The consul Flaminius\\nnow entered Greece, proclaiming himself the champion of\\nHellenic liberty. Transported with this thought, nearly\\nall Hellas ranged itseK under the eagles (p. 257) of Rome.\\nPhilip was overthrown at the battle of CijnoscepJialce\\n(197 B. c), and forced to accept a most degrading peace.\\nAfter Philip s death, his son Perseus was indefatigable in\\nhis efforts to restore Macedon to its old-time glory.\\nThe Third War (171-168 B. c.) cubninated in the battle\\nof Pydna, where the famous Roman general Paullus van-\\nquished forever the cumbersome phalanx, and ended the\\nMacedonian monarchy. One hundred and fifty-six years\\nafter Alexander s death, the last king of Macedon was led\\nin triumph by a general belonging to a nation of which,\\nprobably, the Conqueror had scarcely heard.\\nThe Results of these wars were reaped within a brief period.\\nThe Federal Unions of Greece were dissolved. Macedon was\\ndivided into four commonwealths, and finally, under pre-\\ntense of a rebellion, made a Roman province (146 B. c). In\\nthe same year that Carthage fell, Corinth, i the gi eat seaport\\n1 Muiiimiiis, the consul who took Corinth, which Cicero termed The rye of\\nHellas, sent its wealth of statiies and pictures to Rome. It is said, that, ignorant of\\nthe unique value of these works of art, he agreed with the captains of tlie vessels to\\nfurnish others in place of any they sliould lose on the voyage. One can hut remem-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "THE lM)TiT ri( ATi HISTOlCV. 237\\nof the eastern Mediterraiieaii, wim .sa *k Ml, and (rrecce hrr-\\nself, after })eing aninsed for a time with tlie senibhince of\\nfreedom, was organized into the province of Achaia.\\nSyrian War (192-190 b. c). Macedon and Greece\\nproved easy stepping-stones for Rome to meddle in the affaii s\\nof Asia. At this time Antiochns the Great governed the\\nkingdom of the Seleucida? (p. 155), which extended from\\nthe JEgean beyond the Tigris. His capital, Antioch, on the\\nOrontes, was the seat of Greek culture, and one of the chief\\ncities of tlie world. He was not unwilling to measure\\nswords with the Romans, and received Hannibal at his court\\nwith marked honor. During the interval between the\\nsecond and third Macedonian wars the ^Etolians, thinking\\nthemselves l)adly used l y the Romans, invited Antiochns to\\ncome over to their help. He despised the wise counsel and\\nmilitary skill of Hannil)al, and, appearing in Greece with\\nonly ten thousand men, was easily defeated by the Romans\\nat ThernwpijM. The next year, L. 8cipio (note, p. 235) fol-\\nlowed him into Asia, and overthrew liis power on the field\\nof Magnesia (190 b. c).\\nThe great empire of the Seleucidaa now shrank to the\\nkingdom of Syria. Though the Romans did not at present\\nassume formal control of their conquest, yet, by a shrewd\\npolicy of weakening the powerful states, playing off small\\nones against one another, supporting one of the two rival fac-\\ntions, and favoring their allies, they taught the Greek cities\\nin Asia Minor to look up to the great central power on the\\nTiber just as, by the same tortuous course, they had led\\nGreece and Macedon to do. Thus the Romans aided Per-\\ngamus, and enlarged its territories, because its king helped\\nthem against Antiochns; and in return, when Attains HI.\\nber, however, that this ignoraut plebeian luaintaiuert his houesty, aud kept uoiie of\\nthe rich spoils for himself", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "238 ROME. [133 b. C.\\ndied, he be(ineathed to them his kingdom. Rome thus ac-\\nquired her first Asiatic province (133 b. c).\\nWar in Spain. After the capture of Carthage and\\nCorinth, Rome continued her efforts to subdue Spain. The\\nrugged nature of the country, and the bravery of the inhab-\\nitants, made the struggle a doubtful one. The town of\\nMimantia held out long against the younger Scipio (note,\\np. 235). Finally, in despair, the people set fire to the place,\\nand threw themselves into the flames. When the Romans\\nforced an entrance through the walls, they found silence and\\ndesolation within. Spain thus became a Roman province\\nthe same year that Attains died, and thirteen years after\\nthe fall of Carthage and Corinth.\\nThe Roman Empire (133 b. c.) now included southern\\nEurope from the Atlantic to the Bosporus, and a part of\\nnorthern Africa while Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor were\\npractically its dependencies. The Mediterranean Sea was a\\nRoman lake, and Rome tvas mistress of the civilized tvorld.\\nHenceforth her wars were principally with barbarians.\\nEffect of these Conquests. Italy had formerly been\\ncovered with little farms of a few acres each, which the in-\\ndustrious, frugal Romans cultivated with their ow^n hands.\\nWhen Hannibal swept the country with fii^e and sword, he\\ndestroyed these comfortable rural homes throughout entire\\ndistricts. The people, unable to get a living, flocked to\\nRome. There, humored, flattered, and fed by every dema-\\ngogue who wished their votes, they sank into a mere mob.\\nThe Roman race itself was fast becoming extinct.^ It had\\n1 At the time wheu all the kings of the earth paid homage to the Roman.s, this\\npeople was becomiug extinguished, consumed by the double action of eternal war,\\nand of a devouring system of legislation it was disappearing from Italy. The Ro-\\nman, passing his life in camps, beyond the seas, rarely returned to visit his little field.\\nHe had in most cases, indeed, no land or shelter at all, nor any other domestic gods\\nthan the eagles of the legions. An exchange was becoming established between Italy\\nand the provinces. Italy sent her children to die in distant lands, and received in", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 239\\nperished on its hundred battle-fields. Rome was inhabited\\nby a motley population from all lands, who poorly filled the\\nplace of her ancient heroes.\\nThe captives in these various wars had been sold as slaves,\\nand the nobles, who had secured most of the land, worked it\\nby their unpaid labor. Everywhere in the fields were gangs\\nof men whose only crime was that they had fought for their\\nhomes, tied together with chains and tending the flocks were\\ngaunt, shaggy wretches, carrying the goad in hands that had\\nonce wielded the sword.\\nThe riches of Syracuse, Carthage, Macedonia, Greece, and\\nAsia poured into Rome. Men who went to foreign wars\\nas poor soldiers came back with enormous riches, the\\nspoils of sacked cities. The nobles were rich beyond every\\ndream of republican Rome. But meanwhile the poor grew\\npoorer yet, and the curse of poverty ate deeper into the\\nstate.\\nA few wealthy families governed the senate and filled all\\nthe offices. Thus a new nobility, founded on money alone,\\nhad grown up and become all-powerful. It was customary\\nfor a candidate to amuse the people with costly games, and\\nnone but the rich could afford the expense. The consul, at\\nthe end of his year of office, was usually appointed governor\\nof a province, where, out of an oppressed people, he could\\nrecompense himself for all his losses. To keep the Roman\\npopulace in good humor, he would send back gifts of gi-ain,\\nand, if any complaint were nuide of his injustice and robbery,\\nhe could easily bribe the judges and senators, who were\\nanxious only for the same chance which he had.\\ncompensation millions of slaves. Thus a new people succeeded to tlie absent or\\ndestroj-ed Roman ))eople. Slaves took the place of masters, pi oudly occupied the\\nFonim, and in their fantastic saturnalia goveiued, by their decrees, the Latins and\\nthe Italians, who tilled the legions. It was soon no longer a question where were the\\nplebeians of Rome. They had left tlieii- bones on every shore. Camps, urns, and\\nimmortal roads,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 these were all that remained of them. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Michelet.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "240\\nROME.\\nIn the early days of the republic the soldier was a citizen\\nwho went forth to fight his country s battles^ and, returning\\nhome, settled down again upon his little farm, contented\\nand happy. Military life had now become a profession.\\nPatriotism was almost a forgotten virtue, and the soldier\\nfought for plunder and glory. In the wake of the army\\nfollowed a crowd of venal traders, who bought up the booty\\ncontractors, who farmed the revenues of the provinces;\\nand usurers, who preyed on the necessities of all. These\\nrich army-followers were known as knights {equites), since\\nin the early days of Rome the richest men fought on horse-\\nback. They rarely took part in any war, but only reaped\\nits advantages. The presents of foreign kings were no\\nlonger refused at Rome 5 her generals\\nand statesmen demanded money wher-\\never they went. WeU might Scipio\\nAfricanus, instead of praying to the\\nKOMAN SOLDIERS.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTOKV. 241\\ngods, as was the eustoin, to increase tlie state, implore tlieiu\\nto presence it.\\nIll this general decadence the line iiiond lil)er of the nation\\nlost its vigor. Fii st the people left their own gods and took\\nup foreign ones. As the ancients had no idea of one God\\nfor all nations, such a desertion of their patron deities\\nwas full of significance. It ended in a general skepticism\\nand neglect of religious rites and worship. In addition, the\\nRomans became cruel and unjust. Notliing showed this\\nmore clearly than their refusal to grant the Roman franchise\\nto the Latin cities, which stood by them so faithfuUy during\\nHannibal s invasion. Yet there were great men in Rome,\\nand the ensuing centuries were the palmiest of her history.\\nTHE CIVIL WARS.\\nNow began a century of civil strife, during which the old\\nrespect for laws became weak, and parties obtained theii* end\\nby bribery and bloodshed.\\nThe Gracchi. The tribune Tiberius Gracchus,^ per-\\nceiving the peril of the state, secured a new agrarian law\\n(p. 216), directing the public land to be assigned in small\\nfarms to the needy, so as to give every man a homestead\\nand, in addition, he proposed to divide the treasures of\\nAttains among those who received land, in order to enable\\nthem to build houses and buy cattle. But the oligarchs\\naroused a mob by wliich Gracchus was assassinated.\\n1 Cornelia, the mother of Tiberius ami Cains Gracchus, was the daughter of Scipio\\nAfricanus the Elder (note, p. 235). Left a widow, she was offered marriage with tlio\\nking of Egypt, but preferred to devote herself to the education of her children.\\nWhen a rich friend once exhibited to her a cabinet of rare gems, she called in her\\ntwo sons, saying, Tliese are my jewels. Her statue bore the inscription by which\\nshe wished to be known, The mother of the Gracchi. Tiberius was the grandson\\nof the Conqueror of Hannibal, the son-in-law of Appius Claudius, and the brother-in-\\nlaw of the Destroyer of Carthage.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "242 ROME. [123 b. c.\\nAbout ten years later his brother Caius tried to carry out\\nthe same reform by distributing grain to the poor at a\\nnominal price (the Roman poor-law by choosing juries\\nfrom the knights instead of the senators, and by planting\\nin conquered territories colonies of men who had no work\\nat home. All went well until he sought to confer the\\nRoman franchise upon the Latins. Then a riot was raised,\\nand Caius was killed by a faithful slave to prevent his falling\\ninto the hands of his enemies.\\nWith the Gracchi perished the freedom of the republic\\nhenceforth the corrupt aristocracy was supreme.\\nJugurtha (118-104 b. c), having usurped the throne of\\nNumidia, long maintained his place by conferring lavish\\nbribes upon the senators. His gold conquered every army\\nsent against him, and he declared that Rome itself could be\\nhad for money. He was finally overpowered by the consul\\nCaius Marius,^ and, after adorning the victor s triumph at\\nRome, was thrown into the Mamertine Prison to perish.^\\nThe Cimbri and Teutones (113-101 b. c), the van-\\nguard of those northern hosts that were yet to overrun the\\nempire, were now moving south, half a miUion strong,\\nspreading dismay and ruin in their track. Six different Ro-\\nman armies tried in vain to stay their advance. At Arausio\\nalone eighty thousand Romans f eU. In this emergency, the\\nsenate appealed to Marius, who, contrary to law, was again\\nand again reinstated consul. He annihilated the Teutones\\nat Aquce Sextm (Aix) and, the next year, the Cimbri at\\nVercellce, where the men composing the outer line of the\\n1 Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the Roman questor (p. 243), captured Jugurtha by\\ntreachery. Claiming that he was the real hero of this war, he had a ring engraved\\nwhich represented J ugurtha s surrender to liim. Marius and Sulla were henceforth\\nbitter rivals.\\n2 This famous dungeon is still shown tlie traveler at Kome. It is an underground\\nvault, built of rough stones. The only opening is by a hole at the top. As Jugurtha,\\naccustomed to the heat of an African sun, was lowered into this dismal grave, he\\nexclaimed, with chattering teeth, Ah, what a cold bath they are giving me 1", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "101 B. C] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 243\\nbarbarian army were fastened together with chains, the whole\\nmaking a solid mass three miles square. The Koman broad-\\nsword mercilessly hewed its way through this struggling\\ncrowd. The Gallic women, in despair, strangled their\\nchildi-en, and then threw themselves beneath the wheels of\\ntheir wagons. The very dogs- fought to the death.\\nRome was saved in her second great peril from barbarians.\\nMarius was hailed as the third founder of the city.\\nSocial War (90-88 b. c). Drusus, a tribune, ha\\\\dng\\nproposed that the Itahans should be granted the coveted\\ncitizenship, was mm-dered the very day a vote was to be\\ntaken upon the measui e. On hearing this, many of the\\nItalian cities, headed by the Marsians, took up arms. The\\nveteran legions, which had conquered the w^orld, now faced\\neach other on the battle-field. The struggle cost three hun-\\ndred thousand lives. Houses were burned and plantations\\nwasted as in Hannibal s time. In the end, Rome was forced\\nto aUow the Italians to become citizens.\\nFirst Mithridatic War (88-84 b.c.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Just before the\\nclose of this bloody struggle, news came of the massacre of\\neighty thousand Romans and Italians residing in the towns\\nof Asia Minor. Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus, and\\na man of remarkable energy and genius, had proclaimed\\nhimself the deliverer of Asia from the Roman yoke, and\\nhad kindled the fires of insurrection as far westward as\\nGreece. The war against the Pontic monarch was confided\\nto SuUa, who stood at the head of the Roman aristocracy.\\nBut Marius, the favorite leader of the people, by unscrupu-\\nlous means wrested the command from his rival. There-\\nupon Sulla entered Rome at the head of the army. For\\nthe first time, civil war raged within the walls of the city.\\nMarius was driven into exile. Sulla then crossed into\\n1 Marias, after many romantic adventures, was thrown into prison at Min-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "244 ROME. I87B. 0.\\nGreece. He carried on five campaignSj mainly at his private\\nexpense, and finally restored peace on the condition that\\nMithridates should give up his conquests and liis fleet.\\nReturn of Marius. Meanwhile Cinna, one of the two\\nconsuls at Rome, recalled Marius, and together they entered\\nthe city with a body of men- composed of the very dregs of\\nItaly. The nobles and the friends of Sulla trembled at this\\ntriumph of the democracy. Marius now took a fearful\\nvengeance for all he had suffered. He closed the gates, and\\nwent about with a body of slaves, who slaughtered every\\nman at whom he pointed his finger. The principal senators\\nwere slain. The high priest of Jupiter was massacred at the\\naltar. The consul Octavius was struck down in his curule-\\nchair. The head of Antonius, the orator, was brought to\\nMarius as he sat at supper; he received it with joy, and\\nembraced the murderer. Finally the monster had himself\\ndeclared consul, now the seventh time. Eighteen days after,\\nhe died, drunk with blood and wine^ (86 b. c).\\nSulla s Proscriptions. Three years passed, when the\\nhero of the Mithridatic war returned to Italy with his vic-\\ntorious army. His progress was disputed by the remains of\\nthe Marian party and the Samnites, who had not laid down\\ntheir arms since the social war (p. 243). SuUa, however,\\nswept aside their forces, and soon aU Italy was prostrate\\nbefore him. It was now the turn for the plebeians and the\\nfriends of Marius to fear. As Sulla met the senate, cries\\nwere heard in the neighboring circus. The senators sprang\\nfrom then* seats in alarm. SuUa bade them be quiet, remark-\\nturnae. One day a Cimltriau slave entered his cell to put him to death. The old man\\nturned upon him with tlasliiug eye, and shouted, Barest thou kill Caius Marius!\\nThe Gaul, ti ightened at the voice of his nation s destroyer, dropped his sword and\\nfled. Marius was soon sot free by the sympathizing people, whereupon he crossed\\ninto Africa. Receiving there an order from the prtetor to leave the province, he sent\\nback the well-known reply, Tell Sextilius that you have seen Caiua Marius sitting\\nin exile among the ruins of Carthage.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "82 b. C] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 245\\ning, It is only some wretches undergoing the punishment\\nthey deserve. The wretches were six thousand of the\\nMarian party, who were butchered in cold blood. The\\nporch of Sulla s house/ says Collier, was soon full of\\nheads. Daily proscription-lists were made out of those\\ndoomed to die, and the assassins were rewarded from the\\nproperty of their victims. Wealth became a crime when\\nmurder was gain. Alas exclaimed one, my villa is my\\ndestruction. In all the disaffected Itahan cities the same\\nbloody work went on. Wliole districts were confiscated to\\nmake room for colonies of SuUa s legions. He had himsdf\\ndeclared perpetual dictator, an office idle since the Punic\\nwars (p. 232). He deprived the tribunes of the right to pro-\\npose laws, and sought to restore the good old times when\\nthe patricians held power, thus undoing the reforms of cen-\\nturies. To the surprise of all, however, he suddenly retii-ed\\nto private life, and gave himself up to luxurious ease. The\\ncivil wars of Marius and SuUa had cost Italy the lives of\\none hundred and fifty thousand citizens.\\nSertorius, one of the Marian party, betook liimseK to\\nSpain, gained the respect and confidence of the Lusitanians,\\nestablished among them a miniature Roman republic, and\\nfor seven years defeated every army sent against liim. Even\\nPompey the Great was held in check. Treachery at last\\nfreed Rome from its enemy, Sertorius being slain at a\\nbanquet.\\nGladiatorial War (73-71 b. c). A party of gladiators\\nunder Spartacus, having escaped from a training-school at\\nCapua, took refuge in the crater of Vesuvius. Thither\\nflocked slaves, peasants, and pirates. Soon they were strong\\nenough to defeat consular armies, and for three years to rav-\\nage Italy from the Alps to the peninsula. Crassus finally,\\nin a desperate battle, killed the rebel leader, and put his fol-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "246 ROME. [71 B.C.\\nlowers to flight. A body of five thousand, trying to escape\\ninto Gaul, fell in with Pompey the Great as he was retm-ning\\nfrom Spain, and were cut to pieces.^\\nPirates in these troublous times infested the Mediter-\\nranean, so as to interfere with trade and stop the supply of\\nprovisions at Rome. The whole coast of Italy was in con-\\ntinual alarm. Parties of robbers landing dragged rich pro-\\nprietors from their villas, and seized high officials, to hold\\nthem for ransom. Pompey, in a brilliant campaign of\\nninety days, cleared the seas of these buccaneers.\\nGreat Mithridatic War (74-63 b. c.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 During Sulla s\\nlife the Roman governor in Asia causelessly attacked Mithri-\\ndates, but being defeated, and Sulla peremptorily ordering\\nhim to desist, this Second Mithridatic War soon ceased.\\nThe Third or Great War broke out after the dictator s\\ndeath. The king of Bithynia having bequeathed his pos-\\nsessions to the Romans, Mithridates justly dreaded this ad-\\nvance of his enemies toward his own boundaries, and took\\nup arms to prevent it. The Roman consul, Lucullus, de-\\nfeated the Pontic king, and drove him to the com*t of his\\nson-in-law Tigranes, king of Armenia, who espoused his\\ncause. Lucullus next overcame the allied monarchs. Mean-\\nwhile this wise general sought to reconcile the Asiatics to the\\nRoman government by legislative reforms, by a mild and\\njust rule, and especially by checking the oppressive taxation.\\nThe soldiers of his own army, intent on plunder, and the\\nequites at Rome deprived of their profits, were incensed, and\\nsecm-ed his recall.\\nPompe}^ was now granted the power of a dictator in the\\nEast.2 He made an alliance with the king of Parthia, thus\\n1 Crassus, said Pompey, defeated the eueruy in battle, bxit I cut up tlie war by\\nits roots.\\n2 Cicero advocated this measure in the familiar oration, JPro Lege Manilla.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "65 B.C.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 247\\nthreatening Mitliridates by an enemy in the rear. Then,\\nforcing the Pontic monarch into a battle, he defeated liim^\\nand at last di-ove him beyond the Cancasns. I^)mpey, re-\\ntnrning, reduced Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine.\\nThe spirit of Mithridates was unbroken, in spite of the\\nloss of his kingdom. He was meditating a march around\\nthe Euxine, and an invasion of Italy from the northeast,\\nwhen, alarmed at the treachery of his son, he took poison,\\nand died a victim of ingi-atitude. By his genius and courage\\nhe had maintained the struggle with the Romans for twenty-\\nfive years.i On reaching Rome, Ponipey received a two-days\\ntriumph. Before his chariot walked three hundi^ed and\\ntwenty-f oui captive princes and twenty thousand talents\\nwere deposited in the treasury as the spoils of conquest.\\nPompey was now at the height of his popularity, and might\\nhave usurped supreme power, but he lacked the energy and\\ndetermination.\\nCatiline s Conspiracy (63 b. c.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Dm-ing Pompey s\\nabsence at the East, Catiline, an abandoned young noble-\\nman, had formed a mdespread plot to miu-der the consuls,\\nfire the city, and overthrow the government. Cicero, the\\norator, exposed the conspiracy 5 2 whereupon Catiline fled,\\nand was soon after slain, fighting at the head of a band of\\ndesperadoes.\\nThe Chief Men of Rome now were Pompey, Crassus,\\n.iivjr/\u00e2\u0084\u00a2.r \\\\fi le gigantic frame of Mithriaates excited the wonder\\nalike of Asiatic and Italian. As a runner, lie overtook the fleetest deer; as a rider\\nhe broke the wildest steed; as a charioteer, he drove sixteen-in-hand and as a\\nhunter, he hi t his game with his horse at full gallop. He kept Greek poets, historians,\\ndrinker, but t., the n.ernest Jester and the best singer. He ruled the twenty-two\\nand son;; t T 1 *\u00c2\u00abn reter. He experimented on poisons,\\nand sought to harden his system to their effect. One day he disappeared from the\\ninlnZ Tlr TT \u00e2\u0080\u00a2\u00e2\u0080\u00a2l ^^ad wandered\\nincognito througli Asia Minor, studying the people and country.\\n2 The orations which Cicero prono.inced at this time against Catiline are master-\\npieces of impassioned rhetoric, and are still stu.lied by every Latin scholar.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "248\\nROME.\\n[60 B. c.\\nCaesar,^ Cicero, and Cato\\nthe Stoic, a great-grand-\\nson of the Censor. The\\nfirst three formed a league,\\nknown as the Trmmvirate\\n(60 B. c). To cement this\\nunion, Pompey married\\nJulia, Cesar s only daugh-\\nter. The triumvirs had\\neverything their own way.\\nCassar was head manager\\nhe obtained the eonsul-\\nr-AT.Tc T,TrT\u00e2\u0080\u009e\u00c2\u00ab r .n-c*,, shlp, aud aftcrward an\\nCAIUS JULIUS C^SAK.\\nappointment as governor\\nof Gaul; Cicero was banished, and Cato sent to Cyprus.\\n1 Caesar was born 100 B. c. (according to Mommsen, 102 u. c). A patrician, he waa\\nyet a friend of the people. His aunt was married to Marius his wife Cornelia was the\\ndaughter of Cinna. During Sulla s proscription, he refused to divorce his wife at the\\nbidding of the dictator, and only tlie intercession of powerful friends saved his life.\\nSulla detected the character of this youth of eighteen years, and declared, There is\\nmore than one Marius hid in him. While on his way to Rhodes to study oratory, he\\nwas taken prisoner by pirates, but he acted more like tlieir leader than captive, and, on\\nbeing ransomed, headed a party wliich crucitied them all. Having been elected pontiff\\nduring his absence at the East, he returned to Rome. He now became in succession\\nquaestor, sedile, and pontif ex maximus. His affable manners and boundless generosity\\nwon all liearts. As jedile, a part of his duty was to furnish amusement to the people,\\nand he exhibited three hundred and twenty pairs of glailiators, clad in silver armor.\\nHis debts became enormous, the lieaviest creditor being the rich Crassua, to w]u)m\\nhalf the senators are said to have owed mimey. Securing an appointment as praetor,\\nat the termination of tliat office, according to the custom, he obtained a province.\\nSelecting Spain, he there recruited his wasted fortune, and gained some military\\nprominence. He then came back to Rome, relinquishing a triumph in order to enter\\nthe city and stand for the consulship. This gained, his next step was to secure a field\\nwhere he could train an army, by whose help he might become master of Rome.\\nIt is a strange sight, indeed, to witness this spendthrift, pale aud worn with the\\nexcesses of the capital, lighting at the head of his legions, swimming rivers, plunging\\nthrough morasses, aud climbing mountains,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the hardiestof the hardy, and thebravest\\nof tlie brave. But it is stranger still to think of this great general and statesman as a\\nliterary man. Even when riding in his litter or resting, he was still reading or writ-\\ning, and often at the same time dictating to from four to seven amanuenses. Besides\\nhis famous Commentaries, published in the very midst of his eventful career, he\\ncomposed works on rhetoric and grammar, as well as tragedies, lyrics, etc. His style\\nIs pure and natural, aud the polished smoothness of his sentences gives no hint of\\nthe stormy scenes amid which they were formed.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "58 B. c]\\nTHE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\n249\\nC^SAH remained in Ganl\\nabout nine years. He re-\\nduced the entire country;\\ncrossed tlie llliiiie, carrying\\nthe Boman arms into Ger-\\nmany for the first time;\\nand twice invaded Britain,\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094an island until Iheu un-\\nknown in Ital3 except by\\nname. Not (mly were tlie\\nthree liundred tribes of\\nTransalpine Gaul tliorough-\\n13 subdued, but they were\\nmade content with Csesar s\\nrule. He became their civ-\\nilizer,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 building roads and\\nintroducing Konian laws,\\ninstitutions, manners, and\\ncustoms. Moreover, he\\ntrained an army that knew\\nno mind or will except that\\nof its great general. Mean-\\nwhile, Cajsar s friends in\\nKome,witli the Gallic spoils\\nwhich he freely sent them,\\nbribed and dazzled and in-\\ntrigued to sustain their\\nmaster s power, and secure\\nhira the ntsxt consulship.\\nCkassus was chosen\\njoint consul with Pompey\\n(56 ]i. c); he secured the\\nprovince of Syria. Eager\\nto obtain the boundless\\ntreasures of the East, he\\nset out upon an expedition\\nagainst Parthia. On the\\nway he plundered the tem-\\nple at Jerusalem. While\\ncrossing the scorching\\nplains beyond the Eu-\\nphrates, not far from Car-\\nrlue (the llarran of the\\nBible), he was suddenly\\nsurrounded by clouds of\\nParthian horsemen. Bo-\\nman valor was of no avail\\nin that ceaseless storm of\\narrows. During the retreat,\\nCrassus was slain. His\\nhead was carried to the\\nParthian king, who, in de-\\nrision, ordered it to be filled\\nwith molten gold. The\\ndt^ath of Crassus ended the\\nTiiumvirate.\\nPompey, after a time,\\nwas clecte(t joint consul\\nwith Crassus, and,lator,8ole\\nconsul he obtained the\\nprovince of Spain.Avliich ho\\ngoverned by legates. He\\nnow ruled Bome, and was\\nbent on ruling the empire.\\nThe death of his wife had\\nsevered the link which\\nbound him to the conqueror\\nof Gaul. Ho accordingly\\njoined with the nobles,\\nwho were also alarmed by\\nCa sar s brilliant victories,\\nand the strength his suc-\\ncess gave the popular party.\\nA law was therefore passed\\nordering Cajsar to resign\\nhis office and disband his\\narmy before he appeared\\nto sue for the consulsliip.\\nThe tribunes,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Antony and\\nCassius, who .supported\\nCaesar, were driven from\\nthe senate. They fled to\\nCiesar s camp, and de-\\nmanded protection.\\nCivil War between Caesar and Pompey (49 b. c).\\nCaesar at once marched upon Rome. Pompey had boasted\\nthat he had only to stamp his foot, and an army would\\nspring from the ground; bnt he now fled to Greece with-\\nout striking a blow. In sixty days Caesar was master of\\nItaly. The decisive struggle between the two rivals took\\nplace on the plain of PliarsaUa (48 B. c). Pom23ey was\\nbeaten. He sought refuge in Egypt, where he was treach-\\nerously slain. His head being brought to Caesar, the con-\\nqueror wept at the fate of his former friend.\\nCaesar now placed the beautiful Cleopatra on the throne\\nof the Ptolemies, and, marcliing into Syria, humbled\\nPharnaces, the son of Mithridates, so quickly that he\\ncould write home this laconic dispatch, Yeni, Yidi, Yici\\n(I came, I saw, I conquered). Cato and other Pompeian", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "250 ROME. [46 B.C.\\nleaders had assembled a great force in Africa, whereupon\\nCaesar hurried his conquering legions thither, and at Thap-\\nsiis broke down all opposition (46 b. c). Cato, in despair of\\nthe republic, fell upon his sword.\\nCaesar now returned to Rome to celebrate his\\ntriumphs. The sands of the arena were reddened with the\\nblood of wild beasts and gladiators every citizen received\\na present, and a pubhc banquet was spread on twenty-two\\nthousand tables. The adulation of the senate surpassed all\\nbounds. Caesar was created dictator for ten years and censor\\nfor three, and his statue was placed in the Capitol, opposite to\\nthat of Jupiter. Meantime the sons of Pompey had rallied\\nan army in Spain, whither Caesar hastened, and, in a desper-\\nate conflict at Munda (45 B. c), blotted theu party out of ex-\\nistence. He then returned to new honors and a campaign\\nof civil reforms.\\nCaesar s Government. At Caesar s magic touch, order\\nand justice sprang into new life. The provinces rejoiced in\\nan honest administration. The Cauls obtained seats in the\\nsenate, and it was Caesar s design to have all the provinces\\nrepresented in that body by their chief men. The calendar\\nwas revised.^ The distress among the poor was relieved by\\nsending eighty thousand colonists to rebuild Corinth and\\nCarthage. The number of claimants upon the public dis-\\ntribution of grain was reduced over one half. A plan was\\nformed to dig a new channel for the Tiber and to drain\\nthe Pontine marshes. Nothing was too vast or too small\\nfor the comprehensive mind of this mighty statesman. He\\ncould guard the boundaries of his vast empire along the\\nRhine, Danube, and Euphrates look after the paving of the\\n1 Tlie Romau j ear contained only three hundred and fifty-five days, and the mid-\\nsummer and tlie midwinter mouths tlien came in the spring and the fall. Julius\\nCaesar introduced the extra day of leap year, and July was named after him (see\\nSteele s New Astronomy, p. 269).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "44 B. C]\\nTHE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\n251\\nRoman streets; and listen to the recitation of pieces for\\nprizes at the theaters, bestowing the wTcath upon the victor\\nmth extenij)oro verse.\\nCaesar s Assassination (44 b. c.)-\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ciesar, now dictator\\nfor hfe, was desirous of being king in name, as in fact.\\nWliile passing through the streets one day, he was liailed\\nking; as the crowd murmured, he cried out, I am not king,\\nbut CtBsar. Still, when Mark Antony, the consul and his\\nintimate friend, at a festival, offered him a crown, Cassar\\nseemed to thrust it aside reluctantly. The u-e of zealous\\nrepublicans was excited, and, under the guise of a love of\\nliberty and old Roman virtue, those who were jealous of\\nCoesar or who hated him formed a conspiracy for his assassi-\\nnation. Brutus and C^assius, the leaders, chose the fifteenth\\nof the ensuing March for the execution of the deed. As the\\nday approached, the aii was thick with rumors of approach-\\ning disaster. A famous augm- warned Caesar to beware of\\nthe Ides^ of March. The night before, his wife, Calpiu^nia, was\\ndistiu-bed by an ominous\\ndream. On the way to the\\nsenate-house he was handed\\na scroll containing the de-\\ntails of the plot, but in\\nthe press he had no chance\\nto read it. When the con-\\nspirators crowded about\\nhim, no alarm was caused,\\nas they were men who owed\\ntheir lives to his leniency, and their fortunes to his favor.\\n1 Tn tlio Roman calendar tlie months wore divided liitotliree vavis^,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Calends, Ides,\\nSL\\\\\\\\i\\\\ Kones. Tlio Calends commenced on the first of each month, and were reckoned\\nhackward into the preceding montli to the Ides. The Nones fell on the seventh of\\nMarch, May, Jnly, and October, and on tlio fifth of the other months. The Ides came\\non the thirteenth of all months except these four, when they were the fifteenth.\\n2 S. P. Q. R.,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Senatus Populusque Romanua (the Senate and Roman People).\\nTllK IJOiMAN K.MHLKM.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "252 ROME. [44 b. c.\\nSuddenly swords gleamed on every hand. For a moment\\nthe great soldier defended himself with the sharp point of\\nhis iron pen. Then, catching sight of the loved and trusted\\nBrutus, he exclaimed, Et tu, Brute (And thou, too,\\nBrutus and, wrapping his mantle about his face, sank\\ndead at the foot of Pompey s statue.^\\nThe Result was very different from what the assassins had\\nexpected. The senate rushed out horror-stricken at the deed.\\nThe reading of Csesar s will, in which he gave every citizen\\nthree hundred sesterces (over ten dollars), and threw open\\nhis splendid gardens across the Tiber as a pubhc park, roused\\nthe popular fury. When Antony pronounced the funeral\\neulogy, and finally held up Caesar s rent and bloody toga,\\nthe mob broke through every restraint, and ran with torches\\nto burn the houses of the murderers. Brutus and Cassius\\nfled to save their lives.\\nSecond Triumvirate (43 b. c). Antony was fast get-\\nting power into his hand, when there arrived at Rome\\nOctavius, Caesar s great-nephew and heir. He received\\nthe support of the senate and of Cicero, who denounced\\nAntony in fiery orations. Antony was forced into exile,\\nand then, twice defeated in battle, took refuge with\\n1 Cjesar s brief public life\u00e2\u0080\u0094 for ouly five stirring years elapsed from his entrance\\ninto Italy to his assassination\u00e2\u0080\u0094 was full of dramatic scenes. Before marching upon\\nRome,it is said (though research stamps itasdoubtful) that he stopped atthe Rubicon,\\nthe boundary between his i)rovince of Cisalpine Gaul and Italj and hesitated long.\\nTo pass it was to make war upon the republic. At last he shouted, The die is\\ncast! and plunged into the stream.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 When he had crossed into Greece in pursuit of\\nPompey, he became impatient at Antony s delay in bringing over the rest of tlie\\narmy, and, disguising himself, attempted to return across tlie Adriatic in a small boat.\\nThe sea ran high, and the crew determined to put back, when Cfesar shouted, Go on\\nboldly, fear nothing, thou bearest Caesar and his fortune \u00e2\u0080\u0094At the battle of Phar-\\nsalia, he ordered his men to aim at the faces of Pompey s cavalr5\\\\ The Roman\\nknights, dismayed at this attack on their beauty, quickly fled after the victory\\nCfesar rode over the field, calling upon the men to spare the Roman citizens, and on\\nrcacJiing Pompey s tent put his letters in the fire unread.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 When Csesar learned of the\\ndeath of Cato, he lamented the tragic fate of such high integrity and virtue, and ex-\\nclaimed, Cato, I envy thee thy death, since thou enviest me the glory of saving tliy\\nlife", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "43 B.C.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 253\\nLepidus, governor of a part of Spain and Gaul. Octavius\\nretiu-ned to Rome, won the favor of the peo2)le, and, though\\na youth of only nineteen, was chosen consul. A triumvi-\\nrate, similar to the one seventeen years before, was now\\nformed between Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus. The bar-\\ngain was sealed by a proscription more horrible than that of\\nSulla. Lepidus sacrificed his brother, Antony his uncle,\\nand Octavius his warm supporter, Cicero. The orator s\\nhead having been brought to Rome, Fulvia thrust her golden\\nbodkin through the tongue that had pronounced the Philip-\\npics against her husband Antony.\\nBattle of Philippi (42 b. c). Brutus and Cassius, who\\nhad gone to the East, raised an army to resist this new\\ncoalition. The triumvirs pursued them, and the issue was\\ndecided on the field of FMlippi. Brutus and Cassius\\nwere defeated, and in despair committed suicide. Octavius\\nand Antony divided the empire between them, the former\\ntaking the West, and the latter the East. Lepidus received\\nAfrica, but was soon stripped of his share and sent back to\\nRome.\\nAntony and Cleopatra. ^Antony now went to Tarsus\\nto look after his new possessions. Here Cleopatra was\\nsummoned to answer for having supported Cassius against\\nthe triumvirs. She came, captivated Antony by her charms,^\\n1 Brutus, before this battle, was disheartened. The triumvirs had proved worse\\ntyrants than he could ever have feared Cajsar would become. He and Cassius quar-\\nreled bitterlj His wife, Portia, had died (according to some authorities) broken-\\nhearted at the calamities which had befallen lier country. One night, as he was\\nsitting alone in his tent, musing over the troubled state of affairs, he suddenly\\nperceived a gigantic figure standing before him. He was startled, but exclaimed,\\nWhat art thou, and for what purpose art thou come? I am thine evil genius,\\nreplied the phantom we shall m\u00e2\u0082\u00acet again at Philippi\\n2 Cleopatra ascended the Cydnus in a galley with purple sails. The oars, inlaid\\nwitli silver, moved to the soft music of flute and pipe. She reclined under a gold-\\nspangled canopy, attired as Venus, and attended by nymphs, cupids, and graces.\\nThe air was redolent with perfumes. As she approached Tarsus, the whole city\\nflocked to witness the magnificent sight, leaving Antony sitting alone in the tribunal.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "254 ROME. [41 B.C.\\nand carried him to Egypt. They passed the winter in the\\nwildest extravagance. Breaking away for a time from the\\nsilken chains of Cleopatra^ Antony, upon tlie death of Fulvia,\\nmarried the beautiful and noble Oetavia, sister of Octavius.\\nBut at the first opportunity he went back again to Alexan-\\ndria, where he laid aside the dignity of a Roman citizen and\\nassumed the dress of an Egjrptian monarch.^ Cleopatra\\nwas presented with several provinces, and became the real\\nruler of the East.\\nCivil War between Octavius and Antony (31 b. c).\\nThe senate at last declared war against Cleopatra. There-\\nupon Antony divorced Octavia and prepared to invade Italy.\\nThe rival fleets met off the promontory of Ac tium. Cleo-\\npatra fled with her ships early in the day. Antony, basely\\ndeserting those who were dying for his cause, followed her.\\nWlien Octavius entered Egypt (30 B. c), there was no resist-\\nance. Antony, in despair, stabbed himself. Cleopatra in\\nvain tried her arts of fascination upon the conqueror.\\nFinally, to avoid gracing his triumph at Rome, she put an\\nend to her life, according to the common story, by the bite\\nof an asp, brought her in a basket of figs. Thus died the\\nlast of the Ptolemies.\\nResult. Egypt now became a province of Rome. With\\nthe battle of Actiuni ended the Roman republic. Csesar\\nOctavius was the undisputed master of the civilized world.\\nAfter his retm-n to Italy, he received the title of Augustus,\\nby which name he is known in history. The civil wars\\nwere over.\\n1 The follios and wasteful extravagance of their mad revels at Alexandria almost\\nsurpass helief. One day, in Antony s kitchen, tliere are said to have been eight wild\\nboars roasting whole, so arranged as to be ready at different times, that his dinner\\nmight be served In perfection whenever lie should see fit to order it. On another\\noccasion he and the queen vied as to which could serve the more expensive banquet.\\nRemoving a magnificent pearl from her ear, slie dissolved it in vinegar, and swal-\\nlowed the priceless draught.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "31 B.C.]\\nTHE POLITICAL HISTORY.\\n255\\nIMPERIAL HOME.\\nEstablishment of the Empire. After the clamor of\\na hundred years, a sweet silence seemed to fall npon the\\neai th. The Tem])le of Janns was closed for the second time\\nI.WELLS, DEL.\\nRUSSELL 4 STRU.THERS, ENGS, N.Y\\nsince the pions Numa. Warned by the fate of Jidius,\\nAugustns did not take the name of king, nor startle the\\nRoman prejudices by any sudden seizure of authority. He", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "256 ROME. [31 B.C.\\nkejDt lip all the forms of the republic. Every ten years he\\nwent tlirough the farce of laying down his rank as chief of\\nthe army, or imperator, a word since contracted to emperor.\\nHe professed himself the humble servant of the senate,\\nwhile he really exercised absolute power. Gradually all the\\noffices of trust were centered in him. He became at once\\nproconsul, consul, censor, tribune, and high priest.^\\nMassacre of Varus (9 a. d.). Germany, under the\\nvigorous rule of Drusus and Tiberius, step-sons of Augustus,\\nnow seemed liliely to become as thoroughly Romanized\\nas Gaul had been (Brief Hist. France, p. 11). Varus, gov-\\nernor of the province, thinking the conquest complete, at-\\ntempted to introduce the Latin language and laws. There-\\nupon Arminius, a noble, freedom-loving German, aroused\\nhis countrymen, and in the wilds of the Teutoburg Forest\\ntook a terrible revenge for the wrongs they had suffered.\\nVarus and his entire army perished.^ Dii e was the dismay\\nat Rome when news came of this disaster. For days\\nAugustus wandered tlirough his palace, beating his head\\nagainst the waU, and crying, Varus, give me back my\\nlegions Six years later the whitened bones of these hap-\\nless warriors were buried by Germanicus, the gifted son of\\nDrusus, who in vain endeavored to restore the Roman au-\\nthority in Germany.\\nThe Augustan Age (31 b. c.-14 a. d.) was, however, one\\nof general peace and prosperity. The emperor hved unos-\\n1 As consul, lie became chief magistrate as censor, he could decide who were to\\nbe senators; as tribune, he heard appeals, and his person was sacred; as imperator,\\nhe commanded the army and as poutifex maximus, or chief priest, he was the head\\nof the national religion. These were powers originally belonging to the king, but\\nwhich, during the republic, from a fear of centralization, had been distributed among\\ndifferent persons. Now the emperor gathered them up again.\\n2 Creasy reckons this among the fifteen decisive battles of the world. Had Ar-\\nminius been defeated, says Arnold, our German ancestors would have been en.\\nslaved or exterminated, and the great English nation would have been struck out of\\nexistence.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "14A.D.J THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 257\\ntentatiously in his house, not in a palace, and his toga was\\nwoven by his wife Livia and lier maidens. He revived the\\nworshij^ of the gods. His chosen friends were men of\\nletters. He beautified Rome, so that he could truly boast\\nthat he found the city of brick, and left it of marble.\\nThere was now no fear of pirates or hostile fleets, and grain\\ncame in plenty from Egypt. The people were amused and\\nfed hence they were contented. The provinces were well\\ngoverned,^ and many gained Roman citizenship. A single\\nlanguage became a universal bond of intercoui se, and Rome\\nbegan her work of civilization and education. Wars having\\nso nearly ceased, and interest in politics having diminished,\\nmen turned their thoughts more toward literature, art, and\\nreligion.\\nThe Birth of Christ, the central figure in all history,\\noccurred during the widespread peace of this reign.\\nThe Empire was, in general, bounded by the Euphrates\\non the east, the Danube and the Rhine on the north, the\\nAtlantic Ocean on the west, and the deserts of Africa on the\\nsouth. It comprised about a hundi-ed millions of people, of\\nperhaps a hundred different nations, each speaking its own\\nlanguage and worshiping its own gods. An army of three\\nhundred and fifty thousand men held the provinces in check,\\nwhile the Prnetorian Guard of ten thousand protected the\\nperson of the emperor. The Mediterranean, which the\\nRomans proudly called om* own sea, served as a natural\\nhighway between the widely sundered parts of this vast\\nregion, while the Roman roads, straight as an eagle s flight,\\nbound every portion of the empii-e to its center. Every-\\nwhere the emperor s will was law. His smile or frown was\\n1 One day wlieu Augustus was sailing in tlie Baj^ of Baiix?, a Greek sliip was pass-\\ning. The sailors, perceiving the emperor, stopped their vessel, arrayed tliemselves in\\nwhite robes, and, going on board his yacht, offered sacrifice to him as a god, saying,\\nYou have given to us liappiness. You have secured to us our lives and our goods.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "258\\nROME.\\nlIst cent. a. d.\\nthe fortune or ruin of a man, a city, or a province. His\\ncharacter determined the prosperity of the empire.\\nHe hved to be seventy-six years old, having reigned forty-\\nfour years. At his death the senate decreed that divine\\nhonors should be given him, and temples were erected for\\nhis worship. From him the month August was named.\\nHenceforth the history of Rome is not that of the people,\\nbut of its emperors. Of these, forty-two were murdered,\\nthree committed suicide, and two were forced to abdicate\\nthe throne.2 None of the early emperors was followed by\\nhis own son, but, according to the Roman law of adoption,\\nthey all counted as Caesars. Nero was the last of them at\\nall connected with Augustus, even by adoption, though the\\nemperors called themselves Caesar and Augustus to the last.\\nAfter the death of Augustus,\\nCOIN OF TIBERIUS C^SAR.\\nTiberius (14 a. d.), his step-son, secured the empire by\\na decree of the senate. The army on the Rhine would have\\n1 The domestic life of Augustus was not altogetlier happy. He suffered greatly\\nfrom the imperious disposition of Livia,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 his fourth wife,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 whom, however, he loved\\ntoo dearly to coerce from his step-son Tiherius, whose turbulence he was forced to\\nclieck hy sending him in exile to Rhodes; and still more keenly from the immoral\\nconduct of his daughter Julia, whom, with her mother, Scribonia, he was also com-\\npelled to banish.\\n2 In the following pages a brief account is given of the principal monarchs only;\\na full list of the emperors may be found on p. 311.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "14A.D.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 259\\ngladly given the throne to the noble Germanieus, but\\nhe declined the honor. Jealous of this kinsman, Tiberius,\\nit is thought, afterward removed him by poison. The\\nnew emperor ruled for a time with much ability, yet soon\\nproved to be a gloomy tyrant,^ and finally retired to the\\nIsland of Caprea3, to practice in secret his infamous orgies.\\nHis favorite, the cruel and ambitious Seja nus, prefect of\\nthe Praetorian Guard, remained at Rome as the real ruler,\\nbut, having conspired against his master, he was thrown\\ninto the Mamertine Prison, and there strangled. Many of\\nthe best citizens fell victims to the emperoi^ s suspicious\\ndisposition, and all, even the surviving members of his own\\nfamily, breathed easier when news came of his sudden\\ndeath.\\nThe great event of this reign was the crucifixion of Christ\\nat Jerusalem, under Pilate, Roman procurator of Judea.\\nCaligula^ (37 a. d.) inherited some of his father s virtues,\\nbut he was weak-minded, and his history records only a\\nmadman s freaks. He made his favorite horse a consul, and\\nprovided him a golden manger. Any one at whom the\\nemperor nodded his head or pointed his finger was at once\\nexecuted. Would, said he, that all the people at Rome\\nhad but one neck, so I could cut it off at a single blow.\\nNero (54 a. d.) assassinated his mother and wife. In the\\nmidst of a great fire which destroyed a larger part of Rome,\\nhe chanted a poem to the music of his lyre, while he\\nwatched the flames. To secure himself against the charge\\nof having at least spread the fire, he ascribed the confla-\\n1 His character resembled that of Louis XI. (see Brief Hist. France, p. 94).\\n2 Over liis cross was an inscription in three languages, significant of the tliree\\nbest developments then known of tlie human race,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ROMAN law, Greek mind, and\\nHebuew faith.\\n3 Caius, son of Germanicus, and great-grandson of Augustus, received from the\\nsoldier.s the nickname of Caligula, by which ho is always known, because he wore\\nlittle boots {caligulce) while with his father in camp on the Rhine.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "260\\nROME.\\n[1st cent. a. d.\\ngration to the Clii istiaus. These were cruelly persecuted/\\nSt. Paul and St. Peter, according to traditiou, being mar-\\ntyi-ed at this time. In rebuilding the city, Nero substi-\\ntuted broad streets for the winding lanes in the hollow\\nbetween the Seven Hills, and, in place of the unsightly\\npiles of brick and wood, erected handsome stone buildings^\\neach block surrounded by a colonnade.\\nCOIN OF NERO.\\nVespasian (69 a. d.) was made emperor by his army in\\nJudea. An old-fashioned Roman, he sought to revive the\\nancient virtues of honesty and frugality. His son Titus,\\nafter capturing Jerusalem (pp. 85, 284), shared the throne\\nwith his father, and finally succeeded to the empire. His\\ngenerosity and kindness won him the name of the Delight\\nof ManMnd. He refused to sign a death-warrant, and pro-\\nnounced any day lost in which he had not done some one\\na favor. During this happy period, Agricola conquered\\nnearly all Britain, making it a Roman province; the\\nfamous Colosseum at Rome was finished but Pompeii and\\n1 Some were crucified. Some were covered with the slfins of wild beasts, and\\nworried to death by dogs. Some were thrown to the tigers and lions in the Amphi-\\ntheater. Gray-haired men were forced to fight with trained gladiators. Worst of all,\\none night Nero s gardens were lighted by Christians, who, their clothes having been\\nsmeared with i)itch and ignited, were placed as blazing torches along the course on\\nwhich the emperor, heedless of their agony, drove his chariot in the races.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "79A.D.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 261\\nHerciilaueuni were destroyed by an eruption of Mount\\nVesuvius.^\\nDomitian^ (81 a. d.) was a second Nero or Caligula. His\\nchief amusement was in spearing flies with a pin; yet he\\nstyled himself Lord and God, and received divine honors.\\nHe banished the philosophers, and renewed the persecution\\nof the Christians. At this time St. John was exiled to the\\nIsle of Patmos.\\nThe Five Good Emperors (9G-180 a. d.) now brought\\nin the palmiest days of Rome. Nerva, a quiet, honest old\\nman, distributed lands among the plebs, and taught them to\\nwork for a living. Trajan, a great Spanish general, con-\\nquered the Dacians and many Eastern peoples; founded\\npublic libraries and schools in Italy; and tried to restore\\nfreedom of speech and simplicity of life.^ Hadrian traveled\\nalmost incessantly over his vast empu^e, overseeing the gov-\\nernment of the provinces, and erecting splendid buildings.\\nAntmiinus Fins was a second Numa by his love of justice\\nand religion, he diffused the blessings of peace and order over\\nthe civilized world. Marcus AureMus^ was a philosopher,\\nand loved quiet. But the time of peace had passed. The\\nGermans, pressed by Russian Slavs, fled before them, and\\ncrossed the Roman frontiers as in the time of Marius. The\\nemperor was forced to take the field in person, and died\\nduring the eighth winter campaign.\\nDecline of the Empire. The most virtuous of men\\nwas succeeded by a weak, vicious boy, his son Commodus.\\n1 The forgotten site of Pompeii was accidentally discovered in 1748 (see p. 300).\\n2 Domitian is said to have once called together the senate to decide how a fish\\nshould be cooked for his dinner.\\n3 Two centuries afterward, at the accession of each emperor, the senate wished\\nthat he might be more fortiinate than Augustus, more virtuous than Trajan.\\n4 Marcus Aurelius took the name of his adoptive father, Antoninus, so that this\\nperiod is known as the Age of the Antoninea.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "262 ROME. [180 A. D.\\nAn era of military despotism followed. Miu der became\\ndomesticated in the palace of tlie Caesars. The Praetorian\\nGuards put up the imperial power at auction, and sold it to\\nthe highest bidder. The armies in the provinces declared\\nfor their favorite officers, and the throne became the stake\\nof battle. Few of the long list of emperors who succeeded\\nto the throne are worthy of mention.\\nSeptim ius Seve rus (193 a. d.), a general in Germany,\\nafter defeating his rivals, ruled vigorously, though often\\ncruelly. His triumphs in Parthia and Britain renewed the\\nglory of the Roman arms.\\nCar acarius (211 a. d.) would be remembered only for\\nhis ferocity, but that he gave the right of Roman citizenship\\nto all the provinces, in order to tax them for the benefit of\\nhis soldiers. This event marked an era in the history of\\nthe empire, and greatly lessened the importance of Rome.\\nAlexander Seve rus (222 a. d.) delighted in the society\\nof the wise and good. He favored the Christians, and over\\nthe door of his palace were inscribed the words, Do unto\\nothers that which you would they should do unto you. He\\nwon victories against the Germans and Persians (Sassanidae,\\np. 156), but, attempting to estabUsh discipUne in the army,\\nwas slain by his mutinous troops in the bloom of youth.\\nThe Barbarian Goths, Germans, and Persians, who\\nhad so long threatened the empire, invaded it on every side.\\nThe emperor Decius was killed in battle by the Goths.\\nOalliis bought peace by an annual tribute. Valerian was\\ntaken prisoner by the Persian king, who carried him about\\nin chains, and used him as a footstool in mounting his horse.\\nThe temple at Ephesus was burned at this time by the Goths.\\nDming the general confusion, so many usurpers sprang\\nup over the empire and established short-lived kingdoms,\\nthat this is known as the Era of the Tlm-ty Tyrants.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "268 a. D.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 263\\nThe lUyrian Emperors (2G8-284 a. d.), howevcir, rolled\\nback the tide of invasion. Claudius vanquished the Goths\\nin a contest which recalled the days of Marius and the Gauls.\\nAurelian drove the Germans into their native wilds, and de-\\nfeated Zenobia, the beautiful and heroic queen of Palmyra,\\nbringing her to Rome in chains of gold to grace his triumph.\\nFrobus triumphed at the East and the West, and, turning to\\nthe arts of peace, introduced the vine into Germany, and\\ntaught the legions to work in vineyard and field. Diocle tian\\nbegan a new method of government. To meet the swarm-\\ning enemies of the empire, he associated with himself his\\ncomrade-in-arms, Maxim kin; each emperor took the title of\\nAugustus, and appointed, under the name of Caesar, a brave\\ngeneral as his successor. War raged at once in Persia,\\nEgypt, Britain, and Germany, but the four rulers vigilantly\\nw^atched over theii* respective provinces, and the Roman\\neagles conquered every foe.\\nIn the year 303 a. d. the joint emperors celebrated the\\nlast triumph ever held at Rome. During the same year, also,\\nbegan the last and most bitter persecution of the Christians,^\\nso that this reign is called the Era of the Martyrs.\\nSpread of Christianity. The rehgion founded by\\nJesus of Nazareth, and preached duiing the 1st century by\\nPaul and the other Apostles (see Acts of the Apostles), had\\nnow spread over the Western Empire. It was largely, how-\\never, confined to the cities, as is curiously shown in the fact\\nthat the word pagan originally meant only a countryman.\\nThough the Romans tolerated the rehgious belief of every\\nnation which they conquered, they cruelly persecuted Chris-\\ntians. This wais because the latter opposed the national\\n1 In 305 A. I), both emperors resigned tlie purple. Diocletian amused liimself by\\nworking lu his garden, and when Maxiniian sought to diaw liim out of his letire-\\nnient he wrote: If you could see the cabbages I have planted with my own hand,\\nyou would never ask me to remount the throne.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "264 ROME. [4th CENT. A. D.\\nreligion of the empire, and refused to offer sacrifice to its\\ngods, and to worship its emperors. Moreover, the Christians\\nabsented themselves from the games and feasts, and were\\naccustomed to hold their meetings at night, and often in\\nsecret. They were therefore looked upon as enemies of the\\nstate, and were persecuted by even the best rulers, as Trajan\\nand Diocletian, This opposition, however, served only to\\nstrengthen the rising faith. The heroism of the martyi s\\nextorted the admiration of their enemies. Thus, when Poly-\\ncarp was hurried before the tribunal and urged to curse\\nChrist, he exclaimed, Eighty-six years have I served Him,\\nand He has done me nothing but good how could I curse\\nHim, my Lord and Saviour And when the flames rose\\naround him he thanked God that he was deemed worthy of\\nsuch a death. With the decaying empire. Heathenism grew\\nweaker, while Christianity gained strength. As early as the\\nreign of Septimius Severus, Tertullian declared that if the\\nChristians were forced to emigrate, the empire would become\\na desert.\\nLoss of Roman Prestige. Men no longer looked to\\nRome for their citizenship. The army consisted principally\\nof Gauls, Germans, and Britons, who were now as good Ro-\\nmans as any. The emperors were of provincial birth. The\\nwars kept them on the frontiers, and Diocletian, it is said,\\nhad never seen Rome until he came there in the twentieth\\nyear of his reign to celebrate his triumph. His gorgeous\\nAsiatic court, with its pompous ceremonies and its king\\nwearing the hated crown, was so ridiculed in Rome by\\nsong and lampoon that the monarch never returned. His\\nheadquarters were kept at Nicomedia (Bithynia) in Asia\\nMinor, and Maximian s at Milan.\\nConstantine, the Cfesar in Britain, having been pro-\\nclaimed Augustus by his troops, overthrew five rivals who", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "324 a. D.] THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 265\\ncontested the throne, and became sole ruler (324 a. d.). His\\nreign marked an era in tlie world s history. It was char-\\nacterized by three changes: 1. Christianity became, in a\\nsense, the state religion.^ 2. The capital was removed to\\nByzantium, a Greek city, afterward known as Constantinople\\n(Constautine s city). 3. The monarchy was made an abso-\\nlute despotism, the power of the army weakened, and a court\\nestablished, whose nobles, receiving their honors directly\\nfrom the emperor, took rank with, if not the place of, the\\nformer consul, senator, or patrician.\\nThe First General ((Ecumenical) Council of the\\nChurch was lield at Nica^a (325 a. d.), to consider the teach-\\nings of A) ii(s, a priest of ^Uexandria, who denied the divinity\\nof Christ. Arianism was denounced, and the opposing\\ndoctrines of another Alexandrian priest, Athana sius, were\\nadopted as the Nicene Creed.\\nChristianity soon conquered the empire. The emperor\\nJulimiy the Apostate, an excellent man though a Pagan\\nphilosopher, sought to restore the old religion, but in vain.\\nThe best intellects, repelled from political discussion by the\\ntyi anny of the government, turned to the consideration of\\ntheological questions. This was especially true of tlie East-\\nern Church, where the Greek mind, so fond of metaphysical\\nsubtleties, was predominant.\\nBarbarian Invasions. In the latter part of the 4th\\ncentury, a host of Scivage Huns,^ bursting into Europe, drove\\n1 Ai:c(\u00c2\u00bbt(liug to the legend, when Constantinc was marchin.? ajrninst Maxentius,\\nthe rival Augustus at Rome, he saw in the sky at mid-day a tlanimg cross, and beneath\\nit the words, IN this conquer Constantino accepted tlie new faith, and assumed\\nthe standard of the cross, wliich was henceforth borne by the Christian emperors.\\n2 The Huns were a Turanian race from Asia. They were short, thick-set, with\\nflat noses, deep-sunk eyes, and a yeUow complexion. Their faces were hideously\\nscarred with shishes to prevent the gru vih of the beard. An historian of the time com-\\npares their ugliness to the grinning lieads carved on the posts of bridges. Tliey\\ndressed in skins, wliich were worn until they rotted off, and lived ou horseback,\\ncarrying theii- families and all their possessions in huge wagons.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "266 ROMTi]. [378 A. D.\\ntlie Teutons in terror before them. The frightened Goths\\nobtained permission to cross the Danube for an asylum, and\\nsoon a million of these wild warriors stood, sword in hand,\\non the Roman territory. They were assigned lands in\\nThrace but the ill treatment of the Roman officials drove\\nthem to arms. They defeated the emperor Valens in a\\nterrible battle near Adrianople, the monarch himself being\\nburned to death in a peasant s cottage, where he had been\\ncarried wounded. The victorious Goths pressed forward to\\nthe very gates of Constantinople.\\nTheodosius the Great, a Spaniard, raised from a farm\\nto the throne, stayed for a few years tlie inevitable prog-\\nress of events. He pacified tlu^ Goths, and enlisted forty\\nthousand of tlieir warriors under the eagles of Rome. He\\nI orbade the worship of the old gods, and tried to put down\\nthe Arian heresy, so prevalent at Constantinople. At his\\ndeath (395 a. d.) the empire was divided between his two\\nsons.\\nHenceforth the histories of the Eastern or Byzantine and\\nthe Western Empire are separate. The former is to go on\\nat Constantinople for one thousand years, while Rome is\\nsoon to pass into the hands of the barbarians.\\nThe 5 th Century is known as the Era of the Or eat\\nMigrations. During this j^eriod, Europe was turbulent with\\nthe movements of the restless Germans. Pressed by the\\nHuns, the different tribes the East and West Goths, Franks,\\nAlans, Vandals, Burgundians, Longobards (Lombards), Alle-\\nmanns. Angles, Saxons poured south and west with irre-\\n1 Tlie Goths were already somewhat advanced in civilization through their inter-\\ncourse with the Romans, and we read of Gothic leadei s who were judges of Homer,\\nand carried well-chosen books with them on their travels. Under the teacliiugs of\\ntheir good bishop, Ul philas, many accepted Christianity, and the Bible was tran.slated\\ninto their language. They, however, became Ariaus, and so a new element of discord\\nwas introduced, as they hated the Catholic Christians of Home (see Brief Hist.\\nFrance, p. 14).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 267\\nsistible fiiry, arms in hand, seeking new homes in the\\ncrumbling Roman Empire. It was nearly two centuries\\nbefore the turmoil sul^sided enough to note the changes\\nwhich had taken place.\\nThree Great Barbaric Leaders, Al aric the Goth,\\nAt tila the Hun, and Uen scric the Vandal, were conspicuous\\nin the grand catastroplie.\\n1. Alaric having l)een chosen prince of the Goths, after\\nthe death of Theodosius, passed the defile of Thermopylae,\\nand devastated Greece, destroying the precious monuments\\nof its former glory. Sparta and Athens, once so brave, made\\nno defense. He was finally driven back by Stilicho, a Van-\\ndal, but the only great Roman general. Alari(i next moved\\nupon Italy, l)ut was repeatedly repulsed l)y the watchful\\nStilicho. The Roman emperor Honoiius, jealous of his\\nsuccessful general, (jrdei ed his execution. When Alaric\\ncame again, there was no one to opi)ose his progress. All\\nthe barbarian Germans, of every name, joined his victorious\\narms. Rome bought a 1 )i ief respite with a ransom of gold,\\nsUver, silk, scarh^t (jlotli, and pepper; but Tlie Eternal City,\\nwhich had not seen an enemy 1)efore its walls since the\\nday when it defied Hannibal, soon fell without a blow (410\\nA. D.). No Ploratius was there to hold the bridge in this\\nhour of peril. The gates were thrown open, and at midnight\\nthe Gothic trumpet awoke the inhabitants. For six days\\nthe barbcirians held high revel, and then their climisy\\n1 Rome, at this time, contained probablj-^ a million of inhabitants, and its wealtli\\nmight well attract the cupidity of the barbarous invader. The palaces of the senators\\nwere lilled with gold and silver ornaments,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the piize of many a bloody campaign.\\nThe churches were rich with the contributions of pious worshipers. On the en-\\ntrance of the (4oths, a fearful scene of pillage ensued. Houses were fired to light the\\nstieets. Great numbers of citizens wero driven off to be sold as slaves while others\\nfled to Africa, or the islands of the Mediterranean. Alaric, being an Arian, tried to\\nsave the churches, as well as the city, from destruction. But now began that swift\\ndecay which soon leduced Rome to heaps of luius, and rendered the title The\\nKternal City a sad mockery. S \u00c2\u00bb/m77i.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "268\\nROME.\\nwagons, heaped high with priceless plunder, moved south\\nalong the Appian Way. Alaric died soon after J His suc-\\ncessor, Adolphils, triumphantly married the sister of the\\nemperor,^ and was styled an officer of Rome. Under his\\nguidance, the Goths and Germans turned westward into\\nSpain and southern Gaul. There they founded a powerful\\nVisigotliic kingdom, with Toulouse as its capital.\\n2. Attila, King of the\\nhideous Huns, gathering\\nhalf a million savages, set\\nforth westward from his\\nwooden palace in Himgary,\\nvomng not to stop till he\\nreached the sea. He called\\nhimself the Scourge of\\nGod, and boasted that\\nwhere his horse set foot\\ngrass never grew again.\\nOn the field of Chalons\\n(451 A. D.), JE tius, the Ro-\\nman general in Gaul, and\\nTheodoric, King of the\\nGoths, arrested this Tu-\\nranian horde, and saved\\nEurope to Christianity and\\nAiyan civilization. Burn-\\ning with revenge, Attila crossed the Alps an i descended\\n1 The Goths, in order to hide his tomb, turned aside a stream, and, digging a\\ngrave in its bed, placed therein the body, clad in richest armor. They then let the\\nwater back, and slew the prisoners who had done the work.\\n2 During this disgraceful campaign, Honorins lay liidden in the inaccessible\\nmorasses of Ravenna, where he amused himself with his pet chickens. When some\\none told him Rome was lost, he replied, That cannot be, for I fed her out of my\\nhand a moment ago, alluding to a hen which he called Rome.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "THE POLITICAL HISTORY. 269\\ninto Italy. City after city was spoiled and burned.^ Just\\nas he was about to inarch upon Rome, Pope Leo came forth\\nto meet him, and the barbarian, awed by his majestic mien\\nand the glory which yet clung to that seat of empire,\\nagreed to spare the city. Attila returned to the banks\\nof the Danube, where he died shortly after, leaving behind\\nhim in history no mark save the ruin he had wrought.\\n3. Genseric, leading across into Africa the Vandals, who\\nhad ah eady settled the province of Vandalusisi in southern\\nSpain, founded an empire at Carthage. Wishing to revive\\nits former maritime greatness, he built a fleet and gained\\ncontrol of the Mediterranean. His ships cast anchor in the\\nTiber, and the intercessions of Leo were now fruitless to\\nsave Rome. For fourteen days the pirates plundered the\\ncity of the Ca?sars. Works of art, bronzes, precious marbles,\\nwere ruthlessly destroyed, so that the word vandalism be-\\ncame synonymous with wanton devastation.\\nFall of the Roman Empire (476 a. d.). The com-\\nmander of the barbarian troops in the pay of Rome now set\\nup at pleasure one puppet emperor after another. The last\\nof these phantom monarchs, Romulus Augustulus,^ by a sin-\\ngular coincidence bore the names of the founder of the city\\nand of the empire. Finally, at the command of Odo^acer,\\nGerman chief of the mercenaries, he laid down his useless\\nscepter. The senate sent the tiara and purple robe to\\nConstantinople and Zeno, the Eastern emperor, appointed\\nOdoacer Fatncian of Ifah/. So the Western Einpu-e passed\\naway, and only this once proud title remained to recall its\\nformer glory. Byzantium had displaced Rome.\\n1 The inhabitants of Aqulleia and otlier cities, seeking a refuge in the Islands\\nof the Adriatic, founded Venice, fitly named Tlie Eldest Daughter of the Empire.\\n2 Augustulus is the diminutive for Augustus.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "270\\nROME.\\n2. THE CIVILIZATION.\\nSociety. The early Roman social and political organization\\nwas similar to the Athenian (p. 158). The true Roman people\\ncomprised only the patricians and their clients. The patricians\\nformed the ruhng class, and, even in the time of the republic, gave\\nto Roman history an aristocratic character. Several clients were\\nattached to each patrician, serving his interests, and, in turn, being-\\nprotected by him.\\nT\\nThe three original tribes of patricians (Ramnes, Titles, and\\nLuceres) were each divided into ten curice, and each curia theoreti-\\ncally into ten gentes (houses or clans). The members of a Roman\\ncuria, or ward, like those of an Athenian phratry, possessed many\\ninterests in common, each curia having its own priest and lands. A\\ngens comprised several families,i united usually by kinship and\\n1 Contrary to the custom in Greece, where family names were seldom nsed, and a\\nman was generally known by a single name having reference to some i)ersonal pecu-\\nliarity or circumstance (p. 175), to every Roman three names were given the i^rceno-\\nmen or individual name, the nomen or clan iiani(% and the coynotnen or family name.\\nSometimes a fourth name was added to commemorate some exploit. Tlius, in the\\ncase of Puhlius Cornelius Scipio Afiicanus, and liis brother Lucius Cornelius Scipio\\nAsiaticus (note, p. 235), wo recognize all these titles.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 271\\nintermarriage, and bearing the same name. Within the gens,\\neach family formed its own little community, governed by the\\npaterfamilias, who owned all the property. The sons dwelt\\nunder the paternal roof, often long after they were married, and\\ncultivated the family estate in common.\\nMagistrates. The Consuls commanded the army, and executed\\nthe decrees of the senate and the people. They were chosen an-\\nnually. They wore a white robe with a purple border, and were\\nattended by twelve lictors bearing the ax and rods {fasces y p. 208),\\nemblems of the consular power. At the approach of a consul, all\\nheads were uncovered, seated persons arose, and those on horse-\\nback dismounted. No one was eligible to the consulship until he\\nwas forty-three years of age, and had held the offices of quaestor,\\nsedile, and praetor.\\nThe QucBstors received and paid out the moneys of the state.\\nThe JS^diles, two (and afterward four) in number, took charge of\\nthe public buildings, the cleaning and draining of the streets, and\\nthe superintendence of the police and the public games.\\nThe Prcetor was a sort of judge. At first there was only one,\\nbut finally, owing to the increase of Roman territory, there were\\nsixteen, of these officers. In the later days of the republic it\\nbecame customary for the consuls and the praetors, after serving\\na year in the city, to take command of provinces, and to assume\\nthe title of proconsul or propraetor.\\nThe Tivo Censors were elected for five years. They took the cen-\\nsus of the names and property of Roman citizens 5 aiTanged the\\ndifferent classes (p. 212) j corrected the lists of senators and\\nequites, striking out the unworthy, and filling vacancies; pun-\\nished extravagance and immorality; levied the taxes; and re-\\npaired and constructed public works, roads, etc.\\nThe Army. Every citizen between the ages of seventeen and\\nfifty was subject to military service, unless he was of the lowest\\nclass, or had served twenty campaigns in the infantry or ten in\\nthe cavalry. The drill was severe, and included running, jump-\\ning, swimming in full armor, and marching long distances at the\\nrate of four miles per hour. There were four classes of foot-sol-\\ndiers: viz., the velites, or light armed, who hovered in front; the\\nhastati, so called because they anciently caiTied spears, and who\\nformed the first line of battle the principes, so named because in\\nearly times they were put in front, and who formed the second line\\nand the triarii, veterans who composed the third line. Each legion", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "272\\nROME.\\ncontained from three to six thousand men. The legions were divided\\nand subdivided into cohorts, companies {manipuU), and centuries.\\nArms and Mode of Warfare.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The national arm of the Ro-\\nmans was the inlum, a heavy iron-pointed spear, six feet long, and\\nweighing ten or eleven pounds. This was thrown at a distance of\\nten to fifteen paces, after which the legionary came to blows with\\nhis stout, short sword. The velites began the battle with light\\njavehns, and then retired behind the rest. The hastati, the prin-\\ncipes, and the triarii, each, in turn, bore the brunt of the fight, and,\\nif defeated, passed through\\nintervals between the ma-\\nnipuH of the other lines, and\\nrallied in the rear.\\nSIEGE OF A CITY.\\n1 Later in Roman liistory the soldiev ceased to be a citizen, and remained con-\\nstantly with the eagles until discharged. Marius arranged his troops in two lines,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILTZATION. 273\\nThe Romans learned from the Greeks the use of military enp^ines,\\nand finally became experts in the art of sieges. Their principal\\nmachines were the baUista for throwing stones j the catapult for\\nhurling darts; the battering-ram (so called from the shape of the\\nmetal head) for breaching walls; and the movable tower, which\\ncould be pushed close to the fortifications, and so overlook them.\\nOn the march each soldier had to carrj^, besides his arms, grain\\nenough to last from seventeen to thirty days, one or more wooden\\nstakes, and often intrenching tools. When the army halted,\\neven for a single night, a ditch was dug about the site for the\\ncamp, and a stout palisade made of the wooden stakes, to guard\\nagainst a sudden attack. The exact size of the camp, and the\\nlocation of every tent, street, etc., were fixed by a regular plan\\ncommon to all the armies.\\nLiterature.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 For about five centuries after the founding of\\nRome, there was not a Latin author. When a regard for letters at\\nlast arose, the tide of imitation set in-esistibly toward Greece. Over\\ntwo centuries after ^schylus and Sophocles contended for the\\nAthenian prize, Livius Andronicus, a Greek slave, made the first\\nLatin translation of Greek classics (about 240 b. c), and himself\\nwrote and acted plays whose inspiration was caught from the\\nsame source. His works soon became text-books in Roman\\nschools, and were used till the time of Virgil. Naevius, a soldier-\\npoet, Hhe last of the native minstrels, patterned after Eurip-\\nides in tragedy, and Aristophanes in comedy. The Romans\\nresented the exposure of theii* national and personal weaknesses\\non the stage, sent the bold satirist to prison, and finally banished\\nhim. Ennius, the father of Latin song, called himself the\\nRoman Homer. He unblushingly borrowed from his great\\nmodel, decried the native fashion of ballad- writing, introduced\\nhexameter verse, and built up a new style of literature, closely\\nand Caesar generally in three but the terms hastati, principes, aud triarii lost their\\nsijrnificance. The place of the velites was taken by Cretan archers, Balearic sliugcrs,\\nand Gallic and German mercenaries. In time, the army was tilled with foreigners;\\nthe heavj pilum and breastplate were thrown aside; all trace of Roman equipment\\nand discipline disappeared, and the legion became a tiling of the past.\\n1 For a long time he was the only performer in these dramas. He recited the\\ndialogues and speeches, aud sang the Ij rics to the accompaniment of a flute. So\\nfavorably was the new entertainment received bj Roman audiences, aud so often\\nwas the successful actor encored, tliat he lost his voice, aud was obliged to hire a\\nboy, who, hidden behind a curtain, sang tlie canticas, while Livius, in front, made\\nthe appropriate gestures. This custom afterward became common on the Roman\\nstage.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "274 ROME.\\nfounded on the Grecian.^ His Annals, a poetical Roman history,\\nwas for two centuries the national poem of Rome. Ennius, unlike\\nNaevius, flattered the ruling powers, and was rewarded by having\\nhis bust placed in the tomb of the Scipios. Plautns (254-184 B. c),\\nwho pictured with his coarse, vigorous, and brilliant wit the man-\\nners of his day, and Ter ence (195-159 B. c), a learned and graceful\\nhumorist, were the two great comic poets of Rome.^ They were\\nsucceeded by Lucil ius (148-103 b. c), a brave soldier and famous\\nknight, whose sharp, fierce satire was poured relentlessly on Ro-\\nman vice and folly.\\nAmong the early prose writers was Cato the Censor (234-149 B. c),\\nson of a Sabine farmer, who was famous as lawyer, orator, sol-\\ndier, and politician (p. 235). His hand-book on agriculture, ^^De\\nRe Rustica, is still studied by farmers, and over one hundred and\\nfifty of his strong, rugged orations find a place among the classics.\\nHis chief work, The Origines, a history of Rome, is lost.\\nVarro (116-28 B. c), the most learned of the Romans, first\\nsoldier, then farmer and author, wrote on theology, philosophy,\\nhistory, agriculture, etc. He founded large hbraries and a mu-\\nseum of sculpture, cultivated the fine arts, and sought to awaken\\nliterary tastes among his countrymen.\\nTo the last century B. c. belong the illustrious names of Virgil\\nand Horace, Cicero, Livy, and Sallust. First in order of birth was\\nCicero,^ orator, essayist, and delightful letter-writer. Most elo-\\n1 Ennius claimed tliat the soul of the old Greek bard had in its transmigration\\nentered his body from its preceding home iu a peacock. He so impressed his intel-\\nlectual personality upon the Romans that they wei e sometimes called the Ennian\\nPeople. Cicero greatly admired his works, and Virgil borrowed as unscrupulously\\nfrom Ennius, as Ennius had filched from Homer.\\n2 It is noticeable that of all the poets we have mentioned, not one was born at\\nRome. Livius was a slave from Magua Gmecia; Najvius was a native of Campania;\\nEnnius was a Calabrian, who came to Rome as a teacher of Greek Plautus (meaning\\nflat-foot\u00e2\u0080\u0094 his name being, like Plato, a sobrictuet) was an Umbrian, the son of a\\nslave, and served in various menial employments before he began play-writing and\\nTerence was the slave of a Roman senator. To be a Roman slave, however, was not\\nincompatible with the possession of talents and education, since, by the pitiless\\nrules of ancient warfare, the richest and most learned citizen of a captured town\\nmight become a drudge in a Rom-^n household, or be sent to labor in the mines.\\n3 Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 b. c), son of a book-loving, country gentleman,\\nwas educated at Rome, studied law and philosophy at Athens, traveled two years in\\nAsia Minor, and then settled in Rome as an advocate. Plunging into the politics of\\nhis time, he soon became famous for his thrilling oratory, and was made, in succes-\\nliion, quaistor, sedile, praitor, and consul. For his detection of Catiline s conspiracy,\\nae received the title of Pater Patriaj. His subsequent banishment, recall, and\\ntragic death are historical (p. 248). Cicero was accused of being vain, vacillating,\\nunamiable, and extravagant. He had an elegant mansion on the Palatine Hill, and", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 275\\nquent of all tlie Romans, his brilliant genius was not exhausted in\\nthe rude contests of the Forum and Basilica, but expanded in\\nthoughtful pohtical essays and gossipy letters. Cicero studied\\nGreek models, and his four orations on the Conspiracy of Cati-\\nline rank not unfavorably with the Phihppics of Demosthenes.\\nHis orations, used for lessons in Roman schools before he died,\\nare, with his essays, De Republica, De Officiis, and De\\nSenectute, famiHar Latin text-books of to-day.\\nSalliist,^ a pohshed historian after the style of Thucydides, holds\\nhis literary renown by two short works, The Conspiracy of\\nCatihne and The Jugurthine War, which are remarkable for\\ntheir condensed vigor and vivid portrayal of character.\\nVirgil^ and Horace, poet-friends of the Augustan age, are well\\nknown to us. Virgil left ten Eclogues, or Bucolics, in which\\nhe patterned after Theocritus, a celebrated Sicilian poet of the\\nAlexandrian age; The Georgics, a work on Roman agriculture\\nand stock-breeding, in confessed imitation of Hesiod s Works\\nand Days J and the iEneid, modeled upon the Homeric poems.\\nnumerous country villas, his favorite one at Tusculum being built on tlie plan of tlie\\nAcademy at Atliens. Here he wallsed and tallied with his friends in a pleasant imi-\\ntation of Aristotle, and here he had a maguilicent library of handsomely bound\\nvolumes, to which he continually added rare works, copied bj his skillful Greek\\nslaves. His favorite poet was Euripides, whose Medea (p. 169), it is said, he was\\nreading when he was overtaken by his assassinators.\\n1 Cuius Sallustius Crispus (86-34 b. c), who was expelled from the senate for\\nimmorality, served afterward in the civil war, and was made governor of Numidia\\nby Julius Caesar. He grew enormously rich on his provincial plundeiings, and\\nreturned to Rome to build a magnificent palace on the edge of the Campus Martins,\\nwhere, in the midst of beautiful gardens, groves, and flowers, he devoted his remain-\\ning years to study and friendship.\\n2 The small paternal estate of PiCblius Virgilius Maro (70-19 u. C), which was\\nconfiscated after the fall of the republic, was restored to him by Augustus. The\\nyoung country poet, who had been educated in Cremona, Milan, and Naples, ex-\\npressed his gratitude for the imperial favor in a Bucolic (sheplierd-poem), one of\\nseveral addressed to various friends. Their merit and novelty\u00e2\u0080\u0094 for they were the first\\nLatin pastorals\u00e2\u0080\u0094 attracted the notice of Maecenas, the confidential adviser of the em-\\nperor; and presently the tall, slouching, somewhat plebeian figure of Virgil was\\nseen among the brilliant crowd of statesmen, artists, poets, and historians who\\nthronged the audience-cliamber of the popular minister, in his sumptuous palace on\\nthe Esquiline Hill. Maecenas, whose wealth equaled his luxurious tastes, took great\\ndelight in encouraging men of letters, being himself well versed in Greek and Roman\\nliterature, the fine arts, and natural history. Acting upon his advice, Virgil wrote\\nthe Georgics, upon which he spent seven years. The iEneid was written to please\\nAugustus, whose ancestry it traces back to the pious .aHueas of Troy, the hero of\\nthe poem. In his last illness, Virgil, who had not yet polished his great work to suit\\nhis fastidious tastes, would have destroj ed it but for the entreaties of his friends.\\nIn accordance with his dying request, he was buried near Naples, where his tomb\\nis still shown above the Posilippo Grotto.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "276\\nROME.\\nHis tender, brilliant, graceful, musical lines are on the tongue of\\nevery Latin student. The ^neid became a text-book for the\\nHttle Romans within fifty years after its author s death, and has\\nnever lost its place in the schoolroom.\\nCICERO, VIKGIL, IIOKACE, AND SALLUST.\\nHorace,^ in his early writings, imitated Archilochus and Lucilius,\\nand himself says\\nThe shafts of my passiou at random I flung,\\nAnd, dashing headlong into petulant rhyme,\\nI recked neither where nor how fiercely I stung.\\nOde 1. 15.\\n1 Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65-8 B. c), the wit who never wounded, the poet\\nwho ever charmed, the friend who never failed, was the son of a freedman, w ho\\ngave liis boy a thorough Roman education, and afterward sent him to Athens,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 still\\nthe school of the world. Here he joined the army of Brutus, but after the defeat at\\nPhilippi,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 where his bravery resembled that of Archilochus and Alcaeus (p. 164),\u00e2\u0080\u0094 h\u00c2\u00ab\\nreturned to Rome to find his father dead, and all his little fortune confiscated. Of\\nthis time he afterward wrote\\nWant stared me in the face so then and there\\nI took to scribbling verse in sheer despair.\\nThe proceeds of his poems and the gifts of friends bought him a clerkship in the\\nquaestor s department, and made him modestly independent. Virgil introduced him", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 277\\nBut his kind, genial nature soon tempered this petulant rhyme.\\nHis Satires are rambling, sometimes ironical, and always witty.\\nLike Virgil, he loved to sing of country life. He wrote labori-\\nously, and carefully studied all his metaphors and phrases. His\\nOdes have a consummate grace and finish.\\nLivy,^ who outlived Horace by a quarter of a century, wrote one\\nhundred and forty-two volumes of Roman History, beginning\\nwith the fabulous landing of ^neas, and closing with the death\\nof Drusus (8 B. c). Thirty-five volumes remain. His grace, en-\\nthusiasm, and eloquence make his pages delightful to read, though\\nhe is no longer accepted as an accurate historian.\\nThe 1st century a. d. produced the two Plinys, Tacitus, Ju-\\nvenal, and Seneca.\\nPlimj the Elder^ is remembered for his Natural History, a\\nwork of thirty-seven volumes, covering the whole range of the\\nscientific knowledge of his time.\\nFUni/ the Younger, the charming letter- writer, and Tacitus, the\\norator and historian, two rich, eloquent, and distinguished noble-\\nmen, were among the most famous intellectual men of their time.s\\nto Maecenas, who took liiiu into an almost romantic friendship, lasting through\\nlife. From this generous patron he received the gift of the Sabine Farm. to\\nwhich he retired, and which he has immortalized hy his descriptions. He died a\\nfew months after his dear knight Maecenas, to whom he had declared nearly a\\nscore of years before,\\nAh, if untimely Fate should snatch thee hence.\\nThee, of my soul a part,\\nThink not that I have sworn a bootless oath.\\nFor we shall go, shall go.\\nHand linked in hand, where er thou leadest, both\\nThe last sad road below.\\nHe was buried on the Esquiline Hill, by the side of his princely friend.\\n1 Titus Living (59 B. C.-17 A. D.). Little is known of his private life except that\\nhe was the friend of the Caesars. So great was his renown in his own time, that, ac-\\ncording to legend, a Spaniard traveled from Cadiz to Rome to see him, looked upon\\nhim, and contentedly retraced his journey.\\n2 Of this Pliny s incessant research, his nephew (Pliny the Younger) writes;\\nFrom the twenty-third of August he began to study at midnight, and through\\nthe winter he rose at one or two in the morning. During his meals a book\\nwas read to him, he taking notes while it went on, for he read nothing without\\nmaking extracts. In fact he thought all time lost which was not given to study.\\nBesides his Natural History. Pliny the Elder wrote over sixty books on History,\\nRhetoric, Education, and Military Tactics: he also left one hundred and sixty\\nvolumes of Extracts, written on both sides of the leaf, and in the minutest hand.\\nHis eagerness to learn cost him his life, tor he perished in approaching too near\\nVesuvius, in the great eruption which buried Pompeii and Herculaueum (79 A. l).).\\n3 Tacitus was sitting one day in the circus, watching tlie games, when a stranger\\nentered into a learned disquisition with him, and after a while inquired, Are you", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "278 ROME.\\nThey scanned and criticised each other s manuscript, and became\\nby their intimacy so linked with each other that they were jointly\\nmentioned in people s wills, legacies to friends being a fashion of\\nthe day. Of the w^ritings of Tacitus, there remain a part of the\\nAnnals and the History of Rome, a treatise on Germany,\\nand a ^Life of Agricola. Of Phny, we have only the Epistles\\nand a Eulogium upon Trajan. The style of Tacitus was grave\\nand stately, sometimes sarcastic or ironical 5 that of Pliny was\\nvivid, graceful, and circumstantial.\\nSeneca (7 B. C.-65 a. d.), student, poet, orator, and stoic philoso-\\npher, employed his restless intellect in brilliant ethical essays,\\ntragedies, and instructive letters written for the public eye.^ His\\nteachings were remarkable for their moral purity, and the Chris-\\ntian Fathers called him The Divine Pagan.\\nJuvenal, the mocking, eloquent, cynical satirist, belongs to the\\nclose of the century. His writings are unsurpassed in scathing\\ndenunciations of vice.\\nLibraries and Writing Materials. The Roman stationery dif-\\nfered httlefrom the Grecian (p. 178). The passion for collecting\\nbooks was so great that private libraries sometimes contained over\\nsixty thousand volumes.^ The scriba and lihrarii, slaves who were\\nattached to library service, were an important part of a Roman\\ngentleman s household. Fifty or a hundred copies of a book were\\noften made at the same time, one scribe reading while the others\\nof Italy or from the provinces You kuow me from your reading, replied the\\nhistorian. Then, rejoined the other, you must he either Tacitus or Pliny.\\n1 Seneca was the tutor and guardian of the young Nero, and in later days carried\\nhis friendship so far as to write a defense of the murder of Agiippina. But Nero\\nwas poor and in debt Seneca was immensely rich. To charge him with conspiracy,\\nsentence him to death, and seize his vast estates, was a policy characteristic of Nero.\\nSeneca, then an old man, met his fate bravely and cheerfully. His young wife re-\\nsolved to die with liim, and opened a vein in her arm with the same weapon with\\nwhich he had punctured his own, but Nero ordered her wound to be ligatured. As\\nSeneca suffered greatly in dying, his slaves, to shorten his pain, suflfocated him in a\\nvapor bath.\\n2 Juvenal s stj^le is aptly characterized in his description of another noted satirist\\nBut when Lucilius, fired witli virtuous rage,\\nWaves his keen falchion o er a guilty age.\\nThe conscious villain shudders at his sin.\\nAnd burning blushes speak the pangs within;\\nCold drops of sweat from every member roll.\\nAnd growing terrors harrow vip his soul.\\n3 Seneca ridiculed the fashionable pretensions of illiterate men who adorn their\\nrooms with thousands of books, the titles of which are the delight of the yawning\\nowner.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION.\\n279\\nwrote. Papyrus, as it was loss expensive than parchment, was\\nfavorite material. The thick black ink used in writing was\\nmade from soot and g-um red mk was employed for ruling the\\ncolumns. The Egyptian reed-pen {calamus) was still in vogue.\\nROMAN LIBUARY.\\n1 A book was written upon separate strips of papyrus. When the work was\\ncompleted, the strips were glued together; tlie last page was fastened to a hollow\\nreed, over which tlie whole was wound the bases of the roll were carefully cut,\\nemootlied, and dyed a small stick was passed through the reed, the ends of which\\nwere adorned with ivory, golden, or painted knobs {umbilici) the roll was wrapped in\\nparchment, to protect it from the ravages of worms, and tlie title-label was affixed:\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nthe book was then ready for the library shelf or circular case {scrinium). Tlie poitrait\\nof tlie antlior usually appeared on the first page, and tlie title of the book was written\\nboth at the beginning and the end. Sheets of parchment were folded and sewed in\\ndifferent sizes, like modern books.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 An author read the first manuscript of his new\\nwork before as large an audience as he could command, and judged from its recep-\\ntion whether it would pay to publish. If j ou want to recite, says Juvenal,\\nMacnlonus will lend you liis liouse, will range his freedmen on the furthest benches,\\nand will put in the proper places his strong-lunged friends (these corresponded to our\\nmodern claqueurs or hired applauders) but he will not give what it costs to hire\\nthe benches, act up the galleries, and till the stage with chairs. Tliese readings often\\nbecame a bore, and Pliny writes: Thi.s year has brought us a great crop of poets.\\nAudiences come slowly and reluctantly even tlien tliey do not stop, but go away\\nbefore the end; some indeed by stealth, others with perfect openness.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "280 ROME.\\nThere were twenty-nine public libraries at Rome. The most\\nimportant was founded by the emperor Trajan, and called from\\nhisiiomeii (p. 270), Ulpius\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the Ulpian Library.\\nEducation. As early as 450 b. c. Rome had elementary schools,\\nwhere boys and girls were taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and\\nmusic. The Roman boy mastered his alphabet at home by play-\\ning with lettered blocks. At school he chanted the letters, syl-\\nlables, and words in class, after the teacher s dictation. Arithmetic\\nwas learned by the aid of his fingers, or with stone counters and\\na tablet ruled in columns the counters expressing certain values,\\naccording to the columns on which they were placed. He learned\\nto write on wax tablets (p. 178), his little fingers being guided by\\nthe firm hand of the master; afterward he used pen and ink, and\\nthe blank side of secondhand slips of papyrus.^ Boys of wealthy\\nparents were a ?bompanied to school by a slave, who carried their\\nbooks, writing tablets, and counting boards, and also by a Greek\\npedagogue, who, among other duties, practiced them in his native\\nlanguage. Girls were attended by female slaves.\\nLivius Andronicus opened a new era in school education. En-\\nnius, Nsevius, and Plautus added to the Livian text-books, and\\nthe study of Greek became general. In later times there were ex-\\ncellent higher schools where the masterpieces of Greek and Latin\\nliterature were carefully analyzed. State jurisprudence was not\\nneglected, and every schoolboy was expected to repeat the Twelve\\nTables from memory. Rhetoric and declamation were given great\\nimportance, and boys twelve years old made set harangues on\\nthe most solemn occasions.^ As at Athens, the boy of sixteen years\\n1 The copies set for him were usually some moral maxim, ami, doubtless, many a\\nRoman schoollDoy labored over that trite proverb quoted from Menander by Paul,\\nand which still graces many a writing-book: Evil communications corrupt good\\nmanners. Roman schoolmasters were very severe in the use of the ferula. Plautus\\nsays that for missing a single letter in his reading, a boy was striped like his nurse s\\ncloak witli the black and blue spots left by the rod. Horace, two centuries later,\\nanathematized his teacher as Orbilius plagosus (Orbilius of the birch) and Martial,\\nthe witty epigrammatist and friend of Juvenal, declares that in his time the morn-\\ning air resounded with the noise of floggings and the cries of suffering urchins.\\n2 Julius Ciesar pronounced in his twelfth year the funeral oration of his aunt, and\\nAugustus performed a similar feat. The technical rules of rhetoric and declamation\\nwere so minute, that, while tliey gave no play for genius, they took away the risk of\\nfailure. Not nly the form, the turns of thought, the cadences, everything except the\\nactual words, were modeled to a pattern, but the manner, the movements, the ar-\\nrangement of the dress, and the tones of the voice, were subject to rigid rules. The\\nhair was to be sedulously coifed explicit directions governed the use of tlie hand-\\nkerchief the orator s steps in advance or retreat, to right or to left, were all num-\\nbered. He might rest only so many minutes on each foot, and place one only so", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION.\\n281\\nformally entered into manhood, the\\nevent being celebrated with certain\\nceremonies at home and in the Forum\\nand by the assumption of a new style\\nof toga, or robe (p. 295). He could\\nnow attend the instruction of any phil-\\nosopher or rhetorician he chose, and\\nvisit the Forum and Tribunals, being-\\ngenerally escorted by some man of\\nnote selected by his father. He finished\\nhis education by a course in Athens.\\nMonuments and Art. The early\\nItalian temples were copied from the\\nEtruscans the later ones were modifi-\\ncations of the Grecian. Round temples\\n(Etruscan) were commonly dedicated\\nto Vesta or Diana sometimes a dome\\nand portico were added, as in the\\nPantheon.\\nThe Basilica,^^ or Hall of Justice,\\nwas usually rectangular, and divided into three or five aisles by\\nrows of columns, the middle aisle being widest. At the extremity\\nwas a semicircular, arched recess {apse) for the tribunal, in front\\nof which was an altar, all important public business being pre-\\nceded by sacrifice.\\nMagnificent Palaces were built by the Caesars, of which the\\nGolden House of Nero, begun on the Palatiue and extending by\\nmeans of intermediate structures to the Esquiline, is a familiar\\nexample.^ At Tibur (the modern Tivoli), Hadrian had a variety\\nROMAN TOGA.\\nmany inches before the other the elbow must not rise above a certain angle the\\nfingers should be set off with rings, biit not too many or too large; and in raising\\nthe hand to exhibit tliera, care must be taken not to disturb the head-dress. Every\\nemotion had its prescribed gesture, and tlie heartiest applause of the audience was\\nfor the perfection of the pantomime. This requiivn incL-ftsaiit practicf, and Augustus,\\nit is said, never allowed a day to pass witliout spending an hour in declamation.\\n1 Vaulted domes and large porticoes are characteristic of Roman architecture.\\nThe favorite column was tlio Corinthian, for which a new composite capital was in-\\nvented. The foundation stone of a temple was laid on the day consecrated to tlie god\\nto whom it was erected, and tlie building was made to face the point of the sun s\\nrising on that morning. The finest specimens of Roman temple architecture are at\\nPalmyra and Baalbec in Syria.\\n2 The early Christian churches were all modeled after the Basilica.\\n8 A court in front, surrounded by a triple colonnade a mile long, contained the em-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "282 ROME.\\nof structures, imitating and named after the most celebrated\\nbuildings of different provinces, such as the Temple of Serapis\\nat Canopus in Egypt, and the Lyceum and Academy at Athens.\\nEven the Valley of Tempe, and Hades itself, were here typified\\nin a labyrinth of subterranean chambers.\\nIn Military Roads, Bridges, Aqueducts, and Harbors, the Ro-\\nmans displayed gi^eat genius. Even the splendors of Nero s golden\\nhouse dwindle into nothing compared with the harbor of Ostia,\\nthe drainage works of the Fucinine Lake, and the two large aque-\\nducts. Aqua Claudia and Anio Nova.^\\nMilitary Roads.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 UnYi^Q the Greeks, who generally left their\\nroads where chance or custom led, the Romans sent out their high-\\nways in straight hues from the capital, overcoming all natural dif-\\nficulties as they went; filling in hollows and marshes, or spanning\\nthem with viaducts; tunneling rocks and mountains; bridging\\nstreams and valleys sparing neither labor nor money to make\\nthem perfect. 2 Along the principal ones were placed temples,\\nperor s statue, one hundred and twenty feet high. In other courts were gardens,\\nvineyards, meadows, artificial i)onds with rows of houses on their hanks, and woods\\ninhabited by tame and ferocious animals. The walls of the rooms were covered with\\ngokl and jewels and the ivory with which the ceiling of the dining-halls was inlaid\\nwas made to slide hack, so as to admit a rain of roses or fragrant waters on the heads\\nof the carousers. Under Otho, this gigantic building was continued at an expense of\\nover $2,500,000, but only to be pulled down for the greater part by Vespasian. Titus\\nerected his Baths on the Esquiline foundation of the Golden Palace, and the Colos-\\nseum covers the site of one of the ponds.\\n1 The Lacus Fucinus in the country of the Marsi was the cause of dangerous inun-\\ndations. To prevent this, and to gain the bed of the lake for agricultural pursuits, a\\nshaft was cut through tlie solid rock from the lake down to the river Liris, whence\\nthe water was discharged into the Mediterranean. The work occupied thirty\\nthousand men for eleven years. The Aqua Claudia was fed by two springs in the\\nSabine mountain, and was forty -five Roman miles in length; the Anio Nova, fed\\nfrom the river Anio, was sixty-two miles long. These aqueducts extended partly\\nabove and partly under ground, until about six miles from Rome, where they joined,\\nand were carried one above the other on a common structure of arches\u00e2\u0080\u0094 in some\\nplaces one hundred and nine feet high\u00e2\u0080\u0094 into the citj\\n2 In building a road, the line of direction was first laid out, and the breadth, which\\nwas usually from thirteen to fifteen feet, marked by trenches. The loose earth be-\\ntween the trenches liaving been excavated till a firm base was reached, the space\\nwas filled up to the proposed height of the road, which was sometimes twenty feet\\nabove the solid ground. First was placed a layer of small stones next broken\\nstones cemented with lime then a mixture of lime, clay, and beaten fragments of\\nbrick and pottery; and finally a mixture of pounded gravel and lime, or a pavement\\nof hard, flat stones, cut into rectangular slabs or irregular polygons. All along the\\nroads milestones were erected. Near the Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman\\nForum may still be seen the remains of tlie Golden Milestone (erected by Augus-\\ntus),\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a gilded marble pillar on which were recorded the names of the roads, and\\ntheir length from the metropolis.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION\\n283\\ntriumphal arches, and sepulchral monuments. The Appian Way\\ncalled also licgina Viarum (Queen of Roads) was famous for\\nthe number, beauty, and richness of its tombs. Its foundations\\nwere laid 312 b. c. by the censor Appius Claudius, from whom it\\nwas named.\\nBKIUGE OK ST. ANGKr,0, AN H IIADKIAN S TOMi: i;l- 1 .i;l\\nThe Roman Bridges and Viaducts are among the most remarkable\\nmonuments of antiquity. In Greece, where streams were narrow,\\nlittle attention was paid to bridges, which were usually of wood,\\nresting at each exti emity upon stone piers. The Ilomans applied\\nthe arch, of which the Greeks knew little or nothing, to the con-\\nstruction of massive stone bridges i crossing the wide rivers of their\\nvarious provinces. In like manner, marshy places or valleys liable\\nto inundation were spanned by viaducts resting on solid arches.\\nOf these bridges, which may still be seen in nearly eveiy corner of\\nthe old Roman Empire, one of the most interesting is the Pons\\n1 In early times tlie bridi^ea aeiiKss the Tiber were regarded as saered, and their\\ncare was cimtided to a special body of piiests, called pontijices (bridge makers). The\\nname of Pontifez Maximus remained atta hed to the high itriest, and was worn by\\ntlie Itonian emiteror. It is now given to tlio Pope. Bridges were sometimes made\\nof wood-work and masonry combined.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "284 ROME.\\n^lius, now called the Bridge of St. Angelo, built by Hadrian\\nacross the Tiber in Rome.\\nAqueducts were constructed on the most stupendous scale, and\\nat one time no less than twenty stretched their long hues of\\narches i across the Campagna, bringing into the heart of the city\\nas many streams of water from scores of miles away.\\nIn their stately Harbors the Romans showed the same defiance\\nof natural difficulties. The lack of bays and promontories was\\nsupplied by dams and walls built far out into the sea 5 and even\\nartificial islands were constructed to protect the equally artificial\\nharbor. Thus, at Ostia, three enormous pillars, made of chalk,\\nmortar, and Pozzuolan clay, were placed upright on the deck of a\\ncolossal ship, which was then sunk the action of the salt water\\nhardening the clay, rendered it indestructible, and formed an\\nisland f oundation.^ Other islands were made by sinking flat vessels\\nloaded with huge blocks of stone. Less imposing, but no less use-\\nful, were the canals and ditches, by means of which swamps and\\nbogs were transformed into arable land; and the subterranean\\nsewers in Rome, which, built twenty-five hundred years ago, still\\nserve their original purpose.\\nTriumphal Arches,^ erected at the entrance of cities, and across\\nstreets, bridges, and public roads, in honor of victorious generals\\nor emperors, or in commemoration of some great event, were\\npeculiar to the Romans as were also the\\nAmphitheaters, the Flavian, better known as the Colosse um,\\nbeing the most famous. This structure was built mostly of blocks\\n1 Their remains, strikiug across the desolate Campagna iu various directions, and\\ncovered witli ivy, maiden-hair, wild flowers, and fig-trees, form one of the most pic-\\nturesque features in the landscape about Home. Wherever you go, these arches\\nare visible; and toward nightfall, glowing iu the splendor of a Roman sunset, and\\nprinting their lengthening sun-looped shadows upon the illuminated slopes, they look\\nas if the hand of Midas had touched them, and changed their massive blocks of cork-\\nlike travertine into crusty courses of molten gold. ^Stori/ s Roha diHoma.\\n2 Manj of these arches still remain. The principal ones in Rome are those of\\nTitus and Constantino, near the Colosseum, aud that of Septimius Severus in the\\nRoman Forum. The Arch of Titus, built of white marble, commemorates the de-\\nstruction of Jerusalem. On the bas-reliefs of the interior are represented the golden\\ntable, the seven-branched candlestick, aud other precious spoils from the Jewish\\nTemple, carried in triumphal procession by the victors. To this day no Jew will\\nwalk under this arch.\\ns The Roman theater differed little from the Grecian (p. 187, note). The first\\namphitheater, made in the time of Julius Civsar, consisted of two wooden theaters, so\\nplaced upon pivots that they could be wheeled around, spectators and all, and either\\nset back to back, for two separate dramatic performances, or face to face, making a\\nclosed arena for gladiatorial shows.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION.\\n285\\nof travertine, clamped with iron and faced with marble it covered\\nabout five acres, and seated eighty thousand persons. At its\\ndedication by Titus (a. d. 80), which lasted a hundred days, five\\nthousand wild animals were thrown into the arena. It continued\\nto be used for gladiatorial and wild-beast fights for nearly four\\nhundred years. On various public occasions it was splendidly\\nfitted up with gold, silver, or amber furniture.\\nTHE UUINS OF THE COLOSSEUM.\\nThe Thermce (public baths, literally ivarm ivaters) were constructed\\non the grandest scale of refinement and luxury. The Baths of\\nCaracalla, at Rome, contained sixteen hundred rooms, adorned with\\nprecious marbles. Here were painting and sculpture galleries,\\nlibraries and museums, porticoed halls, open groves, and an impe-\\nrial palace.\\nThe arts of Painting, Sculpture, and Pottery were borrowed first\\nfrom the Etruscans, and then from the Greeks in mosaics the\\n1 Romau art, saj-s Zerffi, is a misnomer; it is Ktrnscan, Greek, Assyrian, and\\nEpryptian art, dressed in an eclectic Roman garb by foreign artists. The Pantheon\\ncontained a Greek statue of Venus, wliicli, it is said, liad in one ear the half of tlie\\npearl left bj Cleopatra. To ornament a Greek marble statue representing a goddess\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2with part of tlie earring of an Egyptian princess Is highly characteristic of Roman\\ntaste in matters of art.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "286 ROME.\\nRomans excelled. In later times Rome was filled with the mag-\\nnificent spoils taken from conquered provinces, especially Greece.\\nGreek artists flooded the capital, bringing their native ideality to\\nserve the ambitious desires of the more practical Romans, whose\\ndwelHngs grew more and more luxurious, until exquisitely fres-\\ncoed walls, mosaic pavements, rich paintings, and marble statues\\nbecame common ornaments in hundreds of elegant villas.\\n3. THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\nGeneral Character. However much they might come in contact,\\nthe Roman and the Greek character never assimilated. We have seen\\nthe Athenian quick at intuition, poHshed in manner, art-loving, beauty-\\nworshiping; fond of long discussions and philosophical discourses,\\nand listening all day to sublime tragedies. We find the Roman grave,\\nsteadfast, practical, stern, unsympathizing 2 too loyal and sedate to\\nindulge in much discussion too unmetaphysical to relish philosophy\\nand too unideal to enjoy tragedy. The Spartan deified endiu-ance\\nthe Athenian worshiped beauty; the Roman was embodied dignity.\\nThe Greeks were proud and exclusive, but not uncourteous to other\\nnations; the Romans had but one word (hostis) for strangers and\\nenemies. Ambitious, determined, unfiinching, they pushed their\\narmies in every direction of the known world, and, appropriating\\nevery valuable achievement of the peoples they conquered, made all\\n1 The mosaic floors, composed of bits of marble, glass, and valuable stones, were\\noften of most elaborate designs. One discovered in the so-called House of tlie Faun,\\nat Pompeii, is a remarkable battle scene, supposed to represent Alexander at Issus.\\nIt is preserved, somewhat mutilated, in the museum at Naples.\\n2 What we call sentiment was almost unknown to the Romans. The Greeks\\nhad a word to express affectionate family love the Romans had none. Cicero,\\nwhom his countrymen could not understand, was laughed at for his grief at the death\\nof his daughter. The exposure of infants was sanctioned as in Greece,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 girls, espe-\\ncially, suffering from this unnatural custom,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 and the power of the Roman father\\nover the life of his children was paramount. Yet Roman fathers took much pains\\nwith their boys, sharing in tlieir games and pleasures, directing their habits, and\\ntaking them about tf)wn. Horace writes gratefully of his father, who remained with\\nliim at Rome during liis school-days and was his constant attendant.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Saffre I. 4.\\nIt is not strange, considering their indifference to their kindred, that the Romans\\nwere cruel and heartless to their slaves. In Greece, even the helot was granted some\\nlittle consideration as a human being, but in Rome the unhappy captive\u00e2\u0080\u0094 who may\\nhave been a prince iu his own land\u00e2\u0080\u0094 was but a cliattel. The lamprey eels in a certain\\nnobleman s fish-pond were fattened on the flesh of liis bondmen and, if a Roman\\ndied suspiciously, all his slaves\u00e2\u0080\u0094 who sometimes were numbered by thousands-\\nwere put to the torture. The women are accused of being more pitiless than the\\nmen, and the faces of the ladies maids bore perpetual marks of the blows, scratches,\\nand pin-stabs of their petulant mistresses.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 287\\nthe borrowed arts their own, hivishiiif, the precious spoils upon their\\nbeloved Rome. Their pride in Roman citizenship amounted to a pas-\\nsion, and for the prosperity of their capital they were ready to re-\\nnounce the dearest personal hope, and to cast aside all mercy or justice\\ntoward every other nation.\\nReligion. The Romans, like the Greeks, worshiped the powers\\nof nature. But the Grecian gods and goddesses were living, loving,\\nhating, quarrelsome beings, with a history full of romantic incident\\nand personal adventure the Roman deities were solemn abstractions\\nmysteriously governing every human action,! and requiring constant\\npropitiation with vows, prayers, gifts, and sacrifices. A regular system\\nof bargaining existed between the Roman worshiper and his gods.\\nIf he performed all the stipulated religious duties, the gods were\\nbound to confer a reward; if he failed in the least, the divine ven-\\ngeance was sure. At the same time, if he could detect a flaw in\\nthe letter of the law, or shield himself behind some doubtful techni-\\ncality, he might cheat the gods with impunity. 2 There was no room\\nfor faith, or hope, or love only the binding nature of legal forms.\\nVirtue, in our modern sense, was unknown, and piety consisted, as\\nCicero declares, in justice toward the gods.\\nIn religion, as in everything else, the Romans were always ready\\nto borrow from other nations. Their image-worship came from the\\nEtruscans their only sacred volumes 3 were the purchased Sibylline\\nBooks they drew upon the gods of Greece, imtil in time they had\\ntransferred and adopted nearly the entire Greek Pantheon Phoenicia\\n1 Tlie fiirmer liad to satisfy the spirit of breaking up the land and the spirit of\\nplowing it crosswise, the spiilt of furrowing and the spirit of harrowing, the spirit\\nof weeding and the spirit of reaping, the spirit of carrying the grain to the barn and\\nthe spirit of bringing it out again. The little child was attended by over forty\\ngods. Vaticanus taught him to cry; Fabulinus, to speak; Edusa, to eat; Potina, to\\ndrink; Abeona conducted him out of the house; Interduca guided him on his way;\\nDoniiduca led him home, and Adeona brought him in.\\n2 If a man offered wine to Father Jupiter, and did not mention very precisely\\nthat it was only the cup-full which he held in his hand, the god might claim the whole\\nyear s vintage. On the other hand, if the god required so many heads in sacrifice, by\\nthe letter of the bond ho would be bound to accept garlic-heads if he claimed an\\nanimal, it might be made out of dough or wax. TFilfcrns s Roman Antiquities.\\n3 The Egj-ptians had their Ritual the Hindoos, their Vedas the Chinese, their\\nLaws of Confucius; the Hebrews, the Psalms and prayers of David; but neither\\nGreeks nor Romans had books such as these. They had poetrj- of the highest order,\\nbut no psalms or hj-nins, litanies or prayers.\\n4 Jupiter (Zeus) and Vesta (Hestia) were derived by Greeks and Tlomans from\\ntheir common ancestors. Among the other early Italian gods were Mars (afterward\\nideutilied with the Greek Ares), Hercules (Herakles), Juno (Hera), Minerva (Athena),\\nand Neptune (Poseidon). The union of the Palatine Romans with the Quirinal\\nSabines was celebrated by the mutual worship of Quirinus, and a gate called the\\nJanus was erected in the valley, afterward the site of the Forum. This gate was", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "288\\nROME\\nand Phrygia lent their deities to swell the\\nlist and finally our old Egyptian friends,\\nIsis, Osiris, and Serapis, became as mnch\\nat home upon the Tiber as they had been\\nfor ages on the Nile. The original religious\\nideas of the Romans can only be inferred\\nfrom a few peculiar rites which character-\\nized their worship. The Chaldeans had\\nastrologers the Persians had magi the\\nGreeks had sibyls and oracles the Romans\\nhad\\nAugurs. Practical and unimaginative, the\\nLatins would never have been content to learn\\nthe divine will through the ambiguous phrases\\nof a human prophet they demanded a direct yes\\nor no from the gods themselves. Augurs existed\\nfrom the time of Romulus. Without their as-\\nsistance no public act or ceremony could be\\nperformed. Lightning and the tlight of birds\\nwere the principal signs by which the gods were\\nsupposed to make known their will i some\\nbirds of omen commimicated by their cry, others by their manner of\\nflight.\\nThe Harusjnces, who also expounded lightnings and natural phe-\\nnomena, made a specialty of divination by inspecting the internal\\norgans of sacrificed animals, a custom we have seen in Greece (p. 185).\\nROMAN AUGUR.\\nalways opeu in time of war, and closed in time of peace. All gates and doors were\\nsacred to the old Latin god Janus, whose key fitted every lock. He wore two faces,\\none before and one behind, and was the god of all beginnings and endings, all open-\\nings and shuttings.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 With the adoption of the Greek gods, the Greek ideas of per-\\nsonality and mythology were introduced, the Romans being too unimaginative to\\noriginate any myths for themselves. But, out of the hardness of their own character,\\nthey disfigured the original conception of every borrowed god, and made him more\\njealous, threatening, merciless, revengeful, and inexorable than before. Among\\nthe tliirty thousand deities with which they peopled the visible and invisible worlds,\\nthere was not one divinity of kindness, mercj% or comfort.\\n1 In taking tlie auspices, the augur stood in the center of a con- N\\nsecrated square, and divided tlie sky with his Ptaflf into quarters (cut)\\nhe then offered hia prayers, and, turning to the south, scanned tlie\\nheavens for a reply. Coming from the left, the signs were favorable\\nfrom the right, unfavorable. If the first signs were not desirable,\\nthe augurs had only to wait until the right ones came. They thus\\ncompelled the gods to sanction their decisions, from whicli there was afterward no\\nappeal. In the absence of an augur, the Sacred Chickens, which were carried\\nabout in coops during campaigns, were consulted. If they ate tlieir food greedily,\\nespecially if they scattered it, the omen was favorable; if they refused to eat, or\\nmoped in the coop, evil was anticipated.\\nw", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 289\\nTheir art was never much esteemed by the more enlightened classes\\nand Cato, who detested their hypocrisy, wondered how one haruspex\\ncould look at another in the streets without laughing.\\nThe FamUij Worship of Vesta, goddess of the hearth, was more\\nexclusive in Rome than in Greece, where slaves joined in the home\\ndevotions. A Roman father, himself the priest at this ceremony,\\nwould liave been shocked at allowing any but a kinsman to be present,\\nfor it included the worship of the Lares and Penates, the spirits of\\nhis ancestors and the guardians of his house. So, also, in the public\\nser\\\\ice at the Temple of Vesta, the national hearth-stone, the patricians\\nfelt it a sacrilege for any but themselves to join. The worship of\\nVesta, Saturnus (the god of seed-sowing), and Opo (the harvest god-\\ndess) was under the direction of the\\nCollege of Fontificcs, of which, in regal times, the king was high\\npriest. Attached to this priestly college the highest in Rome were\\nthe Flamens {flare, to blow the fire), who were priests of Jupiter,\\nMars, and Quirinus and the Vestal Virgins, who watched the eternal\\nfire in the Temple of Vesta. 2\\nTJic Salii, or leaping priests, receive their name from the war-\\nlike dance which, in full armor, they performed every March be-\\nfore all the temples. They had the care of the Sacred Shields, which\\nthey carried about in- their annual processions, beating them to the\\n1 Tlie FLamen Dialis (Priest of Jupiter) was forbidden to take an oath, mount a\\nlioise, or glance at an army. His hand could touch nothing unclean, and he never\\napproached a corpse or a tomb. As lie must not look at a fetter, the ring on his\\nfinger was a broken one, and, as he could not wear a knot, his tliick woolen toga,\\nwoven bj his wife, was fastened with buckles. (In Egj pt, we remember, priests\\nwere forbidden to wear woolen, p. 20.) If his head-dress (a sort of circular pillow, on\\nthe top of which an olive-branch was fastened by a white woolen thread) chanced to\\nfall off, he was obliged to resign his office. In his belt he cairied the sacrificial knife,\\nand in his hand he held a rod to keep off the people on his waj to sacrifice. As he\\nmight not look on any secular emplo3 ment, he was preceded by a lictor, who com-\\npelled every one to lay down Ids work till the Flamen had passed. His duties were\\ncontinuous, and he could not remain for a night awaj from his house on the Palatine.\\nHis wife was subject to an equallj rigid code. She wore long woolen robes, and\\nshoes made of the leather of sacrificed animals. Her hair was tied with a purple\\nwoolen ribbon, over which was a kerchief, fastened with a twig from a lucky tree.\\nShe also carried a sacrificial knife.\\n2 The Vestal alwaj S dressed in white, with a broad band, like a diadem, round\\nher forehead. During sacrifice or in processions she was covered witli a white veil.\\nShe was chosen for the service when from six to ten years old, and her vows held for\\nthirty years, after which time, if she chose, she was released and might marry.\\nAny offense offered her was punished with death. In public, everj one, even the\\nconsul, made way for the lictor preceding tlie maiden, and she had the seat of honor\\nat all public games and priestly banquets. If, however, she accidentally suft ered the\\nsacred fire to go out, she wa9 liable to corporeal punishment by the pontifex maxi-\\nmus; if she broke her vows, she was carried on a bier to the Cami)us Sceleratus,\\nbeaten witli rods, and buried alive. The number of vestal virgins never exceeded\\nSix at any one time.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "290 ROME.\\ntime of an old song in praise of Janus, Jupiter, Juno, Minerva,\\nand Mars. One of the shields was believed to have fallen from\\nheaven. To mislead a possible pillager of so precious a treasure,\\neleven more were made exactly like it, and twelve priests were ap-\\npointed to watch them all.\\nThe Fetiales had charge of the sacred rites accompanying declara-\\ntions of war, or treaties of peace. War was declared by throwing a\\nbloody spear across the enemy s frontier. A treaty was concluded by\\nthe killing of a pig with a sacred pebble.\\nAltars were erected to the emperors, where vows and prayers\\nwere daily offered.! In the times of Roman degeneracy the city was\\nflooded with quack Chaldean astrologers, Syi ian seers, and Jewish\\nfortune-tellers. The women, especially, were ruled by these corrupt\\nim;^ostors, whom they consulted in secret and by night, and on whom\\nthey squandered immense sums. Under these debasing influences,\\nprofligacies and enormities of every kind grew and multiplied. The\\nold Roman law which commanded that the parricide should be\\nsewn up in a sack with a viper, an ape, a dog, and a cock, and then\\ncast into the sea, was not likely to be rigidly enforced when a parri-\\ncide sat on the throne, and poisonings were common in the palace.\\nThat the j)ure principles of Christianity, which were introduced at\\nthis time, should meet with contempt, and its disciples with bitter\\npersecution, was inevitable.\\nGames and Festivals. The Roman public games were a degraded\\nimitation of the Grecian, and, like them, connected with religion.\\nWhen a divine favor was desired, a vow of certain games was made,\\nand, as the gods regarded promises with suspicion, the expenses were\\nat once raised. Each of the great gods had his own festival month\\nand day.\\nThe Saturnalia, which occurred in December, and which in later\\ntimes lasted seven days, was the most remarkable. It was a time of\\ngeneral mirth and feasting schools were closed the senate adjourned\\npresents were made wars were forgotten criminals had certain\\nprivileges and the slaves, whose lives were ordinarily at the mercy\\nof their masters, were permitted to jest with them, and were even\\nwaited upon by them at table all this in memory of the free and\\nhappy rule of ancient Saturn.\\nThe gymnastic and musical exercises of the Greeks never found\\nmuch favor in Rome tragedies were tolerated only for the splendor\\nof the costumes and the scenic wonders and even comedies failed to\\n1 Not even the Egyptians, crouching in grateful adroiration before a crocodile, so\\noutraged humanity as did tlioso polite Romans, rendering divine honors to au em-\\nperor like Aurelius Commodus, who fought seven hundred and thirty-five times as a\\ncommon gladiator in the arena before his enervated people. Zer^.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\n291\\nsatisfy a Roman audience. Farces and pantomimes won great ap-\\nplause horse and cliariot races were exciting pleasures from the time\\nof the kings but, of all delights, nothing could stir Rome like a\\ngladiatorial or wild-beast fight. At first connected with the Saturnalia,\\nthe sports of the arena soon became too popular to be restricted, and\\nmourning sons in high life paid honors to a deceased father by\\nfurnishing a public fight, in which from twenty-five to seventy-five\\ngladiators were hired to take part, the contest often lasting for days.\\nTHE ULAUIATOUS POLLICE VEKSO, rAlNllNG BY GEKOME).\\nGladiatorial Shows were advertised by private circulars or public\\nannouncements. On the day of the performance, the gladiators marched\\nin solemn procession to the arena, where they were matched in pairs, l\\n1 The gladiators foufflit iu pairs or in matclied numbers. A favorite duel was\\nbetween a man without arms, but who canied a net iu which to iusnarc his opponent,\\nand a three-pronged fork with which to spear liim when caught, aiul another man in\\nfull armor, whose safety lay in evading his enemy while he pursued and killed him.\\nIt is impossible to describe the aspect of an amphitheater when gladiators\\nfought. The audience became frantic with excitement; they rose from their seats;\\nthey yelled they shouted their applause as a ghastly blow was dealt which sent the\\nlife-blood spouting forth. Hoc JiaJ)et h6 has it he has it, burst from ten\\nthousand throats, and was re-echoed, not only by a brutalized populace, but by", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "292 ROME.\\nand their weapons formally examined. An awning gorgeous with\\npurple and gold excluded the rays of the mid-day sun sweet strains\\nof music floated in the air, drowning the cries of death the odor of\\nSyrian perfumes overpowered the scent of blood the eye was feasted\\nby the most brilliant scenic decorations, and amused by elaborate\\nmachinery, At the sound of a bugle and the shout of command, the\\nbattle opened. When a gladiator was severely wounded, he dropped\\nhis weapons, and held up his forefinger as a plea for his life. This\\nwas sometimes in the gift of the people; often the privilege of the\\nvestal virgins in imperial times, the prerogative et the emperor. A\\nclose-pressed thumb or the waving of a handkerchief meant mercy;\\nan extended thumb and clinched upright fist forbade hope. Cowards\\nhad nothing to expect, and were whipped or branded with hot irons\\ntill they resumed the fight. The killed and mortally wounded were\\ndragged out of the arena with a hook.\\nThe Wild-heast Fights were still more revolting, especially when\\nuntrained captives or criminals were forced to the encounter. Many\\nChristian martyrs, some of whom were delicate women, perished in\\nthe Colosseum. We read of twenty maddened elephants turned in\\nupon six hundred war captives and in Trajan s games, which lasted\\nover one hundred and twenty days, ten thousand gladiators fought, and\\nover that number of wild beasts were slain. Sometimes the animals,\\nmade furious by hunger or fire, were let loose at one another. Great\\nnumbers of the most ferocious beasts were imported from distant\\ncountries for these combats. Strange animals were sought after, and\\ncamelopards, white elephants, the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus,\\ngoaded to fury, delighted the assembled multitudes. Noble game be-\\ncame scarce, and at last it was forbidden by law to kill a Getulian lion\\nout of the arena, even in self-defense.\\nNaval Fights, in flooded arenas, were also popular. The Colosseum\\nwas sometimes used for this purpose, as many as thirty vessels taking\\npart. At an entertainment given by Augustus in the flooded arena of\\nthe Flaminian Circus, thirty-six crocodiles were pursued and killed.\\nMarriage was of two kinds. In one the bride passed from the\\ncontrol of her father into that of her husband; in the other the\\nimperial lips, by purple-clad senators and knights, by noble matrons and consecrated\\nmaids. -Shep2iard s Fall of Borne. So frenzied with the sight of blood did the\\nspectators become, that they would rush into the arena and slay on every side and\\nso sweet was the applause of the mob, that captives, slaves, and criminals were envied\\ntlie monopoly of the gladiatorial contest, and laws were required to restrict knights\\nand senators from entering the lists. Some of the emperors fought publicly in the\\narena, and even women thus debased themselves. Finally, such was the mania, that\\nno wealthy or patrician family was without its gladiators, and no festival was com-\\nplete without a contest. Even at banquets, blood was the only stimulant that roused\\nthe Jaded appetite of a Roman.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\\n2i^5\\nDRESSING A ROMAN BRIUE.\\nparental power was retained. The former kind of marriage could be\\ncontracted in any one of three different ways. Of tliese, the religious\\nform was confined to the patricians the\\npresence of the pontifex maximus, the priest\\nof Jupiter, and ten citizens, Avas necessary\\nas witnesses a sacred cake {far) was\\nbroken and solemnly tasted by the nuptial\\npair, whence this ceremony was termed\\nconfarrcatio. A second manner was by pur-\\nchase (coemptio), in which the father for-\\nmally sold his daughter to the groom, she\\nsignifying her consent before witnesses.\\nThe third form, by prescription (usiis), con-\\nsisted simply in the parties having lived\\ntogether for a year without being separated\\nfor three days at any time.\\nThe marriage ceremony proper differed\\nlittle in the various forms. The betrothal\\nconsisted of the exchange of the words\\nspondesne (Do you promise?) and spondeo (I\\npromise), followed by the gift of a ring\\nfrom the gi oom. On the wedding-morn-\\ning, the guests assembled at the house\\nof the bride s father, where the auspices which had been taken\\nbefore sunrise by an augur or a haruspex were declared, and the\\nsolemn marriage contract was spoken. The bride s attendant then\\nlaid her hands upon the shoulders of the newly married pair, and led\\nthem to the family altar, around which they walked hand in hand,\\nwhile a cow, a pig, and a sheep were offered in sacrifice the gall\\nhaving been first extracted and thrown away, to signify the removal\\nof all bitterness from the occasion. The guests having made their\\ncongratulations, the feast began. At nightfall the bride was torn\\nwith a show of force from her mother s arms (in memory of the seizure\\nof the Sabine w^omen, p. 206) two boys, whose parents were both\\nalive, supported her by the arms; torches were lighted, and a gay\\nprocession, as in Greece, accompanied the party to the house of the\\ngroom. Here the bride, having repeated to her spouse the formula,\\nUhi tu Caius, ihl ego Caia (Where thou art Caius, I am Caia),\\nanointed the door-posts and wound them with wool, and was lifted\\nover the threshold. She was then formally welcomed into the atrium\\nby her husband with the ceremony of touching fire and water, in which\\nboth participated. The next day, at the second marriage feast, the wife\\nbrought her offerings to the gods of her husband s family, of which she\\nwas now a member, and a Roman matron.\\nBO H\u00e2\u0080\u0094 U", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "p94 ROME.\\nBurial.^ When a Roman died it was the duty of his nearest rela-\\ntive to receive his last breath with a kiss, and then to close his eyes\\nand mouth (compare ^neid, iv. 684). His name was now called sev-\\neral times by all present, and, there being no response, the last fare-\\nwell {vaJc) was said. The necessary utensils and slaves having been\\nhired at the temple where the death registry was kept, the body was\\nlaid on the ground, washed in hot water, anointed with rich perfumes,\\nclad in its best garments, placed on an ivory bedstead, and covered\\nwith blankets of purple, embroidered with gold. 2 The couch was deco-\\nrated with flowers and foliage, but upon the body itself were placed\\nonly the crowns of honor fairly earned during its lifetime these\\naccompanied it into the tomb. By the side of the funereal bed, which\\nstood in the atrium facing the door, as in Greece, was placed a pan of\\nincense. The body was thus exhibited for seven days, branches of\\ncypress and fir fastened in front of the house announcing a moiu ning\\nhousehold to all the passers-by. On the eighth morning, while the\\nstreets were alive Avith bustle, the funeral took place. Behind the\\nhired female mourners, who sang wailing dirges, walked a band of\\nactors, who recited scraps of tragedy applicable to the deceased, or\\nacted comic scenes in which were sometimes mimicked his personal\\npeculiarities. 3 In front of the bier marched those who personated the\\nprominent ancestors of the dead person. They wore waxen masks\\n(p. 303), in which and in their dress were reproduced the exact features\\nand historic garb of these long-defunct personages. The bier, car-\\nried by the nearest relatives, or by slaves freed by the will of the\\ndeceased, and surrounded by the family friends dressed in black (or, in\\nimperial times, in white), was thus escorted to the Forum. Here the\\nmask-wearers seated themselves about it, and one of the relatives\\nmounted the rostrum to eulogize the deceased and his ancestors.\\nAfter the eulogy, the procession re-formed, and the body was taken to\\n1 The Romans, like the Greeks, attached great importance to the interment of\\ntheir dead, as they believed that tlie spirit of an nnburied body was forced to wander\\nfor a hundred years. Hence it was deemed a religious duty to scatter earth over any\\ncorpse found uncovered by the wayside, a handful of dust being sufficient to appease\\nthe infernal gods. If the body of a friend could not be found, as in shipwreck, an\\nempty tomb was erected, over wliich the usual rites were performed.\\n2 We are supposing the case of a rich man. The body of a poor person was, after\\nthe usual ablutions, carried at night to the common burial-ground outside the Esqui-\\nline gate, and interred without ceremony.\\n3 At Vespasian s obsequies an actor ludicrously satirized his parsimony. How\\nmuch wiU tliis ceremony cost? he asked in the assumed voice of the deceased\\nemperor. A large sum having been named in reply, tlie actor extended his hand, and\\ngreedily cried out, Give me the money and throw my body into the Tiber.\\nFrequently the masks belonging to tlie collateral branches of the family were\\nborrowed, that a brilliant show might be made. Parvenus, wlio belong to all time,\\nwere wont to parade images of fictitious ancestors.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 295\\ntlie spot where it was to be buried or burned, both forms being used,\\nas in Greece. If it were burned, tlie nearest relative, with averted\\nface, lighted the pile. After the burning, the hot ashes were drenched\\nwith wine, and the friends collected the bones in the folds of their\\nrobes, amid acclamations to the manes of the departed. The remains,\\nsprinkled with wine and milk, were then with sometimes a small\\nglass vial filled with tears placed in the funeral urn a last farewell\\nwas spoken, the lustrations were performed, and the mourners sep-\\narated. When the body was not burned, it was buried with all its\\nornaments in a coffin, usually of stone, i The friends, on returning\\nhome from the funeral, were sprinkled with water, and then they\\nstepped over fire, as a purification. The house also was ceremoniously\\npurified. An offering and banquet took place on the ninth day after\\nburial, in accordance with Greek custom.\\nDress. The toga, worn by a Roman gentleman, was a piece of\\nwhite woolen cloth about five yards long and three and a half wide,\\nfolded lengthways, so that one edge fell below the other. It was thrown\\nover the left shoulder, brought around the back and under the right\\narm, then, leaving a loose fold in front, thrown again over the left\\nshoulder, lea\\\\ing the end to fall behind. Much pains was taken to\\ndrape it gi-acefully, according to the exact style required by fashion.\\nA tunic, with or without sleeves, and in cold weather a vest, or one\\nor more extra tunics, were worn under the toga. Boys under seventeen\\nyears of age wore a toga with a purple hem the toga of a senator had\\na broad purple stripe, and that of a knight had two narrow stripes.\\nThe use of the toga was forbidden to slaves, strangers, and, in im-\\nperial times, to banished Eomans.\\nThe 2)wnula, a hesbvy, sleeveless cloak, with sometimes a hood\\nattached, and the laccrna, a thinner, bright-colored one arranged in\\nfolds, were worn out of doors over the toga. The paludamentnm, a\\nrich, red cloak draped in picturesque folds, was permitted only to the\\nmilitary general-in- chief, who, in imperial times, was the emperor\\nhimself. The sagum was a short military cloak. The sjpithcsis, a gay-\\ncolored easy robe, was worn over the tunic at banquets, and by the\\nnobility during the Saturnalia. Poor people had only the timic, and\\nin cold weather a tight-fitting wool or leather cloak. When not on a\\njourney, the Roman, like the Greek, left his head uncovered, or pro-\\ntected it with his toga. Rank decided the style of shoe a consul used\\na red one, a senator a black one mth a silver crescent, ordinary folk\\na plain black, slaves and poorest people wooden clogs. In the house,\\nsandals only were worn, and at dinner even these were laid aside.\\n1 Tliatfrom Assos in Lycia was said to consume tlie entire body, except the teetli,\\nin forty days: hence it was called sarcophagus (flesh-eating), a name which came to\\nstand for any coffin.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "296 ROME.\\nA Roman matron dressed in a linen under-tunic, a vest, and the\\nstola, a long, short-sleeved garment, girdled at the waist and flounced\\nor hemmed at the bottom. Over this, when she went out, she threw\\na palla, cut and draped like her husband s toga or like the Greek\\nhimation. Girls and foreign women, who were not permitted the stola,\\nwore over the tunic a palla, arranged like the Doric chiton (p. 193).\\nWomen who, like the men, went hatless protected their heads with\\nthe palla, and wore veils, nets, and various light head-coverings.\\nThis led to elaborate fashions in hair-dressing. A caustic soap im-\\nported from Gaul was used for hair-dyeing, and wigs were not uncom-\\nmon. Bright colors, such as blue, scarlet, violet, and especially\\nyellow, the favorite tint for bridal veils, enlivened the feminine\\nwardrobe. Finger-rings were worn in profusion by both sexes, and\\na Roman lady of fashion luxuriated in bracelets, necklaces, and various\\nornaments set with diamonds, pearls, emeralds, and other jewels,\\nwhose purchase frequently cost her husband his fortune.\\nSCENES IN REAL LIFE.\\nScene I. A Day in Rome. Let us imagine ourselves on some\\nbright, clear morning, about eighteen hundred years ago, looking down\\nfrom the summit of the Capitoline Hill upon the Mistress of the\\nWorld. As we face the rising sun, we see clustered about us a group\\nof hills crowned with a vast assemblage of temples, colonnades,\\npalaces, and sacred groves. Densely packed in the valleys between\\nare towering tenements,! shops with extending booths, and here and\\nthere a templed forum, amphitheater, or circus. In the valley at our\\nfeet, between the Via Sacra and the Via Nova, the only paved roads\\nin the whole city fit for the transit of heavy carriages, is the Forum\\nRomanum, so near us that we can watch the storks that stalk along\\nthe roof of the Temple of Concord. 2 This Forum is the gi^eat civil and\\nlegislative heart of the city. Here are the Regia or palace of the chief\\npontiff, with its two adjoining basilicas the Temple of Vesta, on\\nwhose altar burns the sacred flame the Senate House, fronted by the\\nRostra, from which Roman orators address assembled multitudes\\nvarious temples, including the famous one of Castor and Pollux and\\n1 Ancient antliors freqnentlynaentiou the extreme height of Roman houses, which\\nAugustus finally limitea to seventy feet. Cicero says of Rome that it is suspended\\nin the air and Aristides, comparing the successive stories to the strata of the\\nearth s crust, aflftrms that if they were laid out on one level they would cover Italy\\nfrom sea to sea. To economize lateral space, the exterior walls were forbidden to\\nexceed a foot and a half in thickness.\\n2 Storks were eucouraged to build in the roof of this temple, as peculiar social\\ninstincts were attributed to them (see Steele s Popular Zoology, p. 146).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 297\\nkk.\\nmany beautiful marble arches, col-\\numns, and statues. At our right is\\nthe crowded district of the Vela-\\nbrum, and beyond it, between the\\nPalatine and Aventine Hills, is the\\nCircus Maximus, from which the\\nAppian Way sweeps to the south-\\neast, through the Porta Capena and\\nunder the great Aqua Crabra, a sol-\\nidly paved street, many days jom\\nney in extent, and lined for miles\\nl)eyond the city walls with mag-\\nnificent marble tombs shaded by\\ncypress trees. Among the temples on\\nthe Palatine stands the illustrious\\none sacred to Apollo, along whose\\nporticoes hang the trophies of all na-\\ntions, and to which is at-\\ntached a famous library\\nROME IN THE TIME OF AUGUSTUS C^BAK.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "298 ROME.\\nof Greek and Roman honks; iioav if is llio Qnadrata, a square mass\\nof masonry, believed to be mysteriously connected with the for-\\ntunes of the city, and beneath which certain precious amulets are\\ndeposited. Interspersed among these public buildings on the Pala-\\ntine are many isolated mansions surrounded by beautiful gardens\\nfragrant with the odors of roses and violets, in which the Romans\\nespecially delight. There is no arrangement of streets upon the hills\\nthat is a system confined to the crowded Suburra, which adjoins the\\nRoman Forum at our front, and lies at the foot of the Quirinal, Viminal,\\nand Esquiline Hills. This district, which was once a swampy jungle\\nand afterward a fashionable place for residences (Julius Ctesar was\\nborn in the Suburra), is now the crowded abode of artificers of all\\nkinds, and is the most profligate as well as most densely populated\\npart of Rome.\\nTurning about and facing the west, we see, toward the north, the\\nCampus Martins, devoted from the earliest period to military exercises\\nand the sports of running, leaping, and bathing. On this side of the\\nopen meadows stand some of the principal temples, the great Flaminian\\nCircus, and the theaters of Pompeius and Marcellus, with their groves,\\nporticoes, and halls. Precisely in the center of the plain rises the\\nPantheon of Agrippa, and further on we see the Amphitheater of\\nTaurus,! and the Mausoleum of Augustus. At our front, beyond the\\ncurving, southward-flowing Tiber, is a succession of terraces, upon\\nwhose heights are many handsome residences. This quarter, the\\nJaniculum, is noted for its salubrity, and here are the Gardens of\\nCaesar, and the Naumachia (a basin for exhibiting naval engagements)\\nof Augustus, fed by a special aqueduct, and surrounded by walks and\\ngroves. Glancing down the river, we see the great wharf called the\\nEmporium, with its immense store-houses, in which grain, spices,\\ncandles, paper, and other commodities are stored and just beyond it,\\nthe Marmorata, a special dock for landing building-stone and foreign\\nmarbles. It is yet early morning, and the streets of Rome are mainly\\nfilled with clients and their slaves hurrying to the atria (p. 303) of their\\nwealthy patrons to receive the customary morning dole.^ Here and\\n1 The whole of this northern district comi)rehencls the cliief part of modern\\nRome, and is now thronged with houses.\\n2 In early times the clients were invited to feast with their patron in the atrium\\nof his mansion, but in later days it became customary, instead, for stewards to dis\\ntribute small sums of money or an allowance of food, which the slaves of the clients\\ncarried away in baskets or in small portable ovens, to keep the cooked meats hot.\\nWedged in thick ranks before tlie donor s gates,\\nA phalanx firm of chairs and litters waits.\\nOnce, plain and open was the feast,\\nAnd every client was a bidden guest\\nIf^ow, at the gate a paltry largess lies,\\nAnd eager hands and tongues dispute the prize. JuV\u00c2\u00a3M2.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "Circ u3 of Ntff)\\nrant -=s\\nPLAN OF ANCIENT ROME,\\nSHOWING THE DIVISION INTO\\nTUB 2S:i^V I^EGIOlsrS OF VXJC3-XTSTTJS\\nI. POUTA CAPENA.\\n1. Porta Capena.\\n2. Valley of Egpria.\\n3. Tomb of Scipio.\\nII. CiTiLIMONTIUM.\\n4. Temple of Diviia Claudius\\n5. Arch of Constantiue.\\nIII. ISIS ET SERAPIS.\\n6. Colosseum.\\n7. Baths of Titus.\\n8. Baths of Trajan.\\nIV. VIA SACRA.\\n9. Forum of Vespasian.\\n10. Basilica of Constantine.\\nV. ESQUILINA CUM VlMI-\\nNALI.\\n11. Temple of Juno.\\nVI. Al.TA SKMITA.\\n12. P.atlis of Diocletian.\\n13. T- iiijilr of Flora.\\n14. Ti inph ofC^uirinus.\\n15. Baths of Constuutiiie.\\nVII. VIA LATA.\\n16. Arch of AureliuB.\\n17. Arch of Claudius.\\nAND THE POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDINGS.\\n40. Temple of Bellona.\\n41. Septa Julia.\\n42. Diribitorium.\\n18. Amphitheater of Taurus.\\n19. Column of Antoninus.\\n20. Camp of Agrippa.\\n21. Temple of^ Isis and Se-\\nrapis.\\nVIII. FORUM EOMANUM.\\n22. Capitoline Hill.\\n23. Temple of JupiterTonans\\n24. Arx.\\n25. Golden Milestone.\\n26. Komnn Forum.\\n27. Temph^ of Vesta.\\n28. Via Sacra.\\n29. Lupercal.\\n30. Tarpeian Rock.\\n31. Arch of Severus.\\n32. Curia (Senate House).\\n33. Forum of Augustus.\\n34. BasiUca Ulpia.\\n35. Temple of Janus.\\nIX. CIRCUS FUAMINIUS.\\n36. Theater of Marcellus.\\n37. Port, of Octavius and\\nPhilippa.\\n38. Circus Flauiinius.\\n39. Temple of Apollo.\\n43. Baths of Agrippa.\\n44. Port, of Pouipey.\\n4.5. Theater of Pompcy.\\n46. Pantheon.\\n47. Baths of Nero.\\n48. K ace-course.\\n49. Mausoleum of Augustus.\\nX. Palatum\\n50. Palace of Nero.\\n51. Palace of Augustus.\\nXI. CIRCUS MaXIMUS.\\n52. Velabrum.\\n53. Forum Olitorium.\\n.54. Forum Boarium.\\n55. Circus Maximus.\\nXII. PlsriNA PUIiLICA.\\n50. Baths of Antoniuua.\\nXIII. AVEXTINUS.\\n57. Balnea Sune.\\n58. Emporium.\\nXIV. Trans Tiherim.\\n59. Temple of Jisculapius", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "300 ROME.\\nthere a teacher hastens to his school, and in the Suburra the workers\\nin metal and in leather, the clothiers and perfume sellers, the book-\\ndealers, the general retailers, and the jobbers of all sorts, are already\\nbeginning their daily routine. We miss the carts laden with mer-\\nchandise which so obstruct om* modern city streets they are forbidden\\nby law to appear within the walls during ten hours between sunrise\\nand sunset. But, as the city wakes to life, long trains of builders\\nwagons, weighted with huge blocks of stone or logs of timber, bar\\nthe road, and mules, with country produce piled in baskets suspended\\non either side, urge their way along the constantly increasing crowd.\\nHere is a mule with a dead boar thrown across its back, the proud hun-\\nter stalking in front, with a strong force of retainers to carry his spears\\nand nets. There comes a load drawn by oxen, upon whose horns a\\nwisp of hay is tied it is a sign that they are vicious, and passers-by\\nmust be on guard. Now a passage is cleared for some dignified patri-\\ncian, who, wrapped in his toga, reclining in his luxurious litter, and\\nborne on the broad shoulders of six stalwart slaves, makes his way to\\nthe Forum attended by a train of clients and retainers. In his rear,\\nstepping from stone to stone l across the slippery street wet by the\\nrecent rains, we spy some popular personage on foot, whose advance\\nis constantly retarded by his demonstrative acquaintances, who throng\\nabout him, seize his hand, and cover his lips with kisses.\\nThe open cook-shops swarm with slaves who hover over steaming\\nkettles, preparing breakfast for their wonted customers and the tables\\nof the vintners, reaching far out upon the wayside, are covered with\\nbottles, protected from passing pilferers by chains. The restaurants\\nare hung Avith festoons of greens and flowers the image of a goat, 3\\ncarved on a wooden tablet, betokens a milk depot five hams, ranged\\n1 In Pompeii, the sidewalks are elevated a foot or more above the street level,\\nand protected by curb-stones. Remains of the stucco or the coarse brick-work mosaic\\nwhich covered them are still seen. In many places tlie streets are so narrow that\\nthey may be crossed at one stride Avhere they are wider, a raised stepping-stone,\\nand sometimes two or three, have been placed in the center of the crossing. Though\\nthese stones were in the middle of tlie carriage-way, the wheels of the Mga, or two-\\nhorsed chariot, could roll in the spaces between, while the loosely harnessed horses\\nmight step over them or pass by the side. Among the suggestive objects in tlie\\nexliumed city are the hollows worn in these stepping-stones by feet which were for-\\never stilled more than eighteen hundred years ago.\\n2 At every meeting in the street a person was exposed to a number of kisses,\\nnot only from near acquaintance, but from every one who desired to show his attach-\\nment, among whom there were often mouths not so clean as they might be. Tiberius,\\nwho wished himself not to be humbled by this custom, issued an edict against it,\\nbut it does not appear to have done mucli good. In winter only it was considered\\nimproper to annoy another with one s cold lips. ^ecfcer s Oallus.\\n3 A goat driven about from door to door, to be milked for customers, is a common\\nsight in Rome to-day, where children come out with gill or half-pint cups to get their\\nmorning ration.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 301\\nin a row, proclaim a iirovision store and a mill, driven by a mule,\\nadvertises a miller s and baker s shop, both in one. About the street\\ncorners are groups of loungers collected for their morning gossip,\\nwhile gymnasts and gladiators, clowns, conjurers, snake-charmers, and\\na crowd of strolling swine, who roam at will about the imperial city,\\nhelp to obstruct the narrow, tortuous highways. The professional\\nstreet-beggars are out in force squatting upon little squares of mat-\\nting, they piteously implore a dole, or, feigning epilepsy, fall at the\\nfeet of some rich passer-by. Strangers, too, are here men of foreign\\ncostume and bearing come from afar to see the wonders of the world-\\nconquering city, and, as they gaze distractedly about, dazed by the din\\nof rumbling wagons, shouting drivers, shrill-voiced hucksters, braying\\nasses, and surging multitudes, suddenly there comes a lull. The\\nslaves, whose task it is to watch the sun-dials and report the expiration\\nof each horn*, have announced that the sun has passed the mid-day line\\nupon the pavement. Soon all tumult ceases, and for one hour the city\\nis vn-apped in silence.\\nThe luxurious siesta over, Rome awakes to new enjo}-ment. Now\\ncome the pleasures and excitement of the circus and the theater, or\\nthe sports upon the Campus Martins, whither the young fashionables\\nrepair in crowds, to swim, run, ride, or throw the javelin, watched\\nby an admiring assembly of seniors and women, who, clustered in\\nporticoes, are sheltered from the burning sun. Then follows the luxury\\nof the warm and vapor baths, with perfuming and anointing, and every\\nrefinement of physical refreshment as a preparation for the coming\\nccena or dinner (p. 306). But wherever one may seek enjoyment for\\nthe early evening, it is well to be housed before night comes on, for\\nthe streets of Rome swarm with nocturnal highwajTuen, marauders,\\nand high-blooded rowdies, who set the police at open defiance, and\\nkeep whole districts in terror. There are other dangers, too, for night\\nis the time chosen by the careful housewife to dump the slops and\\ndebris from her upper windows into the open drain of the street below.\\nFires, also, are frequent, and, though the night-watch is i^rovided with\\nhatchets and buckets to resist its progress, a conflagration, once started\\nin the crowded Suburra or Yelabrum, spreads with fearful rapidity,\\nand vdll soon render hundreds of families homeless, i Meanwhile\\nthe carts, shut out by law during the daytime, crowd and jostle one\\nanother in the eagerness of their noisy di-ivers to finish their duties\\n1 The tenements of the lower classes in Rome were so crowded that often wliole\\nfamilies were huddled togetlier in one small room. The different stories were reached\\nby stairways placed on tlie outside of the buildings.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Tliore were no fire-insurance\\ncompanies, but the sufferers were muniticently recompensed by generous citizens,\\ntheir loss being not only made good in m moy, but followed bj presents of books,\\npictures, statues, and choice mosaics, fnmi their zealous friends. Martial insinuates\\ntliat on tliis account parties were sometimes tempted to fire their own premises.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "302 ROME.\\nand be at liberty for the night, while here and there groups of smok-\\ning flambeaux mark the well-armed trains of the patricians on their\\nretm-n from evening banquets. As the night advances, the sights and\\nsounds gradually fade and die away, till in the first hours of the new\\nday the glimmering lantern of the last wandering pedestrian has dis-\\nappeared, and the great city lies under the stars asleep.\\nScene II. A Roman HoincA We will not visit one of the tall\\nlodging-houses which crowd the Suburra, though in passing we may\\nglance at the plain, bare outside wall, with its few small windows 2\\nplaced in the upper stories and graced with pots of flowers and at\\nthe outside stairs by which the inmates mount to those dizzy heights,\\nand under which the midnight robber and assassin often lurk. Some-\\ntimes we see a gabled front or end with a sloping roof, or feel the shade\\nof projecting balconies which stretch far over the narrow street.\\nOn many a flat roof, paved with stucco, stone, or metal, and covered\\nwith earth, grow fragrant shrubs and flowers. Coming into more aristo-\\ncratic neighborhoods, we yet see little domestic architecture to attract\\nus. It is only when a spacious vestibule, adorned\\nwith statues and mosaic pillars, lies open to the\\nstreet, that we have any intimation of the luxury\\nwithin a Roman dwelling. K, entering such a\\nvestibule, we rap with the bronze knocker, the\\nunfastened folding-doors are pushed aside by\\nthe waiting janitor (who first peeps at us through\\nthe large open spaces in the door-posts), 3 and we\\nfind ourselves in the little ostium or entrance\\nhall leading to the atrium. Here we are greeted,\\nnot only by the salve (welcome) on the mosaic\\nA ROMAN LAMP. pavcmont, but by the same cheerful word chat-\\ntered by a trained parrot hanging above the\\ndoor. We linger to notice the curiously carved door-posts, inlaid with\\ntortoise-shell, and the door itself, which, instead of hinges, is provided\\n1 No traces of ancient private dwellings exist in Borne, except in the ruins of the\\nPalace of the Caesars on the Palatine, where the so-called House of Livia (wife of\\nAugustus), remains tolerably perfect. It is similar in dimensions and arrangement to\\nthe hest Pompeian dwellings, though far superior in paintings and decorations. The\\nHouse of Pansa in Pompeii, the plan of which is described in the text, is consid-\\nered a good representative example of a wealthy Roman s home.\\n2 Panes of glass have been found in Pompeii, though it was more usual to close\\nthe window-holes with movable wooden shutters, clay tablets, talc, or nets.\\n3 In ancient times the janitor, accompanied by a dog, was confined to his proper\\nstation by a chain. As it was not customary to keep the door locked, such a protec-\\ntion was necessary. In the House of the Tragic Poet, exhumed at Pompeii, a\\nfierce black and white dog is depicted in the mosaic pavement, and underneath it iS\\nthe inscription, Cave Canem (Beware of the Dog).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 303\\nwith wedge-shaped pins, fitting into sockets or rings, and then we pass\\ninto the atrium, the room about which cluster the most sacred memo-\\nries of Roman domestic life. Here in ancient times all the simple\\nmeals were taken beside the hearth on which they were prepared, and\\nby which the sacrifices were daily offered up to the beloved Lares and\\nPenates. 1 Here was welcomed the master s chosen bride, and here, a\\nhappy matron, 2 she afterward sat enthroned in the midst of her in-\\ndustrious maids, spinning and weaving the household garments. From\\ntheir niches upon these walls, by the side of glistening weapons captured\\nin many a bloody contest, the waxen masks of honored ancestors have\\nlooked down for generations, watching the bodies of the family de-\\nscendants, as one by one they have lain in state upon the funeral bier.\\nBut increase of luxury has banished the stewing-pans, the busy\\nlooms, and the hospitable table to other apartments in the growing\\nhouse. The Lares and Penates have left their primitive little closets by\\nthe atrium cooking-hearth for a larger and separate sacrarium, and\\nspacious kitchens now send forth savory odors from turbot, pheasant,\\nwild boar, and sausages, to be served up in summer or winter triclin-\\niums by a host of well-trained slaves. 3 The household dead are still\\nlaid here, but the waxen masks of olden times are gradually giving\\nplace to brazen shield-shaped plates on which are dimly imaged\\n1 At every meal the first act was to cast a portion of each article of food into the\\nfire that huroed upon the hearth, in honor of the household gods.\\n2 The Roman matron, unlike the Greek, enjoyed great freedom of action, both\\nwithin and without her house, and was always treated with attention and respect.\\n3 The Romans were fond of amazing their guests with costly dainties, such as\\nnightingales, peacocks, and the tongues and brains of flamingoes. Caligula dissolved\\npearls in powerful acids, in imitation of Cleopatra, aud spent $400,000 on a siugle\\nrepast. A dramatic friend of Cicero paid over $4,000 for a dish of singing birds and\\none famous epicure, after having exhausted the sum of four million dollars in his\\ngood living, poisoned himself because he had not quite half a million left Fish was\\na favorite food, and tlie mansions of the rich were fitted up with fish-ponds (piscince)\\nfor the culture of rare varieties, which were sometimes caught and cooked on silver\\ngridirons before invited guests, who enjoyed the changing colors of the slowly dying\\nfish, and the tempting odor of the coming treat. Turbots, mackerels, eels, and oys-\\nters were popular delicacies, and a fine mullet brought sometimes as much as $240.\\nIn game the fatted hare and the wild boar, served whole, were ranked first. Pork, as\\nin Greece, was the favorite meat, beef and mutton being regarded with little favor.\\nGreat display was made in serving, aud Juvenal ridicules the airs of the professional\\ncarver of his time, who, he says,\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nSkips like a liarlequin from place to place,\\nAnd waves his knito with pantomimic grace\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nFor different gestures by our curious men\\nAre used for different dishes, hare and hen.\\nIn vegetables the Romans had lettuce, cabbage, turnips, and asparagus. Mush-\\nrooms were highly prized. The poorer classes lived on cheap fish, boiled chick-peas,\\nbeans, lentils, barley bread, and puis or grueL", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "304\\nROME.\\nfeatures, or to bronze and marble busts. The little aperture in the\\ncenter of the ceiling, which served the double purpose of escape for\\nsmoke and the admission of sunlight, has been enlarged, and is sup-\\nported by costly marble pillars, alternating with statues directly un-\\nderneath it, the open cistern reflects each passing cloud, and mirrors\\nthe now-unused altar, which, for tradition s sake, is still left standing\\nby its side. When the rain, wind, or heat becomes severe, a tapestry\\ncurtain, hung horizontally, is drawn over the aperture, and sometimes\\na pretty fountain, surrounded by flowering plants, embellishes the\\npool of water. Tapestries, sliding by rings on bars, conceal or open\\nto view the apartments which adjoin the atrium. As we stand at the\\n9ntrance-door of this spacious room, 2 with the curtains all drawn aside.\\nTHE HOUSE OF PANSA (VIEW FROM THE ENTRANCE-DOOU OF THE ATRIUM).\\nwe look down a long and beautiful vista past the central fountain\\nand altar through the open tablinum, paved with marbles and devoted\\nto the master s use; into the peristyle, a handsome open court sur-\\nrounded by pillared arcades, paved with mosaics, and beautified, like\\nthe atrium, with central fountain and flowers and still on, through\\nthe large banqueting hall, or family state-room (cecus), beyond the\\ntransverse corridor, and into the garden which stretches across the\\nrear of the mansion. If we stop to glance into the library which ad-\\njoins the tablinum, we shall find its walls lined with cupboards stored\\n1 Pliny speaka of the craviug for portrait statues, which induced obscure persons,\\nsuddenly grown rich, to buy a fictitious ancestry, there being ready antiqtiarians\\nthen, as now, who made it a business to furnish satisfactory pedigrees.\\n2 The atrium in the House of Tansa was nearly fifty feet long, and over thirty\\nwide. As this was only a moderate-sized liouse in a provincial town, it is reasonable\\nto suppose tliat the city houses of the rich were much more spacious.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS ANT) (iTSTOMS. 305\\nwith parc lnnoiil rolls ;uh1 iidoniod willi luisis and pidin cs of illustrious\\nmen, crowned by the presiding stjitiu S ol Minerva and the Muses.\\nIn general furniture, we notice l)eautiful tripod-stands hohling grace-\\nful vases, chairs after Greek patterns, and lecii i on which to recline\\nwhen reading or writing. Occasionally there is a small wall-mirror,\\nmade of polished metal, and the walls themselves are brilliantly\\npainted in panels, bearing graceful floating ligures and scenes of\\nmythological design. The floors are paved with bricks, marbles, or\\nmosaics, and the rooms are warmed or cooled by pipes through which\\nflows hot or cold water. In extreme weather there are portable\\nstoves. There is a profusion of quaintly shaped bronze and even\\ngolden lamps, whose simple oil-fed wicks give forth at night a\\nfeeble glimmer, As we pass through the fauces into the peristyle,\\na serpent slowly uncoils itself from its nest in one of the alae, which\\nhas been made the household sanctuary, 3 and glides toward the\\ntriclinium in search of a crumb from the mid-day meal.\\nThe large triclinium at the right of the peristyle is furnished with\\nelegantly inlaid sofas, which form three sides of a square about\\na costly cedar or citrus-wood table. 4^ At banquets the sofas are\\n1 A leetus was ueitlier bed nor sofa, but a simple frame with a low ledge at one\\nend, and strung with girth on wliich a mattress and coverings were laid. Lecti were\\nmade of brass, or of cedar inlaid with ivory, tortoise-sliell, and precious metals, and\\nwere provided with ivory, gold, or silver feet. Writing-desks with stools were un-\\nknown the Roman reclined on the leetus when he wrote, resting his tablet upon\\nhis knee.\\n2 The Romans were in the habit of making New-Year s gifts, such as dried figs,\\ndates, and hone3 Comb, as emblems of sweetness, or a little piece of money as a hope\\nfor good luck. But the favorite gift was a lamp, and great genius was displayed in\\ntlie variety of elegant designs whicli were invented in search of the novel and unique.\\n3 Serpents were tlie emblems of the Lares, and were not only figured upon the\\naltars, but, to insure family prosperity, a certain kind was kept as pets in the\\nhouses, where tliey nestled about the altars and came out like dogs or cats to be\\nnoticed by visitors, and to beg for sometliing to eat. These sacred reptiles, which\\nwere of considerable size, but liarmless except to rats and mice, bore such a charmed\\nlife that their numbers became an intolerable nuisance. Pliny intimates that many\\nof the tires in Rome were kindled purposely to destroy their eggs.\\n4 The citrus-wood tables, so prized among the Romans, cost from $40,000 to\\n$50,000 apiece. Seneca is said to have owned five liundred citrus-wood tables.\\nVases of murrha\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a substance identified by modein scientists with glass, Chinese\\nporcelain, agate, and fluor-spar\u00e2\u0080\u0094 were fashionable, and fabulous sums were paid\\nfor them. An ex-consul under Nero had a mnrrlia wine-ladle which cost him\\n$\u00e2\u0096\u00a0300,000, and wliicli on his deatli-bed lie deliberately da.slied to pieces, to prevent\\nits falhng into the hands of the grasping t3 rant. Bronze and marble statues were\\nabundant in the houses and gardens of the rich, and cost from $1.50 for the woik\\nof an ordinary sculptor, to $80,000 for a genuine Phidias, Scopas, or Praxiteles. To\\ngratify such expensive tastes, large fortunes were necessarj aiul tlie Romans\u00e2\u0080\u0094 in\\nearlj times averse to anj thing but arms and agriculture\u00e2\u0080\u0094 develoi)ed shrewd, sharp\\nbusiness qualities. They roamed over foreign countries in search of speculations,\\nand turned out swarms of bankers and merchants, who amassed enormous sums to", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "306\\nROME.\\ndecked with white hangings embroidered with gold, and the soft wool-\\nstuffed pillows upon which the guests recline are covered with gor-\\ngeous purple. Here, after his daily warm and vapor bath, the per-\\nfumed and enervated Roman gathers a few friends in number not\\nmore than the Muses nor less than the Graces for the evening supper\\n(ccena). The courses follow one another as at a Grecian banquet.\\nSlaves! relieve the master and his guests from the most trifling effort,\\ni-LAN OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA.\\n(V) The Vestibulum, or hall; (1) The Ostium; (2) The Atrium, off which are six\\ncuhicula or sleeping-rooms; (3) The Im,pluvium, before which stands the\\npedestal or altar of the liousehold gods; (4) The Tablinum, or chief room;\\n(5) The Pinacotlieca, or library and picture gallery; (6) The Fauces, or corri-\\ndor; (7) The J eristylium, or court, with (8) its central fountain; (9) Tlie ^cus,\\nor state-room; (10) The Triclinium,- (11) The kitchen; (r2) The transverse\\ncorridor, witli garden beyond; and (13) The Zararium, a receptacle for the\\nmore favorite gods, and lor statues of illustiious peisonages.\\ncarving each person s food or breaking it into fragments which he\\ncan raise to his mouth with his fingers, forks being unknown, and\\npouring water on his hands at every remove. The strictest etiquette\\nprevails long-time usages and traditions are followed libations are\\noffered to the protecting gods spirited conversation, which is un-\\ndignified and Greekish, is banished; and only solemn or caustic\\naphorisms on life and manners are heard. People at supper,\\nsays Varro, should be neither mute nor loquacious: eloquence is\\nfor the forum; silence for the bed-chamber. On high days, rules\\nare banished the host becomes the Father of the supper, convivial\\nexcesses grow coarse and absurd, and all the follies and vices of the\\nGreek symposium are exaggerated.\\nbe spent on fashionable whims (see Business Life in Ancient Rome, Harper s\\nHalf-hour Series).\\n1 There were slaves for every species of service in a Roman household, and their\\nnumber and versatility of handicraft remind one of the retinue of an Egyptian lord.\\nEven the defective memory or limited talent of an indolent or over-taxed Roman\\nwas supplemented by a slave at his side, whose business it was to recall forgotten\\nincidents and duties, to tell him the names of the persona he met, or to suggest ap-\\npropriate literary allusions in his conversation.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 307\\nScene III. A Triumphal Procession. Rome is in her holiday-\\nattire. Streets and squares are festively adorned, and incense bums\\non the altars of the open temples. From steps and stands, improvised\\nalong the streets for the eager crowd, grow loud and louder sliouts of\\nlo triumphe for the procession has started from the triumplial gate\\non its way through the city up to the Capitol. First come the lictors,\\nopening a passage for the senate, the city magistrates, and important\\ncitizens. Pipers and flute-players follow. Then appear tlie spoils and\\nbooty art-treasures, gold and silver coins, valuable plate, products of\\ntlie conquered soil, armor, standards, models of captured cities and\\nships, pictures of battles, tablets inscribed with the victor s deeds, and\\nstatues personifying the to^vns and rivers of the newly subjected\\nland, all carried by crowned soldiers on the points of long lances\\nor on portable stands. Chained kings, princes, and nobles, doomed to\\nthe Mamertine Prison, walk sullenly behind their lost treasures. In\\ntheir Avake are the sacrificial oxen with gilt horns, accompanied by\\npriests and then preceded by singers, musicians, and jesters, the cen-\\ntral object of all this gi-and parade the victorious general. 1 Clad\\nin a tunic borrowed from the statue of the Capitoline Jupiter, with the\\neagle-topped ivory scepter in his hand and the triumphal crown held\\nabove his head, the conqueror proudly stands in his four-horse chariot,\\nfollowed by his equally proud, ^detorious army. Through the Flamin-\\nian Circus, along the crowded Velabrum and the Circus Maximus,\\nby the Via Sacra and the Forum, surges the vast procession up to the\\nmajestic Capitol. Here the triumphator lays his golden crown in the\\nlap of Jupiter, and makes the imposing sacrifice. A feast of unusual\\nsumptuousness ends the eventful day.\\nScene IV. The Last of a Eoinan Emperor. It is the Roman\\nhabit to consecrate the emperors who leave heirs. The mortal re-\\nmains are bm-ied, according to custom, in a splendid manner but the\\nwax image of the emperor is placed on an ivory bed, covered Avitli gold-\\nembroidered carpets, in front of the palace. The expression of the\\nface is that of one dangerously ill. To the left side of the bed stand,\\nduring a greater part of the day, the members of the senate to the\\nright, the ladies entitled by birth or marriage to appear at com-t, in the\\nusual simple white mourning-dresses without gold ornaments or neck-\\nlaces. This ceremony lasts seven days, during which time the imperial\\nphysicians daily approach the bed as if to examine the patient, who,\\nof course, is declining rapidly. At last they declare the emperor dead.\\nThe bier is now transported by the highest born knights and the\\n1 Only dictators, consuls, praetors, and occasionally legates, were permitted the\\ntriumphal entrance. Sometimes the train of spoils and captives was so great that\\ntwo, three, and even four days were required for tlio parade. In later times the\\ntriumphal procession was exclusively resoived for tlie emperor.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "308 ROME.\\nyounger senators through the Via Sacra to the old Forum, and there\\ndeposited on a scaffolding built in the manner of a terrace. On one\\nside stand young patricians, on the other noble ladies, intoning hymns\\nand pasans in honor of the deceased to a solemn, sad tune after which\\nthe bier is taken up again, and carried to the Campus Martins. A\\nwooden structure in the form of a house has been erected on large\\nblocks of wood on a square base the inside has been filled with dry\\nsticks; the outside is adorned with gold-embroidered carpets, ivory\\nstatues, and various sculptures. The bottom story, a little lower than\\nthe second, shows the same form and ornamentation as this it has\\nopen doors and windows above these two stories rise others, growing\\nnarrow toward the top, like a pyramid. The whole structure might be\\ncompared to the lighthouses erected in harbors. The bier is placed\\nin the second story spices, incense, odoriferous fruits and herbs being\\nheaped round it. After the whole room has been filled with incense,\\nthe knights move in procession round the entire structure, and per-\\nform some military evolutions they are followed by chariots filled\\nwith persons wearing masks and clad in purple robes, who represent\\nhistoric characters, such as celebrated generals and kings. After these\\nceremonies are over, the heir to the throne throws a torch into the\\nhouse, into which, at the same time, flames are dashed from all sides,\\nwhich, fed by the combustible materials and the incense, soon begin\\nto devour the building. At this juncture an eagle rises into the air\\nfrom the highest story as from a lofty battlement, and carries, accord-\\ning to the idea of the Romans, the soul of the dead emperor to heaven\\nfrom that moment he partakes of the honors of the gods. Herodian.\\n4. SUMMARY.\\n1. Political History. Rome began as a single city. The growth\\nof her power was slow but steady. She became head, first, of\\nthe neighboring settlements second, of Latium third, of Italy and,\\nfourth, of the lands around the Mediterranean. In her early history,\\nthere was a fabulous period during which she was ruled by kings.\\nThe last of the seven monarchs belonged to a foreign dynasty, and\\nupon his expulsion a republic was established. Two centuries of con-\\nflict ensued between the patricians and the plebs but the latter, going\\nofttimes to Mount Sacer, gained their end and established a democracy.\\nMeanwliile, wars with powerful neighbors and with the awe-in-\\nspiring Gauls had developed the Roman character in all its sternness,\\nintegrity, and patriotism. Rome next came in contact with Pyrrhus,\\nand learned how to fortify her military camps then with Carthage,\\nand she found out the value of a navy. An apt pupil, she gained the", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "SUMMARY. 309\\nmastery of the sea, invaded Africa, and in the end razed Carthage to\\nthe ground. Turning to the west, she secured Spain the silver-\\nproducing country of that age and Gaul, whose fiery sons filled the\\ndepleted ranks of her legions. At the east she intrigued where she\\ncould, and fought where she must, and by disorganizing states made\\nthem first her dependencies, and then her provinces. Greece, Macedon,\\nAsia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Babylon, were but stej)ping-stones in her\\nprogress until Parthia alone remained to bar her advance to the Indus\\nand the ocean.\\nBut within her gates the struggle between the rich and the poor\\nstill went on. Crowds of slaves captives of her many wars\\nthronged her streets, kept her shops, waited in her homes, tilled her\\nland, and tended her flocks. The plebeians, shut out from honest\\ntoil, struggled for the patrician s dole. The civil wars of Sulla and\\nMarius drenched her pavements with the blood of her citizens. The\\ntriumphs of Ceesar shed a gleam of glory over the fading republic, but\\nthe mis-aimed daggers of Brutus and Cassius that slew the dictator\\nstruck at the heart of liberty as well.\\nAugustus brought in the empire and an era of peace. Now the\\narmy gained control of the state. Weak and wicked emperors, the\\nluxury of wealth, the influx of oriental profligacy, the growth of\\natheism, and the greed of conquest, undermined the fabric of Roman\\ngreatness. The inhabitants of the provinces were made Romans, and,\\nRome itself being lost in the empire it had created, other cities became\\nthe seats of government. Amid the ruins of the decaying monarchy\\na new religion supplanted the old, and finally Teutonic hordes from\\nthe north overwhelmed the city that for centuries their own soldiers\\nhad alone upheld.\\n2. Civilization. As in Greece the four ancient Attic tribes were\\nsubdivided into phratries, gentes, and hearths, so in Rome the three\\noriginal patrician tribes branched into curiae, gentes, and families, the\\npaterfamilias owning all the property, and holding the life of his\\nchildren at will.\\nThe civil magistrates comprised consuls, quaestors, sediles, and\\nprsetors.\\nThe army was organized in legions, cohorts, companies, and cen-\\nturies, with four classes of footrsoldiers, who fought with the pilum\\nand the javelin, protected themselves with heavy breastplates, and\\ncarried on sieges by the aid of ballistas, battering-rams, catapults, and\\nmovable towers. In later times the ranks were filled by foreigners\\nand mercenaries.\\nRoman literature, child of the Grecian, is rich with memorable\\nnames. Ushered in by Livius Andronicus, a Greek slave, it grew with\\nNsevius, Ennius, Plautus, Terence, Cato, and Lucilius. The learned", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "310 ROME.\\nVarro, the florid Cicero, the graceful Virgil, the genial Horace, the\\neloquent Livy, and the polished Sallust, ennobled the last century be-\\nfore Christ. The next hundred years produced the studious Pliny the\\nElder, the two inseparable friends Pliny the Younger and Tacitus,\\nthe sarcastic Juvenal, and the wise Seneca.\\nThe monuments of the Romans comprise splendid aqueducts, tri-\\numphal arches, military roads, bridges, harbors, and tombs. Their\\nmagnificent palaces and luxurious thermae were fitted up with reckless\\nextravagance and dazzling display. All the spoils of conquered\\nnations enriched their capital, and all the foreign arts and inventions\\nwere impressed into their service.\\nThe proud, dignified, ambitious Roman had no love or tenderness\\nfor aught but his national supremacy. Seldom indulging in sentiment\\ntoward family or kindred, he recognized no law of humanity toward\\nhis slaves. His religion was a commercial bargain with the gods, in\\nwhich each was at liberty to outwit the other. His iDorsMp was mostly\\nconfined to the public ceremonies at the shrine of Vesta, and the con-\\nstant household offerings to the Lares and Penates. His public games\\nwere a degraded imitation of the Grecian, and he took his chief de-\\nlight in bloody gladiatorial shows and wild-beast fights.\\nA race of borrowers, the Romans assimilated into their nationality\\nmost of the excellences as well as many of the vices of other peoples,\\nfor centuries stamping the whole civilized world with their character,\\nand dominating it by their successes. As to Rome all ancient history\\nconverges, so from Rome all modern history begins.\\nFinally, as a central point in the history of all time, in the midst of\\nthe brilliancy of the Augustan age, while Cicero, Sallust, Virgil, and\\nHorace were fresh in the memory of their still living friends, with\\nSeneca in his childhood and Livy in his prime, the empire at its best,\\nand Rome radiant in its growing transformation from brick to marble\\nunder the guiding rule of the great Augustus Csesar, there was born\\nin an obscure Roman province the humble Babe whose name far out-\\nranks all these, and from whose nativity are dated all the centuries\\nwhich have succeeded.\\nREADING REFERENCES\\nMerivaWs History of the Romans.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ihne s History of Borne, and Early Rome.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nHistory Primers Rome, and Roman A7itiquities, edited by Green.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Arnold s His-\\ntory of Rome.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Niebuhr s History of Rome.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Smith s smaller History of Rome.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nGibbon s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ouhl and Koner s Life of the\\nGreeks and Romans.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 KnighV s Social Life of the Romans.- Plutarch s Lives.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mil-\\nman s History of Christianity.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Wommsen s History of Rome.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Froude s Life of CcBsar.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Becker 8 Oharicles, and Gallus.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Macaulay s Lays of Ancient Rome.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Shakapere s", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "CHRONOLOGY.\\nan\\nJulius Ccesar, CoHolanus, and Antony and Cleopatra.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 For syWs Life of Cicero.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nNapoleon s (III.) Life of Ccesar.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Canina s Edifices of Ancient Jiome.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Fergusson s\\nHistory of Architecture.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Buliver s Last Days of Pompeii, and liienzi the Last of\\nthe Tribimefs.\u00e2\u0080\u0094MicheleVs Roman Republic\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Heeren s Historical Researches.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Putz 8\\nHand-hook uf Ancient History.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Hare s Walks in Rome.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Kingsley s Hypatia.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lord s\\nOld Roman World.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mann s Ancient and Mediceval Republics.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lawrence s Primer\\nof Roman Literature.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Collins s Ancient Classics for English Readers (a series\\ngiving striking passages from the Greek and Roman classics, with excellent explana-\\ntory notes, lives of the authors, etc.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Dyer s Pompeii.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Herbermann s Business Life in\\nAncient Rome.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lanciani s Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries.\\nCHRONOLOGY.\\nB.C.\\nRome founded 753\\nRepublic established 509\\nThe Decemvirs 451\\nRome taken by Gauls 390\\nFirst Samnite War 343-341\\nGreat Latin War 340-338\\nSecond Samnite War 326-304\\nThird 298-290\\nWars with Pyrrhus 280-276\\nFirst Punic War 264-241\\nSecond 218-201\\nBattle of the Trebia 218\\nLake Trasimenus 217\\nCannae 216\\nSiege of Capua 214-21]\\nBattle of the Metaurus 207\\nZama 202\\nSecond Macedonian War 200-197\\nBattle of Magnesia 190\\nDeath of Hannibal and Scipio Afri-\\ncanus 183\\nThird Macedonian War 171-168\\nBattle of Pydna 168\\nThird Punic War 149-146\\nFall of Carthage and Corinth 146\\nDeath of Tiberius Gracchus 133\\nJugurtliine War 111-104\\nMarius defeated Teutones at Aquae\\nSextite (Aix) 102\\nMarius defeated Cimbri 101\\nSocial War 90-88\\nFirst Mithridatic War 88-84\\nMassacre by Marius 87\\nSecond Mithridatic War 83-81\\nSulla s Proscriptions 83\\nThird Mithridatic War 74-63\\nWar of Spartacus 73-71\\nMediterranean Pirates 67\\nConspiracy of Catiline 63\\nB G H\u00e2\u0080\u0094 19\\nB. C.\\nFirst Triumvirate 60\\nCaesar in Gaul 58-49\\ninvades Britain 55\\ncrosses the Rubicon 49\\nBattle of Pharsalia\u00e2\u0080\u0094 death of Pom-\\npey 48\\nSuicide of Cato 46\\nCaesar assassinated 44\\nSecond Triumvirate, death of Cicero 43\\nBattle of Philippi, suicide of Brutus\\nand Cassius 42\\nBattle of Ac tium 31\\nAugustus 31\\nA. D.\\nTiberius 14\\nCaligula 37\\nClaudius 41\\nj Nero 54\\nGalba 68\\nOtho 69\\nVitellius 69\\nVespasian 69\\nTitus 79\\nDomitian 81\\nNerva 96\\nTrajan 98\\nHadrian 117\\nAntoninus Pius 138\\nM. Aurelius Antoninus 161-180\\nL. Verus 161-169\\nCommodus 180\\nPertinax 193\\nDidius Julianus 193\\nSeptimius Severus 193\\nCaracallus 211-217\\nGeta 211-212\\nMacrinus 217\\nElagabalus (the sun-priest) 218\\nAlexander Severus 222", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "31^\\nROME.\\nMaximlnus\\nGordian I.\\nGordian II. i\\nPupienua Maximus\\nBalbinus\\nGordian III\\nPhilip the Arabian\\nDecius\\nGallus\\n^milian\\nValerian\\nGallienus\\nClaudius II\\nAureliau\\nTacitus\\nFlorian\\nProbus\\nCarus\\nCarinus and Nunierian\\nDiocletian, with Maximian\\nConstant! us, with Galerius\\nConstantino I. (the Great), with Ga-\\nlerius, Severus, and Maxentius\\nL.D.\\n235\\n238\\n244\\n249\\n251\\n253\\n253\\n260\\n268\\n270\\n275\\n276\\n276\\n282\\n283\\n284\\nA.D.\\nConstantino, with LIcinius 307\\nConstantino, with Maximinus 308\\nConstantino, alone 323\\nConstantino II., Constantius II.,\\nConstans 1 337\\nJulian the Apostate 361\\nJovian 363\\nValentlnian 1 364\\nGratian and Valentinian II 375\\nValentinian II 383\\nTheodosius (East and West) 392\\nHonorius 395\\nTheodosius II. (East and West) 423\\nValentinian III 425\\nPetronius Maximus 455\\nAvitus 455\\nMajorian 457\\nLibius Severns 461\\nAnthemius 467\\nOlybrius 472\\nGlycerins 473\\nJulius Nepos 474\\nRomulus Augustulus 475-476\\nTOMBS ALONG THE APPIAN WAY.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "MEDIEVAL xEOPLES.\\nWe may gather out of History a policy no less wise than eternal, by the\\ncomparison of other men s miseries with our own like errors.\\nSir Walter Raleigh s History of tJie World.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "BLACKBOARD ANALYSIS\\nf 1. Chief events of Middle Ages. Characteristics.\\n1 2. GENERAL DIVISIONS.\\n3. THE Teutonic settlements.\\n1. Introduction. the character of the teutonic Conquest.\\nI 5. the Eastern Empire.\\nI 6. The papacy.\\nI 7. Early German Civilization.\\nRise of tlie\\nSaracens.\\n1. Mohammed.\\n2. THE Caliphs.\\n3. Saracens in Europe. Extent of Empire.\\n4. Saracen Divisions.\\n5. saracen civilization.\\nn. f XL f 1- CLOVIS and the FRANKS. MEROVINGIAN DYNASTY.\\n6. Kise oT tne i o. pepin the short, carlovingian dynasty.\\nPrankish\\nEmpire. 1\\n3. Charlemagne.\\n4. Riseof IVIod-\\nern Nations.\\n1. England.\\n1. His Conquests.\\n2. Crowned Emperor.\\n3. Government.\\n4. Charlemagne and liis Court.\\na. Roman.\\n1. The Four Conquests\\n2. Growth of Constitu\\ntional Liberty.\\nJ b. Anglo-Saxon.\\nc. Danish.\\nd. Norman.\\nf a. Bunnym^^de\\nand Mttgna\\ni Charta.\\nI b. The House of\\nCommons.\\n2. France.\\nConquest of Ireland.\\nConquest of Wales.\\nConquest of Scotland.\\nWars of the Roses.\\nEarly English Civilization.\\nRoUo and the Norsemen.\\nCapet. The Capetian Dynasty.\\nWeakness of the Monarchy.\\nf a. Philip Augustus.\\nI 6. Louis IX.\\nc. Philip IV.\\nd. Louis XI.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Triumph of Ab-\\nsolutism.\\nGrowth of the\\nMonarchy under\\nHouse of Valois.\\nThe Hundred-Years War.\\nThe Kingdom of Burgundy.\\nConsolidation of Fiench Monarchy.\\nEarly French Civilization.\\n3. Germany.\\n4. SWITZERLAND\\n5. Italy in the Middle Ages.\\nf 1.\\n1. Comparison with France.\\n2. The Saxon Dynasty.\\n3. The Franconian Dynasty.\\n4. The Hohenstaufen Line.\\n5. Great Interregnum.\\n6. The Hapsburgs.\\n1. Origin.\\n2. Three Great Battles.\\n3. Growth of the Confederacy.\\nPAPAL POWER.\\nr 1. Venice.\\nITALIAN CITIES. Fk.rence.\\n4. Rome.\\nThe Crusades.\\nThe Moors in Spain.\\n1-8. THE EIGHT CRUSADES.\\n9. EFFECTS OF THE CUUSADKS.\\n8. Asia in the Middle Ages.\\n9. Medieval Civilization.\\n1. the mongols.\\n2. the turks.\\n1. feudalism.\\n2. The Castle.\\n3. chivalry.\\n4. The Knight.\\n5. The tournament.\\n6. Education and literature,\\n7. Manners and Customs.\\n[When writing upon the\\nhlackboaid, the pupil can fill\\nout the subdivisions from the\\nheadings of the paragraphs in\\nthe text.]", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "f[EB\\\\J\u00c2\u00a3.VAL P^OPl^\\nIN SIGHT OK UOMK.\\nINTRODUCTION.\\nThe Middle Ages extend\\nfrom the faU of Rome (476)\\nto the capture of Constantino-\\nple (1453), a httle less than\\n1000 years. Then* principal\\nevents were the migrations of the northern barbarians\\n(p. 266) the invasion of the Saracens the establishment\\nGeographical Questions.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 These queries are intended to test the pupil s knowl-\\nedge, to make Lim familiar with the maps of the middle ages, and to prepare him\\nto locate the history he is about to study. See list of maps, p. vi. Bound Syria,\\nArabia, Gaul, Britain, Spain, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, Germany, Hungary,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "316 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nof the Frankish kingdom, including the empire of Charle-\\nmagne; the rise of the modern nations; the Crusades;\\nthe Hundred- Years War and the Wars of the Roses. The\\nera was in general characterized by the decline of letters\\nand art, the rise of f eudahsm or the rule of the nobles, and\\nthe supremacy of the papal power.\\nTwo Divisions. Six of the ten centuries composing this\\nperiod are called the Darli Ages, a long night following the\\nbriUiant day of Roman civilization. The last four centuries\\nconstitute the dawn of the modern era. Wandering tribes\\nthen became settled nations, learning revived, and order\\nand civihzation began to resume their sway.\\nA New Era of the world began in the 5th century. The\\ngods of Greece and Rome had passed away, and a better\\nreligion was taking theii* place. The old actors had vanished\\nfrom the stage, and strange names appeared. Europe pre-\\nsented a scene of chaos. The institutions of centuries had\\ncrumbled. Everywhere among the ruins barbarian hordes\\nwere struggling for the mastery. Amid this confusion we\\nare to trace the gradual outgrowth of the modern nation-\\nPoland, Russia.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Locate Carthage, Jerusalem, Mecca, Damascus, Bagdad, Alex-\\nandria, Acre, Tunis, Moscow, Delhi, Constantinople.\\nliocate Tours, Rheims, Fontenay, Verdun, Cr6cy, Poitiers, Agincourt, Limoges,\\nCalais, Rouen, Orleans, Metz, Avignon, Bordeaux.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Locate Cordova, Seville, Gra-\\nnada, Castile, Aragon, Leon.\\nLocate Lombardy, Sicily, Pisa, Genoa, Rome, Florence, Milan, Naples, Venice,\\nSalerno, Legnano, Padua, Bologna, Savoy.\\nLocate London, Hastings, Oxford, Runnymede, Lewes, Bosworth, Dover, Ban-\\nnockburn.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Locate the Netherlands (Low Countries), Flanders, Bouvines, Courtrai,\\nGhent, Bruges, Rosebecque, Aix-la-Chapelle.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Describe the Indus, Rhine, Rhone,\\nDanube, Seine, Loire.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Point out Bavaria, Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Thuringia,\\nBasle, Prague, Worms, Waiblingen.\\nPoint out the French provinces Normandy, Provence, Aquitaine, Brittany, Bur-\\ngundy, Champagne, Maine, Anjou, Toulouse, Valois, Navarre, Gascony, Lorraine,\\nArmagnac, Alsace, Franche Com t6.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Locate Gran son, Morat, Nancy, Morgarten,\\nSempach, Geneva.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "318 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nalities.^ Heretofore the history of one great nation has been\\nthat of the civilized world, changing its name only as power\\npassed, from time to time, into the hands of a different\\npeople. Henceforth there are to be not 0}ie but many cen-\\nters of civilization.\\nTeutonic Settlements. The Teutons or Germans\\n(p. 322) were the chief heirs of Rome. By the 6th century\\nthe Vandals had estabhshed a province in northern Africa\\nthe Visigoths had set up a Gothic kingdom in Spain and\\nsouthern Gaul (p. 268) the Franlcs, under Clovis, had\\nfirmly planted themselves in northern Gaul; the Burgun-\\ndians had occupied southeastern Gaul; and the Anglo-Sax-\\nons had crossed the Channel and conquered a large part\\nof Britain.\\nThe Ostrogoths, under Theodoric (489), climbed the Alps\\nand overthrew Odoacer, King of Italy (p. 269). Theodoric\\nestablished his government at Ravenna, under a nominal\\ncommission from the Emperor of Constantinople. The\\nVisigoths accepted him as cliief, and his kingdom ultimately\\nextended from the heart of Spain to the Danube. An\\nArian, he yet favored the Cathohcs, and, though unable\\nto read or write, encouraged learning. The fair-haired\\nGoths, says Collier, still wearing then- furs and brogues,\\ncarried the sword while the Romans, wrapped in the flow-\\ning toga, held the pen and filled the schools.\\nCharacter of the Teutonic Conquest.^ In Italy,\\n1 The tliouglitlul student of history sees in the middle ages a tiiue not of decay,\\nbut of preparation a period during wliich the seeds of a better growth were germi-\\nnating in the soil. Amid feudal chaos, the nations were being molded, language was\\nforming, thought taking shape, and social forces were gathering that were to bear\\nmankind to a higher civilization than tlie world had ever seen.\\n2 While tlie Teutonic conquest, in the end, brought into medijeval civilization a\\nnew force, a sense of personal liberty, and domestic virtues unknown to the Ro-\\nInans, yet, at the time, it seemed an undoing of the best work of ages. During the\\nmerciless massacre that lasted for centuiies upon the island of Britain, the priests\\nwere slain at the altar, tlie churches burned, and the inhabitants nearly annihilated", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION. 319\\nGaul, and Spain, the various Teutonic tribes did not expel,\\nbut absorbed, the native population. The two races gradu-\\nally blended. Out of the minghng of the German and the\\nRoman speech, there grew up in time the Romance lan-\\nguages, Spanish, Italian, and French. Latin, however,\\nwas for centuries used in writing. Thus the Roman names\\nand forms remained after the empire had fallen. The in-\\nvaders adopted the laws, civihzation, and Christian religion\\nof the conquered. The old clergy not only retained their\\nplaces, but their influence was greatly increased; the\\nchurches became a common refuge, and the bishops the\\nonly protectors of the poor and weak.\\nOn the contrary, the Anglo-Saxons, who conquered Brit-\\nain, enslaved or di ove back the few natives who survived\\nthe horrors of the invasion. Not having been, while in\\nGermany, brought in contact with the Roman power, these\\nTeutons had no respect for its superior civihzation. They\\ndid not, therefore, adopt either the Roman language or\\nrehgion. Clmstianity came to them at a later day while\\nthe English speech i still in its essence the same that our\\nforefathers brought over from the wilds of Germany.\\nThe Eastern, Greek, or Byzantine Empire, as it is\\nvariously called, was governed by effeminate princes until\\nthe time of Justinian (527), who won back a large part of\\nwhile the Roman and Christian civilization was blotted oiit, and a barbaric rule\\nset up in its place. The cruel Vandals in Spain (p. 269) found fertile, populous\\nRoman provinces; they left behind them a desert. The Burgundians were the\\nmildest of the Teutonic conquerors, yet where they settled they compelled the in-\\nhabitants to jrive up two thirds of the land, one half of tlie houses, gardens, groves,\\netc., and one third of the slaves. Italy, under the ravages of the terrible Lombards\\nand other northern hordes, became a wilderness overgrown with brushwood and\\nblack with stagnant marshes. Its once cultivated fields were barren a few miser-\\nable people wandered in fear among the ruins of the churches,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 their hiding-places,\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0wliile the land was covered with the bones of the slain. Rome became almost as\\ndesolate as Babylon. The baths and temples had been spared by the barbarians,\\nand the water still poured through the mighty aqueducts, but at one time there were\\nnot five hundred persons dwelling among the magnificent ruins.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "320 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nthe lost empire. His famous general, Belisarius, captured\\nCarthage/ and overwhelmed the Vandal power in Africa.\\nHe next invaded Italy and took Rome, but being recalled by\\nJustinian, who was envious of the popularity of his great\\ngeneral, the eunuch Narses was sent thither, and, under his\\nskilful management, the race and name of the Ostrogoths\\nperished. Italy, her cities pillaged and her fields laid waste,\\nwas now united to the Eastern Empire, and governed by\\nrulers called the Exarchs of Ravenna. So Justinian reigned\\nover both new and old Rome.\\nThe Roman Laws at this time consisted of the decrees,\\nand often the chance expressions, of the threescore emperors\\nfrom Hadrian to Justinian. They filled thousands of vol-\\numes, and were frequently contradictory. Tribonian, a cele-\\nbrated lawyer, was employed to bring order out of this\\nchaos. He condensed the laws into a code that is still the\\nbasis of the civil law of Europe.\\nDuring this reign, two Persian monks, who had gone to\\nChina as Christian missionaries, brought back to Justinian\\nthe eggs of the silkworm concealed in a hollow cane. Silk\\nmanufacture was thus introduced into Europe.\\nThe Lombards (568), a fierce German tribe, after Jus-\\ntinian s death, poured into Italy and overran the fruitful\\nplain that still bears their name. For about 200 years the\\nLombard kings shared Italy with the Exarchs of Ravenna.\\nThe Papacy. During these centuries of change, confu-\\nsion, and ruin, the Christian Church had alone retained its\\n1 Among the treasures of Cartilage were the sacred vessels of the Temple at Jeru-\\nsalem taken by Titus to Kome, and thence carried to Carthage by Genseric. As\\nthese relics were thought to presage ruin to the city which kept them, they were\\nnow returned to the Cathedral at Jerusalem, and their subsequent fate is unknown.\\nAccording to the legend, contradicted by many historians but eagerly seized by\\npoets and painters, Belisarius in his old age was falsely accused of treason, degraded\\nfrom his honors, and deprived of his sight often thereafter the blind old man was\\nto be seen standing at the Cathedral door, begging a penny for Belisarius, the\\ngeneral.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION.\\n321\\norganization. The barbarians, even the Lombards, the\\nmost cruel of all, were in time converted to Christianity.\\nThe people, who, until the overthrow of the emperor, had\\nbeen accustomed to depend upon Rome for political guid-\\nance, continued to look to the Bishop of Rome for spiritual\\ncontrol and as a natural consequence the Church gradually\\nbecame the center of vast temporal power also. Thus for\\ncenturies the papacy (Lat. imim, a bishop) gained strength\\nthe Christian fathers Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, Gregory\\nthe Great, and a host of other active intellects, shaping its\\ndoctrines and discipline.\\nThe Patriarch of Constantinople also asserted the pre-\\neminence of his See, and, on account of the opposition he\\nmet from Rome, the Eastern or Greek Church gradually\\nseparated from the Western or Roman, in interest, disci-\\npline, and doctrine.\\nTHE PAPAL INSIGNIA.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "322 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nEARLY GERMAN CIVILIZATION.\\nTwo thousand years ago, in the dense forests and gloomy marshes\\nof a rude, bleak land, dwelt a gigantic, white-skinned, blue-eyed, yel-\\nlow-haired race.\\nThe Men, fierce and powerful, wore over their huge bodies a short\\ngirdled cloak, or the skin of some wild beast, whose head, with pro-\\ntruding tusks or horns, formed a hideous setting for their bearded faces\\nand cold, cruel eyes. Brave, hospitable, restless, ferocious, they wor-\\nshiped freedom, and were ready to fight to the death for their personal\\nindependence. They cared much less for agriculture than for hunting,\\nand delighted in war. Their chief vices were gambling and drunken-\\nness their conspicuous virtues were truthfulness and respect for\\nwomen.\\nThe Women massive like the men, and wooed with a marriage\\ngift of war-horse, shield, and weapons spun and wove, cared for the\\nhousehold, tilled the ground, and went with their lords to battle, where\\ntheir shouts rang above the clash of the spear and the thud of the war-\\nax. They held religious festivals, at which no man was allowed to be\\npresent, and they were believed to possess a special gift of foresight\\nyet, for all that, the Teuton wife was bought from her kindred, and\\nwas subject to her spouse. As priestesses, they cut the throats of war-\\ncaptives and read portents in the flowing blood and after a lost battle\\nthey killed themselves beside their slaughtered husbands.\\nThe Home when there was one was a hut made of logs filled in\\nwith platted withes, straw, and lime, and covered by a thatched roof,\\nwhich also sheltered the cattle. Here the children were reared, har-\\ndened from their babyhood with ice-cold baths, given weapons for play-\\nthings, and for bed a bear s hide laid on the ground. Many tribes were\\nsuch lawless wanderers that they knew not the meaning of home, and\\nall hated the confinement of walled towns or cities, which they likened\\nto prisons.\\nCivil Institutions and Government.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Every tribe had its nobles,\\nfreemen, freedmen, and slaves. When there was a king, he was\\nelected from a royal family, the traditional descendants of the\\ndivine Woden. All freemen had equal rights and a personal voice in\\nthe government the freedman or peasant was allowed to bear arms,\\nbut not to vote the slave was classed with the beast as the absolute\\nproperty of his owner.\\nThe Land belonging to a tribe was divided into districts, hun-\\ndreds, and marks. The inhabitants of a mark were usually kindred,\\nwho dwelt on scattered homesteads and held its unoccupied lands in", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION. 323\\ncommon. The mark and the hundred, as well as the district, had each\\nits own stated open-air assembly, where were settled the petty local\\ndisputes its members sat together in the tribal assembly, and fought\\nside by side in battle (compare with Greeks, p. 192).\\nTlie General Assembly of the tribe was also held in the open air,\\nnear some sacred tree, at new or full moon. Hither flocked all the\\nfreemen in full armor. The night was spent in noisy discussion and\\nfestive carousal. As the great ox-horns of ale or mead were passed\\nfrom hand to hand, nieasures of gravest importance were adopted by a\\nringing clash of weapons or rejected with cries and groans, till the whole\\nforest resoimded with the tumult. When the din became intolerable,\\nsilence was proclaimed in the name of the gods. The next day the few\\nwho were still sober reconsidered the night s debate, and gave a final\\ndecision.\\nTlie Family was the unit of German society. Every household\\nwas a little republic, its head being responsible to the community for\\nits acts. The person and the home were sacred, and no law could\\nseize a man in his own house in extreme cases, his well might be\\nchoked up, and his dwelling fii ed or unroofed, but no one presumed to\\nbreak open his door. As each family redressed its own wrongs, a slain\\nkinsman was an appeal to every member for vengeance. The bloody\\ncomplications to which this system led were in later times mitigated\\nby the loeregeld, a legal tariff of compensations by which even a mur-\\nderer (if not willful) might stop the feud by paying a prescribed sum\\nto the injured family (p. 348).\\nFellowship in Arms. The stubbornness with which the Ger-\\nman resisted personal coercion was equaled by his zeal as a voluntary\\nfollower. From him came the idea of giving service for reward, which\\nafterward expanded into feudalism (p. 408), and influenced Eui-opean\\nsociety for hundreds of years. In time of war, young freemen were\\nwont to bind themselves together under a chosen leader, whom they\\nhoisted on a shield, and thus, amid the clash of arms and smoke of\\nsacrifice, formally adopted as their chief. Henceforth they rendered him\\nan unswerving devotion. On the field they were his body-guard, and\\nin peace they lived upon his bounty, sharing in the rewards of victory.\\nFor a warrior to return aHve from a battle in which his leader was\\nslain was a lifelong disgrace. These voluntary unions formed the\\nstrength of the army. The renown of a successful chief spread to other\\ntribes presents and embassies were sent to him his followers multi-\\nplied, and his conquests extended until, at last, as in the Saxon inva-\\nsions of England, he won for himself a kingdom, and made princes of\\nhis bravest liegemen.\\nThe Grermans fought with clubs, lances, axes, arrows, and spears.\\nThey roused themselves to action with a boisterous war-song, increas-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "324\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\ning the frightful clamor by placing their hollow shields before their\\nfaces. Metal armor and helmets were scarce, and shields were made\\nof wood or platted twigs, l Yet when Julius Csesar crossed the Rhine,\\neven his iron-clad legions did not daunt these sturdy warriors, who\\nboasted that they upheld the heavens with their lances, and had\\nELEVATING OX THE .SHIELD.\\nnot slept under a roof for years. They fiercely resisted the encroach-\\nments of their southern invaders, and when, at the close of the 2d\\ncentury a. d., the emperor Commodus bought with gold the peace he\\ncould not win with the sword, he found that one tribe alone had taken\\nfifty thousand, and another one hundred thousand, Roman prisoners.\\nThe Teutonic Religion encouraged bravery and even reckless-\\nness in battle, for it taught that only those who fell by the sword could\\nenter Walhalla, the palace of the great god Woden, whither they\\n1 What they lacked in armor they made up in pluck and endurance. When the\\nCimbri invaded Italy by way of the Tyrol (102 B. c), they stripped their huge bodies\\nand plunged into the frozen snow, or, sitting on their gaudy shields, coasted down\\nthe dangerous descents with shouts of savage laughter, while the Komans in the\\npasses below looked on in wondering dismaj\\\\", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION. 325\\nmounted on the rainbow, and where they fought and feasted forever.\\nThose who died of illness or old age went to a land of ice and fogs.\\nThe gods including the sun, moon, and other powers of nature were\\nworshiped in sacred groves, on heaths and holy mountains, or under\\nsingle gigantic trees. Human sacrifices were sometimes offered but\\nthe favorite victim, as in ancient Persia, was a horse, the flesh of which\\nwas cooked and eaten by the worshipers. In later times the eating of\\nhorseflesh became a mark of distinction between heathen and Christian.\\nOur week-days perpetuate the names under which some of the chief\\nTeutonic gods were known. Thus we have the Sun-dsby, the Moon-day,\\nTuVs day, Woden s day, Thor s day, Freya-day, and Sci tcr-da,y.\\nAgriculture, Arts, and Letters. Among the forests and the\\nmarshes of Gennany, the Romans found cultivated fields and rich pas-\\ntures. There were neither roads nor bridges, but for months in the\\nyear the gi eat rivers were frozen so deeply that an army could pass on\\nthe ice. From the iron in the mountains the men made domestic,\\nfarming, and war utensils, and from the flax in the field the women\\nspun and wove garments. There were rude plows for the farm, chariots\\nfor religious rites, and cars for the war-march but beyond these few\\nsimple arts, the Germans were little better than savages. The time of\\nChrist was near. Over four centuries had passed since the brilliant\\nage of Pericles in Athens, and three centuries since the founding of\\nthe Alexandrian library j Virgil and Horace had laid down their pens,\\nand Livy was still at work on his closely wi-itten parchments Rome,\\nrich in the splendor of the Augustan age, was founding libraries, es-\\ntablishing museums, and bringing forth poets, orators, and statesmen\\nyet the gi-eat nation whose descendants were to include Goethe,\\nShakspere, and Mendelssohn, had not a native book, knew nothing of\\nwriting, and shouted its savage war-song to the uproar of rude drums\\nand great blasts on the painted horns of a wild bull.\\nThe Germans in Later Times.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Before even the era of the\\nGreat Migration (p. 266), the fifty scattered tribes had become united\\nin vast confederations, chief among which were the Saxons, AUcmanni,\\nBurgundians, Goths, Frcoiks, Vandals, and Longohards (Lombards).\\nLed sometimes by their hard forest fare, sometimes by the love of ad-\\nventure, they constantly sent forth their surjilus population to attack\\nand pillage foreign lands. For centuries Germany was like a hive\\nwhence ever and anon swarmed vast hordes of hardy warriors, who set\\nout with their families and goods to find a new home. Legions of\\nGerman soldiers were constantly enlisted to fight under the Roman\\neagles. The veterans returned home with new habits of thought and\\nlife. Their stories of the magnificence and gi andeur of the Mistress of\\nthe World excited the imagination and kindled the ardor of their lis-\\nteners. Gradually the Roman civilization and the glory of the Roman", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "326\\nMEDIAEVAL PEOPLES.\\nname accomplished what the sword had failed to effect. Around the\\nforts along the Ehine, cities grew up, such as Mayence, Worms, Baden,\\nCologne, and Strasburg. The frontier provinces slowly took on the\\nhabits of luxurious Rome. Merchants came thither with the rich\\nfabrics and ornaments of the south and east, and took thence amber,\\nfur, and human hair, for, now that so many Germans had acquired\\nfame and power in the imperial army, yellow wigs had become the\\nRoman fashion. Commerce thus steadily filtered down through the\\nnorthern forests, until at last it reached the Baltic Sea.\\nGROUP OF ANCIENT ARMS.\\nEISE OF THE SARACENS OR ARABS.\\nlyEohammed. Now for the first time since the over-\\ntkrow of Carthage by Scipio (p. 235), a Semitic people\\ncomes to the front in history. Early in the 7th century\\nthere arose in Arabia a reformer named Mohammed/ who\\n1 Mohammed, or Mahomet, was born at Mecca about 570 A. D. Left an orphan at\\nan early age, he became a camel-driver, and finally entered the service of a rich\\nwidow named Khadijah. She was so pleased with his fidelity, that she offered him\\nher hand, although she was forty, and he but twenty-five, years old. He was now\\nfree to indulge his taste for meditation, and often retired to the desert, spending\\nwhole nights in revery. At the age of forty\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a mystic number in the East\u00e2\u0080\u0094 he de-\\nclared that the angel Gabriel had appeared to him in a vision, commissioning him to\\npreach a new faith. Khadijah was his first convert. After a time he publicly re-\\nnounced idol-worship, and proclaimed himself a prophet. Persecution waxed hot,\\nand he was forced to flee for his life. This era is known among the Moslems\\nas the Hegira. Mohammed now took refuge in a cave. His enemies came to the\\nmouth, but, seeing a spider s web across the entrance, passed on in pursuit. The\\nfugitive secured an asylum in Medina, where the new faith spread rapidly, and Mo-\\nhammed soon found himself at the head of an army. Full of courage and enthusiasm,\\nhe aroused his followers to a fanatical devotion. Thus, in the battle of Muta, Jaafer,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "RISE OF THE SARACENS\\n327\\ntaught a new religion. Its substance was, There is but\\none God, and Mohammed is his prophet. Converts wore\\nmade by force of arms. Paradise, said Mohammed, will\\nbe found in the shadow of the crossing of swords. The\\nonly choice given the vanquished Avas the Koran, tribute, or\\ndeath. Before the close of his stormy life (632), the green-\\nrobed warrior-prophet had subdued the scattered tribes of\\nArabia, destroyed theii* idols, and united the people in one\\nnation.\\nE31PIRE OF THE CALIPHS Jv uj^/, \\\\V\\nMiddle of the Sth-Century\\nThe Caliphs, or successors of Mohammed, rapidly fol-\\nlowed up the triumphs of the new faith. Syria and Palestine\\nwere conquered. When Jerusalem opened its gates, Omar,\\nthe second caliph, stern and ascetic, rode thither from Me-\\ndina upon a red-haired camel, carrying a bag of rice, one\\nof dates, and a leathern bottle of water. The mosque bear-\\nwlien Ills right liaiul was struck oft seized the banner in hia left, and, wlieu tlie left\\nwas severed, still embraced the flag with the bleeding stumps, keeping his place till\\nhe was pierced by fifty wounds.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Moliammed made knowTi his doctrines in fragments,\\nwhich his followers wrote upon sheep-bones and palm-leaves. Ills successor, Abou\\nBeker, collected these so-called revelations into the Koran,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the sacred book of the\\nMohammedans.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "328 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [668.\\ning his name still stands on the site of the ancient Temple.\\nPersia was subdued, and the religion of Zoroaster nearly\\nextinguished. Forty-six years after Mohammed s flight\\nfrom Mecca, the scimiters of the Saracens were seen from\\nthe walls of Constantinople. During one siege of seven\\nyears (668-675), and another of thirteen months, nothing\\nsaved new Rome but the torrents of. Greek fire^ that\\npoured from its battlements. Meanwhile, Egypt fell, and,\\nafter the capture of Alexandria, tlie flames of its fom- thou-\\nsand baths 2 were fed for six months with the priceless man-\\nuscripts from the library of the Ptolemies. Still westward\\nthrough northern Africa the Arabs made their way, until at\\nlast their leader spurred his horse into the waves of the\\nAtlantic, exclaiming, Be my witness, God of Mohammed,\\nthat earth is wanting to my courage, rather than my zeal in\\nthy service\\nSaracens invade Europe. In 711 the turbaned Mos-\\nlems crossed the Strait of -Gibraltar. Spain was quickly\\noverrun, and a Moorish^ kingdom finally established that\\nlasted until the year of the discovery of America (p. 405).\\nThe Mohammedan leader boasted that he would yet preach\\nin the Vatican at Rome, and capture Constantinople, then,\\nhaving overthi-own the Roman Empire and Christianity,\\nhe would return to Damascus and lay his victorious\\nsword at the feet of the caliph. Soon the fearless riders\\nof the desert poured through the passes of the Pyrenees\\nand devastated southern Gaul. But on the plain of Tours\\n1 This consisted of uaplitlia, sulphur, and pitch. It was often hurled in red-hot,\\nliollow balls of iron, or blown through copper tubes fancifully shaped in imitation of\\nsavage monsters, that seemed to vomit forth a stream of liquid fire.\\n2 Gibbon rejects this story: but the current statement is that Omar declared, If\\nthe manuscripts agree with the Koran, they are useless if they disagree, tliey should\\nbe destroyed.\\n3 The Saracens in Spain are usually called Moors,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a term originally applied to the\\ndark-colored natives of northern Africa.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "732.]\\nlilSE OP THE SARACENS,\\n829\\n(732) the Saracen host met the Franks (p. 331). On the\\nseventh day of the furious struggle the Cross triumphed\\nover the Crescent, and Europe was saved. Charles, the\\nleader of the Franks, received henceforth the name of Mar-\\ntel (the hammer) for the valor with which he pounded the\\nCHARLES MARTEL AT THE BATTLE OF TOURS.\\nInfidels on that memorable field. The Moslems never ven-\\ntured northward again, and ultimately retired behind the\\nbarriers of the P^T: enees.\\nExtent of the Arab Dominion. Exactly a century\\nhad now elapsed since the death of Mohammed, and the\\nSaracen rule reached from the Indus to the Pyrenees. No\\nempire of antiquity had such an extent. Only Greek fii-e on\\nthe East, and German valor on the West, had prevented the\\nMoslem power from girdling the Mediterranean.\\nSaracen Divisions. For a time this vast empire held", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "330 MEDIEVAL l EOPLfiS. [800.\\ntogether, and one calipli was obeyed alike in Spain and in\\nSinde. But disputes arose concerning the succession, and\\nthe empire was divided between the Ommiades, descendants\\nof Omar, who reigned at Cordova, and the Abbassides,\\ndescendants of the prophet s uncle, who located their capi-\\ntal at Bagdad.\\nThe year 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor\\nat Rome (p. 333), saw two rival emperors among the Chris-\\ntians, and two rival caliphs among the Mohammedans. As\\nthe Germans had before this pressed into the Roman Empire,\\nso now the Turks invaded the Arab Empire. The Cahph\\nof Bagdad formed his body-guard of Turks, a pohcy that\\nproved as fatal as enhsting the Goths into the legions of\\nRome, for the Turks eventually stripped the cahphs of\\ntheir possessions in Asia and Africa. As the Teutons took\\nthe religion of the Romans, so also the Turks accepted the\\nfaith of the Arabs 5 and as the Franks ultimately became\\nthe vahant supporters of Christianity, so the Turks became\\nthe ardent apostles of the Koran.\\nSaracen Civilization. The furious fanaticism of the Arabs\\nearly changed into a love for the arts of peace. Omar, with his leathern\\nbottle and bag of dates, was followed by men who reigned in palaces\\ndecorated with arabesques and adorned with flower-gardens and foun-\\ntains. The caliphs at Cordova and Bagdad became rivals in luxury\\nand learning, as well as in politics and religion. Under the fostering\\ncare of Haroun al Easchid, the hero of the Arabian Nights and eon-\\ntemporary of Charlemagne, Bagdad became the home of poets and\\nscholars. The Moors in Spain erected structures whose magnificence\\nand grandeur are yet attested by the ruins of the Mosque of Cordova\\nand the Palace of the Alhambra. The streets of the cities were paved\\nand lighted. The houses were frescoed and carpeted, warmed in\\nwinter by furnaces, and cooled in summer by perfumed air.\\nAmid the ignorance which enveloped Europe during the dark ages,\\nthe Saracen Empire was dotted over with schools, to which students\\nresorted from all parts of the world. There were colleges in Mongolia,\\nTartary, Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Morocco, Fez, and Spain. The", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "RISE OF THE PRANKISH EMPIRE. 331\\nvizier of a sultan consecrated 200,000 pieces of gold to found a college\\nat Bagdad. A physician declined to go to Bokhara, at the invitation\\nof the sultan, on the plea that his private library would make four\\nhundred camel-loads. Great public libraries were collected, one at\\nCairo being said to number 100,000 volumes, and the one of the Spanish\\ncaliphs, 600,000.\\nIn science the Arabs adopted the inductive method of Aristotle\\n(see p. 176), and pushed their experiments into almost every line\\nof study. They originated chemistry, discovering alcohol and nitric\\nand sulphuric acids. They understood the laws of falling bodies, of\\nspecific gravity, of the mechanical powers, and the general principles\\nof light. They applied the pendulum to the reckoning of time ascer-\\ntained the size of the earth by measuring a degree of latitude made\\ncatalogues of the stars introduced the game of chess employed in\\nmathematics the Indian method of numeration gave to algebra and\\ntrigonometry their modern forms brought cotton manufacture into\\nEui ope invented the printing of calico with wooden blocks and forged\\nthe Damascus and Toledo scimiters, whose temper is still the wonder\\nof the world.\\nRISE OF THE PRANKISH EMPIRE.\\nThe Franks, a German race, laid the foundation of\\nFrance and Germany, and during nearly four centuries their\\nhistory is that of both these countries. The conversion to\\nChristianity of their chieftain Glovis was the turning-point in\\ntheir career. In the midst of a great battle, he invoked the\\nGod of Clotilda, his wife, and vowed, if victorious, to em-\\nbrace her faith. The tide of disaster turned, and the grate-\\nful king, with three thousand of his bravest warriors, was\\nsoon after baptized at Rheims (496). The whole power of\\nthe Church was now enlisted in his cause, and he rapidly\\npushed his triumphal arms to the Pyrenees. He fixed his\\ncapital at Paris, and estabhshed the Merovingian, or fli-st\\nPrankish dynasty (Brief Hist. France, p. 13).\\nThe Descendants of Clovis were at fii-st wicked, then\\nweak, until finally all power fell into the hands of the prime\\nminister, or Mayor of the Palace. We have already heai d", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "332 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [73i\\nof one of these mayors, Charles Martel, at Tours. His son,\\nPepin the SJiort, after his accession to ofifice, was determined\\nto be king in name as well as in authority. He deposed\\nOhilderic, the last of the do-nothing monarchs, and\\nPope Stephen the Third confirmed, by his apostolical author-\\nity, both the deposition and the Carlovingian claim to the\\nthrone. This done, Pepin was lifted on a shield, and made\\nking. Thus the Carlovingian, or second Frankish dynasty,\\nwas established (752). At the request of the Pope, then\\nhard pressed by the Lombards, Pepin crossed the Alps and\\nconquered the province of Ravenna, which he gave to the\\nHoly See. This donation was the origin of the temporal\\npower of the Pope, which lasted 1115 years.\\nWith Charlemagne (Charles the Great), Pepin s son,\\nbegan a new era in the history of Europe. His plan was to\\nunite the fragments of the old Roman Empire. To effect\\nthis, he used two powerful sentiments, patriotism and re-\\nligion. Thus, while he cherished the institutions which\\nthe Teutons loved, he protected the Church, and carried\\nthe cross at the head of his army. He undertook fifty-\\nthree expeditions against twelve different nations. Gauls,\\nSaxons, Danes, Saracens,^ all felt the prowess of his arms.\\nEntering Italy, he defeated the Lombards, and placed upon\\nhis own head their famous iron crown. After thirty-three\\nyears of bloody war, his scepter was acknowledged from the\\nGerman Ocean to the Adriatic, and from the Channel to the\\nLower Danube. His renown reached the far East, and\\nHaroun al Raschid sought his friendship, sending him an\\n1 While Charlemagne s army, on its return from Spain, was passing through the\\nnarrow pass of Roncesvalles, the rear-guard was attacked by the Basques. According\\nto tradition, Roland, the Paladin, long refused to hlow his horn for aid, and only with\\nhis dying breath signaled to Charlemagne, who returned too late to save his gal-\\nlant comrades. Centuries have passed since that fatal day, but the Basque peasant\\nstill sings of Roland and Charlemagne, and still the traveler seems to see tlie long\\nline of white turbans and swarthy faces winding slowly through the woods, and of\\nArab spear-heads glittering in the sun.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "800.]\\nRISE OF THE FRANKISH EMPIKE.\\n838\\nelephant (an animal never before seen by the Franks), and\\na clock wliich struck the hours.\\nCharlemagne crowned Emperor.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 On Christmas\\nDay, 800, as Charlemagne was bending in prayer before the\\nhigh altar of St. Peter s at Rome, Pope Leo unexpectedly\\nBoundary of Eminre of Charltmayne\\nDivUion of hy Treaty of Verdun\\nBoundaries oj Ine Seven Kivijdoim gyd and\\nMAr\\nOF THE EMl IKK OF CHAULKMAGNE.\\nplaced on his head the crown of the CtBsars. The Western\\nEmpire was thus restored the old empire was finally divided\\nthere were two emperors, one at Rome, and one at Constan-\\ntinople; and from this time the Roman emperors were\\nKings of the Franks. They hved very little at Rome,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "334\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\n[768-814.\\nhowever, and spoke German, Latin being the language only\\nof religion and government.\\nC HAULEMAGNK CUOW.NKU.\\nGovernment. Charlemagne songht to organize by law\\nthe various peoples he had conquered by the sword. His\\nvast empire was divided into districts governed by counts.\\nRoyal delegates visited each district four times a year, to\\nredress grievances and administer justice. Diets took the\\nplace of the old German armed assemblies, and a series of\\nccqntularies was issued, containing the laws and the advice\\nof the emperor. But the work of Charlemagne s life per-\\nished with him.\\nA Division of the Frankish Empire. His feeble\\nson Louis quickly dissipated this vast inheritance among his\\nchildren. They quarreled over their respective shares, and\\nafter Louis s death fought out their dispute on the field of\\nFontenay. This dreadful Battle of the Brothers was fol-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "843.]\\nRISE OP THE FRANKISH EMPIRE.\\n335\\nlowed by the Treaty of Verdun (843), which divided the\\nempire among them.\\nBeginnings of France and Germany. Lothaire^s\\nkingdom was called after him Lotharingia, and a part of it\\nis stiU known as Lorraine. Louis s kingdom was termed\\nEast Frankland, but the word Deutsch (German) soon\\ncame into nse, and Germany in 1843 celebrated its 1000th\\nanniversary, dating from the Treaty of Verdun. Charles s\\nkingdom was styled West Frankland (Lat. Francia, whence\\nthe word France) its monarch still clung to his Teutonic\\ndress and manners, but the separation from Germany was\\nfairly accomplished the two countries spoke different lan-\\nguages, and Charles the Bald is ranked as the first king\\nof France.\\nThus, during the 9th century, the map of Europe began\\nto take on something of its present appearance, and for the\\nfii st time we may ventiu-e to use the geographical divisions\\nnow familiar to us, though they were stiU far from having\\nthen* present meaning.\\nCharlemagne and his\\nCourt. In person, di^ess,\\nspeech, and tone of mind,\\nCharlemagne was a true\\nGerman. Large, erect, mus-\\ncular, with a clear eye and\\ndignified but gracious man-\\nner, his shrill voice and\\nshort neck were forgotten\\nin the general grandeur of\\nhis presence. Keen to de-\\ntect, apt to understand, pro-\\nfound to grasp, and quick\\nto decide, he impressed all\\nwho knew him with a sense\\nof his power. Like his rude\\nancestors of centuries be-\\nfore, he was hardy in his\\nCHAKLEMAGNE.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "336 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nhabits, and unconcerned about his dress but, unlike them, he was\\nstrictly temperate in food and drink. Drunkenness he abhorred. In\\nthe industrial schools which he established, his own daughters were\\ntaught to work, and the garments he commonly wore were woven by\\ntheir hands. He discouraged extravagance in his courtiers, and once\\nwhen hunting, he in simple Frankish dress and sheepskin cloak,\\nthey in silk and tinsel-embroidered robes, he led them through mire\\nand brambles in the midst of a furious storm of wind and sleet, and\\nafterward obliged them to dine in their torn and bedraggled fineries.\\nTwice in his life he wore a foreign dress, and that was at Rome, where\\nhe assumed a robe of purple and gold, encircled his brow with jewels,\\nand decorated even his sandals with precious stones. His greatest\\npride was in his sword, Joyeuse, the handle of which bore his signet,\\nand he was wont to say, With my sword I maintain all to which I\\naffix my seal. Generous to his friends, indulgent to his children, and\\nusually placable to his enemies, his only acts of cruelty were perpe-\\ntrated on the Saxons. They, true to the Teutonic passion for liberty,\\nfor thirty-three years fought and struggled against him and, though\\nby his orders forty-five hundred were beheaded in one day, they con-\\ntinued to rebel till hopelessly subdued.\\nThe Imperial Palaces were magnificent, and the one at Aix-la-\\nChapelle was so luxurious that people called it Little Rome. It\\ncontained extensive halls, galleries, and baths for swimming, an art\\nin which Charlemagne excelled, mosaic pavements and porphyry\\npillars from Ravenna, and a college, library, and theater. There were\\ngold and silver tables, sculptured drinking-cups, and elaborately carved\\nwainscoting, while the courtiers, dressed in gay and richly wrought\\nrobes, added to the brilliancy of the surroundings. Charlemagne\\ngave personal attention to his different estates he prescribed what\\ntrees and flowers should grow in his gardens, what meat and vege-\\ntables should be kept in store, and even how the stock and poultry\\nshould be fed and housed.\\nThe College at Aix-la-Chapclle was presided over by Alcuin, an\\nAnglo-Saxon monk whom Charlemagne had invited to his court, for\\nhe surrounded himself with scholars rather than warriors. With his\\nlearned favorites and royal household the Great King devoted himself\\nto science, belles-lettres, music, and the languages, and became, next\\nto Alcuin, the best-educated man of the age. It was an arousing of\\nliterature from a sleep of centuries, and while Alcuin explained the\\ntheories of Pythagoras, Aristotle, and Plato, or quoted Homer, Virgil,\\nand Pliny, the delighted listeners were fired with a passion for learn-\\ning. In their enthusiasm they took the names of their classical\\n!avorites, and Homer, Pindar, Virgil, Horace, and Calliope sat down\\ntogether in the Frankish court, the king himself appearing as the royal", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "RISE OF MODERN NATIONS ENGLAND. 337\\nHebrew, David. Besides this court school, Charlemagne organized at\\nParis the first European university, established academies throughout\\nthe empire, and required that every monastery which rie founded or\\nendowed should support a school. He encouraged the copying of\\nancient manuscripts, and corrected the text of the Greek gospels. Like\\nPliny, he had books read to him at meals, St. Augustine being his\\nfavorite author, and, like Pisistratus, he collected the scattered frag-\\nments of the ancient national poetry. He even began a German gram-\\nmar, an experiment which was not repeated for hundreds of years.\\nYet, though he mastered Latin, read Greek and some oriental lan-\\nguages, delighted in astronomy, attempted poetrj^, and was learned in\\nrhetoric and logic, this great king stumbled on the simple art of -wTit-\\ning and, though he kept his tablets under his pillow that he might\\npress every waking moment into service, the hand that could so easily\\nwield the ponderous iron lance was conquered by the pen.\\nWonderful indeed was the electricity of this powerful nature, the\\nlike of which had not been seen since the day of Julius Caesar, and was\\nnot to reappear until the day of Charles V, But no one man can make\\na ci\\\\dlization. In vain, says Duruy, did Charlemagne kindle the\\nflame it was only a passing torch in the midst of a profound night.\\nIn vain did he strive to create commerce and trace with his own hand\\nthe plan of a canal to connect the Danube and the Rhine the ages of\\ncommerce and industry were yet far distant. In vain did he imite\\nGermany into one vast empire even while he lived he felt it breaking\\nin his hands. And this vast and wise organism, this revived civiliza-\\ntion, all disappeared with him who called it forth.\\nRISE OF MODERN NATIONS.\\nWe now enter upon the early political history of the prin-\\ncipal European nations, and shall see how, amid the darkness\\nof the middle ages, the foundations of the modern states\\nwere slowly laid.\\nI. ENGLAND.\\nThe Four Conquests of England.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 (1) Roman Con-\\nquest About a century after Caesar s invasion, Agi-icola\\nreduced Britain to a Roman province. WaUs were built to\\nkeep back the Highland Celts paved roads were constructed\\nfortified towns sprang up the Britons became Christians", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "338\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\n[410.\\nand the young natives learned to talk Latin, wear the toga,\\nand frequent the bath.\\n(2) Anglo-Saxon Conquest. While Alaric was thunder-\\ning at the gates of Rome (p. 267), the veteran legions were\\nrecalled to Italy. The wild Celts of the north now swarmed\\nover the deserted walls, and ravaged the country. The\\nBritons, in then- extremity, appealed to Horsa and Hen-\\nTHE FOUR CONQUESTS OF ENGLAND.\\ngist, two German adventurers then cruising off their coast.\\nThese di-ove back the Celts, rewarding themselves by seizing\\nthe land they had delivered. -Fresh bands of Teutons\\nchiefly Angles (English) and Saxons followed, driving the\\nrem aining Britons into Wales. The petty Pagan kingdoms", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "827.1 I^ISE OF MODERN NATION S ENGLAND. 389\\nwhich the Germans established (known as the Saxon Hep-\\ntarchy) were continually at war, but Christianity was reintro-\\nduced by St. Augustine,^ and they were finally united in\\none nation (827) by King Eghert, a contemporary and friend\\nof Charlemagne.\\n(3) Banish Conquest. During the 9th century, England,\\nlike France (p. 354) and Germany, was ravaged by hordes of\\nnorthern pirates. In their light boats they ascended the\\nrivers, and, landing, seized horses and scoured the country, to\\nplunder and slay. Mercy seemed to them a crime, and they\\ndestroyed all they could not remove. The Danish invaders\\nwere finally beaten back by Egbert s grandson, Alfred the\\nGreat (871-901), and order was restored, so that, according\\nto the old chroniclers, a bracelet of gold could be left hang-\\ning by the roadside without any one daring to touch it.\\nA century later the Northmen came in greater numbers,\\nbent on conquering the country, and the Danish king\\nCanute (Knut)^ won the Enghsh crown (1017).\\n(4) N^orman Conquest. The English soon tired of the\\nreckless rule of Canute s sons, and called to the throne\\nEdivard the Confessor (1042), who belonged to the old\\n1 Gregory, when a deacou, was once attracted by the beauty of some light-haired\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0boys in tlie Roman slave-market. Being told that they were Angles, he replied,\\nNot Angles, but angels. When he became Pope, he remembered the fair cap-\\ntives, and sent a band of monks under St. Augustine as missionaries to England.\\nThey landed on the same spot where llengist had nearlj 150 j-ears before.\\n2 The early chronicles abound in romantic stories of this best of England s\\nkings. While a fugitive from the Danes, he took lefuge in the hut of a swineherd.\\nOne day the housewife had him turn some cakes that were baking upon the hearth.\\nAbsorbed in thouglit, the young king forgot liis task. When the good woman\\nreturned, finding the cakes burned, she rouudlj scolded him for his carelessness.\\n3 Many beautiful legends illustrate the character of this wondeiinl man. One\\nday his couitiers told liim that his power was so great that even the sea obeyed him.\\nTo rebuke this foolish flattery, tlie king seated liiniself bj the shore, and ordered the\\nwaves to retire. But the tide rose higher and higher, until finally the surf dashed\\nover his person. Turning to his flatterers, he said, Ye see now liow weak is tlie\\npower of kings and of all men. Honor then God onlj-, and serve llim, for Him do all\\nthings obey. On going back to Winchester, he hung his crown over the oraoifix on\\nthe high altar, and never wore it again.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "340 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [1066.\\nSaxon line. On his death, Harold was chosen king. But\\nWilliam, Duke of Normandy (p. 356), claimed that Edward\\nhad promised him the succession, and that his cousin, Harold,\\nhad ratified the pledge. A powerful Norman army accord-\\ningly invaded England. Harold was slain in the battle of\\nHastings, and on Christmas Day, 1066, William was crowned\\nin Westminster Abbey as King of England.\\nThe following table contains the names of the English kings from\\nthe time of the Conquest to the end of the middle ages. The limits of\\nthis history forbid a description of their separate reigns, and permit\\nonly a consideration of the events that, during this period of four cen-\\nturies, were conspicuous in the ^making of England.\\nO\\nAh\\nr\\nWILLIAM THE CONQUEROR (1066-87).\\nI 1\\nWILLIAM RUFUS (1087-1100). HENRY BEAUCLERC ADELA, m. STEPHEN\\n(1100-35). Of Blois.\\nSTEPHEN (1135-54).\\nMATILDA, m. GEOFFREY\\nPLANTAGENET Of ACJOU.\\nHENRY II. (1154-89).\\nRICHARD CCEUR DE LION (1189-99). JOHN (1199-1216).\\nHENRY III. (1216-72).\\nEDWARD I. (1272-1307).\\nEDWARD II. (1307-27).\\nEDWARD III. (1327-77).\\nI\\nI I\\nLIONEL, DUKE OF CLARENCE EDWARD THE BLACK PRINCE.\\n(Third son Of Edward III.). I\\nRICHARD II. (1377-99).\\ni)uke Jf^ iuSer. Fourth son of Edward III.\\nI\\nHENRY IV. (1399-1413).\\nHENRY V. (141.3-22).\\nI\\nHENRY VI. (1422-61).\\n^Oh f EDWARD IV. (1461-83). Descendant of Lionel, tliird son of Edward III.\\nPp I I\\nO^ EDWARD V. (1483). With Ills brother Richard, murdered in the Tower.\\nO I RICHARD III. (1483-85). Youngest brother of Edward IV. Fell at Bosworth.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "RISE OF MODERN NATIONS ENGLAND. 341\\nResults of the Norman Conquest.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Willip-m took\\nadvantage of repeated revolts of the English to conquer the\\nnation thoroughly, to establish the feudal system in Eng-\\nland, and to confiscate most of the large domains and confer\\nthem upon his follow-\\ners. Soon eveiy office\\nin Church and State\\nwas filled by the Nor-\\nmans. Castles were\\nerected, where the new\\nnobles lived and lorded\\nit over their poor Saxon\\ndependants. Crowds\\nof Norman workmen\\nand traders flocked\\nacross the Channel.\\nThus there were two\\npeoples living in Eng-\\nland side by side.\\nBut the Normans were\\nkinsfolk of the English,\\nbeing Teutons with\\nonly a French veneer,\\nand the work of union began speedily. Henry I., the Con-\\nqueror s son, married the niece of Edgar Atheling, the last\\nof the Saxon princes while, from the reign of Henry II., ties\\nof kindred and trade fast made Normans and Englishmen\\nindistinguishable. Finally, in Edward I., England had a\\nking who was English at heart.\\nAt first there were two languages spoken 5 the Norman\\nbeing the fashionable tongue, and the Saxon the common\\nWILLIAM THE CONQUEROR.\\n1 The pupil should here carefully read the sections ou feudalism, etc., p. 408,\\nin order to understand the various feudal terms used in the text.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "342 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nspeech but slowly, as the two peoples combined, the two\\nlanguages coalesced.\\nFrom time to time many of the English took to the woods\\nand lived as outlaws, like the famous Robin Hood in the\\ndays of Richard I. But the sturdy Saxon independence and\\nthe Norman skill and learning gradually blended, giving to\\nthe English race new hf e and enterprise, a firmer government,\\nmore systematic laws, and more permanent institutions.\\nThe Saxon weapon was the battle-ax 3 the Norman gen-\\ntleman fought on horseback with the spear, and the footman\\nwith bow and arrow. Less than three centuries found the\\nEnglish yeoman on the field of Crecy (p. 361), under Edward\\nIII. and the Black Prince, overwhelming the French with\\nshafts from their longbows, while the English knight was\\narmed cap-a-pie, with helmet on head, and lance in hand.\\nWilliam, though King of England, still held Normandy,\\nand hence remained a vassal of the King of France. This\\ncomplication of English and French interests became a\\nfruitful source of strife. The successors of Hugh Capet\\n(p. 356) were forced to fight a vassal more powerful than\\nthemselves, while the EngUsh sovereigns sought to dismem-\\nber and finally to conquer France. Long and bloody wars\\nwere waged. Nearly five centuries elapsed before the Eng-\\nlish monarchs gave up their last stronghold in that country,\\nand were content to be merely British kings.\\nGrowth of Constitutional Liberty. 1. Eimnymede\\nand Magna CJiarta. WiUiam the Conqueror easily curbed\\nthe powerful English vassals whom he created. But during\\nthe disturbances of succeeding reigns the barons acquired\\ngreat power, and their castles became mere robbers nests,\\nwhence they plundered the common people without mercy.\\nThe people now sided with the Crown for protection.\\nHenry II. established order, reformed the law-courts, organ-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "1215.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS ENGLAND. 343\\nized an army, destroyed many of the castles of the tyrannical\\nnobles, and created new barons^ who, being English, were\\nready to make common cause with the nation. Unfortu-\\nnately, Henry alienated the affections of his people by his\\nlong quarrel with Thomas a Becket, who, as a loyal English\\npriest, stood up for the rights of the Church, through the\\nmiddle ages the refuge of the people, and opposed to the\\ndeath the increasing power of the Norman king. Henry s\\nson John brought matters to a crisis by his brutality and\\nexactions. He imposed taxes at pleasure, wi^onged the poor,\\nand plundered the rich.^ At last the patience of peasant\\nand noble alike was exliausted, and the whole nation rose up\\nin insurrection. The barons marched with their forces\\nagainst the king, and at Bunnymede (1215) compelled him\\nto grant the famous Great Charter (Magna Charta).\\nHenceforth the king had no right to demand money when\\nhe pleased, nor to imprison and punish whom he pleased.\\nHe was to take money only when the barons granted the\\nprivilege for pubUc purposes, and no freeman was to be pun-\\nished except when his countrymen judged him guilty of\\ncrime. The courts were to be open to all, and justice was\\nnot to be sold, refused, or delayed. The serf, or villein,\\nwas to have his plow free from seizure. The Chui ch was\\nsecured against the interference of the king. No class was\\nneglected, but each obtained some cherished right.\\nMagna Charta ever since has been the foundation of Eng-\\nlish hberty, and, as the kings were always trying to break it,\\nthey have been compelled, during succeeding reigns, to con-\\nj rm its provisions thirty-six times.\\n2. Hotise of Commons. Henry III., foolishly fond of for-\\neign favorites, yielded to their advice, and lavished upon\\n1 At one time, it is said, lie tlirew into prison a wealthy Jew, who refused to give\\nMm an enormous sum of money, and pulled out a tooth every day until the tortured\\nHebrew paid the required amount.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "344 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [13th cent.\\nthem large sums of money. Once more the barons rose in\\narms, and under the lead of Simon de Montfort, Earl of\\nLeicester, a Frenchman by birth, but an Englishman in\\nfeeling, defeated the king at Leives. Earl Simon thereupon\\ncalled together the Parliament, summoning, besides the\\nbarons, two knights from each county, and two citizens\\nfrom each city or borough, to represent the freeholders\\n(1265). From this beginning, the Enghsh Parliament soon\\ntook on the form it has since retained, of two assemblies,\\nthe House of Lords and the House of Commons. By de-\\ngrees it was estabhshed that the Commons should have the\\nright of petition for redress of grievances, and the sole power\\nof voting taxes.\\nThe 13th century is thus memorable in English history for\\nthe granting of Magna Charta and the forming of the House of\\nCommons.\\nConquest of Ireland begun. Henry II., having oh\\ntained permission from the Pope to invade Ireland, author\\nized an army of adventurers to overrun that island. Il\\n1171 he visited Ireland, and his sovereignty was generally\\nacknowledged. Henceforth the country was under Enghsh\\nrule, but it remained in disorder, the battle-ground of Irish\\nchiefs, and Norman-descended lords who became as savage\\nand lawless as those whom they had conquered.\\nConquest of Wales (1283).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Celts had long pre-\\nserved their liberty among the mountains of Wales and\\nScotland. Edward I. s ambition was to rule over the whole\\nof the island. When Llewellyn, the Welsh chieftain, refuse(3\\nto yield him the usual homage, he invaded the country and\\nannexed it to England. To propitiate the Welsh, he prom-\\nised them a native-born king who could not speak a word of\\nEnglish, and thereupon presented them his son, born a few\\ndays before in the Welsh castle of Caernarvon. The young", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "1283.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS ENGLAND. 345\\nEdward was afterward styled the Prince of Wales, a title\\never since borne by the sovereign s oldest son.\\nConquest of Scotland.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Edward I., having been chosen\\numpire between two claimants for the Scottish throne,\\nRobert Bruce and John Bahol, decided in favor of the\\nlatter. Both had agreed to pay homage to the English\\nmonarch as their feudal lord. The Scots, impatient of their\\nvassalage, revolted, whereupon Edward took possession of\\nthe country as a forfeited fief (1296). Again the Scots rose\\nunder the patriot William Wallace; but he was defeated,\\ntaken to London, and brutally executed. Robert Bruce was\\nthe next leader. Edward marched against him, but died in\\nsight of Scotland. The English soldiers, however, harried\\nthe land, and drove Bruce from one hiding-place to another.\\nAlmost in despair, the patriot lay one day sleepless on his\\nbed, where he watched a spider jumping to attach its thread\\nto a wall. Six times it failed, but succeeded on the seventh.\\nBruce, encouraged by this simple incident, resolved to try\\nagain. Success came. Castle after castle fell into his hands,\\nuntil only Stirling remained. Edward II., going to its\\nrelief, met Bruce at Bannockhurn (1314). The Scottish army\\nwas defended by pits, having sharp stakes at the bot-\\ntom, and covered at the top with sticks and tui^f. The\\nEnghsh knights, galloping to the attack, plunged into these\\nhidden holes. In the midst of the confusion a body of sut-\\nlers appeared on a distant hiU, and the dispirited EngUsh,\\nmistaking them for a new army, fled in dismay.\\nScottish Independence was acknowledged (1328).^ After\\n1 It is noticeable that there existed a constant alliance of Scotland and France.\\nWhenever, during the 14th and 15th centuries, war broke out between France and\\nEngland, the Scots made a diversion by attacking England, and their soldiers often\\ntook service in the French armies on the continent. So if we learn that, at any\\ntime during this long period, France and England were fighting, it is pretty safe to\\nconclude that along the borders of England and Scotland there were plundering-raids\\nand skimiishes.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "346 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [14th cent.\\nthis, many wars arose between Scotland and England, but\\nScotland was never in danger of being conquered.\\nThe Hundred- Years War with France was the event\\nof the 14th and the first half of the 15th century (p. 360).\\nWars of the Roses (1455-85).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 About the middle of\\nthe 15th century a struggle concerning the succession to the\\nEnglish throne arose between the Houses of York and Lan-\\ncaster, the former being descended from the third, and the\\nlatter from the fourth, son of Edward III. (p. 340). A civil\\nwar ensued, known as the Wars of the Roses, since the\\nadherents of the House of York wore, as a badge, a white\\nrose, and those of Lancaster, a red one. The contest\\nlasted thirty years, and twelve pitched battles were fought.\\nDuring this war the House of York seated three kings upon\\nthe throne. But the last of these, Richard III., a brutal\\ntyrant whom prose and poetry have combined to condemn,\\nwas slain on the field of Boswortli, and the red rose j)laced\\nthe crown on the head of its representative, Henry VII.\\nThus ended the Plantagenet Line, which had ruled England\\nfor three centuries 5 the new house was caUed the Tudor\\nLine, from Henry s family name.\\nThe Result of this civil war was the triumph of the\\nkingly power over that of the aristocracy. It was a war\\nof the nobles and their military retainers. Except in the\\nimmediate march of the armies, the masses pursued their\\nindustries as usual. Men plowed and sowed, bought and\\nsold, as though it were a time of peace. Both sides pro-\\ntected the neutral citizens, but were bent on exterminating\\neach other. No quarter was asked or given.^ During the\\nwar, eighty princes of the blood and two hundred nobles\\n1 Read Shakspere s play, Richard III.\\n2 When Edward IV. galloped over the field of battle after a victory, he would\\nshout, Spare the soldiers, but slay the gentlemen.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0370.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "1485.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS ENGLAND. 347\\nfell by the sword, and half the families of distinction were\\ndestroyed. The method of holding land was changed, and\\nlandlord and tenant took the place of lord and vassal.\\nThe Earl of Warwick, whose powerful influence in seating\\nand unseating monarchs won him the title of The King-\\nmaker, was also The Last of the Barons. The king hence-\\nforth had little check, and the succeeding monarchs ruled\\nwith an authority before unknown in English history.\\nConstitutional liberty, which had been steadily growing\\nsince the day of Runnymede, now gave place to Tudor\\nabsolutism. The field of Bosworth, moreover, marked the\\ndownfall of feudalism; with its disappearance the middle\\nages came to an end.\\nEARLY ENGLISH CIVILIZATION.\\nThe Anglo-Saxons. The German invaders brought to England\\ntheir old traits and customs, in which traces of Paganism lingered long\\nafter Christianity was formally adopted. Coming in separate bands,\\neach fighting and conquering for itself, the most successful chieftains\\nfounded kingdoms. The royal power gi*adually increased, though\\nalways subject to the decisions of the Witan, composed of earls, prel-\\nates, and the leading thanes and clergy. The Witenagemot (Assem-\\nbly of Wise Men), a modification of the ancient German Assembly,\\nwas held at the Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide festivals. This\\nbody could elect and depose the king, who was chosen from the royal\\nfamily. 1\\nThe carls or clid-cs represented the old German nobility; the thanes\\nor gentry were attached to the king and nobles and the ceorls or\\nyeomen, freemen in name, were often semi-servile in obligations.\\nLowest of all, and not even counted in the population, was a liost of\\nthralls, hapless slaves who were sold with the land and cattle, one\\nslave equaling four oxen in value. A ceorl who had acquired five\\nhides 2 of land, church and kitchen, bell-house and burh-gate-seat, and\\nspecial duty in the king s hall, or a merchant who had thrice crossed\\n1 Every tribal kins claimed descent from Woden. To the House of Cerdic, the\\nfounder of the West-Saxon dynasty, is traced the pedigree of Queen Victoria.\\n2 The dimensions of a hide were perhaps about thirty acres. The burh was the\\nhome-yard and buildings, entered through a gate in the earth-wall inclosure.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0371.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "348 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nthe seas on his own account, might become a thane and in certain\\ncases a slave might earn his freedom.\\nShires, Hundreds, and Tithings.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ten Anglo-Saxon families\\nmade a tithing, and by a system of mutual police or frank-pledge, each\\none became bail for the good conduct of the other nine. Ten tithings\\nmade a hundred, names which soon came to stand for the soil on which\\nthey lived. The land conferred in individual estates was called boMand\\n(book-land) that reserved for the public use was folkland.\\nThe iceregeld (life-money) and wihtgeld (crime-money) continued in\\nforce, and covered nearly every possible crime, from the murder of a\\nking to a bruise on a comrade s finger-nail. As part of the crime-money\\nwent to the Crown, it was a goodly source of royal income. The amount\\ndue increased with the rank of the injured party thus, the weregeld\\nof the West-Saxon king was six times that of the thane, and the thane s\\nwas four times that of the ceorl. The weregeld also settled the value\\nof an oath in the law-courts: ^A thane could outswear half a dozen\\nceorls an earl could outswear a whole township. The word of the\\nking was ordered to be taken without an oath. Some crimes, such as\\npremeditated murder or perjury after theft, were inexpiable.\\nThe Ordeals were used in cases of doubtful guilt. Sometimes a\\ncaldron of boiling water or a red-hot iron was brought before the\\ncom t. The man of general good character was made to plunge his\\nhand in the water or to carry the iron nine paces but he of ill repute\\nimmersed his arm to the elbow, and was given an iron of treble weight.\\nAfter three days he was declared guilty or innocent, according to the\\nsigns of perfect healing. Sometimes the accused was made to walk\\nblindfolded and barefooted over red-hot plowshares and sometimes\\nhe was bound hand and foot, and thrown into a pond, to establish his\\ninnocence or guilt, according as he sank or floated. Ordeals were for-\\nmally abolished by the Church in the 13th century.\\nThe Duel, in which the disputants or their champions fought, was\\ntransplanted from Normandy about the time of the Conquest and the\\nGrand Assize, the first establishment in regular legal form of trial by\\njury, was introduced by Henry II.\\nCommerce was governed by strict protective laws and every pur-\\nchase, even of food, had to be made before witnesses. If a man went\\nto a distance to buy any article, he must first declare his intention to\\nhis neighbors if he chanced to buy while absent, he must publish the\\nfact on his return. Nothing could be legally bought or sold for three\\nmiles outside a city s walls, and the holder of wares whose purchase in\\nopen market could not be proved, not only forfeited the goods, but was\\nobliged to establish his character for honesty before the legal inspector\\nof sales. Judging from the laws, theft and smuggling, though pun-\\nished with great severity were prevalent crimes.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0372.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "RISE OF MODERN NATIONS ENGLAND. 349\\nSolitary travelers were regarded with suspicion, and an early law\\ndeclared that if a man come from afar or a stranger go out of the\\nhighway, and he then neither shout nor blow a horn, he is to be ac-\\ncounted a thief, either to be slain or to be redeemed.\\nplSlr vj ^^^^r^\\n^^^^^H y^M ^HHIiiiitHl^l i^^i\\nTHE SCUIPTORIUM OF A MONASTERY.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 A MONK ILLUMINATING A MANUSCRIPT.\\nLiterature and the Arts flourished only in convents, where the\\npatient monks wrought in gold, silver, and jewels, and produced exqui-\\nsitely illuminated manuscripts. The name of T/\u00c2\u00abe Venerable Bede^^\\n(673-735), the most distinguished of Anglo-Saxon writers, is familiar to\\nall readers of English history, and we recognize Alcidn (735-804) as the\\npreceptor of Charlemagne. Alfred the Great, whom popular tra-\\ndition invested with nearly every virtue, was a tireless student and\\nwriter.\\nTruthfulness, Respect for Woman, and Hospitality were the old\\nwholesome German traits. The doors of the Anglo-Saxon hall were\\nclosed to none, known or unknown, who appeared worthy of en-\\ntrance. The stranger was welcomed with the customary offer of water\\nto wash his hands and feet, after which he gave up his arms and\\ntook his place at the family board. For two nights no questions were\\nasked after that his host was responsible for his character. In later\\ntimes, a strange-comer who was neither armed, nor rich, nor a clerk,\\nwas obliged to enter and leave his host s house by daylight, nor was he\\nallowed to remain out of his own tithing more than one night at a time.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0373.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "350\\nMEDIAEVAL PEOPLES.\\nHOUSE OF A NOBLEMAN (12TH CENTURY).\\nThe Home of a prosperous\\nAnglo-Saxon consisted generally\\nof a large wooden building (the\\nhall) surrounded by several de-\\ntached cabins (the boicers) situ-\\nated in ample space, inclosed by\\nan earthwork and a ditch, with\\na strong gate (the hurli-gate) for\\nentrance. The hall was the\\ngeneral resort of the numerous\\nhousehold. It was hung with\\ncloth or embroidered tapestries,\\nand had hooks for arms, armor,\\nmusical instruments, etc. The\\nfloor was of clay, or, in palaces,\\nof tile mosaic. Its chief furniture was benches, which served as seats\\nby day and for beds at night. A sack of straw and a straw pillow, with\\nsheet, coverlet, and goatskin, laid on a bench or on the floor, furnished\\na sufficient couch for even a royal Saxon. A stool or chair covered with a\\nrug or cushion marked\\nthe master s place. The\\ntable was a long board\\nplaced upon trestles,\\nand laid aside when\\nnot in use. A hole in\\nthe roof gave outlet to\\nthe clouds of smoke\\nfrom the open fire on\\nthe floor. The bowers\\nfurnished private sit-\\nting and bed rooms for\\nthe ladies of the house,\\nthe master, and distin-\\nguished guests. Here the Anglo-Saxon dames carded, spun, and wove,\\nand wrought the gold embroideries that made their needlework fa-\\nmous throughout Europe. The straw bed lay on a bench in a curtained\\nrecess, and the furniture was scanty, for in those times nothing which\\ncould not be easily hidden was safe from plunderers. The little win-\\ndows (called eye-holes) were closed by a wooden lattice, thin horn, or\\nlinen, for glass windows were as yet scarcely known. A rude candle\\nstuck upon a spike was used at night. The women were fond of flowers\\nand gardens. At the great feasts they passed the ale and mead, and\\ndistributed gifts the spoils of victory to the warrior-guests, l They\\n1 The master was called the hJ,af-ord (loaf-owner), and the mistress hlaf-dig (loaf\\nEARLY ENGLISH BENCH OR BED.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0374.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "RISE OF M0D;ERN nations\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ENGLAND. 351\\nwere as hard mistress\u00c2\u00ab?s as the old Romau matrons, and their slaves\\nwere sometimes scourged to death by their orders.\\nDress. The men usually went bareheaded, with flowing beard, and\\nlong hair parted in the middle. A girdled tunic, loose short trousers,\\nand wooden or leather shoes completed the costume. The rich wore\\nornamented silk cloaks. A girl s hair hung flowing or braided after\\nmarriage it was cut short or bound around the head, as a mark of sub-\\njection. It was a fashion to dye the hair hlue, but a lady s head-dress\\nleft only her face exposed her brilliantly dyed robes and palla were\\nin form not unlike those of Roman times.\\nHunting and Hawking were the favorite out-door sports the in-\\ndoor were singing, for even a laboring-man was disgraced if he could\\nnot sing to his own accompaniment, harp-playing, story-telling, and,\\nabove all, the old German habits, feasting and drinking.\\nA DINNER-PARTY.\\nThe Norman introduced new modes of thought and of life. More\\ncleanly and delicate in personal habits, more elaborate in tastes, more\\ncourtly and ceremonious in manner, fresh from a province where learn-\\ning had just revived and which was noted for its artistic architectiu e,\\nand coming to a land that for a century had been nearly barren of\\nliterature and whose buildings had little grace or beauty, the Nor-\\nman added culture and refinement to the Anglo-Saxon strength and\\nsturdiness. Daring and resolute in attack, steady in discipline, skil-\\nful in exacting submission, fond of outside splendor, proud of military\\npower, and appreciative of thought and learning, it was to him, says\\nPearson, that England owes the builder, the knight, the schoolman,\\nthe statesman. But it was still only the refinement of a brutal age.\\nThe Norman soon drifted into the gluttonous habits he had at first\\nridiculed, and the conquest was enforced so pitilessly that it was\\ndistributer): hence the modern words lord and lady. The domestics and retainers\\nwere called loaf-eaters\\nBOH-Bl", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0375.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "352\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nimpossible to walk the streets of any great city without meeting men\\nwhose eyes had been torn out, and whose feet or hands, or both, had\\nbeen lopped off.\\nA SCENE IN REAL LIFE.\\nThe Anglo-Saxon Noon Meat. About three o clock in the afternoon\\nthe chief, his guests, and all his household, meet in the great hall.\\nWhile the hungry crowd, fresh from woodland and furrow, lounge\\nnear the fire or hang up their weapons, the slaves drag in the heavy\\nboard, spreading on its upper half a handsome cloth. The tableware\\nconsists of wooden platters and bread-baskets, bowls for the universal\\nbroth, drinking-horns and cups, a few steel knives shaped like our\\nmodern razors, and some spoons, but no forks. As soon as the board is\\nlaid, the benches are drawn up, and the work of demolition begins.\\nGreat round cakes of bread, huge junks of boiled bacon, vast rolls of\\nbroiled eel, cups of milk, horns of ale, wedges of cheese, lumps of salt\\nbutter, and smoking piles of cabbage and beans, all disappear like\\nmagic. Kneeling slaves offer to the lord and his honored guests long\\nPRIMITIVE METHOD OF COOKING (FllOM 14TH CENTURY MS.).\\nskewers or spits on which steaks of beef or venison smoke and sputter,\\nready for the hacking blade. Poultry, game, and geese are on the\\nupper board but, except the bare bones, the crowd of loaf-eaters see\\nlittle of these dainties. Fragments and bones strew the floor, where\\nthey are eagerly snapped up by hungry hounds, or lie till the close of\\nthe meal. Meantime a clamorous mob of beggars and cripples hang\\nround the door, squabbling over the broken meat, and mingling their\\nunceasing whine with the many noises of the feast, l\\nAfter the banquet comes the revel. The drinking-glasses with\\nrounded bottoms, so that they cannot stand on the table, 2 but must be\\n1 In Norman times tlie beggars grew so insolent that ushers armed with rods were\\nposted outside the hall door to keep them from snatching the food from the dishes\\nas the cooks carried it to the table.\\n2 This characteristic of the old drinking-cups is said to have given rise to the\\nmodern name of tumWer.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0376.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "RISE OF MODERN NATIONS ENGLAND,\\nSbS\\nemptied at a draught are now laid aside for gold and silver goblets,\\nwhich are constantly filled and refilled with mead and in grand houses\\nwith wine. Gleemen sing, and twang the viola or harp (called glee-\\nwood), or blow gi eat blasts from trumpets, horns, and pipes, or act the\\nrUEPAlilNG A CANDIDATE FOli KNIGHTHOOD (FROM A 12TH CENTUliY MS.).\\nbuffoon with dance and jugglery. Amid it all rises the gradually increas-\\ning clamor of the guests, who, fired by incessant drinking, change their\\nshouted riddles into braggart boasts, then into taunts and threats, and\\noften end the night with bloodshed. (Condensed from Collier.)", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0377.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "354\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\n[892.\\nII. FRANCE,\\nNORMAN SHIP (FROM THE BAYEUX TAPESTUY).\\nThe Norsemen Scandinavians, like the Danish invad-\\ners of England began to ravage the coast of France dnring\\nthe days of Charlemagne. Under his weak successors, they\\ncame thick and fast, ascending the rivers in their boats, and\\nburning and plundering far and near. At last, in sheer\\ndesperation, Charles the Simple gave-RoUo, the boldest of\\nthe vikings, a province since known as Normandy. RoUo\\ntook the requii-ed oath of feudal service, but delegated the\\nceremony of doing homage to one of his followers, who\\nlifted the monarch s foot to his mouth so suddenly as to\\nupset king and throne.\\nSoon a wonderful change occurred. The Normans, as\\nthey were henceforth called, showed as much vigor in culti-\\nvating their new estates as they had formerly in devastating", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0378.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "oil.]\\nRISE OF MODERN NATIONS FRANCE.\\n355\\ntliem. They adopted the language, religion, and customs of\\nthe French, and, though they invented notliing, tliey devel-\\noped and gave new life to all they touched. Ere long\\nNormandy became the faii-est province, and these wild\\nNorsemen, the bravest knights, the most astute statesmen,\\nand the grandest builders of France.\\nTABLE OF FRENCH MEDIEVAL KINGS.\\nHUGH CAPET (987-996).\\nI\\nROBERT (996-1031).\\nI\\nIIENIIY I. (1031-60).\\nI\\nPHILIP I. (1060-1108).\\nI\\nLOUIS VI., the Fat (1108-37).\\nI\\nLOULS VII., the Young (1137-80).\\nI\\nPHILIP II., Augustus (1180-1223).\\nI\\nLOUIS VIII. (1223-26).\\nI\\nI\\nLOUIS IX., Saint (1226-70).\\nCharles, Count of Anjou and Provence,\\nfounder of House of Nai)les.\\nI\\nPHILIP III., the Hardy (1270-85).\\nROBERT, Count of Clermont, founder of\\nHouse of Bourhou.\\nI\\nPHILIP IV., the Fair (1285-1314).\\nCharles, Count of Valois, founder of\\nHouse of Valois (p. 360).\\nLOUIS X. (1314).\\nI\\nPHILIP V. (1316).\\nCHARLES IV. (1322).\\nCHARLES, Count Of Valoi-s, son of Philip III.\\nI\\nPHILIP VI. (1328-50).\\nI\\nJOHN, the Good (1350-64).\\nI\\nCHARLES v., the Wise (1364-80).\\nI\\nIsabella, m.\\nEDWARD II. of\\nEngland.\\nI\\nEDWARD III,\\n(p. 360).\\nI\\nCHARLES VI., the Well-heloved (1380-1422).\\nI\\nCHARLES VII., the Victorious (1422-61).\\nLOUIS XI. (1461-83).\\nI\\nCHARLES VIII. (1483-98).\\nI\\nLOUIS, Duke of Orleans,\\nfounder of House of\\nValois-Orleans.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0379.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "356 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [843-987.\\nThe Later Carlo vingian Kings proved as power-\\nless to defend and govern, as they had to preserve, the\\ninheritance of their great ancestors. During the terror of\\nthe Norseman invasion, the people naturally turned for pro-\\ntection to the neighboring lords, whose castles were their\\nonly refuge. Feudalism, consequently, grew apace. In the\\n10th century France existed only in name. Normandy,\\nBurgundy, Aquitaine, Champagne, Toulouse, were the true\\nstates, each with its independent government and its own\\nlife and history.\\nThe Capetian Kings. As Charles Martel, Mayor of\\nthe Palace, gained power during the last days of the do-\\nnothing, Merovingian kings, and his son established a new\\ndynasty, so, in the decadence of the Carlovingians, Hugh\\nthe Great, Count of Paris, gained control, and his son,\\nHugh Capet, was crowned at Rheims (987). Thus was\\nfounded the third or Capetian Line. France had now a\\nnative French king, and its capital was Paris.\\nWeakness of the Monarchy. The Royal Domain\\n(see map), however, was only a small territory along the\\nSeine and Loire. Even there the king scarcely ruled his\\nnobles, while the great vassals of the Crown paid him scant\\nrespect. The early Capets made little progress toward\\nstrengthening their authority. When WilUam of Nor-\\nmandy won the English crown, there began a long contest\\n(p. 342) that retarded the growth of France for centuries\\nand when Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII., was\\nmarried to Henry Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, so carry-\\ning her magnificent inheritance of Poitou and Aquitaine to\\n1 The descendants of Charlemagne were called the Carlovingian kings. It is a\\nsignificant fact tliat they have come down to us with the nicknames of the Good-\\nnatured, the Bald, the Stammerer, the Fat, the Simple, and the Idle (Brief Hist.\\nFrance, Appendix, p. xxv.).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0380.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "RISE OF MODERN NATIONS FRANCE.\\n357\\nliiin who soon after became Henry 11. of England, the\\nFrench crown was completely overshadowed.\\nPARAMOUNT FEUDATORI\\nat the time of the accession\\nHUGH CAPET\\nGrowth of the Monarchy. The history of France\\ndnrmg the 13th, 14th, and 15tli centuries shows how, in\\nspite of foreign foes, she absorbed the great fiefs one by\\none; how royalty triumphed over feudalism; and how fi-\\nnally all became consolidated into one great monarchy.\\nPhilip Augustus (1180-1223) was the ablest monarch\\nFrance had seen since Charlemagne. When a mere boy he", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0381.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "358\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\n[13th cent.\\nPHILIP AUGUSTUS.\\ngained the counties of\\nVermandois, Amiens,\\nand Yaloisj while by\\nhis marriage he secured\\nL Ai tois.\\nKing John of Eng-\\nland being accused of\\nhaving murdered his\\nnephew Arthur, the\\nheir of Brittany, Philip)\\nsummoned him, as his\\nvassal, to answer for the\\ncrime before the peers\\nof France. On his non-\\nappearance, John was\\nadjudged to have forfeited his fiefs. War ensued, during\\nwhich Philip captured not only Normandy, which gave him\\ncontrol of the mouth of the Seine, but also Anjou, Maine,\\nand Touraine, upon the Loire.\\nCertain cities were granted royal charters conferring spe-\\ncial privileges under these, the citizens formed associations\\n{communes) for mutual defense, elected magistrates, and or-\\nganized militia. When Philip invaded Flanders, the troops\\nfrom sixteen of the communes fought at his side, and helped\\nhim win the battle of Bouvines (1214) over the Flemings,\\nGermans, and English. It was the fii st great French vic-\\ntory, and gave to the Crown authority, and to the people a\\nthirst for military glory.\\nThe Albigenses, so called from the city of Albi, professed\\ndoctrines at variance with the Church of Rome. Pope In-\\nnocent III. accordingly preached a crusade against them and\\ntheu chief defender, Count Raymond of Toulouse. It was\\nled by Simon de Montfort, father of the earl famous in", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0382.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "1226.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS FRANCE.\\n359\\nEnglish history. Ruthless adventurers flocked to his stand-\\nard from all sides, and for years this beautiful land was\\nravaged with Are and sword. Helpless Toulouse at last\\nlapsed to the Crown, and so France acquired the Mediterra-\\nnean coast. Instead of being shut up to the lands about\\nParis, the kingdom now touched three seas.\\nLouis IX. (1226-70) is best known by his title of Saint,\\nand history loves to describe him as sitting beneath the\\nspreading oak at Vincennes, and dispensing justice among\\nhis people. By his integrity, goodness, and wisdom he\\nmade all classes respect his rule. He firmly repressed the\\nwarring barons, and estabhshed the Parliament of Paris,\\na coui t of justice to enforce equal laws throughout the\\nrealm. During this strong and beneficent reign, France\\nassumed the fii-st rank among the European nations.\\nPhilip IV. (1285-1314) was\\ncalled The Fair, a title which ap-\\nplied to his complexion rather than\\nhis character, for he was crafty and\\ncruel. In order to repress the nobles,\\nhe encouraged the communes and\\nelevated the middle classes (bour-\\ngeoisie). His reign is memorable for\\nthe long and bitter contest which he\\ncarried on with the Pope, Boniface\\nVIII. To strengthen himself, the\\nking summoned for the first time\\nin French history (1302) the States-\\nGeneral, or deputies of the Three Es-\\ntates of the Realm, the nobles, the\\nclergy, and the commons {tiers etat).\\nThe French people thus obtained\\nrepresentation from their king, as\\nA SOLDIEU ll-lTU CENTUUY)", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0383.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "360\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\n[14th cent.\\nthe English people had, thirty-seveu years before, from their\\nnobles (p. 344). The papal court was finally removed to\\nAvignon, and the new Pope, Clement V., became in effect a\\nvassal of France.\\nThe order of Templars (p. 399),\\nby its wealth and pride^ excited\\nPhilip s greed and jealonsy. He\\naccordingly seized the knights,\\nand confiscated their treasures.\\nThe members were accused of\\nblasphemous crimes, which they\\nconfessed under torture, and\\nmai^ were burned at the stake.\\nHouse of Valois. Philip s\\nthree sons came to the throne\\nin succession, but died leaving\\nno male heir. The question then\\narose whether the crown could\\ndescend to a female. It was decided that, under the old\\nSalic law of the Franks, the kingdom could not fall to\\nthe distaff. During the short reign of Phihp s sons, their\\nuncle Charles, Count of Valois, secured almost royal power,\\nand the third instance of the kind in French history\u00e2\u0080\u0094 his\\nson obtained the crown, which thus went to the Valois\\nbranch of the Capet family. Tliis succession was disputed\\nby Edward III. of England, as son of the daughter of\\nPhihp IV. So began the contest called\\nThe Hundred-Years War (1328-1453).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Like the\\nPeloponnesian war of ancient Greece, this long struggle was\\nnot one of continuous fighting, but was broken by occasional\\ntruces, or breathing-spells, caused by the sheer exhaustion\\nof the contestants. Throughout the progress of this contest\\nthe fortunes of France and England were so linked that the\\nA KNIGHT TEMPLAK.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0384.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "1328. J\\nRISE OF MODERN NATIONS FRANCE\\n361\\nsame events often form the principal features in the history\\nof both, while there were many striking coincidences and\\ncontrasts in the condition of the two countries.\\nFrance.\\nPhilip of Valois (1328-50) came to\\nthe tliroue ;it iiearl} the same time as his\\nEnglish rival, tliough Franco had three\\nkings (Philip, John, ami Charles) during\\nEdward III. s reign of fifty ja^ars. The\\nstorm of war was long gathering. Philip,\\ncoveting Aquitaine, excited hostilities\\nupon its borders; gathered a fleet, and\\ndestroj ed Southampton and Plj^mouth\\ninterrupted the English trade with the\\ngreat manufacturing cities of Ghent and\\nBruges and aided the revolt of Robert\\nBruce in Scotland. A war of succession\\nliaving arisen in Brittany, and the rival\\nkings supporting opposite factions,\\nPhilip, during a truce, invited a party of\\nBreton noblemen to a tournament, and\\nbeheaded them without trial.\\nEngland.\\nEdward III. S reign (1327-77) was\\nmarked by England s most brilliant suc-\\ncesses iu war. At first Edward did\\nhomage for his lands in France; but after-\\nward, exasperated by Philip s hostilitj\\nhe asserted his claim to the French\\nthrone; made allies of Flanders and\\nGermany quartered the lilies of France\\nwith the lions of England; assembled a\\nfleet, and defeated tlu* French off Sluys\\n(1340), thus winning the first great Eng-\\nlish naval victory; and finally, upon\\nPhilip s perfidy in slaying the Breton\\nknights, invaded Normandy, and ravaged\\nthe country to the verj^ walls of Paris.\\nOn his retreat, he was overtaken by an\\noverwhelming French army near Cr6cy.\\nBattle of Crecy (1346).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The English yeomanry had\\nlearned the use of the longbow (p. 342), and now formed\\nEdward s main reliance.\\nThe French army was a motley feudal array, the knights\\ndespising all who fought on foot. The advance was led by a\\nbody of Genoese crossbow-men, who recoiled before the piti-\\nless storm of English arrows. The French knights, instantly\\ncharging forward, trampled the helpless Italians under foot.\\nIn the midst of the confusion, the English poured down on\\ntheir struggling ranks. PhOip himself barely escaped, and\\nreached Amiens with only five attendants.\\nThe Result of this victory was the capture of Calais. Ed-\\nward, dri\\\\ ing out the inhabitants, made it an English settle-\\nment. Henceforth, for t^to liundred years, this city afforded\\nthe English an open d(: or into the heart of France. Crecy\\nwas a triumph of the English yeoman over the French\\nknight. It inspired England with a love of conquest.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0385.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "362\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\n[14th cent.\\nThe Black Death (1347-50), a terrible plague from\\nthe East, now swept over Europe. Half the population of\\nEngland perished. Travelers in Germany found cities and\\nvillages without a living inhabitant. At sea, ships were dis-\\ncovered adi ift, their crews having all died of the pestilence.\\nThe mad passions of men were stayed in the presence of\\nthis fearful scourge. Just as it abated, Philip died, leaving\\nthe crown to his son.\\nKING JOHN AND HIS SON AT POITIERS.\\nJohn the Good (1350-64) was brave\\nami cliivalrous, but his raslmess aud\\ngayety were in marked contrast witli Ed-\\nward s stern common sense. His char-\\nacter was written all over with Crecys.\\nCharles the Bad, the turbulent king of\\nNavarre, was constantly rousing opposi-\\ntion John seized him at a supper given\\nby the Dauphin (the eldest son of the\\nFrench king), and threw him into prison.\\nCharles s friends appealed to Edward,\\nand did liomage to him for their domains.\\nWhile Edward was absent, the Scots,\\nas usual in alliance with France (p. 345),\\ninvaded England; but, in the same year\\nwith Cr6cy, Edward s queen, Philippa,\\ndefeated them at Neville s Cross. The\\nFrench war smoldered on, with fitful\\ntruce and plundering raid, until Edward\\nespoused Charles s cause, when the con-\\ntest broke out anew. The Prince of\\nWales\u00e2\u0080\u0094 called the Black Prince, from the\\ncolor of his armor\u00e2\u0080\u0094 carried fire and sword\\nto the heart of France.\\nBattle of Poitiers (1356).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 John, having assembled", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0386.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "1356.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS \u00e2\u0080\u0094FRANCE,\\n363\\nsixty thousand men, the flower of French chivah-y, inter-\\ncepted the Prince returning with liis booty. It was ten years\\nsince Crecy, and the king hoped to retrieve its disgrace, but he\\nonly doubled it. The Prince s little army of eight thousand\\nwas posted on a hill, the sole approach being by a lane bor-\\nEXrJLISH LO!iGBOW-MEN.\\ndered with hedges, behind which the English archers were\\nconcealed. The French knights, galloping up this road,\\nwere smitten by the shafts of the bowmen. Thrown into\\ndisorder, they fell back on the main body below, when the\\nBlack Prince in turn charged down the hill. John sprang\\nfrom his horse, and fought till he and his young son Philip\\nwere left almost alone. This brave boy stood at his fathei- s", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0387.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "3G4\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\n[1356.\\nside, crying out, Guard the left Guard the right until,\\npressed on every hand, the king was forced to surrender.\\nThe Black Prince treated his prisoner with the courtesy\\nbefitting a gallant knight. He stood behind his chair at\\ndinner, and, according to the fashion of the age, waited upon\\nhim like a servant. When they entered London, the captive\\nking was mounted on a splendidly caparisoned white charger,\\nwliile the conqueror rode at his side on a black pony. John\\nwas afterward set free by the Treaty of Bf^etigni/, agreeing\\nto give up Aquitaine and pay three million crowns. One of\\nhis sons, however, who had been left at Calais as a hostage,\\nescaped. Thereupon John, feehng bound by honor, went\\nback to Ms splendid captivity.\\nThe Condition of France was now\\npitiable indeed. The French armj dis-\\nsolved into companies called Free Lances,\\nroamed the country, plundering friend\\nand foe. Even the Pope at Avignon had\\nto redeem himself with forty thousand\\ncrowns. The land In the track of the\\nEnglish armies lay waste the plow\\nrusted in the furrow, and the houses were\\nblackened ruins. The ransoms of the re-\\nleased nobles were squeezed from Jacques\\nBoiihomme, as the lords nicknamed the\\npeasant. Beaten and tortured to reveal\\ntheir little hoards, the serfs fled to the\\nwoods, or dug pits in which to hide from\\ntheir tormentors. Brutalized by centu-\\nries of tyrannj they at last rose as by a\\ncommon impulse of despair and hate.\\nSnatching any weapon at hand, they\\nrualied to the nearest chateau, and piti-\\nlessly burned and massacred. The Eng-\\nlish joined with the French gentry in\\ncrushing this rebellion The Jacque-\\nrie Meanwhile the bourgeoisie in\\nParis, sympathizing with the peasants,\\nrose to check tlie license of the nobles\\nand the tyranny of the Crown. The\\nStates-General made a stand for liberty,\\nrefusing the Dauphin money and men for\\nthe war, except with guaranties. But\\nthe Dauphin marclied on Paris Marcel,\\nthe liberal leader, was slain and this at-\\nThe Mack Prince was intrusted with\\nthe government of Aquitaine. Here he\\ntook the part of Don Pedro the Cruel,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a\\ndethroned king of Castile,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 and won him\\nback his kingdom. But the thankless\\nPedro refused to pay the cost, and tlie\\nBlack Prince returned, ill, cross, and\\npenniless. The hauglity English were\\nlittle liked in Aquitaine, and, when the\\nPrince levied a house-tax to replenish his\\ntreasury, tliey turned to the Dauphin,\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nnow Charles V.,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 who summoned the\\nPrince to answer for his exactions. On\\nhis refusal, Charles declared the English\\npossessions in France forfeited. The\\nPrince rallied his ebbing strength, and,\\nborne in a litter, took the field. He cap-\\ntured Limoges, but sullied his fair fame\\nby a massacre of the inhabitants, and was\\ncarried to England to die. He was buried\\nin Canterbury Cathedral, where his hel-\\nmet, shield, gantlets, and surcoat\u00e2\u0080\u0094 em-\\nbroidered with the arms of France and\\nEngland\u00e2\u0080\u0094 still hang above his tomb.\\nDefeat of the ^nf/li\u00c2\u00ab7fc.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 England had\\nlost the warriors who won Cr6cy and\\nPoitiers moreover, Du Guesclin fought\\nno pitched battles, but waged a far more\\ndangerous guerilla warfare. Never,\\nsaid Edward, was there a Frencli king\\nwho wore so little arnior, yet never was\\nthere one who gave me so much to do.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0388.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "1364.J RISE OF MODERN NATIONS FRANCE.\\n365\\ni UINCE EUWAUD S TOMl? AT CANTERBURY.\\ntempt of the people to win their rights\\nwas stamped out in blood.\\nCharles V. (13G4-80), the Wise,\\nmerited the epithet. Calling to his side\\na brave Breton knight, Du Gixesclin, he\\nrelieved France by sending the Free\\nLances to fight against Don Pedro.\\nVVlien the Aquitaiuians asked for help,\\nCharles saw his opportunity: for the\\ndreaded Black Prince was sick, and Ed-\\nward was growing old. So he renewed\\nthe contest. He did not, like Iiis father\\nrush headlong into battle, but committed\\nhis army to Du Guesclin,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 now Constable\\nof France,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 with orders to let famine,\\nrather than tigliting, do the work. One\\nby one he got back the lost provinces,\\nand the people gladly returned to their\\nnatural ruler.\\nThe Constable died while besieging a\\ncastle in Auvergne, and the governor,\\nwho had agreed to surrender on a certain\\nday, laid tlie keys of the stronghold upon\\ntlio hero s coffin. Cliarles survived his\\ngreat general only a few months, but he\\nliad regained nearly all his father and\\ngrandfather had lost.\\nCharles VI. (13S0-1422), a beautiful\\nboj of twelve years, became king. He\\nascended the throne three years aftei-\\nBicliard, and liis reign coincided with\\nthose of three English kings (Richard II.,\\nAnd now Edward closed his long\\nreign. Scarcely was the great warrior\\nlaid in his grave ere the English coast\\nwas ravaged bj the French fleet; this,\\ntoo, only twenty years from Poitiers.\\nDomestic affairs were not more pros-\\nperous. True, foreign war had served to\\ndiminish race liatred. Norman knight,\\nSaxon bowman, and Welsh lancer had\\nshared a common danger and a common\\nglory at Cr6cy and Poitiers. But the old\\nenmity now took the form of a struggle\\nbetween the rich and the poor. The\\nyoke of villeinage, which obliged the\\nbondsmen to till their lord s land, liarvest\\nhis crops, etc., boi-e lieavily. During the\\nBlack Death many laborers died, and\\nconsequently wages rose. The landlords\\nrefused to pay the increase, and Parlia-\\nment passed a law punishing any who\\nasked a liigher price for his work. This\\nenraged the peasants. One John Ball\\nwent about denouncing all landlords, and\\noften quoting tlie lines,\\nWhen Adam delved and Eve span\\nWlio was then the gentleman\\nRichard II. (1377-99), a beautiful\\nboy of eh ven years, became king. Heavy\\ntaxation having still further incensed the\\ndisaffected peasants, tliousands rose in\\narms and marched upon London (1381).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0389.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "366\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\n[14th cent.\\nHenry IV. and V.),\u00e2\u0080\u0094 tlie reverse of tlie\\nreign of Edward III. Both countries\\nwere now governed by minors, who were\\nunder the influence of ambitious uncles,\\nanxious for their own personal power.\\nCharles s guardians assembled a great\\nfleet at Sluys, and for a time frightened\\nEngland by the fear of invasion. Next\\nthey led an army into Flanders, and at\\nRosebecque (1382) the French knights,\\nwith their maUed horses and long lances,\\ntrampled down the Flemings by thou-\\nsands. This was a triumph of feudalism\\nand the aristocracy over popular libertj^\\nand the French cities which had revolted\\nagainst the tyranny of the court were\\npunished with terrible severity. Charles\\ndismissed his guardians a year earlier\\nthan Richard, and, more fortunate than\\nhe, called to the head of affairs Du Clis-\\nson, friend and successor of Du Guesclin.\\nThe King s Insanity. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Am attempt be-\\ning made to assassinate the Constable,\\nCharles pursued the criminals into Brit-\\ntany. One sultry day, as he was going\\nthrough a forest, a crazy man darted\\nbefore him and shouted, Thou art be-\\ntrayed The king, weak from illness\\nand the heat, was startled into madness.\\nThe Dukes of burgundy and Orleans\\nnow governed, while for thirty years a\\nmaniac sat upon the throne. The death of\\nBurgundy only doubled the horrors of the\\ntimes, for his son, John the Fearless, was\\nyet more unprincipled and cruel. Final-\\nly John became reconciled to his cousin\\nLouis, Duke of Orleans, and, in token\\nthereof, they partook of the sacrament\\ntogether. Three days afterward Orleans\\nwas murdered by Burgundy s servants.\\nThe crazy king pardoned the murderer\\nof his brother. The new Duke of Orleans\\nbeing young, his father-in-law, the Count\\nof Armagnac, became the head of the\\nparty which took his name. The Burgun-\\ndians espoused the popular cause, and\\nwere friendly to England the Orlean-\\nists, the aristocratic side, and opposed\\nEngland. The queen joined the Burgun-\\ndians the Dauphin, the Armagnacs.\\nParis ran with blood.\\nThe boy-king met them on Smithfield\\ncommon. Their leader, Wat Tyler, ut-\\ntering a threat, Tvas slain by the mayor.\\nA cry of vengeance rising from the mul-\\ntitude, Richard boldly rode forward, ex-\\nclaiming, I am your king. I will be\\nyour leader. The peasants accepted his\\nwritten guaranty of their freedom, and\\nwent liome quietly. But Parliament re-\\nfused to ratify the king s pledges, and\\ntills insurrection was trodden out by the\\nnobles, as the Jacquerie had been twenty-\\nthree years before, in blood.\\nRichard s character, besides this one\\nact of courage, showed few kingly traits.\\nHis reign was a constant struggle with\\nhis uncles. Wlien he threw off their\\nyoke, he ruled well for a time, but soon\\nbegan to act the despot, and by his reck-\\nlessness alienated all classes. With his\\nkingdom in tliis unsettled state, he sought\\npeace by marrying a child-wife only eight\\nyears old, Isabella, daughter of Charles\\nVI. of France. This marriage was un-\\npopular; the people were restless, the\\nnobles unruly, and finally Richard s\\ncousin, Henry of Lancaster, seized the\\ncrown. Ricliard was deposed, and soon\\nafter, as is thought, was murdered in\\nprison, like his great-grandfather, Ed-\\nward II.\\nHenry IV. (1399-1413), who now\\nfounded the House of Lancaster, was\\nauthorized by Parliament to rule, though\\nthe Earl of March, a descendant of\\nLionel (p. 340), was nearer the throne.\\nAs Henry owed his place to Parlia-\\nment, he had to act pretty much as\\nthat body pleased. The great nobles\\nwere none too willing to obey. The reign\\nwas therefore a troubled one. England\\ncould take no advantage of the distracted\\nstate of affairs in France.\\nHenry V. (1413-22), to strengthen his\\nweak title to the throne by victory,\\nand to give the discontented nobles war\\nabroad instead of leaving them to plot\\ntreason at home, invaded France. While\\nmarching from Harfleur to Calais, he met\\na vastly superior French force upon the\\nplain of Agincourt.\\nBattle of Agincourt (1415).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The French army was\\nthe flower of chivahy. The knights, resplendent in their", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0390.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "1415.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS FRANCE. 367\\narmor, charged upon the English line. But their horses\\nfloundered in the muddy, plowed fields, while a storm of\\narrows beat down horse and rider. In the confusion the\\nEnglish advanced, driving all before them. It was Crecy\\nand Poitiers over again. Ten thousand Frenchmen fell,\\nfour fifths of whom were of gentle blood.\\nTreaty of Troyes (1420). Henry again crossed the\\nChannel, captured Rouen, and threatened Paris. In the\\nface of this peril, the Dauphin and the Duke of Burgundy\\nmet for conference. It ended in the assassination of Bur-\\ngundy. His son, Phihp the Good, at once went over to the\\nEngUsh camp, taking with him the queen and the helpless\\nking. He there concluded a treaty^ which declared Henry\\nregent and heir of the kingdom, and gave him the hand of\\nCharles s daughter, Catharine. Paris and northern France\\nsubmitted but the Armagnacs, with the Dauphin, held the\\nsouthern part. The conqueror did not live to wear the\\ncrown he had won. The hero of Agincourt and his father-\\nin-law, Charles VI., the crazy king, died within two months\\nof each other.\\n[The next three reigns of the French and the English kings eoiTe-\\nspond to a year. France now loses a mad monarch and gets a frivolous\\nking, who finally matures into a strong ruler England loses a great\\nwarrior, and gets an infant who, when he matures into manhood, shows\\nno strength, and inherits from his mother the tendency of the French\\nroyal family to insanity.]\\nCharles VII. (1422-6I), called the\\nKiug of Bourges, from tlie city wliere\\nhe vvaa crowned,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 was so poor that the\\nchroniclers of the time tell of the straits\\nto which he was reduced for a pair of\\nboots. Gay and pleasure-loving, he was\\nindifferent to the agony of his native\\nland. Not so with Jeanne d Arc, a maiden\\nin Domremy. As she fed her flock, she\\nseemed to hear angel-voices saying that\\nshe was chosen to save France. Going\\nto Charles, she announced that she was\\nHenry VI. (I422-6I), though an in-\\nfant, was proclaimed at Paris King of\\nEngland and France, the Duke of Bed-\\nford acting as regent. In England there\\nwas no question as to the succession, and\\ntlie claims of the Earl of March were not\\ntliought of for a moment. All eyes were\\nfixed on France,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the new kingdom Hen-\\nry V. had added to the English monarchy.\\nThere Bedford gained two great battles,\\nwon town after town, and finally, resolv-\\ning to carry the war into southern France,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0391.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "368\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\n[15th cent.\\nsent of Heaven to conduct him to be\\ncrowned at Rlieims\u00e2\u0080\u0094 then in possession\\nof the English. The king reluctantly\\ncommitted his cause into her hands.\\nlaid siege to Orleans. The capture of\\nthis city was imminent, when Charles s\\ncause was saved by a maid, Jeanne\\nd Arc.\\nJeanne, wearing a consecrated sword and bearing a holy\\nbanner, led Charles s army into Orleans. The French sol-\\ndiers were inspired\\nby her presence,\\nwhile the English\\nquailed with super-\\nstitious fear. The\\nMaid of Orleans,\\nas she was now\\ncalled, raised the\\nsiege, led Charles\\nto Rheims, and\\nsaw him crowned.\\nThen, her mission\\naccomphshed, she\\nbegged leave to go\\nback to her hum-\\nble home. But she\\nhad become too valuable to Charles, and he urged her to\\nremain. The maid s trust, however, was gone, and the spell\\nof her success failed. She was captured, thrown into a\\ndungeon at Rouen, and tried as a witch. Abandoned by\\nall, Jeanne was condemned and burnt at the stake (1431).\\nJEAJ^NE D ARC (.JOAN OF AliC).\\nThe Spirit of the maid survived her\\ndeath. French patriotism was aroused,\\nand, in spite of himself, Cliarles was\\nborne to victory. First the Duke of\\nBurgundy grew lukewarm in the English\\ncause, and finally Armagnacs and Bur-\\ngundians clasped hands in the Treaty of\\nArras (1435). Bedford died broken-\\nliearted. Paris opened its gates to its\\nlegitimate king.\\nCharles s character seemed now to\\nHenry VI., as a man, had little more\\nauthority than as a child. His wife, Mar-\\ngaret, was the daughter of Ren6, Duke of\\nAnjou. The English opposed this mar\\nriage with a French lady. But she pos-\\nsessed beauty and force of character,\\nand tor years ruled in her husband s\\nname.\\nA formidable insurrection broke out\\n(1450) under Jack Cade, who, complaining\\nof bad government, the king s evil ad-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0392.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "1450.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS FRANCE.\\n369\\ncliaiigo. lie seized tho opixn-t unity to\\npress tlio war wliilc Eiif^land was leut\\nwitli factions. lie called to his councils\\nKiclieniont the Constable, and the famous\\nmerchant Jacciues Canir; convened the\\nStates-Oeneral organized a regular\\narmy; recovered Normandy and (Jas-\\nconj and sought to heal tho wounds\\nand repair tho disasters of the long war.\\nEnd of the Hundred-Years War.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nStep by step, Charles pushed his con-\\nquests from England. Finally Talbot,\\ntlie last and bravest of the English cap-\\ntains, fell on the field of Castillon (1453),\\nand his cause fell with liim. It was the\\nend of this long and bitter struggle.\\nSoon, of all tho patrimony of William the\\nCoucxueror, the dower of Eleanor, the\\nconquests of Edward III. and Henry V.,\\nthere was left to England little save the\\ncity of Calais.\\nvisers, taxes, etc;., led a peasant host\\nupon London. This uprising of the peo-\\nple was put down only after bloodshed.\\nThe nobles, long wont to enrich them-\\nselves by the plunder of France, upon tlie\\nreverses in that country found England\\ntoo small and their revenues too scant,\\nand so struggled for place at home. The\\nDuke of York, protector during the in-\\nsauitj of the king, was loath to yield\\npower on his recovery, and questions 9t\\nthe succes.sion became rife. The claims\\nof the House of York were supported by\\nthe Earl of Warwick,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the king-maker,\\nthe most powerful nobleman in England.\\nThe sky was black with the coming storm,\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094the Wars of the Roses. The king s\\nlonging for peace, his feebleness, the in-\\nfluence of the queen, the rivalries of tlie\\nnobles,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 all weakened the English rule in\\nFrance, and gave Charles his opportunity\\n[Two years after Talbot fell, England was desolated by the Wars\\nof the Roses. Edward IV. deposed Henry VI. the same year that\\nCharles VII. died and Louis XI. ascended the throne Richard III. and\\nCharles VIII. were contemporaneous (1483), but English and French\\nhistory dui ing the rest of the loth century was seldom interwoven.]\\nTriumph of Absolutism.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Louis XL s reign marks an\\nepoch in French history. He used every energy of his cruel,\\ncrafty mind, and scrupled at no treachery or deceit to over-\\nthrow feudalism and bring all classes in subjection to the\\nCrown. His policy of centralization restored France to her\\nformer position in Europe and his administration, by mak-\\ning roads and canals, and encouraging manufactures and\\neducation, secured the internal prosperity of the country.\\nThe Dukedom of Burgundy, during the recent\\ntroubles of France, had gained strength. Comprising the\\nDuchy of Burgundy and nearly aU the present kingdoms of\\nBelgium and the Netherlands, it threatened to become an in-\\ndependent state between France and Germany. Its duke,\\nCharles the Bold, held the most splendid court in Europe.\\nRestless and ambitious, he constantly pm\\\\sued some scheme", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0393.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "370\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\n[15th cent.\\nof annexation. He\\nwas met, however, on\\nevery hand by Lonis s\\ncraft. He planned\\nonce with Edward\\nIV. of England an in-\\nvasion of France the\\nEnglish army again\\ncrossed the Channel,\\nbut Louis feasted the\\nsoldiers, and finally\\nbribed Edward to re-\\nturn home. Charles\\nwanted Lorraine and\\nProvence his rule\\nin Alsace was harsh\\nwhile he had offend-\\ned the Swiss. Louis\\ncunningly contrived\\nto unite these vari-\\nous enemies against\\nCharles. The ill-fated duke was defeated at Granson, Morat,\\nand N^mioj (1476-77) and after the last battle his body was\\nfound frozen in a pool of water by the roadside. Thus\\nended the dream of a Burgundian kingdom. Mary, the\\ndaughter of Charles, retained his lands in the Low Countries,\\nbut France secured the Duchy of Burgundy.\\nConsolidation of the Kingdom. Louis also added\\nto his kingdom Artois, Provence, Eoussillon, Maine, Anjou,\\nFranche Comte, and other extensive districts. After liis\\ndeath, his daughter, Anne of Beaujeu, who was appointed\\nregent, secured for her brother, Charles VIII., the hand of\\nAnne, heiress of Brittany. The last of the gi-eat feudal\\ntoux^-^\\nBURGUNDY\\nUNDER I\\nCHARLES THE BOLD.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0394.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "1491.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS FRANCE.\\n371\\nstates between the Channel and the Pyrenees was absorbed\\nby the Crown.\\nAs the middle ages closed, France, nnited at home, was\\nready to enter npon schemes of conquest al)road and the\\npower of the king, instead of being spent in subduing the\\nvassals of the Crown, was free to assert the French influence\\namong other nations.\\nEARLY FRENCH CIVILIZATION.\\nThe Gauls.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The native\\ninhabitants of France were\\nGauls, or Celts. In earliest\\ntimes they dressed in skins,\\ndyed or tattooed their flesh,\\ndrank out of the skulls of\\ntheir enemies, worshiped\\nsticks, stones, trees, and\\nthunder, and strangled the\\nstranger wi ecked on their\\ncoast. But, many centuries\\nbefore the Romans entered\\nGaul, it had been visited by\\nthe Phoenicians, and after-\\nward by the Greeks, who\\nleft, especially along the\\ncoast, some traces of their\\narts. The Gauls were a\\nsocial, turbulent, enthusi-\\nastic race, less truthful and\\nmore vain, more imagina-\\ntive and less enduring, than\\ntheir neighbors the Ger-\\nmans. Like them, they\\nwere large, fair-skinned,\\nand yellow-haired. Noisy\\nand fluent in speech, Cicero\\ncompared them to town-criers, while Cato was impressed with their\\ntact in argument. Fond of personal display, they wore their hair\\nlong and flowing, and affected showy garments. Their chiefs glittered\\nEAULY INHABITANTS OF FUANCE.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0395.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "372\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nwith jewelry, and delighted in huge headpieces of fur and feathers,\\nand in gold and silver belts, from which they hung immense sabers.\\nThey went to war in all this finery, though they often threw it off\\nin the heat of battle. Armed with barbed, iron-headed spears, heavy\\nbroadswords, lances, and arrows, they rushed fiercely on their foe,\\nshouting their fearful war-cry, Off with their heads Wildly elated\\nby success, they were as greatly depressed by defeat. The gregarious\\ninstinct was strong and with the Hebrew tribe, the Greek phratry, the\\nRoman gens, and the German family, may be classed as, perhaps, the\\nmost tenacious and exclusive of all the Celtic Clan.\\nTheir arts were suited to their taste for show. They made brilliant\\ndyes and gayly plaided stuffs, plated metals, veneered woods, wove and\\nembroidered carpets, and adorned their cloaks with gold and silver\\nPARIS IN THE MIDDLE AGES.\\nwrought ornaments. Quick to assimilate, they gradually took on all\\nthe culture and refinements of their Italian conquerors, imtil the round,\\nwattled, clay-plastered, and straw-thatched hut of the early Gaul was\\ntransformed into the elegant country villa or sumptuous town residence\\nof the Gallo-Roman gentleman.\\nBut the luxurious Gallo-Roman was forced to yield to a new race of\\nconquerors, the Franks, or Teutons and finally a third people the\\nNormans left its impress upon the French character. In the combined\\nresult the Gallic traits were predominant, and are evident in the French-\\nman of to-day, just as, across the Channel, the Teutonic influences\\nhave chiefly molded the English nation.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0396.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "RISE OP MODERN NATIONS GERMANY. 373\\nIII GERMANY.\\nComparison with France. Tlie later Carlovingian\\nkings in Germany were weak, as in France and there, also,\\nduring the terrible Norseman invasions, feudalism took deep\\nroot. France comprised many fiefs governed by nobles\\nahnost sovereign; Germany, also, contained five separate\\npeoples Franks, Saxons, Thuringians, Bavarians, and\\nSwabians whose dukes were nearly independent in their\\nreabns. But in France the Crown gradually absorbed the\\ndifferent feudatories, and so formed one powerful kingdom\\nwhile thi ough German history there runs no connecting\\nthread, the states continuing jealous, disunited, and often\\nhostile. The German monarch was elective, and not, ^like\\nthe French king, hereditary. The struggle of the Crown\\nwith its powerful vassals was alike in both countries, but the\\nresults were different. While the descendants of Capet held\\nthe French throne for eight centuries, the German dynasties\\nwere short-lived. Germany had no central capital city, like\\nParis, around which the national sentiment could grow and\\nthe emperor was a Bavarian, a Saxon, but never permanently\\nand preeminently a German. The German branch of the\\nCarlovingian line ended about three quarters of a centuiy\\nearlier than the French. Conrad, Duke of the Franks, was\\nelected by the nobles, and, being lifted on the shield, was\\nhailed king (911). After a troubled reign, with singidar\\nnobleness he named as his successor his chief enemy, Henry\\nof Saxony, who was thereupon chosen.^ He inaugui-ated the\\nSaxon Dynasty (919-1024).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The tribe conquered by\\nCharlemagne only about a hundred years before now took\\n1 The messenger sent to inform liim of his election found the duke catching\\nfinches, whence he was known as Henry the Fowler.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0397.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "374 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [IOth CENT.\\nthe lead m German affairs. This dynasty embraced, in gen-\\neral, the 10th century. It gave to the throne two Henrys\\nand three Ottos.\\nHOUSE OF SAXONY.\\nHENRY I., the Fowler (919-936).\\nOTTO I., tbe Great (936-973).\\n1\\nOTTO II. (973-983). HENRY, Duke of Bavaria.\\nOTTO III. (983-1002). HENRY, Duke of Bavaria.\\nHenry II. (1002-24).\\nThe Magyars^ a barbarous people occupying the plains of\\nmodern Hungary, were the di-eaded foe of the empii^e. More\\ncruel than even the Norsemen, they were believed to be can-\\nnibals, and to drink the blood of their enemies. They had\\nrepeatedly swept across Germany to the Rhine, burning\\nand slaying without mercy. Henry I., and his son Otto I.,\\ndefeated them in two great battles. After the last over-\\nthrow, the Hungarians (as they were now called, from taking\\nthe lands once held by the Huns) settled down peaceably,\\nand by the year 1000 became Christian. On the adjacent\\nfrontier Otto formed a mihtary province, the Oster (east)\\nMarch, a name since changed to Austria.\\nThe Burghers. Seeing that the people needed strong\\nplaces for their protection against their barbarous enemies,\\nHenry founded walled towns and built fortresses, around\\nwhich villages soon grew up. He also ordered every ninth\\nman to live in one of these hirghs, as the fortresses were\\nstyled. Hence arose the burgher class, afterward the great\\nsupport of the Crown in the disputes with the nobles.\\nOtto the Great (93G-973), like his father, was strong\\nenough to hold the German tribes together as one nation,\\nand wage successful war against the Slavs, Danes, and other", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0398.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "951.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS GERMANY. 375\\nheatlien neighbors on the east and the north. Emulating\\nthe glory of Charlemagne, he repeatedly descended into\\nItaly/ receiving at Milan the crown of the Lombards, and\\nat Rome that of the CtBsars. Thus was reestablished\\nTlie Holy Roman Empire^ founded in the golden age of\\nthe Frankish monarch. Henceforth the kings of Germany\\nclaimed to be kings of Lombardy and Roman emperors, and\\nthought little of their royal title beside the imperial, which\\ngave them, as the head of Christendom and guardian of the\\nfaith of the Catholic Church, so much higher honor. But,\\nin protecting their Italian interests, the emperors wasted the\\nGerman blood and treasure that should have been devoted\\nto compacting their home authority. They were often ab-\\nsent for years, and meanwhile the dukes, margraves, and\\ncounts became almost sovereign princes. Thus Germany,\\ninstead of growing into a united nation, like other European\\npeoples, remained a group of almost independent states.\\nThe Franconian^ Dynasty (1024-1125) embraced, in\\ngeneral, the 11th centur}^ It gave to the throne Conrad IL,\\nand Renrij IIL, Henri/ IV., and Henry V.\\nHOUSE OF FRANCONIA.\\nConrad ii. (1024-39).\\nHENRY III. (1039-56).\\nIIENUY IV. (1056-1106).\\nI\\nHENUY v. (1106-25). AGNF.S, m.\\nFREDERICK OF HOllEXSTAUFEN.\\nThere is a gleam of romance connected with Otto .s first descent into Italy. Lo-\\ntliaire, king of that distracted country, liad been poisoned bj Berengar, a brutal\\nprince, wlio, in order to secure the throne of Italj wished to marry lii.s son to Adel-\\nheid, Lothaire s young and beautiful widow. Slie spurned the revolting alliance,\\nand, escaping from the loathsome prison where she was confined, appealed to Otto,\\nwho defeated Berengar, and afterward married Adelheid.\\n2 The Eastern or Teutonic Francia (Frankland) is termed Francouia, to distin-\\nguish it from Western Francia, or France (p. 335).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0399.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "876 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [IIth CENT.\\nConrad II. (1024-39) annexed to the empii-e the king-\\ndom of Bm-gundy, thus governing three of the fom^ great\\nkingdoms of Charlemagne (map, p. 370).\\nHenry III. (1039-56) elevated the empire to its glory,\\nestablished order, and sought to enforce among the warring\\nbarons the Truce of God.^ He was early called to Italy,\\nwhere three candidates claimed the papacy. Henry deposed\\nthem all, placing fom* Germans successively in the papal\\nchair.\\nHenry IV. (1056-1106) was only six years old at his\\nfather s death. Never taught to govern himself or others,\\nhe grew up to be fickle, violent, and extravagant. When, at\\nthe age of fifteen, he became king, his court was a scan-\\ndal to Germany. Reckless companions gathered about the\\nyouthful monarch. Ecclesiastical offices were openly sold.\\nWomen were to be seen blazing in jewels taken from the\\nrobes of the priests. His misrule provoked the fierce Saxons\\nto revolt, and he subdued the insurrection only with great\\ndifficulty. Then came the peril of his reign.\\nHildehrand, the son of a poor carpenter, the monk of\\nCluny, the confidential adviser of five popes, now received\\nthe tiara as Pope Gregory VII. Saint-like in his purity of\\nlife, iron- willed, energetic, eloquent, he was resolved to re-\\nform the Church, and make it supreme. He declared that,\\nhaving apostolic preeminence over kings, he could give and\\nwithhold crowns at pleasure that ecclesiastic offices should\\nnot be sold that no prince should hold a priestly office\\nthat no priest should marry and that the Pope alone had\\nthe right to appoint bishops and invest them with the ring\\nand staff, the emblems of office.\\nWar of the Tnvestittire. Henry was unwilling to resign\\n1 This ordered the sword to be sheathed eacli week between Wednesday evening\\nand Monday morning, on pain of excommunication (Brief Hist. France, p. 42).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0400.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "1077.] RISE OF MODERN N A T I N S G E R M A N Y. 377\\nthe right of investiture and demanded that the Pope degrade\\nthose prelates wlio had favored the rebels. Gregory on the\\nother hand called upon the king to answer to charges\\nbrought against him by his subjects. Henry closed his\\neyes to the magnitude of the power which the papacy had\\nacquired, and summoned at Worms a synod which deposed\\nthe Pope in reply, the Pope excommunicated Henry, and re-\\nleased his subjects from their allegiance. Now Henry reaped\\nthe fruit of his folly and tyranny. The German princes,\\nglad of a chance to humble him, threatened to elect a new\\nking. Cowed by this general defection, Henry resolved to\\nthrow himself at the feet of the Pope. He accordingly crossed\\nthe Alps, not, as his predecessors had done, at the head of\\na mighty army, but as a supj^liant, with his faithful wife.\\nBertha, carrying his infant son. Eeaching Canossa, the\\nking, barefooted, bareheaded, and clad in penitent^s garb,\\nwas kept standing in the snow at the castle gate for three\\ndays before he was allowed to enter. Then, after yielding\\nall to Gregory, he received the kiss of peace.\\nBut this did not allay the strife in Germany. The princes\\nelected Rudolph of Swabia as king, and Gregory finally\\nrecognized the rival monarch. Henry now pushed on the\\nwar with vigor, slew Rudolph in battle, invaded Italy, and\\nappointed a new Pope. Gregory, forced to take refuge\\namong the Normans, died not long after at Salerno. His\\nlast words were, I have loved righteousness and hated\\niniquity therefore I die in exile. Hildebrand s successor,\\nhowever, pursued his plans. The tendency of the best minds\\nin Europe was toward papal supremacy. Henry s heart was\\nsoftened by misfortune, and experience taught him wisdom\\nbut he could not regain liis power, and he died at last, de-\\nthroned by his unnatural son.\\nHenry V. (1106-25), on taking the crown, deserted the", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0401.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0402.jp2"}, "403": {"fulltext": "1122.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS GERMANY. 379\\npapal party, and stoutly held his father^s position. He\\ninvaded Italy, and forced Pope Paschal II. to crown him\\nemperor. But no sooner had Henry recrossed the Alps,\\nthan the Pope retracted the concessions, and excommuni-\\ncated him.\\nThe Concordat of Worms (1122^ finally settled the difficulty\\nby a compromise, the investiture being granted to the Pope,\\nand homage for land to the emperor. The war had lasted\\nnearly half a century. Though Heniy was now at peace\\nwith the Church, the struggle with the rebelhous nobles\\nwent on through his hfe. With him ended the Franconian\\nline.\\nLothaire II. of Saxony, elected king by the princes,\\nwas crowned emperor by the Pope but, after a brief and\\nstormy reign, the crown passed to Conrad III. of Swabia,\\nwho founded\\nThe Hohenstaufen Line (1138-1254).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 He struggled\\nlong with the Saxons and others who opposed his rule.\\nDuring the siege of Weinsberg,i the rebels raised the war-\\ncry of Welf, the name of their leader and Conrad s army,\\nthat of Waihlingen, the birthplace of Frederick of Swabia,\\nthe king s brother. These cries, corrupted by the Italians\\ninto Giielf and GJiihelJine, were afterward applied to the\\nadherents of the Pope and the emperor respectively, and\\nfor centuries resounded from the Mediterranean to the\\nNorth Sea. Conrad, first of the German emperors, joined\\nthe Crusaders (p. 400). He died as he was preparing to\\nvisit Italy to be crowTied emperor.\\n1 Conrad, upon the surrender of this city, resolved to destroy it, but consented\\nthat the women might take with them such valuables as they could carry on their\\nshoulders. When tlie gates were tlirown open, to Conrad s astonishment there\\na])peared a long line of women, each staggering beneath the weight of her husband\\nor nearest relative. The Swabian king was so affected by this touching scene that\\nhe spared the city.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0403.jp2"}, "404": {"fulltext": "380 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [1152.\\nHOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN.\\nI I\\nCONRAD III. (1138-52). FREDERICK OF SWABIA.\\nFREDERICK BARBAROSSA (1152-90).\\nHENRY VI. (1190-97). PHILIP (1197-1208).\\nFREDRICK II. (1215-50). ^^(j^jy^rgirs ^s\\nCONrId IV. (1250-54). ^1209-15).]\\nCONRADIN (Little Conrad).\\nFrederick Barbarossa (the Red Beard), Conrad III. s\\nnephew, was nnanimously chosen king. He proved a\\nworthy successor of Charlemagne and Otto I., and his reign\\nwas one of the most brilliant in the annals of the empire.\\nHe wielded the royal power with terrible force, established\\norder, controlled the dukes, and punished the robber-knights.\\nThe phantom of the empire, however, allured him into\\nItaly. Five times this German Sennacherib crossed the\\nAlps with magnificent armies, to be wasted by pestilence\\nand the sword. He was crowned emperor, but only after\\nhe had consented to hold the Pope s stirrup.\\nThe Italian cities^ grown rich and powerful during the\\nCrusades, were jealous of their independent rights. Fre-\\nquent wars broke out among them, as in olden Greece, and\\nthe weaker cities, oppressed by the stronger, appealed to the\\nemperor. The strife of Guelf and Ghibelline waxed hot.\\nQuarrels arose with the Holy See. Milan was taken by\\nFrederick and razed to the ground. The Lombard cities\\nleagued against Frederick. Finally, after years of strife, the\\nemperor, beaten on the decisive field of Legnano (1176),\\nmade peace, submitted to the demands of the Pope, and\\ngranted the Italian cities their municipal rights. After\\nthis, contentment and peace marked the evening of Fred-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0404.jp2"}, "405": {"fulltext": "1176.] RISE OP MODERN NATIONS GERMANY. 381\\nerick s eventful life. He perished in the Third Crusade^\\n(p. 400).\\nHenry VI. (1190-97),2 the Cruel, hastened to Italy, and\\nwas crowned emperor at Rome thence he invaded Naples\\nand Sicily, the inheritance of his wife, where his rapacity\\nrecalled the days of the Goths and Vandals. His name is\\nassociated with Richard the Lion-hearted (p. 401).\\nFrederick II. (1215-50) had been chosen King of the\\nRomans, but he was a child at his father s death, and was\\nquite overlooked in Germany, where rival kings were elected.\\nWhen he became of age, the Pope called on the German\\nprinces to elect him their monarch. He was accordingly\\ncrowned king at Aix-la-Chapelle, and emperor at Rome.\\nHis genius and learning made him The Wonder of the\\nWorld. He spoke in six languages, was versed in natural\\nhistory and philosophy, and skiUed in all knightly accom-\\nplishments. More Italian than Teuton, he visited Germany\\nonly once during thirty years, content to surround himself\\nwith poets, artists, and sages, in his brilliant Sicilian court.\\nBut he became involved in quarrels with one pope after\\nanother 5 he was twice excommunicated again the Italian\\ncities raised the war-cry of Guelf and Ghibelhne, and he\\ndied in the midst of the long struggle (p. 395).\\nThe Great Interregnum.. Cojir ad IV. (1250-54)\\nwas the last Hohenstaufen king of Germany. Ah^eady\\nrival monarchs had been chosen, and after him, for nearly\\n1 One day while marching through Sj ria, false news was hiought him of the\\n(ieath of his son. Tears flowed down his beard, now no longer red, but wliite. Sud-\\ndenly springing up, he shouted, My sou is dead, but Christ still lives Forward\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Tradition says that the Red Beard sleeps with his knights in a cavern of the Kyff-\\nliiiuser, near the ilartz, and when the ravens shall cease to hover about the moun-\\ntain, and the pear tree shall blossom in the vallej then he shall descend at the\\nhead of his Crusaders, bringing back to Germany the golden age of peace and unity.\\nThe substance of this beautiful dream has been realized in our own day.\\n2 Henry had already been chosen successor and crowned King of the Romans,\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094a title thenceforth borne by the heir apparent during au emperor s lifetime.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0405.jp2"}, "406": {"fulltext": "382\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\n[13th cent.\\ntwenty years, the empire had no recognized head. So low\\ndid German patriotism sink that at one time the crown\\nwas offered to the highest bidder. Order was now unknown\\noutside of city walls. Often during these dark days did the\\ncommon people think of Barbarossa, and sigh for the time\\nwhen he should awake from his long sleep and bring back\\nquiet and safety. At last, even the selfish barons became\\n^^^^B\\nTHE ROBBER-KNIGHTS.\\nconvinced that Germany could not do without a govern-\\nment. The leading princes, who had usurped the right of\\nchoosing the king, and were hence called Electors (p. 385),\\nselected Count Rudolf of Hapshurg (1273-91). A brave,\\nnoble-hearted man, he sought to restore order, punish the\\nrobber-knights, and abolish private wars.\\nState of Germany.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The independence of the princes had now-\\nreached its height. The Hohenstauf ens, vainly grasping after power in\\nItaly, had neglected their Germaji interests, andTrederick II. for the", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0406.jp2"}, "407": {"fulltext": "RISE OF MODERN NATIONS GERMANY. 383\\nsake of peace, even confirmed the princes in the right they had nsurped.\\nThere were in Germany over sixty free cities, one hundred dukes,\\ncounts, etc., and one hundred and sixteen spiritual rulers, in all, more\\nthan two hundred and seventy-six separate powers. In proof of the\\narrogance of the nobles, it is said that a certain knight, receiving a\\nvisit from Barbarossa, remained seated in the emperor s presence, say-\\ning that he held his lands in fee of the sun.\\nEach nobleman claimed the right of waging war, and, in the little\\ndistrict about his castle, was a law to himself. When at peace with\\nthe neighboring lords, he spent his time in the chase, tramping over\\nthe crops, and scouring through the woods, with his retainers and\\ndogs. In war he watched for his foes, or attacked some merchant-train\\ngoing to or from a city with which he was at feud. Robber-knights\\nsallied out from their mountain fastnesses upon the peaceful traveler,\\nand, escaping with their booty to their strongholds, bade defiance to\\nthe feeble power of the law.\\nThe Peasants, more than others, needed a central power, able to\\nkeep the public peace and enforce justice. They were still feudal\\ntenants. There was no one to hear their complaints or redress their\\nATongs. The lords, encroaching more and more upon their ancient\\nprivilegvis, had robbed them of their common rights over the pastures,\\nthe wild game, and the fish in the streams, until the peasants had\\nbecome almost slaves. In fine weather they were forced to work for\\ntheir lord, while their own little crops were to be cared for on rainy\\ndays. Even during their holidays they were required to perform\\nvarious services for the people at the castle. Time and again they\\nrose to arms, and, elevating the hundschuh, or peasant s clog, struck\\nfor liberty. But the nobles and knightly orders, combining, always\\ncrushed the insurrection with terrible ferocity.\\nThe Feme was a tribunal of justice that sprang up in Westphalia\\nfrom the old Courts of Counts that Chartemagne established. During\\nthese troublous times it attained gi-eat power and spread far and wide,\\nappeals being made to it from all parts of Germany. Its proceedings\\nwere secret, and the deliberations were often held in desolate places,\\nor in some ancient seat of justice, as the famous Linden-tree at Dort-\\nmund. Its death-sentence was mysteriously executed only the dagger\\nwith the mark of the Feme, found plunged into the body, told how\\navenging justice had overtaken the criminal.\\nThe Growth of the Cities was a characteristic of the middle\\nages. They formed a powerful restraint upon the feudal lords. Each\\ncity was a little free state, fortified and provisioned for a siege. Behind\\nits walls the old German love of liberty flourished, and views of life\\nwere cherished quite different from those of the castle and the court.\\nThe petty quarrels of the barons disturbed the public peace, injured", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0407.jp2"}, "408": {"fulltext": "384 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [13th CENT.\\ntrade, and forced the mereliants to guard their convoys of goods. The\\nvassals, constantly \u00c2\u00a9scaping from the lords and taking refuge in the\\ntowns, were a continual som-ce of difference. There was, therefore,\\nalmost perpetual war between the cities and the nobles. The cities,\\ncompelled to ally themselves for mutual protection, became more and\\nmore a power in the land. The liheuish League comprised seventy\\ntowns, and the ruins of the robber-knights fastnesses destroyed by its\\nforces still exist along the Rhine, picturesque memorials of those law-\\nless times. The Hanseatic League at one period numbered over eighty\\ncities, had its own fleets and armies, and was respected by foreign\\nkings. The emperors, finding in the strength of the cities a bulwark\\nagainst the bishops and the princes, constantly extended the municipal\\nrights and pri\\\\aleges. The free cities had the emperor for their lord,\\nwere released from other feudal obligations, and made their own laws,\\nsubject only to his approval. Every citizen was a freeman, bore arms,\\nand was eligible to knighthood. Manufactures and trade throve in the\\nfavoring air of freedom, and merchant-princes became the equals of\\nhereditary nobles.\\n[From the middle of the 13th to the beginning of the 16th century,\\nGermany was unfruitful of great men or great events. Its history tor\\ntwo hundred and fifty years presents only a few points of interest.\\nThe high dignity of the empire ended with the Hohenstauf ens. Hence-\\nforth its strongest monarchs were little more than German kings.\\nThey rarely ventm-ed to cross the Alps, and, when they did so, pro-\\nduced only a transient effect in time they assumed the title of em-\\nperor without the coronation by the Pope. Italy fell away from the\\nimperial control, and Burgundy dropped into the outstretched hands of\\nFrance.]\\nHapsburg or Austrian Line.^ Eiidolf renounced\\nthe rights of the Hohenstauf ens in Italy, declaring that Rome\\nwas like a lion s den, to which the tracks of many animals\\nled, but from which none retui-ned. Having acquii-ed Aus-\\ntria, St}Tia, and Carniola, he conferred these provinces on\\nhis son, Albert I. (1298-1308), thus laying the foundation of\\nthe futui-e greatness of the House of Hapsburg, or Austria.\\nFrom the tune of Albert 11. (1438-39) until Napoleon broke\\nup the empire (p. 563), the electors chose as emperors, with\\n1 The House of Hapsburg was so named from Rudolf s castle upon the banks of\\nthe Aar in Switzerland.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0408.jp2"}, "409": {"fulltext": "1414.] RISE OF MODERN NATIONS GERMANY. 385\\na single exception, a member of this family, and generally\\nits head. Thus Austria gave its strength to the empu-e,\\nand, in turn, tlie empir(i gave its dignity to the Hapsburgs.\\nAll)ert s father-in-law, Sigismmid (1410-37), before he was\\nraised to the imperial throne, was King of Hungary, and\\nthen began the close connection of Austria with that court.\\nThe Golden BuU^ (135G) was a charter granted by\\nCharles IV., fixing the electors, and the mode of choosing\\nthe emperors. It confirmed the custom of ha\\\\dng seven\\nelectors, four temporal and three spiritual lords. The elec-\\ntion was to take place at Frankfort, and the coronation at\\nAix-la-Chapelle. The electors were granted sovereign rights\\nwithin their territories, their persons declared sacred, and\\nappeals to the emperor denied, save when justice was refused.\\nThis decree diminished the confusion wdiich had hitherto\\nattended the election of kings, but it made the electors the\\nmost powerful persons in the empire, stimulated other\\nprinces to acquire similar privileges, and perpetuated the\\nfatal divisions of Germany.\\nThe first university of Germany was founded at Prague by\\nCharles IV. it became so famous as soon to number seven\\nthousand students.\\nThe Council of Constance (1414) was called by Sigis-\\nmund, foUo^\\\\dng the example of Constantine in convening\\nthe famous Council of Nice (p. 265). This was the era of\\nthe G^reat Schism, and the object of the council was to\\nsettle the dispute between three different claimants for the\\nl)apal chair. Nearly five thousand clergymen, including car-\\ndinals and bishops, Anth a vast concourse of the chief vassals\\nof the CroA\\\\ai, learned men, knights, and ambassadors from\\nthe Christian powers, were present. A new Pope, Martin V.,\\nwas chosen, and he took his seat as successor of Gregory XII.\\n1 So named from the kuob of {^oUl (bulla aurea) which iuclosed the seal.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0409.jp2"}, "410": {"fulltext": "386 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [15th CENT.\\nJohn Kuss, rector of the university at Prague, who had\\nadopted the views of WycHffe, the Enghsh reformer, and\\nattacked certain doctrines of the Church, was summoned to\\nappear before the council. Under a safe-conduct from the\\nemperor, Huss came but he was tried, convicted of heresy,\\nand bu.rned at the stake (1415).^ His ashes were thrown\\ninto the Rhine to prevent his followers from gathering\\nthem. The next year, Jerome of Prague, who brought\\nWycliffe s writings to the university, suffered death in the\\nsame place.\\nHussite War (1419-35). The Bohemians, roused to\\nfuiy by the death of their favorite teacher and by subse-\\nquent persecutions, flew to arms. Under Ziska, the One-\\neyed, they learned to strike unerringly with their farmers\\nflails, to wield heavy iron maces, and to shelter themselves\\nbehind wagons bound with chains. The emperor s troops\\nfled before them, often without a blow. It was sixteen\\nyears before Bohemia was subdued.\\nHouse of HohenzoUern. Sigismund, being in want\\nof money, sold Brandenburg and its electoral dignity for\\nfour hundred thousand gold florins, to Frederick, Count of\\nHohenzoUern (1415). The new elector vigorously ruled\\nhis possession, with gunpowder battered down the castle\\nwalls, fourteen feet thick, of the robber-knights, and re-\\nstored order and quiet. His descendants to-day occupy the\\nthrone of Prussia.\\nThe Diet of Worms (1495), summoned by Maximilian\\n1 When addressing the council, Sigismund said, Date operam, ut ilia nefanda\\nschisma eradicetur. Upon a cardinal remarking to him that schisma is of the\\nneuter gender, he replied, I am king of the Romans and above grammar -When\\ntlie executioner was about to light the pile from behind, Jerome called out, Set in\\nfront; had I dreaded fire I should not have been here. Sylvius (afterward Pope\\nPius II.), in his History of Bohemia, says, Both Huss and Jerome made haste to\\nthe fire as if they were invited to a feast when they began to burn, they sang a\\nhymn, and scarcely could the flames and the crackling of the lire stop their\\nsinging.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0410.jp2"}, "411": {"fulltext": "RISE OF MODERN NATIONS SWITZERLAND. 387\\n(1493-1519), decreed a Perpetual Peace, abolished the right\\nof private war, and established the Lnpenal Chamber of\\nJustice, with power to declare the ban of the empire. In\\norder to carry out the decisions of this body, Maximilian\\ndivided the empire into Ten Circles, each having its tribunal\\nfor settling disputes. He also founded the Aiilic Council, or\\ncourt of appeal from the lower com-ts in Germany. The old\\nRoman law rapidly came into use in these tribunals. There\\nwas now a promise of order in this distracted country.\\nMaximilian s Marriage with Mary of Burgundy, the\\nbeautifid daughter of Charles the Bold (p. 370), added her\\nrich dower to the House of Austria.\\nThe End of the Middle Ages was marked by the\\nreign of Maximilian, and this monarch is known in Ger-\\nman history as the Last of the Knights. Gunpowder\\nhad changed the character of war, printing was invented,\\nfeudal forms and forces were dying out, and Christopher\\nColimibus had discovered America.\\nIV. SWITZER LAN D.\\nOrigin. The confederation of the three Forest Can-\\ntons Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden clustered about the\\nbeautiful lake of Lucerne was the germ of Switzerland.\\nThey were German lands owing allegiance to the emperor,\\nand theii^ league for mutual defense was like that of other\\ndistricts and cities of the empire. Rudolf, himself a Swiss\\ncount, had estates in these cantons, and, being popular with\\nhis former neighbors, was chosen as their protector; but\\nthe tyranny of his son Albert, the Duke of Austria, when he\\nbecame emperor, roused these brave mountaineers to assert\\ntheir independence.^ Three great battles mark the succes-\\nsive stages in their struggle for liberty.\\n1 Odo November night in 1307, a little company met under the open sky and", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0411.jp2"}, "412": {"fulltext": "388 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nBattle of Morgarten (1315). Albert was assassi-\\nnated while marching to crush the rising, but his successor,\\nLeopold, Duke of Austria, invaded Switzerland with an army\\nof fifteen thousand men, ostentatiously bearing ropes for\\nhanging the chief rebels. The Swiss, only thirteen hundred\\nin all, after a day of fasting and prayer, took post in the\\ndefile of Morgarten, the Thermopylae of Switzerland.\\nFifty outlaws, denied the privilege of fighting with the\\nmain body, were stationed on a cliff overlooking the en-\\ntrance. When the heavy-armed cavahy were well in the\\npass, the band of exiles suddenly let fall an avalanche of\\nstones and timber. This throwing the Austrian column\\ninto confusion, the Swiss rushed down with their halberts\\nand ii-on-shod clubs. The flower of the Austrian chivalry\\nfell on that ill-fated day. Leopold himseK escaped only by\\nthe aid of a peasant, who led him through by-paths over\\nthe mountain.\\nBattle of Sempach (1386). About seventy years\\nhad passed, when Leopold nephew of him who fought at\\nMorgarten sought to subdue the League. He found the\\npatriots posted near the little lake of Sempach. The Aus-\\ntrian knights, dismounting, formed a solid body clad in armor\\nfrom head to foot, and with long projecting spears. The\\nsolemnlj swore to defend their liberty. This was the birthday of Swiss independ-\\nence. The next New Year s was fixed for the uprising. Meanwhile Gessler, an Aus-\\ntrian governor, set up a hat in the market place of Altdorf, and commanded all to bow\\nto it in homage. Tradition saj^s that William Tell, passing by with his little son, re-\\nfused tliis obeisance. Brought before Gessler, he was doomed to die unless he could\\nshoot an arrow through an apple placed on his boy s head. Tell pierced the apple,\\nbut the tyrant, noticing a second arrow concealed In his belt, asked its purpose.\\nFor thee, was the reply, if the first had struck my son. Enraged, Gessler\\nordered him to a prison upon the opposite shore of the lake. While crossing, a storm\\narose, and in the extremity of the danger Gessler unloosed Tell, hoping by his skill to\\nreacli land. As they neared the rocky shore, Tell leaped out. and, hiding in the glen,\\nshot Gessler as he passed.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This romantic story is now believed by critics to be a\\nmere fiction but the tradition lingers in tlie minds of the people, and every traveler\\nin Switzerland is still shown the chapel that stands upon the rock to which the hero\\nleaped from Gessler s boat.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0412.jp2"}, "413": {"fulltext": "RISE OF MODERN NATIONS SWITZERLAND. 389\\nSwiss, iirst dropping ou their kuees aud offering prayer,\\nadvanced to the charge. But the foroist of spears resisted\\nevery attack. Sixty of their little band had fallen, and not\\none of the enemy had received a wound. At this crisis,\\nArnold Von Winkelried rushed forward, shouting, I will\\nopen a way; take care of my wife and children. Then,\\nsuddenly gathering in his arms as many spears as he could\\nreach, he buried them in his bosom and bore them to the\\nground. The wall of steel was broken. His comrades\\nrushed over his body to victory.\\nAnother triumph at Keif els, two years later, and the Swiss\\nconfederates were left undisturbed for many years.\\nGrowth, of the Confederacy. Lucerne, Berne, and\\nother cities early joined the League in the middle of\\nthe 14th century it comprised the so-called Uight Ancient\\nCantons. The victory over Charles the Bold greatly\\nstrengthened the Swiss confederation. Swiss soldiers were\\nhenceforth in demand, and thousands left the homely fare\\nand honest simplicity of their native land to enlist as mer-\\ncenaries under the banners of neighboring princes.\\nAt the end of the 15th century, Maximilian sought to\\nrestore the imperial authority over the Swiss, but failed, and\\nby an honorable peace practically acknowledged their inde\\npendence, though it was not formally granted until the\\nTreaty of Westphalia (p. 485).i\\n1 It is curious that thougli tlio, names Swiss and Switzerland, derived from that\\nof the chief canton, early came into use, they were not formally adopted until the\\npresent century.\\nB G H-2?", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0413.jp2"}, "414": {"fulltext": "390 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nITALY IN THE MIDDLE AGES.\\nItaly in the 10th Century, after the fall of the Car-\\nlovmgians, was a scene of frightful disorder. A crowd of\\npetty sovereignties sprang up, and the rival dukes disputed\\nfor their titles with dagger and poison. When Otto the\\nGreat restored the Holy Roman Empire, the fortunes of\\nItaly became blended with those of Germany. During the\\nlong contest between the Pope and the emperor, the feudal\\nlords and the cities sided with either as best suited their\\ninterest. For centuries the strife of GueK and Ghibelline\\nconvulsed the peninsula.\\nPower of the Popes. We have seen how, upon the\\nruins of Pagan Rome, the Church founded a new empire.\\nMany causes combined to extend her power. Amid the\\ngloom of the dark ages, the lights of learning and piety\\nburned brightly within monastery walls. The convents and\\ntheii lands were isles of peace in a sea of violence and wrong.\\nThe monks of St. Benedict divided their time among acts\\nof devotion, copying of manuscripts, and tilling of land.\\nEducation was almost forgotten by the laity. The clergy\\nalone could read and write, as well as use the Latin lan-\\nguage, then the general medium of communication among\\ndifferent nations. Priests were therefore the teachers, secre-\\ntaries, and ambassadors of kings.\\nThe Church afforded a refuge to the oppressed. None\\nwas too lowly for her sympathy, while the humblest man\\nin her ranks could rise to the highest office of trust and\\nhonor. When f eudahsm was triumphant, and kings were too\\nweak and men too ignorant to oppose it, hers was the only\\npower that could restrain the fierce baron, and enforce the\\nTruce of God. With the gift of Pepin, the Pope became a", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0414.jp2"}, "415": {"fulltext": "1000.] ITALY IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 391\\npolitical prince, and as such continued to extend his Italian\\npossessions.\\nThe 11th century brought a great increase of papal power,\\nA current belief (founded on Rev. xx. 1-7) that the world\\nwould come to an end in the year 1000 checked the ravages\\nof war. Lands and money were freely bestowed upon the\\nChurch, and when the time passed and the world still stood,\\nmen s hearts, touched even through their coats of mail,\\nsoftened with gratitude, and king and lord vied in erecting\\njnagnificent cathedi^als, whose ruins are to-day the admira-\\ntion of the world. The Crusades also gi*eatly strengthened\\nthe power of the Pope (p. 397).\\nFor centuries a command from Rome was obeyed through-\\nout Christendom. When Pepin wished to depose the do-\\nnothing sovereign, he appealed to Rome for permission;\\nw^hen Charlemagne was to take the title of emperor, it\\nwas the Pope who placed the crown upon his head when\\nWilliam the Conqueror desired to invade England, he first\\nsecured permission from the Pope when Henry II. longed\\nfor Ireland, Adrian IV. granted it to him on the gi ound\\nthat all islands belonged to the Holy See; and so late\\neven as 1493, Pope Alexander VI. divided between the\\nSpanish and the Portuguese then- discoveries in the New\\nWorld.\\nThe papal power, however, reached its zenith in the begin-\\nning of the 13th century, under Innocent HI. He acquu-ed\\nindependent sovereignty in Italy, gave to Peter of Aragon\\nhis kingdom as a fief, compelled Philip Augustus of France\\nto receive back the wife he had put away, crushed the\\nAlbigenses, and imposed a tribute upon John of England.\\nHe claimed to be an earthly king of kings, and the papal\\nthunder, enjoining peace and punishing public and private\\noffenses, rolled over every nation in Europe.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0415.jp2"}, "416": {"fulltext": "392 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nThe decline of the papal power was made evident in the\\n14th century by the residence of the popes in France, known\\nin church history as the Babylonish captivity (1305-77).\\nThus the contest between Boniface VIII. and Philip IV.\\nended very differently from the war of investitui-e between\\nHenry IV. and Gregory VII.\\nThe 15th century is noted for its ecclesiastical councils.\\nTo these some of the monarchs appealed from the decisions\\nof the Holy See. The Councils of Constance and Basle\\nsought to change the government of the Church from an\\nabsolute to a hmited sovereignty. Charles VII. of France,\\nby a national assembly, adopted several decrees of the latter\\ncouncil; and the Pragmatic Sanction, as this was termed,\\nrendered the Galilean Church more independent and na-\\ntional. The tendency to resist the papal authority was\\nnow increasing rapidly throughout Europe. The weakness\\ncaused by the Great Schism invited opposition, and Rome\\nwas forced to confine its political action mainly to Itahan\\naffairs.\\nItalian Cities. With the decline of the imperial rule in\\nItaly, many of its cities, like those of olden Greece, became\\nfree, strong, and powerful. Four especially Venice, Flor-\\nence, Pisa, and Genoa attained great importance. The\\nItalian ships brought thither the rich products of the East,\\nand her merchants, called Lombards,^ distributed them\\nover Europe. The trading princes of Genoa and Venice\\ncontrolled the money of the world, and became the first\\nbankers, the bank of Venice dating from 1171. The\\nprogress of commerce and manufacture made these inde-\\npendent cities, in the elegance of their buildings and the\\n1 The street in Londou where these merchants settled is still known as Lom-\\nbard Street. The three balls\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the sign of a pawnbroker s shop-are the arms\\nof Lombardy, having been assumed when the Lombards were the money-lenders of\\nEurope.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0416.jp2"}, "417": {"fulltext": "ITALY IN THE MIDDLE AGES\\nextent of their wealth, the rivals of any nation of their time,\\nand their alliance was ea-\\ngerly sought by the most\\npowerful kings.\\nVenice was founded in\\nthe 5th century by refu-\\ngees from Attila s invasion\\nof Italy (p. 269) her ruler was a\\nDoge 5 her patron saint was St.\\nMark. The Queen of the Adriatic\\nearly became a gi-eat naval power,\\nrendered valuable assistance in\\ntransporting the Crusaders, carried\\non sanguinary wars with Genoa, and finally reigned su-\\npreme in the MediteiTanean.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0417.jp2"}, "418": {"fulltext": "394 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nIn the 14th and 15th centimes the government grew into\\nan oppressive oligarchy, the secret Council of Ten, Uke the\\nSpartan Ephors, controlling the Doge and holding the\\nthreads of life and death. The dagger, the poisoned ring,\\nthe close gondola, the deep silent canal, the Bridge of Sighs,\\nand the secret cell beyond, all linger in the mysterious his-\\ntory of the time. But the golden period of her commerce\\npassed when Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good\\nHope, and discovered a new route to the Indies.\\nFlorence, originally a colony of Roman soldiers, in the\\n13th century became one of the chief cities of Italy. While\\ni^enice, like Sparta of old, had an aristocratic government,\\nthat of Florence resembled democratic Athens. The Flo?\\nentine jewelers, goldsmiths, and bankers brought the city\\nrenown and wealth. The citizens were curiously organized\\ninto companies or guilds of the different trades and profes-\\nsions, with consuls, banners, and rules of government. In\\ncase of any disturbance, the members rallied about their\\nrespective standards.\\nThe Family of the Medici (med e-che), during the 15th\\ncentury, obtained control in the state, though without\\nchanging the form of government. Cosmo de Medici (the\\nFather of his Country his grandson Lorenzo the Mag-\\nnificent, and Giovanni (better known as Pope Leo X.^),\\npatronized literary men and artists, encouraged the copjdng\\nof manuscripts, and revived a knowledge of the treasures of\\n1 Leo X., second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, was born, 1475; created car-\\ndinal, 1488; and elected Pope, 1513. He died in 1521. Leo was a munificent patron\\nof the arts, and so great were the obligations of men of genius to his tact and gener-\\nosity, tliat this brilliant period, one of the brightest in the annals of Europe, is\\nknown as The Medicean Era. We may confidently assert, says an eminent his-\\ntorian, that all that is most beautiful in the architecture, sculpture, or painting of\\nmodern art falls within this brief period. Music also, of which Leo was a passion-\\nate lover, was now given more scientific cultivation; classical study was revived;\\nand the first dramas written in the Italian language were produced in the august\\npapal presence.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0418.jp2"}, "419": {"fulltext": "ITALY IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 395\\nGrecian architecture, sculpture, poetry, and philosophy.\\nThe study of the antique masterpieces led to the founding\\nof a new school of art, known as the Italian Renaissance.\\nIn this brilliant period of Florentine history flourished\\nMichael Angelo, poet, sculptor, and painter the renowned\\nartists Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci and the famous\\nreformer Savonarola, afterward burned for heresy.\\nThe Two Sicilies. After Charlemagne s time the\\nArabs conquered Sicily. In the 11th century that era of\\nNorman adventure the Normans invaded southern Italy,\\nand seized the lands held by the Saracens and the Eastern\\nemperor. They finally subdued Naples and Sicily, and\\nfounded the kingdom of the Two Sicilies: so a French-\\nspeaking king ruled over Arabic-speaking Mohammedans\\nand Greek-speaking Cliristians.\\nThe crown was transferred to the Hohenstaufens by the\\nmarriage of its heiress, Constance, to the emperor Henry VI.\\nThe poUshed court of Frederick II. made Naples the center\\nof ci\\\\dlization and culture but the youthful Conradin the\\nlast heu of the Hohenstaufens perished on the scaffold ir.\\nits market place, in full sight of the beautiful inheritance h(5\\nhad lost so untimely.\\nThe kingdom then feU to the papal nominee, Charles of\\nAnjou, brother of St. Louis of France. The Sicilians, how-\\never, hated the French for their tyi anny and one day a\\nsoldier, by insulting a bride in the cathedi-al, enraged the\\npopulace to a revolt. As the vesper-bell rang on Easter\\nMonday, 1282 (a date known as that of the Sicilian Vespers),\\nthe ever-ready Italian stiletto leaped from its sheath scarcely\\na Frenchman survived the liorri])le massacre that foUow^ed.\\nThe Two Sicilies afterward remained separate until (1435)\\nthey were united under Alfonso V. of Aragon.\\nRome was naturally the focus of the long strife between", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0419.jp2"}, "420": {"fulltext": "396\\nMEDIAEVAL PEOPLES.\\nGhibellines and Guelf s, and thither the German kings came,\\narms in hand, to demand the imperial crown. During the\\nBabylonish captivity the city was convulsed by deadly\\nfeuds between the noble families of the Orsini, Colonna, and\\nSavelli. The\\nfamous monu-\\nments of the\\nelder Rome\\nthe Arch of\\nTitus and the\\nColosseum\\nwere fortified\\nas the strong-\\nholds of rival\\nclans. At this\\ntime, Rienzi\\nsought to re-\\nvive the an-\\ncient republic\\n(1347). Of\\nhumble origin,\\nhe was the\\nfriend of Pe-\\ntrarch, the poet, and possessed\\na fiery eloquence that moved\\nthe masses. Elected tribune, he ruled for seven months,\\nbut, forgetting the simplicity of the olden time, he dressed\\nin silk and gold, and was preceded by heralds with silver\\ntrumpets to announce his approach. The nobles rose\\nagainst him, the people fell away, and the Last of the\\nTribunes was slain in a street riot.\\nTHE AUCH OF TITUS.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0420.jp2"}, "421": {"fulltext": "THE CRUSADES,\\n397\\nTHE CRUSADES (1095-1270).\\nOrigin. Palestine, the land made sacred for all time\\nby its religious history, had, from the earliest ages of the\\nChurch, a strong attraction for believers. A pilgrimage to\\nJerusalem, or other hallowed spot, became the most popular\\nof penances. In the general belief, to atone for the greatest\\nCKUBAiJiiUS ON THE MARCH.\\nsin, one had only to bathe in the Jordan, or spend a night\\non Calvary. The number of pilgrims increased about the\\nyear 1000, many desiring to await in the Holy Land the\\ncoming of the Lord. The Saracens welcomed the pilgi-ims\\nbut the Turks (p. 330), who afterward seized Palestine, in-\\nflicted upon them every outrage that fanaticism could invent.\\nEach returning palmer told a fresh tale of hoiTor. Peter", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0421.jp2"}, "422": {"fulltext": "398\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\n[11th cent.\\nthe Hermit, stirred by what he saw in Jerusalem, resolved\\nto rescue the Holy Sepulcher. With bare head and feet,\\ndressed in a coarse robe tied with a cord, bearing a crucifix\\nin his hand, and riding an ass, this fierce monk traversed\\nItaly and France. Pope Urban II. supported his burning\\nappeals. At a council held at Clermont, the assembled mul-\\ntitude shouted with one impulse, God wills it Thou-\\nsands volunteered for the holy war, and fastened to their\\ngarments the red cross,\\nthe symbol of this\\nsacred vow.\\nThe First Crusade\\n(1096) numbered over\\nhalf a milhon fighting\\nmen under Godfrey,\\nDuke of Bouillon. There\\nwere one hundred thou^\\nsand steel-clad knights,\\nincluding such nobles as\\nRobert of Normandy,\\neldest son of WDliam\\nthe Conqueror j Bohe-\\nmond, son of Robert\\nGuiscard, the Norman\\nfounder of the kingdom of Sicily Hugh, brother of Philip I.\\nof France j and Tancred, next to Godfrey, the pattern of\\nchivalry.\\nTHE TOMB OF GODFREY L\u00c2\u00bbE BOUILLON.\\n1 Prior to this, Peter the Hermit, and a poor knight named Walter the Penniless,\\nset oflf with a motley rabble of three hundred thousand men, women, and children.\\nWithout order or discipline, they crossed Europe, robbing the inliabitants and killing\\nthe Jews wherever they went. So great was the delusion, that farmers took their\\nfamilies with them in carts drawn by oxen and the children, carrying mimic\\nswords, sported about, and shouted, whenever they saw a castle or town, Isn t that\\nJerusalem t Tliousand.s of the fanatical crowd were slain en route by the outraged\\npeople. The pitiable remnant fell beneath the Turkish saber, and their bleached\\nbones served to fortify the camp of the Second Crusaders.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0422.jp2"}, "423": {"fulltext": "1096.] THE CRUSADES. 399\\nThis great army poured into Constantinople.^ The em-\\nperor Alexis quickly passed his unwelcome guests into Asia.\\nNice and Antioch were captured after bloody sieges. Final-\\nly the Crusaders, reduced to only twenty thousand men, Jip-\\nproached Jerusalem. When they came in sight of the Holy\\nCity, the hardy warriors burst into tears, and in a transport\\nof joy kissed the earth. It was forty days before they could\\npull down the Crescent from the walls.^ Then, forgetting\\nthe meekness of the Saviour whose tomb they were seeking,\\nand in spite of Godfrey s and Tancred s protests, they mas-\\nsacred seventy thousand infidels, and burned the Jews in\\nthen* synagogue. As evening came\\non, while the streets still ran with\\nblood, they threw off their helmets,\\nbared their feet, entered the Church\\nof the Holy Sepulcher, sang hymns\\nof praise, and partook of the com-\\nmunion.\\nGodfrey was now elected King of\\nJerusalem, but he refused to wear a\\ncrown of gold where his Master had borne one of thorns.\\nHe was therefore styled Baron of the Holy Sepulcher on\\nhis death the crown fell to Baldwin, his brother. War was\\ncontinually waged between the Christians in the Holy City\\nand their Mohammedan neighbors. During these contests\\nthere arose two famous mihtary religious orders, the Ilospi-\\nfallers, who wore a white cross on a black mantle, and the\\nTemplars, whose badge was a red cross on a white mantle.\\nThey vowed obedience, celibacy, and poverty; to defend\\n1 The hau^lity Teutons looked with contempt on the eflfeniinate Greeks, and a\\nrough baron rudely ascended the imperial tlirone, and sat down beside the monarch.\\n2 Jerusalem had been wrested from the Turks by the Saracenic caliph of Egrypt.\\n3 Two knights on one horse, to indicate the original poverty of the order. It after-\\nward became rich and corrupt (p. 360).\\nSEAL OF THE TEMPLAliS.:", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0423.jp2"}, "424": {"fulltext": "400 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [12th CENT.\\npilgrims; and to be the first in battle and the last in\\nretreat.\\nSecond Crusade (1147). Half a century passed, when\\nthe swarming Saracens seemed about to overwhelm the httle\\nFrank kingdom in Palestine. St. Bernard now preached\\na new crusade. Louis VII. of France and Conrad III. of\\nGermany led across Europe three hundred thousand men.^\\nBut the treacherous emperor of the East cut off their food,\\nand betrayed the Germans to the Turks amid the mountains\\nof Cappadocia. The French, more as pilgrims than soldiers,\\nreached Jerusalem, and, Conrad having joined Louis, the\\ntwo monarchs laid siege to Damascus. Beaten back from\\nits walls, they abandoned the crusade in humiliation.\\nThird Crusade (1189). Forty years elapsed, when the\\nEgyptian sultan, Saladin, chief of Moslem warriors for\\ncourage and courtesy, took Jerusalem. The news con-\\nvulsed Europe with grief. Richard Cceur de Lion, Phihp\\nAugustus, and Frederick Barbarossa assumed the Cross.\\nFrederick took a magnificent army across Hungary.\\nWhile marching through Asia Minor, in attempting to\\nswim a swoUen stream, he was drowned.\\nRichard and Philip, conveying their troops by sea, had\\ncaptured Acre the key to Palestine when the French\\nking, jealous of the Lion-hearted s prowess and fame,^ re-\\n1 Louis was accompanierl by Queen Eleanor (afterward divorced, and married to\\nHenry II., p. 356), leading a body of women clad in kniglitly array; and Conrad was\\nfollowed by a similar band, whose chief, with her gilt spurs and buskins, was called\\nthe Golden-footed Dame.\\n2 The fame of Richard s valor lingered long in the East. Mothers stilled their\\nchildren by uttering his dreaded name; and, when the Moslem and Christian host\\nhad been dust for many years, horsemen would shout to a shying steed, Dost thou\\nthink it is King Richard? In thousands of English homes, men idolized the Lion-\\nhearted, in si ite of his cruelty, the uselessness of his triumphs, and tlie weakness of\\nbis reign. Saladin s admiration, too, was roused by Richard s valor. In the midst\\nof battle, his brother sent to beg of the English king the honor of knighthood and\\nwhen Philip and Richard lay tossing with fever in their tents before Acre, their\\ngenerous foe forwarded them presents of pears and snow.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0424.jp2"}, "425": {"fulltext": "12Tn CENT.]\\nTHE CRUSADES.\\n401\\nturned home. Richard pressed on, and at last reached a\\nhill whence he conld see Jerusalem, twenty miles away.\\nHesitating to attack the city, he covered his face and sadly\\nturned back, declarin g that he who was unwilling to rescue\\nwas unworthy to view the sei ulcher of Christ.\\nOn his return through Germany, Richard was thrown into\\nprison by Leopold, Duke of Austria, whom he had grievously\\ninsulted in Palestine.\\nAfter a time he was\\nturned over to the\\nGerman emperor,\\nHenry VI. The Eng-\\nlish people, to ransom\\ntheu gallant king,\\nwere forced to give\\none foui th of their\\nincomes, and even to\\npawn the c h u r c li\\nl)late.\\nThis was the last\\ncrusade that reached\\nPalestine in force.\\nThe subsequent ex-\\npeditions were direct-\\ned to other objects.\\nThe Fourth Cru-\\nsade (1202) consisted\\nof French and Ger-\\nmans, under the Count of Flanders. Transports were obtained\\nfrom the Venetians by agreeing to take Zara, a city of Dalma-\\ntia, for the Doge. The Crusaders next sailed for Constanti-\\nnople to restore its dethroned emperor Isaac. They stormed\\nthe city, plundered its palaces, and destroyed its precious", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0425.jp2"}, "426": {"fulltext": "402\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES,\\n[13th cent.\\nmonuments. A Latin empire was now established at Con.\\nstantinople. This lasted half a century, and there seemed a\\nhope of reuniting the Eastern and the Western Church but\\nthe Greeks recovered the Byzantine capital (1261).\\nThe Fifth Crusade (1218), led by the King of Hungary,\\nwas finally directed to\\nEgypt, as it was thought\\nthat the conquest of that\\ncountry would be a step\\ntoward the recovery of\\nPalestine. It ended in\\ndefeat.\\n-M^Zt-\\nST. LOUIS LANDING IN EGYPT.\\nThe Sixth Crusade (1228) was a pacific one. The Ger-\\nman emperor Frederick II., although under an interdict\\n1 The CliiWren s Crusade (1212) well Illustrates tlie wild folly of the times. Thirty\\nthousand French boys, led by a peasant youth named Stephen, after innumerable\\nhardships, reached Marseilles. Here they were induced by unscrupulous traders to\\ntake ship. Instead of soing to Palestine, they landed in Africa, and lar^e numbers\\nof these unhappy children were sold as slaves in the Saracen markets.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0426.jp2"}, "427": {"fulltext": "13th cent.] the crusades. 403\\nfrom the Pope, went to Palestine, by a treaty with the snl-\\ntan freed Jerusalem and Bethlehem from the Infidels, and,\\nentering the Holy City, crowned himself king. A few years\\nlater, a horde of Asiatic Turks, fleeing before the Mongols\\nunder Genghis Khan (p. 405), overwhelmed the country.\\nThe Seventh and Eighth Crusades (1249, 1270)\\nwere conducted by St. Louis. In the first expedition he\\nlanded in Eg-j^t, but was taken prisoner, and his release\\nsecured only by a hea\\\\y ransom in the second, he went to\\nTunis, with the wild hope of baptizing its Mohammedan king.\\nInstead of making a proselyte, he found a gi-ave. With the\\ndeath of St. Louis the spiiit of the Crusades expired.\\nSoon after, the Mohammedans recaptured Acre, the last\\nChristian stronghold in Palestine.\\nEffects of the Crusades. Thougli these vast military expeditions\\nhad failed of their direct object, they had produced marked results.\\nBy staying the tide of Mohammedan conquest, they doubtless saved\\nEurope from the horrors of Saracenic invasion. Commerce had received\\na great impulse, and a profitable trade had sprung up between the\\nEast and the West. The Italian cities had grown rich and powerful\\nwhile the European states, by coming into contact with the more\\npolished nations of the East, had gained refinement and culture.\\nMany a haughty and despotic baron had been forced to gi ant munici-\\npal rights to some city, or to sell land to some rich merchant, in order\\nto procure funds for his outfit thus there slowly gi-ew up, between\\nthe lord and the peasant, a strong middle class.\\nAs the popes led in the Crusades, their influence increased immensely\\nduring this period. The departing crusaders received special privi-\\nleges from the Church, while their person and property were under\\nits immediate protection. Many knights willed their estates to a\\nneighboring monastery, and, as few retm ned from the East, the\\nChurch thus acquired vast wealth.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0427.jp2"}, "428": {"fulltext": "404\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nTHE MOOHS IN SPAIN.\\nAfter the Moorish Conquest, the conquered Visi-\\ngoths found refuge among the mountains of Asturias.\\nGradually they gained strength, and began to win back the\\nland of their fathers. Nowhere was the crusade against the\\nSaracen waged more gallantly. Early in the 13th century\\nthere were fii-mly established in the peninsula four Christian\\nkingdoms, Portugal, Aragon, Castile, and Navarre, while\\nthe Moorish power had shrunk to the single province of\\nIBERIAN\\nPENINSULA.\\n15TH CENTURY\\nGranada. The free constitutions of Aragon and Castile\\nguaranteed the liberties of the people, and in the Cortes, or\\nnational assemblies of these kingdoms, the third estate se-\\ncured a place long before representation was granted the\\ncommons of any other European country. The marriage\\nof Ferdinand of Ai-agon and Isabella of Castile (1469) laid", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0428.jp2"}, "429": {"fulltext": "1492.] ASIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 405\\nthe foundation of the Spanish power. These illustrious\\nsovereigns resolved to expel the Infidels from their last\\nstronghold. Town after town was taken. The old Moori.sh\\ncastles and towers, impregnable to battering-ram or cata-\\npult, crumbled before the cannon of the Spanish engineers.\\nFinally, as Ferdinand said, the time came to pick out the\\nlast seed of the Moorish pomegranate. The city of\\nGranada was invested. After an eight-months siege. King\\nAbdallah gave up the keys of the Alliambra.^ It was now\\n1492, the year of the discovery of America.\\nASIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES.\\nThe principal Asiatic nations wliich influenced history\\ndm-ing this period were the Mongols and the Turks, Tar-\\ntar races whose home was on the vast plateau of mid-Asia.\\nThe Mongols came into prominence in the 13th cen-\\ntury, under Genghis Khan. This chief of a mere petty\\nhorde subdued the neighboring tribes, and then organized\\nand disciplined the entire body of Tartars into one enor-\\nmous army of horsemen. The result was appalling. The\\nworld had not seen since the time of Alexander such expedi-\\ntions as this incomparable cavalry now made. If Attila was\\nin Europe the Scourge of God, much more did Genghis\\nin Asia deserve that epithet. Fifty thousand cities, with\\ntheir treasures of art, and five miUion human lives, were sac-\\nrificed to his thirst for plunder and power. The sons and\\ngrandsons of Genghis followed up his conquests, until the\\nMongol Empire finally reached from the Pacific Ocean to\\nthe banks of the Vistula in Poland.\\n1 Granada is tlie Spauish word for pomegranate.\\n2 The fallen monarch, riding away, paused upon a rock still known as the Last\\nsigh of the Moor to take a final view of tlie beautiful couutrj- and the pearl of\\npalaces which he had lost. As he burst into tears, his mother exclaimed, It befits\\nyou to bewail like a woman what you could not defend like a man.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0429.jp2"}, "430": {"fulltext": "406 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES. [1402.\\nThis mighty empire fell in pieces during the next century\\nbut about 1369 there arose a descendant of Genghis named\\nTimour, or Tmnerlane, who sought to reunite the Mongol\\nconquests. He conquered Great Tartary and Persia, and\\ninvaded India, crossing the Indus where Alexander did.\\nTurning thence into Asia Minor, he defeated the sultan of\\nthe Ottoman Turks, Bajazet (hghtning), upon the plains of\\nAngora (1402) but afterward, marching to invade China,\\nhe died en route. His armies and empire quickly melted\\naway. The track of the ferocious conqueror in his devas-\\ntating path across Asia was marked by the pyramids of\\nhuman heads he erected as monuments of his victories.\\nBaber a descendant of Tamerlane followed up the con-\\nquest of India, and estabhshed his capital at Delhi. There\\nthe Great Moguls long ruled in magnificence, erecting\\nmosques and tombs that are yet the admiration of the trav-\\neler. The last of the Mogul emperors died almost in our\\nown day, being still prayed for in every mosque in India,\\nthough confined to his palace by the Enghsh army, and liv-\\ning upon an English pension.\\nThe Turks. (1) The SeljuMan TurJcs, about the time\\nof the Norman Conquest, captured Bagdad, and their chief\\nreceived from the caliph the high-sounding title of Com-\\nmander of the Faithful. In 1076 they seized Jerusalem,\\nwhere their brutal treatment of the pilgrims caused, as we\\nhave seen, the Crusades. The fragments of this fii st Turk=\\nish Empire were absorbed in the dominions of Genghis Khan.\\n(2) The Ottoman TurTis were so named from Othman\\n(1299-1326), the founder of theii- empu-e. His son Orchan\\ncreated the famous force of Janizaries (new troops), and a\\n1 The stoutest and handsomest of the captive youth were selected annually for\\nservice in the army. Educated in the relif?ion of their masters and trained to arms,\\nthey formed a powerful body-guard, like the Praetorian Guard of Rome. It was the\\nterror of Europe.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0430.jp2"}, "431": {"fulltext": "15th cent.] fall op CONSTANTINOPLE,\\n407\\nbody of his warriors, crossing the Hellespont, gained a foot-\\ning on Enropean soil, the first in Turkish history (135G)\\nhis gTaiidson Aniurath captured Adrianople; his gi-eat-\\ngrandson, Bajazet, in the battle of Nicopolis (139G), routed\\nthe chivalry of Hungary and France, ravaged Greece, and\\nwas finally checked only by the dreaded Tamerlane.\\nHalf a century afterward, Mohammed II., with over 250,-\\n000 Turks, besieged Constantinople. Artillery of unwonted\\nsize and power battered its waUs for fifty-three days. The\\nJanizaries at length burst through. The emperor Constan-\\ntine, the last of the Cgesars, was slain, sword in hand, in the\\nbreach j and the Byzantine Empire, that had lasted over a\\nthousand years, fell to rise no more. The Crescent now\\nreplaced the Cross on the dome of St. Sophia.\\nThe fall of Constantinople (1453) marks the close of the\\nmiddle ages j but there was a transition period from the mid-\\ndle ages to modern history, the length and date of which\\nvaried among the different nations. Each people had its\\nown dawn and sunrise, and for itself entered into the day of\\nmodern civilization and progress.\\nMOHAMMEDAN EMBLEMS.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0431.jp2"}, "432": {"fulltext": "408 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nMEDIAEVAL CIVILIZATION.\\nBise of Feudalism. The Roman government had sometimes\\ngranted lands on condition of military service the Franks followed\\na chief as their personal lord. Out of these two old-time customs there\\ngrew up a new system which was destined to influence society and\\npolitics throughout Europe for centuries. This was\\nThe Feudal System. We have seen how the brave freemen who\\nfollowed the Teuton chief shared in the land acquired by conquest,\\neach man s portion being called his Allod (from od, an estate), and\\nbecoming his personal property. But in those troublous times men\\nSEllFS OF THE 12TH CENTUKY (FUOM MS. OF THE TIME.)\\nhad to fight to retain what they had won. So it came to pass\\nthat a king, instead of keeping a great standing army to guard his\\nscattered possessions or to prosecute foreign wars, granted a part of\\nhis estates as fiefs or feuds to his nobles. In this transaction he, as\\ntheir suzerain, promised to them justice and protection, and they, as\\nhis vassals, agreed not only to serve him in person, but to furnish upon\\nhis call a certain number of armed men ready and equipped for active\\nmilitary service. In like manner the vassals of the Crown granted\\nestates to their followers and in time most of the allodial owners were\\nglad to swear fealty to some great lord in order to secure his protection.\\nPowerful nobles became vassals of kings, and kings themselves were\\nvassals of other kings, as was William the Conqueror, who, as Duke\\nof Normandy, owed homage to the dissolute Philip I. of France. Not\\nlaymen alone, but bishops and monastic bodies, held their lands by\\nmilitary service, and were bound to furnish their quota of soldiers.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0432.jp2"}, "433": {"fulltext": "MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION. 409\\nThese different bands of armed men, collected together, formed the\\nfeudal army of the kingdom. Thus, in place of the solid, highly or-\\nganized Roman legion, there was a motley aiTay furnished and com-\\nmanded by the great nobles of the realm, each of whom was followed\\nby an enormous retinue of knights, esquires, and lesser nobles, leading\\nthe military contingent of their respective manors or estates.\\nIn France, by the 11th century, feudalism was full grown, and its\\nevils were at their height. The country was covered by a complete\\nnetwork of fiefs, and even the most simple privileges, such as the right\\nto cross a certain ford, or to fish in some small creek, were held by\\nfeudal tenure. In this way one lord was frequently both suzerain and\\nvassal to his neighbor lord. As the royal power had become almost\\nparalyzed, the French dukes and counts ruled their compact domains\\nlike independent kings. Sheltered in their castles and surrounded by\\ntheir followers, they made war, formed alliances, and levied taxes at\\ntheir pleasure.\\nIn England the Norman Conqueror, knowang well the French mis-\\nrule, prevented a like result by making all landholders, gi*eat and\\nsmall, owe dii-ect fealty to himself, and by widely scattering the es-\\ntates of each tenant-in-chief i\\nFeudal Oeiemonies.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Homage, Fealty, Investiture. When a vassal\\nreceived a fief, he did homage therefor on bended knee, ungirt and\\nbareheaded, placing his joined hands in those of his lord, and promis-\\ning to become his man from that day forth. The vassal was bound,\\namong his other obligations, always to defend his lord s good name,\\nto give him his horse if dismounted in battle, to be his hostage if he\\nwere taken prisoner, and to pay him specified sums of money (aids) on\\nparticular occasions, such as that of the marriage of the lord s eldest\\ndaughter, or the knighting of the lord s eldest son.\\nFealty did not include the obligation to become the lord s man, nor\\nto pledge everything for his ransom it was sworn by tenants for life,\\nwhile Homage was restricted to those who could bequeath their estates.\\nInvestiture was the placing in possession of an estate, either actually\\nor symbolically, as by delivering a stone, turf, or branch.\\nThe Castle has been called the symbol of feudalism. A strong\\nstone fortress, crowning some high, jagged cliff or beetling promontory,\\ninclosed by massive, parapeted walls, girdled by moats and bristling\\nwith towers, it may well be likened to a haughty feudal lord. Bold\\nand stout-hearted must have been the foe that ventured its assault.\\n1 Compare with the policy of Cleisthenes, in Athens, p. 124.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The distinction\\nbetween French and Englisli feudal obligations maj- be illustrated thus Let A be\\nthe sovereign, B the teuant-in-chief, and C the uuderteuaut. In France, if B warred\\nwith A, C was bound to aid, not A, but B while in England, C was required to aid\\nA against B.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0433.jp2"}, "434": {"fulltext": "410\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nThere were sometimes, as at Montlhery in France, five inelosures\\nto pass before the donjon keep was reached. Over this great tower\\nfloated the banner of its lord, and within its stone walls, often ten feet\\nthick, were stored his choicest treasures. Its entrance door, set high\\nup in the wall, was guarded by a solid, narrow, outer staircase, a\\ndrawbridge, and a portcullis its near approach was protected by\\nmounted battlements and a machicolated parapet. Intrenched in one\\nof these grim strongholds a baron could, and often did, defy the king\\nA MEDIEVAL CASTLE.\\nhimself. The Crusades broke the strength of early feudalism, and\\ncreated\\nChivalry, which, as an institution, attained its height in the 14th\\ncentury. In it were combined the old Germanic pride in prowess and\\nrespect for woman; the recent religious fervor; a growing love for\\nsplendor, poetry, and music an exclusive, aristocratic spirit and a\\nhitherto disregarded sentiment of duty toward the weak and the op-\\npressed. Its chief exponent was\\nThe Knight, who, at his best, was the embodiment of valor, honor,\\ngallantry, and munificence. Brave, truthful, and generous in charac-\\nter high-bred and courteous in manner strong, athletic, and grace-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0434.jp2"}, "435": {"fulltext": "MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION\\n411\\nful in person now glittering in polished steel and fiercely battering\\nthe Avails of Jerusalem now clad in silken jupon and tilting witli rib-\\nboned lance at the gorgeous tournament always associated witli the\\nsound of martial music, the jingle of armor, and the elasliing of\\nswords, or with the rustle of quaintly robed ladies in castle halls,\\nthe ideal chevalier rides through the middle ages, the central hero of all\\nits romance. We see him first, a lad of seven years, joining a group\\nof high-born pages and damsels who cluster about a fair lady in a\\nstately castle. Here he studies music, chess, and knightly courtesies,\\nand commits to memory his Latin Code of Manners. He carries his\\nlady s messages, sends and re-\\ncalls her falcon in the chase,\\nand imitates the gallantry he\\nsees about him. Wlien a pil-\\ngrim-harper with fresh tidings\\nfrom the Holy Land knocks at\\nthe castle gate, and sits down\\nby the blazing fire in the great\\npillared hall, hung with ar-\\nmor, banners, and emblazoned\\nstandards, or is summoned to\\na cushion on the floor of my\\nlady s chamber, the little page s\\nheart swells with emulous de-\\nsire as he hears of the marvel-\\nous exploits of the Knights of\\nthe Holy Grail, or listens to the\\nstirring Song of Roland. At\\nfom-teen he is made squire, and\\nassigned to some office about\\nthe castle, the most menial\\nduty being an honor in the\\nknightly apprenticeship. His physical, moral, and military education\\nbecomes more rigid. Seated on his horse, he learns to manage arms,\\nscale walls, and leap ditches. He leads the war-steed of his lord to\\nbattle or the tournament, and rivets with a sigh the armor he is for-\\nbidden to wear. At twenty-one his probatioi^ is ended. Fasting,\\nablution, confession, communion, and a night in prayer at the altar,\\nprecede the final ceremony. He takes the vow to defend the faith, to\\nprotect the weak, to honor womankind his belt is slimg around him\\nhis golden spurs are buckled on he kneels; receives the accolade, 1\\n1 This was a blow on tlio neck of the candidate with the flat of a sword, given\\nby the conferring prince, who at tlie same time pronounced the words: I dub thee\\nknight, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.\\nCOSTUME (14TH AND 15TH CENTURIES).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0435.jp2"}, "436": {"fulltext": "412 MEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nand rises a chevalier. His horse is led to the church door, and, amid\\nthe shouts of the crowd and the peal of trumpets, he rides away into\\nthe wide world to seek the glory he hopes to win. Not many knights,\\nit is true, were like Godfrey and Bayard. The very virtues of chivalry\\noften degenerated into vices hut any approach to courtesy in this\\nviolent age was a great advance upon its general lawlessness.!\\nThe Tournament was to the mediasval knight what public games\\nhad been to the Greek, and the gladiatorial contest to the Roman.\\nEvery device was used to produce a gorgeous spectacle. The painted\\nand gilded lists were hung with tapestries, and were overlooked by\\ntowers and galleries, decorated with hangings, pennants, shields, and\\nbanners. Here, dressed in their richest robes, were gathered kings,\\nqueens, princes, knights, and ladies. Kings-at-arms, heralds, and pur-\\nsuivants-at-arms the reporters of the occasion stood within or just\\nwithout the arena musicians were posted in separate stands and\\nvalets and sergeants were stationed everywhere, to keep order, to pick\\nup and replace broken weapons, and to raise unhorsed knights. At the\\nsound of the clarions the competing chevaliers, arrayed in full armor\\nand seated on magnificently caparisoned horses, with great plumes\\nnodding above their helmets and ladies ribbons floating from their\\nlances, rode slowly and solemnly into the lists, followed by their several\\nesquires, all gayly dressed and mounted. Sometimes the combatants\\nwere preceded by their chosen ladies, who led them in by gold or silver\\nchains. When all was ready, the heralds cried, Laissez-les aller (let\\nthem go), the trumpets pealed, and from the opposite ends of the arena\\nthe knights dashed at full speed to meet with a clash in the center.\\nShouts of cheer from the heralds, loud flourishes from the musicians,\\nand bursts of applause from thousands of lookers-on, rewarded every\\nbrilliant feat of arms or horsemanship. And when the conquering\\nknight bent to receive the prize from the hand of some fair lady, the\\nwhole air trembled with the cries of honor to the brave, and glory\\nto the victor. But tournaments were not all joyous play. Almost\\nalways some were carried dead or dying from the lists, and in a single\\nGerman tourney sixty knights were killed.\\nArms, Armor, and Military Engines. Mail arinor was composed\\nof metal rings sewed upon cloth or linked together in the shape of\\ngarments. Afterward metal plates and caps were intermixed with it,\\n1 The knight who had been accused and convicted of cowardice and falsehood\\nInciirred a fearful degradation. Placed astride a beam, on a public scaffold, under\\nthe eyes of assembled knights and ladies, lie was stripped of his armor, wliich was\\nbroken to pieces before his eyes and thrown at his feet. His spurs were cast into the\\nfilth, his shield was fastened to the croup of a cart-horse and dragged in the dust,\\nand his charger s tail was cut off. He was then carried on a litter to the church, the\\nburial service was read over him, and he was published to the world as a dead coward\\nand traitor.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0436.jp2"}, "437": {"fulltext": "MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION. 413\\nand in the 15th century a comi)lete suit of 2)Iate armor was worn.\\nThis consisted of several pieces of highly tempered and polished steel,\\nso fitted, jointed, and overlapped as to protect the whole body. It was\\nfastened over the knight with hammer and pincers, so ho could neither\\nget in nor out of it alone, and it was so cumbrous and unwieldy that,\\nonce down, he coidd not rise again. TliTis he was a castle of steel\\non his war-horse, a helpless log wlien overthrown. Boiled leather was\\nsometimes used in place of metal. Common soldiers wore leather or\\nquilted jackets, and an iron skull-cap.\\nThe longhow was to the middle ages what the rifle is to our day.\\nThe English excelled in its use, and their enemies sometimes left their\\nwalls unmanned, because, as was said, no one could peep but he would\\nhave an arrow in his eye before he could shut it. The Genoese were\\nfamous crossbow-men. The bolts of brass and iron sent from their\\nhuge crossbows w^ould pass through the head-piece of a man-at-arms\\nand pierce his brain. Many military arts and defenses used from the\\nearliest times were still in vogue, and so remained until gimpowder\\nwas invented. Indeed, a mediaeval picture of a siege does not striking-\\nly differ from Ninevite sculptures or Theban paintings, either in the na-\\nture of its war-engines or in the perspective art of the drawing itself.\\nEducation and Literature. During the llth and 12th centm-ies,\\nschools and seminaries of learning were multiplied, and began to ex-\\npand into universities; that of Paris, the City of Letters, taking the\\nlead. Now, also, arose the Scholastic Fhilosophy, which applied the\\nlogic of Aristotle to intricate problems in theology. The Schoolmen\\nbegan with Peter Lombard (d. 1160), a professor in the University of\\nParis, where he had studied under the brilliant Abelard, an eloquent\\nleetm er, now remembered chiefly as the lover of Heloise. Lombard\\nhas been styled the Euclid of Scholasticism. Another noted school-\\nman was Albertus Magnus, a German of immense learning, whose\\nscientific researches brought upon him the reputation of a sorcerer.\\nThe doctrines of Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican monk, and of Duns\\nScotus, a Franciscan, divid d the schools, and the reasonings and\\ncounter-reasonings of Thomists and Scotists filled eoimtless pages with\\nlogical subtleties. The vast tomes of scholastic theology left by the\\n13th century schoolmen amaze and appall the mind with the enormous\\naccumulation of intellectual industry, ingenuity, and toil, of which the\\nsole result to posterity is this barren amazement. Roger Bacon was\\nat this time startling the age by his w^onderful discoveries in science.\\nAccused, like Albert the Great, of dealing with magic, he paid the pen-\\nalty of his advanced views by ten years in prison.\\nWhile in monastery and university the schoolmen racked their brains\\nwith subtle and profound distinctions, the gay French Troubadours,\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2quipped with their ribboned guitars, were flitting from castle to castle,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0437.jp2"}, "438": {"fulltext": "414\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nwhere the gates were always open to them and their flattering rhymes\\nThe D ouvcres supplied the age with allegories, comic tales, and long\\nromances, while the German Minncsdnger (love-singers) numbered\\nkings and princes among their poets.\\nIn Scandinavia, the mythological poems or sagas of\\nthe 8th-10th centuries were collected into what is called\\nthe older Edda (11th or 12th century) and afterward\\nappeared the younger Edda, whose legends linked the\\nNorse race with the Trojan heroes (p. 115). The Ger-\\nman NibelungenUed (12th century) was a collection of\\nthe same ancestral legends woven into a grand epic hy\\nan unknown poet.\\nTo the 13th and 14th centuries respectively, belong\\nthe great poets Dante and Chaucer. About this time a\\nstrong desire for learning was felt among the common\\npeople, it being for them the only road to distinction.\\nThe children of burghers and artisans, whose educa-\\ntion began in the little public school attached to the\\nparish church, rose to be lawyers, priests, and states-\\nmen. The nobility generally cared little for scholarship.\\nA gentleman could always employ a secretary, and the\\nglory won in a crusade or a successful tilt in a tourna-\\nment was worth more to a mediasval knight than the\\nbook-lore of ages. Every monastery had a writing-\\nroom, where the younger monks were employed in tran-\\nscribing manuscripts. After awhile copying became a\\ntrade, the average price being about four cents a leaf\\nfor prose, and two for verse, the page containing thirty\\nlines. Adding price of paper, a book of prose cost not\\nfar from fifty cents a leaf.\\nArts and Architecture. As learning was confined\\nmostly to the Church, art naturally found its chief ex-\\npression in cathedral building. Toward the close of the\\n12th century, the round-arched, Romanesque style gave\\nplace to the pointed-arched, spired, and buttressed edi-\\nsTYLus.i g(jg_ ijijjQ ^gg q\u00c2\u00a3 painted glass for windows crowned\\nCenturies.) the glory of the Gothic cathedral. 2 Religious ideas\\n1 The style, or stylus, was the chief instrument of -vpriting during the middle ages.\\nWith the pointed end the letters were cut on tlie waxen tablet, while the rounded\\nhead was used in making erasures. If the writing was to be preserved, it was after-\\nwaid copied by a scribe on parchment or vellum with a rude reed pen, which was\\ndipped in a colored liquid. The stylo was sometimes made of bone or ivory, some-\\ntimes of glass or iron, while those used by persons of rank were made of gold or\\nsilver, and were often ornamented with curious figures.\\nThe Italians relied more on brilliant frescoes and Mosaics for interior effect;", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0438.jp2"}, "439": {"fulltext": "MEDIAEVAL CIVILIZATION\\n415\\nwere expressed in designs and carvings. Thus the great size and lofti-\\nness of the interior symbolized the Divine Majesty; the high and\\npointed towers represented faith and hope and, as the rose was\\nmade to signify human life, everywhere on windows, doors, arches, and\\ncolumns, the cross sprang out of a rose. So, too, the altar was i)laced\\nat tlie East, whence the Saviour came, and was raised three steps to\\nindicate the Trinity. These mighty structures were the work often\\nof conttu-ios. The Cologne Cathedral was begun in 1248 its chancel\\nwas finished in 1320 but the lofty spire was not completed till our\\nI own day.\\nThe Guilds and Corpora-\\ntions of the middle ages were\\na great power, rivaling the in-\\nfluence of the nobles, and fre-\\nquently controlling the munici-\\npal government.\\nCOLOGNE CATHEDRAL.\\nManners and Customs. Extravagance in dress, equipage, and\\ntable marked all high life. Only the finest cloths, linens, silks, and\\nvelvets, adorned with gold, pearls, and embroidery, satisfied tlie tastes\\nof the nobility. 1 In the midst of the Hundi ed- Years War England\\nthe French ami English cathedrals excelled in painted glass. Nothing can compare\\nwith the paitj^-colored glories of the windows of a perfect Gothic cathedral, wliere the\\nwhole history of tlie Bible is written in the hues of the rainbow. Fcrfirusso?*.\\n1 Men took the lead in fashion. Once peaked shoes were worn, the points two feet\\nlong; then the toes became six inclies broad. A fop of tlio 14th ct-ntury wore long-\\npointed shoes, fastened to his knees by gold and silver chains; liose of one color\\non one leg and of another on the other; knee breeches; a coat one half white, the", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0439.jp2"}, "440": {"fulltext": "416\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nand France carried on a rivalry of splendor and expense. Delicacies\\nfrom Constantinople, Palestine, Phoenicia, Alexandria, and Babylon\\nwere served at royal entertainments. The tables blazed with gold and\\nsilver plate, yet had not the\\nrefinement of a fork, and\\nfingers were thrust into the\\nrich dishes or tore the greasy\\nmeats into bits. A knight\\nand his lady often ate from\\nthe same plate, and soaked\\ntheir crnsts of bread in the\\nsame cup of soup. Men and\\nwomen sat at table with their\\nhats on, although it was the\\nheight of bad manners to\\nkeep on gloves during a visit,\\nand a personal insult to take\\nthe hand of a friend in the\\nstreet without first unglov-\\ning. Great households were\\nkept up, and kings enter-\\ntained as many as 10,000 per-\\nsons daily at the royal board.\\nThe lower orders aped the\\nhigher, and Sumptuary Laws were made to protect the privileges of the\\nnobility, not only in dress but also in food.\\nMALE COSTUME,\\n(nth and 12th Centuries.)\\nFEMALE COSTUME.\\n(11th and 12th Centuries.)\\nMOVAHLE IRON CAGE (15TH CENTURY),\\nOther blue or black a Ions beard a silk hood buttoned under his chin, embroidered\\nwith quaint figures of animals, and ornamented with gold, silver, and precious stones.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0440.jp2"}, "441": {"fulltext": "READING REFERENCES. 417\\nPunishments were barbarous and severe. The gallows and the\\nrack were ever at work. Chopping off of hands, putting out of eyes,\\nand cutting off of ears, were common affairs. The most ingenious tor-\\ntures were devised, and hanging was the mildest death allowed to\\ncriminals.\\nSummary (see p. 315). The 5th and 6th centuries were charac-\\nterized by the settlements of the Teutons in Roman territory. The\\n7th century was marked by the rise of Mohammed and the spread\\nof the Saracen Empire. The 8th century saw the growth of the\\nFrankish power, culminating in the empire of Charlemagne. The\\n9th century witnessed the welding of the Saxon sovereignties into\\nEngland the breaking-up of Charlemagne s empire into France, Ger-\\nmany, and Italy; and the founding of Russia by Normans. The\\n10th century brought Rollo into Normandy, and Capet to the French\\nthrone. The 11th century was made memorable by the Norman Con-\\nquest of England the overthrow of the Greek-Saracen rule in south-\\nern Italy; and the war of the investiture in Germany. The 12th cen-\\ntury saw the Crusades at their height, and the Italian republics in their\\nglory. Tlie 13th century built up France, and granted Magna Charta\\nto England. The l-lth century witnessed the Hundred-Years War and\\nfree Switzerland. The 15th century is memorable for the deliverance\\nof France the Wars of the Roses the Conquest of Granada, with the\\nrise of Spain the fall of Constantinople and the discovery of America.\\nREADING REFERENCES.\\nGeneral Rjstohy. \u00e2\u0080\u0094JIallam s Middle Ayes.\u00e2\u0080\u0094I^utz and Arnold s Mediceval His-\\ntory.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Schmitz s Middle Ages.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Freeman s General Sketch of European History.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nFinlay s History of the Byzantine E)npire.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Milman s History of Latin Christianity.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nDraper s Intellectual Development of Europe.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Creasy s Fifteen Decisive Battles.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nGuizofs History of Civilization.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Menzies s History oflfiddle Ages.-Tlie Beginning\\nof the Middle Ages (Epochs of History Series).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Duruy s Histoire du Moyen Age.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nFreeman s Historical Geography of Europe {invaluable in tracing obscure geograph-\\nical changes).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Robertson s Charles V. (Introduction on Middle Ages) .\u00e2\u0080\u0094Sullivan s His-\\ntorical Causes and Effects.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Dunham s Middle Ages.- Adams s Manual of Historical\\nLiterature (an excellent bibliographical guide).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lacroiz s Manners and Customs.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nScience and Literature, and Military and Keligious Life, of the Middle Ages.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nMaclear s Apostles of Mediceval Europe.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Wright s Homes of the Middle Ages, and\\nWomankind in Western Europe.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Kingsley 8 Roman and Teuton.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Baring Gould 8\\nCurious Myths of the Middle Ages.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Cox and Jones s Romances of the Middle Ages.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nOliphant s Francis of Assisi.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 George Eliot s Romola.\\nTHE CuusADKS AND CmvxLUX.-Cox s Crusades.-MieTiaud s History of the Cru-\\nsades Mackay s Popular Delusions, art. The Crusades.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Addison s History of the\\nKnights Templars.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Tasso s Jerusalem Delivered (poetry).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Chronicles of the Crusades\\n(Bohn s Library).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Bell s Studies of Feudalism.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Chronicles of Froissart (xmrivaled\\npictures of chivalry).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Scott s Ivanhoe, Talisman, and Anne of Geierstein.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Bulfinch s\\nAge of CJiivalry.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Adams s Mediceval Civilization.\\nENGLANU.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ifitm 3 Knight s, Green s, Lingard s, Creasy s, Keightley s, Collier s,\\nFroude s, and Gardiner s Histories of England.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Pearson s History of England, Early", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0441.jp2"}, "442": {"fulltext": "418\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES,\\nand Middle Ages.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Freeman s Norman Conquest\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Thompson s History of England\\n(Freeman s Historical Course).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Thierry s History of the Norman Conquest\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Pal-\\ngrave s Normandy and England.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 CoT)Vs History of the Norman Kings of England.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nGreen s Making of England.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Freeman s Old English History.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Norman Kings\\nand Feudal System,- the Early Plantagenets Edivard III.; Houses of Lancaster\\nand York (Epochs of History Series).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Smith s History of English Institutions (His-\\ntorical HarM-book Series).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Burton s History of Scotland (the standard authority).\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Strickland s Lives of tlie Queens of England.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Green s Lives of the Princesses of\\nEngland.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 St. John s Four Conquests of England.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Shakspere s King John (Arthur)\\nalso Henry IV., Henry V., Henry VI., and Richard III.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Bulwer s Last of the\\nBarons.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Kingsley s Hereward, the Last of the Saxons.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Babee s Book.\\nFiiAJUCK.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Godwin s (Vol. I.), White s, Smith s, Sismondi s, Michelet s, Bonne-\\nchose s, Markham s, Crowe s, Kitchin s, Yonge s, and Edwards s Histories of France.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Barnes s Brief History of France.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Thierry s History of the Gauls.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Guizot s Pop-\\nular History of France.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Martin s Histoire de France.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Luruy s Histoire de France.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nByron s Childe Harold (Moral).- James s Philip Augustus, Mary of Burgundy, and\\nJacquerie (fiction).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Southey s Joan of Arc (poetry).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Harriet Parr s Joan of Arc-\\nScott s Quentin Burward (fiction).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Jamison s Bertrand du Ghtesclin.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Kirk s Life\\nof Charles the Bold.\u00e2\u0080\u00943Iemoirs of Philippe de Comines.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Bulwer Lytton s translation\\nof the Poem of Sou (Polio).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Bulfinch s Legends of Charlemagne.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 James s Life of\\nCharlemagne.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Scott s Marmion, Canto 6, Stanza 33 (Roland).\\nGF.RMAJiX.- Taylor s, Lewis s, MenzeVs, and Kohlrausch s Histories of Germany.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nBryce s Holy Roman Empire.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Sime s History of Germany (Freeman s Course).\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nCoxe s House of Austria.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Raumer s History of the Hohenstauf en. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Kington s Life of\\nFrederick Il.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Peake s History of the German Emperors.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Abbott s Empire of Aus-\\ntria.- Schiller s Drama of William Tell.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Scott s Ballad of the Battle of Sempach.\\nSPAIN, Italy, Turkey, wyc\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Hunt s Italy (Freeman s Course).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Irving s 3Ia-\\nhomet and his Successors, and Conquest of Granada.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Sismondi s History of Italian\\nRepublics.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Campbell s Life of Petrarch.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Longfellow s Dante.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Roscoe s Life of\\nLorenzo de Medici.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Prescott s History of Ferdinand and Isabella.- Villari s Life of\\nSavonarola.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Gh-imm s Life of Michael Angelo.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Ockley s History of the Saracens.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nSymonds s Renaissance in Italy.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Taine s Art in Italy.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Creasy s History of the Otto-\\nman Turks.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Freeman s History and Conquests of the Saracens.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lytton s Siege of\\nGranada (fiction).\\nCHRONOLOGY.\\nFIFTH CENTURY (Concluded).\\n(See p. 312.)\\nA. D.\\nAttila defeated in battle of Chalons 451\\nClovis wins battle of Soissons 486\\nTheodoric with the Ostrogoths con-\\nquers Italy 489-493\\nClovis becomes a Christian 496\\nSIXTH CENTURY.\\nParis, Clovis s capital 510\\nArthur in Britain (coujectured) 515\\nTime of Justinian 527-565\\nBelisariusin Africa, 533; in Italy.. 536-539\\nSilk Manufacture brought to Europe 551\\nEnd of Ostrogoth Kingdom In Italy. 553\\nLombards conquer Italy 568\\nA. D.\\nBirth of Mohammed 570\\nSt. Augustiue introduces Christian-\\nity into Britain 596\\nSEVENTH CENTURY.\\nTheHegira 622\\nMohammed s Death 632\\nOmar captures Jerusalem 637\\nSixth General Council, at Constan-\\ntinople 680\\nEIGHTH CENTURY.\\nSaracens invade Spain 711\\nMartel overthrows Saracens at\\nToura 732", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0442.jp2"}, "443": {"fulltext": "CHRONOLOGY.\\n419\\nA. I).\\nPepin the Short becomes king.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nCarloviugian Dynasty founded 752\\nGift of Exarchate to Pope 754\\nEmirate of Cordova founded 755\\nCharlemaj^ue becomes sole King of\\nthe Franks 771\\nRattle of Roncesvalles 778\\nllaroun al Raschid, caliph 786\\nSeventh General Council, at Nice... 787\\nDanes first land in Britain, about. 789\\nCharlemagne crowned at Rome 800\\nNINTH CENTURY.\\nDeath of Charlemagne 814\\nEgbert, first King of England 827\\nBattle of Fontenay 841\\nTreaty of Verdun 843\\nRussia founded by Ruric 862\\nAlfred, King of England 871-901\\nTENTH CENTURY\\nAlfred s Death 901\\nRoUo the Norseman founds Nor-\\nmandy 911\\nOtto the Great, Emperor of Ger-\\nmany 936-973\\nHugh Capet crowned founds Cape-\\ntian Dynasty 987\\nELEVENTH CENTURY.\\nCanute (Knut), King of England 1017-35\\nNormans conquer South Italy 1040\\nEdward the Confessor restores Sax-\\non Line in England 1042\\nGuelf and Ghibelline Feud begins 1061\\nNormans conquer England 1066\\nTurks capture Jerusalem 1076\\nFirst Crusade 1096\\nTWELFTH CENTURY.\\nGuiscard of Normandy, King of\\nNaples 1102\\nKnights Templars founded 1118\\nSecond Crusade 1147\\nPiantagenet Line founded 1154\\nHenry II. invades Ireland 1171\\nThird Crusade 1189\\nTHIRTEENTH CENTURY.\\nFourth Crusade 1202\\nWar against Albigenses 1208\\nA. D.\\nBattle of Runnymede.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Jolin grants\\nMagna Cliarta 1215\\nFifth Crusade 1218\\nSixth Crusade 1228\\nGenghis Kli an.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Gregory IX. estab-\\nlislies Inquisition 1233\\nSeventh Crusade 124!\u00c2\u00bb\\nMongols sack Bagdad 1258\\nEighth Crusade 1270\\nHapsburg Line founded 1273\\nTeutonic Order conquers Prussia... 1281\\nEdward I. conquers Wales 1263\\nTurks capture Acre.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 End of Cru-\\nsades 1291\\nEdward conquers Scotland 1295\\nFOURTEENTH CENTURY.\\nPope removes to Avignon 1306\\nWallace executed 1305\\nBattle of Bannockburn 1314\\nBattle of Morgarteu 1315\\nHundred- Years War 1328-1453\\nBattle of Crecy 1346\\nCalais surrendered 1347\\nRienzi, Tribune of Rome 1347\\nBattle of Poitiers 1356\\nPope returns to Rome 1377\\nWat Tyler s Insurrection 1381\\nBattle of Sempach 1386\\nFIFTEENTH CENTURY.\\nJohn IIuss burned 1415\\nBattle of Agincourt 1415\\nJeanne D Arc at Orleans 1428\\nCharles VII. crowned at Rheims 1429\\nJeanne d Arc burned 1431\\nCapture of Constantinople 1453\\nWars of the Roses 1455-85\\nGutenberg prints the first book 1456\\nBattles of Granson, Moral, and Nan-\\ncy (Death of Charles the Bold).. 1476-77\\nLorenzo de Medici at Florence 1478\\nUnion of Castile and Aragon nnder\\nFerdinand and Isabella 1479\\nBattle of Bos worth.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Tudor Line\\nfounded 1485\\nFall of Granada 1492\\nColumbus discovers America 1492\\nCharles VIII. invades Italy 1494\\nVasco da Gama doubles Cape of\\nGood Hope 1497\\nSavonarola burned 1498", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0443.jp2"}, "444": {"fulltext": "420\\nMEDIEVAL PEOPLES.\\nCONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS\\nENGLAND.\\nWilliam r...\\nWilliam II.\\n1066\\n1087\\nHenry 1 1100\\nStephen 1135\\nHenry II 1154\\nKichard 1 1189\\nJohn 1199\\nHenry III 1216\\nEdward 1 1272\\nEdward II 1307\\nEdward III 1327\\nRichard II 1377\\nHenry IV 1399\\nHenry V 1413\\nHenry VI 1422\\nEdward IV 1461\\nEdward V 1483\\nRichard III 1483\\nHenry VII 1485\\nFRANCE.\\nLouis VI\\nLouis VII\\n1108\\n1137\\nPhilip II\\n1180\\nLouis VIII\\nLouis IX\\nPhilip III\\nPhilip IV\\n1223\\n1226\\n1270\\n1285\\nLouis X\\n1314\\nPhilip V\\n1316\\nCharles IV\\n1322\\nPhilip VI\\n1328\\n1350\\nCharles V\\nCharles VI\\n1364\\n1380\\nCharles VII\\nLouis XI\\nCharles VIII\\nLouis XII\\n1422\\n1461\\n1483\\n1498\\nGERMANY.\\nHenry IV 1056\\nHenry V 1106\\nLothaire II 1125\\nConrad III 1138\\nFrederick Barbarossa 1152\\nHenry VI 1190\\nPhiUp 1197\\nOtto IV 1209\\nFrederick II 1215\\nConrad IV 1250\\nRudolf 1273\\nAdolphus 1292\\nAlbert 1 1298\\nHenry VII 1308\\nLewis IV 1314\\nFrederick the Fair 1314\\nCharles IV 1347\\nWenceslaus 1378\\nRupert 1400\\nSigismund 1410\\nAlbert II 1438\\nFrederick III 1440\\nMaximilian 1 1493\\nGOLD FLOKLN, LOUIS 1\\\\.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0444.jp2"}, "445": {"fulltext": "MODERN PEOPLES.\\nThe human mind wrote History and this must read it. The Sphinx must\\nsolve her own riddle. Every fact narrated must correspond to something in\\nme to he intelligible. As we read, we must become Greek, Roman, Turk,\\npriest, king, martyr, and executioner we must fasten these images to some\\nreality iu our secret experience, or we shall learn nothing rightly. Each new\\nfact, and each political moment, has a meaning for us. We may see our own\\nvices without heat in the distant persons of Solomon, Alcibiades, and Catiline.\\nWe are to read History actively, not passively to esteem our own life the\\ntext, and books the commentary. Thus compelled, the Muse of History will\\nutter oracles as never to those who do not respect themselves. I have no\\nexpectation that any man will read History aright who thinks that what was\\ndone in a remote age, by men whose names have resounded far, has any\\ndeeper sense than what he is doing to-day.\\nEmerson.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0445.jp2"}, "446": {"fulltext": "BLACKBOARD ANALYSIS.\\nIntroduction.\\nThe 16th\\nCentury.\\nThe 17th\\nCentury.\\nThe 18th\\nCentury,\\nThe 19th\\nCentury.\\nTHE French in Italy.\\n1. Charles VIII.\\n2. Louis XII.\\n3. Francis I.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a22. THE AGE OF CHAULE8 V.\\n1. The Rivalry ol Charles and\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2n Francis.\\nI 2. The Reformation.\\n3. THE RISE OF THE\\nPUBLIC.\\nDUTCH RE-\\nThe Netherlands.\\nThe Reformation.\\nTlie Duke of Alva.\\nThe Forty- Years War.\\n4. THE French\\nWARS.\\nCivil-Religious\\n5. England under the Tudors.\\n1. THE Thirty-Years War,\\nThe Absolute Monarchy in\\nFRANCE.\\nENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS.\\nPERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR.\\n1. The Reformation in France.\\nI 2. Francis II.\\n3. Charles IX.\\nI 4. Henry III.\\nI 5. Henry IV.\\n1. Henry VII.\\n2. Henry VIII.\\n3. Edward VI.\\n4. Mary.\\n5. Elizabeth.\\nCauses.\\nOpening of the War.\\nImperial Triumph.\\nTilly.\\nGustavus\\nAdolphus.\\nb. Leipsic.\\nc. Wallenstein.\\nd. Liitzen.\\ne. Death of\\nGustavus.\\n5. Remainder of War.\\nt 6. Peace of Westphalia.\\n1. Age of Richelieu.\\n2. Age of Louis XIV.\\nr 1. James I.\\n2. Charles I.\\n3. The Civil War.\\n4. The Commonwealth.\\n5. The Restoration. Charles II.\\n6. James II.\\n7. Revolution of 1688. William\\nand Mary.\\n8. Anne.\\n1. PETER The Great and Charles Xll.\\n2. RISE OF PRUSSIA: AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.\\n3. ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF\\nHANOVER.\\n4. The FRENCH REVOLUTION.\\n1. George I.\\n2. George II.\\n3. George III.\\nI 4. See ]9tli Century.\\n1. France.\\nENGLAND.\\nGERMANY.\\nITALY.\\nTURKEY.\\nGREECE.\\nTHE NETHERLANDS.\\nRUSSIA.\\nJAPAN.\\nI 3.\\nLouis XV.\\nLouis XVI.\\nf a. Abolition of\\nFrench Monarcliy.\\nRev- j b. R gn of Tei-ror.\\nolu- c. Directory.\\ntion. d. Consiilate.\\ne. Umpire.\\n(See Analysis of ISth Cent.)\\nThe Restoration.\\nThe Second Republic.\\nThe Second Emiiire.\\nThe Third Republic.\\n[The subdivisions of these\\ngeneral topics may be filled in\\nfrom the titles of the paia-\\ngraphs in tlie text, as the stu-\\ndent proceeds.]", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0446.jp2"}, "447": {"fulltext": "MODERN PEOPLES.\\nGLOISE ILLUSTUATING THE GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE ISTH CENTUKY.\\nINTRODUCTION.\\nThe End of the 15th and the Beginning of the\\n16th Century formed the springtime of a new era. It was\\nan epoch of important events in 1491, Charles VIII. mar-\\nried Anne of Brittany, which united to the French crown the\\nlast of the great feudal provinces in 1492, Granada feU into\\nthe hands of Ferdinand and Isabella, a conquest which estab-\\nhshed the Spanish monarchy in the same year, Columbus", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0447.jp2"}, "448": {"fulltext": "424 MODERN PEOPLES. [15th CENT.\\ndiscovered America^ wliich gave a new world to the old in\\n1494, the Italian wars commenced, and with them the bat-\\ntles and rivalries of the chief European nations; in 1508,\\nRaphael and Michael Angelo were painting in the Vatican at\\nRome, which marked a revolution in art; in 1517, Luther\\nposted his 95 theses on the Wittenberg cathedral door, and\\nso inaugurated the Reformation in 1521, Magellan circum-\\nnavigated the globe, thus giving correct geographical ideas\\nfinally, about 1530, Copernicus finished his theory of the solar\\nsystem, which was the beginning of a new epoch in science.\\nThe Causes of this wonderful change were numerous.\\nThe Crusades kindled a spirit of trade, adventure, and con-\\nquest. Travel at the East enlarged the general knowledge\\nof the earth. The use of the mariner s compass emboldened\\nsailors to undertake long voyages. Large cities had risen to\\nbe centers of freedom, commerce, manufactures, and wealth.\\nThe revival of learning in Italy stirred men s thoughts in\\nevery land. fThe f aU of Constantinople scattered the treas-\\nui*es of Greek literature over the West learned men, driven\\nfrom the East, settled in Europe the philosophy and arts of\\nAthens and Rome were studied with zest each nation felt,\\nin turn, the impulse of the Renaissance and a succession\\nof painters, sculptors, poets, and historians arose such as\\nChristendom had never seen^ There were now nearly forty\\nuniversities in Europe, and students traveling to and fro\\namong them distributed the new ideas, which gradually\\nfound theii^ way into the minds of the masses. Above aU\\nelse, two inventions revolutionized Europe.\\nSfrunpowder^ pierced the heaviest armor, and shattered the\\n1 Gunpowder seems to liave been known to the Chinese at an early day, though\\nRoger Bacon, an English monk of the 13th century, is called its inventor. Its appli-\\ncation to war is ascribed to a German nametl Schwartz (1330), but long before that\\nthe Moors used artillery in the defense of Cordova. The English at Cr6cy had three\\nsmall cannon. The French under Louis XI. invented trunnions, a light carriage, and", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0448.jp2"}, "449": {"fulltext": "J5th cent.]\\nINTRODUCTION.\\n425\\nstrongest wall. The foot-soldier with his musket could })ut\\nto flight the knight-errant with his lance. Standing armies\\nof infantry and artiUery took the place of the feudal levy.\\nThis changed the whole art of war. The king was now\\nstronger tlian the noble.\\nPrinting by means of movable types was invented by\\nGu tenberg of Mentz, who issued in 1456 a Latin Bible.\\nBooks, which had hitherto been laboriously copied on parch-\\nment, were now rapidly multiplied, and the cost was greatly\\nreduced. Cheaper books made new readers. Knowledge\\nbecame more widely diffused.\\nThe Political Condition of Europe was that of great\\ncast-iron shot, thus equipping a weapon scrvicealjle in the fiekl. Charles VIII. owed\\nhis rapid conquest of Italy to his park of liglit artillery that was in striking contrast\\nto the cumbersome Italian bombards dragged about with great difficulty by oxen and\\ntiring stone balls.\\nBGH\u00e2\u0080\u0094 25", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0449.jp2"}, "450": {"fulltext": "426 MODERN PEOPLES. [15th cent.\\nmonarchies, each ready to turn its forces against the others.\\nThe so-called ^States-System now arose. Its object was\\nthe preservation of the Balance of Power, i. e., the prevent-\\ning any one state from getting a superiority over the rest.\\nThence came alliances and counter-alliances among the dif-\\nferent nations, and various schemes of diplomacy that often\\nbewilder the student of modern history.\\nMaritime Discoveries. Up to this time, the known\\nworld comprised only Europe, southwestern Asia, and a\\nstrip of northern Africa. The rich products of the East\\nwei-e still brought to the West by way of Alexandria and\\nVenice. Cape Nun, on the coast of Africa, by its very name\\ndeclared the belief that there was nothing attainable beyond.\\nThe sea at the equator was thought to be boiling hot, and\\nthe maps represented the Occident as bristling with monsters.\\nThe Fortuguese sailors, under the auspices of Prince\\nHenry and King John II., ventured each voyage further\\nsouth, crossed the dreaded equator, and, sailing under the\\nbrighter stars of a new hemisphere, league by league explored\\nthe African coast, until finally Diaz (1487) doubled the con-\\ntinent. The southern point he well named the Cape of\\nStorms but King John, seeing now a way to reach India\\nby sea, rechristened it the Cape of Good Hope. Eleven years\\nlater Vasco da Gama realized this sanguine expectation. He\\nrounded the Cape, sailed across the Indian Ocean, landed\\non the Malabar coast, and returned home with a cargo of\\nIndian products. The old routes across the MediteiTanean,\\nthrough Egypt and the Levant, were now nearly abandoned.\\nThe Portuguese soon made a settlement on the Malabar\\ncoast. Their commercial establishments, shipping by sea\\ndirectly to Europe, quickly gathered up the Eastern trade.\\nLisbon, instead of Venice, became the great depot of Indian\\nproducts.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0450.jp2"}, "451": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0451.jp2"}, "452": {"fulltext": "GREAT VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY SINCE THE 15t)", "height": "3393", "width": "2154", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0452.jp2"}, "453": {"fulltext": "RNTUKY AND PRINCIPAL COLONIAL POSSESSIONS\\nFEEJEE 13\\nNEW CALEDONIA\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2NEW AMSTERDAM I.\\nST. PAULS I. i633\\n10\\nJl] J.\\nHkerguelen\\nm2\\n./\\\\p6i6.\\n...CauTc ir^^\\nV?-!\\nENDERBY I\\nI I\\nWILKES LAND ViftOV^*. 5\\n90 120 150^ ^,\\\\vx*i-l 180\\ntTHUTfilM, ItRvMt 4 CO., I\u00c2\u00abC\u00c2\u00bb.. M T.", "height": "3393", "width": "2192", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0453.jp2"}, "454": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0454.jp2"}, "455": {"fulltext": "1498.]\\nINTRODUCTION.\\n427\\nA SHIP OF THE 15TH CENTURY.\\n(From a Drawing attributed to Columbus.\\nColumhuSy meanwhile, in-\\nspii-ed by the same hope of\\nfiudiiig* a sea-route to India,\\nand beheving the earth to be\\nround, sailed westward. He\\nreached, not India, as he sup-\\nposed, but a new world. On\\nhis third voyage, the very\\nyear that Da Gama sailed to\\nAsia, Columbus first saw the\\ncoast of South America.\\nAdventurers of many na-\\ntions now flocked eagerly\\nthrough the door Columbus\\nhad opened. The names\\nof Vespucci, Balboa, Cartier,\\nPonce de Leon, and De Soto are familiar to every student of\\nAmerican history. |Tlie Cabots, saihng under the Enghsh\\nflag, explored the coast of the New World from Labrador to\\nChesapeake Bay. j Cabral, a Portuguese navigator, in 1500,\\ntook possession cfc Brazil in the name of his king. Finally\\nMagellan passed through the strait still known by his name,\\nand crossed the Pacific to the Philippine Islands there he\\nwas killed by the savage natives, but one of his ships, con-\\ntinuing the voyage, circumnavigated the globe (1521).\\nMexico, when discovered by the Spaniards, had reached,\\nunder the Montezumas, its Aztec rulers, a considerable\\ndegree of civilization. Its laws were written in hiero-\\ngl;y^hics j its judges were chosen for life its army was fui\\nnished with music, hospitals, and surgeons; its calendar\\nwas more accurate than the Spanish its people were skilled\\nin agriculture and the arts and its capital, Mexico, was sup-\\nplied with aqueducts, and adorned with palaces and temples.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0455.jp2"}, "456": {"fulltext": "428 MODERN PEOPLES. [1519-21.\\nThe Aztecs, however, were idolaters and cannibals and their\\ncivilization was ignorant of horse, ox, plow, printing, and\\ngunpowder.\\nCortes^ with a little army of 600 Spaniards, fearlessly\\ninvaded this powerful empii-e. His cannon and cavalry car-\\nried terror to the simple-minded natives. A war of three\\nyears, crowded with romance as with cruelty, completed the\\nconquest. Mexico remained a province of Spain until 1821.\\nPeru, under the Incas, was perhaps richer and more pow-\\nerful than Mexico. Two great military roads extended the\\nentire length of the empire, and along them the public cou-\\nriers carried the news 200 miles per day. A vast system of\\nwater- works, more extensive than that of Egypt, irrigated\\nthe rainless regions, and agriculture had attained a high\\ndegree of perfection. The government was paternal, the\\nland being owned by the Inca, and a portion assigned to\\neach person to cultivate. Royal officers directed the indus-\\ntry of this great family in tillage, weaving, etc., and, though\\nno one could rise above his station, it was the boast of the\\ncountry that every one had work, and enjoyed the comforts\\nof life.\\nPizarro, an unprincipled Spanish adventurer, overthrew\\nthis rich empire (1533), and imprisoned the Inca. The un-\\nfortunate captive offered, for his ransom, to fill his cell with\\ngold vessels as high as he could reach j but, after he had\\ncollected over $15,000,000 worth, he was strangled by his\\nperfidious jailers.\\nThe Spanish Colonies rarely prospered. In Mexico, Cortes sought\\nto rule wisely. He sent home for priests and learned men founded\\nschools and colleges; and introduced European plants and animals.\\nBut, on his return to Spain, he became, like Columbus, a victim of\\ningratitude, though he had given to the emperor Charles V. more\\nstates than Charles had inherited cities,\\nIn general, the Spanish governors destroyed the native civilization,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0456.jp2"}, "457": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION.\\n429\\nwithout introducing the Eui opean. The thirst for gold was the princi-\\npal motive that drew them to the New World. The natives were por-\\ntioned among the conquerors, and doomed to work in the mines. It is\\nsaid that four lifths of the Peruvians perished in this cruel bondage.\\nThe kind-hearted Las Casas, the apostle of the Indians, spent his life\\nin vainly seeking to alleviate their miseries, convert them to Christi-\\nanity, and obtain for them governmental protection. To supply the\\nfearful waste of the population, negroes were brought from Africa, and\\nso slavery and the slave-trade were established. The Spaniards turned\\nto agriculture only when gold-hunting ceased to pay and, not being a\\ntrading people, their colonial commerce fell chiefly into the hands of\\nforeigners. For a time, however, the Spanish coffers were running\\nover with American gold and silver.\\nREADING REFERENCES.\\nHeereiV 8 Manual.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Dyer s History of Modern Europe.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Heeren s Historical Trea-\\ntises. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Yonge s Three Centuries of Modern History .\u00e2\u0080\u0094Arnold s Lectures on Modern\\nHistory.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Thalheimer s Manual of Modern History.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 MicheleVs Modern History.-\\nBuruy s Histoire des Temps Modernes.-Irving s Life of Columbus.- Parkinan s Pio-\\nneers of France.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Help s Spanish Conquest of America.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PrcscotVs Ferdinand and\\nIsabella {Columbus).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Wallace s Fair God (fiction).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Barnes s Brief Hist, of the U. S.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Barnes s Popular Hist, of the U. S.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Squier s Ancient Peru, Harper s May., Vol. 7.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nAbbott s Cortez, Harper s 3fag., Vol. 12.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Abbott s Columbus, Harper s Mag., Vol. 38.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Higginson s Spanish Discoveries, Harper s Mag., Vol. 65.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Eggleston s Beginning\\nof a Nation, Century Magazine, Vol. 2b.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Fitzgerald s Kings of Europe and their\\nFamilies (excellent for genealogy).\\nTOMB OF COLUMBUS AT HAVANA.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0457.jp2"}, "458": {"fulltext": "480 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\nI. THE FRENCH IN ITALY.\\nThe Invasion of Italy (1494) by the French may be\\nconsidered the opening event of modern history. The many\\nleagues formed during the progress of this invasion, illus-\\ntrate the growth of the new States- System.\\nCharles VIII. (1483-98), filled with dreams of rivaling\\nAlexander and Charlemagne, resolved to assert the claim of\\nhis house to the kingdom of Naples.^ Milan, Florence, and\\nRome opened their gates to his powerful army. He entered\\nNaples amid the acclamations of the populace. This bril-\\nliant success turned the head of the weak king, and he gave\\nhimself up to feasts and tournaments. Meanwhile the first\\nextended league in modern history was formed by Milan,\\nVenice, the Pope, Maximilian of G-ermany, and Ferdinand\\nof Spain, to expel the invader. Charles retreated as hastily\\nas he had come, and by the victory of Fornovo secured his\\nescape into France.\\nLouis XII. (1498-1515), inheriting the schemes of\\nGeographical Questions.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Locate Naples Milan Fornovo Venice Pavia\\nMarignano; Genoa; Vienna; Wittenberg; Augaljurg; Sraalcald; Nuremberg;\\nInnsbruck Passau Trent Guinegate Calais Toul Verdun Rouen Crespy\\nPassy Ivry Nantes Antwerp Leyden Amsterdam Haarlem Ghent Edin-\\nburgh Flodden Plymouth. Point out the seven provinces of Northern or United\\nNetherlands the limits of the Spanish Empire in the 16th century.\\n1 The Dukes of Anjou, a branch of the House of France (p. 355), having been\\nexpelled from Italy, became established in the petty principality of Provence. After\\nthe death of Ren6, who, according to Shakspere, bore\\nThe style of king of Naples,\\nOf both the Sicilies and Jerusalem,\\nYet not so wealthy as an English yeoman,\\nthe province and the claim of the house fell to Louis XI. (Brief Hist. France, p. 106).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0458.jp2"}, "459": {"fulltext": "1494.]\\nTHE FRENCH IN ITALY.\\n431\\nCharles VIII. with a claim to Milan, led the second expedi-\\ntion over the Alps. Milan quickly fell into his hands. An\\narrangement was made Avitli Ferdinand to divide Naples\\nbetween them but the conquerors quarreled over the spoil,\\nand the French army, in spite of the heroism of the Cheva-\\nlier Bayard, was beaten back from Naples by the Spanish\\ninfantry under the Great Captain Gonsalvo.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0459.jp2"}, "460": {"fulltext": "432\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1508.\\nThree Leagues. Louis next joined the League of Camhrai\\n(Ferdinand, Maximilian, and Pope Julius II.) against Venice.\\nJust as the fall of that repubhc seemed at hand, jealousies\\narose among the confederates. Pope Julius suddenly turned\\nthe scale by forming the Holy League (Ferdinand, Maxi-\\nmiUan, Venice, and the Swiss), which drove the French out of\\nItaly. But Louis, now allied with Venice, again descended\\nupon Milan. TJie League of Malines (Ferdinand, Maximihan,\\nHenry VIII., and Leo X.) stayed his steps anew. Henry\\nVIII. invaded France, and at Guinegate the French cavalry\\nfled so fast before him that the victory is known as the Bat-\\ntle of the Spurs. Louis, beaten on aU sides, was glad to\\nmake peace,\\nFrancis I. (1515-47), also lured by the deceitful luster\\nof Italian conquest, be-\\ngan his reign by pour-\\ning his troops over tne\\nAlps, through paths\\nknown only to the\\nchamois-hunter. The\\nSwiss mercenaries\\nguarding the passes\\nwere taken by surprise,\\nand finally beaten in\\nthe bloody battle of\\nMarignano (1515).\\nThe French were in-\\ntoxicated with joy.\\nFrancis was dubbed a\\nknight on the field by\\nthe Chevalier Bayard. Milan feU without a blow. The\\nSwiss made with France a treaty know^n as the Perpetual\\nPeace, since it lasted as long as the old French monarchy.\\nFRANCIS I. (AFTElt TITIAN).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0460.jp2"}, "461": {"fulltext": "THE AGE OF CHARLES V. 433\\nII. THE AGE OF CHARLES V.\\n1. THE RIVALRY OF CHARLES AND FRANCIS.\\nSpain was now the leading power in Europe. Ferdi-\\nnand ruled Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, and vast regions\\nin tlie New World, the gift of Columbus to the Castilian\\ncrown w^liile his daughter Joanna was married to Philip,\\nson of Maximilian of Austria, and of Mary, daughter of\\nCharles the Bold. Wlien Charles, son of Philip, on the\\ndeath of his grandfather Ferdinand, succeeded to the\\ncrown of Spain, he added the Low Countries to its pos-\\nsessions and on the death of his other grandfather, Maxi-\\nmihan, he inherited the sovereignty of Austria, and was\\nelected Emperor of Germany (1519). It was the grandest\\nempu-e Europe had seen since the days of Augustus, unit-\\ning, as it did, under one scepter, the infantry of Spain, the\\nlooms of Flanders, and the gold of Peru.\\nCharles s Rivalry with Francis. Francis I. had been\\na candidate for the imperial crown, and his vanity was sorely\\nhurt by Charles s success. Henceforth these two monarchs\\nwere bitter enemies. Their rivahy deluged Europe in blood.\\nField of the Cloth of Gold (1520).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Before begin-\\nning hostilities, both kings sought to win the friendship of\\nHenry VIII. Francis met Henry near Calais. The mag-\\nnificence displayed gave to the field its name. The two\\nkings feasted and played together like schoolboys.^ Henry\\nswore not to cut his beard until he should again visit his\\ngood brother Francis made a like vow, and long beards\\nbecame the latest French fashion.\\nBut Charles negotiated more quietly, and, w^hile he flat-\\ntered the bluff and good-natured Henry, won his all-power-\\n1 The three mightiest sovereigns of Europe in the first lialf of the IGth century\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nHenry VIII. of England, Charles V. of Spain, and Francis I. of France\u00e2\u0080\u0094 were all\\ncrowned before reaching their majority.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0461.jp2"}, "462": {"fulltext": "434\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1520.\\nful minister, Cardinal Wolsey, by hopes of the papacy. A\\nleague was soon after formed of the Pope, the Emperor, and\\nthe King of England, against Francis.\\nFIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD.\\nBattle of Pa via (1525). Italy was again the principal\\nbattlefield. Francis, anxious to renew the glories of Marig-\\nnano, led a magnificent army across the Alps, and besieged\\nPavia. There he was attacked by the imperialists under\\nBourbon.^ At first the French artillery swept all before it.\\n1 The Duke of Bourbon was Constable of France; but, liaving been neglected, by\\nthe king and wronged by the queen-mother, he fled to the enemy for revenge, drove\\nthe French out of Italy, and invaded Provence. Francis forced the imperialists back,\\nand followed them across the Alps, tlius beginning the fatal campaign of Pavia. Dur-\\ning the French retreat, Chevalier Bayard was struck by a ball (1524). Bourbon, coming\\nup, offered him words of clieer. The dying hero replied, Think rather of yourself in\\narms against j ^our king, your coiintrj and your oath The universal horror felt in\\nFrance at Bourbon s treachery shows the increased sanctity of the royal autlioiity\\nover feudal times, and the influence of the recent irvival of classic literature wliich\\ntaught treason to one s country to be a crime of tlie blackest dye. The nobles wlio\\njoined in the League of the Public Good with Charles the Bold against Louis XI.\\nwere not considered traitors, yet that was little over half a century before (Biief\\nHist France, p. 115).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0462.jp2"}, "463": {"fulltext": "1525.] THE AGE OF CHARLES V. 435\\nFrancis, thinking the enemy about to flee, charged with his\\nkniglits in so doing, he came in front of liis guns, and tluis\\nchecked their fire. Thereupon the imperiaUsts ralUed, and\\na terrible hand-to-hand conflict ensued. The flower of the\\nFrench nobles was cut down. The Swiss, forgetting their\\nancient valor, fled. Francis himself, hemmed in on all\\nsides, wounded, unhorsed, and covered with blood and dust,\\nat last yielded his sword.\\nTreaty of Madrid. The royal prisoner was carried to\\nMadrid, and confined in the gloomy tower of the Alcazar.\\nThere, pining in captivity, he fell sick. The crafty emperor,\\nfearing to lose the ransom, released him, on his agi ceing to\\nsiuTcnder Burgundy and his Italian claims, and give up his\\ntwo sons as hostages. On the way home, Francis vapored\\nmuch about Regulus, but quickly broke his promise,^ and\\nsigned a treaty with the Pope, Henry, and the Venetians, to\\ndi-ive the imperialists out of Italy.\\nSack of Rome. Charles now sent Bourbon into Italy.\\nHis men being unpaid and eager for plunder, he led them to\\nRome as the richest prize. Bourbon was shot as he was\\nplacing a ladder, but the infuriated soldiery quickly scaled\\nthe walls. Never had the Eternal City suffered from Goth\\nor Vandal as she now did from the subjects of a Christian\\nemperor. The Pope himself, besieged in the Castle of St.\\nAngelo, and forced to surrender, was put into close confine-\\nment till he should pay an enormous ransom.^ The sack\\nlasted for months, during which every kind of insult and\\nHe had already provided for this, for, a few lioiirs before signinj^ the treaty, he\\nhad called togetlier some faithful friends and formally read to tliem a ))roteHt against\\nthe act lie was about to perform, insisting that, as a forced measure, it should bo\\nconsidered null and void. Then, with the expressed expectation of breaking it, he\\nsigned tlu^ treaty, pledged to it the royal word, and confirmed that pledge with a\\naolenin oath.\\n2 When Charles learned that the Pope was a prisoner, he ordered his court into\\nmourning, and, with strange hypocrisy, directed prayers to be said for the release\\nwhich he could have effected by a word.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0463.jp2"}, "464": {"fulltext": "436 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1527.\\noutrage was visited upon the unhappy Romans. Henry and\\nFrancis^ who were preparing to invade the Low Countries,\\nchanged the scene of war upon hearing of the Pope s cap-\\ntivity, and the French troops, supported by English money,\\nwere sent under Lautrec to Rome. A fearful plague, which\\ncarried off conquerors as well as inhabitants, nad preceded\\nthem, and when they arrived, of all Bourbon s host, scarcely\\n500 men survived to evacuate the city.\\nLadies Peace (1529). Ere long, however, the French\\nmet with their usual defeat in Italy 5 Andi-ea Doria, the\\nfamous Genoese patriot, going over to Charles, became admi-\\nral of the Spanish fleet and so Francis, anxious to recover\\nhis sons from the emperor, concluded a treaty. As it was\\nnegotiated by the king s mother and the emperoi^s aunt, it\\nis known in history as the Ladies Peace.\\nThe Turks. Meanwhile Charles had found a new foe,\\nand Francis a singular ally. The Turks, under Sultan Soly-\\nman the Magnificent, using the cannon that breached the\\nwalls of Constantinople, had driven the Knights of St. John\\nout of the Isle of Rhodes;^ subdued Egypt; devastated\\nHungary and even appeared under the walls of Vienna\\n(1529). Menaced thus, Charles, notwithstanding his Italian\\ntriumphs, was very willing to listen to the ladies, when, as we\\nhave seen, they talked of peace. Soon after, however, Soly-\\n1 The knights made a gallant tlefeiise, a single man with his arquebus being said\\nto have shot five hundred Turks. Tliirty-two Turkish mines were destroyed, but\\nfinally one burst, throwing down a part of the city wall. The Grand Master, L Isle\\nAdam, rushed from the church where he was at prayer, only to find the Crescent\\nalready planted in the opening. He instantly dashed into the midst of the Turks,\\ntore down the standard, and, with his brave knights, drove tliem back. For thirty-\\nfour nights he slept in the breach. At last, sorely against his will, the Hospitallers\\nagreed to surrender their stronghold. L Isle Adam sailed away with the survivors.\\nCliarles gave him the rocky island of Malta. There he established a well-nigh im-\\npregnable fortress for the benefit of distressed seamen of every nation.\\n2 The Hungarian king having been slain in tlio battle of 3roUac8 (1526), the crown\\nultimately fell to liis brother-in-law, Ferdinand of Austria, afterward emperor. It\\nhas ever since been held by the Archdukes of Austria (p. 385).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0464.jp2"}, "465": {"fulltext": "1529.] THE AGE OF CHARLES V. 437\\nman, having made an alliance with Francis, who cared less\\nfor differences of faith than for revenge upon the emijeror,\\nraised a vast army, and, again wasting Hungary, threatened\\nVienna. The flower and strength of Germany ralHed under\\nCharles s banners, and forced the infidel to an inglorious\\nretreat.\\nThe emperor next sought to cripple the Turkish power by\\nsea. Crossing the Mediterranean, he attacked Tunis, which\\nBarbarossa, the Algerine pii ate in command of Solyman s\\nfleet, liad seized. In the midst of the desperate struggle\\nthat ensued, ten thousand Christian slaves, confined in the\\ncastle, broke their fetters, and tui-ned its gims upon then-\\nmasters. The city was carried by assault. The prison doors\\nwere opened, and the released captives were sent home, to\\nthe joy of all Christendom.\\nThe Pope finally mediated a truce between the rivals.\\nCharles, while en route to Flanders, visited Paris. Francis,\\nin an ecstasy of hospitality, exclaimed to his late enemy,\\nHere we are united, my brother and I. We must have the\\nsame foes and the same friends. We will equip a fleet\\nagainst the Turks, and Andrea Doria shall be the comman-\\nder. Brave words all, but soon forgotten.\\nThe emperor, thinking to blunt the edge of the Turkish\\nsaber by a second expedition against the African pirates,\\nsailed to Algiers but his ships were destroyed by a storm,\\nand his troops by a famine Francis seized the opportunity,\\nand raised five great armies to attack Charles s wddespread\\nempire. Solyman invaded Hungary, and Barbarossa ravaged\\nthe coasts of Spain and Italy. Europe was amazed to see the\\nlilies of France and the crescent of Mohammed appear before\\nNice, and Christian captives sold by the corsairs in the mar-\\nket of Marseilles. It seemed as if the days of Martel had\\nretui ned, and there was again peril of a Mohammedan", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0465.jp2"}, "466": {"fulltext": "438 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1544.\\nempire girding the Mediterranean; only the infidels were\\nnow l)rutal Turks instead of refined Saracens.\\nTreaty of Crespy (1544). Bnt this was not to be.\\nHenry renewed his alliance with Charles, and they invaded\\nFrance from opposite sides. Charles was beaten at Ceri-\\nsolles, but Henry pushed to within two days march of\\nParis. Ali eady its citizens, panic-struck, had begun to\\nmove their valuables to Rouen, when Francis sued for\\npeace. The Treaty of Crespy ended the wars of these\\nmonarchs, that for nearly twenty-five years had been so\\nfruitful of wrong and misery.\\n2. AFFAIRS IN GERMANY.\\nPolitical Contentions. Germany has been defined at\\nthis period as one confused mass of electorates, duchies,\\nearldoms, bishoprics, abbeys, imperial free cities and estates\\nof the nobility, which, whether great or small, refused to\\nyield to one another, and jealously asserted their independ-\\nence. The result was a constant struggle and contention.\\nThe emperor and the states were unceasingly at variance\\nconcerning the administration of the laws and matters\\nof revenue princes fought with one another over the ex-\\ntension of territorial dignities; knights warred against\\nprinces over their respective rights, and, forming themselves\\ninto bodies of freebooters, made every highway a scene of\\nrobbery and murder; while the cities, whose wealth and\\ninfluence excited the hatred of both knights and princes,\\nwere internally convulsed with bloody quarrels between\\ncivic authorities and the various guilds. Last of all, the\\npeasantry, always chafing under their numerous grievances,\\nbroke out into occasional insurrections, which were char-\\nacterized by shocking barbarities and quelled by equally\\nmerciless proceedings.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0466.jp2"}, "467": {"fulltext": "1517.] THE AGE OF CHARLES V. 439\\nReligious Crisis. Up to this period, although from\\ntime to time serious doetrinal disputes liad arisen, each of\\nwhich had left its bitter traces, the See of Rome had main-\\ntained its jmisdiction over all the nations in western\\nEurope. During the reign of Maximilian,^ however, a con-\\ntroversy was begun which was to lead to a division of\\nChristendom into two conflicting and irreconcilable reli-\\ngious parties. This general movement is known as The\\nRefoymafion.\\nMartin Luther s Theses. There appeared one day\\non the cathedral door in Wittenberg a Latin document con-\\ntaining ninety-five theses, or propositions, in which Martin\\nLuther,^ an Augustinian monk, challenged all learned men\\nto a public controversy upon certain tenets and practices of\\nhis time. Printed copies of this document quickly found\\ntheii* way into every part of Germany, and awakened intense\\nexcitement. Bitter controversies followed, and in the same\\nyear that Charles was elected emperor the ban of excom-\\nmunication was pronounced against Luther unless he should\\nretract his doctrines. Luther repUed by publicly burning\\nthe papal buU. The schism had now become extreme.\\n1 Maximilian was brave, handsome, learned, of powerful frame, and gentle tem-\\nper. In him, sa5 s Kohlrausch, was personified for the last time chivahy iu all\\nits glory. His financial perplexities are prominent features in the history of his\\nreign. As he was always in straits for money wlien a critical moment arrived, he\\nhas been given the title of The Penniless. At tliis time most of the revenues for-\\nmerlj enjoyed by the Crown were claimed by the estates, and even so insignificant a\\nlevy for the imperial treasury as tlie penny-tax, viz., the payment by each subject of\\none penny for every thousand pence possessed, was stoutlj contested. This chronic\\nlack of funds seriously afifected the success of Maximilian s many projects.\\nMartin Lutlier was born 1483; died, 1546. His fatlier was a poor wood-cutter,\\nand at fifteen Martin became a wandering scholar (see p. 476) in Eisenach, earn-\\ning his bread, after tlu; custom of tlieday, by singing in the streets. His diligence,\\nstudiousness, and sweet voice won tlie boj many friends, and finally, liis father be-\\ncoming able to aid him, he finished his education at the Univorsitj of Krfurt. The\\nreading of a Bible, then a rare book, and lu-nce chained to a desk in tbe librarj\\nawakened liis thouglit, and, against his father s wish, he entered an Augustine mon-\\nastery. In 1508 he was appointed professor in the University of Wittenberg, just\\nfounded by the Elector Frederick of Saxony.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0467.jp2"}, "468": {"fulltext": "440\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1521.\\nThe Diet of Worms (1521).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The emperor Charles\\nheld his first diet at Worms. Thither Luther was sum-\\nmoned to answer for his heresy. All attempts to induce\\nhim to recant were fruitless. He was therefore denounced\\nas a heretic, and he and his supporters were put under the\\nban of the empire.^\\n1 Charles had publicly declared during the diet that he was determined to em-\\nploy all his kingdom, friends, body, blood, and even life, to prevent this godless un-\\ndertaking from spreading. But he had already promised Luther a safe-conduct,\\nand when he was urged to break his word, and not allow Luther to leave the city,\\nhe nobly replied, No! I do not mean to blush like Sigismund (p. 386). Luther s\\nfriends, however, feared for his safety, and by order of one of his stanchest support-\\ners, the Elector Frederick, he was secretly conveyed to the lonely castle of the Wart-\\nburg, where he staid nearly a year. Here lie began the translation of the Bible into\\nGerman,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a work which, aided by Melauchthon and other scholars, occupied him for\\nseveral years. Up to this time there was no language accepted throughout tlio\\nempire. The learned wrote in Latin the minnesingers, in Swabian and many used\\nthe dialects,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Saxon, Franconian, etc. Luther, passing by the diction of the theologi-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0468.jp2"}, "469": {"fulltext": "1529.] THE AGE OF CHARLES V. 441\\nAlter the diet, Cluirles left Gerniany, and, absorbed in his\\ngi eat struggle with Francis, did not return for nine years.\\nMeanwhile the new doctrines rapidly spread into north-\\nern Germany, France, Switzerland, England, Scotland,\\nDenmark, Norway, and Sweden. The Teutonic nations,\\nwith a few exceptions, finally adopted them in some form,\\nwhile the Latin nations remained faithful to the Chnrch\\nof Rome.\\nLutherans called Protestants (1529). Archduke\\nFerdinand, alarmed by the progress of the reformers under\\nLuther and of the Turks under Solyman, called a diet at\\nSpires. The Catholics, being in the majority, passed a\\ndecree forbidding any fiu^ther change in religion. The\\nLutheran princes and cities formally i^rotested against this\\naction, whence they were called Protestants.\\nThe Ladies Peace now giving Charles leisure, he revisited\\nGermany, and held a diet at Augsburg.^ A statement of the\\ncal schools and the courts, sought the expressive idioms employed by the people.\\nFor this purpose he visited the market place and social gatherings, often spending\\ndays over a single x)hrase. No sentence was admitted into the translation untU. it had\\ncrystallized into pure, idiomatic German. The Bible soon became the model of\\nstyle; and its High-German, the standard of cultivated conversation and polite\\nliterature.\\n1 Princes and cities, vexed at the money drained from their people by the Roman\\npontiff, and quite willuig to secure the vast possessions of the Church, saw tlieir inter-\\nests Ij ing along the line of the new faitli. So policy was more Lutheran than reli-\\ngious reform, and they eagerly seized upon this opportunity to emancipate themselves\\nat once from emperor and Pope. Thus tlie Reformation gradually became a struggle\\nfor political power quite as much as for religious freedom.\\n2 Switzerland had its own reformation. Zwingle, the leader, was more radical\\nthan Lutlier. He wished to purifj State as well as Church. After his death in battle\\ntlie people of Geneva invited thither the great French reformer, Calvin. Ecclesiasti-\\ncal courts were established, and a rigid discipline was enforced that reached to the\\nminutest detail of life. Under this despotic rule, Geneva became the most moral city\\nin Europe, and the home of letters and orthodoxy. Calvin s doctrines, more than\\nthose of any other reformer, molded men s minds. The Huguenots, tlie Dutch Wal-\\nloons, the Scotch Presbyterians, and the New England Puritans, all were stamped\\nwith his type of thought.\\n3 Charles was entertained at the splendid mansion of Anthony Fugger, a famous\\nmerchant-prince of Augsburg. At the close of the visit, the host invited the emperor\\ninto his study, and there threw upon a fire of cinnamon\u00e2\u0080\u0094 then a very costly spice\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the\\nbonds which Charles had given him for loans to carry on his wars with Francis.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0469.jp2"}, "470": {"fulltext": "442 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1530.\\nProtestant doctrine was here read which afterward became\\nfamous as the Augsburg Confession^ the creed of the Ger-\\nman reformers. Instead of with one monk, as at Worms,\\nCharles had now to deal with haK of Germany. But he\\nagain denounced the heresy, and put all who held it under\\nthe ban of the empire.\\nSmalcaldic League (1531). The Protestant princes\\norganized at Smalcald for mutual protection. But Soly-\\nman having once more marched upon Vienna, Charles, in\\nthe face of this peril, granted the reformers liberty of con-\\nscience. Forthwith the Protestants and Catholics gathered\\nunder the imperial banner, and the Turks hastily retreated.\\nCharles now left Germany for another nine-years absence.\\nSmalcaldic War (1546-47). The Treaty of Crespy free-\\ning Charles from further fear of Francis, he determined to\\ncrush the Reformation. The Council of Trent (1545-G3)\\nwas called but the Protestants, taking no part in the deliber-\\nations, rejected its decrees. Meanwhile civil war broke out.\\nThe Protestant leaders were irresolute. Prince Maurice of\\nSaxony, deserting his fellow-reformers, joined Charles, and\\noverran the territory of his cousin the Elector Frederick.\\nThe league fell to pieces. Only Frederick and Philip, the\\nlandgrave of Hesse, remained in the field. Charles, bold\\nand wary as ever, defeated and captured the former, while\\nMaurice persuaded the latter, his father-in-law, to siu-render.\\nCharles s Triumph now seemed complete. The boldest\\nProtestant leaders were in prison. The sword of Francis\\nand the pen of Luther were both relics of the past. Ger-\\nmany was at last prostrate before her Spanish lord. A\\nproud and haughty conqueror,^ he brought Spanish infantry\\n1 History, however, records some noble traits in Charles s character. Visiting\\nLuther s grave, one of his attendants urged that the body of the reformer should be\\ndug up and burned. The chivalrous emperor replied, No I I make war on the living,\\nnot on the dead.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0470.jp2"}, "471": {"fulltext": "1548.]\\nTHE AGE OF CHARLES V. 443\\nto overawe the disaffected forced upon the unwilling people\\nthe Interim, a compromise between the two religions, which\\nwas hateful to both Catholics and Protestants and sought\\nto have the succession taken from his brother Ferdinand,\\nand given to his son, the cold and gloomy Philip.\\nMaurice revolts. At this juncture the man who won\\nCharles the victory undid his work. Maurice, impatient of\\nthe name traitor, and indignant at the continued impris-\\nonment of his father-in-law, organized a revolt, and made\\nan alliance with Henry II. of France.\\nTreaty of Passau. Suddenly the confederates took\\nthe field. Henry seized Toul, Verdun, and the strong fortress\\nof Metz, without striking a blow. To escape from Maurice,\\nthe emperor at Innsbruck fled through the stormy night\\nalong the mountain-paths of the Tyrol. The Council of\\nTrent broke up in dread. Charles was forced to bend, and^\\nby the Treatij of Fassaii (1552), the captive princes were\\nreleased and religious toleration was partially secured.\\nCharles s Abdication (1556). Imperial disasters now\\nfollowed fast. Charles tried to recover Metz, but was de-\\nfeated by the Duke of Guise, a French leader then new to\\nfame. The Turkish fleet ravaged the coast of Italy. The\\nPope, offended by the toleration granted the Protestants,\\nmade an alliance with Henry of France. Charles, sad,\\ndisappointed, and baffled, laid down the crown.^ His son\\n1 Maurice, if he had deemed it xvolitic, could have prevented the escape, but, as\\nthe emperor himself ouce said, Some birds are too big for any cage, a truth that\\nCharles well learued after the battle of Pavia.\\n2 He thus followed the famous example of Diocletian (p. 263). After his retire-\\nment Charles went to the monastery of St. Just in Spain. Though only fifty-six, hav-\\ning been born in the same year witli liis ceutury, he was prematurely old,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the victim\\nof glutton J Now, shut in by groves of oak and chestnut and under the shadow of the\\nlofty mountains, the late emperor joined the monks in their religious exercises, or\\namused liimself by various mechanical contrivances,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the making of watches and\\ncurious little puppets. Unable, however, to absorb him.self in his new life, he eagerly\\nwatched the tidings of the busy world he had left behind. One day the morbid fancy\\nBGH\u00e2\u0080\u0094 26", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0471.jp2"}, "472": {"fulltext": "444 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1556.\\nPhilip 11. husband of Mary, Queen of England, received\\nSpain, the Netherlands, and the Two Sicilies; while Fer-\\ndinand of Austria was chosen emperor.\\nEnd of the War. Philip for a time continued the\\nstruggle with France, and won the battle of St. Quentin\\n(1557) ;i but Guise s capture of Calais from the English,\\nwho had held it over two centuries, consoled the French.\\nThe Treaty of Cdteau-Cambresis (1559) closed the long con-\\ntest, and emphasized the division of Europe into Catholic\\nand Protestant nations.\\nThe Condition of Germany during the remainder of the 16th\\ncentury was that of mutual fear and suspicion. The Calvinists were\\nexcluded from the Treaty of Passau, and the feeling between them and\\nthe Lutherans was as bitter as between both and the Catholics. The\\ndifferent parties watched one another with growing dislike and doubt,\\nevery rustling leaf awakening fresh suspicion. Minor divisions arose\\namong the Protestants. Each petty court had its own school of theo-\\nlogians, and the inspiration of the early reformers degenerated into\\nwrangles about petty doctrines and dogmas. No true national life could\\nexist in such an atmosphere. Ferdinand I. and his successor, Maximil-\\nian 11. managed to hold the unsteady balance between the conflicting\\nparties; but under Budolph II., Catholic and Protestant leagues were\\nformed. Mattliias got his cousin Ferdinand chosen king of Hungary\\nand Bohemia on the death of Matthias, Ferdinand II. was elected em-\\nperor (1619). He was a bitter foe of the Reformation, and the closing\\nof two Protestant churches (1618) in his territory proved the signal\\nfor the Thirty-Years War (p. 480).\\nseized liira to have liis funeral services performed. He took part in the solemn\\npageant, standing by the side of his emptj coffin, holding a torch, and chanting a\\ndirge. The real death and funeral followed within three weeks (1558).\\n1 When Charles, in his retirement, heard of this victory, he exclaimed, Is not\\nmy son now in Paris? Philip, however, derived no advantage from it, except the\\nglory of the day and the plan of the huge palace of the Escurial, which is builtin paral-\\nlel rows like the bars of a gridiron, in memory of St. Lawrence, on whose day the bat-\\ntle was fought, and whose martyrdom consisted in being broiled over a slow fire.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0472.jp2"}, "473": {"fulltext": "RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC.\\n445\\nIII. RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC.\\nThe Netherlands, now Holland and Bid^um, by the\\nmarriage of Mary of Burgundy to Maximilian, fell to the\\nHouse of Hapsburg. Wlien her grandson resigned these\\npro\\\\dnces to Philip, they formed the richest possession of\\nthe Spanish Crown. The looms of Flanders were world-\\nrenowned. The manufactories of Ghent had one hundred\\nthousand artisans. In the Scheldt at Antwer}) twenty-five\\nhundred ships were often to be seen Avaiting their tiu-n to\\ncome to the wharfs, while five thousand merchants daily\\nthronged the city exchange.\\nProtestantism had made great progress among the\\nNetherlanders. Phihp, who declared that he would rather\\nbe no king than to reign over heretics, sought to crush the", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0473.jp2"}, "474": {"fulltext": "446 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1567.\\nnew doctrines by the terrors of the Inquisition. The peo-\\nple resisted. Tmnults arose, and many beautiful cathedrals\\nwere sacked by the mob.^\\nThe Duke of Alva was now sent thither with an army\\nof Spanish veterans (1567). Within six years Alva and his\\ndi eaded Council of Blood put to death eighteen thousand\\npersons, and passed sentence of death upon the entire popu-\\nlation. Thousands of workmen, fleeing in terror, carried\\nto England the manufactimng skill of Bruges and Ghent.\\nMeanwhile, William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, known\\nin history as The Silent, took the field in defense of his per-\\nsecuted countrymen. Then began their\\nForty- Years War (1568-1609) for freedom. This long\\nstruggle is memorable in history on account of the heroic\\ndefense the cities made against the Spanish armies.^ The\\n1 A deputation of aobles to piotest against this measure was styled bj^ a scornful\\ncourtier a Pack of Beggars. Tliis being reported to tlie nobles at a banquet, one\\nof them liung about his neck a beggar s wallet, and all drank to the toast, Long\\nlive the beggars The name became thenceforth their accepted title.\\n2 The Netherlands possessed an extraordinarj^ number of magnificent cathedrals,\\nadorned with valuable paintings, statues, and the costly gifts of many worshiping\\ngenerations. In the short space of a Aveek nearly every one of these temples had\\nbeen invaded and the priceless treasures destroyed.\\n3 Haarlem was besieged by Don Frederick, Alva s son, in 1572. Having breached\\nthe defenses, he ordered an assault. Forthwith the church bells rang the alarm.\\nMen and women flocked to the walls. Thence they showered upon the besieg-\\ners stones and boiling oil, and dexterouslj threw down over tlieir necks hoops\\ndripping with burning pitch. Spanish courage and ferocity shrunk back appalled at\\nsuch a determined resistance by an entire population. Don Frederick then took\\nto mining; the citizens countermined. Spaniard and Netherlander met in deadly\\nconflict within passages dimly lighted by lanterns, and so narrow that the daggei\\nonlj could be used. At times, showers of mingled stones, earth, and human bodies\\nsliot high into the air, as if from some concealed volcano. The Prince made several\\nfutile attempts to relieve the city. In one of these, John Haring sprung upon a narrow\\ndike, and alone held in check one thousand of the enemy until his friends made good\\ntheir escape, when, Horatiuslike, he leaped into the sea, and swam off unliarmed\\nHope of rescue finally failed the besieged, and then famine added to their horrors\\nDogs, cats, and mice were devoured; shoe-leather was soaked and eaten; whilw\\ngaunt specters wandered to and fro, eagerly seizing the scattered spires of grass and\\nweeds, to allay tlie torment of hunger. In the last extremity, tlie soldiers proposed\\nto form a hollow square, put the women and children in the center, fire the city, and\\nthen cut their way out. The seven-months siege had taught tlie Spaniards the issue\\nof such a struggle of despair, and they offered terms of surrender. But when Alva s\\nlegions were inside the walls, he forgot all save revenge, butchered garrison and citi-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0474.jp2"}, "475": {"fulltext": "MAP TO ILLUSTRATE\\nWAIIS IN I JliVNCE\\nTHE NETHERLANDS\\nOR LOW COUNTRIES\\nAND THE\\nCivil. WAllS IX ENGLAND\\n*t\u00c2\u00abU IURt, ICIKOtl^ CO.. 1J CI.. il", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0475.jp2"}, "476": {"fulltext": "448 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1576.\\nSilent One, mth his devotion to duty, constancy in adversity,\\nand niarvelons statesmanship, is the central fig^u e of the\\ncontest. In 1576 (two centuries before our 76) he united\\nthe provinces in a leagiie called the Facijication of Ghent.\\nBut the northern and the southern pro^dnces were unlike\\nin race and rehgion. The former were Teutonic, and\\nmostly Protestant; the latter, Celtic, and largely Catholic.\\nJealousies arose. The league fell in pieces. WiUiam then\\nformed the seven northern provinces into the Union of\\nUtrecht, ^the foundation of the Dutch Republic. The Prince\\nwas chosen first stallholder.\\nPhilip, the gloomy tyrant of the Esciu ial, having set a\\nprice upon William s head, this patriot leader was assassi-\\nnated (1584). When the sad news flew thi-ough Holland,\\neven the httle childi*en wept in the streets.\\nMaurice of Nassau, the Prince s second son, was chosen\\nin his father s place. Though only in his seventeenth year,\\nhe proved to be a rare general while at his side stood the\\nzeus alike, and, when the executioners were weary, tied three hundred wretches\\ntogether, two by two, back to back, and hurled them into the lake.\\nLeydeu was besieged by Valdez in 1574. A chain of sixty-two forts cut off all\\ncommunication, except by means of carrier pigeons, which. Hying high in f;r,\\nbore tidings between the Prince and the city. (The stuffed skins of these faithful\\nmessengers are still preserved in the town hall.) Soon famine came, more bitter\\neven, if possible, than that at Haarlem. The starving crowd was at last driven to the\\nburgomaster, demanding food or a surrender. I have sworn not to yield, was the\\nheroic reply but take my sword, plunge it into my breast, and divide my flesh\\namong you. These words raised their courage anew, and, clambering upon the walls,\\nthey took their places again, calling out to the enemy in defiance, Before we give up,\\nwe will eat our left anus to give strength to our right. The Prince had no army to\\nsend to their relief but the Sea Beggars were outside pacing tlie decks of their ships,\\nand chating at the delay. For though the patriots, crying out that a drowned\\nland is better than a lost land, had cut the dikes to let in the ocean upon their fertile\\nlielils, the water was too shallow to float the fleet. One night the tempest came.\\nTlie waters of the North Sea were piled high on the Holland coast. The waves,\\ndriven by a west wind, swept irresistibly over the land. Tlie ships, loaded with\\nfood, were borne to the very walls of the city. The Spaniards, dismayed by the\\nincoming ocean, fled in terror. The happy people flocked with their deliverers to\\nthe cathedral, to pour out tlieir thanksgiving to God. Prayer was oftered, and then\\na hymn begun but the tide of emotion rose too high, and, checking the song, the\\nvast audience wept together tears of joy and gratitude. Read Motley s account in\\nthe Rise of the Dutch Republic.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0476.jp2"}, "477": {"fulltext": "]r)S4.] RISE OP THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. 449\\nskillful diplomat and devoted patriot, John of Barneveld.\\nIn time otli France and En ^land ])ecame allies of the states,\\nand took part in the struggle (pp. 453, 4G4).\\nThe Dutch Sailors early won great renown. Their light,\\nactive ships beat the clumsy Spanish galleons, alike in trade\\nand war. A Dutch Indiaman would sail to the Antipodes\\nand back while a Portuguese or a Spaniard was making the\\noutward voyage. The East India Company, founded in\\n1602, conquered islands and kingdoms in Asia, and can-ied\\non a lucrative trade with China and Japan. Spain and\\nPortugal, pioneers in the East, now bought spices, silks,\\nand gems of Holland merchants.\\nResult of the War. The King of Spain, then Philip III.,\\nwas finally forced to grant a truce, in which he treated with\\nthe seven United Provinces as if free though he refused\\nformally to acknowledge their independence until the Treaty\\nof Westphalia (p. 485). The southern or Belgian pro\\\\dnces\\nremained in the possession of Spain.\\nFree Holland now took her place among the nations.\\nHer fields bloomed Hke a garden her shops rang with the\\n-xotes of industry and her harbors bristled with masts. In\\nthe 17th century she was a power in the European States-\\nSystem, and her aUiance was eagerly courted while Spain\\nfell so rapidly that foreign princes arranged for a di\\\\dsion\\nof her territory without consulting her sovereign.^\\n1 By the expulsion of the remaining Moors, Philip III. drove out of Spain six\\nhundred thousand of her most industrious and thrifty citizens, transferred to other\\ncountries five sixths of her commerce and manufactures, and reduced the revenue\\nover one half. The nation never recovered from this impolitic and unjust act. It\\nshould be remembered, however, that persecution was the spirit of the age. Even\\nthe mild Isabella consented to expel the Jews, to the number of one hundred and\\nsixty thousand; and though this edict caused untold misery, yet at the time it was\\nlauded a a signal instance of piety. Toleration was not understood, even by the\\nreformers of Germany or England, and all parties believed that it was right to\\npunish, 01 if necessary, to bum a man s body, in order to save his soul.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0477.jp2"}, "478": {"fulltext": "450\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\nIV. CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS OF FRANCE.\\nProtestantism took deep root in France, especially\\namong tlie nobility. Though Francis I. and Henry II. aided\\nthe German reformers in order to weaken Charles V., to\\nschism at home they showed no mercy. By the treaties of\\nCrespy and Catean-Cambresis they were pledged to stamp\\nont the new i-eligion. Francis relentlessly persecuted the\\nVaudois, a simple moun-\\ntain folk of the Pied-\\nmont; Henry celebrated\\nthe coronation of his wife,\\nCatharine de Medici,\\nwith a bonfire of heretics,\\nand sought to establish\\nthe Inquisition in France,\\nas had been done in the\\nNetherlands. In spite\\nof persecution, however,\\nCalvinist prayers and\\nhymns were heard even\\nin the royal palace. The\\nHuguenots as the Protestants were called began to claim\\nthe same rights that their German brethren had secured at\\nPassau. Denied these, they organized a revolt. During the\\nreigns of Henry II. s three sons, Francis II., Charles IX.,\\nand Henry III., who successively came to the throne, France\\nwas convulsed by the horrors of civil war.\\nThe Leaders. Tlie Catholic leaders were the Con-\\nstable Montmorenci, and the two Guises, Francis the\\nDuke, and Jiis brother, the Cardinal^ of Lorraine. They\\nwere supported by the Church and Spain.\\nCATHARINE DE MEDICI.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0478.jp2"}, "479": {"fulltext": "1559.] CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS OF FRANCE.\\n451\\nADMIRAL COUOXY.\\nAt the head of the\\nHugiienots stood the\\nKing of Navarre and\\nthe Prince of Conde,\\nboth Bourbons claim-\\ning descent from St.\\nLouis, and Admiral\\nColigny, nephew of\\nMontmorenci. They\\nwere befriended by the\\nreformers of Germany,\\nEngland, and the Neth-\\nerlands.\\nThe Situation. The remaining kings of the Valois line\\nwere young, weak, and unfit to contend with the profound\\nquestions and violent men of the time. The Bourbons hated\\nthe Guises, and each plotted the other s ruin. Catharine,\\na wily, heartless Italian, moving between the factions like a\\nspirit of evil, schemed for power. Her maxim was, Di\\\\dde\\nand govern. She cared little for religion, but opposed\\nthe Huguenots because their aristocratic leaders sought to\\nstrengthen the nobles at the expense of the king. Thus\\npolitical mingled with religious motives, and the struggle\\nwas quite as much for the triumph of rival chiefs as for\\nthat of any form of faith.\\nFrancis II. (1559-00), a sickly boy of sixteen, fascinated\\nby the charms of his girl- wife, the beautiful Mary Queen of\\nScots, was ruled, through her, by her uncles, the Guises.\\nThe Bourbons planned to remove the king from their influ-\\nence. The Guises detected the plot, and took a ferocious\\nrevenge. Conde himself escaped only by the king s sudden\\ndeath. Mary returned to Scotland to work out her sad\\ndestiny (p. 463).", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0479.jp2"}, "480": {"fulltext": "452\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1560.\\nCharles IX. (1560-74), a child-king of ten, was now\\npushed to the front. Catharine, as regent/ tried to hold the\\nbalance between the two parties. But the Cathohcs, becom-\\ning exasperated, resented every concession to the Hugue-\\nnots while the Huguenots, growing exultant, often inter-\\nrupted the worship and broke the images in the Catholic\\nchurches. One Sunday\\n(1562) the Duke of Guise\\nwas riding through Vassy\\nas a Huguenot congre-\\ngation were gathering for\\nworship. His attendants,\\nsword in hand, fell upon\\nthe Protestants. This\\nmassacre was the open-\\ning scene in\\nA Series of Eight Civil\\nWars, which, interrupted\\nby seven short and un-\\nsteady treaties of peace,\\nlasted, in all, over thirty\\nHENRY, DUKE OF GUISE.\\nyears. Plots, murders,\\ntreacheries, thickened fast. Guise was assassinated Conde\\nwas shot in cold blood. Navarre and Montmorenci, more\\nfortunate, f eU in battle. Guise was succeeded by his brother\\nHenry, while Navarre s place was taken by his gaUant son,\\nafterward Henry lY.\\nThe Treaty of St. Germain, the third lull of hostilities in\\nthis bloody series, gave promise of permanence. Charles\\n1 It is noticeable that about this time a large part of Europe was governed by-\\nwomen,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 England, by Elizabeth Spain, by Juana, princess regent the Netherlands,\\nby Margaret of Parma, acting as regent for Philip Navarre, by Queen Jano Scot-\\nland, by Mary and Portugal, by the regent-mother, Catharine of Austria, sister of\\nCharles V.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0480.jp2"}, "481": {"fulltext": "1572.] CIVIL-RELIGIOUS WARS OF FRANCE. 453\\noffered his sister Margaret in marriage to Henry of Navarre.\\nThe principal Huguenots Hocked to Paris to witness the\\nwedding festivities. Cohgny won the confidence of the\\nking, aiid an army was sent to aid the reformers in the\\nNetherlands. Catharine, seeing her power waning, resolved\\nto assassinate Coligny. The attempt failed; the Hugue-\\nnots swore revenge. In alarm, Catharine with her friends\\ndecided to crush the Huguenot party at one horrible blow.\\nWith difficulty, Charles was persuaded to consent to\\nThe Massacre of St. Bartholomew (August 24, 1572).\\nBefore daybreak the impatient Catharine gave the signal.\\nInstantly hghts gleamed from the windows. Bands of\\nmurderers thronged the streets. Guise himself hurried to\\nCohguy s house his attendants rushed in, found the old\\nman at praj^er, stabbed him to death, and threw his body\\nfrom the window, that Guise might feast his eyes upon his\\nfallen enemy. Everywhere echoed the cry, Kill kiU\\nThe slaughter went on for days. In Paris alone hundreds of\\npersons perished while in the provinces each city had its\\nown St. Bartholomew.\\nResult. The Huguenots, dazed for a moment, flew to\\narms with the desperation of despair. Many moderate\\nCatholics joined them. Charles, unable to banish from his\\neyes the horrible scenes of that fatal night, died at last a\\nvictim of remorse.\\nHenry III. (1574-89) next ascended the throne. Friv-\\nolous and vicious, he met with contempt on every side. The\\nviolent CathoHcs formed a League to extu*pate Heresy.\\nIts leader was the Duke of Guise, who now threatened to\\nbecome another Pepin to a second Childeric. The king had\\nthis dangerous rival assassinated in the royal cabinet. Paris\\nrose in a frenzy at the death of its idol. Henry fled for\\nprotection to the Huguenot camp. A fanatic, instigated by", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0481.jp2"}, "482": {"fulltext": "454\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1589.\\nGuise s sister, entered liis tent and stabbed the monarch to\\nthe heart. Thus ended the Valois line.^\\nHenry of Navarre (1589-1610) now became king as\\nHenry IV., the first of the Bourbon House (p. 355). To\\ncrush the League, however, took five years more of war.\\nThe crisis came at Ivry, where the Huguenots followed\\nHenry s white plume to a signal victory. Finally, in order\\nto end the struggle, he abjured the Protestant rehgion.\\nThe next year he was crowned at Paris (1594).\\nHenrifs Administration brought to France a sweet calm\\nafter the tui-moil of war. By the Edict of Nantes (1598),\\nhe granted toleration to the\\nHuguenots. With his fa-\\nmous minister. Sully, he re-\\nstored the finances, erected\\npublic edifices, built ships,\\nencouraged silk manufacture,\\nand endowed schools and\\nlibraries. The common peo-\\nple found in him a friend,\\nand he often declared that\\nhe should not be content\\nuntil the poorest peasant\\nin his reahn had a fowl for\\nhis pot every Sunday. This\\nprosperous reign was cut short by the dagger of the assas-\\nsin RavaiUac (1610).\\n1 It is a house distinguisliedfor misfortunes. Every raouarch save one (Charles V.)\\nleft a record of loss or shame. Philip VI. was defeated at Sluj^s and Cr6cy, and lost\\nCalais. John, beaten at Poitiers, died a prisoner in England. Charles VI., conquered\\nat Agincourt, was forced to acknowledge the English monarch heir of his kingdom.\\nCharles VII. owed his crown to a peasant girl, and finally starved himself for fear of\\npoisoning by his son. Louis XI., taken prisoner by Burgundy, was for days in danger\\nof execution; he died hated by all. Charles VIII. and Louis XII. met reverses in\\nItaly. Francis I. was taken prisoner at Pavia. Henry II. suffered the sting of the\\ndefeat at St. Quentin, and was slain in a tilting match. Francis II. fortunately died\\nyoung. Charles IX. perished with the luemory of St. Bartholomew resting upon\\nhim; and Henry III. was murdered.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0482.jp2"}, "483": {"fulltext": "ENGLAND UN D Eli THE TfTDORf^. 455\\nV. ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS (1485-1603).\\nThe Tudor Rule covered, in general, the sixteenth\\ncentury. Then began the era of absohitism, such as Louis\\nXI. had introduced into France, but which was cm-bed in\\nEngland l\\\\y the Charter, Parliament, and the free spirit of\\nthe people. The characteristic features of the period were\\nthe rise of Protestantism, the growth of commerce, and the\\ndevelopment of learning and literature.\\nTABLE OF THE TUDOR LINE.\\nHEXKY VII. (1485-1509), m. KIJZABETH OF YORK.\\nI\\nI\\nMakoaKKT. HENUY VIII. (1509-47).\\n1 I\\nI III\\nJames V. of Scotland. Edward vi. (1547). Mary (1553). Elizabeth (1558).\\nMary Queen of Scots.\\nI\\nJames VI. of Scotland, and I. of England. Stuart Line (p. 494).\\n1. Henry VII. (1485-1509), hailed king on the field of\\nBosworth, by his marriage with Elizabeth of York blended\\nthe roses (p. 346). The ground-swell of the ci\\\\il war, how-\\never, still agitated the country. Two impostors claimed the\\nthrone. Both were put down after much bloodshed. Hen-\\nry s ruling trait was avarice. Promising to invade France,\\nhe secnred supplies from Parliament, extorted from wealthy\\npersons gifts, cm-iously termed benevolences/ crossed\\nthe Channel, made peace (secretly negotiated from the first)\\nwith Charles VIII. for \u00c2\u00a3149,000, and returned home enriched\\nat the expense of friend and foe. He punished the nobles\\nwith fines on every pretext, and his lawyers revived musty\\nedicts and forgotten tenui-es in order to fill the royal coffers\\nunder the guise of law.\\n1 His favorite mini.ster, Morton, devised a dilemma known a.s Morton .s fork,\\nsince a ricii man was sure to he caught on one tine or the other. A frugal person\\nwas asked for money because he must have saved much, and an extravagant one\\nbecause he had much to spend.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0483.jp2"}, "484": {"fulltext": "456 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1502.\\nHenry s t3n: anny, however, reached only the great. He\\ngave rest to the people. He favored the middle classes, and,\\nby permitting the poorer nobles to sell their lands regard-\\nless of the entail, enabled prosperons merchants to buy\\nestates. He also encouraged commerce, and under his\\npatronage the Cabots explored the coast of America.\\nIn 1502 Henry s daughter Margaret was married to James\\nIV. of Scotland. This wedding of the rose and the thistle\\npaved the way to the union of the two kingdoms under\\nthe Stuarts, a century later.\\n2. Henry VIII. (1509-47) at eighteen succeeded to the\\nthrone and his father s wealth. For the first time since\\nRichard II., the king had a clear title to the crown. Young,\\nhandsome, witty, fond of sport, and skillful in arms. Bluff\\nKing Hal, as he was caUed, was, in the first years of his\\nreign, the most popular king in English history.\\nForeign Relations. ^While Henry was winning the battle\\nof the Spurs (p. 432), Scotland as usual sided with France.\\nJames IV., though Henry s brother-in-law, invaded England.\\nBut on Flodden Field (1513) he was slain with the flower of\\nthe Scots. Soon England came, as we have seen, to hold\\nthe balance of power between Charles V. and Francis I.\\nLest either should grow too strong, Henry always took\\nthe part of the one who happened at the time to be the\\nweaker. Such wars brought no good to any one.\\nThomas Wolsey, the son of a butcher, who rose from a\\npriest to be Archbishop of York, Lord Chancellor of Eng-\\nland, Cardinal, and Papal I^egate, was Henry s minister.\\nHe hved with almost royal splendor. His household com-\\nprised 500 nobles, and he was attended everywhere by a train\\nof the first barons of the land. The direction of foreign\\nand domestic affau s rested with him. As chancellor, he\\nadministered justice as legate, he controlled the Church.\\ni", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0484.jp2"}, "485": {"fulltext": "1533.]\\nENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS.\\n457\\nCatharine^ s Divorce. For nearly twenty years Henry\\nlived happily mth his wife, Catharine of Aragon, widow of\\nhis elder brother, and aunt of Charles V. But of their\\nchildi^en, Mary, a sickly girl, alone survived. Should Henry\\nleave no son, the\\nroyal succession\\nwould be imper-\\niled, as no woman\\nhad as yet occu-\\npied the throne.\\nThe recent civil war\\nemphasized this\\ndi ead. Henry pro-\\nfessed to fear that\\nthe death of his\\nchildren was a\\njudgment upon him\\nfor having married\\nhis brother s wid-\\now. His scruples\\nwere quickened,\\nperhaps even sug-\\ngested, by the\\ncharms of Anne Boleyn, a beautiful maid of honor. Hemy\\naccordingly applied to Pope Clement VII. for a divorce,\\nalleging the stings of his conscience as a reason therefor.\\nThe Pope hesitated, and the aifair dragged on for years.\\nThe universities and learned men at home and abroad\\nwere consulted. At last Henry privately married Anne.\\nThomas Cranmer,^ who had been appointed Ai chbishop of\\nPORTRAITS OF HENRY VIII. AND CARDINAL WOLSEY.\\n1 It is curious that the four most remarkable men of Henry s administration\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nWolsey, Cranmer, Cromwell, and More\u00e2\u0080\u0094 all had the same ffiven name, Thomas, and\\nall were executed except Wolsey, who escaped the scaffold only by death.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0485.jp2"}, "486": {"fulltext": "458 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1533.\\nCanterbury on account of his zeal in the king s cause, then\\npronounced Catharine s marriage illegal (1533). The for-\\nsaken wife died three years later. But more than the fate of\\nqueen or maid of honor was concerned in this royal whim,\\nWolsefs Fall (1530). Wolsey, as legate, had hesitated to\\ndeclare a divorce without the papal sanction. Henry, brook-\\ning no opposition, determined on his minister s disgrace.\\nStripped of place and power, the old man was banished\\nfrom the court. Soon after, he was arrested for treason;\\nwhile on his way to prison he died, broken-hearted at his\\nfaU.i\\nBreach with Borne. Henry had no sympathy with the\\nReformation. Indeed, he had wi itten a book against Lu-\\nthei- s doctrines, for which he had received, as a reward\\nfrom the Pope, the title of the Defender of the Faith.\\nBut Cromwell, who after Wolsey s fall became Henry s chief\\nminister, advised the king not to trouble himself about the\\npapal decision, but to deny the Pope s supremacy. Link by\\nlink the chain that had so long bound England to Rome\\nwas broken. Parhament declared Anne s marriage legal,\\nforbade appeals or payments to the Pope, and acknowledged\\nthe king as supreme head of the English Church.^ AU who\\nrefused to take the Oath of Supremacy were proclaimed\\nguilty of high treason.*^ The monasteries were suppressed,\\n1 His last words, as given almost literally by Sliakspere, have become famous\\nO Cromwell, Cromwell,\\nHad I but served my God with half the zeal\\nI served my king. He would not in my age\\nHave left me naked to mine enemies. Henry VIII., Act III., Scene 2,\\n2 This iiosition gave Henry au almost sacred character. Parliament directed that,\\nwithin certain limits, his i)roclamatious should have the force of law; and, at the\\nsimple mention of his name, that body rose and bowed to his vacant throne.\\n3 The heads of the noblest in England now rolled upon the scaffold. Among those\\nwho suffered death were John Fisher, the venerable Bishop of Rochester, believed\\nby many to have been the real author of Henry s book and Sir Thomas More, a man\\nof great wit and brilliant intellect, who was lord chancellor for a time after Wol-\\nsey s fall. Both these men agreed to support tlie succession, but would not deny\\nthe validity of Catharine s marriage or the supremacy of the Pope.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0486.jp2"}, "487": {"fulltext": "1539.]\\nENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS\\n459\\nand their vast estates confiscated. A part of their revenues\\nwas spent in founding schools, Ijut the larger share was\\nlavished upon the king s favorites.\\nTHE CHAINED BIBLE.\\n(Scene in a Church Porch, 16th Century.,\\nTlie Six Articles. A copy of the Bible, translated by\\nTyndale and revised by Coverdale, was ordered to be chained\\nto a pillar or desk in every church. Crowds of the common\\npeople flocked around to hear its truths read to them in\\ntheir mother-tongue. Henry drew up the famous Six Ai-ti-\\ncles of Religion for the Church of England.^ But, with his\\nusual fickleness, he afterward pubUshed in succession two\\nbooks, each giving to the nation a different creed, and\\n1 Pox wittily termed this statute The whip with six strings.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0487.jp2"}, "488": {"fulltext": "460 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. [1536.\\nfinally restricted to merchants and gentlemen the royal per-\\nmission to read the Bible. Both Protestants and CathoHcs\\nwere persecuted with great impartiality; the former for\\nrejecting Henry s doctrines, and the latter for denying his\\nsupremacy.\\nHenrifs Six Wives. Anne Boleijn wore her coveted\\ncrown only three years. A charge of unfaithfulness brought\\nher to the scaffold within less than five months from the\\ndeath of the discarded Catharine (1536). The very day after\\nAnne s execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, a maid of\\nhonor whose pretty face had caught his changeful fancy;\\nshe died the following year. His foin*th wife was Anne of\\nCleves, a Protestant princess. Her plain looks disappointed\\nthe king, who had married her by proxy, and he soon\\nobtained a divorce by act of Parliament. CromweU had\\narranged this match, and the result cost him his head.\\nHenry next married Catharine Howard, but her bad con-\\nduct was punished by death. The last of the series was\\nCatharine Farr, a widow, who, to the surprise of aU, man-\\naged to keep her head upon her shoulders until the king\\ndied in 1547.\\n3. Edward VI. (1547-53), son of Jane Seymour, as-\\ncended the throne in his tenth year. The Duke of Somerset\\nbecame regent.\\nThe Ecclesiastical Changes which had begun by the sev-\\nerance from Rome were continued. Archbishop Cranmer,\\nseconded by Bishops Ridley and Latimer, was foremost in\\nshaping the changes in ceremony and doctrine that gave to\\nthe English Church a Protestant form. The Latin mass\\nwas abolished. The pictures and statues in the churches\\nwere destroyed. The Book of Common Prayer was com-\\npiled, and the faith of the Anglican Church summed up in\\nthe Forty-two (now Thirty-nine) Articles of Religion.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0488.jp2"}, "489": {"fulltext": "1552.J ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS. 461\\nThe Duke of Northumberland, having brought Somerset\\nto the scaffold, for a time ruled England. He persuaded\\nEdward to set aside his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth,\\nwho were next in the succession according to the will of\\nHenry VIII., and to leave the crown to his cousin. Lady\\nJane Grey, the young wife of Lord Dudley, Northumber-\\nland s son. Soon after, the gentle and studious Edward\\ndied.\\n4. Mary (1553-58), however, was the people s choice, and\\nshe became the first queen-regnant of England. Lady Jane,\\na charming gui of sixteen, who found her greatest delight in\\nreading Plato in the window-corner of a Library, though pro-\\nclaimed by Northumberland against her wish, was sent to the\\nTower a year afterward, on the rising of her friends, she\\nand her husband were beheaded. As an ardent Catholic,\\nMary sought to reconcile England to the Pope. The laws\\nfavoring the Protestants were repealed, and a number of\\npersons were bm-ned as heretics. Among these were Cran-\\nmer, Latimer, and Ridley. The queen was married to her\\ncousin, afterward Philip II. of Spain. The Spanish alli-\\nance was hateful to the English while Philip soon tu ed of\\nliis haggard, sickly wife, whom he had chosen merely to\\ngratify his father. She, however, idolized her husband, and,\\nto please him, joined in the war against France. As the\\nresult she lost Calais, which had been for more than two\\nhundred years an English possession. The humbled queen\\ndied soon after, declaring that the name of this stronghold\\nwould be found written on her heart.\\n5. Elizabeth (1558-1603), the last of the Tudor sover-\\neigns, was the daughter of Anne Boleyn. SeLf-poised, cour-\\nageous, and determined, like all the Tudors, she thoroughly\\nunderstood the temper of the nation; knew when to\\ncommand and when to yield and was more than a match\\nBGH-27", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0489.jp2"}, "490": {"fulltext": "462\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1558.\\nfor any politician\\nat home or abroad.\\nShe brought about\\nher wise statesmen\\nlike William Cecil\\n(Lord Bui-leigh)\\nand Francis Wal-\\nsingham. She re-\\nstored the Protes-\\ntant religion, and\\ngave the Church\\nof England its\\npresent form. She\\ndeclined marriage\\nto Philip II., say-\\ning that she was\\nwedded to her\\nrealm, and would\\nnever bring in a\\nforeign master.\\nActs of Supremacij and Uniformity were passed by her fii-st\\nParliament. The former act compelled every clergyman and\\noffice-holder to take an oath acknowledging Elizabeth as head\\nof the Church of England, and to abjure every foreign prince\\nand prelate the latter forbade attendance upon the ministry\\nof any clergyman except of the estabhshed religion, and\\ninflicted a fine on ah. who did not go to service. Both the\\nCatholics and the Puritans opposed these measures, but for\\nsome years met with the Church of England for worship.\\n1 These Protestants desired what they called a purer form of worship than the\\none adopted for the Church of England, i. e one further removed from that of Rome.\\nMany usages retained by Elizabeth, such as wearing the surplice, making the sign of\\nthe cross in baptism, etc., gave them offense. As tliey refused to accept the Act of\\nUniformity, they were known as Nonconformists those who afterward formed sepa-\\nrate congregations were called Separatists and Independents (Hist. U. S., p. 53).\\nPORTRAITS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH AND MARY QUEEN\\nOF SCOTS.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0490.jp2"}, "491": {"fulltext": "1556, 1570.] ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS. 463\\nAfterward they began to withdraw, and each to hold its own\\nservices in private houses. The Act of Uniformity was, how-\\never, rigidly enforced. Many Catholics were executed. The\\nNonconformists were punished by fine, imprisonment, and\\nexile, but their dauntless love of liberty and firm resistance\\nto royal authority gave the party gi-eat strength.\\nMari/ Queen of Scots, gi-andnieee of Henry VIII., was\\nthe next heir to the Enghsh throne. At the French court\\nshe had assimied the title of Queen of England; and the\\nCatholics, considering tli(^ marriage with Anne Boleyn void,\\nlooked upon her as their legitimate sovereign. After the\\ndeath of Francis II. she returned to Scotland. The Refor-\\nmation, under the preaching of John Knox, had there made\\ngTeat progress. Mary s Catholicism aroused the hostility of\\nher Protestant subjects, and her amusements shocked the\\nrigid Scotch reformers as much as their austerity displeased\\nthe gay and fascinating queen. She was soon married to hei\\ncousin Lord Dariiley. His weakness and vice quickly for-\\nfeited her love. One day, mtli some of liis companions, he\\ndragged her secretary, Rizzio, from her supper-table, and\\nmurdered him almost at her feet. Mary never forgave this\\nbrutal crime. A few months later the lonely house in which\\nDarnley was lying sick was blown up, and he was killed.\\nMary s marriage soon after with the Earl of Bothwell, the\\nsuspected murderer, aroused deep indignation. She was\\nforced to resign the crown to her infant son, James VI.\\nFinally she fled to England, where Elizabeth held her as a\\nprisoner. For over eighteen years the beautiful captive\\nwas the center of innumerable conspiracies. The discovery\\nof a plot to assassinate Elizabeth and put her rival on the\\nthrone brought the unfortunate Mary to the block (1587).^\\n1 A scaffold covered witli black clotli was built iu the hall of Fotheriugay Castle.\\nIn the gray light of a February morning, Mary appeared attired in black, her radiant", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0491.jp2"}, "492": {"fulltext": "464\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY,\\n[1588.\\nThe Invincible Armada. As Elizabeth aided the Protes-\\ntants in the Netherlands,^ and her daring crnisers greatly\\nannoyed the Spanish commerce,\\nPhiUp resolved to conquer Eng-\\nland. For three years Spain\\nrang with the din of preparation.\\nThe danger united England,\\nand Catholics and Protestants\\nalike rallied around their queen.\\nThe command of the fleet was\\ngiven to Lord Howard (a Cath-\\nolic nobleman), while under him\\nserved Drake, Hawkins, and\\nFrobisher. One day in July,\\n1588, the Armada was descried\\noff Plymouth, one hundred and\\nforty ships sailing in a crescent\\nform, seven miles in length.\\nBeacons flashed the alarm from\\nevery hiU along the coast, and\\nthe English ships hmTied to\\nthe attack. Light, swift, and\\nmanned by the boldest seamen, they hung on the rear of the\\nadvancing squadron 5 poured shot into the unwieldy, slow-\\nbailing Spanish galleons clustered like angry wasps about\\nPHILIP II. OF SPAIN.\\nbeaiaty dimmed by her loiig imprisonment, but her courage unshaken. Tlirowing off\\nher outer robe, beneatli which was a crimson dress, she stood forth against the black\\nbackground blood-red from head to foot. With two blows the executioner did his\\nwork, and Mary s stormy life was ended. The execution of Mary is considered by\\nmany as the greatest blot on the memory of Queen Elizabeth.\\n1 Elizabeth s favorite, the worthless Earl of Leicester, conducted an expedition\\nto Holland (p. 449), but it effected nothing. The engagement before Zutphen, how-\\never, is famous for the death of Sir Philip Sidney,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the Flower of Chivalrie. In\\nhis dying agony, he begged for a drink of water. Just as he lifted the cup to his lips,\\nhe caught the wistful glance of a wounded soldier near by, and exclaimed, CUve it\\nto him. His need is greater than mine.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0492.jp2"}, "493": {"fulltext": "1588.] ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS. 465\\ntheir big antagonists; and, darting to and fro, prolonged\\nthe fight, off and on, for a week. The Spaniards then took\\nrefuge in the roads of Calais. Here tlie Duke of Parma\\nwas to join them with seventeen thousand veterans ])ut in\\nthe dead of night Howard sent into the port l)lazing fire-\\nships, and the Spaniards, panic-struck, stood to sea. With\\ndaylight the English started in keen pursuit. The Spanish\\nadmmil, tliinking no longer of victory but only of escape,\\nattempted to return home by sailing around Scotland.\\nFearful storms arose. Ship after ship, crippled in spar\\nand hull, went down before the fury of the northern blasts.\\nScarcely one third of the fleet escaped to tell the fearful\\ntale of the loss of the Spanish Ai-mada.\\nThe Effect of this victory was to make England mistress of\\nthe sea, to insure the independence of Holland, to encourage\\nthe Huguenots in France, and to weaken Spanish influence\\nin European affairs. From this shipwreck dates the decay\\nof Spain (p. 449).\\nCommerce was encouraged by Elizabeth, and her reign was\\nan era of maritime adventure. The old Viking spii it blazed\\nforth anew. English sailors many of whom were, by turns,\\nexplorers, pirates, and Protestant knight-errants traversed\\nevery sea. Frobisher, daring Arctic icebergs, sought the\\nNorthwest Passage. Drake sailed round the world, captur-\\ning en route many a galleon laden with the gold and silver of\\nthe New World. Hawkins traced the coast of Guinea. Sir\\nWalter Raleigh attempted to plant a colony in Virginia, so\\nnamed, by this corn-tier s tact, after the Virgin Queen. In\\n1600 the East India Company was formed, and from this\\nsprung the English empire in India.\\nElizaheth^s Favorites cast a gleam of romance over her\\nreign. Notwithstanding her real strength and ability, she\\nwas capricious, jealous, petulant, deceitful, and vain as any", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0493.jp2"}, "494": {"fulltext": "466\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1586.\\ncoquette. With waning beauty, she became the greedier\\nof compliments. Her youthful courtiers, humoring this\\nweakness, would, while approaching the throne, shade\\ntheir eyes with their hands, as if dazzled by her radiance.\\nRobert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, and son of Northumber-\\nland (p. 461), was her earliest favorite.^ After Leicester s\\ndeath, the Earl of Essex\\nsucceeded to the royal\\nregard. Once, during a\\nheated discussion, Essex\\nturned his back upon\\nElizabeth, whereupon\\nshe boxed his ears. The\\nfavorite, forgetting his\\nposition, laid his hand\\nupon his sword. But\\nthe queen forgave the\\ninsult, and sent him to\\nIreland, then in revolt.\\nEssex met with little suc-\\ncess, and, against Ehza-\\nbeth s orders, returned,\\nand rushed into her\\npresence unannounced.\\nThough forgiven again, he was restive under the restrictions\\nimposed, and made a wild attempt to raise a revolt in Lon-\\ndon. For this he was tried and beheaded. Even at the\\nlast, his life would have been spared, if Elizabeth had\\nreceived a ring which, in a moment of tenderness, she had\\ngiven him to send her whenever he needed her help.\\nTOMB OF QUEEN ELIZABETH.\\n1 Of the maguiticent entertaiument given to Elizabeth iu his castle, of the story\\nof the ill-fated Amy Robsart, aud of the queen s infatuation with this arrogant, vicious\\nman, Scott has told in his inimitable tale of Kenilworth.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0494.jp2"}, "495": {"fulltext": "1603.J THE CIVILIZATION. 467\\nTwo years later, the Countess of Nottingham on her death-\\nbed revealed the secret, Essex liad intrusted her with the\\nring, but she wdthheld it from the queen. Elizabeth in her\\nrage shook the expiring woman, exclaiming, God may for-\\ngive you, but I never can. From this time, the queen,\\nsighing, weeping, and refusing food and medicine, rapidly\\ndeclined to her death (1603).\\nTHE CIVILIZATION.\\nThe Progress of Civilization dm-ing the first modern century\\nwas rapid. The revival of learning that swept over Europe, heralding\\nthe dawn of the new era the outburst of maritime adventure that fol-\\nlowed the discovery of America the spread of the New Learning by\\nmeans of books, schools, and travel and the establishment of strong,\\ncentralized governments, all produced striking results.\\nCommerce. Tlie wonderful development of commerce we have\\nalready traced in connection with the history of Spain, Portugal, Hol-\\nland, England, etc. The colonies of these nations now formed a large\\nportion of their wealth. The navies of Europe were already formid-\\nable. Sovereign and people alike saw, in foreign trade and in distant\\ndiscoveries and conquests, new sources of gain and glory.\\nArt. Italy had now become tlie instructress of the nations. She\\ngave to the world Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Correggio, Michael\\nAngelo, Titian, Paul Veronese, Andrea del Sarto, Guido Reni, Ben-\\nvenuto Cellini, masters of art, w^hose works have been the models for\\nall succeeding ages. Painting, sculpture, and architectm-e felt the\\nmagic toucli of their genius. The intercourse with Italy caused by the\\nItalian wars did much to naturalize in France that love of art for which\\nshe has since been so renowned. Francis I. brought home with him\\nsculptors and painters and a new style of architecture, knowm as the\\nFrench Renaissance, arose.\\nLiterature. England bore the choicest fruit of the Revival of\\nLearning. All the Tudors, except Henry VIL, were scholars. Henry\\nVIII. spoke four languages and Elizabeth, after she became queen,\\nread more Greek in a day, as her tutor, old Roger Ascham, used to\\nsay, than many a elergjTnan read of Latin in a week. During tlie\\nbrilliant era following the defeat of the Armada, the English language\\ntook on its modern form. Poetry, that had been silent siuce the days\\nof Chaucer, broke forth anew. Never did there shine a more splendid\\ngalaxy of \\\\mters than when, toward the end of tlie IGth century,", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0495.jp2"}, "496": {"fulltext": "468\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\nthere were in London, Sliakspere, Bacon, Spenser, Chapman, Drayton,\\nRaleigh, Ben Jonson, Marlowe, and Sir Philip Sidney. Shakspere per-\\nfected the drama Bacon developed a new philosophy Hooker shaped\\nthe strength of prose, and Spenser, the harmony of poetry.\\nSidney. Shakspere. Kaleigh.\\nTHE GLOKY OF THE ELIZABETHAN AGE.\\nSpenser.\\nModern Science already began to manifest glimpses of the new\\nmethods of thought. The fullness of its time was not to come until\\nour own day. Copernicus taught that the sun is the center of the solar\\nsystem. Vesalius, by means of dissection, laid the foundation of\\nanatomy. Galileo, in the cathedral at Pisa, caught the secret of the\\npendulum. Kepler was now watching the planets. Gilbert, Eliza-\\nbeth s physician, was making a few electrical experiments. Gesner\\nand Cassalpinus were finding out how to classify animals and plants.\\nPalissy, the potter, declared his belief that fossil shells were once real\\nsliells.\\nMERRIE ENGLANDE UNDER GOOD QUEEN BESS.\\nHome Life. Mansions. The gloomy walls and serried battle-\\nments of the feudal fortress now gave place to the pomp and grace of\\nthe Elizabethan hall. A mixed and florid architecture, the transition\\nfrom Gothic to Classical, marked the dawn of the Renaissance. Tall\\nmolded and twisted chimneys, grouped in stacks crocketed and gilded\\nturrets fanciful weather-vanes gabled and fretted fronts great oriel", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0496.jp2"}, "497": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 469\\nwindows and the stately terraces and broad flights of steps which led\\nto a formal garden, marked the exterior of an Elizabetlian mansion.\\nIn the interior were spacious apartments approached by grand stair-\\ncases immense mullioned and transomed windows huge carved oak\\nor marble chimney-pieces, reaching up to gilded and heavily orna-\\nmented ceilings and wainscoted walls covered with pictorial tapestries\\nso loosely hung as to furnish a favorite hiding-place. Chimneys and\\nlarge glass windows were the especial modern improvements. The\\nhouses, which three centuries before were lighted only by loop-holes,\\nnow reveled in a broad glare of sunlight and the newly found chim-\\nney-corner brought increased domestic pleasure. Manor-houses were\\nbuilt in the form of the letter E (in honor of the Queen s initial), having\\ntwo projecting wings, and a porch in the middle. A flower-garden was\\nessential, and a surrounding moat was still common. Town-houses,\\nconstructed of an oak frame filled in with brick or with lath-and-plaster,\\nhad each successive story projecting over the next lower so that in\\nthe narrow streets the inmates on the upper floor could almost shake\\nhands with their neighbors across the way.\\nFurniture, even in noble mansions, was still rude and defective\\nand though the lofty halls and banqueting-rooms were hung with costly\\narras and glittered with plate, to possess less than a value of \u00c2\u00a3100 in\\nsilver plate being a confession of poverty, the rooms in daily use were\\noften bare enough. Henry VIII. s bed-chamber contained only the\\nbed, two Flemish court-cupboards, a joined stool, a steel mirror, and\\nthe andirons, firepan, tongs, and fire-forks belonging to the hearth. It\\nwas an age of ornamental ironwork, and the 16th-century hearth and\\nhousehold utensils were models of elegant design. The chief furniture\\nof a mansion consisted of grotesquely carved dressers or cupboards\\nround, folding tables a few chests and presses sometimes a household\\nclock, which was as yet a rarity; a day-bed or sofa, considered an\\nexcess of luxury carpets for couches and floors stiff, high-backed\\nchairs and some forms, or benches, with movable cushions. The bed\\nwas still the choicest piece of furniture. It was canopied and festooned\\nlike a throne the mattress was of the softest down the sheets were\\nHolland linen and over the blankets was laid a coverlet embroidered\\nin silk and gold witli the arms of its owner. There were often several\\nof these cumbersome four-posters in one chamber. A portable bed was\\ncarried about in a leathern case whenever the lord traveled for he was\\nno longer content, like his ancestors, with the floor or a hard bench.\\nThe poorer classes of Elizabeth s time had also improved in condi-\\ntion. Many still lived in hovels made of clay-plastered wattles, hav-\\ning a hole in the roof for chimney, and a clay floor strewed with rushes,\\nunder which, said Erasmus, ^lies unmolested an ancient collection\\nof beer, grease, fragments, bones, and everything nasty. These were", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0497.jp2"}, "498": {"fulltext": "470\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\nthe people whose uncleanly habits fed the terrible plagues that period-\\nically raged in England. But houses of brick and stone as well as of\\noak were now abundant among the yeomanry. The wooden ladle and\\ntrencher had given way to the pewter spoon and platter; and the\\nfeather bed and pillow were fast displacing the sack of straw and\\nthe log bolster. Sea-coal (mineral coal) began to be used in the better\\nhouses, as the destruction of forests had reduced the supply of firewood.\\nThe dirt and sulphurous odor of the coal prejudiced many against its\\nuse, and it was forbidden to be burned in London during the sitting of\\nParliament, lest the health of the country members should suffer.\\nA GROUP OF COUUTIKRS IN THE TIME OF KIJZABETH.\\nDress. The fashionable man now wore a large starched ruff; a\\npadded, long-waisted doublet trunk-hose distended with wool, hair,\\nbran, or feathers, a fashion dating from Henry VIII., whose flattering\\ncourtiers stuffed their clothes as the king grew fat richly ornamented\\nnether stocks, confined with jeweled and embroidered garters gemmed\\nand rosetted shoes and, dangling at dangerous angles over all, a long\\nToledo blade. The courtiers glistened with precious stones, and even\\nthe immortal Shakspere wore rings in his ears The ladies appeared\\nin caps, hats, and hoods of every shape, one of the prettiest being that\\nnow known as the Mary Queen of Scots cap. The hair was dyed, curled,\\nfrizzed, and crimped, in a variety of forms and colors. Elizabeth, who,\\nit is said, had eighty wigs, was seen sometimes in black hair, sometimes\\nin red the Queen of Scots wore successively black, yellow, and auburn\\nhair. But yellow was most in favor and many a little street blonde was\\ndecoyed aside and shorn of her locks, to furnish a periwig for some fine\\nlady. The linen ruff, worn in triple folds about the neck, was of pre-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0498.jp2"}, "499": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 471\\npostei ous amplitude and terrible stiffness. The lonjsf, rigi l bodice,\\ndescending almost to the knees, was crossed and recrossed with lacers\\nand about and below it stretched the farthingale, standing out like a\\nlargo balloon. Knitted and clocked black-silk stockings a new im-\\nportation from France were worn with high-heeled shoes, or with\\nwhite, green, or yellow slippers. Perfumed and embroidered gloves\\na gold-handled fan, finished with ostrich or peacock feathers a small\\nlooking-glass hanging from the girdle a black-velvet mask and long\\nloops of peai ls about the neck, completed the belle s costume.\\nAt Table all wore their hats, as they did also in church or at the\\ntheater. The noon dinner was the formal meal of the day, and was\\ncharacterized by stately decorum. It was served to the Virgin Queen\\nas if it were an act of worship, amid kneeling pages, guards, and ladies,\\nand to the sound of trumpets and kettledrums. The nobles followed\\nthe royal example and kept up princely style. The old ceremonious\\ncustom of washing hands was still observed perfumed water was used,\\nand the ewer, basin, and hand-towel were ostentatiously employed. The\\nguests were ushered into the hall, and seated at the long table accord-\\ning to their rank the conspicuous salt-cellar an article which sujier-\\nstition decreed should always be the first one placed on the table still\\nseparated the honored from the inferior guests. The favorite dishes\\nwere a boar s head ^^a\u00e2\u0080\u00a2eathed with rosemary, and sucking-pigs which\\nhad been fed on dates and muscadine. Fruit-jellies and preserves were\\ndelicacies recently introduced. Etiquette pervaded everything, even to\\nthe important disjolay of plate on the dresser thus, a prince of royal\\nblood had five steps or shelves to his cupboard a duke, four a lesser\\nnoble, three a knight-banneret, two and a simple gentleman, one.\\nForks were still unknown, but they were brought from Italy early in\\nthe 17th century. Bread and meats were presented on the point of a\\nknife, the food being conveyed to the mouth by the left hand. After\\ndinner the guests retired to the withdrawing-room, or to the garden-\\nhouse, for the banquet. Here choice wines, pastry, and sweetmeats\\nwere served, and a marchpane (a little sugar-and-almond castle)\\nwas merrily battered to pieces with sugarplums. Music, mummery,\\nand masquerading enlivened the feast.\\nWith common people, ale, spiced and prepared in various forms, was\\nthe popular drink and the ale-houses of the day, which were frequented\\ntoo often by women, were centers of vice and dissipation. Tea and coffee\\nwere yet unknown, and were not introduced till the next century. 2\\n1 Starcli, tlien ue w iu Euglaud, was called by Philip Stubbe the devil s liquor with\\nwhich the womeu smeare aud starche their neckerchiefs. Its inventress perished on\\nthe scaffold, wearing one of her own stiff collars, after which they went out of fashion.\\n2 The Portuguese imported some tea from China iu the 16th century, but it was\\nover sixty years after the death of Elizabeth before the munificent gift of two pounds", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0499.jp2"}, "500": {"fulltext": "472\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\nDomestic Manners were stern and formal. Sons, even in mature\\nlife, stood silent and uncovered in their father s presence, and daugh-\\nters knelt on a cushion until their mother had retired. The yard-long\\nfan-handles served for whipping-rods, and discipline was enforced so\\npromptly and severely that grown-up men and women often trembled\\nat the sight of their parents. Lady Jane Grey confided to Roger\\nAscham that her parents used so sharply to taunt her, and to give her\\n^uah. pinclies, nips, and 0 5 at the slightest offense, that she was in\\nconstant terror before them. At school the same principles prevailed,\\nand the 16tli-century schoolboy could well appreciate the classically\\nrecorded woes of the little Ancient Roman (see p. 280).\\nStreet Life. The Elizabethan city-madam beguiled the hours of\\nher husband s absence at the mart, or exchange, by sitting with her\\ndaughters outside the street-door, under the successive projections of\\nher tall, half-timber house, and gazing upon the sights of the dirty,\\nnarrow, crooked, unpaved, London highway. Here, while they regaled\\nthemselves with sweetmeats, or smoked the newly imported Indian\\nweed, they watched the full-\\ntoileted gallant in his morn-\\ning lounge toward St. Paul s\\nchurchyard and the neigh-\\nboring book-stalls, or his\\nafter-dinner stroll toward\\nBlackfriars Theater, where,\\nat three o clock or at the\\nfloating of the play-house\\nflag, was to be acted the\\nnewest comedy of a rising\\nyoung play -writer,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 one Wil-\\nliam Shakspere. Occasion-\\nally a roystering party of\\nroughs, armed with wooden\\nspears and shields, would be\\nseen hurrying to the Thames\\nfor a boat-joust, bawling the\\nwhile to one another their braggart threats of a good wetting in the\\ncoming clash of boats or one of the new-fashioned, carved, canopied,\\nand curtained wagons, called coaches, would go jolting along, having\\nneither springs nor windows, but with wide-open sides which offered\\nunobstructed view of the painted and bewigged court-ladies who filled\\nit or smiles, and bows, and the throwing of kisses, would mark the\\nof tea, from the English East India Company to Catharine, queen of Charles II.,\\nheralded in England a new national heverage. Tea was soon afterwards sold at from\\nsix to ten guineas per pound. The first coffee-house was opened in 1651.\\nBHAKSPEUE S GLOBE THEATER.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0500.jp2"}, "501": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION,\\n473\\npassing of a friend with her retinue of fiat-capped, bine-gowned, white\\nstoeldnged prentices,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a comparatively new class, whose street clubs\\nwere destined thenceforth to figure in nearly every London riot, and\\nwho were finally to be the conquerors at Marston Moor and Naseby or\\na gi-oup of high-born ladies, out for a frolic, would cross the distant\\nbridge on their way to Southwark bear-garden, where for threepence\\nthey could enjoy the roars and flounderings of a chained and blinded\\nbear worried by English bulldogs. Now her ears caught the sound of\\nangi-y voices from the\\nneighboring ale-house,\\nwhere a party of wo-\\nmen were drinking and\\ngambling and now\\na poor old withered\\ndame rushed swiftly\\nby, hotly pursued by a\\nshouting crowd, armed\\nwith long pins to prick\\nthe witch and see\\nif blood would follow,\\nor, grasping at her hair,\\nto tear out a handful\\nto burn for a counter-\\ncharm. Anon, a poor\\nfellow, vnth the blood flowing from his freshly crojjped ears, came stag-\\ngering home from a public flogging, it was his second punishment\\nfor vagi-ancy, and lucky he to escape being branded with a V, and sold\\nas a slave to his informer. There was, indeed, no end of rogues,\\nvagabonds, and sturdy beggars, 1 singly or in crowds, who passed and\\nrepassed from morning till night and many a bloody brawl, robbery,\\nand even murder, this 16th-century Londoner could witness from her\\nown street-door. At night the narrow city-lanes swarmed with thieves,\\nwho skillfully dodged the rays of the flaring cresset borne by the\\nmarching watch. Fortunately early hours were fashionable, and nine\\no clock saw the bulk of society-folk within their o\\\\^^l homes.\\nAlong the wretched coimtry roads, most travel was on horseback, the\\nladies riding on a pillion behind a servant. There was no regular stage\\ncommunication. On the gi eat road to Scotland were some royal post\\nstations, but ordinary letters were sent by chance merchants or by a\\nspecial courier.\\nHoliday Life. Sunday was the great day for all diversions, from\\n1 It is curious to find included under this head the scholars of Oxford and Cam-\\nbridge Universities, who were expressly forbidden to beg except they had the\\nauthority of the chancellor (compare A German Traveling Student, n. 476).\\nTHE RACK.\\n(A Mode of Punishment in the ICth Century.)", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0501.jp2"}, "502": {"fulltext": "474\\nTHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\nLONDON WATCHMEN (IGTU CE.NTUKY).\\ncock-fighting to theater-go-\\ning. Numerous church fes-\\ntivals gave every working-\\nman a round of relaxation.\\nChristmas-time, especially,\\nwas one long saturnalia,\\nfrom All-hallow Eve to the\\nFeast of the Purification.\\nWhat mummerings and mas-\\nqueradingSjWhat pijiings and\\ndrummings, what jingling of\\nbells and shouting of songs,\\nwhat flaunting of plumes\\nand mad whirling of ker-\\nchiefs around all England\\nThrough every borough and\\nvillage, a motley, grotesque-\\nly masked troop of revelers,\\narmed with bells, drums, and\\nsqueaking fifes, and mounted\\non hobby-horses or great pasteboard dragons, followed its chosen\\nLord of Misrule wherever his riotous humor led even into the\\nchurches, where the service was abruptly dropped, and the congrega-\\ntion clambered upon the high-backed seats, to see the wild pranks of\\nthe licensed merry-crew even into the churchyards, where, among the\\nclustering graves, they broached and drank barrels of strong, coarse ale.\\nThere was gentler but no less hearty cheer by the home firesides,\\nwhere the huge yule-log on Christmas eve, and the rosemary-garnished\\nboar s head at Christmas dinner, were each brought in with joyous\\nceremonies. Servants and children joined in the season s universal\\nlicense every house resounded with romping games, and every street\\nre-echoed Christmas carols.\\nAnd who could resist May-day The tall, garlanded May-pole, drawn\\nin by flower-wreathed oxen the jollity of the ceaseless dance about its\\nfluttering ribands; the by-play of Robin Hood and Friar Tuck; the\\njingling Morris-dancers; the trippings of the milk-maids with their\\ncrowns of silver tankards and the ubiquitous, rollicking hobby-horse\\nand dragon, made the livelong day one burst of happy frolic.\\nSCENES IN GERMAN LIFE.\\nScene I. The Home of the Land-Junker, or country knight, is a\\ngloomy, dirty, and comfortless castle. Placed on a barren height, ex-\\nposed to winter blast and summer sun destitute of pure water, though", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0502.jp2"}, "503": {"fulltext": "THE OIVILTZATTON. 475\\nsun ounded by stagnant ditches liglitod l)y dim jtaiios in tiny windows\\ncrowded with inmates (the junker s younger brotliers and cousins,\\nwith their families, numberless servants, men-at-arms, and laborers);\\npestered in summer by noisome smells and insect hordes, that rise from\\nsteaming pools and filth-heaps in the foul courtyard cold and dreary\\nin winter, despite the huge tiled stoves fed by forest logs, and so broad\\nthat beds can bo made upon them scantily furnished, but always\\nwell stocked with weapons kept briglit by constant use against the\\nraids of roving marauders and quarrelsome neighbors, the junker s\\ndwelling is still more a fortress than a home. It has its prisons, and\\nthey are not unused. In this one, perhaps, pines and frets a burgher-\\nmerchant, w^aylaid and robbed upon the road and now held for his\\nransom, who wearily eats his dole of black bread while the lady of the\\ncastle, singing cheerfully, makes coats and mantles of the fine cloth\\nstolen from his pack in that one sulks a jjeasant, sore with the stripes\\nreceived for crossing the path of the master s chase, and in imagination\\nsharpening his next arrow for the master s heart. Jostling one another\\nover the open kitchen fire, the servants of the various households push\\nand crowd and w^rangle while from the courtyard comes the sound of\\nplaying children, barking dogs, and cackling geese.\\nThe junker s frau is general housekeeper, head-cook, and family\\ndoctor and she has learned by frequent experience how to manage\\na tipsy husband and his rude guests, who amuse themselves in her\\npresence by making coarse jokes and by blackening the faces of her\\ndomestics. She is proud of her family brocades and gold heirlooms,\\nand looks w^rathfully on the costly furs, velvets, and pearls worn without\\nright as she thinks by the upstart wives of rich city burgesses.\\nThe jimker s sons grow up with horses, dogs, and servants. They\\nstudy a little Latin at the village school, w^atch the poultry for their\\nmother, and scour the woods for wild pears and mushrooms to be dried\\nfor winter use. Occasionally a boy goes through the course at the\\nuniversity; but it is oftener the son of a shoemaker or a village\\npastor, than of a nobleman, who rises to distinction. Now and then a\\nstrolling ballad-singer delights the junker s ear with a choice bit of\\nscandal that he has been hired to propagate far and wide in satirical\\nverse or an itinerant peddler brings the little irregularly published\\nnews-sheet, with its startling accounts of maidens possessed with\\ndemons, the latest astrological prediction, and the strange doings of\\nDr. Martin Luther. Otherwise the master himts, quarrels, feasts, and\\ncarouses. Ruined estates, heavy debts, and prolonged lawsuits dis-\\nturb his few sober hours. He strives to bolster up his fortunes by\\nbuilding toll-bridges (even where there is no river), and by keeping\\nsuch wretched roads that the traveling merchant s wagons unavoidably\\nupset, when he, as lord of the manor, claims the scattered goods.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0503.jp2"}, "504": {"fulltext": "476 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\nScene II. The Home of the Eich Patrician is luxurious. He is the\\nmoney-owner of the realm. A merchant-prince, he traffics with Italy\\nand the Levant, buys a whole year s harvest from the King of Portugal,\\nhas invoices from both the Indies, and takes personal journeys to Cal-\\ncutta. He is statesman, soldier, and art-patron. For him are painted\\nAlbert Diirer s most elaborate pictures, and in his valuable library are\\nfound the choicest books, fresh from the new art of printing. He\\neducates his sons in Italy, and inspires his daughters with a love for\\nlearning. He shapes the German policy of imperial cities, and sup-\\nplies emperor and princes with gold from his strong-banded coffers.\\nWhen, in 1575, Herr Marcus Fugger entertains at dinner a wandering\\nSilesian prince, that potentate s chamberlain is dazed by the costly\\ndisplay, which he thus notes down in his jom*nal: Such a banquet I\\nnever beheld. The repast was spread in a hall with more gold than\\ncolor the marble floor was smooth as ice the sideboard, placed the\\nwhole length of the hall, was set out with drinking-vessels and rare\\nVenetian glasses there was the value of more than a ton of gold.\\nHerr Fugger gave to his Princely Highness for a drinking-cup an\\nartistically formed ship of the most beautiful Venetian glass. He took\\nhis Princely Highness through the prodigious great house to a turret,\\nwhere he showed him a treasure of chains, jewels, and precious stones,\\nbesides curious coins, and pieces of gold as large as my head. After-\\nward he opened a chest full of ducats and crowns up to the brim. The\\nturret itself was paved halfway down from the top with gold thalers.\\nDiary of Hans Von Schweinichen.\\nScene III. A German Traveling Student (16th century).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Ger-\\nman boy who wished to become a scholar had often a weary road to\\nplod. As Schilt^, or yoimger student, he was always the fag of some\\nBacchant, or older comrade, for whom he was forced to perform the most\\nmenial offices, his only consolation being that the bacchant, should he\\never enter a university, would be equally humiliated by the students\\nwhose circle he would join. Thousands of bacchanten and schiitzen\\nwandered over Germany, sipping like bees, first at one school, then at\\nanother everywhere begging their way under an organized system,\\nwhich protected older resident students from the greedy zeal of new\\narrivals. The autobiography of Thomas Platter, who began life as a\\nSwiss shepherd-boy and ended it as a famous Basle schoolmaster, gives\\nus some curious details of this scholastic vagrancy. At nine years of\\nage he was sent to the village priest, of whom he learned to sing a\\nlittle of the salve and to beg for eggs, besides being cruelly beaten and\\nofttimes dragged by the ears out of the house. He soon joined his\\nwandering cousin, Paulus, who proved even a harder master than the\\npriest. There were eight of us traveling together, three of whom\\nwere schiitzen, I being the youngest. When I could not keep up well,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0504.jp2"}, "505": {"fulltext": "THE ClVHilZATlON. 477\\nPaulus came behind me with a rod and switched me on my bare legs,\\nfor I had no stockings and bad shoes. The little schiitzen had to beg\\nor steal enough to support their seniors, though they were never allowed\\nto sit at table with them, and were often sent supperless to their bed of\\nfoul straw in the stable, while the bacchanten dined and slept in the\\ninn. The party stopped at Nuremberg, then at Dresden, and thence\\njourneyed to Breslau, suffering much from hunger on the road, eating\\nnothing for days but raw onions and salt, or roasted acorns and crabs.\\nWe slept in the open air, for no one would take us in, and often they\\nset the dogs upon us. At Breslau there were seven parishes, each with\\nits separate school supported by alms, no schiitz being allowed to beg\\noutside of his own parish. Here also was a hospital for the students,\\nand a specified sum provided by the town for the sick. At the schools\\nthe bacchanten had small rooms with straw beds, but the schiitzen lay\\non the hearth in winter, and in summer slept on heaps of gi-ass in the\\nchm chyard. When it rained we ran into the school, and if there was\\na storm we chanted the responsoria and other things almost all night\\nwith the succentor. There was such excellent begging at Breslau\\nthat the party fell ill from over-eating. The little ones were sometimes\\ntreated at the beer-houses to strong Polish peasant beer, and got so\\ndrunk we could not find our way home. In the school, nine bachelors\\nalways read together at the same hour in one room, for there were no\\nprinted Greek books in the country at that time. The preceptor alone\\nhad a printed Terence what was read had first to be dictated, then\\nparsed and construed, and lastly explained so that the bacchanten,\\nwhen they went away, carried with them large sheets of writing. As\\nto the schiitzen, the begging absorbed most of their time. Soon the\\nwandering fever came on again, and the party tramped back to Dresden\\nand then to Ulm, falling meantime into gi eat want. Often I was so\\nhungiy that I drove the dogs in the streets away from their bones, and\\ngnawed them. The bacchanten now became so cruel and despotic that\\nThomas ran away, weeping bitterly that no one cared for him. It was\\ncold, and I had neither cap nor shoes, only torn stockings and a scanty\\njacket. Paulus, having no thought of giving up so good a provider,\\nfollowed him hither and thither to the great fright and distress of the\\npoor little schiitz, who had many a narrow escape from the vengeance\\nof his pursuer. At last he reached his beloved Switzerland, which, he\\npathetically records, made me so happy I thought I was in heaven.\\nAt Zurich he offered his begging services to some bacchanten in return\\nfor their teaching, but learned no more with them than with the\\nothers. At Strasburg he had no better success, but at Schlettstadt he\\nfound the first school in which things went on well. It was the year\\nof the Diet of Worms, and Thomas was now eighteen years old. He\\nhad been a nominal pupil for nine years, but could not yet read. His\\nBQH\u00e2\u0080\u0094 28", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0505.jp2"}, "506": {"fulltext": "478 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.\\nhard life had left its trace, and though, after the custom of the time,\\nhis name was formally Latinized into Platterus, his preceptor con-\\ntemptuously added Poof what a measly schiitz to have such a fine\\nname Scholars soon so increased in this town that there was not\\nsupport for all, and Thomas tried another village, where there was a\\ntolerably good school and more food; but we were obliged to be so\\nconstantly in church that we lost all our time. At last he returned\\nto Zurich, and entered under a good and learned but severe school-\\nmaster. I sat down in a corner near his chair, and said to myself, In\\nthis corner will I study or die. I got on well with Father Myconius\\nhe read Terence to us, and we had to conjugate and decline every word\\nof a play. It often happened that my jacket was wet and my eyes\\nalmost blind with fear, and yet he never gave me a blow, save once on\\nmy cheek. Thomas s trials and struggles continued for some years\\nlonger. He learned rope-making as a means of support, and used to\\nfasten the separate sheets of his Greek Plautus (a precious gift from\\na Basle printer) to the rope, that he might read while working. He\\nstudied much at night, and in time rose to be a corrector of the press,\\nthen citizen and printer, and finally rector of the Latin School at\\nBasle.\\nSUMMARY.\\nThe sixteenth was the century of Charles V., Francis I., Henry\\nVIII. Pope Leo X., Loyola, Luther, Calvin, Philip II., William the\\nSilent, Catharine de Medici, Henry IV., Queen Elizabeth, Mary\\nStuart, Shakspere, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Correggio, and Coperni-\\ncus. It saw the battle of Pa via the conquest of Mexico and Peru\\nthe Reformation in Germany the founding of the order of Jesuits\\nthe abdication of Charles V. the battle of Lepanto the Massacre of\\nSt. Bartholomew the Union of Utrecht the triumph of the Beggars\\nthe death of Mary Stuart the defeat of the Spanish Armada the bat-\\ntle of Ivry and the Edict of Nantes.\\nREADING REFERENCES.\\nThe General Modern Histories on p. 429, and Special Histories of England, France,\\nGermany, etc., on p. -118.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 D Aubigne s Reformation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 RanTce s History of the Popes.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Robertson s Life of Charles V.\u00e2\u0080\u00943fotley s Rise of the Dutch Republic, United Nether-\\nlands, and John of Barneveld.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Spalding s History of the Protestant Reformation\\n(Catholic view).\u00e2\u0080\u0094JPressense s Early Years of Christianity.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Seebohm s Era of Protes-\\ntant Revolution {Epochs of History Series).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 MsJier s Reformation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Hdusser s Period\\nof the Reformation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Hiibner s Life of Sixtus V.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Audin s Life of Luther {Catholic\\nview).\u00e2\u0080\u0094Eroude s Short Studies {Erasmus and Luther).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Smiles s TJie Huguenots.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nHanna s Wars of the Huguenots.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Freer s Histories of Henry III., and Maria de\\nMedici.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lingard s History of England {Era of the Reformation, Catholic view).\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nMacaulay s Ivry (poem).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 James s Henry of Guise, and Huguenots (fiction).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Dumas s", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0506.jp2"}, "507": {"fulltext": "CONTEMPORARY SOVEKKIGNS.\\n479\\nForty-five OvMrdsmen (fiction).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ebers 8 Burgomasters Wife (Siege of Leyden).\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nMiss Yonge s Unknown to History (Romance illustrating Mary Stuart s times).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mrg.\\nCharles s ScJibnberg-Cotta Family.\\nCHRONOLOGY.\\nA. D.\\nHenry VIII., King of Enj?laud ...1509-47\\nFrancis I., King of France 1515-47\\nLuther publishes his theses 1517\\nCliarles V., Emperor of Germany.. 1520-56\\nCortes takes Mexico 1521\\nBattle of Pavia 1525\\nBourbon sacks Rome 1527\\nReformers called Protestants 1529\\nPizarro ccmquers Peru 1533\\nOrder of Jesuits founded by Loyola. 1534\\nCouncil of Trent 1545\\nA. D.\\nTreaty of Passau 1552\\nAbdication of diaries V 1556\\nElizabeth, Queen of England... 1558-1003\\nBattle of Lepanto 1571\\nMassacre of St. Bartholomew 1572\\nSiege of Lej den 1574\\nMary Queen of Scots beheaded 1587\\nDefeat of the Spanish A rmada 1588\\nHenry IV., King of France 1589\\nBattle of Ivry 1590\\nEdict of Nantes 1598\\nCONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS.\\nENGLAND.\\nHenry VI II.... 1509\\nEdward VI 1547\\nMary 1553\\nElizabeth 1558\\nFRANCE.\\nLouis XII 1498\\nFrancis 1 1515\\nHenri II 1547\\nFrancis II 1559\\nCharles IX 15G0\\nHenry III 1574\\nHenry IV 1589\\nGERMANY.\\nMaximilian I.. 1493\\nCharles V 1520\\nFerdinand I 1556\\nMaximilian II. 1564\\nRudolph II 1576\\nSPAIN.\\nFerdinand and\\nIsabella 1479\\nCharles 1 1.516\\nPhilip II 1556\\nPhilip III 1598\\nBRINGING IN THE YULE LOG AT CHRISTMAS.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0507.jp2"}, "508": {"fulltext": "480 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.\\nTHE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.\\nI. THE THIRTY-YEARS WAR.\\nThe Causes of this war were mainly 1. The smoldering\\nreligious hatred of half a century, kindled afresh by the\\nBohemian troubles 2. The church lands which the Protes-\\ntants had seized and the Catholic princes sought to reclaim j\\n3. The emperor Ferdinand s determination, backed by Spain,\\nto subjugate Germany to his faith and house.\\nOpening of the War. The Bohemians, enraged by\\nFerdinand s intolerance (p. 444), revolted, threw two of the\\nroyal councilors out of a window of the palace at Prague,\\nand chose as king the elector-palatine Frederick, son-in-law\\nof James I. of England. War ensued, the old Hussite strug-\\ngle over again. But Frederick s army was defeated near\\nPrague in its fii st battle, and the Winter King, as he was\\ncalled, for he reigned only one winter, instead of gaining a\\nkingdom, in the end lost his Palatinate, and died in poverty\\nand exile. 1 Meanwhile Ferdinand was chosen emperor.\\nSpread of the War. As the seat of the war passed\\nfrom Bohemia into the Palatinate, the other German states,\\nin spite of their singular indifference and jealousy, became\\ninvolved in the struggle. Finally Christian IV. of Den-\\nmark, who, as Duke of Holstein, was a prince of the empire.\\nGeographical Questions.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 luOGa,te Prague Magdeburg Leipsic Liitzen\\nRocroi; Freiburg; Nordlingeu Lens; Rastadt Strasbiirg.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Point out Bohemia;\\nWestyhalia Saxony Pomerania The Palatinate Brandenburg Alsace Brus-\\nsels Luxemburg Nimeguen Fleurus Steinkirk Neerwiuden Blenheim\\nRamillies Gudenarde Malplaquet Dunkirk Rochelle Nantes Utrecht.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Dover\\nMarston Moor Naseby Dunbar Worcester.\\n1 Little did his wife Elizabeth dream, as she wandered among foreign courts beg-\\nging shelter for herself and children, that her grandson would sit on the English\\nthrone.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0508.jp2"}, "509": {"fulltext": "1G27.]\\nTHE THIRTY-YEARS WAR.\\n481\\nespoused Frederick s cause. In this crisis, Count Wallenstein\\nvolunteered to raise an army for the emperor, and support\\nit from the liostile territory. The magic of his name and\\nthe hope of phmder drew adventurers from all sides. With\\n100,000 men he invaded Denmark. Christian was forced\\nto flee to his islands, and finally to sue for peace (1G29).\\nFerdinand s Triumph now appeared complete. Ger-", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0509.jp2"}, "510": {"fulltext": "482 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1629.\\nmany lay helpless at his feet. The dream of Charles V. an\\nAustrian monarch, absolute, like a French or a Spanish\\nking seemed about to be realized. Ferdinand ventured\\nto force the Protestants to restore the church lands. But\\nWallenstein s mercenaries had become as obnoxious to the\\nCatholics as to the Protestants, and Ferdinand was mduced\\nto dismiss him just at the moment when, as the event\\nproved, he most needed his services for at this juncture\\nGustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, landed with a\\nsmall army on the Baltic coast. A pious, prudent, honest,\\nresolute, generous man maintaining strict discipline among\\nhis soldiers, who were devoted to their leader; holding\\nprayers in camp twice a day sharing every hardship with\\nthe meanest private, and every danger with the bravest treat-\\ning the enemy with humanit3^ respecting the rights of the\\ninhabitants of the country, and paying for the food he took\\nimproving the art of war by breaking the heavy masses of\\nthe army into small battalions, by throwing off their armor,\\nby reducing the weight of their weapons, and by mingling\\nthe cavalry, pikemen, artillery, and musketeers so as to sup-\\nport one another in battle, such was the man who now\\nappeared as the Protestant champion. In Vienna they\\nlaughed at the Snow King, as they called him, and said\\nhe would melt under a southern sun. But by the next sum-\\nmer he had taken eighty towns and fortresses. France, then\\nruled by Richelieu (p. 487), made a treaty promising him\\nmoney to pay his army and, though England did not join\\nhim, thousands of English and Scotch rallied around the\\nbanner of the Lion of the North.\\nTilly, the best imperial general after Wallenstein, now laid\\nsiege to Magdeburg (1631). Gustavus hastened to its relief.\\nBut, while he was negotiating leave to cross the Protestant\\nstates of Saxony and Brandenburg, Magdeburg was taken by", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0510.jp2"}, "511": {"fulltext": "1631.] THE THIRTY YEARS WAR. 483\\nstorm. For three days Tilly s bandit soldiers robbed and\\nmurdered throughout the doomed city. From that time\\nthis Iiero of thirty-six battles never won another field. On\\nthe plain of Leipsic, Gustavus captured Tilly s guns, turned\\nthem upon him, and di-ove his army into headlong flight.\\nThe victor, falling on his knees amid tlie dead and dying,\\ngave thanks to God for his success. The next year, at the\\ncrossing of the Lech, Tilly was mortally wounded.\\nCoioit Wall en stein was now recalled, the humbled em-\\nperor giving hun absolute power over his army. He soon\\ngathered a force of men, who knew no trade but arms, and\\nno principle but plunder. After months of maneuvering,\\nduring which these skillful generals sought to take each\\nother at a disadvantage, Gustavus, learning that Wallenstein\\nhad sent his best cavalry-officer, Pappenheim, with ten thou-\\nsand men, into Westphalia, attacked the imperial forces at\\nLiitzen, near Leipsic (1632). After prayer, his army sang\\nLuther s hymn, God is a strong tower, when he himself\\nled the advance. Three times that day the hard-fought field\\nwas lost and won. At last Gusta\\\\Tis, while rallying his\\ntroops, was shot. The riderless horse, galloping wildly down\\nthe line, spread the news. But the Swedes, undismayed,\\nfought under Bernard of Weimar more desperately than\\never. Pappenheim, who had been hastily recalled, came\\nup only in time to meet their fierce charge, and to die at\\nthe head of his dragoons. Night put an end to the carnage.\\n1 Wallenstein lived on his princely estates with regal pomp. He was served by\\nnobles sixty high-born pages did his bidding, and sixty life-guards watched in his\\nante-chamber. His horses ate fiom mangers of polished steel, and their .stalls were\\ndecorated with paintings. When he traveled, his suite filled sixty carriages and his\\nbaggage, one hundred wagons. The silence of death brooded around him. He so\\ndreaded noise that the streets leading to his palace in Prague were closed by chains,\\nlest the sound of carriage-wheels should reacli his oar. He believed in astrologj and\\nthat the stars foretold him a brilliant destiny. His men thought him to be in league\\nwith spirits, and hence invulnerable in battle. Like Tilly, he wore in his hat a blood-\\nred feather, and it is said that his usual dress was scarlet.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0511.jp2"}, "512": {"fulltext": "484\\nTHE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.\\nWalleii stein crept off in the\\ndark, leaving liis colors and\\ncannon behind. Gustavns\\nhad fallen, like Epaminondas\\n(p. 148), in the hour of vi\\n[1632.\\nBEFORE THE BATTLE OF LLTZEN.\\nAfter the Death of Gustavus, the war had little in-\\nterest. As the Swedish crown fell to Christina, a little girl\\nof six years, the direction of military affairs was given to the\\nchancellor Oxenstiern, an able statesman under him were\\nBernard, Duke of Weimar, the Generals Horn and Baner,\\nand later the brilliant Torstenson. Ferdinand, suspecting\\nWallenstein s fidelity, caused his assassination. At Word-\\nUngen (1634) the Swedes met their first great defeat, and\\nthe next year most of the, Protestant states of Germany", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0512.jp2"}, "513": {"fulltext": "1635-48.] THE THIRTY- YE ARS^ WAR. 485\\nmade terms with the emperor. Still for thirteen years\\nlonger the war dragged on.\\nThe Character of the contest had now entirely changed.\\nIt was no longer a struggle for the supremacy of Catholic or\\nProtestant. The progi-ess of the war had destroyed the feel-\\nings with whicli it had commenced. France had openly\\ntaken the field against Spain and Austria. Ferdinand died,\\nand his son, Ferdinand III., came to the throne Richelieu\\nand Louis XIII. died, but Louis XIV. and his minister,\\nMazarin, continued the former policy. Both French and\\nSwedes strove to get lands in Germany, and Ferdinand\\nstniggled to save as much as possible from their grasping\\nhands. The contending armies composed of the offscour-\\nings of all Europe surged to and fro, leaving behind them\\na broad track of ruin. The great French generals, Conde\\nand Tiu-enne, masters of a new art of war, by the victo-\\nries of Bocroi, Freihnrg,^ N^ordUngen, and Lens, assured the\\npower of France. Maximilian of Bavaria made an heroic\\nstand for the emperor 5 but at last, Bavaria being overrun,\\nBohemia invaded, a part of Prague taken,^ and Vienna itseK\\nthreatened, Ferdinand was forced to sign the\\nPeace of Westphalia (1648).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This treaty\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the basis\\nof our modern map of Europe brought to an end the reli-\\ngious wars of the Continent. It recognized the independ-\\nence of Holland and Switzerland granted religious freedom\\nto the Protestant states of Germany; and gave Alsace to\\nFrance, and a part of Pomerania to Sweden.\\nThe Effect of the Thirty- Years War upon Germany is not yet\\neffaced. The whole land, says Carlyle, had been tortured, torn to\\npieces, wrecked, and brayed as in a mortar. Two thirds of the popu-\\nlation had disappeared. Famine, pestilence, and the sword had con-\\nverted vast tracts into a ^\\\\^lderness. Whole villages stood empty save\\nAoconiing to tradition, Coiid6, iu tins battle, threw his marshal s baton into the\\nenemy s trenches, and then recovered it, sword in liand.\\n2 Thus the Thirty-Yeaxs War, which began at Prague, ended at Prague.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0513.jp2"}, "514": {"fulltext": "486\\nTHE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1610.\\nfor the famished dogs that prowled around the deserted houses. All\\nidea of nationality was lost the Holy Roman Empire was practically at\\nan end, and the name German emperor was henceforth merely an empty\\ntitle of the Austrian rulers while between the Alps and the Baltic\\nwere three hundred petty states, each with its own court, coinage, and\\ncustoms. Trade, literature, and manufactures were paralyzed. French\\nmanners and habits were servilely imitated, and each little court sought\\nto reproduce in miniature the pomp of Versailles. Henceforth, until\\nalmost our own times, the empire has no history, and that of the differ-\\nent states is a dreary chapter indeed. From the Peace of Westphalia\\nto the French Revolution, says Bryce, it would be hard to find a sin-\\ngle grand character, a single noble enterprise, a single sacrifice to public\\ninterests, or a single instance where the welfare of the nation was pre-\\nferred to the selfish passion of the prince. When we ask for an account\\nof the political life of Germany in the 18th century, we hear nothing but\\nthe scandals of buzzing courts and the wrangling of diplomatists at\\nnever-ending congresses. Even Lessing, the great German author,\\nwrote, Of the love of country, I have no conception it appears to me,\\nat best, a heroic weakness which I am right glad to be without.\\nII. FRANCE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.\\n1. THE AGE OF RICHELIEU (1622-42).\\nLouis XIII. (1610-43). The dagger of Ravaillac gave\\nthe crown to Henry s son,\\na boy of nine years. The\\nqueen-mother, Maria de\\nMedici, the regent, squan-\\ndered upon her favorites\\nthe treasures saved by the\\nfrugal Sully, who now re-\\ntired in disgrace. The\\nnobles, regaining power,\\nlevied taxes and coined\\nmoney, as in feudal times\\nwhile the Huguenots\\nLOUIS xni.\\nforming an independent\\nstate within the state garrisoned fortresses, hired soldiers,\\nand held political assemblies. All was chaos until Louis,\\nhaving come of age, called a new man to his councils.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0514.jp2"}, "515": {"fulltext": "1622.]\\nFRANCE THE AGE OF RICHELIEU.\\n487\\nCardinal de Richelieu.^ Henceforth Louis was the\\nsecond man in France, but the first in Europe. The king\\ncowered before the\\ngenius of his minis-\\nter, whom he hated\\nand yet obeyed.\\nRich(?lieu had three\\nobjects to destroy\\nthe Huguenots as a\\nparty, to subdue the\\nnol_)les, and to hum-\\nble Austria.\\n1. By building a\\nstone mole across\\nthe entrance to the\\nharbor of Rochelle\\nand shutting out\\nthe English fleet, Richelieii reduced that Huguenot strong-\\nhold. The other Calvinist towns then submitting, he gen-\\nerously granted the reformers freedom of worship.\\n2. By destroying the feudal castles, and by attracting the\\nnobles to Paris, where they became absorbed in the luxm-ies\\nand frivohties of the court, he weakened their provincial\\npower. The rebellious aristocracy hated the cardinal, and\\nformed conspiracy after conspiracy against him. But he\\ndetected each plot, and punished its authors with merciless\\nseverity. The nobility crushed, Parliament the highest\\nCARDINAL liICHP:LIEU.\\n1 This extraordinary man, says Mi.ss Edwards in her charming History of\\nFrance, has been, not inaptly, compared witli his predecessor, Wolsey of England.\\nLike him, he was a prelate, a minister, a consummate politician, and a master of the\\narts of intrigue. He gave his whole attention and all his vast abilities to affairs of\\nstate, was prodigal of displaj and entertained projects of the most towering ambi-\\ntion. He added to his ministerial and priestlj dignities the emoluments and lionors\\nof the profession of arms; assumed the dress and title of generalissimo of the French\\narmy and wore alternately the helmet of tlio warrior and the scarlet hat of the\\ncardinal.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0515.jp2"}, "516": {"fulltext": "488\\nTHE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1643.\\ncourt of law was forced to register the royal edicts with-\\nout examination. The monarchy was at last absolute.\\n3. By supporting the Protestants during the Thirty-\\nYears War, Richeheu weakened the House of Austria in\\nGermany and Spain, and so made France the head of the\\nEuropean States-System.\\nJust at the hour of his triumph, Richelieu died. Louis,\\nwhose life had been so closely linked to that of his famous\\nminister, survived him only six months.\\n2. THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715).\\nLiOuis XIV. was only five years old at his father s death.\\nAnne of Austria, the queen-mother, became regent, and\\nMazarin was appointed\\nprime-minister. The fruits\\nof Richelieu s foreign policy\\nwere rapidly gathered by the\\ntwo renowned generals,\\nConde and Turenne,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 -who\\nnow commanded the French\\narmies. The battles of Bo-\\ner oi,^ Freiburg, N ordUngen,\\nand Lens humiliated Aus-\\ntria, and paved the way to\\nthe Peace of Westphaha.\\nCAUDINAI. MAZARIN.\\nSpain, however, continued\\n1 The pupil may be aided in remembering these important battles if lie associate\\nthe four names with Conde and Turenne (thougli Turenne fought only at Freiburg\\nand Nordlingen) tlie names frequently repeated together will form a chain of associ-\\nation. The same remark holds true with regard to Luxemburg s tliree battles (p. 492),\\nand Marlborough s four battles (p. 493). On the field of Rocroi the French found the\\nremains of the Castilian infantry, first formed by Gonsalvo (p. 431), lying dead in battle-\\nline, and at the head tlie commander, Comte de Fuentes, hero of twenty battles, ex-\\npiring in an arm-cliair in which, on account of his feebleness, lie had been borne to the\\nfront. Were I not victor, said the young Duke tVEnghein (Cond6), I should wisli\\nthus to die,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0516.jp2"}, "517": {"fulltext": "1659.]\\nFRANCE\u00e2\u0080\u0094 THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV.\\n489\\nthe war^ until, by the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), she\\nyielded Artois and Roussillon to Louis. From this time,\\nFrance held that place among European nations which Si)ain\\nhad so long occupied. Upon the death of Mazarin (1G61),\\nLouis assumed the Government. Henceforth, for\\nover half a century, he was sole master in France. He\\nbecame his own prime-minister, and, though only twenty-\\nthree years old, by his dili-\\ngence soon acquii-ed the de-\\ntails of public affairs. He\\nselected his assistants with\\nrare wisdom. Colbert, the\\nnew finance minister, was\\nanother Sully, by economy\\nand system increasing the\\nrevenues, while he encour-\\naged agriculture, manufac-\\ntures, and commerce. Lou-\\nvois, the war minister, or-\\nganized and equipped the\\narmy, making it the terror of\\nEui ope. Never had France\\nbeen so powerful. One hun-\\ndred fortresses, monuments\\nof the skill of Vauban, the\\ngreatest engineer of his day,\\ncovered the frontier; one\\n1 The cost of this war and the luxury of the court made the taxes very onerous.\\nFinally Parliament refused to register the tariff, and a revolt broke out in -which\\nthe Parisian burghers and many nobles joined. This rising is known as the Fronde,\\nand tlie actors were called Frondeurs (slingers),\u00e2\u0080\u0094 since the gamins of Paris, with their\\nslings, were foremost in the outbreak. The struggle was a burlesque on civil war.\\nFun ran rampant. Everything was a Fronde and a sling, the universal fashion.\\nThe leaders on each side were the most fascinating women of France. In the end\\nthe Fronde was subdued. It was the last struggle of the nobles against despotism.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0517.jp2"}, "518": {"fulltext": "490 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1685.\\nhundred ships of the Ime lay in the magnificent harbors of\\nToulon, Brest, and Havre and an army of one hundred and\\nforty thousand men, under Turenne, Conde, and Luxemburg,\\nwas ready to take the field at the word. The French people,\\nweary of strife, willingly surrendered their political rights\\nto this autocrat, who secured to them prosperity at home\\nand dignity abroad.\\nThe Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. By the\\nadvice of the cold and selfish Louvois and of Madame de\\nMaintenon, whom the king married after the death of\\nMaria Theresa, the Edict of Nantes (p. 454) was revoked\\n(1685). The Protestant schools were closed, the Huguenot\\nministers expelled, and squadrons of cavahy quartered\\nupon the suspected. Many citizens were imprisoned, exe-\\ncuted, or sent to the galleys. Although emigration was for^\\nbidden under severe penalties, two hundred thousand of the\\nbest artisans escaped to foreign lands, whither they carried\\narts and industries hitherto known only to France.\\nFour Great Wars were waged by Louis to gTatify his\\nambition, and extend the power of France. These were\\n1. War of Flanders (1667-68) ended by Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.\\n2. War uiith Holland, and First Coalition (1672-79) closed by\\nTreaty of Nimeguen.\\n3. War of the Falatinate Second Coalition (1688-97); concluded\\nby Peace of Ryswick.\\n4. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14) terminated by treaties\\nof Utreclit and Rastadt.\\n1. War of Flanders. On the death of his father-in-law,\\nPhilip IV. of Spain, Louis, in the name of Maria Theresa,\\ninvaded Flanders. But in the midst of a triumphant prog^\\nress he was checked by the Triple AUiance of England,\\nHolland, and Sweden, and forced to make the Treaty of Aix\\nla-Chapelle, giving up most of his conquests.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0518.jp2"}, "519": {"fulltext": "1672.]\\nFRANCE THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV.\\n491\\n2. War with Holland. Louis was eager to revenge him-\\nself upon the little republic that had so long been the ally\\nof France, but now defended its old oppressor, Spain. So,\\nhaving bribed England and Sweden to desert the alliance,\\nhe poured his troops\\ninto HoUand. With\\nhim were Conde, Tu-\\nrenne, Luxemburg,\\nLouvois, and Vau-\\nban. Ai-med with\\nthe bayonet, then a\\nnew and terrible\\nweapon, they swept\\nall before them until\\nwithin sight of Am-\\nsterdam. But once\\nagain the courage of\\nthe Dutch rose high,\\nas in the days of the\\nSea Beffffars.i Bet-\\nTURENNE.\\nter, said they, ^4et\\nthe sea dro^vn our farms than the French destroy our liber-\\nties. The sluices were opened, and the German Ocean, rush-\\ning in, saved the capital. William, Prince of Orange,^ chosen\\nstadtholder in this emergency, aroused all Europe with di-ead\\nof Louis s ambition. Soon the First Coalition of the empu-e,\\nSpain, and Brandenburg (now Prussia) was formed against\\nFrance. Louis, however, made head against all these foes,\\nuntn, Europe longing for peace, he granted the Treaty of\\n1 The Dutch even proposed, in case of reverse, to embark on tlieir fleet, like tlie\\nAthenians (p. 132), to abandon their couutrj to tliis modern Xerxes, sail to their East\\nIndian possessions, and found a new republic beyond the sea.\\n2 The great-srandson of the Liberator of the Netherlands (p. 446), and aflt-rward\\nWilliam III. of England (p. .511).", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0519.jp2"}, "520": {"fulltext": "492 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1679.\\nNimeguen. This gave Franche Comte, and several fortresses\\nand towns in Flanders, to France. Louis now considered\\nhimself the arbiter of Europe. He seized Strasburg in a\\ntime of profound peace; captured the fortress of Luxem-\\nburg bombarded Algiers humiliated Genoa, forcing the\\nDoge to come to Paris and beg for mercy wrested Avignon\\nfrom the Pope and, basest of all, secretly encouraged the\\nTurks to invade Austria.^\\n3. The War of the Second Coalition was begun by its\\nmost memorable event, the cruel devastation of the Palat-\\ninate. Here the French army, unable to hold its conquests,\\ndestroyed over forty cities and villages. Houses were blown\\nup; vineyards and orchards cut down. Palaces, churches,\\nand universities shared a common fate. Even the ceme-\\nteries were profaned, and the ashes of the dead scattered\\nto the wind. A cry of execration went up from the civilized\\nworld. William, Prince of Orange, then King of England\\n(p. 511), became the leader of the Grand Alliance, to set\\nbounds to Louis s power.\\nAt first Louis was triumphant. Luxemburg^ the suc-\\ncessor of Turenne and Conde conquered the allies under\\nWilliam, at Fleurus, SteinMrk, and Neerwinden. But Wil-\\nliam was greatest in defeat, and his stubborn valor held the\\nFrench in check. Ere long, misfortunes gathered thickly\\nabout the Grand Monarch. Colbert, Louvois, and Luxem-\\nburg died. Louis was finally forced to sign the Treaty of\\n1 Vienna would have fallen into the liands of the Infidel if it had not been for John\\nSohieski, King of Poland, who routed the Turks under the walls of the city as Charles\\nthe Hammer put to tliglit the Saracen on the plains of Tours nearly ten centuries\\nbefore.\\n2 This war extended to North America, and is known in our history as King Wil-\\nliam s War (Hist. U. S., p. 77).\\n8 Luxemburg was styled the Upholsterer of Notre Dame, from the number of cap-\\ntured flags he sent to be hung as trophies in that cathedral. Would to God, said\\nhe on his deathbed, that I could offer Him, instead of so many useless laurels, the\\nmerit of a cup of water given to the poor in His name.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0520.jp2"}, "521": {"fulltext": "1697.] FRANCE THE AGE OF LOUIS XTV. 493\\nRysivick, recognizing William as lawful sovereign of Eng-\\nland, and surrendering most of his conquests, but retaining\\nStrasburg, which Vauban s art had made the key of the\\nRhine.\\n4. The War of the Spanish Succession began the 18th\\ncentury. Charles II. of Spain willed his crown to Philip of\\nAnjou, son of the Dauphin Louis supported his grandson s\\nclaim. The emperor Leopold was as nearly related to the\\nSpanish family as was Louis so he asserted the right of his\\nsecond son, the Archduke Charles. The union of France\\nand Spain under the House of Bourbon endangering the\\nbalance of power, a Third Coalition was formed. William,\\nthe soul of this league also, died at the beginning of the war.\\nBut his place in the field was more than filled by the brilliant\\nDuke of Marlborough, and by Prince Eugene, who com-\\nmanded the imperial forces.^ Marlborough won the famous\\nvictories of Blenheim, EamilUes, Oitdenarde, and MalpJaquet\\nEugene di ove the French headlong out of Italy, and threat-\\nened France. The long wars had exhausted the people;\\nfamine and disease ran riot through the land; and Louis\\nhumiliated himseK in vain, begging the allies for peace.\\nIn the midst of disaster, however, he achieved his end by\\ntwo unlooked-for events. The archduke became emperor,\\nand the allies were as unwilling that Spain should be united\\nto Austria as to France in England the Tories came into\\npower, and recalled the dreaded Marlborough. The terrible\\nstruggle was ended by the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt.\\nPhilip was acknowledged King of Spain the Spanish posses-\\n1 This struggle also involved the American colonies, and is known in our history\\nas Queen Anne s War (Hist. U. S., p. 79).\\n2 Known in liistory as the Little man with the red stockings.\\n3 Eugene was bred in France, and offered his sword to Louis, but was contemptu-\\nously rejected. Having called the Grand Monarch a stage-king for .show and a\\nchess-king for use, he liad grievously offended the king, and now, having entered\\nthe emperor s service, he became the bitterest enemy of France.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0521.jp2"}, "522": {"fulltext": "494 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 117U.\\nsions in Italy and in tlie Netherlands were ceded to the em-\\nperor Charles VI. Newfoundland, Acadia, and Gibraltar\\nthe key of the Mediterranean were given to England.\\nDeath of Louis. The Grand Monarch had carried out\\nhis plan, but he had impoverished France, mortgaged her\\nrevenues for years in advance, and destroyed her industries.\\nWorn and disappointed, he closed his long reign of seventy-\\ntwo years, having outlived his good fortune, and sacrificed\\nhis country to his false ideas of glory.\\nIII. ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS (1603-1714).\\nThe Stuart Rule covered the 17th century. It was\\nthe era of the English constitutional struggle. The charac-\\nteristic feature was the conflict between the kings bent upon\\nabsolute power, and the Parhament contending for the rights\\nof the people.\\nTABLE OF THE STUART LINE (see Tudor Table, p. 455).\\nJAMES I., son of Mary Queen of Scots (1603-25).\\nCHARLES I. (1625-J9).\\nI Elizabeth, m. Elector-\\nI I I Palatine.\\nCHARLES II. (1660-85). JAMES II. (1685-89). SOPHIA, m. ELECTOR^OF^^^\\nGEORGE I. (1714).\\nI I\\nMARY II. (1689-94). ANNE (1702-14).\\nJames I. (1603-25). Obstinate, conceited, pedantic,\\nweak, mean-looking in person, ungainly in manners, slovenly\\nin dress, led by unworthy favorites, given to wine, and so\\ntimorous as to shudder at a drawn sword, the first Stuart\\nking had few qualities of a ruler. In strange contrast with\\n1 Macaulay says that James was made np of two men,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a witty, well-read scholar,\\nwho wrote, disputed, and harangued and a nervous, driveling idiot, who acted.\\nSully styled him The wisest fool in Europe. He was the author of several books,\\nnotably of one against the use of tobacco and under tils patronage the still generally\\naccepted translation of the Bible was made.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0522.jp2"}, "523": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0080\u00a2ravTKtM, IlivOM c\u00c2\u00ab \u00e2\u0080\u00a2act^ i", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0523.jp2"}, "524": {"fulltext": "496\\nTHE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1603.\\nhis undignified appearance, were his royal pretensions. He\\nbelieved in the divine right of the king, and in the pas-\\nsive obedience of the subject. While the Tudors had the\\ntact to become absolute by making themselves the exponents\\nof the national will, James ostentatiously opposed his per-\\nsonal policy to the popular desire.\\n(.1 i V\\\\\\\\Kl- AM) Illh tOMl AMONS\\n(From a Print of the Time.)\\nGunpowder Plot. The Catholics naturally expected tol-\\neration from Mary s son, but, being persecuted more bitterly\\nthan ever, a few desperate ones resolved to blow up Parlia-\\nment on the day of its opening by the king (1605). They\\naccordingly hired a cellar under the Houses of Parliament,\\nwhere they hid thirty-six barrels of gunpowder beneath fag-\\nots of fii-ewood. At the last moment a conspirator sent a\\nnote to a relation, warning him to keep away from Parha-\\nment. The letter was shown to the king, search made, and\\nGuy Fawkes found waiting with lantern and slow-match to", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0524.jp2"}, "525": {"fulltext": "1605.] ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 497\\nfire the train. This horrible plot bore bitter fruit, and\\nstringent laws were passed against the recusants, i. e.^\\nthose who refused to attend church.\\nParliament and the King were in conflict throughout this\\nreign the former contending for more li1)erty, the latter\\nfor more power. James would have gladly done without\\nParliament altogether, but he had constantly to go begging\\nfor money to the House of Commons and that body adopted\\ntiie principle, now one of the corner-stones of the British\\nconstitution, that a redi-ess of gi ievances must precede a\\ngranting of supplies. Resolved not to yield, the king dis-\\nsolved Parliament after Parliament, and sought to raise a\\nrevenue by reviving various feudal customs. He extorted\\nbenevolences, sold titles of nobility, and increased monopo-\\nlies, until the entu-e trade of the country was in the hands of\\nabout two hundi-ed persons. But these makeshifts availed\\nhim little, and step by step Parliament gained gi ound. Be-\\nfore the end of his reign it had suppressed the odious mo-\\nnopolies, reformed the law-courts, removed obnoxious royal\\nfavorites, impeached at its bar the highest officers of the\\nCrown, made good its claim to exclusive control of taxation,\\nand asserted its right to discuss any question pertaining to\\nthe welfare of the realm.\\nJames s Foreign Policy was, if possible, more unpopular\\nin England than his domestic. He undid the work of\\nElizabeth, and wasted the fruit of her triumph over the\\nAi mada cultivated the friendship of Spain and, during\\nthe Thirty- Years War, refused any efficient aid to his son-\\nin-law, the Elector Palatine, though the nation clamored to\\njoin in the struggle. England now ceased to be the leading\\nProtestant power in Europe.\\nCharles I. (1625-49), unlike his father James, was\\nrefined in taste and dignified in manner, but his ideas of the\\nB O H-29", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0525.jp2"}, "526": {"fulltext": "498\\nTHE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY,\\n[1625.\\nroyal prerogative\\nwere even more\\nexalted. He made\\npromises only to\\nbreak them, and\\nthe nation soon\\nlearned to doubt\\nthe royal word.\\nHis wife, Henriet-\\nta Maria, daughter\\nof Henry IV. of\\nFrance, favored\\nabsolutism after\\nthe French mod-\\nel, and hated the\\nPuritans, who also\\ndistrusted her as\\na Catholic. Buck-\\ningham, who had been James s favorite, was the king s chief\\nadviser. Wife and favorite both urged Charles on in the\\nfatal course to which his own inclinations tended. The\\nhistory of his reign is that of one long\\nStruggle between Parliament and King. The Parliament\\nof 1628 wrested from Charles the famous Petition of Right,\\nthe second great charter of Enghsh liberty. It forbade\\nthe king to levy taxes without the consent of Parhament, to\\nimprison a subject without trial, or to billet soldiers in pri-\\nvate houses. Charles, however, as usual, disregarded his\\npromise, and then for eleven years ruled like an autocrat.\\nDuring this period no Parliament was convoked, an\\ninstance unparalleled in English history. Buckingham hav-\\ning been assassinated by a Puritan fanatic, the Earl of Straf-\\nford and Archbishop Laud became the royal advisers. The\\nCHARLES I. AND HIS ARMOR-UEAREU.\\n(From a Painting by Van Dyck.)", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0526.jp2"}, "527": {"fulltext": "1629-40.] ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 499\\nformer contrived a cruel i)lan known as Thorough/ by\\nwhich he meant to make the king absolute. In Ireland,\\nwhere the scheme was tried, Irish and English alike crouched\\nin terror under his iron rule. Laud was resolved to crush\\nthe Puritans, and restore to the Church many of its ancient\\nusages. All who differed from him were tried in the High\\nCommission Court; while the Star Chamber^ Court fined,\\nwhipped, and imprisoned those speaking ill of the king s\\npolicy, or refusing to pay the money he illegally demanded.\\nThe Puritans, persecuted on every hand, found their only\\nrefuge in the wilds of America, and in a single year three\\nthousand joined their brethren in New England.\\nNo tax caused more feeling than the imposition of ship-\\nmoney upon inland towns in time of peace. At last the\\nopposition found a voice in John Hampden. He resisted\\nthe levy of twenty shillings upon his property, and, though\\nbeaten in the royal coiu t, became the people s hero.\\nIn Scotland, also, Charles carried matters with a high\\nhand. Laud attempted to abolish Presbyterianism, and\\nintroduce a liturgy. Thereupon the Scotch rose en masse,\\nand signed, some of them with theii* own blood, a cove-\\nnant binding themselves to resist every mnovation on their\\nreligious rights. Finally an army of Scots crossed the\\nborder, and Charles was forced to assemble the celebrated\\n^^Long Parliaments^ (1640), so called because it lasted\\ntwenty years. The old contest was renewed. Strafford, and\\nafterward Laud, were brought to the block the Star Cham-\\nber and High Commission Courts were abolished and Par-\\nliament voted that it could not be adjourned without its\\nown consent. At last Charles, in desperation, rashly at-\\n1 Tliis court was so called because it met in a chamber at Westminster whoso\\nceiling was decoraterl with }?ilt stars. A London citizen was severelj punished by-\\none of the royal courts for terminf? the crest of a nobleman upon the buttons of his\\nlivery-servant a goose instead of a swan.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0527.jp2"}, "528": {"fulltext": "500\\nTHE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1642.\\ntempted, with a body of armed men, to arrest in tlie House\\nitself five of the patriot leaders, among them Hampden and\\nPym. They took refuge in the city, whence, seven days\\nlater, they were brought back to the House of Commons in\\ntriumph, escorted by London train bands, amid the roar\\nof cannon and the shouts of the people.\\nCROMWELL DISSOLVING THE LONG PARLIAMENT.\\nCivil War (1642-48) was now inevitable. Charles has-\\ntened northward and unfurled the royal banner. The Puri-\\ntans, together with London and the cities generally, sup-\\nported Parhament; the clergy, the nobles, and the gay\\nyoung men, who disliked the Puritan strictness, favored the\\nking.^ Rupert, Charles s nephew, and son of the Winter\\n1 The royalists were callerl Cavaliers, from their skill in riding and the parlia-\\nmentarians, Boundlieads, from the Puritan fashion of wearing closely cut hair. In\\nlater times the same parties were styled Tories and Whigs. At the present day the\\ntwo parties are known as Conservatives and Radicals.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0528.jp2"}, "529": {"fulltext": "1644.] ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 501\\nKing (p. 480), was a dasliiug cavalry-officer, and on field\\nafter field swept everything before liim. The plow-boys,\\napprentice-lads, and shop-keepers, who made up the parlia-\\nmentary army, were no match for the English chivalry.\\nMarston Moor (1044). Here a new man came to the front,\\nOliver Cromwell, who, with his Ironsides, a regiment of\\nPuritan di agoons selected and trained after his own plan,^\\ndrove Rupert s cavaliers peU-meU from the field.\\nTlie Indepemlents. The Puritan party had now become\\nstrong but it was divided into Presbyterians and Independ-\\nents. The Presbyterians, constituting the majority of Par-\\nliament, desired religious conformity and to limit the royal\\nauthority 5 the Independents wished religious toleration\\nand to found a republic. CromweU was the chief of the\\nlatter faction, which now took the lead. Under its auspices,\\nthe army known as the ^New Model was organized. It\\nwas composed of earnest. God-fearing men, who fought, not\\nfor pay, but for hberty of conscience. Perfect discipline was\\ncombined with enthusiastic religious fervor. Profanity and\\ndrunkenness were unknown. Officers and men spent their\\nleisure in prayer and Bible-reading, and went into battle\\nsinging psahus and hymns.\\nAt Nasehy (1645) the New Model fought with the royal\\nforces the decisive contest of the war. The Roundhead\\nleft wing pelded to the fury of Rupert s Cavaliers, who\\npursued the fugitives in hot haste. Meanwhile Cromvrell\\nrouted the royalist left mug, then turned back, and, attack-\\ning in flank the center, where Charles commanded, swept the\\nfield. Rupert returned from his mad pursuit, only to find\\nthe battle over and the royal cause irrevocably lost.\\n1 In the evening after Edgehill, the first battle of this war, Oliver said to his\\ncousin, John Hampden, It is plain that men of religion are wanted to withstand\\nthese gentlemen of honor.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0529.jp2"}, "530": {"fulltext": "502\\nTHE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY\\n[1645,\\nThe Khnffi Fate. diaries\\nfled to the Scots, wlio gave\\nhim up to the Parliament\\nbut the army soon got him\\ninto its possession. Negotia-\\ntions ensued, during which\\nEXECUTION OF CHARI\\nthe king sought to play off Independents against Presby-\\nterians, until his insincerity became evident to all. The\\narmy, then the master, had no faith in the king and even\\nCromwell and his son-in-law Ireton, who struggled long to\\nmediate upon the basis of civil and religious liberty, were\\nforced to yield, A body of soldiers under Colonel Pride\\nsurrounded the House of Commons, and shut out the Pres-\\nbyterian members. Thus reduced, by what is known as\\nPride s Purge, to about sixty Independents, the House", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0530.jp2"}, "531": {"fulltext": "1649.J ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS.\\nappointed a commission to try the king on a charge of\\ntreason. Condemned to death, Charles met his fate with a\\ndignity that went far to atone for the errors of his life.^\\nThe Commonwealth (1649-GO).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 England was now to\\nbe governed without king or lords. Authority was vested in\\nthe diminished House of Commons, contemptuously styled\\nthe Rump. The real riiler, however, was Cromwell, who,\\nwith his terrible army, silenced all opposition.\\nIn Ireland and Scotland the Prince of Wales was pro-\\nclaimed as Charles II. Thereupon Cromwell s merciless\\nIronsides conquered Ireland as it never had been before;\\nthen, crossing into Scotland, they routed the Covenanters\\nat Dimhar, and again, on the anniversary of that victory,\\nat Worcester.^\\nWar also broke out with HoUand for the empire of the\\nsea. The Dutch were at fli*st successfid, and Van Tronip\\nsailed up the Channel with a broom tied at his masthead, to\\nshow that he meant to sweep the EngHsh from the ocean.\\n1 He nothing common (lid or niean\\nUpon tbat niemoiablo scene\\nBut with his keener eye\\nThe ax s edge did try\\nNor called the gods with vulgar spite\\nTo vindicate his helpless right\\nBut bow d his comely head\\nDown, as upon a heiL^ \u00e2\u0080\u0094Marvell.\\nWhen the executioner lifted the severed head from the block, a groan of pity burst\\nfrom the horror-stricken multitude. Yet even in the shadow of the scaffold, Charles\\nasserted his continued belief that a share in government is nothing pertaining\\nto the people.\\n2 Charles II., as the price of the Scottish support, had signed the Covenant, and\\ndeclared himself afflicted at the thought of his father s tyrannj and his mother s idol-\\natry. He had, however, no real hold upon Scotland, and after the battle of Worcester\\nbecame a fugitive. The story of his escape to the Continent is full of romantic adven-\\ntures. At one time he took refuge in tlie spreading branches of an oak-tree whence\\nhe could see his enemies scouring the country in pux-suit: at another he was dis-\\nguised as a groom to a lady who rode beliind him on a pillion, as was then the cus-\\ntom. Though over forty persons knew his secret, and Parliament had offered a\\nreward of one thousand pounds for his capture, all were faithful to tlieir trust,\\nand the prince finally reached a collier at the seaside, and was carried across to\\nNormandy.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0531.jp2"}, "532": {"fulltext": "504 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1654.\\nBut the British fleet under the gallant Blake finally forced\\nHolland to a treaty agreeing that, when ships of the two\\nnations met, the Dutch vessel should salute by striking its\\nCromtvell and Parliament. The Rump did not govern\\nsatisfactorily, and so Cromwell with a file of soldiers drove\\nthe members from the hall, and put the keys in his pocket\\n(1653). He then called an assembly of his own selection.\\nIt was known as Praise-God Barebone s Parliament, from\\nthe quaint name of one of its members. This body soon\\nresigned its power into Cromwell s hands, having given him\\nthe title of Lord Protector of the Commonwealth.\\nThe Protectorate. Cromwell desired to rule constitution-\\nally by means of a Parliament; but the Houses of Com-\\nmons which he assembled proved troublesome, and were\\ndissolved. So he governed as a military despot. He had the\\npower of a king, but, Uke Caesar (p. 251), dared not take the\\ntitle. Under his vigorous administration, the glory of Eng-\\nland, dimmed by the policy of the Stuarts, shone even\\nbrighter than under Elizabeth. The Barbary pii^ates were\\nchastised Jamaica was captured and Dunkirk was received\\nfrom France in return for help against Spain. Everywhere\\nprotecting the Protestants, Cromwell forced the Duke of\\nSavoy to cease persecuting the Vaudois; and he dreamed\\nof making England the head of a great Protestant league.\\nIn spite, however, of his genius and strength, of renown\\nabroad, and prosperity at home,\\nCromtveIVs Last Days were full of gloom. He had kept\\nthe hearts of his soldiers, but had broken mth almost every\\nother class of his countrymen. The people were weary of\\nPuritan strictness that rebuked their innocent amuse-\\nments weary of the rule of a soldier above aU, perhaps,\\nweary of a republic. Factional strife grew hot, and republi-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0532.jp2"}, "533": {"fulltext": "1658.]\\nENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS.\\n505\\ncan and royalist alike plotted against their new tyrant.\\nIn constant di^ead of assassination, Cromwell wore a coat\\nof mail, and, it is said, slept in a different room every\\nnight. The death of a favorite daughter gi-eatly afflicted\\nhim. He died shortly afterward, in the midst of a fear-\\nful tempest, on his Fortunate Day, the anniversary of\\nDunbar and Worcester. His last words were, My work\\nis done.\\nMEDAL OF OLIVER CHOMWELL.\\nWith him Puritanism seemed to sink out of sight, but\\nits best qualities sm vived, and bequeathed to England,\\nas well as to our own New England, its earnestness, its\\nfidelity, its firmness, its devotion to the right, and its love\\nof hberty.\\nThe Friends, or Quakers, arose at this time through the\\nteachings of George Fox. He denounced war, asserted the\\nbrotherhood of all men, declined to take an oath in court,\\nused the second person singular in addressing others, and\\nrefused to uncover his head in any presence. His followers\\nwere persecuted, but their zeal, patience, and purity of life\\ngained the admiration even of their enemies. The number\\nof Friends increased rapidly, and, upon the founding of\\nPennsylvania, many emigi-ated to the New World.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0533.jp2"}, "534": {"fulltext": "506 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1658.\\nRichard Cromwell succeeded his father in the protec-\\ntorate but he was a good-uatured, easy soul, with no idea\\nhow to govern, and he soon retu-ed to private life. The\\narmy was all-powerful, and it seemed at one time as if the\\nscenes at Rome, when soldiers set up the crown at auction,\\nmight be renewed in England. At this juncture General\\nMonk, who commanded in Scotland, marched to London,\\nand, under his protection, the old Long Parliament met,\\nissued wi its for a new election, and finally dissolved itself\\n(1660). A new Parliament was assembled, and Charles II.\\nwas invited to the throne of his ancestors.^\\nThe Restoration.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Charles II. (1660-85) was wel-\\ncomed with a tumult of joy. No conditions were imposed\\nthe year of his accession was styled, not the first, but the\\ntwelfth, of his reign, and the restored Stuart was made as\\nabsolute as any Tudor.\\nThe Reaction. From Puritan austerity, which forbade not\\nonly theatrical representations but even Christmas festivities\\nand the dance about the May-pole on the village green, the\\npeople now rushed to the opposite extreme of revelry and\\nfrivolity. Giddiest of all was the Merry Monarch. King\\nand court alike made light of honor and virtue. In the\\nplays then acted upon the stage, ridicule was poiu-ed upon\\nthe holiest ties and the most sacred principles.\\nEngland was in a very dehrium of royalty. The Es-\\ntablished Church was restored, and two thousand ministers\\nwere expelled from their pulpits as Nonconformists. To\\nattend a dissenting place of worship became a crime for\\nwhich men were whipped, imprisoned, and transported.\\n1 The disbantled Puritan army of 50,000 men quietly went back to their shops and\\nfields. Everywhere the gallant soldiers prospered. Not one of them begged for alms\\nor was charged with crime. So it came about tliat, if a baker, a mason, a wagoner,\\nattracted attention by his diligence and sobriety, lie was, in all probability, one of\\nOliver s old followers. History knows only one othei such event. That was at the\\nclose of our own civil war (Hist. U. S., p. 281).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0534.jp2"}, "535": {"fulltext": "1CC5.] ENGLAND UNDKU T11F STI AliTS. 507\\n111 S(^otl{iii(l lilt eo|)lti j^viierally sulmiittt il to the new\\norder of thiiii^s, but aloiii^ the weyteni lowlands the stem ohl\\nCovenanters, sword and Bible in hand, continued to meet\\ntheir former pastors upon lonely moor and mountain, and,\\nthough hunted like wild beasts and tortured by thumbscrew\\nand iron-boot, still insisted upon their right to worship God\\naccording to the dictates of their own consciences.\\nThe Plague broke out in London in 1GG5. The shops were\\nshut, whole blocks stood empty, and grass grew in the streets.\\nHouses in which the pestilence raged were marked with a\\nred cross, and the words, Lord have mercy upon us. All\\nnight long the carts rattled through the streets, with a tolling\\nbell and the burier s dismal cry, Bring out your dead.\\nNo coffins were used no mourners followed their friends\\nand deep trenches served for graves. To add to the horror\\nof the scene, a strange, wild-looking man constantly stalked\\nup and down the deserted city, calling out ever and anon in\\na sepulchral voice, Oh, the great and dreadful God\\nBefore the plague was stayed, one hundred thousand per-\\nsons had perished in the capital alone, and large numbers in\\nother places.\\nThe Great Fire of London broke out in the following\\nyear. It raged for three days, and swept from the Tower to\\nthe Temple. Two hundred thousand people were di-iven to\\nthe open fields, homeless and destitute.^\\n1 The change that had taken place is well shown by a single instance. When\\nArchbishop Laud sought to introduce a liturgy into Scotland, on the occasion of the\\nfirst reading of prayers iii Edinburgh, one Jenny Geddes inaugurated civil war (1G37)\\nby hurling a stool at the dean s head. Jenny now cast tlie contents of lier stall and\\nbasket into a bonfire in honor of the king s coronation and the subsequent action\\nof Parliament.\\n2 Singularly enougli, the fire began in Pudding Lane, neav Fish St., and stopped at\\nPie Corner. It is probable that some association of these names led to an inscription\\nwhich formerly existed under a very fat, human figure, still to be seen against the\\nwall of a public-house near by This boy is in memory put up of the late fire of\\nLondon occasioned by the sin of gluttony, 1666.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0535.jp2"}, "536": {"fulltext": "508 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1667.\\nDutch War. During these calamitous years, a war was\\ngoing on with Holland, England s rival in commerce.\\nCharles squandered on his pleasures the money Parliament\\nvoted for the navy, and now the Dutch fleet sailed up the\\nThames, and for the first and last time the roar of foreign\\nguns was heard in London. That dreadful sound broke\\nthe dream of royalty. Other events, too, were hastening the\\nruin of Charles s popularity, as well as bringing Protestant\\nEngland into alliance with Protestant Holland.\\nCharles and Louis XIV. At this time, France, under\\nLouis XIV., had become what Spain was under Philip II.,\\nthe strongest power in Europe and the champion of abso-\\nlutism and Catholicism. A dread of France had replaced\\nthe old English dislike of Spain. Charles, however, did not\\nshare in his subjects fear. Even when his people forced\\nhim to join the Triple Alhance, he was privately negotiat-\\ning with liis cousin Louis, to whom he had already sold Dun-\\nkirk, the Gibraltar of that day, in order to fill his always\\nempty purse and, though Parliament was wild to aid Wil-\\nliam of Orange in his gallant struggle, Charles signed with\\nFrance the secret Treatij of Dover (1670). In this treaty\\nCharles agreed to establish Catholicism in England, and to\\nhelp Louis in his schemes against Holland Louis, in turn,\\npromised his cousin an annual pension, and the assistance\\nof the French army should England resist.\\nPlots. Some inklings of this treaty had been whispered\\nabout, when the English people were driven frantic by news\\nof a so-called Popish Plot to massacre the Protestants,\\nand to bring over French troops. One Titus Oates, a rene-\\ngade Jesuit, pretended to reveal the scheme, and his per-\\njured testimony, amid the heat of the excitement, cost the\\nlives of many innocent Catholics, and led to the passage of\\nthe Test Act, excluding Catholics from Parliament.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0536.jp2"}, "537": {"fulltext": "1678.]\\nENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS.\\n509\\nJt^Ug\\nJames, Duke of\\nYork, the king s\\nbrother and heir\\nto the crown, was\\na Catholic, and\\npersonally very\\nunpopular.^ The\\nWhigs 2 resolved\\nto shut him out\\nfrom the thi-one.\\nThey even planned\\nan insurrection,\\nand a few desper-\\nate ones formed\\nthe Bye House Plot\\nto kill the king\\nand his brother.\\nThe discovery of\\nthis plot brought unjustly to the block two illustrious men,\\nLord Russell and Algernon Sidney.^\\nThe Result of these odious plots was to weaken the Whigs,\\nand bring the Tories to the front. Charles was thus able,\\nfor the last four years of his reign, to rule without a Parlia-\\nment, and to push his despotic schemes. He regularly drew\\nhis pension from Louis, and helped him as he could, but,\\nTITUS GATES IN THE PILLORY.\\n(From a Print of the Time.\\n1 Cue day he cautioned his brotlier Cliailes about froinj, unattended, but received\\nthe bitter retorli They will never kill me to make you kins.\\n2 Whig and Tory were nicknames. Whig (whey) was a favorite drink of the\\nCovenanters, and initialed their motto: We Hope In God. Tory was a name\\noriginally applied to the outlaws of the Irish bogs. Whigs in general favored tlie\\nrights of the people; Tories supported the court and the royal prerogative.\\nOut of the hot discussions of tliis period came the famous Habeas Corpus (bring\\nthe body) Act. This law provides tliat among other rights a prisoner can insist upon\\nbeing brought bodily before a judge to have his detention inquired into. Prior to\\nthat, Mary Queen of Scots had been an uncondemned prisoner for nineteen 3 ear8.\\nSir Walter Raleigh languislied in a dungeon over twelve years.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0537.jp2"}, "538": {"fulltext": "510 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1681-85.\\nshrewd and intelligent in spite of his idle and pleasnre-lov-\\ning nature, he never attempted to overthrow the established\\nrehgion of England.^\\nJames II. (1685-88) came to the throne without opposi-\\ntion. He soon showed that his chief aim was to restore\\nCatholicism. To accomplish this end, he resorted to illegal\\nmeasures, and strained the royal prerogative to the utmost.\\nAt this time Louir. XIV. had just revoked the Edict of\\nNantes, and the persecuted Huguenots were flocking to Eng-\\nland. Yet James ventured to raise a large and threatening\\nstanding army, and, in spite of the law of the realm and\\nthe protest of his Parliament, to officer it extensively with\\nhis Catholic favorites. In vain the Pope counseled mod-\\neration, and the Catholic gentry stood aloof. The English\\npeople submitted, however, as they knew that the next heir\\nJames s daughter Mary, wife of WiUiam of Orange was\\nProtestant. But the birth of a Prince of Wales crushed\\nthis hope. Thereupon Whigs and Tories united in inviting\\nWiUiam to come to the defense of English liberties.\\nThe Revolution of 1688. William was welcomed\\nalmost as gladly as Charles II. had been twenty-eight years\\nbefore. James, deserted by aU, fled to France. A conven-\\ntion proclaimed William and Mary King and Queen of\\nEngland. They agi-eed to a Bill of Bights that guaranteed\\naU for which the people had so long contended. Thus the\\n1 He eveu rebuked the zeal of his brother James, and said in his ironical way, I\\nam too old to go again upon my travels; you may, if you choose. It is strange that\\nCharles, with all his cleverness, did not connect his name with anj valuable measure\\nof his reign. Shaftesbury s epigram was but too true\\nHere lies our sovereign lord the king,\\nWhose word no man relies on\\nWho never said a foolish thing,\\nAnd never did a wise one.\\n2 On the death of James, Louis XIV. recognized this son as the rightful successor\\n(James III.). The Whigs called him the Pretender: In history he is known as the\\nOld Pretender and his son, as the Young Pretender (Charles III.). Charles s\\nbrother (Henry IX.) was the last male lieir oi the Stuart line.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0538.jp2"}, "539": {"fulltext": "1G88.] ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS. 511\\nEnglish Revohitiou, whicli began with the civil war, termi-\\nnated after a struggle of eighty-five years. The government\\nwas finally fixed as a constitutional monarchy. Nothing\\nwas afterward heard of the divine right of kings, of taxation\\nwdthout consent of Parliament, or of Star Chamber courts\\nof justice.\\nThe Deposed King returned to Ireland with supplies\\nfurnished by Louis, and the Irish gallantly supported his\\ncause. He besieged Londonderry, but the inhabitants de-\\nfended^ themselves over three months. In the extremity of\\nthen- hunger, they ate rats and mice, and even chewed old\\nshoes and hides, yet never spoke of surrender. At last\\nthe English fleet broke through the boom in the river, and\\nthe besiegers fled. WiUiam finally crossed into Ireland, and\\nended the war by the Battle of the Boyne (1690), where,\\nthough wounded, he dashed through the river, and led\\nthe charge. James, seeing all was lost, fled. Change\\nkings with us, said a brave Irish oflicer, and we wiU\\nfight you again. Once more Ireland was conquered, and\\nthe native Catholics were ground down under EngHsh\\noppression.\\nWilliam III. (1689-1702) was weak and sickly from the\\ncradle his manner was cold, stiff, and unattractive and,\\nin spite of his genius and nobility of character, he made few\\nfriends in England. The death of Mary, whose wifely devo-\\ntion had sunk her life in his, and whose cheerfulness had\\nbrightened his duU court, left him stih. more silent and\\nabstracted. The entire reign was disturbed by plots of the\\nJacobites,^ the friends of James. They took the oath to\\nWilliam and joined his counsels only to reveal his plans to\\nhis enemies. William valued his crown chiefly because it\\nstrengthened him in caiTying out the object of his life, to\\n1 From Jacobus, the Latin for James.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0539.jp2"}, "540": {"fulltext": "512 THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. [1702.\\nbreak the power of Louis XIV. In order to gain support in\\nhis European wars, he yielded power to the House of Com-\\nmons, which became what it is to-day, the real governing\\nbody. While preparing to take the field in the War of the\\nSpanish Succession, he died, leaving the crown to Mary s\\nsister,\\nAnne (1702-14).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Good Queen Anne, the last of the\\nStuarts, was kind-hearted, but of moderate ability, and was\\nruled by her favorite, the wife of the Duke of Marlborough.\\nWilliam s policy being continued, Marlborough was placed\\nat the head of the army 5 within five years he achieved four\\ngreat victories over France (p. 493). There was a constant\\nstruggle between the Whigs (the war party) and the Tories\\n(the peace party). The Whigs thought of the future inter-\\nests of the country the Tories, of the constantly growing\\nnational debt. Finally the Tories gained the ascendency,\\nMarlborough was recalled, and the Peace of Utrecht ended\\nthe long contest with Louis. Anne s health was affected by\\n1 The cliaracter of Marlborough\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the general who stayed the progress of France,\\nand who successively betrayed William III., James II., and Queen Anne\u00e2\u0080\u0094 is thus\\nbrilliantly portrayed by Thackeray, in his novel Esmond: Our chief, whom Eng-\\nland and all Europe, saving only the Frenchmen, worshiped almost, had this of the\\ngodlike in him, that he was impassible before victory, before danger, before defeat.\\nHe was always cold, calm, resolute, like fate. He performed a treason or a court\\nbow, he told a falsehood as black as Styx, as easily as he paid a compliment or spoke\\nabout the weather. Our duke was as calm at the mouth of the cannon as at the door\\nof a drawing-room. Perhaps he could not have been the great man he was, had\\nhe had a heart either for love or hatred, or pity or fear, or regret or remorse. He\\nused all men great and small, that came near him, as his instruments alike, and took\\nsomething of theirs, either quality or some property the blood of a soldier It might be,\\nor a jeweled hat, or a hundred thousand from a king, or a portion out of a starving sen-\\ntinel s three-farthings, and having this of the godlike in him, that he could see a hero\\nperish or a sparrow fall with the same amount of sympathy. Not that he had no\\ntears he could always bring up his reserve at the proper moment to battle he could\\ndraw upon tears and smiles alike, and whenever need was for using this cheap coin.\\nHe would cringe to a shoeblack, as he would flatter a minister or a monarch be\\nhaughty, be humble, threaten, repent, weep, grasp your hand, or stab you, whenever\\nhe saw occasion. But yet, those of the army who knew him best, and had suffered\\nmost from him, admired him most of all and, as lie rode along the lines to battle, or\\ngalloped up in the nick of time to a battalion reeling from before the enemy s charge\\nor shet, the fainting men and officers got new courage as they saw the Bplendid calm\\nof his face, and felt that his will made them irresistible.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0540.jp2"}, "541": {"fulltext": "1714.] THE CIVILIZATION. 513\\nthe dissensions of lier ministers, and slie died in 1714, hav-\\ning buried all her tliirteen ebihlren. The crown then passed,\\nby previous act of Parhament, to the House of Hanover,\\nthese being Protestant Heirs, as the law required.\\nThe chief political event of this reign was the union of\\nScotland with England as the Kingdom of Great Britain\\n(1707).\\nTHE CIVILIZATION.\\nProgress of Civilization. The second century of the modern era\\nwas characterized by the development of literature and science, as the\\nfirst had been by that of commerce and art.\\nLiterature. English Literature still flourished. Shakspere yet\\nstood at the front, and in the first decade composed his sublime trage-\\ndies. Next, Fletcher, Beaumont, and Rare Ben Jonson followed\\ntheir master from afar. Jeremy Taylor wrote Holy Living and Dying\\nRichard Baxter, a famous Puritan author, published his Saints Rest\\nand the quaint Izaak Walton, his Compleat Angler. After the Resto-\\nration, there were Dryden, prince of satirists Butler, author of t]\\\\e\\nwitty Hudibras and John Locke, whose Essay on the Human\\nUnderstanding remained a text-book in mental philosophy until\\nalmost our own day. Milton, who had been secretary of state under\\nCromwell, now, in blindness and poverty, dictated to his daughter the\\nimmortal epic, Paradise Lost; while Buiiyan, shut up in Bedford\\nJail for conscience sake, dreamed out Pilgrim s Progress, a book\\nthat has been more read than any other save the Bible.\\nFrench Literature now reached its climax. No other eoimtry, says\\nMaeaulay, could produce a tragic poet equal to Racine, a comic poet\\nequal to Moliere, a trifler so agreeable as La Fontaine, a rhetorician so\\nskillful as Bossuet. Besides these, who were easily first, there were\\nPascal, whose Provincial Letters created a standard for French\\nprose; Fenelon, whose Telemachus still retains its wonderful\\npopularity Boileau, who has been styled the Horace of France\\nMadame de Sevigne, whose graceful Letters are models of episto-\\nlary style and Massillon, who pronounced over the bier of Louis XIV.\\na eulogy o^Dening with the suljlime words, God alone is great.\\nP/n7o.\u00c2\u00a7o^)//V now boasted, in England, Bacon, the author of the Indue-\\ntive Method, that teaches men to observe tlie facts of Nature and thus\\ndeduce her laws. France possessed Descartes, who, by leading men to\\nreason for themselves rather than to search for authority, performed\\nfor metaphysics the same service that Bacon had for natural science.\\nB GH-30", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0541.jp2"}, "542": {"fulltext": "514\\nTHE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY,\\nHolland had Spinoza, whose sublime speculations have influenced\\nmany of the profoundest thinkers of the world; though, as Hallam\\nremarks, he did not essentially differ from the Pantheists of old.\\nGermany contained the fourth great leader, Leibnitz, in whose encyclo-\\npedic mind philosophy, medicine, theology, jurisprudence, diplomacy,\\nand mathematics were all arranged in orderly sequence. He developed\\nthe theory of optimism,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 that, of the possible plans of creation, God\\nhad adopted the one which economized time, space, and matter.\\nrOKTRAITS OF URYDEN, Mn;rON, AND BUNYAN.\\nScience made rapid strides throughout this entire century. Galileo\\ninvented the telescope, and was the first to see Jupiter s moons. The\\nyear that Galileo died, Newton was born (1642). He wrote the Prin-\\ncipia, explained the theory of colors, and discovered the law of gravita-\\ntion yet this wonderful man was so modest that a short time before\\nhis death he declared, ^I seem to myself to have been only a boy play-\\ning on the seashore, while the great ocean of truth lies undis-\\ncovered before me. Every branch of science felt the inspiration of\\nthe new method. Torricelli of Florence invented the barometer and\\nGuericke of Magdeburg, the air-pump. Harvey discovered the circula-\\ntion of the blood (1619). Napier, by means of logarithms, shortened\\nmathematical operations. Huyghens applied the pendulum to the\\nclock. Pascal found that the air has weight. Kepler worked out his\\nthree famous laws of planetary motion. Horrox observed a transit of\\nVenus. Roemer measured the velocity of light. Halley foretold the\\nreturn of a comet. Louis XIV. established the French Academy of\\nSciences and Charles H., the English Royal Society. Science became", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0542.jp2"}, "543": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 515\\nthe fashionable thing under the later Stuarts. There was a royal\\nlaboratory in the palace at Whitehall, and even the court ladies prated\\nof magnets and microscopes.\\nArt. The Netherlands now excelled in art, the Flemish and Dutch\\nschools possessing that wonderful trio, Rubens, Van Dyck, and Kem-\\nbrandt. Velasquez and Murillo were the great Spanish j)ainters. Italy\\npresented nothing better than Salvator Rosa. England had a famous\\narchitect, Sir Christopher Wren, who plaimed St. Paul s Cathedral\\nand fifty churches destroyed in the Great Fire in London but her\\nnative painters were of little ability, and the famous portrait of\\nCharles I. was by Van Dyck, the Flemish artist, as in the previous\\ncentury those of the Tudors were by Holbein, a German.\\nLOUIS XIV. AND HIS COURT.\\nThe Grand Monarcll had extravagant ideas of the royal pre-\\nrogative, and claimed absolute right over the life and property of every\\nsubject. His favorite motto was,\\nI am the state. Vain, imperi-\\nous, self-asserting, with large,\\nhandsome features, a fine figure,\\nand a majestic manner,! he made\\nhimself the model for artists, the\\ntheme for poets, the one bright signature of louis xiv.\\nsun whose rays all other bodies\\nwere to reflect. It was only by the grossest flattery and by ascribing\\nevery success to him that his ministers retained their places and the\\nslightest affront by any government was the signal to set in motion his\\nmighty fleet and army. The absurd adulation poured into the ear of the\\nEnglish queen a century before was repeated in the fulsome flattery at\\nVersailles, and found as w^elcome reception. That which amazeth me\\nis that after all these years I do behold you the self-same queen, in per-\\nson, strength, and beauty insomuch that I am persuaded that time,\\nwhich catcheth everybody else, leaves only you untouched, unblush-\\ningly af rmed even the prosaic Cecil, when Elizabeth was faded,\\nwrinkled, and nearing her seventieth year. Ah, Sire, the rain of\\n1 He walked, sa3\\\\s Wliite, with the tiaiui) of (lif, nitj rolling his eyes and turn-\\ning out hi3 toes, while the courtiers burst into loud applause. The red heels of his\\nshoes, fouriuches high, added mucli to his stature, hut yet did uot bring him up to\\nthe standard of ordinary men. In imitation of their royal master, all gentlemen tied\\nthemselves in at the waist, stuck out their elbows, and walked with a strut. They\\nalso wore immense wigs covered with flour, flowing over their shoulders, and silver-\\nbuckled shoes that came nearly up to the ankle. A hat it was impossible for a\\nconjurer to balance on the top of the enormous periwig, so they carried the three-\\ncornered cockaded superfluity under the arms or in their hands. Rich velvet coats\\nwith amazingly wide skirts, brocaded waistcoats halfway to the ku\u00c2\u00bbe, satin small-\\nclothes and silk stockings, composed their apparel, which received its crowning\\nadorumeut in gold-headed cane and diamoud-hilted sword.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0543.jp2"}, "544": {"fulltext": "516\\nTHE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.\\nMarly does not wet/ protested the dripping Cardinal de Polignac,\\nwhen caught in a shower at the exclusive rural retreat, fitted up by\\nLouis and Madame de Maintenon in the king s old age.\\nCOURT OF LOUIS XIV.\\nTlie Court Etiquette was inflexible, from the morning presentation\\n(at the end of a long cane and through the parting of the undrawn bed-\\ncurtains) of the royal wig, without which his Majesty was never seen,\\ndown to the formal tucking-in of the royal couch at night. Above all,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0544.jp2"}, "545": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 517\\neverywhere and always, it was The King who was the etiquette, art,\\nami fasliion of the day. His courtiers jn-ostrated themselves at his feet\\nlike oriental slaves. To accompany liini in his walks, to cany his cane\\nor sword, to hold a taper during his toilet, to draw on his shoes, or even\\nto stand and watch his rohing, were honors to live and die for. Never\\nsated witli the most servile flattery, he complacently inhaled the in-\\ncense due to a demi-god.\\nThe Palace at Versailles, built at an expense of over eighty\\nmillion dollars, was the creation of the king, and is a symbol of his own\\ncharacter. Vast, ambitious, but coldly monotonous in effect magnifi-\\ncent in decoration recklessly extravagant in the means by which its\\nend w^as attained, and seeking to condense the brilliancy of the entire\\nkingdom in itself, it was the Mecca of every courtier. Stone and\\nmarble here became an endless series of compliment and homage to\\nthe royal person, and the acres of elaborate ceiling painted by Lebrun\\nare a continued apotheosis, casting all 01}^npus at the royal feet.\\nThe Garden, with its long straight avenues bordered by alternating\\ntrees and statues its colossal fountains, where bronze or marble nymphs\\nand tritons play with water brought at immense cost from afar its\\ngrand cross-shaped canal its terraces and orangeries and its flower-\\nbeds, arranged with stately regiilarity, seem all an indefinite prolon-\\ngation of an endless palace.\\nA Brilliant Court peopled this magnificent abode. Poorly edu-\\ncated himself, being scarcely able to read or write, much less to spell,\\nLouis was munificent in his rewards to men of genius, while he appro-\\npriated their glory as his own. A throng of philosophers, statesmen,\\nwriters, scientists, poets, and painters clustered about the throne and\\nFrench thought, tastes, and language were so impressed upon foreign\\nnations that all Europe took on a Parisian tinge. Here, too, were\\nwomen of unusual wit and beauty, whose power was felt in every pub-\\nlic act. Social deference and gallantry led by the king, who, it is said,\\nnever passed a woman, even a chambermaid, without lifting his hat\\ngave them the political rights denied by law. They were the head and\\nsoul of all the endless intrigues of the time. Again, as in the days of\\nchivalry, a woman s smile was the most coveted reward of valor; and\\npolitical schemes were wrought out, not in the cabinet of a statesman,\\nbut in the salon of a lady. Conversation in this brilliant circle was\\nmade an art. We argue and talk, night and day, morning and even-\\ning, without object, without end, w^rote Madame de S^vign^, herself\\none of the most distinguished wits of the day. Letter-writing became\\na passion, and the graceful epistles of this century are a fit sequel\\nto the spicy memoirs of the preceding one.\\nBy common consent, the latter part of the 17th century is known in\\nhistory as the age of Louis XIV.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0545.jp2"}, "546": {"fulltext": ".18\\nTHE SEVENTEENTH OENTURT,\\nSUMMARY.\\nThe 17th was the century of Richelieu, Gustavus Adolphus, Louis\\nXIV., Cromwell, the Stuarts, Milton, Corneille, Bacon, Newton, Galileo,\\nRubens, Rembrandt, and Murillo. It saw the assassination of Henry\\nIV. the Thirty-Years War the victories of Turenne and Cond^\\nthe Treaty of Westphalia the long struggle between Louis XIV. and\\nWilliam of Orange three great wars of the age of Louis XIV. the\\nrevocation of the Edict of Nantes; the rise of Puritanism the battles\\nof Marston Moor and Naseby the execution of Charles I. the glories\\nof the Protectorate the restoration of the Stuarts and the Revolu-\\ntion of 1688.\\nREADING REFERENCES.\\nGeneral 3fo(lern Histories named 07i p. 429, and the Hpeeial Histories of England,\\nFrance, Germany, etc., on p. 417.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Macaulay s History of England {Chapter III., for\\nPicture of Life in the Seventeenth Century).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Schiller s History of the Thirty-Years\\nWar.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Gardiner s Thirty-Years War; and the Puritan Revolution; Hale s Fall\\nof the Stuarts (Epochs of History Series).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Voltaire s Age of Louis XIV.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ban-\\ncroft s History of the United States {chapters relating to English statesmen and\\ntheir views).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Taine s Ancient Regime.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Br oioniny s Great Rebellion {Hand-book\\nof History Series).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Hausser s Period of the Reformation {Thirty-Years War).\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nTrench s Lectures on Gustavus Adolphus.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Cordery and Phillpott s King and Com-\\nmonwealth.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Motley s John of Barneveld {Sully and Henry IV.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094Robson s Life\\nof Richelieu.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Buhver Lytton s Richelieu {drama).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 James s Memoirs of Great Com-\\nmanders {Conde and Turenne).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 James s Life of Louis XIV.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Clement s Life of\\nColbert.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mackay s Popular Delusions, art. The Mississippi Scheme, South Sea Bubble,\\netc.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Stephen s Lectures on French History.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Pardoe s Louis XlV.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Challice s Mem-\\nories of French Palaces.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 James s Heidelberg Richelieu {fiction).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Rambaud s His-\\ntory of Russia from the Earliest Times.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Dunham s Histories of Poland Spain\\nand Portugal; and Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. Walpole s Short History of the\\nKingdom of Ireland.\\nCHRONOLOGY.\\nA. D.\\nUnion of English and Scottish\\ncrowns under James I 1603\\nHenry IV. assassinated 1610\\nThirty- Y ears War 1618-48\\nAge of Richelieu 1622-12\\nSiege of Rochelle 1628\\nGustavus Adolphus lauds in Pome-\\nrania 1630\\nSiege of Magdeburg 1631\\nBattle of Leipsic 1631\\nBattle of Liitzen, death of Gustavus 1632\\nLong Parliament meets 1640\\nBattles of Rocroi, Freiburg, Nord-\\nlingen, and Lens..- 1643-48\\niouis XIV.... 1643-1715\\nA. D.\\nBattle of Marston Moor 1G44\\nBattle of Naseby 1645\\nPeace of Westphalia 1648\\nCharles I. beheaded 1649\\nBattles of Dunbar and Worcester.. 1650-51\\nOliver Cromwell, Lord Protector.. 1653-58\\nGreat Fire in London 1666\\nPeace of Aix-la-Chapelle 1668\\nPeace of Ximeguen 1678\\nHabeas Corpus Act passed 1679\\nPeter the Great 1682-1725\\nEdict of Nantes revoked 1685\\nWilliam and Mary crowned 1689\\nTreaty of Ryswick 1697\\nCharles XII., King of Sweden 1697", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0546.jp2"}, "547": {"fulltext": "CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS\\n519\\nCONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS\\nENGLAND.\\nJames I 16()3\\nCharles 1 1625\\nCommonwealth 1649\\nCharles II 1660\\nJames II 1685\\nWilliam and\\nMarv 1689\\nFRANCE\\nlleniy IV 1589\\nLouis XIII.... 1610\\nLouis XIV 1643\\nGERMANY.\\nlludolpli 1576\\nMatthias 1612\\nFerdinand II.. 1619\\nFerdinand III. 1637\\nLeopold I 1658\\nSPAIN.\\nPliilii. Ill 1598\\nPhilip IV 1621\\nCharles II 1665\\nTIIK I ALACE OF THE LlXEMliUKG.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0547.jp2"}, "548": {"fulltext": "520 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.\\nTHE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.\\nI. PETER THE GREAT OF RUSSIA, AND CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN.\\nKussia was founded iu the 9th century by the Norse-\\nman, Ruric. Christianity (Greek, p. 321) was introduced by\\nhis son s wife, Olga. This Slavic land, repeatedly overrun\\nby Mongol hordes (p. 405), was finally conquered by Oktai.\\nFor over two centuries the House of Ruric paid tribute to\\nthe Khan of the Golden Horde. Ivan the Great (1462-1505)\\nthrew off this Tartar yoke, and subdued Novgorod while\\nIvan the Terrible (who first took the title of Czar, 1533-84)\\nconquered Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia. Feodor, Ivan s\\nson, was the last of the Ruric line (1598). After years of\\ncivil war, the crow^n fell (1613) to Michael Romanoff, an-\\ncestor of the present czar. Russia was now a powerful\\nbut barbarous empire, having only one seaport. Archangel,\\nand without manufactures or a navy. Shut off by the\\nSwedes from the Baltic and by the Tm ks from the Black\\nSea, it had little intercourse with the rest of Europe until\\nthe time of\\nPeter the Great. From the age of ten, when he be-\\ncame joint king with his demented half-brother, this youth-\\nful czar was plotted against by his unscrupulous step-sister,\\nOeograpMcal Questions.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Locate Azof; Copanhagen; Moscow; Pultowa\\nFredericksliall Warsaw; Dettingen; Fontenoy Raucoux; Lawfelt; Lowositz;\\nKolin; Rossbach; Leuthen Zorndorf; Kuneisdoif Torgau Leignitz Huberts-\\nburg Potsdam Berlin.\\nPoint out Brandenburg Livonia Finland Electorate of Saxony Silesia Ingria.\\nLocate Valiuy Jemmapcs; Neerwinden Lyons; Nice; Lodi; Parma; Pavia;\\nCastiglione; Bassano; Arcole Mantua Mont Cenis Simplon Pass; Marengo;\\nVienna; Hohenlinden Ulra; Jena; Austerlitz Eylau Friedland; Tilsit; Tala-\\nvera; Torres Vedras; Saragossa; Salamanca; Vittoria Madrid; Wagram;\\nDresden; Borodino; Moscow; Leipaic; Ligny; Waterloo.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0548.jp2"}, "549": {"fulltext": "1689.1\\nPETER THE GREAT OF RUSSIA.\\n521\\nthe regent Sophia. When seventeen years old, he grasped\\nthe scepter for himself (1689).^ At once he began to civilize\\nand elevate his savage subjects. Having organized some\\ntroops after the European manner and built a small flotilla,\\nhe sailed down the Don and captured Azof, the key of the\\nEuxine, and Russia s first seaport on the south. He next\\nsJ?\\n^;^J\\nPORTRAIT OF IVAN THE TERRIBLE.\\nresolved to visit foreign countries and learn the secret of\\ntheir progress.\\nPeter in Western Europe. Leaving the government in\\nthe hands of an old noble, he accordingly went to Amster-\\n1 The year of the devastation of the Palatinate by Louis XIV.; also that in\\nwhich England secured a constitutional government under William III.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0549.jp2"}, "550": {"fulltext": "522\\nTHE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1697\\ndam, where lie hii-ed as a la-\\nborer ill a sliip-yard. Under\\nthe name of Peter Zimnier-\\nmann, he plied his adze,\\nearned his regular wages,\\nlived in two rooms and a gar-\\nret, mended his clothes, and cooked his own food. Mean-\\nwhile, besides learning how to bnild a ship, he studied the\\nmanufactures and institutions of this famous Dutch city,\\nwhere he picked up blacksmithing, enough of cobbling\\nto make a pair of slippers, and of surgeiy to bleed and\\nto pull teeth. Then, crossing to England, he was\\nheartily received by William III., and presented with a\\nfine yacht, which he soon learned to manage with the", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0550.jp2"}, "551": {"fulltext": "1G9S.J CIHARLES XII. OF .SWEDEN. 523\\nbest of tlie sailors. On liis return to Russia, Peter began\\nhis\\nGreat Reforms. He conmuinded his subjects to give up\\ntheir long beards and flowing Asiatic robes. He lessened\\nthe power of the nobles. He encouraged the women of\\nrank to come out of their oriental seclusion and mingle in\\nsociety. He granted religious toleration and circulated the\\nBible. He introduced arithmetic into the government\\noffices, where accounts had previously been kept by a system\\nof balls threaded on wire. He set up printing-presses\\nfounded schools, hospitals, and paper factories 5 built a fleet,\\nand organized an army. In order to gain a port on the\\nBaltic, he leagued with Denmark and Poland to dismember\\nSweden.\\nCharles XII., the Madman of the North, then King\\nof Sweden, though but eighteen years old, was boyish only\\nin age, while the Swedish army retained the discipline that\\nunder Gustavus had won the fields of Leipsic and Llitzen.\\nUndismayed by his triple foes, Charles swiftly marched to\\nattack Copenhagen, and in two weeks brought Denmark to\\nhis feet; next, advancing with only nine thousand men\\nagainst the sixty thousand Russians who were besieging\\nNarva, he defeated them mtli great slaughter then, invad-\\ning Poland, he deposed its monarch, Augustus the Strong\\n(1704),^ and, pursuing him into his Saxon electorate, forced\\nhim to sue for peace. Charles was now at the pinnacle of\\nliis glory. England and France sought his alliance, and\\nthe conqueror of Blenheun visited his court.\\nPeter, when he learned of the defeat at Narva, coolly said,\\n1 It is impossible to avoid comparing? tJio occupations and amusements of the\\nthree strong men of this time,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Charles, lidiu liorscs to death, and beheading sheep\\nand bullocks in order to practice with his sword Augustus tlie Strong, straigliteniug\\nhorseshoes and rolling up silver plates with duo hand; and Peter, hammering out\\niron bars, tilling fire-works, and building ships. Read Schuyler s Peter the Great,\\nScribner s Monthly, Vol. 21 and The Romanoffs, Harper s Monthly, Vol. 67.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0551.jp2"}, "552": {"fulltext": "524 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1709.\\nThese Swedes, I knew, would beat us for a time, but they\\nwill soon teach us how to beat them. He now strained\\nevery nerve to strengthen his forces while Charles was\\ntriumphing in Poland. He disciplined his soldiers, and\\neven melted the bells of Moscow, to cast cannon. He cap-\\ntured Narva, the scene of his fu st misfortune pushed the\\nSwedes back from the banks of the Neva; and there,\\namid its marshes, founded a great commercial city, St.\\nPetersburg. Three hundred thousand peasants were set\\nat work upon the new capital, and within a year it rose\\nto importance.\\nCharles s Overthrow. Rejecting every offer of peace,\\nCharles, like a greater warrior a century later (p. 568),\\ndreamed of dictating a treaty under the walls of Moscow,\\nand rashly invaded Russia. Peter s skirmishers hung on\\nthe flanks of the Swedish army, destrojdng the roads and\\nlaying waste the coantry. Still Charles pressed on, dur-\\ning a winter so severe that two thousand men once froze\\nto death almost in his presence. At Fultotva Peter gave\\nhim battle (1709). Though wounded, Charles was borne\\nto the field in a litter. Wlien that was shattered by a\\ncannon-ball, his gallant soldiers carried him about upon\\ntheir pikes. But the Swedes had at last taught the Rus-\\nsians how to conquer. Charles was overpowered, and es-\\ncaped into Turkey with only three hundred men.\\nThere he staid nearly five years, while his kingdom, de-\\nprived of its head, went to ruin. The Turks at first espoused\\nhis cause, but, irritated by his pride and obstinacy, finally re-\\nsolved to expel their unwelcome guest. The heroic madman\\narmed his servants, barricaded his house, and with his own\\nsword slew twenty of his assailants before he submitted.\\nWhen at last he returned home, he found Sweden shorn\\nof its conquests and exhausted by war. But, carried away", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0552.jp2"}, "553": {"fulltext": "1718.] PETER THE GREAT OF RUSSIA. 525\\nby an insane love of glory, he invaded Norway in the depth\\nof winter. Europe watched with amazement the course of\\nthe infatuated monarch. Suddenly news came that he had\\nbeen shot in the trenches at Frederickshall (1718).\\nPeter s Latter Years were full of patriotic labors.\\nAs the result of his Swedish war, he gained Ingria, Livonia,\\nand a part of Finland, thus affording Russia a broad front\\nupon the Baltic. By a war with Persia he won land upon\\nthe Caspian Sea. Still his work of civilization went bravely\\non. A grateful people bestowed upon him the titles of\\nthe Great, and the Father of his Country. His last act was\\none of mercy. While wading out to rescue some ship-\\nwrecked sailors, he caught a fever of which he died. He\\nexpired in the arms of his wife Catharine,^ who succeeded\\nhim to the crown of all the Russias (1725).\\nFurther Additions of territory were made by Catharine\\n(II.) the Great, who conquered the Crimea, and thus gained\\ncontrol of the Black Sea. She also, in conjunction with Aus-\\ntria and Prussia, dismembered Poland. The Poles, under\\nPoniatowski and Kosciusko (Hist. U. S., p. 122), took an heroic\\nstand in defense of their liberties. But the valor of these\\nbrave patriots, armed with scythes, hatchets, and hammers,\\n1 On what foundation stands the warrior s pride,\\nHow jnst his hopes, let Swedish Charles decide\\nA frame of adamant, a soul of fire,\\nNo dangers fright hiru, and no labors tire.\\nPeace courts his hand, but spreads her charms in vain\\nThink nothing gained, he cries, till naught remain.\\nHis fate was destined to a barren strand,\\nA petty fortress and a dubious hand\\nHe left a name at which the world grew pale,\\nTo point a moral or adorn a tale.\\nJohnson s Vanity of Human Wishes.\\n2 She was an orphan peasant girl, wlio fascinated Peter by her beauty. Tliough\\nshe could neither read nor write, yet her merry humor, quick intelligence, and kind\\nheart held the love of this barbarian tyrant, and soothed him in his terrible fits\\nof stormy rage and liate.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0553.jp2"}, "554": {"fulltext": "526 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1794-95.\\nserved only to increase the horror of their country s ruin.\\nIn his intrenched camp before Warsaw, Kosciusko for a time\\nheld his swarming foes at bay; but overpowered at last,\\nbleeding and a captive, he exclaimed, This is the end of\\nPoland. Prophetic words The next year Poland was\\nfinaHy partitioned between Russia, Prussia, and Austria,\\nRussia receiving of the robbers spoils 181,000 square miles.\\nIt was the greatest crime of the 18th century. But this\\nvast addition of territory brought Russia into the center of\\nEurope, and gave her an interest in aU its affairs.\\nII. RISE OF PRUSSIA IN THE AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.\\nBrandenburg (p. 386), to which the Duchy of Prussia\\nhad been added, made little figure in history until the time\\nof Frederick WiUiam, the Great Elector (1640-88). A rapid,\\nclear-eyed man, he dexterously used his compact, well-disci-\\nplined little army, amid the complications of that eventful\\nperiod, so as to conserve the Brandenburg interests. He en-\\ncouraged trade, made roads, and welcomed the Huguenots\\nwhom Louis XIV. drove from France. In the first year of\\nthe l-8th century his son Frederick received from Leopold I.,\\nin return for furnishing the emperor troops during the War\\nof the Spanish Succession, the title of King of Prussia.\\nHOUSE OF BRANDENBURG IN PRUSSIA.\\nFredeuick William, the Great Elector (1640-88).\\nFrederick I., King of Prussia (1688-1713).\\nFrederick William I. (1713-40).\\nI I I\\nFrederick II. (1740-86). Augustus William. Henry.\\nFrederick William li. (1786-97).\\nI\\nI I\\nFrederick William in. (1797-1840). lewis.\\nI\\nI I\\nFrederick William IV. (1840-61). William I. (1861).\\nFrederick William Nicholas.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0554.jp2"}, "555": {"fulltext": "1713.] TTTE RISE OF PRUSSIA. 527\\nFrederick William I. (1718-40), wlioni Carlyle calls\\nthe Great Priis\u00c2\u00abiau Drill Serg-caut/ practiced tli(i most\\nrigid economy iu order to increase his army. He permitted\\nonly one extravagance, a whim for giants. A taU man he\\nwould bribe, kidnap), or force into his body-guard, at any\\ncost.^ He left a well-filled treasury, and eighty-four thou-\\nsand soldiers to his son,\\nFrederick (II.) the Great (1740-8C).2\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The young\\nprince had seemed to be more a poet and philosopher than\\na born king, but he now revealed himself as a military\\ndespot, counseling with no one, confiding in no one, and\\nhaving but one object, the aggrandizement of Prussia.\\nWar of the Austrian Succession (1741-48). The same\\nyear Frederick came to the throne, the emperor Charles VI.\\ndied, leaving his daughter Maria Theresa mistress of the\\nhereditary dominions of the House of Austria Hungary,\\nBohemia, Austria, etc. By a law known as the Pragmatic\\nSanction, the great powers of Europe had guaranteed her\\nsuccession, but now all except England joined to rob her of\\nher inheritance. Frederick at once poured his troops into\\n*Silesia, which he claimed as having once belonged to Bran-\\n1 Au Irishman seven feet high was hired by a bounty equal to $6,200,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a larger\\n8um than the salary of the Prussian ambassador at the court of St. James.\\n2 Frederick s father possessed eccentricities such as, says Macaulay, had\\nnever before been seen outside of a mad-liouse. He would cane clergymen who\\nventured to stop in the street to admire his famous soldier} and even kick Judges\\noff the bench for rendering a decision opposed to his wishes. On one occasion he\\ntried to push his daughter into tJie fire, and for the least complaint from his chihlren\\nat tlie table he would throw tlie dishes at their lieads. The Crown Prince Frederick\\nexcited the king s bitterest animosity. Fiederick showed little love for a military\\nlife; liked finery; studied Latin clandestinely; played the flute; wore long, curlj\\nlocks; and prefeiTed the French language and manners to the homely German. His\\nfather flogged him in front of liis regiment, and tlieii taunted liini with the disgrace.\\nAt last Fritz s life became so unendurable tliat lie- tried to run away, but he was ar-\\nrested, condemned by court-martial, and would have been executed by the irate king\\nhad not half the crowned heads in Europe intei-fered. Afterward Fritz contrived\\nto soften the hatred of his surly, irascible father, and in the end proved a filial\\nsequel to him, in his hearty hatred of shams, his love of a military life, and even hia\\nslovenly dress and irritable temper.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0555.jp2"}, "556": {"fulltext": "528\\nTHE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1741.\\ndenburg. The Elector of Saxony\\ninvaded Bohemia. France sup-\\nported the claims of the Elector\\nof Bavaria to the imperial crown,\\nand a French-Bavarian army\\npushed to within a few leagues\\nof Vienna. Fleeing to the Diet\\nFREDERICK THE GREAT REVIEWING HIS GRENADIERS AT POTSDAM.\\nof Hungary, the queen commended to it her infant son.\\nThe brave Magyar nobles, drawing their sabers, shouted,\\nWe will die for our king, Maria Theresa A powerful\\narmy was formed in her defense. Frederick was bought off\\nby the cession of Silesia. The French, left single-handed\\nto bear the brunt of the battle, were blockaded in Prague,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0556.jp2"}, "557": {"fulltext": "1743.] THE AGE OP FREDERICK THE GREAT. 529\\nand at last only by a disastrous flight escaped to the fron-\\ntier. George 11. now took the field at the head of the\\nEnglish and Hanoverian troops, and defeated the French at\\nDettingen.\\nFrederick, alarmed at Maria Theresa s success, and think-\\ning she might demand back his conquests, resumed the war,\\nand gained three battles in succession. Meanwhile the Elec-\\ntor of Bavaria died, his son submitted to Maria Theresa,\\nand her husband was chosen emperor as Francis I. Fred-\\nerick was only too glad to sign with Francis the Peace of\\nDresden, and thus retain Silesia.\\nBut the struggle of France with Austria and England\\nstill went on. Louis XV. s army in the Netherlands, under\\nthe famous Marshal Saxe, won the brilliant victories of\\nFontenoij, Baucoiix, and Laivfelt. The peace of Aix-la-\\nChapelle (1748) closed this unjust war. Louis, saying that\\nhe treated as a prince and not as a merchant, surrendered\\nhis conquests; so that France and England acquired\\nnothing for all their waste of blood and treasure, while\\nthe King of Prussia, whose selfish policy began the contest,\\nwas the only real gainer,\\nSeven-Years^ War (1756-63). Eight years of peace now\\nfollowed, a breathing-spell that Frederick emploj^ed in\\nimproving his newly acquired lands, and in strengthening\\nhis army. Maria Theresa, however, was determined to re-\\ncover Silesia, and, by the help of her great minister Kaunitz,\\nformed an alliance of Austria, France, Russia, Saxony, Swe-\\nden, and Poland, against Prussia. George II. of England, in\\norder to save his beloved Hanover, alone supported Fred-\\nerick. No one imagined Prussia could meet such tremen-\\ndous odds.\\n1st Campaign. Frederick, learning of this league, determined to\\nstrike the first blow. Pouring his ever-ready army into Saxony, he\\nB G H-31", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0557.jp2"}, "558": {"fulltext": "530 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1756.\\ndefeated the Austriaiis at Lo ivoHit;: (1756), and, siuToimding the Sax-\\nons, compelled them to smTender and enlist in his ranks.\\n2d Camjxiigu. The next year he beat the Austrians under the walls\\nof Prar/HC. But now misfortunes gathered fast. He met his first great\\ndefeat at KoJin; the Kussians invaded Prussia; the Swedes landed in\\nPomerania the French, after capturing the English army in Hanover,\\nadvanced toward Saxony and in tlie midst of all came tidings of the\\ndeath of his mother, the only being whom he loved. In despair i Fred-\\nerick thought of siucide, but his highest glory dates from this gloomy\\nhour. Rallying his men and his courage, he turned upon his foes, and\\nwon the victories of Rossbach over the French, and Lcuthen over the\\nAustrians. His genius set all the world to wondering. London was\\nablaze in his honor, and Pitt, the English prime minister, secured him\\na grant of \u00c2\u00a3700,000 per annum.\\nThe 3d Canqyaign witnessed a victory over the Russians at Zorndorf,\\nbut saw Frederick beaten at Kiaiersdorf, while twenty thousand of his\\nmen surrendered in the Bohemian passes.\\n4th-6th Campaigns. Now, for three years longer, the circle steadily\\nnarrowed about the desperate king. Surrounded by vastly superior\\narmies, he multiplied his troops by flying from point to point. Beaten,\\nhe retired only to appear again in some unexpected quarter. He broke\\nthrough the enemies toils at Leignit::, and stormed their intrenched\\ncamp at Torgaii.\\nBut victory and defeat alike weakened Frederick s forces his capital\\nwas sacked his land wasted his army decimated his resom*ces were\\nexhausted, and it seemed as if he must yield, when a death saved him.\\nElizabeth, Empress of Russia, died, and her successor, Peter HI., his\\nwarm friend, not only withdrew from the league, but sent him aid.\\nThe other allies were weary of the contest, and the proud Maria The-\\nresa was forced to make peace with her hated rival. The treaties of\\nParis and Hubertsburg (1763) ended a gigantic struggle that had cost\\na million of lives.\\nThe Result of the Seven- Years War was to leave Silesia\\nin Frederick s hands. He was felt to be one of the few great\\nmen whose coming into the world changes the fate of a\\ncountry. Prussia, from a petty kingdom that nobody feared,\\nwas raised to be one of the Five Great Powers of Europe.\\n1 In this extremity Frederick solaced himself by writing poetry. We hardly\\nknow, says Macaulay, any instance of the strength and weakness of human\\nnature so striking and so grotesque as the character of this haughty, vigilant, reso-\\nlute blue-stocking, bearing up against a world in arms, with an ounce of poison in\\none pocket and a quire of bad verses in the other.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0558.jp2"}, "559": {"fulltext": "1763.] THE AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 531\\nShe was now the rival of Austria. The question wliich\\nslioukl be supreme was not settled until our own tiine.^\\nThe Holy Roman Em])ire was thenceforth, in effect, divided\\nbetween these two leaders, and the minor German states\\nwere grouped about them according to their interest or\\ninclination.\\nGovernment. Frederick quickly set himself to repair\\nthe waste of these terrible years. He practiced the most\\nrigid economy, rebuilt houses, furnished seed, pensioned\\nthe widows and children of the slain, drained marshes, con-\\nstructed roads and canals, established museums, and devel-\\noped trade. When he inherited the kingdom, it contained\\ntwo millions of inhabitants, and a treasury with six million\\nthalers he died, leaving an industrious and happy people\\nnumbering six millions, and a public treasure of seventy-\\ntwo million thalers.^\\n1 The Seven-Years War made Prussia a European power; a Seven- Weeks\\nWar (1866) placed it above Austria; and a Seven-Months War (1870) made the\\nKing of Prussia emperor of all Genuan3\\\\\\n2 One of his last acts was to make a treaty with our young republic; and our his-\\ntorians record with pride that he sent to Washington a sword inscribed, Tlie oldest\\ngeneral in the world to the bravest. Like liis father, he was fond of walking or rid-\\ning through the streets, talking familiarly with the people, and now and then using\\nhis cane upon an idler. On one occasion he met a company of schoolboys, and\\nroughly addressed them, Boys, what are you doing here? Be off to school. One\\nof tlie boldest answi^red, Oli, you are king, and don t know there is no school to-\\nday Frederick laughed heartily, dropped his uplifted cane, and gave the urchins\\na piece of money with which to enjoy their holiday.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 A windmill at Potsdam stood\\non some ground wliich he wanted for his park, but he could not get it because the\\nmiller refused to sell, and he, though absolute monarch, would not force him to leave.\\nThis building is carefully preserved to-day, as a monument of Frederick s respect for\\nthe rights of a poor man (Taylor s Hist, of Germany). The famous palace at Potsdam\\nwas built by Frederick just after the Seven-Years War, to sliow the world that he\\nwas not so poor as was supposed. It is second only to the palace of Versailles.\\nBuilding was Frederick s sole extravagance. After the war, he had only one tine\\nsuit of clothes for tlie rest of his life. It is said that he was buried in a shirt belong,\\ning to a servant. lie allowed free speech and a free press. M3 people and I, said\\nlie, understand each other. Tliej are to say what they like, and I am to do what I\\nlike. He tolerated all religious, probably because he cared for none himself. His\\ninfidelity, his hatred of woman, his disregard of the feelings and lives of others,\\nand his share in tlie spoliation of Poland (p. ry2,j), form tlie dark side of this brilliant\\ncharacter, and leave us no chance to love, however liighly we may admire.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0559.jp2"}, "560": {"fulltext": "532 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1714.\\nIII. ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF HANOVER.\\nThe House of Hanover, which still wears the crown\\nof England, came to the throne early in the 18th century.\\nParliament, to secure a Protestant succession, changed it\\n(1701) from the male Stuart line to Sophia of Hanover,\\nwhose mother was sister to Charles I. Sophia having died,\\nher son George, Elector of Hanover, became king (1714),\\nthus uniting the crowns of Hanover and England.\\nTABLE OF THE HANOVER (BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURG) LINE.\\nGeokge I. (1714-27). Compare table, p. 494.\\nGEORGE II. (1727-60).\\nGEORGE III. (1760-1820), giamlson of George II.\\nGeorge IV. (1820-30). William IV. (1830-37). Edward, Duke of Kent.\\nVICTORIA (1837).\\nThe political history of England under the Greorges re-\\nveals an increased power of the House of Commons and a\\nbitter strife between Whigs and Tories. The 18th centmy\\nsaw also our Revolutionary War with England.\\nGeorge I. (1714-27), a little, elderly German, unable to\\nspeak a word of English, cold, shy, obstinate, and suUen\\nwhose manners were as bad as his morals whose wife was\\nimprisoned for some alleged misconduct and whose heart\\nwas always in his beloved Hanover, naturally excited little\\nfeeling of loyalty among his British subjects. He was, how-\\never, frugal, industrious, truthful, and governed by a strong\\nsense of duty. A despot in Hanover, he was a moderate\\nruler in England, leaving the control of the country mostly\\nto Parliament. Having been elected by the Wliigs, he chose\\nhis ministers from that party.\\nThe South Sea Scheme, or Company, was organized (1720)\\nto assume a part of the national debt, and, in return, to", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0560.jp2"}, "561": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0561.jp2"}, "562": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0562.jp2"}, "563": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0563.jp2"}, "564": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0564.jp2"}, "565": {"fulltext": "1720..] ENGLAND THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 5313\\nhave a monopoly of the South American trade. It brought\\non a rage for speculation. The shares rose to ten times tlieir\\npar value. Finally the bubble burst, a panic ensued, and\\nthousands were ruined. In this emergency all eyes turned to\\nRoherf Walpole, who was made prime minister. His finan-\\ncial skill restored the pul)lic credit. For over twenty years\\n(1721-42) lie controlled the domestic policy of the country.\\nHe was a shrewd party-leader, and is said to have managed\\nthe House of Commons by bribery but his policy made for\\npeace and liberty, and meanwhile England prospered.\\nGeorge II. (1727-GO) could speak a little English, and so\\nhad the advantage over his father. He possessed, however,\\nno kingly virtues except justice and bravery; while his\\nattachment to his native country kept him interfering in\\ncontinental affairs.^ England was thus dragged into the\\nWar of the Austrian Succession, and the Seven- Years War.\\nIn the War of the Austrian Succession, George beat the\\nFrench at Dettingen;^ his son, the Duke of Cumberland,\\nwas beaten by them at Fontenoy. The Peace of Aix-la-\\nChapeUe, that closed the contest, gave England no return\\nfor the blood and gold her king had lavished so freely.\\nIn the Seven-Years^ War, England and France measured\\ntheir strength mainly by sea, and in America and India.\\nThis contest is known in our history as the French and\\nIndian War (Hist. U. S., p. 81). It culminated in the bat-\\ntle of the Plains of Abraham, that ^vrested Canada from the\\n1 George, wlio was over thirty years oUl wlien his father became king, was always\\nrunning liome to Hanover. Once he was gone two years, while Queen Caroline\\nremained in England. During his absence, a notice was posted on tlie gate of St.\\nJames s Palace Lost or strayed out of this house a man wlio has left his wife and six\\nchildren on tlie parish. A reward is offered of four shillings and sixpence for news\\nof his whereabouts. Nobody thinks him worth a crown (Ave shillings).\\n2 George was adapper little choleric sovereign. At Dettingen his liorse ran away,\\nand he came near being carried into the enemy s line. Dismounting, he cried out,\\nNow, I know I shall not run away, and, charging at the head of his men, he en-\\ncouraged them with bad English but genuine pluck. It was the last time an English\\nking was seen in battle.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0565.jp2"}, "566": {"fulltext": "534 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1757.\\nFrench. In Asia, Robert Clive, by the victory of Plassey\\n(1757), broke the French power and laid the foundation of\\nEngland s supremacy in the East.^\\nWilliam Pitt, the Great Commoner (afterward Earl of\\nChatham), came to the front during these colonial wars.\\nHe ruled by the strength of his character, and trusting his\\ncountrymen, says Gardiner, above that which they were\\nable to do, roused them to do more than they had ever\\ndone before. Under his vigorous premiership, England\\nwon two empires, North America and India.\\nThe Rise of MetJiodism was a remarkable event of this\\nreign. It began at Oxford, in the meeting of a little band\\nof university men for prayer and religious conversation.\\nTheir zeal and methodic ways gave them the nickname of\\nMethodists. But from that company went forth Wliitefield,\\nsuch a preacher as England had never before seen Charles\\nWesley, the Sweet Singer; and John Wesley, the head\\nand organizer of the new movement. Their voice was\\nheard, says Green, in the wildest and most barbarous\\ncorners of the land, among the bleak moors of Northumber-\\nland, in the dens of London, or in the long galleries where\\nthe Cornish miner hears in the pauses of his labor the sob-\\nbing of the sea. They were mobbed, stoned, and left for\\ndead; but their enthusiasm stirred the heart of England^\\naroused men to philanthropic work among the English\\nmasses, gave to common life a spiritual meaning, started\\nevangelical labors in the Established Church, and founded a\\ndenomination that in our time numbers its members by\\nmillions.\\n1 The wars in India liave been cliaracterized by licudish crnelty. Thus, in tlie\\nyear preceding Plassey, the nabob of Beiig.-il drove one luuidred and foity-six English\\nprisoners into a close room twenty feet square (kiiowu as the Black Hole), and left\\ntliem to die of suffocation. The next morning only twenty-three persons remained\\nalive. It is noticeable that Kngland in first meddling with, and then absorbing,\\nprovince after province in India, has followed the old Roman plan (p. 237).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0566.jp2"}, "567": {"fulltext": "1760.] ENGLAND THE HOUSE OF HANOVER\\n535\\nGEORGE III.\\nGeorge III. (1760-1820) was\\na born Euglisliiiian, and so the\\npeople ceased to grumble about\\nforeign kings. In his first\\nspeech to Parhament he said:\\nBorn and educated in this\\ncountry, I glory in the name\\nof Briton.\\nThe purity and piety of\\nGeorge s private character gave\\nto the English coiu t a beautiful\\nhome-life. But, though a good\\nman, this Best of the Georges did not prove a good king.\\nHe was dull, ill educated, prejudiced, obstinate, and bent\\nupon getting power for himself. The Tories got control of\\nthe government. Pitt retired from the ministry. George,\\njealous of great men, brought about him incompetent min-\\nisters like Bute, Grenville, and North, mouthpieces of his\\nstupid will and blind courage. In such an administration,\\none easily finds the causes that cost England her American\\ncolonies.\\nThis was the longest reign in English history, and reached\\nfar into the 19th century. Late in his life (p. 583) the king\\nbecame insane,^ and the Prince of Wales ruled as regent.\\nThe sixty years saw England involved in the War of the\\nAmerican Revolution, the French Revolution, and the War\\nof 1812-14.\\n1 George III. had been subject for inauj years to occasional attacks of insanity.\\nHistory presents no sadder figure than that of this old man, blind and deprived of\\nreason, wandering through the rooms of his palace, addressing imaginary parlia-\\nments, reviewing fancied troops, and holding ghostly courts. Some lucid mo-\\nments he had, in one of which the queen, desiring to see him, entered the room, and\\nfound him singing a hymn and accompanj ing himself at the harpsichord. When he\\nhad finished, he knelt down, and prayed aloud for her, for his family, and then for\\nthe nation. He concluded with a prayer for himself that it might please God to avert\\nhis calamity from him, but if not to give him resignation to submit. Upon that he\\nburst into tears, and again his reason fled (Thackeray s Four Georges).", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0567.jp2"}, "568": {"fulltext": "536 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1783-1801.\\nFox, and Pitt the Younger, were, after the American Revo-\\nlution, the gi*eat statesmen of the day. The former led the\\nWhigs the latter (second son of the Great Commoner), the\\nTories. Fox possessed eloquence and ability, but he was\\na gambler and a boon-companion of the erring Prince of\\nWales. Pitt,^ Fox s rival and his equal as an orator and\\nstatesman, became prime minister at twenty-four years of\\nage; his policy controlled the government for eighteen\\nyears (1783-1801).\\nIV. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.\\nLouis XV. (1715-74) was only five years old at the\\ndeath of his great-grandfather, the Grand Monarch. The\\nN.** A^ 7 V Cent Uvres Toumois.\\nL\\n/^v/\\nA BANQ.UE promet payer aa Porteur a vue Cent livres Toumois\\nen Eipeces d Argent, valeur refciie. A Paris le premier Janvier mil\\nFACSIMILE OF LAW S PAPER MONEY.\\nregency feU. to the Duke of Orleans, a man without honor\\nor principle. The public debt was enormous, and the gov-\\nernment had no credit. To meet the emergency, Orleans\\nadopted the project of John Law, an adventurer, and issued\\na vast amount of paper money upon the security of imagi-\\n1 Pitt s cliaracter was unirapeacliable. Tlius, while his own iucome was but \u00c2\u00a3300\\nper year, a sinecure post with \u00c2\u00a33000 per annum became vacant, and, as he had the\\npower of tilling it, every one supposed he would appoint himself to tlie place. In-\\nstead, he gave it to Col. Barr6, who was old and blind. When Pitt retired from the\\nministry he was poor (compare Aristides, p. 135)", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0568.jp2"}, "569": {"fulltext": "1720.J\\nTHE FRENCH REVOLUTION,\\n537\\nnary mines in Louisiana. But this Mississippi Bubble, like\\nthe South Sea Scheme (the same year) in England, burst in\\noverwhelming ruin.\\nAn Era of Shame. Louis\\nearly plunged into vice. The\\nreal rulers of France were liis\\nfavorites, Madame de Pompa-\\ndour, and later the Comtesse\\ndu Barri. The world had not\\nseen such a profligate court\\nsince the days of the Roman\\nemperors. The War of the\\nAustrian Succession and the\\nSeven- Years War had de-\\nprived France of vast posses-\\nsions and added hundreds of millions to the already hopeless\\ndebt. Louis foresaw the coming storm, and, with Pompa-\\ndoiu^, repeated, After me the deluge 5 yet he sanctioned\\nthe most iniquitous schemes to raise money for his vices,\\nand silenced all opposition by the dungeons of the Bastile.\\nLOUIS XVI., MAUIK ANTOINETTE, AND THE\\nDAUPHIN.\\nLouis XVI.\\nPORTRAIT OF TURCOT\\n(1774-93), a good, well-meaning young\\nman, but shy and wof ully\\nignorant of public aff au*s,\\nsucceeded to this heritage\\nof extravagance, folly,\\nand crime, a bankrupt\\ntreasmy and a starving\\npeople. His wife, Marie\\nAntoinette, daughter of\\nMaria Theresa, though\\nbeautiful and innocent,\\nwas of the hated House\\nof Austria, and her ga^", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0569.jp2"}, "570": {"fulltext": "538\\nTHE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1774-89.\\nmet in\\nMay 5,\\nthoughtlessness added to\\nthe general discontent.\\nLouis desired to redress\\nthe wrongs of the country,\\nbut he did not know how.^\\nMinister succeeded minis-\\nter, like shifting figures\\nin a kaleidoscope. Turgot,\\nNecker, Calonne, Brienne,\\nNecker again, each tried in\\nvain to solve the problem.\\nAs a last resort, the States-\\nGeneral which had not\\na hundred and seventy-five years was assembled,\\n1789. It was the first day of the Revolution.\\nPORTKAIT OF NECKEK.\\nThe Condition of France at this time reveals many causes of the\\nRevolution. The people were overwhelmed by taxation, while the\\nnobility and clergy, who owned two thirds of the land, were nearly\\nexempt. The taxes were farmed out, i. e., leased, to persons who\\nretained all they could collect over the specified amount. The unhappy\\ntax-payers were treated with relentless severity, to swell the profits of\\nthese farmers-general. Each family was compelled to buy a certain\\namount of salt, whether needed or not. The laws were enacted by\\nthose who considered the common people born for the use of the higher\\nclass. Justice could be secured only by bribery or political influence.\\nMen were sent to prison without trial or charges, and kept there till\\ndeath. When the royal treasury needed replenishing, a restriction of\\ntrade was imposed, and licenses were issued for even the commonest\\ncallings. The peasants were obliged to labor on roads, bridges, etc.,\\nwithout pay. In some districts every farmer had thus been ruined.\\nLarge tracts of land were declared game-preserves, where wild boars\\nand deer roamed at pleasure. The power given to the noble over\\nthe peasants living on his estate was absolute. Lest the young game\\nmight be disturbed or its flavor impaired, the starving peasant could\\nneither weed his little plot of ground nor suitably enrich it. He must\\ngrind his corn at the lord s mill, bake his bread in the lord s oven, and\\n1 A princess of the roj -al family, being told that the people had no bread, ex\\nclaimed in all simplicity, Then why not give them cake!", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0570.jp2"}, "571": {"fulltext": "THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.\\n539\\nFUENCH FAGOTVENUER (18T1I lENlUKY).\\npress his gi*apes at the lord s\\nwine-press, paying whatever\\nprice the lord miglit charge.\\nWhen the wife of the seiguem*\\nwas ill, the peasants were ex-\\npected to beat the neighboring\\nmarshes all night, to prevent the\\nfrogs from croaking, and so dis-\\nturbing the lady s rest. French\\nagi icnlture had not advanced be-\\nyond that of the 10th century,\\nand the plow in use might have\\nbelonged to Virgil s time. To\\ncomplete the picture of rm-al\\nwretchedness, one hundred and\\nfifty thousand serfs were bought\\nand sold with the land on which\\nthey were born.\\nThe strife between classes had\\nawakened an intense hatred.\\nThe nobles not only placed their haughty feet on the necks of the\\npeasants, but also spoke contemptuously of the opulent merchants, and\\nartisans. In turn, the wealthy merchants hated and despised the spend-\\nthrift, dissolute, arrogant hangers-on at court, whose ill-gotten revenues\\nwere far below their own incomes from business.\\nA boastful skepticism prevailed, and all\\nthat is amiable in religion or elevating in\\nmorals was made a subject of ridicule.\\nThe writings of Rousseau, Voltaire, Hel-\\nvetius, Diderot, and other infidels, with\\ntheir brilliant and fascinating theories of\\nliberty, weakened long-cherished truths,\\nmocked at virtue, and made men restive\\nunder any restraint, human or divine.\\nDemocratic ideas were rife. Despotism\\nwas imendurable to men who had imbibed\\nthe new principles of liberty, and especially\\nto those who, like La Fayette (Hist. U. S.,\\npp. 119, 127), had helped the United States\\nto win its freedom. Louis XVI. might\\nhave delayed, but could not have averted,\\nthe impending caiastrophe. The Revolution was but the blossoming\\nof a seed planted long before, and of a plant whose slow and sui*e\\ngrowth thoughtful men had watched for years.\\nFEMALE HEAD-DRESS (18TH\\nCENTUUY).", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0571.jp2"}, "572": {"fulltext": "540\\nTHE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY,\\nri789\u00c2\u00bb\\n1. ABOLITION OF THE MONARCHY.\\nThe National Assembly. The tiers etaf, proving to\\nbe tlie most x^owerf iil body in the States-General, invited the\\nnobles and clergy to join it, and declared itself the National\\nAssembly.^ Louis closed the hall whereupon the members\\nrepaired to a tennis court near by, and swore not to separate\\nuntil they had given a constitution to France. Soon the\\nking yielded, and at his request the coronets and miters\\nmet with the commons. To overawe the refractory Assem-\\nbly, the court collected 30,000 soldiers about Versailles.\\nThe Paris Mob, excited by this menace to the people s\\nrepresentatives, rose in\\narms, stormed the grim\\nold Bastile,^ and razed\\nits dungeons to the\\nground. The insur-\\nrection swept over the\\ncountry like wild-fire.\\nAs in the days of the\\nJacquerie (p. 364), cha-\\nteaux were burned, and\\ntax-gatherers tortured\\nto death. Finally a\\nmaddened crowd, cry-\\ning Bread, bread! surged out to Versailles, sacked the\\npalace, and, in savage glee, brought the royal family to Paris.\\nVarious political clubs began to get control. Chief of these\\nwere the Jacobin and the Cordelier (Brief Hist. France,\\np. 206), whose leaders Robespierre, Marat, and Danton\\npreached sedition and organized the Revolution.\\n1 This step is said to have been taken hy the advice of Thomas Jeflferson, our\\nminister plenipotentiary to France.\\n2 Its key, given by La Fayette to Washington, is preserved at Mount Vernon.\\nTHE BASTILE.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0572.jp2"}, "573": {"fulltext": "1789.1\\nTHE PREN(m REVOLUTION\\n541\\nReforms (1789-91 ).i The Assembly, in a furor of pa-\\ntriotisiii, exting-iiished feudal privdleges, abolislied serfdom,\\nand equalized taxation. The law of primogeniture was ab-\\nSCENE IN I AKIS AFTER THE STORMING OF THE BASTILE.\\nrogated titles were annulled liberty of conscience and of\\nthe press was proclaimed; and France was divided into\\neighty-tlu-ee departments instead of the old provinces.\\n1 It was plaiu that the First Estate must bow its proud head before the five and\\ntwenty savage millions, make restitution, speak well, smile fairlj-\u00e2\u0080\u0094 or die. The\\nmemorable 4th of August came, when the nobles did this, making ample confession\\nof their weakness. The Viscomte do Noailles proposed to reform the taxation by\\nsubjecting to it every order and rank by regulating it according to the fortune of\\nthe individual; and by abolishing personal servitude and every remaining vestige\\nof the feudal system. An enthusiasm, which was half fear and lialf I eckless excite-\\nment, spread tlirougliout the Assembly. The aristocrats rose in tlieir places aiul\\npublicly rem)unced their seignorial dues, privileges, and immunities. The clergy\\nabolished tithes and tributes. The representative bodies resign h1 their municipal\\nrights. All this availed little; it should have been done montlis before to have\\nweighed with the impatient commons. The people scorned a generosity wliich\\nrelinquished only that which was untenable, and cared not for the recognition of a\\npolitical equality that had already been established with the pike (Mis8 Edwards s\\nHistory of France).", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0573.jp2"}, "574": {"fulltext": "542 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1791\\nThe estates of the clergy were confiscated, and upon this\\nsecurity notes (assignats) were issued to meet the expenses\\nof the government.^ Having adopted a constitution, the\\nAssembly adjourned, and a new body was chosen, called\\nThe Legislative Assembly (1791). The mass of its\\nmembers were ignorant and brutal. The most respectable\\nwere the Girondists, who professed the simplicity and exalted\\nvirtue of the old Roman republic. The Jacobins, Cordeliers,\\nand other violent demagogues, were fused by a common\\nhatred of the king into one bitter, opposing party.\\nAttack upon the Tuileries. Austria and Prussia now\\ntook up arms in behalf of Louis, and invaded France. This\\nsealed the fate of monarch and monarchy. Louis was known\\nto be in correspondence with the princes and the French\\nnobles who had joined the enemy. The approach of the\\nallies, and especially the threats of the Prussian general,\\nkindled the fmy of the Parisian masses. The Girondists\\nmade common cause with the Jacobins in stiiTing up the\\nrabble to dethrone the king. The Marseillaise was heard\\nfor the first time in the streets of Paris. The palace of\\nthe Tuileries was sacked the Swiss guards, faithful to the\\nlast, were slain and Louis was sent to prison.\\nThe Jacobins, now supreme, arrested all who opposed their\\nrevolutionary projects. The prisons being fuU, hired assas-\\nsins went from one to another for four days of that terrible\\nSeptember, massacring the unhappy inmates. A thirst for\\nblood seized the populace, and even women eagerly witnessed\\nthis carnival of murder.\\nBattle of Valmy (1792).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In the midst of these events,\\nthe Prussian army was checked at Valmy; soon after, it re-\\n1 About this time tlic i rigliteuud roj iil family attempted flight in disguise. When\\nalmost to the frontier, they were detected, aud were brought back to the Tuileries.\\nto bo watched more closely than ever (Brief Hist. France, p. 207).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0574.jp2"}, "575": {"fulltext": "17912. J THE FRENCH REVOLTTION. 543\\ncrossed the frontier. The victory of Jemmapes over the Aus-\\ntriaiis followed, and Belgium was proclaimed a rei)ublic.\\nThe Effect of these successes was electrical. The leaders\\nof the Revolution were elated, and the nation was encouraged\\nto enter upon a career of conquest that ultimately shook the\\ncontinent of Europe.\\nThe National Convention. The next Assembly estab-\\nlished a repubHc. Louis Capet/ as they styled the king,\\nwas arraigned, and, in si)ite of the timid protest of the\\nGu ondists, was condemned and guillotined (1793). His\\nhead fell amid savage shouts of Vive la Repubhque\\n2. THE REIGN OF TERROR (1793-94)\\nJacobin Rule. Nearly all Europe leagued to avenge\\nLouis s death. England was the soul of this coalition, and\\nfreely gave to it her gold and arms. The royahsts held\\nMarseilles, Bordeaux, Lyons, and Toidon. An insiuTCction\\nburst out in La Vendee. But the terrible energy of the\\nconvention crushed aU opposition. Its Committee of Public\\nSafety knew neither fear nor pity. Revolutionary tribunals\\nwere set up, before which were dragged those suspected of\\nmoderation or of sympathy with the aristocrats. Eveiy\\nmorning the tumbrils carried to execution the victims of\\nthe day. The crowd screamed with delight as Marie Antoi-\\nnette,^ prematurely gray, mounted the scaffold on w^hich her\\nhusband had perished. The Girondists were overwhelmed\\nin the ruin they had aided in creating. At^Lyons the work\\nof the guillotine proved too tedious, and the victims w^re\\nmowed down by grape-shot; at Nantes boat-loads were\\nrowed out and sunk in the Loire.\\n1 Her little son, Louis XVII., died after two years of horrible suffering in prison\\n(Brief Hist. Frauce, p. 216). Romance has pictured this Lost Dauphin as saved\\nand secretly conveyed to America.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0575.jp2"}, "576": {"fulltext": "544\\nTHE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1793.\\nIn the midst of the carnage a new calendar was instituted, to date\\nfrom September 22, 1792, which was to be the first day of the year 1,\\nthe epoch of the foundation of the republic. New names were given\\nto the months and days Sunday was abolished, and every tenth\\nday appointed for rest and amusement. Christian worship was pro-\\nhibited. Churches and convents were desecrated, plundered, and\\nburned. Marriage was declared to be only a civil contract, which\\nmight be broken at pleasure. Notre Dame was converted into a\\nTemple of Reason, and a gaudily dressed woman, wearing a red cap of\\nliberty, was enthroned as goddess. Over the entrance to the ceme-\\nteries were inscribed the words Death is an eternal sleep.\\nGIRONDISTS ON THE WAY TO EXECUTION.\\nFate of the Terrorists. Marat had already perished\\nstabbed by Charlotte Corday, a young girl who gladly\\ngave up her life to rid her country of this monster. Danton\\nnow showing signs of relenting, his ruthless associates\\nsent him to the scaffold. For nearly four di-eadful months\\nRobespierre ruled supreme. He aimed to destroy all the\\nother leaders. The ax plied faster than ever as he went", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0576.jp2"}, "577": {"fulltext": "1794.]\\nTHE FRENCH REVOLUTION.\\n545\\nKOBESPIEKUE.\\non purging society by mur-\\nder. The accused were forbid-\\nden defense, and tried en masse}\\nAt last, impelled by a common\\nfear, friends and foes combined\\nto overthrow the tyrant. A fu-\\nrious struggle ensued. When\\nRobespierre s head fell (July\\n28, 1794), the Reign of Terror\\nended.\\nA Reaction now set in.\\nThe revolutionary clubs were\\nabolished 5 the prison doors\\nwere flung wide the churches were opened the siu-viving\\nGirondists were recalled, and the emigrant priests and\\nnobles invited to return.\\nTriumph of the French Arms (1794-95).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 While the\\nTerrorists were sending long lines of victims to the scaffold,\\nthe defenders of the new republic were pouring toward the\\nthreatened frontiers. Diuing the pauses of the guillotine, all\\nParis accompanied the troops outside the city gates, shout-\\ning the Marseillaise. Pichegi*u,Hoche, Jourdan,and Moreau\\nled the republican armies to continued success. The royal-\\nists in La Vendee were routed, Belgium was ovei*run, and\\nthe Rhine held from Worms to Nimeguen. Even winter\\ndid not stop the progi*ess of the French arms. Pichegiii\\nled his troops across the Meuse upon the ice, and, conquering\\nHolland without a battle, organized the Bafavkui BepnUic.\\nPeace was made with Prussia and Spain, but England and\\nAustria continued the war.\\n1 In the national archives of Paris, there is preserved an order of execution\\nwhich was signed in blank, and afterward lilled up with the names of twenty-seven\\npersons, one of whom was a boy of sixteen.\\nBGH\u00e2\u0080\u0094 32", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0577.jp2"}, "578": {"fulltext": "546\\nTHE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1795.\\nEstablishment of the Directory. It had become\\napparent that the\\nunion in one legis-\\nlative house of the\\nthree orders in the\\nStates-General was\\na mistake. It was\\ntherefore decided\\nto have a Council of\\nFive Hundred to\\npropose laws, and\\na Council of the An-\\ncients to pass or to\\nreject them. The\\nexecutive power was\\nto be lodged in a Directory of five persons.\\nThe Day of the Sections (October 5, 1795).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Con-\\nvention, in order to secure its work, decreed that two thirds\\nof each council should be appointed from its own number.\\nThereupon the royalists excited the Sections (as the munici-\\npal divisions of Paris were called) to rise in arms. General\\nBarras (ra), who was in command of the defense, called to\\nhis aid Napoleon Buonaparte.^ This young ofi cer skillfully\\nCOSTUMES OF THE THREE ORDERS.\\n1 Napoleon Buonaparte was born at Ajaccio, Corsica, August 15, 1769, two months\\nafter the conquest of that island by the French. (It is claimed, however, that, not wish-\\ning to be foreign-born, he changed the date of his birth.) His father, Charles Buona\\nparte, was a law-\\nyer of straitened\\nmeans. We read\\nthat when the fu-\\nture soldier was a\\nchild his favorite\\nplaything was a\\nsmall brass can-\\nnon, and that he\\nloved to drill the\\nchildren of the\\nFACSIMILE OF THE SIGNATURE OF NAPOLEON BUONAPARTE,\\nMUSEE DES ARCHIVES NATIONALES, PARIS.\\nneighborhood to battle with stones and wooden sabers. At ten he was sent to the", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0578.jp2"}, "579": {"fulltext": "1795.]\\nTHE FRENCH REVOLUTION.\\n547\\nposted his troops about the Tnileries, and planted cannon\\nto rake the approaches. His pitiless ^uns put the insurgents\\nto flight, leaving five hundred of their number on the pave-\\nment. The people were subdued. Tlieir master had come,\\nand street tumults were at an end.\\n3. DIRECTORY.\\nThe Glory of the\\nDirectory lay in the\\nachievements of its sol-\\ndiers. Napoleon Buona-\\nparte, though only twen-\\nty-six years old, was put\\nat the head of the army\\nwhich was to invade\\nItaly, then defended by\\nthe Austrian and Pied-\\nmontese armies. Hence-\\nforth, for nearly twenty\\nyears, his life is the his-\\ntory of France, almost\\nthat of Europe.\\nItalian Campaign (1796-97). Buonaparte found at\\nNice a destitute French army of thirty-eight thousand\\nNAPOLEON BUONAPARTE.\\nmilitary school at Brienne. Resolute, quairelsome, gloom}% not much liked by\\nhis companions, he lived apart; feut he was popular with his teachers, and became\\nthe head scliolar in mathematics. At sixteen lie went to Paris to complete his\\nstudios. Poor and proud, discontented with his lot, tormented by the first stirrinj^s\\nof genius, he became a misanthrope. He entered the army as lieutenant, and first\\ndistinguished himself during the siege of Toulon. By skillfully planting his batteries,\\nhe drove off the English fleet and forced the surrender of that city. A few days\\nafter the disarming of the Sections, Eugene Beauharuais, a boy of ten years, came\\nto Buonaparte to claim the sword of liis father, who had fallen on the scaffold during\\nthe Revolution. Touched by Jiis tears, Buonaparte ordered the sword to be given\\nhim. This led to a call from Madame de Beauharnais. The beaut} wit, and grace\\nof the Creole widow won the heart of the Corsican general. Tlieir mutual friend,\\nBarras, promised them as a marriage gift Buonaparte s appointment to the com-\\nmand of the army of Italy.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0579.jp2"}, "580": {"fulltext": "548 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1796.\\nmen, while in front was a well-equipped army numbering\\nsixty thousand. But he did not hesitat j. Issuing one of\\nthose electrical proclamations for which he was afterward so\\nfamous, he suddenly forced the passes of Montenotte, and\\npierced the center of the enemy s line. He had now placed\\nhimself between the Piedmontese and the Austrians, and\\ncould follow either. He pursued the former to within ten\\nleagues of Turin, when the King of Sardinia, trembling for\\nhis crown and capital, stopped the conqueror by an armis-\\ntice, which was soon converted into a peace, giving up to\\nFrance his strongholds and the passes of the Alps.\\nBattle of Lodi. Delivered from one foe, Buonaparte\\nturned upon the other. At Lodi he found the Austrians\\nstrongly intrenched upon the opposite bank of the Adda.\\nCharging at the head of his grenadiers, amid a tempest of\\nshot and ball, he crossed the bridge and bayoneted the\\ncannoneers at their guns. The Austrians fled for refuge\\ninto the Tyrol Mountains.\\nAuthorized Pillage. Then commenced a system of\\nspoliation unknown to modern warfare. Not only was war\\nto support war, but also to enrich the victor. Contributions\\nwere levied upon the vanquished states. A body of savants\\nwas sent into Italy to select the treasures of art from each\\nconquered city. The Pope was forced to give twenty-one\\nmillions of francs, one hundred pictures, and five hundred\\nmanuscripts. The wants of the army were supplied, and\\nmillions of money forwarded to Paris. The officers and com-\\nmissioners seized provisions, horses, etc., paying nothing.\\nA swarm of jobbers, contractors, and speculators ho veiled\\nabout the army, and gorged themselves to repletion. The\\nItalians, weary of the Austrian yoke, at first welcomed the\\nFrench, but soon found that their new masters, who came\\nas brothers, plundered them like robbers.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0580.jp2"}, "581": {"fulltext": "179G.]\\nTHE FRENCH REVOLUTION.\\n549\\nBattles of Castiglione and Bassaito. Sixty thousand Aus-\\ntrians, under Wurmser, were now marching in separate divi-\\nsions on opposite sides of Lake Garda, in order to envelop\\nthe French in theii* superior numbers. Buonaparte first\\nchecked the force on the western bank, then routed the main\\nbody at Castiglione. Wurmser fell back into the T;yTol.\\nUUONArAKl E AT THE BRIUGE OF ARCOLE.\\nReenforced, he made a new essay. But ere he could debouch\\nfrom the passes, Buonaparte plunged into the gorges of the\\nmountains, and defeated him again at Bassano.\\nBattle of Arcole. Two Austrian armies had disappeared\\na third now arrived under Alvinczy. Leaving Verona with", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0581.jp2"}, "582": {"fulltext": "550 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. [1796.\\nonly fourteen thousand men, Buonaparte took the road for\\nMilan. It was the route to France. Suddenly turning to\\nthe north, he descended the Adige, crossed the river, and\\nplaced Ms army in the midst of a marsh traversed only by\\ntwo causeways. Fighting on these narrow roads, numbers\\nwere of no account. At the bridge of Arcole, Buonaparte,\\nseeing his grenadiers hesitate, seized a banner, and exclaim-\\ning, Follow your general, rushed forward. Borne back\\nin the arms of his soldiers, during the melee he feU into the\\nmarsh, and was with difficulty rescued. A ford was finally\\nfounid and the bridge was turned. A fearful struggle of\\nthree days ensued, when the Austrians, half destroyed, were\\nput to flight.\\nBattle of Bivoli. ^Alvinczy, reenforced, again descended\\ninto Italy. The principal army advanced in two columns,\\nthe infantry in one, and the cavalry and artillery in the other.\\nBuonaparte saw that the only point where they could unite\\nwas on the plateau of RivoH. As they debouched, he\\nlaunched upon them Joubert, and then Massena Both of\\nthe enemy s columns recoiled in inextricable confusion.\\nHaving vanquished three imperial armies in Italy, Buona-\\nparte next crossed the Alps, and advanced upon Vienna.\\nThe Austrian government, in consternation, asked for a sus-\\npension of arms.\\nThe Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) closed this famous\\ncampaign. Belgium was ceded to France, with the long-\\ncoveted boundary of the Rhine. Austria was allowed to\\ntake Venice and its dependencies.\\nNeighboring Republics. The Dii-ectory endeavored\\nto control the neighboring states as if they were French\\n1 Mass6na s divisiou fouglit at Verona on the 13th of Januarj% marched all that\\nni^ht to help Joubert, who was exhausted by forty-eight hours ligliting, was In the\\nbattle of Rivoli the 14th, and marched that night and the 15tli to reach Mantua on the\\n16th. Marches, wliich with ordinary generals were merely the movements of troops,\\nv^ith Buonaparte meant battles, and often decided the fate of a campaign.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0582.jp2"}, "583": {"fulltext": "1798.]\\nTHE FRENCH REVOLUTION.\\n551\\nprovinces; to change their form of government: and to\\nexact enormous contributions. At the close of 1798 the\\nDii ectory found itself at the head of no less than six re-\\npublics, including Holland, Switzerland, and Italy.\\nTHE PYKAMIUS OF EGYPT.\\nAn Expedition to Egypt (1798-99) having been pro-\\nposed by Buonaparte, and accepted by the Directoiy, the\\nconqueror of Italy, eager for new triumphs, set sail Tvdth\\nthirty-six thousand men, the heroes of Rivoli and Arcole.\\nOn his way he captured Malta, but narrowly escaped the\\nEnglish cruisers under Nelson. Landing near Alexandria,!\\nBuonaparte at once pushed on to Caii o, defeating the Mame-\\nlukes under the shadow of the Pwamids.^ But soon after\\nNelson annihilated the French fleet in the Bay of Abouku*.\\nCut off thus from Europe, Buonaparte, dreaming of found-\\ning an empire in the East and overthrowing the British rule\\nin India, turned into Syi ia. The walls of Acre, however,\\nmanned by English sailors under Sidney Smith, checked\\nhis progress; and, after defeating the Turks with terrible\\n1 During this occupation of Egypt, a French eugineei (liscoverod tlie Rosetta\\nstone,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the key to reading the Egyptian hieroglyphics (see p. 22).\\n2 Soldiers I exclaimed Buonaparte, from yonder pyramids forty centuries look\\ndown upon you.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0583.jp2"}, "584": {"fulltext": "552\\nTHE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1798.\\nslaughter at the foot of Mount Tabor, he retreated across\\nthe desert to Egypt. There he secretly abandoned his army,\\nand returned to France.\\nAt Paris he was gladly welcomed. Then^ Five Majes-\\nties of the Luxemburg/ as the Directors were styled, had\\ntwice resorted to a coup\\nd^etaf,^ to preserve their\\nauthority in the Coun-\\ncils. Foreign disgrace\\nhad been added to do-\\nBUONAPAUTE BEFORE THE COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDKED.\\nmestic anarchy. A Second Coalition (composed of England,\\nAustria, Russia, etc.) having been formed against France,\\nthe fruits of Campo Formio had been quickly lost. The\\nFrench armies, forced back upon the frontier, were in want.\\nA panic of fear seized the people. The hero of Italy offered\\nthe only hope. A new coup dieted was planned. Buona-\\n1 This is a word for which as yet happily, we hare uo English equivalent. It is\\nliterally a stroke-of -state.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0584.jp2"}, "585": {"fulltext": "1799.] THE CIVILIZATION. 553\\nparte s grenadiers drove the members of the Council of Five\\nHundred from their chamber, as Cromwell s soldiers had\\ndriven the Long Parliament a century and a half l}efore.\\nThe roll of the drums drowned the last cry of Vive la\\nR^puhlique\\nA new Constitution was now adopted. The government\\nwas to consist of a Council of State, a Tribune, a Legisla-\\nture, a Senate, and three Consuls, Buonaparte and two\\nothers named by him. In February, 1800, the First Consul\\ntook up his residence in the Tuileries. The Revolution had\\nculminated in a despot.\\nTHE CIVILIZATION.\\nThe Progress of Letters. Queen Anne s reign was the Augustan\\nage of Latglish Literature. Questions of party politics, society, life,\\nand character were discussed; and wit, ridicule, and satire were\\nemployed as never before. The affluence of the old school of authors\\ngave way to correctness of form and taste. Pope s Essay on Man and\\nEssay on Criticism, with their sonorous couplets brilliant with an-\\ntithesis, are yet admired. Swift s Gulliver s Travels satirized the\\nmanners and customs of the time. Addison and Steele, in their peri-\\nodicals the Tattler and the Spectator, popularized literature, and\\nbrought philosophy, as Steele expressed it, out of libraries, schools,\\nand colleges, to dwell in clubs, at tea tables, and in coffee-houses.\\nThe style of Addison was long considered a model of graceful, elegant\\nprose. De Foe s Robinson Crusoe still charms the heart of every boy.\\nSamuel Johnson, with his ponderous periods, is to us the principal\\nfigure of English literature from about the middle of the 18tli century.\\nIn his English Dictionary he was the first author who appealed for\\nsupport directly to the public, and not to some gi eat man. He estab-\\nlished a realm of letters, and long held in London a literary court in which\\nhe ruled as imdisputed king. Literature had begun to take its present\\nform newspapers commenced to play a part a new class of men arose,\\nthe journalists and authorship assumed fresh impulses on every hand.\\nRichardson, Fielding, and Smollett laid the foundation of the modern\\nnovel. Thompson s Seasons, Gray s Elegy in a Country Church-\\nyard, Goldsmith s Traveler and The Deserted Village, Cowper s\\nTask, and Burns s The Cotter s Saturday Night, were familiar\\nstepping-stones in the progress of poetry into a new world, that of", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0585.jp2"}, "586": {"fulltext": "554\\nTHE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.\\nnature. Burke, by his sounding sentences and superb rhetoric, made\\nthe power of letters felt by every class in society. Hume wrote the\\nHistory of England; and Robertson, that of Charles V., the first\\nliterary histories in our language. Gibbon s Decline and Fall of the\\nRoman Empire elevated historical study to the accuracy of a scientific\\ntreatise. Adam Smith s Wealth of Nations founded the science of\\npolitical economy.\\nIn France, the 18th century was preeminently an age of infidelity\\nand skepticism. Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, as well as Diderot,\\nD Alembert, and the other liberal thinkers who wrote upon the En-\\neyclopgedia, while they urged the doctrines of freedom and the natural\\nrights of man, recklessly assaulted time-honored creeds and institutions.\\nIn Germany, the efforts of Lessing, Winckelmann, Klopstock, and\\nother patriots, had created a reaction against French influence. The\\nTwin Sons of Jove, as their countrymen liked to call them, Schiller,\\nwith his impassioned lyrics, and Goethe, one of the profoimdest poets\\nof any age or country, elevated German literature to a classical per-\\nfection. The philosophical spirit gathered strength from this triumph,\\nand gave birth to those four great teachers Kant, Fiehte, Hegel, and\\nSchelling who afterward laid the foundation of German metaphysics.\\nBoth the French and the German writers exerted a powerful effect\\nupon England, and, from the dawn of the French Revolution far into\\nthe 19th century, produced a remarkable outburst of literature. The", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0586.jp2"}, "587": {"fulltext": "THE CIVILIZATION. 55;\\nphilosophic mind finds congenial employment in tracing their respec-\\ntive influence upon the writings of Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge,\\nSouthey, Moore, Shelley, and Byron, all of whom burned to redress\\nthe wrongs of man, and dreamed of a golden ago of human perfection.\\nScience now spread so rapidly on every side, that one strains his\\neyes in vain to trace the expanding stream. Chemistry took on its pres-\\nent form. Black discovered carbonic-acid gas Cavendish, hydrogen\\ngas Priestley and Scheele, oxygen gas and Rutherford, the properties\\nof nitrogen gas. Lavoisier proved that respiration and combustion are\\nmerely forms of oxidation, and he was thus able to create an orderly\\nnomenclature for the science. Physics was enriched by Black s dis-\\ncovery of the latent heat of melting ice. Franklin, experimenting with\\nhis kite, imprisoned the thunderbolt. Galvani, seeing the twitching of\\nsome frogs legs that were hanging from iron hooks, found out the mys-\\nterious galvanism. Volta invented a way of producing electricity by\\nchemical action, and of carrying the current through a wire both ends of\\nwhich were connected with the battery. Dollond invented the achro-\\nmatic lens that gives the value to our telescope and microscope. Fah-\\nrenheit, Reaumm*, and Celsius first marked ofE the degrees upon the\\nthermometer (Steele s Popular Physics, p. 249), thus furnishing an\\ninstrument of precision. In Astronomy, Lagrange proved the self -regu-\\nlating, and therefore permanent, nature of the orbits of the planets\\nLaplace, in his Mecanique Celeste, developed Newton s theory of\\ngravitation, and explained the anomalies in its application and finally,\\nHerschel, with his wonderful telescope, detected a planet (Uranus, see\\nSteele s Astronomy, p. 189) called for by this law, and in the cloudy\\nnebulae found the workings of this same universal force. Natural\\nHistory was popularized by Biiffon, who gathered many new facts, and\\ndetected the influence of climate and geography upon the distribution\\nof animals. Lamarck began to lay the foundation of the theory of\\nevolution. Cuvier found out the relation of the different parts of an\\nanimal, so that from a single bone he could restore the entire structure.\\nHutton taught how, by watching the changes now going on in the\\nearth s crust, we may detect natm-e s mode of making the world, or\\nthe science of Geology. Linnaeus, by the system still called from his\\nname, gave to Botany its fitst orderly arrangement.\\nProgress of Invention. In 1705, Newcomen and Cawley patented\\nin England the first steam-engine worth the name and James Watt\\nin 1765 invented the condenser that, with other improvements, rendered\\nthis machine commercially successful. The application of steam\\npower to machinery wrought a revolution in commerce, manufac-\\ntures, arts, and social life, and immensely aided in the progress of civil-\\nization. The difference between the mechanical workmanship of the\\n18th and 19th centuries may be seen in the almost incredible fact that\\nWatt, in making his first engine, found his greatest difficulty from the", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0587.jp2"}, "588": {"fulltext": "556 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.\\nimpossibility of boring, with the imperfect tools then in use, a cylinder\\nthat ivas steam-tight. Before the end of the century, several trial steam-\\nboats were made, both in Europe and in America, and ere long, as every\\nschoolboy knows, Fulton regularly navigated the Hudson.\\nUntil the 16th century, spinning was done by the distaff, as it had\\nbeen from Homer s time. The spinning-wheel of our ancestors was\\nthe first improvement. Hargreaves, about 1767, combined a number of\\nspindles in the spinning- jenny (so named after his wife). Arkwright\\nsoon after patented the spinning-mill driven by water; and in 1779\\nCrompton completed the mule, or carriage for winding and spinning.\\nIn 1787, Cartwright invented the power-loom. Eli Whitney, six years\\nlater, made the cotton-gin. Such was the impetus given to cotton rais-\\ning and manufacture by these inventions, that, while in 1784 an invoice\\nof eight bags of cotton was confiscated at Liverpool on the ground that\\ncotton was not a product of the United States, fifty years afterward we\\nsent to England 220,000,000 pounds of cotton.\\nENGLAND A HUNDRED YEARS AGO.\\nThe Law recognized two hundred and twenty-three capital crimes.\\nFor stealing to the value of five shillings, for shooting at rabbits, or\\nfor cutting down young trees, the penalty was death. Traitors were\\ncut in pieces by the executioner, and their heads exposed on Temple\\nBar to the derision of passers-by. Prisoners were forced to buy from\\nthe jailer (who had no salary) their food, and even the straw upon which\\nto lie at night. They were allowed to stand, chained by the ankle, out-\\nside the jail, to sell articles of their own manufacture. Thus, John Bun,\\nyan sold cotton lace in front of Bedford prison. The grated windows\\nwere crowded by miserable wretches begging for alms. Many innocent\\npersons were confined for years because they could not pay their jail\\nfees. In 1773, Howard began his philanthropic labors in behalf of pris-\\non reform, but years elapsed before the evils he revealed were corrected.\\nOn the Continent, torture was still practiced the prisons of Hanover,\\nfor example, had machines for tearing off the hair of the convict.\\nA General Coarseness and Brutality existed in society. Mas-\\nters beat their servants, and husbands their wives. Profanity was\\ncommon with ladies as well as gentlemen. Lawyers swore at the bar\\njudges, on the bench women, in their letters and the king, on his\\nthrone. No entertainment was complete unless the guests became\\nstupidly drunk. Children of five years of age were habitually put\\nto labor, and often driven to their work by blows. In mines women\\nand children, crawling on their hands and feet in the darkness, dragged\\nwagons of coal fastened to their waists by a chain. Military and naval\\ndiscipline was maintained by the lash, and in the streets of every sea-\\nport the press-gang seized and carried off by force whom it pleased,\\nto be sailors on the men^ofrwar", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0588.jp2"}, "589": {"fulltext": "SUMMARY. 557\\nLondon Streets were lighted only in winter and until midnight,\\nby diiu oil-lamps, Tlie services of a link-boy with liis blazing torch\\nwere needed to liglit one home after dark, since footpads lurked at the\\nlonely corners, and, worst of all, bands of aristocratic young men (known\\nas Mohocks, from the Mohawk Indians) sauntered to and fro, overturn-\\ning coaches, pricking men with their swords, rolling women down-hill\\nin a barrel, and sometimes brutally maiming their victims for life.\\nIn the Country the roads were so bad that winter traveling was\\nwell-nigh impossible. The stage-coach (with its armed guards to pro-\\ntect it from highwaymen), rattling along in good weather at four miles\\nper hour, was considered a wonderful instance of the progress of the\\ntimes. Lord Campbell accomplished the journey from Edinburgh to\\nLondon in three days but his friends warned him of the dangers of\\nsuch an attempt, and gravely told him of persons venturing it who had\\ndied from the very rapidity of the motion. Each town dwelt apart,\\nfollowing its own customs, and knowing little of the great world outside.\\nThere were \\\\allages so secluded that a stranger was considered an\\nenemy, and the inhabitants set their dogs upon him. Each house-\\nholder in the country grew his own wool or flax, which his wife and\\ndaughters colored with dyes of their own gathering, and spun, wove,\\nand made into garments themselves.\\nEducation. In all England there were only about three thousand\\nschools, public and private, and, so late as 1818, half of the children\\ngrew up destitute of education. The usual instruction of a gentleman\\nwas very superficial, consisting of a little Latin, less Greek, and a good\\ndeal of dancing. Female education was even more deplorable, and\\nat fourteen years of age the young lady was taken out of school and\\nplunged into the dissipations of fashionable society. Newspapers\\nwere taxed fourpence each copy, mainly to render them too costly for\\nthe poor, and so to restrain what was considered their evil influence\\nupon the masses.\\nSUMMARY.\\nThe 18th was the century of Marlborough, Peter the Great, Charles\\nXII., Maria Theresa, William Pitt, the Georges, Louis XVI., Marie An-\\ntoinette, Robespierre, Buonaparte, Addison, Steele, Swift, Pope, Sam-\\nuel Johnson, Gibbon, Burns, Burke, Voltaire, Goethe, Schiller, Kant,\\nCanova, Handel, Mozart, Cuvier, Franklin, Laplace, Lavoisier, Gal-\\nvani, Herschel, ArkAvright, Watt, and Whitney. It saw the Wars of\\nthe Spanisli and of the Austrian Succession the Seven-Years War\\nthe rise of Russia and of Prussia the American Revolution the Par-\\ntition of Poland; and the opening of the French Revolution, includ-\\ning the execution of Louis XVI., the Reign of Terror, and Buonaparte s\\nItalian and Egyptian Campaigns.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0589.jp2"}, "590": {"fulltext": "558\\nTHE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY,\\nREADING REFERENCES.\\nTlie General Modern Histories named on p. 429, and the Special Histories of Eng-\\nland, France, Germany, etc., on p. 418.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lec/cy s England in tJie 18th Century.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Alli-\\nson s History of Europe {Tory standpoint).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Voltaire s Peter the Great, and Cliarles\\nXII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Schuyler s Peter the Great {Scribner s Magazine, Vol. XXI.).\u00e2\u0080\u0094Carlyle s\\nFrederick the Great\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Longman s Frederick the Great and the Seven-Years War.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nLacretelle s History of France during the 18th Century.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Be Tocqueville s France\\nbefore the Revolution.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The French Revolution {Epochs of History Series. TJie Ap-\\npendix of this book contains an excellent resume of reading on this subject, by Andrew\\nD. White).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lamar tine s History of the Girondists.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Carlyle s, Mignets, Macfarlane s,\\nReadhead s, Michelet s, Thiers s, and Von Syhel s Histories of the French Revolution.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Lanfrey s History of Napoleon.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Burke s Reflections on the French Revolution.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nLewis s Life of Robespierre.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Adams s Democracy and Monarchy in France {excellent\\nand discriminating).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Dickens s Tale of Two Cities (fiction).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Thiers s Consulate and\\nEmpire.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 3Iemoirs of Madame Campan, and of Madame Roland.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Erkmann-Cha-\\ntrian s Blockade, Conscript, Waterloo, etc. {fiction).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Abbott s, Hazlitt s, Scott s, and\\nJomini s Life of Napoleon.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 RusseVs Essay on the Cause of the French Revolution.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nMackintosh s Defense of the French Revolution.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Napier s Peninsular War.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Kav-\\nanagh s Woman in France.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Davies s Recollections of Society in France.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Challice s\\nIllustrious Women of France.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Citoyenne Jacqueline, or a Woman s Lot in the French\\nRevolution.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Madame Junot s {the Duchesse d Abrantes) Memoirs of Napoleon, his\\nCourt and Family.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Thackeray s The Four Georges.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Madame de Remusat s Letters\\n{Napoleon s character).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Memoirs of Prince Metternich {177S-1829).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Saint- Amand s\\nmany historical works.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Amelia Gere Mason s Women of the French Salons.\\nCHRONOLOGY.\\nA. D.\\nBattles of Blenheim, Ramllies,\\nOudenarde, and Malplaquet 1704-09\\nUnion of England and Scotland 1707\\nBattle of Pultowa 1709\\nTreaty of Utreclit 1713\\nGuelfs ascend English throne 1714\\nCharles XII. killed at Frederickshall 1718\\nFrederick tlie Great, Age of 1740-86\\nSeven-Years War ._ 1756-63\\nFirst Partition of Poland 1772\\nA. D.\\nAmerican Kevolution 1775-83\\nMeeting of States-General 1789\\nAttack on Tuileries, Aug. 10 1792\\nBattle of Jemmapes 1792\\nLouis XVI. guillotined, Jan. 21 1793\\nReign of Terror 1793-94\\nThird Partition of Poland 1795\\nNapoleon s Campaign in Italy 1796\\nBattle of the Nile 1798\\nBuonaparte First Consul 1799\\nCONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGMS\\nENGLAND.\\nWilliam and\\nMary 1689\\nAnne 1702\\nGeorge I 1714\\nGeorge II 1727\\nGeorge III 1760\\nFRANCE\\nLouis XIV 1643\\nLouis XV.. 1715\\nLouis XVI 1774\\nRepublic 1793\\nGERMANY.\\nLeopold I 1658\\nJoseph I 1705\\nCharles VI 1711\\nCharles VII 1742\\nFrancis 1 1745\\nJoseph II 1765\\nLeopold II 1790\\nFrancis II 1792\\nPRUSSIA.\\nFrederick I 1701\\nWilUam I 1713\\nFrederick II... 1740\\nWilliam II 1786\\nWilliam III.... 1797", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0590.jp2"}, "591": {"fulltext": "THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 559\\nTHE NINETEENTH CENTUllY.\\nI. FRANCE.\\nFRENCH REVOLUTION (Continued)A\u00e2\u0080\u00944. THE CONSULATE (1800-04).\\nAustrian War (1800).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 England, regarding Buonaparte\\nas a usiu per, refused to make peace, and hostilities soon\\nbegan. The First Consul was eager to renew the glories of\\nhis Italian campaign. Poiuing his army over the Alps, he\\ndescended upon Lombardy like an avalanche. The Aus-\\ntrians, however, quickly rallied from their sui-prise, and,\\nunexpectedly attacking him upon the plain of Marengo,\\nswept all before them. At this junctm-e Desaix, who with\\nhis division had hastened thither at the sound of cannon,\\ndashed upon the advancing colunm, but fell in the charge.\\nJust tlien, Kellerman, seeing the opportunity, hurled his\\nterrible dragoons upon the flank of the column, and the\\nAustrians broke and fled.\\nEffect. This single battle restored northern Italy to its\\nconqueror. Meantime General Moreau had di*iven back the\\nAustrian army in Germany step by step, and now, gaining\\na signal victory at HoJienlinden, he pressed forward to the\\ngates of the Austrian capital. The frightened monarch\\nconsented to\\nThe Treaty of LunevilJe, which was nearly Hke that of\\nCampo Formio. England did not make peace until the\\nnext year, when Pitt s retii-ement from office paved the way\\nto the Treaty of Amiens (1802).\\nGovernment. I shall now give myself to the adminis-\\ntration of France, said Buonaparte. The opportunity for\\nreorganization was a rare one. Feudal shackles had been\\n1 The pupil will bear in tiiIihI that the FUEXCH Revolution, whicli begau in\\n1789 (p. 538), lasted until the Restouation of the Boukboxs in 1814-15, thus being\\nthe opening event of tlie present century.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0591.jp2"}, "592": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0592.jp2"}, "593": {"fulltext": "1802-OG.]\\nTHE FRENTH REVOT.UTTON.\\n561\\nthrown off, laud had been set free, Jiiid the nation had per-\\nfect confidonci^ in its brilliant leader. Coniinerce, agricul-\\nture, manufactures, education, religion, arts, and sciences,\\neach received his careful thought. He restored the Catholic\\nChurch in accord-\\nance with the cele-\\nbrated Concordat\\n(1801), whereby\\nthe Pope re-\\nnounced all claim\\nto the lands con-\\nfiscated by the\\nRevolution, and\\nthe government\\nagreed to provide\\nfor the mainte-\\nnance of the clergy. He estabhshed a uniform system of\\nweights and measures, known as the Metric System (1801).\\nHe fused the conflicting laws into what is still caUed the\\nNapoleonic Code. He abolished the fantastic repubhcan\\ncalendar (1806). He erected magnificent bridges across\\nthe Seine. He created the Legion of Honor, to reward\\ndistinguished merit. He repaired old roads and built new\\nones, among which was the magnificent route over the\\nSimplon Pass into Italy, even now the wonder of travelers.\\nTHE TEMPLE OF GLOUY.\\nFRENCH REVOLUTION {Continued).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 b. THE EMPIRE (1804-14).\\nBuonaparte becomes Emperor. So general was the\\nconfidence inspired in France by Buonaparte s administra-\\ntion, and so fascinated was the nation by his miUtary achieve-\\nments, that, though he recklessly violated the Hberties of the\\npeople and the rights of neighboring countries, when the\\nsenate proclaimed him Emperor Napoleon I., the popular", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0593.jp2"}, "594": {"fulltext": "562\\nTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1804.\\nvote ratifying it showed only twenty-five hundred noes. At\\nthe coronation Pius VII. poured on the head of the kneeling\\nsovereign the mystic oil; but when he lifted the crown,\\nNapoleon took it from his hands, placed it on his own head,\\nand afterward crowned\\nJosephine empress. As\\nthe hymn was sung\\nwhich Charlemagne\\nheard when saluted Em-\\nperor of the Romans,\\nthe shouts within the\\nwalls of Notre Dame\\nreached the crowd with-\\nout, and all Paris rung\\nwith acclamation. Cross-\\ning the Alps, the new\\nemperor took at Milan\\nthe iron crown of the\\nLombards, and his step-\\nson Eugene Beauharnais received the title Viceroy of Italy.\\nThe empire of Charlemagne seemed to be revived, with its\\nseat at Paris instead of Aix-la-ChapeUe.\\nCampaign of Austerlitz. A Third Coalition (consist-\\ning of England, Austria, and Russia) was formed to resist\\nthe ambitious projects of The Soldier of Fortune. Napo-\\nleon, having akeady collected at Boulogne an admirably\\ndisciphned army and a vast fleet, threatened England,\\nLearning that Austria had taken the field, he suddenly\\nthrew two hundred thousand men across the Rhine, sur-\\nprised and captured the Austrian army at Ulm, and entered\\nVienna in triumph. Thence pressing forward, he met the\\nAustro-Russian force, under the emperors Francis and\\nAlexander, at the heights of\\nEMPRESS JOSEPHINE.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0594.jp2"}, "595": {"fulltext": "1805.J THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 563\\nAitsterlifz (1805). With ill-concealed joy, in which his\\nsoldiers shared, he watched the allies marching their troops\\npast the front of the French position in order to turn his\\nright flank. Waiting nntH this ruinous movement was past\\nrecall, he suddenly launched his eager veterans upon the\\nweakened center of the enemies line, seized the plateau of\\nPratzen, the key of their position, isolated their left wing,\\nand then cut up their entire army in detail. The Sun of\\nAusterlitz saw the coaUtion go down in crushing defeat.^\\nTreaty of Preshurg.\u00e2\u0080\u0094Mter the Battle of the Three Em-\\nperors, Francis came a suppUant into the conqueror s tent.\\nHe secui*ed peace at such a cost of territory that he sui*-\\nrendered the title of German emperor for that of Emperor\\nof Austria (1806). Thus ended the Holy Roman Empire,\\nwhich had lasted over a thousand years (p. 375).\\nBattle of Trafalgar. The day after the thunder-\\nstroke at Ulm, Nelson, with the English squadron off Cape\\nTrafalgar, annihilated the combined fleet of France and\\nSpain. Henceforth Napoleon never contested with Eng-\\nland the supremacy of the sea.\\nRoyal Vassals. ^-On land, however, after Austerlitz, no\\none dared to resist his will. To strengthen his power, he\\nsurrounded France with fiefs, after the manner of the mid-\\ndle ages. Seventeen states of Germany were united in the\\nConfederation of the Rhine, in close alliance with him. His\\nbrother Louis received the kingdom of Holland; Jerome,\\nthat of Westphalia and Joseph, that of Naples. His brother-\\nin-law Murat was assigned the grandduchy of Berg Marshal\\nBerthier, the province of Neuchatel and TaUeyi and, that of\\nBenevento. Bernadotte was given Pontecorvo, but later\\n1 When Pitt received the news of Austerlitz, he exclaimed, Roll up the map of\\nEurope: it will uot he wanted these ten years. Then, falling into a dying stupor, he\\nawoke only to murmur. Alas, my country I\\nBGH-33", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0595.jp2"}, "596": {"fulltext": "564\\nTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1806.\\nhe was allowed to\\naccept tlie crown of\\nSweden. In all, over\\ntwenty principali-\\nties were distributed\\namong liis relatives\\nand friends, wlio\\nwere henceforth ex-\\npected to obey him\\nas suzerain.\\nWar with Prus-\\nsia (1806).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Prus-\\nsia s humiliation was to come next. A Fourth Coalition\\n(Prussia, Russia, England, etc.) had now been formed\\nagainst France, but the Grand Army was still in Germany,\\nand, before the Prussians coidd prepare for war, Napoleon\\nburst upon them. In one day he annihilated their army\\nat Jena and Aicerstadt, and thus, by a single dreadful\\nblow^ laid the country prostrate at his feet. Amid the\\nNAPOLEON AND JOSEPHINE AT 8T. CLOUD.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0596.jp2"}, "597": {"fulltext": "1806.] THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 5G5\\ntears of the people, he entered BerUn, levied enormous\\ncontributions/ pkmdered the museums, and even rifled the\\ntomb of Frederick the Great.\\nBerlin Decrees (1806). Unable to meet England on\\nthe ocean, Napol(3on determined to destroy her commerce,\\nand issued at Berlin the famous decrees prohibiting- British\\ntrade.2 The Continental System, as it was called, was,\\nhowever, a failure. Napoleon had no navy to enforce it,\\nand EngUsh goods were smuggled wherever a British vessel\\ncould float. It is said that Manchester prints were worn\\neven in the Tuileries.\\nWar with Russia (1807). Napoleon next hastened\\ninto Poland to meet the Russian army. The bloody battle\\nof Eylau, fought amid blinding snow, was indecisive, but the\\nvictory of Friedland forced Alexander to sue for peace. The\\ntwo emperors met upon a raft in the river Niemen. By the\\nTreaty of Tilsit, they agreed to support each other in their\\nambitious schemes.\\nPeninsular War. Napoleon sought, also, to make\\nSpain and Portugal subject to France. On the plea of en-\\nforcing the Continental System, Junot was sent into Por-\\ntugal, whereupon the royal family fled to Brazil. The\\n1 To raise the amount, the womeu gave up their oimimeuts, aud wore riugs of\\nBerlin iron,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 since then noted in the patriotic annals of Prussia. This country fur-\\nnishes a curious and perhaps unique example of a despotic monarchy forced by a\\ndespotism stronger than itself to seek defense in secret association. When Prussia\\nlay crushed under the merciless tyranny of Napoleon, Baron Steiu, the prime minis-\\nter, bethought him how he could rouse the German spirit and unite the country\\nagainst the invader. He devised the Tugendbund, or League of Virtue (1807), which\\nspread rapidly over the country, and soon numbered in its ranks the flower of the\\npeople, including the very highest rank. Its organization and discipline were per-\\nfect, and its authority was unbounded, although the source was veiled in the deepest\\nsecrecy. One of the motives hy which Stein kindled to white-heat the enthusiasm\\nof the people was the hope of representative institutions and a free press; but the\\nking did not hesitate to violate his roj^al promise when its purpose was served. The\\nTugendbund contributed powerfullj to the resurrection of German national life in\\n1813, and to the overthrow of Napoleon.\\n2 They made smuggling a capital offense. A man was shot at Hamburg merely\\nlor having a little sugar in his house.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0597.jp2"}, "598": {"fulltext": "566 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1808.\\nimbecile King of Spain being induced to abdicate, the\\nSpanish crown was placed npon the head of Napoleon s\\nbrother Joseph, while Naples was transferred to Murat.\\nBut Spain rebelled against the hated intruder. The entire\\nkingdom blazed with fanatic devotion. More Frenchmen\\nperished by the knife of the assassin than by the bullet of\\nthe soldier. Joseph kept his ill-gotten throne only eight\\ndays. The English, who now for the first time fought\\nNapoleon on land, crossed into Portugal, and Sir Arthur\\nWeUesley quickly expelled the French.\\nNapoleon was forced to come to the rescue with the\\nG-rand Army. By three great battles he reached Madrid\\nand replaced Joseph upon the throne, while Marshal Soult\\npursued the English army to the sea, where it took ship for\\nhome.^\\nWar with Austria (1809).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 A Fifth. Coalition (England,\\nAustria, Spain, and Portugal) having been organized to stay\\nthe progress of France, Austria took advantage of the ab-\\nsence of the Grand Army in Spain, and opened a new cam-\\npaign. Napoleon hurried across the Rhine, and in five days\\ncaptured sixty thousand prisoners, and drove the Austrians\\nover the Danube.\\nBattles of Aspern and Wagram. But while the French\\nwere crossing the river in pursuit, the Austrian army fell\\nupon them with terrible desperation. During the struggle\\nthe village of Aspern was taken and retaken fourteen times.\\nNapoleon was forced to retreat. He at once summoned\\nreenforcements from all parts of his vast dominions, and,\\nrecrossing the stream in the midst of a wild thunderstorm.\\n1 The gallaut Sir John Mooro, then in commancl, was mortally wounded just\\nbeforo the embarkation. His body, wrapped in his military cloak, was hastily buried\\non the ramparts,\\nBy the struggling moonbeam s misty light,\\nAnd the lantern dimly burning. TFbZ/e s Ode.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0598.jp2"}, "599": {"fulltext": "1809.]\\nTHE FRENCH REVOLUTION\\nGCi\\ndefeated the Austrians on tlie plain of Wagram, and imposed\\nthe humiliating\\nPeace of Vienna. It exacted a largo territory, a money-\\nindemnity, adherence to the Continental System, and the\\nblowing-up of the walls of Vienna, the favorite promenade\\nof its citizens.\\nTHE JiATTI.K OF W At; HAM\\nThe treaty was cemented by marriage. Napoleon divorced\\nJosephine, and married Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis.\\nBut this alliance of the Soldier of the Revolution with\\nthe proud House of Hapsburg was distasteful to the other\\ncrowned heads of Europe, and unpopular in France.\\nWar in Spain (1809-12). During the campaign in Aus-\\ntria, over three hundred thousand French soldiers were in", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0599.jp2"}, "600": {"fulltext": "568 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1809-12.\\nSpain, but Napoleon was not there. Jealousies and the dif-\\nficulties of a guerilla warfare prevented success. Wellesley\\ncrossed the Douro in the face of Marshal Soult, and at last\\ndi ove him out of the country.^ Joining the Spaniards,\\nWellesley then defeated Joseph in the great battle of\\nTalavera; but Soult, Ney, and Mortier having come up, he\\nretreated into Portugal.\\nThe next year he fell back before the superior forces of\\nMassena into the fortified hues of Torres Vedras. Massena\\nremained in front of this impregnable position until starva-\\ntion forced him to retu^e into Spain. His watchful antagonist\\ninstantly followed him, and it was only by consummate skill\\nthat the French captain escaped with the wreck of his army.\\nThe victories of Alhuera and Salamanca, and the capture of\\nCiudad Rodiigo and Badajoz, cost the French the peninsida\\nsouth of Madrid. Joseph s throne was held up on the point\\nof French bayonets.\\nRussian Campaign (1812). As the emperor Alexander\\nrefused to carry out the Continental System, Napoleon\\ninvaded that coimtry with a vast army of over haK a mil-\\nlion men. But as he advanced, the Russians retired, destroy-\\ning the crops and burning the villages. No longer could he\\nmake war support war. By incredible exertions, however,\\nhe pushed forward, won the bloody battle of Borodino, and\\nfinally entered Moscow.\\nBut the inhabitants had deserted the city, and the next\\nnight the Russians fired it in a thousand places. The\\nblackened ruins furnished no shelter from the northern\\nwinter then fast approaching. Famine was already making\\n1 Napoleon was accustomed to mass his men in a tremendous column of attack\\nthat crushed down all opposition. Wellesley (now better known as the Duke of Wel-\\nlington) believed that the English troops in thin line of battle could resist this fearful\\nonset. In the end, as we shall see (p. 573), Wellington s tactics proved superior to\\nthose of Napoleon.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0600.jp2"}, "601": {"fulltext": "1812.]\\nTHE FRENCH REVOLUTION.\\n569\\nsad havoc in the invader s ranks. The czar refused peace.\\nNapoleon had no alternative but to retire.\\nRetreat from Moscow. The mercury suddenly fell to zero.\\nThe soldiers, unused to the rigors of the climate, sank\\nCOSSACKS HAUASSING THE RETREATING ARMY.\\nas they walked\\nthey perished if\\nthey stopped to\\nrest. Hundi eds lay\\ndown hy the fii^es\\nat night, and never\\nrose in the morn-\\ning. Wild Cossack\\ntroopers hovered about the rear, and, hidden by the gusts\\nof snow, dashed down upon the blinded column, and T\\\\4th\\ntheir long lances pierced far into the line then, ere the\\nFrench with their stiffened fingers coidd raise a musket, the\\nTartars, dropping at full length on the backs of their ponies,\\nvanished in the falling sleet. Napoleon finally gave up\\nthe command to Murat, and set off for Paris. All idea", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0601.jp2"}, "602": {"fulltext": "570 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY [1812.\\nof discipline was now lost, The army rapidly dissolved into\\na mass of straggling fugitives.\\nUprising of Europe (1813).\u00e2\u0080\u0094^ The flames of Moscow\\nwere the funeral pyre of the empii e. The yoke of the arro-\\ngant usurper was thrown off on every hand when Eui ope\\nsaw a hope of deliverance.\\nA Sixth Confederation (Russia, Prussia, England, and\\nSweden) against French domination was quickly formed.\\nNapoleon raised a new army of conscripts which defeated\\nthe allies at Liitzen, Bautzen, and Dresden. But where he\\nwas absent was failure while WeUington, flushed with vic-\\ntory in Spain, crossed the Bidassoa, and set foot on French\\nsoil. And now Napoleon himself, in the terrible Battle of\\nthe Nations, was routed under the walls of Leipsic. Flee-\\ning back to Paris, he collected a handful of men for the\\nfinal struggle.\\nInvasion of France (1814). ^Nearly a million of foes\\nswarmed into France on all sides. Never did Napoleon dis-\\nplay such genius, such profound combinations, such fertility\\nof resource. Striking, now here and now there, he held\\nthem back for a time but making a false move to the rear\\nof the Austrian army, the aUies ventured forward and cap-\\ntured Paris. The fickle Parisians received them with de-\\nhght. The people were weary of this hopeless butchery.\\nAbdication of Napoleon. Meanwhile Napoleon was\\nbreathlessly hastening to the defense of his capital. When\\nonly ten miles off, he received the fatal news. There was no\\nhope of resistance, and he agreed to abdicate his throne. In\\nthe court of the palace at Fontainebleau he bade the veter-\\nans of the Old Guard an affecting adieu, and then set out for\\nthe Island of Elba, which had been assigned as his residence.\\n1 A battle-field already famed for the death of Gustavus Adolphus (p. 483).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0602.jp2"}, "603": {"fulltext": "1814.J\\nFRANCE THE RESTORATION.\\n571\\n1. THE KKSTORATION (18H).\\nLouis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., was placed upon\\nthe throne. France resumed very nearly the l)oundaries of\\n1792. The Bourbons, however, had learned nothing, for-\\ngotten nothing. The nobles talked of reclaiming their\\nfeudal rights, and looked with insolent contempt upon the\\nupstarts w^ho had followed the fortunes of the Corsican ad-\\nventurer. No wonder that people s thoughts again turned\\nNAPOLEOX 8 PAUTING WITH THE OLD GUARD AT IX)N lAIN KI .I.KAI\\ntoward Napoleon. Soon men spoke mysteriously of a cer-\\ntain Corporal Violet w^ho would come mth the flowers of\\nspring and violets bloomed significantly on ladies hats.\\nThe Hundred Days (March 20-June 22, 1815).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Sud-\\ndenly the mystery w^as explained. Napoleon returned to\\nFrance and hastened toward Paris. At Grenoble he met a\\nbody of troops drawn up to bar his advance. Wearing his", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0603.jp2"}, "604": {"fulltext": "572 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1815.\\nfamiliar gray coat and cocked hat, Napoleon advanced alone\\nin front of the line, and exclaimed, Soldiers, if there be one\\namong yon who wonld kill his emperor, here he is. The men\\ndropped their arms and shouted, Vive VMiipereur! Ney\\nhad promised to bring back the Corsican to Paris in an\\niron cage. But when he saw the colors under which he\\nhad fought, and heard the shouts of the men he had so\\noften led to battle, he forgot all else, and threw himself\\ninto the arms of Napoleon.\\nLouis XVIII. fled in haste, and the restored government\\nof the Bourbons melted into thin air.\\nThe Vienna Congress of European powers, caUed to read-\\njust national boundaries, was in session when news came of\\nNapoleon s return. The coalition (p. 570) was at once re-\\nnewed, and the allied troops again took the field.\\nBattle of Waterloo (1815). Napoleon quickly assembled\\nan army and hastened into Belgium, hoping to defeat the\\nEnghsli and Prussian armies before the others arrived. De-\\ntaching Grouchy with 34,000 men to hold Bliicher and the\\nPrussians in check, he turned to attack the English. Near\\nBrussels he met Wellington. Each general had about sev-\\nenty-five thousand men. Napoleon opened the battle with a\\nfeigned but fierce attack on the Chateau of Hougoumont on\\nthe British right. Then, under cover of a tremendous artil-\\nlery-fire, he massed a heavy column against the center. La\\nHaye Sainte a farmhouse in front of Wellington s Hne\\nwas taken, and the cavalry streamed up the heights beyond.\\nThe English threw themselves into squares, upon which the\\nFrench cuirasseurs dashed with the utmost fury. For five\\nhours they charged up to the very muzzles of the British\\n1 When Colonel Lab6doy6re joined him with his regiment, each soldier took\\nfrom the hottoni of his knapsack the tricolored cockade, which he had caref ullj^\\nhidden for ten months.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0604.jp2"}, "605": {"fulltext": "1815.] FRANCE THE RESTORATION. 573\\nguns. English tenacity struggled with French enthusiasm.\\nWellington, momentarily consulting his watch, longed for\\nnight or Bliiclier. Napoleon hurried messenger after mes-\\nsenger to recall Grouchy to his help. Just at evening, Ney\\nwith the Old and the Young Guard made a last effort. These\\nveterans, whose presence had decided so many battles, swept\\nto the top of the slope. The British Guards who were lying\\ndown behind the crest rose and poured in a deadly fire.\\nThe English converged from all sides. Suddenly cannon-\\nading was heard on the extreme French right. It is Grou-\\nchy, cried the soldiers. It was Bllicher s masses carrying\\naU before them. The terrible saiwe qui pent (save liimseK\\nwho can) arose. Whole ranks of the French melted away.\\nAll is lost/ shouted Napoleon, and, putting spurs to his\\nhorse, he fled from the field.\\nSecond Abdication. Having abdicated the throne a second\\ntime, Napoleon went on board the British ship Bellerophon,\\nand surrendered. In order to prevent him from again\\ntroubling the peace, England imprisoned him upon the\\nIsland of St. Helena. The long wars of the French Revo-\\nlution which had convulsed Europe since 1792 were at length\\nended.\\nNapoleon s Fate. The Corsiean Adventurer dragged out the re-\\nmainder of his life in recalling the glories of his past, and complain-\\ning of the annoyances of the present. On the evening of May 5,\\n1821, there was a fearful storm of wind and rain, in the midst of\\nwhich, as in the case of Cromwell, the soul of the warrior went to\\nits final account. The tempest seemed to recall to his wandering\\nmind the roar of battle, and his last words were, Tcte cParmce\\n(head of the army). He was buried near his favorite resort, a\\nfountain shaded by weeping willows. In his will was a request that\\nhis body might repose on the banks of the Seine, among the people\\nhe had loved so well. During the reign of Louis Philippe, his re-\\nmains were carried to Paris, and laid beneath a magnificent mau-\\nsoleum connected with the Hotel des Invalides. The body had been\\nso skillfully embalmed that nineteen years of death had not effaced", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0605.jp2"}, "606": {"fulltext": "574\\nTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1815.\\nTOMB OF NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA.\\nthe expression of the well-\\nremembered features. Men\\nlooked once more with rev-\\nerence and pity upon the\\nalmost unchanged counte-\\nnance of him who had been\\nthe glory and the scourge\\nof his age.\\nNapoleon s Opportuni-\\nty was a rare one, but he\\ningloriously missed it. At\\nseveral stages in his career\\nprobably after Marengo,\\nat all events after Auster-\\nlitz he had it within his\\nreach to found one of the\\nmost powerful and compact\\nkingdoms in the world. He might have been emperor of a France\\nbounded by the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Rhine, with by far the\\ngreatest military strength in Europe. Within this splendid territory\\nhe might have established a moral and intellectual power. But his\\ndouble-dealing, his project of parceling out Europe among his kindred\\nand dependants, and the folly of the Austrian marriage, the Spanish\\nwar, and the Russian campaign, all illustrated his lack of wisdom,\\nand wrecked his throne.\\nNapoleon s Mission, says Bryce, was to break up in Germany\\nand Italy the abominable system of petty states, to re-awaken the spirit\\nof the people, to sweep away the relics of an effete feudalism, and leave\\nthe ground clear for the growth of newer and better forms of political\\nlife. He was as despotic as the kings whom he unseated. During\\nnineteen years of almost constant war he inflicted upon Europe the most\\nappalling miseries. Yet out of the fearful evils of his life came the\\nultimate good of humanity. Even the hatred evoked by his despotism,\\nand the patriotic efforts demanded to overthrow his power, taught the\\nnations to know their strength. To the Napoleonic rule, Germany and\\nItaly date back the first glimpses and possibilities of united national\\nlife.\\nSecond Restoration. Louis XVIII. now reocciipied\\nhis throne. France, in her turn, was forced to submit to\\na humihating peace. Tlie Congress of Vienna imposed an\\nindemnity of seven hundred million francs, a loss of terri-", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0606.jp2"}, "607": {"fulltext": "1815.]\\nF R A N CE T H E REST U K A T 1 N\\nOiO\\ntory having a population of twenty-five hundred thousand\\npersons, and the occupation of the French frontier hy a\\nforeign army for five years. Louis now resisted the ultra-\\nroyalists, and prudently sought to establish a limited mon-\\nai chy, with a chamber of peers and\\none of deputies, based upon a re-\\nstricted suffrage. His brother suc-\\nceeded to the crown.\\nCharles X. (1824-30) was bent\\non restoring the Bourbon despotism.\\nHis usurpations led to the Eev-\\nolution of the Three Days of July,\\n1830. Once more the pavements\\nof Paris were torn up for barricades.\\nLa Fayette again appeared on the\\nscene, waving the tricolored flag.^\\nThe palace of the Tuileries was\\nsacked. Charles fled. The Cham-\\nbers elected his cousin, the Duke of\\nOrleans, as King of the French,\\nthus repudiating the doctrine of the\\ndivine right of kings.\\nThe House of Orleans.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Zo^t/s FMUppe (1830-48), the\\nCitizen King, who now received the cro^\\\\ n, at first won\\nthe good- will of the nation by his charming family-life, and\\nhis earnest efforts to rule as a constitutional monarch. But\\nthere were many conflicting parties, the Baurbonisfs, who\\n11 J\\nCOLUMN OF JULY.\\n1 Tlio allies returned to their owners the treasures of art Napoleon had pillaged.\\nThe bronze horses from Corinth resumed their old place on the portico of the\\nChurch of 8t. Mark in Venice the Transfiguration was restored to the Vatican-, the\\nApollo Belviderc and the Laocoon again adorned St. Peter s the Venus de Medici\\nwas enshrined with new beauty at Florence; and tlie Descent from the Cross was\\nreplaced in the Cathedral of Antwerp. iord s 3fo(lern Europe.\\n2 The blue and red were the colors of Paris; to these La Fayette added (1789) the\\nBourbon color, white, to form a cockade for the National Guards. This was the origin\\nof the famous French tricolor.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0607.jp2"}, "608": {"fulltext": "576\\nTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY,\\n[1830.\\nsustained the grandson of Charles X. (Comte de Chambord,\\nor Henry V. 5 the Bonapartists, who remembered Napo-\\nleon s successes, and not the misery he had caused 5 the Or-\\nleanists, who supported the constitutional monarchy the\\nRepithlicans, who wished for a republic and the Bed or\\nBadical BejnibUcans, who had adopted socialistic doctrines.\\nThe favorite motto was, Liberty, Equality, and Frater-\\nLANCEUS ULEAKING THE BOULEVAKDS OF TAUIS.\\nnity. Pohtical clubs fomented disorder. Amid these\\ncomplications, the king s popularity waned. His pohcy of\\npeace at any price, and his selfish ambition in seeking\\ndonations and royal alliances for his family, aroused gen-\\neral contempt. Finally a popular demand for an extension\\nof the franchise found expression in certain Reform Ban-\\nquets. An attempt to suppress one of these meetings at\\nParis precipitated", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0608.jp2"}, "609": {"fulltext": "1848.] FRANCE THE SECOND REPUBLIC. 577\\nPROCLAMATION OF THE KEPUBLIC.\\nThe Revolution of 1848.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Bairicades sprung- up as\\nby magic. The red flag was unfurled. The National Guards\\nfraternized with the rabble. Louis Philippe lost heart, and,\\nassuming the name of Smith, fled to England. A republic", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0609.jp2"}, "610": {"fulltext": "578 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1848.\\nwas again proclaimed. France, as usual, followed the lead\\nof Paris.^\\n2. THE SECOND REPUBLIC (1848-52).\\nThe Paris Mob, though it had established a republic,\\nreally wanted equality of money rather than of rights. The\\nSocialists taught that government should provide work and\\nwages for every one. To meet the demand, national work-\\nshops were estabhshed 5 but, when these proved an evil and\\nwere closed, the Reds organized an outbreak. For three\\ndays a fearful fight raged in the streets of Paris. Order\\nwas at last restored at a cost of five thousand lives.\\nLouis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I., was then chosen\\npresident of the new republic. Before his four-years term\\nof office had expired, he plotted, by the help of the army, a\\ncoup cVetat (1851). His very audacity won the day. The\\nChamber of Deputies was dissolved; his opponents were\\nimprisoned; and he was elected president for ten years.\\nAs, fifty years before, the Consulate gave place to the\\nEmpire, so now the Second Repubhc was soon merged in\\nthe Second Empire. In 1852 the president assumed the\\ntitle of emperor. Again the popular vote approved the over-\\nthrow of the republic, and Napoleon s violation of the consti-\\ntution he had sworn to support.\\n3. THE SECOND EMPIRE (1852-70).\\nNapoleon III. modeled his domestic policy after that\\nof Napoleon I. He relied on the army for support, and cen-\\ntralized all authority. He improved Paris by widening its\\nstreets and removing old buildings. He reorganized the\\narmy and navy; extended railroads; encouraged agricul-\\n1 At tins time the provinces complained that they had to receive their revolu-\\ntions by mail from Paris. In our day, Paris is no longer France; and the rural\\npopulation has become a power in politics.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0610.jp2"}, "611": {"fulltext": "1852.]\\nPRANCE THE SECOND EMPIRE.\\n579\\nSTUEKT PLACAUDS A^\u00e2\u0080\u00a2^\u00e2\u0080\u00a2OU^ CI^\u00e2\u0080\u00a2G IHE COUP D ETAl.\\nture; and dazzled men s eyes by\\nthe glitter of a brilliant coni t.\\nIn 1867, wlien a World s Fail- was\\nheld in Paris, visitors were im-\\npressed by the evidences of a\\nwonderful material prosperity.\\nAt his ascension. Napoleon announced his policy in the\\nwords, The empire is peace. Yet four wars character-\\nized his reign, the Crimean (p. 586), the Italian (p. 594),\\nthe Mexican (U. S. Hist., p. 248), and the German. The\\nfirst brought him great glory the last revealed the inherent\\nweakness of the Napoleonic administration, and caused the\\nemperor s downfall.\\nThe Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). The time-\\nhonored policy of France was to perpetuate German di-\\nvisions in order to weaken that nation. Of late there had\\nB G H-34", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0611.jp2"}, "612": {"fulltext": "580 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1870.\\nbeen an especial jealousy between France and Prussia. The\\nformer was distrustful of Prussia s growing power, and the\\nlatter was eager to avenge Jena and recover the Rhine. A\\nproposal of the Spaniards to bestow their crown upon a kins-\\nman of the King of Prussia was resented by France, and out\\nof it finally grew an excuse to declare war.\\nInvasion of France. The French troops left Paris to the\\ncry of On to Berlin, but they never crossed the Rhine.\\nThe soldiers had no respect for their commanders, and lacked\\ndiscipline and confidence. The generals were ignorant of\\nthe country and the position of the enemy. The Prussian\\ntrooper knew more of the French roads than many an im-\\nperial officer. The G-erman armies, by their superior dis-\\ncipline and overwhelming numbers, crushed all opposition.\\nVictories followed fast, at Weissenhurg, Worth, CourceUes,\\nThionville, and Gravelotfe. Napoleon himself surrendered at\\nSedan with eighty tliousand men, and Marshal Bazaine at\\nMetz with one hundred and eighty thousand.\\nWhen the news of Sedan reached Paris, the people turned\\ntheir wrath upon Napoleon and his family. The empress\\nEugenie fled to England, and the empire was at an end.\\nThe conquerors now closed in upon Paris, and, after a\\nsiege of over four months, the city surrendered.\\n4. THE THIRD REPUBLIC (1871 TO THE PRESENT TIME).\\nThe Republic. The Germans having granted a three-\\nweeks truce that the French might vote for a new govern-\\nment, an Assembly was chosen by the people. Thiers was\\nelected president of the new republic. But peace was pur-\\nchased only by the cession of Alsace and part of Lorraine,\\nand a penalty of five billion francs. Thus Strasburg, taken\\nby Louis XIV., and Metz, by Henry II., were lost, and\\n1 Tlie emperor died there in exile (1873) his son, the prince imperial, fell as a\\nvolunteer in the Zulu War (1879).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0612.jp2"}, "613": {"fulltext": "1871.]\\nFRANCE THE THIRD REPUHLIC.\\n581\\nFrance itself, which in 1814 had Ix^en conquered only by\\naU Europe, lay at tlie mercy of one nation, Jena and the\\ncruel indignities which the first Napoleon had infiicted on\\nGermany were sadly expiated.\\nThe Commune (1871). While a German army was yet\\nat hand, the indemnity unpaid, and the country devastated\\nby war, the Parisian rab-\\nble inaugurated a second\\nI eign of terror. Barricades\\nwere throAvn up, the red\\nflag symbol of anarchy\\nwas unfurled, and a Com-\\nmune was established at\\nthe Hotel de VHle. The\\nAssembly met at Versailles\\nand collected troops. Then\\nensued a second siege of\\nParis more disastrous than\\nthe first. The Communists,\\ndefeated at aU points, laid\\ntrains of petrolemn, and\\ndestroyed the Tuileries,\\nthe Hotel de Ville, and many of the finest public buildings.\\nThis fearful ruin was as useless as it was vindictive.\\nThe Assembly, having triumphed, assumed the diffi-\\ncidt task of government. The administration of Tliiers\\nwas singularly successfid, and the payment of the war pen-\\nalty within two years excited the wonder of the world. The\\nFrench ascril)ed Germany s success to her pul:)lic schools,\\nand so primary education became one of the foundations\\nof the young republic. The army was also remodeled on\\nthe German plan, and it is said that twenty-four hundred\\nthousand men could now be put in the field.\\nA FEMALR COMMUNIST.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0613.jp2"}, "614": {"fulltext": "582\\nTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY.\\n[187L\\nBAKKICADING THE STIIEETS OF I AIIIS.\\nThiers resigned in 1873. Sncceeding- liim have been\\nMarshal McMahon, Grevy (1879), and Carnot (1887).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0614.jp2"}, "615": {"fulltext": "1820.] ENGLAND THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 583\\nII. ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF HANOVER {Continued).\\nThe English Monarchs of the present century are as\\nfollows: George IV. (1820-30), owing to the insanity of his\\nfather, ruled for nine years as regent. Though styled the\\nFu st Gentleman of Europe for his coui tly manners and\\nexquisite dress, he was selfish as Charles I., and profligate as\\nCharles II. William IV. (1830-37), brother of George IV.,\\nhaving seen service in the navy, was known as the Sailor\\nKing. His warm heart, open hand, and common sense\\nwon the love of England. Victoria (1837 niece of\\nWiUiam IV., ascended the throne at the age of eighteen.\\nHer reign has proved a blessing to the world. AU England\\nhas felt the benediction of her pure life and her Christian\\nexample, as queen, \\\\^dfe, and mother.\\nState of the Country. The long wars of the French\\nRevolution left England burdened with a debt of four billion\\ndoUars. The condition of the common people was miserable.\\nWages were low, and the Corn Laws, imposing a heavy duty\\non foreign grain, made the price of food very high. Suffj-age\\nwas limited there was no system of public education and\\nthe laws were unequal. Thousands of disbanded soldiers\\nand sailors vainly sought for work. Bands of discharged\\nlaborers roamed through the country, breaking the lace\\nand stocking frames which had taken from them their em-\\nployment. Incendiary fii-es Hghted the evening sky. Every-\\nwhere men s minds were astir with a sense of injustice and\\na need of political privileges. But it is noticeable, that,\\nwhile in France improvement came only by revolution, in\\nEngland A\\\\Tongs were righted by peaceable reform.\\nReforms.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Test Act (p. 508) was repealed in 1828,\\nand the next year Catholics were gi*anted, with a few excep-\\ni Hauover was then severed from the Britisli Empire by the Salic law (p. 532).", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0615.jp2"}, "616": {"fulltext": "584 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1832.\\ntioiis, equal rights with their Protestant fellow-citizens. The\\nFirst Reform Bill (1832), proposed by Lord John Russell,\\nextended the franchise, abolished many rotten boroughs,^\\nand empowered the large towns to send members to Parlia-\\nment. The Negro Emancipation Bill (1833), passed chiefly\\nthrough the philanthropic efforts of William Wilberforce,\\nsuppressed slavery throughout the British Empire.\\nThe Chartists, principaUy workingmen, were so called\\nfrom a document termed the People s Charter, in which they\\ndemanded six changes in the constitution viz., (1) universal\\nsuffrage (2) vote by ballot (3) annual Parhaments (4) pay-\\nment of members of Parliament (5) abolition of property\\nqualification for a seat in the House and (6) equal electoral\\ndistricts. In 1848 that year of revolution over the Con-\\n1 Cities, like Mancliester and Leeds, tlien sent no members to Parliament, while\\nsome little villages had two members apiece. The great landowners dictated to their\\ntenants the proper candidate. There were many pocket or rotten boroughs liav-\\niiig seats in Parliament, yet witliout honse or inhabitant. One of these was a ruined\\nwall in a gentleman s park another was under the sea. So utterly were the people\\nexcluded liom any part in politics, that for twenty years there had not been in Edin-\\nburgli auy public meeting of a political character.\\nDuring the eighteenth century, the Irish Parliament, composed of Protestants of\\nan exceedingly bitter type, liad lieaped upon the unhappy Catholics of Ireland ait\\naccumulation of the most wicked laws which liave ever been expressed in the English\\ntongue. A Catholic could not sit in Parliament, could not hold any office under the\\ncrown, could not vote at an election, could not be a solicitor, or a physician, or a\\nsheriff, or a gamekeeper. If his son became a Protestant, he was withdrawn from\\npaternal custody and intrusted to Protestant relatives, with a suitable provision by\\nthe father for his maintenance. A Catholic was not permitted to own a horse of\\ngreater value than five pounds. If he used a more reputable animal, he was bound to\\nsell it for that sum to any Protestant who was disposed to buy. If a younger brother\\nturned Protestant, he supplanted the elder in his birthright. A Catholic could not\\ninlierit from an intestate relative, however near. A Protestant solicitor who married\\na Catholic was disqualified from following his profession. Marriages of Protestants\\nand Catholics, if performed by a priest, were annulled, and the priest was liable to\\nbe lianged. In the early part of the century, a Catholic who was so daring as to enter\\nthe gallery of the House of Commons was liable to arrest. Mackenzie s Nineteenth\\nCentury. Many of these pitiable laws were abolished in the century that gave them\\nbirth otliers would have been annulled after the Union in ISOl, had it not been for\\nthe violent opposition of George IV., supported by Mr. Peel and the Duke of Welling-\\nton. The Irish patriot. Daniel O Connell, roused the countrj and liastened an era of\\nreform. In 1782, under tlie lead of the eloquent Henry Grattan, Ireland obtained\\nan independent Parliament,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 an advantage lost again in 1801. The same question is\\ninvolved in the parliamentary elections of 1892, the Conservatives calling themselves\\nUnionists.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0616.jp2"}, "617": {"fulltext": "1848.J ENGLAND THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 585\\ntinent the Chartists mustered on Kennington Common,\\nintending to march through London to the House of Com-\\nmons, to present a monster petition (said to contain five\\nmillion signatui es), and compel an assent to their demands.\\nThe government appealed to the citizens, and 200,000 vol-\\nunteered^ as special constables. This remarkable display\\nof public opinion quelled the movement. The Chartists\\ndisbanded, but the agitation bore fruit, and most of the\\nreforms have since been granted. It was a contest for\\npolitical power, but with it came one for cheap bread.\\nAn Anti-Corn-Law League was formed in Manches-\\nter (1839), having branches throughout the kingdom. At\\nthe head of this agitation were Richard Cobden and John\\nBright. They held the doctrine of free trade, that every\\nman should be free to buy in the cheapest market and to\\nsell in the dearest, without restriction. On the other hand,\\nthe Protectionists claimed that high duties, by keeping up\\nprices, defended home industries against foreign competition.\\nIn the midst of the discussion, the potato crop of Ireland\\nfailed, and the famine in that country (1846) forced Robert\\nPeel, the leader of the Conservatives in Parliament, to intro-\\nduce a bill abolishing duties upon grain, cattle, etc. This\\nrepeal came into operation in 1849.\\nThe First Locomotive. The year 1830 is memorable\\nfor the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway,\\nupon which passenger-cars were di-awn by a locomotive-\\nengine, the invention of George Stephenson.\\nCheap Postage. A young man named Rowland Hill\\nbrought forward the idea of penny postage. The scheme\\nwas laughed at, but it became a law in 1840.^\\n1 6iie of these volunteers was Louis Napoleon, then an exile in Eng-land, but chosen\\nthe next year as president of tlio French llcpublic (p. 578).\\n2 Walter Scott tells us that in his day the mail from Edinburgh to London often\\ncontained only a single letter, the postage being thirty-two cents.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0617.jp2"}, "618": {"fulltext": "586 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1837.\\nThe First World s Fair (1851) was held at London in\\nthe Crystal Palace, then a novel structure of iron and glass,\\ncovering about nineteen acres of ground. Prince Albert,\\nthe royal consort, fostered this exhibition, which gave a\\nnew impetus to English art industries.\\nCrimean War (1854). The emperor Nicholas of Russia,\\nanxious to seize the spoil of the sick man, as Turkey was\\ncalled, took possession of some provinces on the Danube,\\nunder the pretext of supporting the claims of the Grreek\\nChristians to certain holy places in Jerusalem. England\\nand France aided the sultan. An allied army, seventy\\nthousand strong, was landed in the Crimea. The victory of\\nthe Alma enabled the troops to advance upon Sebasto pol, a\\nfortified city which commanded the Black Sea, and in whose\\nharbor lay the fleet which menaced Constantinople and the\\nBosporus. The siege lasted nearly a year. Innumerable\\ncombats, two desperate battles {BalaJdava and Inherman),\\nincessant guard by day and night, hard labor in the trenches,\\nand an unhealthy climate, tried the valor of the French and\\nthe constancy of the English.^ Finally the French stormed\\nthe Malakoff redoubt, and the Russians evacuated the city.\\nWhen the conquerors entered, they found such ruin, flame,\\nand devastation as greeted Napoleon in the streets of Moscow.\\nBy the Treaty of Paris (1856), the czar agreed to abandon\\nhis protectorate over the Danubian provinces the naviga-\\ntion of the Danube was made free and Russia was allowed\\nonly police vessels of war on the Black Sea.^\\nIndian Mutiny (1857). The sepoys, or native soldiers\\nin the English service in India, revolted because their car-\\n1 This battle is famous for tlie charge of the Six Hundred so graphically described\\nin Tennyson s popular poem, Tlie Charge of the Light Brigade.\\n2 In this war Florence Nightingale won lier renown as an army nurse.\\n3 In 1870 Russia abrogated this restriction.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0618.jp2"}, "619": {"fulltext": "1856.J ENGLAND THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 587\\ntridges were said to be greased with tallow or lard.^ The\\nwhite residents at Dellii, Cawnpore, and other points, were\\nmassacred with horrible barbarity. The Europeans at Lnck-\\nnow held out against Nana Sahib until reenforced by Gen-\\neral Havelock, who defended the city while Colin (jampbell\\n(Lord Clyde) and his Highlanders came to the rescue. The\\nrebellion was finally crushed, and the East India Company\\n(1859) transferred the government of India to the queen,\\nwho in 1876 was made Empress of India.\\nCotton Famine. Our civil war cut off the supply of\\ncotton, so that everywhere factory operatives were either\\nthro\\\\\\\\^l out of employment or worked only half-time. The\\nworkingmen, who were generally Liberals, sympathized with\\nthe war for the Union, and patiently bore hunger and want,\\nin devotion to their principles.\\nRecent Events.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In 1878, England, under Disraeh s\\nlead, checked Russia s plan to seize Constantinople, and re-\\nceived from Turkey the Island of Cyprus. In 1882 an ex-\\npedition was made to suppress an Egyptian insurrection and\\nprotect English interests in the Suez. In 1885 a Soudanese\\nrebellion, led by Mah di (dee), a false prophet, attacked the\\nEnglish garrison at Khartoum, and General Gordon was\\nkilled. Dissatisfaction with the course of the ministry in\\nthis matter led to the retirement of Mr. Gladstone s cabinet,\\nand the accession of Lord Salisbury, the present (1892) prime\\nminister. In 1891 Mr. Parnell was deposed from the leader-\\nship of the Irish Home Rule party, and soon afterward died.\\nRecent Reforms.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In 1867 a Reform BiU, carried by\\nthe Conservatives, under the leadership of Lord Derby and\\nMr. Disraeli, granted a franchise which amounts very nearly\\nto household suffrage. In 1869, under Mr. Gladstone s ad-\\n1 Tliey regarded this as an insult to their religion, since a Hindoo may not touch\\ncow s fat, or a Mohammedan lard.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0619.jp2"}, "620": {"fulltext": "THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1870.\\nministration, a bill was carried for the disestablisliment and\\ndisendowment of the Established Church in Ireland, where\\nthe Catholics are the majority of the population. In 1870\\neducation was made compulsory, school boards were estab-\\nlished in every district, and the support of schools was pro-\\nvided for by taxation. In 1870, and again in 1881, biUs were\\nadopted regulating tenant-rights in Ireland. In 1871 all\\nreligious tests for admission to office or degrees in the uni-\\nversities were abolished. In 1872 voting by ballot was\\nintroduced. In 1889 elementary education was made free\\nin Scotland. In 1890 physical culture, manual training,\\nand kindergarten methods, were introduced in schools.\\nIII. GERMANY.\\nGermanic Confederation. The Holy Eoman Empire\\ncame to an end in 1806, 1006 years after Pope Leo ci owned\\nCharlemagne at Rome. After Napoleon s defeat at Water-\\nloo, it was hoped that the ancient empire would be restored\\nthe patriotic struggle for liberty had welded the petty nation-\\nalities, and the people did not wish their restoration. But,\\ninstead, the Congress of Vienna (p. 572) formed a German\\nConfederation of thirty-nine states. A permanent diet was\\nto sit at Frankfort-on-Main, Austria having the presidency.\\nPrussia, through the liberality of the Congress of Vienna,\\nreceived back all the territory she had lost by the confis-\\ncations of Napoleon, and, in addition, Swedish Pomerania,,\\nthe Rhinelands, and a part of Saxony. She was once more\\na great power, with an area of one hundi-ed thousand square\\nmiles and a population of ten million people.\\nThe Holy Alliance (1815). The sovereigns of Russia,\\nAustria, and Prussia, after their triumph in 1815, formed a\\ncompact, agreeing to regulate their conduct by the precepts\\nof the Grospel, and also, as is generally believed from their", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0620.jp2"}, "621": {"fulltext": "1828.]\\nGERMANY.\\n589\\nsubsequent conduct, to aid one another in suppressing the\\n])riii( i})les of lilxM ty ai oused by th(* Frencli Uevohition.\\nThe Demand for Freedom and Unity.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The princes\\nin the Confederation promised to grant constitutions, but\\nmost of them forgot the agreement (p. 565, note). They\\ngenerally opposed union, and sought to crush its rising spirit\\nin the universities. The questions of liberty and union\\nwere so blended, however, that in many minds the only\\nthought was which should first be secured. Quite a step was\\nTllli UOYAL PALACE AT llEULIN.\\ntaken by Prussia s gradually becoming, after 1828, the center\\nof the ZoUverein, a commercial union between the German\\nstates which agreed to levy customs at a common frontier.\\nThe Revolution of 1 848 in France roused the Germans\\nanew to demand freedom of speech, liberty of the press,\\nand a constitutional government. The Teutonic love of\\nfreedom blazed forth in all the great cities. Various im-", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0621.jp2"}, "622": {"fulltext": "590\\nTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1848.\\nportant reforms had been instituted in Prussia, but the peo-\\nple were not satisfied. A conflict broke out in the streets\\nof Berlin, and several persons were killed; whereupon,\\nFrederick William IV. (table, p. 526) put himseK forward\\nas the leader of the movement for German unity the army\\nstood firm for the Crown finally a new constitution with a\\nlimited suffrage was granted, and order was reestabhshed.\\nIn Austria, on the con-\\ntrary, repression and arbi-\\ntrary measures had been\\nadopted, through the in-\\nfluence of Prince Metter-\\nnich, the avowed friend\\nof despotism. At Vienna,\\nan uprising, headed by\\nthe students, drove Met-\\nternich into exile, and\\nsuch was the confusion\\nthat the emperor Ferdi-\\nnand sought safety in\\nflight.^ The excesses of\\nthe revolutionists, how-\\never, destroyed all hope of\\nsuccess. Ferdinand now\\nabdicated in favor of his\\nnephew, Francis Joseph.\\nIn Hungary the insurrection was more serious. Kossuth\\nwas the soul of the revolution. Austria was finally obliged\\nto call in the Russians. An Austro-Russian avmy of four\\nhundred thousand, under the infamous Haynau (known in\\nhistory as the Hangman entered Hungary and wreaked\\nPORTRAIT OF COUNT BISMARCK.\\n1 I want obedient subjects, said the emperor to the students at Laybach, and\\nnot men of learning.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0622.jp2"}, "623": {"fulltext": "1866.]\\nGERMANY.\\n591\\nits vengeance on the hapless patriots. The surrender of the\\nleader Clorgey, with his entire army, ended the fruitless\\nstruggle. Kossuth gave\\nliimseK up to the Turks\\nhe lay in prison until\\n1851, when Ee was set\\nfree by the intervention\\nof the United States and\\nEngland.\\nWar with Den-\\nmark (18G4). Bis-\\nmarck, the Prussian\\nminister, induced Austria\\nto join Prussia in wrest-\\ning from Denmark the\\nDuchies of Sclileswig and\\nHolstein. The division\\nof the easily acquii-ed\\nplunder caused renewed\\nbitterness between the\\ntwo rival countries.\\nSeven- Weeks War\\nPrussia and Austria for\\nrOUTKAlT OF WILLIAM, KINO OF I KUSSIA.\\n(1866). The jealousy between\\nthe leadership in Germany w^as\\nthus increased, and Bismarck openly declared that it could\\nbe settled only by blood and iron. Excuses were easily\\nfound, and in 1866 Prussia and Italy declared war against\\nAustria. The Austrians won in Italy, but the Prussians\\narmed with the new needle-gun, and led by the great Von\\nMoltke routed them at Sadowa,^ and conquered the Peace\\nof Fragile. Austria was forever shut out of Germany,\\nbesides paying a large sum for war expenses.\\n1 Wlien the kiug and the crown prince met on the fiehl after the battle, tlie army\\nstruck ujt the same ohl choral hj mn, Now let all hearts thank God, that the troops\\nof Frederick the Great sang after the victory of Leuthen (p. 530).", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0623.jp2"}, "624": {"fulltext": "592 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [187L\\nThe North German Confederation. The northern\\nstates were now joined, with a common constitution and\\nassembly, under the presidency of Prussia, whose territory\\nwas enlarged by annexations. The South German states\\nBaden, Bavaria, and Wlirtemberg remained independent.\\nUnion of Germany. When the French war broke\\nout, the South German states joined Prussia, and the crown\\nprince commanded a united army of over a million men.\\nThe enthusiasm of the struggle developed the national senti-\\nment. With victory came a fresh desire for union. Finally,\\nduring the siege of Paris, in the Palace of Versailles, King\\nWiUiam was proclaimed Emperor of Germany (1871). Oer-\\nmany at last meant something more than a mere geo-\\ngraphical expression. William I. was succeeded in 1888\\nby his son Frederick, who survived him only three months.\\nThe crown then fell to WiUiam II., under whom Caprivi\\ndisplaced Bismarck.\\nAustria-Hungary. After the Seven- Weeks War, Aus-\\ntria granted the long-needed reforms. Hungary received a\\nconstitution, and in 1867, Francis Joseph, Emperor of Aus-\\ntria, was crowned King of Hungary, under its constitution.\\nSince then Hungary and Austria have been two distinct\\nstates, though with certain common interests, and are united\\npolitically under the same dynasty.\\nIV. ITALY.\\nAustrian Domination. The Congress of Vienna left\\nItaly enslaved and divided. The dream of a restored nation-\\naUty, nearly realized under Napoleon, was rudely dispelled\\nthe old separations were renewed the old tyrants were re-\\nseated. Once more Austrian despotism hung like a mill-\\nstone about the neck of the nation.\\nThe history of Italy from 1815 to 1848 is one of chronic", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0624.jp2"}, "625": {"fulltext": "1848.]\\nITALY.\\n593\\ninsurrection. The Carbonari (charcoal-burners), a secret\\nsociety formed to resist Bourbon oppression, numljered in\\nItaly over half a million members, with l)ranches in other\\ncountries. An organization known as Young Italy was\\nformed by Mazzini, an Italian refugee, who first advanced\\nthe idea of a free united Italy. Besides open revolts, there\\nwere secret plots, while assassinations were only too fre-\\nquently perpetrated in the name of liberty.\\nBut Austria was strong enough, not only to hold her ow^n\\npossessions of Lombardy and Venice, but also to keep her\\ncreatures upon their thrones in the small states, and to\\ncrush the republican movement throughout the peninsula.\\nThere was one hopeful sign. In the kingdom of Sardinia,\\nwhere Charles Albert began to reign in 1831, a spirit of na-\\ntionality prevailed.\\nRevolution of 1848. The example of the French\\nand the German patriots roused the Italians to a new\\nstruggle. Milan and\\nVenice rose in arms.\\nCharles Albert raised the\\nbanner against Austria.\\nFor a time nearly all\\nnorthern Italy was re-\\nlieved from the Haps-\\nburg yoke. But the pa-\\ntriot triumph was short.\\nThe Austrians gained so\\ndecisive a victory at Ao-\\nvara (1849) that the\\nbroken-hearted Sardinian\\nking resigned his crown\\nto his son Victor Em-\\nmanuel II.\\nPOKTBAIT OF VICIOU tMMAHUEL.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0625.jp2"}, "626": {"fulltext": "594\\nTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY.\\n[1859.\\nPope Pius IX. was the friend of tlie Liberals, and had\\ngranted many rights to the people, but their demands in-\\ncreased during this republican year, and he finally fled\\nfrom Rome. That city was then declared a republic, and\\nMazzini was elected chief of the Triumsdrs, or magistrates.\\nBut, strangely enough, the French Repubhc espoused the\\ncause^of the Austrians, and, though Garibaldi, the ^^Hero\\nof the red shirt, bravely defended Rome, it was carried by\\nstorm. The Pope came back with absolute power, and a\\nFrench garrison was placed in the city.\\nBy the close of 1849 the insurrection had been crushed\\nout everywhere, and tyranny seemed triumphant. But in\\nSardinia, Victor Emmanuel maintained a constitutional\\ngovernment, and more\\nand more men began to\\nlook to him as the cham-\\npion of Italian free-\\ndom. He kept his word\\nto his people, who caUed\\nhim the Honest King.\\nIn 1853, Count Cavour,\\nan ardent and wise\\nfriend of Itahan unity^\\nbecaime his prime min-\\nister. He induced Em\\nmanuel to win the good\\nwiU of France and Eng-\\nland by helping them in\\nthe Crimean war. Ac-\\ncordingly the allied\\npowers remonstrated with Ferdinand for his cruel rule in\\nItaly, and finally France and Sardinia joined in a\\nWar against Austria (1859). Napoleon himself took\\nPORTRAIT OF GARIBALDI.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0626.jp2"}, "627": {"fulltext": "I860.]\\nITALY.\\n595\\nthe field. The combined French and Sardmian forces won\\nthe hrilliant victories of Mnijoda and SoJferino. Napoleon\\nhad promised to make Italy free from tlu; Ticino to the\\nAdriatic/ and he seemed about to keep his word. But\\nPrussia threatened to take the part of Austria, and Napoleon,\\nwithout consulting Emmanuel, concluded the Peace of Villa-\\nfranca. Lombardy was ceded to Sardinia. Soon after, Nice\\nand Savoy were annexed to France. Tuscany, Modena,\\nParma, and Romagna, by a popular vote, became subject\\nTHE FUENCH ARMY OCCUPYING THE CASTLE OF ST. ANGELO.\\nto Sardinia. Thus by the help of France nine million\\npeople were added to this kingdom, the hope of Italy.\\nFreedom of Sicily and Naples. Events now moved\\non rapidly. The people of Naples and Sicily groaned under\\nthe cruel Bom-bon rule. Garibaldi, issuing from his rocky\\nretreat of Caprera, landed at Marsala in Sicily, proclaiming\\nhimself dictator for Emmanuel. Palermo and Messina\\nquickly fell into his hands, and, crossing to the mainland,\\nBG H\u00e2\u0080\u0094 36", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0627.jp2"}, "628": {"fulltext": "596 THE NINETEENTH CENTURYo\\nhe entered Naples in triumph. The people of Naples and\\nSicily now joined themselves to Sardinia.\\nUnited Italy. Emmanuel now controlled all Italy, ex-\\ncept the Austrian province of Venetia and the city of Rome,\\nwhich the French held for the Pope. The first Italian\\nParhament (Turin, 18G1) proclaimed Victor Emmanuel King\\nof Italy. Count Cavour died shortly after, but his poUcy\\nof bringing his country into European politics quickly bore\\nfruit. As the result of Italy s joining the Seven- Weeks War\\nbetween Austria and Prussia (1866), she got back Venice and\\nVerona. Finally, during the struggle between France and\\nGermany (1870), Napoleon called home the French troops,\\nand the next year Victor Emmanuel removed his court from\\nFlorence to Rome. Upon the death of Victor Emmanuel,\\n1878, his son, Umberto I., succeeded to the crown. The\\nPope now ceased to be a temporal prince (p. 332), though\\nhe retained his spiritual power; and Leo XIII., the pres-\\nent (1899) supreme pontiff^ resides in the Vatican.\\nV. TURKEY.\\nThe Aggression of the Turks continued after the fall\\nof Constantinople. Mohammed II. overthrew Greeee, and\\nthreatened Italy. Bosnia and Albania were annexed. The\\nCrimea was wrested from the Genoese. Hungary was re-\\npeatedly invaded. Twice Vienna itself was besieged. All\\nsoutheastern Europe was finally conquered, save where the\\nMontenegrins held their mountain fastnesses. Selim I.,\\nMohammed II. s grandson, extended his dominion over\\nMesopotamia, Assyria, Syria, and Egypt. The reign of\\nSolyman, his son, marked the acme of the Turkish power\\n(p. 436).\\nThe battle of Lepanto (1571), in which the combined fleets\\nof Spain, Venice, Genoa, and the Pope, under Don John of", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0628.jp2"}, "629": {"fulltext": "TURKEY. 597\\nAustria, destroyed tlie Turkish fleet, was the turning-point\\nin the Ottoman progress. From that time, Poland, Hun-\\ngary, and Austria steadily drove back the hated infidel.\\nFinally the rise of Russia in the 18tli centuiy gave the Turk\\na new enemy. Peter the Great dreamed of making the Blaek\\nSea a Russian lake and the avowed determination of Russia\\nhas ever since been the conquest of the effete nation\\nthat shuts off the mighty northern empire from the Medi-\\nterranean. The integrity of Turkey, however, is a cardi-\\nnal principle in European diplomacy. England especially,\\nthrough jealousy of Russia s power in India, has supported\\nthe sultan. But for English interference, the remaining\\nfour millions of people upon whom there fell, at the begin-\\nning of modern history, the calamity of Turkish conquest,\\nwould ere this have achieved their freedom, and the bar-\\nbarous Moslem intruders into Europe would have been\\nwholly expelledo\\nIn 1877-78 was fought the Russo-Turkish War, in which\\nthe Russians vanquished the Turks. The fruits of their\\nvictory, however, were partly lost through the interference\\nof England. The Berlin Treaty^ by which the Great Pow-\\ners finally settled the matter, made Servia, Roumania, and\\nMontenegro independent, secured additions to the territory\\nof Austria-Hungary and Greece (p. 598), and granted self-\\ngovernment to Bulgaria and Crete. In Crete, however,\\nthe sultan s promises were not carried out, and the people\\nrebelled. Greece then tried to annex the island (1897), but\\nthis was prevented by the Great Powers. Soon, however,\\nwar broke out between Greece and Turkey, and Greece was\\ndefeated, being saved from utter ruin only by the restrain-\\ning influence of the Powers. Finally, the Cretan difficulty\\nwas ended when the son of the King of Greece was made\\nits governor.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0629.jp2"}, "630": {"fulltext": "THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.\\nVI. GREECE.\\nGreece endured the hateful Turkish bondage for nearly\\nfour hundred years. Every rising for freedom was crushed\\nwith terrible cruelty. In the year 1821, however, the spirit\\nof liberty flamed into inextinguishable revolt. Many Eng-\\nlishmen among them Lord Byron, the poet took sides\\nwith this heroic people. The beautiful island of Scio was\\nlaid waste by the Ottomans (1822) and the next year the\\nSuliote patriot, Marco Bozzaris, during a night attack upon\\nthe enemy s camp, fell in the moment of victory. In this\\ndesperate contest of years, one half of the population is\\nsaid to have perished, and large tracts of land were reduced\\nto a desert. The Turks called the Egyptians to their help,\\nand Greece seemed likely to be overwhelmed.\\nFinally, England, Russia, and France formed a league to\\naid the Hellenes in this unequal struggle. Their combined\\nfleets destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleets in the Bay\\nof Navarino,\u00e2\u0080\u0094the old Pylos (1827). The French troops\\ndrove the Egyptians out of the Peloponnesus, and in 1830\\nGreece became an independent kingdom under the protec-\\ntion of the Triple League. So at last the land of Plato\\nand Pericles was free again. Georgias I., son of the King\\nof Denmark, was elected King of Greece in 1863.i\\nVII. THE NETHERLANDS.\\nThe Netherlands, after Louis abdicated the throne, was\\nannexed by Napoleon to France. In 1813 the people threw\\noff the French yoke, and recalled the house of Orange to the\\nJ It is interesting to note the interrelation.s of the European royal families. Thus\\nin 1898 the Queen of Denmark was tlie mother of the Kinu of Greece and the PriuceH.s\\nof Wales, and grandmother of the Czar of Russia; wliile Queen Victoria was the\\ngiandnu)tlier of the German PZmperor and of the Empress of Russia. At one time,\\nAlfred, Duke of Edinburgh, son of Vict )ria, was almost unanimously called by the\\nGreeks to be their kiug.butthecouditiousof the Triple League forbade his acceptance.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0630.jp2"}, "631": {"fulltext": "RUSSIA. 509\\ngovernment. The Oo]i\u00c2\u00ab^ ess of Vienna joined the northern\\nand the sontlu rn provinces, Ilolhind and Bclij^inm, the united\\nkiii^-doni bein^- calk d Tlie XcthcHnnds, a name now ap-\\npUed to Holland oidy.\\nThe Belgians, however, disliked tlie Hollanders and a\\nspark from the Freneh Revolution of 1830, falling among\\nthis restive people, kindled the flame of insurrection. The\\nindependence of Belgium was declared, and Leopold of Saxe-\\nCoburg-Gotha was called to the throne. His son, Leopold\\nIL, succeeded him in 18G5.\\nHolland has had an uneventful history since its separation\\nfrom Belgium. The present Queen of the Netherlands,\\nWilhelmina, succeeded her father, William IH. of Orange,\\nin 1890 her mother, Emma, acted as queen-regent until\\nWilhelmina became of age (1898).\\nVI I I. RUSSIA.\\nAlexander II. (1855-81) introduced several reforms\\ninto this despotic empire. He improved the system of edu-\\ncation, opened new commercial routes, and reorganized the\\narmy and navy. Greatest of all, he emancipated the serfs\\n(1863), numbering between forty and fifty millions, one half\\nof whom belonged to the Crown. But his emancipation\\npolicy enraged the aristocracy, while his refusal to grant a\\nconstitution displeased the other classes. The Nihilists (a\\npowerful secret society sworn to the annihilation of Russia s\\npresent government) repeatedly sought to kill him. Thus,\\nin spite of his reforms, Alexander, whose despotic father\\nhad walked the streets fearlessly, could not Lppear in public\\nwithout peril of assassination. At last (1881) it came.\\nThe reign of his son, Alexander III., was equally disturbed.\\nBy new and revived edicts against the Jews (1890), about\\ntwo millions of people were suddenly deprived of all means", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0631.jp2"}, "632": {"fulltext": "600 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.\\nof support, banished the empire, or subjected to merciless\\nseverities. University disturbances continually arose on\\naccount of the laws which placed the schools under con-\\nstant police surveillance, and large numbers of suspected\\nstudents and professors swelled the army of political exiles\\nto Siberia. In 1891-92 a severe famine intensified the woes\\nof the common people.\\nIn the reign of Nicholas II. (1894- work on the great\\ntrans-Siberian railroad was pushed rapidly forward.\\nIX. JAPAN.\\nThe Ruling Dynasty of Japan boasts of an unbroken\\nsuccession during twenty-five centuries. Its founder, their\\nchronicles assert, was Jimmu, from whom the present mika-\\ndo, or emperor, is the one hundred and twenty-third in direct\\ndescent. The assumed date of Jimmu s ascension (660 B. c.)\\nis styled the year 1 of the Japanese era.^ In the 6th cen-\\ntury A. D., Buddhism was introduced (through Corea) from\\nChina with it came the Asiatic civilization. A stream of\\nskilled artisans, scholars, teachers, and missionaries, poured\\ninto the country, and thenceforth the Japanese character\\nwas molded by the same forces that gave to the Celestial\\nEmpire its peculiar features.\\nThe Shogun, or Tycoon, the commander-in-chief of the\\narmy, acquired in 1192 the entire control of political affairs,\\nthe mikado retaining only the religious supremacy and the\\nsymbols of royalty. Under this dual form of government,\\nthere grew up a feudal system, the military leaders, or\\ndaimios, securing land in fief, erecting castles, and support-\\ning a host of retainers. This relic of the middle ages lasted\\nuntil 1868, when a revolution restored the mikado to su-\\n1 This chronology would make Jimmu a contemporary of the Assyrian monarch\\nAashur-bani-pal (p. 49).", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0632.jp2"}, "633": {"fulltext": "JAPAN. 601\\npreme power, destroyed the Shogun s rule, and abolished the\\nfeudal titles and teniu-es. At the command of the mikado,\\ntwo hundred and fifty vassal nobles, resigning then* princely\\nincomes, lands, and retinues, retired to private life.\\nThe Portuguese, during the era of maritime adven-\\nture in the 16th century, came to Japan. The missionary\\nquickly followed the sailor. Francis Xavier, the apostle to\\nthe Indies, introduced Christianity (1549), and in tune six\\nhundred thousand converts were made. Tliis second influx\\nof foreign civilization was stopped by the expulsion of the\\nPortuguese and a violent persecution of the Christian Jap-\\nanese. The history of the Church in Europe presents no\\nmore devoted faith or heroic constancy than were shown\\nby the martjrrs of this bloody period. The Dutch alone\\nwere allowed a residence upon an island in the harbor of\\nNagasaki, and to exchange a single ship-load of merchan-\\ndise per year.\\nCommodore Perry, with a squadi-on of United States\\nvessels, entered the harbor of Yokohama (1854). He made a\\ntreaty with Japan, and secured the opening of certain ports to\\nour trade. Since then the tliird foreign wave has swept over\\nthe Sun-land. Successive commercial treaties have been\\nmade. The former exclusiveness has been broken down, old\\nideas have been uprooted, and the nation has been thi-ust into\\nthe path of modern civilization. In 1875 the mikado es-\\ntablished a senate in 1879 he inaugurated pro\\\\dncial and\\ndepartmental assembhes and in 1889 Japan became a con-\\nstitutional monarchy, with a Cabinet, a Privy Council, a\\nHouse of Peers, and a House of Representatives. Under the\\nnew order, absolute religious freedom is secured, elementary\\neducation made compulsory, kindergarten methods are pro-\\nvided, and a flourishing government university is supported.\\nThe principles and practice of modem jurisprudence inale the", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0633.jp2"}, "634": {"fulltext": "602\\nTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY.\\ncourts. Thus in this progressive little island a single gen-\\neration has witnessed governmental changes that required\\nin Europe centuries to perfect.\\nTHE FOLK CLASSES OK JAPANESE SOCIETY,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 MILITAUY, A(i lilCl l.Tl KAL, LA150K1NG, AND\\nMERCANTILE (FROM A DRAWING BY A NATIVE ARTIST).\\nX. CHINA.\\nSome Chinese ports were opened to foreign trade while\\nJapan was still tightly closed against foreigners; but\\nChina s progress in modern civilization has been very slow.\\nIn the Chinese-Japanese War of 1894-95 Japan was every-\\nwhere successful, although her population and natural\\nresources were but a tenth of what China could command.\\nAs a result of this war Japan gained Formosa and a money\\nindemnity, and Korea was made independent.\\nThe weakness of the Chinese Empire having thus been\\nshown, it is in danger of undergoing a partition among\\nthe principal European powers. Already Manchuria in the\\nnorth has passed under the practical control of Russia;\\nFrance has secured concessions in the south j Great Britain", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0634.jp2"}, "635": {"fulltext": "AFRICA. G03\\nhas asserted its exclusive influence (as against other foreign\\npowers) over the great Yang-tze valley j and Germany and\\nItaly have gained control of ports on the coast, with an\\nundefined influence over the destinies of the adjoining in-\\nland regions.\\nXI. AFRICA.\\nAlmost the entire continent of Africa is now parceled out\\namong European nations, by virtue of various treaties\\namong themselves and with native tribes. European\\nsettlers have established roads, railroads, and telegraphs,\\nand the continent is being rapidly opened to civilization.\\nFrance conquered Algeria in the first half of the century,\\nand she controls also Tunis, other parts of western Africa,\\nand Madagascar.\\nGreat Britain took Cape Colony from the Dutch in 1806,\\nand soon began to send colonists there. The Dutch colo-\\nnists, or Boers, then moved northward and established the\\nOrange Free State and the Transvaal, or South African\\nRepublic. The Transvaal was later annexed by Great\\nBritain, but after a short war it secured a treaty (1881)\\nwhich gave it independence in internal affairs, while in\\nits foreign relations it was to be subject to Great Britain.\\nWhen gold was found there in large quantities, a great\\nmany foreigners, chiefly British, went there to live, but\\nwere excluded from what they considered a fair share in\\nthe government. The resulting friction became acute in\\n1896 and in 1899 led to a second war with Great Britain.\\nGreat Britain also controls the territory about the mouth\\nof the Niger, and an almost continuous line of provinces\\nfrom Cape Colony to Egypt. The Soudan, formerly be-\\nlonging to Egypt, became inde])endent soon after Gi*eat\\nBritain assumed control of Egyptian affairs. But in 1898", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0635.jp2"}, "636": {"fulltext": "604 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. [1899.\\nthe army of Sir Herbert Kitchener won over the Soudanese\\nthe great battles of Atbara and Omdurman, and recovered\\nthe lost province.\\nGermany and Portugal own extensive territories in the\\nsouthern half of Africa. The Kongo Free State is con-\\ntrolled by the King of the Belgians.\\nXII. THE SPANISH COLONIES SOUTH AMERICA.\\nAt the beginning of the nineteenth century the chief\\nSpanish colonies included the Philippines, Cuba, Puerto\\nRico, Mexico, Central America, and most of South America\\nexcept Brazil, which belonged to Portugal. When Napo-\\nleon placed his brother on the Spanish throne, the loyalty\\nof these colonies was weakened, and by 1825 all but the\\nPhilippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico won independence.\\nFinally, a rebellion in Cuba led to a war between Spain and\\nthe United States (1898), by which Spain lost all three of\\nthese colonies. The former Spanish colonies on the Ameri-\\ncan continent had become republics; but Brazil, on sever-\\ning its connection with Portugal, became an empire. In\\n1890, however, a revolution transformed that country also\\ninto a republic. Its President in 1899 was Campos Salles.\\nREADING REFERENCES.\\nFor works on the French Revolution, see p. 5.58.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Miillers History of Recent Times,\\ntranslated by Peters {commended to all as an excellent resume of General History\\nfrom 1816 to 18SI).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 McCarthy s Epoch of Reform (Epochs of History Series).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Griffls s\\nThe Mikado s Umpire, and Political Progress in Japan {The Forum, Feb., 1891).\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nMcCarthy s History of Our Own Times.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Kinglake s Invasion of the Crimea.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Hunt s\\nHistory of Italy {Freeman s Historical Course). May s Constitutional History of\\nEngland {especially valuable in its account of reforms).\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Mackenzie s The Nineteenth\\nCentury.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Wrightson s History of Modern Italy, \\\\\u00c2\u00bb\\\\a-^Q.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Felton s Ancient and\\nModern Greece.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Freeman s The Turk in Europe.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Talleyrand s Memoirs.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0636.jp2"}, "637": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX.\\nTHE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD, as reckoned by the\\nGreeks, were The Egyptian Pyi amids The Temple, Walls, and\\nHanging Gardens of Babylon The Greek Statue of Jupiter at Olympia\\nThe Temple of Diana at Ephesus The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus\\nThe Pharos at Alexandria and The Colossus of Rhodes. All but the\\nlast three have already been described.\\nThe Mausoleum was a monument erected by Artemisia, Queen of\\nCaria (b. c. 353), to her deceased husband Mausolus. It was built of\\nthe most precious marbles, and decorated in the highest style of Grecian\\nart. Its cost was so immense that the philosopher Anaxagoras on\\nseeing it exclaimed, How much money is changed into stone Not\\na vestige of it now remains.\\nTJte Pharos was a lighthouse built by the first two Ptolemies on\\nthe Isle of Pharos. The wi ought stone of which it was constructed\\nwas adorned with columns, balustrades, etc., of the finest marble.\\nThe tower, protected by a sea-wall, stood about four hundred feet\\nhigh, and its light could be seen over forty miles.\\nTJie Colossus of Ehodes was a hollow bronze statue of Apollo, one\\nhundred and five feet high, near the Rhodian harbor. An inner wind-\\ning staircase led up to the head. It was overthrown by an earthquake\\n(224 B. c). The Delphic oracle having forbade its reerection, it lay\\nin ruins for over nine centuries, when it was sold by the Saracens to a\\nJew, who, it is said, loaded nine hundred camels with the metal.\\nThe Seven Wise Men were variously named even in Greece. The\\nfollowing translation of a Grecian doggerel gives one version\\nI ll tell the names and sayings and the places of their birth\\nOf the Seven great ancient Sages, so renowned on Grecian earth.\\nThe Lindian Cleol)ulus said, The man was still the best;\\nTlie Spartan Chilo, Know thyself, a heaven-born phrase confessed\\nCorinthian Periandcr tauglit Our anger to command\\nToo much of nothing, Pittacus, from Mitylene s strand\\nAthenian Solon this advised, Look to the end of life\\nAnd Bias from Prien6 showed Bad men are the most rife\\nMilesian Tholes urged that None should e er a surety be;\\nFew were these words, but, if you look, you ll much in little see.\\nColUns s Ancient Classics.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0637.jp2"}, "638": {"fulltext": "HISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\nANCIENT PEOPLES.\\n1. How did a workman s scribble, made thousands of years ago,\\npreserve a royal name, and link it to a monument?\\n2. What king ordered the sea to be whipped because the waves\\nhad injured his bridges?\\n3. Who among the ancients were the greatest sailors? Who had\\na religious horror of the sea?\\n4. What kings took a pet lion when they went to war? Who once\\ntook cats and dogs Who used elephants in battle Camels Scythed\\nchariots\\n5. What is the oldest book in the world\\n6. Compare the character of an Egyptian and an Assyrian an\\nEgyptian and a Chinaman a Babylonian and a Persian.\\n7. What king was so overwhelmed by his successes that he prayed\\nfor a reverse\\n8. What Roman emperor gave up his throne to enjoy his cabbage-\\ngarden?\\n9. What emperor once convened the senate to decide how to cook\\na fish?\\n10. Who gained a kingdom by the neighing of a horse?\\n11. Who is the oldest literary critic on record?\\n12. What was the Dispensary of the Soul\\n13. Who was the Egyptian Alexander the Great\\n14. What statue was reported to sing at sunrise?\\n15. Which of the earliest races is noted for intellectual vigor? For\\nreligious fervor? For massive architecture?\\n16. What is the Book of the Dead The Zend-Avesta? The\\nEpic of Pentaur? The Rig- Veda?\\n17. Who had a palace at Nimroud AtKoyunjik? AtKhorsabad?\\nAt Persepolis? At Luxor? At Karnak? At Susa?\\n18. Compare the character of a Spartan and an Athenian a. Ro-\\nman and a Greek.\\n19. What people made the intoxication of their king an annual\\ndisplay?\\n20. What city was called the Daughter of Sidon and the Mother\\nof Carthage What was the School of Greece The Eye of\\nGreece The Seven-hilled City\\n21. What king had a servant remind him three times a day of a\\nproposed vengeance?\\n22. Who fought and who won the battle of Marathon? Plataea?\\nThermopylae? Salamis? Himera? Mycale?\\n23. Who were the Cyclops?", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0638.jp2"}, "639": {"fulltext": "HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. Ul\\n24. Wliere and wlion wore iron coins nsod as currency? Gold and\\nsilver rings? Engraved gems?\\n25. Who was Assliurbanipal? Tiglath-Pileser? Khufti? Seti?\\nAssliur-izir-pal? Sennacherib? Cyrus? Canibyses?\\n26. Which do you think was the most religious nation? The most\\nwarlike? The most patient? The most intellectual? The most ar-\\ntistic\\n27. Wliere were animals worshiped? The sun? The planets?\\nThe elements? Vegetables? The Evil Spirit?\\n28. Who built the Great Wall of China? The Great Pyramid?\\nThe Labyrinth?\\n29. How were women treated in Egypt? In Assyria? In Persia?\\nIn Athens? In Sparta? In Rome?\\n30. Who was Buddha? Sebak? Pasht? Thoth? Bel? Ishtar?\\nMoloch? Asshur? Ormazd? Nin? Nergal? Baal?\\n31. How many Assyrian and Babylonian kings can you mention who\\nbore the names of gods\\n32. How did a Babylonian gentleman compliment the gods\\n33. What does the word Pharaoh or Phrah mean? Ans. According\\nto some authorities it means the sun, from the Egyptian ph-Ra; by\\nothers it is derived from pe-raa, grand house, a title corresponding\\nto our Sublime Porte.\\n34. Wlio was the Religious Conqueror\\n35. What were the Pools of Peace The realms of Hades\\n36. Who was Che Hwang-te? Nebuchadnezzar? Darius? The\\nLast of the Ptolemies?\\n37. Who was the False Smerdis\\n38. Who were the Accadians, and where did they live\\n39. What city was captured during a royal revelry\\n40. What nations believed in the transmigration of souls?\\n41. When was the Era of Nabonassar? The First Olympiad? The\\nage of Pericles?\\n42. What famous story is related of Cornelia, the mother of the\\nGracchi?\\n43. Mention the ornaments worn by gentlemen in ancient times.\\n44. Who was the real Sardanapalus? Sesostris?\\n45. What religion teaches that the vilest insects and even the seeds\\nof plants have souls\\n46. What poem is called the Egyptian Hiad\\n47. What Roman emperor resembled Louis XI. of France in\\neliaracter?\\n48. Wlio was Herodotus Manetho? Thucydides? Livy? Xeno-\\nphou? Tacitus? Sallust? Ca?sar?\\n49. What is meant by seceding to the Sacred Moimt", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0639.jp2"}, "640": {"fulltext": "IV HISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\n50. What great war was begun through helping some pirates?\\n51. What nation considered theft a virtue\\n52. What Greek was called by Solon ^a bad imitation of Ulysses\\n53. What was the original meaning of slave f Of tyrant f\\n54. Who sculptured the famous Niobe Group?\\n55. What are the Elgin Marbles\\n56. Who were the Lost Tribes\\n57. A great king married the Pearl of the East. Who was he?\\nWho was she? Why did he marry her?\\n58. Who were the Perioeki? The Helots? The Spartans? The\\nDorians? The lonians? The Hellenes?\\n59. What is meant by taking Egerean counsel\\n60. What was the Amphictyonic Council? The Council of the\\nElders? The Court of Areopagus?\\n61. Name the principal battles of the Persian wars; the Punic\\nwars.\\n62. Who engaged in the Messenian wars?\\n63. What were the Seven Wonders of the World?\\n64. Name the Seven Wise Men, with their mottoes,\\n65. What Roman emperor amused himself by spearing flies?\\n66. Who were the ^Five Good Emperors of Rome?\\n67. Name the most important Egyptian kings. What can you tell\\nabout them?\\n68. Describe the ceremonies of the Magi.\\n69. How many relics found in tombs can you mention?\\n70. What is the Rosetta stone? The Behistun Inscription?\\n71. Describe the Homa ceremony.\\n72. What was the Apis The Lights\\n73. Tell what you can of the Memnonium; the Colosseum; the\\nRamesseum; the Colossus of Rhodes; the Hanging Gardens of\\nBabylon the Great Sphinx.\\n74. Who was the greatest builder among the Pharaohs?\\n75. What country forbade its priests to wear woolen undergarments\\n76. Compare the dress and ceremonies of an Egyptian priest and\\na Roman flamen.\\n77. Where was the Parthenon? The Palace of the Caesars? The\\nErechtheium? The Temple of the Sphinx\\n78. What people had no sacred books?\\n79. Who were the greatest borrowers among the ancients\\n80. What is the difference between hieroglyphics and cuneiform\\nwriting? What peoples used them?\\n81. What people used to write on the shoulder-bones of animals?\\n82. Mention all the writing implements you can remember, and the\\npeoples who used them.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0640.jp2"}, "641": {"fulltext": "HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. V\\n83. Who was Pindar? Simonides Horace? Sappho? Hesiod?\\nAnaereon\\n84. When was an array driven with whips to an assault?\\n85. Who was Little Boot\\n86. Give the origin of the word Vandal.\\n87. How did a ray from the setting sun once save a city?\\n88. What king sat on a marble throne while reviewing his army?\\n89. What emperor once lighted his grounds with burning Chris\\ntians?\\n90. Wliat people wore a golden gi asshopper as a head-ornament?\\nWliat did it signify?\\n91. Describe the Alexandrian Museum and Library.\\n92. Wliat was the Athenian Lyceum? The Academy?\\n93. Wliat Greek philosopher kept a drug-store in Athens?\\n94. Describe the building of a pjTamid.\\n95. What is the oldest account of the Creation? Of the Deluge?\\nIn what language were they written?\\n96. How many great men can you name who died in prison? Who\\nwere assassinated? Who voluntarily committed suicide? Who were\\nsentenced by law to kill themselves\\n97. What Greek poem was found under the head of a mummy?\\n98. What king began his reign by glorifying his father, and ended\\nit by erasing his father s name fi om the Temple walls and substituting\\nhis own?\\n99. Mention the twelve great Grecian gods, with their attributes.\\n100. What was the kinship of Isis, Osiris, and Horus, according to\\nEgyptian mythology?\\n101. Where did people ride on a seat strapped between two\\ndonkeys\\n102. What gi eat Greek philosopher was an oil speculator?\\n103. Who were the Cynics?\\n104. Describe a Chaldean home.\\n105. What people buried their dead in stone jars? Who embalmed\\ntheir dead? Wlio buried them in honey? Who exposed them to wild\\nbeasts? Who burned them? Who covered them with wax before\\nbm ial? Who made feasts for them? Give the post-mortem travels of\\nRameses XL\\n106. Describe the education of an Egyptian boy. A Persian boy.\\n107. Who were the Ten Thousand Immortals\\n108. Describe a Persian military march.\\n109. Who invented the alphabet?\\n110. What happened in Egypt when a cat died? A dog?\\n111. Describe an Assyi ian lion-hunt.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0641.jp2"}, "642": {"fulltext": "VI HISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\n112. What nation excelled in sculptured bas-relief? In briek-enameV-\\niug? In bronze and marble statuary? In gem-cutting?\\n113. Compare Egyptian and Assyrian art; religion; literature.\\n114. Describe an Assyrian royal banquet; a Persian banquet of\\nwine.\\n115. What national architecture was distinguished by pyramids and\\nobelisks By tall, slender pillars and elaborate staircases\\n116. What nations built their houses on high platforms?\\n117. Describe the education of a Spartan boy; an Athenian; a\\nRoman.\\n118. How did the Assyrians go to war?\\n119. Who was called the Third Founder of Rome\\n120. How many times in Roman history was the Temple of Janus\\nclosed? Ans. Eight.\\n121. What city was entitled The Eldest Daughter of the Empire\\n122. Who boasted that grass never grew where his horse had trodden?\\n123. Wliat did Europe gain by the battle of Chalons?\\n124. Describe a Macedonian phalanx.\\n125. Who were the Tragic Trio of Greece? The Historical Trio?\\n126. What people covered the mouth of their dead with gold-leaf?\\nWho provided their dead with money to pay their fare across the river\\nStyx? Who furnished them with dates for refreshment in the spirit-\\nworld? Tell what you can of the Egyptian Ka.\\n127. Describe the stationery of the Egyptians; the Assyrians and\\nBabylonians the Persians the Greeks and Romans.\\n128. Who made the first discovery of an Assyrian monument?\\n129. What people used second-hand coffins?\\n130. What nation cased the beams of their palaces with bronze?\\nWho overlaid them with silver and gold?\\n131. What modern archaeologist discovered the remains of ancient\\nTroy? Describe Cesnola s discoveries Flinders Petrie s.\\n132. How did Rameses II. and Asshurbanipal resemble each other?\\n133. Describe the contents and one of the regulations of Asshur-\\nbanipal s library.\\n134. Who is your favorite Greek? Your favorite Roman?\\n135. What people loaded the roofs of their houses with earth as a\\nprotection from sun and rain Who had roof -gardens [In Italy and\\nin the East roof -gardens are still common.]\\n136. When and where were bronze and iron used for jewelry?\\n137. In what country was it considered disreputable for a gentleman\\nto walk the streets without a cane\\n138. In what country did gentlemen wear cylinders on their wrists?\\nFor what did they use them?", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0642.jp2"}, "643": {"fulltext": "HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. Vll\\n139. How did the views of tlie Greeks and tlio Persians diflfer in\\nregard to tire and cremation\\n140. Describe an Egyptian funeral a Greek a Roman.\\n141. Who sowed corn over newly-made gi aves?\\n142. Describe an Egj^tian nobleman s home.\\n143. Compare ^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.\\n144. Who was Aristophanes? Menander? Plautus? Terence T\\nLucian\\n145. What people entertained a mummy as a guest at parties?\\n146. Who were the Sargonida3? ISassauidai? Seleucidte? Alc-\\nmaeonidsB Heraclida3\\n147. Name the great men of the age of Pericles of the Augustan\\nage.\\n148. Describe a Theban dinner-party a Greek symposium a\\nRoman banquet.\\n149. How did an Egyptian fight? An Assyrian? A Babylonian?\\nA Persian? A Greek? A Roman?\\n150. Name ten gi eat battles before the time of Chi ist.\\n151. Describe a Spartan home an Athenian a Roman.\\n152. What Egyptian king changed the course of a river in order to\\nfound a city\\n153. Describe the Magian rites.\\n154. Tell what you can of a Roman Vestal.\\n155. Who were the Three Graces? Three Fates? Three Hes-\\nperides? Three Harpies? Thi-ee Gorgons? Three Fui-ies?\\n156. Describe the Nine Muses.\\n157. For what was the Pnyx celebrated? The Areopagus?\\n158. In what country was it considered unamiable for a wife to refuse\\nto wear her husband s clothes?\\n159. What philosopher is said to have lived in a tub?\\n160. What kind of table-napkins did the Greeks use?\\n161. Who was the Blind Bard The Poet of the Helots\\nThe Lame old Schoolmaster The Lesbian Nightingale The\\nTheban Eagle The Attic Bee The Mantuan Bard\\n162. Who was called the Light of Mankind\\n163. What poets dropped their shield in battle and ran from danger?\\n164. How many Greek poets can you name? Latin poets?\\n165. What were the Fouj Great Schools of Philosophy\\n166. A great philosopher, when burlesqued in a famous play,\\nmounted a bench that the audience might compare him with his ridic-\\nulous counterpart. Who was he Who wrote the play Were they\\nfriends\\n167. In what city was cock-and-quail fighting enjoined by law as an\\ninstructive exhibition?", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0643.jp2"}, "644": {"fulltext": "VUl HISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\n168. What Greek poet likened himself to a porcupine\\n169. Who was Confucius? Lycurgus? Draco? ^sop? Solon?\\n170. Describe the peculiar tactics that decided the battle of Mara-\\nthon; Leuctra; Chseronea; Cannee.\\n171. What were the Philippics?\\n172. What great poets were linked with the battle of Salamis?\\n173. Where, and as a reward for what, was a wreath of olive con-\\nferred? Of parsley? Of laurel? Of pine?\\n174. What great orator received a golden crown for his public\\nservices\\n175. What were the Eleusinian mysteries? What great poet is\\nconnected with them? Who was accursed for revealing them?\\n176. What was a Greek trilogy?\\n177. Who wrote a history named after the Nine Muses?\\n178. Who was Eucles? Cleisthenes? Leonidas? Pausanias?\\n179. Compare the style of Xenophon and of Thucydides.\\n180. Who was the first authenticated reporter\\n181. What philosopher was tried for atheism because he believed in\\none great God?\\n182. Tell what you can of Pythagoras Socrates Plato Aristotle\\nZeno.\\n183. Who was Cimon? Pericles? Aristides? Themistocles?\\n184. Who was Mardonius? Xerxes? Miltiades?\\n185. Describe a Babylonian wedding a Greek wedding a Roman\\nwedding.\\n186. Describe the Panathenaia the Feast of Dionysus.\\n187. Compare the Babylonian Sacees and the Roman Saturnalia.\\n188. Who were Hippias and Hipparchus? Who was Pisistratus?\\n189. Who was Cleopatra? Mark Antony? Brutus? Pompey?\\n190. What great philosopher was bom the year that Pericles died\\n191. What great historian died in the year of the Retreat of the\\nTen Thousand\\n192. Who formed the First Triumvirate? The Second?\\n193. In what siege did the women braid their long hair into bow-\\nstrings\\n194. Who were the Seven Sages?\\n195. How did Hannibal lose an eye?\\n196. On what field did the Macedonian phalanx fight its last battle?\\n197. What was the characteristic of the first two centuries of the\\nRoman republic\\n198. How did the phrase Romans and Quirites arise?\\n199. Describe a triumphal entrance into Rome.\\n200. What were the Laws of the Twelve Tables?\\n201. Tell the story of the Rape of the Sabines.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0644.jp2"}, "645": {"fulltext": "IIISTOKICAL KECKEATIONS. IX\\n202. Who refused a gift of land because ho akeady possessed seven\\nacres\\n203. How did Hannibal once outwit Fabius?\\n204. Tell the story of the capture of Rome by the Gauls.\\n205. In what battle were gold rings a part of the spoils?\\n206. In what year did Nineveh fall? Babylon?\\n207. During what battle did an earthquake occur without being\\nnoticed by the combatants?\\n208. What province was left to the Romans by will\\n209. What mathematician was killed in the midst of a problem?\\n210. Who was Pliny the Younger s dearest friend?\\n211. What famous general sat amid the ruins of a great city and\\nquoted Homer?\\n212. What warriors trimmed their hair on the eve of a battle?\\n213. Distinguish between the different Scipios the two Catos\\nthe two Plinys.\\n214. What poet was commemorated by the statue of a drunken old\\nman?\\n215. What general declared that the gi eatest joy he had in a victory\\nwas the pleasure his success would give to his parents?\\n216. What emperor boasted that he found his capital of brick, and\\nleft it of marble\\n217. What emperor wore a toga woven by his wife and daughters?\\n218. Who were Alexander s favorite artists? Who was his tutor?\\n219. What was the Roman Poor Law?\\n220. How many Roman emperors were murdered? How many com-\\nmitted suicide? How many died a natural death?\\n221. In what country were fat men suspected?\\n222. Wliat battle ended the Roman republic?\\n223. What great philosopher died the same year with Demosthenes?\\nWhich was the elder?\\n224. Describe A Day in Rome a Roman home.\\noo\\n5. Describe the different modes of publishing books in ancient\\ntimes. Name the royal founders of ancient libraries.\\n226. When was the Era of Mart TS? Of the Thirty T Tants?\\n227. What king had the title Conqueror of Babylon inscribed\\nupon his signet-ring?\\n228. Describe a morning in Nineveh.\\n229. Tell something connected with Mount Olympus; Mount Par-\\nnassus Mount Hymettus Mount Sinai Mount Pentelicus.\\n230. How did his Roman citizenship help St. Paul?\\n231. When did elephants win a battle?\\n232. When did the Grecians fight in Italy?\\n233. Who were the road builders, of antiquity?", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0645.jp2"}, "646": {"fulltext": "X HISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\n234. Show how the struggle of each petty Grecian state for autonomy\\nprevented the unity and prosperity of Greece.\\n235. Compare the personal rights of man among the ancients with\\nthose that he enjoys among the Christian nations of to-day.\\n236. Describe the mode of Rome s growth as a nation.\\n237. What was the character of Rome s government over her\\nprovinces\\n238. Under what emperor did all the provincials acquire Roman\\ncitizenship?\\n239. Explain the expression, Chaeronea was the cofi n, as Marathon\\nwas the cradle, of Hellenic liberty.\\n240. What was the origin of the word politics f Pagan\\n241. Who first used the expression, Delenda est Carthago\\n242. Narrate the circumstances of the death of Archimedes.\\n243. Describe the three popular assemblies of Rome.\\n244. How did the Romans procure a model for the ships of their\\nfirst fleet?\\n245. What hostile general once threw a javelin over the walls of\\nRome?\\n246. Who said, ^It is easier to turn the sun from its course than\\nFabricius from the path of honor\\n247. Tell the story of Lucretia Virginia Horatius Codes Mucins\\nRomulus and Remus Coriolanus Cincinnatus Camillus Marcus\\nManlius Quintus Curtius Decius Caius Pontius.\\n248. Name the twelve Caesars.\\n249. For what is the date 146 B. c. noted?\\n250. Describe the funeral of a Roman emperor.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0646.jp2"}, "647": {"fulltext": "HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. Xi\\nHISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\nMEDIEVAL AND MODERN PEOPLES.\\n1. On a monument of Canova s in St. Peter s are inscribed the fol-\\nlowing names of British sovereigns James III., Charles III., and\\nHenry IX. Who were they?\\n2. Who was the Snow King The Winter King\\n3. We read in the history of France of the Constitution of the\\nYear III. the Constitution of the Year VIII. the Revolution of the\\n18th Brimiaire the Revolution of the 18th Fructidor etc. Explain.\\n4. A historian says, Morgarten was the Marathon of Switzer-\\nland. Explain.\\n5. What gi-eat war was waging in Europe during our War of 1812?\\n6. Who was said to be the fii*st man in Europe, and the second in\\nFrance\\n7. In what gi eat emergency did the Dutch propose to imitate the\\nAthenians\\n8. Compare Cardinals Wolsey and Richelieu.\\n9. It is said that the Duke of Guise under Henry IH. threatened\\nto be another Pepin to a second Childeric. Explain.\\n10. Who were the Sea Beggars\\n11. Who was the nephew of his imcle\\n12. Name the revolutions in France since 1789.\\n13. What names of kings are common to England, France, and\\nGermany\\n14. What name is confined to England? France? Germany?\\nRussia?\\n15. Which was the most illustrious Henry of England? France?\\nGermany\\n16. What woman was the prime mover in the massacre of St. Bar-\\ntholomew?\\n17. What English king had six wives?\\n18. What English king assumed the title of King of France\\n19. Compare the Charleses of England with those of France.\\n20. How many kings ruled in England dm-ing the reign of Louis\\nXIV.?\\n21. What was the difference between the titles King of the Ro-\\nmans and Emperor of Germany\\n22. What German king kept an English king in prison until ran-\\nsomed?", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0647.jp2"}, "648": {"fulltext": "Xll HISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\n23. Name the German emperors who led an army into Italy.\\n24. Who was the First Gentleman in Europe\\n25. Who was the Little Man in Red Stockings\\n26. When did Russia first meddle in the affairs of western Europe?\\n27. Which is the oldest nation in Europe? The youngest?\\n28. Who was the Last of the Tribunes\\n29. Who was the Madman of the North\\n30. What Stuart sovereign did not meet a tragical end?\\n31. What high office did Wolsey hope to secure?\\n32. Who was the Silent One The Lost Dauphin\\n33. What was the Babylonish Captivity?\\n34. Who was the First of the Stuarts\\n35. Name the different World s Fairs.\\n36. What were the so-called Reform Banquets\\n37. Who was the Conqueror of Crecy\\n38. Describe the different Revolutions of 1848 in Europe.\\n39. What three English kings, each the third of his name, reigned\\nover fifty years\\n40. When did France have an insane king? England?\\n41. Who was the first of the Norman kings to die in England?\\n42. Who was the Merry Monarch\\n43. State the time, the cause, and the result upon Prussia, of the\\nSeven-Years War; the Seven-Months (Franco-Prussian) War; the\\nSeven-Weeks War.\\n44. Who was the Conqueror of Blenheim\\n45. The Scots termed the Pretender James VIII. Explain.\\n46. What corresponding financial bubbles were blown in England\\nand in France early in the 18th century?\\n47. Who was the Great Commoner\\n48. Explain the sentence in Macaulay s History, Hundreds of thou-\\nsands whom the Popish Plot had scared into Whiggism, had been scared\\nback by the Rye House Plot into Toryism.\\n49. Who was called the ^Best of the Georges\\n50. Who was Louis XVII. of France\\n51. Who was King Hal\\n52. Who was Napoleon II. of France?\\n53. A historian remarks, In 1806 the 120th of the Csesars became\\nonly Francis 11. of Austria. Explain.\\n54. Who was the Citizen King^\\n55. Whom did Carlyle style the Great Prussian Drill Sergeant\\n56. Who was the Conqueror of Agincourt\\n57. How many republics have been established in France\\n58. Name the principal battles of Cond6.\\n59. A historian, remarking upon the reign of Louis XVI. of France,", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0648.jp2"}, "649": {"fulltext": "HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. XUl\\npays, There was now no Mayor of the Palace, no Count of Paris, no\\nHenry IV., to found a new dynasty. Exphiin.\\n60. Who was Queen Bess\\n61. Wliat was the cause of the long hostility between England and\\nFrance?\\n62. What is the Eui opean States-System?\\n63. Who was the Iron Duke\\n64. Who was the Greatest of the Plantagenets\\n65. State the origin of the Methodists of the Friends.\\n66. WTien was the last States-General convened in France T\\n67. Who was the first Prince of Wales?\\n68. Who was the King of Bourges\\n69. Describe the effect of the Norman Conquest of England.\\n70. When Charles XII. invaded Russia, Peter said, My brother\\nCharles affects to play the part of Alexander but I think he will not\\nfind in me a Darius. Explain.\\n71. Who was the Old Pretender The Young Pretender\\n72. What prime minister governed the English Parliament by\\nbribery?\\n73. Who was Good Queen Anne The Virgin Queen\\n74. Contrast the conduct of the spectators at the execution of\\nCharles I. and of Louis XVI.\\n75. Who was the Napoleon of Peace\\n76. Who was the fii-st king of England?\\n77. Compare the fate and the character of Richard II. and Ed-\\nward II. of England.\\n78. Who was styled the King of the French\\n79. Why did the Normans finally blend so easily with the Anglo-\\nSaxons in England?\\n80. What were the causes of the French Revolution?\\n81. What is meant by the Balance of Power?\\n82. In what respect did the conquest by the Turks resemble that\\nby the Germans?\\n83. When did the tiei S etat get its first representation in France?\\n84. Who were Wesley and WTiitefield?\\n85. Compare the close of the Carlovingian dynasty in France with\\nthat of the Merovingian.\\n86. Tell what the Normans did in Europe.\\n87. Who was the Prisoner of Ham (Napoleon III.)\\n88. What was the Pragmatic Sanction?\\n89. Why are there so many French artisans in England?\\n90. Who was Henry V. of France\\n91. What kings had titles referring to physical qualities? To men-\\ntal qualities?", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0649.jp2"}, "650": {"fulltext": "XIV HISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\n92. What was the Treaty of Paris? Vienna? Presburg? Lune-\\nville? Amiens? Campo Formio? Passau? Tilsit? Utrecht? Aix-\\nla-Chapelle Nimeguen Ryswick\\n93. State the causes, effects, principal battles, and prominent gen-\\nerals of the Hundred- Years War.\\n94. Bound France at the accession of Capet.\\n95. What event in English history did Napoleon s dispersion of the\\nFive Hundred resemble\\n96. Who was the Grand Monarch\\n97. Who were the most despotic kings named in history?\\n98. Who was the Count of Chambord Who is Eugenie\\n99. Who fought the battles of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and\\nMalplaquet?\\n100. When and where were the Reformers called Protestants?\\n101. Who were the Whigs? The Tories? What was the origin of\\nthese names?\\n102. What was the Fronde?\\n103. For what is Sully famous?\\n104. Quote some noted historical passages from Shakspere.\\n105. When did the Germans first invade France\\n106. Who were the Do-nothing kings\\n107. In how many great battles were the Austrians defeated by Na-\\npoleon?\\n108. What French king made the first invasion of Italy? The last?\\n109. Who was the Hero of Rocroi\\n110. Who fought the battles of Fontenoy, Raucoux, and Lawfelt?\\n111. Who was the Sailor King\\n112. For what is Francis I. noted in history? Louis XIV. Louis\\nXV. Henry IV. of France? Henry IV. of Germany?\\n113. What was the Edict of Nantes?\\n114. Who was the last king of France? The last emperor?\\n115. What two great generals died during a tempest?\\n116. State what was decided by the Peace of Westphalia.\\n117. Who was Corporal Violet\\n118. Who fought the battles of Rocroi, Freiburg, Nordlingen, and\\nLens?\\n119. What French kings reigned during the time of the Crusades?\\n120. For what is Colbert noted? Louvois?\\n121. Wlio were the Huguenots?\\n122. State the principal events in the life of Luther.\\n123. Who were the Nonconformists?\\n124. Name the chief kings of the 14th century the 18th.\\n125. Who was King of France in 1066? 1572? 1648? 1776?\\n126. Give the origin of the French tricolor.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0650.jp2"}, "651": {"fulltext": "HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. XV\\n127. What important event occurred at the Diet of Worms t\\n128. Wlio was the great rival of Charles V,\\n129. What was Napoleon s first great victory? His last?\\n130. What was the Confession of Augsburg?\\n131. Who were the Puritans The Separatists? The Independents?\\n132. Explain the following sentence used by an historian Pope\\nGregory XIII. saw in Henry III. a second Louis V., and in Henry\\nDuke of Guise a new Hugh Capet.\\n133. Tell the story of the Spanish Armada.\\n134. Describe the English Revolution of 1688.\\n135. Whose motto was Divide and govern\\n136. Describe the pomp, power, and fate of Wallenstein.\\n137. How many gi eat battles did Napoleon lose\\n138. Name the causes, effects, duration, principal battles, and prom-\\ninent generals, of the War of the Spanish Succession.\\n139. What was the object of the Council of Trent?\\n140. Describe the events by which the Church of England was\\nseparated from Rome.\\n141. Tell the story of Essex and the ring.\\n142. What was the life-purpose of William, Prince of Orange\\n143. Who was the Little Corporal\\n144. What was the Tennis-court oath?\\n145. What was the cause of the downfall of Napoleon I. Napo-\\nleon III.\\n146. What English monarch was the contemporary of Charles V.\\nand Luther?\\n147. What was the fate of Archbishop Cranmer?\\n148. Name and distinguish the three famous Princes of Orange.\\n149. Describe the sack of Magdeburg.\\n150. What French kings reigned during the time of the Hundred-\\nYears War?\\n151. Was Henry VIII. favorable to Luther?\\n152. What effect did the massacre of St. Bartholomew have upon\\nthe civil war in France?\\n153. What marriage laid the foundation of the rivalry between the\\nhouses of Austria and France?\\n154. Who prepared the Book of Common Prayer?\\n155. Who was .lohn Calvin? George Fox?\\n156. Name the best kings in the Capetian line; the Carlovingian\\nline the Tudor line the Stuart line the Bourbon line the Plan-\\ntagenet line.\\n157. What was the character of Catharine de Medici?\\n158. Describe the last days of Charles V.\\n159. What was the object of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes T", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0651.jp2"}, "652": {"fulltext": "XVl HISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\n160. What peculiar tactics did Napoleon adopt at Austerlitz?\\n161. What was the effect of the battle of Naseby?\\n162. What were Eichelieu s aims\\n163. What was the peculiarity of the reign of Charles II. of England?\\n164. What French king married Mary, afterward Queen of Scots?\\n165. What was meant by ship-money?\\n166. What was the Long Parliament?\\n167. What queens of France were divorced?\\n168. What is meant by the Sun of Austerlitz\\n169. What was the duration of the so-called Hundred-Years War?\\n170. What was the Gunpowder Plot?\\n171. Tell something about the character of Marlborough.\\n172. What was Pride s Purge\\n173. What was the Battle of the Nations?\\n174. What was the Day of the Sections?\\n175. What was the Seven- Years War called in America?\\n176. Who was the Hero of Marston Moor\\n177. For what is the elder Pitt noted?\\n178. How many Henrys were among the kings of France?\\n179. How many French kings have surrendered to the enemy?\\n180. Describe the glory of Cromwell s Protectorate.\\n181. What king learned the ship-builder s trade?\\n182. What great capitals of Europe did Napoleon enter in triumph?\\n183. Sketch the life of Charles XII. of Sweden.\\n184. What does the change of name from Northmen to Normans in-\\ndicate\\n185. What infant in his cradle received the title of the King of\\nRome (See Brief Hist. France.)\\n186. In what battle w^ *e spurs of more service than swords?\\n187. Who were the Leaguers\\n188. What was Walpole s policy?\\n189. Who were the Schoolmen?\\n190. Who were the Ironsides\\n191. Name the great battles fought between the French and the\\nEnglish.\\n192. What was the Rump Parliament?\\n193. Who is sometimes styled Napo ^t n IV.?\\n194. Why was Cromwell s rule distasteful to the English?\\n195. How many coalitions leading to war have been made against\\nFrance\\n196. How many years have the descendants of Capet occupied the\\nthrone of France?\\n197. What was the Declaration of Rights?\\n198. Who was John Law?", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0652.jp2"}, "653": {"fulltext": "HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. XVU\\n199. What was the Black Hole? The Black Death?\\n200. Which was the first victory of the French Kei)iiblic? Its eflfectf\\n201. Should Louis XVL be blamed for the Revolution?\\n202. How many times did Napoleon enter Vienna as a conqueror?\\n203. When did Kossuth appear in history?\\n204. Describe the Reign of Terror.\\n205. How many years has the government of France been a repub-\\nlic? An empire?\\n206. Name the principal actors in the Jacobin rule during the French\\nRevolution.\\n207. Who were the Carbonari?\\n208. Wliere are the keys of the Bastile?\\n209. What were the Assignats?\\n210. What was the Test Act?\\n211. What gi-eat poet helped Greece achieve its freedom?\\n212. Who was the Black Prince?\\n213. What great events occurred in the time of Philip I.\\n214. What was the Renaissance\\n215. Illustrate how often, in history, a strong king has been followed\\nby a weak one.\\n216. What was the first English Reform Bill?\\n217. What great war was marked by the capture of a king and a\\npope, and the sack of Rome?\\n218. What great political crime was perpetrated soon after the Seven-\\nYears War?\\n219. To what line of kings did Charles V. of France belong? Henry\\nIV. of France? Henry IV. of England? Henry IV. of Germany?\\nLouis XV. Charles the Simple of France?\\n220. Who was Father Fritz\\n221. What was the German Confederation t When was it formed?\\n222. On the public buildings in Paris are inscribed the words,\\nLiberte, Egalite, Fraternit6. Whence did this motto take its rise?\\n223. Why was not the art of printing discovered earlier than the\\n15th century? (This question is designed to bring up the general\\nrelation of supply and demand.\\n224. Who was the Corsican Adventurer\\n225. Name the great victoric of Luxemburg.\\n226. How did Marlborough s fall affect continental affairs?\\n227. What memorable event occuiTed at the siege of Leyden in 1574?\\n228. In what battle did Gustavus Adolphus fall?\\n229. What victories did the Prince of Orange win over the French!\\n230. What was the South Sea Bubble?\\n231. How is the history of Maria Theresa linked with that of Fred*\\nerick the Great", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0653.jp2"}, "654": {"fulltext": "Xvm HISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\n232. What monarch wore high-heeled shoes to increase his stature?\\n233. What is meant by the elder and the younger branch of the\\nBourbons?\\n234. Name some standard life of Frederick the Great Louis XIV.\\nCharles XII. Peter the Great Napoleon Charles V.\\n235. What was the Mississippi scheme? How did it affect this\\ncountry?\\n236. Whence did the French derive their love of a strong, centralized\\ngovernment\\n237. Name the standard histories of England, and state their pecu-\\nliarities and the periods they cover.\\n238. When and by whom was St. Petersburg founded?\\n239. How many Johns have reigned in France In England?\\n240. Sketch the character of the Four Georges.\\n241. When and how did France lose Canada?\\n242. What kings were assassinated?\\n243. What ruler occupied a different bed every night?\\n244. Illustrate the love of his soldiers for Napoleon I.\\n245. What was the Golden Bull?\\n246. What was the Aulic Council?\\n247. Who were the Girondists?\\n248. Who were the Roundheads The Cavaliers?\\n249. How did the character of George III. affect this country?\\n250. Name the great men who clustered about Louis XIV.\\n251. What women have exerted a great influence on French history?\\n252. What was the fate of Marat? Danton? Robespierre?\\n253. What great victories did Nelson achieve? Effect?\\n254. When, where, and between whom, was the battle of Guinegate\\nfought? Steinkirk? Lens? Blenheim? Jena? Pa via? Waterloo?\\nWagram Oudenarde\\n255. What influence did our Revolutionary War have upon France?\\n256. What great battle finally checked the Turkish advance in\\nEurope\\n257. Describe the retreat from Moscow.\\n258. Sketch the growth of the Papacy after the fall of Rome.\\n259. What was Queen Anne s war called in Europe?\\n260. What monarch persecuted the Protestants in France, and yet\\nprotected them in Germany? Why?\\n261. With what European nations was England engaged in war dur-\\ning our Revolution?\\n262. What modern nation, in imitation of ancient Rome, has been\\ngoverned by a consul?\\n263. In what century was the age of Louis XIV. The age of\\nElizabeth? The age of Richelieu?", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0654.jp2"}, "655": {"fulltext": "HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. XIX\\n264. Who suppressed the Knights Templars?\\n265. What was our King William s War called in Europe?\\n266. What great battles have been fought on the plains of Leipsic\\n267. What was the point of difference between the Calvinists and\\nthe Lutherans?\\n268. Name the principal battles of Napoleon I.\\n269. Give an account of Napoleon at the Bridge of Lodi.\\n270. What were the Berlin decrees\\n271. What is meant in French history by the Revolution? The\\nHundred Days? The Restoration?\\n272. For what achievement is Sobieski noted?\\n273. Who were the Janissaries?\\n274. Sketch Wellington s career.\\n275. Who w^as the Exile of St. Helena\\n276. Duruy says, Napoleon HI. was not a royal do-nothing. Ex-\\nplain the allusion.\\n277. What was the cause of the long hatred between England and\\nFrance\\n278. What great statesman died on hearing of the battle of Austerlitz\\n279. When was the temporal power of the Pope foimded?\\n280. The dream of Charlemagne and Charles V. was Napoleon s\\nalso. Explain.\\n281. What was the Zollverein?\\n282. What were the causes of the French Revolution of 1830?\\n1848? 1871?\\n283. For what is the year 800 noted? 1000? 1066? 1346? 1415?\\n1492? 1494? 1517? 1525? 1558? 1571? 1572? 1588? 1598?\\n1630? 1648? 1666? 1704? 1707? 1756? 1775? 1789?\\n284. Sketch Napoleon s Egyptian campaign.\\n285. What was the object of the Anti-Corn-Law League?\\n286. Who were the Chartists?\\n287. Name some Italians who have attained prominence in French\\npolities.\\n288. What was the effect upon Eui-opean history of the marriage of\\nMary of Burgundy to Maximilian\\n289. What is the Code Napoleon?\\n290. Wliat was the kingdom of Burgundy?\\n291. Wliat curious story is told of Rollo s doing homage for his fief?\\n292. How did Charlotte Corday s dagger precipitate the Reign of\\nTerror?\\n293. Name some incident of the battle of Ivry.\\n294. What was Cavour s policy\\n295. What was Luther s object in posting the ninety-five theses on\\nthe cathedral door?", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0655.jp2"}, "656": {"fulltext": "XX HISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\n296. What child-kings have occupied the throne of France? Of\\nEngland?\\n297. Who is the Sick Man\\n298. What became of Josephine after the fall of Napoleon? Maria\\nLouisa? (See Brief Hist, France.)\\n299. Where did the charge of the Six Hundred occur?\\n300. Name the causes and effects, the duration, the principal battles,\\nand the prominent generals, of the Seven-Years War.\\n301. What French king had the longest reign? The shortest?\\n302. What was the effect of the battle of Morgarten? Nancy? Wa-\\nterloo? Jena? Jemmapes? Kunnymede? Pavia?\\n303. Describe the state of the Church when Luther appeared.\\n304. What three great European monarchs were contemporaneous\\nin the 16th century?\\n305. How many French kings have been dethroned?\\n306. What will be the probable effect upon Italy of the Suez Canal?\\n307. Wliat caused the hostility between Zwingle and Luther?\\n308. WTio was the Golden-footed Dame\\n309. When did a charge of a small body of cavalry decide a great\\nbattle?\\n310. How many times have foreign armies taken Paris?\\n311. What was the Holy Alliance?\\n312. What is meant by the Three Days of July\\n313. What folly did Prince Rupert commit at the battle of Naseby?\\n314. Why did Francis I. form an alliance with the Turks?\\n315. What three kings in succession led great armies into Italy?\\n316. Who was the chevalier without fear and without reproach\\n317. What king sent his own sons to prison in order to release him-\\nself?\\n318. Relate some anecdote, or state some interesting fact, concerning\\nCromwell Napoleon Louis XIV. Peter the Great Charles XII.\\nCharlemagne Mary Queen of Scots Elizabeth.\\n319. What was the Smalcaldic War?\\n320. Explain the couj) d etat of Dec. 2.\\n321. What was the League of Cambrai?\\n322. State the causes of the Guelf and Ghibelline feud.\\n323. Name the great events that marked the beginning of the\\nmodern era.\\n324. What was the War of the Investiture?\\n325. When and where was gimpowder first used in battle?\\n326. What was the needle-gun?\\n327. What was an interdict?\\n328. What island kingdom has accomplished in a generation what\\nrequired centm-ies in Europe to perfect?", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0656.jp2"}, "657": {"fulltext": "HISTORICAL RECREATIONS. XXI\\n329. Tell the sad story of Lady Jane Grey.\\n330. Distinguish between the two Maurices named in history.\\n331. Name the leaders in the French Civil-Keligious War.\\n332. Who was the first Bourbon king?\\n333. What were Mary Stuart s claims to the English throne?\\n334. What was the Conquest of Granada? How is that event con-\\nnected with our history?\\n335. What was Magna Charta?\\n336. What were the causes of the Revival of Learning?\\n337. Who was Tilly?\\n338. What is the tricolored flag? How did it originate\\n339. Who was the Horace of France\\n340. Describe Charles H. s alliance with Louis XIV.\\n341. Li what respect did Charles I. resemble his father?\\n342. What great battles were won with the longbow?\\n343. Compare the influence of the discovery of gunpowder with\\nthat of printing.\\n344. WTiat points of contrast were there between the first Stuart\\nking of England and the Tudors\\n345. What is meant by the divine right of kings\\n346. What was the Triple Alliance?\\n347. Name two instances in which a spider has changed the fate of\\na great man.\\n348. Describe the Saracenic civilization in Spain.\\n349. What event caused Wolsey s fall\\n350. Show how the doctrines and forms of the English Church were\\nshaped under Edward VI.\\n351. What were the greatest events of the 15th century? 16thf\\n17th? 18th?\\n352. What effect did the Crusades have upon Europe?\\n353. What was the Congress of Vienna?\\n354. Sketch the steps by which Prussia became the head of Ger-\\nmany.\\n355. With what generals are the battles of Fleurus, Steinkirk, and\\nNeerwinden connected?\\n356. In what great campaign was the bayonet first used?\\n357. How did Richelieu capture Rochelle?\\n358. Who was the Upholsterer of Notre Dame\\n359. What is meant by the devastation of the Palatinate T\\n360. Who were the Moors of Spain\\n361. What was the Ladies Peace?\\n362. Who were the Knights of St. John?\\n363. State the pivotal point, or the tactics, or some marked inci-\\ndent, that decided the issue of the following battles, and by which they", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0657.jp2"}, "658": {"fulltext": "XXli HISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\ncan be remembered: Pa via; Leipsic Lech; Liitzen Freiburg;\\nMarston Moor; Naseby; battle of the Boyne; Plains of Abraham;\\nLodi Arcole Eivoli Austerlitz Waterloo.\\n364. What king wrote an essay against the use of tobacco\\n365. What was the Petition of Right?\\n366. What was Thorough\\n367. Who were the Covenanters?\\n368. What was the effect of Luther s translating the Bible?\\n369. Describe the extent and power of the Spanish Empire under\\nCharles V. and Philip II.\\n370. Who were the Jacobites? The Jacobins?\\n371. Describe the amusements of three noted kings reigning in the\\nearly part of the 18th century.\\n372. Quote Johnson s verses upon Charles XII.\\n373. What event marked the opening of the 18th century?\\n374. Name the last battle in which an English king fought in\\nperson.\\n375. What monarch said that he treated as a prince, and not as a\\nmerchant I make war on the living, not on the dead\\n376. When did a death save a great king?\\n377. Tell the story of the famous wind-mill still shown at Potsdam.\\n378. State the steps of the Unification of Italy.\\n379. Who was the Hero of the Red Shirt\\n380. What effect did the Franco-German War of 71 have upon Italy\\n381. What war was brought on by the closing of two churches? By\\nthe massacre of a congregation?\\n382. How did Italy become a province of the Eastern Empire?\\n383. What remarkable man was born in Arabia in the 6th century\\n384. Explain why the Crusaders encountered in Palestine both\\nTurks and Saracens.\\n385. What tales describe Arabian manners and customs in the 8th\\ncentury?\\n386. What complaint was made against the earliest Hanoverian\\nkings of England?\\n387. During how many years was England a republic?\\n388. Which one of Napoleon s generals did the Congress of Vienna\\nallow to retain his throne\\n389. Who was the author of the inductive method of reasoning?\\n390. Mention some of Mohammed s doctrines.\\n391. What was the Continental System?\\n392. Why did the Puritans emigrate to America?\\n393. What literature was diffused by the fall of Constantinople?\\n394. Describe the expulsion of the Moors from Spain by Philip III.\\n395. Show how trade with India has enriched Eui ope.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0658.jp2"}, "659": {"fulltext": "HliSTOKlCAL RECKEATiONS. XXU^\\n396. What was the greatest extent of the Saracen Empire?\\n397. How many queens have ruled Enghind?\\n398. Name the Four Conquests of Enghind.\\n399. Which is the longest war named in European history?\\n400. Sketch the principal steps in the growth of constitutional\\nliberty in England.\\n401. Do the Turks belong in Europe?\\n402. State the cause, duration, decisive battle, and effect of the War\\nof the Roses.\\n403. What English reign coincided with three French reigns, and,\\nvice veri^a, wliat French reign coincided with three English ones\\n404. Sketch the principal features of feudalism.\\n405. Who was the Monk of Cluny\\n406. Who was the Groat Captain\\n407. What remarkable men lived during the last decade of the 15th\\ncentury?\\n408. What famous duke died in a pool of water by the roadside?\\n409. What treaty was negotiated upon a raft in the river?\\n410. How long was Hanover joined to England?\\n411. What solitary act of courage did Richard II. show?\\n412. Who was Henry the Fowler?\\n413. Contrast early German with early French history.\\n414. Is there a sharp division between any two ages in history?\\n415. Wliat Dutcli admiral tied a broom to his masthead\\n416. How long after the battle of Hastings did the Great Fire at\\nLondon occur?\\n417. Repeat the epigram upon Charles I. -t.\\n418. What daughter helped expel her father from his throne?\\n419. Who was Peter Zimmermann?\\n420. Wlio was the Great Elector?\\n421. What king had a body-guard of giants?\\n422. When did the Battle of the Three Emperors occur?\\n423. Wlien did the Pope come to Paris to crown a French king?\\n424. When did the birth of an heir cost an English king his crown?\\n425. Tell the story of Maria Theresa before the Hungarian Diet.\\n426. Was Cromwell justified in executing Charles I.\\n427. What was the New Model?\\n428. What two great men had the power, but dare not take the title,\\nof king?\\n429. Sketch the general characteristics of the Stuarts the Tudors.\\n430. What was the Praise-God Barebone s Parliament?\\n431. What was the longest gap between two successive English Par-\\nliaments? Two French States-Generals?\\n432. Who said, Better a drowned land than a lost land", "height": "3388", "width": "2069", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0659.jp2"}, "660": {"fulltext": "XXIV HISTORICAL RECREATIONS.\\n433. What was Morton s Fork\\n434. Francis I. on his way to Paris from Madrid vapored much of\\nRegulus. Explain.\\n435. Charles V. once said, I do not intend to blush like Sigis-\\nmund. Explain.\\n436. What English kings were authors\\n437. What was the Revolt of the Beggars?\\n438. Who said, Some birds are too big for any cage\\n439. Who was the Tyrant of the Escurial\\n440. Why did not Pope Clement VII. dare to offend Charles V.\\n441. What English minister lost his head for getting his king a\\nhomely wife\\n442. Who was the first queen-regnant of England\\n443. Who was styled the Flower of Chivalrie\\n444. What kings have expelled from their dominions large classes\\nof their subjects?\\n445. Contrast the general characteristics of the middle ages with\\nthose of the modern era.\\n446. Who was the King-maker\\n447. What was the Holy Roman Empire?\\n448. Name several instances, of the general persecuting spirit of\\nformer times.\\n449. What English author defends the character and conduct of\\nHenry VIII.\\n450. Describe the growth and influence of free cities in the middle\\n451. Mr, Bagehot writes, The slavish Parliament of Henry VIII.\\ngrew into the murmuring Parliament of Queen Elizabeth, the mutinous\\nParliament of James L, and the rebellious Parliament of Charles I.\\nExplain,\\n452. What great events occurred in 1689?\\n453. Was Napoleon I. s reign a permanent benefit to France? What\\nwas its general effect upon Europe?\\n454. When did a beggar s grandson become a king?\\n455. Who said, I am the state\\n456. Who was the ^Last of the Knights\\n457. What peasant girl became a queen\\n458. Has Germany or France ever had a queen-regnant?\\n459. To what historical event is allusion made in the poem begin-\\nning,\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nOn Linden, when the sun was low,\\nAll bloodless lay the uiitroddeu snow?\\n460. Name the fifteen most decisive battles and sieges of modern\\ntimes, and state the reasons for the selection.\\ni", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0660.jp2"}, "661": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nAND PllONOUNClNG VOCABULARY.\\nThe figures refer to the page number.\\nNote. Diacritical marks are as follows a, e, I, 6, u, are long rf, i, d, ri, short,\\nas in (im, nutt, In, 6n, up; d, a, d, a, as iii aire, arm, ask, all it as in full; c as in tirm\\ne as in there f like s g like j ch like k like z th s in thine.\\nAhbassides (ah-bas Idz), the, 330.\\nAlHlalhxh, 405.\\nAbe-lard, 413.\\nAbou Beker (a l)oo bek r), 327.\\nAl)oukir (jx-boo-keer battle oi, .5.51.\\nAbram in Canaan, 80 in Egypt, 39.\\nAby dus, temple of, 18.\\nAc:idemy at Athens, the, 175, 282.\\nAc cad, 45, 40.\\nAcca dian, the, 45.\\nAcli\u00c2\u00a3e an League, the, 157.\\nAchaeans, concjuest of, by Dorians, 117.\\nAchaia (a-ka va), province of, 237.\\nAcliilles (a-kU leez), 110, 190.\\nAcre (aker), 400, 403, 551.\\nAcrSp olis, 123, 128, 145, 180-182, 187, 194.\\nActiiira (ak slie ilni), battle of, 254.\\nAddison, Joseph, 553.\\nAdelheid (a d61-hid), married to Otto, 375.\\nA drian IV., Pope, 391\\nAdriano ple, capture of, 407.\\ndiles, Roman, 271.\\niEgOspOfilmi, battle of, 145.\\n.^iie as, 117, 205.\\n^ne id, the, 117, 275.\\n^-o li-an war, the, 116.\\n^-oric Colonies, 118.\\nJE quians, the, 220.\\n^schines (6s ki-neez), 173.\\n^schylus (es ki-las), 127, 165, 168, 192.\\nMsop (e s5p), 173, 174.\\nAetius (a-e shi-ils) at Chalons, 268.\\n^to li-an League, 157.\\n.^tolians, the, at Thermopylae, 237.\\nAfrica, 19, 328, 420, 003.\\nAgamem non captures Troy, 116.\\nAgStho-cle?, tyrant of Sitily, 79.\\nAgesila us, King of Sparta, 146.\\nAgiucourt (i^-zhan-koor battle of, GG6.\\nA ^is, King of Sparta, 179.\\nAg^ora, the Athenian, 182.\\nAgrarian Law, 216.\\nAgiic ola conquers Britain, 260, 337.\\nAgrigen tuni, capture of, 227.\\nAgrippa, 214, 9 )8.\\nAgrippina (a-grip pi na), 259.\\nA hab, 48.\\nA haz, 49.\\nAhrinian (iih ri-man), Persian god, 98.\\nAix(aks), battle of, 242.\\nAi.x-la-Chapelle (aks lii-slui-pel 336, .381,\\n490, 529.\\nAjaceio (ii-yat clio), 540.\\nAl aric the Goth, 267.\\nAl ba Lon ga, 205, 209.\\nAlbert I., Duke of Austria, 384, 387, 388.\\nAlbert II., 384\\nAlbert, Prince, .586.\\nAll)er tus Alag nus, 413.\\nAll)igen se\u00c2\u00a7, the, 358.\\nAlbuera (ai-bwa rii), battle of, 568.\\nAl(,a3 us, Greek poet, 164.\\nAlcazar (ai-kiizar), tlie, 43.5.\\nAl9ibi a-de\u00c2\u00a7, 141, 14 144, 175.\\nAlc-mse-On idiie, the, 12.3, 124.\\nAlcuiii (al kwiu), 336, 349.\\nAlexander the Great, 150-152, 177.\\nAlexander of Russia, \u00c2\u00a362, 565.\\nAlexander Seve rus, 262.\\nAlexandria, 151, 154, 328, 551.\\nAlfonso of Aragon, 395.\\nAlfred the Great, 339, 349.\\nAlgiers (al-jeerz 492.\\nAlhani bra, the, 330, 405.\\nAllia, 221.\\nAUo dial Lands, 408.\\nAlma, battle of, 586.\\nAii.habet, 77, 113.\\nAlsace (iil-sas 485, 580.\\nAl tis, the Greek, 181, 186.\\nAl va, Duke of, 446.\\nAlvinczy (al-vln tse), .549, 5.50.\\nAni bro\u00c2\u00a7e. See Christian Fathers.\\n.Amenemhe (a-men-em e) III., 39.\\nAmerica, discovery of, 387, 40. 427.\\nAmiens (a mi-an), 358, 559.\\nAniphTcty6n ic Comicil, 11,5, 149.\\nAmphitheater, Flavian (Colosseum), 284.\\nAni unoph III., 17.\\nAunirath (il-moo-rat 407.\\nAuab asis, the, 172.\\nAnac reon, 164.\\nAnaxjlg oras, 167, 174.\\nAnaximan der, 174.\\nAndroni cus, Livius, 273.\\nAn ielo, Michael, 395, 424, 467.\\nAnglo-Saxons. 318, 338, 339, \u00c2\u00a347.\\nAngora, battle of, 406.\\nAnjou (On-zhoo Dukes of, 430.\\nAnne of Austria, 488.\\nAnne of Beaujeu (bo-zhoo 370.\\nAnne of 01 eves, 400.\\nAiuie of England, 512.\\nAntrd (.-idas, Pence of, 146.\\nAnti-Corn Law League, .585.\\nAn ti-fteh, 155, 237, 399.\\nAnti o-chus the Great, 234, 237.\\nAntip ater, 1.50.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0661.jp2"}, "662": {"fulltext": "XXVI\\nINDEX.\\nAntls thene\u00c2\u00a7, 177, 194.\\nAn tonines, ;ige of the, 261.\\nAntoni nus, Marcus, 261.\\nAntoninus Pius, 261.\\nAn tuny, Mark, 251-254.\\nAiit werp, 445.\\nAp61 le\u00c2\u00a7, 155, 183.\\nApe pi II., 80.\\nAphrodite, 184.\\nA pis, 81.\\nAp61 lo (Apollon), 184.\\nApollodo rus, Greek painter, 182.\\nApollo nius, Greek poet, 155.\\nAp pian Way, tlie, 283.\\nAp pius Claudius, 217, 283.\\nAqueducts of Home, 282.\\nAqui nas, Thomas, 413.\\nAr abs, 326-331, 417.\\nAr agon, 404.\\nArbe la, battle of, 151.\\nArc, Joan of. See Jeanm d Arc.\\nArch of Constantine, 284 of Severus, 284\\nof Titus, 284, 396.\\nAr-ehan gel, first Russian seaport, 520.\\nAr-chida mus, 140, 141.\\nAreWl ochus, 163.\\nArchimedes (ar-ki-medeez), 155, 234.\\nArchitecture. See Art.\\nAr \u00e2\u0082\u00achons, Athenian, 121.\\nArcole (ar-ko la), battle of, 549.\\nA-re-6p agus, court of, 122, 194.\\nA re\u00c2\u00a7 (Mars), god of war, 184, 192.\\nArgonautic Expedition, 115.\\nAr gOs, 117, 146.\\nAria or Iran, 10.\\nAriad ne, 185.\\nA riani\u00c2\u00a7m, 265, 266.\\nAristi des, 128, 129, 132, 135.\\nAristode mns, 193.\\nArist6ph ane\u00c2\u00a7, 155, 169, 175, 199.\\nAristOt le, 150, 176, 177, 194, 413.\\nA rius, 265.\\nArkwright, Sir Richard, 556.\\nArmada, the Invincible, 464.\\nArinagnacs (ar-miin-yaks 366-368.\\nArminiiis, 256.\\nArmor. See Military Ciistoms.\\nArquebus (ar kwe-btls), 436.\\nArsa gidse, the, 156.\\nArt, Assyrian and Babylonian, 55, 71, 72,\\n113, 413 Carlovingian, 336 Chaldean,\\n64, 65, 71 Chinese, 110 Egyptian, 26,\\n44, 413 English, early, 349, 350 French,\\nearly, 372; German, early, 325; Greek,\\n137, l45, 154, 158, 180, 192, 194, 201 He-\\nbrew, 85 Hindoo, 105 mediaeval, 316,\\n414 Persian, 96, 104 Phcenician, 77\\nRoman, 281, 285, 305, 310 Saracen, 330\\n16th century, 467 17th century, 515,\\n517 19th century, 561.\\nArtaxerxes(ar-takserks eez), 135, 145.\\nArtaxerxes (Babegan), 156.\\nAr temis, 184, 189, 194.\\nArthur, Prince, 358.\\nArtois (ar-twji), 358, 370, 489.\\nArts and inventions, Assyriati and Baby-\\nlonian, 48, .59, 71, 72; Carlovingian,\\n336; Chaldean, 64 Chinese, 111 Egyp-\\ntian, 28, 44; English, 349; French,\\nearly, 372 German, 325, 384 Greek,\\n183 Hebrew, 85 Hindoo, 105 medi-\\naeval, 414 Persian, 97, 104 Phoenician,\\n77 Roman, 282, 310 Sarficen, 331 16th\\ncentury, 467 17th century, 514 18th\\ncentury, 555 19th century, 561.\\nAr yan race, 10-13, 51, 88, 89, 105, 114, 204.\\nAsca nius, son of ^neas, 205.\\nAs tham, Roger, 467, 472.\\nAspa sia, 167.\\nAs pern, battle of, 566.\\nAssemblies, Congregation of Israel, 86;\\nFrench, 359, 540-542, 581; Gemian, 823;\\nGreek, 116, 194; Roman, 208, 212, 215\\n(see Comitia) the Witenagemot, 347.\\nAsshur, Assyrian god, 62 emblem of, 98.\\nAsshurban ipal, 49, 54, 67, 69, 70.\\nAsshur- e-raed i-lin (Saracus), 47, 50, 55.\\nAsshur-i zir-pal, 48.\\nAssyria, 17, 46-70, 88, 89.\\nAstar te (Ash ta-rOth), 79.\\nAstrologers, 52, 56, 288, 290.\\nAsty age?, 88.\\nAthe na, 180, 181, 184, 187, 194.\\nAtlionian art, 123, 181-183 constitution\\n(of Solon), 122 democracy, 119, 124, 139,\\n159 education, 178 homes, 195 kings,\\n121; literature, 123. 161-172; Panath-\\nenaic procession, 187 respect for\\nPericles, 140, 141; schools closed, 157;\\nschools of philosophy, 175-177 senate,\\n123; supremacy, 134; symposia, 197-\\n199 theaters, 170, 187-189 tyrants, 123.\\nAthenians, the, 134, 137, 138, 159, 170, 179,\\n194, 197, 201.\\nAthens, 119, 121-140, 144, 146, 157, 158, 194,\\nAt talus, 237.\\nAttic wit, 199.\\nAt tica, 121, 124, 143, 176.\\nAt tila, 267, 268, 393, 405.\\nAuerstadt (ow er-stat), battle of, 564.\\nAugsburg, confession of, 442 diet at, 441.\\nAugurs, Roman, 205, 208, 251, 293.\\nAugustan age, the, 256, 310, 553.\\nAugus tulus R5m ulus, 269.\\nAugustus Caesar, 252-258, 296, 298.\\nAugustus the Strong, 523.\\nAulic Council, 387.\\nAurelian, 263.\\nAus terlitz, battle of, 563.\\nAustria, 374, 384, 531, 588, 590-593.\\nAustrian Succession, war of the, 527.\\nAiistro-Hungary, 592.\\nAv entine Hill, 205, 208, 209, 214, 217.\\nAvignon (a-veen-yon 360.\\nAzof, capture of, 521.\\nAztecs, the, 427.\\nBa al, 78.\\nBaalbec (bal-b6k 75, 281.\\nBabel, Tower of, 55.\\nBa ber, 406.\\nBabylon, 46, 50, 51, 58, 89.\\nBabylonian art, 55 curious customs, fi3\\nempire, 45, 46, 50 literature, 54, 55, 71\\nrelision, 61 scene, 63 writing, 52.\\nBac cinis (Diony sus), 185, 187.\\nBacon, Lord, 468, 513.\\nBacon, Roger, 413, 424.\\nBac tria, 10, 93.\\nBadajoz (bad-a-hos capture of, 568.\\nBad en, 326, 592.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0662.jp2"}, "663": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nXXVll\\nBagdad 330 capture of, by Turks, 400.\\nBljaz5t ravages Grcecf, 407.\\nBVIaklava, b ittle of, 5SG.\\nBaldwin, Kiiv^ l Jerusalem, 3\\nBVli-ul, .loliii, Kin;r of Scotland, 345.\\nBan nockburn, battle of, 345.\\nBanquets, Reform, 576.\\nBarliarOs sa, .Vlgerine pirate, 437.\\nBarbaro.ss.i, Fredeiick, 380, 400.\\nBar ueveld, John of, 44!).\\nBarras (b:i-ra Gen., 546.\\nBarrd (bii-nV), Col., 53(\\nBarri (ini-re), Couites^e du, 537.\\nBasilicas, Roman, 281.\\nBasle (l.al), 476, 478 Council of, 302.\\nBissano, battle of, 540.\\nBastile (Ims-t^- er), storming of the, 540.\\nBata viau Republic, 545.\\nBautzen (bowt sen), battle of, 570.\\nBava ria, 485, 592.\\nBaxter, Richard, 513.\\nBayard (ba ilrd). Chevalier, 431, 432, 434.\\nBazaine (ba-zan Marshal, 580.\\nBeauhariiais (bo-iir-na Mrae. de, 547.\\nBeauharnais, Eusrene do, 547, 562.\\nBeaumont (bo in5nt), Francis, 513.\\nBecket, Thomas ti, 343.\\nBede, the Venerable, 349.\\nBedford, Duke of, 367, 368.\\nBeirgars, 439, 446, 448, 47.^, 476-478, 491.\\nBehls tun Inscription, 53, 90.\\nBelgium, 445, 543, 550, 500.\\nBelisa rins, 320.\\nBelshazzar, 51.\\nBenedictine monks, 390.\\nBenev6n to, 563.\\nBenevolences, 455.\\nBeni Hassan, tombs of, 40.\\nBerengar, Prince, 375.\\nBerlin Decrees, 565 treaty, 597.\\nBernadotte French marshal, 563.\\nBer nard, Duke of Weimar, 483, 484.\\nBero sus, 46.\\nBethho ron, Joshua at, 82.\\nBias. See Seven Sajes.\\nBible, the, 85, 154, 226, 425, 440, 459, 501,\\n507, 523.\\nBi\u00c2\u00a7 marck, Otto von, 590.\\nBlack Death, the, 362.\\nBlack Hole of Calcutta, 534.\\nBlack Prince, tlie, 362-364.\\nBlake, Admiral Rol)ert, 504.\\nBlenheim (blgn Im), ])attle of, 493.\\nBliiclier (bloo ker). Marshal von, 572.\\nB e 6 tian League, 139, 147.\\nBolie mia, 386, 480, 485, 528.\\nBVbeniond, 398.\\nB )ileau (bwji-lo 51.3.\\nBoleyn (Bool in), Anne, 457, 460.\\nBonapartists, the, 576.\\nBoniface VIII., Pope, 3.59.\\nBook of the Dead, Egyptian, 24.\\nBordeaux (bor-do), 543.\\nBorodino (hor o tlee no), battle of, 568.\\nBorsip pa, Temple of Nebo at, 55.\\nBossuet (bos-sii-a 51.3.\\nBo^ wortli, battle of, 346.\\nBoth well. Earl of, 463.\\nBoulogne (boo-lon 562.\\nBourbon, Duke of, 434, 435.\\nBourbon, House of, 355, 451-454, 543, 571,\\n574, .S78.\\nBourgeoisie (boorzhwii-ze the, .359.\\nBon vines (i\u00c2\u00bboo-veen battle of, 358.\\nBt)yne, battle of the, 511.\\nBrahma and the Brahman.s, 10.5-107.\\nBrandenburg (Bran den-boorg), 38(i, 520.\\nBreu luis, Gallic leader, 150.\\nBreslau (brCs low), 477.\\nBretigny (bra-teen-yee 364.\\nBrienne (l)re-On French minister, 538.\\nBri-ht, John, .585.\\nBritain, 240, 337, 338, .347.\\nBritish Eini)ire, 587; musiiim, .52, .55, 60, 181.\\nBrunswick, House of. See Ilanovei:\\nBrutinm, 203, 233.\\nBrutus, L. Junius, 211, 212.\\nBrutns, M. Junius, 251-253.\\nl?ul)as tis, 26.\\nBuddha (hood dii), 107, 111.\\nBunyan, John, 51.3.\\nBuonaparte, Jerome, 563.\\nBuonaparte, Joseph, 563, 566, 568.\\nBuonaparte, Louis, 563.\\nBuonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon I.\\nBurghers, the, 374.\\nBurgundians, in France, 366; in Gaul, 318.\\nBurgundy, Duke of, 366, 369.\\nBurial customs, 32-35, 43, 63, 65, 71, 99,\\n104, 190, 191, 294, 307.\\nBurke, Edmund, 554.\\nBurleigh, Lord, 462, 515.\\nBurns, Robert, 553.\\nButler, Samuel, 513.\\nBvron, Lord. 555.\\nByzantine Empire, the, 266, 269, 319, 407.\\nCab ots, the, 427.\\nCiibral takes Brazil, 427.\\nCade, Jack, insurrection of, 368.\\nCajsalpi nus, 468.\\nCajsar, Caius (ka yus). See Caligula.\\nCa;sar, Julius, 248-252, 280, 298, 302, 324.\\nCairo (ki ro), 21, 551.\\nCalais (ka-hV), capture of, 361, 444.\\nCalendar, 155, 222, 250, 251, 544, 561.\\nCalends, Ides, and Nones, 251.\\nCalig ula, 259, 303.\\nCaliphs, the, 327, 330, 399.\\nCalllm aehus, 181.\\nCalli o-pe. See Muftes.\\nCalonne (ka-15n 538.\\nCalpui- nia, 251.\\nCalvin, John, 441.\\nCalvinists, the, 444.\\nCalydo nian Boar, Hunt of the, 116.\\nCaml)rai (k6n-bra 432.\\nCambv se?, King of Persia, 15, 90.\\nCamillus, 221-223.\\nCampbell, Colin (Lord Clyde), 587.\\nCanipo Kormio, .550.\\nCampus Mar tius, 222, 299, 301, 308.\\nCan na;, battle of, 232.\\nCannon, first used, 424.\\nCantons, tlie Eight Swiss, 389.\\nCanule ian Decree, 218.\\nCanute 339.\\nCapet (ka pCt), Hugh, 356.\\nCapetian Kings, 356.\\nCapitoline Hill, 206, 208, 209, 222, 296, 307;\\nmuseum, 183.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0663.jp2"}, "664": {"fulltext": "XXVIU\\nINDEX.\\nCappadocia, 400.\\nCapua, 203, 233.\\nCaracal la, or Caracallns, 262, 285.\\nCarbonuri (Iv.-lr-bo-iia re), the, 593.\\nCaicheinish (kai kee-niish), 87.\\nCarloviii gian kings, ;-i32, 3J6.\\nCai oline, Queen of England, jSS.\\nCarthage, 73, 76, 227-235, 244, 250, 209, 320.\\nCarthaginians, the, 133, 227-235.\\nCartier (kar-t.va 427.\\nCassius (liasli e-us), Cains Longi nus, 251-\\n253.\\nCassius, Spurius, 216.\\nCastes, Chaldean, 52; Hindoo, 10.5.\\nCastiglione (kas-tel-yo na), battle of, 549.\\nCastile (kas-teel 404.\\nCastillon (kas-tee-yon battle of, 369.\\nCastles, mcdicToval, 409.\\nCastor and Pollux, 213, 296.\\nCateau-Cambresis (ka to k5n l)ra zee\\n444, 450.\\nCatharine of Aragon, 457.\\nCatharine of Austria, 452.\\nCatharine the Great of Russia, 525.\\nCathedrals, art in, 415, 446, 575 Cologne,\\n415 Jerusalem, 320 Notre Dame, Paris,\\n492; Pisa, 468; sacked in Netherlands,\\n445, 446; St. Mark s, Venice, 575; St.\\nPaul s, London, 515 St. Peter s. London,\\nS40 St. Peter s, Rome, 333, 575 11th\\ncentury, 445, 446.\\nCatiline s Conspiracy, 247, 275.\\nCato the Censor, 235, 274, 289.\\nCato the Stoic, 248, 250.\\nCauca sian race, the, 10.\\nCaudine Forks, battle of, 223.\\nCavaliers, the, 500.\\nCavendish, Henry, English chemist, 555.\\nCavour (ka-voor Count, 594.\\nCawnpore 587.\\nCgQ il, Sir William (Lord Burleigh), 462.\\nCe crops, 121.\\nCellini (chel-lee nee), Benveiiu to, 467.\\nCel sius, Anders, Swedish astronomer, 555.\\nCelts, the, 12, 337, 338.\\nCensors, Roman, 218, 256, 271. See Cato.\\nCenturies. See Assemblies.\\nCerami ciis, the, 140, 177.\\nCer berus, 184.\\nCe re?. See Demeter.\\nCerisolles (-sol 438.\\nCesno la, Luigi Palma di, 77, 87.\\nChairone a, battle of, 149.\\nChalde a. See Babylon.\\nChalons (sha-lon battle of, 268.\\nChaml)ord (shOn-bor Comtc de, 576.\\nChampoUion (shani-p6re-on), Francois, 22.\\nChapman, George, English poet, 468.\\nCharlemagne (shar le-man), 330, 332, 333,\\n335, 336, 349, 417.\\nCharles I. of England, 498-.50S.\\nCharles IL, 503, 506, 508-510, 514.\\nCharles I. (the Bald) of France, 335,\\nCharles III. (the Simple), 3,54.\\nCharles IV. (the Handsome), 355.\\nCharles V. (the Wise), 355, 365.\\nCharles VI. (the Well-beloved\\\\ 355. 365.\\nCharles VII. (the Victoiions). 355, .S67-.S69.\\nCharles VIIL (the Affable), 355, 369,430.\\nCharle? IX., 450-453.\\nCharles X., 575.\\nCharles Albert of Sardinia, 592.\\nCharles of Anjou, King of the Sicilies, 395.\\nCharles of Austria, 49; 494.\\nCharles the Bad, of Jsavarre, 362.\\nCharles the Bold, of Burgundy, 369, 433.\\nCharles of Valois, 360.\\nCharles IV. of Germany, 3S5.\\nCharles V., 428, 433, 435, 439, 442-444.\\nCharles VI., 493, 494.\\nCharles IL of Spain, 493.\\nCharles XIL of Sweden, 523-525.\\nChartists, the, 584.\\nChatham (chiit ani), Earl of. See Pitt.\\nChau Qei Geohrey, 414, 467.\\nChe Hwang-te, 109.\\nChemistry, development of, 555.\\nCheops (ke ops), 16, 36, 37.\\nChilderic (chllder-ik), 382.\\nChilo (kilo). See Seven Sages.\\nChina, 109-112, 602.\\nChios (ki 5s), 139.\\nChivalry, 410-412, 439.\\nChonlgic Monument, 181, 194.\\nChora gus, Greek, 188.\\nChrist, 257. 259, 310.\\nChristian IV. of Denmark. 480.\\nChristian Church, the, 265, 320, 321, 331, ,S32,\\n358, 386, 390-392, 403, 439, 450, 458, 478,\\n479, 601 (see Papal Poiver) Fathers, 155,\\n321.\\nChristianity, 263, 265, 319, 330, 331, 339.\\nChristians, the, 260, 262-264, 437.\\nChristina (kris-tee na) of Sweden, 484,\\nChurch of England, 4.58, 460, 462; in Ire-\\nland, 584, 588; in Scotland, 499; re-\\nstored after Cromwell, 506.\\nCicero, 157,236, 247, 248, 253, 274, 296, 303,\\n310.\\nCimbri, 242, 244.\\nCi mon, 136, 141.\\nCinciuna tus, 220.\\nCin eas, ambassador to Rome, 225.\\nCinna, 244.\\nCircus Flaniinius, 299.\\nCircus Maximus, 208, 297.\\nCisal pine Gaul, 204.\\nCities, Christianized, 263; free, 883, 392.\\nCivilization, Anglo-Saxon, 347; Arabian,\\n330; Aryan, 12; Assyrian and Babylo-\\nnian, 51,71 Chinese, 110 Court of Char-\\nlemagne, 335 Court of Louis XIV., 515\\nEgvi)tian, 19, 43; Elizabethan age, 468;\\nGallic, .371 Greek, 119, 158, 201 He-\\nbrew, 85; Hindoo, 105; medifcval, 383,\\n408, 474; Persian, 92, 103; Phoenician,\\n77; Roman, 270, ;-:09; Teutonic, 322, S25;\\n16th ccntur.v, 467; 17th cuitury, 513;\\n18tb century, 538, 544, 553.\\nClan, the Celtic, 372.\\nClau dius, Emperor. 263.\\nCleis thene?, or Clis thene?, 124.\\nClement v.. Pope, 360.\\nClement VIL, 457.\\nCleobu lus. See Seven Sages.\\nCle on, 141, 170,172.\\nCleopa tra. 155, 249, 253, 254, 285, 303.\\nClient.*, Roman, 207, 213, 270, 298.\\nCli o. See Muses.\\nClive (kliv), Robert, 534.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0664.jp2"}, "665": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nXXIX\\nCloa ca, Roman, 20\\nCloe lia, 21.S.\\nClo vis, 318, 331.\\nClyde, Lord. Set- Campbell.\\nCiiidiis (nidus), 146, 181, 183.\\nCOb den, Riiliaid, 5!S5.\\nCo cle^, Horatiiis, 212.\\nCode, Buddhist, 107, 108; Draco s, 121,\\n122; Laws of the Twelve Tal les, 217,\\n280 Mosaic, 85, 86 Napoleonic, 561\\nServian Constitution, 212; Solim s Con-\\nstitution, 122, 123 Tribonian, 320 Z. ro-\\nastriau, 93.\\nCo drus, 121, 176.\\nCiB lian Hill, 207.\\nColbert (cOl-ber), French minister, 489,\\n492.\\nColeridge (kolrlj), Samuel Taylor, 555.\\nColigny (ko-leenye), Admiral ile, 451-i53.\\nCoUati nus, liusband of Lucretia, 211.\\nColleges. See Jniversities and Education.\\nCologne (ko-lou 326, 415.\\nColonna, the Italian, ;i96.\\nColosse um, tlie, 260, 284, 292, 396.\\nColumbus, Christ(jpber, 387, 423, 427.\\nComitia Centuriata, 212, 2i5.\\nComitia Curiata, 208, 215,\\nComitia Tributa, 215.\\nCommerce, Assyrian and Babylonian, 59,\\n60; Chinese, ilO English, early, 348;\\nGreek, 118, 154, 159, 200; Hebrew, 8j;\\nHindoo, 105; Italian, 392, 394; mediae-\\nval, 326, 348, 394 Persian, 92, 97 Phoe-\\nnician, 73-77, 118; Roman, 298, 305;\\n15th century, 424 16th century, 456,\\n465, 467; 17th century, 489; 18th cen-\\ntury, 538, 555 19th century, 651.\\nCom modus, 261.\\nConnnons, House of, 344, 503, 504, 512, 584,\\n587.\\nCommonwealth, English, 503 Helnew, 85.\\nCommunes, French, 581 medijieval, 358.\\nCond6 (kon-da), Louis I. de, 451, 452.\\nCond^, Louis II. de, 485, 48S, 491.\\nConfederations, 134, 206, 32.5, 387, 448, 563,\\n588, 591.\\nConfucius (kon-fu she-us), 111.\\nCo non, Greek admiral, 146.\\nConrad L, 373.\\nConrad IL, 375,376.\\nConrad III., 379, 380, 400.\\nConrad IV. 381.\\nCon radin, last of the Hohenstaufen race,\\n380.\\nConservatives, the English, 500, 587.\\nConstance, Councils of. See Councils.\\nCon stantine the Great, 264, 265.\\nConstantine Last of the Cjcsars 407.\\nConstantinople, 181, 26. 266, 269, 328, 401,\\n407.\\nConsulship. Roman, 213, 218, 256, 265, 307.\\nContinental System of Napoleon I., .565.\\nCopenhagen, 523.\\nCopernicus, 424, 468.\\nCorcy ra, 1.39.\\nCorday Chailotte, 544.\\nCordeliers the, 542.\\nCordova, 330.\\nCorinth, 117, 236, 237, 250.\\nCorinthian capital, 181, 182, 281.\\nCorionl nus (Caius Marcius), 219.\\nCorn Laws, 583.\\nCornelia, 241.\\nCorjM\u00c2\u00bbration3 and Guilds. See Guilds.\\nCorreggio (IcorGdjo), 467.\\nCor tes, 428.\\nCouncils, Amphictyonic, 115, 149; Aulic,\\n387; Clermont, 398; Constance, 385;\\nConstantinople, 418 Cortes, 404 eccle-\\nsiastical, 265, 392; of Elder.s, 116; of\\nNice, 265; of State, 553 of Trent, 442.\\nCourcelles (koor-sOl battle of, 580.\\nC ovenant, Scoti h, 499, 503.\\nCovenanter.s, 503, 507.\\nCowper, William, 553.\\nranrner, Thomas, 457-461;\\nCiassus, 245-249.\\nCr6cy (krfis sl), battle of, 361.\\nCrespy, 438, 442, 4.^0.\\nCrlme a, 525.\\nCrimean war, the, 579, )86.\\nCrcEsns (kree sus), 89.\\nCnmiwell, Oliver, 501-505.\\nCiomwell, Richard, 506.\\nCromwell, Thomas, Earl of Essex, 458, 4C0.\\nCrusaders sack Jerusalem, 399.\\nCrusades, 397-40. 5, 414, 419.\\nCumai an sibyl, \u00e2\u0080\u00a210\\nCunaxa, battle of, 145.\\nCuneiform writing, 53, G. 92.\\nCuratii, 207.\\nCu re\u00c2\u00a7, 206.\\nCu riaj, Roman, 211, 270.\\nCu rie\u00c2\u00a7. See Assemblies.\\nCur ti-us, Mettius, 206.\\nCuvier (kii-ve-Jt), 555.\\nCyax are?, 50, 88.\\nCy clops, 114.\\nCy Ion, 123.\\nCyn ics the, 177.\\nCynosar ges, the, 194.\\nCynosc ph alaj, battle of, 236.\\nCyprus, Di Cesnola at, 77, 87 settlement\\nof, 73.\\nCyrus the Great, 51, 84, 88, 89, 125.\\nCyrus the Younger, 145, 172.\\nCzars, Russian, origin of title, 520.\\nDacians, the, 261.\\nD Alembert (dii-lOn-ber 554.\\nDamascus, 49, 400.\\nDanes, 339, 354.\\nDaniel, 84.\\nDan te, 414.\\nDanton(dan tf)n), 540, 544.\\nDardanelles (dar-djVnelz 115.\\nDarius (da-ri us) L, 91, 125, 126, 129.\\nDarius III., 151.\\nDark ages, the, 316.\\nDarnlev, Lord, 463.\\nDauphin, the, 362, 01.\\nDavid, Hebrew king. 83.\\nDe bir, 77.\\nDeborah, 82.\\nDecem virs, the, 216, 217.\\nDe cius, 262.\\nDe Foe, Daniel, 553.\\nDelhi, massacre at, 587.\\nDelos, 134.\\nDelphi, temple at, 115, 124, 186.\\nDemagogues, 141, 143, 170.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0665.jp2"}, "666": {"fulltext": "INDEX,\\nDeme ter, 184.\\nDem5s theiie\u00c2\u00a7, 149, 173.\\nDenmark, 481, 523.\\nDenta tus, 225.\\nDerby, Lord, 587.\\nDesaix (da-sa 559.\\nDescartes (da-kiirt), 513.\\nDe Soto, 427.\\nDettingen (det tino-en), battle of, 529.\\nDia na. See Artiiids.\\nDiaz (dee as), Bartliolonieu, 426.\\nDictatorship, Roman, 213, 219, 245, 246,\\n250, 307.\\nDiderot (de-dro), writings of, 539, 554.\\nDido founds Carthage, 76.\\nDiocle tian, 263, 264.\\nDiodo rus Sic ulus, 15.\\nDi5g ene\u00c2\u00a7, 177.\\nDiony sus, god of wine, 185, 187.\\nDirectory, French, 546.\\nDisraeli (diz-ra lee), Benjamin, 587.\\nDodo na, temple of Zeus at, 1S5.\\nDoge, the, of Venice, 393.\\nDol lond, John, 555.\\nDomitian, Eoman Emperor, 261.\\nDon Pedro the Cruel, 364.\\nDoria, Andrea, Spanish admiral, 436.\\nDorians, migration of, 117, 119.\\nDoric Colonies, 118.\\nDover, 508.\\nDraco, Laws of, 121, 122.\\nDrake, Sir Francis, 464, 465.\\nDresden, 477, 529, 570.\\nDrusus, 256.\\nDryden, John, 513.\\nDudley, Lord Guilford, 461.\\nDudley, Robert, Earl of Leicester, 464, 466.\\nDuels, 348.\\nDunbar, battle of, 503.\\nDunkirk, 504, 508.\\nDuns Scotus, 413.\\nDii rer, Albert, 476.\\nDutch Republi(;, rise of the, 445.\\nDutch war, the, 508.\\nEast India Company, 449, 465.\\nEdda, the, 414.\\nEducation, Assyrian and Babylonian, 55,\\n71; Carlovingian, 336; Chinese, 111;\\nEgyptian, 26, 44, 155; English, early,\\n349 French, early, 369 German, early,\\n319, 325 Greek, 137, 155, 157, 162, 163,\\n178, 201; Hebrew, 86; mediajval, 318,\\n381, 390, 413, 414 Persian, 94, 103 Phoe-\\nnician, 77; Roman, 257, 280, 286, 318;\\nSaracen, 330; 16th centnry, 467; 17tli\\nceiiturj-, 513 18th century, 557 19th\\ncentury, 561, 583, 587.\\nEdwar.l I. of England, 344, 345.\\nEdward IIL, 360, 361.\\nEdward IV., 340.\\nEdward V., 340.\\nEdward VI., 460.\\nEdward the Con fessor, 339.\\nEgbert of England, 339.\\nEgeria, the nymph, 207.\\nEgypt, 15-44, 50, 151, 154, 254, 328, 551.\\nE hud, 82.\\nElba, 570.\\nEleanor, wife of Louis VII., 356, 400.\\nElectors, German, 382, 385.\\nEleusin ian Mysteries, 144, 165, 184.\\nEleusis, 16.5.\\nEltiin marbles, 181, 187.\\nElizabeth, Queen of England, 461-4fiu\\nElizabeth, wife of Winter King, 480.\\nElizabeth, Empress of Russia, 530.\\nElizabethan age, 467-474.\\nEmbalming. See liuiial Customs.\\nEngland, 337-353, 455-474, 494-513, 532-\\n536, 583-588.\\nEn nius, 273.\\nEpaminon das, 147, 148.\\nEph esus, 117.\\nEph ors, 120.\\nEp ics, 25, 163, 273, 275.\\nEpicui-e ans, 177.\\nEpicu rus, 177.\\nEpi rus, 225.\\nEquites (Ck wi-teez), 213, 240.\\nEia\u00c2\u00a7 mus, 469.\\nEr ato, 185.\\nEratos thene\u00c2\u00a7, 155.\\nErechthe ium, 194.\\nEsarhad don, 49.\\nEscu rial, the, 444.\\nEsquiline Hill, 277, 281, 298.\\nEssex, Earl of, 466.\\nEthiopia conquered by Egypt, 17.\\nEtruscans, the, 204, 206, 208, 211.\\nEu cle\u00c2\u00a7, 127.\\nEugene, Prince, 493.\\nEugenie (u-zha-nee Empress, 580.\\nEumenes (u m6-neez), 23.\\nEumen ide\u00c2\u00a7 (Furies), the, 185.\\nEuphra te\u00c2\u00a7, the, 13, 45, 50, 58.\\nEurip ideg, 168, 275.\\nEurym edon, battle of, 136.\\nEuter pe. See Ahises.\\nExig uus, 10.\\nExodus of the Jews, 82.\\nEylau (i low), battle of, 565.\\nFabii (fa In-i), the, 218.\\nFa bius, M., Roman dictator, 230, 232.\\nFabri cius, 225.\\nFamine, cotton, in England, 587 in Ath-\\nens, 145; in Canaan, 39; in Egypt, 39;\\nin Germany, 485 in Haarlem, 446 in\\nIreland, 585 in Rome, 218, 220; in Rus-\\nsia, 599.\\nFates, the three, 185.\\nFawkes, Guy, 496.\\nFayoom (fi-oom the, 32, 39, 162, 168, 19r\\nFeme, the German, 383.\\nF^nelon (fa-n6-16n), 513.\\nFerdinand I. of Germany, 436, 441, 444.\\nFerduiand IL, 444, 4i0-485.\\nFerdinand III., 48.5.\\nFerdinand of Spain. 404, 430, 443.\\nFestivals, 30, 38, 62, 63, 92, 115, 150, 165,\\n186, 201, 239, 290, 307, 322, 347, 473, 474,\\n479.\\nFeudal castles, 409 ceremonies, 409 levy\\nabolished, 425 system, 323, 408.\\nField of the Cloth of Gold, 433.\\nFielding, Henry, 553.\\nFire, Great, in London, 507 in Moscow,\\n,568 in Rome, 259.\\nFire-worship, 99.\\nFlamin ius, 236.\\nFlanders, war of, 490.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0666.jp2"}, "667": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nXXXI\\nFleece, the Golden, 115.\\nFletcher, John, 513.\\nFlen iiis, battle of, 4 2.\\nFlod.leii Field, battle of, 450.\\nFlorence, 3J4, 4:{0.\\nFoMtaineltleau (fon-tan-lilo), 570.\\nFontenay (fon-te-nsi), battle of, :\u00c2\u00ab4,\\nFontenoy (fou-te-iiwa), battle of 52!).\\nForno vo, hattle of, 4oO.\\nForty- Years War, the, 446.\\nForum, lloinan, 29(j, 2i)8, 29!) niomiments\\nin, 282, 281; uses of, 2;J9, 281, aOO, 308.\\nFox, Charles, Pitt s rival, 5.\\nFox. Georj^e, founder of Quakers, 505.\\nFrance, .S:U-337, 354-373, 40^), 413, 416, 450-\\n454, 486-494, 51.5, 53()-553, 559-582.\\nFraiiche Coint^ (fronsh kon-ta 492.\\nFranci I. of Austria, 52!).\\nFrancis I. of France, 432-438.\\nFrancis II., 450, 451.\\nFrancis Joseph of Austria, 590, 592.\\nFranconian dynasty, 375.\\nFranco-Prussian War, 579.\\nFranklin, Benjamin, 5.55.\\nFranks, the, 318, 329-337.\\nFrederick I. of Germany. See Barbarosisa.\\nFrederick II., 381, 402.\\nFrederick II. (Eleelor Palatine), 442.\\nFrederick II. (the Great), 526, 527-531.\\nFrederick V., 480.\\nFrederick, Don, l)esi( ges Haarlem, 440.\\nFrederick of Hohenzollern, 386.\\nFrederick William (Great Elector), 526.\\nFrederick William I. of Prussia, 526, 527.\\nFrederick William IV., 526, 590.\\nFredericksliall, 525.\\nFree Lances, the, 364.\\nFreil)ur (fri bo(ji-g battle of, 485, 488.\\nFriedland (freeflant), battle of, 565.\\nFriends, the, 505.\\nFrobisher, Sir .Martin, 464, 405.\\nFronde and Frondeurs, 489.\\nFucinine, Lake, 282.\\nFugger (foog cr), Anthony, 441.\\nFngirer, Ilerr Marcus, 476.\\nFul via, wife of Mark Antony, 253.\\nFuries, the, 18.5.\\nGa bi-i, capture of, 211.\\nGa de? (Cadiz), 73, 230.\\nGala tia, 1.56.\\nGalileo, 468, 514.\\nGalleys, Greek and Rftman, 192, 224.\\nGallus, Roman Emperor, 262.\\nGalvani (g,il-va nee), 555.\\nGames and six.rts, 38, 67, 186, 197, 250, 285,\\n290, 310, 324, 351, 412, 473.\\nGaribaldi (gilr-I-bAVdl), .594, 595.\\nGauls, the, 220, 232, 250, 264, 332, 371, 372.\\nGed dfis, Jenny, 507.\\nGeneva, Reformers at, 441.\\nGenghis Khan (jen gls kiin), 109, 403.\\nGen oa, 392, 492.\\nGenseric (jen sGr-ik), 269.\\nGeorge I. of Enuland, 532.\\nGeorge II., 529, 533.\\nGeorge II L, 535.\\nGeorge IV., 583.\\nGerman migrations, 266-269.\\nGermanic Confederation, 588.\\nGei-man icus, 256.\\nGermany, 322, 335, 373. 375 379-387, 474-\\n478, 486, 526-532, 588-592.\\nGesner, Konrad von. Swiss naturalist, 468.\\nGhent, Pacilication .f, 448.\\nGhiiielJines (g:b OI Imz), the. 379, 396.\\nGibbon, Edward, historian, 554.\\nGiltraltar (ji bral tar), 494.\\nG id eon, 82.\\n(iirondi.sts(jt rftn dlsts), the, 542, 544.\\nGizeii (geze), 16, 18, .S.5.\\nGladiatorial games, 291; war, 245.\\nGladstone, William E., 587.\\nGlass, 28, 44, 59, 71, 78, 302.\\nGodfrey, Duke of Bouillon, 398, 399.\\nGoethe (ge tCli), Wolfgang von, 554.\\nGolden Bull, the, 385.\\nG )nsarvo de Cor dova, 431.\\nGood Hoi)e, Cape of, 19 426.\\nGordon, Charles G., English general, 587.\\nGoigey (ger gCh-e), Hungarian traitor, 591.\\nGorgons, the, 185.\\nGotlis, the, 262, 203, 206.\\nGrac thi, the, 241.\\nGractlms, Caius, 241.\\nGracchus, Tiberius, 241.\\nGraces, the three, 185.\\nGrjina da, con iucst of, 405, 423.\\nGrand Alliance, 492.\\nGrani cus, battle of, 151.\\nGranson, battle of, 370.\\nGrattan Hemy, Irish orator, 584.\\nGravelotte(grav-l5t), battle of, 580.\\nGray, Thomas, Engl sh poet, 5. .3.\\nGreat Britain, kingdom formed. 513.\\nGreece, 113-203, 597. See Athens and\\nSparta.\\nGreek tire, 328.\\nGregory I. (the Great\\\\ Pope, .321.\\nGregory VIL, Pope, 376.\\nGreno ble, 571.\\nGrdvy (grave), Francjois, 5S2.\\nGrev, Lady Jane, 461, 472.\\nGrouchy (groo she French general, 572,\\n573.\\nGuelfs and Ghi])ellinrs, 379, 396.\\nGuesclin (ga-klftn), Bertrand du, 365.\\nGnido Reni (gwee do ra nee), 467.\\nGuilds, 41.5.\\nGuillotine, 543.\\nGuinegate, liattle of, 432.\\nGuiscard (ges-kar), Robert, 398.\\nGuise (gweez), Francis, Duke of, 443, 444,\\n450, 452.\\nGuise, Henry of, 452, 453.\\nGunpowder, 111, 413, 424.\\nGunpowder Plot, 4i)6.\\nGustavus Adolphus, 482, 48.3.\\nGutenlxrg (gooten-bCrg), 42.5.\\nGylippus (ji-lip us). Spartan general,\\n144.\\nHaarlem, siege of, 416.\\nHabeas Corpus Act, 509.\\nHa des. 184.\\nHa drlan, Rcmian emperor, 261.\\nHallcarnas sus, 183, appendix i.\\nHidley, Ednmnd, astronomer, 514.\\nHa lys, the river, 83.\\nHamburg, 565.\\nHamil car, father of Hannibal, 133, 230.\\nHaniit ic race, 10, 13.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0667.jp2"}, "668": {"fulltext": "xxxu\\nINDEX.\\nHampden, John, 499.\\nHaiuiihal, 230-235, 237.\\nHanover, House of, 494, 513, 532.\\nHanseatic League, 384.\\nHapsbiirg, House of. See Austria.\\nHargreaves, James, 556.\\nHarold, King of Eiigl;.nd, 340.\\nHaroun al Kascliid (lia-ruou al-rash id),\\n330, 332.\\nHarpies, tlie, 185.\\nHarvey, William, English physician, 514.\\nHas drubal, 233, 234.\\nHastings, battle of, 340.\\nHav elock, Sir Henry, 587.\\nHavre (ha ver), 490.\\nHawkins, Sir John, 464, 4G5.\\nHaynau (hi novv), the Hangman, 590.\\nHebe, 185.\\nHebrews, the, 18, 80-87, 343, 599.\\nHector, son of Priam, 116.\\nHegel (ha gei), German philosopher, 554.\\nHegi ra, the, 326.\\nHelen, wife of Menela us, 116.\\nHel las and the Helle nes, 114, 115, 117.\\nHellespont, Alexander crosses the, 151.\\nH^loise (a-lo-eez 413.\\nHe lots, Spartan, 119, 136, 160, 161.\\nHelve tius, French philosophei-, 5:-\\nHengist (hgng cist), 338.\\nHenry T., of England, 340, 341.\\nHenry II.. 340-343.\\nHenry III., 340, 343.\\nHenry IV.. 340, 866.\\nHenry V., 340, 366, 367.\\nHenry YI., 340, 367-369.\\nHenry VII., 455, 456.\\nHenry VIII., 433, 455-460.\\nHenry I., of France, 355.\\nHenry 11. 443, 450.\\nHenry III., 450, 453, 454.\\nHenry IV. (JSTavarre), 452-454.\\nHenry I., of Germany, 374.\\nHenry II., 374.\\nHenry III., 375, 376.\\nHenry IV., 375, 376, 377.\\nHenry v., 375, 377-379.\\nHenry VI., 380, 401.\\nHephees tus, 184.\\nHera, 184, 189.\\nHeraclei dse, return of the, 117.\\nHercula neum destroyed, 261.\\nHer culeg, Twelve Labors of, 115.\\nHer n)e\u00c2\u00a7, 143, 184, 196.\\nHe ro, Greek mathematician, 155.\\nHerOd olus, 15, 110, 167, 171, 192.\\nHerschel (her shei). Sir Williau), 55.\\nHesiod (hee -si-od), 163,\\nHes tia, 184, 196, 310.\\nHi ero, King of Syracuse, 2~7,\\nHieroglyphic?, Egyptian, \u00e2\u0080\u00a2_ _.\\nHigh Commission Courts, En ;lisli, 499.\\nHildebrand. See Gregory VII.\\nHill, Rowland, 585.\\nHills, plan of Roman, 210, 299.\\nHini era, battle of, 133.\\nHindoos, the, 105-108.\\nHippar \u00e2\u0082\u00achns, 123, 155.\\nHip piaa, 123.\\nHippoc rate\u00c2\u00a7, 174.\\nHiram, King of Tyre, 78.\\nHit tites, the, 86.\\nHoche (osh), French general, 545.\\nHohenlinden (ho-Sn-lhi den), battle of,\\n559.\\nHohenstaufen (ho-6n-stow fen) line, 379.\\nHohenzollern (lio-6i -ts6r6rn), 386.\\nHolbein (hol bin), Hans, 515.\\nHolland, 445, 491, 503, f 98.\\nHolstein (hol stin), 591.\\nHoly Alliance, the, 588.\\nHoly League, the, 432.\\nHoly Roman Empire, the, 375, 390, 4S6,\\n531, 588.\\nHomer, 116, 151, 162, 189, 192.\\nHomes and home life, Anglo-Saxon, 350\\nAthenian, 195; Chaldean, 63 Egyptian,\\n38, 40 English, 468 French, 538, 539\\nGallic, 372; German, 474-476; German,\\nearly, 322 mediseval, 411, 416 Roman,\\n302 Spartan, 193.\\nHono rius, Roman emperor, 267.\\nHookei Richard, English anthor, 468.\\nHorace, Roman poet, 276, 310, 325.\\nHoratian Decree, 218.\\nHoratii and Curatii, 2C7.\\nHorn, Count, Swedish general, 484.\\nHorns, Egyptian god, 30, 31.\\nHos pitallers, the, 399, 436.\\nHoward, Catharine, Queen of England, 460.\\nHoward, John, philanthropist, {,56.\\nHubertsburg, Treaty of, 530.\\nHuguenots, the, 450-454, 490.\\nHume, David, English historian, 554.\\nHundred- Years AVar, 360-369.\\nHungary, 374.\\nHuns, the, 109, 265, 374.\\nHnss, John, 386.\\nHussite war, 3fc6.\\nHyksos, 17.\\nHypatia, 177.\\nHystas pe^, Darius, 5S.\\nIliad, Homer s, 116, 151, 162.\\nIliad, the Egyptian, 26.\\nImmortals, the Persian, 129, 130.\\nIncas, the, 428.\\nIndependents, the, 462, 501.\\nIndia, 105-108, 152, 406.\\nIndian Mutiny, 586.\\nIndo-European. See Aryan.\\nInkerman battle of, 586.\\nInnocent III., Pope, 358, 391.\\nInquisition, the, 446, 450.\\nInscriptions, famous, 18, 22, 53, 90, 259, 544.\\nInstitutes of Vishnu and Gautama, 108.\\nInterregnum, tlie Great, 381.\\nInventions, ^eti Arts and Inventions.\\nInvestiture, 409 war of, 376, 377.\\nlonians, the, 117, 118, 119, 139.\\nIonic colonies, 117, 144.\\nIpsus, battle of, 153.\\nIran or Aria, 10.\\nIreland, 344, 511, 584, 587, f88.\\nIreton, Henry, English general, 502.\\nIsabella of Castile, 404.\\nIsrael, kingd(tm of, 82-84.\\nIssus, battle of, 151.\\nIsthmian games, 186. Sec Games.\\nItalian Renaissance, 395 war, 593.\\nItaly, 203-312, 320, 332, 390-397, 430-436,\\n592-596.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0668.jp2"}, "669": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nXXXlll\\nIvan the Great, 520.\\nIvan the Terrible, 520.\\nIvry (cv-re), battle of, 451.\\nJac obhH, the, 540, :)42.\\nJac ubite^, i)lots of tho, 511.\\nJacquerie (zlnik-rO :i(i4, 540.\\nJames I. of England, 494-497.\\nJames If., 510.\\nJames IV. of Scotland, 45G.\\nJames VI., 4G3.\\nJani !ulum, 212, 298.\\nJanizaries, 400.\\nJanus, Temple of, 207, 287, 288.\\nJapan, 598.\\nJason, 115, 169,\\nJeanne d Arc, 367, 368.\\nJefferson, Thomas, 540.\\nJehu, 48.\\nJemmapes (zha-m-ip battle of, 543.\\nJena (ya ua), battle of, 5G4.\\nJericho, capture of, 8_\\nJerome. See Christian Ftth us.\\nJerusalem, 50, 83, 81, 83, 327, 400, 40G.\\nJesuit Order, 478\\nJews, the. See He yewi.\\nJohn of BarneveM, 449.\\nJohn, King of Riiglan 1, 34\\nJohn (the Good), King of France, 3G2, 364.\\nJohn 11. of Portugal, 426.\\nJohnson, Samuel, 553.\\nJonson, Ben, 46S, 513.\\nJordan River, 81, 82.\\nJoseph, 80.\\nJosephine, wife of Xapoleon, 547, 562, 567.\\nJosliua, 82.\\nJoubert (zhoo-ber French general, 550.\\nJounlan (zhoor-df^n), French general, 545.\\nJournalism established, 553.\\nJove. See Zens.\\nJudah, kingdom of, 84.\\nJudea, 80-8G.\\nJudges, the, 82.\\nJugur tha, 212-244.\\nJuliau, the Apostate, 265.\\nJuno. See Ilera.\\nJunot (zhii-no Marshal of France, 565.\\nJupiter. See Zeus.\\nJustinian, 319, 320.\\nJu venal, 278.\\nKa, the Egyptian, 24, 38.\\nKant, Immanuel, 554.\\nKar nak, Great Temple of, 9, 17, 26.\\nKaunitz (kow nits), 529.\\nKt llermaii. Duke de, 559.\\nKepler, German astionomer, 514,568.\\nKbadija i (ka dee ja), 326.\\nKhu-en-A ten, King of Egypt, 17.\\nKh I fu. See Cheops.\\nKlop stock, German poet, 554.\\nKnight, tlie mediajval, 410, 416, 425.\\nKnights Hospitallers and Templars, .360,\\n399\\nKnights of St. John, 426.\\nKnox, John, Siotcli reformer, 463.\\nKolin, battle of. 530.\\nKoran, t ie, 327.\\nKoscias ko, Polish patriot, 525.\\nKossuth (kosh oot), 590.\\nKshatriyas (kshVtre-yas\\\\ 105.\\nKu nersdorf, battle of, 530.\\nLabyrinth, Egyptian, 17, 39, 65.\\nLacedaj mon, 119, 132, 146.\\nLaconia, 121, 158, 160.\\nLadies Peace, the, 436, 441.\\nLa Fayette. Marquis de, 575.\\nLa Fontaine 513.\\nLamarck French natnralist, 5.55.\\nLancaster, House of, 340.\\nLaplace (la-plas), 555.\\nLa re? and Peua te\u00c2\u00a7, 289, 310.\\nLas Casas (las ka sas), 429.\\nLatimer, Hugh, 460.\\nLatin League, 205, 213, 216, 224.\\nLatium, 206.\\nLaud (lawd), Archbishop, 498, 507.\\nLa \\\\cndee (la vOn-da 543, 545.\\nLaw, John, 5.S0.\\nLawfelt, battle of, 529,\\nLay ard, Austen Henry, 55.\\nLegnano(iA;i-yH no*, battle of, 380.\\nLeibnitz (lip nlts), Baron von, 514.\\nLeicester (16s ter), Earl of, 464, 46(i.\\nLeignitz (lig nlts), battle of, .530.\\nLeipsic (lip slk), battles of, 483, 570.\\nLens, battle of, 485, 488,\\nLeo I., Pope, saves Rome, 269.\\nLeo X., sketch of, 394.\\nLeon itlas at Thennopyla;, 129.\\nLeonidas of Tarentum, 171.\\nLeopold, Duke of Aiistria, 388.\\nLeopold, German emperor, 493.\\nLepanto, battle of, 596.\\nLep idus, 253.\\nLessing, Gotthold, 486, 554.\\nLeuc tra, battle of, 147.\\nLeuthen (loi ten), battle of, 530.\\nLevant 162, 426.\\nLewes (lu es), battle of, 344.\\nLeyden (li den), siege of, 448.\\nLibraries, 18. 45. 54, 55, 71, 106, 154, 1.56, 157,\\n162, 177, 178, 274, 275, 278-280, 297, 304,\\n325, 328. 331, 553.\\nLicin ian Rogation, 219.\\nLinnaeus, 55, 555.\\nLisbon, 426.\\nLittle Rome, 336.\\nLivonia, 52.5,\\nLivy, 277, 310, 325.\\nLlewellyn (loo-61 in), 344.\\nLocke, John, 513.\\nLocomotive, the first, 585.\\nL5 crians, the, 149.\\nLo di, battle of. 548.\\nLoire (I war), capture of, .358.\\nLom bard, Peter, 413.\\nLombards, the, 320, 392.\\nLondon, plague and fire in, 507.\\nLondonderry besiegeil, 511.\\nLongbows, 342, 361, 413.\\nLongobard.s, 32.5.\\nLong Parliament, 490.\\nLong Walls, the, 138, 140, 145, 146, 194,\\nLord of Misrule, 474.\\nLorraine 335.\\nLorraine, Cardinal of, 4.50,\\nLost Tribes of Israel, the, 84.\\nLothaire ,33.5.\\nLothaire of Italv, 375.\\nLothaire II., of Saxony, 379.\\nLotharin gia, 335.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0669.jp2"}, "670": {"fulltext": "XXXIV\\ninde:^.\\nLotus flower, 62.\\nLouis VIL of France, 356, 400.\\nLouis VII L, 355.\\nLouis IX., 359, 403.\\nLouis X., 355.\\nLouis XL, 369.\\nLouis XII., 4o0.\\nLouis XIII., 486,488.\\nLouis XIV., 488-494, 510, 514, 515.\\nLouis XV., 529, 530, 537.\\nLouis XVI., 537-543.\\nLouis XVII., 543.\\nLouis XVIIL, 571,572, 574.\\nLouis Napoleon (Napoleon III.), 578-580.\\nLouis Philippe, 575-577.\\nLouvois (loo-vvvji 489-492.\\nLowositz (lo vo-sits), battle of, 530.\\nLoyola (loi-6 la), Ignatius, 478.\\nLucerne 389.\\nLucil ius, 274.\\nLu cius Tarquin ius, 209.\\nLuckuow, battle of, 587.\\nLucretia, 211.\\nLncul lus, 246.\\nLun^ville (lii-na-veel), 559.\\nLuther, Martin, 424, 438-440.\\nLutherans called Protestants, 441.\\nLutzen (loot sen), battles of, 48 570.\\nLuxemljurg, 490-492.\\nLux or, 26.\\nLyce uni, 157, 194, 282.\\nLycur gus, 120.\\nLydia, 89, 125.\\nLyons, 543.\\nLysan dei-, 145,\\nLysini a\u00c2\u00a3hus,153.\\nLysip pus, 174, 183.\\nMacedonia, 46, 148, 157, 236.\\nMcMahon (mak-ma-6n 582.\\nMadrid 435.\\nMajce nas, 275, 277.\\nMagdeburg, capture of, 482.\\nMagellan, 424, 427.\\nMagen ta, battle of, 595.\\nMa gi, nia giaiii\u00c2\u00a7m, 97, 99,\\nMagna Gharta, 343.\\nMagna Gra;cia, 118.\\nMagnesia, battle of, 237.\\nMaiinns, Albertus, 413.\\nMa go, 232.\\nMagyars, the, 374.\\nMaintenon (man-teh-non Mme. de, 490,\\n516.\\nMalines, 432.\\nMalplaquet (nial-pla-l a battle of, 493.\\nMamertine Prison, 208, 242, 259, 307.\\nMan etho, 15, 155.\\nMan lius, Marcus, 222.\\nMiintine a, 148.\\nMan tua, 550.\\nMarat (nia-ra 540, r44.\\nMar athon, battle of 126,\\nMarch, Earl of, 3C6, 367.\\nMarcius, Ancus, 208.\\nMarcius, Caius (Coriolanus), 219.\\nMarco Bizzaris, 598.\\nMarco Polo, 109.\\nMarcus Aure lius, 261.\\nMardo nius, 126, 1S3.\\nMarfin go, battle of, 5.59,\\nMargaret of Anjou, 368.\\nMaria Louisa (ma-ri a loo-ee za), 567.\\nMaria Theresa (te-ree sa), 490. 527, 529. 530.\\nMarie Antoinette (ma-ree On-twa-n6t\\n537, 543.\\nMaiiette (ma-re-6t 27.\\nMarigna no (uui-reen-ya no), b. of, 432.\\nMa rius Ca ius, 242, 243, 244, 248.\\nMarlborough, Duke of, 493, 512.\\nMaiiowe, Christophei-, 468.\\nMarriage customs, 63, 189, 292, 322, 411.\\nMars. See Ares.\\nMarseilles (niar-sillz 118, 543.\\nMavston Moor, battle of, 501.\\nMartel Charles, 329, 492.\\nMartin V., Pope, 385.\\nMartyrs, era of, 263.\\nMary of Burgundy, 370, 387, 433, 445.\\nMary of Orange, 510, 511.\\nMary Stuart, (^leen of Scots, 451, 463, 404.\\nMary Tudf^r, Queen of England, 444, 461.\\nMassila (Marseilles), 118,\\nMaurice of Nassau, 448.\\nMaurice of Saxony, 442, 443.\\nMaxim ian, Roman Emperor, 263.\\nMaxiniil ian I., 386, 43U, 432, 445.\\nMaximilian II.. 444.\\nMaximilian of Austria, 433, 445.\\nMax imus Fa bius, 223.\\nMayence (nia-6ns 326.\\nMazarin (maz-a-reen Cardinal, 488.\\nMazzini (mat-see nee), Joseph, 593.\\nMecca, 326,\\nMede a, 169, 275.\\nMe dia, 88.\\nMedigeval civilization, 408-417.\\nMedige an age, 394.\\nMedici (med e-chee), Cath. de 450^52.\\nMedici, C. G. and L., de 394.\\nMedici, Maria de 486.\\nMeg acle\u00c2\u00a7, 123.\\nMegalop olis, 147.\\nMeianth thon, Philip, 440,\\nMelea ger, 116,\\nMelpom e-ne. See Muses.\\nMem non, the vocal 14, 17.\\nMemno nium, the, 26.\\nMemi his, 15, 16, 27, SO, 31, 39, 40, 43, 90.\\nMenan der, 170.\\nMenela us, 116.\\nMe ne?, 15.\\nMentz, 425.\\nMercui-y, See Hermes.\\nMerovingian (mer-o-vin jean) Dyn., 331,\\nMesopota mia, 17, 45,\\nMessa na, capture of, 227,\\nMesse nia, 121, 147,\\nMessenian wars, 121, 136, 163.\\nMessina (nies-see na), 594.\\niMetau rus, battle of, 234.\\nMethodism, rise of, 534.\\nMetric system, the, 561.\\nMet terni-eh, I l-ince, 590.\\nMet tius Cur tius, 206.\\nMetz, 443, 580.\\nMexican war, the, 579.\\nTNlexico, 427, 428.\\nMigrations, Era of Great, 266.\\nMikado (mi-kji do), the, 598.\\nMil an, 264, 380, 430-432.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0670.jp2"}, "671": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nXXXV\\nMiletus, 117.\\nMilitary customs, 21, CO, GO, 101-10;^, 12G,\\n14l 191, 225, 271, :W7, 30!), 323, 372, 383,\\n412, 413, 5:i6; roads, Koman, 282.\\nMiltoi), John, 513, 514.\\nMiuep lali, 17, 82.\\nMiner va. Seo Atlicns.\\nMinnesingers, the, 414, 440.\\nMinn L-ius, 221.\\nMississippi iiiibble, the, 537.\\nMithrida te\u00c2\u00a7 the Great, 243, 246, 247.\\nMithri lafic wars, 243, 240.\\nMnemosyne (n5 -m6s e-i ee), ISf).\\nM(Bri3(nie ris), Lake. 17, 32, 39.\\nMonjals the Greit, 406.\\nMohac s (mo-hiich l)attle of, 436.\\nMohun med, 326, 329, 417.\\nMolianuned II., 407, 596.\\nMo iammedanisni, 326.\\nM dhVvia, .597.\\nMoli^re (mo-le-^r), 513.\\nMoloch, 78, 79.\\nMolt ke, Count von, 591.\\nMonasteries, suppression of, 458.\\nMons Sacer. 214, 217.\\nMontezunias, the, 427.\\nMontfort, Simon de, 344 father of, 358.\\nMontlhery (mon-hi-ree 410.\\nMontmoren Qi, Constable of France, 450.\\nMonuments. See Art.\\nMoore, Sir Jolin, Scotch general, 566.\\nMoore, Thomas, Irish poet, 555.\\nMoors, tho, 328, 404.\\nMorat battle of, 370.\\nMore, Sir Thomas, English statesman, 4. )8.\\nMoreau (mo-ro French general, 545, 559.\\nM6r ar ten, battle of, 388.\\nMortgage-pillars, Greek, 123.\\nMorton s fork, 455.\\nMoscow (mOs kS), Napoleon at, 568, 569.\\nMoses, 80, 82, 86.\\nMount Ath os, 126.\\nMount Etna (Vulcan s Forge), 184.\\nMount Vesuvius, battle of, 223.\\nMounts Ossa and Pelion, 113.\\nMummies, 32, 33, 34, 35, 42.\\nMummins takes Corinth, 236.\\nMun da, battle of, 250.\\nMurat (mii-ra), 563, 566, 569.\\nMuril lo, Spanish painter, 515.\\nMuses, the, 164, 171, 185, 195.\\nMuseums, Alexandrian, 154 Berlin, 565;\\nBritish (London), 52, .^5, 60, 181 Capito-\\nline (Rome), 183; Gizeh, 18: Louvre\\n(Paris), 55; L nrin, 41; IJtfizi (Florence),\\n183, 575 Vatican (Rome), 181, 424, 575.\\nMyca-le, battle of, 134.\\nNabona dius, 51.\\nNabonas sar, era of, 46.\\nNabopolas sar, 50, 70.\\nNse vius, 273.\\nNafels (na fels), attle of, 389.\\nNa na Sa hib, 587.\\nNancj battle of, 370.\\nNantes, Edict of, 454, 490.\\nNapier (na pe-er), .John, 514.\\nNaples, 395, 430, 595.\\nNapoleon I., 546-550, 552, 553, 559-574, 598.\\nNapoleon II L, 578-580.\\nNapoleon ic Code, 561.\\nNiir vii, battle of, 523.\\nNa\u00c2\u00a7e by, battle of, f)01.\\nNavarino (na-vii-rceiio), battle of, .598.\\nNavarre (na-var kingiiom of, 404.\\nNavarre, Anthony, King of, 451.\\nNavarre, Henry of, 454.\\nNebuchadnezzar, 50, 84.\\nNe -tiio, 19.\\nNecker, Jacques, 538.\\nNeerwinden (niir vni den), battle of, 492.\\nNeLsoii, Admiral, 551, 563.\\nNe mean ames, 186.\\nNeo-Platonism, 177.\\nNeptune. See Poseidon.\\nNe ro, 259, 278, 305.\\nNer va, 261.\\nNetherlands, the, 445, 598.\\nNeville s Cross, battle of, ;i62.\\nNewcOm en, i lionias, 555.\\nNewfoundland ceded to England, 494.\\nNewton, Isaac, 514.\\nNey (na), Marshal, 568, 572.\\nNibelungenlied(nee be-loong-en-leed),414.\\nNice (uees), or Ni(,8e a (in Asia Minor), 265,\\n399.\\nNice (in France), 437.\\nNicholas, Czar of Russia, 586.\\nNiX ias, Greek painler, lh3.\\nNicias, Greek general, 143.\\nNicop olis, battle of, 407.\\nNihilists in Russia, 599.\\nNile Valley, the, 13, 15.\\nNimeguen (nim a-gen), 492.\\nNimroud, 48, 55, 59.\\nNin eveh, 47, 50, 88.\\nNirvana (neer-va na), 107.\\nNoailles (no-jil Viscomte de, 541.\\nNonconformists, 462, 506.\\nNord ling-en, battle of, 485, 488.\\nNorman Conquest, 339, 341.\\nNormans, 339, 352, 354.\\nNorsemen, 354, 414, 520.\\nNorthumberland, Duke of, 461.\\nNorway, 525.\\nNotre Dame. See Cathedrals.\\nNova ni, battle of, 593.\\nNu ma, Pompil ius, 207.\\nNuman tia, siege of, 238.\\nNu mitor, 20.5.\\nGates. Titus, 508, 509.\\nOcta via, 254.\\n0(davius. See Augnstits Caesar.\\nOdoa\\\\er, Patrii ian of Italy, 269, 318.\\nOdvssey, the, 117, 162.\\nn :(iipus Trilogy, the, 167.\\nOktai conquers Russia, 520.\\nOlga, 520.\\nOligarchy, 117, 120, 146.\\nOlym pia, 115.\\nOlympian games, 186 gods, 183.\\n0 mar, 327.\\nOmens, 185, 189, 196, 251.\\nOmmiades (6-miyads), 330.\\nO phir, 74.\\nOppert (op Crt), M., .53.\\nOracles, 167, 185.\\nOrange, Prince of. See William of Orange.\\nOi-deal, the, 348.\\nOrleaiiists, the, 576,\\nOrleans, Duke of, 366, 536.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0671.jp2"}, "672": {"fulltext": "XXXVl\\nINDEX.\\nOrleans, House of, 575.\\nOrleans, siege of, 368.\\nOr maztl, 79, 93, 98.\\nOsiris, 24, 31, 34, 42, 154.\\nOs tin, harbor of, 282, 284.\\nOstracism, 124, 129.\\nOstiogoths, 318.\\nOthniaJi 406.\\nOtto I. (the Great), 374.\\nOxford, University of, 534.\\nPacto lus, the river, 89.\\nPal adin, 332.\\nPalat inate, devastation of, 492.\\nPal atine Hill, 205, 2(J6, 274, 281, 297, 302.\\nPaler mo, 595.\\nPalestine, 46, 50, 82, 83, 153, 259, 327, 397.\\nSee J erunalem.\\nPal issy, 468.\\nPahnyra, 75, 281.\\nPanathenaj a, the, 187.\\nPansa, House of, 304, 306.\\nPantheism, 106.\\nPantheon, 298.\\nPapal insignia, 321.\\nPapal power, 316, 321, 332, 376-379, 385,\\n390, 391, 392, 561, 594.\\nPappenheim (pap en-him), 483.\\nPapv rus, 23.\\nParchment, 23, 156.\\nPariahs, Hindoo, 106.\\nParis, son of Priam, 116.\\nParis, 331, 359, 413, 530, 569, 570, 571, 576,\\n578, 580, 581, 582, .586.\\nParliament, Long, 499.\\nPar ma, Duke of, 465.\\nParnassus, M(\u00c2\u00bbunt, 185.\\nParnell, Charles S., 587.\\nParr, Catharine, 460.\\nPar thenon, the, 180.\\nPar thia, 156, 249, 262, 309.\\nPasar gadse, 96.\\nPas cal, French writer, 513.\\nPas\u00e2\u0082\u00achal II., Pope, 379.\\nPassan, Treaty of, 443.\\nPatricians, Roman, 213.\\nPatro cles 77.\\nPaul lus, Romaii general, 235, 236.\\nPausa nias, 133-135.\\nPau sias, Greek painter, 183.\\nPavia (pa-vee a), battle of, 434.\\nPeace, Decree of Perpetual, 387.\\nPeasants, French, 538 German, 383.\\nPedagogues, 178, 19J, 197, 280.\\nPedro the Cruel, 364.\\nPeol, Robert, 585.\\nPelas gians, the, 114.\\nPelop idas, 147.\\nPeloponnesian war, l. ^9-145.\\nPeloponnesus, 117, 121.\\nPena tes. See Lares.\\nPenel ope, 117.\\nPeninsular war, 565.\\nPep in the Short, 332.\\nPer gamus, 23, 156, 237.\\nPgrlan der. See Seven Sages.\\nPgr Icles, 136, 140 age of, 135, 137, 200.\\nPerioe ki, 119, 160.\\nPeripatet ics, the, 176.\\nPerry, Commodore, 601.\\nPersep olis, 94, 151.\\nPerseus, 236.\\nPersian Empire, 46, 88-104 wars, 125-134.\\nPeru, 428.\\nPeter the Gieat of Russia, 520-525.\\nPeter the Hermit, 397.\\nPeter III., 530.\\nPe trareh, 396.\\nPe trie, Flinders, Egyptologist, 39, 168.\\nPhalanx, Macedonian, 149.\\nPharaohs, the. See Egypt.\\nPhar na;e\u00c2\u00a7, 249.\\nPhid ias, Greek sculptor, 137, 181, 183, 305.\\nPhilip Augustus, 355, 357, 400.\\nPhilip of Anjou, 493.\\nPhilip II. of Macedon, 148-150.\\nPhilip III., 236.\\nPhilip IV. of France, 355, 359.\\nPhilip VI. (Valois), 355, 361.\\nPhilip II. of Spain, 444, 445, 462, 464.\\nPhilip III., 449.\\nPhilip IV., 490.\\nPhilip the Good (Burgundy), 367.\\nPhilip pa of England, 362.\\nPhilip pi, battle of, 253.\\nPhilip pics of Demosthenes, 149, 173, 202.\\nPhilis tines, 82.\\nPhilosophy and philosophers, 25, 1.^5, 157,\\n175, 201, 274, 278, 413, 468, 513, 539, 553.\\nPhocians, the, 149.\\nPhoenicia, 73-79 Greeks in, 138.\\nPlitah-ho tep, 25.\\nPilate, Pontius, 259.\\nPindar, Greek poet, 151, 164.\\nPirates, 246, 338, 339, 354, 504.\\nPisa (pee zji), 392, 468.\\nPisis tratus, 123, 136.\\nPitt, William, 534, 535.\\nPitt the Younger, 536.\\nPit tacus. See Seven Sages.\\nPius II., Pope, 386.\\nPius VII., 562.\\nPius IX., 594.\\nPizar ro, 428.\\nPlantag enet line, 340, 346.\\nPlatre a, 127, 133, 141, 143,\\nPlato, 160, 168, 175, 199.\\nPlau tus, 274.\\nPlebe ians, definition of, 213.\\nPlin y the Eldei 277.\\nPliny the Younger, 277.\\nPlot, the Popish, 508.\\nPlu tar-eh, 177.\\nPluto. See Hades.\\nPnyx, the, 140, 194.\\nPoitiers (pwa-ti-a battle of, 362.\\nPoland, invasion of, 523 partition of, 526.\\nPolignac (po-leen-yak Cardinal de, 516.\\nPolitics, derivation of name, 117.\\nPol ycarp, 264.\\nPolyhym nia. See Muses.\\nP6mera nia, 485.\\nPompadour, Madame de, 537.\\nPompeii (p5m-pa yee), 260, 286, 300, 302,\\nPompey the Great, 245-249.\\nPonce de Leon (pon tha da lilon 427.\\nPoniatowski (po-ne-ii-tSv skec), 525.\\nPontecorvo (p6n-ta-k6r v6), 563.\\nPontifex Maximus, 283.\\nPontifices (Pontiffs), College of, 289.\\nPontius, Caius, 223.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0672.jp2"}, "673": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nXXX VU\\nx ontus, kingdom of, 156.\\nPope, Alexaiiiler, Eiiylisli poet, .sr.r^.\\nPopes, power of the. See I ajHil I mrer.\\nPorsen na l)esiej, e.s Rome. 212.\\nPortia, wife of Brutus, ^L l-^.\\nPortugal, 401, 44!), f.Gf).\\nPortuguese, 31)1, 42ti, 427, 471, 01.\\nPoseidon, god of tlie sea, 184.\\nPostage, ciieiip, 585.\\nPostu inius, 224.\\nPragmatic Sanction, the, 392, 527.\\nPrague, 385, 485, 591.\\nPraxit ele\u00c2\u00a7, 183, 305.\\nPres burg, Treaty of. 563.\\nPresbyterians and Independents, 501.\\nPriam, King of Troi IIU.\\nPride s Purge, 502.\\nPriestley, Joseph, English chcmii~t, 5 5.\\nPrinting, 42.5, 439, 475, 523, 553, 557, 565.\\nPriscns, Tarquin ius, 208.\\nPro bus, 263.\\nPropon tis (Sea of Marmora), 118.\\nPropylae a, 182.\\nProtectorate, the Englisli, roi.\\nProtestants, named, 441.\\nProtog ene\u00c2\u00a7, Greek pointer. 183.\\nPrussia, 526-531, 564, 570, 572, .580, 590, 591,\\n592.\\nPsammet ichus, 18.\\nPtol emies, the, 153-155, 192.\\nPul towa, 524.\\nPunic wars, 227, 230, 23.5.\\nPunislmients, 52, 60, 86, 88, 01, 92, 101, 191,\\n242, 245, 259, 260, 280, 286, 348, 383, 417,\\n473, 475, 499, 556.\\nPuritans, 462, 499, 500-506.\\nPydna, battle of, 236.\\nPym, Jolin, 500.\\nPyramids, 16, 35 battle of, 551.\\nPyr enee\u00c2\u00a7, Peace of, 489.\\nPyrrhus (pir us), 224.\\nPythag oras, 174.\\nPythian games, 186.\\nQuakers. See Friends.\\nQueen Anne s War, 493.\\nQuintus Curtius, 223.\\nQuirinal Hill, 208, 298.\\nQuirl te?, 208.\\nRaces, historic, 10, 13.\\nRacine (rii-seen 513.\\nRadicals, the, 500.\\nRaleigh, Sir Walter, 465, 468.\\nRam ese\u00c2\u00a7 II., King of Egypt, 18, 80.\\nKainesse uni, the, 26.\\nRamillies (rA-mee-yee battle of, 493.\\nRam nc\u00c2\u00a7, 209.\\nR iphael (rftf a-el), 395, 424, 467.\\nRiis tadt, Treaty of, 490, 493.\\nRancoux (ro-koo battle (\u00c2\u00bbf, 529.\\nkavaillac (rji-valyak 454.\\nRavenna, Exarchs of, 320.\\nRawlinson, Sir Henry, 53.\\nRaymond, Count, 3.58.\\nReaunuir (ra-o-miir 55.5.\\nReformation, 424, 439, 444, 450, 458.\\nReforms, English, .583-5n5, 587 French,\\n541 liimgarian, 592 Italian, 593 .T:ii)-\\nanese, 601 Prussian, 590 Russian, 523,\\n599 Turkish, 597.\\nRegil lus, Lake, battle of, 213.\\nReg ulus, 229.\\nReign of Terror, 54.\\nRembrandt, Dutch painter, 515.\\nRG mus, 205.\\nR iiaissance (renasans X 395, 424.\\nR iwii (re-niV), lieath of, 430.\\nR pul)lic, Atiienian, 124 Batavian, 545,\\nFrencii, 543, 578, 580 Greek cities, 118;\\nHebrew, 85; Helvetic, 551; Italian\\ncities, 394, 417; Roman, 213, 215, 223,\\n308, 309, 551.\\nRepublicans in France, 576.\\nRestoration, English, 506; rren ;h, 571,\\n574.\\nRevival of Learning, 424, 467.\\nRevolution, American, 535; fuigli-h, 510;\\nFrench, 535-540, 55.3, 577 German, :m\\nGreek, 598; Hungarian, 590; Italian, 593;\\nPoland, 525.\\nRhapsodists, the Greek, 161.\\nRIiCmi ish League, 384.\\nRi(-hard I. (Cceur de Lion), 340, 400, 401.\\nRichard II., 365, 366.\\nRichard III., 346, 309.\\nRichardson, Samuel, English novelist, .5.53.\\nRichelieu (resh ehloo). Cardinal dc, 487.\\nRidley, Bishop, 460.\\nRienzi (re-en zee), 396.\\nRights, English Bill of, 510; petition for\\nEnglish, 498.\\nRig-Veda, the Hindoo, 106.\\nRitual, the Egyptiar). See Book of the Dead.\\nRivoli (ree vo-lee), battle of, 550.\\nRizzio (rit se-o), 463.\\nRoads, Roman, 226, 282.\\nRobert of Normandy, 398.\\nRobertson, William, 554.\\nRot espierre (robes-peer), 540, 544, 545.\\nRobsart, Amy, 466.\\nRochelle (ro-shei La, 487.\\nRocroi (ro-krwa battle of, 485, 488.\\nRoland the Paladin, 332.\\nRullo the Viking, 354.\\nRoman Empire, 46, 255, 257, 261, 269.\\nRome, 205-312, 430, 435, 548, 59-i, 596.\\nRom nlus. 205.\\nRoses, Wars of, 316, 346, 369.\\nRosetta stone, 22, 551.\\nRoss bath, battle of, 530.\\nRouen (roo-On X capture of, 367.\\nRoundheads, the, 500.\\nRousseau (roo-so 539, 554.\\nRoussillon (roo-seel yon 489.\\nRoxan a Pearl of the East 152.\\nRubens, Peter Paul, 515.\\nRudolf of Hapsburir, 382, 384, 387.\\nRudolph II. of Austria, 444.\\nRump Parliament, the, 503.\\nRun nymede, 342.\\nRu pvrt, Prince, 500, 501.\\nRuric fcmnds Rti. ^sia, 520.\\nRussell, Lord John, 584.\\nRussell, Lord William, 509.\\nRussia, 520, 524, 565, 568, 586, 599.\\nRQth erford, Daniel, 555.\\nRye House Plot, 509.\\nRy\u00c2\u00a7 wick. Treaty of. 490, 493.\\nSabines, the, 20(5. 209.\\nSacred Band, 147 wars, Grecian, 149.\\nSacrifices, human, 79, 325.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0673.jp2"}, "674": {"fulltext": "XXXVlll\\nINDEX.\\nSado wa, battle of, 591.\\nSa ga\u00c2\u00a7, the Scandinaviaii, 414.\\nSaguu tuni, ca]jture of, 230.\\nSt. Augustine, 339.\\nSt. Bartholomew, massacre of, 453.\\nSt. Germain, 452.\\nSt. Louis. See Lmiis IX. of France.\\nSt. Paul, 260. See Cathedrals.\\nSt. Peter, 2\u00e2\u0082\u00ac0. See CatJiedrals.\\nSt. Petersburg foundeil, 524.\\nSt. Quentin (sfln k6n-tan battle of, 444.\\nSal adin captures Jerusalem, 400.\\nSal amis, battle of, 132.\\nSalisbury (sawlz ber-i), Lord, 587.\\nSal lust, 275, 310.\\nSitlva tor Ro sa, 515.\\nSamaria, 49, 84.\\nSammur amit, 48.\\nSamnite wars, 224.\\nSamson, 82.\\nSamuel, 83.\\nSanskrit literature, 1C6.\\nSappho (saffo), 164.\\nSar aijens, the. Sec Arabs.\\nSar acus, 47, 50.\\nSardanapa lus I., 48.\\nSardanapalus II., 49.\\nSardinia, 73, 593-595.\\nSar dis, 89, 125.\\nSar gon, and the Sargon idaj, 46, 49.\\nSar to, Andrea del, 467.\\nSassan idaj, 93, 156.\\nSa traps of Persia, 91.\\nSat-ur-na lia, 239, 290, 295.\\nSaul, 83.\\nSavelli (sa-vel ee), 396.\\nSavoy, Duke of, 5C4.\\nSaxe, Marshal, 529.\\nSaxons in Germany, 373. See Avglo-Saxon.\\nScarabse i, Egyptian, 30, 33, 41.\\nScenes in real life, 35, 63, 192, 296, 352, 474.\\nSchel ling, 554.\\nSchiller, 554.\\nSchism (siz m), the Great, 385, 392.\\nSchleswig-Holstein, 591.\\nScldiemann (slilee man), 162.\\nSchool, name derived, 179.\\nSchoolmen, the, 413.\\nScience, 28, 93, 111, 113, 173, 468, 514, 555.\\nScipio Africanus Major, 234, 23.5.\\nScipio Africanus Minor, 235, 238.\\nScipio Asiaticus, 235, 237.\\nSco pas, 183, 305.\\nScotland, 345, 463, 503, 507.\\nScott, Sir Walter, 555.\\nSebasto pol, siege of. 586.\\nSedan (se-d6n battle of, 580.\\nSeleucidse (se-lu si-dee), the, 155, 237.\\nSeleu cus, 155.\\nSe lini L, 596.\\nSemir amis, 49.\\nSemit ic race, 10.\\nSem pa-eh, battle of, 888.\\nSempro niiis, 231.\\nSen eca, 278, 305,310.\\nSenna-eh erib, 49, 57, 67.\\nSenti num, battle of, 224.\\nSeparatists, the English, 462.\\nSep tuagint, 154.\\nSerto rius, 245.\\nSer vius Tul liiis, 208.\\nSesorta sens, the, 17.\\nSes6s tris, 18.\\nSe ti (Minep tab), 17.\\nSeven-Montlis War, 579.\\nSeven Sages, 173, appendix i.\\nSeven- Weeks War, 591.\\nSeven Wonders of the World, appendix i.\\nSeven-Yeais War, 529, 533.\\nSeve rus, Alexander, 262.\\nSeverus, Septim ius, 262, 282, 284.\\nS^vign6 (sa-ven-ya Madame dc, 513.\\nSextil ius, 244.\\nSex tus, Tarquin ius, 211.\\nSeymour (see mQr), Jane, 460.\\nShakspere, William, 468, 513.\\nShaimane \u00c2\u00a7er II., 48.\\nShalnianeser IV., 49.\\nShelley, Percy Bysi-he (bish), 555.\\nShepherd kings, the, 17.\\nShip-money, 499.\\nShips and boats, 38, 192, 227, 253, .503.\\nSho gun, the Japanese, 600.\\nSiberia, 520, 600.\\nSib ylline books, 209.\\nSicilian Vespers, 395.\\nSicily, 73, 118, 133, 395, 594.\\nSidney, Algernon, 509.\\nSidney, Philip, 464, 468.\\nSi don, 73, 78.\\nSig ismund of Hungaiy, 385, 386.\\nSile sia, 527, 530.\\nSilk, 105, 320.\\nSimOn ides, 168.\\nSlaves and slavery, 18, 36, 37, 49, 60, 63,\\n80, 86, 119, 160, 161, 179, 195, 197-199,\\n214, 229, 239, 267, 21i, 275, 280, 286, 290,\\n292, 295, 298, 300, 301, 303, 30(5, 319, 322,\\n347, 352, 402, 406, 429, 437, 584.\\nSlavs, the, 12, 13.\\nSlnys (slois), battle of, 361.\\nSmalcaldic League, 442 war, 442.\\nSmerdis, son of Cynis, 91.\\nSmerdis the False, 90, 91.\\nSmith, Sidney, 551.\\nSm51 lett, Tobi as, 553.\\nSobieski (so-be-6s kee), 492.\\nS5c rate\u00c2\u00a7, 159, 170, 172, 174, 197, 199.\\nSolferino (sol-fa-ree no), battle of, 595.\\nSolomon, 83.\\nSolon, 89, 122, 123, 1 60, 190. See Seven Sages.\\nSOl yman, 436, 442, 596.\\nSomerset (siim er-set), Duke of, 460, 461.\\nSophia of Russia, 521.\\nSOph ists, the, 175.\\nS5ph oele\u00c2\u00a7, 165, 166, 167.\\nSosig ene\u00c2\u00a7 revises calendar, 155.\\nSontiVey, Robert, 555.\\nSouth Sea Scheme, 532.\\nSpain, 238, 310, 328, 428, 433-444, 446, 449,\\n464, 493, 565-567, 580, 604.\\nSparta, 117, 119, 126, 139, 160, 192.\\nSpar tacus, 245.\\nSpartans, 119, 129, 139. 141, 143, 160, 193.\\nSpenser, Edmund, 468.\\nSpinoza (spe-no za), 514.\\nSpu rius Marlins, 219.\\nSpurs, battle of the, 432, 456.\\nStar Cbamber Court, 499.\\nStates-System, 426.", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0674.jp2"}, "675": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nXXXIX\\nstatues, famous: .4?sop, 174; Anacrton,\\nir,4 Ap \u00c2\u00bbll BLlvideie, 575; Athena\\nlias, 194; Athena Proniaclius, 1! 4 IVl,\\nBeltis, and Islitat, 51) Bronze Horses .i\\nVenice, 575 Ca-sur, 250; Faun of Trax-\\niteles, 188; Jupiter, the Capitoline, -li^i,\\n307; Meninon, 14, 17; ^iol)e jiroujt,\\n183; Pallas Atiiena, 181; I onipey, 252\\nRanieses, 26; K. i)niulus and Renins, 20.\\nSeven Sages, the, 174 Sliafra, 37 Slieikh-\\nel-Beled, 27 Venus of Ciiidus, 181, 18.i\\nVenus tie Medici, 575 Zeus, 181.\\nSteamships, 5.5G.\\nSteele, Richard, 5.5,S.\\nSteinkirk, battle of, 492.\\nStephenson, George, 585.\\nSlU icho, 267.\\nStoics, the, 177.\\nStra bo, 155.\\nStrafford, Earl of, 408.\\nStrasbur^ 326, 492.\\nStuart rule in Enj;land, 494.\\nStylus, mediajval. 414.\\nSudra (soo dra), the Hindoo, 106.\\nSulla, 242-245.\\nSully, 454, 494.\\nSun)i)tuary Laws, 416.\\nSupremacy, Act of, 402 oath of, 458.\\nSweden, 482-485, 523, 524, 529, 564, 570.\\nSwift, Jonathan, 553.\\nSwitzerland, 387-389; Reformation in, 441.\\nSylvius (Pope Pius 11. 386.\\nSymposium, 198, 199.\\nSyracuse, 118, 143, 144, 227, 233, 234.\\nSyria, 46, 49, 50, 327.\\nSyrian war (Rome), 237.\\nTabor, Mount, battle of, .552.\\nTa-itiis, 277.\\nT ilavera (ta-Ia-va rii), battle of, 568.\\nTalbut, English captain, 369.\\nT il leyrand, .563.\\nTamerlane 406.\\nT ln cred, 398.\\nTa o-i\u00c2\u00a7m, 111.\\nTaren tum, attack on, 224.\\nTarpe ia, treachery of, 206.\\nTarpeian Rock, 206, 223.\\nTaninin, 208-213.\\nTarqninii (quin i-i), 212.\\nTar shish, 74.\\nTarsus, Cleopatra at, 253.\\nTartars, the, 109.\\nTaylor, Jeremy, 513.\\nTea introduced into England, 472.\\nTell, William, 388.\\nTemplars. See Knights Hospitallers and\\nTemplars.\\nTen Thousand, retreat of the, 145.\\nTer en-je, 274.\\nTerpsi-eh o-re. See Muses.\\nTertul lian, 264.\\nTest Act, the, 508.\\nTeuttms, 12, 13; defeated by ^farins, 242.\\nThji le?. See Seven Sa(/cs.\\nThap sus, battle of,\\nThe aters, 170, 187-lSJ), 284, 298, 336, 472.\\nThebes (theebz). Egypt, 16, 17 Uioscfc, 147,\\n149, 151.\\nThemistocie?, 128. 129, 132, 135, 180.\\nTheOd oric, 268, 318.\\nTheodfVsius I. (the Great), 266.\\n1 her nue, Roman, 28: 310.\\nTnermOpyhe, 129, 237, 388.\\nThese-us, 116.\\nJ hes pis, 1( 5.\\nThiers (te Or), 580, 582.\\nThirty- Years War, 480; effect of. 48.\\nThomj.son, James, 553.\\nThor, 325.\\nThothmes (t5t meez), I., of Egypt, 17.\\nThotlnnesIII., 17.\\nThrace, Persians def. ated at, 126.\\nThucytlides ((hu-sld i (hjt z), 172.\\nTi bcr, the, 204, 205, 212, 250, 283.\\nTiberius, 300.\\nTi biir (Tivoli), 2h1.\\nTiers-titat (teerz a-tii), 359, 540.\\nTig lathinin, 47.\\nTi-liith-Pile ser I., 47.\\nTij4lath-Pileserlll.,49.\\nTigranes (ti-gra necz), 246.\\nTigris-Euphrates basin, 13, 45.\\nTilly, Count, 482, 483.\\nTil sit, 56.5.\\nTimour See Tamerlane.\\nTitian (tish an), 467.\\nTitus, Roman emperor, 85, 260, 285, 32a\\nTole do, 331.\\nTorgau (tOrgow), battle of, 530.\\nI ories, .500, 509, 512, 532, 535, 536.\\nTorricelli (tor-re-chel lee), 514.\\nTor stenson, Sw di-h -iem ral. 484.\\nToul (t ol), sei/.e i by HeiTy II., 443.\\nToulon (too-lon 1, 490, .543.\\nTouraine (too-ran :i58.\\nTour naments, 412.\\nTours (tour), battle of, 328.\\nTower of London, 461, .507.\\nTrafalgar (tr;\\\\t-al-iLi!ir), batlle of, .563.\\nTrajan, Roman emperor, 261, 202.\\nTransmigration of souls, 24, 106, 174-\\nTrasiine nus. battle of, 232.\\nTre])ia, battle of, 231.\\nTrent, Council of, 442.\\nTribonian Code, 320.\\nTribunes, 214, 217, 218, 256.\\nTrilogy, definiti( ii of, 165.\\nTrio, historical, 171 tragic, 166.\\nTriple Alliance, 490; League, 598.\\nTrireme, 192.\\nTriumvirate. First, 248; Second, 2.52.\\nTrojan war, 116.\\nI rou badours, the, 413.\\nTrouvferes (troo vcr), the, 414.\\nTroy, 115, 116, 162.\\n1 royes (trwa), 367.\\nTruce of God, 376.\\nTudor line, 346 rule. 455-467.\\nTullus Hostilius, 207.\\nfunis, 437.\\nTuranian peoples, 10, 46, 109.\\nTurenne (tu-rCn), 4b5. 488, 490, 401, 492.\\nTurg( t(tiirg(y), French minister, 538.\\nTurks, 3.30, 406, 407, 436, 437, 402, 586, 596,\\n.598.\\nTwelve Tables, Laws of the, 217.\\nTycoon the, (00.\\nTyler, Wat. 366.\\nTvndale, William. 459.\\nTyrants, 123, 133, 145, 170, 262.", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0675.jp2"}, "676": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nTyre, 50, 73, 151.\\nTyi ian dyes, 78.\\nTyitaeiis (tir-tee us). Greek poet, 163.\\nUlm (oolm), battle of, 562.\\nUl philas, 266.\\nUlys se\u00c2\u00a7. 117.\\nUuiforniity, Act of, 462.\\nUiiiversities, Colleges, and Schools Ara-\\nbian, 330 Charlemagne s, 336, 337\\nChinese, 111 Egyptian, 26, 44 English,\\n459, 467, 472, 513, 515, 553, 557, 588;\\nFrench, 454, 490, 492, 581, 58s German,\\n475, 476-478 Greek, 137, 155, 157, 163,\\n178 Hebrew, 86 Japanese, 601 me-\\ndiaeval, 413 Eonian, 273, 275, 276, 280,\\n300, 318 Russian, 523, 599 Spanish, 428\\nSwedish, 523 15th century, 424 16th\\ncentury, 472.\\nUra nia, nmse of astronomy, 185.\\nUi- ban II., Pope, 398.\\nUruch, the earliest Chaldean king, 64.\\nU tica founded, 73.\\nU treeht, 448, 490, 493, 512.\\nVaisya, the Hindoo, 106.\\nValdez (val deth) at Leyden, 448.\\nVa lens, defeat of, 266.\\nValerian Decree, 218.\\nVal my, battle of, 542,\\nValuis (val-wa line, 358, 360 ends, 454.\\nVandals, 269, 318.\\nVan Dyck Flemish painter, 515.\\nVan Tromp, 503.\\nVar ro, 232.\\nVa rus, massacre of, 256.\\nVasco da Gama (viis ko dagii mii), 394, 426.\\nVassy (vas-see), massacre at, 452.\\nVauban (v6-b5n 489, 491.\\nVaudois (v6-dwV), the, 450.\\nVedas (va da\u00c2\u00a7), tlie, 106.\\nVe-i-en tine war, 218.\\nVeil (ve yi), 212, 218, 221.\\nVelasquez (va-las keth), 515.\\nVendidad, the Hindoo, 93.\\nVenice, 269, 393, 430.\\nVenus. See Aphrodite.\\nVercel lae (ver-ch-el lee), battle of, 242.\\nVerdun seizure of, 443 Treaty of, 335.\\nVermandois (ver-man-dwa 358.\\nVer6 na, 549.\\n\\\\^eronese (va-ro-na za), Paul, 467.\\nVersailles (versalz 486, 517.\\nV^esa lius, 468.\\nVespa \u00c2\u00a7ian, 260, 294.\\nVespucci (ves-poot chee), Americus, 427.\\nVesta, 310. See Hestia.\\nA estal virgins, 289.\\nesu vius, battle of, 223.\\nVictor Emmanuel II., of Italy, 595.\\nVictor Emmanuel of Sardinia, 593.\\nVictoria, 583, 587.\\nVienna. 436, 442, 492, 562, 567, 572, 588.\\nVillafranca(veel-ya-fran ka), Peace of, 595.\\nViminal Hill, 298.\\nVinci (vin chee), Leonardo da, 395, 467.\\nVirgil, 275, 310, 325.\\nVirginia, Colony of, 405.\\nVirginia, Roman maiden, 217.\\nVishnu, 106, 108.\\nVig igoths, 318.\\nVolta, 555.\\nVoltaire (vol-ter 554.\\nVulcan. See Uephsestus.\\nVullush III., 48.\\nWa gram, battle of, 566.\\nWales, 338, 344 first Prince of, 345.\\nWallace, William, 345.\\nWalla -ehia, 597.\\nWallenstein (wOl en-stin), 481, 482,483, 484\\nWal pole, Roljert, 533.\\nWal singham, Francis, 462.\\nWalter the Penniless, 398.\\nWar ton, Izaak, 513.\\nWar of 1812, the, 535.\\nWarsaw, 526,\\nWarwick (w5r ik), Earl of, 369.\\nWaterloo battle of, 572.\\nWatt, James, 555.\\nWeinsberg (vms berg), siege of, 379.\\nWeissenburg (vi sen-boorg), battle of, 580.\\nWellesley (wglz li). Sir Arthur, 566, 568, 572.\\nWellington, Duke of. See Wellesley.\\nWesleys (w6s Iiz), the, 534.\\nWestpha lia, 389, 449, 485, 486, 488.\\nWhigs, 500, 509, 512, 532, 535, 536,\\nWhitefield (hwiffeeld), George, 534.\\nWhitney, Eli, 556.\\nWilliam I. (the Conqueror), 340, 341, 342.\\nWilliam III. of Orange, 491, 492, 510, 511.\\nWilliam IV., 583.\\nWilliam I., Emperor of Germany, 592.\\nWilliam II., 592.\\nWilliam the Silent, 446, 448.\\nWinckelmann (vink elmiin), 554.\\nWinkelried (vink el-reet), Arnold von, 889.\\nWinter King, the, 480.\\nWo den, 324.\\nWolsey (wool zi), Thomas, 456-458.\\nWorcester (woos ter), battle of, 503.\\nWordsworth, William, 555.\\nWorld-Empires, the, 46.\\nWorld s Fair, London, 586 Paris, 579.\\nWorms, 326; Diet of, 379, 386, 440.\\nWren, Sir Christopher, 515.\\nWriting materials, 23^ 43, 44, 52-54, 71, 92,\\n104, 177, 279, 280, 305, 325, 337, 349, 414.\\nWurmser (voorm zer), 549.\\nWurtemberg (vur tem-b6rg), 592,\\nWycliflfe (wik lif), John, 386.\\nXanthip pus, Spartan general, 229.\\nXantippe (zan-tip pe), 197.\\nXavier (zav i-er), Francis, 601.\\nXenocrates (ze-n5k ra-teez), 157,\\nXenophon (z6n o-fon), 47, 172,\\nXerxes (zerks eez), 129, 130, 132, 133,\\nYork, House of, 340, 346, 369,\\nZa ma, battle of, 234.\\nZend-Avesta, 93,\\nZe no, 157, 177,\\nZeno bia, 263,\\nZeus (zus), 166, 180, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187,\\n189, 196.\\nZenxis (zuks is), 182.\\nZis ka, Hussite leader, .386.\\nZollverein (tsol fe-rin), the German, 589,\\nZorn dorf, battle of, 530.\\nZoroas ter, 93, 328.\\nZut phen, battle of, 464.\\nZwingle (tsving lee), Ulri\u00e2\u0082\u00ach,441.\\nLEJ\\na io\\n.A J", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0676.jp2"}, "677": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3388", "width": "1929", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0677.jp2"}, "678": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3393", "width": "2117", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0678.jp2"}, "679": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3372", "width": "1934", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0679.jp2"}, "680": {"fulltext": "Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process.\\nNeutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide\\nTreatment Date |h| Ay onw\\nPreservationTechnologies\\nA WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION\\n111 Thomson ParK Drive\\nCranberry Township, PA 16066\\n(724)779-2111", "height": "3393", "width": "2154", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0680.jp2"}, "681": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3388", "width": "2128", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0681.jp2"}, "682": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3538", "width": "2284", "jp2-path": "barnesgeneralhis00stee_0682.jp2"}}