{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4628", "width": "2861", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\n3-^^(I?7\\nChap. Copyright No..\\nShelf__i._Dj^\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "MAY 12 1900", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "GLACIERES\\nOR\\nFREEZING CAVERNS", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "z\\nA.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "GLACIERES\\nOR\\nFREEZING CAVERNS\\nBY\\nEDWIN SWIFT BALCH\\nA. B. (Harvard) F. R. G. S.\\nMember of the Franklin Institute\\nOf the Appalachian Mountain Club\\nOf the American Philosophical Society\\nAuthor of Mountain Exploration, c.\\nPhiladelphia\\nALLEN, LANE SCOTT\\n1900", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0013.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "XWO COPIES \u00c2\u00abECE1V\u00c2\u00bbI\\nL itrary of Congrei%\\nOffice c f tbi\\nM\u00c2\u00bbV 1 2 1900\\nKeglittr of Co| yrlgkt%\\n-y\\n..61640\\nCopyright, 1900, by\\nEDWIN SWIFT BALCH.\\nPress of\\nALLEN, LANE SCOTT,\\nPhiladelphia, Pa.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0014.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "THIS BOOK IS\\nAFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED TO\\nMY MOTHER,\\nWHOSE DEEP INTEREST IN\\nMY WORK HAS\\nHELPED ME GREATLY.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0015.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0016.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "PRELIMINARY NOTE.\\nMany kind friends have given me information about\\nglacieres or assistance in my work. I am especially\\nindebted to Mr. Robert Butler, of San Jose, Cal. Mr.\\nF. H. Gushing, of Washington, D. C. Professor\\nCharles E. Fay, of Tufts College, Mass. Professor\\nEberhard Fugger, of Salzburg, Austria Mr. Alois F.\\nKovarik, of Decorah, Iowa Monsieur E. A. Martel, of\\nParis, France Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., of Boston, Mass.\\nProfessor I. C. Russell, of Ann Arbor, Mich. Miss H.\\nVarena, of Wiesbaden, Germany and Miss Mary Coxe,\\nMr. G. L. Farnum, Mr. J. E. Farnum, Mr. F. L. Gar-\\nrison, Mr. W. C. Hall, Mr. E. I. H. Howell, Mrs. Horace\\nJayne, Mr. W. E. Meehan, Mr. C. J. Nicholson, Mr. G. B.\\nPhillips, Mr. Bunford Samuel, Mr. W. W. Wagner, and\\nDr. W. H. Wahl, of Philadelphia. I wish to acknowledge\\nalso the help I have derived from the Bibliotheque Na-\\ntionale and the library of the British Museum.\\nE. S. B.\\nPhiladelphia, February the loth, 1900.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0017.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0018.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nPAGE\\nPart I. Experiences in Glacieres i\\nPart II. The Causes of Subterranean Ice 109\\nPart III. List of Glacieres 165\\nPart IV. Some Opinions about Glacieres 269\\nPart V. List of Authors 313\\nIndex 329", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0019.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "ILLUSTRATIONS.\\nIce Slope and Basin, Kolowratshohle Frontispiece\\nGlaciere de Chaux-les-Passavant 8\\nIce Stalagmites, Chaux-les-Passavant lo\\nVertical Section of Chaux-les-Passavant ii\\nIce Stalagmites, Chaux-les-Passavant 12\\nVertical Section of D6bsina 15\\nThe Lower Rositten Alp and the Untersberg 16\\nThe Entrance of the Kolowratshohle 18\\nVertical Section of the Kolowratshohle 19\\nTop of Ice Slope, Kolowratshohle 20\\nAt the Entrance of the Schafloch 22\\nHollow Cones and Fissure Columns, Schafloch 24\\nOn the Ice Slope, Schafloch 2d\\nIn the rear of the Schafloch 28\\nVertical Section of Demenyfalva 29\\nThe Frauenmauer and the Gsoll Alp 38\\nIn the Frauenmauerhohle 40\\nVertical Section of the Frauenmauerhohle 42\\nIce Stalactite, Frauenmauerhohle 42\\nVertical Section of the Suchenreuther Eisloch 57\\nLa Glaciere de Saint-Georges 62\\nVertical Section of the Glaciere de Saint-Georges 64\\nVertical Section of Grand Cave de Montarquis 72\\nThe Bluff at Decorah 86\\nEntrance of the Cave of Decorah 88\\nLocus Glacialis, Cave of Decorah 90\\nGorge at Ellenville 92\\nVertical Section of Pit near Summit 97\\nVertical Section of Freezing Cave near Williamstown 103\\nVertical Section of a Windhole 125.\\nFreezing Cavern at Brainard i8a", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0020.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "PART I.\\nEXPERIENCES IN GLAClfiRES.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0021.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0022.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES.\\nSUBTERRANEAN ICE IN KING S RAVINE.\\nSubterranean ice was brought to my notice by a\\nmere accident, late in the month of September, 1877,\\nwhile on a descent of King s Ravine, on Mount Adams,\\nin the White Mountains of New Hampshire. We had\\njust descended the rock wall of the mountain and had\\nreached the head of the gorge, when my companion,\\nMr. Charles E. Lowe, the well-known Appalachian guide\\nof Randolph, suddenly said to me, Would you like a\\npiece of ice I can get you some presently. I an-\\nswered, Certainly, wondering where he would find\\nany. When we got among the big boulders, which form\\nso rough a path for the traveler at the bottom of the\\nravine, Mr. Lowe climbed down under one of the big-\\ngest, and presently reappeared with a good sized lump of\\nice. I was much impressed at finding ice at the end\\nof the summer in this gorge, when for months past no\\nice or snow had been visible on the surrounding moun-\\ntains. I noticed also the peculiar, flaky formation of the\\nice, and saw at once that it was something new to me,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0023.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "2 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nand in fact It was a piece of what I have since learned\\nto know as prismatic ice.\\nGLACIERE NEAR BRISONS.\\nIn the summer of the year 1880, I traveled through\\nthe Alps, with a friend from Philadelphia. On the 17th\\nof September, we drove from Geneva to Bonneville.\\nThence we started on foot without a guide, and as a\\nresult got lost in the woods, from which we only ex-\\ntricated ourselves at nightfall. After retracing our steps\\nto Bonneville, we were glad to find a man to show\\nus the way we should have taken, and finally reached\\nthe little village of Brisons in France, where we slept.\\nThe next day we took a guide and made our way across\\nthe mountains to Annecy, at one spot going out of our\\ndirect route to see a place spoken of by the natives as\\na glaciere. It was a little pit, and at the base of one\\nside thereof was the mouth of a small cave into which\\nwe could not see any distance. At the bottom of the\\npit lay a mass of dirty snow and ice to which we did\\nnot descend, as the sides of the pit were sheer and\\nsmooth, and there was no ladder. This pit seemed to\\nbe more of the nature of a gully filled with winter\\nsnow, than a true rock cave containing ice.\\nTHE GLACIERE DE L HAUT-D AVIERNOZ.\\nThree days after this, on Tuesday, the 21st of Sep-\\ntember, 1880, we visited the two largest glacieres on the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0024.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 3\\nMont Parmelan, near Annecy, France. At Annecy we\\ninquired at the hotel for a man who knew the Mont\\nParmelan; and, after finding one, we made our way to\\nLes Villaz, where we spent the night in an auberge.\\nOur companion was an odd personage. He was small,\\nabout fifty years of age, and looked meek, crushed and\\nhungry. He wore a long black frock coat and black\\ntrousers, thin boots and a linen shirt, certainly not the\\nideal outfit for a cave explorer. Under his care we\\nstarted early in the morning and toiled up a mountain\\npath some eight hundred or a thousand meters,^ through\\nwoods and pastures, to the higher plateau of Mont Par-\\nmelan, in which was situated the first glaciere. This was\\nin a great pit, at the bottom of which, on one side, was\\na big cave. On the side of the pit opposite to the\\nopening, there was a steep rock slope, forty or fifty\\nmeters long, whose lower portion was covered with snow.\\nDown this slope we descended with but little difftculty,\\nreaching at the bottom an almost level ice floor which\\nspread over the entire cave and was formed throughout\\nof thick, solid ice. A second and much smaller pit in the\\nroof of the cave opened directly over the ice floor and\\nunder this pit rose a small cone of ice, some two meters\\nhigh, the only one in this glaciere.\\nThe glaciere itself was approximately round in shape,\\nand some twenty meters in diameter. At one place the\\nrock wall was broken and we could look into a much\\nThe metric system is used throughout this book, except in a few-\\nquotations. Thermometric observations are given in degrees Centigrade.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0025.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "4 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nsmaller inner cave or chamber. Into this we could not\\npenetrate on account of a long, narrow crack or hole\\nwhich yawned in the ice floor for a distance of some\\nfive or six meters and continued through the opening\\ninto the second chamber. We tried to cut our way\\nalong the side of the hole, but had to give it up,\\nfinding the ice too hard and our time too short. The\\ncrack or hole, whose sides were solid ice, proved con-\\nclusively that the ice in this glaciere was many meters\\nin thickness, for we could look a long way down into\\nthe hole, certainly for ten or twelve meters, until the\\nice sides disappeared in darkness, without any visible\\nbottom. The hole cannot be spoken of as a crevasse,\\nfor, besides not looking like a crevasse, it was cer-\\ntainly formed by other causes than those which form\\nthe crevasses in glaciers, since there is, as a rule, no\\nperceptible movement in subterranean ice. Doubtless,\\nthe hole was due to the drainage of the cave, which\\nundoubtedly passed off through the hole. There may\\nbe, nevertheless, some little motion in the ice of this\\nglaciere, for it is evident that it is fed principally directly\\nby the winter snows which, whether as frozen or melted\\nsnow, descend gradually, by the force of gravitation, from\\nthe slope of the pit into the glaciere.\\nAs for any possibility of this great mass of ice melt-\\ning away and forming again in any one year, it passes\\nbelief; there must be at least the cubic contents of a\\ndozen ordinary houses in the cave, and such a mass\\ncould hardly be destroyed or formed again in any such", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0026.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 5\\nshort Space of time as a fall or spring. This is, there-\\nfore, probably a permanent or perennial glaciere.\\nTHE GLACIERE DE CHAPUIS.\\nStarting out from the Glaciere de I Haut-d Aviernoz\\nwe walked across the plateau of the Mont Parmelan,\\nen route for the second glaciere. This plateau is a curious\\nrock formation, consisting of what the natives call lapiaz,\\nwhich might be translated stone-heaps. The plateau\\nis full of great projecting rocks and myriads of cracks\\nand crevices everywhere rend the surface, and over\\nthese crevices one sometimes has to jump. Still, I do\\nnot remember any particular difficulty. It was certainly\\nnot nearly as bad walking as the taluses of loose rocks\\none meets at the base of many mountains.\\nOur guide led us for about an hour across the plateau\\nin a southerly direction, and then, looking over the side of\\nthe Parmelan, with a sweep of the arm covering south,\\nwest and north, he told us that the glaciere lay between\\nthose points, but he did not know exactly where. This\\nseemed a rather hopeless prospect, so, as we had no\\nclue to the whereabouts of our prospective hole, we\\ndescended to a couple of chalets we saw some two\\nhundred meters below, but which at least were in the\\ndirection of Annecy. We followed a goat-herd s path\\nwhich led to the chalets from the plateau, one of those\\ndangerous grass tracks, where nothing would be easier\\nthan to make a slip, and where a bad slip might have\\nunpleasant results. This is, however, just the kind of", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0027.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "6 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nplace where every one is particularly careful not to slip.\\nWe were careful and so reached the chalets all right,\\nand there we found a strong, intelligent boy, who at once\\npointed out the place where the glaciere was, about\\nhalf way up the slope we had just come down. So we\\ntook him with us, leaving our guide at the chalets to\\nawait our return.\\nThe entrance to the glaciere was in a wall of rock,\\nset at an angle of some thirty-five degrees at the bot-\\ntom of this there was some grass. An easy chimney some\\nfifteen meters high led up to the glaciere. Up this chim-\\nney we climbed. At the top we entered a little cave\\nabout two meters deep, by a sort of portal about two\\nmeters wide. The cave made an elbow to the right, and\\npassing this we found that it turned to the left and\\npointed directly into the mountain. The rock went down\\nvertically in front of us, but the boy said we could get\\ndown, so having first lowered a candle by a string to\\nsee the depth, which turned out to be a perpendicular\\ndrop of some four or five meters, with the help of the\\nrope we all climbed down. We were already almost\\nentirely away from the daylight and a few steps took us\\ninto complete darkness, except for the light we had from\\nthe candle each of us held in his hand.\\nThe fissure led straight into the mountain. It was a\\ncouple of meters wide at places, and there we moved\\nalong the bottom. In one place it narrowed below to a\\nwedge, and there we progressed either by climbing along\\none side or by placing one foot on one side and the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0028.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 7\\nOther foot on the other. The fissure led downwards as\\nwell as inwards. It would have been nothing in daylight\\nto go through it but in the semi-darkness it was not\\neasy.\\nAfter a descent of some twenty-five meters or there-\\nabouts, we arrived at the glaciere, and I have certainly\\nnever seen a weirder place. There was a great arched\\nrock dome, perhaps six meters in height, and some twelve\\nin diameter the floor was a sheet of smooth, slippery ice,\\nat one end curling over, gently at first, afterwards more\\nsteeply, to a lower depth and on the sides were seven\\nor eight ice columns streaming from cracks in the rocks\\nto the floor. Each of these columns was some three or\\nfour meters high, and, small at the top and in the mid-\\ndle, spread out at the base into the shape of fans. In\\nthe dim candle light and the cold damp atmosphere, the\\ncolumns loomed up like so many ghosts, and the land-\\nscape impression was strange and solemn. The air here\\nseemed perfectly still.\\nThere was another curiosity. The fissure we had\\ncome down, at this point some three meters wide, was\\nfilled, just beyond the glaciere, with pure, transparent\\nwater, which formed a little lake this was perhaps\\none meter deep, and extended across the fissure, barring\\nfurther progress. It certainly seems strange that in the\\nsame cavern, under nearly the same conditions of temper-\\nature, there should be one place covered with a flooring of\\nice and another filled with water. The explanation, how-\\never, is perhaps not far to seek. Over the lake there", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0029.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "8 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nwas a distinct draught of air. The draught probably\\nmelts the ice in summer, if indeed it does not prevent\\nany from forming in winter. There are, so far, no winter\\nobservations reported of this cave, yet it would seem to\\nbe one which would well repay the trouble.\\nTHE GLACIERE DE CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT.\\nOn the 17th of August, 1894, my brother and I arrived\\nat Besangon, the Vesontio of the Romans, bent on see-\\ning the Glaciere de Chaux-les-Passavant or de la Grace-\\nDieu, which is not far distant from the town. The\\nhotel we stopped at was pretty bad the beds were sur-\\nmounted with those old-fashioned curtains which were of\\nuse before the invention of glass windows, but which now\\nonly serve to exclude air and ventilation. However, I\\nlearnt something of the manners and customs of the coun-\\ntry, for on getting down at six o clock the next morn-\\ning for breakfast, the first question the waiter asked\\nwas: Quel vin monsieur prendra-t-ilf At seven o clock\\nwe sallied forth in a little open one-horse victoria, with a\\ndull gray sky overhead. Besangon is well down in a\\nvalley, so the first five miles of the road were a slow,\\ngradual rise to the surrounding levels. The scenery\\nas we drove along reminded us of Turner s pictures\\ndistant vistas of hills and valleys with factories blow-\\ning off their smoke and with tumble-down old houses\\nensconced in picturesque nooks, just those long-distance\\neffects that Turner loved to paint and which, for some\\nreason, the artists of the present generation have generally", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0030.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "GLACIERE DE CHAUX-LES-PASSAVANT.\\nFrom a Photograph by E. Mauvillier.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0031.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0032.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 9\\nneglected and usually speak of as unpaintable or unpictur-\\nesque. There was a row of trees, the whole way, on each\\nside of the road, a bit of practical forestry, the wisdom of\\nwhich it would be well for Americans to recognize.\\nAfter our poor horse had pulled us up the long hills, we\\nhad an almost level road running in a straight line as far\\nas the eye could see. We saw at least a hundred little\\nhawks, who live on field mice and other rodents, and\\nwhose preservation is another evidence of French wisdom.\\nThe last four miles of the drive was up a ravine in the\\nwoods, near the beginning of which we passed the Trap-\\npist convent of la Grace-Dieu.\\nOpposite the entrance of the glaciere, there is a little\\nrestaurant where the peasants come to dance and picnic,\\nand where the few travellers who get to these parts, can\\nobtain a tolerable dejeuner. They keep a fair vin du pays\\nthere, and we had some trouble on the way home in con-\\nsequence. Our driver, a talkative specimen of the genus\\nand an old soldier of Bourbaki s, told us, on the way out,\\nmany things about Besangon during the Franco-German\\nwar and of the retreat of the French army into Switz-\\nerland but on the way home, he showed that he evi-\\ndently was not a member of the blue ribbon army.\\nHe first seemed desirous of not taking us back to Besan-\\ngon, preferring to go in the other direction towards Bale\\nand afterwards he evinced a violent inclination to go to\\nsleep. We thought we should have to request him to\\nchange seats with us, and drive back ourselves, but we\\nobviated the difficulty by plying him with questions as", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0033.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "lO GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nsoon as he began to nod on his box. Eventually, we\\nreached Besangon all right, only once bumping a passing\\ncart, and only once nearly capsizing into a ditch. If\\nAmericans can learn some points from Europeans about\\nforestry, I think the latter might get some equally valu-\\nable information from us concerning the use of water,\\nexternally and internally.\\nThe good lady at the restaurant acts the part of the\\nold-fashioned cave dragon, and we had to appease her by\\nhanding over four sous as a preliminary to exploration.\\nShe also had a sign up, saying that no one is allowed to\\nbreak off or take away any ice, which must sadly interfere\\nwith the tourists privilege of bringing away specimens.\\nThe entrance of the glaciere was surrounded by\\nwoods, which formed a natural rampart to anything like\\nwind. As we stood facing the glaciere a great pit opened\\nbefore us, with a slope about one hundred and thirty-five\\nmeters long leading to the bottom. This slope is at first\\ngentle in its gradient, but lower down it steepens to an\\nangle of some thirty degrees so that we were glad to\\nresort to the trail which descends in regular Alpine zig-\\nzags. In one place, on the right hand, there were the\\nremains of a stone wall with a door, and local tradition\\nrelates that in former times there was a sort of fortified\\nhabitation there, which was used in war times as a place\\nof retreat. The lower part of the slope is covered by a\\nprotecting roof of rock which, thin at the rim where it is\\nedged with forest, gradually slopes downward overhead\\nso that at the mouth of the glaciere we looked back and", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0034.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "w", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0035.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0036.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES.\\nII\\nUp what might be described as an immense tunnel. The\\nlower part of the slope was a mixture of broken rocks,\\nmud and ice the last, however, seemed to be all on\\nthe surface, although it was impossible to determine\\nwhether it went to any depth.\\nAt the base of the tunnel we found ourselves on the\\nthreshold of an immense, almost circular cave, with a\\ndiameter of some fifty meters, rising overhead into a reg-\\nular vault or dome about twenty-seven meters in height.\\nThe entrance to the cave is so large that plenty of day-\\nFig. I. Vertical Section of Chaux-les-Passavant.\\nlight is admitted, and the whole cave easily examined.\\nThe rocks are of a yellowish brown hue, and I could\\nnot help thinking of Nibelheim in Richard Wagner s\\nRheingold.\\nThe bottom of the cave was entirely covered with a\\nflooring of ice. How thick this flooring was there was\\nno means of judging, as there were no holes, but it must\\n2 The figures in this book are rough sketches, without pretense\\nat accuracy of measurement, and are only explanatory of the text.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0037.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "12 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nhave been at least two or three meters thick In places.\\nAt the back of the cavern, directly facing the entrance,\\none mao^nificent frozen water fall streamed from a fis-\\nsure. It was perhaps five meters high, and began\\nto take the fan shape from its origin. The base was\\nabout four meters wide, and did not rest on the ice\\nfloor, but on a sloping rock extending out from the\\nside of the cave.\\nPerhaps the most remarkable feature of all, were six\\nor seven great ice stalagmites, shaped like cones or rough\\npyramids, which rose on the floor of the cave. One of\\nthese was at least five meters in diameter and six in\\nheight, and seemed perfectly solid. In the case of two of\\nthe others, however, the cones were broken on one side,\\nrevealing in each the stem and branches of a young pine\\ntree. These evidently had been planted in the ice and\\nround them the columns had grown. Whether all the\\nice cones were thus artificial in their origin I could not\\ndetermine, but it seemed probable that they were the\\nresult of years of undisturbed accretion and growth. In\\nboth the cones where the break on the side gave a\\nview Into the Interior, the dark blue-green color of deep\\nglacier crevasses was present.\\nA pool of water, perhaps thirty centimeters In depth\\nand three or four meters In diameter, lay at one place\\non the Ice floor. The whole cave was damp and the\\nice In places decidedly slushy, In fact all the signs showed\\nthat It was thawing. In the case of this glaciere as well\\nas in those of the Mont Parmelan, It seemed clear that", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0038.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0039.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0040.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 1 3\\nit must be in the winter months that the formation of\\nice takes place.\\nDOBSINA JEGBARLANG.\\nThe cavern of Dobsina, in the Carpathian Mountains,\\nis easily reached either from Poprad to the north, or\\nfrom Dobsina to the south. The hotel at Poprad is bet-\\nter, however, than the inn at Dobsina, where my brother\\nand I spent two nights. It was decidedly primitive. The\\nfood was not so bad, but the pigs ran round in the court-\\nyard, and one morning a gypsy band woke us at half-past\\nthree o clock by playing in front of our windows, in dread-\\nful wailing tones, which were most irritating at that hour.\\nAt the proper time, however, Hungarian gypsy music,\\ndespite the fact that none of the players ever seem to\\nlook at the leader, and that each man appears to play the\\ntune he likes the best, is strangely fascinating.\\nDobsina itself lies in a hollow, surrounded with well-\\nwooded hills, the general appearance much resembling\\nsome of the valleys of the White Mountains of New\\nHampshire. My brother and I started from Dobsina\\non the morning of the 27th of July, 1895, at half-past\\nseven o clock, in a little open carriage with excellent\\nhorses and a Hungarian driver in national costume. He\\nwas a nice fellow, but he did not understand a word of\\nGerman. The road reminded us of some of our own\\nmountain roads, as it was rough, full of holes and partly\\nwashed away by the rains. We first ascended to the\\ncrest of the surrounding hills and then descended to the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0041.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "14 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nStracena Thai, a wild limestone valley covered with fine\\nforest. Two hours and a half driving landed us at the\\nhotel- restaurant near the cave, at which I should certainly\\nstop on another visit. It was half an hour s stroll thence,\\nthrough beautiful woods, to the cavern s entrance. North-\\nwards in the distance the Tatra Range was visible, a set\\nof sharp bare rock peaks, at whose base, ensconced\\nin pine forests, is situated the famous Hungarian sum-\\nmer resort of Tatra Fiired, which much resembles Bar\\nHarbor.\\nThe entrance to the cavern is enclosed by a fence with\\na gate, and here the Dobsina people have a high tariff\\nand take toll from tourists. At the gate, we waited for\\nhalf an hour, until a sufficient number of persons had\\narrived to form a party. This mode of visiting the cave\\nrather detracts from the pleasure, even though it does\\naway with all difficulty and makes the beauties of Dobsina\\naccessible to everyone. It was also necessary to wait long\\nenough to cool off thoroughly before entering, on account\\nof the icy air of the cavern, where heavy winter clothes\\nare indispensable.\\nThe entrance to Dobsina faces nearly due north. It\\nis small, perhaps two meters wide and three meters high,\\nand is perfectly sheltered from any wind. The sudden\\ndrop in temperature at the entrance was startling in fact\\nit was the most extreme change I have noticed in any cave.\\nWithin the length of an ordinary room, say in a distance\\nof five meters, we passed from an extremely hot summer\\nmorning to the chill of a mid-winter afternoon. A slight", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0042.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES.\\n15\\nair current, perhaps,- issued from the entrance, as we\\nobserved a faint mist there. At the rock portal there\\nwas ice on the rocks overhead, and underfoot was the\\nbeginning of the huge mass of ice which almost fills the\\ncavern. A descent down eighteen wooden steps landed\\nus at the beginning of a great ice floor, in what is called\\nthe Grosser Saal. It is a magnificent cave. The floor is\\na sheet or rather a mass of solid ice, the surface of which\\nis level enough in one place to permit of skating in other\\nFig. 2. Vertical Section of Dobsina.\\nspots it is sloping and covered with small ice hillocks.\\nThe ice is solid throughout, without any holes or cracks.\\nSeveral fissure columns stream to the floor from cracks in\\nthe sides. Joining the roof to the floor are numerous big\\nice stalactites, which form frozen pillars and columns.\\nThese are from eight to eleven meters in height, and some\\ntwo to three meters in average breadth and width. Nearly\\ntranslucent, they are covered with all sorts of icy orna-\\nments hanging about them in tufts and fringes they are", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0043.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "1 6 GLACIlfcRES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nbeautiful in their shapes, as well as in their white and\\nblue colors. One of these columns is called the Brunnen,\\nbecause until about ten years ago, a small stream dribbled\\ncontinuously from the roof and cut a channel across the\\nice floor but now the stream has solidified into the pillar,\\nand the channel is filled up, although it can still be traced\\nin the ice.\\nThe cavern is lighted by electricity, which has the\\nmerit, even if it brings in an element of artificial-\\nity, of clearly revealing one of the chief glories ol\\nDobsina. This is the rime or hoar frost, which in the\\nshape of ice or snow crystals, covers the entire limestone\\nroof, and, reflecting the electric light, shines like frosted\\nsilver. Some of these frost crystals seem to be precipi-\\ntated to the floor, and in one place I found a small\\nsheet of them, perhaps two meters in width each way,\\nwhich looked and felt like genuine snow. The general\\ncolor effect of all this upper cave is white, although there\\nis some blue in the ice, and gray and brown in the rocks\\nand shadows. It would not be much of a misnomer\\nto call Dobsina the great white cave.\\nThe ice extended to the sides of the cave except in\\ntwo places. Here there were holes in the ice, bridged by\\nlow rock arches. We passed through one of these and\\ndescended by a wooden staircase some eighty steps, after-\\nwards returning up through the other arch by another\\nstaircase. At the bottom we stood in a magnificent\\ngallery named the Korridor, formed by a solid wall of ice\\non one side and by a wall of limestone rock on the other.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0044.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "THE LOWER ROSITTEN ALP AND THE UNTERSBERG.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0045.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0046.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 1 7\\nThe ice wall is the lower portion of the ice floor the rock\\nwall is the continuation of the roof. For the entire dis-\\ntance the ice wall rises almost perpendicularly some\\nfifteen meters in height, while the rock wall arches over-\\nhead.\\nThe bottom of the Korridor was filled with blocks of\\nfallen limestone, through which any water drains off, and\\non which there was a wooden walk, so that we circled\\nround the ice with the greatest ease. At one place on the\\nlimestone wall hung a cluster of big icicles, which, from\\ntheir shape really deserved the name they bear, of the\\nOrgel. At another place a hole, some six or seven meters\\ndeep, was hewn, in the form of a small chamber, directly\\ninto the ice mass. This is the Kapelle, where we per-\\nformed our devotions by leaving our visiting cards on the\\nfloor. Near the middle of the Korridor the ice mass\\nbulges out and extends to the limestone wall, breaking the\\nwhole Korridor into two parts, the western portion about\\neighty meters, and the eastern about one hundred and\\ntwenty meters long. This necessitated cutting a tunnel\\nabout eight meters long in the ice to get through. The\\ncolor of the Korridor is a darkish gray and is much more\\nsombre than that of the Grosser Saal, A remarkable\\nfeature of the ice wall is the fact that distinct bands of\\nstratification are visible in the ice in many places. Why\\nthe Korridor is not filled up with ice and why the ice\\nis perpendicular for such a distance are questions I am\\nunable to answer satisfactorily; but it is probable that\\nthe temperature of the rock walls is sufliciently high to", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0047.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "1 8 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nprevent ice from forming in winter or to melt it in\\nsummer if it does form in winter.\\nThe air in Dobsina seemed still, and scarcely felt damp.\\nIn one or two places in the Grosser Saal there was a\\nslight sloppiness, showing incipient signs of thaw. In\\nthe Korridor it was freezing hard.\\nTHE KOLOWRATSHOHLE.\\nThe Kolowratshohle is situated on the north slope of\\nthe Untersberg, near Salzburg, at an altitude of 1391\\nmeters. My brother and I visited it on the 2d of August,\\n1895. We had one of the patented guides of the district,\\nJacob Gruber by name, in regular Tyrolese dress, with\\ngray jacke and black chamois knee breeches. We left\\nSalzburg in the early morning in an einspdnner and drove\\nto the foot of the Untersberg in about an hour, whence,\\nby a rough path passing by the Rositten Alp, we ascended\\nto the cave in about three hours. The last hundred and\\nsixteen meters of the path were cut across some mod-\\nerately steep rock slabs and a perfectly unnecessary iron\\nhand-railing affixed.\\nThe entrance faces northeast. Here there must have\\nbeen a slight draught of cold air moving outwards, the\\neffect of which was perceptible to the eye, as at the point\\nwhere the cold inside air met the quiet warm outside air.\\na faint mist was visible. From the entrance, a sharp slope,\\nset at an angle of about forty degrees, led to the lowest\\npoint of the cave. The upper half of this slope was still\\ncovered with the winter snow which had blown or had", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0048.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0049.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0050.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES.\\n19\\nslid in. We descended on the right hand edge of the\\nsnow by means of some steps cut in the rock by the\\nDeutsche7i 0esterreichischen Alpen Club. These steps\\nwere covered with a sticky, red mud, which left almost\\nineradicable stains on our clothing, and as there was also\\nice in places, they were decidedly slippery.\\nAt the bottom of the slope we were at the lowest\\npoint of the cave, to which all the water flowed, and\\nFig. 3. Vertical Section of the Kolowratshohle.\\nwhere it drained off into a crack with a loud gurgling\\nnoise. Back of us was the daylight streaming through\\nthe entrance opposite to us was first an ice floor,\\nthen a great ice slope, which came down from the further\\nend of the cave. The ice was transparent and of a pale\\nochre-greenish hue, and filled the entire width of the cave.\\nThere is a streak of iron, probably, through the lime-\\nstone, which in places tints the rocks a dull red. The\\ncolor impression is a dull green-red, and, on account", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0051.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "20 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nof the size of the entrance, the Hght effect is only semi-\\nsubterranean.\\nThe ice floor was covered with a layer of slabs of\\nice, eight or ten centimeters thick, which, earlier in the\\nyear, had evidently had water under them. The ice\\nwall or ice slope consisted of two big waves, one above\\nthe other, the lower set at an angle of about ten\\ndegrees, the upper set at an angle of about twenty-five\\ndegrees. To get up the upper wave required about\\ntwelve steps cut with the axe. Behind the upper wave,\\nfive or six fissure columns streamed out to the begin-\\nning of the ice. One ice stalactite, at least two or\\nthree meters long, overhung the ice floor, and Gruber\\nsaid about this Well, I wonder it has not fallen yet\\nthey seldom last as late in the year, a confirmation of\\nwhat was clearly evident, namely, that the whole cave\\nwas in a state of thaw.\\nIn two places there was a strong, continuous drip\\nfrom the roof to the ice floor, which formed, in each\\ncase, what I can only call an ice basin. These basins\\nwere nearly circular; one was about four meters, the\\nother about two, in diameter. Around about two-\\nthirds of the rim of the larger one, ice rose in a sur-\\nrounding ring two or three meters high, suggesting that\\nearlier in the year this basin was a cone, and possibly\\na hollow cone. The depth in the ice floor, in both cases,\\nwas about one and a half meters, and each basin\\ncontained some thirty centimeters in depth of water.\\nThey reminded me of the rock basins one sees in", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0052.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0053.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0054.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 21\\nmountain torrents, where an eddying current has worn\\nsmooth all the edges of the rocks. From the larger of\\nthese basins, a channel .as deep as the basin ran to the\\nlowest point of the cave. This channel was cut out by\\nthe overflow, which ran through it in a tiny stream.^\\nTHE SCHAFLOCH.\\nThe Schafloch, on the Rothhorn, near the Lake of\\nThoune, is one of the biggest glacieres in the Alps.\\nOn the 15th of August, 1895, after early coffee, made\\nby the portier of the Hotel Belvedere at Interlaken, I\\ndrove to Merligen, on the north shore of the lake, with\\nEmil Von Allmen, an excellent guide. We left Merligen\\non foot at a quarter before seven, and, making no stops\\non the way, reached the Schafloch at ten minutes past\\nten. The path mounts gently up the Wiiste Thai, which\\nhigher up is called the Justiz Thai, The track through\\nthe latter is almost on a level, over grassy alps. On the\\nright hand rise the steep, almost dolomitic, limestone cliffs\\nof the Beatenberg. On the left is the range of the\\nRothhorn, with steep grass and forest slopes below, and\\n3 The photographs of the Rositten Alp, of the entrance of the Kolo-\\nwratshohle, and of the interior of the Kolowratshohle, were made for\\nme on the i6th of July, 1896, by Herr Carl Hintner, Jr., of Salzburg.\\nThe two latter photographs are, I believe, the first good ones ever\\nobtained of the inside of the cave. They were taken without artificial\\nlight on quick plates the best of the two received an hour and a half,\\nthe other two hours exposure. The photographer said at first that\\nit was not possible to succeed, and it was only by promising to pay\\nhim in any case, that he could be induced to try.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0055.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "22 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nlimestone cliffs above. The last hour of the walk was\\nup these slopes, by what Baedeker calls a giddy path.\\nBy leaving the word giddy out, his description is ac-\\ncurate. The cavern is at the base of the limestone cliff,\\nand the grass slope extends up to it.\\nThe entrance to the Schafloch is at an altitude of 1752\\nmeters it is a fine archway, and a low wall is built partly\\nacross it. In front of this, we sat down and consumed our\\nchicken and cheese, and that best of a traveller s drinks,\\ncold tea. The day was windless, and when I lighted a\\ncigar, to see whether there was any draught at the en-\\ntrance, the smoke rose straight up, showing that the air\\nwas perfectly still. When we were sufficiently cooled\\noff, we entered the cave. The entrance faces east-south-\\neast, but after about ten meters the cavern takes a sharp\\nturn to the left, forming a sort of elbow, and runs about\\ndue south, constantly descending in an almost straight\\nline. For the first eighty meters or so, the floor was\\ncovered with blocks of fallen limestone, among which we\\nhad to carefully pick our way. Then we began to find Ice,\\nwhich, a few meters further on, spread out across the\\nentire width of the cave, with a gentle slope towards the\\nleft. The surface of the ice was rather soft, and the whole\\ncave was evidently in a state of thaw. A few scratches\\nwith the axe the most invaluable friend in an ice cave\\nwere necessary at one place to improve our footing. It\\nwould have been impossible to move here without a light,\\nand I carried our torch, made of rope dipped in pitch, which\\noccasionally dropped black reminders on my clothes. We", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0056.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "u\\no\\nX\\no\\na\\nX\\no\\nw\\nu\\nH\\nZ\\nw\\nw\\nH", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0057.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0058.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 23\\nwere in the middle of a great ice sheet to which several\\nfissure columns streamed. On the right hand a beautiful\\nice stalactite flowed from the roof to the floor; it was\\nsome five meters high, and perhaps seventy-five centi-\\nmeters in diameter, and swelled out slightly at the base.\\nOn the left hand were three or four ice stalagmites, shaped\\nlike pyramids or cones.\\nOne of these cones was especially remarkable. It was\\nat least five meters high Von Allmen said eight and\\nat the bottom was about four meters in diameter. The\\nbase of this cone was entirely hollow. There was a break\\non one side by which we could enter, and we then stood on\\na rock floor with a small ice dome or vault overhead. I\\nhave seen no other hollow cone like this. The guide\\nlighted a red Bengal fire inside, when the whole pyramid\\nglowed with a delicate pink light, resembling Alpengluhn.\\nNear this cone stood the half of another ice cone. It was\\nquite perfect, and the missing half was cut off perpendic-\\nularly, as if with a huge cleaver. A hollow in the base of\\nthe remnant showed that this cone must have been origi-\\nnally also a hollow cone, and its destruction was probably\\ndue to the change in the temperature of the drip from\\nthe roof, at the setting in of the summer thaw.\\nJust beyond the cones, the ice floor steepens and curls\\nover into a big ice slope, one of the finest I have seen.\\nVon Allmen spoke of this as der gletscher, an expres-\\nsion I never heard applied elsewhere to subterranean\\nice. On the right side, the slope would be difficult to\\ndescend in the darkness. On the left, the slope is gentle", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0059.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "24 GLAClfeRES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nand a rock juts out a little way down. Von Allmen\\ninsisted on roping an unnecessary safeguard but he\\nsaid: *If you slip, you will probably break an arm or\\na leg, and then we shall be in a nice mess. He then\\ncut about twelve steps in the ice, down to the rock, while\\nI shed light on the performance with our torch. We\\nwere so completely away from daylight that black was\\nthe predominating color and even the ice was a dark\\ngray, and only appeared white in the high lights. Be-\\nlow the rock, we found a narrow strip on the left side\\nof the ice slope free from ice and blocked with boul-\\nders, over which we carefully picked our way down. At\\nthe bottom, the ice expanded into a level surface, stretch-\\ning nearly to the end of the cave. There were only a\\nfew fissure columns in this part of the cavern, where the\\nmost remarkable feature was the cracks in the rock\\nwalls, which were so regular in formation that they\\nalmost looked like man s handiwork. The rocks are\\nfree from stalactites, and in fact stalactites seem a good\\ndeal of a rarity in glacieres.\\nOn retracing our steps, we saw, when the first glim-\\nmers of daylight became perceptible, the rocks assume a\\nbrilliant blue color, as if they were flooded with moon-\\nlight. This effect lasted until near the mouth of the\\ncavern.\\ndemenyfAlva jegbarlang.\\nA little west of Poprad, in Northern Hungary, on\\nthe railroad between Sillein and Kassa, is the village of\\nLiptos Szt Miklos, to which place I journeyed on the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0060.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0061.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0062.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 25\\n1 2th of June, 1896. The conductor was the only man\\non the train or at any of the stations who would admit\\nthat there was a glaciere at Demenyfalva, and that it\\nwas feasible to get into it every one else professed\\nentire ignorance on the subject. It is perhaps, worth\\nnoting at this time that it is always difficult to get any\\ninformation about glacieres in fact, the advice about\\ncooking a hare might well be applied to glaciere hunt-\\ning first catch your glaciere.\\nThe scenery between Sillein and Miklos was pictur-\\nesque. The hills were covered with forest. In one place,\\nthe railroad ran through a beautiful mountain gorge\\nalongside a river, where a number of rafts were floating\\ndown. There were also some primitive ferries, where a\\nrope was stretched across the river, and the force of the\\ncurrent carried the ferryboat across, once it was started.\\nMany peasants were at work in the fields often in\\nsquads. White, blue, brown, and a dash of red were\\nthe predominating colors in their dress. The men wore\\nwhite trousers, made of a kind of blanket stuff, and a\\nleather, heelless moccasin of nearly natural shape. Almost\\nall the women had bare feet those of the older ones were\\ngenerally shaped according to Nature s own form, while\\nthose of the younger ones were generally distorted from\\nwearing fashionable shoes. We went past several villages\\nof huts with thatched roofs, something like the Russian\\nvillages one sees beyond Moscow, only less primitive.\\nThe inn at Miklos was poor, and as at Dobsina, the\\npigs lived in the yard and occasionally came for an", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0063.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "26 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\ninterview under the covered doorway. Inquiries elicited\\nthe information that Demenyfalva could be reached by\\ncarriage, so I engaged one at the livery stable. The\\nowner told me that about twenty years before, he leased\\nthe glaciere and carried on a regular business in sup-\\nplying Buda-Pest with ice. He had thirty lamps put in\\nto give light to the workmen, who brought up the ice in\\nbaskets on their backs.\\nAt half past five o clock next morning the carriage,\\nwhich was innocent of paint, lined with a sort of basket\\nwork and without springs, but certainly strongly built,\\nstood at the door. A boy of about eighteen years of\\nage, who could speak German, went along as interpreter.\\nThe morning was dismal, and, every quarter of an hour\\nor so, a shower of thick mist fell and gradually made\\nus damp and uncomfortable. After about twenty min-\\nutes on a pretty bad road, we came to a place where\\nthere was a fork, and the driver turned to the left, over\\na track which consisted of two deep ruts through the\\nfields. Soon after, we heard some shouting behind us,\\nand a fierce-looking man, in a leather jacket and carry-\\ning a large axe, came up and abused the driver. He\\nwas not an agreeable person however, presently he\\nsimmered down and began to smile. It turned out that\\nhe was a wdchter^ that is, a guardian of the fields, and\\nthat we were trespassing. The driver meekly promised\\nto return by the other route, and we went on our way\\nin peace. After awhile, we drove into some woods and\\nthen into a mountain gorge, with forest-covered slopes", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0064.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "X\\nu\\no\\nX\\nu\\nw\\na,\\no\\nJ\\nW\\nu\\nw\\nH\\nO", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0065.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0066.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 27\\nat the base and with Hmestone cliffs jutting out above.\\nHere we came to the cottage of the wackier or forster\\nof the surrounding woods, who also acted as guide to\\nthe cave, for the few tourists who came to see it and\\nwhen he heard of our destination, he at once slipped\\non a second ragged coat, took a woodman s axe and\\nstarted on foot, going much faster than the carriage.\\nThis was not surprising, for the road resembled nothing\\nbut the bed of a mountain ,brook, a mass of boulders\\nwith ruts between them. This highway was made by\\nthe peasants driving their carts over the plain in the\\nsame place, and as the soil was cut away, the boulders\\nappeared and over and among these we went banging\\nalong, and we were jolted about and bumped into each\\nother, until every bone in my body ached.\\nAt a quarter past seven o clock we came to another\\nhouse in a little glade, where the carriage stopped and on\\nasking the forster for his name, he wrote down in my note\\nbook, in a clear well formed hand: Misura, Franz. From\\nthe glade, ten minutes walk on a mountain path, up an\\neasy slope, took us to the entrance of Demenyfalva. It is\\nabout two meters wide by three quarters of a meter high.\\nWe passed through and entered a large chamber, well\\nlighted from the right by another opening, which is\\nhigher up and bigger than the entrance. The air in\\nthis chamber was at about the same temperature as that\\nof the outside air, and, on our return from the nether\\nworld, it seemed positively balmy. In the floor at the end\\nof the chamber, a small pit yawns open. It is perpendic-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0067.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "28 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nular on three sides and set at a sharp angle on the fourth.\\nA wooden staircase of some two hundred steps, many of\\nwhich are sadly out of repair, leads nearly straight down\\nthis slope to the glaciere.\\nAfter descending about eighty steps of the staircase,\\nbits of ice appeared on the walls and floor and after some\\nthirty steps more, a lateral gallery opened to the right,\\nand into this we turned. This may be called the upper\\ncave or story, for in Demenyfalva besides the entrance\\nchamber there are practically two stories, the upper one\\nof which is mainly ornamented with stalactites, the lower\\none with ice. There was a little ice on the floor from\\nwhich rose some small ice columns, perhaps fifty centi-\\nmeters in height. The cave or gallery had a gentle\\ndownward slope and turned towards the left. After some\\nlittle distance, we came to another wooden staircase, of\\nten or twelve steps, quite coated over with thick, solid ice.\\nMisura had to cut away at it for several minutes, before he\\ncould clear the steps enough to descend. This was in\\nfact the beginning of an ice wall, the Eiswand or Eis-\\nTnauer, which, turning to the right, flowed through a rock\\narch to the lowest cave. The rock arch or portal was\\nsome three meters wide and two meters high, and a\\nfringe of beautiful organ-pipe like icicles hung on it on\\nthe right hand. Just beyond the portal the ice sloped\\nsteeply for a couple of meters then it became level and\\non it rose a little pyramid, a meter and a half in height\\nperhaps, and a column then the ice sloped away again\\nto the lower cave.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0068.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0069.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0070.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES.\\n29\\nWe then continued our course beyond the rock portal\\nalong the upper cavern for about two hundred meters.\\nIt was a fine large gallery or passage and during the\\nfirst fifty meters or so, we found numerous small ice\\ncones, perhaps a hundred of them, from tiny little ones\\nto some about forty centimeters in height. Many of\\nthese were columnar in form, nearly as large at the top\\nFig. 4. Vertical Section of D^menyfAlva.\\nas at the base in some cases the top was flat, and\\nthe columns then looked almost as if an upper portion\\nwere sawn off. I have seen this shape of column no-\\nwhere else. In places there were slabs and bits of ice\\non the floor. The last hundred meters of this upper\\ncave was free from ice and was exceptionally dry. It\\nwas formed of a pale yellow limestone rock, almost dolo-\\nmitic in color, and many stalactites, in their thousand", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0071.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "30 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nvarious shapes, hung from the roof and on the sides.\\nIn one spot, one big limestone stalagmite towered up\\ndirectly in the middle of the gallery. We did not go to\\nthe end of the cave, where ice has never been found.\\nRetracing our course past the rock portal to the en-\\ntrance pit, we descended on the long staircase for some\\neighty steps more, the amount of ice on the rocks steadily\\nincreasing. In places, frost crystals had formed in small\\nquantities on the roof and walls. At the bottom of the\\npit, another lateral gallery, directly under the upper\\ngallery, opened to the right. Entering this, we passed\\nover broken limestone debris, which seemed to overlie a\\nmass of ice. Limestone stalactites were noticeable all\\nthrough this lower cavern, and frost and icicles had some-\\ntimes formed over them, in which case the ice stalactite\\nassumed the form of the limestone stalactite. Advancing\\na few meters, we went by, on our right hand, an ice pyra-\\nmid of a couple of meters in height. Just beyond this, the\\ncave turned to the left like the upper cave, and we de-\\nscended to a level floor of transparent ice, into which we\\ncould see some distance. At this spot, numerous icicles,\\ngenerally of inconsiderable size, hung from the roof and on\\nthe sides of the cavern.\\nAt the further end of this ice floor or ice lake we\\nreached an ice slope, the Eiswand, which flowed to the ice\\nfloor from the upper cave in several waves. It was some\\nsix meters wide and twenty-five meters long and it was\\nnot steep, perhaps fifteen degrees in the steepest portions.\\nOn the slope some old, nearly obliterated steps were visi-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0072.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 3 1\\nble, and at these Misura proceeded to cut, and with torch in\\none hand and axe in the other, gradually worked his way\\nup, until he once more reached the level spot whence we\\nhad looked down the ice slope. Here he stood waving his\\ntorch, a proceeding indeed he did constantly throughout\\nthe trip, for he seemed exceedingly proud of the beauties\\nof his cavern. This waving of torches, however, is ex-\\nceedingly foolish, as their smoke quickly blackens stalac-\\ntite, and in fact nothing but candles and magnesium wire\\nshould be carried for lighting purposes underground. The\\nice of the ice slope was hard, gray and opaque, quite\\ndifferent from that of the ice lake. The ice floor is\\nformed of new ice, which is gradually refilling the place\\nfrom which Misura said the ice for Buda-Pest was taken out\\ntwenty-five years ago. To prove this assertion, he called\\nmy attention to the side of the lake directly opposite the\\nice slope. At that spot, under the limestone rubbish over\\nwhich we came, there was an outcrop of perpendicular\\nopaque ice about a meter high. Misura said that the\\nworkmen began to cut at the ice slope and that they\\ndug out a couple of meters in depth from the ice lake,\\nuntil they had cut back to where the vertical outcrop\\nwas standing.\\nThe explanation seemed to be in accord with the facts,\\nand if so, it would go to show that the ice in this cave is of\\nslow formation and great permanency as seems also\\nproved by the steps on the ice wall, which we were the first\\nparty in the cave in 1896 had remained over from the pre-\\nceding summer. Misura told me he had never seen so much", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0073.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "32 GLA CIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nice nor seen it so hard as during our visit, and he added\\nthat there was generally water on the ice lake, and he\\nthought there would be some in two or three weeks more.\\nThe greatest quantity of ice in the upper cave was at the\\nhead of the ice-slope, and it would seem as though there\\nmust be cracks or fissures in the overhead rocks there,\\nthrough which the water is supplied to feed the ice, not\\nonly that of the upper cave, but also the larger portion of\\nthat of the lower cave.\\nThe heavy winter air would naturally sink down into\\nthe entrance pit to the lower cavern, and some of it diverge\\ninto the beginning of the upper cavern, which at first is\\ndistinctly a down slope. A little beyond the portal at\\nthe head of the ice slope, the upper cave is either hori-\\nzontal or in places slightly ascending. Probably this pre-\\nvents the cold air from entering further, and probably\\nalso, the heat of the earth neutralizes the cold air of\\nwinter beyond a definite spot.\\nThe air in the cave seemed absolutely still throughout\\nit was also extremely dry, undoubtedly because melting\\nhad not yet begun. The icicles evidently were formed by\\nthe slow drip freezing as it descended, and there were no\\nperceptible cracks nor fissures in the rocks underneath\\nthem. The facts seem to me to prove that neither\\nevaporation nor regelation can be the factors at work in\\nmaking the ice and we may deduce an important rule\\ntherefrom. When a cave is dry, then the air is dry\\nwhen a cave is wet, then the atmosphere is damp. In\\nother words, the state of dryness or dampness of glaciere", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0074.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 2 3\\natmosphere depends on how much the ice is thawing and\\nparting with its moisture.\\nOn our return to the base of the long staircase, and\\nwhile we ascended it, we had an exquisite moonlight effect,\\nmuch resembling the one at the Schafloch.\\nTHE FRAINER EISLEITHEN.\\nAbout two hours by rail, north of Vienna, is the vil-\\nlage of Schoenwald, to which I journeyed on June the\\n15th, 1896. At the railroad station there was a K. K.\\nPost Omnibus in waiting, which, when it was packed\\nwith passengers and luggage, drove over to Frain in an\\nhour. The admirable road lies across a rolling plain,\\nuntil it reaches the brink of the valley of the Thaya, to\\nwhich it descends in long Alpine zigzags. On the bluff\\noverlooking the opposite side of the river, there is a fine\\nsckloss.\\nI secured the seat next to the driver and questioned\\nhim about the Eisleithen. Although he had driven on\\nthis road for five years, without visiting the Eisleithen,\\nyet he was positive that they were warm in winter, but\\ncold in summer. He said more than once Desto heisser\\nder Sommer, desto mehr das Eis, and in fact was an em-\\nphatic exponent of the notions generally held by peasants,\\nwhich some savants have adopted and tried to expound.\\nAt Frain, I applied at the little hotel for a guide, and was\\nentrusted to the care of the hotel boots. He was an\\nintelligent, talkative youth, but he insisted also that the\\nhotter the summer, the more ice there is. However,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0075.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "34 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nhe was polite, and made up for any shortcomings by\\nalways addressing me as der gnddige Herr.\\nThe day was hot, so it took us three-quarters of an\\nhour on foot, along the valley of the Thaya, to reach\\nthe base of the bluff where the Eisleithen are situated,\\nat an altitude of about four hundred meters. The hill-\\nside is covered with patches of scrubby forest and to-\\nwards the summit, the entire mass of the hill is honey-\\ncombed with cracks and the rocks are much broken up.\\nAfter about ten minutes ascent up a little path, we came\\nto small holes, from each of which a current of cool air\\npoured out; these holes seemed fairly horizontal, and\\nthe temperatures were high enough to prove that there\\nwas no ice within. A little further on, we came to a hole\\nor tiny cave among a pile of rocks, where there was\\na painted sign Eisg7 2cbe. It went down from the mouth,\\nand I put my hand well in, but, beyond the length of my\\narm, I could neither see nor measure its shape or depth.\\nThe air felt cold, but was nowhere near freezing point\\nnor was it possible to determine whether there was a\\ndraught it may or may not be a wind cave. Not far from\\nthis, there were two gullies, each terminating in a small\\ncave. The first gully was planned somewhat like certain\\ntraps for wild animals, that is, it narrowed gradually from\\nthe entrance, then became covered over and then dwin-\\ndled, after some four meters more, into a small descend-\\ning hole, the end of which we could not reach. But we\\ngot in far enough, to come to large chunks or slabs of\\nice plastered about on the floor and sides. In this cave,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0076.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 35\\nwhich was sheltered against sun and wind, the air, as tested\\nby the smoke of a cigar, was motionless, and the cave\\nseemed unconnected with any air current. The second\\ngully terminated in a somewhat larger cave, whose floor\\nwas well below the entrance no ice was visible, however,\\nalthough the air was still and the temperature low. This\\ncave may or may not be a glaciere but surely it is not\\na cold current cave.\\nThese Frainer Eisleithen certainly offer an interesting\\nfield to anyone studying subterranean ice, from the fact\\nthat there are, in the same rocks, caves without appar-\\nent draughts in summer and containing ice, and caves\\nwith distinct draughts and no ice. The problem seems\\nmore intricate than is usually the case, but the solution\\nis simply that the two classes of caves happen to be\\nfound together.\\nTHE EISHOHLE BEI ROTH.\\nThe Eifel is one of the bleakest districts of Central\\nEurope, and to one entering it from the vineyards and\\nthe well-inhabited basin of the Rhine, the contrast is im-\\npressive. The railroad rises gradually to a land of com-\\nparatively desert appearance, with rocks and trees on the\\nheights and a sparse cultivation in the valleys. But, if\\nthe country is unattractive to the agriculturist, it is in-\\nteresting to the geologist, on account of the great\\nnumber of extinct volcanoes. Almost in the centre of\\nthe Eifel is the little town of GeroUstein, famed for the\\nGerollsteiner Sprudel, which gives forth an effervescence", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0077.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "36 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nundreamed of by anyone, who has not visited the birth\\nplace of some of these German table waters.\\nAbout an hour s walk from Gerollstein, on the side\\nof a small hill, is situated the little Eishohle bei Roth,\\nnamed after a neighboring village. I went to this place,\\non the 25th of June, 1896, with a young boy as guide.\\nThe cave is sheltered from the wind by a wood around\\nit, among which are many large trees. It is at the base\\nof a wall of piled up lava, or at least volcanic, rocks\\nwhich form a sort of cauldron. The entrance is a small\\ntunnel some five meters long, which goes straight down\\nat an angle of about twenty-five degrees and then turns\\nsharply to the left. At the turn, the cave may be per-\\nhaps one meter in height. We did not go beyond this\\nspot, where the air was icy and the temperature sub-\\nnormal, as the tunnel was blocked up by a large boulder,\\nwhich had evidently recently fallen from the rocks in\\nfront. There was no ice, as far as we went, and the boy\\nsaid it began three or four meters further in. He told\\nme that there was no ice in the cavern in winter, but\\nadmitted that he had not entered it at that season, so\\nthat was hearsay. He had heard also that the ice was\\nsometimes taken out for sick people, but otherwise it\\nwas not used.\\nIt seemed to me that the conditions at Roth show\\nthat the ice is formed by the cold of winter alone the\\ncave is well below the entrance it is the lowest point\\nof the surrounding cauldron of rocks and all the cold\\nair naturally gravitates to it it is sheltered by rocks", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0078.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. J\\nand trees from wind or exposure to the rays of the\\nsun the tunnel faces nearly due north and the water\\nnecessary to supply the ice, easily soaks between the\\nlava blocks.\\nTHE FRAUENMAUERHOHLE.\\nEisenerz, in Eastern Tyrol, is a picturesquely situ-\\nated little town. It is at the bottom of a great valley,\\nwith mountains all around it. Two of these are bare,\\ngaunt limestone peaks, which are decidedly dolomitic in\\nform and color. The sharpest of these is to the north.\\nIt is called the Pfafifenstein and is the beginning of the\\nrange culminating in the Frauenmauer. On a mountain\\nto the east of the town, one sees the iron mines and\\nworks, whence the town takes its name Tronore, and\\nwhence quantities of iron are taken out every year. The\\nmines are said to have been in operation for over a\\nthousand years, since about A. D. 800. After the ore\\nis taken from the mine and roughly prepared, it is run\\ndown in small cars through a covered way to the rail-\\nroad station to be shipped and at certain times there\\nis a seemingly endless procession of these cars, each\\nbearing, besides its load of ore, a miner, with clothes\\nand person entirely begrimed to the yellow-brown color\\nof the iron.\\nAs I walked out of the Eisenerz railroad station, an\\nold man in Tyrolese costume asked me if I wanted a\\ntrdger and a guide, so, while he was carrying my valise\\nto the hotel, we came to terms. He was one of the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0079.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "38 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\npatented guides of the district and wore the large badge\\nof the Austrian guides. If the size of the badge made\\nthe guide, one should be safe with Tyrolese, but for\\ndifficult excursions, it will not do to trust to a guide\\nsimply because he happens to be patented that is,\\nnot if one values the safety of one s neck. Next morn-\\ning, July the 9th, 1896, the old guide arrived betimes at\\nthe hotel and roused me by tapping on the wall below\\nmy window with his stick. We left at half past five\\no clock. My companion, who should have known better,\\nhad not breakfasted, so by the time we reached the\\nGsoll Alp at a quarter-past seven, he was almost tired\\nout. He wore the regulation black chamois knee breeches\\nand a gamsbart in his hat. He picked many flowers en\\nroute, ostensibly because they were pretty but in real-\\nity, I think, because it gave him the opportunity to re-\\ncover his wind. He told me he was sixty-three years\\nold, and he certainly went up hill with some difficulty,\\nand for the first time in my life, I fairly succeeded in\\nshowing a clean pair of heels to a patently ter fiihrer on\\na mountain side. At one place he found a large snail\\nin the road. This he wrapped up in leaves and placed\\non a rock, and on our return he picked the leaves and\\nsnail up, and rammed the whole bundle into his pocket,\\ninforming me that it was excellent Arznei, although he\\ndid not mention for what complaint.\\nThe road led up a wooded valley, in a sort of series of\\nsteps, bits of even ground interspersed by steeper ones,\\nwith the Pfaffenstein-Frauenmauer limestone peaks poking", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0080.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "J\\nJ\\no\\no\\nw\\nX\\nH\\nQ\\nw\\nu\\ns", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0081.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0082.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 39\\nUp their jagged summits on the left. The sky was clear\\nat starting, except in the west, where clouds were form-\\ning, and these gradually overspread the whole sky, and\\nfinally turned to rain. Just before we reached the Gsoll\\nAlp, we went by a huge snow avalanche, which had\\nfallen in February and torn a lane clear through the\\npines, bringing down numbers of them with it. The\\nremains of the avalanche were banked up on the side\\nof the road, which was cut out, and many of the pines\\nwere still piled on and in the snow. Stopping ten\\nminutes at the alp to allow my guide to recuperate on\\nsome bread and milk, we then crossed the pastures and\\npushed up a rather steep slope by a small path, at one\\nplace crossing the remains of another avalanche. We\\nalso came near having the attentions of a little bull which\\nwas screaming viciously. My guide said it was an ex-\\ntremely disagreeable beast, but he did not think it would\\nattack him, as he always made a point of giving it\\nbread when at the chalet. We reached the entrance of\\nthe cave at a quarter-past eight.\\nA man and a boy from Eisenerz, who had heard I\\nwas going to the cavern and who wished to profit by\\nmy guide, caught up with us here. They were much\\ndisappointed when I told them I should visit only the\\nEiskammer. They went into the cave at the same time\\nthat we did, and eventually we left them pushing up\\none of the side chambers, with only one torch in\\ntheir possession. My guide said he thought they were\\nrisking their lives, as there were many holes they might", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0083.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "40 GLACIlfcRES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nfall Into, besides the probability of their finding them-\\nselves in total darkness. He told me that once, while\\nIn the cavern, he heard distant yells, and, going up the\\ngallery whence they proceeded, found a man half dead,\\nwho said he had tried to come through the mountain\\nby himself, had broken his lantern and had remained in\\nthe darkness an indefinite number of hours; a situation,\\nthe horror of which could not be realized by anyone who\\nhas not been underground without a light and felt the\\nabsolute blackness of a cavern.\\nThe Frauenmauer is a limestone peak, 1828 meters\\nIn height, one of several forming a horseshoe round the\\nGsoll Alp. It presents on that side a sheer wall of rock,\\nin which there are two holes close together, at an alti-\\ntude of 1335 meters. These are the lower openings of the\\nFrauenmauerhohle, of which the higher and biggest one\\nIs used for an entrance. They are some thirty or forty\\nmeters from the base of the rock wall, and a flight of\\nwooden steps leads up to the entrance opening, which\\nis narrow and high. At the top of the steps, we stood\\nin the mouth of the cave and, going in four or five\\nmeters, saw the other opening to the left, below us.\\nAbout five meters further, there was one small lump of\\nice, as big as a pumpkin, lying on the ground, but this\\nmay have been carried there from within. The cavern\\nwent nearly straight for some twenty-five meters from\\nthe entrance, rising all the time gently. Then came a\\nsteep little drop, of some four or five meters, in the\\nrock floor, and here a small wooden staircase was", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0084.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0085.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0086.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 4 1\\nplaced. A gallery opened to the right and this was\\nthe cavern proper, which leads through the mountain.\\nIt rose considerably and contained no ice as far as we\\nwent, which was for some distance. The walking was\\nbad, as the floor was covered with geroll, that is broken\\ndetritus.\\nReturning and continuing towards the freezing chamber,\\nthe floor of the cavern began to rise once more, contin-\\nuing for some forty-five meters to its highest point,\\nwhich is lower, however, than the top of the entrance,\\nan important fact to notice. For, although the floor of\\nthe cave is considerably higher, at a distance of seventy\\nmeters within, than the level of the bottom of the en-\\ntrance still, that highest spot is below the level of the\\ntop of the entrance. This fact, and also the size of the\\ngallery, unquestionably explains why the cold air can get\\nin as far as it does. At this highest spot we found a\\nconsiderable mass of ice, a couple of cartloads in bulk\\nperhaps, which the guide said would melt away later in\\nthe summer. This was, perhaps, the remains of a fallen\\nstalactite. This mass of ice is an interesting point in\\nconnection with the Frauenmauerhohle, for it shows that\\nice in a cave sometimes forms, even if in small quanti-\\nties, above the level of the base of the entrance. There\\nseems no reason why it should not do so, provided\\nthere is the necessary water supply. Such ice would,\\nhowever, sufler more, as soon as the outside air was\\nover freezing point, than would ice which was below the\\nlevel of the entrance. It would probably disappear early", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0087.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "42 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nin the year, unless the cave were in a latitude or at an\\naltitude where snow remained in the open during most\\nof the year.\\nFrom this highest point, the cave turns somewhat to\\nthe left, and the floor begins to slope downward, sinking\\ngradually to some six meters below the level of the en-\\ntrance. Ten meters or so from the highest point, we\\nbegan to find icicles and fissure columns, and about tvventy\\nFig. 5. Vertical Section of the Frauenmauerhohle.\\nmeters further, we reached an almost level ice floor,\\nstretching across the entire width of the cave some seven\\nmeters and extending about fifty meters more to the end\\nof the cave. In several places there was much frozen\\nrime on the rock walls. There were also a number of\\ncolumns and icicles, though none of any special beauty.\\nI broke a piece ofl one of them, and the ice was trans-\\nparent and free from prisms, showing that this column\\nwas probably of fairly recent origin. Letting a bit melt\\nin my mouth, the water tasted pure and sweet.\\nIn two places, there were abgrtmds, that is, holes\\nin the ice. One of these was a wide, deep hole on the\\nleft side of the cave, between the rock and the ice floor.\\nThe other was a great hole in the ice floor itself. As", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0088.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0089.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0090.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 43\\nthe edges of both holes sloped sharply, it was impos-\\nsible to get near enough to look into either, but I threw\\nin lumps of ice, and from the sound should judge that the\\nholes were about three meters deep. The hole in the ice\\nfloor seemed to be cut by drip, and I think they both\\ncarried off the drainage.\\nThe ice floor was sloppy and thawing rapidly. At the\\nfurthest point we reached, within about fifteen meters\\nfrom the end of the ice chamber, we were stopped by an\\naccumulation of water lying on the ice. I poked into it\\nwith my ice axe and found it about twenty centimeters in\\ndepth. There was a crust of ice on top in places. The\\nlake was cold, but I am sure the water was not freezing,\\nas I held my hand in it at least a minute without pain.\\nThe guide assured me that in two weeks or so the lake\\nwould be completely frozen, provided there was some fine,\\nwarm weather but, if there was rain, he said that it\\nwould not freeze. By this statement, he unintentionally\\nexplained, what he asserted was true, namely, that the\\ncave froze harder in August than in July. The explana-\\ntion of course is, that in fine, dry weather, water does\\nnot run into the cavern, and then the lake gradually\\ndrains off, leaving the ice floor free from water and this\\nthe natives interpret to mean that the water has frozen up.\\nAt the edge of the lake there was a fissure in the\\nleft hand rock wall, in which my companion assured me\\nthat a column would shortly form. I absolutely doubt\\nthis statement, as, if it were true, it would be contrary to\\neverything I have seen still, I wish I could have returned", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0091.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "44 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nin August, to verify the matter. I poked my torch up\\nthe fissure, also felt in with my hand. It was cold, and on\\nthe rocks inside there was much hoar frost, but I could\\nneither see nor feel any ice mass, nor am I sure how\\nfar the fissure extended.\\nThe air was still, damp and over freezing point through-\\nout the Eiskavivter, and all the signs showed that the cave\\nwas in a state of thaw. Although the rocks are limestone\\nand scarcely blackened by smoke any^vhere, yet as our\\ntorches did not give much light, the color impression was\\nblack and gray, like the Schafloch.\\nAt the hotel the landlord confirmed in every particular\\nthe story of the cave freezing hardest in August or Sep-\\ntember. He had never been there himself, but stated\\nthat everyone said the same thing, and that many people\\nhad broken their heads trying to account for it. At\\neight o clock in the evening, my guide came to let me\\nknow that the man and boy, whom we left trying to pene-\\ntrate the cave, had just turned up after making all their\\nrelatives extremely anxious. They were nearly lost, and\\nhad in general an extremely uncomfortable time. It is\\nscarcely to be wondered at that accidents occur in caves\\nand on mountains when people, with neither knowledge\\nnor proper preparation, go wandering off by themselves\\ninto the unknown.^\\n*On the evening of June 29th, 1897, I met at Hieflau three Viennese\\ntourists who had come that day through the Frauenmauer. They found\\nthe lake on the ice floor of the Eiskammer, just as I had in 1896. They\\nsaid also, moreover, that they found ice and icicles or ice columns in the\\nmain cave unfortunately, they did not explain clearly in what part.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0092.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 45\\nTHE MILCHHAUSER OF SEELISBERG.\\nThe summer of 1896, will long be remembered by\\nAlpine climbers for the pitiless rain storm, which kept com-\\ning steadily down during the vacation months. It was in the\\nmidst of this that I arrived at Trieb, on the Lake of Lu-\\ncerne, on the 6th of August, to see whether I could find\\nthe windholes which were reported near Seelisberg. At\\nthe landing place I found Herr J. M. Ziegler, the owner of\\nthe Hotel Bellevue at Seelisberg, who promptly secured\\na nice, blond bearded young fellow, a relative of his and\\nhis knecht, as a guide. It was pouring when we started,\\na proceeding which kept on during our entire excursion.\\nWe tramped up a narrow road, paved with great stones\\nin the old Swiss fashion, and, as my guide truly said,\\nawfully steep for horses.\\nHalf an hour from the boat landing, took us to the first\\nmilkhouse, which belonged to Herr Ziegler. It was in a\\nsmall patch of woods, and was placed against a cliff,\\nwhere rocks had fallen down and formed a talus of broken\\ndetritus. The side walls of the house were built out from\\nthe cliff and roofed over, and the front wall had a doorway\\nclosed with a wooden door. At the back the detritus or\\nger dll was built into a vertical, unplastered wall between\\nmost of the interstices of which, cool air came forth. Sev-\\neral of these interstices were fairly large holes of uncertain\\ndepth. It was a cool day and the air currents were only\\na little cooler than the temperature outside.\\nAnother half an hour of uphill walking, partly on roads", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0093.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "46 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nand partly over soaking meadows, took us to Seelisberg,\\nwhere we stopped at the house of the owner of the second\\nmilkhouse, to get the key. The owner could not go with\\nus because he had damaged his foot, by wearing great\\nw^ooden shoes or sabots armed w-ith enormous spikes, while\\ncutting grass on steep slopes. He was hospitable enough\\nunlike his dog, who was exceedingly anxious to attack us.\\nThe owner said in the intervals of the doom s howls that\\nice formed during the winter in the rear w^all of his\\nmilkhouse and remained until about June. The milk-\\nhouse was in a little patch of woods against a small cliff,\\nat the bottom of which were broken rocks. We had\\nsome difficulty in getting in, working for at least ten\\nminutes at the lock, while drops of rainwater would oc-\\ncasionally drip into our coat collars. Just as I had given\\nup hope, my companion succeeded in getting the key to\\nturn. There were several pans, full of milk, placed to cool,\\nand several barrels of potatoes and, as at the first milk-\\nhouse, w^e found that the rear wall consisted simply of\\nheaped up detritus built Into a vertical position. Gentle\\nair currents flowed from several large holes and from the\\ncracks betw^een the stones.\\nFrom here w e went by a path through woods and over\\nmeadows down to the lake, coming to the shore some dis-\\ntance to the west of the steamboat landing. Everything\\nwas soaking w^et, and as we proceeded, I felt my clothes\\ngetting wetter and my shoes absorbing water like sponges\\nuntil, w^hen we came to an overflowing brook, wading\\nthrough seemed rather pleasant. There Is one advantage", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0094.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 47\\nof getting thoroughly wet feet in the mountains it makes\\ncrossing streams so much easier, as one does not delay,\\nbut simply steps right in.\\nThe lower milkhouse was on the shore of the lake, near\\nthe house of a fisherman, whose wife opened the door for\\nus. There was some milk in pans and several barrels of\\nwine; and on a board were a number oi ferras from the\\nlake the result of two days catching in nets. This was\\nthe largest of the three milkhouses although it did not\\nhave as many big holes in the rock wall as the others, but\\nonly the interstices between the blocks of rock, whence\\nwe could feel cool air flowing out. The woman said that\\nthe ice melted away by April or May, but that in winter\\nthe wine barrels were all covered with frost. She also said\\nthat the air coming from the clefts in summer was colder\\nwhen the weather was warm, than when it was rainy.\\nDoubtless the temperature of the draughts remains the\\nsame during the summer, but the air feels cooler to the\\nhand when the outside air is hot.\\nA walk of another half hour, through more soaking wet\\ngrass, brought us back to the steamboat landing at Trieb,\\nwhere I touched my guide s heart with the gift of a five\\nfranc piece, and had a talk with Herr Ziegler. He said\\nthat there were a number of places in the neighborhood\\nwhence cold air came forth during the summer from cracks\\nin the rocks that there were also other milkhouses, notably\\none at Tell s Platte, on the lake and that the milkhouses\\nwere not generally used in winter, when the doors were left\\nopen, to allow the cold air to penetrate as much as possible", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0095.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "48 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nthrough the rocks behind. During the winter the draughts\\nwere reversed, and poured in instead of out of the open-\\nings, and Herr Ziegler thought that at that time the interior\\nof the rock cracks became chilled, and that possibly ice\\nformed in them which helped to chill the summer currents,\\nwhen the draughts poured out from the holes.\\nTHE GLACIERE DE LA GENOLLIERE.\\nOn Tuesday, the nth of August, 1896, a cool and rainy\\nday, I left Geneva and went by train to Nyon, where I\\nfound at the station a little victoria, in which I drove up to\\nSaint-Cergues. The road lay across the plain to the base of\\nthe slopes of the Jura, and then up these in long zigzags it\\nwas admirably built and on the hill slopes passed the whole\\nway through a beautiful thick forest, principally beeches\\nand birches. At Saint-Cergues, I went to the Pension\\nCapt, where the landlady soon found a guide in the shape\\nof the gendarme of the district, a right good fellow. Amy\\nAimee Turrian by name. He was in uniform, with an army\\nrevolver in a holster at his belt. We then drove about\\nhalf an hour beyond Saint-Cergues, the road rising but little,\\nand the thick forest giving place to a more open wood of\\nevergreens, with patches of pasturage. As a forest sani-\\ntarium, Saint-Cergues seems unsurpassed in the whole of\\nEurope. The carriage turned up a little country road,\\nwhich soon became too rough for driving, so we proceeded\\non foot for about another half hour, through pine woods\\nand pastures, to the glaciere. Turrian enlivened the way\\nwith an account of his life as a gendarme, of the long soli-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0096.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 49\\ntary six hour patrols in the woods in winter, and of how\\nhe lay in ambush for poachers. He said he would not\\ntake long to fire on anyone resisting arrest, as that was\\nserieux.\\nThe glaciere is in the middle of a pasture, with several\\npine trees overhanging it. It is surrounded by a wall,\\nbuilt to prevent the cows from falling in. There are two\\npits, side by side and about three meters apart they are\\nsome thirteen meters in depth, with a width of five or six\\nmeters. They open into one another at the bottom the\\nrock separating them, forming a natural bridge overhead.\\nOne of the pits is vertical on all sides. The other is ver-\\ntical all around, except on the side furthest away from the\\nnatural bridge. Here the side of the pit is in the shape,\\nso usual in glacieres, of a steep slope. Down this slope\\nwe descended. It was slippery and muddy, owing to the\\nrecent heavy rains, and my ice axe proved invaluable and\\nprobably saved me some unpleasant falls. Under the\\nbridge, the floor was covered with a mass of shattered\\nlimestone debris, among which there was neither ice nor\\nsnow both of which my guide said he had found in\\nabundance the preceding June. A little limestone cavern\\nopened on one side below the bridge. A great, flat\\nlimestone slab formed a natural lintel, and, lighting our\\ncandles, we stooped down and passed under it into the\\ncave, which was about the size of a room and in which\\nwe could just stand up. At the entrance and over most\\nof the floor there was ice, in one place thirty or forty\\ncentimeters in depth, as I could see where a drip from", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0097.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "50 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nthe roof had cut a hole. There were no signs of icicles or\\ncolumns. My guide said he had never penetrated into this\\nchamber, which he thought, on his earlier visit, was blocked\\nwith ice and snow. I did not see any limestone stalac-\\ntites anywhere, and I am inclined to think that the low\\ntemperatures of glacieres have a tendency to prevent\\ntheir formation.\\nAfter our visit, we went to the Chalet de La Genolli^re\\nclose by, where there were some thirty cows and calves.\\nThe intelligent berger or manager said that most of the ice\\nfrom the glaciere was used for butter making during the\\nhot weather and that between the inroads thus made\\nupon it and from other causes, the ice disappeared every\\nyear before autumn, but that it formed afresh every winter\\npretty good evidence to show that the ice in this cave has\\nnothing to do with a glacial period. He also stated that\\nwhen he first entered the inner chamber in the spring\\nthere were four ice columns there.\\nThe glaciere de La Genolliere is a clear exemplification\\nof the theory that the cold of winter is the sole cause for\\nthe ice. The whole glaciere is rather small and is fairly\\nwell protected against wind. Although snow cannot fall\\ndirectly under the rock arch, yet I should imagine It drifts\\nunder, or after melting, runs in and refreezes. To the\\ninner cave snow, as snow, could hardly reach and the\\ncavern is probably filled, like most cave glacieres, from\\nfrozen drip. The inner cave is, therefore, a true cave\\nglaciere, while the outer pits and the bridge are some-\\nthing between a gorge and a cave. La Genolliere should,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0098.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 5 1\\nI think, be visited about the end of June, when the Ice\\nformations are certainly larger and more interesting than\\nin August.\\nTHE FRIEDRICHSTEINER OR GOTTSCHEER EISHOHLE.\\nA little to the east of, and in about the same latitude\\nas Trieste, Is the small town of Gottschee, now reached by\\na branch railroad from Laibach. Gottschee is a German\\nsettlement almost in the centre of the district known as the\\nDuchy of Krain, Austria, which Is mainly Inhabited In\\nthe north by Slavonians and In the south by Croatians.\\nGottschee lies directly at the western base of the Fried-\\nrlchstelner Gebirge, one of whose peaks is the Burgernock.\\nOn the eastern slopes of this mountain is situated the\\nFriedrichsteiner or Gottscheer Eishohle, at an altitude of\\nabout nine hundred meters.\\nOn the 24th of June, 1897, I left Gottschee at half past\\nsix o clock in the morning with Stefan Klenka, a nice little\\nman. I had asked to have him come at six o clock, but he\\ndid not turn up and I had to send for him. His excuse\\nwas, that tourists always ordered him for six o clock, but\\nwhen the time came, they were still In bed. He had taken\\na German officer and his wife to the cave the year before,\\nand after keeping him waiting three hours, they started at\\nnine o clock. The result was that they did not get to the\\ncave until two o clock, and returned to Gottschee just at\\nnightfall.\\nWe reached the cave at half past eight o clock. The\\nsteep and rough path went uphill through a fine forest,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0099.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "52 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nwhich my guide said was Urwald, i. e., primeval forest and\\nthere were certainly som-e big trees and many fallen ones,\\nand much underbrush. He assured me that bears were\\nstill plentiful in the neighborhood, and that Prince Auers-\\nperg, who owns the shooting, does not allow them to be\\nkilled, preferring to pay for any damage they may cause\\nto the peasants fields or for any cattle they may dine on,\\nrather than to have these interesting animals exterminated\\nfrom his woods. He also said that there was a two meter\\nsnowfall in Gottschee in winter a sufficient quantity to\\naccount for the glacieres. At one place on the road we\\nstopped before a small crack in the rocks, and Klenka\\ndropped in some small stones, which we could hear strike\\ntwo or three times a long distance below. There is surely\\nan unexplored cavern at this spot.\\nThe Friedrichsteiner Eishohle is a large pit cave, well\\nlighted by daylight. It is sheltered from any winds by\\nthe great trees which grow all around it and even over the\\nrock roof. A long, steep slope leads straight into the pit\\nand from the top the ice floor is in full sight. On both\\nsides of the slope the rocks are almost sheer. Over the\\nbottom of the slope the rock roof projects at a great\\nheight. The sides of the cave rise perpendicularly at\\nleast forty meters, and in fact, the cave suggests an un-\\nfinished tunnel set on end.\\nSome years ago, the Deutschen und Oesterreichischen\\nAlpen Verein built a wooden staircase, in a series of zig-\\nzags, on the slope. This staircase should have been\\ncleared off earlier in the year, but, of course, the matter", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0100.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 53\\nwas neglected. Down these steps we descended until they\\nbecame covered with snow, and lower down with hard ice.\\nAll this was winter s snow which fell directly on to the\\nslope and gradually melted and froze again, so this was\\nreally a miniature glacier. It was not subterranean ice at\\nall. We cut down the snow, but had to stop when we came\\nto the ice, as it would have involved a couple of hours at\\nleast of the hardest kind of step cutting and this my guide\\ndid not care to undertake, especially as he was nearly\\nkilled on this slope the week before. He had reached,\\nwith some tourists from Trieste, a place above that where\\nwe stopped, when he slipped and fell down the slope, shoot-\\ning clear across the cave, where he remained until ropes\\nwere procured, and he was dragged out. He afterwards\\nshowed me the numerous cuts and bruises he had received\\non his perilous glissade.\\nWe had to stop also for another reason. I had un-\\nwisely brought as wrap, a thick overcoat reaching to\\nthe knees, and this was such an impediment on the icy\\nstaircase, that I took it off, and soon began to feel\\nlong shivers creeping down my spine. This question\\nof extra clothing for glaciere exploration is hard to ar-\\nrange. One must guard against most trying changes of\\ntemperature. For, on entering a big glaciere, the heat\\nof a July day without, will, at a distance of only a few\\nmeters, give place to the cold of a January day within,\\nand nothing could be better devised than a big glaciere\\nto lay the seeds of rheumatism. It is difficult to plan a\\ngarb suitable to meet all the varying conditions, but the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0101.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "54 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\ndress must be cool and warm, and light enough to per-\\nmit free motion. The clothes I have found most practical\\nare a thin waistcoat and thick trousers, and two short\\nsack coats, one of them a heavy winter one. The coats\\nshould button at the throat, and it is well to place straps\\nround the bottom of the trousers. Thick kid gloves\\nshould always be worn in caves, to save cutting the hands\\non rocks or ice in the darkness, and hobnails may pre-\\nvent some unpleasant slips.\\nFrom the point where we stopped, some ten meters\\naway from the ice floor, the largest portion of the cave\\nwas visible. The finest object w^as a big ice curtain or\\nvorhang, as my guide called it, which, from a height of\\nfive or six meters, flowed down from fissures to the ice\\nfloor, and which covered the rocks on the eastern side.\\nUnder one point of this curtain, Klenka said that there\\nwas a deep hole in the ice. Smaller fissure columns\\nalso streamed from the rear wall to the ice floor. The\\nice floor itself was flat, of an ochre greenish tinge, and\\nwas covered with broken ice fragments. We could not\\nsee the western portion of the cavern, as the rocks jut-\\nted out in a sort of corner. Klenka said that there\\nwere several small pyramids there a large one which\\nhe spoke of as the Altar and a small ice slope, plas-\\ntered on the side rocks.\\nThe sides of the cave were of a dark gray limestone\\nrock, and from the top of the slope they assumed a de-\\ncidedly bluish tone, and I am inclined to think that there\\nwas already we were there from eight-thirty A. M.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0102.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 55\\nuntil ten A. M. a faint mist in the cavern. This is the\\nmost interesting phenomenon connected with the Fried-\\nrichsteiner Eishohle. The cavern faces due south, and\\nabout midday, in clear weather, the sun shines directly\\ninto it, causing a mist or cloud to form in the cave on\\nwarm days a mute witness that evaporation is connected\\nwith the melting, not with the forming, of the ice. The\\nair at every point seemed still.\\nOn my return to Gottschee, I called on one of the\\nprofessors of the K. K. Gymnasium, and he told me\\nmany interesting facts about the surrounding countr}\\\\\\nAmong other things he said that no traces of a glacial\\nperiod or indeed of glaciers were found in the Krain\\nand as this district is particularly rich in glacieres, this\\nfact is a strong proof against the glacial period theory.\\nHe assured me also that many bears still existed in the\\nneighborhood that one family was known to inhabit the\\nwoods round the Friedrichsteiner Eishohle, and that he\\nhad often seen bear tracks on his own shooting, some\\nten kilometers to the south.\\nTHE SUCHENREUTHER EISLOCH.\\nOn the 25th of June, 1897, Gottschee at six-\\nthirty A. M. in an einspdnner, and drove thirteen kilo-\\nmeters southward, over a good road, albeit hilly in\\nplaces, to Mrauen, which we reached in about two hours.\\nThe weather was exceedingly hot. I took Klenka along,\\nas he spoke German, and he entertained me on the drive\\nby telling me that there were many poisonous snakes in", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0103.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "56 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nthe country, of which the kreuzotters or vipers were the\\nworst, and that three or four persons were bitten every\\nyear.\\nMrauen is in Croatia, and I could see a sHght differ-\\nence in the people and their dress from those of Gott-\\nschee. From Mrauen, the landlord of the Gasthaus Post,\\nJosef Sirar, led us to the Grosses Eisloch. This is\\nsometimes spoken of as the Eisloch bei Skrill, but as it\\nlies in a patch of woods below the village of Suchenreuth,\\nthe Suchenreuther Eisloch seems the correct name. At\\nleast that was what Sirar called it. It took us about an\\nhour on foot from Mrauen to get into the woods. On\\nthe way we met two guards in uniform, carrying Mann-\\nlicher carbines with fixed bayonets, and it was agree-\\nable to feel that the strong arm of the Austrian govern-\\nment extended over this semi-wild land. In the woods,\\nfollowing Sirar s able guidance, we took a short cut\\nalways a mistake and were lost temporarily in a maze\\nof bushes and brambles, in which I thought of the kreuz-\\notters. After that, Sirar at first could not find the cave\\nand had to hunt around for it, while I sat on a stone and\\nwaited impatiently.\\nAt the cave a rather steep slope of wet mud, cov-\\nered with dead leaves, led down through a rock arch.\\nSirar had to cut several steps in the mud with his\\nhatchet, or we should probably have sat down suddenly.\\nThe archway opened into a moderately large cavern,\\nwhich was about twenty meters deep, almost round and\\nsome fifteen meters in diameter. The slope continued", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0104.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES.\\n57\\nright across the cave, and on some parts of it were logs\\nof wood and much debris. On the wall hung a few\\nlimestone stalactites. In the roof of the cave was a\\ngreat hole, and under this was a big cone of old winter\\nsnow, which had become icy in its consistency, and on\\nwhich there was much dirt and many leaves. The tem-\\ninrm\\\\inrnmm\\nFig. 6. Vertical Section of the Suchenreuther Eisloch.\\nperature in the cave was several degrees above freezing\\npoint, and there was no ice hanging anywhere. Sirar\\nsaid that when the weather got hotter, the ice would come\\nbut as he said also, that he had been only once before\\nin the cave, some ten years ago, his opinion was not\\nworth much. Both men said that the preceding winter\\nwas unusually warm.\\nTHE NIXLOCH.\\nNear Hallthurm in Bavaria, a railroad station between\\nReichenhall and Berchtesgaden, is a well known con.\\ngeries of windholes, called the Nixloch. I visited it", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0105.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "58 GLACi:^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\non Friday, July the 2d, 1897, with a railroad employee,\\nwhom I found at the peasants gasthaus.\\nThe Nixloch is ten minutes distant in the forest, on\\nthe slopes of the Untersberg. It is among a mass of\\nbig limestone blocks, and close by are the remains of\\nthe walls of an old castle or fortification. The Nixloch\\ndescends from the entrance for about two meters nearly\\nsheer, and there is just room to get through. As I sat\\nwithin the outside edge of the mouth of the cave, the\\nsmoke of my cigar was slowly carried downward into it.\\nDropping down through the hole, we found ourselves\\nin a small cavern formed of rough limestone blocks over-\\nhead and underfoot. It is possible to go still further\\ndown and my companion said that formerly it was pos-\\nsible to go through the cave and come out at a lower\\nopening this exit, however, was destroyed when the\\nrailroad was built. The draught, as tested by the flame\\nof a candle, was still drawing in some seven or eight\\nmeters from the entrance. There is a second cavity\\nimmediately next to the entrance, and at the bottom\\nof these holes, the inward draught was so violent as to\\nblow the candle out. The thermometer outside in the\\nshade was 28\u00c2\u00b0 C. inside the cave, where the draught\\nwas still perceptible, it was about 20\u00c2\u00b0 C. Within the\\ncave I noticed two large, dark brown spiders.\\nOn returning to the gasthaus, I had a talk with some\\npeasants who were dining there, and they told me that\\nit was warm in winter in the Nixloch, and that ice never\\nformed there.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0106.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 59\\nTHE DORNBURG.\\nIf one draws a line northeast from Coblentz and\\nanother northwest from Frankfort-on-the-Main, they will\\nintersect nearly at the Dornburg. The railroad from\\nFrankfort goes, via Limburg and Hadamar, to Frickhofen\\nand Wilsenroth, from either of which villages the ice\\nformations of the Dornburg are easily reached on foot\\nin half an hour.\\nI arrived at Wilsenroth on the 26th of July, 1897,\\nand soon found an old forester, who said he had lived\\nin the neighborhood for over fifty years, to show me the\\nway. The Dornburg is a low hill, perhaps a hundred\\nmeters high and a kilometer long. It is basaltic and\\ncovered with sparse woods. The forester said that on\\ntop were the remains of the foundations of an old castle,\\nand that this was possibly the origin of the name Dorn-\\nburg. We circled round the eastern base of the hill for\\nsome ten minutes, when we came to a little depression,\\nfilled with basalt debris, among which were several small\\nholes, out of which came currents of cool air.\\nTen minutes further in the woods, we arrived at the\\nDornburg Restauration and then almost immediately at\\nthe glaciere. It is at the bottom of a talus of broken ba-\\nsaltic rocks and has been much affected by the agency of\\nman. In it are two eislocher or stollen, as the forester\\ncalled them. These are little artificial pits or cellars, dug\\ninto the talus. They are side by side, opening about\\nsoutheast, and each is about one and a half meters wide,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0107.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "60 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nthree meters long, and two meters high. The sides are\\nbuilt up with wooden posts and overhead is a thick roof\\nof logs strewn with dirt. The day was cool and at the\\nmouth of each eisloch, a faint outward current of air was\\ndiscernible at nine-thirty A. M. I could not find any cur-\\nrents coming into the eislocher. Inside it was cold and\\ndamp, and evidently thawing. There was a good heap of\\nice in each eisloch it was clear, and I could detect no trace\\nof prisms.\\nBy much questioning, I dug out something of the his-\\ntor)- of these stolle^i from the forester. Formerly the ice\\nwas found at this spot, among the boulders at the base of\\nthe slope. But the people gradually took many of these\\nbasaltic blocks away, to break up for road making, and\\nthen the ice diminished. About 1870, a brewer)-, since\\nburnt, was built at the Dornburg and the brewer had\\nthese stolle7i built, a sort of semi-natural, semi-artificial ice\\nhouse. Ever) winter, the present owner of the stollen\\nthrows a quantit)/ of snow into them, and this helps ma-\\nterially in forming the mass of ice.\\nJust below the restaurant there is a spring, which was\\nsaid to be extremely cold, but there was nothing icy nor\\napparently unusual about it.\\nUnder the restaurant itself is an interesting cellar. It\\nw^as closed by w^ooden doors. First there was a passage\\nway which turned steadily to the right, and which we de-\\nscended by some ten steps. This was about two meters\\nwide and was full of beer bottles and vegetables. On\\nthe left of the passage was a large double chamber where", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0108.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 6 1\\nmeat is kept. At eleven-thirty A. M. a faint draught blew\\ndown the passage and into the hall, the outside door being\\nthen open. The double hall was perhaps six meters each\\nway, and I could detect no air currents coming into it at\\nany place, except from the passage way. Both passage\\nand halls were, as far as I could see, entirely built over\\nwith masonry. There was no ice and the temperature\\nwas some 7\u00c2\u00b0 or 8\u00c2\u00b0 above freezing point.\\nThe daughter of the proprietor of the restaurant said\\nthat ice began to form in the cellar in February and that\\nit lasted generally until October; but that this year it\\nwas destroyed early because the masonry was repaired,\\nalthough it was still possible to skate in the cellar as late\\nas March. In the beginning of winter the cellar was warm,\\nand as she expressed it, der Keller schwitzt dann, which\\nI suppose means that the walls are damp. She also\\nsaid that it was a naturlicher Keller, and I am inclined\\nto think that it was a natural glaciere, converted into a\\ncellar.\\nThis visit to the Dornburg gave me many new ideas\\nabout classifying glacieres, especially in relation to the\\nmovements of air. I was long puzzled by the German\\nterms, Eishohlen and Windrohren and it suddenly struck\\nme, at the Dornburg, that this terminology is incorrect,\\nwhen used as a classification of glacieres. The presence\\nor absence of strong, apparent draughts, cannot be con-\\nsidered as a test as to whether a place is or is not a\\nglaciere the presence of ice, for at least part of the\\nyear, alone makes a glaciere, and this it does whether", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0109.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "62 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nthere are or are not draughts. It seems to me more\\nthan ever clear, however, that it all depends on the\\nmovements of air, as to whether ice forms in a cave. If\\nthe movements of air take the cold air of winter into a\\ncave, then and then only provided there is also a water\\nsupply do we have ice. I am now inclined to think\\nthat caves, as far as their temperatures are concerned,\\nshould be classified into caves containing ice, cold caves,\\nordinary normal caves, and hot caves, without reference\\nto the movements of air.\\nTHE GLACIERE DE SAINT-GEORGES.\\nFrom Rolle, on the north shore of the Lake of\\nGeneva, an excellent carriage road leads in two hours\\nand a half to Saint-Georges in the Jura. At first the way\\ngoes steeply uphill and passes through many vineyards,\\nand afterwards it crosses level fields to Gimel, then rises\\nthrough woods to Saint-Georges. On arriving there on\\nthe afternoon of August 3d, 1897, found the street\\nfilled with evergreens, and long benches and tables; the\\ndebris of a fete de tir, which had lasted for two days,\\nwith dancing and banquets and, I suspect, much vin du\\npays.\\nWhen I got down stairs at six o clock next morning,\\nall the people of the inn were sound asleep recovering\\nfrom the effects of the fete, and instead of their calling\\nme, I had to call them. Finally I succeeded in getting\\nbreakfast and then started in company with a first rate\\nfellow, named Aymon Emery.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0110.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "w\\no\\nPi\\no\\nw\\no\\nI\\nH\\n(fl\\nw\\nQ\\nW\\nOi\\nW\\nu\\no", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0111.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0112.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 63\\nWe walked up through woods, in about an hour and a\\nhalf, to the Glaciere de Saint-Georges, which lies at an\\naltitude of 1287 meters in the midst of the forest. There\\nare two holes close together. One of these descends\\nvertically and is partly roofed over with logs on which is\\nrigged a pulley. Emery, who was the entrepreneur of the\\nglaciere, which means that he attended to getting out the\\nice, told me that they pulled the ice up through this\\nvertical hole, making a noose with a rope round each\\nblock.\\nThe other and shallower opening ended in a rock\\nfloor, which was reached by a short ladder. To the right\\nwas an arch, under which the rock terminated as a floor\\nand descended vertically, forming the wall of the cave.\\nOn this wall two ladders, spliced at the end into one\\nlong ladder, were placed in a nearly vertical position. I\\ntied the end of my rope round my waist, and got a work-\\nman, who had come to cut ice, to pay out the rope to me,\\nwhile I went down.\\nThe cave is rather long and narrow, perhaps twenty-\\nfive meters by twelve meters, and the limestone roof\\nforms an arched descending curve overhead. I could not\\nsee any limestone stalactites neither were there any ice\\nstalactites or stalagmites in the cave, but a good part of\\nthe wall, against which the long ladder was placed, was\\ncovered by an ice curtain. It was thin and had evidently\\nbeen damaged by the ice cutters or I think it would have\\ncovered the entire lower portion of the wall.\\nThe base of the long ladder rested on an ice floor", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0113.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "64 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nwhich filled the bottom of the cave, and which would\\nprobably have been level if it had not been cut out here\\nand there in places, leaving many holes. A good many\\nbroken ice fragments lay on the floor and in some of\\nthe holes were pools of water. Some of the floor ice\\nFig. 7. Vertical Section of the Glaciere de Saint-Georges.\\nwas exceedingly prismatic in character, and I was able to\\nflake it off or break it easily with my hands into prisms.\\nUnder the vertical shaft, which is at one end of the\\ncave, was a mass of winter s snow which had fallen\\nthrough the opening. Under this snow was a deep hole,\\nwhich I believe was the drain hole of the glaciere before\\nthe ice floor was cut away to a level below its mouth.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0114.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 65\\nInto this hole I threw lumps of ice and heard them go\\nbumping down for three or four seconds.\\nThe atmosphere was not uncomfortable, although the\\ntemperature was about 7\u00c2\u00b0 C. The air did not feel damp,\\nand seemed almost still, but standing on the ice floor\\nnearly under the vertical hole, I found that the smoke\\nfrom my cigar ascended rapidly, and it seemed as if\\nthere were a rising air current, which sucked up the\\nsmoke.\\nSaint-Georges is a fine cavern and well worth visiting.\\nEmery said that the ice was not cut out for eight years\\npreceding the summer of 1897, ^.nd that for several years\\nit was not possible to go down at all, as there were no\\nladders, until he put in the two we utilized.^ All the\\nnatives of Saint-Georges believed that the ice was a\\nsummer formation and that it was warm in the cave in\\nwinter.\\nTHE GLACIERE DU PRE DE SAINT-LIVRES.\\nFrom the Glaciere de Saint-Georges, Emery and I\\npushed on through the woods to the Pre de Saint-Livres.\\nIn several places we came on the tracks of deer, and my\\nguide told me he had killed eleven roe during the last\\nhunting season. He said also that an attempt is being\\nIn the illustration of the Glaciere de Saint-Georges, the opening\\nto the left is the vertical pit, through which the ice is taken out under-\\nneath it, is the heap of winter snow. The man in the upper part of\\nthe picture is standing on the rock shelf at the base of the upper\\nladder and at the top of the lower ladder. To the right of the lower\\nladder near the bottom, a bit of the ice curtain is visible.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0115.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "66 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nmade to introduce the red deer into the Jura, and that\\nthe experiment seemed to be meeting with success. We\\nkept to the crest of the ridge along wood paths, and, as\\nthe day was fortunately cool and cloudy, we were able to\\nwalk fast and reached the Pre de Saint-Livres in two\\nhours. At a spot called La Foiraudaz we met the work-\\nmen coming down with a cartload of ice, which they\\nwere taking to Biere. Some of this ice was extremely\\nprismatic.\\nThe Pre de Saint-Livres is a big mountain pasture or\\nmeadow, surrounded with hills covered with pine trees.\\nIn the middle of it is the Chalet de Saint-Livres, round\\nwhich numerous cows and calves were congregated and\\nwhere a small shepherd gave us some milk. The chalet\\nis not one of the old picturesque Swiss chalets with great\\nstones on the roof to keep it from being blown away by\\nthe wind, but a strongly built single storied stone\\nstructure, which looks extremely modern among the green\\nhills.\\nThe glaciere lies close to the chalet, on the southern\\nside of the meadows, just on the edge of the woods, and\\nis surrounded with trees. It is at an altitude of 1362\\nmeters and faces nearly due north. To prevent the cattle\\nfrom falling in, it is enclosed with a stone wall, except in\\nfront, where there is a fence formed of an abattis of\\npine trees. The cave belongs to the pit variety, and the\\npit is a big one. As you stand at the top, you can look\\ndown to the end of the glaciere. The rocks are vertical\\nall round the pit, and in front there is a small rock", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0116.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 67\\nshelf, one-third of the way down, which divides the rock\\nwall into two long drops. Against each of these was a\\nrickety ladder, so we fixed the end of my rope to the pine\\ntrees of the fence, and hung on to it while we climbed\\ndown. The base of the lower and longer ladder rested\\non a mass of snow. This was the beginning of a long\\nsnow slope which gradually turned to ice and filled the\\ncave. The cave itself, measuring along the snow slope,\\nis some forty meters long and some ten to fifteen meters\\nwide, and is entirely lighted by daylight.\\nThe snow and ice slope fell in a series of small waves,\\nand the upper portion was rather dirty. On the right\\nhand the workmen had fixed a rope as a handrail, and all\\nthe way down had cut a staircase in the ice, so that the\\ndescent was not difficult. Some of the ice was sloppy.\\nThe ice mass did not abut entirely against the end of the\\ncave, but left an open space between the ice and the rock,\\nsome three or four meters wide and some four or five\\nmeters deep. Here the workmen had been getting their\\nice, and had cut into the ice mass for several meters,\\nforming a little tunnel.\\nThere were no ice cones nor stalactites, neither did I\\nsee any limestone stalactites. Much of the ice was pris-\\nmatic in fact, together with that at Saint-Georges, it\\nwas the most strongly prismatic I have seen. I can per-\\nhaps best describe it, by saying that it was brittle in\\ntexture, as I could break up small lumps in my hands.\\nThere was more prismatic ice at Saint-Livres, however,\\nthan at Saint-Georges. The air in the cave was still", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0117.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "68 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nand decidedly damp and the temperature was several\\ndegrees above freezing point. The day, however, was\\nalmost windless, and I would not assert that movements\\nof air, due to the wind, might not sometimes take place\\nin the pit.\\nThe Glaciere du Pre de Saint-Livres is one of those\\ncaves which mav be looked on as a transitional form\\nbetween gorges containing ice and caves containing ice.\\nThe winter snow falls into the mouth of the pit, and\\nis the chief foundation of the ice mass. It would be\\ninteresting to make a series of obser^ ations in this cave\\nto see whether there was anything like glacier motion.\\nEmer) of his own accord, expressed the opinion that\\nmuch of the ice here was due to the winter snows in\\nfact, he thought that it was all due to it, and that it\\ngradually descended into the cave and turned, little by\\nlittle, into ice. He told me that some years ago a cow\\nwas found by the workmen, frozen into the ice, at a depth\\nof four meters the flesh was perfectly preserved, and was\\neaten. I asked him if he had ever seen insects in either\\ncave, and he said he had not.\\nFrom the glaciere we walked back to the village\\nof Saint-Georges. On asking my guide how much I\\nowed him, he said he received four francs for a jou^mee.\\nso I gave him six francs, and we parted the best of friends.\\nGLACIER ICE CAVE IN THE FEE GLACIER.\\nDuring a rather protracted stay at Saas-Fee in Switzer-\\nland, I visited the glacier ice cave of the Fee Glacier on", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0118.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 69\\nthe 15th and i6th of August, 1897, both cool and rainy\\ndays. It is about half an hour s walk from the hotel to\\nthe ice cave, which is in the snout of the Fee glacier,\\nbelow the Eggfluh. A considerable stream issued from\\nthe cave. On nearing the opening, a strong cold air\\ncurrent poured out above the stream. At the front edge\\nof the ice, the height of the ice roof in the centre was\\nperhaps twelve meters and the width fifteen meters.\\nAround the edge, the roof formed an almost perfect\\ncurve. The ice walls contracted in a regular manner\\nwithin, and the cave became narrower and lower, and\\nsuggested an enormous funnel cut in half, into which\\nyou looked from the larger end. The cave also grew\\ngradually darker, and the darkness prevented seeing\\nfurther than to a depth of some fifteen meters. In the ice\\nwalls, just inside the entrance, were several crevasses, of\\nthe ordinary blue-green color. They followed nearly the\\nsame curve as the roof, but did not go through to the\\noutside. There were no icicles. The ice was faintly\\nstratified in places, and at the outer edge was brittle. It\\ndid not break into the long narrow prisms of the ice at\\nSaint-Georges and the Pre de Saint-Livres, but rather into\\nsmall lumps with facets, of all sorts of shapes. It was\\nevidently unsafe to penetrate under the ice roof, for while\\nI stood in front of the cave, a large lump broke off from\\nthe roof and fell with a clatter among a lot of other ice\\nfragments already on the moraine floor. In two places\\nthere was a steady rain of drops from the roof, show-\\ning that the ice was melting.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0119.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "70 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nThis is perhaps the glacier cave in Switzerland which\\nis easiest to visit, and my inspection intensified my be-\\nlief in what I consider the correct explanation of some of\\nthe phenomena in glacieres. The suggestion was that as\\nsoon as the temperature gets above freezing point in a\\nglacier ice cave, the only process is that of destruction of\\nthe ice, which seems to be also the case with glacieres.\\nLA GRAND CAVE DE MONTARQUIS.\\nMy brother and I left Cluses, in Savoie, a railroad\\nstation on the line between Geneva and Chamonix, at\\ntwo o clock on the afternoon of the 2 2d of August,\\n1897, 2,nd drove up in two hours and a half to\\nPralong du Reposoir, a distance of eleven kilometers.\\nThe road is a route nationale, fine and broad, with para-\\npets in many places. After passing Scionzier, it mounts\\ngradually, passing through a tremendous wild gorge, cut\\nby the waters and heavily clad with firs. We reached\\nPralong at four-thirty, and stopped at a primitive inn, still\\nin process of construction, and tenanted only by blue-\\nbloused peasants, who, as it was Sunday night, sat up\\nlate, drinking and making a heathenish noise they mistook\\nfor singing. I talked to some of these men, and they all\\ninsisted that there was no ice at the Grand Cave in\\nwinter, but that it came in summer. Phis il fait chaud,\\nplus (a gele, they said. One man explained the forma-\\ntion of the ice in an original way, and with an intelligence\\nfar above that of the average peasant. He considered\\nthat it was due to air currents, and thought that in winter", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0120.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 7 1\\nthe snow stopped up the holes in the rocks, through which\\nthe currents came but that when the snow melted, the\\ndraughts could work, and that then they formed the ice.\\nThe weather was abominable next morning, the clouds\\nlying along and dripping into the valley but the inn was\\nso awful that we decided to try to reach the cave. We had\\na nice little blue-bloused peasant for a guide, Sylvain Jean\\nCotterlaz by name. We went first for about an hour on\\nfoot towards Le Grand Bornant on a fair road, to an alp\\ncalled La Salle. This was surrounded by a herd of cows,\\nsome of whom seemed interested in our party. It now\\nbegan to rain fiercely, and except for my brother s perse-\\nverance, I should certainly have given in. A fair path led\\nup steep grass slopes into the clouds covering the Mont\\nBargy. Each of us had his umbrella raised, and the ascent\\nwas slippery and uninspiring. An hour took us to two\\ndeserted huts, the Alpe Montarquis, and half an hour\\nbeyond, we came to the caves by which time we were\\nthoroughly soaked.\\nThe caves are on Mont Bargy, at the base of a lime-\\nstone precipice, which, I think, faces nearly north. There\\nare three caves close together. The lowest, or Petite\\nCave de Montarquis, Cotterlaz said is also called La Cave\\ndes Faux-Monayeurs as according to a, probably untrue,\\ntradition, it was once used by counterfeiters. Above this\\nis a small rock pocket, accessible down an easy slope.\\nWe went in and found that there was no ice and indeed\\nscarcely any water in it.\\nThe Grand not Grande Cave is a little higher up,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0121.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "72 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nand as we came to it, several sheep, which had taken\\nrefuge in the mouth from the storm, hastily skipped away,\\nevidently distrusting our intentions. The altitude of the\\ncave is said to be 2078 meters. The entrance must face\\nabout north east; it is elliptical in shape, about fifteen\\nmeters wide, and six meters high, and is badly sheltered\\nagainst the wind. The cave is of moderate size, about\\nsixty meters in length and forty-five meters in width, and\\nthe average height of the roof is not over four or five\\nmeters. A gentle slope leads downwards. Many blocks\\nFig. 8. Vertical Section of Grand Cave de Montarquis.\\nof rock in the front part had bits of moss growing on\\nthem, and some of the mud there was of a dull purple\\ncolor, as if some dark madder was mixed with it. There\\nwas a red streak in the right hand wall, probably caused\\nby iron. I observed no limestone stalactites nor stal-\\nagmites in the cave, the main body of which was well\\nlighted throughout by daylight.\\nThe ice was in the shape of a nearly level floor, about\\ntwelve meters long and eight meters wide the shape\\nwas irregular, and the ice so smooth that it was hard\\nto stand up. The rocks in the rear overhung the ice", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0122.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 73\\nfloor at one spot and here, there streamed from a fis-\\nsure to the ice floor an ice column, some three meters\\nhigh, whose base was fully two meters distant from the\\nrock wall. Near this column was a tiny ice cone, which\\nevidently had been bigger. Cotterlaz seemed impressed\\nwith the fact that there was only one column in the\\ncave, as he said that in June, there would have been\\nmany columns and a larger and deeper ice floor. The\\nice was sloppy in places, with several small hollows cut by\\nthe drip and containing water. In one place there was\\na tiny runnel filled with water, but there was no current.\\nThere was a good deal of drip all through the cave, and\\nin fact in one or two places we might have kept on hold-\\ning up our umbrellas with advantage. I hacked at several\\npieces of ice, but none of it was prismatic.\\nAt the rear of the cave, the ice ran, in a tongue, up\\nthe entrance of an ascending fissure in the rocks. My\\nbrother cut here six or seven steps in the ice and he\\nfound them difficult to make, as the ice was hard and thin,\\nand not in a melting state. Above the ice tongue we\\nclambered up the rocks of the fissure some four or five\\nmeters further, finding there some lumps of ice which were\\nnot melting. At this spot we were almost in darkness. A\\nlighted match burned steadily, so that there was evidently\\nnot much draught, but the smoke gradually descended,\\nshowing a slight downward current. This was the coldest,\\nas well as the furthest point of the cave we could reach,\\nand we there heard a tiny waterfall trickling within the\\nfissure, although we could not see it.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0123.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "74 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nBy this time we were all chilled to the bone, so,\\nabandoning the idea of entering the Petite Cave, we re-\\ntreated down the sopping wet, slippery grass slopes to\\nPralong, and then immediately walked all the way to\\nCloses to avoid taking cold. The Grand Cave was the\\nmost fatiguing trip I ever made after glacieres, but the\\ncircumstances were rather unusual.\\nTHE FREEZING WELL OF OWEGO.\\nOn Thursday, June 23d, 1898, I went to Owego, in\\nTioga County, New York. Inquiries at the Lehigh\\nValley railroad station and at the chief hotel failed to\\nelicit any information about a freezing well and in fact,\\nI soon found that the existence of such a thing was a\\nblank to the rising generation. So I called on an old\\nresident of Owego, who told me that he knew of the\\nwell in question and that it was filled up with stones\\nmany years ago but that he remembered that, when he\\nwas a boy, it used to freeze, and that it was spoken of as\\nthe deep well or freezing well. I then walked up to the\\nsite of the well, which is about one and a half kilometers\\nto the northwest from the centre of Owego and about one\\nkilometer from the Susquehanna River. It is directly in\\nthe middle of the highway, and nothing is now visible but\\na heap of stones.\\nNear by was the house of a Mr. Preston, who told me\\nhe was born in 18 16, and had lived all his life at this spot.\\nHe said that the well was about twenty-eight meters deep,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0124.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 75\\nand that it went first through a layer of sand and then\\nthrough a layer of gravel. He had more than once been\\ndown the well and had seen the sides covered with ice.\\nA bucket sent down for water would sometimes come up\\nwith ice on the sides. Whether the water at the bottom\\never froze, no one knew, for the ice caked and filled up\\nthe bore at about two-thirds of the way down and became\\nso thick, that as Mr. Preston put it, it was just like\\nhammering on an anvil to try to break it.** He also\\nstated that another well was dug about one hundred\\nmeters further down the road, and that originally this\\nsometimes had a little ice on the sides. Of late years\\nhowever, it was covered over with a wooden top and since\\nthen no ice was known to form. I could obtain no in-\\nformation about any other wells in the neighborhood\\never showing similar peculiarities.\\nTHE ICY GLEN, NEAR STOCKBRIDGE.\\nThe Icy Glen is situated on Bear Mountain, about\\none kilometer from Stockbridge, Massachusetts. It is in\\nthe midst of fine woods and there are many big trees in\\nit. The bottom of the glen is full of rocks and boulders,\\namong which there is a rough path. I was told that ice\\nremained over there much longer than anywhere else in\\nthe neighborhood, sometimes as late as May. On the 3d\\nof July, 1898, I not only found no traces of ice or snow,\\nbut the temperatures under the boulders showed nothing\\nabnormal. To make up for this, however, there were\\nlegions of mosquitoes.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0125.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "76 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nFREEZING MARBLE CAVE, NEAR MANCHESTER.\\nNear Manchester, Vermont, there is a little cave,^\\nwhich is noteworthy, in that it is in a marble formation. It\\nis known as Skinner s Cave, because it was owned for\\nmany years by Mr. Mark Skinner. It lies in Skinner s\\nHollow, some five or six kilometers from the centre of\\nManchester, at the base of the eastern slope of Mount\\nEquinox, of the Taghconic Range of the Green Moun-\\ntains.\\nThe cave is on the property of Mr. N. M. Canfield,\\nwho, on learning the object of my visit, on the 5th of\\nJuly, 1898, with true native American courtesy, walked\\nup to it with me. The last two kilometers were over a\\nrough logging road, which towards the end was steep\\nand covered with many broken logs. I could not have\\nfound the cave alone, as it was so surrounded with\\nbushes, that the entrance was invisible until we actually\\nreached it. It is in a gorge of Mount Equinox, in the\\nmidst of a beautiful forest, which effectually cuts off any\\nwind. The cave faces nearly north and can scarcely\\never, if indeed at any time, be reached by the rays of the\\nsun. The moment we got into the entrance, we found\\nthe chilly, damp, summer atmosphere of true glaciere\\ncaves. The rocks were brown and mossy on the out-\\nside, but Mr. Canfield called my attention to the fact that\\nMy attention was called to this cave, by Messrs. John Ritchie, Jr.\\nof Boston, and Byerly Hart of Philadelphia, who visited it some years\\nago. Mr. Ritchie s opinion is that it is simply a refrigerator.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0126.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES.\\nthey were marble, and on his knocking off a small piece,\\na section of pure white marble was exposed. In no other\\ninstance have I heard of a marble cave in connection\\nwith ice. There were scarcely any cracks or crevices\\nin the rock.\\nThe cave goes down with a steep slope from the\\nentrance, much in the shape of a tunnel, for some ten\\nmeters. The slope was covered with slippery mud and\\ndecayed leaves, and at the bottom expanded into a little\\nchamber, in which lay a mass of wet, compact snow, some\\ntwo by three meters. It was evident that the snow was\\nsimply drifted in during the winter, and was in too large\\na mass and too well protected to melt easily, and there\\ncould be no question but that this place was purely a\\nrefrigerator. The air was tranquil throughout and there\\nwere no draughts. On the same day, a good breeze was\\nblowing in the Manchester Valley.\\nTHE FREEZING WELL OF BRANDON.\\nThe Freezing Well of Brandon is situated on the\\nwestern or southwestern outskirts of the village of\\nBrandon, Vermont, not far from the railroad station. I\\nvisited it on the 7th of July, 1898. The well was pro-\\ntected by a wooden cover. On raising this, a faint stream\\nof cool air seemed to issue forth but this was probably\\nonly imagination. The sides, as far down as one could\\nsee, were built in with rather large blocks of stone with-\\nout cement. At the bottom water was visible and there\\nwere no signs of ice. We drew up some water in a", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0127.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "78 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nbucket, and although it was cool there was nothing icy\\nabout it. I twice lowered a thermometer nearly to the\\nwater and each time after ten minutes it registered only\\n13\u00c2\u00b0 C. There was certainly nothing abnormal in this\\ntemperature, in fact it was strictly normal and my ther-\\nmometer showed conclusively by its actions that it could\\nnot have been near any ice mass. The people at the\\nhouse, however, assured me that a month before there\\nwas ice in the well.\\nAfterw^ards I called on Mr. C. O. Luce, the owner of\\nthe well. He stated that it was eleven and a half meters\\ndeep to the bottom, that it was dug in 1858, and that the\\nground through which it goes was found frozen at a depth\\nof about four and a half meters. Here there is a stratum\\nof gravel and this is where the freezing occurs. Mr.\\nLuce thought that the water was under the ice, that is,\\nthat the water came up from the bottom. He said also\\nthat the well usually froze solid in winter; but, that as\\nthis winter was an open one, there was less ice this year\\nthan usual. He thought that there was less ice anyway\\nnow than in former years, partly because of the cover\\nwhich was put over the well, and which keeps out some\\nof the cold and partly because a neighboring gravel\\nhillock, called the Hogback, was a good deal cut away,\\nand this in some way affects the supply of cold in the\\ngravel. He added that the sandy soil round Brandon\\ndoes not as a rule freeze to a greater depth than two\\nmeters each winter. The house built beside the well was\\nsaid to be comfortable in winter.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0128.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 79\\nThere seems no doubt that this is another refrigerator.\\nThe cold water of the winter snows percolates into the\\ngravel mass and refreezes, and, owing to the bad conduct-\\nive quality of the material, the gravel remains frozen later\\nthan the soil elsewhere in the neighborhood. The fact that\\nthe well went through a frozen gravel stratum when dug,\\nproves that it is not alone the air that sinks into the well\\nitself, which makes the ice. The fact that the well freezes\\non the whole less than formerly, apparently partly owing\\nto the digging up of some of the gravel close by, goes to\\nprove the same thing. The fact that the well generally\\nfreezes solid every winter, shows that although some of\\nthe gravel mass possibly remains frozen all the time,\\nmuch of the ice is renewed each year. This is especially\\nimportant as proving that the ice found in gravel deposits\\nis due to the cold of winter and not to a glacial period,\\nalthough, of course, no one could say for how long a time\\nthe ice was forming and melting and this process might\\ndate back to the time of the formation of the gravel mass.\\nI could learn nothing of any similar place near Bran-\\ndon, except that Mr. Luce said that in an old abandoned\\nsilver mine in the neighborhood, he had once seen ice\\nduring hot weather.\\nFREEZING TALUS ON LOWER AUSABLE POND.\\nOn the eastern side of Lower Ausable Pond, Essex\\nCounty, New York, at the foot of Mount Sebille or Col-\\nvin, there is a talus of great Laurentian boulders, which\\nfell from the mountain and lie piled up on the edge of the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0129.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "8o GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nlake. Among these boulders, at a distance of about five\\nhundred meters from the southern end of the lake, there\\nare spaces, several of which might be called caves,\\nalthough they are really hollows between the boulders.\\nOn the 1 2th of July, 1898, I visited this spot with Mr.\\nEdward I. H. Howell of Philadelphia. From several of\\nthe rock cracks we found a draught of air flowing strongly\\nout, as tested by the smoke of a cigar. The air was\\ndistinctly icy and there could be no question that there\\nwas a considerable quantity of ice among the rocks to\\nproduce the temperature.\\nIn three places we found masses of ice. One of these\\nhollows was small, and the other two were much larger.\\nOne of the latter was almost round in shape, and per-\\nhaps three meters in diameter; with a little snow near\\nthe mouth and with plenty of ice at the bottom. The\\nother was a long descending crack between two boulders\\nwhich joined overhead, and with the bottom filled by a\\nlong, narrow slope of ice, perhaps seventy-five centimeters\\nin width and six meters in length, set at an angle of\\nabout thirty-five degrees. The ice was hard and non-\\nprismatic.\\nThe cold air affects a large area of land around the\\nboulders. Mr. Howell called my attention to the flowers\\nof the bunch-berry, which he said were at least two weeks\\nbehind those on the surrounding mountains. The same\\nwas true of oxalis, a pretty white flower, of which we found\\nseveral beds in full bloom.\\nMr. Howell went to this talus, on the 4th of July", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0130.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 8 1\\nprevious, with Mr. Niles, President of the Appalachian\\nMountain Club, on which occasion they found plenty of\\nsnow near the entrance of the larger hollow. Mr. Howell,\\nindeed, has repeatedly visited this place, and always found\\nice, which must, therefore, be looked on as perennial.\\nAt all times also he has felt cold draughts flowing out\\nsometimes they were so strong as to lower the temper-\\nature over the lake to a distance of thirty meters or\\nmore on hot days he has seen occasionally a misty cloud\\nform on the lake in front of the boulders. Mr. Howell\\nconsiders that the draughts so affect the surrounding air,\\nthat an artificial climate is produced, and it is owing to\\nthis that spring flowers bloom late in July and sometimes\\nin August. Another fact well known to him, is that in hot\\nweather, the spot in front of the boulders is the best in the\\nwhole lake to catch trout, as they always congregate in the\\ncoldest water. The Adirondack guides use these ice retain-\\ning hollows, which they call ice-caves, as refrigerators for\\ntheir provisions and game in hot weather they say that\\nthe ice is formed in winter and remains over during the\\nsummer, as it is so well sheltered.\\nFREEZING TALUS OF THE GIANT OF THE VALLEY.\\nOn the indications of Mr. Otis, chief guide of the Adi-\\nrondack Reserve, I explored with Mr. C. Lamb, a guide\\nfrom Keene Valley, the southern base of the Giant of\\nthe Valley Mountain, Essex County, New York, on the\\n14th of July, 1898. A road runs from Keene Heights\\nto Port Henry, through the gap between the south base", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0131.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "82 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nof the Giant of the Valley and the north base of Round\\nMountain, and passes close to a small lake called Chapel\\nPond. Some three hundred meters west of this lake,\\nwe left the road and struck north, across the brook, into\\nthe thick, mossy woods. After perhaps one hundred\\nmeters, we came to a talus of great boulders of Laurentian\\nrock, with the cliffs of the Giant, whence the boulders had\\nfallen, rising steeply above. We found ice under several\\nof them, although never in any quantity. The ther-\\nmometer, after an exposure of fifteen minutes in one of\\nthese little hollows, registered 6\u00c2\u00b0 C., although not more\\nthan one meter from where the sunshine fell on the moss.\\nIn the shade of a tree one meter distant from the same\\nhollow it registered 26\u00c2\u00b0 C. a difference of 20\u00c2\u00b0 C. at a\\ndistance of only two meters.\\nPerhaps one kilometer east of Chapel Pond, there is a\\nplace, where the bases of the mountains come much nearer\\ntogether, which bears the name of The Narrows. Here\\nwe crossed the brook again, and, after some fifteen or\\ntwenty meters of scrambling through rough woods, reached\\nonce more the talus of the Giant, composed of tremendous\\nboulders. Among these we found ice in many places and\\nthis time in large quantities. Within one boulder cave we\\nfound an ice slab some four meters in length, by two\\nmeters in width, and one meter in thickness. This was\\npure, hard and non-prismatic ice, and was evidently not\\nformed of compressed snow in fact snow could not have\\ndrifted in under the boulder. We broke off a large piece\\nof ice and took it back to Saint Hubert s Inn, and it", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0132.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. S^\\nmelted rather slowly. From the mouth of this cave an\\nicy draught issued, and, as it struck the warmer air out-\\nside, a slight mist was formed. Mr. Lamb said that from\\nthe road itself he had sometimes seen mist rising from\\nthis talus. Further explorations of the talus of the\\nGiant would probably reveal ice in many other places\\nthan those we examined.\\nMr. Lamb told me of two other places in the Adiron-\\ndacks, where he found ice in similar boulder formations.\\nOne was in the talus of Mount Wallface in Indian Pass,\\nbetween Mounts Wallface and Mclntyre. The other was\\nin the talus of Mount Mclntyre in Avalanche Pass, between\\nMounts Mclntyre and Golden. At the latter place, he\\nfound it near the trail going round the lake in the pass.\\nTHE ICE GULCH, RANDOLPH.\\nThe Randolph Ice Gulch is situated in Randolph\\nTownship, New Hampshire, about eight kilometers from\\nRandolph Station, on the Boston and Maine Railroad.* I\\nvisited it on August nth, 1898. At the Mount Crescent\\nHouse, I found a guide in the person of Mr. Gharles E.\\nMr. E. I. H. Howell examined several times, in 1899, the talus\\nof the Giant of the Valley. He found ice in many places also cold air\\ncurrents blowing out. At one spot, there is a spring which flows all\\nthrough the summer, and the water is so cold, that its temperature is\\nlittle above that of melting ice. Mr. Howell found, as at Ausable\\nPond, spring flowers growing in mid-summer among the rocks of the\\ntalus.\\nI first heard of the Ice Gulch from Mr. John Ritchie, Jr. of Bos-\\nton. Some years ago in the middle of July, he found ice plentiful in\\nthe second chamber. He thought the Gulch only a refrigerator.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0133.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "84 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nLowe, Jr. The excursion took us about six hours. The\\ntrail was a rough bush path, cut by the Appalachian\\nMountain Club, and which had not been cleaned out that\\nyear. It was a cloudy but hot day and this, combined\\nwith the badness of the road, made the walk fatiguing.\\nThe Gulch lies between Crescent and Black Moun-\\ntains. The altitude of the upper end of the Gulch is\\nsomething over eight hundred meters, that of the lower\\nend about six hundred meters. It is some fifteen hun-\\ndred meters long, and averages perhaps one hundred\\nmeters in width at the top, and only a few meters at the\\nbottom. The depth may be about seventy-five meters and\\nthe sides are steep, in some places sheer. The bottom is\\na mass of broken, fallen rocks, with a good many trees\\ngrowing among them. There are several steps, so to\\nspeak, in the Gulch, which are called chambers, although\\nthe term seems rather meaningless. Promenading through\\nthe bottom of the Gulch was fraught with difficulty, be-\\ncause the rocks were placed in most unsuitable positions\\nfor human progression, and my hands were certainly as\\nuseful to me as my feet in preserving equilibrium. We\\nfound ice in one or two places, but not in any great\\nquantity. In one spot it was overlaid by water. My\\nguide said that there was less ice than the year before.\\nA large piece which we broke off, and which furnished us\\nwith a cooling morsel of frozen fluid, was full of air\\nbubbles. It was not prismatic ice, and was certainly un-\\nusual in formation. It crunched up under the teeth and,\\nalthough it did not look like solidified snow, yet, judging", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0134.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 85\\nfrom its position among the boulders, it was doubtless\\nformed from the melting and refreezing of snow.^ My\\nguide said he had heard that fresh ice began to form\\nsometimes in September. The Gulch is well protected\\nagainst wind, and I detected no draughts among the\\nrocks. Except in the immediate vicinity of the ice, the\\ntemperature was not abnormally low.\\nOn returning to the Mount Crescent House, I had a\\ntalk with Mr. Charles E. Lowe, Sr., who told me that\\nAlpine plants, like those which grow on Mount Washing-\\nton and Mount Adams, are found in the Gulch but that\\nthey do not exist on the neighboring Black and Crescent\\nMountains. He said also that ice was present in more\\nthan one place in King s Ravine, and that it was always\\nthere.\\nFREEZING BOULDER TALUS AT RUMNEY.\\nAbout three kilometers south of Rumney, New Hamp-\\nshire, there is a hill called Bald Mountain, which, about\\nthree hundred meters west of the carriage road from\\nRumney to Plymouth, descends as a big cliff, with an\\nexposure facing nearly southeast. At the base of this\\ncliff, there is a talus which I visited on the 27th of\\nOn the 17th of February, 1899, four days after the greatest snow\\nstorm in Philadelphia in many years, I noticed that the snow on my\\nroof solidified slowly into a mass of ice which contained a good many\\nair-bubbles. It strikingly resembled the ice of the Ice Gulch, only that\\nit was more solid and did not have more than half as many air-bubbles.\\nMr. John Ritchie, Jr. wrote me about this place, where he had\\nfound ice plentiful some years ago in August, within two or three\\nmeters from the outside he considered it only a refrigerator.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0135.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "86 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nAugust, 1898, with the Sheriff of Rumney, Mr. Learned.\\nHe said he had found plenty of ice there on the i8th of\\nAugust, 1897, but he doubted whether there would be\\nany left this year, on account of the hot weather. Effect-\\nively a careful hunt failed to reveal any ice, although the\\ntalus was just the kind of place where it might have been\\nexpected, as the boulders were piled one over the other\\nand in one or two places there were considerable hol-\\nlows. The temperatures were normal, and there were\\nno draughts. The talus is exposed to the sun, and only\\nmoderately sheltered against wind by a scrub forest. But\\nthere can be no doubt, that ice lingers there long after it\\nhas disappeared from every other spot in the neighbor-\\nhood, and it seems as if our not finding any, is another\\nproof that it is the heat of summer which melts it away.\\nICE FORMATIONS AND WINDHOLES AT WATERTOWN.\\nAt Watertown, New York, on the south side of the\\nBlack River, in the town itself, are some natural cracks or\\ncrevices in the limestone rocks. They are only a short\\ndistance from the New York Central Railroad station.\\nThe cracks enter the northern side of the railroad embank-\\nment, pass under the railroad tracks, and extend some\\ndistance back. In front of them are four cellars, used for\\nstoring beer kegs. The lessor, Mr. Ehrlicher, obligingly\\nhad the cellars opened for me, on the 12th of Septem-\\nber, 1898. There was neither ice nor draughts in the\\ncellars, and the temperature was normal. Mr. Ehr-\\nlicher said that in the spring there was ice in the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0136.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0137.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0138.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIl^RES. 87\\ncracks, but that it had all melted away as the result of\\nthe hot summer.\\nAbout four kilometers west of Watertown, on the\\nsouth bank of the Black River, is the picnic ground of Glen\\nPark, which is reached by trolley. The manager of the\\nrestaurant walked around the park with me. In one\\nspot is a hollow or glen at the base of a small, much\\ncracked limestone cliff, which has a northern exposure.\\nThe manager said that snow and ice usually lies in this\\nplace until June, not only among the broken rocks, but\\neven in the open. Sometimes ice remains among the\\nboulders all summer, but only near the front of the\\nboulders, and by pushing in, one soon gets beyond it\\nwe found none, a fact showing once more the effect of\\nthe unusually warm summer. On hot days, draughts\\nissue from between the boulders, but as the day was\\ncool, we did not notice any. The spot is well sheltered\\nagainst the wind by a number of trees and the shape\\nof the hollow reminded me of the glen in front of the\\nEishohle bei Roth.\\nNot one hundred meters from this hollow, is a little\\nlimestone cave, closed by a wooden door, which excludes\\nany cold air in winter. The cave is lighted by electric\\nlights, and is a narrow, crooked, descending fissure, ?igang-\\nhohle, where the marks of water action are plainly visible.\\nAt the bottom a little stream, evidently the active agent in\\nforming the cave, ran through the fissured limestone. In\\nthe stream a large toad or frog was swimming about.\\nThere was nothing icy about the cave or the water, and the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0139.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "88 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\ntemperature was normal. Ice was never known to form\\nin the cave. These two places, so close together, are an\\ninteresting confirmation that it is only where the outside\\ncold can get in, that we find subterranean ice.\\nTHE FREEZING CAVE AND FREEZING WELLS OF DECORAH.\\nNear Decorah, Iowa, is a freezing cavern, which is\\nmore frequently referred to in cave literature than is gen-\\nerally the case. I visited it on Friday, September the 30th,\\n1898, with an old English resident of Decorah, Mr. W. D.\\nSelby-Hill. The cave is situated about one kilometer to\\nthe northward of Decorah, on the north bank of the\\nUpper Iowa River, at the base of a bluff. It is some\\nthirty to forty meters above the stream, and faces south-\\nward. It looks like a fault or fissure in the rocks, with\\nthe sides meeting a few meters overhead. It is a true\\ncave, but probably in an early stage of formation, for\\nthere are no apparent traces of water action, nor any\\nstalagmites nor stalactites. The absence of the latter\\nmay, however, be due to the fact that it is a periodic\\nglaciere. The rock is a white limestone, rich in fossils.\\nThe cave is some two to three meters in width and is\\nrather winding, with a short arm or pocket branching\\nout on the west side. The main cave runs back some\\nthirty meters from the entrance. In one place it is\\nnecessary to stoop, to get past some overhanging rock\\nslabs. By candle light, we went to the rear of the cave,\\nand found it warm, dry, and free from ice. There were\\nno draughts, possibly because the day was cool.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0140.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "ENTRANCE OF THE CAVE OF DECORAH.\\nFrom a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0141.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0142.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 89\\nI looked in vain for tubular fissures^ or indeed any\\nfissures, through which water might freeze by pressure in\\nits descent, as the believers in the capillary theory say it\\ndoes. Nothing of the kind existed, and I wrote in my\\nnote-book: Writing on the very spot about which this\\ntheory was started, I feel justified in asserting that the\\ntheory amounts to absolutely nothing and is entirely in-\\ncorrect.\\nMr. Hill told me that there were two wells in the\\nsouthern portion of Decorah Township, where ice was\\nfound in summer. I visited them both, but found no ice,\\nand the temperatures normal. Mr. Hill said that one of\\nthe wells was dug about thirty years ago, and that the\\nworkman told him that the ground which he went through\\nwas frozen and that at one place he struck an opening,\\nfrom which came so strong a current of icy air, that it was\\nhard to keep at work.\\nI talked to several persons afterwards. Inter alia, they\\ntold me that the bluff was a great place for rattlesnakes,\\nsometimes big ones. They admitted also generally that\\nthey were puzzled about the formation of ice in the cave.\\nSome claimed that the ice formed in summer the old\\nstory once more. I met, however, Mr. Alois F. Kovarik\\nof the Decorah Institute, who had made a series of regular\\nobservations for over a year and found that the ice begins\\nto form about the end of March and beginning of April,\\nand is at its maximum towards the beginning of June.\\nMr. Kovarik also told me, that he had found ice in one\\nof the wells in the beginning of August.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0143.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "90 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nThis was an especially satisfactory trip to me, for it\\ndid away, once for all, with any possible belief that there\\nwas any basis of fact for the capillary theory. It also\\nseems to me important to find that the ice of these\\nfreezing wells melts in summer. For it shows that their\\nice is due to the same causes as those which form the ice\\nin the cave, and is another proof against the validity of\\nthe glacial period theory.\\nFREEZING ROCK TALUS ON SPRUCE CREEK.\\nOn spruce Creek, Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania,\\nabout four kilometers north of the Pennsylvania Railroad\\ndepot, is an ice bearing talus, known locally as the Ice\\nHoles or Ice Caves. I visited this spot, on October the\\n5th, 1898, with Mr. Benner, of Spruce Creek. We\\nwalked up the pretty valley along the old Pittsburgh\\nturnpike, at one place finding some papaw trees, whose\\nfruit had a horrible sickening taste then we crossed\\nSpruce Creek by a footbridge and followed the other bank\\nback for some five hundred meters, until we were nearly\\nopposite the old Colerain Forge, which is located in a\\npiece of land called by the curious name of Africa.\\nAbout half way from the bridge we smelt a strange\\nodor, which my companion thought came from a copper-\\nhead or rattlesnake we did not investigate.\\nThe freezing talus is situated at the foot of Tussey\\nMountain it is big, and is composed of small sand-\\nstone rock debris. The talus is at least thirty meters\\nhigh and one hundred and twenty meters long. As I", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0144.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0145.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0146.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 9 1\\nstood at the bottom, I was reminded strongly of the talus\\nat the Dornburg. At the base were a number of small\\npits, evidently dug by man. From the interstices be-\\ntween the rocks, icy cold draughts issued in some places,\\nand there was no doubt that there was plenty of ice\\nbeneath the stones. In one place we thought we could\\nsee ice, and I poked at the white substance with my stick,\\nbut I am not positive that it was ice. All over the talus,\\nthe temperature was strikingly colder than a few meters\\naway, and in the pits we could see our breaths distinctly.\\nAlthough I am not much of a botanist, yet it seemed to\\nme that the flora immediately near the talus was some-\\nwhat different in character from that of the surrounding\\ncountry.\\nMr. Benner told me that he saw, three or four weeks\\nbefore, plenty of ice in the pits that they were made by\\nfarmers who formerly came to this spot to get ice and\\nthat parties occasionally picnic here in the summer and\\nmake ice cream. He stated also that he saw, some years\\nago, a small cave or hole containing ice near Mapleton,\\nPennsylvania, but that it was destroyed by quarrying the\\nrock away.\\nFREEZING GORGE NEAR ELLENVILLE.\\nOn Sunday, October the 9th, 1898, with a young man\\nfrom Ellenville, I visited the well known Ellenville Gorge,\\nin the Shawangunk Range, Ulster County, New York.\\nWe left the hotel at eight-forty A. M. and reached the\\ngorge, known locally as the Ice Cave, at ten-five A. M.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0147.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "92 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nIt is about four kilometers northeast from Ellenville. The\\npath rises steadily uphill and is of the roughest descrip-\\ntion; it is covered with loose stones, and looks as if it\\nmieht become the bed of a mountain brook in wet\\nweather.\\nI call this place a gorge, instead of a cave, because it is\\nuncovered at the top, but probably originally it was\\ncovered. It is shaped like a pit cave minus a roof, and\\nit reminded me of the Friedrichsteiner Eishohle, and the\\nGlacieres de Saint-Georges and du Pre de Saint-Livres.\\nIt is entered by a long slope from the western end, the\\ngorge turning northward further back. I estimated its\\nwidth, at the bottom at some five to seven meters, at the\\ntop at some three to four meters its length at some thirty\\nmeters and the deepest point we reached, at some twenty\\nmeters below the surface. These are guesses, however.\\nIn one place, a great rock slab overhangs the gorge.\\nAt nearly the lowest point of the rock floor, there is\\na hole which extends perpendicularly downwards some\\nfive or ten meters more this opening is partly blocked\\nup with fallen masses of rock which would make a further\\ndescent perilous. The north end of the gorge is also filled\\nup with a mass of great broken rocks in fact, the whole\\nplace is out of repair, as the rocks are cracked and creviced\\non both sides to a great extent. The rock is friable and\\nseems to be all breaking up, or rather down, and I think\\nthere is some danger from falling stones, although I did\\nnot see any fall. There is a good deal of moss on the sides\\nof the gorge, and on some ledges small evergreens are", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0148.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "GORGE AT ELLENVILLE.\\nFrom a Photograph by Mr. Davis.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0149.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0150.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACI^RES. 93\\ngrowing. The gorge is sheltered thoroughly from winds\\nby its formation and position, and somewhat by the\\nscrub forest surrounding it. There are several long,\\ndeep crevices a few meters further up the mountain\\nside, and I think one of them is an extension of the\\nmain gorge.\\nWe found no ice. It generally lasts till about the\\nbeginning of September and Professor Angelo Heilprin,\\nand Miss Julia L. Lewis, of Philadelphia, have found\\nplenty of it in July and August. But the ice had evi-\\ndently now been gone for some time, for the tempera-\\nture at the bottom of the gorge was about ii\u00c2\u00ae C. at\\nten-thirty A. M. This was but little colder than the\\ntemperature outside, which at ten-fifteen A. M. was\\n14\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\nOn returning to Ellenville, I learnt that there was\\nanother somewhat similar smaller gorge, some eight kilo-\\nmeters away, at a place called Sam s Point. This, however,\\nis said to retain only snow, while in the Ellenville gorge\\nmuch ice is sometimes formed, and icicles a couple of\\nmeters long are said to hang on the sides of the cliffs.\\nThe proprietor of the hotel told me he had heard of a cave\\nwhich contained ice not far from Albany, at a place called\\nCarlisle, on the Delaware and Hudson Railroad.\\nFREEZING CAVE AND WINDHOLES NEAR FARRANDSVILLE.\\nI arrived at Farrandsville, Clinton County, Pennsyl-\\nvania, early on Tuesday morning, October the nth, 1898,\\nand found a boy, who worked in a brick mill, as guide to", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0151.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "94 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nthe caves.^^ After emptying a small, flat bottomed boat\\nof the water of which it was half full, we rowed across\\nthe Susquehanna River then we walked up the road,\\nalong the river bank, for a couple of hundred meters, and\\nstruck up the so-called path to the caves. Although the\\nwhole of the mountain side was at the disposal of the road\\nmaker, no better plan seems to have suggested itself than\\nto make the track go straight up. This saved making\\nzigzags, yet the result is that the path is steep, and as\\nit is rocky and slippery, it is hard travelling without\\nbootnails or alpenstock.\\nAs we went up, I noticed, in one or two places, cold\\ndraughts issuing from crevices in the rocks. We soon\\ncame to a hollow under a rock, where there were a number\\nof cracks and crevices the boy spoke of it as the lower\\ncave. It is some sixty meters above the Susquehanna\\nRiver and cold draughts flowed from the cracks, although\\nwe saw no ice. The cave was about twenty meters\\nI learned of this cave from Mr. Eugene F. McCabe, of Renovo,\\nPennsylvania. Mr. McCabe took out large pieces of ice from it in\\nthe month of August. On December 23d, 1896, he found no ice\\ninside the cave, but a hoar frost covered the rocks the temperature\\noutside was 5.6\u00c2\u00b0 inside 4.5\u00c2\u00b0 the day was clear and there was no\\nbreeze several matches lighted in the cave were almost instantly-\\nblown out by a current of air coming from crevices in the rocks.\\nMr. Ira C. Chatham, postmaster at Farrandsville, wrote to me on the\\n19th of October, 1898, as follows Your paper on Ice Caves\\n[Journal of the Franklin Institute, March, 1897] at pp. 177 and 178\\ndescribes the Farrandsville Cave as near as is possible, as the ice\\nforms in the spring from the snow melting and dropping through the\\nrocks into the cave, and the rocks face directly north as stated.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0152.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 95\\nhigher up. One could crawl into it for a couple of me-\\nters, and all round it the rocks are somewhat creviced\\nin fact, I think there are a good many cracks in the entire\\nhill. There was no ice in sight in this hole, but a strong,\\ncold draught poured from it. After an exposure of fifteen\\nminutes the thermometer registered 6\u00c2\u00b0 C. while outside,\\nin the shade, it stood at 15\u00c2\u00b0 C. This decidedly sub-nor-\\nmal temperature proved unmistakably, in my opinion, the\\npresence of ice a little further than we could see in.\\nBoth holes face about north and are sheltered, by their\\nposition and by the sparse forest which covers the ridge,\\nagainst all winds except those from the north.\\nI talked to the postmaster and the railroad agent at\\nFarrandsville on my return, and they stated that there\\nwas no ice in the hole in winter, but that it formed\\nabout April and remained over until towards Septem-\\nber, showing that the cave is a normal glaciere on a\\nsmall scale.\\nGLACIERES NEAR SUMMIT.\\nIn the search for coal, the mountains of the Appa-\\nlachian Chain between the little town of Summit, and the\\nneighboring village of Coal dale. Carbon County, Pennsyl-\\nvania, were mined and tunneled in every direction. Owing\\nto the caving in of some of these mines, depressions\\nformed in certain places along the ridge in the upper sur-\\nface of the ground, and in two of these hollows natural\\nrefrigerators occur. These were brought to my notice by\\nMr. C. J. Nicholson of Philadelphia, and I visited them on", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0153.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "96 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nI^Iay the 5th, 1899, in company with two coal miners of\\nSummit.\\nStarting from Summit, we passed across some rough\\nground under which there was a mine on fire and the\\nminers showed me the tops of two pipes sticking out of\\nthe ground,, from which issued a smoke or steam, too hot\\nto hold the hand in more than a few seconds. Going\\nbeyond through brushwood, for a couple of hundred\\nmeters, we came to the first glaciere, which was also the\\nnearest to Summit. It faced almost due north and looked\\nas if it was formerly the entrance to a mine. It was fairly\\nbig, and my companions assured me that, until ^^ithin\\nabout a year, ice was always found in it. Recently, how-\\never, part of the rock roof fell in, blocking up the entrance\\nwith a mass of debris and making it unsafe to venture in.\\nFormerly parties of tourists constantly visited this place,\\nafter coming over the Switchback, but this is no longer\\ndone and there has been some talk of cleaning away the\\nbroken rocks and making the glaciere accessible. The\\nmen also said that occasionally people living in the\\nneiofhborhood had dus: out the ice for their own use.\\nThe other glaciere was a short distance further, in the\\ndirection of Coaldale. It is in a pit, which may have\\nbeen the mouth of a disused shaft or only a depression\\nresultins: from a cave-in. A scrubbv forest, which sur-\\nrounds the hollow, acts as a windbrake. A rather steep\\nslope leads down into the pit, and at the end passes\\nunder the wall of rock of the opposite side for a short\\ndistance, forming a small cave, which faces almost due", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0154.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES.\\n97\\nsouth and whose floor is choked up with broken rock\\nfragments. At the bottom of the slope we found some\\nsnow, and among the boulders a good deal of snow-ice as\\nwell as several long icicles hanging from the rocks. All\\nthe ice and snow lay on the north side of the rocks, or\\nFig. 9. Vertical Section of Pit near Summit.\\nunderneath them, so that it was in shady places where the\\nsun could not reach it. The temperature was not at all\\nuncomfortable, although somewhat cool and damp.\\nThere was nothing in either glaciere, to show that the\\nice was formed from any other cause than the drifting in,\\nand melting and refreezing of the winter s snow; and my", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0155.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "98 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nimpression is that the ice in the second glaciere could\\nnot last through the summer.\\nTHE SNOW HOLE NEAR WILLIAMSTOWN.\\nThe Snow Hole near Williamstown (Massachusetts) is\\nsituated near the northern end of the Petersburgh Moun-\\ntain of the Taghconic Range it is slightly below the water-\\nshed on the Williamstown side, at an altitude of about\\nseven hundred meters. The Snow Hole is in the State of\\nNew York, near the boundary between New York and\\nMassachusetts. It is a long two hours drive from Will-\\niamstown, the last four kilometers or so, over an exceed-\\ningly steep and rough road, which is, in fact, nothing but\\nan old logging road, and the worst I ever drove over\\nexcept the road to Demenyfalva.\\nI visited the Snow Hole with my brother on Friday,\\nSeptember the 29th, 1899. It is surrounded by a dense\\nforest, mainly of recent growth, which thoroughly shelters\\nit from all winds. In shape and appearance it resembles\\nthe Gorge at EUenville, except that it is smaller its lo-\\ncation on the ridge is not unlike that of the Friedrich-\\nsteiner Eishohle. It is a narrow crack or cave minus a\\nroof about fifteen meters long, six to seven meters\\ndeep and from two to five meters wide. It faces nearly\\nnorth, and the bottom is in perpetual shadow. From\\nthe northern end, a gentle slope leads to the rear. The\\nslope was a good deal blocked up by a big tree with\\nlarge branches, which had fallen directly into the fissure.\\nThere was some moss or greenish mould on the rocks in", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0156.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. 99\\nplaces, and at the rear end of the slope there were some\\nfissures in the rocks, into which one might perhaps have\\ncrawled a little farther, which formed a tiny cave. There\\nwas also a similar incipient cave at the northern end.\\nI could not detect any draughts issuing from these rock\\nfissures, and the air throughout was still, although the\\nwind was blowing hard on the ridge. The rocks were\\nmoist in places and the air damp, but there was neither\\nsnow nor ice and the temperatures were normal. The\\ndriver told me that he had found plenty of snow in the\\nbase of the gorge some years ago in July and he\\nsaid that he had always heard that snow was found\\nin the Snow Hole all the year round. All the condi-\\ntions of the place, the shape of the fissure, and its\\nsheltered northern exposition, are favorable to the re-\\ntention of ice and snow, and it is not surprising that\\nthey remain over every spring.\\nICY GULF NEAR GREAT BARRINGTON.\\nThe Icy Gulf or Icy Glen is some eight kilometers\\nfrom Great Barrington, Massachusetts. I have not been\\nin it, but was told in October, 1899, by the farmers living\\nnear by, that after snowy winters, ice remains over\\nthrough July. It must be similar to the Icy Glen at\\nStockbridge.\\nTHE ICE BED OF WALLINGFORD.\\nThe Ice Bed of Wallingford is situated about three\\nkilometers to the east of Wallingford, Vermont. A drive\\nof half an hour, over the Mount Holly and Hearburrow", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0157.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "lOO GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nroads, takes the visitor to the entrance of a rough wood\\npath, which, at a distance of three or four hundred meters,\\nleads to the Ice Bed. This is a huge talus, at the base of\\nthe White Rock Mountain, whose cliffs rise steeply over-\\nhead for some three or four hundred meters. The talus,\\nwhich w^as doubtless formed by a great slide at some\\ndistant date, consists of granite boulders, some of which\\nare big ones. The ice-bearing portion may be some\\nthirty or forty meters high vertically. It lies in a sort of\\ngully or rock basin, and at the top is about thirty meters\\nbroad, tapering to a point at the bottom. The talus faces\\nsouthward, and during a good part of the day the sun\\nshines full upon it. A thin forest fringes the sides and\\ngrows round the bottom, but this can afford but little\\nprotection from the winds, especially to those from the\\nsouth.\\nI visited this place on the 5th of October, 1899. There\\nwas a distinct drop in temperature as we neared the base\\nof the talus, and a cool air drew gently down over the\\nrocks. I think slight draughts issued from some of the\\ncrevices but of this I am not sure. The temperature was\\nsub-normal, about 8\u00c2\u00b0, but hardly low enough to prove the\\npresence of ice, although we could see our breaths dis-\\ntinctly. We looked carefully under a number of the\\nboulders, but neither ice nor snow was visible. I was\\nassured that ice was abundant there in the past July\\nand August, and I should think it had melted away only\\nshortly before my visit. My impression is, that this is a\\nperiodic glaciere.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0158.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. lOI\\nCAVES NEAR WILLIAMSTOWN.\\nOn the eastern slope of the Petersburgh Mountain of\\nthe Taghconic Range in Massachusetts, at a good deal\\nlower altitude than the Williamstown Snow Hole and\\nabout southeast of it are some caverns, which are but\\nlittle known. A five or six kilometer drive from Williams-\\ntown takes the visitor to the base of the mountain, whence\\na rather steep ascent of about a kilometer and a half\\nbrings him to the caves, which are in the midst of a dense,\\nscrub forest.\\nThe caves were first entered, and possibly discovered,\\nby Mr. W. F. Williams, of Williamstown, when a boy.\\nSince then, he has visited them many times and explored\\nthem a good deal. They do not appear to have any name\\nas yet, and it would seem only fitting to christen them\\nafter their explorer the Williams Caves.\\nThere are several unimportant holes in the immediate\\nneighborhood of the two main caves. The latter lie side\\nby side. The rock formation is the same as that of the\\nSnow Hole, a dark gray slate with a few veins of quartz,\\nand they are due also evidently to the same geological\\ncauses. It would seem as though the mountain had\\ntended to open or crack at these spots and fallen apart.\\nThis seems probable, because wherever there is a pro-\\njection on one side of the cracks, there is a correspond-\\ning hollow in the opposite side. After this, water action\\nhas come, and erosion and corrosion have worn out and\\ncarried away earthy matter, and slowly deepened and", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0159.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "I02 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nwidened the fissures. The remarkable point in con-\\nnection with the main caves, however, is that one is a\\nnormal cave and the other a periodic glaciere.\\nI went with Mr. Williams to these caves on the 6th\\nof October, 1899, partially explored the glaciere.\\nOn the way up, just as we left the carriage road, a fine,\\nthree-year-old buck, in his winter coat, came bounding out\\nof the forest on seeing us he stopped, and after taking\\na good look, quietly trotted off into the bushes.\\nThe glaciere is rather peculiar in shape and may be\\ndescribed as two storied. A long slope, set at an angle\\nof some forty degrees, and covered with mud and dead\\nleaves, leads down into the crack, which is from one to\\nthree meters in width. The first half of the slope is open\\nto the sky the last half is covered by the rock roof,\\nand is a real cave. In this the floor is horizontal, the\\nplace forming a little chamber in which the daylight has\\nalmost vanished. At the exact summit of the slope a big\\ntree grew most conveniently and we tied to this one\\nend of a twenty-meter Austrian Alpine Club rope, and\\nby holding fast to it, and kneeling or sitting down in the\\nmud in two or three places, the descent was easy enough.\\nIt was rather difficult to scramble up the slope again,\\nhowever.\\nIn the floor of the little chamber there are two holes,\\nand, stepping over these, we stood at the rear end, about\\neighteen meters distant from the beginning of the slope.\\nMy companion now set some birchbark on fire and\\ndropped it into the innermost hole, and we laid down in", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0160.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES.\\n103\\nturn, flat on the rock floor, and craned our necks through\\nthe hole. Mr. Williams thought he could see ice below\\nus. I looked down after him and found that I was look-\\ning into a lower chamber whose sides were invisible.\\nThe floor was some three meters below vertically, and on\\nthis the birchbark was burning brightly. I think I saw\\nraHfimTlmTTTr-\\nFig. 10. Vertical Section of Freezing Cave near Williamstown.\\nsome ice, but I could not be sure, as there was too much\\nsmoke to see distinctly. My companion offered to go\\ndown through the hole and get some ice a proposition I\\npromptly vetoed, as had anything gone wrong, I could\\nnot possibly have given him any assistance, as there was\\nno extra rope. Mr. Williams told me that he went down\\nseveral times before in July or August, and always found", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0161.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "I04 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nice on the slanting floor. He said he did not know how-\\nfar this lower chamber extended, nor the length of the\\nice floor. One thing which makes me hesitate to think\\nthat we saw ice was, that the temperature of the chamber\\nwhere we were was not at all icy but probably\u00e2\u0080\u0094 I had\\nforgotten my thermometer nearly normal.\\nWhen we stood once more by the tree at the top of\\nthe slope, the mouth of another cave was visible about\\ntwo meters below us. Mr. Williams said it had never\\nlooked more than a little crack before, and that the open-\\ning was much bigger than at his last visit. It was directly\\nunder the slope by which we descended and it vanished\\ninto darkness. Its direction led straight towards the\\nlower chamber, and it almost surely leads to it. It seems\\nthus that there are two hollows, one directly above the\\nother; and that the lower one is a glaciere, while the\\nupper one is not. The cold air of winter would naturally\\nsink into the lower chamber, and the spring thaws would\\nfurnish plenty of drip, so that this place seems to answer\\nevery requirement of a cave glaciere.\\nBut the most interesting fact about these caves is\\nthat, while the shallower one is a glaciere, the bigger\\nand deeper one is not. This is situated about ten meters\\nnorth of the glaciere and the direction of the entrance\\nis about the same. Mr. Williams has found snow and\\nice in May in the entrance pit as far as the daylight\\ngoes, but none beyond. I am inclined to think that the\\nexplanation of this is the fact that the cave is a gang-\\nhohle or tunnel cave. Mr. Williams described it as a", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0162.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "EXPERIENCES IN GLACIERES. IO5\\nnarrow passage with chambers, and at least a hundred\\nmeters long, and fifty meters in depth below the surface.\\nThe cold air sinks in a certain distance, but as the passage\\nis narrow and long, and too winding for any strong\\ndraughts, the cold air which enters is soon neutralized\\nby the supply of warmer air within and by contact with\\nthe rocks. I cannot help thinking that it is by some\\nsuch explanation that we must hope to solve the prob-\\nlem of why certain caves are glacieres and others in\\nthe immediate neighborhood normal caves and the caves\\nnear Williamstown are exceptional in presenting the\\nproblem so patently.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0163.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0164.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "PART II.\\nTHE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0165.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0166.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE.\\nI.\\nTerminology, Ice enduring the entire year is found,\\nin temperate latitudes, in a variety of forms and in\\nseveral different kinds of places. In some cases it is\\nentirely above the surface of the earth; in others it is\\nentirely beneath the surface of the earth. These are the\\nextremes, and between them there are certain interme-\\ndiate forms. The perennial ice above ground of tem-\\nperate regions has gradually become known in English\\nby the French word glacier, but strange to say, there is\\nno term in use in English which accurately describes the\\nperennial ice formations which are partially or completely\\nunderground. Thus the term ice cave is applied to\\na rock cavern containing ice, and the term ice gorge\\nto a rock gorge containing ice. Both terms are mis-\\nleading, because the character of the contents is men-\\ntioned before the nature of the geological formation. We\\nsay correctly enough limestone cave or lava cave\\nand, in my opinion, we should apply the term ice cave\\nin a similar manner to the hollows in the ice at the lower\\nend of glaciers, whence the glacier waters make their\\nexit. These are really ice caves, that is caves with\\n(109)", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0167.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "no GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nsides and roof made of ice. Another trouble of the term\\nice cave, as applied to rock formations containing\\nice, is that it is not generic not only is it incorrect, but\\nalso it is not comprehensive. It does not apply to mines,\\ntunnels, wells, gullies, boulder taluses, or underground\\nice sheets. If ice cave is used, except in its true\\nsense of glacier ice cave, it seems at least as though it\\nshould be so only for real caves which retain ice, as\\nopposed to taluses and wells. Curiously enough, the\\nGermans are just as inaccurate as ourselves, for their\\nterms eishohle and eisloch are absolute translations of our\\nice cave and ice hole. Indeed, there is no doubt\\nthat some of the incorrect notions about subterranean\\nice formations, are due to the inaccuracy of the ter-\\nminology.\\nThe only language, so far as I know, which has a\\ncorrect and really generic term for subterranean ice\\nformations, is the French in its word glaciere. The\\nFrench and Swiss say glacieres naturelles of ice deposits\\nformed naturally underground; and glacieres artificielles\\nof ice houses. Glaciere naturelle is comprehensive and\\naccurate. It covers all the rock formations and suggests\\nalso the mode of formation of the ice. It likewise implies\\nthe strong resemblance between natural ice deposits and\\nartificial ice houses. It might be well, therefore, if the\\nFrench term glaciere were adopted as a generic term for\\nall underground ice formations. As, however, there is\\nlittle likelihood of this happening, the question arises as\\nto the best English equivalent or equivalents. These", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0168.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. Ill\\nseem to be freezing cavern, freezing talus, etc., natural\\nrefrigerator or subterranean ice formation. Natural\\nrefrigerator and subterranean ice formation are more\\ngeneric than freezing cavern, freezing well, etc.; but\\nthe latter have the advantage of suggesting immediately\\nthat reference is made to the hollows of the earth which\\nat times contain ice and, therefore, they are the best\\nterms, perhaps, which can be chosen in English.\\nAnother point in the terminology of this subject\\nhas reference to subterranean hollows where draughts\\nissue or enter. Such hollows are found in all parts of\\nthe world and are known usually in English as blow-\\ning caves or cold current caves. The Germans speak\\nof them as windrbhren or windlocher. In my first pa-\\nper about caves,^^ I used the word windhole which\\nI translated from the German. The term windhole\\nseems to me preferable to blowing cave or cold\\ncurrent cave in that it is more generic. It applies to\\ntaluses or boulder heaps, or in fact, to any hollows\\nwhere draughts issue or enter, whether these hollows\\nare genuine caverns or not.\\nIt is necessary also to explain here that glaciere\\nand windhole are not synonymous terms. It must be\\nunderstood that a glaciere or natural refrigerator is a\\nplace where ice forms and endures in a subterranean\\nor semi-subterranean situation and that the presence of\\nice is the criterion of whether a place is or is not a\\nIce Caves atid the Causes of Subterranean Ice, November 1896,\\nand March 1897.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0169.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "112 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\noflaciere. Likewise it must be understood that a wind-\\nhole or blowing cave is an underground hollow with at\\nleast two openings, and in which distinct draughts occur\\nand that the presence of draughts is necessary to consti-\\ntute a place a windhole or blowing cave. A freezing\\ncavern may or may not be a windhole, and a windhole\\nmay or may not be a freezing cavern.\\nTemperatures. The phenomena of glacieres are so\\nclosely connected with temperatures that it seems nec-\\nessary at this point to mention some general facts in\\nconnection with subterranean temperatures, even if these\\nstill form a subject of some uncertainty, and one about\\nwhich further observation is desirable. Subterranean\\ntemperatures may be grouped under three heads: i,\\nOrdinary or normal temperatures 2, Temperatures\\nabove the normal or super-normal temperatures 3,\\nTemperatures below the normal or sub-normal tem-\\nperatures.\\nI. In the great majority of caves, cellars and subter-\\nranean places of all descriptions, the temperature of the\\nair is about the same, all the year round, as that of the\\nground. The frost of winter and the heat of summer\\npenetrate the earth for some trivial distance, a few\\nmeters perhaps, and lower or raise the temperature of\\nthe ground temporarily. Below this there is a stratum\\nwhere the temperature is found to vary but little the en-\\ntire year and which, in a majority of cases, approximates\\nthe mean annual temperature of the district. Below", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0170.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. II3\\nthis invariable stratum, the temperature generally rises\\nslowly, not at exactly the same rate everywhere, but in a\\nregular increase. This increase of temperature averages\\n1\u00c2\u00b0 C. for every 32 meters. As most caves and cellars\\nare of small depth and as they take their temperatures\\nfrom that of the ground, it follows that as a rule their\\ntemperatures are moderate and pleasant. And as the\\nair of the majority of caves and subterranean hollows\\nis about the same as the temperature of the surround-\\ning rock, it is correct to call subterranean air tempera-\\ntures closely approximating the ordinary temperature of\\nthe ground, ordinary or normal temperatures.\\nAs already stated, with an increase of depth, there\\nis, in almost all cases, a regular increase of temperature.\\nFor this reason, mines, which are much the deepest hol-\\nlows reached by man in the surface of the earth, are, as a\\nrule, warmer in the lower levels if deep, they are also\\nhot. And this is so generally the case that warmer\\ntemperatures at the bottom of mines may be consid-\\nered as normal.\\n2. In a few hollows close to the surface, there are\\ntemperatures much above the normal temperature of the\\nground. Such places are rare and abnormal.^^ The\\nheat is generally due to the presence of hot springs or\\nto some volcanic action in the immediate neighborhood.\\nIn the case of one cave close to the surface, the heat\\nis due to some limekilns which are situated immediately\\nKraus. Hohlenkunde, page 86.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0171.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "I 14 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\noverhead. Where these warm hollows are genuine\\ncaves it seems proper to call them hot caves/*\\n3. In a number of places, there are abnormally low\\ntemperatures underground either for the whole or only\\nfor part of the year. Although commoner than hot caves,\\nyet the underground places with low temperatures are\\nalso rare and abnormal. They may be divided into two\\ngroups: I, Those where the temperatures are lower\\nthan the normal, without becoming low enough for ice\\nto form and 2, Those where the temperature sinks so\\nlow, that ice forms.\\nIt is difficult to make definite divisions among the\\nvarious forms of natural refrigerators, but it is correct,\\nprobably, to classify them under five heads, in accordance\\nwith the different kinds of formations of the hollows in\\nthe rocks\\n1. Gullies, gorges, and troughs where ice and snow\\nremain.\\n2. Soil or rocks overlaying ice sheets.\\n3. Taluses and boulder heaps retaining ice.\\n4. Wells, mines and tunnels in which ice sometimes\\nforms.\\n5. Caves with abnormally low temperatures, and often\\ncontaining ice.\\nI. Gorges and Troughs, Gullies, gorges and basins\\nwhich retain snow and ice are fairly numerous in moun-\\n^*Grotte du Jaur. Les Abimes, page 160.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0172.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. II5\\ntain districts. They are generally ravines, or rock\\nfissures, or hollows, in positions below the snow line\\nwhere snow and ice are sufficiently protected, from sun\\nand wind, to remain long after snow in the surround-\\ning open country, at the same altitude, has melted\\naway. Some of these gorges are small, some big. As\\na rule, they are deep and narrow.\\nIn north-eastern Siberia, a form of permanent surface\\nice is found, which the Tungusses speak of as tarinnen,\\nwhich means ice troughs or ice valleys.\\nThese tarinnen are broad valleys, with either a hori-\\nzontal floor or one sloping gently in the form of a\\ntrough, over which the ice is spread in the form of\\na sheet. The Tungusses assert that the ice in some\\nof these troughs never wholly melts away, although it\\nlessens in quantity from the beginning of May till the\\nend of August, after which it once more increases.\\nSubterranean Ice Sheets. In several places in differ-\\nent parts of the world there are underground ice sheets\\nwhich extend over large spaces they are common under\\nthe tundras of Alaska; and there are fine examples\\non Kotzebue Sound, on the Kowak River, and\\nalong the Yukon River.^^ The Ice Spring in Oregon\\nBulletin de la classe physico-mathematique de V Acadhnie Im-\\nperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg. 1853. Vol. XI, pages 305-\\n316.\\nSee Part III: page 167.\\nSee Part III: page 167.\\nSee Part III: page 166.\\nT MW", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0173.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "Il6 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nseems to be a formation of the same kind. Several ex-\\namples of these subterranean ice sheets are reported\\nalso from different parts of the Russian Empire.\\nA somewhat different kind of ice sheet was observed\\non Mount Etna. Sir Charles Lyell speaks of it\\nas a glacier preserved by a covering of lava. He\\nsays Signor Mario Gemmellaro satisfied himself that\\nnothing but a flowing of lava over snow could account\\nfor the position of the glacier. Ice sheets somewhat\\nsimilar to these are reported from Tierra del Fuego,^\u00c2\u00b0\\nand probably also such sheets occur in Iceland and\\nenormous heaps of ice covered with sand are found\\non Mount Chimborazo.^^ On the northwestern coast\\nof Greenland, glaciers, whose flow has stopped, were\\nobserved buried under an accumulation of moss and\\ngrass.^^\\nTaluses and Boulder Heaps. Taluses and broken\\ndebris, and in general boulder heaps of all sorts, have\\ninterstices and openings between the boulders, and in\\nthese it occasionally happens that ice is found. This is\\nmost common among the taluses at the base of cliffs,\\nbut in some cases ice is found among broken rocks on\\nthe sides of gently sloping hills, or even on the plateaus\\nof their summits. Sometimes the ice and snow on the\\nPrinciples of Geology^ nth Edition, Chap. XXVI.\\nSee Part III page 190.\\nSee Part III: page 189.\\nSee Part III: page 165.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0174.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 11 J\\nbottom of rock gorges all melts away, while further\\ndown, in the hollows of the boulders forming the floor,\\nice still remains. The rocks of which these ice bearing\\ntaluses are formed are generally gneiss, granite, lime-\\nstone, sandstone, basalt or porphyry. Among such boul-\\nder taluses the phenomenon designated as Windrohren\\nor Ventarolen, that is, windholes, is frequently found.\\nSometimes the air among such boulder formations is\\nquiet, but as a general thing draughts pour out at the\\nlower openings during the hot months, and blow into\\nthem during the cold ones.\\nFreezing Wells, Mines and Tiimiels. Subterranean\\nice is also found in certain places in connection with\\nman s handiwork. In a few wells in the United States,\\nthe temperature in winter becomes abnormally low, and\\nfor four or five months these wells freeze up and be-\\ncome useless. A case of a freezing well was recently ob-\\nserved near la Ferte Milon in Central France.^ Ice is\\nreported also as forming in various mines in Europe,\\nAsia and America; in fact, it is not an uncommon oc-\\ncurrence. Occasionally, also, ice forms in tunnels.\\nCold Caves. Caves with abnormally low temperatures\\nmay be divided into two classes. First, caves where the\\ntemperatures are lower than the normal, without be-\\ncoming low enough for ice to form and second, caves\\nwhere the temperatures sink so low, that ice forms.\\n23\\nSee Part I. pages 74, 79, 89. Part III. page 206.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0175.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "Il8 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nCaves where the temperatures sink below the normal,\\nbut in which ice does not form either in winter or in\\nsummer, are found in several places in different parts of\\nthe world. They are termed in French cavernes froides\\nand in German kalte hoJilen. There are but few data\\nfrom reliable observers about such cold caves. Some\\ndescriptions are given without thermometric measure-\\nments, and the statements that the caves are cold, mean\\nnothing beyond the fact that they feel colder than the\\noutside air. It is, however, conclusively proved that cold\\ncaves exist, and that while they are not freezing caverns,\\nyet that they have a temperature lower than the mean\\nannual temperature of their district. In fact, the assump-\\ntion, which had passed into an axiom, that caves always\\nhave the same temperatures as the mean annual temper-\\nature of the district, must certainly be given up. Cold\\ncaves are generally in one of two shapes i, in the shape\\nof a sand glass, two cones above each other meeting\\nat the narrowest point where the upper cone lets the\\nheavy cold air descend easily, while the lower bell shaped\\ncone prevents its escape and 2, where two sink holes\\nopen into one pit, which is in the shape of a bell.^^\\nGlaciere Caves or Freezing Caves. Caves where the\\ntemperatures sink so low that ice is able to form, are\\nfound in many different rock formations and in various\\npositions, shapes and sizes. The rock formation of freez-\\nLes AbimeSy page 563.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0176.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. II9\\ning caverns is generally limestone, but sometimes it is\\nmarble, lava, basalt, gneiss or granite. In all cases, how-\\never, the rock is either porous or else it is broken and\\nfissured, as otherwise the water supply necessary to the\\nformation of ice could not find its way in.\\nGlaciere caverns may, for the sake of convenience,\\nbe classified into several classes, according to their posi-\\ntion or to their form. The lines of transition between\\nthem, however, are so indefinite in nature, that it is often\\ndifficult to specify a cavern as belonging to any special\\ntype. The most important factor in classifying glaciere\\ncaves is their position. Under this head there are two\\nmain divisions first, pit caves second, cliff caves.\\nPit caves are those where a pit or pits open into the\\nground, and the ice is found at the bottom. Sometimes\\nthere is no roof, when the place may be called a gorge:\\nthis occurs at EUenville, where the roof has fallen.\\nAgain, the pit itself is more or less roofed over and\\nthe ice is found mainly or wholly under the roof: this\\nis the case at Haut d Aviernoz, at the Friedrichsteiner-\\nhohle, at Saint-Livres, and at Saint-Georges. Sometimes\\nthe pit takes the form of a descending tunnel, leading\\ninto a hall or chamber, in which the ice lies under a\\nrock roof: this happens at Chaux-les-Passavant. In\\nall these pit caves the body of the cave is below the\\nentrance, and most of them are fairly well lighted by\\ndaylight throughout. Generally there is only one pit,\\nbut occasionally there are two connected underground,\\nas is the case at La Genolliere.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0177.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "I20 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nCliff caves are those where the entrance is at the\\nbase or in the side of a cHff. Frequently the cave is in\\nthe shape of a hall or chamber, which begins directly at\\nthe entrance, and which may be large or small. This\\nkind always has a down slope directly from the mouth.\\nThe Kolowratshohle, Dobslna and the Grand Cave de\\nMontarquis may be mentioned as examples. In some\\ncases there is a pit at the base of a cliff and there is\\na slope leading down to the cave, somewhat in the form\\nof a tunnel this is the case at ]\\\\Ianchester and practi-\\ncally also at Roth. Again there is a more or less long\\ngaller}^ between the entrance and the glaciere, which\\nis always below the level of the entrance. The Schaf-\\nloch, Demenyfalva and Decorah may be cited as ex-\\namples. As a rule the galler}- slopes down from the\\nentrance, but sometimes the floor rises and then sinks\\nto the glaciere. The top of the entrance, however, is\\nalways higher than the highest point of the floor, as\\nothenvise the cold air could not o;et in. This is the\\ncase at the Frauenmauerhohle, and, apparently, also at\\nthe Posselthohle. In one case, at Amarnath in Kash-\\nmere, the floor is said to rise to the roof at the back\\nbut as the entrance is nearly as big as the floor area,\\nthe ice formations must also be below the level of the\\ntop of the entrance.\\nThe dimensions of glaciere caves var} greatly. Some\\nare large, others are small. Saint Georges, a roofed pit\\ncave, is some twent)^-five meters by twelve meters, with\\na depth of about twelve meters. Chaux-les-Passavant,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0178.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 121\\na cave at the end of a pit tunnel, has a diameter of\\nsome twenty-seven meters. The measures of Dobsina,\\na cave at the bottom of a cHff, are given as follows\\nHeight of roof above ice floor, lo to ii meters; length\\n1 20 meters; breadth, 35 to 60 meters, and surface\\nabout 4644 meters. The Frauenmauerhohle is a gallery\\nabout one hundred meters long before the ice floor is\\nreached, and this is some fifty meters more in length by\\nabout seven meters in width. The glaciere cave near\\nFrain, on the contrary, is so small that one can only\\ncrawl in some two or three meters. In fact, glaciere\\ncaves vary in size between great halls and little tunnels\\nwhere one cannot stand up straight.\\nThe entrances of glaciere caves also vary greatly in\\ntheir dimensions. For instance, the Friedrichsteinerhohle\\nis on one side of a huge pit and is as large and deep as\\nthe pit. Saint Georges, on the contrary, has, near one\\nend of the roof, a couple of holes, some three meters in\\ndiameter. The entrance to the Schafloch is four meters\\nwide by four meters seventy centimeters high, while the\\nentrance to Roth is not over one meter each way.\\nA classification of subterranean ice formations, and\\none which applies to all the different forms, is into per-\\nmanent and periodic glacieres. When in any underground\\nspot, ice remains throughout the year, the place may be\\ncalled a permanent glaciere when on the contrary the ice\\nmelts away for part of the year, the place may be called\\na periodic glaciere. This classification, which several ob-\\nservers have used already, is convenient and valuable.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0179.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "122 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nMovements of Air. Another classification of glacieres\\ncan be made in accordance with the movements of air\\nunderground. Glacieres may be divided into those where\\nthere are no strong draughts in summer and those where\\nthere are draughts: or into apparently static caves\\nand dynamic caves or windholes. The first class\\nincludes those caves where there is one or more open-\\nings close together and those above the body of the\\ncave. In such hollows the air in summer is nearly still,\\nwhile in winter there are distinct rotary movements of\\nthe air as soon as the temperature outside is lower than\\nthat within. Almost all glaciere caves belong to this\\nclass of caves without strong draughts in summer. Some-\\ntimes, however, ice is found in hollows where there are\\ntwo or more openings, at different altitudes and at dif-\\nferent ends of the hollow, and where there are draughts.\\nOccasionally, also, there are fissures in the sides or rear\\nof apparently static caves, which allow something like\\ndraughts at times, as is the case at the Grand Cave de\\nMontarquis.\\nProfessor Thury of Geneva coined the terms static\\ncave and dynamic cave which have come largely into\\nuse since, and which practically correspond to the German\\nterms eishohle and windrohre. I do not think the term\\nstatic cave accurate, and prefer the term apparently\\nstatic cave or cave without distinct draughts. For al-\\nthough there are many caves where the air seems stagnant\\nat times, and there are no distinct perceptible draughts,\\nstill that the air is really stagnant all summer appears to", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0180.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 23\\nme doubtful, and it seems as if the movements of\\nair were distinctly apparent only in certain caves and\\nnot in others. Air which is apparently stagnant is\\nfound in both pit and cliff caves mainly in the sum-\\nmer months, but even in these I have noticed several\\ntimes in summer slight movements of air, especially\\nnear the entrance. I could not exactly feel the air\\nmoving, but by lighting a cigar the smoke could be\\nseen borne outwards exceedingly slowly. At the en-\\ntrance of the Kolowratshohle I think there was a faint\\noutward current when I was there. The day was hot\\nand windless, and as the cold air met the hot outside\\nair it formed a faint cloud or mist at the mouth of the\\ncavern. At Saint-Georges, although the air seemed tran-\\nquil, I found that the smoke of my cigar ascended rapidly\\njust below the hole in the roof, showing an ascending\\nair current. In the double cave of Chapuis, I found\\none cavern filled by a little lake over which there was a\\ndraught.^^\\nFrom the few winter observations we have, there can\\nbe no doubt that in winter the movements of the atmos-\\nphere are lively, the break in the air column occurring\\nas soon as the outside temperature is lower than that\\nwithin, when the outer air immediately begins to sink\\ninto the cave.^\u00c2\u00ae\\nIf I have doubts as to the existence of absolutely static\\nSee Part IV. Butler, page 308.\\nSee Part III. Chaux-les-Passavant, page 203 Saint-Georges,\\npage 220.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0181.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "124 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\ncaves, It is different about dynamic caves. When a sub-\\nterranean hollow goes through rocks, with one opening\\nhigher than the other, there will surely be distinct draughts.\\nThese dynamic caves exist In many parts of the world\\nunder such names as cold current caves or blowing caves\\nor windholes. Sometimes they are fissures in broken\\nlimestone. Often they are the cracks between piles of\\nboulders. A cool air generally pours from the lower\\nopening In summer while the cold air pours Into it In\\nwinter, the draught being then reversed. At the upper\\nopening the operation takes place in the opposite way,\\nthe hot air being sucked in in summer, and given out\\nin winter. Sometimes, however, changes take place, ac-\\ncording to the differences in the outside temperature, in the\\ndirection of the air current in the course of a single day.\\nThe causes of the movements of air in these wind-\\nholes are exceedingly simple. The movements of air\\ndepend on the fact that in summer the air in the tube\\nbecomes colder from contact with the rocks and, there-\\nfore, heavier than the air outside, and by gravity the\\nheavy inside air displaces the lighter outside air and\\ncomes rushing out at the lower opening. This leaves a\\nvacuum, which is filled by the warmer air dropping into\\nthe tube from above. In winter on the contrary, the air\\nwithin the tube is warmed by contact with the rocks and\\nbecomes lighter than the air outside. It, therefore, rises\\nand streams out from the upper opening, and the vacuum\\nIs filled by the heavy cold air pushing in at the lower\\nopening.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0182.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE.\\n125\\nG. F. Parrot s explanation is so satisfactory that I\\ngive it with one or two changes. He considers the air\\nmovements an ordinary statical phenomenon of the air,\\nin caves which have two openings at different altitudes.\\n\u00c2\u00ab!:;r5\u00c2\u00ab^\\nFig. II. Vertical Section of a Windhole.\\nLet E G D represent the section of such a cave with\\nthe openings A and B. Let us think that there are over\\nC and B two vertical air columns and from B to C a\\nhorizontal air column B C then the two air columns over\\nB and C are at all times of the year equal in weight. Not\\nso the air columns A C and A E G D B, because their\\nGrundriss der Physik der Erde und Geologic, 181 5, pages 92-99.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0183.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "126 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\ntemperatures are different. Assume the temperature In\\nthe cave G Is 4- 12\u00c2\u00b0 the whole year round. If in sum-\\nmer the air column A C Is at a temperature of 25\u00c2\u00b0,\\nthen the heavy air In the cave G pours out through A and\\nis replaced by air flowing in through B. If in winter the\\nair column A C Is at a temperature of 1\u00c2\u00b0, then the\\nair pours with equal Inverse velocity at A into the cave,\\nand out at B. The velocity of the current In both cases\\ndepends on the difference of temperature within and\\nwithout.\\nThe foregoing explanation makes it evident that the\\nmovements of air in these windholes do not depend on\\nthe presence of ice. In many of those I have examined\\nmyself there was no Ice visible, and from the temper-\\nature of the air current, there could not have been any\\nice within the mountain. Still, there are numerous cases\\nwhere ice is found in windholes among boulders, and\\na few cases where windholes exist in connection with\\napparently static glaciere caves. Undoubtedly the great\\nmajority of windholes do not contain ice in summer, or,\\nindeed, at any time of the year, and, as far as I can see,\\nwindholes, according to their temperatures, belong rather\\nto the class of normal caves than to that of glacleres.\\nForms of Ice. Almost all the forms assumed by un-\\nderground ice are different from those assumed by over-\\nground ice. This is not surprising, as the conditions,\\nunder which the ice is formed, are so different. Almost\\nall the lines of underground ice are rounded. The sharp", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0184.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 27\\nangles and fractures visible on glacier or iceberg are\\nabsent. Instead of seracs and crevasses, broken ice falls,\\nor piled up ice floes, we have hanging stalactites and ris-\\ning stalagmites, smooth ice floors and curved ice slopes.\\nThis difference is of course due to the fact that most\\nsubterranean ice is formed from the drip from the roof\\nor the sides of caves, and because the factor of mo-\\ntion which plays so large a part in the shaping by\\nfracture of overground ice is practically wanting.\\nThe most striking forms of subterranean ice are the\\nice stalactites and stalagmites. They descend from the\\nroof as icicles or rise from it as rough cones or pyra-\\nmids. The icicles are of all sorts of shapes and sizes\\nsometimes they are tiny sometimes they grow down-\\nward till they reach the floor and form regular columns,\\nin some cases no less than eleven meters in height.\\nThe ice stalagmites likewise are of all sorts of shapes\\nand sizes, some of them growing to a height of seven\\nor eight meters. Occasionally they have hollow bases,\\nbut this is rare. How these hollow cones are formed is\\na still uncertain matter but it is in some way by the\\naction of the drip. At the Kolowratshohle I saw the drip\\nfrom the roof cutting out in July the basin, whose tall re-\\nmaining sides suggested that early in the spring it was\\nprobably a hollow cone. The cone at the Schafloch of\\nwhich I saw one half remaining, could only be accounted\\nfor by some action from the drip.^^ The warmth of the\\n28\\nSee Part IV. Thury, page 287 Browne, page 290.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0185.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "128 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nrock floor may help perhaps also, in melting away some\\nof the base of the hollow columns.\\nThe frozen waterfalls which issue from fissures in\\nthe rock walls of caves are another form of ice seen\\nonly below ground. For lack of a better name, I call\\nthem fissure columns. A peculiarity of these is that,\\nwhile the rock fissure is more or less rectangular or at\\nleast sharp angled, the ice column issues in a rounded\\nstream. Sometimes these fissure columns stream over\\nthe rock sometimes they spring out far enough from\\nthe rock to be quite away from it. They vary from\\nabout one to five meters in height, and at the base\\nthey almost always spread out in a shape resembling\\nthat of a fan.\\nThe ice on the bottom of caverns of course takes its\\nshape from the form and angles of the floor of the caves.\\nIf the bottom is level or nearly so, the ice lies on it as\\na sheet or floor. If the bottom of the cave is sloping, the\\nice follows the angles of the slope, forming an ice slope\\nor ice wall, and sometimes becoming nearly or quite\\nvertical. These ice slopes distantly resemble the por-\\ntions of glaciers called an ice fall, with the great dif-\\nference, however, that there are no crevasses, not even\\ntiny ones.\\nOccasionally, slabs of ice are found reposing in a\\nfractured sheet over a solid ice floor. This means\\nthat a lake has formed on this spot in the spring, frozen\\nover, and then run off, leaving its frozen surface in\\nbroken pieces on top of the under ice.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0186.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 29\\nAnother kind of frozen water is the hoar frost which\\nforms on the rock roofs and walls. This is not at all\\nrare. It is an open question whether this is not the\\nsame thing as that which has been described as subterra-\\nnean snow.-^ I found myself in Dobsina a small sheet of\\nwhat to look and touch was snow. I wrote of this as\\nsnow in my first paper about glacieres^^, but I am of\\nthe opinion now that it was the hoar frost detached\\nfrom the roof and not genuine snow.\\nAt Dobsina, also, I noticed that the ice of the ice\\nwall of the Korridor assumed a stratified or laminated\\nform. Mr. John F. Lewis of Philadelphia suggested to\\nme that this was probably due to a precipitation of the\\nhoar frost from the roof, and I think his explanation is\\ncorrect. The hoar frost forming at a certain degree of\\ncold, would doubtless be precipitated at a rise of tem-\\nperature, and would then act much as do the different\\nlayers of snow in the upper portion of glaciers. It\\nwould consolidate gradually, layer over layer, and form\\nstrata, producing the banded or laminated structure\\nvisible in the vertical ice of the Dobsina Korridor.\\nThe ice in caverns is sometimes found with a\\nstructure which is, I believe, of rare occurrence above\\nground. This is when it takes the shape known as\\nprismatic ice, which means that if a lump is broken\\n^See Part III. Ziegenloch, page 247 Creux de Souci, page 207.\\nIce Caves and the Causes of Subterranean Ice, November, 1896,\\nand March, 1897.\\nWhymper Scrambles amongst the Alps, 1871, page 426.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0187.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "130 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nfrom a column or icicle, the fracture will show regular\\nprisms. This phenomenon is not as yet satisfactorily\\naccounted for; the only thing certain about it is, that it\\ndoes not occur in ice of recent formation. From my\\nown observations, I should say that ice became prismatic\\nat the end of summer; at least I have always found it\\nin August or September rather than in June or July.^^\\nBesides building up ice heaps, the drip, also, has the\\nfunction of destroying its own creations. If there are\\nno crevasses, there are holes and runnels. These are\\ngenerally found at or leading to the lowest point of the\\nice floor. Occasionally the holes are deep, sometimes\\nmany meters in depth. They are certainly cut out by\\nthe melting water, to which they offer an exit; in fact\\nthey are a part of the drainage system present in all gla-\\nciere caves, where there must be some outlet for sur-\\nplus water at or near the lowest point and as the\\ncaves are always in porous or broken rock, the drain-\\nage takes place through the cracks and fissures.\\nThe drip produces also the exact opposite of pyra-\\nmids in the shape of ice basins. These are cut in the\\nfloor by an extra strong drip from the roof at those\\nspots. Basins exactly like these are not seen on glaciers.\\nNot infrequently they are full of water of considerable\\ndepth.\\nLakes and pools are found in glaciere caves. Some-\\ntimes they are on the ice floor, and in this case they\\nare due either to rain-water collecting faster than it can\\nSee Part IV. Browne, page 289 Lohmann, page 303.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0188.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. I3I\\nflow off, or else because the cave is in a state of thaw.\\nSometimes these pools are among* the rocks in one part\\nof a cave, while the ice is in another part.\\nI have said above that motion in subterranean ice is\\npractically wanting-. This is proved by the lack of cre-\\nvasses on the ice slopes or ice walls, and also by the\\nfact that basins and cones appear year after year in the\\nsame spots, where they remain whether they are increas-\\ning or diminishing. But this statement cannot be held\\nto cover the entrance snow and ice slopes of some of\\nthe open pit caves such as the Gottscheer cave, or Saint-\\nLivres or Haut d Aviernoz. Here the snow, which falls\\non the entrance slope, must gradually gravitate to the\\nbottom. The question is whether it only descends in the\\nshape of water after melting or as snow before solidifying\\nor whether it ever slides down at all after becoming some-\\nwhat solidified. Probably, however, the ice of these slopes,\\njudging from the fact that crevasses are entirely lacking,\\nremains stationary.\\nColor Effects. The color effect of every glaciere\\ncavern has a certain individuality, according to the color\\nof the rocks, the quantity of ice, and the amount of\\ndaylight admitted through the entrance. In my opinion,\\nthe white note given by the ice, makes a fine glaciere\\ncave the most beautiful of all subterranean hollows.\\nIn this respect it seems to me that they are similar to\\nhigh Alps, which are certainly most impressive with cov-\\nerings of snow and glacier.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0189.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "132 GLACI]fcRES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nThere are, however, two distinct notes in the color\\neffects of glaciere caves and these may be described as\\nthe partly subterranean, or as the wholly subterranean.\\nIn the former case the local tints stand out more clearly.\\nFor instance, at the Kolowratshohle the ice is beautifully\\ntransparent and of a pale ochre-greenish hue the lime-\\nstone rocks are streaked with iron, and thus have a red-\\ndish hue, while, owing to the entrance admitting plenty\\nof daylight, the effect is only semi-subterranean. Again,\\nat Chaux-les-Passavant plenty of daylight is admitted\\nthe rocks are a yellowish brown, and the ice is white\\nand blue. At the Schafloch or the Frauenmauer, on\\nthe contrary, the effect is wholly subterranean daylight\\nis so completely absent that black is the predominating\\nnote, the ice itself looking gray. Dobsina is an excep-\\ntion, as, thanks to the electric light, white is the con-\\nspicuous tone, even though rocks and shadows dull many\\nplaces and corners into a sombre gray.\\nMore than once, on returning to daylight from the in-\\ntense blackness of a cave, I have seen the rocks near the\\nentrance appear a dark blue color, exactly simulating\\nmoonlight. This effect Is common to both glaciere caves\\nand ordinary caverns. It is a striking but rare phe-\\nnomenon, and depends apparently on the shape of the\\ncave. This moonlight effect only seems to occur when\\na cave makes an elbow directly after the mouth and\\nthen goes straight for some distance. When the day-\\nlight is actually in sight, the moonlight impression van-\\nishes.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0190.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 33\\nCarbonic Acid Gas. Carbonic acid gas, judging from\\nthe most recent explorations, is more of a rarity in rock\\ncaves with normal temperatures than is generally supposed.\\nThere appears to be only one case on record where this\\ngas was observed in a cold cave. This was in the\\nCreux-de-Souci,^^ which is rather a cold than a freezing\\ncavern, but which on one occasion was found to contain\\nsnow, and whose temperature is always extremely low.\\nFrom the present state of knowledge, therefore, it may\\nbe assumed that if carbonic acid gas does form in gla-\\nciere caves, it does so only seldom.\\nFauna. No attention whatever has been paid, prac-\\ntically as yet, as to whether any distinctive animal life\\nexists in glacieres. So far, I have seen none myself.\\nThe Rev. G. F. Browne, in four instances, found a large\\nred-brown fly nearly an inch long, which is supposed to\\nbe Stenophylax Hieroglyphicus of Stephens and at Cha-\\npuis, he obtained an ichneumon of the genus Paniscus.\\nAt Font d Urle, Monsieur Villard captured a blind spe-\\ncimen of a coleoptera, Cytodromus dapsoides. A variety\\nof rotifer, Notholca longispina, is now living in the Creux-\\nde-Souci. In Skerisora, remains of bats have been\\nfound, not very different from those now living in the\\nneighborhood.^^ It is, in any case, certainly remarkable\\nSee Part III. page 207.\\n^*See Part I. Ausable Pond, page 81, and Part III. Creux-de-\\nSouci, page 207 Font d Urle, page 213 Chapuis, page 216 La\\nGenolliere, page 219 Skerisora, page 245.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0191.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "134 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nthat the same kind of fly should have been discovered\\nin several glacieres in different localities and it may\\nsome day be shown that there is a special insect fauna.\\nCertainly the subject is worth investigating.^\\nFlora. The flora of glacieres has been as little ob-\\nserved as the fauna. There are scarcely any references to\\nsuch a thing as glaciere plant life in literature. Whether\\nthere is a special flora in any glaciere cave is still an\\nopen question. In the cases of several boulder taluses,\\nthere is no doubt that, even if there is not a special\\nflora, at least that the plants near the ice beds are\\ngreatly retarded every year in their development. Prob-\\nably the flora among the boulders blooms a month or six\\nweeks later than the flora in the immediate vicinity. In\\nthe cases of the Cave of Paradana and of the Kuntschner\\nEishohle it is reported that the plant life becomes more\\nand more arctic in character towards the bottom of the\\npit.^^\\nPaleontology. No paleontological remains have as yet\\nbeen reported from glaciere caves. No bones of animals\\nhave been found, except those of bats in Skerisora^^\\n^In June, 1899, I mentioned these facts to Monsieur Armand Vir6,\\ndirector of the Biologic Laboratory in the catacombs of the Jardin des\\nPlantes in Paris. He was much interested, and promised to make a\\ncareful investigation of the matter.\\nSee Part I. Ausable Pond, page 80 Giant of the Valley, page\\n83, note 7 Ice Gulch, page 85 Spruce Creek, page 91. See Part\\nIII Spruce Creek, page 188 Paradana, page 237 Kuntschner Eis-\\nhohle, page 241.\\nSee Part III. Skerisora, page 245.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0192.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 35\\nand a few of the common genus bos.^^ No relics of the\\nhandiwork of man have been discovered nor, indeed,\\nwith the exception of the skeletons found in the cave\\nof Yeermallik in Kondooz,^^ anything which reveals the\\npresence of man in glacieres or that they were ever used\\nfor habitation. The reason that there are so few remains\\nin glaciere caves is undoubtedly because their temperatures\\nare too low for their occupation by animal or man but,\\nfrom the evidence afforded by their non-occupation, may\\nbe drawn the valuable inference that the glaciere caves\\nof to-day were glaciere caves long ago.\\nLegends and Religion, There are scarcely any legends\\nconnected with glacieres. I know only of one about one\\nof the caves of the Mont Parmelan/^ Nor does there\\nseem to be any reference to glaciere caves in works of\\nfiction. Dante makes his last hell full of an ice lake, but\\nan attentive perusal fails to reveal a single line which in\\nany way describes or suggests a glaciere. In at least two\\ncases,^^ however, the ice in caves is connected with re-\\nligion, as in Kashmere, the Hindoos, and in Arizona, the\\nZuni Indians, either worship or pray at glaciere caves,\\noverawed, from some mystical feeling, by the permanence\\nof the ice formations which they connect with their deities.\\nSee Part I. Saint-Livres, page 68.\\nSee Part III. Yeermallik, page 261.\\nSee Part III. Glaciere de I Enfer, page 216.\\nSee Part III. Amarnath, page 262 Cave, White Mountains,\\nArizona, page 176.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0193.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "136 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nn.\\nThe cause of the formation of subterranean ice is un-\\ndoubtedly one of the most intricate problems in connec-\\ntion with caverns. Various theories have been advanced\\nwhy ice is found in certain caves and not in others. Some\\nwriters have held that it is a remnant of a glacial period\\nothers that it is owing to the presence of salts in the rocks\\nsome have said that it is due to the rocks retarding waves\\nof heat and cold and still others think that it is formed by\\npressure on the percolating waters. Many of these the-\\nories were formulated in explanation of the belief of peas-\\nants living near the caves, who almost always say that\\nthe ice is formed in summer and melts in winter. Most\\nscientific observers on the other hand claim that the\\nice is due to the cold of winter, and a few think that\\nit is formed or helped by draughts and by evaporation\\nand expansion of the air. The variety of opinions put\\nforth, show at any rate the intricacy of the problem.\\nAll my own observations have tended more and more\\nto make me believe that the cold of winter is the cause\\nof the ice. Before elaborating my own views, however,\\nI wish to take up seriatim the theories which have been\\nformulated, principally in explanation of the belief that\\nthe ice was a summer product, and to give my reasons\\nfor my disbelief in them.\\nGlacial Period, The first theory, perhaps, to touch\\non, is the one that the ice is a remnant of a glacial", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0194.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 37\\nperiod. This seems to occur to many persons as a so-\\nlution of the question when they first hear of glacieres,\\nand it has been several times propounded to me, and\\nnaturally enough, always by scientific men.^ Still I do\\nnot think it has ever been held by anyone who had\\nmade a study of glacieres.\\nThe theory is, indeed, untenable in regard to freezing\\ncaves, as it does not accord with the observed facts of the\\nyearly disappearance of the ice in many caves and taluses.\\nAt Szilize every year the ice has disappeared pretty com-\\npletely by November, and the cave is free; but in\\nApril or May the floor is again covered with ice, and\\ncolumns and icicles have formed on the roof and sides.\\nAt La Genolliere the cave is used by the people of the\\nneighboring chalets, through the spring and early sum-\\nmer, to help in the operation of butter making; by the\\nmiddle or the end of August it has entirely disappeared,\\nbut is found formed afresh the following spring. At the\\nRumney Talus, at the Cave of Decorah, at the Gorge\\nof Ellenville, and at the Williamstown Snow Hole, I\\nfound no snow or ice. Yet it is abundant in all these\\nlocalities in the spring. Too many examples of the com-\\nplete melting away of the ice every year can be cited,\\nto permit any doubt: glaciere caves are not connected\\nwith a glacial period.\\nSee Part IV. Hitchcock, page 284 Bonney, page 291 Dawkins,\\npage 292.\\nSee Part I. Rumney, page 85 Decorah, page S8 Ellenville,\\npage 91 Williamstown, page 98.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0195.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "138 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nThough It may be stated positively that the Ice in\\ncaves Is not a remnant of a glacial period, yet this can-\\nnot be done so authoritatively about subsoil ice sheets\\nand freezing wells. At Brandon, Owego and Decorah\\nthe ofravel was found frozen at the time the wells were\\ndug, and it is of course impossible to determine for how\\nlong a time this was the case previous to the digging.\\nThe proofs, however, are so strong that the Ice re-forms\\nevery winter at such freezing wells, that they may be\\nconsidered as In every respect following the same gen-\\neral laws as glaciere caves. That the Ice In these wells\\nis not the remains of a glacial period, seems proved\\nmoreover by the work of the Boston Natural History\\nSociety, which sank two wells at Brandon near to the\\nFreezing well. One of these was only twenty-one meters\\ndistant and went through the same gravel drift. Yet it\\ndid not strike Ice.^ A somewhat similar state of things\\nappears to be the case with the Centennial Lode and\\nother lodes on Mount McClellan,^^ where the causes also\\nseem to be local, as there Is no Ice In mines on neigh-\\nboring mountains.\\nThe Summer s Heat Theory. The natives and peasants\\nin the neighborhood of glaciere caves generally believe\\nthat the ice of caves is formed in summer and melts in\\nwinter. I have met with this belief everywhere In Eu-\\nSee Part IV. Hager, page 282 Hitchcock, page 284.\\nSee Part III. Rifts of Ice, etc., page 174.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0196.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 39\\nrope in the Eifel, Jura, Swiss Alps, Tyrolese Alps, and\\nCarpathians and also occasionally in the United States.\\nPeasants and guides tell you with absolute confidence\\nThe hotter the summer the more ice there is. The\\nstrange thing is that any number of writers sometimes\\nscientific men have accepted the ideas and statements\\nof the peasants about the formation of ice in summer,\\nand have tried to account for it.\\nThe belief of the peasants is founded on the fact that\\nthey scarcely ever go to any cave except when some\\ntourist takes them with him, and, therefore, they rarely\\nsee one in winter, and their faith is not based on ob-\\nservation. It is, however, founded on an appearance of\\ntruth: and that is on the fact that the temperatures of\\nglaciere caves, like that of other caves or that of cellars,\\nare colder in summer than the outside air, and warmer in\\nwinter than the outside air. Possessing neither reason-\\ning powers nor thermometers, the peasants simply go a\\nstep further and say that glaciere caves are cold in sum-\\nmer and hot in winter.\\nProfessor Thur^^ tells a stor}^ to the point. He vis-\\nited the Grand Cave de Montarquis in midwinter. All\\nthe peasants told him there would be no use going, as\\nthere would be no ice in the cave. He tried to find\\neven one peasant who had been to the cave in winter,\\nbut could not. He then visited it himself and found it\\nAmong them may be mentioned Boisot, 1686 Valvasor, 1689\\nBehrens, 1703 Billerez, 1712 Bel, 1739 Rosenmiiller and Tillesius,\\n1799 Sartori, 1809 Pictet, 1822 Scrope, 1826 Murchison, 1845.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0197.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "140 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nfull of hard ice. On his return he told the peasants of\\nhis discovery. They were staggered at first, finally one\\nexclaimed: It makes no difference in genuine glacieres\\nthere is no ice in winter.\\nIt will be difficult, probably, to eradicate this belief and\\nthe consequent theories among the uneducated people in\\nthe vicinity of glaciere caves, for their imperfect obser-\\nvations will keep it alive. In refutation, it may be said\\nthat the winter s cold theory is the direct opposite of the\\nsummer s heat theory, and that all the observations and\\nall the facts which prove the one, disprove the other.\\nWithin two or three years, however, the formation of\\nsmall quantities of ice has been observed during the\\nsummer months in one or two caves. This has taken\\nplace in mountain caves situated at a high altitude at\\ntimes when the air outside has dropped below freezing\\npoint during the night. There is, therefore, nothing in-\\nconsistent in this fact with the winter s cold theory:\\nindeed it is only a widening of it in the meaning of the\\nword winter.*^\\nChemical Causes. Non-scientific persons, on first hear-\\ning of glaciere caves, almost always suggest that to form\\nthe ice there must be salts in the rocks. Probably they\\nconnect unconsciously in their minds ice caves and\\nice cream.\\nSee Part III. Beilsteinhohle, page 235. Part IV. Professor\\nCranmer, page 310.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0198.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. I4I\\nChemical causes, however, have never appealed to\\nscientific men.^^ There are only two places I know of\\nwhere salt is reported. One is the Ice Spring in Ore-\\ngon, which is said to be slightly saline in taste the\\nother is the Cave of Illetzkaya-Zatschita, where the gyp-\\nsum hillock, in which the ice is found, overlies a bed\\nof rock salt. Repeated experiments in letting lumps of\\nglaciere ice melt in my mouth have convinced me per-\\nsonally that in all cases the water is exceedingly pure\\nand sweet, a fact mentioned in the very first notice ex-\\ntant about glacieres, the letter of Benigne Poissenot in\\n1586, who speaks of the deliciousness of the water in\\nChaux-les-Passavant. To sum this matter up briefly, it\\ncan be safely asserted that all causes, which would fall\\nunder the head of Chemical causes, must be entirely\\neliminated as possible cold producers.\\nWaves of Heat and Cold. ^While Sir Roderick Mur-\\nchison was studying the geology of Russia, he visited\\nIlletzkaya-Zatschita and was puzzled to account for the\\nice formations. He thought, at first, that they were due\\nto the presence of salt, but recognizing that this was not\\ncorrect he submitted the case to Sir John Herschel, who,\\nrejecting the evaporation or condensation of vapor as the\\ncause, argued that the ice was due to waves of heat and\\ncold, and that at certain depths in the interior, the cold\\n48\\n49\\nSee Part IV. Billerez, page 270 Hacquet, page 271.\\nThe Geology of Russia and the Ural Mountains^ vol. I., pages\\n184-198.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0199.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "142 GLAClfeRES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nwave arrived in midsummer and the heat in midwinter.\\nMurchison declined to assent to this doctrine, asking\\nwhy one cave should present this exceptional occurrence,\\nwhen the numerous other rents and openings in the same\\nhillock were free from ice. The impossibility of the heat\\nand cold wave theory was so completely shown by Mur-\\nchison s objection, that it has never again been brought\\nforward.\\nCapillary or Compressed Air Theory, The possibil-\\nity of compressed air causing subterranean ice to form\\nseems to have been first authoritatively formulated by Mr.\\nN. M. Lowe, of Boston.^^ His theory in brief is this\\nBubbles of air drawn into water flowing down through\\nfissures in rocks are liable to a continually increasing\\npressure. When the air has reached the bottom and\\nis liberated in the cave, it will be from a pressure\\nequal to the height of the column of water, and it will\\nhave lost by connection in the mass through which the\\nconduit passes, the heat due to its compression and on\\nbeing liberated, it will immediately absorb from the air\\nand the water in the cave, the heat which it has lost in\\nits downward passage.\\nSeveral scientific observers have rallied to this idea.^^\\nOne of the Hungarian residents at Dobsina, a doctor,\\nwhose opportunities for observations are unrivalled, told\\n^Science Observer. Boston, 1879, vol. II., page 57. See Part IV.\\nSilliman, page 279 Olmstead, page 282.\\nSee B. Schwalbe, Ueber Eishdhlen und Eislocher^ page 56.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0200.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 43\\nme if I understood him correctly that he believed in\\nthe capillary theory.\\nThere are many facts, however, which militate against\\nthe compressed air theory as applied to caves. Almost\\nall caves receive some drip through fissures, and yet\\nthere are many thousands of caves which never contain\\nice, and whose temperature scarcely varies the year round.\\nEspecially against the theory is the fact that glaciere caves\\nare never known in hot countries. If the theory were\\ncorrect we should, for instance, sometimes find ice in such\\ncaves as those of Yucatan described by Mr. Mercer.^^\\nThere are also some mechanical difficulties in the\\nway. Mr. John Ritchie touches them when he says:\\n*Tf the passage through which the water flows down is\\nat all tubular the column will be subjected to the usual\\nhydrostatic pressure. The word tubular is the hard\\none to answer. Limestone rock fissures are certainly\\nnot tubular. They have all sorts of shapes and angles\\nand corners, every one of which would interfere with\\nanything like a regular pressure.\\nThis latter objection would not apply to borings in\\nmines. I have been assured that in some borings in\\nWestern mines ice has been formed by pressure, and\\nthere may be truth in this, although I doubt it, as I have\\nyet to hear of ice in any mines in warm latitudes. Mr.\\nJohn Ritchie^ has suggested, also, that if compressed air\\nThe Hill Caves of Yucatan.\\nBoston Transcript, January 2d, 1 897.\\nThe Happy Thought. Boston, January 23d, 1897.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0201.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "144 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\ndoes not perhaps act strongly enough to form ice, yet it\\nmay help in keeping the temperature low and aid in the\\nformation of draughts in caves and boulder heaps. At\\npresent, however, I can see no reason to think that the\\nice in caves is due to compressed air.^^\\nIII.\\nI have already said that I believe that the cold of\\nwinter is the cause of the ice in caves. To make\\nthis clearer, I may say that I look on glacieres as the\\nlast outcrop, the outside edge, so to speak, of the area\\nof low temperatures, which has its culminating point in\\nthe Northern Hemisphere in the Arctic Ocean, Greenland\\nand Siberia, and in the Southern Hemisphere in the Ant-\\narctic; and which is manifested to us in the snows of\\nmountain peaks, and immediately round us in frozen ponds\\nand rivers and snowy blizzards and which, as it disap-\\npears each summer, leaves its last traces in our latitudes\\nin sequestered gorges and convenient caverns. In every\\ncase, it seems to me, glacieres are simply refrigerators,\\nwhich preserve the ice and snow accumulated in them\\nduring the winter. They all follow the same general laws\\nas to the origin of their contents, modified only in slight\\ndegree according to the varying natural local conditions,\\nsuch as the water supply, or the protection from\\nsun and wind, or the thickness of the overhead rock, or\\nthe altitude or latitude. I cannot see that there is any-\\n5\\nSee Part I. page 89.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0202.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 45\\nthing remarkable about the fact that the cold of winter\\nis able to penetrate and make itself felt sometimes for\\na slight depth in the earth s crust; a depth, so far as\\nyet known, never exceeding one hundred and fifty meters.\\nIt seems to me that glacieres only emphasize a law\\nof nature, which has doubtless been formulated many\\ntimes in connection with springs and phreatic waters,\\nand that is, that where we find cold waters underground,\\nwe may be sure that they have penetrated from the\\noutside.\\nIf we look first at the mode of formation of over-\\nground perennial ice, that is, of the ice of glaciers and of\\nrock gorges and then at the evidences of the mode\\nof formation of underground perennial ice, in boulder\\nheaps, wells and caves we will soon see that the transi-\\ntions between them are gentle in character and that\\nthere is nothing unnatural about the formation of the\\nice in glacieres.\\nGlaciers. Everyone now knows the main character-\\nistics of glaciers. They are formed in parts of the\\nearth where the land or the mountains reach to the\\nregion of perpetual snow. The snows fall from the\\nsky, and accumulate into a snow cap, which by its own\\nweight and by melting and regelation, gradually changes\\nto ice. This, by the laws of gravitation, descends to\\nlower levels, and in mountain valleys extends sometimes\\nfar below the snow line into the region of cultivated\\nfields. These valley prolongations of the perpetual snow", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0203.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "146 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\ncaps are the glaciers. The Important point to notice\\nhere, is that the formation of glaciers is originally en-\\ntirely due to the precipitation of moisture by cold in the\\nupper portions while the destruction of glaciers is due\\nto the action of heat melting the ice in the lower por-\\ntions, where they disappear in the shape of streams of\\nrunning water. It is, therefore, not surprising that the\\ngreatest glaciers are found in the Arctic and Antarctic\\nregions and in the highest mountain ranges and that\\nin the tropics glaciers are either wanting or exceed-\\ningly small.\\nGorges and Troughs, Gorges and gullies, where Ice\\nremains over, are a transitional form between glaciers and\\nglacieres. In many mountain ravines or canyons, the\\nenduring snow consists principally of the avalanches\\nwhich have fallen from the heights above during the\\nwinter and solidified In the bottom of the ravines.\\nFreezing gorges proper, however, are not dependent\\non avalanches for their supply, but they receive the\\naccretions to their ice directly from the winter snows.\\nThese fall into the gorge Itself and by melting and regela-\\ntion gradually solidify into a mass of Ice which, when\\nwell sheltered against sun and wind, remains over some-\\ntimes till the following winter. By their mode of forma-\\ntion, therefore, It Is evident that the Ice In these gorges\\nhas some of the characteristics of glaciers that It Is due\\nto the same prime causes as the Ice of glaciers or the Ice\\non ponds and rivers, namely the cold of winter and in", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0204.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 47\\nfact, it is not far wrong to consider these gorges as\\nminiature glaciers.\\nFreezing gorges, however, show, also, certain degrees\\nof kinship to freezing caverns and taluses, principally in\\nthe protection afforded to the ice against external de-\\nstructive influences. The ice is almost always found in\\npositions where it receives little, if any, of the direct\\nrays of the sun and, also, where it is scarcely, if at all,\\nexposed to any winds. The sides of the fissures and\\nsurrounding trees generally afford the necessary pro-\\ntection. Some of the forms which the ice assumes in\\ngorges, such as long pendent icicles, are also more char-\\nacteristic of underground than of overground ice.\\nThe freezing troughs or basins found in Siberia are\\nevidently closely related to gorges, and the fact that the\\nice is found in less sheltered places may be explained\\nby the high northerly latitudes of these troughs, in gen-\\neral between fifty-seven and sixty degrees.\\nThe Winter s Cold Theory. The places where ice is\\nfound underground differ in one important respect from\\ngullies and troughs, and that is, in the fact that above\\nthe ice there is rock or soil, which, in true caves, takes\\nthe form of a roof This causes some important dis-\\ntinctions between overground and underground perennial\\nice. It means that the ice is formed directly in the caves,\\nand that it is genuine subterranean ice, and not, except\\nperhaps near the entrance, solidified snow. The roof,\\nwhile not admitting the winter snows, is, however, a pro-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0205.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "148 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\ntection against warm summer rains, and, of course, entirely\\ncuts off radiation from the sky. If, therefore, it keeps\\nout some cold, it also acts as a protector against heat.\\nThat the cold of winter is the source of the cold which\\nproduces the ice which forms underground, and that it\\nis throuo^h its influence, with the assistance of certain\\nsecondar) causes, that some caves are converted into\\nwhat are practically natural ice houses, seems to me the\\ntrue explanation of the phenomenon of subterranean ice,\\nnot only since it is the simple and obvious explanation,\\nbut also because all the facts, so far as I have myself\\nobsen^ed, are in accord with this theor}^^\\nTo form subterranean ice, just as to form any other ice,\\ntwo things are necessary the first is cold, the second is\\nwater. Cold is supplied by the cold air of winter, and\\nwater must in some manner find its way into the cave\\nwhile the cold air is there.\\nThe process is as follows The cold air of winter\\nsinks into and permeates the cave, and in course of time\\nAmong those who have written or said that the cold of winter\\nplays a more or less important part in the formation of subterranean\\nice may be mentioned Poissenot, 1586 Gollut, 1592 DeBoz, 1726\\nNagel, 1747; Cossigny, 1750; Jars, 1774; Hacquet, 1778; Girod-\\nChantrans, 1783 Hablizl, 1788 Prevost, 1789 Townson, 1797\\nHumboldt, 18 14 Dearborn, 1822 Deluc, 1822 Dewey, 1822 Lee,\\n1824 Reich, 1834 Hayden, 1843 Guyot, 1856 Rogers, 1856\\nPetnizzi, 1857 5 Smyth, 1858 Hager, 1S61 Thur} 1861 Browne,\\n1865 Raymond, 1869 Krenner, 1874 Ritchie, 1879 Benedict,\\n1 88 1 Schwalbe, 1881 Fugger, 1883 Trouillet, 1885 Girardot,\\n1886 Russell, 1890 Martel, 1892 Krauss, 1894 Lohmann, 1895\\nBalch, 1896; Cvijic, 1896; Butler, 1898; Kovarik, 1898; Cranmer,\\n1899.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0206.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 49\\nfreezes up all the water which, In the shape of melting\\nsnow or cold winter rain or spring water, finds its way\\nin and once ice is formed it remains long after ice in\\nthe surrounding open country has melted away, because\\nheat penetrates with difficulty into the cave. The only\\neffect of the heat of summer Is to melt the ice.\\nThe proofs, to my mind, of the truth of this view are\\nI Glacieres are always found in parts of the world\\nwhere, during part of the year at least, the temperatures\\nof the surrounding country fall below freezing point. 2\\nAll observations by reliable observers show that the\\ntem.peratures of glaciere caves vary, but in a much nar-\\nrower thermometric scale, with those of the outside air\\nthat the temperatures are lowest, and as a rule below\\nfreezing point, during the winter months and that the\\ntemperatures are highest, and as a rule above freezing\\npoint, during the summer months. 3 Ice Is never found\\nfar from the mouth of caves, but always near enough\\nfor the cold air to get in. 4 Evaporation, according to\\nmy observations, is, as in all other forms of ice in nature,\\nconnected mainly with the melting, not the freezing of\\nthe ice.\\nGeographical Distribittio7i and Altihides, Glaciere\\ncaves proper are found in various parts of Europe,\\nAsia, and America, mostly in the smaller mountain\\nranges or in the outliers of the snowy mountain\\nchains generally In limestone and occasionally in ba-\\nsaltic formations. There are a good many in the Jura; a", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0207.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "150 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nfew in the Swiss and the Italian Alps a number in the\\nEastern Alps of Tyrol and Carinthia. There are some\\nin Hungary, several in Russia, one in Iceland, one on the\\nPeak of Teneriffe, a number in Siberia, one in Kondooz\\nin Central Asia, one in the Himalaya, one in Japan, and\\none in Korea. I have heard so far of over fifty glacieres\\nin North America, several of which are in Pennsylvania.\\nFrom all over the world there are some three hundred\\nplaces reported where subterranean ice is said to occur.\\nThis includes gorges, boulder heaps and freezing mines\\nand wells, all of which exist in much the same locali-\\nties as glaciere caves.\\nAll the glacieres which I know of, are situated in a\\nlatitude or at an altitude where ice and snow forms for\\npart of the year in the surrounding open country. None\\nare reported from India or Africa, or in fact from any\\nlow-lying places in tropical latitudes. Most of them are\\nfound in middle latitudes, and only where during part\\nof the year, at least, there is a cold season, that is, where\\nfor some time the thermometer stands below freezing\\npoint.\\nGlacieres are, in general, at fairly high altitudes. The\\nSchafloch is at 1780 meters; Skerisora in Transylvania\\nat 1 127 meters; Dobsina at iioo meters; the Glaciere\\nde Saint-Georges at 1208 meters. It is true that there\\nis one freezing cavern in the sub-tropical latitude of Ten-\\neriffe, La Cueva de la Nieve but it is at an altitude of\\n3300 meters, and where snow falls every year in the\\nopen on the Peak. Unless some freezing cave is here-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0208.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. I5I\\nafter discovered in a region where there Is no ice in the\\nopen in winter, I do not see how the imperative necessity\\nof the cold air of winter for forming the supply of Ice\\ncan be controverted.\\nThermometric Observations. That the cold air of win-\\nter is the important factor in the production of cold is\\nproved, also, by the thermometric observations recorded\\nin various caves by different observers. They all tell\\nthe same tale: that the temperatures vary with those of\\nthe outside air, that they are lowest in winter and high-\\nest in summer. I quote in the List of Glacleres a\\nfew of those published but there are many more, and\\nthey all show the same general characteristics.\\nA comparison of all the figures recorded proves that,\\nas a rule inside of glaclere caves from about the first\\nof November to the first of July, there are winter tem-\\nperatures, that is temperatures below freezing point and\\nfrom about the first of July to the first of November,\\nthere are summer temperatures, that Is temperatures\\nabove freezing point.\\nThe observations prove also that the inner temper-\\natures vary less than the outer, that Is that they range\\nwithin narrower limits. They also show that the inner\\nair is but slowly affected by the outer air when the\\n^^See Part III. Decorah, page 178; Chaux-les-Passavant, pages\\n203-5 La Poujade, page 208 Montarquis, page 218 Saint- Georges,\\npage 219 Schafloch, page 223 Kolowratshohle, page 227 Schellen-\\nberger Eisgrotte, page 228 Frain, page 252 Dobsina, page 253 etc.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0209.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "152 GLACIl^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nlatter is above freezing point, the inner temperature\\nrising then only gradually. Per contra, when the outside\\ntemperature drops quickly much below freezing point,\\nthe inside temperature generally drops correspondingly\\nat once, proving that the cold air has sunk by its weight\\ninto the cave. The observations also prove that the old\\nidea that the temperature of caves is the same through-\\nout, can no longer be considered correct. The observa-\\ntions also appear to show, that the temperature of a\\ncave does not necessarily represent the mean annual\\ntemperature of a surrounding district. Observation is\\nstill entirely lacking on the mean annual temperature\\nof glacieres, so that one cannot speak definitely about\\nthe matter but it seems likely that the mean annual\\ntemperature of a glaciere cave is lower than the isotherm\\nof its locality; and it seems more than probable that on\\nthe same isotherm different glaciere caves may have\\ndifferent mean annual temperatures, varying with the\\nelements of siz\u00e2\u0082\u00ac, quantity of ice, position of body of\\ncave and of entrance, water supply and other factors.\\nIce near the Entrance of Caves and the Surface of the\\nSoil. An important proof that it is the cold air of winter\\nwhich forms the ice is the fact that the latter is always\\nfound near the entrance of caves or near the surface\\nof the soil. It never extends far within. To the best\\nof my knowledge, ice has never been found two hun-\\ndred meters from the entrance nor at any depth be-\\nyond one hundred and fifty meters. In all caves of", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0210.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 53\\ngreat extent, the temperature far in is about the same\\nas that of the surrounding rock, and in all deep borings\\nthe temperature increases with the depth and at great\\ndepths the temperature becomes high. This nearness of\\nsubterranean ice to the outside air is one of the best\\nproofs, that, paradoxical as the whole phenomenon ap-\\npears at first, yet in reality it is an extremely simple\\nmatter.\\nThe position of the entrance of a cave in relation\\nto the body of the cave is an important factor in per-\\nmitting the cold air to permeate and remain in the\\ncave. In all the caves or gullies I have examined my-\\nself, the main mass of ice is well below the level of\\nthe entrance, and even if the latter is sheltered against\\nthe wind, it is not sheltered against the cold air of\\nwinter. This is heavy, and by its own weight sinks\\nwell down to the bottom, freezing up in course of\\ntime all the moisture that may drip from the roof, or\\nthat may come into the cave in the shape of melted\\nsnow or cold winter rain. The summer air, which is\\nwarm and, therefore, light, can only enter the cave\\nwith great difficulty and, as a rule, before it dislodges\\nthe winter air and destroys the ice, another winter s\\nfreeze reverses once more the conditions. These prin-\\nciples seem to hold of every known glaciere. It is true,\\nthat at the Frauenmauer, the floor of the cavern rises\\nsomewhat from the entrance; but the highest point of\\nthe floor is still below the level of the top of the en-\\ntrance, so that the cold air can flow over the highest", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0211.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "154 GLAClfeRES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\npoint without difficulty. The same appears to be the\\ncase at the Posselthohle while at Amarnath in Kash-\\nmere, where the floor is said to rise to the back wall,\\nthe entrance is about as large as the area of the floor,\\nso that the ice must also be below the level of the top\\nof the entrance.\\nThe position or situation of the entrance is impor-\\ntant. In almost all cases it has a northerly exposure,\\nand is sheltered against entering winds. If these two\\nconditions do not exist the ice supply surely suffers.\\nSometimes the entrance is more or less tortuous. In\\nsome cases It Is protected by a fringe of trees. Still,\\nthere is no absolute rule about entrances. The Frled-\\nrlchsteinerhohle faces about due south, and at midday\\nin summer, the sun shines all the way down to the\\nice floor, causing mists to form. In the Kolowratshohle,\\nthe entrance is badly sheltered against the wind and\\nthis undoubtedly affects the supply in summer and causes\\nmore rapid melting there than in some other cases.^^\\nFreezing boulder taluses Invariably have the ice near\\nthe surface, and probably it is never a dozen meters\\ndistant from the open air. These taluses are one of\\nthe strongest links in the chain of evidence proving the\\nwinter s cold theory. The snow and ice on the surface\\nof the taluses and on the surface of the boulders in\\ngullies melts away, while it still lingers underneath the\\nboulders. It seems self-evident that the melting snow\\nwater has run to the lowest level and there congealed,\\n^See Part III. Decorah, page 178.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0212.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 55\\nand then remained because it was better sheltered than\\nthe ice outside.\\nThe subsoil ice of the tundras of Siberia and Alaska\\nis almost identical with the ice of boulder formations,\\nexcept that it extends under larger areas. It is the prod-\\nuct of a climate where there is a long, rigorous win-\\nter and it is not surprising that the ice is found at\\ngreater depths than in more southerly latitudes.^^ The\\ndepth to which the ice extends is, of course, determined\\nby the depth to which the winter s cold can penetrate\\nthe soil. There is no doubt that the causes of this ice\\nare local, that is, that it is due to the long prevailing\\nlow temperatures.\\nThe freezing wells of which the most conspicuous ex-\\namples are at Brandon, Owego, Decorah, and in Montana,\\nseem also due to local causes and the ice is never far\\nfrom the surface, that is, not over twenty meters; and\\napparently also it forms above the water horizons which\\nsupply the wells.\\nThe ice sheet on Mount Etna does not seem to\\nbe at any great depth. It apparently had a different\\norigin from most subterranean ice masses, in that the\\nsnow probably fell first and was then covered by a flow\\nof lava. It is, therefore, almost sui generis in its mode\\nof formation, unless there are similar sheets on other\\nvolcanoes, which is probable in a country like Iceland,\\n^^See Part III. Alaska, page 166 Klondike, page 167 Kowak\\nRiver, page 166 Kotzebue Sound, page 166.\\nSee Part III., page 210.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0213.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "156 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nand which is said to be the case in Tierra del Fuego.^^\\nBut the original cause of the ice sheet on Etna was the\\nsame as all other subterranean ice masses, namely the\\ncold of winter.\\nEvaporation and Movements of Air. The formation\\nof subterranean ice is sometimes assigned partly to evap-\\noration or to expansion of the air. The theory is an\\nold one, and both scientific and non-scientific men have\\nadvanced it.^^\\nI have already said that I believe it is the movements\\nof the air which cause a cave to be a glaciere cave or a\\nnormal cave. When they act in such a way as to permit\\nthe cold air of winter to permeate a cave, we find low\\ntemperatures and ice when they do not, we find the\\ntemperature about the same as that of the ground and\\nno ice.\\nThat the ice is not formed in apparently static caves,\\nby movements of air producing evaporation, seems to\\nme proved by what I have noticed in regard to the at-\\nmosphere. The dryness or moistness of the air within\\na glaciere cave is coincident with the state of freezing\\nor thawing of the cave. When I have visited a large cave\\nin June, everything was frozen tight, there were no drips\\nSee Part III., page 190.\\nAmong those who have written that evaporation is a factor in the\\nformation of subterranean ice, may be mentioned Pictet, 1822 Scrope,\\n1827 Reich, 1834 Pleischl, 1841 Murchison, 1845 Olmstead,\\n1856; Hitchcock, 1861 White, 1870; Kirchhoff, 1876; Krauss,\\n1895.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0214.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 57\\nnor mushy ice, the air was relatively dry and the sensa-\\ntion of cold not unpleasant. When I have visited a cave\\nin August, the ice was soft and mushy, water was dripping\\nfrom the roof, the atmosphere was moist, and the cold\\npenetrating. It seems to me that the facts go to show\\nthat it is not evaporation which forms the ice, but the\\nmelting of the ice which fills the cave with moisture. If\\nthere are any draughts or movements of the atmos-\\nphere when above freezing point, then their tendency is\\nto vaporize the ice.\\nThe process of the formation of ice in relation to the\\natmosphere is as follows the cold air permeates the\\ncave and freezes up all the drip the atmosphere be-\\ncomes dr}^: gradually warmer air gets in and the ice\\nbegins to melt then the atmosphere gets charged slowly\\nwith the vapor of the melting ice. This process is the\\nexact opposite of the formation of ice by evaporation\\nit is the atmosphere which is made humid by the vapor-\\nizing of the ice, and by the drip. When the air is thor-\\noughly saturated with the vapor, being scarcely renewed\\nfrom outside and but a few degrees above freezing point,\\nit undoubtedly retards evaporation, acts like a blanket\\nand lessens the rate of melting of the ice.^\\nEverything I have personally observed in freezing\\nwindholes shows that in them also the cold of winter and\\nnot evaporation is the cause of the ice. They answer to\\nthe same tests as other glacieres, of geographical distri-\\nSee Part IV. Thury, page 285 Fugger, page 296 Trouillet,\\npage 298.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0215.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "158 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nbution and altitude, nearness of ice to the outside, ther-\\nmometric observations, and dampness of the air when\\nthe ice melts. Equally with other glacieres, the move-\\nments of air in windholes do not depend on the pres-\\nence of ice, but the ice does depend on the movements\\nof air and a water supply at the proper time. A proof\\nthat it is the cold of winter which makes the ice in\\nwindholes, is that the ice is always found at the lower\\nextremity, for the reason that it is at that end that the\\ncold air enters and to that end that the water gravi-\\ntates. The reason that ice is more rarely found in wind-\\nholes than in apparently static caves, is due to the move-\\nments of air. Unlike the caves where the heavy cold\\nair preserves the ice by remaining pent up, as soon as\\nthe outside temperature rises the heavy cold air in wind-\\nholes tumbles out at the lower opening and is replaced\\ngradually by air at a higher temperature. This also\\nflows out and when It is above freezing point. It natu-\\nrally melts the ice and becomes humid in fact, it vapor-\\nizes the ice as it passes, and dissipates the moisture\\ninto the outer air.\\nIt Is, however, certain, that in caves with a tempera-\\nture some degrees above freezing point, when there is\\neither running water or strong drips, evaporation may\\nbe, and sometimes undoubtedly is, a factor in lowering\\nthe temperature somewhat.^ As in some windholes there\\n^See Part IV. DeSaussure, page 274. See also Les AbimeSy\\n1894, page 564-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0216.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. 1 59\\nis occasionally moisture on the rock surfaces where the\\nair current passes, the evaporation from these surfaces\\ndoubtless lowers the temperature of the draughts, and\\nit may be, also those of the rock surfaces, a little.\\nFurther observations, however, will be necessary in\\nregard to evaporation underground, as the data are still\\ninsufficient to make absolutely positive statements.^^ I\\nfail to see any evidence to show that evaporation ever\\nlowers the temperature of draughts underground below\\nfreezing point, only that it may help to lower them to\\nsomething less than they would otherwise be. Taking\\nall the facts which I have myself observed, and all I\\nhave read of in the reports of others, my own conclusion\\nis that we have no proof that evaporation underground\\nis ever strong enough to produce ice.\\nTime of Formation of Ice. Everything I have seen\\npoints to the fact that ice begins to lorm in a cave as\\nsoon as the temperature of the cave has sunk below\\nfreezing point, whenever, from any cause, water gets\\ninto the cave. The cold may begin to penetrate caves\\nas soon as outside frosts have occurred, that is in the\\nfall months, about November and as soon as the tem-\\nperature inside sinks below freezing point, ice will begin\\nSeveral observers consider evaporation as more or less of a factor\\nin the production of cold underground. It is suggested also, that\\nin certain cases, at high altitudes, evaporation tends to prevent the\\nmelting of the ice in windholes, but this is not proved, as yet. See\\nPart IV. De Saussure, page 274 Fugger, page 296 Trouillet, page\\n298 Martel, page 300 Lohmann, page 302.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0217.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "l6o GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nto form, provided also that water gets into the cave,\\nfrom rains or springs or any other source.\\nIn the mid-winter months, although there is then\\nplent} of cold, the water supply is generally lacking, as\\nthe outside moisture is mostly frozen up and the result\\nis that the winter months are not those when the ice is\\nmainly formed. Some is undoubtedly formed in certain\\ncaves whenever during the course of the winter a surface\\nthaw outside furnishes water to the cave,^^ but in other\\ncases this is not so and the ice does not appear before\\nthe spring. In all cases it is in the spring, before the\\ncave has parted with its store of cold, and when both\\nthe air and the rock walls are chilled below freezinof\\npoint that the ice forms fastest. Then plent} of water\\nis furnished by the melting of the snows and the un-\\nlocking of the brooks, and also by early spring rains.\\nAll this surface water runs throuo^h the fissures into the\\nstill freezing cave and there becomes ice. Not only the\\nair, but also the rock walls are chilled below freezing\\npoint, and as the rocks part slowly with the cold stored\\nin them, this cold helps to freeze the water pouring In.\\nThe natural law In relation to time seems to be this\\nIce mav be formed in caves as soon as the outside tem-\\nperature sinks below freezing point. In some caves it\\n^See Part III.: Chaux-les-Passavant, page 203; Saint-Georges,\\npage 220.\\nSee Part IV.: Townson, page 275 Thur}-. page 2S5 Troiiillet,\\npage 297 Schwalbe, page 29S Terlanday, page 301 Kovarik,\\npage 307.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0218.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "THE CAUSES OF SUBTERRANEAN ICE. l6l\\nforms intermittently all through the cold months because\\nthere is a water supply. In other caves it only forms\\nin the spring, because there is no water supply in the\\nwinter months. In all cases, however, the end of winter\\nis the time when most of the ice is formed.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0219.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0220.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "PART III.\\nLIST OF GLACIERES.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0221.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0222.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES.\\n68\\nnorth america.\\nBuried or Fossil Glaciers, North Greenland.\\n(W. E. Meehan, Philadelphia Ledger, 1896.) On Rob-\\nertson s Bay Is the plateau of the Verhoef Glacier, which\\nis about 1 500 meters long and 400 meters wide, and stands\\nback only a few meters from the edge of the sea. This\\nplateau, both top and sides, is a mass of flourishing vege-\\ntation, chiefly grass, which reaches above a man s knee.\\nFrom among this verdure buttercups, poppies, cinquefoils\\nand dandelions thrust their golden heads in wild profusion.\\nSimilar buried glaciers are found in many places along\\nthe fiords of North Greenland.\\nMr. Meehan gives a simple explanation in connection\\nwith the Verhoef Glacier. He says that this glacier for-\\nmerly extended out into the sea, and that while it moved\\nforward, the clump moss, which struggles for existence\\nin Greenland gorges, could do little more than hold its\\nown. In course of time, from some unknown cause, the\\nglacier receded to the point where it now discharges, the\\npart in the water floating away in the shape of icebergs,\\nand the part on the shore remaining stationary. This was\\nthe opportunity for the clump mosses. Caring nothing for\\nthe cold they crept slowly over the quiet mass of ice\\nThis list is necessarily incomplete, and only approximately accurate\\nin many cases.\\n(165)", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0223.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "1 66 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nand made their way first in thin net-like layers, later in\\nthick masses, till they reached the rocky shore. Year\\nafter year the mosses grew, the young plants trampling\\nunder-foot the older until the latter, rotting, turned into\\na rich mould. The seeds of grasses and flowers found\\ntheir way to this, blown by the wind or carried on the\\nfeet of birds. The plateau now is a garden of green,\\ngold and white. How long this will last it is impossible\\nto say, as any time nature may unloose its hold, and\\nthe frozen river once more pour down into the bay.\\nSubsoil Ice in Alaska. (I. C. Russell, A Joui^ney\\nup the Yukon River, page 149, and Second Expedition\\nto Mount Saint Elias, page 19.) Professor Russell found\\nice covered by rocks and vegetation in several places in\\nAlaska, especially along the southern edge of the Malas-\\npina Glacier and on the Yukon River. He gives the\\nfollowing interesting account in 1890 of these ice sheets\\nThroughout the length of the Yukon, one is frequently\\nreminded of the high latitude drained by the great river,\\nby seeing strata of ice in the recently cut banks, beneath\\nthe dense layer of moss and roots forming the surface on\\nwhich the forests grow. One may frequently find ice even\\non a hot summer s day, by scraping away the moss at his\\nfeet. In some instances the frozen layer has been pene-\\ntrated to the depth of twenty-five feet, but its full depth\\nhas never been ascertained. In the banks of some of the\\nstreams to the north of the lower Yukon, strata of ice over\\na hundred feet thick have been observed, and the indica-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0224.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 1 67\\ntions are that its total depth is considerably greater than\\nthe portion exposed. This subsoil ice is stagnant and\\nwithout the characteristics of glaciers.\\nSubsoil Ice in the Klondike Region. {^Philadelphia\\nLedger, December 30th, 1897.) The Klondike mining\\ncountry is covered with snow most of the year. The\\nground is frozen for ten or twelve meters in depth, down\\nto bed rock. In some places the ground, which is pro-\\ntected by a thick moss, is not thawed out by the sun in\\nsummer. The miner cuts off the moss with a shovel,\\nand then builds a fire, which thaws out the ground for\\nfive or ten centimeters. He digs this out, rebuilds a\\nfire, and then continues this process.\\nIce Cliffs on the Kowak River, Alaska. (Lieu-\\ntenant J. C. Cantwell, National Geographic Magazine,\\nOctober, 1896.) On the shores of the Kowak River are a\\nseries of ice cliffs of from about 25 meters to 45 meters in\\nheight. On top of these ice cliffs is a layer of black silt-\\nlike soil some 2 meters in thickness, and from this springs\\na luxuriant growth of mosses, grass and Arctic shrubbery.\\nThe melted ice shows a residuum of fine dust, which while\\nfresh emits a pungent odor.\\nSubterranean Ice Sheet on Kotzebue Sound. (Otto\\nvon Kotzebue, Entdeckungsreise in die Siidsee, etc. Wei-\\nmar, 1 82 1. Vol. IV., page 140.) Dr. Eschholz discovered\\nnear Kotzebue Sound, in 18 16, a mass of ice more than 30", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0225.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "1 68 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nmeters thick, and entirely covered with a layer at least 1 5\\ncentimeters thick of clay, sand, and earth, on which heavy,\\nlong grass was growing. In the ice and in the soil over-\\nlaying it, were many remains of extinct animals. On the\\nside towards the ocean the ice was entirely bare, exposed\\nto sun and air, and much of it was melting away in\\nstreamlets.\\nFreezing Lava Caves, Washington. (R. W. Raymond,\\nOverland Mo^itJdy, 3d November, 1869, page 421. Th.\\nKirchhoff, Reisebilder tend Skizzen aus America, 1876,\\nvol. II., page 211. Philadelphia Ledger, September 25th,\\n1899.) These caves are distant about four hours from the\\nfoot of Mount Adams, and about 56 kilometers from the\\nmouth of the White Salmon River, where it falls into the\\nColumbia River. The caves are in basalt, and they are\\nconnected at both ends with the open air. Only a few of\\nthem contain any ice, which in the largest cave is about\\n6 meters below the entrance, from which one descends\\nby a ladder. The cave opens on one side and is some\\n15 meters in depth, 6 meters or 8 meters in width and\\n3 meters or 4 meters in height. This part contains the\\nmost ice. The other side gradually narrows from the en-\\ntrance, is longer, and reaches out through fallen rocks\\nand rubbish to daylight. In the lower portion, there are\\na few ice stalactites and stalagmites one a superb, trans-\\nparent hillock, which rises nearly to the roof, is called\\nthe Iceberg. A strong draught flows into the cave in\\nsummer through the open arm.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0226.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 1 69\\nThe following paragraphs from the Philadelphia Ledger\\nprobably refer to the same locality\\nIce for the cutting, and that in August and early in\\nSeptember, is a novelty not often found in regions as far\\nsouth as the Columbia River basin but the novelty is\\nenjoyed every year by people who visit the ice caves under\\nthe shadow of Mount Adams, about loo miles northeast\\nof Portland. It is a very extensive region. Frank Mc-\\nFarland, who has just returned from a six weeks vacation\\ncamping trip there, gives an interesting account of its gen-\\neral make up.\\nAt the ice caves, which are six miles from Trout\\nLake, the stalactites are more beautiful and wonderful this\\nyear than ever before, and this was Mr. McFarland s fif-\\nteenth trip there. He broke off and took to camp chunks\\nof ice weighing lOO pounds. Pleasure parties who come to\\nthe lake use considerable of the ice for packing their trout\\nto take home. All you have to do is to take a torch of\\npitch pine or a lantern, and go into the big caves and pack\\noff all the ice you want. It is a sure crop, and never fails.\\nIce Spring in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon. (G.\\nGihhs, American yournal of Science and Arts, 1853, Second\\nSeries, vol. XV., page 146.) The Ice Spring is about 60\\nkilometers from the South Pass to the right of the Sweet-\\nwater River. It is situated in a low marshy swale, where\\nthe ground is filled with springs and about 60 centimeters\\nbelow the turf is a sheet of horizontal ice, some 10 centi-\\nmeters to 30 centimeters thick, lasting throughout the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0227.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "I JO GL.\\\\CIERES OR FREEZING CA\\\\ ERNS.\\nyear. The ice is clear and Is disposed in hexagonal\\nprisms it has a shghtly saline taste, the ground above it\\nbeing impregnated with salt and the water near by tasting\\nof sulphur.\\nFreezing Lava Caves in Modoc County. California.\\n[^Dispatch, Frankford, Pennsylvania. 2 2d Januan. 1S97,\\nreprinted from another paper.) The lava beds, where the\\nModoc Indians made their last stand against the United\\nStates troops, are described as an immense field of lava\\ncovered with a beautiful forest of conifers. Numerous\\ncaves of varving shapes and dimensions are scattered\\nthrouc^hout these lava beds. Some are mere covert wavs,\\nwith an arch of stone thrown over them others are im-\\nmense chambers some meters from the surface: another\\nkind sinks deeply and may be in a series of chambers\\nunited by a corridor that opens at the surface while\\nanother kind seems to \u00c2\u00a3:o directlv to the centre of the\\nearth without stopping. Some of these caves contain ice\\nand from them the Modoc s drew their water supply while\\nbesieged by the troops. Judging from what is reported\\nof the caves the quantit} of ice in them must be large.\\nThe thermometer in winter in the region is said to go\\nas low as 30- C.\\nFreezing Lava Beds near Medicine Lake. Siskiyou\\nCounts*, Northern California. (^L S. Baker. Sierra\\nChib Bulletin, 1S99. ol. II., page 318.) One other fea-\\nture of the lava rei2:ion must be mentioned the ice caves.\\no", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0228.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 171\\nThere are several of these known, and ver}^ likely many\\nmore remain undiscovered. Those located along the edge\\nof the lava, near the cinder cone, I have known to contain\\nice and water as late as August. The largest I have\\nseen is on the Mayfield Road, about twenty miles east of\\nBartles. It is situated in the barren lava, and in one of\\nthe warmest localities of the region, and there are few\\ncool spots in the lava anywhere. One enters the cave by\\ncrawling down a hole none too large. The instant the\\ninterior is reached the temperature falls in a surprising\\nway. Not more than ten feet below the surface of the\\nhot rocks is a bed of ice, covered by a foot or so of ice\\nwater. The body of ice was perhaps twelve or fifteen\\nfeet long, by five feet across in the widest places. This\\ncave is formed by a fissure that extends a distance of\\ntwenty miles from the ice cave to Pittville, and nearly\\ncoincides with the 4000 foot level, as shown in the map.\\nAlong the southeastern half of this earth fissure the south-\\nwest wall has faulted, leaving a cliff, which, in places, must\\nbe nearly 200 feet high.\\nFreezing Shafts, Montana. Mr. Robert Butler, of\\nSan Jose, Cal., has given me much information about gla-\\ncieres in Montana. He visited one miners shaft which is\\nsituated about 80 kilometers up the Rosebud River from\\nRosebud Station on the Northern Pacific R. R., and about\\n10 kilometers northeast of the Cheyenne Indian Agency.\\nIt is on the north slope of the Little Wolf Mountains, near\\nthe summit, at the head of Greenleaf Creek. The canyon", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0229.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "172 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nand surrounding slopes are covered with a dense growth\\nof pine. The rock has the appearance of scoriae caused\\nby the burning of immense beds of coal in recent geo-\\nlogical times. The rock is broken into comparatively\\nsmall pieces. The altitude is some 1200 meters. The\\nforest, the volcanic ash and the altitude, besides the loose\\nrock formation, makes this place a natural ice house.\\nTen or twelve years ago three prospectors, looking for\\nsilver, sunk a shaft here. At a depth of about 4 meters\\nit began to grow cold, and at 6 meters they found ice\\nand imagined they could feel an upward draught. Being\\nignorant and superstitious, they became frightened and\\nabandoned the shaft. During the winter, the snow fills\\nthe shaft half full of ice, which then remains over through\\nthe summer. There is a general report and belief among\\nthose who have visited the well, that it freezes in summer\\nand thaws in winter. There are thousands of mining\\nshafts in Montana, and if they are on the north slope\\nof a mountain of considerable altitude and under a\\ndense forest and not too deep, they generally have ice at\\nthe bottom during the summer. It is also said to be noth-\\ning new for a miner in following crevices to find them\\nfilled with ice, especially if near the surface on the north\\nslope of a mountain.\\nFreezing Cave, Fergus County, Montana. Mr.\\nRobert Butler, of San Jose, Cal., visited this place, which\\nis about 35 kilometers southeast of Lewistown. It is on\\nthe north side of a butte. Masses of ice and great icicles", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0230.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 1 73\\nform in some parts of the cave in such quantities during\\nthe latter part of winter that the cave furnishes ice for\\ncooling the drinking water for several dozen families.\\nDuring July and August the people come from some\\ndistance around to get the ice. The people in the neigh-\\nborhood believe that the ice forms in summer and thaws\\naway in winter. They also speak of the ever upward\\ndraught of cold air coming possibly from some great\\nhidden cavern in the lower recesses of the mountain.\\nFreezing Well at Horse Plains, Montana. (Levi\\nAllen, Scientific American, New Series, 27th October,\\n1883.) The well is described as 13.60 meters deep. It is\\ndug through solid gravel, and in sinking it there was\\nencountered, at a depth of 10.60 meters, a current of\\nair strong enough to blow out a candle. It began to\\nfreeze in September, 1882, and in November it was\\nfrozen solid.\\nFreezing Silver Mine, Bighorn County, Wyoming.\\nThis place is in the Sunlight Basin of the Shoshone\\nMountains. Mr. William Worrell Wagner, of Philadelphia,\\ninforms me that he visited it in August, 1897. It is a\\nsilver mine or tunnel, running straight into the mountain\\nfor about 60 meters, at an altitude of about 3300 meters.\\nThe peaks of the Teton range were in sight from the\\nmouth of the tunnel. For the first half of the way in, a\\ngood many icicles were hanging from the rocks. The last\\nhalf of the tunnel was thickly coated with ice and looked", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0231.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "174 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nlike a cold storage plant. Snow disappears on the rocks\\noutside about June, and begins to fall again in September,\\nso that Mr. Wagner s visit was at about the hottest time\\nof the year. Mr. Wagner presented the meat of a bull\\nwapiti he had shot to the miners, and they stored it in\\nthe mine as if it had been an artificial refrigerator.\\nRifts of Ice, Mount McClellan, Colorado. (Edward\\nL. Berthoud, Ameincan your7ial of Science and Arts. Third\\nSeries, 1876, vol. XL, page 108.) Near the summit of\\nMount McClellan, is the Centennial Lode, which runs into\\nthe mountain, at an altitude of about 3900 meters. Inter-\\ncalated in the mineral vein are three or four well defined\\nveins of solid ice parallel with the bedding of the rock\\nand filling all its inner side-cracks and fissures. The\\nsame frozen substratum is found in two other lodes near\\nby on the same mountain. Nothing of the kind is known\\non other Colorado mountains. The soil is loose and\\nlargely made up of rocky debris, which shows that the\\nice is probably due to local causes.\\nFreezing Tunnel on the Hagerman Pass, Colorado.\\n{Philadelphia Press, October i6th, 1897.) The Hager-\\nman Pass Railroad line is said to have been abandoned\\nafter the completion of the Busk-Ivanhoe tunnel, but to\\nhave been rebuilt. The Hagerman tunnel for a distance\\nof over 700 meters was filled with solid ice, and it required\\nblasting with dynamite, and a month s continuous labor,\\nday and night, to dig the ice out.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0232.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "list of glacieres. 175\\nFreezing Cavern in Cow Mountain, Colorado.\\n{Post Dispatch, St. Louis, Mo., July 13th, 1897, and Sep-\\ntember 5th, 1897. Mail Order Monthly, St. Paul, Minn.,\\nOctober, 1899.) The cave was discovered by parties do-\\ning assessment work on a group of claims. A man was\\npicking in a three meter hole when he struck his pick\\ninto an opening, which was gradually enlarged and\\nshowed a deep pit underneath. The men got a rope\\nand descended into an immense cavern full of ice.\\nLater exploration led to a small hall, some 5 meters in\\ndiameter, full of icicles. From here a fissure led into a\\nsecond rock chamber larger than the first. A small hole\\nin the floor at an angle of some 45\u00c2\u00b0 gave access to a\\nthird and larger hall, about 25 meters by 40 meters. Great\\nmasses of ice were found in this, also a small lake, about\\n1 2 meters by 20 meters. Some who have visited the\\nwonderful discovery are of the opinion that it is a great\\ncave or fissure in a glacier which for centuries has been\\nslowly making its way down from Pike s Peak and whose\\nwaters are now feeding the Arkansas River.\\nWindhole, Arizona. [Christian Herald, March 24th,\\n1897.) M^- Cofman, while drilling a well on his place, is\\nsaid to have opened a windhole from which the escaping\\nair current was strong enough to blow off the hats of the\\nmen who were recovering the lost drill. Some days the\\nair escapes with such force that pebbles the size of peas\\nare thrown up, accompanied by a sound much like the\\ndistant bellowing of a fog horn. Again for days there will", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0233.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "1/6 GLAClfeRES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nbe a suction current, unaccompanied by sound, in which the\\ncurrent of air passes into the earth with somewhat less\\nforce than when escaping, and any Hght object, as a feather\\nor a piece of paper, will be immediately sucked in. The\\naccount is probably exaggerated.\\nFreezing Lava Cave near Flagstaff, Arizona. Pro-\\nfessor W. B. Scott of Princeton University told me of\\nthis cave, which he had not visited himself. It lies 14.5\\nkilometers south of Flagstaff, on the Mesa table land, at\\nan altitude of about 2000 meters. It was described to\\nProfessor Scott as a double cave, with two floors, one over\\nthe other, the lower containing the most ice. It is in lava,\\nand can only be entered by crawling in on hands and\\nknees.\\nFreezing Cave or Gorge, White Mountains, Ari-\\nzona. Mr. Frank Hamilton Cushing has told me of this\\nplace. It is a cleft among lava rock, which being roofed at\\nthe further end, might be described as a cave. In this the\\nice remains until June or July, much later than anywhere\\nelse in the neighborhood. The Zuni Indians worship be-\\nfore this, calling the ice the breath of the Gods, the snow\\nthey consider as a sort of down. The region is arid,\\nwhich makes any water precious, and this fact has de-\\nveloped the element of mysticism about snow and ice\\namong the Indians.\\nFreezing Cave near Galena, Black Hills, South\\nDakota. (Miss L. A. Owen, Cave Regions of the Ozarks", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0234.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 1 77\\nand Black Hills. Cincinnati, 1898, page 209): At Galena,\\na new mining town of golden promise, there is reported to\\nbe an Ice Cave, where ice forms at all seasons, and during\\nthe warm weather is a source of comfort and pleasure to\\nthe miners.\\nWiNDHOLES IN THE OzARK MOUNTAINS, MISSOURI. Mr.\\nH. F. Brinckerhofif, of Aurora, Mo., informs me that there\\nare a number of cold air current caves in the Ozark Moun-\\ntain region. One of them is some 19 kilometers south of\\nAurora, Lawrence County, and is used for cold storage in\\nsummer. There is a cave in a limestone bluff about 15\\nmeters above a river, and in the rear is this windhole,\\nwhich is an opening about 30 centimeters high and 3\\nmeters wide. A strong current of air comes out from it in\\nsummer, and the hotter the air outside, the stronger is the\\noutward coming current. In winter the current is re-\\nversed. The outward current is so strong in very hot\\nweather that a handkerchief held in it is straightened out\\nto an angle of about 45\u00c2\u00b0.\\nFreezing Cave and Well at Decorah, Iowa. De-\\nscribed in Part I. (Dr. C. A. White, Report of Geological\\nSurvey of State of Iowa, 1870, vol. I., page 80. A. F.\\nKovarik, Scientific American Supplement, No. .1195,\\nvember 26th, 1898, pages 19,158, 19,159).\\nOn June ist, 1869, Dr. White found the ice dry and\\nwell frozen, and he thought it was then accumulating. The\\ncave was cool and apparently dry, and no strong air cur-\\nrent was passing through.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0235.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "178\\nGLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nMr. Alois F. Kovarik, of the Decorah Institute, has\\nmade a valuable series of observations about the Decorah\\nCave. The temperatures he observed were the following:\\nIN THE VALLEY,\\nSHADE. DIVISION.\\nJuly I, 1897 +33.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n+21.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n+32.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n+32.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n+33.9\u00c2\u00b0\\n+24.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n10.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n27,\\nAug.\\n14,\\nSept.\\n3,\\n18,\\nOct.\\n16,\\ni\\n30,\\nDec.\\nII,\\nJan.\\n8, 1898\\n22,\\nFeb.\\n26,\\nMarch\\n12,\\n26,\\nApril\\n16,\\ni i\\n30,\\nMay\\n28,\\nJune\\n9,\\n18,\\nJuly\\n16,\\n0.0\\n5.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n_ 0.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.8\u00c2\u00b0\\n8.8\u00c2\u00b0\\n25.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n13.9\u00c2\u00b0\\n17.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n25.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n22.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n35.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n5.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n5.8\u00c2\u00b0\\n7.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n8.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n10.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n7.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n_ 6.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n_ 6.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n7.2\u00c2\u00b0\\nLOCUS\\nGLACIALIS.\\n0.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n3.1\\n3.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n6.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n8.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n4.7\\n-1.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n-3.9\u00c2\u00b0\\n-3.9\u00c2\u00b0\\n-6.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n-2.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n-1.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n-0.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n-0.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n_0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.0\u00c2\u00b0\\nEND.\\n0.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n8.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n8.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n8.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n5.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n-3.9\u00c2\u00b0\\n-5.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n-2.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n-1.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n-1.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n-1.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.2\u00c2\u00b0\\nOn the I St of July, 1897, breeze was noticed\\ncoming from the cave to a distance of at least 30 meters.\\nAt the entrance the breeze was strong enough to blow\\nout a candle. This breeze was not noticed at other\\ntimes. From December to February inclusive, on the\\ncontrary, the breeze was reversed. From July to October,\\n1897, the walls of the cave were moist. From October\\nto February they were dry. In February frost began to", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0236.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 1/9\\nappear on the walls. On March 12th, 1898, the walls\\nwere covered with frost. The ice appeared at a spot\\nnearly at the end of the cave on the 26th of March, 1898.\\nAt a place about 6.50 meters nearer the entrance, how-\\never, is where most ice forms. This place Mr. Kovarik\\ncalls Locus Glacialis. The ice appeared here about the\\n29th of May, 1898. It increased rapidly up to June 12th,\\nwhen it was at its maximum, and was about two meters\\nin width. It generally covers the north wall from top\\nto base. The greatest thickness in 1898 was 29 centi-\\nmeters.\\nThe temperature which Mr. Kovarik recorded on the\\n1 6th of April at Locus Glacialis of i.i seems an anom-\\nalous one. On writing to him he sent me the following\\nexplanation: April i6th, after I left the thermometer at\\nLocus Glacialis the usual time, I noticed that it registered\\n1.1\u00c2\u00b0 C. It seemed singular, for at both the Division\\nand the End, the thermometer registered considerably\\nlower. I left the thermometer at its place for about an\\nhour longer, and noticed then that it did not register\\ndifferently. I would suggest this explanation This is\\ntrue about water that upon freezing it gives off its latent\\nheat. Now on April i6th some water dripped into the\\ncave on the wall near where the thermometer was, about\\n1.50 meters from the floor. The amount of water was very\\nsmall, but as it came in contact with the cold wall it began\\nto give out its latent heat which affected the close by\\nthermometer. The temperature of the rock was without\\ndoubt between i.\u00c2\u00b0 and 3\u00c2\u00b0.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0237.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "l8o GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nFreezing Cavern at Brainard, Iowa. (Alois F. Ko-\\nvarik, Decorah Public Opinio7i, September 20th, 1899.)\\nThis little cave is situated on the north side of a hill\\nabout 1.5 kilometers northwest of Brainard. It is about\\n4.50 meters deep. On June loth, 1899, Mr. Kovarik\\nfound the floor and walls covered with ice. The tem-\\nperature was 0\u00c2\u00b0 C. The owner claims to have taken\\nenough ice out of it on July 4th, 1897, freeze cream.\\nFreezing Cave near Elkinsville, Brown County,\\nIndiana. (Clipping from a western newspaper, 1896.)\\nThe entrance is said to be overlapped by trees and to\\nresemble a mine shaft. The winding way leads to a\\nhollow some 15 meters below the surface, resembling a\\nbroad vaulted corridor, which is known to the natives as\\nthe devil s chamber and where the temperature is low.\\nFrom this point several galleries lead further in, and from\\none of them comes a blast of icy cold air. This passage\\nis similar to the one at the entrance to the cave, but after\\na few meters frost is visible, and further on it is thick on\\nall sides, like the crust that is formed on the pipes of an\\nice plant. The narrow way leads to a big chamber, known\\nas the ice vault. In this dome, which is fully 30 meters in\\nwidth, the ice forms a large stalagmite and is of unknown\\ndepth.\\nFreezing Gully on Mount Abraham, Maine. (Jackson,\\nReport of the Geology of Mame, 1839, III.) Ice was found\\nin June at an altitude of 1032 meters among the boulders\\nin one of the gullies of Mount Abraham.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0238.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "FREEZING CAVERN AT BRAINARD.\\nFrom a Photograph by Mr. A. F. Kovarik.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0239.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0240.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. l8l\\nSubterranean Ice in King s Ravine, Mount Adams,\\nNew Hampshire. Described in Part I., page i.\\nIce Gulch on Crescent Mountain, Randolph, New\\nHampshire. Described in Part I., page S^.\\nIce in a Hole at Dixville Notch, New Hampshire.\\nMr. John Ritchie, Jr., of Boston, has examined this place,\\nwhich he is sure is a refrigerator. It is in a hole north of\\nthe cliff and near its top.\\nIce on Mount Garfield, New Hampshire. Mr. John\\nRitchie, Jr., informs me that ice was discovered among the\\nboulders on the summit of Mount Garfield during the\\nsummer of 1897.\\nFreezing Talus near Rumney, New Hampshire. De-\\nscribed in Part I., page 85.\\nFreezing Talus near North Woodstock, New Hamp-\\nshire. Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., has examined this locality.\\nHe thinks the ice was gone in July, but judges it to be on\\nthe level of an old talus and a couple of meters down.\\nFreezing Well at Lyman, Grafton County, New\\nHampshire. (Geology of Vermont, 1861, I., page 197.) A\\nwell in that town is reported as having been frozen solid\\nin June, 181 6, at a depth of about 2.60 meters from the\\nsurface.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0241.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "1 82 GLACIl^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nIcy Wells at THE Foot of Mount Mansfield, Vermont.\\n(N. M. Lowe, Science Observer, vol. II., page 58.) These\\nare described as being really incipient caves.\\nFreezing Cave near Manchester, Vermont. De-\\nscribed in Part I., page 76.\\nIce Bed of Wallingford, Rutland County, Vermont.\\nDescribed in Parti., page 99. (S. Pearl Lathrop, American\\nyournal of Science and Arts, 1844, XLVL, page 331.)\\nDr. Lathrop says that ice has been found at the Ice Bed\\nas late as September.\\nFreezing Wells at Brandon, Vermont. Described in\\nPart I., page [Geology of Vermont, 1861, vol. I., page\\n192.) Mr. Hager says that the v^ell was dug into a mass\\nof sand and gravel, of the kind known as modified drift.\\nThe gravel was frozen at the time of digging. The Boston\\nNatural History Society, in 1859, sank two wells, .one 21\\nmeters southeast of the original one, the other 21 meters\\nnorthwest. The first was 10 meters in depth and did not\\nreach ice the second was 1 1 meters in depth, and came\\nto the layer of frozen gravel.\\nCave near Brandon, Vermont. {^Geology of Verm^ont,\\n1 86 1, vol. I., page 197.) Mr. Hager heard that about 3\\nkilometers north of Brandon village was a cavern, in a\\nhill, in which ice is found most of the summer.\\nIcy Gulf near Great Barrington, Massachusetts.\\nMentioned in Part I., page 99.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0242.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 1 83\\nIcy Glen near Stockbridge, Massachusetts. De-\\nscribed in Part I., page 75.\\nThe Snow Hole, New York: near Williamstown,\\nMassachusetts. Described in Part I., page 98. (Dewey,\\nAmerican journal of Science and Arts 181 9, vol. I., page\\n340; and 1822, vol. V., page 398.) Mr. Dewey found, in\\nJune, snow 2 meters deep on ice of unknown depth. On\\nhis second visit he found less ice and snow than on his\\nfirst visit, as the trees in the neighborhood had been\\ncut down.\\nGlaciere near Williamstown, Massachusetts. De-\\nscribed in Part I., page loi.\\nFreezing Well near Ware, Massachusetts. (Geol-\\nogy of Vermont, 1861, vol. I., page 197.) Depth 11. 5\\nmeters. This is in a sand and gravel formation much\\nlike that at Brandon, except that there is less clay, and\\nthat none of the pebbles are limestone.\\nWOLFSHOLLOW NEAR SALISBURY, CONNECTICUT. (C. A.\\nLee, Am^erican fournal of Science and Arts, 1824, vol.\\nVIII., page 254.) In the eastern portion of the township,\\nat an altitude of about 800 meters, is a chasm about 100\\nmeters long, 18 meters deep and 12 meters wide. It\\nis in mica-slate, and is sheltered by large trees. At the\\nbottom at one end is a spring of cold water and a cave\\nof considerable extent, in which ice and snow is found\\nthe greater part of the year.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0243.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "184 glacieres or freezing caverns.\\nNatural Ice House, near Meriden, Connecticut.\\n(Benjamin Silliman, Americaii Journal of Science afid\\nA7^ts, 1822, vol. IV., page 174.) It lies between New\\nHaven and Hartford, about 32 kilometers from the sea,\\nat an altitude of about 60 meters. The ice is found in\\na narrow defile of perpendicular trap rock, at the bottom\\nfilled with broken stones. The defile is so placed that in\\nsummer the sun only shines into it for about an hour\\neach day; it is also well protected by surrounding trees,\\nthe leaves from which form beds at the bottom among\\nthe rocks and help to protect the ice.\\nNatural Ice House of Northford, Connecticut.\\n(Benjamin Silliman, American Journal of Science and\\nArts, 1822, vol. IV., page 177.) About 11 kilometers from\\nNew Haven on the Middletown road between Branford\\nand Northford, is a gorge where ice remains throughout\\nthe year. In this case the ice is mixed with a consider-\\nable quantity of leaves and dirt; it has sometimes been\\nbrought to New Haven.\\nIce in an Old Iron Mine, near Port Henry, Lake\\nChamplain. (^Geology of Vermont, 1861, vol. I., page\\n199.) Ice was found during the summer at a depth of\\nfrom 15 meters to 30 meters, and a current of cold air\\nwas issuing from the opening. There seems to be more\\nthan one opening to the mine.\\nFreezing Talus on Lower Ausable Pond, Essex\\nCounty, New York. Described in Part I., page 79.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0244.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "list of glacieres. 1 85\\nFreezing Talus at the South Base of the Giant of\\nTHE Valley, Essex County, New York. Described in\\nPart I., page 8i.\\nFreezing Boulder Talus, Indian Pass, New York.\\nSee Part I., page S^.\\nFreezing Boulder Talus, Avalanche Pass, New\\nYork. See Part I., page S^,.\\nFreezing Cave near Carlisle, New York. See\\nPart I., page 93.\\nIce among the Catskill Mountains, New York.\\nMr. George Brinton Phillips informs me that he has\\nseen subterranean ice in August among boulders in a\\ngorge in the Catskills near the Stony Cloves road, start-\\ning out from Haines Falls. The people in the neigh-\\nborhood speak of the place as an ice cave.\\nGorge in the Shawangunk Mountains, near El-\\nlenville, Ulster County, New York. Described in\\nPart I., page 91. (Heilprin, Around the World, 1894, P^g^\\n194.) Professor Heilprin found in July a mass of ice\\nmeasuring about thirty meters in length and i meter in\\ndepth. The thermometer near the ice read about 1\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\nabove freezing point, the day being hot. Icicles hung\\nfrom the ledges on the side of the gorge.\\nFreezing Gorge at Sam s Point, New York. See\\nPart I., page 93.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0245.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "1 86 glacieres or freezing caverns.\\nIce Deposits and Windholes at Watertown, New\\nYork. Described in Part I., page 86.\\nFreezing Well near Tioga, New York. Depth, 23\\nmeters. No information.\\nFreezing Well near Prattsburg, New York. Depth,\\n6.5 meters. No information.\\nFreezing Well near Owego, New York. Described\\nin Part I., page 74. (D. O. Macomber, A7nerica7i Journal of\\nArts and Sciences, 1839, vol. XXXVI., page 184. Well s\\nA7inual of Scientific Discovery, 1856, page 190.) The\\nthermometer is said to have stood at 1.2\u00c2\u00b0 at the bot-\\ntom of the biggest well when it registered 20\u00c2\u00b0 out-\\nside. When a candle was let down, the flame became\\nagitated and was thrown in one direction at the depth\\nof 9 meters at the bottom the flame was still, but soon\\ndied out. Large masses of ice were found in the big-\\ngest well as late as July, and the men who made the\\nwell were forced to put on thick clothing in June, and\\neven so could not work for more than two hours at a\\ntime.\\nCave in the Panama Rocks, Chautauqua, New York.\\nThe Rev. Horace C. Hovey informs me that he has been\\nin a small cave in this locality, and that he found ice in it.\\nCave in Sussex County, New, Jersey. A clipping from\\na newspaper, with neither name nor date, says that new\\nice is found daily on the land of Peter Feather, in the\\nmouth of an unexplored cavern. A small stream of water", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0246.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 1 87\\nruns out of the cavern and forms a pool at the opening,\\nand here it is that the ice forms. Enough has been taken\\nin one day to freeze two cans of ice cream. A cold\\ndraught of air issues continuously from the cavern.\\nHole Containing Ice on Blue Mountain, NE\\\\y Jersey.\\nReported no information.\\nGorge Containing Ice on Bald Eagle Mountain,\\nClinton County, Pennsylvania. Mr. Henry Chapman\\nMercer, of Doylestown, learned of the existence of this\\ngorge during the summer of 1897. is near the village\\nof McElhatten, in the neighborhood of Lock Haven, and is\\nsome 3 kilometers distant from the Susquehanna River.\\nIce is said to remain over during the entire summer.\\nFreezing Cave and Windholes near Farrandsville,\\nClinton County, Pennsylvania. Described in Part I.,\\npage 93.\\nUnderground Ice Formations, Sullivan County,\\nPennsylvania, on the southwestern borders of Ly-\\ncoming County. Mr. W. Coleman Hall of Philadelphia,\\nabout twenty years ago, found ice in two or three\\nplaces, on Bear Creek, north of Muncy Creek, about\\n25 kilometers north of the Susquehanna River, and\\nsouthwest of Eagles Mere. The ice was under rocks,\\nin what may be described as limestone sinks. Since\\nthe destruction of the forest, the ice has become less\\nabundant, if indeed any still forms.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0247.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "1 88 glacieres or freezing caverns.\\nGlacieres in Abandoned Coal Mines near Summit,\\nCarbon County, Pennsylvania. Described in Part I.,\\npage 95-\\nIce Cave Railroad Station, Luzerne County, Penn-\\nsylvania. On the Bowman Creek branch of the Lehigh\\nValley R. R. Mr. F. Holschuh, agent at Luzerne, in-\\nforms me that about 2 kilometers from Ice Cave Station\\nis a little waterfall on the side of a mountain which was\\nformerly covered with dense forest. A short distance be-\\nlow the fall, a large hollow place has been worn out of\\nthe rocks by the action of the water. The overhanging\\nrocks give this almost the appearance of a cave. While\\nthe forest was still thick and when the winter was cold,\\nice would form under these rocks and would not disap-\\npear until summer was well advanced. The station was\\ncalled Ice Cave on account of this place.\\nHole Containing Ice at Millerstown, Pennsylva-\\nnia. Reported; no information.\\nFreezing Talus at Spruce Creek, Huntingdon\\nCounty, Pennsylvania. Described in Part I., page 90.\\nThe Philadelphia Ledger of July 6th, 1896, states that\\naround the boulders where the ice lies, there are found\\nvarieties of plants strongly arctic in character.\\nIce Mountain, Hampshire County, Virginia. (C. B.\\nHayden, American Journal of Science and Arts, 1843,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0248.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 1 89\\nvol. XLV., page 78.) It lies on the North River, near\\nthe road leading from Winchester to Romney, at an alti-\\ntude of from about 220 meters to 240 meters. One\\nside of the hill is entirely composed of loose stones,\\namong which an abundance of ice is found at all times,\\nalthough the sun shines on the upper surface of the\\nstones from ten in the morning until sunset. The ice\\nis regularly used in summer by the people near by.\\nConstant and strong air currents issue from the crev-\\nices in the rocks. Similar, but smaller accumulations,\\nare said to occur in the same county. Mrs. George B.\\nBalch visited the Ice Mountain in August, 1878. She\\nsaw no ice, but the air under the stones was very cold.\\nBlowing Cave, Bath County, Virginia. Mrs. Hor-\\nace Jayne informs me that there is a blowing cave near\\nthe Cowpasture River, about half way on the old stage\\nroad between Millboro and Warm Springs. A draught\\nflows out from it, strong enough to blow the grass about,\\nthree or four meters away. The draught is cold, per-\\nhaps abnormally so. The cave has not yet been ex-\\nplored.\\nSOUTH AMERICA.\\nIce Sheets on Mount Chimborazo. (A. von Hum-\\nboldt, Travels to the Equinoctial Regions, London, 1814,\\nvol. I., page 156.) On Chimborazo, enormous heaps\\nof ice are found covered with sand, and in the same\\nmanner as at the Peak [of Teneriffe] far below the\\ninferior limit of the perpetual snows.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0249.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "190 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nTiERRA DEL FuEGO. (A. Winchel, Walks and Talks,\\n1898, page 122.) On Tierra del Fuego ice and lava\\nare found interstratified for a great depth, each winter s\\nsnow being covered by a new lava sheet.\\nTENERIFFE.\\nLa Cueva de la Nieve or del Hielo. (Humboldt,\\nTravels to the Equinoctial Regio7is, 1814, vol. I., pages 154,\\n156. C. Piazzi Smyth, Teneriffe, an Astronomer s Ex-\\nperimeiit, 1858, page 348.) La Cueva de la Nieve lies\\nat an altitude of 3267 meters in the Malpays on the\\nPeak of Teneriffe, just below the snow line. It is in\\nobsidian. The entrance is 3.6 meters high and 2.7 me-\\nters broad. The grotto is 36 meters long, 6 meters\\nwide, and 4 meters high. The descent into the cave is\\nso steep that it is necessar}^ to be lowered by ropes.\\nProfessor Smyth found in July an ice floor about 60\\ncentimeters thick which was covered with water. A\\ngood deal of snow was lying near the mouth of the\\ncave. The walls were covered with ice and icicles and\\na few small ice cones rose on the ice floor.\\nICELAND.\\nThe Surtshellir or Cave of Surtur. (Olafsen and\\nPovelsen, Voyage en Islande, Paris, 1802. Henderson,\\nIceland, 1819, 2d ed., page 420. Guimard, Voyage en\\nIsla7ide, page 481.) The Surtshellir lies in the volcanic\\nwaste of Westisland, and is in lava which has flowed from\\nthe Bald Jokul. The approach is through an open chasm.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0250.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. I9I\\nThe length of the cave is 1534 meters, with an average\\nwidth of from 15 meters to 17 meters, and a nearly uni-\\nform height of from 9 meters to 1 1 meters. In four\\nplaces the roof is broken and allows daylight to enter. A\\ngreat deal of ice is sometimes found in the cave, in the\\nshape of an ice floor, transparent icy pillars, hanging icy\\npendants, and columns and arches of ice along the walls.\\nSome of the pillars have been found 2.50 meters high.\\nKuTLAGAYA. (A. Wiuchel, Walks and Talks, 1898,\\npage 122.) In i860 the crater of the mountain Kutla-\\ngaya, in Iceland, hurled out simultaneously into the air\\nlumps of lava and ice, all intermingled together.\\nSCANDINAVIA.\\nIce in the Mines of Nordmark. (Jars, Voyages\\nMetallurgiques, 1774, page 105.) 13 kilometers north\\nof Philipstadt, Wermeland, Sweden, a number of holes\\nwere dug, some to a depth of 120 meters. Ice of some\\nthickness formed in some of these towards the end of\\nwinter, and lasted until about September, despite the\\nfires of the workmen.\\nPersberg Iron Mines, Sweden. (J. Prestwich, Col-\\nlected papers, etc., on page 206, quotes Dr. Clark s Travels\\nin Scandinavia^ Ice is said to have been found on the\\nsides and bottom of the mine to a depth of about 135\\nmeters.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0251.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "192 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nIce Caves Reported in Norway, I was told in Nor-\\nway that some of the caves In the mountains near the\\nSwartlsen ice field contained ice, but I do not know\\nwhether this is true. I suspect that there are glacier ice\\ncaves which have given rise to this report.\\nENGLAND.\\nHelvellyn, Cumberland. (Wordsworth, Fidelity^\\nThe following verses were pointed out t6 me by Mr.\\nBunford Samuel. As far as I know they are the only\\npoetry about glacieres\\nIt was a cove, a huge recess\\nThat keeps, till June, December s snow\\nA lofty precipice in front,\\nA silent tarn below\\nFar in the bosom of Helvellyn,\\nRemote from public road or dwelling\\nPathway or cultivated land\\nFrom trace of human foot or hand.\\nIce in an Old Copper Mine, Cumberland. (J. Clifford\\nWard, Nature y vol. XL, page 310.) Ice reported as a\\nrare occurrence.\\nLuDCHURCH Chasm, Staffordshire. (R. K. Dent and\\nJoseph Hill s Historic Staffordshire, quote Dr. Plot,\\n1686.) Mr. Bunford Samuel called my attention to this\\nbook, in which Dr. Plot is quoted as saying that as late as\\nthe 17th of July, snow has been found in Ludchurch\\nChasm. Messrs. Dent and Hill do not mention anything\\nof the kind as occurring now.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0252.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 1 93\\nBlowing Cave in Denbighshire, Wales. A news-\\npaper cutting says that there are such strong eruptions of\\nwinds from a cave in this neighborhood as to toss back to\\na great height in the air any article of apparel thrown in.\\nTin Croft Mine, Cornwall. (J. Prestwich, Collected\\npapers, etc., page 206, quotes Mr. Moyle.) Ice has been\\nfound in abundance in this mine at a depth of nearly 100\\nmeters.\\nCENTRAL EUROPE.\\nGlaciere de Chaux-les-Passavant. Described in\\nPart I., page 8. (Poissenot, Nouvelles Histoires Trag-\\niques de Benigne Poissenot^ licencie aux lots, A Paris,\\nchez Guillaume Bichon, rue S. Jacques, a V ens eigne du\\nBichot, 1^86, avec privilege du Roy^ pages 436-453. Gol-\\nlut, Les Memoires historiques de la Repub. Sequanoise, et\\ndes princes de la P ranche Comte de Bourgogne, par M,\\nLois Gollut, Advocat au Parlement de Dole; A Dole,\\n15^2. Trouillet, Memoires de la Societe d Emulation du\\nDoubs, 188^. Girardot, Memoires de la Societe d Emula-\\ntion du Doubs, 1886.)\\nThe earliest notice of a glaciere which I have been\\nable to find is in the shape of a letter giving an ac-\\ncount of a visit to the Glaciere de Chaux-les-Passavant\\nin 1584, by Benigne Poissenot, a French lawyer. The\\naccount, which I have translated as literally as possible,\\nis in a special chapter, as follows\\nSir Since our separation, I have had this pleasure\\n{heut) to hear news of you only once, having found", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0253.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "194 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nyour brother in Paris who, having assured me of your\\ngood health (dispositio}i), informed me of how since we\\nhad seen each other you had travelled to Italy, even\\nas far as Greece, of which you had seen a large portion\\nand that sound and safe, after so long a journey, you\\nhad reappeared and landed at Havre de Grace where\\nyou wished to go, that is to say at home. All the\\npleasure which a friend can receive, knowing the affairs\\nof another self, joined to such a happy result, seized my\\nheart, at the recital of such agreeable news and I did\\nnot fail shortly after, to write you amply all which had\\nhappened to me since I left you until my return to\\nFrance congratulating you at having escaped from ma-\\nrine abysses and perilous passages on land, on which\\ntravellers are often constrained to risk their life. From\\nthis time, I have always stayed in Paris or in the neigh-\\nborhood, according to the good pleasure of dame for-\\ntune, who ruled me in her wise and fed me with her\\ndishes the most common and ordinary until the first day\\nof January of the year 1584, when I received my first\\ngift in the shape of a strong and violent disease, which\\ntormented me more than a month from which, having\\nbecome cured with the help of God, and having with\\ntime recovered my health and my strength at the ar-\\nrival of spring, I was seized with the desire to smell the\\nair of the country. And in fact having thrown away\\nmy pen and travelled about {battu r es trade) through\\nhigh and low Burgundy, I stopped at Bezenson, Impe-\\nrial City, to spend the summer. This city is still to day", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0254.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 1 95\\njust the same as Julius Caesar describes it, in the notable\\nmention he makes of it, in the first book of his com-\\nmentaries of the war in Gaul, there remaining there all\\nthe vestiges of the most remarkable things, which he\\ntells of in his description. There are also very fine\\nfountains, from all of which water streams from the repre-\\nsentation of some god of antiquit}^ as a Neptune, a Bac-\\nchus, a Pan, a Nereide or others except before the state\\nhouse, where the statue of Charles the Fifth, representing\\nhim in a most natural manner, is placed on an eagle,\\nwhich from its beak, pours out such a great quantity of\\nwater that this is the most beautiful, among all the other\\nfountains. And as I do not doubt that while traversing\\nItaly, you both saw and examined with curiosity the most\\nhandsome singularities, which presented themselves to\\nyour eyes and that on your return, passing through\\nAvignon and Dauphine, as your brother informed me,\\nyou had the advantage over me of seeing the wonders of\\nthe countr} of which you had heard me speak sometimes,\\nregretting that the war, during the time I was in that\\nquarter, had prevented my going to the spot, to see the\\nburning fountain as in Dodone, and the fountain called\\nJupiter, which torches of fire light up and which grows\\nless till midday and then grows till midnight, and then di-\\nminishes and fails at midday and another in Epirus which\\nwe call to day Albania, the tower without venom and the\\ninaccessible mountain then as I said, since you have\\ncontemplated these things and several others not less\\nadmirable, I wish to entertain you about a marvel which", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0255.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "196 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nI saw, during my sojourn in Bezenson, to know from you,\\nwhether in all your journey, you saw a similar thing.\\nKnow then that the day of the festival of St. John Bap-\\ntist, a young man, provided with an honest knowledge,\\nwith whom I had made some little acquaintance, pre-\\nsented me with an icicle, to cool my wine at dinner,, and\\nwhich I admired greatly, on account of the time of the\\nyear in which we then were, begging him who gave it\\nto me to tell me where he had discovered this rare pres-\\nent for that time. He answered me that every year, the\\nday of the solemnity of the festival of St. John Baptist,\\nthe inhabitants of a village, which he named, were bound\\nto come to offer the great church of St. John of Bezen-\\nson, a goodly quantity of ice, which they got in a wood,\\nand brought to town at night on horses, for fear that by\\nday it should melt, and that one of his cronies had given\\nto him what he had given to me.\\nSuddenly there flamed up in me a desire to see this\\nplace, where in the height of the summer, ice was to be\\nfound. When he who had presented me with the icicle\\nsaw this, he promised to accompany me, not having as yet,\\nany more than myself, seen this marvel. I did not hatch\\nvery long this decision, all the more as all those, to whom\\nI mentioned it, encouraged me to carry it out as soon as I\\ncould, assuring me that I should see a strange thing, and\\nthat even the Duke of Alva on his return from Flanders,\\npassing through Franche Comte, had wished to see this\\nnovelty. Therefore calling on the promise of the one\\nwho was the cause of undertaking this journey, we went", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0256.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES, 1 97\\ntogether to Versey, a fine town, distant five leagues fi-om\\nBezenson, turning a little off our direct route, to go to\\nsee a literary man, at this said Versey, who having called\\non me at Bezenson, had extracted from me the promise of\\ngoing to see him. There happened to me in this spot,\\nwhat the poet du Bellay says happened to him, on his\\nreturn from Italy, passing through the Grisons, to go into\\nFrance who, after having chanted the troubles there are\\nin the passage, says that the Swiss made him drink so\\nmuch, that he does not remember anything he saw in that\\ncountry. Likewise, I can assure you that my host, follow-\\ning the custom of those of the country (who do not think\\nthey are treating a man properly if they do not make him\\ndrink a lot, taking that from the Germans, their neighbors)\\nmade us carouse so well, that when we went to bed, we\\nwere very gay boys. For although we had both made an\\nagreement on the road, yet our host knew so well how to\\nwin us over, saying that those who would not drink, gave\\nreason to think badly of them, and that they had com-\\nmitted, or wished to commit some great crime, which they\\nfeared to give away in drinking, that in the end we let\\nourselves go, passing the time in Pantagruelic fashion.\\nThe next morning having taken some hair from the\\nbeast and a guide which our host gave to us to conduct\\nus to the Froidiere we continued our wanderings, and\\narrived at a little village called Chaud, joining a large\\nwood, where our guide told us, that although he had been\\nmore than six times to the Froidiere, yet the road was so\\ntortuous and so cut up by small paths, that if we did not", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0257.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "198 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\ntake a man from this village, to be more sure, we might\\nspend more than half a day in the wood, before finding\\nwhat we were seeking. Getting off our horses now. we\\nadded to our company a native of the place, who having\\nled us by crooked roads, about a quarter of a league,\\nthrough the forest, made us enter into a close thicket and\\nby a little path led us to a pleasant meadow where,\\nlooking down, we saw a hole, of difficult descent, at the\\nbottom of which was the opening of a grotto, prett}- big,\\nand so awful and terrif\\\\ ino^ to see. that one would have\\nsaid, it was the mouth of Hell. And in truth, I remembered\\nthen, the hole of St. Patrick, which is said to be in\\nHibernia. We were not brave enouo^h knio^hts. to trv the\\nadventure, my companion and I. if our guides had not\\ntaken the lead. After whom we descended as ma2;nani-\\nmously as the Trojan Duke followed the Sybil to the\\nPlutonic realms, the sword half drawn from the scabbard^\\nand well determined to make test of the Platonic doctrine,\\nwhich teaches that demons can be dissected, in case any\\nshade or spook should have come to meet us. About the\\nmiddle of the way, we began to feel in descending a very\\nagreeable freshness for it was the second day of July and\\nthe sun shone ver\\\\- warmly, which made us sweat drop by\\ndrop. But we had good opportunit}- to refresh ourselves\\nand put ourselves to cool, having reached the grotto which\\nwe found of the length and breadth of a large hall, all\\npaved with ice in the bottom, and where a cr\\\\ stalline water,\\ncolder than that of the mountains of Arcadia Xonacris,\\nstreamed from many small brooklets, which formed ver)", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0258.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 1 99\\nclear fountains, with the water of which I washed myself\\nand drank so eagerly, that I had wished the thirst of Tan-\\ntalus, or else that I had been bitten by a Dipsas, in order\\nto be always thirsty, amid such a pleasant beverage. A\\ngreat lord, who in some pleasure resort, should have such\\na refrigerator in summer, could boast according to my\\njudgment, to be better provided with drink, than the kings\\nof Persia were with their river Coaspis, which engulphs\\nitself into the Tigris, the water whereof was so sweet, that\\nthe use of it was allowed only to the great King, for the\\nretinue and cronies of his household. Do not think, that\\namong these delights, I was at all free from fear, for never\\ndid I raise my eyes above that from terror my whole body\\nshivered and the hair stood up on my head, seeing the\\nwhole roof of the grotto, covered with big massive icicles,\\nthe least of which, falling on me, had been sufficient to\\nscramble up my brains and knock me to pieces so much\\nso that I was like to that criminal, whom they say is\\npunished in Hell, by the continual fear of a big stone,\\nwhich seems as though it must suddenly fall on his ears.\\nThere are besides the large hall of the grotto, some rather\\nroomy corners, where the gentlemen of the neighborhood,\\nput their venison to cool in summer, and we saw the\\nhooks, where they hang the wild fowl. It is true, that\\nwhen we were there, we saw neither game nor wild fowl,\\nand I think, that if we had found any of it, we were men\\nto carry off some of it. We walked around for about a\\nquarter of an hour, in this Froidiere and we should have\\nstaid there longer if the cold had not driven us out; which", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0259.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "200 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nStruck in to our backs, even to make our teeth crack we\\nreascended the slope, not forgetting, all of us as many as\\nwe were, to provide and load ourselves with ice, which\\nserved us at lunch in the little village mentioned above to\\ndrink most delightfully, assuring you that it is impossible\\nto drink more freshly than we drank then. I thought of\\nthose old voluptuaries, who cooled their wine with snow,\\nand it seemed to me, as though they might have had it\\nmuch cheaper if in their time there had been many such\\nFroidieres, to refresh it with ice, instead of with snow,\\nas some of the gentlemen of the neighborhood of the\\nFroidiere and some of the most notable persons of the\\nneighborhood of Bezenson do who by night, have a\\ngood supply brought on horses, which they keep in their\\ncaves, and use at their meals and banquets. Turning\\nback towards the Imperial city of Bezenson, I carried for\\nabout two great leagues, a rather large icicle in my hands,\\nwhich little by little melted and was a pleasant and agree-\\nable cooler, on account of the great heat of the weather.\\nAfter having thought over in my mind, the cause of this\\nantiperistase^ I could find none other but this to wit, that\\nas heat domineers in summer, the cold retires to places\\nlow and subterranean, such as is this one, to which the rays\\nof the sun cannot approach, and that in such an aquatic\\nand humid place, it operates the results, which we have\\nshown above. Which seemed to me so much more likely,\\nthat on asking the peasants of the neighboring village, if\\nin winter there was ice in this Froidiere, they answered me\\nthat there was none, and that on the contrary, it was very", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0260.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 20I\\nwarm there. Whatever may be the cause, whether this or\\nanother, I can assure you, that I admired this singularity\\nas much as any I have seen, since a large church, cut into\\na rock which I had seen a few years previously, in a little\\ntown of Gascony called St. Milion, distant seven leagues\\nfrom Bordeaux on the steeple of which is the cemetery,\\nwhere they bury the dead a thing to be marvelled at by\\nhim who has not seen it.\\nI have made trial, to enrich this missive, with all\\nthe artifice which has come into my head, using the leis-\\nure, which the present time brings me as the temple of\\nJanus is open, the air beyond breathing nothing but war\\nwhich forces me, against my wish, to sojourn in this place\\nlonger than I had intended. If these troubles settle\\ndown, and if after the rain, God sends us fine weather as\\nrequires the calamitous state in which is now the flat\\ncountry, I shall return to my Parnassus from which if\\nI go out hereafter, believe that it will be very much in\\nspite of myself, or that my will will have very much\\nchanged. You will be able to let me hear from you there,\\nand take your revenge for the prolixity of this letter, by\\nsending me one still longer, which you will write to me\\nwith more pleasure, as I shall take much in reading it.\\nHowever as it is becoming time to sound taps, I will pray\\nthe sovereign creator for my affectionate recommendations\\nto your graces.\\nSir, and best friend, may you keep in health and have\\na long and happy life. From Sens this 20th of June 1585.\\nYour obedient friend BENIGNE POISSENOT.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0261.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "202 GLACI]feRES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nEnd of the description of the marvel, called the\\nFroidiere!\\nThe next notice about the Glaciere de Chaux-les-\\nPassavant is by Gollut in 1592, as follows:\\nIces in i^\\\\ ^q not wish however to omit (since I am\\nsummer.\\nin these waters) to bring to mind the commod-\\nity, which nature has given to some dainty men, since\\nat the bottom of a mountain of Leugne ice is found in\\nsummer, for the pleasure of those who wish to drink\\ncool. Nevertheless at this time, this is disappearing, for\\nno other reason (as I think) except, that they have de-\\nspoiled the top of the mountain, of a thick and high mass\\nof woods, which did not permit that the rays of the sun\\ncame to warm the earth, and Ary up the distillations,\\nwhich slipped down to the low^est and coldest part of the\\nmountain where {by antiperistase) the cold got thicker,\\nand contracted itself against the heats surrounding and\\nin the neighborhood during the whole summer, all the\\nexternal circumference of the mountain.\\nThe ice at Chaux-les-Passavant is said to have been\\nentirely cleared out, by the Due de Levi, in 1727, for the\\nuse of the Army of the Saone. In 1743, when de Cos-\\nsigny visited the cave, the ice was formed again. There\\nare no reports about the intervening time between 1727\\nand 1743. The ice probably all re-formed the winter after\\nit was taken away.\\nCaptain Trouillet in 1885 writes of Chaux-les-Passa-\\nvant: The following winter had shown itself unfavor-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0262.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 2O3\\nable to the production of ice, the periods of humidity\\npreceding too long ahead the periods of frost. Finally\\nlast summer, coming after a wet spring, was exceptionally\\nwarm. Such were the circumstances which brought about\\nin the glaciere the ruin which could be seen at the end of\\nlast October. On the nth of November, the first\\neffects of frost are felt and the temperature falls in the\\nglaciere to 2\u00c2\u00b0 outside the thermometer drops to 3\u00c2\u00b0.\\nOn the morning of the 12th, same result, and ice makes\\nits appearance in the grotto, as the report of the ob-\\nserver shows but the quantity produced is so small that\\nthe internal thermometer soon goes above 0\u00c2\u00b0. It is only\\non the 9th of December that the frost wins definitely on\\nthe nth, 12th and 13th the chill is intense and reaches\\n19\u00c2\u00b0 outside, stopping at 15\u00c2\u00b0 in the glaciere. The water\\ncoming from the rains between the 5th and the 9th drip\\nat this time through the roof and the big side crevasse\\ncircumstances grow favorable and the ice accumulates.\\nFrom the 17th, the entrance slope becomes almost im-\\npracticable the icicles grow on the roof, as big as the\\nbody of a man. From this time to the end of\\nDecember, the ice sheet does not increase, for water only\\narrives by the rare drip of the roof, and only the stalac-\\ntites increase slowly. Outside, however, the cold con-\\ntinues vigorously, the thermometer on the 31st of Decem-\\nber dropping to 15\u00c2\u00b0 and to 13\u00c2\u00b0 in the glaciere. If the\\nproduction of the ice stops, it is not the cold which is\\nwanting, but the other element, the one which as our\\nformer study showed, is the most rarely exact at the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0263.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "204 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nmeeting. The winter is only favorable on condition that\\nit offers alternating periods of freezing and thawing; so\\nthe observer writes in his report it is the water which\\nis wanting, otherwise the glaciere would be magnificent.\\nTrouillet speaks of the difficulty of winter observations\\nin the following words Mons. Briot, the present lessor of\\nthe glaciere, has the unpaid mission of going every week\\nto the bottom of the grotto to get and put in place the\\ninterior thermometer. It is a really hard piece of work\\nat this time of the year each journey takes about one\\nhour. Besides the chance that a visitor has of receiving\\non his head one of those magnificent stalactites i meter or\\n2 meters long which fall continually from the roof, it is\\nperfectly disagreeable to him to arrive at the base of the\\nslope otherwise than on the sole of his boots, and to face\\nthus the frequent and painful meeting with rocks whose\\nangular edges dot the surface of the descent, smooth as\\na mirror set at an angle of 30\u00c2\u00b0.\\nTrouillet and Girardot obtained a series of observa-\\ntions with maxima and minima thermometers at Chaux-\\nles-Passavant during the winter of 1 885-1 886. At the\\nend of November the temperature inside was +2\u00c2\u00b0. On\\nthe 2d of December it rose to 2.5\u00c2\u00b0. On the loth of\\nDecember, it sank to 1\u00c2\u00b0, and after this date, it re-\\nmained below freezing point all winter. The observa-\\ntions were not continuous, but they showed that every\\ntime the temperature outside dropped considerably, the\\ntemperature inside immediately did likewise. For in-\\nstance, on the 1 2th of January, the outside air dropped", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0264.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 205\\nto 18\u00c2\u00b0, and the inside air responded by falling to\\n15\u00c2\u00b0. On the other hand, when the temperature out-\\nside rose above freezing point, the temperature inside\\nremained stationary or fluctuated only gently. For in-\\nstance, from the 24th of March to the 8th of April, the\\noutside air went up and down perpetually, the extremes\\nbeing 2\u00c2\u00b0 and 16\u00c2\u00b0 while in the same time the inside\\nair rose continuously from 2\u00c2\u00b0 to 0.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWiNDHOLES AND ICE FORMATIONS NEAR GeRARDMER,\\nVosGES. (Rozet, in Encyclopedie Moderne, Didot Freres,\\nParis, 1853, vol. XVI., page 503.)\\nL Abime du Creux-Perce or Glaciere de Pasques.\\n(Martel, Les Abimes, 1894, P^g^ 394 5 Annuaire du Club\\nAlpin Frangais, vol. XIX., page 38.) On the plateau of\\nLangres, Cote d Or. It lies 15 kilometers from Dijon^\\nand is really a limestone rock gorge, of 55 meters in\\ndepth, which at the top is 40 meters long and 20 meters\\nwide, and at the bottom is 15 meters long and 12 meters\\nwide. In March 1892, Mons. Martel found the north side\\ncovered with large icicles 1 5 meters long. The ice seems\\nto remain throughout the year. The bottom of the Abime\\nhas been reached only by means of two long rope ladders.\\nCreux de Chevroche or Roche Chevre, Cote d Or.\\n(Clement Drioton, Memoires de la Societe de Speleologies\\n1897, vol. I., page 209.) In the woods of Mavilly,\\nnear Bligny-sur-Ouches, is a little cave, called Creux de", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0265.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "206 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nChevroche or Roche-Chevre, where one can find Ice until\\nthe month of July.\\nFreezing Well of Marolles, at La Ferte-Milon,\\nAiSNE. (Martel, Les A dimes, page 563, note 2.) This\\nwell is 8.15 meters deep; the altitude is 70 meters.\\nDuring the winter of 1892-93 the water in it froze for a\\nthickness of 15 centimeters. The minimum outside tem-\\nperature that year was 17\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWiNDHOLEs near Pontgibaud, Puy de Dome. (G. Pou-\\nlett-Scrope, The Geology and Extinct Volcanoes of Central\\nFrance, 1858, page 60.) These windholes are in basalt.\\nThere are many cracks, whence cold air currents issue,\\nand where ice has been found, sometimes in summer.\\nThere are cold storage huts over some of the cracks.\\nLe Creux-de-Souci, Puy de Dome. (Martel, Les\\nAbimes, 1894, P^g^ Z^l^ This is situated 5 kilometers\\nsoutheast of Besse-en-Chandesse. It is a large lava cav-\\nern with the entrance directly in the middle of the roof.\\nThe bottom is partly filled by a lake. The depth from the\\nsurface of the ground to the lake is meters; from the\\nsmallest part of the opening to the lake the depth is\\n21.50 meters. Down this last portion one can descend\\nonly by means of a rope ladder. The temperature is\\nextremely low in general near freezing point. In June,\\nJuly, August and November 1892, Monsieur Berthoule,\\nmaire of Besse, did not find any snow. On the loth of\\nAugust, 1893, on the contrary, he found at the bottom a", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0266.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 207\\nheap of snow, which he thinks was formed in the cave\\nitself, by the freezing during their descent of the drops\\nof water which are constantly dripping from the roof\\nHe reports landing on une montagne de neige, de neige\\nblanche. On several visits, Mons. Berthoule noticed car-\\nbonic acid gas in dangerous quantities. There was none\\nat the time he observed the snow heap, but ten days later\\nhe found it impossible to descend into the cave as the\\ncarbonic acid gas came up in puffs to the entrance. In\\nthe lake, Mons. Berthoule discovered a variety of Rotifer,\\nNotholca longispina, and also several algae and diatoms.\\nThe Asterionella formosa is the most remarkable from its\\nabundance it exists in some of the lakes of the Alps,\\nbut not in those of the Pyrenees.\\nAvEN DE Lou Cervi, Vaucluse. (Martel, Les Abimes,\\npage 563.) This is a cold cave. It belongs to the class\\nwhich Mons. Martel calls avens a retrecissement, or abimes a\\ndouble orifice. In September, 1892, Mons. Martel noted a\\ntemperature of 6.5\u00c2\u00b0 at 53 meters of 6.8\u00c2\u00b0 at 64 meters.\\nMean temperature of locality, 8.75\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIgue de Biau, Lot. (Martel, Les Abimes, page 304.)\\nCold cave. Temperature on 13th July, 1891 5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nFosse Mobile, Charente. (Martel, Les Abimes, page\\n380.) Cold cave. Temperature on nth April, 1893: 7\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAvEN DE Deidou, Causse Mejean. (Martel, Les\\nAbimes, page 223.) Cold cave. Temperatures on 14th\\nOctober, 1892: outside air, 4\u00c2\u00b0; at bottom, 6.5\u00c2\u00b0.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0267.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "208 GLACIl^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nAvEN DES OuLEs, Causse Mejean. (Martel, Les\\nAbimes, page 227.) Cold cave. Temperatures on 21st\\nOctober, 1892: outside air, 2.5\u00c2\u00b0; at bottom, 4\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWiNDHOLE Cold Caves near Roquefort, Aveyron.\\nThey lie 13 kilometers from Millau, at an altitude of about\\n600 meters, and are utilized in the manufacture of Roque-\\nfort cheese.\\nAven de Carlet, near la Roche Giron, Basses Alpes.\\n(Martel, Les Abimes, page 53.) Lumps of ice are re-\\nported to have been taken from it.\\nLa Poujade, Cevennes. (Martel, Les Abimes, pages\\n212-215.) intermittent spring in limestone rock. At\\nthe bottom of the first gallery, on the 18th of September,\\n1892, the temperature of the air was 12.3\u00c2\u00b0, and that of\\na pool of water supplied by drip 11.5\u00c2\u00b0. Mons. Martel\\nthought that the drip brought to the pool the mean annual\\ntemperature of the ground through which it had come.\\nA little further within and 5 meters lower, the temperature\\nof the air was 7.3\u00c2\u00b0 and that of another pool of water 6.8\u00c2\u00ae.\\nThis pool was not supplied by drip and must have been\\nleft over by the last flow of the spring. Mons. Martel\\nthought that the lower temperatures at this spot were\\ndue to the cold air of winter dropping to the bottom of\\nthe cave and on account of its density not being able\\nto get out.\\nSnow Preserved in Chasms in the Italian Mountains.\\n{The Penny Magazine, London, August, 1834, page", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0268.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 2O9\\n335.) Mr. Bunford Samuel called my attention to an arti-\\ncle in which the Southern Italians are said to dig wells or\\ncellars on the mountain sides, and to throw snow into them\\nin winter. The snow is well pressed together and straw,\\ndried leaves, etc., is thrown on top. By having a northern\\nexposure for these pits, and seeing that they are in thick\\nforest, or in rifts where the sun does not penetrate, these\\ndepots may be safely placed as low down the mountain as\\nthe snow falls and lies. Naples is largely supplied [1834]\\nwith snow in summer from such snow wells situated on\\nMonte Angelo, the loftiest point of the promontory sep-\\narating the Bay of Naples from the Bay of Salerno.\\nCold Caves of San Marino, Apennines. (De Saus-\\nsure. Voyages dans les Alpes, 1796, III., page 211.) These\\nare probably windholes.\\nLa Bocche DEI Venti di Cesi. (De Saussure, Voy-\\nages dans les Alpes, ij()6, III., page 211.) These wind-\\nholes were in the cellar of the house of Don Giuseppe\\nCesi, in the town of Cesi. The cellar acted as a natural\\nrefrigerator. The air stream was so strong, that it nearly\\nblew out the torches. In winter the wind rushed into the\\nholes. De Saussure was shown the following Latin verses\\nby the owner\\nAbditus hie ludit vario discrimine ventus\\nEt faciles miros exhibet aura jocos.\\nNam si bruma riget, quaecumque objeceris haurit.\\nEvomit aestivo cum calet igne dies,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0269.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "2IO GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nWiNDHOLES OR VeNTAROLe ON MoNTE TeSTACEO,\\nNEAR Rome. (De Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes,\\n1796, III., page 209.) There are a number here among\\nheaps of broken pottery. The temperatures seem ab-\\nnormally low.\\nKrypta Sorana. (Kircher, Mundus Subterraneus, 1 664,\\npage 118 and page 239.) This has been spoken of as a\\nglaciere cave, but as there is much doubt in the matter,\\nI quote the passages, on which the reports are based, in\\nthe original Latin Cryptae sunt naturales, quarum in-\\nnumerae sunt species, juxta vires naturales iis inditas.\\nSunt nonnullae medicinali virtute praeditae, quaedam\\nmetallicis vaporibus, exhalationibus, aquis scatent, sunt\\net glaciales, plenae nivibus et crystallo, uti in Monte\\nSorano me vidisse memini. And further: Vidi ego in\\nMonte Sorano cryptam veluti glacie incrustatam, ingenti-\\nbus in fornice hinc inde stiriis dependentibus, e quibus\\nvicini montis accolae pocula aestivo tempore conficiunt,\\naquae vinoque, quae iis infunduntur, refrigerandis aptis-\\nsima, extremo rigore in summas bibentium delicias com-\\nmutato.\\nSubterranean Ice Sheet, Mount Etna, Sicily.\\n(Lyell, Principles of Geology, nth Edition, chapter\\nXXVI.) This ice sheet is near the Casa Inglese. Sir\\nCharles Lyell ascertained the fact of its existence in 1828,\\nand in 1858 he found the same mass of ice, of unknown\\nextent and thickness, still unmelted. In the beginning of", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0270.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 211\\nthe winter of 1828, Lyell found the crevices in the interior\\nof the summit of the highest cone of Etna encrusted with\\nthick ice, and in some cases hot vapors actually stream-\\ning out between masses of ice and the rugged and steep\\nwalls of the crater. Lyell accounts for this ice sheet by\\nthe explanation that there must have been a great snow\\nbank in existence at the time of an eruption of the vol-\\ncano. This deep mass of snow must have been covered\\nat the beginning of the eruption by volcanic sand show-\\nered on it, followed by a stream of lava. The sand is a\\nbad conductor of heat and together with the solidified\\nlava, preserved the snow from liquefaction.\\nGlaciere on the Moncodine. (Fugger, Eishohlen,\\npage 13.) The Moncodine is described as a Dolomite\\nnear the Lago di Como. The cave lies up the Val Sasina,\\ntwo hours from Cortenuova, at an altitude of 1675 nieters.\\nThe entrance faces north, and is 2.5 meters high and 1.5\\nmeters wide. The average diameter of the cave is 16\\nmeters. The floor is solid ice, which has been sometimes\\ncut for use in the hotels on the Lago di Como and even\\nbeen sent to Milan.\\nLa Ghiacciaia del Mondole. (Fugger, Eishohlen,\\npage 8.) The Mondole is a mountain 2375 meters high,\\nnear Mondovi, south of Turin. The cave lies on the\\neastern slope, at an altitude of about 2000 meters. It is\\nhard to get at. The entrance is to the east, and is 2\\nmeters wide and 1.5 meters high. A passageway some", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0271.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "212 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\n25 meters long leads to a large chamber where there is\\nplenty of ice. In hot summers ice is brought from the\\ncave to Mondovi. Ghiacciaia means freezing cavern in\\nItalian.\\nLa Ghiacciaia del Val Seguret. (Fugger, Eis-\\nhohlen, page 8.)\u00e2\u0080\u0094 It lies near Susa at the base of chalk\\ncliffs, at an altitude of about 1500 meters. The cave is\\nsaid to be about 40 meters deep, 50 meters wide and 50\\nmeters high. Bonetti in May, 1874, found many icicles\\nand ice cones.\\nLa Borna de la Glace. (Chanoine Carrel, Biblio-\\ntheque Universelle de Geneve, 1841, vol. XXXIV., page\\n196.) It lies in the Duchy of Aosta, commune of La\\nSalle, on the northern slope of the hills near Chabauday,\\nin a spot called Plan Agex. The altitude is 1602 meters.\\nThe entrance opens to the east and is 60 centimeters wide\\nand 80 centimeters high. One can descend for 4 meters.\\nThere are two branches in the rear of the entrance.\\nChanoine Carrel found an ice pillar i meter high in the\\nwestern branch. He recorded these temperatures on the\\n15th of July, 1841 Outside -I-15\u00c2\u00ae. Entrance +2.9\u00c2\u00b0. East\\nbranch +0.9\u00c2\u00b0. West branch +0.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWiNDHOLES IN THE ITALIAN AlPS. (Fugger, Eis-\\nhohlen, pages 94-97.) A number of these seem to have\\nabnormally low temperatures. Some are in the moun-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0272.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 213\\ntains around Chiavenna, and are sometimes, by building\\nsmall huts over them, utilized as refrigerators. Some\\nare reported in the neighborhood of the Lago di Como\\nnear Dongo, near Menaggio, and in the villa Pliniana\\nnear Curino in the neighborhood of the Lake of Lugano\\nat the base of Monte Caprino, near Melide, near Men-\\ndrisio and near Sertellino and in the Val Maggia near\\nCevio.\\nThe Glaciere de Font d Urle, or Fondurle, Dau-\\nPHiNE. (Hericart de Thury, Annales des Mines, vol.\\nXXXIII., page 157; G. F. Browne, Ice Caves, etc., page\\n212 E. A. Martel, Memoir es de la Societe de Speleologie,\\nvol. I., page 2^ L. Villard, Spelunca, 1896, vol. II., page\\n39.) It lies on the Foire de Font d Urle, 16 kilometers\\nnorth of Die, 48 kilometers east of Valence, and 80 kilo-\\nmeters south of Grenoble. The glaciere consists of two\\nlarge pits, lying east and west, and with underground\\ncommunication. From this tunnel a long low archway\\nleads to a broad slope of chaotic blocks of stone, which\\nis 60 meters long and 42 meters in greatest width. The\\nice begins half way down this slope, fitfully at first and\\nafterwards in a tolerably continuous sheet. Thury found\\nmany icicles hanging from the roof Browne found four\\ncolumns of ice, of which the largest was 5.80 meters across\\nthe base. On his visit, in the middle of August, the ice\\nwas strongly thawing. Both explorers noted the ex-\\ntremely prismatic character of the ice. Browne found a\\ntemperature of -fo.5\u00c2\u00b0. Martel gives a section and plan", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0273.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "214 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nof Font d Urle. Mons. Villard says about this cavern\\nA curious thing I found in this cave, motionless on\\na piece of rock, entirely surrounded by ice for a distance\\nof several meters, a blind specimen of a coleoptera,\\ncytodrom tcs dapsotdes.\\nThe Chourun Clot. (E. A. Martel, Sous Terre.\\nA7inuaire du Club Alpin Frangais, vol. XXIII., 1896,\\npages 42, 43 Memoir es de la Societe de Speleologie,\\nvol. I., page 31.) In Dauphine, halfway between Agnieres\\nand the Pic Costebelle, at an altitude of 1,740 meters.\\nThere is first a pit 18 meters long, 4.50 meters wide and\\n25 meters deep. In the bottom of this is a vertical hole\\n15 meters deep and from i meter to 2 meters in diame-\\nter, in which there was much ice on the 31st of July, 1896.\\nThen the pit changes to a sloping gallery which terminates\\nin a little hall, full of ice, at a depth of 70 meters. Martel\\ngives a cut and section of this glaciere.\\nThe Glaciere du Trou de Glas. (E. A. Martel, La\\nGeographie, 1900, vol. I., page 52.) In the range of the\\nGrande Chartreuse.\\nThe Chourun Martin. (E. A. Martel, La Geographie,\\n1900, vol. I., page 53.) In the range of the Devoluy,\\nHautes-Alpes altitude 1,580 meters. An extremely\\ndeep pit, which on July 31st, 1899, was much blocked\\nup with snow.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0274.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 215\\nThe Chourun de la Parza. (E. A. Martel, La\\nGeographie, 1900, vol. L, page 54.) In the range of the\\nDevoluy, Hautes-Alpes altitude 1,725 meters. A fine\\npit, 25 meters in diameter, and 74 meters in depth.\\nFilled with snow or rather neve, in which are deep holes.\\nThe Glaciere de l Haut-d Aviernoz. Described in\\nPart I., page 2. (C. Dunant, Le Parmelan et ses Lapiaz, page\\n26; Browne, Ice Caves, etc., page 157.) Mons. Dunant calls\\nthis glaciere I Haut d Aviernoz Mr. Browne calls it the\\nGlaciere du Grand Anu. By a plumb line held from the\\nedge of the larger pit, Browne found that the ice floor was\\nabout 35 meters from the surface, which would give a level\\nfor the ice floor closely identical to the one I found. In\\nJuly, 1864, he recorded a temperature of +1.1\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe Glaciere de l Enfer. (G. F. Browne, Good\\nTVordsy November, 1866; T. G. Bonney, T/ie Alpine\\nRegions, 1868, pages 95, 96; C. Dunant, Le Parmelan\\net ses Lapiaz, page 25.) On Mont Parmelan. A pit cave\\nwith a steep slope of broken rock leading to a rock por-\\ntal in the face of a low cliff. This opens into a roughly\\ncircular hall about 22 meters in diameter and 3 meters to\\n4 meters in height. A chink between the rock and the\\nice permitted Mr. Browne to scramble down three or four\\nmeters to where a tunnel entered the ice mass. Throw-\\ning a log of wood down this tunnel, a crash was heard\\nand then a splash of water, and then a strange gulping\\nsound. The tunnel obviously led to a subglacial reser-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0275.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "2l6 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nvoir and this was probably covered by a thin crust of ice\\nthe log in falling had broken this and then disturbed the\\nwater below, which then commenced bubbling up and\\ndown through the hole, and making a gulping noise, just\\nas it does sometimes when oscillating up and down in a\\npipe.\\nMons. C. Dunant of the Club Alpin Frangais describes\\na visit to the Glaciere de TEnfer. He mentions also a\\nlegend of a witch from a neighboring village who would\\nget the ice from these caves and bring it down in the\\nshape of hail on the crops of the peasants who were in-\\nhospitable to her.\\nThe Glaciere de Chapuis. Described in Part I., page 5.\\n(Browne, Ice Caves, etc., page 182, and Good Wordsy\\nNovember, 1866.) Mr. Browne calls it the Glaciere de\\nChappet-Sur-Villaz. Mr. Browne and Professor T. G.\\nBonney found several flies in the Glaciere de Chapuis.\\nThree of them were specimens of Ste^iophylax, the largest\\nbeing probably, but not certainly, S. hieroglyphicus of Ste-\\nphens. Two smaller caddis flies were either S. testaceus\\nof Pictet or some closely allied species. One other in-\\nsect was an ichneumon of the genus Paniscus, of an\\nunidentified species. It differed from all its congeners\\nin the marking of the throat, resembling in this respect\\nsome species of Ophion. Mr. Browne thinks that the\\ncase flies may have been washed into the cave somehow\\nor other in the larva form, and come to maturity on the\\nice where they had lodged. But this explanation will not", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0276.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 21 7\\nhold in the case of the ichneumon, which is a parasitic\\ngenus on larvae of terrestrial insects.\\nThe Glaciere de Le Brezon. (Pictet, Bibliotheque\\nUniverselle de Geneve, 1822, vol. XX., page 270, and Thury,\\nBibliotheque Universelle de Geneve, 1861, vol. X., pages 139\\nand 152.) It lies southeast of Bonneville near the foot of\\nMount Lechaud, at an altitude of 1276 meters. The cave\\nis 9.7 meters long, about 8 meters wide and the greatest\\nheight is about 4 meters. The entrance is small and is at\\nthe base of a cliff, in some places of which cold air cur-\\nrents issue. The ice lies on the floor. Some of it is\\nprobably winter snow.\\nThe Glaciere de Brisons. Described in Part I.,\\npage I.\\nThe Grand Cave de Montarquis. Described in Part\\nI., page 70. (Thury, Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve,\\nvol. X., pages 135-153.) Professor Thury describes two\\nvisits to this cave. On the i6th of August, 1859, he found\\nno ice stalactites or stalagmites. On the 19th of January,\\n1 86 1, he did not find a single drop of water in the cave,\\nbut many stalactites and stalagmites of beautiful clear ice,\\none of which resembled porcelain more than any other\\nsubstance. In August, Thury found an air current stream-\\ning into the cave at the rear, but this did not, however,\\ndisturb the air of the interior, for in one part it was in per-\\nfect equilibrium along the line of the draughts the ice was\\nmore melted than elsewhere in the cave. In January, the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0277.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "2l8 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\ncurrent was reversed and poured into the fissure, with the\\ntemperature varying between 1.5\u00c2\u00b0 and 2.5\u00c2\u00b0. He ob-\\nserved the following temperatures at the Grand Cave\\nTIME. OUTSIDE. INSIDE.\\n1 6th August, 1859 +8.6\u00c2\u00b0 +2.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n19th January, 1861 1.25 P. M. +2.6\u00c2\u00b0 4.\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.12 +2.1\u00c2\u00b0 4.\u00c2\u00b0\\n3.50 1.1\u00c2\u00b0 4.\u00c2\u00b0\\nThe Petite Cave de Montarquis. Mentioned in\\nPart I., page 71. (Thury, Bibliotheqite U^iiverselle de\\nGeneve, 1861, vol. X., page 150. Also quotes Morin.) At\\nthe end of a crooked fissure 10 meters deep, a passage 6\\nmeters long, leads into a cave 8 meters high and 5 meters\\nin diameter. In August, 1828, Morin found an ice stalag-\\nmite of 5 meters in height in the middle of the cave.\\nCave Containing Ice on the Southern Shore of\\nLake Geneva. Reported no information.\\nThe Glaciere and Neigiere d Arc-Sous-Cicon.\\n(Browne, Ice Caves, etc., page 118.) These lie close\\ntogether in the Jura about twenty kilometers from Pon-\\ntarlier. The little glaciere is formed by a number of fis-\\nsures in the rock, disconnected slits in the surface open-\\ning into larger chambers where the ice lies. The neigiere\\nis a deep pit, with a collection of snow at the bottom,\\nmuch sheltered by overhanging rocks and trees. A huge\\nfallen rock covers a large part of the sloping bottom of\\nthe pit, which forms a small cave in the shape of a round\\nsoldier s tent, with walls of rock and floor of ice.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0278.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 219\\nThe Glaciere de la Genolliere. Described in\\nPart I., page 48. (Browne, Ice Caves, etc., page i.)\\nMr. Browne observed in 1864 temperature of 1.1\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand two days later of 0.8\u00c2\u00b0. He also found a number\\nof flies running rapidly over the ice and stones. He\\nwas told in England, from the specimen he brought\\naway, that it was the Stenophylax hieroglyphicus of Ste-\\nphens or something very like that fly.\\nm\\nThe Glaciere de Saint-Georges. Described\\nPart I., page 62. (Thury, Bibliotheque Universelle de\\nGeneve, 1861, vol. X.) Professor Thury obtained the fol-\\nlowing temperatures at the Glaciere de Saint-Georges\\n9th January, 1858\\nMinimum of night\\nloth January, 1858\\nMinimum of night\\nnth January, 1858\\n2d April, 1858\\nMinimum of night\\n3d April, 1858\\nOUTSIDE.\\nINSIDE.\\n7.36 P. M.,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 4.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n7.16 P. M.,\\n0.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n7.20\\n1.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n7.27\\n2.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n7.50\\n2.9\u00c2\u00b0\\n5-8\u00c2\u00b0\\n4.9\u00c2\u00b0\\n10.53 A. M., \u00e2\u0080\u00943.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n10.12 A. M.,\\n4.60\\nII. 14 3.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n10.30\\n4.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n11.45 2.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n11.20\\n4.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n12.32 P. M., 2.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n12.14 p. M.\\n4.4\\n1. 12 0.9\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.30\\n4.2\\n3.03 \u00e2\u0080\u00942.9\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.30\\n4.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n3.56 \u00e2\u0080\u00943.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n3.14\\n4.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n4.26 \u00e2\u0080\u00943.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n4.00\\n3.8\u00c2\u00b0\\n7.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n6.8\u00c2\u00b0\\n9.34 A.M.\\n5.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n6.20 P. M., 4-0.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n10.00 A. M., -H 4.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n9.00 A. M.\\n1.0\u00c2\u00b0", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0279.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "2 20 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nProfessor Thury s winter excursions caused him to\\naccept as proved that part of the mountaineers belief,\\nwhich holds that there is no ice formed in caves in winter.\\nOne of the main grounds for his opinion was the series of\\nobservations he made in the Glaciere de Saint-Georges.\\nHe found no ice forming there in winter and the natives\\nsaid it did not because the cavern was not cold enough.\\nSo he placed large dishes filled with water in the cave and\\nfound that they froze solid during the night, which he had\\nbeen assured was impossible. Thury also found violent\\nmovements of the air at Saint-Georges in January, 1858.\\nA candle burned steadily for some time, but at 7.16 P. M.\\nit began to flicker and soon inclined downwards through\\nan angle of about 45\u00c2\u00b0 and in the entrance, the flame\\nassumed an almost horizontal position. At 8 P. M., the\\ncurrent of air nearly disappeared. Thury thought that this\\nviolent and temporar}^ disturbance of equilibrium was due\\nto the fact that as the heavier air outside tended to pass\\ninto the cave, the less cold air within tended to pass out\\nand the narrow entrance confining the struggle to a small\\narea, the weaker current was able for a while to hold its\\nown.\\nThe Glaciere du Pre de Saint-Livres. Described\\nin Part I., page 65. (Browne, Ice Caves, page 40.) Mr.\\nBrowne found, in 1864, a temperature of o\\nThe Petite Glaciere du Pre de Saint-Livres.\\n(Browne, Ice Caves, page 46.) This is near the last cave\\nat a slightly higher altitude. There is first a small pit.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0280.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 221\\nthen a little cave, in which there is an ice slope. This\\npasses under a low arch in the rock wall, and leads down\\ninto another small cave. Mr. Browne descended this ice\\nstream, which was itself practically a fissure column and\\nspread into the fan shape at the base. The lower cave\\nwas 2 2 meters long and ii meters wide, and contained an\\nice floor and several fissure columns.\\nThe Glaciere de Naye, above Montreux, Switzer-\\nland. (E. A. Martel, Les Abimes, page 397 Spelunca,\\n1895, vol. I., pages 107, 108; Memoires de la Societe de\\nSpeleologie, vol. III., pages 246-254.) This is called a gla-\\ncier souterrain. It was discovered in 1893 t)y Professor\\nDutoit. There are fifty-four caves known among the\\nRochers de Naye, and only this one contains ice. It is a\\nlong narrow cave with two entrances and widest towards\\nthe base, which opens over a precipice. The altitude is\\nhigh, the upper entrance being at an altitude of 1820\\nmeters, and the lower of 1750 meters. The place is both\\na passage cave and a windhole. The snow falls into the\\nupper entrance, and slides down, becoming ice in the\\nlower portion. There are other connecting passages and\\nhollows where the cold air cannot get in, and there ice\\ndoes not form. Mons. Martel thinks that the ice formed\\nduring the winter is preserved by the draughts due to\\nthe difference in level of the two openings causing an\\nevaporation and chill sufificient for the purpose.\\nThe Creux Bourquin. (E. A. Martel, Les AbimeSy\\npage 397.) At Mauberget, near Grandson. This is a", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0281.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "22 2 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nrock gorge 25 meters deep. At the bottom, on the 9th\\nof July, 1893, ^s mass of ice 38 meters long and 8\\nmeters wide.\\nThe Glaci^re de Monthezy. (Browne, Ice Caves, page\\n97.) This lies to the west of Neufchatel, between the Val\\nde Travers and the Val de Brevine, on the path between the\\nvillages of Couvet and Le Brevine, at an altitude of 11 00\\nmeters. The cave is nearly oval in shape, with a length of\\n34 meters and a width of 29 meters. The roof is from\\nI meter to 3 meters high. There are three pits, about\\n20 meters deep, on different sides of the cave. The\\ndescent is made through the largest pit. On the 6th of\\nJuly, 1864, Mr. Browne found the floor of the cave cov-\\nered with ice, and icicles and columns in some places\\nhe also saw a clump of cowslips ^primula elatior^ over-\\nhanging the snow at the bottom of the pit through which\\nhe descended.\\nPertius Freiss. (T. G. Bonney, Nature, vol. XL, page\\n327.) It lies on the way to the Pic d Arzinol, near Evo-\\nlene, in the Val d Herens. A slip or subsidence of part of\\na cliff has opened two joints in the rock, in both of which\\nfissures Professor Bonney found ice on July 23d.\\nThe Schafloch. Described in Part I., page 21.\\n(Korber, Jahrbuch des Schweizer Alpen Club, 1885, vol. XX.,\\npages 316, 343.) Herr Korber gives some of the dimen-\\nsions as follows: Entrance 14 meters wide and 4.70", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0282.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 223\\nmeters high. Length of cave 206.8 meters: average width\\n20 meters and greatest width 23.5 meters. Height from\\n5 meters to 7 meters. Length of ice slope 29 meters and\\nbreadth 12.5 meters; for 16 meters the slope has an incli-\\nnation of 32\u00c2\u00b0. Korber made the following observations in\\nthe Schafloch:\\n14 METERS\\n100 METERS\\n160 METERS\\nDATE. OUTSIDE.\\nFROM\\nFROM\\nFROM\\nENTRANCE.\\nENTRANCE.\\nENTRANCE.\\n21 September, 1884, 10.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n5.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n18 January, 1885, 2.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.3\u00c2\u00b0\\nThe Rev. G. F. Browne, in 1864, found a temperature\\nof +0.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe Eisloch of Unterfluh. (Baltzer, Jahrbuch des\\nSchweizer Alpen Club, 1892-93, pages 358-362.) Twenty-\\nminutes from Unterfluh near Meiringen. A long narrow\\nrock crack, some 30 meters deep and running some dis-\\ntance underground.\\nWiNDHOLEs AND MiLKHOusES OF Seelisberg. De-\\nscribed in Part I., page 45.\\nWiNDHOLEs ON THE Spitzfluh. (Fugger, Eishohlen,\\npage 92.) These are situated between Oltingen and\\nZeylingen, Canton Bale: they generally contain ice till\\nthe end of July.\\nWiNDHOLES ON THE Blummatt. (Fugger, Eishohlen,\\npage 93.) On the northwestern slope of the Stanzerberg.\\nIce sometimes lies over in these windholes.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0283.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "2 24 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nWiNDHOLES NEAR BozEN. (Fuggcr, Eishohleu, page\\n97.) On the Mendel ranges in Eppan, southwest of\\nBozen, among porphyry rocks. There are strong wind-\\nstreams. Ice is said to remain till late in the summer.\\nGrotto on Monte Tofana, Dolomites. (T. G. Bon-\\nney, Nature, vol. XL, page 328.) This is probably a rudi-\\nmentary glaciere.\\nHoles with Ice near Lienz. (Fugger, Eishohlen,\\npage 97.) One hour and a half distant near Aineth, is\\na small cave containing ice, and further up the valley\\ntowards Huben, are several windholes.\\nEisHOHLE AM BiRNHORN. (Fugger, Etskoklen, page\\n131.) Near Leogang in the Pinzgau. Altitude 2150\\nmeters. There are two entrances, from which a slope 10\\nmeters long, set at an angle of 25\u00c2\u00b0, leads to an ice floor\\n12 meters long and 3 meters high. Then comes a small\\nice slope, and a little horizontal floor at the back. Ex-\\nplored by Fugger.\\nGlacieres on THE EisKOGEL. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page\\n19.) The Eiskogel is in the Tennengebirge, a mountain\\nmass lying east of Pass Lueg. At an altitude of about\\n1900 meters, are two small caves, about 30 meters to 40\\nmeters apart. They are some 25 meters in length and get\\nsmaller towards the bottom.\\nHoles with Ice in the Tennengebirge, between the\\nScHALLWAND AND THE Tauernkogel. (Fugger, Eiskoklen,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0284.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 225\\npage 20.) In this gorge are some small holes at an alti-\\ntude of about 2000 meters, which are said to contain ice in\\nsummer.\\nThe Seeofen. (A. Posselt-Csorich, Zeitschrift des Deut-\\nschen und Oesterreichischen Alpen Verein, 1880, page 270.)\\nOn the Hean Krail in the Tennengebirge, at an altitude of\\nabout 1900 meters. The entrance faces southwest, and is\\n6 meters high and 4.5 meters wide. The cave is 25 meters\\nlong, and 8 meters wide. The floor of the cave is 13\\nmeters below the entrance.\\nThe Posselthohle. (A. Posselt-Csorich, Zeitschrift des\\nDeutschen und Osterreichischen Alpen Verein^ 1880, page\\n273.) Named after its discoverer. It lies on the Hoch-\\nkogel in the Tennengebirge, at an altitude of about 1900\\nmeters. The entrance faces southwest, and is about 8\\nmeters high and 8 meters wide. From the entrance the\\ncave first rises, then sinks again below the level of the\\nentrance, where the ice begins. The cave is about 20\\nmeters wide. About 180 meters were explored, to a point\\nwhere a perpendicular ice wall, 6 meters high, barred\\nthe way. About 125 meters from the entrance, there was\\nan ice cone about 7 meters high.\\nThe Gamsloch or Diebshohle. (Fugger, Eishohlen,\\npage 14.) It lies on the Breithorn of the Steinernes Meer,\\nnear the Riemannhauss, at an altitude of about 2180\\nmeters. The entrance faces south. There is first a", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0285.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "2 26 GLACI^,RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nsmall, then a larger chamber. The latter is some 40\\nmeters long, by 5 meters or 6 meters wide. The ice is\\nin the large chamber.\\nEiSHOHLE AM Seilerer. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page\\n15.) On the eastern side of the Seilerer arete on the\\nEwigen Schneeberg, west of Bischofshofen, at an altitude\\nof about 2400 meters, is a small glaciere cave.\\nCave in the Hagengebirge, West of Pass Lueg.\\n(Fugger, Eishbhlen, page 15.) It lies about 2 kilometers\\neast of Kalbersberg, at an altitude of about 2000 meters.\\nA snow slope, with an ice floor at the bottom, leads into\\na long cave, about which little is known.\\nThe Nixloch. Described in Part I., page 57. (Fug-\\nger, Eishohlen, page 98.) Professor Fugger gathered\\nsome valuable data in connection with the Nixloch. In\\nAugust, 1879, he found the air current entering down-\\nwards; on September 14th, 1879, there was no current\\neither way. On Christmas day, 1878, on the contrary, the\\ndraughts were reversed, pouring out of the hole with a\\ntemperature of 7.4\u00c2\u00b0: the outside air then being 7.4\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAt this time the known lower opening was in existence.\\nThe Kolowratshohle. Described in Part I., page 18.\\n(Fugger, Beobachtungen, etc., page 7.) This cavern has\\nbeen more carefully studied than any other glaciere cave.\\nSome of its dimensions are given by Professor Fugger as\\nfollows From the entrance to the ice floor, 26.6 meters", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0286.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 22 7\\nsurface covered by ice as measured on a plane, 2940\\nsquare meters approximate cubical measure of entire cave,\\n92,000 cubic meters. The height of the entrance is 7\\nmeters, with a width at the base of 2.7 meters, and at the\\ntop of 6.6 meters.\\nOn the entrance slope occurred the only fatal accident\\nI know of in glacieres. In 1866, the Bavarian minister\\nFreiherr von Lerchenfeld tried to descend a wooden\\nhandrail which had been erected over the snow broke\\nunder his weight von Lerchenfeld fell to the bottom of\\nthe cave and died a few days after from the injuries he\\nreceived.\\nOf the Kolowratshole, we have numerous thermometric\\nobservations by Professor Fugger, of which I select a few.\\nDATE\\n21 May\\n1876\\n18 June\\n1876\\n24 June\\n1876\\n5 July\\n1876\\n22 July\\n1876\\n29 July\\n1876\\n22 Aug.\\n1876\\n20 Sept.\\n1876\\n22 Sept.\\n1876\\n16 Oct.\\n1876\\n22 Oct.\\n1876\\n26 Nov.\\n1876\\n6 Jan.\\n1877.\\nOUTSIDE.\\nENTRANCE.\\nINSIDE.\\nREAR.\\n6.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.03\u00c2\u00b0 0\u00c2\u00b0\\n+o.o8\\n5.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.23\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.4\u00c2\u00b0\\nIO.\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n11.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n15.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n19.8\u00c2\u00b0\\n4.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.25\u00c2\u00b0\\n7.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n3.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.45\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n14.8\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.05\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n5.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.25\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n4-4\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n~I.O\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00941.65\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.6\u00c2\u00b0\\nThe Schellenberger Eisgrotte. (Fugger, Beobach-\\ntungen in den Eishohlen des Untersberges, page 80.) On\\nthe southeast slope of the Untersberg near Salzburg, at an", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0287.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "2 28 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\naltitude of 1580 meters. The path leads past the Kien-\\nbergalp over the Mitterkaser and the Sandkaser. In front\\nof the entrance is a sort of rock dam, 30 meters long and\\n5 meters or 6 meters higher than the entrance. Masses\\nof snow fill the space between the two. The entrance is\\nabout 20 meters wide and from 2 meters to 3 meters high.\\nA snow slope of 25 meters in length, set at an angle of 25\u00c2\u00b0,\\nleads to the ice floor. The cave is 54 meters long, from\\n13 meters to 22 meters broad and from 4 meters to 10\\nmeters high. The cave has been repeatedly examined by\\nFugger, who has always found most snow and ice in the\\nbeginning of the hot weather, after which it gradually\\ndwindles away.\\nOf the Schellenberger Eisgrotte, we have the following\\nthermometric observations by Professor Fugger\\nDATE. OUTSIDE. ENTRANCE. INSIDE.\\n29 June, 1877 +18 +0.38\u00c2\u00b0\\n24 I881 +21\u00c2\u00b0 +2.3\u00c2\u00b0 +0.24\u00c2\u00b0\\n28 Aug., 1878 +14.6\u00c2\u00b0 -fo.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n12 1879 +17.8\u00c2\u00b0 +0.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n40ct., 1876 +16.7\u00c2\u00b0 +1.4\u00c2\u00b0 +0.3\\n9 1880 3.6\u00c2\u00b0 +3.5\u00c2\u00b0 +0.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n2 1887 -f 5.4\u00c2\u00b0 +0.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n9 1887 -h 8.2\u00c2\u00b0 +0.4\u00c2\u00b0\\nII Nov., 1877 7.4\u00c2\u00b0 +0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\nThe Grosser Eiskeller or Kaiser Karls Hohle.\\n(Fugger, Beobachtungen, etc., page 58.) On the Unters-\\nberg, between the Salzburger Hochthron and the Schweig-\\nmiiller Alp. Altitude 1687 meters. A stony slope of 26\\nmeters in length leads to an ice floor which is 26 meters\\nlong and 6 meters to 8 meters wide.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0288.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 229\\nThe Kleiner Eiskeller. (Fugger, Beobachtungen,\\netc., page 73.) Near the last. A small cave 8 meters\\nlong, 6 meters wide, 8 meters high.\\nThe Windlocher on the Untersberg. (Fugger, Beob-\\nachtungen, etc., page 73.) On the Klingersteig, at an alti-\\ntude of 1300 meters. Four small caves of about 12 meters\\neach in length and 8 meters in depth, and communica-\\nting at the bottom. There are strong draughts among\\nthem. In one of the caves is a small pit of great depth.\\nThe Eiswinkel on the Untersberg. (Fugger, Beob-\\nachtungen, etc., page Between the Klingeralp and\\nthe Vierkaser, at an altitude of 1600 meters. A small\\ncave or rather rock shelter.\\nWiNDHOLEs on THE Untersberg. (Fugger, Eishohlen,\\npages 103, 104.) Windholes have been found by Fugger\\non the lower slopes of the Untersberg\\nNear the Hochbruch at Fiirstenbrunn.\\nIn the debris of the Neubruch.\\nIn the debris of the Veitlbruch.\\nHotel Cellar at Weissenbach on the Attersee.\\n(Fugger, EishohleUy page 20.) There is a small cave\\nhere, at an altitude of 452 meters, which is utilized as\\na cellar, and which is said to contain ice in summer.\\nCave near Steinbach. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page\\n20.) A small cave containing ice on the northwest slopes\\nof the Hollengebirge. Altitude about 700 meters.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0289.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "230 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nThe Kliebensteinhohle or Klimmsteinhohle. (Fug-\\nger, EisJwhlen, page 20.) On the north slope of the Hol-\\nlengebirge, near the Aurachkar Alp, between Steinbach\\nand the Langbath Lakes. Altitude about 1300 meters.\\nLength about 40 meters, width 20 meters, height 15 meters.\\nThe Wasserloch. (Fugger, EisJwhlen, page 21.)\\nOn the south slope of the Hollengebirge, near the Spitz-\\nalpe. Altitude about 1350 meters. At the bottom of a\\ngorge is a snow heap and a small cave. The snow\\nbecomes ice in the cave.\\nCave on the Zinkexkogl near Aussee. (Fugger,\\nEishdhle7i, page 21.) Altitude about 1800 meters. A\\nsnow slope leads to an ice floor 18 meters long and 4\\nmeters wide.\\nCave on the Kasberg. (Fugger, Eishbhle^i, page\\n22.) South of Grlinau near Gmunden. Altitude about\\n1500 meters. Small cave 12 meters long, 4 meters wide.\\nThe Wasseraufschlag on the Rothen Kogel. (Fug-\\nger, Eishohleii, page 22.) A tunnel near Aussee. The\\nice in it was formerly used.\\nThe Gschlosslkirche. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page\\n22.) On the Dachstein range, facing the Lake of Gosau.\\nA small cave, mostly filled with snow.\\nCave with Ice on the Mitterstein. (Fugger, Eis-\\nhohlen, page 23.) On the Dachstein, one hour and a quar-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0290.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 23 1\\nter from the Austria hut. Altitude about 1800 meters.\\nCave 5 meters to 6 meters wide, 30 meters long. In the\\nrear a passage leads apparently to a windhole where\\nthere is a strong draught.\\nWiNDHOLES IN THE ObERSULZBACH VaLLEY IN THE\\nPiNZGAU. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page 105.) Fugger found\\nice among these on the ist of August, 1886.\\nIce in an Abandoned Nickel Mine on the Zink-\\nWAND, IN THE ScHLADMiNG Valley. (Fugger, Eishohlen,\\npage 105.)\\nWiNDHOLES ON THE RoTHEN KoGEL NEAR AUSSEE.\\n(Fugger, Eishohlen, page 106.) These were found to\\ncontain ice on the 2d of September, 1848.\\nCave on the Langthalkogel. (Fugger, Eishohlen,\\npage 23.) On the Dachstein plateau between Hallstatt\\nand Gosau. A small cave which contains ice.\\nEislunghohle. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page 24.) A\\nsmall cave between the Hochkasten and Ostrowiz in the\\nPriel range.\\nThe Geldloch or Seelucken on the Oetscher.\\n(Schmidl, Die Hohlen des Otscher and Die Oesterreich-\\nischen Hohlen; Cranmer and Sieger, Globus^ 1899, pages\\n313-318, and ZZZ-ZZ^^ The second known notice of a", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0291.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "232 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nglaciere cave is the account of a visit to the Oetscher Caves\\nin 1 59 1. After lying in manuscript for two and a half\\ncenturies, it was published by Dr. A. Schmidl in 1857, in\\nDie Hohlen des (Dtscher, pages 21-36. According to the\\naccount, which is naive, but evidently truthful. Kaiser\\nRudolf II. ordered Reichard Strein, owner of the Herrschaff\\nFriedeck, to investigate the Otscher and especially its\\ncaves. He did so, with the title of Kaiserlicher Com-\\nmissarius, and accompanied by the Bannerherr Christoph\\nSchallenberger, Hans Gasser, and eleven porters. On\\nSeptember the i6th, 1591, they visited the Seeliicken,\\nwhere they found a lake in the front of the cave, and\\nwhere the party had great difficulties in climbing round\\non to the ice.\\nThe Seellicken on the Oetscher is situated at an alti-\\ntude of 1470 meters. It opens nearly due south. The\\nice floor is about 20 meters below the entrance and is\\nabout 38 meters long and 24 meters wide; at the\\nrear, it rises for some 15 meters as an ice wall at an\\nangle of about 60\u00c2\u00b0, and then forms a second ice floor\\nabout 45 meters long by 19 meters wide. The front part\\nof the ice is sometimes, about July, covered with water.\\nThe cave continues further back, in two branches, and\\nProfessors Cranmer and Sieger consider that it is a large\\nwindhole, in which draughts are infrequent, on account\\n.of its length and because the openings are near the\\nsame level. There are also several up and down curves\\nand in these cold air remains and acts something like\\na cork in stopping draughts.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0292.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 233\\nOn the 13th of September there were no draughts, and\\nthe temperatures between ii A. M. and 12 M. were\\nOutside air +7.1\u00c2\u00b0\\nInside near entrance +1.5\u00c2\u00b0\\nA little further in +1.1\u00c2\u00b0\\nAt the lowest point near ice +0.8\u00c2\u00b0\\nOn the 31st of October, 1897, there was a draught,\\nwhich followed the curves of the cavern, and which flowed\\nout at the southern end. The temperatures were\\nOutside air +3-7\u00c2\u00b0\\nInside near entrance +1.3\u00c2\u00b0\\nAt the lowest point near ice +0.8\u00c2\u00b0\\nOn the second, higher ice floor +1.0\u00c2\u00b0\\nIn the main passage behind ice -f 1.4\u00c2\u00b0\\nCave on the Kuhfotzen near Warsheneck. (Fug-\\nger, Eishohlen, page 25.) A small cave containing ice.\\nEiSKELLER ON THE Rax. (Fugger, Eishoklen, page 2 5\\nCranmer, Eishohlen, etc., page 61.) Altitude about 1660\\nmeters. A doline with a small cave at the bottom, in\\nwhich melting snow was found on the 19th of Septem-\\nber, 1896.\\nThe Tablerloch. (Cranmer, Eishbhlen, etc., pages\\n19-60.) On the Diirren-Wand in the mountains south of\\nVienna, 2 hours distant from Miesenbach R. R. station.\\nAltitude about 1000 meters. Entrance 7 meters wide, 3.5\\nmeters high. Slope 30\u00c2\u00b0 from entrance. Lowest point 22\\nmeters below entrance. Extreme length of cave 50", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0293.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "234 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nmeters, width 23 meters, height 15 meters. Professor\\nCranmer found fresh ice beginning to form on the 12th\\nof November, 1893 ^he ist of December, 1894; ^.nd\\non the 20th of October, 1895. found it melting away\\non the 3d of June, 1894 ^^e ist of June, 1895 5 ^.nd\\non the 31st of May, 1896. The rates at which the ice\\nformed or melted, however, were not always the same in\\ndifferent parts of the cave. The greatest amount of ice\\nobserved seems to have been in March and April. In the\\nsummer months no perceptible movements of air seem to\\nhave been noticed. This was also sometimes the case in\\nthe winter months, during which, however, movements of\\nair were at other times plainly perceptible.\\nThe Gipsloch. (Cranmer, Eishohlen, etc., page 60.)\\nA small cave on the Hohen-Wand near Wiener-Neustadt.\\nIt is rather a cold cave than a glaciere.\\nThe Windloch. (Cranmer, Eishbhlen, etc., page 61.)\\nOn the Hohen-Wand near Wiener Neustadt. Small cave.\\nSnow found in it on June the 2d, 1895.\\nEisloch in the Brandstein on the Hochschwab.\\n(Cranmer, Eishohlen, etc., page 64.) Altitude about 1600\\nmeters. A moderately large cave. On the 21st of Au-\\ngust, 1895, there was an ice floor 10 meters long and 5\\nmeters broad. Temperature in rear of cave, 0.2\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCaves on the Beilstein. (Krauss, Hohlenkunde,\\n1894, pages 207-219; Cranmer, Eishohlen, etc., page", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0294.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 235\\n62,.) These lie about 4 hours on foot from Gams in Steier-\\nmark, at an altitude of 1260 meters, in a place where the\\nmountain is much broken up by fissures and snow basins.\\nThe large cave has two openings, from which steep snow\\nslopes descend. The cave is 60 meters long, 1 5 meters to\\n18 meters broad, and about 7 meters high. Clefts in the\\nrock in two places lead to two lower, small ice chambers.\\nIn the neighborhood of the large cave are two small ones.\\nProf. Cranmer found fresh ice in the Beilsteinhohle on the\\n20th of August, 1895. Two days before, fresh snow had\\nfallen on the neighboring mountain peaks.\\nEiSHOHLE ON THE Brandstein. (Cranmer, Eishohlen,\\netc., page 62.) A small cleft cave near the Langried-\\nleralm near Gams in Steiermark. On the 20th of August,\\n1895, contained some ice.\\nThe Frauenmauerhohle. Described in Part I.,\\npage zi\\nThe Barenloch near Eisenerz. (Fugger, Eishbhlen,\\npage 28.) In the neighborhood of the Frauenmauerhohle.\\nAltitude 1600 meters. A steep snow slope leads to an ice\\nfloor 13 meters long.\\nThe Katerloch. (Fugger, Eishoklen, page 29.) On\\nthe Goserwand near Diirnthal, Glemeinde Gschaid in\\nSteiermark. A large cave, some 190 meters long and 80", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0295.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "236 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nmeters wide. A thin ice crust has been found on parts of\\nthe walls in the rear.\\nCaves in the Stein Alps. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page\\n29.) The plateau of Velica Planina lies, at an altitude of\\n1600 meters, 9 kilometers north of Stein in the Duchy\\nof Krain. There are three caves containing ice on the\\nplateau. The first is a big one and is called V. Kofcih.\\nThe second is called Mala Veternica. The third and big-\\ngest is called Velika Veternica its length is about 100\\nmeters and its breadth 30 meters.\\nGlaciere Caves on the Nanos Mountain. (Fugger,\\nEisJidhle7i, page 34.) In the southwestern Krain, 5 kilo-\\nmeters from Prawald. There are four caves containing ice\\nreported on the Nanos mountain. Two of them are big.\\nThe altitude of one of these is 1300 meters, of the other\\n1350 meters.\\nBrlowa Jama. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page 36.) Seven\\nkilometers from Adelsberg. Small glaciere cave.\\nKosovA Jama. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page 38.) Near\\nDivacca. Forty meters long, 20 meters broad.\\nGlaciere near Adelsberg. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page\\n36.) Small cave. One hour from Adelsberg.\\nKacna Jama. (J. Marinitsch, La Kacna Jama, Mem-\\noires de la Societe de Speleologie, vol. I., page 83.) A\\ngreat pit near the railroad station of Divacca. Herr Mar-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0296.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 237\\ninitsch observed the following temperatures on January\\n2d, 1896:\\nAt Divacca 2\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\nIn the Kacna Jama at 40 meters 1.1\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\n100 meters 1.2 C.\\n210 meters +2.1\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\nSanct Canzian, Karst. (E. A. Martel, Les Adzmes,\\npage 564, note.) During the winter of 1 889-1 890, Herr\\nMarinitsch found stalactites of ice as far as the seven-\\nteenth cascade of the Recca; 1000 meters from the third\\nentrance of the river. The temperature of the Recca\\nwas then at 0\u00c2\u00b0 during the summer, the temperature of\\nthe water rises to 27\u00c2\u00b0\\nThe Grosses Eisloch of Paradana. (Fugger, \u00c2\u00a3zs-\\nhbhlen, page 36.) On the high plateau of the forest of\\nTarnowa, east of Gorz. A large pit cave, 30 meters to\\n40 meters deep. Professor Fugger says of it: The\\nflora in the basin-like depression has the character of high\\nmountain vegetation, with every step it resembles more\\nthis flora as it exists in the neighborhood of glaciers, until\\nfinally in the deepest point of the basin all vegetation\\nstops.\\nThe Kleines Eisloch of Paradana. (Fugger, Eis-\\nhoklen, page 2 7*) A small pit glaciere, 500 meters dis-\\ntant from the Grosses Eisloch of Paradana.\\nSucHY Brezen. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page i^ ]}j A\\nsmall pit glaciere, situated about midway between the\\nGrosses and Kleines Eisloch of Paradana.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0297.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "238 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nPrevalo Cave. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page 37.) In\\nthe Buchenhochwald, south of Karnica. Small glaciere.\\nCave of Dol. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page 38.) On a\\nmountain near Haidenschaft. Small glaciere.\\nGlaciere near Matena in Bezirke Radmansdorf.\\n(Petruzzi in Haidinger s Berichte, etc., vol. VII., page\\n68.)\u00e2\u0080\u0094 On a wooded height. The ice commences to melt\\nin the early summer.\\nGlaciere on the Schutzengelberge near the Golac.\\n(Petruzzi in Haidinger s Berichte, etc., vol. VII., page\\n64.) A small glaciere.\\nGlaciere Cave near Lazhna-gora or Latzenberg.\\n(Valvasor, Die Ehre des Herzogthumes Grain, vol. I., pages\\n242, 243; Hacquet, Oryctographia Carniolica, 1778, III.,\\npage 159.) In the neighborhood of Vishnagora in the\\nKrain. The entrance is under a church. It is a large\\ncave, 40 meters long and 20 meters high, where the ice\\nall melts by the end of the summer. Valvasor gives the\\nfollowing account of this cave in 1689, which seems the\\nfirst printed notice of a glaciere in German\\nNear to Lazchenberg up by the church of St. Nicho-\\nlas, where a Thabor stands, one finds a big hole, which\\nsinks into the stony rocks. Through this one descends\\ndeep with torches there opens then underneath as big a\\ncavity as the biggest church could be, and the same is ex-\\ntremely high, in the form of a cupola. One sees there", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0298.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 239\\ndifferent teeth, formed and hardened from the water turned\\nto stone. Further down one arrives to a deep gully into\\nwhich, however, I have not been. On the other side one\\nmust again ascend, and then one comes again to a cupola\\nin which cupola ice stands up like an organ from the earth.\\nThere also one sees icicles of pure ice of different\\nsizes and heights, of which many are one or two klafters\\nhigh and as thick as a man but many only two or three\\nspans high or higher, and as thick as an arm, and some also\\nthinner. This ice is formed from the drops of falling\\nwater and indeed in summer for in winter there is no\\nice therein. Over such ice one must then ascend, as\\nthere are then said to be separate holes and grottoes.\\nBut no one has been any further.\\nGlaci^re on the Dini Verh. (Petruzzi in Haidinger s\\nBerichte, etc., vol. VII., page 6 Near Tomischle in the\\nKrain. Small glaciere.\\nEisKELLER NEAR RossECK. (Petruzzi in Haidinger s\\nBerichte, etc., vol. VII., page 64.) On the Pograca Moun-\\ntain in the Krain, northeast of the Hornwald, near the\\nMeierhof Rosseck. Small glaciere cave.\\nGorge near Rosseck. (Valvasor, Die Ehre des Her-\\nzogthumes Grain, vol. I., page 243 and page 517 Petruzzi\\nin Haidinger s Berichte, etc., vol. VII., page 64.) Behind\\nthe ruined castle of Rosseck, on the Pograca Mountain\\nin the Krain, is a gorge, at whose bottom are four little\\nholes containing ice most of the year.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0299.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "240 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nValvasor wrote of this cave in 1689: Near Rosseck\\nimmediately back of the castle there opens a mighty cavern\\nentirely in stony rock, and yawns in the shape of a caul-\\ndron down into the earth. Above as wide as a good rifle\\nshot, but below quite narrow. And there underneath\\nthere are many holes where the ice remains through the\\nwhole summer. From such ice have Duke Frederick Graf\\nand Duke von Gallenberg daily made use in summer to\\ncool their wine. Six years ago I descended there in the\\nmonth of August, and found ice enough in all the holes.\\nIn the same volume Freiherr Valvasor elaborates his\\nremarks about this cave and that at Latzenberg, repeating\\nin the main the observations in the paragraph just given.\\nHe says: There hang also long icicles which are quite\\npleasant to look at. This ice breaks all too easily\\nand quickly. Contrarywise, however, this ice lasts\\nmuch longer in the sun and the heat than other ice.\\nSome might think it would eventually turn into stone this,\\nhowever, does not happen for it remains only in summer\\nand disappears in winter as I can say for certain, as I have\\nbeen in myself in the winter as well as in the summer time.\\nFor as in the summer the floor is quite covered\\nwith ice: it makes walking so dangerous and bad that one\\ncannot take a step without climbing irons but in the win-\\nter time one goes safely and well.\\nFreiherr Valvasor was evidently an accurate observer,\\nand, if for his word winter we substitute autumn, his\\naccount will be much more nearly correct than might have\\nbeen expected two centuries ago.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0300.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 24 1\\nThe Kuntschner Eishohle. (Petruzzi in Haidinger s\\nBerichte, etc., vol. VII., pages 65, 66?^ This is known also\\nas the Toplitzer, Unterwarmberger or Ainodter Grotto. It\\nlies 2 kilometers from Kuntschen, and 12 kilometers from\\nToplitz near Neustadtel, in the Krain. Altitude about 630\\nmeters. Petruzzi says: Of all so far noticed ice grottoes\\nit is the most wonderful and splendid. In August and\\nSeptember, 1 849, the temperatures near the ice were about\\ntwo degrees above freezing. On the i6th of August, there\\nwere many long ice stalagmites and stalactites on the\\n29th of September they had diminished materially. Petruzzi\\nsays also: One leaves the abundant vegetation of the\\nAlpine summer flora, and through bushes and dwarf un-\\nderbrush, through bare and half moss covered rocks and\\ndebris, through rotten and twisted tree stems, one comes\\nto the hall of eternal winter, where the microscopic mosses\\nof the north surround the thousand year old stalactites,\\nhanging from the dripping vault, with an always passing,\\nalways freshly forming, tender sulphur colored down.\\nDr. Schwalbe has also examined this cave.\\nThe Friedrichsteiner or Gottscheer Eishohle.\\nDescribed in Part I., page 51.\\nThe Handler Eisloch. 7 kilometers south of Gott-\\nschee and about twenty minutes from the village of Hand-\\nlern, near Rieg. Altitude 596 meters. Small cave. Pro-\\nfessor Hans Satter of Gottschee told me he doubted\\nwhether ice ever formed there now.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0301.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "242 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nThe Suchenreuther Eisloch. Described in Part I.,\\npage 55.\\nLedenica na Veliki Gori. (Petruzzi in Haidinger s\\nBerichte, etc., vol. VII., page 6*]^ In the Krain, 11 kilo-\\nmeters from Reifnitz, on the Balastena Mountain. Alti-\\ntude 1253 meters. Much ice was found there on the\\nloth of July, 1834.\\nMrzla Jama. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page 34.) On the\\nInnerkrainer Schneeberg, 13 kilometers from Laas.\\nGlaciere Caves on the Kapella. Fugger, Eishbhlen,\\npage 39.) On a pass in the neighborhood of Piacenza.\\nAltitude 800 meters.\\nGlaciere Cave in West Bosnia. (Fugger, Eishohlen.\\npage 39.) West of Kljuc, county Petrovac, district Smol-\\njama, near village Trvanj. Called Trvanj, also Ledenica,\\nAltitude about 1000 meters, length 170 meters, breadth\\nfrom 4 meters to 30 meters.\\nRtanj, Servia. (A. Boue, La Turquie d Europe, 1840,\\nvol. I., page 132 Dr. A. Cvijic, Spelunca, vol. II., 1896,\\npages 72-74.) This glaciere is on the south side of Siljak,\\nnear the village Muzinac. A passage 60 meters long leads\\nto a hall about 10 meters in height. Dr. Boue found snow\\nhere in August, the thermometer standing below freezing\\npoint. The people in the neighborhood told Dr. Boue", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0302.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 243\\nthat the snow is formed in June and disappears in Sep-\\ntember and that it is sometimes carried to Nisch. He\\nalso heard of similar cavities on the Bannat Mountain.\\nDr. Cvijic observed in the hall a temperature of 4- 0.4\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\nLedena Pec, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, Spelunca, vol. II.,\\n1896, pages 68, 69.) On the Ledini Verh or Glacial Peak,\\nat an altitude of 800 meters distant one hour and a half\\nfrom the village of Sou void. Length of passage 108 me-\\nters; at entrance about 6 meters, at end about 15 meters\\nin height. On the loth of May, 1893, there was plenty\\nof ice and snow. Temperature of outside air +19\u00c2\u00b0 C.\\ninside air at rear +0.5\u00c2\u00b0 C. Probably permanent glaciere.\\nDoBRA Ledenica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic, Spelunca^\\nvol. II., 1896, page 70.) West of Ledeno Brdo. Probably\\nperiodic glaciere. On July 25th, 1890, the temperature of\\nthe outside air was 26\u00c2\u00b0 C. of the inside air +3.5\u00c2\u00b0 C,\\nLedenica is the name for a glaciere in Servia.\\nLedenica in the Mala Brezovica, Servia. (Dr. A.\\nCvijic, Spelunca, vol. II., 1896, page 70.) Length 43 me-\\nters. A large, permanent glaciere. On July 28th, 1890,\\nthe outside air was -H 23^: inside air 2\u00c2\u00b0.\\nLedenica Treme in the Souva Planina, Servia.\\n(Cvijic, Dr. A., Spelunca, vol. II., 1896, page 71.) Altitude\\n1600 meters to 1700 meters. A rather large, probably\\npermanent glaciere. Plenty of ice in it on April 21st,\\n1894.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0303.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "244 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nZla Ledenica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvljic, Spehcnca, vol.\\nII., 1896, page 72.) On the Kucaj. A permanent glaci-\\nere, 7 meters or 8 meters deep. On July 25th, 1890, out-\\nside air -j- 25\u00c2\u00b0 inside air at snow 6\u00c2\u00b0.\\nGlaciere on the Devica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic,\\nSpelicnca, vol. II., 1896, page 74.) Under the peak La-\\nzurevica. Altitude 1000 meters. A narrow passage leads\\nto a hall 17 meters long by 12 meters wide and 20 meters\\nhigh. On June 30th, 1893, there was plenty of snow in\\nthe passage and ice in the hall.\\nGlaciere Vlaska Pecura, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic,\\nSpehuicay vol. II., 1896, page 74.) On the Devica, under\\nthe Golemi Vech. A small periodic glaciere.\\nGlaciere in the Zdrebica, Servia. (Dr. A. Cvijic,\\nSpelu7ica, vol. II., 1896, page 74.) On the southeast side\\nof the Souva Planina, near the village Veliki Krtchimir.\\nA small periodic glaciere. On April 20th, 1874, plent}^\\nof snow and ice.\\nGlaciere Stoykova, Servia. (Dr. K. Cvijic, Spehmca,\\nvol. II., 1896, pages 75, ]6}j On the Kucaj. A large pit\\ncave with a total depth of 23 meters. Probably a per-\\nmanent glaciere. On July 21st, 1890, plenty of ice and\\nsnow. Outside air +21\u00c2\u00b0; inside air in hall +0.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nGlaciere on the Topiznica Mountain, Servia.\\n(Dr. A. Cvijic, Spehcnca, vol. II., 1896, page 76.) Altitude", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0304.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 245\\n1 100 meters. A large pit cave with an extreme depth\\nof 27 meters. In August, 1893, there was plenty of snow\\nand ice, and the inside temperature was +1\u00c2\u00b0.\\nGlaciers Cave near Borszek. (Bielz, Siebenbilrgen,\\n1885, page 334.) About an hour distant from the baths,\\nin broken limestone. It seems to be a rock fissure, at\\nthe end of which ice is found till towards the middle of\\nJuly.\\nGlaciere Cave near Sonkolyos in the Koros Val-\\nley. (Fugger, EishdhleUy page 51.) Small cave.\\nGlaciere near Zapodia. (Fugger, Eishohlen^ pa-ge\\n50.) Near Petrosc in the Bihar Mountains. Altitude\\n1 1 40 meters; length 20 meters, width 7 meters.\\nPescerca la Jesere. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page 50.)\\nBetween Vervul la Belegiana and the Batrlna in the Bihar\\nMountains. Small freezing cave.\\nGlaciere Cave near Verespatak, in Transylvania.\\n(Bielz, Siebenbilrgen^ pa-ge 52.) Small cave.\\nGietariu near Funacza. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page\\n50.) In the Bihar Mountains. Small glaciere cave.\\nCave of Skerizora. (Karl F. Peters, Sitzungsbericht\\nder K. K. Akademie der Wissenchaften, Wien, vol. XLIIL,\\n1861, page 437; Bielz, Siebenbilrgen, 1885, page\\nThis is one of the greatest glaciere caves known. It", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0305.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "246 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nlies in the Bihar Mountains, three hours from the village\\nof Ober-Girda, which can be reached from Gyula Fehervar,\\nvia Topanfalva. It is a pit cave, in limestone, at an alti-\\ntude of 1 1 27 meters. The pit is about 57 meters broad,\\nand 45 meters deep, with exceedingly steep walls. The\\nentrance is in the northeast wall and is about 10 meters\\nhigh. This leads into a nearly circular hall 47 meters in\\ndiameter and about 20 meters high. The floor is ice. In\\nthe southeast corner is a hole over 75 meters deep. In\\nthe northwest wall is an opening 14 meters wide, which\\nforms the beginning of a sort of gallery 54 meters long\\nand which at its further end is 24 meters wide and 8 meters\\nhigh. This is also covered with a flooring of ice, which in\\nsome places can only be descended by step cutting. This\\npassage is also richly adorned with ice stalactites and stal-\\nagmites. At its end is another also nearly circular hall,\\n21 meters in diameter and about 22 meters high. This\\nis called the Beszerika or church. In one place there\\nis a magnificent collection of ice stalagmites called the\\nAltar. Peters found in dirt on the sides of the cave\\nremains of bats not very different from those now living\\nin the vicinity. He thinks the bats may have come there\\nbefore the cave became a glaciere or else that they\\nmay even now sometimes get into the first hall and there\\nperish from cold. This makes it uncertain, therefore,\\nwhether the remains can be considered as of the past\\nor the present.\\nEiSHOHLE BEi RoTH. Described in Part I., page 35.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0306.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 247\\nMines on the Eisenberg. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page\\n59.) These lie near Blankenburg in the Thliringer Wald\\nand have been known to contain ice.\\nThe Ziegenloch or Grosses Kalte Loch, and the\\nKleines Kalte Loch. (Behrens, Hercynia Curiosa,\\npages 6^, 70.) These He near Questenberg in the\\nSouthern Harz Mountains, at an altitude of about 300\\nmeters. The Grosses Loch is described as a sort of small\\npit some 8 meters deep, in one side of which opens a small\\nfissure some 10 meters long. Ice has been found in this\\nin April Schwalbe found none there in July. The Kleines\\nLoch was another small cold cave near the Ziegenloch, but\\nit has been filled up. Behrens says that the dampness at\\nthe cave at Questenberg is precipitated as snow.\\nHoles with Ice near Sanct Blasien. (Fugger,\\nEishokleUy page 109.) In the Black Forest, among\\nboulders at an altitude of 820 meters.\\nHoles with Ice near Hochenschwand. (Fugger,\\nEishbhlen, page 109.) In the Black Forest, among\\nboulders at an altitude of 820 meters.\\nEissTOLLEN and Eiskeller AT THE DoRNBURG. De-\\nscribed in Part I., page 59. (Poggendorff s Annalen der Phy-\\nsik und Chemie, Ergdnzungsband, 1842, pages 517-519.)\\nIce appears to have been discovered at the Dornburg\\nin June, 1839. It was found from a depth of 60 centi-\\nmeters down to 8 meters. The width of the ice-bearing", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0307.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "248 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\ntalus was from 1 2 meters to 1 5 meters and it is said\\nthat it becomes wider in winter and narrower in summer.\\nBeschertgluck Mine, Freiberg District. (Prestwich,\\nCollected papers, etc., page 206.) Mr. Prestwich quotes\\nDaubuisson as having seen the shaft of the mine Hned\\nwith ice to a depth of 80 toises (144 meters?).\\nIce in the Zinc Mines on the Sauberg. (Reich,\\nBeobachtungen ilber die Temper atur des Gesteines, 1834,\\npages 175 and 205.) These are near Ehrenfriedersdorf\\nin Saxony and formerly contained ice in winter. They\\nare reported now to be destroyed.\\nThe Garische Stollen. (Lohman, Das HohleneiSy\\netc., page 3.) Near Ehrenfriedersdorf in the Freiwald.\\nLohman found much ice in this in January, less in March,\\nand scarcely any in May.\\nThe Ritterhohle. (Lohman, Das Hohleneis, page 5.)\\nNear Ehrenfriedersdorf in the Freiwald. Small ice deposit.\\nThe rock is granite.\\nThe Stulpnerhohle. (Lohman, Das Hohleneis, page\\n6.) Near the Ritterhohle. Small ice deposit in granite\\nrock.\\nElSLOCH AND ElSHOHLE NEAR GeYER IN SaXONY. (Loh-\\nman, Das Hohleneis, page 7.) These are in a place\\ncalled die Binge. Both are small.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0308.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 249\\nThe Alte Thiele. (Lohman, Das Hohleneis, page\\n8.) Near Buchholz in Saxony. Small ice deposit.\\nMine Pits in the Saxon Erzgebirge. (Reich, Beobach-\\ntungen ilber die Temperatur des Gesteines, 1834.) Ex-\\ntremely low temperatures have been found in several of\\nthese pits:\\nIn the Churprinz Friedrich August Erbstollen near\\nFreiberg.\\nIn the Heinrichs-Sohle in the Stockwerk near Altenberg.\\nIn the Henneberg Stollen, on the Ingelbach, near\\nJohanngeorgenstadt.\\nIn the Weiss-Adler-Stollen, on the left declivity of the\\nvalley of the Schwarzwasser, above the Antonshlitte.\\nHoles Holding Ice on the Saalberg. {Annalen der\\nPhysik und Chemie, 1850, LXXXL, page 579.) These lie\\nbetween Saalberg and the Burgk. Ice is found here on\\nthe surface from June to the middle of August. From\\nthe observations of Professor Hartenstein, Fugger de-\\nduces that this place must be the lower end of one or\\nmore windholes.\\nMillstone Quarry of Niedermendig. (M. A. Pictet,\\nMemoir es de la Societe d Histoire Naturelle de Geneve, 1 82 1\\nvol. I., page 151.) On the Niederrhein. There are many\\nconnecting pits and galleries here, in which ice has been\\nfound in the hottest days of summer as well as in March.\\nThe abandoned shafts are utilized as beer cellars.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0309.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "250 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nEiSGRUBE ON THE Umpfen. (Voigt, Miner alogtsc he\\nReisen dttrch das Herzogthum Weimar, 1785, vol. II., page\\n123.) In the Rh5ngebirge, twenty minutes from Kalten-\\nnordheim, are some irregular masses of columnar basalt, at\\nan altitude of about 500 meters, among which abundant\\nice has been found up to late in the summer.\\nCave near Muggendorf, Franconia. The landlord of\\nthe Kurhaus Hotel at Muggendorf, told me that there was\\na small cave in the vicinity where there was ice in the\\nwinter and spring, but that it all melted away before\\nAugust.\\nCave on the Durrberg. (Fugger, Eishbhlen, page\\n59.) Near Zwickau in Bohemia. Small cave which some-\\ntimes contains ice.\\nThe Schneebinge. (Lohman, Das Hohleneis, page\\nII.) Near Flatten in Bohemia. A small ice deposit in\\nan old mine.\\nIce among Basaltic Rocks on the Pleschiwitz.\\n(Pleischl, in Poggendorff s Annalen der Physik und Chemie,\\nvol. LIV., 1 84 1, pages 292-299.) Above Kameik near\\nLeitmeritz in Bohemia. Professor Pleischl, in May, 1834,\\nfound ice under the rocks a little distance from the sur-\\nface. The surface of the rocks was then warm. On the\\n2 1 St of January, 1838, Professor Pleischl found snow on", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0310.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 25 1\\nthe outside of the rocks, but no ice underneath. He was\\nassured by the people of the district that the hotter the\\nsummer, the more ice is found.\\nGlaciere on the Zinkenstein. (Pleischl, in Poggen-\\ndorff s Amialen der Physik und Chemie, vol. LIV., 1841,\\npage 299). The Zinkenstein is one of the highest points\\nof the Vierzehnberge, in the Leitmeritz Kreis. There is a\\ndeep cleft in basalt, where ice has been found in summer.\\nEiSLocHER ON THE Steinberg. (Pleischl, in Poggen-\\ndorff s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, vol. LIV., 1841,\\npage 299.) In the Herrschaft Konoged. Small basalt\\ntalus where ice is found in the hottest weather.\\nWindholes in Bohemia. (Fugger, Eiskohlen, page\\n109.) In the neighborhood of Leitmeritz. These are\\nin basaltic rock. Ice sometimes forms at the lower ex-\\ntremity. The most notable are\\nOn the Steinberg near Mertendorf on the Triebschbach\\nOn the Kelchberg near Triebsch\\nOn the Kreuzberg near Leitmeritz\\nOn the Rodersberg near Schlackenwerth\\nIn the Grossen Loch near Tschersink.\\nIce in a Pit near Neusohl. (Fugger, Eiskohlen, page\\n109.)\\nThe Frainer Eisleithen. Described in Part I., page\\n33. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page 163.) Professor Fugger", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0311.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "252\\nGLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nquotes the following\\nobservations\\nby\\nForester Wachtl at\\nFrain\\n1861.\\n1862.\\nJanuary\\n7\u00c2\u00b0 to \u00e2\u0080\u00942\u00c2\u00b0\\n5\u00c2\u00b0\\nFebruary\\n2\u00c2\u00b0 to 0\u00c2\u00b0\\n5\u00c2\u00b0 to 2\u00c2\u00b0\\nMarch\\n0\u00c2\u00b0 to I\\n1\u00c2\u00b0 to 0\\nApril\\n1\u00c2\u00b0 to 2\u00c2\u00b0\\n0\u00c2\u00b0\\nMay\\nH-2\u00c2\u00b0\\n2\u00c2\u00b0 to 5\u00c2\u00b0\\nJune\\n2\u00c2\u00b0 to H- 3\u00c2\u00b0\\n3\u00c2\u00b0 to 6\u00c2\u00b0\\nJuly\\n+3\u00c2\u00b0\\n3\u00c2\u00b0 to 5\u00c2\u00b0\\nAugust\\n3\u00c2\u00b0 to 7\u00c2\u00b0\\n5\u00c2\u00b0\\nSeptember\\n7\u00c2\u00b0 to 6\u00c2\u00b0\\n3\u00c2\u00b0 to 6\u00c2\u00b0\\nOctober\\n6\u00c2\u00b0\\n5\u00c2\u00b0\\nNovember\\n5\u00c2\u00b0\\nDecember\\n1\u00c2\u00b0 to 3\u00c2\u00b0\\n0\u00c2\u00b0 to 2\u00c2\u00b0\\nDemenyfalva Jegbarlang. Described in Part I.,\\npage 24.\\nDoBsiNA Jegbarlang. Described in Part I., page 13.\\n(Pelech T/ie Valley of Strace^ia and the Dobschau Ice\\nCavern Schwalbe, Uber Eishohlen und Eislocher, page\\n31.) Pelech gives the following measurements: The\\nGrosser Saal is 120 meters long, 35 meters to 60 meters\\nwide, and 10 meters to 11 meters high, with a surface area\\nof 4644 square meters. The ice mass is estimated as\\n125,000 cubic meters in volume. The length of the Kor-\\nridor is 200 meters the left wing being 80 meters, and\\nthe right wing 1 20 meters long. The cave was first en-\\ntered on July 15th, 1870, by Herr Eugene Ruffiny, of\\nDobsina, and some friends. He had happened to fire a\\ngun in front of it, and hearing a continuous muffled\\nrolling echo within, determined to explore it.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0312.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES.\\n253\\nDr, Schwalbe quotes the following series of observa-\\ntions in Dobsina during the year 1881\\nYear\\nENTRANCE. GROSSER SAAL.\\nDEEPEST POINT FROMKORRIDOR\\nOFKORRIDOR. TOKLEINEN SAAL.\\nJanuary\\n2.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n4.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.6\u00c2\u00b0\\nFebruary\\n1.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n3.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.9\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.3\u00c2\u00b0\\nMarch\\n1.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.9\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\nApril\\n0.25\u00c2\u00b0\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00941.25\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.3\u00c2\u00b0\\nMay\\n0.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.9\\n0.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.5\u00c2\u00b0\\nJune\\n1.0\\n+1.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.5\u00c2\u00b0\\nJuly\\n+1.8\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.1\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.1\u00c2\u00b0\\nAugust\\n+3.4\u00c2\u00b0\\n3.8\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.24\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.8\u00c2\u00b0\\nSeptember\\n2.0\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.3\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.15\u00c2\u00b0\\nOctober\\n0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.2\u00c2\u00b0\\nNovember\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00941-3\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.9\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.3\u00c2\u00b0\\nDecember\\n2.2*\\n3.2\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.65\u00c2\u00b0\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00941.75\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.04 0.44\u00c2\u00b0\\n0.69\\n0.02\\nThe Philadelphia Evenmg Bulletin, March, ist, 1899,\\nprinted the following note about Dobsina In this cave,\\nsome sixteen years ago, a couple named Kolcsey elected\\nto pass the week immediately following their marriage.\\nThey took with them a plentiful supply of rugs, blankets\\nand warm clothing, but notwithstanding all precautions,\\ntheir experience was not of a sufficiently pleasant nature\\nto tempt imitators.\\nLednica of Szilize. (M. Bel, Philosophical Transac-\\ntions^ London, 1739, vol. XLI., page 41 et seq. Townson,\\nTravels in Hungary^ 17975 Terlanday, Petermanns Mitt-\\nheilungen, 1893, page 283.) It lies 1.5 kilometers from the\\nvillage of Szilize, near Rosenau, in Gomor County, in the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0313.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "254 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nCarpathians, at an altitude of 460 meters. A pit about 35\\nmeters deep, 75 meters long, and 48 meters wide opens in\\nthe ground, and at the southern end, in the perpendicular\\nwall, is the cave. The entrance is 22 meters wide, 15\\nmeters high, and faces north. A slope 4 meters long sinks\\nwith an angle of 35\u00c2\u00b0 to the floor of the cave, which is nearly\\ncircular in form, with a diameter of about 10 meters. On\\nthe east side of the cave there seems to be a hole in the\\nice some 10 meters deep.\\nIn 1739, there was published in London a curious letter\\nin Latin from Matthias Bel a Hungarian savant, about the\\ncavern of Szilize. He says The nature of the cave has\\nthis of remarkable, that, when outside the winter freezes\\nstrongest, inside the air is balmy but it is cold, even icy,\\nwhen the sun shines warmest. As soon as the snow\\nmelts and spring begins, the inner roof of the cave,\\nwhere the midday sun strikes the outside, begins to\\nsweat clear water, which drops down here and there\\nthrough the power of the inner cold it turns to trans-\\nparent ice and forms icicles, which in thickness equal\\nlarge barrels and take wonderful shapes. What as water\\ndrops from the icicles to the sandy floor, freezes up,\\neven quicker, than one would think.\\nThe icy nature of the cave lasts through the whole\\nsummer, and what is most remarkable, it increases with the\\nincreasing heat of the sun. In the beginning of the spring\\nthe soft winter s warmth begins to give way soon there-\\nafter, and when spring is more advanced, the cold sets in,\\nand in such a manner, that the warmer does the (outside)", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0314.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 255\\nair grow, the more does the cave cool off. And when the\\nsummer has begun and the dog days glow, everything\\nwithin goes into icy winter. Then do the drops of water\\npouring from the roof of the cave change into ice, and with\\nsuch rapidity that where to-day delicate icicles are visible,\\nto-morrow masses and lumps, which fall to the ground,\\nappear. Here and there, where the water drips down the\\nwalls of the cave, one sees wonderful incrustations, like an\\nartificial carpeting. The rest of the water remains hanging\\non the ice, according to the warmth of the day. For when\\nfor a longer time it is warmer, the ice of the stalactites, of\\nthe walls and of the floor increases but when the ruling\\nheat, as sometimes happens, is diminished through north\\nwinds or rainstorm, the waters freeze more slowly, the ice\\ndrips more fully and begins to form little brooklets. When\\nhowever the temperature gets warmer, the icy nature of\\nthe cave begins once more. Some have observed, that the\\nnature of the grotto receives the changes of temperature\\nahead, like a barometer. For, when a warmer tempera-\\nture sets in outside, the waters change into ice, several\\nhours before the heat sets in, while the opposite takes\\nplace, when by day the temperature is colder for then\\neven by the warmest sky the ice begins to melt notice-\\nably.\\nWhen the dog days have passed and the summer\\nhas already changed into fall, the cave with its own nature\\nfollows the conditions of the external air. In the early\\nmonths and while the nights are growing colder, the ice\\ndiminishes visibly then when the air cools off more and", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0315.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "256 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nmore and when the brooks and side are rigid with frost, it\\nbegins to melt as though there was a fire built underneath,\\nuntil, when winter reigns, it is entirely dry in the cave,\\nwithout a sign of ice being left behind. Then gentle\\nwarmth spreads into the entire cave, and this icy grave\\nbecomes a safety resort for insects and other small ani-\\nmals, w^hich bear the winter with difficulty. But besides\\nswarms of flies and gnats, troops of bats and scores of\\nowls, hares and foxes take up their abode here, until with\\nthe beginning of spring, the cave once more assumes its\\nicy appearance.\\nThese assertions of Bel are the most inaccurate ones\\nmade about glacieres. Yet, strange to say, they have col-\\nored the literature of the subject down to our own times\\nand have been repeated many times, sometimes with,\\nsometimes without, the hares and foxes the latest repeti-\\ntion seeming to occur in 1883.\\nCave near the Village of Borzova, Torn a County,\\nCarpathians. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page 52.) Reported\\nto contain ice, but nothing certainly known.\\nCRIMEA.\\nLedianaia Yama. (Montpeyreux, Voyage autour du\\nCaucase V., page 440 Hablizl, Description physique de la\\nTauride, 1783, pages 43-45.) On the Karabi-Yaila, 32\\nkilometers southwest of Karasubazar. Altitude about\\n1800 meters. A fairly large pit glaciere cave. The name\\nmeans an abyss of ice.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0316.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "list of glacieres. 257\\nGlaciere Cave on the Yaila of Oulouzene at Ka-\\nZAUTE. (Montpeyreux, Voyage autour du Caucase, II., page\\n380.) A small pit cave.\\nCAUCASUS.\\nGlaciere Cave in the Khotevi Valley. (Montpey-\\nreux, Voyage autour du Caucase, II., page 379.) In the pro-\\nvince of Radscha, near the Monastery Nikortsminda. A\\nlarge pit cave which must be of the same order as that of\\nChaux-les-Passavant and from which the inhabitants of\\nKouta is get ice.\\nGlacieres near Koutais. (E. a. Martel, Les Abimes,\\npage 397.) Dr. A. Sakharov, it appears, has recently\\ndiscovered in the government of Koutais caves containing\\nice.\\nCave of Sabazwinda. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page\\n126.) Near the town of Zorchinwall, on the river Liachwa,\\nprovince of Gori, in Georgia, near the Ossete Mountains.\\nIce has been found in the cave in summer. In December\\nthere was none.\\nURAL.\\nGlaciere Cave near Sukepwa. (Fugger, Eishohlen,\\npage 63.) On the Volga, province of Zlatoust. Small\\ncave on the river bank.\\nGlaciere Cave on the Tirmen Tau. (Lepechin,\\nTagebuch der Reise, etc., vol. II., page 28.) Near the\\nvillage of Chaszina, 160 kilometers from Orenburg.\\nSmall cave.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0317.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "258 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nGlaciere CA^^ of Kurmanajeva. (Lepechin, Tagebiuk\\nder Reise, etc., vol. II., page 5.) Near Kurmanajeva, a\\nvillage 49 kilometers from Tabinsk, in the Government\\nof Orenburg. A large cave. Lepechin found ice in one\\npart of the cave and deep water in another. There were\\ndraughts in some places.\\nCave on the Baislan Tasch. (Lepechin, Tagehuh der\\nReise, etc., II., page 40.) The Baislan Tasch is a moun-\\ntain on the right bank of the Bielaja River, which flows\\ninto the Kama. There is a large cave in the mountain\\nin which ice has been found.\\nCave on the Muinak Tasch. (Lepechin, Tagebuch der\\nReise, etc., II., page 38.) The Muinak Tasch is a moun-\\ntain on the Bielaja River. There is a large cave in it, in\\nwhich a little ice has been found.\\nCave of Kungur. (Lepechin, Tagebuch der Reise, etc.,\\nII., page 137 Rosenmliller and Tilesius, I., page 79.) The\\nCavern of Kungur is near the town of Kungur in the\\nGovernment of Perm. There are in it many passages\\nand grottoes connecting with one another, some of which\\ncontain ice. It is a fine, large cave, whose greatest\\nlength is 400 meters.\\nMines of Kirobinskov. (Fugger, Eishohleii, page 65.)\\nThese mines are 53 kilometers southeast of Miask in the\\nUral they have been abandoned. One of them contains\\nice all the year round.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0318.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 259\\nCaves of Illetzkaya-Zatschita. (Murchison, Vernieul\\nand Keyserling, The Geology of Russia in Europe and the\\nUral Mountains, 1845, P^-ge 186.) 72 kilometers\\nsoutheast from Orenburg. The caves are in the Kraoulnai-\\ngora, a gypsum hillock 36 meters high, rising in the midst\\nof an undulating steppe, which lies on a vast bed of rock\\nsalt. Only one of the caves contains ice. There are\\nstrong draughts in places.\\nSIBERIA.\\nCave near the Fortress Kitschigina. (Fugger, Eis-\\nhohlen, page 66.) A small cave, 17 kilometers east of\\nKajilskoi, 192 kilometers from Petropaulowsk, 605 kilo-\\nmeters from Tobolsk. The cave is in an open plain, and\\nsometimes contains ice.\\nWrechneja Petschera. (Fugger, Eishohlen, page 66.)\\nNear the village Birjusinska, in the neighborhood of Kras-\\nnojarsk, on the right bank of the Yenisei. Large glaciere\\ncave.\\nGlaciere Cave of Balagansk. (Fugger, Eishohlen,\\npage 66.) A narrow cleft, 80 meters long; 192 kilome-\\nters downstream from Irkutsk on the left bank of the An-\\ngora River at a distance of 2 kilometers from the river.\\nGlaciere Cave on the Onon River. (Fugger, Eis-\\nhohlen, page 66.) A small cave 48 kilometers from the\\nBorsja Mountain.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0319.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "26o GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nMines of Siranowsk. (Fugger, Eishohle^i, page\\n126.) In the Altai Mountains, on the Buchtorma River,\\nan affluent of the Irtysch. Magnificent ice formations\\nhave been found in these mines.\\nMines of Seventui. (Fugger, Eishbhlen, page 126.)\\nNear Nertschinsk, on the Amoor River. Two of the\\nlevels contain perennial ice and hence are called Ledenoi.\\nThese are at a depth of about 60 meters in porous lava.\\nThe rest of the mine is in more solid rock.\\nGlaciere Cave near Lurgikan. (Fugger, Eishbhlen,\\npage 6 Near the confluence of the Lurgikan and\\nSchilka Rivers, in the province Nertschinsk. From 2\\nmeters to 7 meters wide. Length 280 meters.\\nBasins or Troughs Retaining Ice. (Dittmar, Ueber\\ndie Eismiildenim Ostlichen Siberien Middendorff, Zusatz\\nBulletin de la classe physico-mathematique de V Academie Im-\\nperiale des Sciences de St. Peter sbourg, 1853, vol. XL, pages\\n305-316.) These troughs are nearly akin to gorges and\\ngullies, but their water supply seems to come from a\\ncause which is not usually present in gorges. Their\\nprincipal observer, M. de Dittmar, thought that a cold\\nand snowy winter would add materially to the supply of\\nice, but he also thought that a necessity to the existence\\nof the ice in these troughs was an abundant water supply\\nfrom a spring, whose temperature should be so high as\\nnot to freeze in winter. The cold is supplied by the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0320.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 26 1\\nwinter temperatures. Some of the most important are\\nreported\\nIn the Turachtach Valley.\\nNear Kapitanskji Sasiek.\\nIn the valley of the River Belvi.\\nIn the valley of the River Antscha.\\nIn the Kintschen Valley.\\nIn the neighborhood of Kolymsk.\\nIn the Werchojanski Mountains.\\nIn the Stanowaj Mountains.\\nKONDOOZ.\\nCave of Yeermallik. (Burslem, A peep into Toorkis-\\nthan, 1846, chaps. X., XI.)\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In the valley of the Doaub,\\nnorthwest of Kabul. The entrance is half way up a hill,\\nand is about 15 meters wide and 15 meters high.,, This is\\na large cave, with many ramifications and galleries. In\\nthe centre of a hall far within, Captain Burslem found a\\nmass of clear ice, smooth and polished as a mirror, and\\nin the form of a beehive, with its dome-shaped top just\\ntouching the long icicles which depended from the\\njagged surface of the rock. A small aperture led into\\nthe interior of this cone, whose walls were about 60\\ncentimeters thick and which was divided into several\\ncompartments. Some distance from the entrance of this\\ncave there is a perpendicular drop of 5 meters. A short\\ndistance beyond this, in one of the halls, were hundreds of\\nskeletons of men, women and children, in a perfectly un-\\ndisturbed state, also the prints of a naked human foot and", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0321.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "262 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nthe distinct marks of the pointed heel of an Afghan boot.\\nThe moollah, who was acting as guide, said the skeletons\\nwere the remains of seven hundred men of the Huzareh\\ntribe who took refuge in the cave with their wives and\\nchildren during the invasion of Genghis Khan, and who\\ndefended themselves so stoutly, that after trying in vain to\\nsmoke them out, the invader built them in with huge nat-\\nural blocks of stone, and left them to die of hunger. Some\\nof the Afghans said that the cave was inhabited by\\nSheitan, a possibility denied by the moollah who guided\\nCaptain Burslem, on the philosophical plea that the cave\\nwas too cold for such an inhabitant.\\nHIMALAYA.\\nGlaciere Cave of Amarnath. (Miss Mary Coxe of\\nPhiladelphia showed me a copy of a letter of Dr. Wil-\\nhelmine Eger describing a visit to this cave.) It lies three\\ndays journey from Pailgam in Kashmere, on the borders\\nof Little Tibet. The altitude is evidently high as one\\ncrosses snow fields to get to it. A small path zigzagging\\nup a grassy slope leads to the cave and is a stiff climb\\nfrom the valley. The cave opens on the side of a moun-\\ntain and has a large, almost square mouth at least as big\\nas the floor area within. The floor of the cave is the con-\\ntinuation of the grass slope and slants upwards and back-\\nwards to the back wall, the only case of the kind so far\\nreported. This cave is most curiously connected with re-\\nligion. Dr. Eger says that there are two small blocks of\\nice in it which never melt. From time immemorial these", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0322.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 263\\nblocks of ice have been sacred to the Hindoos who wor-\\nship them as re-incarnations under the names of Shiva\\nand Ganesh. Dr. Eger saw offerings of rice and flowers\\non them. Thousands of pilgrims come every year at the\\nend of July or beginning of August from all parts of\\nIndia. Thousands of miles have been traversed and hun-\\ndreds of lives laid down through this journey. Every\\nyear people die either before reaching the cave or after.\\nThe trip from Pailgam in Kashmere takes three days up\\nand two days down, if one returns by a shorter route\\nwhere the way is unsafe because of avalanches. So many\\nhave perished there that the pass is called The Way of\\nDeath. This must be taken by one class of pilgrims,\\nSard has or Holy Men, to complete the sacred circuit,\\nbut the Hindoos say any one dying on the pass will go\\nstraight to heaven.\\nIcicles Formed by Radiation. (General Sir Richard\\nStrachey, Geographical yournal, 1900, vol. XV., page\\n168.) On the Balch pass of the Balch range in Tibet,\\nGeneral Strachey, in 1848, saw icicles of which he says:\\nOn the rocks exposed to the south were very^ curious\\nincrustations of ice, icicles indeed, but standing out hori-\\nzontally like fingers towards the wind. I was not able to\\nunderstand how they were caused, nor can I tell why they\\nwere confined to particular spots. The thermometer stood\\nat 41\u00c2\u00b0 [F.], and though the dew point at the time would\\nprobably have been below 32\u00c2\u00b0 [F.], and the cold pro-\\nduced by evaporation sufficient therefore to freeze water.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0323.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "264 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nyet it is evident that no condensation could ever take\\nplace simultaneously with the evaporation. j^\\nhas since occurred to me that these icicles were formed\\nby radiation. I found, subsequently, in a somewhat simi-\\nlar position, that a thermometer suspended vertically, and\\nsimply exposed to the sky in front of it, was depressed as\\nmuch as 20\u00c2\u00b0 F. below the true temperature of the sur-\\nrounding air. This result was, of course, due to the\\nradiation through the extremely dry and rarefied atmos-\\nphere at the great elevation at which the thermometer\\nwas exposed. As radiation takes place freely from a\\nsurface of ice, the growth of such icicles as those described\\nmight be due to the condensation of vapour brought up\\nby the southerly day winds that so constantly blow over\\nthese passes, and its accumulation in the form of ice on\\nthe exposed extremity of the icicle, the temperature of\\nwhich might thus have been greatly reduced.\\nINDIA.\\nIce Formed by Radiation. (T. A. Wise, Nature,\\nvol. v., page 189; R. H. Scott, Eleme7itary Meteorology\\nThird Ed., pages 61, 62.) Mr. Bunford Samuel called\\nmy attention to the mode of manufacturing ice by radia-\\ntion in India. It is as follows\\nA very practical use of nocturnal radiation has been\\nmade from time immemorial in India in the preparation\\nof ice, and on such a scale that about 10 tons of ice can\\nbe procured in a single night from twenty beds of the\\ndimensions about to be given, when the temperature of", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0324.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "LIST OF GLACIERES. 265\\nthe air is 15\u00c2\u00b0 or 20\u00c2\u00b0 [F.] above the freezing point.\\n-phe locality referred to is the immediate\\nneighborhood of Calcutta. A rectangular piece of ground\\nis marked out, lying east and west, and measuring 120\\nby 20 feet. This is excavated to the depth of two feet\\nand filled with rice straw rather loosely laid, to within six\\ninches of the surface of the ground. The ice is formed\\nin shallow dishes of porous earthenware, and the amount\\nof water placed in each is regulated by the amount of ice\\nexpected.\\nIn the cold weather, when the temperature of the air\\nat the ice fields is under 50\u00c2\u00b0, ice is formed in the dishes.\\nThe freezing is most active with N. N. W. airs, as these\\nare driest; it ceases entirely with southerly or easterly\\nairs, even though their temperature may be lower than\\nthat of the N. N. W. wind.\\nNo ice is formed if the wind is sufficiently strong to\\nbe called a breeze, for the air is not left long enough at\\nrest, above the bed, for its temperature to fall sufficiently,\\nby the action of radiation.\\nThe rice straw, being kept loose and perfectly dry,\\ncuts off the access of heat from the surface of the ground\\nbelow it, and, when the sun goes down, the straw being a\\npowerful radiator, the temperature of the air in contact\\nwith the dishes is reduced some 20\u00c2\u00b0 below that prevailing\\nsome two or three feet above them. The rapid evapora-\\ntion of the water into the dry air above creates also an\\nactive demand for heat to be rendered latent in the forma-\\ntion of steam, and the result of all these agencies is the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0325.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "266 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nformation of ice, under favorable circumstances, on the\\nextensive scale above mentioned.**\\nKOREA.\\nGlaciere Cave on the Han Gang. Messrs. J. Edward\\nFarnum and George L. Farnum, of Philadelphia, inform me\\nthat they saw a small cave containing ice on the banks of\\none of the Korean rivers. It is about 75 kilometers from\\nSeoul, nearly northeast, near the ferry where the old road\\nleading from Seoul towards northern Korea crosses the\\nHan Gang, the river which passes by Seoul. The en-\\ntrance is small perhaps 2 meters wide. The cave is not\\nthoroughly explored. Ice lies near the entrance, and as\\nfar back as the Messrs. Farnum could see.\\nJAPAN.\\nGlaciere Lava Cave near Shoji. {Evening Telegraphy\\nPhiladelphia, January 2d, 18^6.) The cave is about 12\\nkilometers from Shoji, and is in lava. First there is a pit\\nin the forest, some 5 meters wide by 15 meters deep. The\\ncave opens into this. It seems to be some 400 meters\\nlong and from 2 meters to 12 meters high. There is an\\nice floor in places, also many ice stalagmites. At the\\nfurthest point reached there is a strong air current, which\\nextinguishes torches and so far has prevented further ex-\\nploration. Ice from the cave has been cut by the country\\npeople for sale at Kofu, which is not far distant.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0326.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "PART IV.\\nSOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0327.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0328.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES.\\nBenigne Poissenot, in 1586, hinted that the cold of\\nwinter produced the ice at Chaux-les-Passavant.^^\\nReichard Strein and Christoph Schallenberger visited\\nthe caves on the Otscher in 1591.\\nGollut, in 1592, suggested the cold of winter as the\\ncause of the ice at Chaux-les-Passavant.^^\\nIn the Hist aire de V Academic Roy ale des Sciences^ 1686,\\nTome II., pages 2, 3, there is an account, with no author s\\nname, of Chaux-les-Passavant. The memoir states that\\nin winter the cave is filled with thick vapors and that after\\nsome trees were cut down near the entrance, the ice was\\nless abundant than formerly that people come for ice\\nwith carts and mules, but that the ice does not become\\nexhausted, for one day of great heat forms more ice than\\ncould be carried away in eight days in carts and wagons\\nand that when a fog forms in the cave, there is assuredly\\nrain the following day, and that the peasants in the neigh-\\nborhood consult this curious almanac to know the\\nweather which is coming.\\nSee Part III. page 193.\\nSee Part III. page 231.\\nSee Part III. page 202.\\n(269)", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0329.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "270 GLACIlfcRES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nFreiherr Valvasor, in 1689, wrote about some of the\\nglacieres of the Krain.\\nBehrens, in 1703, thought it was colder in summer\\nthan in winter in the caves near Questenberg in the Harz.\\nM. de Billerez, in 1712, writes that at Chaux-les-Passa-\\nvant it is really colder in summer than in winter and that\\nthe ice is harder than river ice, and this he thinks is due\\nto the presence of a nitrous or ammoniacal salt, which\\nhe says he found in the rocks.\\nM. de Boz made four trips to Chaux-les-Passavant on\\nthe 15th of May and 8th of November, 1725 and the 8th\\nof March and 20th of August, 1726. His memoir says\\nthat his observations tend to disprove those of M. de\\nBillerez, and that the cause for the great cold, which is\\nless great in summer, although always remaining, is quite\\nnatural. He cites as causes for the ice the exposure to\\nthe north-north-east the rock portal sheltering the en-\\ntrance, and all the forest covering the surrounding lands\\nand adds that some veracious persons told him that since\\nsome of the big trees above the grotto had been cut\\ndown there was less ice than before. He found no traces\\nof salt, nor any springs, and that the water supply came\\nfrom the rains and melted snows filtering through the\\nground.\\nSee Part III. pages 238, 239.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0330.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 27 1\\nIn 1739, Matthias Bel published his curious account\\nof Szilize.^^\\nJ. N. Nagel, a Vienna mathematician, visited the\\nOtscher in 1747. He concluded that the ice was made\\nin winter and preserved in summer as in an ice house.\\nM. de Cossigny wrote, in 1750, about Chaux-les-Passa-\\nvant. He made a plan of the cave and took many obser-\\nvations in April, August and October, and concluded\\nthat the interior condition of the cave does not change\\nnoticeably from winter to summer, no matter what the\\nexternal conditions of temperature may be; that what\\npeople say of greater cold in summer, vanishes before\\nactual experience and that, as a state of freezing reigns\\nmore or less continuously in the cave, it is not surprising\\nif the ice accumulates. Apparently he was the first to\\nnotice and insist on the necessity of drainage to the cave\\nthrough cracks in the rocks. He also made a series of\\nobservations disproving those of M. de Billerez, as to the\\npresence of any kinds of salts in the rocks or ice.\\nHacquet, in 1778, thought that the ice in the cave at\\nLazhnagora formed in winter, but he also thought that\\nthere must undoubtedly be some salt in the water. He\\nsays he found ice in the cave in the spring, and that his\\ncompanion, a priest, had never found any in winter. He\\ntherefore concluded that by that time it had all melted.\\n73\\nSee Part III. page 254.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0331.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "272 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nRemain Joly, in 1779, claims to have visited Chaux-les-\\nPassavant on the 19th of September (year not given). His\\naccount seems largely borrowed from the one in the\\nHistoire de r Academie Royale des Scie^ices, in 1686. He\\nsays: This ice is formed by the drops of water which\\nfall from the roof, and w^hich freeze because of the chill\\nof the cave. In the winter there is no ice, but running\\nwater. He says nothing, however, about the ice form-\\ning in summer.\\nThe Citoyen Girod-Chantrans visited Chaux-les-Pas sa-\\nvant in August, 1783, and reached the conclusion, from all\\nhe saw and heard, that the cave did not freeze in summer\\nnor thaw in winter, and that it was really a natural ice\\nhouse. He was aided by the notes of a neighboring\\nphysician, Dr. Oudot, who had made observations in the\\ncave, and among others, had placed stakes of wood, on\\nthe 8th of January, 1779, in the heads of the columns he\\nhad found in the cave; and on the 2 2d of February, 1780,\\nhad found these stakes completely covered with ice, form-\\ning columns 30 centimeters in diameter.\\nHablizl, in 1788, wrote that the ice in the cave near\\nKarassoubazar formed in the spring by the snows which\\nmelt, run into the cave, and refreeze. He also thought\\nthat there was less ice there in the fall than in the spring,\\nthat it diminishes in July and August, and that the idea,\\ncurrent in the neighborhood, of the formation of ice in\\nsummer, is a mistake.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0332.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 273\\nProfessor Pierre Prevost, in 1789, gave an accurate\\nexplanation of the formation of the ice in Chaux-les-Passa-\\nvant. He says: Weighing carefully the local circum-\\nstances, one discovers in truth a few causes of permanent\\ncold. But these causes seem rather suited to keep up a\\ngreat freshness or to diminish the heat of summer, than to\\nproduce a cold such as that which reigns in the cavern.\\nFirst of all, big trees throw shade over the entrance it is,\\nI was told, forbidden under severe penalties to cut down\\nany of them, for fear of depriving the grotto of a necessary\\nshelter. In the second place, this entrance is situated\\nalmost due north, leaning a little to the east, which is the\\ncoolest exposure one can choose, and the one most suited\\nto help the effect of the icy winds which blow from that\\nquarter. Finally the slope is steep and the grotto deep\\nand covered with a thick vault. These three conditions\\nunited constitute, as it seems to me, a very good ice house;\\nby which I mean a reservoir fit to preserve during the\\nsummer, the ice which may bank up in winter.\\nBut how does this ice bank up? One knows that\\nthe outside waters above form on the roof, during the win-\\nter, long drops and stalactites of ice. These icicles, which\\nhang down and increase constantly by the drip from the\\nsame source which formed them, fall at last, carried away\\nby their own weight, and form so many centres, around\\nwhich freeze the waters with which the floor of the grotto\\nis always inundated. At the same time, the blowing of\\nthe north wind accumulates snow at the base of the slope,\\nwhich is uncovered in part and exposed above to all the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0333.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "2 74 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nvicissitudes of the weather. Thus during the winter is\\nformed an irregular heap of ice and snow, which the first\\nheats of spring begin to make run, but which the heats of\\nsummer cannot finish dissolving. The winter following\\nhas therefore even more facilit}^ to augment the mass of\\nthese ice pyramids, which have resisted until the fall. And\\nif men did not work at diminishing it, it might happen that\\nit would fill the entire cavern at last to a great height.\\nI am therefore strongly inclined to think that the\\nprocess of nature is here precisely similar to that of art\\nthat without any especial cause of cold, the natural gla-\\nciere of Besangon conserves in the moderate temperature\\nof deep caverns, the heaps of snow and ice which the\\nwinds and the outside waters accumulate there during\\nthe winter; and that the melting of these snows and of\\nthese accumulated ices forms little by little the ice floor,\\nscattered over w^ith blocks and pyramids, which one ob-\\nserves there during the summer.\\nHorace Benedict de Saussure, the great Swiss scien-\\ntist and mountaineer, in 1796, published a number of ob-\\nservations about cold current caves in various parts of the\\nAlps. He found that in summer the air blows outward\\nat the low^er end, and that in winter it draws inward. His\\nexplanation is that in summer the colder air in the tube is\\nheavier than the outside air and displaces it by gravit}^\\nwhile in winter the rupture takes place in the other direc-\\ntion, since the column within the tube is warmer than the\\noutside air and therefore is pushed upwards by the heavy", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0334.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 275\\nair flowing in. He concludes that evaporation due to the\\nair passing internally over moist rocks suffices to explain\\nthe phenomenon of low temperatures and that such caves\\nhave a rather lower temperature in the Alps than in Italy\\nowing to the greater natural cold of the Swiss lake region.\\nAn experiment of his is worth mentioning. He passed a\\ncurrent of air through a glass tube, 2.5 centimeters in\\ndiameter, filled with moistened stones, and found that the\\nair current which entered with a temperature of 22.5\u00c2\u00b0\\ncame out with a temperature of 18.75\u00c2\u00b0, is with a loss\\nof 3.75\u00c2\u00b0 of heat.\\nRobert Townson, LL. D., in 1797, published an ac-\\ncount, perhaps the first in English, of a glaciere cave.\\nHe says of Szilize: Ice I truly found here in abundance,\\nand it was midsummer, but in a state of thaw the bed of\\nice, which covered the floor of the cavern was thinly cov-\\nered with water and everything announced a thaw. I had\\nno need to use my thermometer however I placed it in\\nthe ice and it fell to 0\u00c2\u00b0 of Reaumur I then wiped it and\\nplaced it in a niche in the rock, at the furthest part of the\\ncavern, a yard above the ice and here it remained near an\\nhour when I returned I found it at 0\u00c2\u00b0. Every-\\nthing therefore, ice, water and atmosphere in the neigh-\\nborhood had the same temperature, and that was the tem-\\nperature of melting ice 0\u00c2\u00b0 Reaumur.\\nWhen then is the ice which is found here, and in\\nsuch quantities that this cavern serves the few opulent\\nnobility in the neighborhood as an ice house, formed?", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0335.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "276 GLAClfeRES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nSurely in winter, though not by the first frost, not so soon\\nas ice is formed in the open air. No doubt, from the\\nlittle communication this cavern has with the atmosphere,\\nit will be but little and slowly affected by the change.\\nShould therefore, Mr. Bel, or any of his friends, have\\ncome here to verify the common report at the commence-\\nment of a severe frost, when the whole country was cov-\\nered with ice and snow, they might still have found\\nnothing here but water, or the ice of the preceding winter\\nin a state of thaw, and the cavern relatively warm and\\nlikewise, should they have visited it in a warm spring,\\nwhich had succeeded to a severe winter, they might have\\nfound nothing here but frost and ice and even the fresh\\nmelted snow, percolating through the roof of this cavern,\\nmight again have been congealed to ice. I observed fre-\\nquently in Germany in the severe winter of 1794-5, on a\\nsudden thaw, that the walls of churches and other public\\nbuildings, on the outside were w^hite and covered with a\\nhoar frost, and the windows on the same side covered\\nwith a rime.\\nDr. Franz Sartori, in 1809, was a strong believer in the\\nsummer ice theory, and wrote of the flies and the gnats,\\nthe bats and the owls, and the foxes and the hares coming\\nto Szilize to winter.\\nAlexander von Humboldt, in 18 14, says about the Cu-\\neva del Hielo on the Peak of Teneriffe that so much snow\\nand ice are stored up in winter that the summer heat", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0336.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 277\\ncannot melt it all, and also adds that permanent snow in\\ncaves must depend more on the amount of winter snow,\\nand the freedom from hot winds, than on the absolute\\naltitude of the cave.\\nDewey, in 1819, thought that the ice in the Snow Glen\\nat Williamstown was a winter formation.\\nProfessor M. A. Pictet visited Saint-Georges, Le Brezon\\nand Montarquis and in 1822 endeavored to prove that\\nthey are cold current caves and that the ice in them is due\\nentirely to draughts causing evaporation. He believed in\\nthe theory of the ice forming in summer more than in win-\\nter and that it could not be the residue of a winter deposit.\\nHe therefore argued that it must be due to descending\\ncurrents of air which he thought would be most energetic\\nin summer that they would become at least as low as the\\nmean annual temperature of the place and be still further\\ncooled by evaporation. The strange thing about his theo-\\nries is that he does not seem to have personally observed\\nany draughts either at Saint-Georges or Le Brezon, but\\nthe fact that the ice was evidently not an accumulation of\\nwinter snow led him to try to reconcile what he had him-\\nself seen with de Saussure s theories about windholes.\\nJean Andre Deluc in 1822 published a paper discuss-\\ning the theories of MM. de Cossigny, Prevost and Pictet.\\nDeluc had never visited a glaciere himself, but he explains\\nclearly the impossibility of Professor Pictet s cold current", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0337.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "278 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\ntheor}^ on the simple ground that Professor Pictet himself\\ndid not find any cold currents. He takes up Professor\\nPrevost s theories warmly using also the manuscript\\nnotes of Mons. Colladon who had visited the Grand Cave\\nde Montarquis. Deluc says: that the winter s cold pen-\\netrates into these caves, freezes the water which collects\\nthere and that the ice thus formed has not the time to\\nmelt during the following summer. He says further\\nIt seems that in the three glacieres with which we have\\nbeen occupied there is a flat or rather hollow bottom,\\nwhere the waters can form a more or less deep pond, and\\nwhence they therefore cannot flow away it is there they\\nflow in winter and as these are shut in places where the\\nair cannot circulate, the heats of summer can only penetrate\\nvery feebly. The ice once formed in such cavities, only\\nmelts slowly for one knows that ice in melting, absorbs\\n60\u00c2\u00b0 of heat and where find this heat in an air always very\\ncold and nearly still During a great cold, the ice forms\\nwith great promptness, while it melts with much slowness,\\neven when the temperature of the air is several degrees\\nabove zero what must then not be this slowness when\\nthe temperature of the interior air only rises in summer\\none degree above freezing point. It would need several\\nsummers to melt this ice if it did not reform each winter.\\nC. A. Lee, in 1825, wrote that the ice in the Wolfs-\\nhollow near Salisbury was a winter formation.\\nG. Poulett Scrope, in 1826, accepted as the truth the\\nstatement that the cave of Roth was filled with ice in", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0338.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 279\\nsummer, but that it was warm during the winter. In 1827,\\nhe explained the presence of ice at Pontgibaud as follows\\nThe water is apparently frozen by means of the power-\\nful evaporation produced by a current of very dry air is-\\nsuing from some long fissures or arched galleries which\\ncommunicate with the cave, and owing its dryness to the\\nabsorbent qualities of the lava through which it passes.\\nF. Reich, in 1834, thought that there were two possible\\ncauses which might produce subterranean ice: i, the dif-\\nference in specific gravity between warm and cold air 2,\\nevaporation. He thought the cold air a sufficient cause in\\nmost caves, but he considered that evaporation also played\\na part not infrequently.\\nProfessor Silliman, in 1839, gave the first hint, in the\\nnegative, about compressed air as a cause for subterranean\\nice. He said about Owego that if one could suppose that\\ncompressed gases or a compressed atmosphere were es-\\ncaping from the water or near it, this would indicate a\\nsource of cold, but that as there is no indication of this\\nin the water, the explanation is unavailable.\\nProfessor A. Pleischl wrote in 1841 that he was told\\nthat ice formed on the Pleschiwetz and on the Steinberge\\nin summer. Continuing, he says: The author is there-\\nfore, as well as for other reasons, of the opinion, that\\nthe ice is not remaining winter ice, but a summer\\nformation, and one formed by the cold of evaporation.\\nThe basalt is, as a thick stone, a good conductor", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0339.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "28o GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nfor the heat, and takes up therefore easily the sun s\\nwarmth, but parts with it easily to other neighboring\\nbodies. In the hollows, between the basalt blocks, is\\nfound, as I already mentioned, rotting moss, which forms\\na spongy mass, which is wet through with water. The\\nbasalt heated by the sun s rays now causes a part of\\nthe water in the spongy mass to vaporize for this\\nevaporation the water needs heat, which it withdraws\\nfrom the neighboring bodies and in part from water,\\nand makes the water so cold, that it freezes into ice, as,\\nunder the bell of an air pump Nature therefore makes\\nhere a physical experiment on the largest scale.\\nMuch stress appears to have been laid on the paper\\nof Professor Pleischl by Professor Krauss and one or two\\nothers. The weak point in it is that Pleischl did not see\\nthe ice form in summer, but was only, as usual, told that\\nit did so. There is nothing in the facts given to show\\nthat the places mentioned are different from any other\\ntaluses, where ice does not form as the result of heat.\\nMr. C. B. Hayden, in 1843, wrote about the Ice Moun-\\ntain in Virginia, and held that the porous nature of the\\nrocks makes them poor conductors of heat, and that the\\nmountain is a huge sandstone refrigerator.\\nDr. S. Pearl Lathrop, in 1844, wrote of the Ice Bed\\nat Wallingford, Vermont, as a great natural refrigerator.\\nSir Roderick Impey Murchison wrote in 1845 about\\nthe salt mine and freezing cave of Illetzkaya-Zatschita.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0340.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 28 1\\nHe visited them during a hot August, and was assured\\nthat the cold within is greatest when the external air\\nis hottest and driest that the fall of rain and a moist\\natmosphere produce some diminution in the cold of the\\ncave and that on the setting in of winter the ice disap-\\npears entirely. He accepted these statements evidently\\nonly in a half hearted way, submitting them to Sir John\\nHerschel, who tried to explain them, in case they were\\ntrue, of which Herschel was likewise doubtful. Murchi-\\nson at first thought that the ice was due to the under-\\nlying bed of salt, but soon recognized that this explana-\\ntion could not be correct. He also rejected Herschel s\\nheat and cold w^ave theory. Shortly after this he came\\nacross Pictet s memoir, and on the strength of it concluded\\nthat the ice in Illetzkaya-Zatschita could not be the residue\\nof a winter deposit, but must be due to descending cur-\\nrents of air to the previously wet and damp roof afford-\\ning a passage to water; and to the excessive dr)^ness of\\nthe external air of these southern steppes contributing\\npowerfully to the refrigerating effects of evaporation.\\nProfessor Arnold Guyot, in 1856, said that the well at\\nOwego admitted large quantities of snow which melts, but\\nnot readily, because it is not accessible to the sun. It\\ntherefore goes through the same process as glaciers, of\\npartly melting and refreezing and we have the formation\\nof a glacier without movement.\\nProfessor W. B. Rogers, in 1856, held that the well at\\nOwego became the recipient of the coldest air of the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0341.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "282 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nneighborhood, and the temperature remained abnormal\\nbecause the bad conducting power of the materials of\\nthe well retained the cold.\\nProfessor D. Olmstead, in 1856, held about Owego\\nthat cold air exists in the interior of the earth which may\\nhave found a ventilating shaft in the well.\\nProfessor Petruzzi, in 1857, considered the following\\nrequirements necessary for a glaciere A high altitude\\nabove the sea a decided drop into the interior of the\\nmountain; absence of all draught; protection against all\\nwarm and moist winds, therefore the opening to north\\nand east. He also says about the glaciere on the Pograca:\\nthat it is in shadow that the thick forest round the mouth\\nkeeps the temperature down that it begins to freeze\\nbelow when it does above that the cold remains there\\ninto the spring and that the water from rain or other\\nsources, which flows into the cave, must freeze there, and\\nthe ice form in greater quantities than the heat of summer\\ncan melt away.\\nMr. Albert D. Hager wrote in 1859: The question\\nnow arises, why it was that such a congealed mass of\\nearth was found in Brandon at the time the frozen well\\nwas dug. My opinion is, that the bad conducting prop-\\nerty of the solids surrounding it, the absence of ascending\\ncurrents of heated air, and of subterranean streams of\\nwater in this particular locality favored such a result and", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0342.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 283\\nthat the bad conducting property of clay, as well as that\\nof the porous gravel associated with it, taken in connec-\\ntion with the highly inclined porous strata, and the dis-\\nposition of heated air to rise, and the cold air to remain\\nbelow, contribute to produce in the earth, at this place, a\\nTnaryimoth refrigerator^ embracing essentially the same\\nprinciple as that involved in the justly celebrated refriger-\\nator known as Winship s Patent.\\nClay is not only nearly impervious to air and water,\\nbut it is one of the worst conductors of heat in nature.\\n(Note. To test the question whether clay was a poor\\nconductor of heat or not, I took two basins of equal size,\\nand in one put a coating of clay one-half inch thick, into\\nwhich I put water of a temperature of 52\u00c2\u00b0 Fahrenheit.\\nInto the other dish, which was clean, I put water of the\\nsame temperature, and subjected the two basins to equal\\namounts of heat; and in five minutes the water in the\\nclean dish indicated a temperature of 70\u00c2\u00b0 while that of the\\none coated with clay was raised only to 56\u00c2\u00b0.) If we can\\nrely upon the statements of those who dug out the frozen\\nearth, it rested upon a stratum of clay that lay upon the\\nbed of pebbles in which the water was found, for it was\\ndescribed as being a very sticky kind of hard pan.\\nThis being the case, if the water contained in the\\npebbly mass had a temperature above the freezing point,\\nthe heat would be but imperfectly transmitted to the frost,\\nthrough the clay, provided there was no other way for its\\nescape. But we have seen that the stratum of clay that\\noverlays the bed of pebbles in the side of the gravel pit", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0343.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "284 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nwas not horizontal, but inclined towards the well at an\\nangle of 25\u00c2\u00b0. Now if this drip was continued to the well,\\nand existed there (which is highly probable), it will be\\nseen that the ascending current of heated air, in the\\npebbly bed, would be checked upon meeting the over-\\nlying barrier of clay and be deflected out of its upward\\ncourse. The tendency of heated air is to rise, hence it\\nwould continue its course along the under side of the\\nclay, through the interstices in the bed of pebbles, till it\\nfound a place of escape at the surface, which in this case\\nmay have been at the gravel pit before named.\\nProfessor Edward Hitchcock wrote in 1861 The\\npresence of a mass of frozen gravel deep beneath the sur-\\nface in Brandon, was first made known by digging a well\\nin it in the autumn of 1858. The gravel, also,\\nrises into occasional knolls and ridges. In short, it is just\\nsuch a region of sand and gravel as may be seen in many\\nplaces along the western side of the Green Mountains\\nand indeed, all over New England. It is what we call\\nmodified drift, and lies above genuine drift, having been\\nthe result of aqueous agency subsequent to the drift\\nperiod. T^\\\\iq well was stoned up late in the\\nautumn of 1858, and during the winter, ice formed upon\\nthe water in one night, two inches thick. It continued to\\nfreeze till April after which no ice was formed on the\\nsurface, but we can testify that as late as June 25th, the\\nstones of the well for four or five feet above the surface\\nof the water were mostly coated with ice nay, it had not", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0344.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 285\\nwholly disappeared July 14th. The temperature of the\\nwater was only one degree of Fahrenheit above freezing\\npoint. The ice did however disappear in the autumn but\\nwas formed again (how early we did not learn) in the\\nwinter, and so thick too that it was necessary to send\\nsome one into the well to break it. We visited the well\\nAugust 1 8th, i860, and found the temperature 42\u00c2\u00b0. Yet\\nonly the week previous ice was seen upon the stones, and\\nwe were even told by one of the family, that a piece of ice\\nhad been drawn up the day before in the bucket.\\nThese frozen deposits may have been produced during the\\nglacial period that accompanied the formation of drift, and\\ncontinued far down into the subsequent epochs of modified\\ndrift. gy|- jj^ ^i^Q excavations both gravel\\nand clay occur and how almost impervious to heat must\\nsuch a coating 20 feet thick, be It would not, however,\\ncompletely protect the subjacent mass from solar heat.\\nBut there is another agency still more powerful for this\\nend, namely, evaporation, which we think has operated\\nhere, as we shall more fully describe further on and we\\nthink that these two agencies, namely, non-conduction and\\nevaporation, may have preserved this frozen deposit for\\na very long period, from exterior influences.\\nProfessor Thury in 1861 says about Saint-Georges:\\n**Such is the resume, concise but exact, of the results of\\nour winter excursion. They furnish proof to the fact gen-\\nerally borne witness to by the mountaineers, that ice does\\nnot form in winter in the interior of caverns. But if this", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0345.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "286 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nis SO, it is for a very simple reason two things are neces-\\nsary for the formation of ice cold and water. In winter,\\nthe cold is not wanting but if there is no spring opening\\nin the cave, the water is absent, and then no ice forms.\\n**It is in the spring, at the time of the first melting of\\nthe snows, that the ice must form. Then water at o\u00c2\u00b0\\npours over the surface, and penetrates by the fissures\\nof the rock and by the large openings into the chilled\\ncavern, which is also receiving the freezing air of the\\nnights. The grotto then makes its annual provision of\\nice, which after this could only diminish little by little\\nduring the whole duration of the warm season.\\nProfessor Thury writes about the Grand Cave de Mon-\\ntarquis Here it must be when water and cold meet,\\nthat is autumn and especially spring, the time of the first\\nmelting of the snows.\\nDuring the winter the colder, heavier air\\ncomes to freeze the water of the grotto, and chill the ice\\nand the wall of rock.\\nDuring the summer, the radiation of the vaults and\\nthe proper heat of the ground only melt a small quantity\\nof ice because this absorbs much heat to pass into a liquid\\nstate.\\nThe heat of the air is entirely used to melt the ice it\\ndoes not therefore manifest itself as sensible heat.\\nThe contact of the ice ready to melt, plays in a certain\\nway, towards the air a little warmer than itself, the role of\\nan extremely absorbing body, or one which has an ex-\\ncessive caloric conductibility.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0346.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 287\\nHere the formation of the ice could not possibly be\\nattributed to the cold caused by evaporation. The psy-\\nchrometer indicated ninety-two per cent, of relative hu-\\nmidity the atmosphere of the grotto was therefore almost\\nsaturated with evaporation of water, and the maximum of\\ncold caused by evaporation was not over half a degree\\ncentigrade.\\nAbout prismatic ice and a hollow pyramid, he says\\nThe prismatic (areolaire) structure is produced later on\\nin the ice, by a new and particular arrangement of the\\nmolecules of the already solidified water. Therefore the\\nrecent stalactites are never crystallized.\\nIn the beginning of the hot season, the atmospheric\\ntemperature of the grotto rises slowly. Inferior to zero\\nby some tenths of a degree, it produces first on the surface,\\nin the stalactites, the prismatic structure. The temperature\\ncontinues to rise, the central portions of the stalactites,\\nstill composed of ordinary ice, liquefy, and if the melting\\nwater finds some issue, either by accidental openings left\\nbetween some prisms, or by the extremity of the stalactite\\nor by some point of its surface which had escaped the\\naction of the regular crystallization by this opening the\\nwater escapes, and the tubular stalactite has been formed.\\nThe column was composed of a very special ice, per-\\nfectly dry, perfectly homogeneous, translucid and whose\\nappearance could only be compared to that of the most\\nbeautiful porcelain. I am inclined to believe that we had\\nunder our eyes a special molecular state of congealed\\nwater. This state would be produced under the influence", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0347.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "2 88 GLACIl^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nof a constant temperature of a certain degree (Note per-\\nhaps not far from 4\u00c2\u00b0 the actual temperature of the grotto)\\nlong prolonged. These causes can he realized more com-\\npletely in glacieres than anywheres else.\\nThe Reverend George Forrest Browne, published in\\n1865, Ice Caves in France and Switzerland, one of the most\\ndelightful books of travel ever written, on account of the\\nscientific accuracy and the humor of the author. Revisited\\nLa Genolliere, Saint-Georges, Saint-Livres, Chaux-les-Pas-\\nsavant, Monthezy, Arc-sous-^icon, the Schafloch, Haut-\\nd Aviernoz, which he calls Grand Anu, Chapuis, and Font-\\nd Urle. He says: The view which Deluc adopted was\\none which I have myself independently formed.\\nThe heavy cold air of winter sinks down into the glacieres,\\nand the lighter warm air of summer cannot on ordinary\\nprinciples of gravitation dislodge it, so that heat is very\\nslowly spread in the caves and even when some amount\\nof heat does reach the ice, the latter melts but slowly, for\\nice absorbs 60\u00c2\u00b0 C. of heat in melting and thus, when ice is\\nonce formed, it becomes a material guarantee for the per-\\nmanence of cold in the cave. For this explanation to hold\\ngood it is necessary that the level at which the ice is formed\\nshould be below the level of the entrance to the cave;\\notherwise the mere weight of the cold air would cause it\\nto leave its prison as soon as the spring warmth arrived.\\nIn every single case that has come under my observation,\\nthis condition has been emphatically fulfilled. It is neces-\\nsary, also, that the cave should be protected from direct", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0348.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 289\\nradiation, as the gravitation of cold air has nothing to do\\nwith resistance to that powerful means of introducing heat.\\nThis condition, also, is fulfilled by nature in all the gla-\\ncieres I have visited, excepting that of S. Georges and\\nthere art has replaced the protection formerly afforded by\\nthe thick trees which grew over the hole of entrance. The\\neffect of the second hole in the roof of this glaciere is to\\ndestroy all the ice which is within range of the sun. A\\nthird and very necessary condition is, that the wind should\\nnot be allowed access to the cave for if it were, it would\\ninfallibly bring in heated air, in spite of the specific weight\\nof the cold air stored within. It will be understood from\\nmy description of such glacieres as that of the Grand Anu,\\nof Monthezy, and the lower glaciere of the Pre de S. Livres,\\nhow completely sheltered from all winds the entrances to\\nthose caves are. There can be no doubt, too, that the\\nlarge surfaces which are available for evaporation have\\nmuch to do with maintaining a somewhat lower temper-\\nature than the mean temperature of the place where the\\ncave occurs.\\nBrowne noticed prismatic ice several times. He says\\nof it M. Thury suggests also, as a possibility, what I\\nhave found to be the case by frequent observations, that\\nthe prismatic ice has greater power of resisting heat than\\nordinary ice. A Frenchman who was present in\\nthe room in which the Chemical Section of the British\\nAssociation met at Bath, and heard a paper which I read\\nthere on this prismatic structure, suggested that it was\\nprobably something akin to the rhomboidal form assumed", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0349.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "290 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nby dried mud and I have since been struck by the great\\nresemblance to it, as far as the surface goes, which the pits\\nof mud left by the coprolite workers near Cambridge offer,\\nof course on a very large scale. This led me to suppose\\nthat the intense dryness which would naturally be the re-\\nsult of the action of some weeks or months of great cold\\nupon subterranean ice might be one of the causes of its\\nassuming this form, and the observations at Jena would\\nrather confirm than contradict this view competent au-\\nthorities, however, seem inclined to believe that warmth,\\nand not cold, is the producing cause.\\nMr. Browne found a hollow cone at La Genolliere, for\\nwhich he accounted as follows In the loftier part of\\nthe cave ninety six drops of water in a minute\\nsplashed on to a small stone immediately under the main\\nfissure. This stone was in the centre of a considerable\\narea of the floor which was clear of ice. j found\\nthat the edge of the ice round this clear area was much\\nthicker than the rest of the ice on the floor, and was\\nevidently the remains of the swelling pedestal of the\\ncolumn. When the melted snows of spring\\nsend down to the cave, through the fissures of the rock,\\nan abundance of water at a very low temperature and the\\ncave itself is stored with the winter s cold, these thicker\\nrings of ice catch first the descending water, and so a\\ncircular wall, naturally conical, is formed around the area\\nof stones the remaining water either running off through\\nthe interstices, or forming a floor of ice of less thickness,\\nwhich yields to the next summer s drops. In the course", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0350.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 29 1\\nof time, this conical wall rises, narrowing always, till a\\ndome-like roof is at length formed and thenceforth the\\ncolumn is solid. From what I have observed myself, this\\nexplanation seems to fairly meet the facts.\\nProfessor T. G. Bonney, in 1868, was inclined to believe\\nthat there was some connection between glacieres and a\\nglacial period.\\nMr. W. R. Raymond, in 1869, concluded from his own\\nobservations about the lava cave in Washington that the\\ncold air of winter freezes up the percolating waters from\\nthe surface, layer upon layer, solid from the bottom,\\nand the accumulated ice thaws slowly in summer, being\\nretarded by the covering which keeps out the direct\\nrays of the sun, and by the fact that the melting ice at\\none end of the cave, through which the summer draught\\nenters, itself refrigerates the air and maintains a freezing\\ntemperature at the other end.\\nDr. C. A. White, in 1870, says of the cavern at Deco-\\nrah: The formation of the ice is probably due to the\\nrapid evaporation of the moisture of the earth and rocks,\\ncaused by the heat of the summer sun upon the outer wall\\nof the fissure and valley side. This outer wall is from ten\\nto twenty feet in thickness where the ice was seen to be\\nmost abundant. The water for its production seems to\\nbe supplied by slow exudation from the inner wall of the\\ncave.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0351.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "292 GLACI^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nDr. Krenner, in 1874, wrote of Dobsina as a natural\\nice cellar of giant dimensions, whose ice masses formed in\\nwinter, the summer does not succeed in melting.\\nProfessor W. Boyd Dawkins wrote in 1874: The\\napparent anomaly that one only out of a group of caves\\nexposed to the same temperature should be a glaciere^\\nmay be explained by the fact that these conditions [those\\nformulated by the Rev. G. F. Browne] are found in com-\\nbination but rarely, and if one were absent there would be\\nno accumulation of perpetual ice. It is very probable that\\nthe store of cold laid up in these caves, as in an ice house,\\nhas been ultimately derived from the great refrigeration of\\nclimate in Europe in the Glacial Period.\\nMr. Theodore Kirchhoff examined the lava caves in the\\nState of Washington and in 1876 wrote that he considered\\nthat the ice in the smaller ones were simply remains of the\\nwinter s cold. He thought that the ice in the large cave\\nwhere there is a draught could not be accounted for in the\\nsame way, so he concluded that the ice must be due to the\\ndraught.\\nMr. N. M. Lowe, in 1879, proposed the Compressed\\nAir or Capillary theory^^ about the Cave at Decorah.\\nMr. John Ritchie, Jr., in 1879, gave an exceedingly clear\\nexposition of the theory in the same journal.\\n^*See Part II., page 142.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0352.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 293\\nMr. Aden S. Benedict, in 1881, published his observa-\\ntions about Decorah. He found that there was no water\\nfalling in the cave to compress the air, that there was no\\nwater falling near enough to be heard, nor any aperture\\ngiving vent to cold air in the cave. He thought that the\\ncold of winter cools the sides of the cave several degrees\\nbelow freezing point and that these rocks are so far\\nunderground that it would take a long season of hot\\nweather to raise this temperature to the melting point of\\nice. In the spring the water percolates through the soil\\nand drips on to the yet freezing rocks on which it freezes\\nand remains until the heat of summer penetrates to a suffi-\\ncient depth to melt it away. The rocks once raised above 0\u00c2\u00b0\\nremain so until the following winter and consequently if\\nthere are heavy autumn rains there is water on the rocks\\nbut no ice. Mr. Benedict concluded that there was noth-\\ning more mysterious about Decorah than the fact that if\\nyou drop water on a cold stone it will freeze.\\nProfessor Friederich Umlauft in 1883 wrote about\\nglacieres that as moreover they were generally protected\\nagainst warm winds and strong draughts and as their en-\\ntrances look towards the north or east, there is conse-\\nquently more ice formed under these conditions in winter\\nthan can melt away in summer. Other ice grottoes how-\\never show the remarkable characteristic, that it is warm in\\nthem in winter, in the summer on the contrary it becomes\\nso cold that all the dripping water freezes. They are\\nfound near snow clefts and gorges when in the hot sum-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0353.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "294 GLACIl^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nmer months the snow melts, then the cold which has be-\\ncome free presses down the temperature in the cave so\\nmuch that the water freezes into ice. Such grottoes are\\nin Austria at Frauenmauer, Brand-\\nstein, Teplitz, Scilize, Dob-\\nschauer.\\nHerr Korber in 1885 wrote about the Schafloch, that the\\nstored-up winter s cold stands out as permanent adversary\\nof the higher temperature of the earth. The thermometer\\nproved this by its action at the end of the cave in a rock\\ncleft, which is warmer than the rest of the cave. In Sep-\\ntember Herr Korber found the masses of ice less and the\\nstalagmites smaller than in January, especially a column\\nwhich in January had become a stately mountain of trans-\\nparent ice.\\nProfessor Eberhard Fugger of Salzburg, has studied\\nthe caves of the Untersberg carefully, having paid over\\neighty visits to them. He classifies freezing caverns into\\nthe following types, according to their position and their\\nshape\\nAccording to position: i, open caves, that is those\\nwhose entrance is free on a rock wall 2, pit caves, where\\nthe entrance is at the bottom of a pit 3, pit caves, where\\nthe pit is covered and the opening is in the roof.\\nAccording to shape i sackhohlen or chamber caverns,\\ninto which one enters immediately at the entrance 2,\\nganghohlen, or passage caves terminating in a chamber 3,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0354.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 295\\nrbhrenhbhlen^ or passage caves where the passages continue\\nfurther than the chamber.\\nHe is a strong advocate of the winter s cold theory.\\nHe says The ice of caves is formed by the cold of\\nwinter, and remains despite the heat of summer, as through\\nlocal circumstances the quantity of heat brought to the ice\\nis not great enough to melt it by the time when ice and\\nsnow in the open at the same altitude have already dis-\\nappeared.\\n**In order that ice may form in a cave in winter, two\\nfactors are necessary. There must be water present in\\nsome form or other, and in some way the outside cold air\\nmust be able to sink into the cave.\\nWhen the bottom of a cave is below the entrance, the\\noutside cold winter air sinks into the cave from its weight,\\nwhen the temperature of the cave air is higher than that of\\nthe outside air; and it will remain there during the warmer\\nweather, as the warm outside air on account of its lighter\\nweight cannot drive out the cold heavy cave air.\\nThe most important factor for the formation of ice is\\nthe drip water. The more drip flows into a cave during\\nthe cold season, the more ice is formed the more drip, on\\nthe contrary, flows into the cave during the warm season,\\nthe more ice is destroyed.\\nThe warmth, which the roof of the cave gives out, is\\nalso a cause which helps to melt the ice, and a cause in\\nfact which works the harder, the higher the temperature of\\nthe roof and the dirtier the ice floor.\\nIf direct rays of the sun penetrate a cave, they scarcely", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0355.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "296 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nwarm up the air which they traverse, but they raise the\\ntemperature of the floor or of the walls, which they touch.\\nThey are therefore a very important factor, which may\\nbring about the melting of the ice.\\nThe snow slope at the mouth of a cave offers some\\nprotection against the rays of the sun, especially if it is no\\nlonger white, but covered with all sorts of dirt.\\nThe larger the mass of ice, the longer is its duration.\\nA certain thickness to the roof is of importance in\\npreserving the ice. If it is less than 8 meters, then it is\\nwell if it is covered with outside vegetation.\\nI entirely agree with these dicta of Professor Fugger.\\nIn 1893, Fugger writes: The peculiar readings of\\ntemperature, which I made in August 1877, in the Kolo-\\nwratshohle, namely on the 13th at 12 M., 0.5\u00c2\u00b0, on the\\n15th at 4 P. M., 0.35\u00c2\u00b0, on the 23d at 10 A. M., 0.12\u00c2\u00b0, on the\\n26th at 10 A. M., 0.17\u00c2\u00b0, and on the 30th at 2.15 P. M.,\\n0.10\u00c2\u00b0, I think I can attribute to the workings of the winds.\\nIn the observations themselves there could scarce be an\\nerror. All five observations were made at the same place,\\nwith the same thermometer, after at least half an hour s\\nexposure. In the time from the 13th to the 30th of\\nAugust, the temperature minimum in the town of Salz-\\nburg, was 12\u00c2\u00b0; before the 30th were several cloudless\\nnights. During the whole of August scarcely any but\\nsoutheast and northwest winds were blowing. The Kolo-\\nwratshohle opens in a rock wall to the east the above\\nnamed winds therefore affected during the entire month\\nthe entrance to the cave and may have produced a lively", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0356.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 297\\nevaporation in the cave, through a sort of sucking up of\\nthe cave air, and thus have created the rather decided\\ncooling off of 0.6\u00c2\u00b0 within seventeen days.\\nThis statement, coming from Professor Fugger, de-\\nserves particular attention, because it would go to show\\nfirst, that the air in the Kolowratshohle, a sackhohle with\\nonly one entrance, is only apparently stagnant in summer\\nand not really so and second, that evaporation may act\\nto a limited extent in a cavern where there is almost no\\nrunning water.\\nCaptain Trouillet, in 1885, published a paper about\\nChaux-les-Passavant. He found that when it was colder\\ninside than outside, the internal air was nearly cut off\\nfrom the outside when it was coldest outside there was\\na lively disturbahce. He called these two classes periodes\\nfermees and periodes ouvertes. He says: The duration\\nof a closed period is measured then on the curves [of a\\nmaximum and minimum thermometer] of the interior\\ntemperatures, between a minimum and the following\\nmaximum that of an open period is between a minimum\\nand the preceding maximum. One can thus count from\\nthe 25 th November to the 31st December 25 open periods of\\na total duration of 200 hours or 8 times 24 hours which\\ngives for each a duration of 7^ hours. The shortest\\nlasted 2 hours and the longest 16 hours. During the\\nsame interval, the closed periods numbered 26, making a\\ntotal duration of about 28 days the longest, which lasted\\nfrom the 3d to the 8th December, was 126 hours long.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0357.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "298 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nTrouillet also says: From the 23d to the 30th De-\\ncember, the grotto was completely isolated from the ex-\\nternal air, and yet during three consecutive nights, the\\ninterior had three marked chills. Such is the phenomenon\\nwhose cause can only lay, in our opinion, in the introduc-\\ntion of the dry air driven to the cave by the winds between\\nnorth and east. This air on entering comes in contact\\nwith the ice and the humid roof of the cave it saturates\\nitself in producing a formation of vapors, and therefrom\\na consumption of heat which may be considerable.\\nThere are some discrepancies in this last paragraph\\nwhich must be noted, for the reason that Trouillet s ob-\\nservations are so valuable. He does not mention having\\nseen the vapors himself, in fact the production of these\\nvapors seems only an inference. Nor is it easy to under-\\nstand how the grotto could be completely isolated from\\nthe external air if the phenomenon lay in the introduc-\\ntion of the dry air driven to the cave by the winds north\\nand east.\\nDr. B. Schwalbe, in 1886, wrote that all my observa-\\ntions point to the fact that the rock is the cooling factor in\\nsummer, and that the cold goes out from it. He says\\nalso that when I saw for the first time the little cave of\\nRoth, which was filled with fairly numerous ice formations,\\nit was precisely the smallness of the volume of air and the\\nstrange appearance of the ice which made the simple cold\\nair theory seen insufficient, nor could I later, by widening\\nthe theory and observing the localities from the basis of", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0358.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 299\\nDeLuc s theory, accept it. It always seemed by all my\\nobservations that in the rock there must be a lasting\\nsource of cold. There must be a cause present, which\\nprevents the rapid warming of the cave wall through the\\ntemperature of the ground, which also keeps the stone\\ncool in summer and induces the main ice formation in the\\nspring. He also hints that Mr. Lowe s compressed air\\ntheory may be the correct one. Dr. Schwalbe s work,\\nUber Eishohlen und Eislocher, is one of the four or five\\nmost important contributions to glaciere literature, and\\nhis opinion is entitled to great respect on account of his\\nmany observations.\\nProfessor Israel C. Russell wrote in 1890, about the ice\\nbeds on the Yukon It is thought by some observers,\\nto be an inheritance from a former period of extreme cold\\nbut under existing climatic conditions, when ice forms\\nbeneath a layer of moss, it is preserved during the short\\nsummer, and may increase as it does on the tundras, to\\nan astonishing thickness.\\nIn 1897, Professor Russell says: It is not probable\\nthat all the subsoil ice of northern regions has been\\nformed in one way. Along the flood plains and on the\\ndeltas of rivers where layers of clear ice are interbedded\\nwith sheets of frozen gravel and vegetable matter, as is\\nfrequently the case, it seems evident that the growth of\\nthe deposit is due, in some instances, to the flooding of\\npreviously frozen layers, and the freezing and subsequent\\nburial of the sediment thus added to their surfaces.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0359.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "300 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nWhen spring freshets spread out sheets of debris over\\nthe flood plain of a river, as frequently happens when\\nstreams in high latitudes flow northward, the previously\\nfrozen soil and the ice of ponds and swamps may be\\nburied and indefinitely preserved. There is still\\nanother process by which frozen subsoil may be formed in\\nhigh latitudes this is, the effects of the cold during the\\nlong winters are not counteracted by the heat during the\\nshort summers. Under the conditions now prevailing in\\nnorthern Alaska, where the mean annual temperature is\\nbelow 32\u00c2\u00b0 Fahrenheit, the frozen layer tends to increase\\nthe thickness from year to year just as the depth of frozen\\nsoil in more temperate latitudes may increase from month\\nto month during the winter season. During the short\\nnorthern summers, especially where the ground is moss\\ncovered, melting only extends a few inches below the sur-\\nface.\\nMons. E. A. Martel, in 1892, wrote of the Creux-\\nPerce I incline only, as in all the pits which narrow at\\nthe bottom {avens a retrecissement) to attribute the chilling\\nto the fall of the cold air of winter and to its non-renewal\\nin summer. And at page 564 oi Les Abimes he says:\\nOne knows that evaporation is an active cause of cool-\\ning therefore it is always cooler in caves near the drips\\nof water. j have positively noted this influence\\nof evaporation near the drips of Tabourel (8\u00c2\u00b0 instead of\\n9.5\u00c2\u00b0), of Dargilan, of the Cerna Jama, and in abysses with\\ndouble mouths where there were strong draughts (Raba-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0360.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 3OI\\nnel, Biau, Fosse-Mobile, etc.). In December, 1897,\\nMons. Martel writes: **In short, the action of the winter s\\ncold is the real cause accepted by and recently\\nconfirmed by Fugger, Trouillet and Martel. And also\\nIt is probable that this influence [evaporation] is only\\nreal at rather high altitudes this is at least what seems\\nthe result of the studies of the caves of Naye (1700 to\\n1900 meters) begun by Professor Dutoit.\\nIn 1899, Mons. Martel gave an account of the Glaciere\\nde Naye. In this paper, he abandons definitely fossil ice,\\nsalts and the capillary theory as possible causes of under-\\nground ice. He considers that there are four causes\\nI, shape of the cavity; 2, free access of snow in winter;\\n3, high altitude 4, evaporation due to wind currents.\\nThe last two causes he thinks are not necessarily always\\npresent. For instance he considers that, at the Creux-\\nPerce, and at Chaux-les-Passavant, the ice is due espe-\\ncially to the sack or hour-glass shape of these hollows where\\nthe summer air cannot get in on account of its lightness.\\nAt the Glaciere de Naye, which is a big windhole, situated\\nat an altitude of 1750 to 1820 meters, Mons. Martel thinks\\nthat the ice is formed by the snow and cold of winter, but\\nthat its preservation is assured by the evaporation caused\\nby the action of the windhole.\\nDr. Terlanday, in 1893, asserted that ice does not form\\nin Szilize in winter, and that the ice first forms in the win-\\nter in the upper part of rock fissures and that in the\\nspring, at the time of an increase of temperature, this", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0361.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "302 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nfissure ice is brought to the melting point by the succes-\\nsive entering of heat into the earth and that it then arrives\\nat the cave, where it aids the formation of icicles. This\\ntheor}- about fissure ice is probably in so far correct, that\\nthe ice in the upper parts of fissures, near the surface of\\nthe ground, melts before the ice in the lower parts of fis-\\nsures. The drip would then naturally run into the cave\\nand, as long as the temperature of the cave was low, help\\nto form cave ice.\\nDr. Hans Lohmann, in 1S95, published some valuable\\nnotes about several glacieres. While considering the cold\\nof winter as the main cause of the ice. he thought evapo-\\nration a secondan cause of cold. He says: That the\\ncold from evaporation bears its share in cooling a cave,\\nwill not be denied. The air saturated with\\naqueous vapor makes one think of constant evaporation.\\nThe aqueous vapor spreads itself by diffusion throughout\\nthe entire cave, and if the outside air is driest, goes to\\nthat. Through this, more ice and water can always be\\nvaporized, and to the warming elements there is furnished\\na coolino; one. If dr\\\\ winds s^et into the cave, then must\\nevaporation be ver)- lively and the chilling especially\\nstrong. Through this cause alone can be explained the\\nremarkably low temperature of 6.3 in the new part of\\nthe Garischen StoUen. in contrast to the temperature of\\n-r 7.9\u00c2\u00b0 in the old part. The strong draught in the last\\ndrew out through its suction the damp air of the new\\nadit, so that there had to be a strong evaporation.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0362.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 303\\nDr. Lohmann gives some exhaustive notes about pris-\\nmatic ice. He found it a product of the fall months. He\\nthinks all the observations show that the beginning of all\\nprismatic formation in the ice may be looked for in the\\nchanges of temperature in the cave at the time of the\\nformation of the ice. These cause the everywhere recog-\\nnized splitting, vertically to the outer surface. The further\\ndevelopment hangs, as shown by Hagenbach and Emden,\\non the attempt of the neighboring cells, to join into larger\\nunities. The increase of the larger crystals is finally pre-\\nvented by the melting out of the openings between the\\nseparate crystals. Through this may be explained the\\ndifference in the prismatic ice in different parts of the\\nsame cave.\\nRegierungsrath Franz Kraus, in 1895, wrote a short\\nessay on glacieres in Hohlenkunde. He seems to have\\nseen but few glacieres himself, and considers the scientific\\nside of the question by no means solved as yet. He says\\nThe last word will not be spoken by the geographers and\\nthe Alpine climbers ]3y physicists, in\\nwhose field both questions really belong. Only then, when\\nthe physical circumstances of the formation of the ice in\\nglacieres have been so thoroughly understood, that under\\nthe same circumstances it may be possible to build arti-\\nficial glacieres, only then could one say the glaciere\\nquestion is definitely settled. The best proof is always\\nexperiment.\\nHe lays down several dicta which he says are", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0363.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "304 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nuniversally recognized, among which is this: 2. The ice\\nformations in the debris heaps of basaltic mountains are\\nsummer ice formations. The evaporation of the infiltra-\\ntion water is recognized on all sides as the cause of this\\nice. I differ in opinion from Herr Kraus about this\\nmatter, and think that, on the contrary, every proof shows\\nthat the ice of basaltic taluses is not a summer forma-\\ntion and is not due to evaporation.\\nHerr Kraus also says: The Eishohlen resemble so\\nlittle the Windrohren, that for these a proper name is quite\\ncorrect. Just as one cannot draw a sharp line between\\nEinstilrzschlunden and Einstilrzdolinen, so one cannot\\ndraw a sharp line between eishohlen and windrohren, A\\nstagnation of cave air does not exist, and no cave stu-\\ndent would pretend to say it existed. The circulation\\nof air may in certain caves take place almost entirely\\nthrough the mouth and it then depends largely on the\\nshape of the latter in other caves are crevices and\\nerosion holes, which allow a circulation of air. Again in\\nother caves air may come through the floor into the\\ncave, as is proved by certain places always remaining\\nfree from ice.\\nHe also says The formation of dripstone is also\\ndiminished about thick roofs, when the cracks are too\\nbroad to permit a slow dripping process. In caves with\\nsufficient air movements, that is ventilation, the dripstone\\nformation takes place faster than in those in which the air\\nis only slowly renewed. Also in such caves, in which the\\nair is strongly filled with moisture, the dripstone forma-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0364.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 305\\ntion process is materially hindered. Therefore in water\\ncaves and in eishohlen one finds only rarely dripstone\\nformations, and these mainly of poor appearance. But in\\nall cases the carbonic acid of the infiltration water plays\\nan important part.\\nIn 1896, a Western newspaper published the follow-\\ning explanation about the presence of ice in the cave\\nat Elkinsville, Indiana and it shows how the idea\\nlong since exploded of the ice being due to chemical\\ncauses, serenely bobs up on the discovery of a new cave\\nSome have advanced the theory that the air is forced\\nthrough under passages of the earth with such pressure\\nas to make the strange formation some have attributed\\nthe cause to an underlying bed of alkali, whose chemical\\nchange to a gaseous form has produced the phenomenon.\\nOthers have thought that the interior heat of the earth,\\nacting upon the iron pyrites, or fool s gold, which largely\\nabounds in this country, is the true source of this unpar-\\nalleled discovery. Still others think that the sudden ex-\\npansion of the carbonic acid gas given off by the heated\\nlimestone, which is also common in this country, could\\nhave easily produced the ice. But thus far the theories\\nare nothing more than speculation, and further than the\\nfact that the ice cave exists, and is, indeed, a remarkable\\nphenomenon, none has been able to further determine.\\nIn 1896, Dr. A. Cvijic wrote that the cold air of winter\\nis the source of cold in the glacieres of Servia. The", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0365.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "o\\n06 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nmountains have so little water that the shepherds con-\\nstantly take the ice out in summer for their own use.\\nIn 1897, numerous newspapers, among others, the\\nPhiladelphia Press of August ist, romanced as follows\\nabout the cave at Decorah In the summer its tempera-\\nture is far below freezing. From some unknown\\nsource in the impenetrable rear of the cave comes a\\nblast of cold air as chill as from the Arctic region. In\\nthe winter the temperature of the cave is like summer.\\n\\\\yg followed the winding passage in and out\\nfor more than 1000 feet. I took out the ther-\\nmometer and laid it upon the floor of the cavern for three\\nminutes. When I took it up again I found that the\\nmercur)^ had fallen to 5 degrees below zero.\\nWhat is it that causes this phenomenon Scientific\\nmen are said to have visited the cave within the last day or\\ntwo who have declared that it had in some manner a sub-\\nterranean connection with the polar regions, and that the\\ncold air from the North coming in contact with the warm\\nmoist atmosphere from outside converted the vapor into\\nwater on the walls of the cavern where it straightway con-\\ngealed. j^ seems to me possible after thinking\\nthe matter over carefully, that in some mysterious manner\\nthe same influences that work the changes in climate in\\nthe Arctic and Antarctic regions are operating in this\\ncave. It is a well-known fact that in the regions re-\\nferred to the seasons are the reverse of what they are\\nhere.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0366.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 307\\nMr. W. S. Auchincloss writes in 1897: *We also\\nnotice the working of the same principle during summer\\ndays. The hottest part does not occur at the noon hour\\nwhen the sun is on the meridian ^but several hours later\\nin the afternoon. In this case the accessions of heat ar-\\nrive more rapidly than radiation is able to carry off. Radia-\\ntion, however, keeps on apace, and, at last attaining the\\nmastery, temperature falls. Ice caves furnish another ex-\\nample of the gradual procession in the seasons.\\nMr. Alois F. Kovarik writes about Decorah in 1898\\nthat the length of duration of the ice in the cave during\\nthe spring and summer depends upon the quantity of\\ncold stored up in the walls and this again upon the cold-\\nness and the length of coldness of the previous winter.\\nIf the winter be severe and long, the walls will store up a\\ngreat supply of cold for the gradual dissipation in the\\nspring and summer and consequently the phenomenon of\\nthe ice in the ice chambers will last longer. Last winter,\\nwith an exception of the fore part of December, was quite\\nmild. As a result, the ice began to disappear with the\\nlatter part of June, and totally disappeared by the end of\\nJuly. The time of the lowest temperature in\\nthe cave depends upon how soon the cold spells of the\\nwinter begin for the sooner the walls begin to freeze to\\na greater depth, the sooner have they stored up the\\ngreatest amount of cold. February 28th, 1898,\\nwhen the walls contained the greatest amount of cold,\\nthere was no ice in the cave, for the reason that no water", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0367.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "J\\n08 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nmade appearance. Could water have appeared, no doubt\\na great amount of ice would have formed but as the con-\\nditions are, the water has to come from the eround out-\\nside, and this being frozen at the time, water could not in\\nany natural way appear. If in early spring, sufficiently\\nwarm days should come to melt the snow and open the\\nground, the water not taken up by the ground would flow\\nand seep through crevices into the cave and ice conse-\\nquently would appear early. Somewhat such conditions\\nprevailed this year, for warm days appeared quite early in\\nthe spring. If per co7itra the ground does not open until\\nin April, as was the case in 1895 1896, the appearance\\nof the ice is consequently delayed. Naturally\\nthis opening [the entrance] w^as small, but to give easier\\nentrance, it was enlarged to its present size.\\nIf the entrance had been left a small opening, as it\\nnaturally was, it is my belief that the temperature of the\\ninterior of the cave would be lower in summer than it is^\\nand the ice would not disappear as soon as it does.\\nMr. Robert Butler, of San Jose, Cal., investigated the\\nquestion of cold air draughts coming from the glaciere\\ncave and from the freezing shaft he examined in Montana.\\nHe wrote to me, in 1898, that he found that one notices\\nor imagines to notice a draught of air, especially on hot\\ndays. Rapidly walking into the cave from the hot air with-\\nout to the rapidly cooling air within produces the same\\nnerv^ous sensations as though one were to remain station-\\nar} and the air were to pass by from the warm to the", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0368.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "SOME OPINIONS ABOUT GLACIERES. 3O9\\ncolder portions. A distance of twelve meters finds a\\ndifference in temperature of fifteen degrees Centigrade.\\nTwelve meters can be walked quickly, so quickly that the\\nnerves cannot become accustomed gradually to the change\\nof temperature. The rapidly cooling air does actually pro-\\nduce the sensation of cool air passing by one s face. It\\nproduces somewhat the same sensation as the evapora-\\ntion of ether on the surface of the body. Mr. Butler\\nsatisfied himself that as far as he had observed all the\\nseemingly peculiar conditions and places where the ice\\nhas been found do not indicate any other causes when\\ncarefully investigated than those of the seasons of the\\nyear, and that the ice was formed by no other cause\\nthan the natural cold of winter.\\nProfessor Cranmer, in 1899, added some important con-\\ntributions to our knowledge of freezing caverns. All his\\nwork goes to prove the winter s cold theory, but he has\\nbrought out some new details. He found warm and cold\\nperiods in the Tablerloch during the winter months. The\\ncoldest air sank to the bottom and the air in the cave\\nstratified itself according to its specific gravity and its\\ntemperature. During a cold period, the outside air sank\\ninto the cave only to the air stratum, whose temperature,\\nfrom the preceding warm period, was as much higher as\\nthat of the outer air, as this had become warmer in sink-\\ning to that stratum. The air which enters falls down the\\nslope and displaces an equal volume of air which streams\\nout under the roof.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0369.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "3IO GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nWater will sometimes drip through a crack in winter\\nuntil that crack freezes up, when the water may then find\\nsome other crack to drip through at this second place\\na stalagmite may then grow, w^hile at the first place the\\nstalagmite may stop growing and even begin to diminish\\nfrom evaporation.\\nIce begins to form, whenever water gets into a cave,\\nif the cave temperature is below o\u00c2\u00b0 ice begins to melt\\nas soon as the temperature is over o\u00c2\u00b0.\\nProfessor Cranmer found that occasionally small quan-\\ntities of ice form in caves in the summer months this\\nwas in mountain caves, where there was snow on the\\nmountains and the temperature of the nights at least,\\nhad sunk below freezing point: in fact when the condi-\\ntions were those of the winter months.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0370.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "PART V.\\nLIST OF AUTHORS.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0371.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0372.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "LIST OF AUTHORS.\\n75\\nAllen, Levi. Scientific AmericaUy New Series^ October\\n27th, 1883, page 259.\\nAmerican Journal of Science and Arts iS39 vol. XXXVI.,\\npage 184.\\nAucHiNCLOSS, W. S., C. E. Waters within the Earth and\\nthe Laws of Rainflow, Philadelphia, 1897.\\nDiADiN, Adolphe. Grottes et Cavernes, Paris, Hachette, 1867.\\nBaedeker, Karl. Handbook of Austria, Handbook of the\\nEastern Alps. Handbook of South Eastern France,\\nHandbook of Switzerland, Handbook of the United\\nStates.\\nBaker, M. S. The Lava Region of Northern California:\\nSierra Club Bulletin, San Francisco, Cal., 1899,\\nvol. II., page 318.\\nBalch, Edwin Swift. Ice Caves and the Causes of Sub-\\nterranean Ice: Allen, Lane Scott, Philadelphia,\\nNovember, 1896, and The Journal of the Franklin\\nInstitute, Philadelphia, March, 1897, vol. CXLIIL,\\npages 1 61-178. Ice Cave Hunting in Central Europe\\nAppalachia, Boston, 1897, vol. VIII., pages 203-209.\\nThis list of authors includes all the authorities which I have per-\\nsonally consulted. Several papers, such as Dr. Schwalbe s \u00e2\u0080\u00a2^Ueber-\\nsichtliche Zusammenstellung Literarischer Notizen ueber Eiskbhlen\\nand the works of Dr. Listoff, I have been unable to find in any library.\\nC313)", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0373.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "314 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nSiibte7 7 a7tea7i Ice Deposits iji America yourjial of\\nthe Frajiklin histitute, Philadelphia, April, 1899, vol.\\nCXLVIL, pages 286-297.\\nBaltzer, Dr. A. Eine Neue Eishohle im Berner Oberland\\nyahrbuch des Schweizer Alpen Club, Bern, 1 892-1 893,\\npages 358-362.\\nBehrens, Dr. Georg Henning. Hercynia Curiosa,\\nNordhausen, 1703.\\nBel, Matthias. Philosophical Transactions, London,\\n1739, vol. XLI., page a^\\\\ et seq.\\nBenedict, Aiden S. Decor ah Republican, June 19th, 1881.\\nBerthoud, Edward L. American y our nal of Science and\\nArts, Third Series, 1876, vol. XL, page 108.\\nBiELZ, E. Albert. Siebenbilrgen, Handbuch, Carl Graeser,\\nWien, 1885.\\nBiLLEREz, Mons. de. Histoire de V Academic Royale des\\nScieiices, 171 2, page 22 et seq.\\nBonne Y, T. G. The Alpine Regions, 1868. Nature, vol.\\nXL, pages 310, 327, 328.\\nBouE, Dr. Ami. La Turquie d Europe, Paris, 1840, vol.\\nL, page 132. Sitzungsbericht der K, K. Akademie\\nder Wis sense ha f ten in Wien, 1864, L Theil, page\\n^21 et seq,\\nBoz, Mons. de, Ingenieur du Roy. Histoire de V Acade-\\nmie Royale des Sciences, 1726, pages 16, 17.\\nBrowne, The Reverend G. F. Ice Caves in France and\\nSwitzerla7id, London, Longmans, 1865. Ice Caves of\\nAnnecy Good Words, Edinburgh, November, 1866.\\nBulletin, The Evening, Philadelphia, March ist, 1899.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0374.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "LIST OF AUTHORS. 315\\nBuRSLEM, Captain Rollo. A Peep into Toorktstkan, 1 846.\\nC. B. A. Scientific American, May 3d, 1879.\\nCantwell, Lieutenant J. C. Ice Cliffs on the Kowak\\nRiver National Geographic Magazine, October, 1896.\\nCarrel, Chanoine G. Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve,\\n1841, vol. XXXIV., page 196.\\nChristian Herald, March 24th, 1897.\\nCoLLADON. His manuscript notes were used by J. A.\\nDeluc in Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Paris,\\n1822, vol. XXL, page 113 seq.\\nCOSSIGNY, MONS. DE, InGENIEUR EN CHEF DE BeSAN^ON.\\nMemoires de Mathematique et de physique presentes a\\nr Academie Roy ale des Sciences, 1750, vol. I., page\\n195 etseq.\\nCranmer, Professor Hans. Eishohlen und Windrohren\\nStudien Abhandlungen der K, K. Geographischen\\nGesellschaft in Wien, vol. I., 1899.\\nCranmer, Professor Hans, and Sieger, Professor Dr.\\nRob. Untersuchungen in den Oetscherhohlen Glo-\\nbus, 1899, vol. LXXV., pages 2 ^Z-2 and ZZZ-ZZ^-\\nCvijic, Dr. a. Les Glacieres Naturelles de Serbie\\nSpelunca, Bulletin de la Societe de Speleologie, 2\u00e2\u0084\u00a2^\\nAnnee, Paris, 1896, pages 64-77.\\nDawkins, Professor W. Boyd. Cave Hunting, London,\\nMacmillan, 1874.\\nDeLuc, Jean Andre, Neveu. Des Glacieres Naturelles\\net de la cause qui forme la glace dans ces cavites,\\nGeneve 12 October, 1822 Annales de Chimie et de\\nPhysique, Paris, 1822, vol. XXL, page 113 seq.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0375.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "3l6 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nDent, R. K., and Hill, Joseph. Historic Staffordshire,\\nBirmingham, 1896.\\nDewey. American Journal of Science and Arts, 1819,\\nvol. I., page 340, and 1822, vol. V., page 398.\\nDispatch: Frankford, Pennsylvania, 2 2d January, 1897.\\nDiTTMAR, C. V. Ueber die Eismiilden im Ostlichen Sibi-\\nrien: Bulletin de la classe Physico-mathematique de\\nr Academie Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg,\\n1853, Tome XL, pages 305-312.\\nDrioton, Clement. Les Cavernes de la Cote d^ Or\\nMemoir es de la Societe de Speleologie, Paris, 1897,\\nvol. I., page 209.\\nDufour, Lieutenant-Colonel. Notice sur la caverne\\net glacier e naturelle du Rothhorn Bibliotheque Uni-\\nverselle de Geneve, 1822, vol. XXL, page 113 seq.\\nDufour, L. Ueber das Gefrieren des Wassers und ilber\\ndie Bildung des Hagels Pogge7idorff s Annalen der\\nPhysik und Chemie, 1861, vol. CXIV., pages 530-554.\\nDun ANT, C. Le Parmelan et ses Lapiaz Annuaire du\\nClub Alpin Frangais, 2^^ vol., Paris, 1875.\\nFuGGER, Professor Eberhard. Uber Eishohlen Peter-\\nmanns Mittheilungen, vol. XXIX., 1883, pages 12-19.\\nBeobachtungen in den Eishohlen des Untersberges,\\nSalzburg, 1888. Eishohlen und Windrohen, Salzburg,\\n1 89 1, 1892, 1893. Eishohlen und Windrohren Mit-\\ntheilungen der K. K. Geographischen Gesellschaft^\\nVienna, 1894, pages 97-134.\\nGeographic, La Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie,\\nParis, 1900, vol. L, pages 52-54.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0376.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "LIST OF AUTHORS. 317\\nGeorgi, John Gottl. B enter kungen einer Reise Itu Rus-\\nsischen Reich, Saint Petersburg, 1775, vol. I., page 369.\\nGiBBS, G. American yournal of Science and Arts, 1853,\\nSecond Series, vol. XV., page 146.\\nGirardot, Albert. Les dernieres observations du Cap-\\nitaine L. Trouillet a la glacier e de Chaux-les-Passavant\\nMemoir es de la Societe d Emulation du Doubs, 1886.\\nGirod-Chantrans, Le Citoyen. Journal des Mines,\\nPrairial, An. IV., pages 65-72.\\nGoLLUT, Lois. Les Memoires Historiques de la Repub.\\nSequanoise, Dole, 1592.\\nGuiMARD, Paul. Voyage en Islande et au Groenland\\nexecute pendant les annees 18 j^ et 18 j6, Paris, 1838.\\nGuYOT, Professor Arnold. Well s Annual of Scientific\\nDiscovery, 1856, page 190.\\nHablizl. Description physiqtie de la contree de la\\nTauride, La Haye, 1788, pages 35-43.\\nHacquet. Oryctographia Carniolica, Leipzig, 1778.\\nHager, Albert D. Hitchcock s Geology of Vermont, 1861,\\nvol. I., page 198 et seq.\\nHann, Hochstetter and Pokony. Allgemeine Erd-\\nkunde, 1887, pages 435, 436.\\nHayden, C. B. American Journal of Science and Arts,\\n1843, vol. XLV., page ^Z.\\nHeilprin, Professor Angelo. Ice Caves and Ice Gorges\\nAround the World, Philadelphia, 1894, pages 194, 195.\\nHenderson, Ebenezer. Iceland, or a Journal of a Resi-\\ndence in that Island, Edinburgh, 18 19, 2d Edition,\\npage 420.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0377.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "3l8 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nHitchcock, Professor Edward. Geology of Vermonty\\n1 86 1, vol. I.\\nHistoire de V Acade77iie Royale des ScienceSy 1686, Tome II.,\\npages 2, 3, 22 published in Paris in 1733.\\nHovEY, The Reverend Horace Carter. Celebrated\\nAmerican Caverns, Cincinnati, Robert Clarke,\\n1882.\\nHumboldt, Alexander von. Personal Narrative of\\nTravels to the Equinoctial Regions London, 18 14,\\nvol. I., pages 154-156.\\nIce Trade Jou^^nal, Philadelphia, July, 1897.\\nInto the Schafioch Temple Bar, London, November,\\n1 86 1, vol. III., pages 393-401.\\nJackson. Report of the Geology of Maine, 1839, vol. III.\\nJars. Voyages Metallurgiques, 1774, vol. I., page 108.\\nJarz, Konrad. Die Eishbhlen bei Train in Mdhren\\nPetermann s Mittheilungen, 1882, pages 170-176.\\nJungk, C. G. Ueber Temperaturerniedrigung bei der\\nAbsorption des Wassers durch feste Korper Poggen-\\ndorff^s Annale7i der Physik und Chemie, 1865, vol.\\nCXXIV., pages 292-308.\\nKircher, Athanasius. Mundus Subterraneus, 1664.\\nKiRCHHOFF, Theodore. Reisebilder und Skizzen aus\\nAmerica, 1876, vol. II., page 211.\\nKoRBER, H. Das Schafioch yahrbuch des Schweizer\\nAlpen Club, Bern, 1885, vol. XX., pages 316-343.\\nKotzebue, Otto von. A Voyage of Discovery into the\\nSouth Sea and Bering s Strait in the years 181^-1818,\\nLondon, 1821, vol. I., page 220.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0378.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "LIST OF AUTHORS. 319\\nKovARiK, Alois F. The Decorah Ice Cave and its Ex-\\nplanation Scientific American Supplement No. 1195,\\nNovember 26, 1898, pages 191 58, 191 59. Ice Cave\\nObservations: Decorah Public Opinion, September\\n20th, 1899.\\nKraus, Franz. Hbhlenkunde, Wien, 1894.\\nKrenner, Dr. Jos. Alex. Die Eishohle von Dobschau,\\nBudapest, 1874.\\nLathrop, Dr. S. Pearl. American Journal of Science and\\nArts, 1844, vol. XLVL, page 331.\\nLee, C. a. American Journal of Science and Arts, 1824,\\nvol. VIII., page 254.\\nLepechin, Dr. Iwan. Tagebuch der Reise durch verschie-\\ndenen Provinzen des Russischen Reiches in den Jahren\\nlydS, lySg, Altenburg, 1774.\\nLoHMANN, Hans. Das Hohleneis unter besonderer Berilck-\\nsichtigung einiger Eishohlen des Erzgebirges, Jena,\\n1895-\\nLooMis, Professor Elias. Edinburgh Philosophical Jour-\\nnal, New Series, i860, vol. XII., page 283.\\nLowe, N. M. Paradoxical Phenomena in Ice Caves\\nScience Observer, vol. II., pages 57, 58, Boston, 1879.\\nLowe, W. Besant. La Glaciere Naturelle de Dobschau:\\nLa Nature, 2d August, 1879.\\nLyell, Sir Charles. Principles of Geology, nth Edition,\\nNew York, Appleton Co., 1877.\\nM. L. E. Decorah Republican, June loth, 1879.\\nMacomber, D. O. American Journal of Science and Arts,\\n1839, vol. XXXVI., page 184.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0379.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "320 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nMarbach, Dr. Oswald. H ohlen Physikalisches Lexicon,\\nvol. III., pages 836-842.\\nMarinitsch, J. La Kacna Jama Memoir es de la So-\\nciete de Speleologie, April, 1896, vol. I., page 83 seq.\\nMartel, Edouard Alfred. Les Abimes, Paris, Charles\\nDelagrave, 1894. Sous Terre Annuaire du Club\\nAlpin Frangais, vol. XXIII., 1896, pages 42, 43.\\nReviews in French of Ice Caves and the Causes, etc,\\nand Ice Cave Hunting, etc., by E. S. Balch Memoir es\\nde la Societe de Speleologie, Paris, vol. I., December,\\n1897, pa-ges 349-352. iom.e Campagne Souterraine\\nMemoir es de la Societe de Speleologie, vol. III., 1899,\\npages 246-254.\\nMeehan, W. E. Philadelphia Ledger, 1896.\\nMeissner, Franz. Ueber die beim, Benetzen pulverformiger\\nKorper auftretende Wdrmetonung Wiedemann! s An-\\nnalen der Physik und Chemie, 1886, vol. XXIX.,\\npages 1 14-13 1.\\nMenegaux. La Glacier e Nature lie de la Grdce-Dieu ou\\nde Chaux-les-Passavant Illustration, Paris, 30th Jan-\\nuary, 1897.\\nMercer, Henry Chapman. The Hill Caves of Yucatan^\\nPhiladelphia, J. B. Lippincott, 1896.\\nMiddendorff, Dr. A. Th. von. Zusatz Bulletin de la\\nclass e physico-mathematique de V Academie Impericde\\ndes Sciences de St. Peter sbourg, 1853, Tome XI.,\\npages 312-316.\\nMontpeyreux, Dubois de. Voyage autour du Caucase,\\n1843.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0380.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "LIST OF AUTHORS. 321\\nMoRiN, AuGUSTE. Quoted by Thury in Bibliotheque\\nUniverselle de Geneve, 1861, vol. X., page 150.\\nMoussoN, A. Einige Thatsachen betreffend das Schmelzen\\nund Gefrieren des Wassers Poggendorff s Annalen\\nder Physik und Chemie, 1858, vol. CV., pages 161-174.\\nMuNRO, J., C. E. yack Frost as an Artist CasseWs\\nFamily Magazine, February, 1895, pages 228-231.\\nMuRCHisoN, Vernieul AND Keyserling. The Geology of\\nRussia and the Ural Mountains, 1845, ^^1. I., pages\\n186-198.\\nNagel, J. N. His manuscript was published in 1857 by\\nSchmidl in Die Hohlen des Otscker, pages 36-39.\\nNature s Ice Caves Chambers Edinburgh journal, New\\nSeries, 1850, vol. XII., page 169.\\nNicholson, journal of Natter al Philosophy, 1797, vol. L,\\npage 2 2() et seq.\\nNiESSL, G. Verhandlungen des Naturforschenden Verein\\nin Briinn, 1867, P^g ^2.\\nOlafsen, Eggert and Povelsen, Biarne. Voyage en\\nIslande traduit du Danois par Gautier de Lapeyronie,\\nParis, 1802.\\nOlmstaed, Professor D. Well s Annual of Scientific\\nDiscovery, 1856, page 190.\\nOwen, Luella Agnes. Cave Regions of the Ozarks and\\nBlack Hills, Cincinnati, The Editor Publishing Com-\\npany, 1898.\\nParrot, Georg Friederich. Grundriss der Physik der\\nErde und Geologic, Riga and Leipzig, 181 5, pages\\n92-99.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0381.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "32 2 GLACIl^RES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nPelech, Dr. Johann E. The Valley of Stracena and the\\nDobschau Ice Cavern translated by W. Bezant Lowe\\nLondon, Triibner Co., 1879.\\nPeters, Karl F. Geologische und Miner alogisc he Studien\\naus dent Silddstlichen Ungarn Sitzungsbericht der\\nK. K. Akademie der Wissenchaften, Vienna, vol.\\nXLIIL, 1861, pages 435-437.\\nPetruzzi, Professor. In Berichte Uber die Mittheilungen\\nvon Freunden der Naturwissenschaften in Wien col-\\nlected and published by Wilhelm Haidinger, vol.\\nVIL, Vienna, December, 1857.\\nPiCTET, Professor M. A. Memoires de la Societe d His-\\ntoire Naturelle de Geneve y 1821, vol. I., page 151.\\nMemoir e sur les glacieres naturelles du fura et des\\nAlpes Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve y 1822, vol.\\nXX., page 261 et seq.\\nPleischl, Professor A. Uber das Eis im Sommer Zwischen\\nden Basalttrilmmern bei Kameik in Bohmen Poggen-\\ndorff s Annalen der Physik und Chemiey 1841, vol.\\nLIV., pages 292-299.\\nPoggendorff, J. C. Annalen der Physik und Chemiey\\nErgdnzungsbandy 1842, pages 517-519; and 1850,\\nvol. LXXXL, page 579 et seq.\\nPoissENOT, Benigne. Nouvelles Histoires TragiqueSy\\nParis, 1586.\\nPosse LT-CsoRiCH, A. Zeitschrift des Deutschen und Oes-\\nterreichischen Alpen Vereiny 1880.\\nPost-Dispatchy St. Louis, July 13th and September 5th,\\n1897.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0382.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "LIST OF AUTHORS. 323\\nPresSy The, Philadelphia, August ist, 1897.\\nPrestwich, Joseph. On Underground Temperatures\\nProceedings Royal Society, 1885. Reprinted in Col-\\nlected papers on some controverted questions of Geology,\\nLondon, Macmillan, 1885.\\nPrevost, Professor Pierre. Journal de Geneve, No. 11,\\n2 1 St March, 1789. Recherches physico-mecaniques sur\\nla chdleur Solaire, Geneve, 1792, page 206.\\nPublic Ledger, The, Philadelphia, July 6th, 1896; and Sep-\\ntember 25 th, 1899.\\nRaymond, R. W. The Ice Caves of Washington Terri-\\ntory Overland Monthly, 1869, vol. III., page 421.\\nReich, F. Beobachtungen ilber die Temper atur des Ges-\\nteines, Freiberg, 1834, pages 175-205.\\nRitchie, John, Jr. Editorial Science Observer, Boston,\\n1879, vol. II., pages 60-64. Ice Caves Boston Tran-\\nscript, January 2d, 1897. Talks in Science Fields:\\nThe Happy Thought, Boston, January 23d, 1897,\\npage 10.\\nRogers, Professor W. B. WeW s Annual of Scientific\\nDiscovery, 1856, page 190.\\nRoMAiN-JoLY, Fr. Joseph, Capucin. La Franc he- Comte,\\nLettres a Mile, d Udressier, Paris, 1779, pages 32, 2)o*\\nRosENMULLER, Dr., and TiLEsius, Dr. Beschreibung\\nMerkwiirdiger Hohlen, Leipzig, 1 799.\\nRozET. Encyclopedic Moderne, Didot freres, Paris, 1858,\\nTome XVI., page 502.\\nRussell, Professor Israel Cook. A Journey up the\\nYukon River: Bulletin American Geographical Society,", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0383.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "324 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nvol. XXVII. No. 2, page 149. Seco?id expedition\\nto Mount Sai7it Elias Thirtee7ith A^umal Report\\nU^iited States Geological Su7 vey, 1891\u00e2\u0080\u009492, page 19.\\nGlaciers of North A^iierica, Boston, Ginn Co.,\\n1897.\\nSartori, Dr. Franz. Natiirwtmder des O ester reichiscJien\\nKaiserthums, Vienna, 1809. Neiieste Reise durch\\nOesterreich, Leipzig, 181 2.\\nSaussure, Horace Benedict de. Voyages daiis les Alpes,\\n1796, Tome III., sections 1404-1416.\\nScHMiDL, Professor Dr. Adolf. Die Grotten und\\nHohlen von Adelsberg, Liieg, Planifia tmd Laas,\\nVienna, 1854. Die Hohlen des Otscher, Vienna, 1857.\\nDie Oesterreichische?i Hohlen, Pest, 1858.\\nSchwalbe, Professor Dr. B. Uber Eishbhleyi U7id\\nabnor7ne Eisbildiaigoi VerJia7idhc7ige7i der Gesell-\\nsc haft fur Erdku7ide zti Berli7i, 1881, pages 146-163.\\nUber Eishdhle7i 7C7id Eislocher, Berlin, Gaertner s\\nBuchhandlung, 1886.\\nScie7itific A77ierican, New Series, vol. III., July, i860, page\\n51 vol. XVIII., Januai*}-, 1868, page 3; vol. XXVII.,\\nOctober, 1872, page 248.\\nScott, Robert H., ]\\\\I. A., F. R. S. Ele7ne7itary Meteor-\\nology, Third Edition, London, Kegan Paul, French\\nCo., 1885.\\nScROPE, G. PouLETT. Edi7iburgh Jotiriial of Scie7ice,\\n1826, vol. v., page 154. Me77ioir of the Geology of\\nCe7itral Era7ice, London, 1827. The Geology and\\nExti7ict Volca7ioes of Ce7itral France, London, 1858.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0384.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "LIST OF AUTHORS. 325\\nSieger, Professor Dr. Rob. See Cranmer.\\nSiLLiMAN, Benjamin. American yotirnal of Science and\\nArts, 1822, vol. IV., pages 174 and 177; and 1839,\\nvol. XXXVL, page 185.\\nSmyth, C. Piazzi. Teneriffe, An Astronomer s Experi-\\nm^ent, 1858.\\nSpeleologie, Memoir es de la Societe de, Paris, vols. I., II.,\\nIII. Beginning in 1897.\\nSpelunca, Bulletin de la Societe de Speleologie, Paris. Be-\\nginning with January, 1895.\\nStrachey, General Sir Richard. Narrative of a Jour-\\nney to the Lakes Rakas-tal and Manasorowar, in\\nWestern Tibet, undertaken in September, 184.8 Geo-\\ngraphical Journal, London, 1900, vol. XV., page 168.\\nTelegraph, The Evening, Philadelphia, January 2d, 1896,\\nand Januar^^ 20th, 1897.\\nTerlanday, Professor Emil. Meine Erfahrungen in\\nder Eishohle von Szilize Petermann s Mittheilungen.\\n1893, P^g ^Z Sommereisbildung in der Eishohle\\nvon Szilize Petermann s Mittheilungen, 1 896, page\\n217.\\nThoma, Dr. C. Das Unterirdische Eisfeld bet der Dorn-\\nburg, Wiesbaden, 1841.\\nThury, Hericart de. Journal des Mines, vol. XXXIII.,\\npage 157. The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal^\\nvol. II., page Zo.\\nThury, Professor. Etudes sur les Glacier es Natter elles\\nBibliotheque Universelle, Archives des Sciences phys-\\niques de Geneve, 1861, vol. X., pages 97-153.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0385.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "326 GLACIERES OR FREEZING CAVERNS.\\nTimes, The, Philadelphia, November i8th, 1896.\\nTowNSON, Robert, LL. D. Travels in Hungary 1797,\\npages 317-321.\\nTrouillet, Capitaine. La Glaciere de Chaux-les- Pas sa-\\nvant Memoir es de la Societe d Emulation du Doubsy\\nBesangon, 1885.\\nUmlauft, Professor Dr. Friedrich. Die Oesterreichisch-\\nUngarische Monarchie, Wien, Pest, Leipzig, 1883.\\nValvasor, Johann Weichard, Freiherrn. Die Ehre\\ndes Herzogthumes Crai7z, Lay bach, 1689.\\nVillard, L. Grottes du Vercors Spelunca, 1896, vol.\\nII., page 39.\\nVoiGT, JoH. Carl Wilhelm. Miner alogische Reisen durch\\ndas Herzogthum. Weimar, Weimar, 1785, vol. II., page\\n123-\\nWard, J. Clifford. Nature, vol. XL, page 310.\\nWhite, Dr. C. A. Geological Reports of the State of\\nIowa, Des Moines, 1870, vol. I., page 80.\\nWhvmper, Edward. Scrambles Amongst the Alps, Lon-\\ndon, John Murray, 1871.\\nWiNCHEL, Alexander. Walks and Talks in the Geologi-\\ncal Field, The Chautauqua Century Press, 1898.\\nWise, T. A. Ice Makiiig in the Tropics Nature, Mac-\\nmillan, London and New York, 1872, vol. V., pages\\n189-190.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0386.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "INDEX.", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0387.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0388.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nPAGE\\nAdirondack guides, Opinions of 8i\\nAlaska, Subsoil ice in i66, 167\\nAllmen, Emil von, guide 21\\nAltitude of glaci^res 150\\nAmarnath, Cave of 262\\nApparently static caves 122\\nArizona, Glacieres in 175, 176\\nAuchincloss, Mr. W. S 307\\nAuersperg, Prince 52\\nAusable Pond, Freezing talus at 79\\nBalch, Mrs. Geo. B 189\\nBalch Pass, The 263\\nBargy, Mont 71\\nBasins, Ice 20, 130\\nBehrens 270\\nBeilstein, Caves on the 234\\nBel, Matthias 254, 271\\nBenedict, Mr. A. S 293\\nBenner, Mr 90\\nBerthoule, Mons 206\\nBesanfon 8\\nBillerez, Mons. de 270\\nBonney, Professor T. G 216, 222, 291\\nBoston Natural History Society 138, 182\\nBou6, Dr. A 242\\nBoulder heaps 116\\nBoz, Mons. de 270\\nBrandon, Freezing well of 77, 182, 283, 284\\nBrinckerhoff, Mr. F. H 177\\nBriot, Mons 204\\nBrisons, Glaciere de 2\\n(329)", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0389.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "330 INDEX.\\nPAGE\\nBrowne, The Rev. G. F. 133, 213, 215, 216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 288\\nBiillctin, The Evening 253\\nBuried glaciers 165\\nBurslem, Captain 261\\nButler, Mr. R 171, 172, 308\\nCalifornia, Glacieres in 170, 171\\nCanfield, Mr. N. M 76\\nCapillary or Compressed Air Theory 142\\nCarbonic acid gas 133\\nCarrel, Chanoine 212\\nCaucasus, Glacieres in the 257\\nCesi, Don Giuseppe 209\\nChapuis, Glaciere de 5, 216\\nChatham, Mr. I. C 94\\nChaux-les-Passavant, Glaciere de 8, 193\\nChemical causes theory 140\\nCliff caves 6, 18, 22, 27, 40, 70, 76, 120\\nClothes for glaciere exploration 53\\nCold caves 117\\nColladon, Mons 278\\nColor effects 131\\nColorado, Glacieres in 174, 175\\nCossigny, Mons. de 202, 271\\nCotterlaz, S. J., guide 71\\nCoxe, Miss Mary 262\\nCranmer, Professor H 232, 234, 235, 309\\nCreux-de-Souci, Le 206\\nCrevasses 4\\nCrimea, Glacieres in the 256\\nGushing, Mr. F. H 176\\nCvijic, Dr. A 243, 305\\nDante 135\\nDaubuisson 248\\nDawkins, Professor W. Boyd 292\\nDecorah, Freezing cave of 88, 177\\nDecorah, Freezing well of 89", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0390.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "INDEX. 331\\nPAGE\\nDeluc, Mons. J. A 277\\nDemenyfalva Jegbarlang 24\\nDewey, Mr 183, 277\\nDimensions of glacieres 120\\nDittmar, Mons. de 260\\nDobsina Jegbarlang 13, 252\\nDobsina, Village of 13\\nDornburg, Freezing talus at the 59, 247\\nDornburg, Freezing cellar at the 60\\nDraughts 8, 45, 47, 58, 80\\nDripstone formations in glacieres 24, 30, 57, 63, 67, 304\\nDue de L6vy 202\\nDunant, Mons. C 215, 216\\nDutoit, Professor 221\\nEastern Alps, Glacieres in the 224-236\\nEastern United States, Glacieres in the 180-189\\nEger, Dr. W 262\\nEhrlicher, Mr 86\\nEisenerz 37\\nElkinsville, Glaciere at 180, 305\\nEUenville, Freezing gorge at gi, 185\\nEmery, Aymon, guide 62, 65\\nEnfer, Glaciere de T 215\\nEngland, Glacieres in 192, 193\\nEntrances of glacieres 121\\nEschholz, Dr 167\\nEvaporation 156, 275, 287, 296, 298, 300, 302, 304\\nFarrandsville, Cave at 93\\nFarnum, Mr. G. L 266\\nFarnum, Mr. J. E 266\\nFauna of glacieres 133, 207, 214, 216, 219, 246\\nFee Glacier, Ice Cave in 68\\nFlora of glacieres 80, 83, 85, 91, 134, 188, 222, 237, 240\\nFondurle, Glaciere de 213\\nForms of Ice 126\\nFrainer Eisleithen, The 33, 251", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0391.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "332 INDEX.\\nPAGE\\nFrance, Glacieres in 193-208, 213-218\\nFrauenmauerhohle, The 37\\nFreezing mines and tunnels 117\\nFreezing wells 74, 77, 89, 117, 206\\nFriedrichsteinerhohle 51\\nFugger, Professor E. 224, 226, 227, 228, 237, 249, 251, 294\\nGenolliere, Glaciere de la 48, 219\\nGeographical distribution of glacieres 149\\nGermany, Glacieres in 246-250\\nGiant of the Valley, Talus of the 81\\nGirardot, Mons. A 204\\nGirod-Chantrans, Le citoyen 272\\nGlacial period theory. The 136\\nGlaciere, Advantage of term no\\nGlaciere caves 118\\nGlaciers 145\\nGollut, Lois 202, 269\\nGorges and troughs 146, 260\\nGreat Harrington, Icy gulf near 99\\nGruber, J., guide 18\\nGsoU-Alp 38\\nGuyot, Professor A 281\\nHablizl 272\\nHacquet 271\\nHager, Mr. A. D 182, 282\\nHall, Mr. W. Coleman 187\\nHart, Mr. B 76\\nHartenstein, Professor 249\\nHaut-d Aviernoz, Glaciere de 1 2, 215\\nHayden, Professor C. B 280\\nHeilprin, Professor A 93, 185\\nHerschel, Sir John 141\\nHitchcock, Professor E 284\\nHoar frost 16, 30, 129\\nHoles in ice 4, 42, 64, 130\\nHollow ice stalagmites 23, 127, 287, 290", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0392.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "INDEX. 2f33\\nPAGE\\nHolschuh, Mr. F i88\\nHovey, The Rev. H. C i86\\nHowell, Mr. E. I. H 80, 83\\nHumboldt, Alexander von 276\\nIce floors 4, 7, 11, 15, 19, 22, 30, 42, 54, 64, 72\\nIce formed by radiation 263-266\\nIceland, Glacieres in 190, 191\\nIce near entrance of caves 152\\nIce sheets,. Subterranean 115\\nIce slabs on floor 20\\nIce slopes 4. i7) ^9, 23, 52, 67\\nIce Spring, Oregon, The 169\\nIce stalactites and stalagmites 3, 7, 12, 23, 30, 42, 73, 127\\nItaly, Glacieres in 208-213\\nJapan, Glaciere in 266\\nJayne, Mrs. Horace 189\\nJoly, Capucin Romain 272\\nKarst, Glacieres in the 236-242\\nKing s Ravine, Subterranean ice in i\\nKirchhofl; Mr. T 292\\nKlenka, S., guide 51\\nKolowratshohle, The 18, 226\\nKorber, Herr B 222, 294\\nKorea, Glaciere in 266\\nKovarik, Mr. A. F 89, 178, 180, 307\\nKrain, Glacieres in the 236-242\\nKrauss, Regierungsrath F 303\\nKrenner, Dr 292\\nLakes, Subterranean 7\u00c2\u00bb 43\\nLamb, Mr. C., guide 81\\nLathrop, Mr. S. P 280\\nLava caves, Washington 168\\nLearned, Mr 86", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0393.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "334 INDEX.\\nPAGE\\nLee, Mr. C. A 278\\nLegends about glacieres 135, 216\\nLepechin 258\\nLerchenfeld, Freiherr von 227\\nLewis, Miss J. F 93\\nLewis, Mr. J. F 129\\nLipt6s Szt Miklos 24\\nLohmann, Dr. H 302\\nLowe, Mr. C. E., Jr 83\\nLowe, Mr. C. E., Sr i, 85\\nLowe, Mr. N. M 142, 292\\nLuce, Mr. C. 78\\nLyell, Sir Charles 116, 210\\nManchester, Marble freezing cave at 76\\nMarinitsch, Herr J 236\\nMartel, Mons. E.A 205, 207, 208, 214, 221, 300\\nMcCabe, Mr. E 94\\nMeehan, Mr. W. E 165\\nMercer, Mr. H. C 143, 187\\nMetric system 3\\nMist in caves 18, 55\\nMisura, F., forester 27\\nMontana, Glacieres in 1 71-173\\nMontarquis, Grand Cave de 70, 217, 286\\nMontarquis, Petite Cave de 71\\nMoonlight effects 24, 33, 132\\nMorin, Mons 218\\nMotion in subterranean ice 131\\nMovements of air 122, 156\\nMurchison, Sir R. 1 141\\nNagel, J. N 271\\nNaye, Glaciere de 221\\nNicholson, Mr. C. J 95\\nNiles, Mr 81\\nNixloch, The 57, 226", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0394.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "INDEX. 335\\nPAGE\\nOetscher, The Seelucken on the 231\\nOlmstaed, Professor D 282\\nOtis, Mr 81\\nOudot, Dr. 272\\nOwego, Freezing well of 74, 186\\nPaleontological remains 134\\nParmelan, Mont 3, 5\\nParrot, G. F 125\\nPeasants, .Opinions of 33? 70* 1 39\\nPelech, Dr. J. E 252\\nPeriods in glacieres, Open and closed 297\\nPeters, K. F 246\\nPetruzzi, Professor 241, 282\\nPhillips, Mr. G. B 185\\nPictet, Professor M. A 277\\nPit caves 2, 3, 10, 48, 52, 63, 66, 119\\nPleischl, Professor A 250, 279\\nPoissenot, Benigne 193, 269\\nPoprad 13\\nPralong du Reposoir 70\\nPress, The Philadelphia 306\\nPreston, Mr 74\\nPrestwich, Mr 248\\nPrevost, Professor P 273\\nPrismatic ice 64, 67, 129, 287, 289, 303\\nPublic Ledger, The 169\\nRandolph, The Ice Gulch, 83\\nRaymond, Mr. W. R 291\\nReich, F 279\\nReligious feeling about ice 135, 176, 262\\nRitchie, Mr. John, Jr 76, 83, 85, 143, 181, 292\\nRogers, Professor W. B 281\\nRoth, Eishohle bei 35\\nRudolf IL, Kaiser 232\\nRuffiny, Herr E 252\\nRumney, Freezing talus at 85\\nRussell, Professor I. C 166, 299", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0395.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "33^ INDEX.\\nPAGE\\nSaint-Georges, Glaci^re de 62, 219, 285\\nSaint- Georges, Village of 62\\nSaint- Livres, Glaciere de 65\\nSaint-Livres, Pr^ de 66\\nSakharov, Dr. A 257\\nSamuel, Mr. B 192, 209, 264\\nSartori, Dr. F 276\\nSatter, Professor H 241\\nSaussure, H. B. de 209, 274\\nScandinavia, Glacieres in 191\\nSchafloch, The 21, 222\\nSchallenberger, C 232, 269\\nSchellenberger Eisgrotte, The 227\\nSchwalbe, Dr. B 241, 253, 298\\nScott, Professor W. B 176\\nScrope, Mr. G. P 278\\nSeelisberg, The Milchhaiiser of 45\\nSelby-Hill, Mr. W. D 88\\nServia, Glacieres in 242-245\\nSkerizora, Cave of 245\\nSkinner s Cave 76\\nSiberia, Glacieres in 259-261\\nSieger, Professor 232\\nSilliman, Professor 279\\nSirar, J., guide 56\\nSnow, Subterranean 16, 129, 206, 247\\nSouth America, Subsoil ice in 189, 190\\nSpruce Creek, Freezing talus at 90, 188\\nStockbridge, Icy glen near 75\\nStrachey, Gen. Sir R 263\\nStrein, R 232, 269\\nSuchenreuther Eisloch, The 55\\nSummer s heat theory, The 138\\nSummit, Glacieres near 95\\nSwitzerland, Glacieres in 219-223\\nSzilize, Cave of 253\\nTablerloch, The 233\\nTaluses 79, 81, 85, 90, 100, 116\\nTemperatures, Subterranean 112", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0396.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "INDEX. 2)? 7\\nPAGE\\nTeneriffe, Glaciere on the Peak of 190\\nTerlanday, Dr 301\\nTerminology 109\\nThermometric observations 151, 178, 219, 227, 228, 233, 237\\n252, 253\\nThury, Professor 122, 139, 213, 217, 219, 220, 285\\nTime of formation of ice 159\\nTownson, R 275\\nTrouillet, Captain 202, 297\\nTurrian, A. A., gendarme 48\\nUmlauft, Professor F 293\\nUral, Glacieres in the 257-259\\nValvasor, Freiherr 238, 240, 270\\nVillard, Mons. L 133, 214\\nVire, Mons. A 134\\nWachtl, Forester 252\\nWagner, Mr. W. W 173\\nWallingford, The ice beds of 99\\nWatertown, Cave at 87\\nWatertown, Windholes at 86\\nWaves of heat and cold, Theory of 141\\nWhite, Dr. C. A 291\\nWilliams, Mr. W. F loi\\nWilliamstown, Caves near loi\\nWilliamstown, The snow hole near 98, 183\\nWinter s cold theory, The 147\\nWindholes 61,111,117\\nWindholes, The theory of 124\\nWordsworth, Verses by 192\\nYeermallik, Cave of 261\\nZiegler, Herr J. M 45", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0397.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0398.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0399.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0400.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0401.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0402.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0403.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "n n^A^y CONGRESS\\n0029708238 3\\nV-", "height": "4472", "width": "2717", "jp2-path": "glacires00balc_0404.jp2"}}