PE Ml HARVEY'S LANGUAGE ELEMENTARY LESSONSSIN LANGUAGE!^ ANDGRAMMAR LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Chap.__..r__. Copyright No.____ _i_3 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. HARNEY'S LANGUAGE COURSE ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR BEING A REMODELED AND REVISED EDITION OF AN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION BY, / THOMAS W. HARVEY, A.M. ii NEW YORK-:- CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY L' TWO COPIES HECEIVEO, T^^^^V Office of th« ^\c,^ MAY 12 1900 Heglstor of Oog}^rlg||fg| SECOND COPY, MAY 14 1908 1 .61428 Copyright, 1900, by AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, ELEM. LANG. AND GRAM, E-P 1 PREFACE After a test of many years' successful use in schools, Harvey's ''Language Course" still holds the place it has made for itself in the esteem of teachers who look for solid results. The fact that pupils studying this course go forth from the schools with a firmer grasp of the structure of the English language, a surer skill in the expression of their own thoughts, and a keener appreciation of expression in others, than is evidenced by students of some of the more recent books, has induced many progressive teachers to cling to Harvey's works in spite of newer methods of presentation. To satisfy the teachers who, while they faithfully ad- here to the excellencies of the Harvey Grammars, yet appreciate the attractive features and pedagogical value of some more modern text-books on the subject, the pres- ent revision has aimed to combine the old with the new, — • retaining the solid substance of Harvey's work presented in a form more conformable to modern demands. The work as remodeled contains, first, a graded series of lessons on grammar, designed to give a clear under- standing of its fundamental principles ; second, a practical application of these principles in language work and composition. The grammar lessons are developed by the inductive method ; analysis precedes the parts of speech ; and the 3 4 PREFACE essential functions of all the parts of speech are consid- ered before the properties of any one are studied. Pictures have been used as a basis for imaginative and descriptive work, and poems, suggestions for stories, letter- writing, topical writing, exercises in punctuation and in arranging and combining statements have been added with careful consideration of their usefulness as means to the supreme end in view, — a ready flow of thought and a ready power over words spoken and written. This little book, while intended to serve as an introduc- tion to Harvey's New English Grammar, will give to the pupil who is forced to leave school in the intermediate grades not only a habit of correct expression, but a clear and complete conception of grammar in its simpler aspects. Thanks are due to Messrs. Dodd, Mead & Co. for per- mission to use the poem ** Winter's Departure," taken from Richard Markham's '' Colonial Days " ; to the W. B. Conkey Company for the use of " A Little Lass," " A Letter to Mother Nature," ''Two Little Boys," and "A Very Odd Girl," taken from their juvenile publications; and to the Bell Publishing Company for the poem '' Spring Has Come." LOUISE CONNOLLY. CONTENTS PAGE I. Topics and Paragraphs 7 XXXII. II. The Sentence . . . 9 XXXIII. III. Subject, Predicate, and Copula TO XXXIV. IV. Subject, Predicate, anc Copula II XXXV. V. Composition .... 12 XXXVI. VI. The Direct Predicate . 13 VII. Elements 14 xxxvri. VIII. The Proposition — Simple Sentences .... 15 XXXVIII. IX. Composition .... i6 X, Declarative, Interroga- tive, and Imperative XXXIX. Sentences .... 17 XI. Exclamatory Sentences — XL Exclamation Point . 18 XLI. XII. Letter Writing . . . 20 XLII. XIII. Compound Sentences . 21 XIV. Compound Elements . 22 XV. Conjunctions .... 24 XLIII. XVI. Comma and Semicolon in XLIV. a Series 25 XLV. XVII. Comparison .... 28 XLVI. XVIII. The Noun .... 28 XLVII. XIX. Some Uses of Nouns . 30 XLVIII XX. Composition .... 32 XLIX. XXI. Verbs — Uses . . . 33 XXII. Exercise on Verbs . . 34 L. XXIII. Objective Element . . 35 LI. XXIV. Object Noun and Predi- LII cate Noun .... 36 LIII XXV. Topics 37 LIV. XXVI. Possessive Forms o LV. Nouns 39 LVI. XXVII The Pronoun . . . 40 LVII. XXVIII . Appositive Nouns . . 42 LVI 1 1 XXIX . Adjectives .... 43 LIX XXX . Adjective Elements . 44 LX xxxr . The Article .... 48 LXT PAGE Letter Writing ... 49 The Apostrophe and . Contractions .... 49 The Pronoun in Inter- rogative Sentences . . 51 Letter Writing ■ • • S3 Pronouns as Subjects ani Predicates 55 Pronouns as Objective Elements 56 Pronouns as Adjective Elements — Possessives 57 Pronouns Alike in Nomi- native and Objective Cases 58 Topics 59 Letter Writing ... 60 Adjective Elements and Adjectives modifying Pronouns 60 Review of Pronouns . . 61 Possessive Pronouns . 62 Letter Writing ... 63 Adverbs 64 Interrogative Adverbs . 65 Adverbial Elements . . 66 Adverbs or Adjectives after Verbs .... 67 Composition .... 68 Review Analysis ... 68 Adjective Clauses . . 69 Composition . . . . 71 Relative Pronouns . . 72 Adverbial Clauses . . 73 Abbreviations .... 75 Complex Sentences . . 77 Clauses as Objects . . 79 Composition .... 80 Quotation Marks ... 81 Clauses as Subjects . . 82 6 CONTENTS PAGE PAGE LXII, Composition . . . . 83 en. Personal Pronouns . . 122 LXIII. Clauses as Predicates 83 cin. Precedence of Persona LXIV. Clauses as Appositives , 84 Pronouns .... 123 LXV. Connectives . 85 CIV. Possessive Pronouns . 123 LXVI. Review Analysis 86 cv. Relative Pronouns . 124 Lxvn. Review^ of Nouns ano CVI. Interrogative Pronouns 125 Pronouns , . . 87 CVII. Composition . . . 125 LXVIII. Review of Verbs, Ad- CVI 11. Cender in Nouns . . 126 verbs, and Adjectives 87 CIX. Gender in Pronouns . 128 LXIX. Letter Writing . . 88 ex. Preference of Masculine LXX. Prepositions . , . 88 Pronoun .... 129 LXXI. Prepositional Phrase 90 CXI, Number in Nouns 129 LXXII. Composition . . , 91 CXII. Number in Pronouns and LXXIII. The Participle . . 91 Verbs 131 LXXIV. The Participial Noun 93 CXIII. Composition 132 LXXV. The Participial Phrase 94 CXIV. Number in Adjectives 133 LXX VI. Phrases .... 95 CXV. Case in Nouns . . . 134 LXXVII. Composition . 96 CXVI. Case in Pronouns . . 136 LXXVIII. The Infinitive Phrase 97 CXVII. Exercise on Cases 137 LXXIX. Subject Phrases . . 98 CXVIII. Letter Writing . . 138 LXXX. Predicate Phrases . 99 CXIX. Parsing Nouns and Pro- LXXXI. Objective Phrases , 100 nouns 139 LXXXII. Review of Phrases . lOI CXX. Parsing Adjectives an i LXXXIII. The Interjection 102 Adverbs .... 139 LXXXIV. Composition . . . 104 CXXI. Composition . , . 141 LXXXV. Condensation and En CXXII. Verbs — Tense . . 142 largement . . . 105 CXXIJI. Verbs — Person and LXXXVI. Position of Words, Number .... 143 Phrases, and Clauses 107 CXXIV. Composition 146 LXXX VI I. Parts of Speech . 108 cxxv. Auxiliary Verbs 146 LXXXVIII. Composition . 109 CXX VI. Regular and Irregular LXXXIX. Analysis Summarized III Verbs 148 XC, Elements Summarized 112 CXXVII. Parsing Verbs . . . 149 XCL Composition . . . 113 CXXVIII. Parsing Infinitives and XCIL Kinds of Phrases . 114 Participles . . . 150 XCIII. Kinds of Clauses 114 CXXIX. Composition 151 XCIV. Composition . "5 cxxx. Parsing Conjunctions anc xcv. Independent Elements 116 Prepositions . 152 XCVL Exercise on Independ- CXXXI. Incorrect Expressions 154 ent Elements . . 117 CXXXII. Analysis and Parsing 155 xcvn. Composition . . . 118 CXXXIII. Punctuation . . . 158 XCVIII. Expletives .... 118 CXXXIV. Punctuation . . . 160 xcix. Composition . . . 119 CXXXV. Punctuation . . . 161 c. Person 119 CXXXVI. Punctuation 161 CL Forms indicatingPersoi 120 CXXXVII. Capital Letters . . 162 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 3>«4C LESSON I TOPICS AND PARAGRAPHS By the Seashore 1. This little girl seems to be having a fine time digging in the sand by the seashore. 2. Beyond her can be seen the ocean, with several boats sailing upon its broad surface. 7 8 TOPICS AND PARAGRAPHS 3. Near her feet the waves are creeping gently down the sloping beach. Soon they will return with a quick rush of green water and white foam. 4. The httle maiden wears a broad shade hat tied securely under her dimpled chin, so that the breeze may not blow it away. Her skirt is turned up above her bare legs, so that the sly waves may not wet it, and her sleeves are rolled up above her rounded elbows. 5. In her hand she holds a tiny wooden spade with which she has been digging salt water wells, I think, but she is not digging wells now, for her face is turned this way. 6. It is a pretty little face, with bright eyes, and a smiling mouth. 7. If they could speak, I think those smiling lips would say, *' Don't you wish you could dig in the sand with me ? " The first paragraph tells what the little girl is doing. Read it. The second paragraph describes the scene beyond her. Read it. The third paragraph describes the scene near her. Read it. The fourth paragraph describes how she is dressed. Read it. The fifth paragraph describes her position. Read it. The sixth paragraph describes her face. Read it. The last paragraph tells how she feels. Read it. The topics of these paragraphs can be arranged in an outline, thus : ■ — 1. Her occupation. 4. Her costume. 2. Scene beyond her. 5. Her position. 3. Scene near her. 6. Her face. 7. Her delight. THE SENTENCE 9 Each of these topics is told about in a paragraph which commences a Httle to the right of the other Unes. Cover the printed paragraphs with paper, but leave the picture and the outline visible, and write a description of the little girL LESSON II THE SENTENCE Winter is coming. Cold winter. The first of these groups of words makes complete sense, while the second does not. The birds are going. Pretty birds. They are flying away. Flying far. The birds. We are sorry. Tell which of these groups of words make complete sense. Such a group of words is called a sentence. Select the soitences fro7n the following groups of words : — I. I am cold. 2. A cold day. 3. Lemons are sour. 4. Sugar is sweet. 5. Sweet and sour. 6. The leaves are falling. 7. Brown leaves. 8. They are scattered on the ground. 9. Leaf-covered ground. 10. The ground was bare. lO SUBJECT, PREDICATE, AND COPULA A sentence is a group of words making complete sense. A sentence should begin with a capital letter. Write five sentences about the picture on page 7, beginning each sentence with a capital letter. LESSON III SUBJECT, PREDICATE, AND COPULA Ice is cold. In this sentence something is affirmed of ice. Winter is coming. In this sentence what is affirmed of winter? The wind has been blowing to-day. About what is something affirmed in this sentence? That part of a sentence about which something is affirmed is called the subject. Select the subjects of the following sentences : — I. Air is transparent. 2. Iron is heavy. 3. Nero was cruel. 4. Jane has been studious. 5. Walter will be tardy. 6. Mary should be kind. 7. Ellen is unhappy. 8. Martha was cheer- ful. 9. George should have been industrious. Ice is cold. Co/d is that which is affirmed of the subject ice. SUBJECT, PREDICATE, AND COPULA n Winter is coming. What is it that is affirmed of the subject winter? That which is affirmed of the subject is called the predicate. Select the predicates of the sentences in the exercise on p. lo. Ice is cold. " Is " is called the copula, for it is used to join the predicate to the subject, and the word copula means a link. The copula also affirms that the predicate belongs to the subject. It is sometimes a group of words, as '' will be," " shall have been," etc. Select the copulas of the sentences in the exercise on p. lo. The subject of a sentence is that of which something is affirmed. The predicate of a sentence is that which is affirmed of the subject. The copula is a word, or a group of words, used to join a predicate to a subject, and to make an assertion. LESSON IV SUBJECT, PREDICATE, AND COPULA Select the sjtbject, the predicate, and the copula of each of the follow- ing sentences : — I. Dewey is a hero. 2. A naval battle was fought. 3. Re- enforcements were expected. 4. The struggle was successful. 5. My old wheel will be sold. 6. The train has been slow. 7. This word is the subject of the sentence. 12 COMPOSITION Supply copulas and predicates indicating quality for the following words used as subjects : — Iron Trees Fishes ■ Oranges Play Books Apples Marbles Lead School Flowers Swimming Supply subjects and copulas, using the following words as predi- cates : — soft hard young opaque wise sweet happy mellow blue round square transparent Supply subjects a7id predicates, rising the following words or groups of words as copidas : — is were will be are am have been was shall be has been - LESSON V COMPOSITION Spring has Come Spring has come back to us, beautiful spring ! Bluebirds and swallows are out on the wing; Over the meadows a carpet of green Softer and richer than velvet is seen. Up come the blossoms so bright and so gay, Giving sweet odors to welcome the May ; Sunshine and music are flooding the air, Beauty and brightness are everywhere. THE DIRECT PREDICATE 1 3 This poem describes the spring. These are the topics it tells about : — 1. Spring's coming. 2. Birds. 3. Meadows. 4. Flowers. 5. The air. 6. What spring brings. Read each topic, and then read just as innch of the poem as tells about the topic. Cover up the poem, and write a description of spring, giving a paragraph to each topic. LESSON VI THE DIRECT PREDICATE Fishes swim. This is a sentence. Why? "Fishes" is the subject. Why? "Swim" is the predicate. Why? There is no copula expressed in this sentence ; the predicate is affirmed directly of the subject. The one word " swim " expresses both the copula and the predi- cate. Write sentences, using the following words as direct predicates : — sail look loiter whine pur hmp listen cackle run mow study gobble sing howl neigh reform play walk stand scream reap work recite whistle 14 ELEMENTS Tell in the following sejitences whether the predicate is a direct predicate or is composed of copula and predicate : — I. The sun shines. 2. The sun is shining. 3. The day is warm. 4. Clouds sail overhead. 5. Rain has been falling. 6. The heavens wept. 7. Plants grow. 8. This plant is growing. 9. It will be beautiful. 10. It blooms. The direct predicate is a predicate affirmed of the subject without any expressed copula. LESSON VII ELEMENTS We have seen that a sentence is composed of parts. These parts are called elements. An element is one of the distinct parts of a sentence. The subject and the predicate are called principal ele- ments, because no sentence can be formed without them. All other distinct parts of a sentence are called subordi- nate elements. The copula is not called an element. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its ele- ments. Any sentence can be so separated. Analyze the following sentences, using this model: — Model. — Flowers bloom. This is a sentence ; why ? " Flowers " is the subject ; why? '' Bloom " is the direct predi- cate ; why ? 1,11 Flowers | bloom. THE PROPOSITION — SIMPLE SENTENCES 15 I. Birds sing. 2. Tiie stream flows. 3. The children played. 4. My hen clucks. 5. The sun shines. 6. Our dog barks. 7. The boat rocks. 8. The train stopped. 9. Mary recited. LESSON VIII THE PROPOSITION — SIMPLE SENTENCES The rain falls, and I am sorry. "The rain" is a subject. What is its predicate? "I" is a subject. What is its predicate? What copula unites "I" and " sorry"? This entire sentence is made up of two parts, each of which consists of a subject and predicate united. Such a union of subject and predicate is called a proposition. Daylight is creeping; Flowers are peeping; Nothing is sleeping But you, little dame. There are three propositions in these sentences. Read and analyze the first ; the second. Read the third. These proposi- tions are separated by semicolons ( ; ) . Tell how many propositions each sentefice contains: — I. The north wind doth blow, and we shall have snow. 2. Foxes have holes in the ground, and birds have nests in the air. 3. I came, I saw, I conquered. 4. You rock while I rock. 5. I shot an arrow into the air. 6. It fell to earth — I know not where. i6 COMPOSITION A proposition is a subject and predicate united. A simple sentence consists of a single proposition. Find the simple sentences in the exercises on p. 15. Why are the other sentences not simple? LESSON IX COMPOSITION An Unexpected Meeting Use the followi7ig outline \ and write a description of this . picture^ giving one paragraph \ to each nnmbered topic : — ^ Place. Background. — a. house. l>. trees. Children. — a. appearance. ^. clothing, c, position. Squirrel. — a. position, d. tail. c. eyes. Kind of children. KINDS OF SENTENCES 1 7 LESSON X DECLARATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND IMPERATIVE SENTENCES When I say, "The window is open," I state a fact, using what is called a declarative sentence. A declarative sentence is a sentence used in stating a fact. When I say, " Is the window open?" I ask a question, using an interrogative sentence. An interrogative sentence is a sentence used in asking a question. When I say, "Clarence, open the window," I give a com- mand ; and when I say, " Do forgive me ! " I express an entreaty. In each instance I use an imperative sentence. An imperative sentence is a sentence used in expressing a command or an entreaty. Select the declarative.^ interrogative^ and imperative sentejtces in the following list : — I. The day is fair. 2. Will there be rain ? 3. Take an umbrella. 4. I do not need it. 5. Yes, you do. 6. Tell me why. 7. Why should I? 8. The sun will spoil your complexion. 9. Do you think so? 10. Please lend me your parasol. How do all these sentences commence? According to what rule? (See page 10.) Make the punctuation mark which is placed after each declarative sentence in the paragraph above. Make the mark which is placed after each interrogative sentence. Make the mark which is placed after each imperative sentence. After what kinds of sentences is the period (.) placed? After what kind of sentences is the interrogation point (?) placed ? HARV. ELEM. GRAM. — 2 1 8 EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES A period is usually placed after a declarative sentence and after an imperative sentence. An interrogation point is usually placed after an inter- rogative sentence. Write declarative sentences about the following^ punctuating them correctly : — boys the buttercup George Washington the cat a lion the house flowers strawberries the copula Write imperative sentences addressed to the following, punctuating correctly : — your dog the teacher a car conductor your mother the janitor a policeman a schoolmate your father a servant Write interrogative setttences about the following, punctuating cor- rectly : — Iceland cherries geography lemon the lesson ice school the predicate the sparrow LESSON XI EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE AND EXCLAMATION POINT When I say, "Oh, that window is open again!" I express some feeling or emotion, using an exclamatory sentence. An exclamatory sentence is a sentence used in express- ing some feeling or emotion. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES i,^ Select the exclamatory sentences from the following : — I. I am tired. 2. How tired you must be ! 3. Come to me when you have finished your examples. 4. What ! Have you finished so soon ! 5. Ring out, wild bells ! 6. What progress you have made, to be sure ! 7. Hark to the cannons' roar ! 8. And must he die, that gentle one ! 9. We must all die. 10. Did you know him? 11. Did I know him! 12. This day is dark. 13. How dark it is ! 14. There are no matches. 15. What shall we do? Make the pimctuation mark which is placed at the end of an ex- clamatory sentence. Write an exclamatory sentence about each of the following, punctu- ating correctly : — the rain the time of day the thunder a rainbow a murder a baby a fire a waterfall a geography lesson An exclamation point (!) is usually placed after an exclamatory sentence. Punctuate these sentences^ giving your reasojis for the marks you insert : — I. The winds bring perfume 2. Where is my new book 3. Go to the ant, thou sluggard 4. Pshaw, go away. 5. Ne- cessity is the mother of invention 6. Does God always work in one way 7. Oh, how I trembled with disgust 8. Be not forward in the presence of your superiors 9. Lend me your wings 10. I mount 11. I fly 12. The train rolls swiftly along 13. What speed it makes 14. Do you like to go swiftly 15 How I do enjoy this 16. Do you. 17. I am so glad 29' LETTER WRITING LESSON XII LETTER WRITING This is the letter which Frank wrote to his mother when he was six years old: — Dear Mamma : I love you very much. i Your loving son, \ Frank. And this is the answer which he received: — Dear Frank : I am very glad that you love me. You may be sure that I love you just as much as you love me. Affectionately yours, Mamma. When you write a letter, put a colon ( : ) after the name of the person to whom you write ; begin the letter like a paragraph ; begin the words above your name with a capital letter, and put a comma after them ; sign your name at the end. Write each day for a week a letter consisting of one short paragraph^ and be careful to punctuate it properly. Address your letters : 1. To your teacher. « 2. To your neighbor in school. 3. To your neighbor at home. 4. To your brother, sister, or cousin. 5. To your father or mother. Take the last letter home, if you wrote it without COMPOUND SENTENCES 21 LESSON XIII COMPOUND SENTENCES Wheat grows in the field, and men reap it. This sentence consists of two propositions, each of which will make complete sense when standing alone. It is called a co?n- pound sentence. A compound sentence consists of two or more connected propositions, each of which will make complete sense when standing alone. The propositions of which a compomid sentence is composed are called members. Select the members of the following co7npoimd sentences, and analyze each member: — Model. — The night was cloudy, and no moon shone. This is a compound sentence. ''The night was cloudy" is the first member; "no moon shone" is the second member; "and" connects the two members. "The night" is the subject of the first member; "cloudy" is the predicate; "was" is the copula. "No moon" is the subject of the second member; "shone" is the predicate. The night | was : cloudy ' \ " and No moon | shone. I. Talent is something, but tact is everything. 2. Art is long, and time is fleeting. 3. The sun shines, the flowers bloom, the birds sing, and the children are glad. 4. I am poor, you are rich ; 22 COMPOUND ELEMENTS I am ill, you are well ; yet we are equally happy. 5. The stores were closed and the hum of business was hushed. Write five compound sentences^ each containing two members. Change the following compoimd sentences to sii?ipie ones : — Model. — Exercise strengthens the constitution and temperance strengthens the constitution. This compound sentence contains two members whose predi- cates are ahke. It can therefore be changed to a simple sentence by uniting the two subjects and using the predicate only once ; thus, *' Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution." I. Behold my mother and behold my brethren. 2. I saw a man in a boat and I saw a boy in the water. 3. Washington was a warrior and Washington was a statesman. 4. The man you saw was sick or he was in trouble. 5. The river was swift and it was very deep. -♦- LESSON XIV COMPOUND ELEMENTS James and Samuel are kind, honest, and faithful. In this sentence " James " and " Samuel " are the parts of what is called a cojnpound subject ; '' kind," " honest," and " faithful " are \\\q parts of a compound pi'edicate. Two or more similar connected parts of a proposition form a compound element. A compound element consists of two or more similar and connected parts of the same proposition. Write five sente7ices, each containing a compound subject. Model. — Ellen and Lucy are my sisters. COMPOUND ELEMENTS 23 Write five sentences^ each containing a compotmd predicate. Model. — We run, jump, and talk at recess. Analyze the following sentences : — Models. — I. William and Henry are coming. I are : coming. I This is a simple sentence. The subject, " William and Henry," is compound, consisting of the two similar parts, " William " and "Henry," connected by the word "and." The predicate is "coming," and the copula is "are." 2. Mary, Charles, and James are affectionate, but lazy. This is a simple sentence. The subject is compound, consist- ing of the three similar parts, "Mary," "Charles," and "James." The second and third parts are connected by "and," but the connecting word is omitted between the first and second parts. The copula is "are." What is the predicate? I. The men and boys are at home. 2. They are eating and drinking. 3. We sing and play. 4. We and our parents are going. 5. We shall be hungry, but merry. 6. Two and two are four. 24 ' CONJUNCTIONS LESSON XV CONJUNCTIONS Ellen and Mary study botany. In this sentence what two words are used as the compound subject? What word connects the words " Ellen " and " Mary " ? Ellen or Mary studies botany. In this sentence what two words are used as the subject? What word connects the words "Ellen" and ''Mary"? I may go, but I will return. In this compound sentence how many propositions are there? What word connects these propositions? Ellen will study botany if Mary studies algebra. In this sentence how many propositions are there? What word is used to connect these two propositions ? The words "and," "or," "if," and all other words used merely to join words, groups of words, or propositions, are called conjunc- tions. A conjunction is a word used to connect words, groups of words, or propositions. Point out the conjunctiotis in the following sentences: — Model. — Eli and Silas will improve if they study. " And " is a conjunction ; it is a word used to connect words : it connects "Eli" and "Silas." "If" is 2i conjunction ; it con- nects the propositions, " Eli and Silas will improve " and " they study." I. We moved along silently and cautiously. 2. I consent to COMMA AND SEMICOLON IN A SERIES 25 the constitution, because I expect no better. 3. He heaped up great riches, but passed his time miserably. 4. He is both learned and wise. 5. I shall not go if it rains. 6. Cold and hunger awake not her care. 7. They submit, since they can not conquer. 8. He has many faults, still he is very popular. 9. Emma or Susan will remain at home. LESSON XVI THE COMMA AND SEMICOLON IN A SERIES The boy, his father, and his sister are here. How many parts has the compound subject of this sentence? These three parts of a compound subject form a series. How are the parts of the series separated? Between which parts of the series is there a conjunction? Pupils should be diligent, quiet, obedient, atten- tive, and orderly. What series forms a compound element in this sentence? How many parts are there in the series? How are they separated? I spoke, I called, I cried, I shouted, I shrieked. Does this series consist of words or of propositions? How many members are there in the compound sentence formed by this series? How are the members separated? When several words are used in the same way, they are said to be of the same kind, or rank, and they form what is called a series. When more than two words are thus used to form a series, they should be separated by commas. 26 COMMA AND SEMICOLON IN A SERIES Three or more words of the same kind, or rank, used to- gether and forming a series, should be separated by commas. Fill the blanks in the following exercises : — I. I have in my desk. 2. are wild animals. 3. A merchant sells 4. I can buy of a grocer. 5. Have you seen ? 6. are cities in Colorado. 7. I can see from my window. 8. Violets are spring flowers. 9. and four and and six equal In the sentence, " I saw a httle old man," /itt/e and oM are used alike, but they are not separated by commas. The expres- sion " old man " is modified by " little " and not the word " man " only. These words do not form a series. The way to test a series is to insert " and " between the members. " Little <2;^^old man" is not what is meant, but ^' old and careworn man " is meant in the sentence " I saw an old, careworn, and delicate man. "^ Punctuate the following sentences properly : — I. The kind old man took the poor child in his arms. 2. Plain honest truth wants no artificial covering. 3. Mary is a gentle sen- sible and well-behaved girl. 4. The good man was loved esteemed and respected. 5. His large old-fashioned spectacles frightened the child. 6. That httle mischievous boy is my nephew. 7. There lay the dearest httle baby asleep in a big armchair. 8. Then here's to the oak the brave old oak Who stands in his pride alone And still flourish he a hale green tree When a hundred years are gone COMMA AND SEMICOLON IN A SERIES 27 I have a brother. I have a sister. I have a cousin. This is a series of sentences so much ahke that they can be combined into a simple sentence containing a series of words, thus : " I have a brother, a sister, and a cousin." Combine the sentences in the following paragraphs into single sen- tences : — 1. I found a book. I found a pencil. I found a slate. I found a knife. 2. I read a story. I read a poem. I read an essay. 3. John walked to the lake. John walked over the hill. John walked through the forest. 4. The horse was old. The horse was lame. The horse was Wind. 5. The child's gown was thin. The child's gown was old. The child's gown was ragged. 6. WiUiam gave my sister a new book. William gave my brother ten marbles. WilHam gave me a sled. The members of a compound sentence, when short, and connected by conjunctions, should be separated by commas. Thus, — Mary set the table, Betty made the salad, and I filled the glasses. Semicolons should separate the members of compound sentences, if the connective is omitted, or if their parts are separated by commas. Thus, — Straws swim upon the surface ; pearls lie at the bottom. 28 THE NOUN LESSON XVII COMPARISON A Little Lass Chasing the butterflies Through the long grass, Dirty, but happy, Gay Httle lass ! Dressed up for company, Dull hours pass ; Clean, and so wretched, Poor little lass ! — Kaybee. This is a comparison of the same little girl under different cir- cumstances. It follows this oudine : — I. In the morning. 2. In the evening. a. Occupation. a. Occupation. b. Appearance. b. Appearance. c. Condition. c. Condition. Readjust so imtch of the poeui as is covered by each topic. Then cover the poe7n and talk about each topic. LESSON XVIII THE NOUN The words boy, girl, city, door, book, desk, are names of objects. The words joy, fear, hate, love, sorrow, are names of feelings. The words struggle, conversation, deception, are the names of things done. The name of anything is called a noitn. THE NOUN 29 A noun is a name ; as, boj', John, railroad. What are the words house, farm, garden, dog, horse, blacksmith, merchant? Why? What are the words Mary, John, Washington, Chicago, Ohio, America ? Why ? Can the name boy be applied to any boy in the school, or in the world ? It is a name, then, which is common to all boys ; that is, it can be applied to each of them. So, also, the name girl is common to all girls ; the name house, to all houses j the name city, to all cities. Objects of the same kind form what is called a class. The same name can be applied to each object belonging to the same class. The names boy, girl, house, and city are called common nouns, because they can be applied to any one of a class of objects. A common noun is a name which may be applied to any one of a class of objects ; as, bird, door, lightning. Can the name John be applied to all boys ? Why not ? Boys are called by different names in order to distinguish one from another, or to distinguish a particular boy from the rest of the boys in the world. The names given to particular objects to distinguish them from the rest of their class are called proper nouns. A proper noun is the name of some particular person, place, people, or thing ; as, Sttsan, Rome, American, Mars. What kind of noun is plow ? Why ? What kind of noun is New York ? Why ? Proper nouns should commence with capital letters. A common noun should commence with a small letter, unless it is the first word of a sentence or is a word of special importance. 30 SOME USES OF NOUNS Write the names of five kinds of fruit ; of five kinds of grain; of three articles of clothing; of five games ; of five bad habits ; ofsixfarttt- ing iniplements ; of four trades; of six townships in your county; of six large cities ; of five large rivers ; of five mountains ; of seven of your schoolmates. What are the words you have written? Why? Tell which are coinmon and zvhicJi are proper 7iouns. Tell which are common and which are proper nouns in the following list : — Rain Snow College Augusta Palestine Barn Sarah Minute Volcano Black Sea Slate Organ Steeple Railroad Lake Erie April Boston Church Thunder IndianapoHs Hour Lesson Temple Vesuvius Niagara Falls Common nouns, in a hst of words as above, may begin with capital letters, as if each began a sentence. Poi7it out all the nouns in your reading lesson^ and tell which are common and whicJi are proper nouns : — Model. — Cicero was an orator. " Cicero " is a noun; it is a name : proper ; it is the name of a particular person. "Orator" is a nomi (why?): common; it may be applied to any one of a class of objects. LESSON XIX SOME USES OF NOUNS Pupils study. Pupils is a noun. As what element in the sentence is it used ? These diligent pupils study hard. SOME USES OF NOUNS 3 1 What is the chief word in the subject of this sentence? What is the word pupils ? One way in which a noun may be used is as the subject of a proposition. A noun so used is said to be in the nominative case. Write sentences containing the following nouns used in the nomijiative case as subjects : — grain teacher rooster cattle kitten flag stars bicycle concert Mary is a pupil. As what element in the sentence is the noun /?//// used ? Mary is a very diligent student. What is the whole predicate in this sentence ? What is the chief word in this predicate? What is the word student? A second way in which a noun may be used is with the copula as the predicate of a proposition. A noun so used also is said to be in the nominative case. Write sentences contaiiiing the following noiins used as predicates : — flower river widow stone child preacher book prize mountain Select the no2ins fro7}i the following sentences and tell how each is used : — I. My brother is a doctor. 2. Mrs. Flint is our seamstress. 3. Charles will be a lawyer, a minister, or a physician. 4. These children are idlers, but their brother is studious. 5. My sister, my cousin, and I are musicians. 32 COMPOSITION LESSON XX COMPOSITION Pussy's summer house is made of leather, with a good thick floor to keep the water out. It has an opening at the top large enough for Pussy's head and shoulders. Pussy sits upright in her summer house, with her head well out. Her two paws are resting lightly on the. flap of the shoe. She looks out with a very demure expression, as much as to say, ^' I am very grateful for my home. Pray don't disturb me." This description followed these topics : — 1. Material of house. 2. Opening of house. 3. Pussy's position. 4. Pussy's expression. J^ead each topic and iJie paragraph that tells of it. Write a description of Pussy's Winter Honse accord- ing to the folloiving topics : — 1. Material of house. a. Outside, h. Inside. 2. Opening* of house. 3. Pussy's position. 4. Pussy's expression. VERBS ~ USES 33 LESSON XXI VERBS — USES Fishes swim. In this sentence the noun " fishes " is the subject. The word " swim," which is the predicate, expresses an action of the fishes. The horse stands. What is the predicate of this sentence? "Stands" expresses the state of the subject. My uncle still lives. The chief word of the predicate is " Hves," which expresses the existence or being of the subject. These three words, expressing, one an action, one a state, and one simply being, are all direct predicates. They all affirm. I am here. The copula " am," which affirms " here " of " I," also expresses existence or being. These words which can affirm and which express action, being, or state, are called verbs. A verb is a word which expresses action, being, or state ; as, George writes, I am, he dreams. Horses trot. Horses stand. What is the word " trot " in the first sentence? Why? What is the word " stand " in the second sentence ? A verb can be used as a direct predicate. Write sentences using the following verbs as direct predicates : — run thinks sleeps sew smiles lie talks sits writes threw HARV. ELEM. GRAM. — 3 34 EXERCISE ON VERBS Man is an animal. In this sentence what is the word " is " ? A verb may be used as a copula. Write sentences contaifiing the following verbs used as copulas, the predicates being nouns : — was seems is shall be might be can be The wind is moaning. "Is" the copula, and "moaning" the predicate, together express action and affirm. A verb may be a group of words used to affirm and to express action, being, or state. Write sentences containing the following groups of words tmited to express and to affirm action, being, or state : — shall be writing was written will have risen will come can write has been running may go has run may have been written LESSON XXII EXERCISE ON VERBS Select the verbs in the following sentences and tell whether each is used as direct predicate, as copula, or whether the verb consists of a group of words affirming and expressing action, being, or state. I. We wept. 2. We were weeping. 3. We are students. 4. The trees are budding, and the birds sing. 5. Birds in their litde nests agree. 6. It rains. 7. The trunks will be packed. 8. I will pack the trunks, 9. Mine has been packed a long time. 10. We leave to-night. 11. The carriage will arrive early. 12. I will wait. 13. Here it comes. 14. I i^ay be escorted home. 15. The proper time has passed. I OBJECTIVE ELEiMENT 35 LESSON XXIII OBJECTIVE ELEMENT Boys study grammar. In this sentence the word "grammar" is required to complete the meaning of the predicate " study." That which tells what the boys study, completes its meaning, and is called an objective element, or object. An objective element is a word or a group of words which completes the meaning of a verb. Analyze the following sentences : — Model. —Scholars learn lessons. Scholars | learn | lessons. This is a sentence (why?) : declarative (why?) "Scholars" is the subject (why?) : "learn" is the predicate (why?). " Learn " is modified by " lessons," an objective elonent. I. Dogs hunt rabbits. 2. Jane studies botany. 3. Eli drives horses. 4. Horses draw wagons. 5. Men build houses. 6. Farmers sow grain. 7. Merchants sell goods. 8. Haste makes waste. 9. Soldiers fight battles. 10. Cats catch mice. The objective elements in these sentences are nouns. The third way in which a noun may be used is as an objective element. A noun so used is said to be in the objective case. Write sentences^ nsifzg the following nouns as objective elements: — Model.— Fire burns wood. 36 OBJECT NOUN AND PREDICATE NOUN cars grass books churches laws wood wheat elephants • Hons boats letters geography trees debts pictures mountains LESSON XXIV OBJECT NOUN AND PREDICATE NOUN The boy recited his lesson The predicate is the verb "recited," which is modified by the objective element, " his lesson," in which the chief word is the noun "lesson," used as an object. The lesson was grammar. The verb "was " is used as a copula, and the noun " grammar" is the predicate, affirmed of the subject. Analyze the following seittences and select the nouns and verbs : — Models.— I. John resigned the position. John I resigned | the position. \ This is a simple declarative sentence. Why? "John" is the subject. Why? "Resigned" is the predicate modified by the objective element, " the position." " Resigned " is a verb, used as a direct predicate. " Position " is a common noun, used as the chief word of an objective element. 2. His name is Robert. His name | is : Robert. TOPICS 37 This is a simple dedai-ative setitence. " His name " is the sub- ject. Why? "Robert" is the predicate. Why? "Is" is the copula. Why ? " Name " is a common noun, used as chief word in the subject. " Robert " is a proper noun, used as a predicate. '' Is " is a verb, used as copula. 3. The girl was winding her watch. The girl | was winding | her watch. \ Kind ot sentence? Why? Subject? Why? "Was winding" is the predicate. Why? " Her watch " is an objective element. Why? "Was winding" is a verb consisting of two words united to express action and to affirm. " Watch " is a common noun, used as the chief word of an objective element. I. Viola blushed. 2. Stephen was a martyr. 3. Boys may be messengers. 4. Merchants sell goods. 5. Mechanics build houses. 6. Fishes swim. 7. James is a hero. 8. John should be a student. 9. Dogs kill sheep. 10. Henry struck William. LESSON XXV TOPICS Two Little Girls I know a little girl (You? Oh, no!) Who, when she's asked to go to bed, Does just so : 38 TOPICS She brings a dozen wrinkles out, And takes tlie dimples in ; She puckers up her pretty hps, And then she does begin — "Oh, dear me ! I don't see why ! All the others sit up late, And why can't I?" Another little girl I know, With curly pate, Who says : '' When I'm a grown-up girl, I'll sit up late. But mother says 'twill make me grow. To be an early bird." So she and dolly trot away Without another word. Oh, the sunny smile and the eyes so blue, And — well, now that I think of it. She looks like yoii ! This is a comparison of two little girls. The first stanza follows these topics : — 1. Who the first little girl is. 2. Her actions at bedtime. 3. Her remarks. Read what covers each of these topics. Make topics for the second stanza. Read what covers each of your topics. Make topics for the folloiving sidyect : How I Behave. 1. In the morning. 2. At night. POSSESSIVE FORMS OF NOUNS 39 LESSON XXVI POSSESSIVE FORMS OF NOUNS John's hat is torn. In this sentence the noun '' John's " is called a possessive because it denotes ownership. A possessive always modifies a noun denoting a different object from itself, and sometimes de- notes kind or authorship instead of ownership ; as, Lowell's Poems. A possessive noun is used to modify a noun different in meaning from itself. When a noun is used as a possess- ive, it is said to be in the possessive case. The apostrophe (') is used to show that a noun is a possessive. In writing the possessive case of nouns remember that — 1. When a noun denotes but one object, the letter s fol- lows the apostrophe ; as in John's, Moses's. 2. When the noun denotes more than one object, and ends with s, the apostrophe alone is used, as in ladies'. 3. When the noun denotes more than one object, and does not end with s, the apostrophe is usually followed by s, as in mens. Write five sentences, iiwdifying tJieir sitbjects by possessive nouns. Point out the possessive nouns in the following sentences : — I. Your father's brother is my uncle. 2. Mr. Eddy sells chil- dren's shoes. 3. Our farm once belonged to your grandfather. 4. Her doll's dress was soiled. 5. We met on the boys' play- ground. 6. Did you ride in the ladies' car? 7. The horse's foot is lame. 8. Have you read KipHng's tales? 40 THE PRONOUN The nest of the bird is very small. In this sentence what word may be used instead of the group " of the bird " ? A group of words beginning with " of" may frequently be used instead of a possessive noun. Siibstittiie groups for the possessive nouns in the following sentejices : — I. I grasped the boy's hand. 2. Daniel was in the lion's den. 3. The vessel's owner was drowned. 4. Have you found the fox's den? 5. We were startled by the lightning's flash. 6. Were you at home when the barn's roof was blown off ? 7. An owl's hoot was heard. 8. The farmer's horse was much admired. 9. The boy's lesson was soon learned. Siibstititte possessive nonns for the groups beginning with '■'■of'''' in the following sentences : — I. The head of the horse was hurt. 2. We loitered by the bank of the river. 3. The house of the squirrel was a hollow tree. 4. The hunters came to the den of the tigers. 5. The owner of the dogs was much surprised. 6. The boiler of the steamer was out of order. 7. The strength of the warrior was fast failing. LESSON XXVII THE PRONOUN John put John's hat on John's head. Is this a correct sentence? What word is unnecessarily repeated ? The sentence should be written, " John put his hat on THE PRONOUN 4I his head." What word is here used instead of "John's "? This word is called a pronoun, which means instead of a noun. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, he runs, she sings, they listen. Use each of the following pronouns in a sentence: — I my me it we him you your she its our thou he his her they us thee who them whose whom ours their Substitute appropriate pronouns for the dashes in the folloiuing sen- tences : — I. Stephen died a martyr to faith. 2. house to was a strange land. 3. said of son, " is brother." 4. Let there be no strife betwixt and . 5. Lend pen till write exercises. 6. How much missed brother and sister. 7. say are friends. 8. asked to visit . 9. Would think right for to neglect garden 10. friends could scarcely believe when told had refused. Ti. Lives of great men all remind can make lives sublime. Write five sentences^ using pronouns as subjects. Model. — We are scholars. Write five sentences, using pronouns as subjects and predicates. Model. — // was she. Write five sentences, using pronouns as objects. Model. — Henry admires them. 42 APPOSITIVE NOUNS Point otU the pronotins in these sentences : — I. He is your uncle. 2. His dog worried our cat 3. She lost the book which he gave her. 4. Did you tell me who they are? 5. It can not find its way out. 6. Were you with them? 7. Yes ; I was with them, and can tell you who they were. 8. The boy who died was my cousin. 9. Sarah can not find her book. 10. Who will find it for her? LESSON XXVIII APPOSITIVE NOUNS Mr. Jones, the mason, is here. In this sentence the noun "mason" means the same person as " Mr. Jones " and modifies " Mr. Jones," teUing his business. Gray, the famous poet, was present. In this sentence " the famous poet " means the same as " G^y " and modifies " Gray," telling which man named Gray is meant. A noun thus used to denote the same person or thing as the noun which it modifies is called an appositive. It is said to be in the same case as the noun which it modifies. An appositive is a word or group of words used to modify a noun or pronoun by denoting the same object. An appositive is usually placed after the noun or pronoun with which it is in apposition. Thus, in the sentence, "The emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant," " Nero " is in apposition with " emperor." An appositive is usually set off by a comma. Write five sentences^ inodifying their subjects by appositives. Model. — Mr. Tod, the mason, died yesterday. ADJECTIVES 43 Poi7it out the apposiiives in the following sentences : — I, Mr. Whitcomb, the lawyer, is out of town. 2. Whang, the Chinese miller, acted foohshly. 3. Milton, the poet, was blind. 4. Stephenson, the celebrated engineer, lived in England. 5. Have you seen Mr. Hicks, the man who sells strawberries? 6. I am reading the speeches of Webster, the statesman. 7. Washington, the capital of the United States, is situated on the Potomac. LESSON XXIX ADJECTIVES The boy is good. The predicate " good " is affirmed of the noun " boy " ; it ex- presses a quaUty of the boy. The good boy is ill. Here " good " is not affirmed of " boy," but still modifies the noun, expressing a quality of " boy." In the sentences, '' This book is heavy," " That book is light," " Two boys were sick," " Three boys were idle," the words, this, that, two, and three, are modifiers of the nouns that follow them ; but they do not express any quality. This and that point out the nouns to which they belong ; two and three denote number. Those words which modify nouns by expressing quality, pointing them out, or denoting number, are called adjectives. An adjective is a word used to describe or define a noun or a pronoun. 44 ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS Sometimes nouns are used to define other nouns, 3.s, John's hat, Milton, the poet. Although such words have an adjective force, they are not, strictly speaking, adjectives. They are nouns used as adjective elements. See Lesson XXX. Select the adjectives from the following exercise^ a7id state what 7t02ins or pronouns they modify. Models.— i. Fearful storms sweep over these islands, "Fearful" is an adjective modifying the noun "storms." "These" is an adjective modifying the noun "islands." 2, My poor brother is lame. "Poor" is an adjective modifying the noun "brother." "Lame " is an adjective used as a predicate and affirmed of the noun " brother." I. Both horses are lame. 2. Ripe peaches are plentiful. 3. Large houses are expensive. 4. You may take either road. 5. That boy has a kind father. 6. Every man carried a square box. 7. This lesson is hard. 8. The brave soldier received a severe wound. 9. He is good. 10. You are brave. Most adjectives derived from proper nouns should com- mence v^ith capitals; as, American cotton, French customs. LESSON XXX ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS Small lakes are abundant. In this sentence the word " small " modifies " lakes," showing what kind of lakes are abundant. ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS 45 John's hat is torn. In this sentence the possessive noun "John's " modifies "hat," denoting that it is the hat belonging to John that is torn. Mr. Jones, the mason, is insane. In this sentence the expression "the mason" modifies "Mr. Jones," telhng the trade or business of the man who is insane. These modifying words are called adjective elements because they modify nouns. An adjective element is a word or a group of words which modifies a noun or a pronoun. Ripe peaches are plentiful. In this sentence what element is " ripe " ? Why? This boy has six peaches. In this sentence what elements are "this" and "six"? Why? Write five sentences, modifying their subjects by adjective elements. Model. — Cold weather is unpleasant. Write five sentences, modifying nouns used as predicates by adjective elements. Models.— I. I am a dilige7^t pupil. 2. Dewey is a hero of rejiown, 3. America is a refuge for those who are oppressed. Write five sentences, modifying nouns tised as objects by adjective elements. Models.— I. I shot a large bird. 2. The bird uttered a cry of distress. 46 ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS Write five sentences^ modifying a possessive noun by an adjective element. Models.— I. (9^^r father's horse is lame. 2. T\i^ poor dog's leg is broken. 3. I saw your little sister's doll. A possessive noun, since it modifies another noun, is an adjective element. Write five se7itences, using possessive nouns as adjective elements. Model.— The bird's cage is open. Analyze the following sentences., selecting the subjects, the predicates, and the adjective elements : — Models. — i . Frank's father is a merchant. father | is : merchant. Frank's | I a This is a simple declai'-ative sentence. " Father " is the subject ; it is a noun, and is modified by the adjective element " Frank's." "Is" is the copula. " Merchant " is the predicate ; it is a noun, and is modified by the adjective element " a." 2. My old wheel was stolen. wheel I was stolen. My I old This is a simple declarative sentence. " Wheel " is the subject ; it is a noun, and is modified by the two adjective elements " My" and "old." The predicate consists of a group of words "was stolen," which represent the action and affirm it. ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS 3. Milton, the poet, was blind. Milton I was : blind. Ipoet I 47 This is a simple declarative sentence. " Milton " is the subject ; "blind" the predicate; "was" is the copula. "Milton" is modified by "poet," an adjective element; "poet" by "the," an adjective element. I. My book is an arithmetic. 2. These two birds have sweet voices. 3. Our school is a fine building. 4. The boys' parents praised their children. 5. A pretty song was sung. 6. Mary's sister is coming. 7. She is a sweet girl. 8. The children are her warm admirers. 9. My uncle, the artist, is an invalid. 10. That gentleman is Mr. Jones, the senator. Use each of the following adjectives as an adjective element : — Moj)m.s. — Smooth ice. So77te books. Smooth- That ■ Four Such Sweet Black Some Many These Blue Other One Latter Either Certain Sour Old Few Use the following adjectives as predicates : Dry Bad Soft Good Safe White Dirty Light Moist Warm Lost Firm Rough Round Square Smooth High Sharp Yonder Golden Another Fourfold Every Silent Spanish Healthy Pleasant Australian Great Cold 48 THE ARTICLE LESSON XXXI THE ARTICLE A horse was stolen. In this sentence "A" denotes that one horse is meant, but it does not point out any particular horse. The horse was stolen. "The " denotes that a particular horse is meant. The words "A" and ''The " in these sentences are adjectives, because they modify nouns. They are also called articles. A and an are different forms of the same word. The is called the definite article, because it points out definitely the object which it restricts. A or an is called the indefinite article, because it restricts in an indefinite or general manner. Place " a " or " an " before the following words : — egg. ode. cart. goat. oven. hour. eagle. stand. house. honor. hearth, humor, orange, turkey, vulture. memory, measure, opossum, elephant, advantage. (/se " a " or " an " instead of the dashes in the following sentences : — I. Temperance is — virtue. 2. The house stands on — hill. 3. — loud report was heard. 4. Life is but — vapor. 5. He is — honest man. 6. He has — ax to grind. 7. Father has bought — horse. 8. My being — child was — plea for my admission. THE APOSTROPHE 49 Use the proper articles instead of the dashes in the following sen- tences : — I. Such — law is — disgrace to any state. 2. Repeat — first four lines in concert. 3. Love took up — harp of life, and smote on all — chords with might. 4. — fox is cunning. 5. — days are calm. 6. — wise son maketh — glad father. Point out the articles in your reading lesson^ and tell what they modify. ♦ LESSON XXXII LETTER WRITING Devonshire Terrace, London, Feb. 27, 1849. My dearest Mary : I am not engaged on the evening of your birthday ; but even if I had an engagement of the most particular kind, I should excuse myself from keeping it, so that I might have the pleasure of celebrating at home, and among my children, the day that gave me such a dear and good daughter as you. Ever affectionately yours, Charles Dickens. Write a letter to a friend^ telling of so?nething interesting that hap- pened in school this year. LESSON XXXIII THE APOSTROPHE AND CONTRACTIONS How is the apostrophe used to indicate the possessive case of nouns which denote but one object? In what two ways may it be used to show the possessive case of nouns denoting more than one object? HARV. ELEM. GRAM. — 4 Use the following nouns in the possessive case : - - boy boys box boxes girl girls ox oxen man men friend friends Don't fail to come. In writing or printing dorCt, an apostrophe ( ' ) is used be- tween n and /, to show that the letter o is omitted. Tell what letters are omitted in the contracted words in these sen- tences : — I. We're going home. 2. We'll not go with you. 3. I didn't know that you told them not to go. 4. I'll help you as soon as I've learned my lesson. 5. We came from o'er the sea. 6. They're both truants. 7. The corporal said, " 'Bout face." 8. It's a fine day. 9. He's a good man. 10. She's my best friend. 11. ''There's many a sHp 'twixt the cup and the lip," 12. I'm to be queen o' the May, mother. 13. The play's the thing Wherein I'll catch the conscience of the king. The apostrophe is used either to show that a noun is possessive or to show that letters have been omitted. The form isn't is a contraction of is not, as the apostrophe indi- cates. The form aift't, sometimes used for a/n not, is not a con- traction of those or of any other words, and is not a correct form. Still less is hain't admissible. Don't is a proper contraction of do not, but not of does not. The proper contraction of does not is doesn't. Hence it is correct to say, " I don't care," but " He don't care " is incorrect. THE PRONOUN IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES 51 Ifs, the proper contraction of // is, must not be confused with the possessive pronoun its. The latter has no apostrophe. Thus, " It's a pity she could not come." " Its boughs are laden with fruit." LESSON XXXIV THE PRONOUN IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES Who is coming? John. Many interrogative sentences contain pronouns which help to ask the questions, and which stand for nouns found in the answers to the questions. Who I is coming? \ In this sentence, " Who " is a pronoun used as the subject ; " is coming " is a verb formed of two words, used as the predicate. Who was the captain } The order of the words in this sentence must be changed before the sentence can be analyzed. captain | was : Who th^n " Captain " is a noun used as the subject, modified by the adjective "the," used as an adjective element; "was" is a verb used as the copula ; " who " is a pronoun used as the predicate. Whom did you see.f* The order of the words in this sentence must be changed. you I did see | Whom 52 THE PRONOUN IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES " You " is a pronoun used as the subject ; " did see " is a verb formed of two words, used as the predicate ; " whom " is a pro- noun used as an objective element. Whose hat have you ? you I have j hat PWhose " You " is a pronoun, used as subject ; " have " is a verb, used as direct predicate ; " hat " is a noun, used as objective element ; "whose" is a pronoun, used as adjective element to modify the noun " hat." What did you say.^ you I did say | What Analyze this sentence. W^hich will you have ? you I will have | Which \ ■ Analyze this sentence. Which hat is becoming .^^ hat I is : becoming? |Which I Analyze this sejttence. When " which " is used with a noun, it is called an adjective ; when it is used instead of 2i noun, it is called a pronoun. Which and what, not used as modifiers, together with who, whose, and whom, when used in asking questions, are called interrogative pronouns. The interrogative pronouns are wko, whose, whom^ whichy and whaty when used in asking questions. LETTER WRITING 53 The words which and what are sometimes placed before nouns in interrogative propositions. They are then called interrogative adjectives. Analyze the following sentences : — I. What did he say? 2. Who wrote that letter? 3. Which trots the fastest? 4. Whom did you call? 5. Whose house was burned? 6. What can he mean? 7. Who has learned this lesson? 8. Who discovered America? 9. Who borrowed John's slate? 10. Whose book is this ? LESSON XXXV LETTER WRITING A Letter to Mother Nature You dear old Mother Nature, I am writing you a letter, To let you know you ought to fix up things a little better. The best of us will make mistakes — I thought perhaps if I Should tell you how you might improve, you would be glad to try. I think you have forgotten, ma'am, that little girls and boys Are fond of dolls, and tops, and sleds, and balls, and other toys ; Why didn't you — I wonder, now ! — just take it in your head To have such things all growing in a lovely garden bed ? I'd like to have the coasting and the skating in July, When old Jack Frost would never get a single chance to try To nip our cheeks and noses ; and the Christmas trees should stand By dozens, loaded ! — in the woods ! — now, wouldn't that be grand ? 54 LETTER WRITING Ah ! what a world it would have been ! How could you, madam, make Such lots of bread and butter to so very httle cake ? I'd have it just the other way, and every one would see How very, very, very, very nice my way would be. But, as I cannot do it, will you think of what I say ? And please, ma'am, do begin and alter things this very day. And one thing more — on Saturdays don't send us any rain. Good-by. If I should think of something else, I'll write again. — Sydney Dayre. Write a letter to your sister, tellijig her what you should do if you could act just as you pleased and have whatever you wanted for a whole day. This is the way to address the envelope : — JWAhh IWxmj^ Uaj^. Copy this address. Then draw an eiivehpe in the sa?ne way, and address it to your sister or to some girl friejid. PRONOUNS AS SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES 55 LESSON XXXVI PRONOUNS USED AS SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES He comes, / go. She speaks. Thou art here. We know the lesson. They heard the speech. Who comes } How are all these pronouns used? It is he. It was /. No, it was she. Is it thou ? It may have been we. No, it was they. How are all these pronouns used? Make a Hst of those pronoun forms which are used as subjects and of those pronoun forms used as predicates. What do you notice about these Hsts? The form of a pronoun used as a subject is called the nomina- tive case of the pronoun. The nominative case of the pronoun is employed also when the pronoun is used as predicate. Fill each blank i7i the following exercise with the nominative form of a pronoun : — I. ■ was . 2. drew the picture. 3. The offender was . 4. is . 5. were there. 56 PRONOUNS AS OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS LESSON XXXVII PRONOUNS USED AS OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS The teacher scolded me. She will scold us. The Lord preserve thee. We admire him. We distrust her. Let us call them. Whom do you fear? How are these pronouns used? The form of a pronoun used as an objective element is called the objective case of the pronoun. Fill in each of the following blanks with the objective case of a pro- noun : — I. I love . 2. The birds please . 3. I read ■ . 4. will you see? 5. The pupils like . 6. These children need . 7. Our father will reward . 8, Heaven will bless . 9. The book dehghted . 10.— — should we love? Tell what case of the pronoun should be used to fill each of the follow- ing blanks, and supply the pronoun : — I. love . 2. pleasest . 3. ^ — are pleased. 4. is . 5. are . 6. Beheve . 7. am annoyed. 8. Can be ? 9. can enjoy . 10. was . Analyze the seiitences in the paragraph above. PRONOUNS AS ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS 57 LESSON XXXVIII PRONOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS — POSSESSIVES My pen is broken. Thy promise is sure. His task is ended. Her dress is beautiful. Its eyes are blue. Our class is large. Your mother is kind. Their purpose is good. Whose card is that ? How are these pronouns used? That form of a pronoun used as an adjective element to modify a noun (by indicating possession), is called the possessive case of the pronoun. Fill in each blank in the following sentences with the possessive case of some pronoun : — I. purse is light. 2. I lost purse. 3. father's name is John. 4. It was brother. 5. purse is this? 6. horse is lame. 7. Charles is name. 8. We saw fall. 9. escape was wonderful. 10. fault is it? II. It is not fault. 12. Do best. 13. best is not very good. 14. I will appreciate effort. 15. voice is that ? 16. It is mother's voice. 17. voice is sweet. Analyze the precedi7ig sentences. 58 NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE CASES LESSON XXXIX PRONOUNS ALIKE IN NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE CASES It is here. This is it. I want it. How is each of these pronouns used? Which is coming? Which will you have? Which is it? How is each of these pronouns used? What is coming? What is it? What will you have? How is each of these pronouns used ? Mention three pronouns^ each of whose nojninative and objective cases are alike. Fill in the blanks in the following sente?ices ; analyze the sentences, and tell why each form is used. I. is ? 2. is ? 3. can I do? 4. do you want? 5. is happening? 6. will do. 7. will do? 8. I know . 9. is true. 10. is true? 11. is that? 12. is a bell. 13. I hear . 14. do you hear? 15. I do not hear '. 16. of you is correct? 17. I know . TOPICS 59 LESSON XL TOPICS A Remedy that Failed " I don't see why Charlie cries so much," said Mamma. " I do," said Uncle Ned ; " it's because of his curls. He looks so much like a girl that he thinks he must act like a girl." And Charlie listened ! Soon you might have heard patter, patter, as a little boy mounted the stairs one step at a time, and two feet on each step. Then you might have heard a scrape, scrape, as somebody felt through Mamma's big workbasket. Then a big chair was pulled up before the mirror, and some- body with short legs puffed and blew and struggled to mount it. Then click, click, snip, snap went the shears, and the light curls dropped one by one to the floor, leaving the funniest little cropped head you ever saw. 6o ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS ''Now," said Charlie, in a satisfied tone, "this little boy will never cry again." But he did ! Can you tell why? Make an outline for this story ^ and read the story to see what topic each paragraph tells about. LESSON XLI LETTER WRITING This is the advice a mother gave to her little girl who wanted to write a letter to her sister : — " I will give you a rule," said her mother ; " my dear. Just think for a moment your sister is here, — And what would you tell her? Consider, and then. Though silent your tongue, you can speak with your pen." Follow this mother''s advice, and write a letter to an absent friend. This letter ought to be good enough to send without correction. Write the address for the envelope on paper and then copy it on aii envelope, punctuating car ef idly. LESSON XLII ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS AND ADJECTIVES MODIFYING PRONOUNS I, thy mother, ask it. I I ask I it. [mother | I thy This is a simple declarative sentence. "I" is a pronoun, nom- REVIEW OF PRONOUNS 6l illative case because used as the subject. It is modified by the adjective element, " mother," which is a noun used as an apposi- tive. "Mother" is modified by the pronoun "thy," which is the possessive case, used as an adjective element. The modifier of a pronoun is an adjective element. A pronoun in the possessive case is an adjective element. I am weary. I I am : weary. ■ I " I " is the subject ; it is a pronoun in the nominative case. "Am " is a verb used as a copula. "Weary" is an adjective used as a predicate, and affirmed of the pronoun "I." An adjective in the predicate may modify a noun or a pronoun. Analyze the following sentences : — I. I was hungry. 2. My journey was long. 3. It fatigued me. 4. He, our good pastor, forgave us. 5. He forgave our folly. 6. We, poor and ill, suffered. 7. Your prayer is heard. 8. It was my voice. 9. Whose turn was it? 10. What can he do? LESSON XLIII REVIEW OF PRONOUNS Analyze these sentences, and explain the nse of the case of the nonns atid pronoims and the uses of the apostrophe : — I. Thou callest. 2. I come. 3. She studies. 4. I Hke her. 5. They are honest. 6. Her lesson was learned. 7. I borrowed his books. 8. They have sold their farms. 9. You should study your lesson. 10. Ye are the people. 11. It can 62 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS find its master. 12. Thy fame hath preceded thee. 13. The child loves its nurse. 14. The nurse's love is great. 15. The nurses' rooms are ready. 16. It's a dark day. 17. These chil- dren have lost their way. 18. Mr. Rich's dog injured its collar. 19. Whose picture is it? 20. It's my picture. 21. That's Jennie's picture. 22. They've stolen Jack, Mr. Ross's dog. 23. What is its color? 24. It's a big, black, collie dog. 25. Thou art the man. LESSON XLIV POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS My hat is white. Mine is black. Whose hat is that } It is mine. Bring my hat. Bring mine. Tell how the pronoun " mine " is used in each of these sentences. Write sentences using the pronoun ''thine" in three ways. Write sentences using the pronouns "his," ''hers," "theirs," "ours," "yours," each as subject; as object; as predicate. These are called possessive pronouns. They do not change in form to indicate the nominative and objective cases, and they have no possessive cases. Analyze the following sentences : — I. Whose lesson was perfect? 2. Mine was good. 3. His was better. 4. We forgot ours. 5. Whose book is it? 6. It is yours. 7. Mine is torn. 8. I tore mine. 9. Theirs was forgotten. 10. Thine be the glory. 11. This book is hers. 12. Those apples are his. 13. Yours is a hard lesson. 14. Those marbles are mine. 15. This book is thine. 16, The victory is ours. [address.] LETTER WRITING 63 LESSON XLV LETTER WRITING [date.] VfloAj \, iqoo. TY\a. Q^a/yyu/> Q^cfimAorv, TTiaxiUumj, Oy JO^XIA/ i^l/b : f^°'°'' ""^ LETTER.] \L i/) Toru/ \/YiXjuriLi(yY\y t^. Socrates said he was not an Athenian or a Greek, but a citizen of the world. 39. For what avail the plow or sail. Or land or Ufe, if freedom fail? 40. When duty whispers low. Thou must, The youth replies, I can ! LESSON LXVII REVIEW OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS Find the noiuis and pronouns in Lesson LXVI, and tell how each is used. LESSON LXVIII REVIEW OF VERBS, ADVERBS, AND ADJECTIVES Find the verbs in Lesson LX VI, and tell how each is used. Find the adverbs and adjectives in Lesson LX VI, and tell how each is 2ised, S8 PREPOSITIONS LESSON LXIX LETTER WRITING India Office, October 14, 1823. Dear Sir : If convenient, will you give us house room on Saturday next? I can sleep anywhere. If another Sunday suit you better, pray let me know. We were talking of roast shoulder of mutton with onion sauce ; but I scorn to prescribe to the hospitahties of mine host. With respects to Mrs. C, Yours truly, Charles Lamb. This is a letter written by the author of " Tales from Shake- speare." How can we tell that it was written to an intimate friend ? Write a letter to a relative^ —perhaps an aunt, — asking if you 7iiay bring your chum with you when you co7ne to pay her a short visit. LESSON LXX PREPOSITIONS A man of wealth rode by our house. In this sentence what does the group of words "of wealth" modify? What element is it? Why? What does the group of words "by our house" modify? It tells where the man rode. What element is it? Why? The word "of" connects the noun "wealth" to the noun "man." The word "by" connects the noun "house" with the PREPOSITIONS 89 verb "rode." They are said to show the relations between the words which they connect, and are called prepositions. The nouns which follow them are called their objects. . A preposition is a word used to show the relation between its object and some other word. List of the Principal Prepositions Aboard Before Except To About Behind For Toward Above Below From Towards Across Beneath In, into Under After Beside Of Until Against Between On Up Along Beyond Over Upon Among By Past With Around Down Round Within At During Through Without Point out the prepositions iji the following sentences : — Model. — He came from France to America. "From" is a. preposition; it shows the relation between its object and some other word. It shows the relation between "France" and "came." "To" is 2. preposition ; it shows the relation between "America" and "came." I. The old man was often in want of the necessaries of life. 2. The boy went through the gate into the garden. 3. Be not forward in the presence of your superiors. 4. He was not, at that time, in the city. 5. He drove over the bridge into the city. 6. He went to the doctor for advice. 7. The path brought them to the end of the wood. 8. She turned to the old man, with a lovely smile upon her face. 9. The light came through the stained windows of the old church. 90 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE LESSON LXXI PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE I ran into the house. " Into the house " is a group of words, consisting of a preposi- tion, its object, and a modifier of the object. These three words form a single expression used as an adverbial element to modify the verb "ran." The house beside the church is a parsonage, " Beside the church " is a group of words, consisting of a preposition, "beside," its object, "church," and a modifier of church, " the." These three words form a single expression used as an adjective element to modify the noun " house." A group of words consisting of a preposition and its object is called a prepositional phrase. Analyze the folloiving sentences : — Model.— Habits of industry will lead to prosperity. Habits I will lead of industrv to prosperity. This is a simple declarative sentence. " Habits " is the subject ; " will lead," the predicate. " Habits " is modified by the prepositional phrase " of industry," an adjective element ; " will lead " is modified by the prepositional phrase " to prosperity," an adverbial element. I. Light moves in straight lines. 2. They went aboard the ship. 3. I differ from you on that point. 4. The two thieves divided the money between them. 5. The ship was driven THE PARTICIPLE 91 upon the rocks. 6. Our sincerest laughter is fraught with some pain. 7. The young lambs are bleating in the meadows. 8. They came to the country of the free. LESSON LXXII COMPOSITION Making Friends Make a7i outline and write a description of this scejie. LESSON LXXIII THE PARTICIPLE James saw the man plowing. What is the subject of this sentence? Why? What is the predicate? Why? What is the objective element? Why? 92 THE PARTICIPLE The words "the" and "plowing" limit and restrict "man." The word "plowing" denotes what the man was doing. It does not affirm anything of " man " ; it modifies it like an adjective. The word " plowing," then, partakes of the properties of both a verb and an adjective. Like a verb, it expresses action ; like an adjective, it modifies a noun. Because it partakes of the prop- erties of two parts of speech, it is called a participle, which word means partaking of. A participle is a word derived from a verb, and partak- ing of the properties of a verb and of an adjective or a noun. Several participles can be made from the same verb. From the verb "take" come the participles "taking," "taken," " being taken," "having taken," "having been taken." Form as many participles as possible fro7n the following verbs : — go spell lie suffer answer sit hope make enjoy demand see grow learn recite enchant help come write arrive resemble find paint study inquire reconcile Point out all the participles in the following exercises: '■ — Models.— I. The boy, laughing, ran away. "Laughing" is 2i participle ; it is a word derived from the verb "laugh," and partakes of the properties of a verb and of an adjective. 2. The lesson, studied carefully, was recited. " Studied " is a participle ; why ? 3. Having recited, we were dismissed. " Having recited " is 2^ participle ; why ? THE PARTICIPIAL NOUN 93 I. Look at Dash playing with Rose. 2. I send you this note, written in^haste, hoping it will reach you before you leave town. 3. Here it comes sparkling, and there it lies darkling. 4. Having finished the task assigned me, I will rest awhile. 5. The boy passed on, whistling as before. 6. The fort, situ- ated on a high hill, was captured at daybreak. LESSON LXXIV THE PARTICIPIAL NOUN I like skating. In this sentence ''skating" is a noun. It is a nmne, the name of an action. It is a noun ; but, as it expresses action, and is derived from the verb '' skate," it is called a participial noun. A participial noun is also a common noun ; but it need not be so called in parsing. Point 07 (t the participial notms in the following exercises : — Model. — Miss Gray teaches writing. This is a simple declai^alive sentence. "Writing" is a noun (why?) ; participial; it is derived from the verb " write," and partakes of the properties of a verb and a noun. I. He was in danger of losing his life. 2. Let there be no more running and jumping on the lawn. 3. These strawberries are of my own raising. 4. The two men commenced searching for a shelter. 5. They could not avoid being discovered. 94 THE PARTICIPIAL PHRASE Point out the participles and participial nouns: — I. John would have avoided meeting him, i^ he could have done so without being called a coward. 2. Looking over the wall, we saw a fox caught in a trap. 3. Seeing is believing. 4. The poor woman stood at the door, wringing her hands. 5. Do you see the teacher pointing his finger at us? LESSON LXXV THE PARTICIPIAL PHRASE The man cutting the grass is a good gardener. "Cutting the grass" is a group of words composed of a par- ticiple, its object, and a modifier of the object. The whole group forms a single expression used as an adjective element, and is called a participial phrase. Being tired, I sat down on the bench. " Being tired " is a group of words introduced by a participle, and forming a single expression used as an adverbial element. It is called a participial phrase. A group of words introduced by a participle, and form- ing a single expression used as an element in a sentence, is called a participial phrase. Analyze the follo'wi7ig sentences : — Model. — The window covered with frost intercepted the Hght from the lamp. window The covered intercepted | light the from lamp with frost I the PHRASES 95 "Window" is the subject, modified by "the" and by the participial phrase '' covered with frost," two adjective elements, "Intercepted" is the predicate, modified by the object "light," which is modified by " the " and by the prepositional phrase " from the lamp," two adjective elements. " From " is the preposition and " lamp " is its object, modified by the adjective element " the." 1. A cottage nestling among the trees peeped out upon the traveler. 2. A porch adorned with roses occupied the north side of the enclosure. 3. The maiden, neatly dressed, looked sweet enough. 4. At noon, being exhausted from my studies, I fell asleep. 5. Having been there twice, I knew the place well. 6. I learned a song bristling with difficulties. 7. Mr. White's nag, arching her neck, came sidling up to us. 8. A well-worn pathway leads to the spring. 9. The boy ran leaping and skip- ping merrily. 10. Sparkling with dewdrops, a fairy carpet lay spread. LESSON LXXVI PHRASES Little Boy Blue, the boy that minds the sheep, is under the haycock. "The boy that minds the sheep " is a group of words forming a single expression, yet not a proposition, and is used as an adjec- tive element in the sentence. I will be there whether or no. "Whether or no " is a group of words forming a single expres- sion, but not a proposition, and is used as an adverbial element in the sentence. 96 COMPOSITION Any group of words of this sort may be called a phrase. A phrase is a group of words properly put together so as to make a single expression, but not a proposition. Select the phrases from the following sentences : — I. That boy, small and wiry, with red hair and freckled face, is the best wrestler in our school. 2. A post six feet high marked the spot where the camp was located. 3. A squirrel with a bushy tail skipped nimbly across the road in front of us. 4. Watch the children playing in the snow. 5. I looked here and there for arbutus. 6. Every now and then we found some. 7. I will come by and by. 8. Little by httle all my property was lost. LESSON LXXVII COMPOSITION The Mischief Maker There's a little mischief-making Elfin, who is ever nigh, Thwarting every undertaking, And his name is By-and-by ; What we ought to do this minute '' Will be better done," he'll cry, *' If to-morrow we begin it, — Put it off," says By-and-by. Those who heed his treacherous wooing Will his faithless guidance rue ; What we always put off doing. Clearly we shall never do. THE INFINITIVE PHRASE 97 We shall reach what we endeavor If on Now we more rely ; But into the realms of Never Leads the pilot By-and-by, Make an oiiiliiie of this poem. Write a story oji '■'-Toui's Delay and What Caj7ieof Ity LESSON LXXVIII THE INFINITIVE PHRASE The desire to laugh overcame us. "To laugh" is an adjective element, modifying "desire." It is a form of the verb "laugh." It expresses action, but does not affirm it, and is called an infinitive, or infinitive phrase. I smiled to reassure him. "To reassure him" is an infinitive phrase, consisting of the infinitive of the verb "reassure" and the object "him." The phrase is used as an adverbial element. Infinitives and participles are often modified by adverbial ele- ments and adverbs. Thus " running rapidly " ; "to run rapidly." An infinitive is a form of the verb used to express action without affirming it. The word " to " is usually placed before the verb, and is called the sign of the infinitive. The two parts should not be separated in analyzing or parsing. An infinitive phrase is an infinitive or a group of words introduced by an infinitive, the whole expression being used as some element in a sentence. Analyze the following sentences : — I. The wish to hear her inspired my efforts to chmb the bal- HARV. ELEM. GRAM. — J gS SUBJECT PHRASES cony. 2. The boy studied to learn. 3. I went to church to pray. 4. Those who came to scoff at him became the most earnest to praise. 5. My intention to shoot the burglar was frustrated by his stooping. 6. I have a box to put pens in. 7. A book to cover was placed beside me. 8. I have no lessons to learn to-night. 9. She was "wax to receive, and marble to retain." ■^ LESSON LXXIX SUBJECT PHRASES What kind of elements have been the phrases so far discussed? Phrases used as adjective or adverbial elements are called adjective or adverbial phrases. To love is to obey. To love I is : to obey. This is a simple declarative sentence. "To love" is a phrase used as the subject; "to obey" is the predicate ; " is," the copula. Dragging the sled was hard work. Dragging | sled | was : work, [th^l jh^d The participial phrase, " dragging the sled," is used as the sub- ject of the sentence. " To the front " was a thrilling cry to hear. " To front " | was : cry [the \ ja thrilling to hear. PREDICATE PHRASES 99 "To the front " is a phrase used as the subject of the sentence. A phrase used as the subject of a sentence is called a subject phrase. Analyze the following sentences : — I. To lie is wicked. 2. Telling white lies is poor business. 3. To have lost such a foe would have been poor comfort. 4. To watch the tide come in was a pleasure to us. 5. To teach the young is a pleasant task. 6. Studying under pleasant circum- stances is no drudgery to me. 7. Looking out for sails occupied much of his time. 8. To be doing something useful delighted the children. 9. Begging from door to door is his sole occupa- tion. 10. To err is human. LESSON LXXX PREDICATE PHRASES My purpose is to do right. purpose I is : to do I right. IMy I "To do right" is an infinitive phrase used as the predicate of the sentence after the copula " is." What confuses me is multiplying by decimals. What I confuses I me is : multiplying I by decimals. " Multiplying by decimals " is a participial phrase used as predicate of the sentence after the copula " is." 100 OBJECTIVE PHRASES The general's order will be " To arms." order | will be : "To arms." I generaPs | [The The prepositional phrase ^'To arms" is used as predicate, after the copula "will be." Analyze the following sentences : — I. To brag is to deceive no one. 2. My intention is to leave early. 3. My chief amusement is playing solitaire. 4. My wish was to go to the concert. 5. The means of support are fishing in the rivers and hunting in the woods. 6. Your ambition should be to become a great scholar. 7. To aid your fellow man is to serve God. LESSON LXXXI OBJECTIVE PHRASES I want to know him better. I I want I to know | him I I better. The infinitive phrase " to know him better " is used as the object of the verb " want." I like sitting before the fire. I I like I sitting I I before fire. I the " Sitting before the fire " is a participial phrase used as the object of the verb " like." REVIEW OF PHRASES lOI A phrase used as the object of a verb or of a participle is called an objective phrase. Analyze the following sentences : — I. We hope to make your friend's acquaintance. 2. The pupils enjoy drawing from nature. 3. The teacher intends to invite all the parents. 4. Our parents hope to be present. 5. Hike teach- ing music. 6. Everybody hopes to live long, yet no one desires to grow old. 7. I anticipate having a good time. 8. We enjoy having had you with us. 9. The baby dreads taking a bath. 10. We remember saihng our boats on the miniature pond. LESSON LXXXII REVIEW OF PHRASES What is a phrase ? What kinds of phrases do you know? Analyze the following sentences^ giving special aitentio7i to the phrases they contain : — 1 . When Fortune means to men most good, She looks upon them with a threatening eye. 2. If all the year were playing holidays, To sport would be as tedious as to work. 3. Chiefly the mold of a man's fortune is in his own hands. 4. To write a verse or two is all the praise That I can raise. 5. My sentence is for open war. 6. Not to know me argues yourself unknown. 7. Whatever is, is in its causes, just. 8. To die is landing on some silent shore. 102 THE INTERJECTION 9. Lord, in the morning thou shalt hear My voice ascending high. 10. Pleased to the last, he crops the flowery food, And licks the hand just raised to shed his blood. 11. But yonder comes the powerful king of day, Rejoicing in the east. 12. We must eat to live, and live to eat. 13. Being in a ship is being in a jail, with the chance of being drowned. 14. Trust that man in nothing who has not a conscience in everything. 15. How sleep the brave who sink to rest By all their country's wishes blessed ! 16. Forbearance ceases to be a virtue. 17. Labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark of celestial fire — conscience. 18. He tried the luxury of doing good. 19. Prayer is the soul's sincere desire. Uttered or unexpressed. LESSON LXXXIII THE INTERJECTION Oh ! I have cut myself. Oh, how it bleeds ! Hah ! It was a fearful day. Ah ! ha ! he caught the ball, did he ? The words o/i, a/i, and /la/i are thrown into these sentences merely to express ejuotioji. A word so used is called an inter- jection. THE INTERJECTION 103 Interjections are expressions of emotion only. They are called interjections because they are thi'own in between connected parts of discourse, though generally found at the commencement of a sentence. Select the interjections front the following sentences : — I. Hah ! it is a sight to freeze one ! 2. Ah ! ha ! you thought me bhnd, did you? 3. Oh! Oh! 'tis foul! 4. O excellent young man ! 5. Alas, what have I seen or known ! 6. Mercy, how it burns ! 7. Fie upon thee ! 8. Soft ! I did but dream. 9. Don't you hear? Don't you see? Hush ! Look ! -In my tree I'm as happy as happy can be ! What punctuation mark is placed after most of the interjections used in these sentences? What other mark is placed after a few of these interjections? When the comma is placed after an inter- jection, what mark is always found at the end of the sentence? Find a case in which no mark follows the interjection. An interjection is a word used to denote some sudden or strong emotion. An interjection is usually, but not always, followed by an exclamation point [!]. The word O is always a capital letter. Select the interjections frojn the following, and pimctnate properly : — I. Aha you are a truant 2. Ahem I will think about it 3. Hark the clock strikes one 4. Pshaw I knew that yesterday 5. Alas we shall see him no more 6. Tush tush man I made no reference to you 7. Ay he is every inch a king 8. Oh what a noble mind is here o'erthrown 9. Alas they had been friends in youth 10. Hark hark the lark at heaven's gate sings 104 COMPOSITION LESSON LXXXIV COMPOSITION Bessie and Bossy ^^^T— fr- Bessie and Bossy seem to be great friends. Bessie is standing on the lower rail of the fence, leaning over to feed Bossy. She is neatly dressed, as a little girl should be, in a calico dress, a white apron, and a broad-brimmed hat. She clings to the fence rail with one hand and holds out to Bossy with the other a large red apple which I think she gathered from the tree above her. Bossy, too, is neatly dressed, as a little calf should be, in a spotted suit of brown and white. He seems to feel no fear of Bessie, but puts his head boldly forward to get the fruit. In the background may be seen the frame farmhouse, shaded by trees and surrounded by meadows. It is a peaceful scene ! Make aji outline of this description. COiNDENSATION AND ENLARGEMENT 105 Bessie and Bossy {continued^ Make an outline^ and write a description of the scene in the fol- lowing picture. Read each paragraph of your description., to see whether it describes one topic in your outline. LESSON LXXXV CONDENSATION AND ENLARGEMENT Complex sentences may often be reduced to simple sen- tences by using single words or phrases, instead of sub- ordinate propositions. Reduce the following complex sentences to simple sentences : — Models.— I. A man who is wealthy, lives there = A man of wealth (or, a wealthy man) lives there. 2. We started when the sun rose = We started at sunrise. I06 CONDENSATION AND ENLARGEMENT I. A pupil that is studious, will learn rapidly. 2. Men who are honest, are respected. 3. A boy, when he is at play, is happy. 4. An accident that was unavoidable, occurred at the factory this morning. 5. Franklin, who was a philosopher, was an American. 6. One soldier was not present when the roll was called. 7. They weighed anchor when the tide turned. 8. My brother has gone to the city, that he may find employment. Simple sentences may often be enlarged to complex sentences by using subordinate clauses instead of single words or phrases, as modifiers. Enlarge the following simple sentences: — Model. — None think the great unhappy but the great = None think that the great are unhappy but the great. I. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 2. I went down to the river at ten o'clock. 3. Time wasted is existence ; used, is fife. 4. Thou hast uttered cruel words. 5. The poor must work in their grief. 6. They came here to see the country. 7. The wild beasts kept for the games, had broken from their dens. 8. Haste to cheer my father's heart. Substitute single words or clauses for the phrases in the following sentences : — Models.— I. Henry studies his lessons with care = Henry studies his lessons carefully. 2. Ice forms in cold weather = Ice forms when the weather is cold. I. The sailors weighed anchor at sunrise. 2. The enraged lion struggled in vain. 3. Flowers bloom in the spring. 4. Some POSITION OF WORDS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES 107 seed fell on stony ground. 5. The face of the poor boy was dis- figured. 6. Our schools should be the pride and boast of our country. 7. I have written this letter in haste. LESSON LXXXVI POSITION OF WORDS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES The meaning of a sentence may often be changed by changing the position of the single words, phrases, and clauses of which it is composed. In the sentence, " Only John studies algebra," " only " modifies "John." He is the only person that studies algebra. In the sentence, " John studies only algebra," " only " modifies " algebra." It is the only branch that John studies. In the sentence, " A watch was found yesterday by a schoolboy with steel hands," the phrase "with steel hands" modifies " schoolboy " ; but in the sentence, " A watch with steel hands was found yesterday by a schoolboy," the phrase "with steel hands " modifies " watch." In the first sentence, the steel hands are represented as belonging to the schoolboy ; in the second, to the watch. In the sentence, "He needs no spectacles that cannot see," the clause "that cannot see" is not intended to be used as a modifier of " spectacles," but of the word " he." It should be placed between " he " and " needs." Words, phrases, and clauses, used as modifiers, should be placed as near as possible to the modified words. Locate the phrases and clauses properly in these sentences : — I. The sled was bought by a boy going to school for a dollar. 2. Wanted. — A horse by an EngHsh gentleman, sixteen hands Io8 PARTS OF SPEECH high. 3. A man was hanged yesterday with a blind eye. 4. Look at those two men fishing with sunburnt faces. 5. The book was dropped by a bad boy on my head. 6. I saw a dog bite a man with long ears and a white spot on his face. 7. Mr. Otis needs a surgeon, who has broken his arm. LESSON LXXXVII PARTS OF SPEECH Words have different meanings, and are used in different ways. They can be divided into classes, according to their meaning and use. These classes are called parts of speech. Parts of speech are the classes into which words are divided according to their meaning and use. The parts of speech are : nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. A noun is a name. Give exainples. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. Give examples. An adjective is a word used to describe or define a noun or a pronoun. Give examples. A verb is a word which expresses action, being, or state. Give examples. COMPOSITION 109 A participle is a word partaking of the character of a verb and of an adjective or a noun. Give examples. An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, -an ad- jective, a participle, or an adverb. Give examples. A preposition is a word used to show the relation be- tween its object and some other word. Give examples. A conjunction is a word used to connect words, groups of words, or propositions. Give examples. An interjection is a word used to denote emotion. Give examples. LESSON LXXXVIII COMPOSITION Freaks of Jack Frost The Frost looked forth on a still, clear night, And whispered, " Now I shall be out of sight ; So through the valley and over the height In silence I'll take my way. I will not go on like that blustering train — The wind and the snow, the hail and the rain- That make such a bustle and noise in vain ; But I'll be as busy as they." no COMPOSITION So he flew to the mountain, and powdered its crest ; He ht on the trees, and their boughs he dressed With diamonds and pearls ; and over the breast Of the quivering lake he spread A coat of mail, that it need not fear The gUttering point of many a spear Which he hung on its margin, far and near. Where a rock could rear its head. He went to the windows of those who slept. And over each pane, hke a fairy, crept ; Wherever he breathed, wherever he stepped, By the morning light were seen Most beautiful things : there were flowers and trees, There were bevies of birds and swarms of bees ; There were cities, and temples, and towers ; and these All pictured in silver sheen ! But he did one thing that was hardly fair : He peeped in the cupboard, and finding there That all had forgotten for him to prepare — " Now, just to set them a-thinking, I'll bite this basket of fruit," said he, *' This costly pitcher I'U burst in three ; And the glass of water they've left for me Shall ' tchick ! ' to tell them I'm drinking." — Hannah F. Gould. Make ail otitline of the story told in this poem. Write a story from the outline which you ifiake. Read each paragraph of yonr story aloud to see whether it is about one topic in your outline. Notice where each paragraph begins. Explain the use of each capital and each period in your story. Explain the use of the quotation marks in your story. ANALYSIS SUMMARIZED ill LESSON LXXXIX ANALYSIS SUMMARIZED A sentence is a group of words making complete sense. Give examples. The subject is that part of a proposition about which something is affirmed. Give examples. The predicate is that part of a proposition which is affirmed of the subject. Give examples. The copula is a word or a group of words used to join a predicate to a subject, and to make an assertion. Give examples. A direct predicate is a predicate affirmed of the subject without any expressed copula. Give examples. A proposition is a subject combined with its predicate. Give examples. A simple sentence is a sentence consisting of but one proposition. Give exa?nples. A compound sentence consists of two or more connected propositions, each of which will make complete sense when standing alone. Give examples. A member of a compound sentence is one of the propo- sitions of which it is composed. Give examples. 112 ELEMENTS SUMMARIZED A complex sentence is one some element of which is a proposition. Gh>e exa])iples. A clause is one of the propositions forming a complex sentence. Give exa?nples. A principal clause is that proposition forming part of a complex sentence which makes complete sense when sep- arated from the rest of the sentence. Gwe examples. A subordinate clause is that proposition used as an ele- ment in a complex sentence which does not make complete sense when separated from the rest of the sentence. Give examples. A phrase is a group of words properly put together so as to make a single expression, but not a proposition. Give examples. LESSON XC ELEMENTS SUMMARIZED An element is one of the distinct parts of a sentence. The principal elements are the subject and \.\\^ predicate. The subordinate elements are objective, adjective, and adverbial elements. An objective element is a word or a group of words that completes the meaning of a verb. Give examples. COMPOSITION 113 An adjective element is a word or a group of words that modifies a noun or a pronoun. Give examples. An adverbial element is a word or a group of words that modifies a verb, an adjective, a participle, or an adverb. Give examples. The copula is not an element in the sentence. A word, a phrase, or a clause may be used as any element in the sentence. -♦-^ — LESSON XCI COMPOSITION Santa Claus Make an outline for a description of this pic- ture^ and write the de- scription . HARV. ELEM. GRAM. — 8 114 KINDS OF CLAUSES LESSON XCII KINDS OF PHRASES What is a phrase ? Phrases may be classified according to their use into : — 1. Substantive; as, ** To be king is my ambition." 2. Adjective; ?iS, '' Ahoy ainbitioiLsfoi^ ko7iory 3. Predicative; as, " My hope is to get the prized 4. Objective ; as, '' I want to do right y Phrases may be classified according to formation into : — 1. Prepositional; as, "I looked throtigJi the window y 2. Infinitive ; as, " I wished to see yoit^ 3. Participial; as, "The storm now threatejting may pass us." The rain having stopped, we went out. In this sentence the phrase, ''The rain having stopped," con- sists of the noun, ''rain," with its modifier, united with the parti- ciple, " having stopped." The phrase is not joined in any way to the rest of the sentence. It is called an absolute phrase. The absolute participial phrase is very different from the adjective participial phrase modifying the subject, as, "The rain, having stopped suddenly, fell no more." LESSON XCIII KINDS OF CLAUSES What is a clause } A clause is classified according to its use as : - I. Subject clause ; as, '' That you saw me, rejoices me." COMPOSITION 115 2. Objective clause ; as, "I know that you will like school'' 3. Predicate clause ; as, " Our plan was that Jie shoiddgoy 4. Adjective clause ; as '' We, who know you, believe you." 5. Appositive clause; as, "The question. Will you comef troubles me." 6. Adverbial clause; as, ''I will go, if you wish it'' Clauses introduced by relative pronouns are called rela- tive clauses ; as, '' The rain which fell hardly wet the grass. -♦ LESSON XCIV COMPOSITION A Very Odd Girl In school she ranks above her mates, And wins the highest prizes ; She bounds correctly all the states, And tells what each one's size is ; In class she will not prompt a friend, For she doesn't believe in telling ; She heeds the rules from end to end, And never fails in spelling. " She's just as odd as odd can be ! " Say all the school of Esther Lee. She keeps her room as neat as wax. And laughs at Peter's mockings ; She mends Priscilla's gloves and sacks. And darns the family stockings ; Il5 INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS She dusts the sitting room for Kate* She cares for baby brother ; She fashions balls and kites for Nate, And runs for tired mother. " She's just as odd as odd can be," Say all at home of Esther Lee. For little, crippled Mary Betts She saves her brightest pennies ; She never, never, sulks or frets If she doesn't beat at tennis ; With happy words she's sure to greet Children in lowly by-ways ; She guides unsteady, aged feet . Across the busthng highways. " She's just as odd as odd can be ! " Say all the town of Esther Lee. Otttlme this description of the character of '■' A Very Odd Girl.'''' Write a description of the girl from your outline. LESSON XCV INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS An interjection is simply an expression of emotion. Give an example. Interjections have no dependence upon other words. John, come here. The Puritans^ they were a God-fearing people. You ! You are our candidate. EXERCISE ON INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 1 17 Which of these italicized nouns and pronouns is used to attract the attention of the person named? Which is used to call the attention of others to the person named ? Which is used like an interjection? Nouns and pronouns thus used are independent expressions ; they are said to be in the nominative absolute case. A noun used in an absolute phrase is also called independent. Interjections and nouns or pronouns used in direct address or in exclamation, merely mentioned, or combined with participles to form absolute phrases, are independent elements. The name of the person addressed being independent, the subject of an imperative sentence is tJioit or yoii understood. LESSON XCVI EXERCISE ON INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS Analyze the following^ selecting especially the iiidepeiideiit ele- ments : — I. Attention ! 2. On, Stanley, on ! 3. Magnificent ! 4. A rope to the side ! 5. How is it now, my old friend? 6. Are you cold? 7. No rain having fallen, the crops were destroyed. 8. There is no danger of his falling. 9. The storm continuing, we dropped anchor. 10. Having led an active hfe, he could not endure confinement. 11. Being human, he is not perfect. 12. Honor being lost, all is lost. 13. These children; they must be punished. 14. This being said, he retired. 15. I! I cannot be wrong! 16. The boy, oh where was he? Il8 EXPLETIVES LESSON XCVII COMPOSITION Make an outline, and write a description of the character of some person whom you admire. LESSON XCVIII EXPLETIVES There is no hope for me. This sentence means, " No hope is (exists) for me." In this sentence *' hope " is the subject, modified by "no"; *'is" is the copula; ''for me" is the predicate. The word " there " serves no purpose except to introduce the sentence. Such a word is called an expletive. " It is true that I am worried." This sentence means, " That I am worried is true." The sub- ject is the clause, " that I am worried " ; the predicate is " true " ; "is" is the copula. "It," which introduces the sentence, is not an element in the sentence. It is therefore called an expletive. An expletive is a word used to introduce a proposition, but not used as an element of the proposition which it introduces. Analyze the following sentences : — I. It is a fact that the war is over. 2. There is no doubt about it. 3. While there is life there is hope. 4. There is a land of pure delight. 5. There comes my father ! 6. It is a pity he is so lame. 7. There is a storm coming. 8. It was midnight when we returned. 9. Where was the battle? PERSON 19 LESSON XCIX COMPOSITION Baby's Peril Make an outline and ivriie a story suggested by this picture. LESSON C PERSON I called on you. The pronoun " I " stands for the person speaking, and the pro- noun "you " stands for the person who is spoken to. They called on us. The pronoun "they " stands for people spoken of; while the pronoun " us " stands for the speaker and his friends. The name of a person speaking, or a pronoun used instead of that name, is said to be oi the first person. I20 FORMS INDICATING PERSON The first person denotes the speaker. The name of a person spoken to, or a pronoun used instead of that name, is said to be of the seco7id person. The second person denotes the person addressed. The name of a person or object spoken of, or a pronoun used instead of that name, is said to be of the third person. The third person denotes the person or object spoken of. Select the noitns and pronoiins froni the following sentences^ ajid tell of each 'whether it is of the first, the second, or the third person : — I. I wrote a letter to my brother. 2, John, did you write to me ? 3. We will write to you and to your sister. 4. Who stole the roses? 5. I who speak to you am the thief. 6. You who lost them are not to blame. 7. They who purchased them from me are innocent. 8. The rose which grew in my garden is a La France. 9. Our fortune is lost. 10. What do you wish? LESSON CI FORMS INDICATING PERSON I, John, speak to you. John, come here. I spoke to John. What is the person of the noun ''John" in each of these sen- tences ? Nouns do not show by their form of what person they are. I am the man. You are the man. They are the men. FORMS INDICATING PERSON I2I What is the person of the pronoun used as the subject of each of these sentences? Some pronouns indicate by their form of what person they are. It was I who came. It was he who came. It was you who came. What is the person of the pronoun " who " in each of these sentences ? Some pronouns do not show by their form of what person they are. am here. is here. Of what person must the subject of " am "be? Of what person must the subject of "is" be? We were here. You were here. They were here. Of what person is the subject of "were " in each of these sen- tences? Some verb forms indicate of what person their subjects are. A verb must agree with its subject in person. Tell the person of each subject^ and supply the proper verb form for its copula or predicate in the following : — I. I he. 2. I, who the oldest of the family, feel responsible. 3. You the culprit. 4. You, who the leader, must be most to blame. 5. They our friends. 6. They, who our friends, ought to come to our aid. 7. I, who his enemy, say that he honest. 8. Cannot you, who his friend, say more ? 122 PERSONAL PRONOUNS LESSON CII PERSONAL PRONOUNS Those pronouns which show by their form whether the nouns which they represent are of the first, second, or third person are called personal pronouns. Personal pronouns both represent nouns and show by their form whether they are of the first, second, or third person. The simple personal pronouns are /, tJiou, he, she, and it, with their forms, zve, our, us, my, mine, ye, you, your, thy, tJiine, tJiee, his, him, her, its, they, their, them. The compound personal pronouns are formed by adding self or selves to some form of the simple personals ; as, myself, yourself, himself, tJiemselves. Select the personal pronouns from the following, and tell of each the person and how used : — I. You and he are my friends. 2. I saw them in their carriage. 3. The soldiers helped themselves. 4. Thou art the man. 5. He saved thy money for thee. 6. Your father knows us. 7. He himself hid your slate. 8. Where shall I see him? angels tell me where. You know him ; he is near you ; point him out. Shall I see glories beaming from his brow, Or trace his footsteps by the rising flowers ? 9. O, let her stay ! She is by birth What I through death must learn to be ; We need her more on our poor earth Than thou canst need in heaven with thee. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 123 LESSON cm PRECEDENCE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS It is polite to mention first the person to whom you are talking rather than yourself. Thus we say, " The atten- tion was offered to you and me" ; ''You and I will go." The person to whom you are speaking should be men- tioned even before a third person, and the speaker himself should be mentioned last. Thus we say, " You and he will go " ; " He and I will go " ; " You and she and I will go"; ''The invitation is addressed to you and her"; "The dinner was given to you and him and me." LESSON CIV POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS Possessive pronouns are words used to represent both the possessor and the thing possessed. The possessive pronouns are mine, thine, Ids, hers, oilvs, yotirs, theirs, oitr own, etc. In the sentence "That book is his," the predicate is "his." Why? It represents the words his book. It is a possessive pro- noun because it represents both the possessor and the thing possessed. * In the sentence " That is his book," " book " is the predicate. "His" modifies "book." It is a personal pronoun because it modifies the noun following it, and does not represent both the possessor and the thing possessed. It is possessive case because it is used as an adjective element ; but it is not 2, possessive pronoun. 124 RELATIVE PRONOUNS To denote emphatic distinction, my oivn is used for mine, his ozvn for Jiis, thy oivn for tldiie, our ozvn for oii7's, your own for yoitrs, tJieir ozvn for tJieirs. Select the possessive projwtms from the folloiving^ and tell how each is used : — I. That horse of yours is lame. 2. This sled is not yours; it must be hers. 3. The money is your own. 4. Friend of mine, you are welcome. 5. That garden of theirs is a very fine one. 6. This book is not mine ; it must be his or hers. 7. She is an old friend of ours. 8. These books are yours, not theirs. 9. We love this land of ours. 10. The boy left his hat, and took mine. 11. You should study your own books, and not borrow hers. LESSON CV RELATIVE PRONOUNS A relative pronoun is a word used to represent a pre- ceding word or expression to which it joins a modifying clause. The simple relative pronouns are zuho, which, zvhat, and that. That is a relative when uuho, zvhich, or whom can be used in its place. As is used as a relative pronoun after such^ many, and same. The compound relative pronouns are whoever, whoso, zvhosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatso- ever. COMPOSITION 125 Select the relative pronouns and tell Jiow each is used : — I. He that is down need fear no fall. 2. This is the child that was lost. 3. The dog which you bought was stolen. 4. He will do what is right. 5. i\sk for what you want. 6, That is the man whose house was burned. 7. This is the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. LESSON CVI INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what^ when used in asking questions. Analyze the following sentences ; select the interrogative pronouns^ and tell how each is used : — I. Who came with you? 2. Whose horse ran away ? 3. Whom did you call? — Mary. 4. What did you say? 5. What is that? — It is a velocipede. 6. Which will you have? — The large one. 7. Who told you how to parse " what " ? LESSON CVII COMPOSITION Two Little Boys Joey was a country boy, Father's help and mother's joy ; In the morning he rose early, — That's what made his hair so curly ; 126 GENDER IN NOUNS Early went to bed at night, — That's what made his eyes so bright; Ruddy as a red-cheeked apple ; Playful as his pony, Dapple. Even the nature of the rose Wasn't quite so sweet as Joe's. Charley was a city boy, Father's pet and mother's joy ; Always lay in bed till late, — That's what made his hair so straight ; Late he sat up every night, — That's what made his cheeks so white; Always had whate'er he wanted, He but asked, and mother granted ; Cakes and comfits made him snarly, Sweets but soured this poor Charley. — Olive A. Wadsworth. Make an outline of this comparison of the two boys in character^ con- dition^ and appearance. Write a coinpariso7i in prose according to your outline. LESSON CVIII GENDER IN NOUNS Objects are either male or female ; as boy, girl, or neither male nor female ; as, apple. Their names, therefore, may be classified with regard to sex. This distinction is called gender. Gender is a distinction of nouns or pronouns w^ith regard to sex. GENDER IN NOUNS 1 27 There are four genders : mascitline^ feminine, common, and 7zeiiter. The masculine gender denotes males ; as, boy. The feminine gender denotes females ; as, girl. Some words, as children, parent, etc., are used to denote either males or females. The gender of such words is said to be co7nmo7i. The common gender denotes either males or females ; as, parent. The neuter gender denotes neither males nor females ; as, house. Tell the gender of the following nouns : — Cart Duke Father Nephew Countess Poet Susan Joseph Milliner President Aunt Baker Madam Empress Administratrix Give the corresponding masculine or feminine for the following nouns : — King Uncle Francis Augusta Miss Jones Niece Widow Brother Sorcerer Grandfather Count Female Prophet Mediator Hen-sparrow Write five sentences^ using mascidine nouns as subjects. MoDKL.—Joh7i left his book on my desk. Write five sentences, using feminine nojtns as objects. Model. — The teacher sent my sister home at recess. Write six sentences, using jiojms in the common or neuter gender as subjects or objects. Model. — A deg-gar ivighttnQd me this morning. 128 GENDER IN PRONOUNS LESSON CIX GENDER IN PRONOUNS Who is that? — My brother. Who is that? — My sister. The boy who was here and the girl who was with him are brother and sister. Relative and interrogative pronouns have no variation of form to indicate gender. We and you and they are all women. We and you and they are all men. The personal pronouns when indicating more than one do not indicate gender by their form. I am a man. I am a woman. ^ Thou art a man. Thou art a woman. Of what person is each of these pronouns? Does its form indicate its gender? He is a . She is a -— — . It is neither nor . What is the person of each of these pronouns? Does its form indicate its gender? Name the gender of each pronoun in the following^ and tell how you know the gender : — I. My lesson is learned. 2. Have you seen our old friend lately? 3. Ellen, tell your sister to come home. 4. I saw him NUMBER IN NOUNS I29 on the battle eve. 5. They left the plowshare in the mold. 6. Your horse is in our barn, Mr. Eckel. 7. He left home early in the morning. 8. The man who put his horse in our stable is our coachman. 9. Who's horse is this? 10. It is Jennie's. LESSON CX PREFERENCE OF THE MASCULINE PRONOUN " Every one in this audience will do best to help us." If there are only men in the audience, it is correct to say his ; if there are only women, it is correct to say her ; if there are both men and women, or both boys and girls, it is correct to say his, for "' every one " means all consid- ered singly, and their means that all are considered to- gether. So the masculine pronoun is preferred. If you say " Some one who came to see me yesterday asked me to give your address," and you do not want to tell the sex of the visitor, you have a right to say him, even though it was a girl, for them would mean several people, ^ LESSON CXI NUMBER IN NOUNS Does the word/?;? denote one object, or more than one ? Does the word fans denote one object, or more than one? When a noun denotes but one object, it is said to be in the singular number. The singular number denotes but one object. HARV. ELEM. GRAM. — 9 130 NUMBER IN NOUNS When a noun denotes more than one object, it is said to be in the plural number. The plural number denotes more than one object. The last sound in the word fan readily unites with the sound represented by the letter s, and its plural is formed by adding s to the singular. The plural of any noun ending with a sound that will readily unite with the sound represented by s is formed by adding s to the singular. Singular: church mass box porch Plural: churches masses boxes porches The plural of any word ending with a sound that will not readily unite with the sound represented by s, is formed by adding es to the singular, when the singular does not end with e. These are two ways of forming plurals. There are many other ways. Singular: wife knife calf half Plural: wives knives calves halves NouiK ending infoxfe usually change these endings to ves. Singular: city valley lily trolley Plural: cities valleys lilies trolleys Those ending in y, with a vowel before it, add s ; those ending in y, with a consonant before it, change y to i and add es ; those ending in o, with a consonant before it, add es. A few nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, sheep, deer, trout, ver- min. Letters, figures, marks, and signs add V ; as, b's, 6V, *^s, S 's. Write the plurals of the following nouns : — desk alley street school road child house money folly wind pencil wagon book knife vessel woman chair fence potato monkey ox city girl fish boy man calf rose box plow NUMBER IN PRONOUNS AND VERBS 131 Tell the number of each noun in the following^ and spell the other nu7fiber form : — I . We had a carriage and a pair of horses to go to the river on a picnic with the teacher and several of her pupils. 2. The red cherries which hung from the trees in the valley were a prize to the good housewife who sent the boys up to get them before the chatterbox of a sparrow had had his share. LESSON CXII NUMBER IN PRONOUNS AND VERBS I am coming. We are coming. You are coming. You are coming. He is coming. They are coming. The boy who came. The box which is here. The boys who came. The boxes which are here. Who is here ? — The boy. — The boys. Personal pronouns indicate number by their form. Do relative and interrogative pronouns have different forms to indicate number? Insert the proper verb form in the following sentences : — I. I tired. 2. We tired. 3. I tired yester- day. 4. We tired yesterday. 5. I know him and he me, but they neither him nor me. Some verb forms indicate the number of their subject. A pronoun must agree in number v^ith the noun for which it stands. A verb must agree in number with its subject. 132 COMPOSITION LESSON CXIII COMPOSITION Two Points of View What these Uttle folks wanted. What came. How they felt. How they showed their grati- tude. Write a7i account of " One Point of View " according to the outline given. Write an outline for " The Other Poi7it of View " and write a composition from the outline. 'Afm^^^ / / NUMBER IN ADJECTIVES 133 LESSON CXIV NUMBER IN ADJECTIVES A good boy. Two good boys. Good, like most adjectives, has only one form, whatever the number of the noun which it modifies. This book. That book. These books. Those books. The adjectives this and thathdcvQ plural forms. This sort of people always troublesome. These sorts of apples always sweet. The subject of the first sentence is not "people," but "sort." " People " is a part of an adjective prepositional phrase modifying "sort." Insert the proper verb. Insert the proper verb form in the second sentence, and tell your reason. There are two boys on wheels. One's wheel is broken. The other's wheel is new. One, other, and another when used instead of the nouns which they modify have possessive forms like those of nouns. Fill the blanks in the following sentences : — I. This kind of an orange sour. 2. This kind of apples sweet. 3. kinds of peaches good for preserving. 4- kind of grapes not yet ripe. 5. That species of melons new. 134 CASE IN NOUNS LESSON CXV CASE IN NOUNS The sun is shining. Here " sun " is used as the subject of a proposition. Every star is a sun. Here " sun " is used as the predicate. The sun's rays are warm. Here " sun " is used as an adjective element, modifying " rays." We saw the sun at noon. Here "sun " is used as an objective element, modifying "saw." Dear is thy light, O sun ! Here "sun" is used absolutely — i.e. it is absolved or separated from any grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. In no two of these sentences has the word " sun " the same relation to the other words. These different relations are called cases. Case is the relation of a noun or a pronoun to other words. The term case is also applied to the form of a noun or a pro- noun used independently or as a part of a sentence. There are four cases : nominative^ possessive, objective, and absolute, or nominative absolute. The nominative case is the use of a noun or a pronoun as the subject or the predicate of a proposition ; as, ''Boys skate." '' Horses diXQ animals y "//