N O V f ♦ • o* ^> ,v >^ -.^ ^ ^V - -tHS /x ,4? <0> ° K \V 'J* ^V , * . VV *> * • o „ * • i n • ^p V*^V v^v "V^-V ^ ^7 ^ Historical Memoirs OF THE Emperor Alexander I. AND The Court of Russia ALEXANDER I. Historical Memoirs OF THE Emperor Alexander I. AND The Court of Russia BY Madame la Comtesse de Choiseul-Gouffier Translated from the Original French By MARY BERENICE PATTERSON With an Introduction and Notes CHICAGO A. C. McCLURG & CO. 1900 TWO COPIES RECEIVED, Library of Cursgre«ifc Office of fb« M AV 7 - 1SQU iieijlittar of GepSfflgfoiS, SECOND COPY, .Cs4- Copyright, By A. C. McClurg & Co. A.D. 1900. 58708 Introductory Note TO THE AMERICAN TRANSLATION THE Comtesse de Choiseul-Gouffier, n^e Comtesse de Tisenhaus, was born at Vilna, in Russian Poland, in the closing decade of the eighteenth cen- tury. Her father was a wealthy landed proprietor of Polish descent. Of the family history of the Com- tesse de Tisenhaus we know but little apart from what these pages reveal to us. Her family had been intimate in the court circles of Catherine II. and Paul I. ; and Alexander I., upon his accession to the throne of Russia, continued to honor the Comte de Tisenhaus with his friendship. However, the comte shared the hope of a large number of his countrymen that Napoleon would recognize the rights of Poland and give it once more an independent, united national existence. To this end a delegation of Polish nobles waited on Napoleon at Vilna, on the twenty-eighth of June, 1812. He showed them but scant courtesy, and gave them no hope that he would aid in the realization of their wishes. Nevertheless, the Poles continued to look to Bonaparte as their only friend. It is stated on undoubted authority that besides the sixty thousand Poles in the French army a hundred thousand implored permission to raise the standard v Introductory Note of independence and garrison Poland as the out- post of Europe against Russian aggression. 1 Among those who thus deserted the Russian emperor was the Comte de Tisenhaus. In this juncture it fell to the lot of the author of these Memoirs to preserve the family estates from sequestration. The comtesse, up to the time of her first meeting with Alexander, shared her father's distrust of the czar; but after meeting him, she, in common with many others, was impressed with Alexander's frankness, energy, and nobility of character. This impression, upon a more extended and more intimate acquaintance, deepened into a loyal and devoted friendship on the part of the subject, which was returned by the emperor. Refined and delicate sympathy, combined with a singularly engaging and open mind and a respectful admiration of the personal qualities of Alexander, gave to the friendship of Comtesse de Tisenhaus the qualities most valued by the czar. The political intrigues between Napoleon and the Poles, and especially the requirement on the part of Bonaparte that Alexander should carry out the Con- tinental blockade against England, from which Russia was suffering grievously, caused Alexander to ter- minate the peace which had existed between Russia and France since the signing of the treaty of Tilsit, July seventh, 1807. 1 To this end he massed his troops on the western border of Russian Poland in March, 181 2, and made his headquarters at Towiany. Here, on April twenty-seventh, Mile, de Tisenhaus 1 Russia. Morfill. vi Introductory Note first met Alexander ; and the volume before us tells us the story of the friendship that existed between them until his death at Taganrog, December first, 1825. The comtesse married the French savant, M. de Choiseul-Gouffier, and resided thenceforth in Paris. This gentleman belonged to one of the first families of France. His youth had been passed in various European capitals, where his father, Comte Marie- Gabriel-Florens- Auguste-de- Choiseul-Gouffier, had held important positions ; notably that of ambas- sador to Constantinople, where he had successfully established the influence of France. While there the comte declined the office of ambassador to the Court of St. James, preferring to remain at Con- stantinople. At the outbreak of the Revolution he adhered to the king, and was proscribed by the revolutionary government. He retired to Russia, where he was a favorite with Paul I., who nomi- nated him as Privy Councillor and Director of the Academie des Beaux Arts, and of the Bibliotheque Imperiale. The comte returned to France in 1802, and after the restoration Louis XVIII. appointed him Minister of State and Peer of the Realm. Notwith- standing the busy life he had lived, the comte found opportunities for exercising his literary tastes, and is remembered as the author of several important treatises ; among others a magnificent work entitled " A Picturesque Journey in Greece," elegantly illus- trated, which won him an election to the Academy of Inscriptions and the French Academy. Introductory Note A book, as well as a person, has a history, and it is only to be regretted that the first has no means of telling its story. We may imagine what obstacles it encountered before it became a book and entered its own world ; what vicissitudes it passed through in that world ; how by some it was valued, and by others laid on a dark shelf to be covered by dust till, perchance, a stranger greeted it and recognized its value, or picked it up only to cast it into some other corner. So this volume has had its history. Three years after the death of Alexander, Mme. de Choiseul-Gouffier published in Paris her " Memoires Historiques sur l'Empereur Alexandre et la Cour de Russie." From the date of its publication this work was recognized as an authority on the life of Alexander L, and as a source of reliable and val- uable information on the conditions and customs prevailing in Russia at the time of Napoleon's in- vasion. It was also prized for its descriptions of St. Petersburg and Csarzko-Selo. It was not long until the edition was exhausted ; but before that time arrived historical and biograph- ical writers had made copious extracts from the book, and had even based their articles on the facts therein contained. Among others, M. de Lamartine drew from it liberally in his " Histoire de Russie." M. Dumas owned his indebtedness to it in his " Maitre d' Armes." Not only did students of Russia and her affairs turn to the pages of the Souvenir, but readers eager for every detail of information about Napoleon and his ill-fated campaign welcomed Introductory Note the comtesse's contribution. After the first edition had been exhausted, numerous requests came to her for a new issue of the work. She tells us in the preface to the new edition that when she finally determined to accede to these requests she was un- able to procure a copy of the first edition of the book either in the Imperial libraries of France and Russia, or to find one in the possession of her family. As a result of its rarity the work itself has been little known ; quoted and referred to it has been by many, but chiefly at second-hand. This alone can account for its not having been translated into English at an earlier date, for it is surprisingly interesting, bright, and companionable, and of unquestioned historical accuracy. It gives a lively picture of the thought and manner of a day separated from ours by nearly a century. It tells of a nation's hopes rising to vig- orous life only to be disappointed and ultimately destroyed. The translation here offered to English readers has been made from the first edition as it came from the author's hand. The first three chapters as now published did not appear in the second edition issued in 1862. The reason for this omission was probably a twofold one. In the first place, the in- formation they contained was not first-hand. The account of the author's personal reminiscences be- gins with Chapter IV., which, in the second edition, is Chapter I. The second reason lay in the re- monstrance of those persons who took exception to the author's view that the conspirators led by ix Introductory Note Comte Pahlen had killed Paul I. For a consider- able period of time after the sudden death of Em- peror Alexander I., the nature of his father's death was a matter of dispute. Emperor Paul's well- known infirmity of mind, and consequent physical debility, caused a party at court to affirm that his death was the result of a stroke of apoplexy. Defenders of this view quoted the certificate of death issued by Alexander's surgeon, Dr. Wylie, who embalmed the body of the deceased emperor, and stated that he died from the effects of apoplexy. The surgeon is further quoted as saying that, allow- ing for the injuries caused by the mode of death, the state of his brain rendered it highly probable that he would have soon died of apoplexy. 1 At this writing the unanimous opinion of historians is that Emperor Paul was assassinated, and that the view of the case graphically narrated by the com- tesse is historically correct. The Publishers consider it a privilege to present the first translation into the English language of these remarkable Memoirs, and they do so with the con- fident hope that the public will welcome the lively and noble picture which is here given of one who did not a little to deserve the title of " Restorer of the Peace of Europe." Chicago, February, 1900. 1 Life and Times of Alexander I. By C. Joyneville. Publisher's Note TO THE FIRST FRENCH EDITION HISTORICAL memoirs have been the fashion for about ten years. This has become a fixed phenomenon, and a phenomenon the more remark- able on account of the countless volumes which, to use the expression of a modern writer, " show history en deshabille" and are generally written on the same plan, woven from the same material, produced by the same passions, and, one might say, formed in the same mould. The long convalescence from that delirious fever called the French Revolution ; the brilliant period of military glory which followed the first years of a restoration which has not given all it promised, — such is the theme which a thousand writers of our day have seen fit to amplify, almost always with talent, but which they have often misrepresented without scruple. These memoirs have been sought after and devoured, because nearly all, with very few excep- tions, were clever, and wit is a seasoning which will always overcome satiety and nausea. The readers of this kind of literature may well repeat from Parney : " Nous rebrodons de vieux habits, Dont l'e'toffe est toujours la meme." xi Publisher's Note But the brilliancy of the embroidery is attractive; and the publishers do not weary of selling the repe- titions which the public are never tired of buying. But here is the reverse, the other side of the medal, which we print to-day. The Memoirs of the Comtesse de Choiseul-Gouffier are written in our language by a Polish hand. They are not even our own inspirations. One feels that this work is of a different stamp, that it gives other opinions, reflects other manners, — in a word, it has quite a different physiognomy. Not that the hyper- borean influence of the forests of Lithuania is felt. Madame de Choiseul has known how to find at Vilna that delicate touch which distinguishes the produc- tions of the fair sex under all latitudes. Her pictures possess no less warmth than charm of originality. The affection — perhaps we ought to say the ten- derness — which the author of these Memoirs avows for the Emperor Alexander is carried almost to ado- ration. One might believe that Madame de Choiseul in painting the Russian autocrat had drawn her ad- miration from the same source from which M. de Las Cases drew his colors for his panegyric on Napoleon. To praise men thus, even when they have been crowned, doubtless savors of exaggeration; but in the work which we present to the public we find that praise is kept constantly subservient to the strict truth. The Emperor Alexander is kept constantly before us, and by his own utterances he paints his own por- trait in the Memoirs of which he is the hero. After having read them one will retain an exact idea of the character of this prince, whom the bold audacity of a xii Publisher's Note very illustrious man has placed in the very first rank of modern celebrities. This book of Madame de Choiseul-Gouffier's will be read with avidity in the salons of the Faubourg Saint-Germain, where one lives on old aristocratic memories. Young France will, nevertheless, be satis- fied with the concessions which the author has made to new ideas, and especially with the romantic touch happily imparted by her style. Finally, history may gather many a fact thus far unknown from these Memoirs which we publish. They contain new details concerning the assassination of Paul I.; the conduct of Alexander during and after the conspiracy which gave him the empire; what took place during the campaign of 1812; the attitude of the Congress of Vienna when it learned that in the month of March, 181 5, Napoleon had escaped from the Island of Elba and returned to France; and concerning the tragic death of Alex- ander, which the author leaves covered with a transparent veil. Author's Preface THREE years have hardly passed since that event occurred which plunged Russia into sorrow and mourning, and already two lives of the Emperor Alexander have appeared. Without pretending to attack the merit of those works, I will take the liberty of saying that, being 'devoted almost entirely to the description of political events and of the memorable struggle between two of the greatest powers of Europe, they have done little to show the character of the monarch who played so important a role in those events. They have given only an imperfect view of Alexander, the august adversary of a man who showed himself only in a few respects greater than his virtuous rival. In the first transport of grief with which I was inspired by the death of my sovereign, that prince whose noble and touching character I have had the happiness to know and to admire, I attempted to recall the virtues whose loss I deplore. But whether an acute and recent sorrow excited my imagination too much, or I was carried away by the grandeur of the subject, I soon saw that the tone adopted in the work could not be sustained by my feeble talents, and would not even be suitable to the history. xv Author's Preface Abandoning this fruitless effort, how I wished that the distinguished writer whose gifted pen alone is worthy of interpreting the religion of kings would undertake a subject so worthy of him ! Certain har- monious accents which reached my ear gave me hope that my prayers would be heard. But the voice was stilled, and my desires were changed to regrets. Still, in meditating, whether in the silence of soli- tude or amid the commotion of cities and of courts, upon the beautiful life of Alexander, I have felt that I could render little justice to the eminent virtues of that prince in supposing that great talent alone was worthy of rendering homage to them and of making them known to posterity. Facts speak for them- selves ; and those which pertain to the fame of this august personage have a charm so pathetic that a grateful heart is pained in recording them. There- fore I venture to flatter myself that sensitive minds upon whom the cold influence of the times have not exerted a blasting influence may read with interest my recollections of the noble and generous qualities of the sovereign who merited the love and gratitude, not only of his own subjects, but of all Europe. xvi Table of Contents Page Introductory Note to the American Translation v Publishers' Note to the First French Edition . xi Author's Preface xv List of Illustrations xxi Chapter ^ I. The First Years of Alexander. — Con- spiracy in the Palace. — Death of Paul 1 23 II. Alexander's Ascension to the Throne of Russia. — First Years of his Reign . . 43 III. Return of Alexander to St. Petersburg after the Treaty of Tilsit. — The In- terview at Erfurt 60 IV. Events of the Campaign of 1812 in Russia. — Sojourn of Alexander in Lithuania. — Anecdotes 66 V. Marbonne. — Festivities Given at Vilna in Honor of Alexander. — Several Episodes 84 VI. Entrance of the French Army into Vilna. — Anecdotes. — The Situation in Lithuania 96 VII. Presentation of Lithuanian Ladies to Napoleon : the Author is one of the Number. — Conversation with that Sov- ereign. — Festivities 106 xvii Table of Contents Chapter vilT IX. x. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. Page The Emperor Alexander Leaves his Army. — His Return to St. Petersburg . . 113 Terrors at St. Petersburg. — The Duke of Bassano at Vilna. — The Retreat of the French Army 116 Horrible Condition of the French Pris- oners of War. — Cossack Plunderers in a Friendly Country. — Anecdote . 126 Return of the Emperor Alexander to Vilna. — Conversations of this Prince with the Author. — Festivities . . . 131 Festival in Honor of Alexander. — Bar- barous Homage Declined by the Em- peror 143 Solicitude of Alexander for the French Prisoners. — The Emperor Leaves Vilna 146 Particulars. — Vain Hopes of the Poles. — Death of Kotousoff. — Military Events 158 Invasion of France, Entrance of the Allies into Paris. — Generous Con- duct of Alexander 164 Singular Proofs of Confidence Given to Alexander by the Parisians. — Various Particulars 170 Journey of Alexander to England and Holland after the Treaty of 1814. — Return to St. Petersburg. — Solem- nities 181 The Emperor Refuses the Surname of the Blessed. — Honors and Rewards to the Russian Soldiers and to the Citizens. — Prudent Measures . . . 188 Congress of Vienna. — Diplomatic In- trigues. — Amazement Caused by the Return of Napoleon to Paris . . . 193 xviii Table of Contents Chapter Page XX. Campaign of 1815. — Second Invasion of France. — Alexander's Moderation TOWARD THE FRENCH. — He MAKES HIM- SELF their Protector against the Cupidity of the other Allies . . . 201 XXL Alexander, King of Poland. — Festivities at Warsaw. — Return of the Emperor to his Capital 206 XXII. Expulsion of the Jesuits from the Rus- sian Empire. — Example of Great Severity against Pillage. — Journey of Alexander to Warsaw. — Festiv- ities. — Rejoicings and Particulars . 220 XXIII. Sojourn at Warsaw. — Festivities. — Con- versations of the Emperor with the Author 233 XXIV. Departure of the Author for France. — Estimate of the French. — Fawning Policy of the French Cabinet. — Alexander's Opinion on the Situation of France. — Divers Particulars . . 239 XXV. New Journey of Alexander to Vilna. — Conversations with the Author. — Political Views and Opinions of the Emperor. — One Word Concerning the Congress of Verona and the War with Spain 248 XXVI. Illness of the Emperor. — Journey of the Author to St. Petersburg. — De- scription of that Capital and its Environs 259 XXVII. Princely Hospitality. — Renewed Inter- views with the Emperor. — Alex- ander's Occupations in the Coun- try. — Portrait of the Empress Elizabeth 267 xix Table of Contents Chapter Page XXVIII. The Empress-Mother.— The Illustrious Godfather. — The Emperor's Depres- sion of Spirits: its Principal Cause. — Sad Presentiments. — Alexander's Departure for Siberia 279 XXIX. A few New Details regarding the Empress- M other : her Love for Lit- erature and the Arts: her Institu tions 292 XXX. A Description of the Inundation of St. Petersburg. — Alexander's Soli- citude. — Journey of the Emperor to Taganrog. — His Death. — Con- clusion 299 INDEX 309 xx List of Illustrations Alexander I Frontispiece Empress Elizabeth To face page 26 Count Bennigsen 56 General Kotousoff 124 Grand Duke Constantine 246 HISTORICAL MEMOIRS OF THE EMPEROR ALEXANDER I. AND THE COURT OF RUSSIA CHAPTER I ALEXANDER was born in 1777. His earl y years rapidly developed in this young prince the happy disposition which he had received from nature. All seemed in harmony in the noble child, who was destined to occupy one of the most important thrones in Europe and a brilliant place in history. The remarkable beauty of his person corresponded with that of his mind and seemed to be an emana- tion from it. The invariable sweetness of his char- acter made him the object of universal adoration from his tenderest infancy, and the dearest hopes of that powerful empire of Russia were fixed upon him. The Empress Catherine had such a strong affection for her grandson that it is said she proposed to re- move her own son, the unfortunate Paul Petrowitz, from the throne and to appoint Alexander as her successor. At that time hereditary succession to the 23 Historical Memoirs of the throne of Russia was not the invariable rule, the law of primogeniture not having been established till the following reign. Moreover, nothing could daunt the genius of Catherine, accustomed to see every- thing bend to her will. She even wished to preside alone over the prince's education. If the rare quali- ties which have been seen in Alexander could leave anything more to be desired, it would have been that the august grandmother of the prince had re- tained the right to watch over the first impressions of her grandson — in the midst of a court elegant and polished indeed, but without morals — with that vigilant sagacity, that clear firmness of principle, of which she has given so many proofs. It is difficult to say what power such lessons in wisdom would have had over the mind of such a youth, given by that incomparable princess who consecrated her life to the welfare of humanity. However, the choice which the empress made in the perspn of Colonel La Harpe 1 as preceptor of the youn'g duke, was calculated to calm maternal solicitude a;id satisfy the expectations of the nation. The wise instructor found in the august pupil con- fided to his care the happiest natural gifts. To perfect the work of nature and to accomplish the task committed to him, he endeavored to cultivate and develop the amiable and charming disposition of his young pupil. Possessed of a warm and affectionate heart, Alex- 1 Frederic Cesar de La Harpe (born in the Pays de Vaud 1754, died 1838). From 1790 to 1800 he was the chief or most powerful director of the Helvetic Republic. In 1814 Alexander gave him the rank of general in his army. He wrote several treatises on Swiss politics. Emperor Alexander I. ander conceived a devoted attachment for this esti- mable man, who had consecrated his time and care to him, and he always regarded his instructor as a sure and faithful friend. Alexander loved to learn. He had a remarkable memory and quick, penetrating, and refined percep- tions. In his early years he showed a taste for mili- tary science, occupying himself zealously with what he was pleased to call his service, following exactly and observing punctually the strictest discipline and subordination. He possessed in a high degree the love of order and work. That which one could not help most admiring in him was the perfect evenness of his temper, a quality very rare and very valuable in a sovereign, which had for its source the goodness of his heart. Nothing could change the sweet ben- evolence which showed itself in his face as well as in his actions. Alexander spoke several languages, especially French, with elegance and fluency. His manners were charming. A certain timidity was noticeable in his early youth. No one ever possessed to a greater degree the happy gift of gaining all hearts ; and no one, I am sure, could have seen Alexander and heard him speak without saying to himself, " How happy I should be to call this man my friend ! " When Alexander was scarcely more than a youth the Empress Catherine, fearing for him that danger- ous period of life, decided to put a curb on his pas- sions by submitting him, still so young, to the sacred ties of marriage, — an imprudence which influenced, more than is generally known, the future and jjx- 25 Historical Memoirs of the ward happiness of this prince and of his interesting spouse. According to the usage established at the Rus- sian court, three young German princesses were brought and submitted to the critical scrutiny of Catherine, who was to choose from them a consort for her grandson. The choice was determined, it is said, in a very singular manner, and simple chance served Catherine as happily as the clear judgment of that princess could have done after a thorough investigation. Seated at a window of the imperial palace, the czarina saw the young princesses arrive, who, by the way, were all remarkably good-looking. Cath- erine observed that the first one to leave the car- riage descended with too much haste; she augured ill from such precipitation. The next caught her foot in the train of her dress and almost fell. " How stupid ! how awkward ! " exclaimed the empress. Finally the third descended with perfect composure and dignity. "That is she who will be the grand duchess ! " exclaimed Catherine. This was Elizabeth of Baden. 1 Her face confirmed the empress in her first impression, and charmed the young grand duke. Very much in love with his young bride, Alex- ander enjoyed in her society and cultivated mind and the tenderness which she felt for him all that could ameliorate the hard lot to which he was con- 1 Elizabeth Alexievna (born 1779, died 1826). Her maiden name was Louisa Maria Augusta. In 1793 sne became the consort of Alexander. Her character is represented as having been very amiable. 26 EMPRESS ELIZABETH. Emperor Alexander I. demned after the death of the Empress Catherine, and the accession of his father to the throne. Long continued mental suffering had hardened the char- acter of Paul I., although he was naturally possessed of a clear mind and a sensitive heart. The fatal disposition of his mind to suspicion, and the excessive irritability of his temper so long held in passive submission, knew no restraint after he had attained sovereign power. Time only increased his unhappy passions, and in those moments when every- thing was to be feared from their violence, from which even his family fled, Alexander, who alone knew how to oppose with respectful firmness the will of the emperor, sometimes succeeded in calm- ing the mind suffering from an incurable disease. Devoured by that ardent and suspicious imagina- tion which pictured to him constant dangers and secret enemies, the unfortunate monarch was his own greatest enemy, and he ended by making him- self the victim of his own morbid suspicions. Exiles increased to a frightful extent. Terror reigned everywhere, — at court, in the towns, in the army, and even in the most remote provinces of the empire. No one could flatter himself that on account of the prudence of his conduct he was safe from arrest. No one could count on the morrow. The arrival of a courier of the cabinet in the most distant part of the country caused universal terror. Each one, trembling, asked himself, " Is this fatal order for me?" and thought he saw the kibitka ready to transport him to Siberia. An involuntary forgetfulness of the rigorous eti- quette observed at court, the neglecting to wear a 27 Historical Memoirs of the costume prescribed by the emperor, the least negli- gence in military service was sufficient to bring down upon one's self the displeasure of the emperor and the pain of banishment; and Siberia was being peopled by exiles of illustrious names. Among the foreigners of distinction to be found at St. Petersburg was Count Choiseul-Gouffier, for- merly ambassador at Constantinople; and he had been loaded with favors by the Emperor Paul, whose generosity also knew no limit. This count suddenly received an order to retire to Lithuania, to those estates which he held through the munificence of the emperor, and to leave St. Petersburg within twenty-four hours. Not being able to explain to himself the cause of his disgrace, Count Choiseul sent his son to ask Pahlen, governor of St. Peters- burg, for a passport. Pahlen was at the parade when the messenger arrived, but returned soon. Perceiving Mons. Choiseul, he pushed the servant who came to take his hat and sword brusquely aside, and exclaimed in an agitated voice, " My dear sir, I am in despair at what has happened to your family. This cannot go on ! It is time to put an end to it." M. de Choiseul, although ex- tremely young, was much struck by this imprudent speech, and by the singular expression of Pahlen's face as he allowed those remarkable words to escape him. Eighteen months later, the Emperor Paul was dead, was assassinated. It would perhaps not be out of place to introduce here that profound dissembler who played such an important role in this conspiracy that it might be said he was the author of it. 28 Emperor Alexander I. Count Pahlen, 1 a gentleman of Courland, entered the Russian army very young, and during the reign of Catherine II. reached the rank of major general. He owed the place of civil governor of Riga to the protection of the favorite Zouboff. The Emperor Paul, some time after ascending the throne, passed through Riga, was pleased with Pahlen, and ordered him to come to St. Petersburg. Paul, with that precip- itancy which characterized all his actions, loaded the new favorite with dignities, gifts, and honors. He ap- pointed him chief of his guards and governor of St. Petersburg, decorated him with the highest orders of the empire, and presented him with large estates in Courland, his own country. The soul of Pahlen knew too well how to forget benefits received. He kept up secret relations with the Zouboffs, his old protectors, and concerted with them the fall of the prince who had been so generous to him, and who had elevated him to so high a posi- tion. The motive to such black ingratitude is found in the immoral character of Pahlen : he loved pleasure to excess. He was a bad officer, moreover, and suc- cumbed under the weight of the military details with which the emperor charged him, as well as under the tedium of the minute reports he was obliged to make every day concerning the private life, actions, and words of the inhabitants of St. Petersburg. Being as prudent as he was perfidious, he tried to run as little risk as possible in the conspiracy, and to put himself at the head of it with great circumspec- 1 Count Pierre de Pahlen (born in Livonia, 1744, died at Mittau, 1826), was at one time Ambassador to Stockholm, and Governor of Courland. 29 Historical Memoirs of the tion ; he therefore associated in the enterprise only friends upon whom he could rely with perfect confi- dence. Platon Zouboff, 1 the bitterest enemy of Paul, to whom that prince had had the imprudence to leave the immense possessions acquired in the preceding reign, seemed to Pahlen the fittest instrument to employ in a plot in which the former favorite of Catherine found an opportunity to satisfy his feelings of personal hatred and revenge ; moreover, Zouboff having been a long time in favor, had preserved many of his relations with the court, and his brother Valerian was always surrounded by unprincipled persons ready to serve in all sorts of crimes. Pahlen, being pretty sure of ZoubofFs readiness to second his views, showed a desire to form an alliance with him, and that he might be released from exile to his estates, to which he had been condemned, Pahlen advised him to feign a wish to marry the daughter of Koutaisoff, another favorite of Paul's. The emperor had suddenly raised this Koutaisoff, a little Turkish slave, his barber, to be one of the most important personages of the empire, giving him the ti- tle of count, and loading him with favors. Koutaisoff soon received a letter from Zouboff, asking his daugh- ter in marriage. Delighted with the honor, he carried this epistle to the emperor and throwing himself at his feet, begged the emperor not to put any obstacle in the way of his daughter's good fortune by refusing Zouboff permission to return to St. Petersburg. 1 Platon Zouboff (Zubov) (born 1767, died 1822) became, in 1791, a favorite of Empress Catherine II., who appointed him Grand Master of the Artillery. He was the most powerful Russian subject until the death of Catherine (1796), after which he was disgraced. 30 Emperor Alexander I. Paul accorded this favor without hesitation, saying that this project of Zouboffs was the only sensible idea of his whole life. Zouboff agreed perfectly with Pahlen's plans. The latter first made himself sure of a part of the guards ; for, unfortunately, Paul, by imposing excessive duty, by painful reproaches, and by severe punishments, had alienated that corps, which had seen many a de- fection take place in the palace without the shedding of blood. The real purpose of the conspiracy, at least so the conspirators pretended, did not go so far as to de- prive the emperor of his life. It was proposed, they said, to compel him to sign an act of abdication, by which he should consent to resign the crown into the hands of the heir, the Grand Duke Alexander, reserv- ing to himself the liberty to fix his residence either in the environs of St. Petersburg, or in one of the provinces of the empire, or even out of Russia in whatever country he should choose. Pahlen and the other conspirators knew perfectly well that to remove the ruler of a vast empire, with- out assuring it of a successor, was an impossible proj- ect, and not to be thought of. Knowing, on the other hand, the noble character of Alexander, they had little hope that he would accept the regency. Pahlen believed that the only means to reach his end was to cause a division in the imperial family, between father and children, between husband and wife, and to induce the emperor to subject his own family to cruelty, injustice, and persecution. At length one of the conspirators, stung by re- morse or perhaps apprehensive of the consequences 3i Historical Memoirs of the of an enterprise so horrible, without wishing to be- tray his accomplices, revealed the conspiracy by an anonymous letter. Filled with the greatest alarm, Paul sent immediately for Pahlen. The latter, who was prepared for this interview (some say that it was Pahlen himself who revealed the secret) and had his answer ready, presented himself before his master with the most perfect coolness, listened without show- ing the slightest emotion to the violent words of menace, anger, and fury which Paul poured forth, the sound of which would have terrified a culprit less hardened. At these words of the emperor, " A con- spiracy has been formed against me, and you, the governor of St. Petersburg, you are ignorant of it ! " Pahlen answered, " Pardon me, sire, I am not only not ignorant of it, but I am the more certain that it exists as I have a part in it." At these astonishing words the emperor's countenance showed anxiety, doubt, and surprise. " Yes, sire," continued Pahlen, with the same imperturbability, " all the members of this conspiracy are known to me. I am of their number, but it is to serve you, to protect your life. None of those guilty ones can escape my vigilance or the justice of your Imperial Majesty. These madmen rush to their own ruin in meditating yours." "Who are they?" cried Paul, whose excitement increased with each word of his perfidious confidant. " Sire, prudence forbids me to name them, but after that which I have had the honor to reveal to your Majesty, dare I flatter myself that you will ac- cord me your entire confidence and rely upon my zeal to guard your safety?" 32 Emp eror Alexander I. This mysterious language had only the effect of exciting still more the ardent curiosity of the em- peror, whose mind, misled by mistrust, presumed to fix his odious suspicion on his virtuous spouse, on his respectful and submissive son. " Who are they ? " repeated Paul, with vehemence. "Who are they? I will know ! " " Sire," said Pahlen, bowing his head, " reverence prevents me from revealing the illustrious names — " " I understand," replied Paul, in a muffled voice, and as if suffocated with painful emotion. " The empress — " continued he, fixing his penetrating eyes on Pahlen. Pahlen did not reply. " The Grand Dukes Alexander and Constantine ? " Pahlen an- swered only by silence. The emperor was also silent; but silence on his part portended a storm. An order to arrest the heir to the throne and his royal brother was the first act of the father, who be- lieved himself betrayed by all whom he had held most dear. "As to the Empress Marie," 1 added Paul, in a menacing tone, " I will dispose of her Majesty myself." The grand dukes were to be conducted to the fortress of . . ., and the empress shut up in a monastery. In depriving himself thus of the surest supports of the throne and of his own life, this unfortunate prince delivered himself with blind confidence into the hands of the traitor who was to decide his fate. " Good and faithful Pahlen," he said to the latter, "I leave everything to thee ; watch over thy master, I pray thee." Saying these words, he opened his arms, and 1 Marie Feodorovna (born 1725, died 1828) was a princess of Wiirtemberg. Her maiden name was Sophia Dorothea. In 1776 she married Paul. 3 33 Historical Memoirs of the Pahlen had the assurance to receive that mark of affection from his confiding sovereign, whose days were already numbered in the depths of his heart. After leaving the emperor, Pahlen hastened to join the other conspirators, and having assembled them, he said to those of the band who were the least hardened, in order to revive their fury : " The secret is out. He is still ignorant, however, of the names of those connected with our enterprise ; but who can tell if a new traitor may not reveal to him the whole plan of our undertaking? If life is dear to you, believe me we must hasten to finish our work, hasten to effect the deliverance of our country ! " That traitor of whom he spoke was no other than himself. This man, it has been proved, cherished the double proj- ect of betraying either his sovereign or the accom- plices of his treason, according to the chances offered him. In case of some unforeseen event, and if at the decisive moment fortune declared itself against the conspirators, his plan was to arrest the culpable and say to the emperor, " Sire, you are saved. My task is accomplished ! " After agreeing upon some measures dictated by prudence, the conspirators decided upon a time to accomplish their crime. Having taken leave of them, Pahlen, armed with the fatal order which the emperor had just given him, went to the palace of the Grand Duke Alexan- der. Being introduced immediately into the presence of the young prince, he bowed profoundly, feigning despondency, and informed the grand duke of the decree of the emperor. " What ! " cried Alexander, " his Imperial Majesty, my father, will deprive me of 34 Emperor Alexander I. my liberty ! What crime have I committed to bring this punishment upon myself? " " Your Imperial Highness is not ignorant of the fact," said Pahlen, bow- ing again, " that here, unfortunately, one sometimes incurs the chastisement without having committed the offence." At these words the grand duke gave Pah- len a severe look. After a few moments of silence, Alexander said : " The emperor is master of my fate ; I submit to him. Show me the order." Pahlen presented the order. Hardly had Alexander glanced at the paper, when he exclaimed mournfully, " And my brother too ! " Pahlen, in order to make the blow as severe as possi- ble, informed him what would be the fate of his inno- cent mother also. " Ah ! this is too much ! " said the grand duke, covering his face to hide from the attendants the spectacle of his grief. Pahlen then threw himself at the feet of the prince. " Monseigneur," he said, " deign to listen to me. It is necessary, in order to prevent a great misfortune, to put an end to the frightful vagaries of your august father. To-day he aims at your liberty only, but who knows, in the storm of his passions, which often deprive him of his reason, where his imperious and masterful will may carry him? Think of the unfortunate Alexis Petrowitz ! — " J 1 Alexis Petrowitz (born 1690, died 17 18) was the son of Peter the Great and his first wife, Eudoxia, and is said to have been a studious youth, averse to martial pursuits. In 1716 he retired to Vienna and Naples for refuge from the dreadful ire of the Czar. This act was treated as a crime by his father, and Alexis was induced to return. After renouncing his rights to the throne he was con- demned to death on a charge of meditated rebellion in 17 18. He was found dead in prison ten days after his sentence was pronounced. 35 Historical Memoirs of the " Pahlen, you outrage my father ! " " Ah ! Monseigneur, it is not his heart that I ac- cuse ; that is full of generosity and of the most noble sentiments. But the violence of his temper excites him continually. You know, as well as I, that the emperor seeks the good without being able to attain it. What will become of the imperial family? What will be the fate of the nation, with its immense pop- ulation, which heaven has destined you to govern and to protect, if your father, left to his excited imagination, — turning from one opinion to another, punishing, pardoning, recompensing without meas- ure, without reflection, — retain the reins of govern- ment in his own hands? There is no longer time to hesitate, Monseigneur. The senate, the entire empire wishes to throw off this intolerable yoke, and confide its destinies to you. I am here only as the faithful interpreter of that wish." " What ! " cried Alexander, retreating from Pahlen. "They wish me to usurp the sovereign power, to snatch the sceptre from the hands of my father? Never ! I will be the victim of his errors if need be, without regret! Save only my mother! save the empress ! " Pahlen then, with atrocious duplicity, tried to make the grand duke understand how greatly the universal exasperation among all classes against the emperor himself was to be feared. Then he cited England for example, where they were disposed to confide the direction of the government to the Prince of Wales, although the mental condition of George III. was less alarming perhaps, in a country where sovereign authority was more restrained and was 36 Emperor Alexander I. limited by laws, than in Russia where the will of the monarch was absolute. " The grand duke," continued Pahlen, " employ- ing the same moderation, could, without mounting the throne, take the reins of government, always being ready to return them to his father as soon as the health of the emperor is restored, and when he has recovered that calmness necessary for the per- formance of his important duties. Such are the views of the senate, of the army, and of the whole nation," repeated the adroit courtier. " They shall never have my consent ! " replied Alexander. " The will of my father alone can direct his destiny and mine." Then, drawing a crucifix from his bosom, he made Pahlen swear upon that sacred object that the life of the emperor should be respected and his will left free. " Monseigneur," replied Pahlen, " three days will without doubt decide the fate of your Imperial Highness, that of your august mother, and of all Russia." On quitting the grand duke, Pahlen placed several guards at his door with an officer. The same day, the Emperor Paul, who had for a long-time aban- doned his family, went to pass the evening with the Princess Gagarin. 1 He was melancholy and his feat- ures were altered. During the conversation he let fall these terrible words, which his heart without doubt did not indorse, which he could never have fulfilled, and which a violent passion alone could have made 1 Princess Gagarin, n&e Princess Anna Lapouchine (born 1777, died 1850), at one time mistress of Paul I., was the wife of Prince Paul Gavrilovitch Gagarin. 37 Historical Memoirs of the him utter : "In a few days heads shall fall which have been very dear to me ! " The Princess Gagarin, being terrified, thought it her duty to warn the Grand Duke Alexander of the danger. One can imagine the cruel anxieties and the mental tortures which Alexander must have suffered. After his interview with the grand duke, Pahlen felt that there was no time to be lost to insure the success of the conspiracy. Assembling the conspirators, he addressed them in the language of all revolutionists, ancient and modern : " Let us not hesitate to show ourselves worthy of our country by declaring our- selves her liberators ! " The appointed rendezvous was at Platon ZoubofFs. Invoking the shade of Brutus, the conspirators stim- ulated their courage by copious draughts of wine. During that same evening Pahlen saw the emperor, and in language adroitly prepared he persuaded him that the conspiracy was at an end ; he succeeded also in tranquillizing him, and in pouring the balm of con- solation into the heart of the ill-fated monarch. Finally, when night had come, the conspirators, wrapped in their cloaks and almost all having their brains filled with the fumes of the wine which they had drunk, took their way in silence toward the Palace Michaelovski. As they crossed the garden which surrounds the palace, a flock of crows roosting on the trees flew up, uttering their inauspicious cries. The croaking of these birds, which is considered a bad omen in Russia, frightened the conspirators, and they considered for a moment whether they should not give up the enterprise. Pahlen had changed the guards of the palace and 38 Emperor Alexander I. in their place had stationed as sentinels officers be- longing to the conspirators. The entire Imperial Guard was under arms in different parts of the city- according to his orders. One single sentinel, having been overlooked, seeing the group which was ap- proaching, cried, " To arms ! " and was about to rush out, when he was immediately recalled by the accom- plices of Pahlen. The conspirators, having arrived without hindrance, mounted the steps of the grand staircase, where reigned, as in the entire palace, a melancholy silence. It was midnight. Paul, having passed the evening with the Princess Gagarin, slept peacefully, relying on the trustworthiness of Pahlen. No trace was to be seen of those precautions which unrestful and sus- picious tyranny invents and multiplies. After trav- ersing the long suite of apartments without anything having arrested their steps, the conspirators were about to enter the sleeping-room of the emperor. Pahlen, scarcely breathing, watched the expression and countenance of each conspirator, listened intently to each sound, when suddenly in the chamber which preceded that of the emperor, a body-guard, — a Pole by birth, who was on watch, wrapped in his mantle, — perceiving the troop at that hour of the night, and suspecting evil intentions, sprang in front of the conspirators. Upon their refusing to retire, he drew his pistol, upon which they fell upon him and threw him down. At this noise the emperor awoke. Believing himself betrayed, he sprang out of bed and ran to a trap-door which served as means of commun- ication with the apartments on the ground-floor. By some mischance, for the first time perhaps, the 39 Historical Memoirs of the spring did not respond to the pressure of the foot. Where should he flee ? What should he do ? The only door in the room besides the main entrance led to the apartment of the empress, but that was locked. The unhappy prince, victim of his own folly, had himself cut off all chance of escape. At length the principal door opens, and Paul has only time to hide himself behind a corner of the chimney. The conspirators rush into the chamber. Their first look is toward the emperor's bed ; it is empty. Finally they discover the emperor, who, be- lieving flight impossible, calls Pahlen as his last hope. But the traitor does not answer to that voice. He was not in the room ; he was watching each move- ment of the conspirators from the outside. Assuming a courage which perhaps did not exist in his heart, Paul spoke to the conspirators. " Paul Petrowitz," answered the traitors, " you see in us the organ of the senate and of the empire. Take this paper, read it, and decide your own fate." At these words the emperor, terribly agitated, re- ceived the act of abdication presented him by Zouboff. By the pale light of the night-lamp which flickers upon the troubled features of the emperor and upon the gloomy and ferocious faces of the conspirators, Paul reads the fatal document, reads it again ; and as accusations of tyranny, specifications of his faults, expressions the most insulting and the least respect- ful constantly recur to strike the eye, and still more to wound the pride of the monarch, the dignity not only of the sovereign but of the man in him revolts. He throws the paper down. " No ! " he cries ; " rather death than dishonor ! " 40 Emperor Alexander I. He seeks again to escape the fury of the assassins, if not by flight, at least by a desperate defence ; he seizes a weapon Then commences a scene of horror and outrage which the pen refuses to describe. . . . The stifled cries and groans, the muffled menacing sounds — the voice of crime — reach the ear of the alarmed wife. The empress hastily rises and runs to the door, but all efforts to open it are vain. Without loss of time she makes the tour of the apartments, and arrives trembling, despairing, on the staircase, which is filled with the assassins of her husband. Bennigsen, 1 who had been drawn into the plot, and who alone that night had been able to preserve the unalterable calmness of his demeanor, naturally very gentle, — Bennigsen advanced toward the empress and respectfully opposed her design to enter the chamber of the emperor. He showed her that she would only uselessly expose her own life, and that the days of Paul were ended. The empress was carried fainting to her own apartment. The emperor in fact breathed his last as Pahlen entered, sword in hand, undecided still whether to use it to save the life of his master, or to participate in the crime. The sight of his dead benefactor really made some impression upon that atrocious and per- fidious soul. He was obliged to support himself against a pillar, and remained there immovable for some moments, his sword hanging at his side and 1 Count Levin August Theophil Bennigsen (born 1745, died 1826) was a celebrated commander in the Russian service. In 1788 he fought against Turkey, and in 1798 against the Poles. He com- manded at the battle of Eylau. In 1813 he was in command of the army of the reserve and was soon after created count. 4 1 Historical Memoirs of the his face covered. The other conspirators imitated his silence. Finally Bennigsen represented to them the necessity of going to pay homage to the new sovereign. The tumult, noise, and disorder always attendant on such a tragic event resounded even to the palace of Alexander, where he reposed by the side of his young wife. Struck with terror and filled with the most dreadful presentiments, when he heard the death of his father proclaimed he fainted. Upon recovering his senses, Alexander saw the conspira- tors kneeling about him, trying to justify their deed by a thousand incoherent words, and attempting to attribute the death of Paul to a stroke of apoplexy, a natural consequence of his extreme violence. " Monsters ! " cried Alexander, " I will not accept a crown stained with the blood of my father ! " and he fled and shut himself up in the most remote part of the palace. 42 Emperor Alexander I. CHAPTER II AN immense crowd of people and bodies of sol- diers having assembled under the walls of the palace, they called with loud cries for their new sov- ereign. The conspirators, appalled and in consterna- tion, did not know what to do. Finally Bennigsen agreed to go to the emperor, who, not believing him culpable, allowed him to come into his presence.^ Bennigsen, throwing himself at the feet of Alexander, begged him to yield to the wishes of the people, and not to excite the murmurs and license of the Imperial Guard by longer resistance, and by leaving in such cruel anarchy this powerful empire which destiny had called him to govern. Conquered at last by the representations of Ben- nigsen, and still more by the tears of his mother and his wife and by the prayers of his beloved brother, the Grand Duke Constantine, Alexander yielded, and consented to show himself to the multitude. Pale and exhausted, the new monarch was carried almost inanimate into the presence of his soldiers, where he received their oaths of allegiance, which, ! repeated by thousands of voices, seemed to make the death of his father a thousand times more tragic. The conspirators, ignorant still of what treatment they had to expect, retired to their own homes, strong, if not by the approval of their own con- sciences, at least by the approbation of public opinion, which they believed to be entirely on their side, by 43 Historical Memoirs of the the approbation of their country, of which they called themselves the liberators, and above all by that of their party, which was as extensive as powerful. Pahlen was soon condemned to exile on his estates. "I expected it," he said, "and my trunks are all packed in advance." The other conspirators were also exiled to different provinces of the empire, and in spite of the mildness of the punishment, they all considered themselves persecuted heroes, victims and martyrs to their patriotism. Perhaps many will, on the contrary, be astonished that Alexander did not act with greater severity against the assassins of his father. It must be re- membered that the penalty of death did not exist at that time in Russia. Exile, confiscation of property, imprisonment, and disgrace were the only punish- ments known. Such a deed merited without doubt a law for itself, but no such law existed. Let us represent to ourselves, if possible, the situation in which Alexander found himself. Ascending the throne so young, he had only hopes and promises to offer his people, for the restraint and dependence in which his father had held him had never given him an opportunity to show the public the extent of his abilities, his aptitude for work, and the clearness of his mind and judgment. In the first years of his reign, Alexander could only oppose with gentleness, perseverance, and con- ciliation, the dangerous fermentation with which the unhappy death of Paul filled the minds of the nation. That death seemed to be the victory of license over despotism, and was expected to lead to great con- cessions of autocratic power. An aristocratic con- 44 Emperor Alexander I. stitution was already talked of, in which, without doubt, the interests of the people would have little weight in the balance, and in which the only endeavor would be to restrain sovereign authority. Con- spiracy had struck deep root, especially in the army and among the Imperial Guards, and Alexander saw for a long time the sword of Damocles hanging over his head. Many of the conspirators, who had be- haved with such atrocious barbarity, were in league with some of the most important personages of the empire. Moreover, it must be confessed, unfortu- nately, there reigned at St. Petersburg a universal satisfaction, and people spoke with an audacious freedom extolling the guilty. We are acquainted with persons still living attached by sentiments of gratitude and affection to the memory of the ill fated Paul I., whose frailties they had at the same time to acknowledge and deplore ; these persons voluntarily banished themselves from society, because they could not meet certain in- dividuals, and see them received with general good- will, without a feeling of horror. Who had passed sentence on the guilty? Who had led them to the scaffold? The emperor was obliged to restrain a desire for just vengeance, and to yield to the solicita- tions of a few faithful servants, strangers to the con- spiracy, who placed clearly before his eyes the dangers which the State and the imperial family would incur if they employed rigorous measures against that party. Without openly opposing the new opinions, it was necessary to lead back the public mind by methods of prudence and moderation into the path of duty. 45 Historical Memoirs of the This was a work requiring wisdom such as that of which Alexander has given so many proofs during the whole course of his glorious reign. History can never reproach this prince with having shown a culpable clemency toward the murderers of his father, of having voluntarily left their crime unpunished. We have seen princes contemporaneous with Alex- ander — good and pious princes — constrained by reasons of state, not only to admit to their presence, but to honor with their confidence as minister, one of the criminal promoters of the death of Louis XVI. The accession of Alexander to the throne was signalled by many acts of justice and benevolence. In response to his generous voice the deserts of Siberia sent back numerous exiles, eager to mingle their acclamations with those of an entire people filled with hope and joy. Alexander banished from his court the excessive and rigorous etiquette which had been introduced in the preceding reign ; among others, the custom of descending from one's carriage when one met the*-' emperor. No person had been exempted from this usage either on account of age, sex, or rank. The first round hat which appeared in the streets of St. Petersburg is said to have created quite a sensation. Freedom to travel outside the country was granted to every one in the empire, without distinction. The system of employing spies and informers was no longer feared. Art and literature, being no longer in fetters, hastened to render homage to their august protector. Submitted to fixed rules and to wise and well-conceived discipline, the army commenced finally to breathe freely, although Alexander showed perhaps too much 46 Emperor Alexander I. love of minor details, and attached too much im- portance to small outside matters, often imperceptible to a less experienced eye than his own. But it would be difficult to blame his methods, remember- ing that they proceeded from a sense of order and exactness, and that it is to him especially that the Russian army owes its fine military bearing, and that perfect discipline which has justly made it the admiration of all Europe, and that it owes also to him those successes of which Russia has a right to be proud. People living in the country, sure of finding in their young sovereign justice and protection, were happy to see him honor agriculture and interest him- self in its progress, by establishing on his own estates settlements of foreign workmen, whose efforts he encouraged in the hope of propagating and extend- ing true prosperity throughout the whole empire. The towns found also an assured guarantee of pros- perity in the love of Alexander for the arts, and in the protection he gave to commerce. The young em- peror gave all his attention at first to putting in order the finances of the State, which the luxurious pro- fusion of the Empress Catherine and the prodigal generosity of Paul I. had cruelly deranged. He soon reaped the fruits of his labor, by re-establishing the national credit Such was the happy beginning of the reign of Alexander. This prince accorded and assured to his subjects all the liberty which they could reason- ably expect; and in all his attempts one recognizes the wise teachings of the philosopher La Harpe. Some people, filled with the new ideas of the age, 47 Historical Memoirs of the try to see in the intentions of Alexander a secret tendency to advanced liberal ideas, toward which his old instructor had directed the mind of the young prince destined to command one day fifty millions of people ; but Russia, happy and satisfied, found — using a clever expression of Mme. de StaeTs — "a perfect constitution in the character of her sover- eign." Every one knows the charming reply which Alexander made to that celebrated woman, — a reply which so well expressed his sentiments. " I shall be, in any case," he said, " only a fortunate accident." Notwithstanding his youth, his inexperience, and his natural inclination to philanthropic sentiments, Alexander had too much wisdom, too much depth of mind, not to see that Russia was, if one may be allowed to use the comparison, still too young a tree to receive the graft of new institutions. He hoped much from the future, from his care and persever- ance, and above all from time, which alone could accomplish and establish a great change in the form of government; but time, inexorable time, would not tarry for him, and madmen, monsters, ungrateful cowards have hastened its course — Ah ! forbid the thought; its bitterness mingles itself in the recital of the events of these beautiful years of Alexander ! Let us turn to the young monarch visiting the different parts of his vast empire, appearing every- where to his subjects as the amiable, benevolent prince, the future great man, destined by Providence ^ to be the arbiter of Europe, and to overthrow that colossus of power which was to weigh upon her in the person of Napoleon Bonaparte. Everywhere brilliant festivals and entertainments 48