{"1": {"fulltext": "..-i", "height": "3568", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\nChap, Copyright No\\nShelf......\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.", "height": "3510", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3510", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3510", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "PRACTICAL POINTS\\nFOR\\nStationary, Locomotive and marine\\nEngineers, Firemen, Electricians,\\npiotounen and machinists.\\n(ILLUSTRATED.)\\nREVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION\\nBY JOHN S. FARNUM, M. E.\\nTWENTIETH THOUSAND.\\nPUBLISHED BY\\nMECHANICS SUPPLY COMPANY\\nChicago, III.\\nCopyright, 1894, by John S. Farnum.\\nCopyright, 1895, by John S. Farnum.\\nCopyright, 1899, by WALTER G. KRAFT.", "height": "3510", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "PUBLISHERS NOTICE.\\n-ny^-n\\n59058 .v\\\\\\nDuring the past few years the question of\\nlicensing engineers has been agitated in every\\npart of the United States and Canada. A number\\nof states have already enacted such legislation\\nas to compel all kinds of engineers to procure a\\nState License, others have provided for munici-\\npalities to pass ordinances bearing on the subject,\\nwhile still others are to-day seriously considering\\nthe matter. The result is bound to be, that in\\na short time, for the protection of life and prop-\\nerty, no man will be allowed to run an engine\\nwithout first going before a Competent Board\\nand passing an examination whereupon a license\\nwill be issued to the applicant.\\nThis work is designed not to make an engineer\\nof a man but to aid the proper persons to pass\\nthe required examination, whether it be for City,\\nState or Government license.\\nX foN j\u00c2\u00a3 MECHANICS SUPPLY CO.\\n7+ Irs i 1\\n0- HO *p4", "height": "3510", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "TWO COP 1SS R ECE1VE\u00c2\u00a3J\\n0ff *eo of ffc\\n^281000\\nSECOND COPY,\\n0g ,er inBB**\\nPAGE.\\nBoilers, construction 5\\nBoilers, management 17\\nBoilers, incrustation etc.. 23\\nFiring, stationary 27\\nFiring, locomotive 35\\nSafety valve 31\\nSteam 42\\nWater 45\\nInjectors and pumps 49\\nCombustion 57\\nSteam engine 62\\nLubricator 68\\nSteel square 71\\nValve motion 75\\n.Locomotive valve setting. 75\\nHorse power 78, 88\\nIndicator 81\\nLocomotive break downs 89\\nAir brake 105\\nSpeeding and signals 125\\nEngine whistles 128\\nSignals, train 129\\nSignals, torpedo 130\\nSemaphores, etc 131\\nMixed questions, etc 132\\nRules and recipes 137\\nRules to polish boilerheads\\netc 138\\nRules to cool hot pins 138\\npage.\\nRules calendar calcula-\\ntions 138\\nRules to clean brass 139\\nRulesto cover boilers, etc. 140\\nRules for steam heating\\n141, 163\\nBrick work for boiler beds\\netc 143\\nEngine foundations 145\\nMelting, boiling and freez-\\ning points 146\\nHow sound travels 147\\nTempering 149\\nRow to draw an ellipse 150\\nRole to find circumfer-\\nences 153\\nWeights and measures 154\\nProperties of saturated\\nsteam.. 155\\nArea of circles 156\\nTo mix colors, etc 157\\nCorliss engine 165\\nAutomatic engine 167\\nAutomatic governor 167\\nElectricity 168\\nDynamo 171\\nMotors 179\\nTelegraph and Batteries 189\\nTelegraph sounder 192\\nILLUSTRATIONS.\\nj\u00c2\u00bbAGE.\\nDuplex Pump 50\\nInjector 52\\nIndicator 81\\nSlide valve automatic en-\\ngine 64\\nSteel square 71\\nIndicator diagrams 82, 83\\nEllipse 151\\nDiagram to erect a perpen-\\ndicular line 152\\nCorl^s engine 165\\nPAGE.\\nAutomatic engine 167\\nDynamo 171\\nSkeleton dynamo 172\\nArc lamp 173\\nArmature 174\\nIncandescent lamp 176\\nArc dynamo 178\\nElectro motor 179\\nTelegraph key 190\\nTelegrapher s code 191\\nSounder 19?", "height": "3618", "width": "2279", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "PEEFACE.\\nThis edition has been thoroughly revised\\nand enlarged so that now I believt it to be\\nthe most complete work of its size for sta-\\ntionary, locomotive or manne t/igineers,\\nfiremen, etc.\\nThis work goes into the points deeper and\\nexplains them with the plainest of simple lan-\\nguage, so that men of limited education can\\nunderstand as well as a man of high education.\\nWe all know that the proper way for a man\\nto learn is by practice. But the two, practice\\nand theory together will make a man more per-\\nfect. Reading of other mechanics ideas will\\nenable a man to better his own ideas and perform\\nhis work more perfectly.\\nThose preparing for an examination and ex^\\npecting to receive a license should by all means\\nprocure this book as its practical suggestions\\nthroughout, will enable them to get their license.\\nThe book treats on boilers, engines, firing,\\ncombustion, indicators, dynamos, motors, elec-\\ntricity and has valuable receipts and rules.\\nTrusting that my efforts in trying to please\\nthe general run of engineers will be appreciated\\nby all. I am\\nRespectfully yours,\\nJOHN S. FARNUM.", "height": "3618", "width": "2336", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "The following questions and answers are for loco-\\nmotive stationery and marine engineers and firemen\\nto use as a guide in preparing themselves for an ex-\\namination. First you must fill out a blank and have\\nsame properly signed before going before the examin-\\ning board. Then await your turn and be ready when\\ncalled.\\nCONSTRUCTION OF BOILERS.\\nQ. What is a steam boiler?\\nA. A steam boiler is an air tight vessel\\nand may be divided into three divisions or\\nsix classes, namely: locomotive, marine,\\ntubular, flue, hanging fire box and upright\\nboilers. The hanging fire box is fired inside\\nof itself, tubular and flue boilers are fired\\nexternally having an attached furnace.\\nQ. How are marine boilers fired?\\nA. They are fired inside of themselves.\\nQ. Are boilers single or double riveted?\\nA. They are both. Single for low press-\\nure and double for high pressure.\\nQ. Name the different strains the boiler\\nhas to contend with?\\nA. Bursting strain and tearing.\\nQ. Is the strain greater on the sides than\\non the ends?\\nA. Yes.\\nQ. Why so?", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "6\\nA. Because the steam pressure has a\\nlarger surface to work on.\\nQ. How are boilers strengthened?\\nA. They are strengthened by stay bolts\\nand braces.\\nQ. Name the different braces in general\\nuse?\\nA. The stay bolts, the angle brace, crow-\\nfoot, side brace, longitudinal and dome brace.\\nIn hanging fire box boilers the crown sheet\\nis braced by what is known as crown bars.\\nQ. Of what construction is a successful\\nand economical boiler?\\nA. The chief points are in proper circu-\\nlation facilities and good construction. For\\ntubular boilers place the tubes in vertical\\nrows leaving out centre row. The circula-\\ntion in a boiler is up on the sides, down the\\ncentre. Ziz-zag tubes check the circulation\\nand give poor results.\\nQ. State the strain on a stay bolt and\\nhow is the calculation made?\\nA. The stay bolts, as a rule, support an\\narea of thirty-six square inches, multiply the\\narea by the steam pressure and you will have\\nthe strain upon each stay bolt. The distance\\nthat stay bolts should be set apart should\\nnot exceed six thousand pounds per square", "height": "3618", "width": "2336", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "inch cross sectional area. To determine the\\ndistance multiply the cross sectional area of\\nbolt by 6,000, divide by steam pressure and\\nextract square root of quotient.\\nQ. State the surface of plate a stay bolt\\nhas to support?\\nA. The support is represented by the\\nrectangle or area enclosed between four\\nbolts.\\nQ. How is the rectangle known between\\nfour bolts, each six inches apart?\\nA. It is known by multiplying one dis-\\ntance by the other; 6x6=36 square inches,\\neach bolt has to support.\\nQ. Of what use is a hollow stay bolt?\\nA. It is used to supply air above the fire\\nand help combustion.\\nQ. Compute the horse-power of a hori-\\nzontal tubular boiler, 5 foot diameter, 16 foot\\nlong, containing 78 3 inch tubes, each tube\\n16 foot long?\\nA. Multiply diameter of shell by 3.1416\\nto get circumference 15. 70 feet, the lower\\nhalf of shell being the only heating sur-\\nface divide this by 2 which equals 7.85,\\nmultiplied by the length of shell 16 feet\\nequals 125.60 square feet. The circumfer-\\nence of 3 inch tube is, 9.42 inches by the", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "8\\nsame rule multiplied by its length, 192 inches\\nequals 1808.64; which multiplied by the\\nnumber of tubes, 78, equals 141,073.92 square\\ninches, or 979 square feet, which added to\\nthe square feet of the shell equals 1 107\\nsquare feet, divided by 15 equals 73^3 horse-\\npower.\\nQ. Name the number of square feet of\\nheating surface allowed to a horse-power in\\ndifferent makes of boilers?\\nA. Horizontal tubular boilers 15 square\\nfeet, vertical 12 square feet, locomotive 12\\nsquare feet, flue 10 square feet and plain\\ncylinder 9 square feet.\\nQ. How many square feet of grate sur-\\nface does it take to consume 12 pounds of\\ncoal?\\nA. One square foot.\\nQ. How many pounds of water will be\\nevaporated by one pound of good coal?\\nA. The average will be 6 to 10 pounds of\\nwater. The average result is about 25 to 50\\nper cent, below this, for it is estimated by\\nsome of the best* authorities that 1-16 inch\\nof scale in the boiler causes a waste of 10\\nto 15 per cent, of fuel and in this proportion\\nupwards according to the thickness of scale.\\nQ. How would you know the amount of", "height": "3618", "width": "2336", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "water a boiler is evaporating by a given num-\\nber of lbs. of coal used in one hour, say 1,000\\nlfcs.?\\nA. Simply divide 1,000 (or lbs of coal)\\nby 7^, and answer will be cubic feet of water.\\nMultiply ans. by 7%, and the result will be\\nthe number of gallons evaporated in one\\nMour.\\nQ. How many gallons of water in one\\ncubic foot, also how many cubic inches?\\nA. There are 7^ gallons in a cubic foot f\\nmd 1728 cubic inches in a cubic foot.\\nQ. Name some of the causes of boiler ex-\\nplosions?\\nA. Explosions of steam boilers are gen-\\nerally due to defective material, defects of\\nconstruction, improper management and\\nnatural causes. An explosion takes place\\nwhen the resistance is less at some point\\nthan the pressure to which it is subjected,\\nand may happen even when the pressure is\\nvery low. The explosion of a boiler is not\\nan instantaneous action, although it seems\\n50. It is a well defined and rapidly succeed-\\ning series of operations. The rupture com-\\nmences at a point where the resistance of-\\nfered by the material is less than the strain\\nto which it is subjected and it extends into", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "10\\nthe adjoining part when these parts are too\\nweak to sustain this increased strain that the\\nrupture already made brings to bear on therr^\\ntogether with the shock due to the motion\\nthat the edges of the fracture make while\\nseeking a new state of equilibrium. In case\\nof an explosion the steam pressure does not\\nfall the instant the rupture takes place on\\nthe contrary the pressure continues very\\nnearly up to the time when all the water\\nhas escaped from the boiler. An explosion\\nis so much more terrible as there are mor^\\nfractures made prior to the moment when\\nthe boiler is entirely emptied of its water.\\nQ. Is it dangerous to let water run low in\\nthe boiler?\\nA. Yes, it is very dangerous as the plates\\nbecome red hot, and the softened plates will\\ntear open and may produce an explosion if\\nthe hot part is hot enough or if the adjoining\\nparts do not offer sufficient resistance.\\nQ. Is the steam pressure lowered when\\nfeeding a boiler with low water?\\nA. When water is fed into a boiler when\\nthe water is too low it almost invariably\\nlowers the pressure of the steam.\\nQ. Is it dangerous to force wrter into a\\nlow water boiler with a hot fire in the fur-\\nnace?", "height": "3545", "width": "2319", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "11\\nA. Yes it is always dangerous to feed,\\nbefore dampening the fire because the water\\ninjected quiets the ebullition and increases\\nthe surface exposed to the heat.\\nQ. Is it dangerous to empty a boiler\\nwhen the tubes or flues are still hot\\nA. Yes, it is dangerous; for such actions\\ncause fractures of the transverse riveting in\\nsuch manner as may not always be shown by\\nleakage, and this effect may very easily pro-\\nduce an explosion when next the fires are\\nlighted or in a short time afterwards.\\nQ. Why should a tubular boiler be kept\\nclean on the outside?\\nA. Because when a plate is covered with\\nsoot or incrustation most of the defects can-\\nnot be seen, therefore it is very important\\nthat boilers should be kept as clean as pos-\\nsible externally as well as internally.\\nQ. Name the various steps in an explo-\\nsion which have heretofore been mentioned?\\nA. First, a fracture in a plate followed\\nby a rending; second, a violent bursting out\\nof water and steam; third, a falling pressure;\\nfourth, portions of the water are propelled\\nwith great violence against the shells of the\\nboiler and shattering it by the expansive\\nforce of the steam disseminating throughout", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "12\\nthe body of the water; fifth, the steam gen*\\nerated from the liberated water imparts a\\nhigh velocity to the fragments, converting\\nthem into projectiles, thus spreading ruin\\nand destruction around.\\nQ. From the various experiments and\\ninvestigations what conclusions have been\\narrived at?\\nA. A violent explosion may take place\\nin a boiler when there is plenty of water in\\nit; second, that a moderate pressure of steam\\nmay produce a terrific explosion when there\\nis plenty of water; third, that a boiler may\\nexplode under steam at a less pressure than\\nit has stood without apparent injury from a\\nwater pressure or hydraulic inspection, there-\\nfore hammer test is the better; fourth, a rup-\\nture will be followed by relief of pressure\\nwith or without explosions as the fracture is\\nextended or otherwise; fifth, that an explo-\\nsion rarely occurs in an externally fired\\nboiler from low water.\\nQ, How is the safe working pressure of\\na boiler found?\\nA. Multiply twice the thickness of the\\nshell by the tensile strength, and divide the\\nanswer by five times the diameter of the\\nshell in inches.", "height": "3545", "width": "2319", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "13\\nQ. State the proper place for a lowei\\ngauge cock in a tubular or flue boiler?\\nA. Two inches above the upper row of\\nflues.\\nQ. State the proper place for a lower\\ngauge cock in an upright boiler?\\nA. One-third the distance between the\\ntwo flue sheets, measuring from the top\\nflue sheet.\\nQ. What is known as the fire line of a\\nboiler (Tubular)?\\nA. The fire line is between the water line\\nand the top row of flues.\\nQ. What is known as the water line?\\nA. The water line is known as two inches\\nabove the flues.\\nQ. What is corrosion?\\nA. Corrosion is one of the strongest de-\\nstructive forces to which the boiler is sub-\\njected. Internal corrosion is caused by the\\nconcentrated acids of the water, which attack\\nthe most susceptible portions of the plates\\nor tubes, and if the acids are volatile or the\\nliquid acids carried by foaming or priming\\ninto the steam space, the plates there also\\nsuffer. Corrosion is very capricious in its\\naction, some boilers are attacked on the\\nshell, others will suffer principally in the", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "14\\ntubes, and others at the rivets and seams.\\nThe erratic action must be ascribed to the\\ngravity of the acids at work, their concen-\\ntration in certain parts due to the circulation\\nof the water, to the nature of the iron or\\nsteel, and to other causes more obscure.\\nUniform corrosion is that species of the\\nwasting of plates, tubes, etc, in a more or\\nless even manner, and is like ordinary rust-\\ning in its character. Pitting or honey-comb-\\ning is another form, well marked by the\\nsharply defined edges they present, and is.\\nusually found in patches of various sizes.\\nQ. What causes grooving or channeling?\\nA. Grooving or channeling, as it is usu-\\nally termed, is due to the mechanical action\\nproduced by unequaled expansion and con-\\ntraction.\\nQ. Where would be a good place to force\\nin the feed water to overcome grooving?\\nA. Introduce the feed water near the\\nwater level in the boiler instead of near the\\nbottom, it will help some.\\nQ. Would you consider it dangerous to\\nempty a boiler when the tubes or flues are hot?\\nA. Yes.\\nQ. Is it dangerous to fire up a boiler too\\nrapidly?", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "15\\nA. Yes, it is very dangerous, as where\\nthe draft and combustion are sufficient for a\\nwhite heat, the plates, no matter how good\\nthey are, cannot resist with certainty.\\nQ. Name over several kinds of explo-\\nsions?\\nA. Scaly boilers, by overheating, defec-\\ntive circulation, corrosion, explosion of gas\\nin the furnace of flues, hydraulic testing by\\nstraining, letting water run low and over-\\nheating, then pumping cold water into the\\nboiler.\\nQ. What causes defective circulation?\\nA. When boiler tubes are too close\\ntogether and not having room enough for\\nhe water to circulate when making steam.\\nQ. How far apart should the tubes or\\nflues be for proper circulation?\\nA. They should be y 2 the diameter of\\nthe flue itself apart, and in perpendicularrows.\\nQ. How is the tonage strain on the\\ncrown sheet of a fire-box known?\\nA. Multiply the length by breadth in\\ninches, divide by 12 for feet; multiply ans.\\nby steam pressure and divide by 2,000. Ans.\\nis tons.\\nQ. State rule to find amount of strain a\\ncrown sheet will withstand?", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "16\\nA. Simply use same rule as above and\\ndivide the tonage by 2.66 if a inch plate,\\nif a inch plate, and 2 if y 2 inch plate\\n(thickness).", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "17\\nMANAGEMENT OP BOILERS.\\nIt is fully as important to manage a boiler\\nproperly as it is to have it properly designed and\\nconstructed. From the time the boiler is set at\\nwork it is subject to destroying forces which\\nmust he counteracted as much as possible.\\nTherefore the person under whose immediate\\ncharge the boiler properly comes, should be a\\nstrictly sober and competent man.\\nQ. What is the first duty of a fireman or en-\\ngineer before starting a fire under a boiler\\nA. He should see that there is plenty of water\\nin the boiler by trying the guage cocks.\\nQ. What next should he look after f\\nA. He should see that the blow-off cock is\\nshut, that the hand-hole and the man-hole plates\\ndo not leak, or if they do he must tighten them\\nwith wrench and hammer also look at seams\\nand tube or flue ends for leaks.\\nQ. If circumstances will allow how should a\\nboiler be cleaned\\nA, When the fire is hauled, the throttle valve\\non the steam pipe next to the boiler should be\\nshut; the ashes and cinders quenched and wheeled\\nto the ash pile the furnace and ash pit doors\\nand the dampers should be closed, and the steam\\n2", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "18\\nblown off at the safety valve until there is only\\nabout five pounds pressure then the safety valve\\nshould be lowered to its seat.\\nQ. Would you blow out the boiler then?\\nA. No, let the water remain in the boiler until\\nit and the furnace is cool, then let the water and\\nslush run out through the blow-off cock.\\nQ. Why not blow out water with a light\\npressure on?\\nA. It has a tendency to weaken the seams\\nand also the boiler in general, by uneven\\nexpansion.\\nQ. What is next done after boiler is empty?\\nA. When the boiler is empty, the man-holes\\nand hand-holes may be opened, and the boiler\\nrinsed out; then examine carefully inside; the\\nscales must be knocked off with light blows of a\\npick or scraped with bars and chisels, or loosened\\nwith angular wire chains, etc., then wash the\\nboiler clean with water.\\nQ. When should the scale be removed?\\nA. The scale should be removed s soon as\\npossible after the water has been let out of the\\nboiler, before it has time to dry and harden, if\\nany repairs are to be made to the braces, etc.,\\nthey should be made and the boiler closed up.\\nQ. How about the outside and connections of\\nboiler\\nA. The flues and connections should be swept", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "19\\nand the boiler bottom scraped with a wire brushc\\nAfter above the boiler is ready for filling with\\nwater, which should be done at once, and then\\nit should be examined carefully for leaks, which\\nif found should be repaired at once, before the\\nboiler is put into use again, if, however, it is not\\nintended to use the boiler for some time it will\\nbe well to drain all the water out of it, and to\\ndry it thoroughly by pans of charcoal, and then\\nset a pan or two of lime into the boiler, and\\nclose it tightly.\\nQ. Why dry the boiler and set in it pans of\\nlime and close it tight\\nA. To prevent oxidation.\\nQ. Name the principle tools about a fire room\\nor boiler room?\\nA. A full set of tools consist of a shovel,\\nslicebar, T bar pricker, hoe, coal hammer and\\ndevils claw, together with a broom and dust\\nbrush, and also a chipping hammer, a flat cape\\nand diamond point chissel, and wrenches to fit\\nthe nuts and bolts about the boiler, a monkey-\\nwrench and screw driver.\\nQ. State the tensile strength of a boiler tube,\\nsay three or four inches in diameter, or how is\\nthe strength of the tube calculated longitudi-\\nnally\\nA. The standard thickness of a three inch", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "20\\ntube is .109 of an inch its circumference is\\n9.4248 inches. There would have to be pulled\\napart 9.4248 x. 109 1 0273 square inches of iron\\nto separate the tube lengthwise. One square inch\\nwill hold from 40,000 to 50,000 pounds. As-\\nsuming 45,000 pounds as the tensile stength pet\\nsquare inch of section, it would require 45,000 x\\n1.0273 46,288 pounds to pull the tube apart\\nlongitudinally.\\nQ. What pressure will a tube resist when\\nexpanded into the headsheet of a boiler beaded,\\nand not beaded\\nA. The Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection\\nand Insurance Co, prepared and had tested\\nthree inch tubes expanded into plates with a\\nDugeon expander, without beading. The first\\nwas expanded into a 3-8 inch plate, and it re-\\nquired 6,500 pounds to pull it out. The two\\nothers were expanded into 15-32 inch plates,\\nand it required 5,000 and 7,500 pounds respec-\\ntively to pull them out They later prepared\\ntwo similar specimens, both tubes left projecting\\nbeyond the tube sheet and flared and expanded\\ninto 3-8 inch plates. The observed stress which\\nfirst produced yielding was 20,500^ pounds in\\none and 19,000 pounds in the other, 500 pounds\\nadditional being required in both cases to com-\\npletely dislodge the tubes.", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "21\\nQ. When calculating the load on a safety\\n^alve, is any allowance made for atmospheric\\npressure on the back of it if not, why\\nA. No, because the gauge pressure in which\\nthe results are figured and expressed signify the\\ndifference between boiler pressure and atmos-\\npheric pressure, not the absolute pressure in the\\nboiler. There must be atmospheric pressure in\\nthe boiler when the pointer stands at zero, and\\none pound above the atmosphere, or 15.7 abso-\\nlute, when the gauge indicates one pound.\\nQ. How much hydraulic test should a boiler\\nbe put to, to carry 100 pounds pressure of\\nsteam?\\nA. It is usual to subject a boiler to hydraulic\\npressure 50 per cent, greater than the steam\\nwhich it is to carry. For 100 pounds pressure\\nof steam, the hydraulic test should be 150\\npounds.\\nQ. Is the hydraulic test for boiler the better\\nway to test a boiler\\nA. No, the hammer test is the best.\\nQ. Why is the hammer test the better of the\\ntwo\\nA. Because boilers can be strained by the\\nhydraulic test and show no leak when the pres-\\nsure is used, but when steam is raised the boiler\\nexpands and opens the strain caused by the cold\\nwater test", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "22\\nQ. Can you give a good short rule and ex-\\nample to figure a safety valve, and know at what\\npressure it will blow off\\nA. Yes, after having taken all the measure-\\nments, length of lever fulcrum, weight of lever\\nvalve and stem, and weight of ball, we divide\\nthe fulcrum into the length of the lever, multiply\\nby weight of ball, add the weight of lever valve\\nand stem when connected at the fulcrum, and\\ndivide by the area of the valve. Example:\\nlever twenty-four inches long, fulcrum four\\ninches, weight of lever, valve and stem, 32\\npounds diameter of valve 2^ inches 3.9 area.\\nWeight of ball 40 pounds, 4-^-24 6x40=\\n240 32 272 -s- 3.9 70 pounds steam pres-\\nsure boiler will blow off.\\nQ. Are spring pop valves figured?\\nA. No, they are set with a guage, specially\\nmade for the purpose.\\nQ. Of what use are safety pop valves?\\nA. They are supposed to release the*\\nboiler of all pressure above a point at which\\nthey are set.\\nQ. State the proper size of a safety pop?\\nA. As a rule three square feet of grate\\nsurface equals one square inch of pop valve\\n(area).", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "23\\nBOILER INCRUSTATION AND\\nCORROSION.\\nThe prevention of incrustation and corrosion\\nis of vital importance. In fact, there is no sub-\\nject of so much importance in the promotion of\\nthe efficiency, economy and life of the steam\\nboiler.\\nAmong the evil effects arising from the pres-\\nence of incrustation and corrosion can be directly\\nattributed, a loss of fuel, varying from 1 to 37\\nper cent.\\nIf waste of fuel were the only evil incident to\\nthe mismanagement of steam boilers, it might\\nbe tolerated in localities where fuel is abundant\\nand cheap; but other great evils result from in-\\ncrustation, such as burning of iron, granula-\\ntion of the material, bagging, blistering, and\\nfracture of the sheets, flues and tubes. Also\\npitting of iron, and many other forms of corro-\\nsion. All of which having the tendency of des-\\ntroying the tensile strength, elasticity, and resis-\\ntance of the iron, and rendering it liable to\\nexplosion at any time with disastrous effect.\\nIf the steam boiler is expected to render proper\\nservice,to be safe and durable, and an easy steam\\ngenerator, certain conditions must be complied\\nwith. It must be intelligently managed, care-", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "24\\nfully fired, not over taxed, and above all, kept\\nsafe and clean on the inside.\\nTo properly protect the interior of the steam\\nboiler, to keep the iron clean and in good safe\\ncondition, chemistry is undoubtedly the only\\nsource from which to seek relief and protection\\nfrom the disastrous results occasioned from the\\nabove named destructive agents. The corrosive\\nand destructive acids contained in solution in\\nwater, can only be neutralized by the interven-\\ntion of a chemical basis, and it must be borne\\nin mind than no mechanical means can fulfill\\nthis requirement.\\nIn consequence of the demand for an efficient\\nand reliable preventative of incrustation and\\ncorrosion, a great variety of nostrums have been\\nplaced upon our market, and offered to steam\\nusers under attractive names, and for which ex-\\nceptional merit is claimed; but an analysis of\\nthese preparations, together with a knowledge\\nof their components, and resulting actions, dissi-\\npates these claims and conclusively demonstrates\\nthat, with few exceptions, the manufacturers of\\nthe same have not the requisite knowledge of\\nchemistry, that would entitle their preparations\\nto the confidence of the steam user.\\nThe author has had a wide experience in the\\ncapacity of Boiler Inspector for many years, in", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "25\\nwhich experience he has come in contact with\\nnearly all the steam users in several states, and\\nduring this experience, I may honestly affirm\\nthat I have found but one preparation which I\\nconsider entirely reliable as a remedy for incrus-\\ntation and corrosion in steam boilers.\\nThis article has gained a world-wide reputa-\\ntion, and is endorsed by the leading authorities\\nnot only thoughout the United States, but also\\nin foreign countries, to which it is exported in\\nlarge quantities. The article I refer to is man-\\nufactured in Philadelphia, Pa., by Mr. Geo. W.\\nLqrd, a practical manufacturing chemist and\\nengineer, who is also w T ell known as an author\\nand contributor to some of our best scientific\\nworks on steam engineering.\\nHis preparations are known as Lord s Boiler\\nCompound, but I will here state that the words\\nLord s Boiler Compound are only his trade\\nmark, under which such different compounds are\\nprepared, as each individual steam user may\\nrequire; or such specific preparations as may be\\nrequired, where the same or similar waters are\\nused in certain territories, and Mr. Lord s ex-\\ntensive trade is no doubt, due to his scientific\\nknowledge and skill in furnishing a preparation,\\nwhich is suited to the requirements of each indi-\\nvidual case", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "26\\nYou may have noticed circulars and other ad-\\nvertisements of boiler cleansing preparations,\\nwhich the manufacturers claim to be purely veg-\\netable. It is a well known fact that vegetable\\nmatter principally consists of acids, oarbon,\\nearthy salts, etc., and the active and soluble\\nproperties contained in these preparations, are\\nacids which are more harmful to the boiler than\\nany boiler incrustation.\\nOil is also frequently employed as a prevent-\\native of boiler incrustation, but any intelligent\\nengineer will understand that this invariably\\ninduces overheating, and burning of the plates,\\ntubes and flues.\\nOil has the property of penetrating the pores\\nof boiler incrustation, and detaching it in large\\nfragments from the boiler surfaces, thereby pre-\\ncipitating this aggregate mass directly over the\\nheating surface, causing burning, blistering, and\\nbagging of the material.\\nThis is a dangerous practice, and one liable\\nat all times to invite boiler explosions.\\nOil is also a convenient cloak, under which\\nto introduce vegetable and mineral acids into\\nthe boiler, and this daring practice is of fre-\\nquent occurence, and is worthy of criminal\\nprose^ 1 1", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "27\\nPROPER FIRING.\\nFiring is only done properly when the fuel is\\nconsumed in the best possible way, that is, when\\nno more is burned than is necessary to produce\\nthe amount of steam required and to keep the\\npressure uniform. To reach this end complete\\ncombustion must be attained in the furnace, and\\nto know when this is going on, is when the fuel\\nis burning with a bright flame evenly all over\\nthe grate furnace.\\nQ. How do the colors show when the fire is\\nbadly managed i\\nA. Blue flames, dark spots and smoke, are\\nthe best evidence of incomplete combustion.\\nQ. What is the cause of bad combustion?\\nA. It is caused by not having air enough\\nabove the fuel in the furnace. Experience is\\nthe best teacher although points from a book\\nare very applicable in all cases of firing differ-\\nent makes of boilers.\\nQ. How should the tools be placed about a\\nboiler room\\nA. Every tool should have its place and be\\nkept there when not in use, and if broken should\\nbe repaired at once. Never keep furnace doors\\nopen longer than absolutely necessary, and the\\nfiring should be done as quickly as possible.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "28\\nQ. Why should the furnace door be closed\\nquickly and the firing done quickly\\nA. To prevent contraction of the boiler bot-\\ntom from the cool air entering the furnace.\\nQ. Should a fire be stirred often?\\nA. No; the fire should not l3 stirred any\\nmore than is necessary.\\nQ. Why?\\nA. In order to avoid the waste from small\\ncoal from dropping through the bars.\\nQ. Suppose the chimney draft was very\\nstrong, how could it be controlled\\nA. Simply close the damper partially, also\\nthe ash pit doors.\\nQ. Name the proper thickness of fires under\\nboilers\\nA. For anthracite coal, the thickness should\\nbe from six to eight inches generally. For bi-\\ntuminous coal from eight to ten inches, and with\\ncoke from ten to twelve inches.\\nQ, How large should the coal be when thrown\\ninto the furnace\\nA. Not larger than a man s fist.\\nQ. State the best way to start a fire under a\\nccld boiler\\nA. Cover the grate bars with coal for about\\ntwo-thirds of their length from the bridgewall,\\nand should pile a little wood, cob-house fashion,", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "29\\non the open bars, and put a few lighted shavings\\nor oily waste in the mouth of the furnace, partly\\nclose the furnace doors, and wholly close the\\nash pit doors.\\nQ, Why is coal thrown back on the grate\\nbars first\\nA. The coal on the grate bars prevents air\\nfrom coming through them and impairing the\\ndraft, while the partial opening of the furnace\\ndoor supplies air to the burning wood and\\ndirects the flame over the coal in the back end\\nof the furnace, gradually heating the coal up to\\nthe point of ignition.\\nQ. What is next .done\\nA* After the wood is burning well, coal may\\nbe thrown upon it and the furnace doors closed\\nthe ash pit doors being then open.\\nQ. When is more coal thrown in on the fire?\\nA. As soon as the fire will bear it being\\ndone, and the fire is gradually pushed back\\nuntil there is a full fire on the whole length of\\nthe grate bars.\\nQ Should a fire be hurried 7\\nA. No, it must be allowed to come up as\\nit is termed, very gradually, and to do this put\\non a little coal at a time.\\nQ. How should a fire be kept\\nA. The fires should always be kept level and", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "30\\nof a uniform thickness, with the exception that\\nat the sides, corners, and at the bridge wall it\\nmust be enough thicker to prevent cold air from\\nleaking through.\\nQ. When should a fire be cleaned?\\nA. The fire should be cleaned when the\\nclinkers and dirt accumulate to an extent suffi-\\ncient to clog the draught.\\nQ. How are the fires cleaned?\\nA. Boilers with wide furnaces it is better,\\nperhaps, to clean only one half at a time and let\\nthe fire burn up well on that side before attempt-\\ning to clean the other half.\\nQ. Where there are several furnaces all lead-\\ning into the same chimney, how should they\\nbe fired?\\nA. They should be fired alternately in order\\nto keep the steam at a regular pressure and ob~\\nserve the greatest economy and fuel.\\nQ. Is it a good idea to wet coal just before\\nfiring?\\nA. No, it is wasteful of heat and produces\\ncorrosion.\\nQ. Is it safe to close the damper entirely?\\nA. Never close the damper entirely while\\nthere is fire on the grates as gas may collect in\\nthe flues and an explosion may take place which", "height": "3587", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "31\\nwould ruin the boiler it is also apt to burn\\ndown the grate bars.\\nQ, Are there any reasons to believe that\\nboilers have exploded through the explosion of\\ngas?\\nA. Yes, there are reasons to believe that\\nboiler explosions have been produced in this\\nmanner.\\nQ. Is it proper to bank a fire?\\nA. Yes, a banked fire properly kept up is\\nconducive to longevity of the boiler, because of\\nthe less amount of contraction and expansion\\ninduced owing to difference in temperature.\\nQ. How should the feed- water be supplied?\\nA. The feed-water should be supplied regu-\\nlarly and continuously and the water-line should\\nbe kept at a regular height, and there should\\nnever be less than three or four inches in depth\\nover the highest part of the furnace, flues, or\\nconnections exposed to the flames or hot gases\\nbut it is very bad practice to carry the water too\\nhigh in a boiler as it will cause priming.\\nQ. Which is the proper way to try the safety-\\nvalve\\nA. By raising steam until the boiler safety-\\nvalve begins to simmer, noting the pressure\\nby the steam gauge at the moment.\\nQ. Can a safety-valve not be raised by hand?", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "32\\nA. Yes, but that would not inform me that\\nit would blow off at the proper time with pro-\\nper pressure. Steam pressure should never be\\nallowed to exceed its highest blow-off limit.\\nQ. Suppose the steam gauge was showing\\nthat the steam was rising rapidly what would\\nyou do?\\nA. Simply feed water in the boiler at once,\\npartly close the damper and the ash pit doors.\\nIf in spite of this the steam is still rising, open\\nup the furnace doors a little, and feed more\\nstrongly.\\nQ. Suppose the water rose in the glass\\nhigher than practicable, w T hat should be done?\\nA. Open the blow-off a little, at the same\\ntime watch the water-line very closely, by con-\\ntinuously trying the gauge cock.\\nQ. Suppose the water was dangerously low\\nwhen the steam started to raise would you pump\\nin water?\\nA. No if the pump is in motion at the time,\\nleave it continue. The furnace doors must be\\nopened and damp, small coal and ashes thrown\\nover the fire, then in a few minutes the boiler\\nwill be cool enough to allow pumping up. In\\nsuch a case examine the top row of flues for\\nleaks.", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "33\\nQ. How often should the gauge glass be\\nblown through during the day\\nA. Several times every day, also the gauge\\ncocks should be tried about every half hour.\\nQ. Why try the gauge cocks when you know\\nby the glass gauge you have water?\\nA. To know if the glass is in working order.\\nQ. What is foaming\\nA. Foaming is a violent mixing of the water\\nand steam in the boiler which results in prim-\\ning or the carrying of the water, in the state\\nof a fine spray, with the steam into the engine\\ncylinder, often knocking out a cylinder-head,\\nrapidly lowering the water-level in the boiler\\nsometimes so much as to be dangerous.\\nQ. What generally causes foaming?\\nA. Foaming is generally caused by irregu-\\nlarity in firing or feeding, impure water, espe-\\ncially if it be greasy contracted steam r ace\\ntoo small extent of area at the water-line from\\nthe tubes being crowded together; the boiler\\nnot being clean; the throttle or safety-valve\\nbeing opened too suddenly the boiler not being\\nclean, and in marine boilers changing the feed\\nwater from salt to fresh, or the reverse.\\nQ. Explain how one can know when a boiler\\nis foaming\\nIt is generally shown in the glass gauge", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "34\\nby a sudden t^i ng or falling of the water, or\\nby boiling or showering of the water down\\nthrough the glass, also by a peculiar sput-\\ntering sound given upon opening the gauge\\ncock.\\nQ. How can it be overcome?\\nA. It can be overcome by partially closing\\nthe throttle and opening the furnace doors\\nand feeding strongly; sometimes, however,\\nit is necessary to blow out a little water from\\nthe boiler, but this should not be resorted to\\nexcept in extreme cases. Keep the boiler\\nclean, and the water clean, and little of such\\ntrouble will occur.\\nQ. How much pressure per square inch\\nof steam should there be in a boiler before\\nthe needle on the steam gauge begins to\\nmove?\\nA. About 15 pounds pressure per square\\ninch.\\nQ. Why?\\nA. The atmospheric pressure in the boiler\\nmust be overcome.\\nQ. By what power is a steam gauge\\nneedle moved; also state the use of the cir-\\ncular bent pipe between boiler and gauge?\\nA. The needle is moved by expansion of\\nthe condensed water left in the crooked pipe", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "35\\nunder gauge. If it were a straight pipe and\\nsteam came in direct contact with the gauge\\nit would sweat the glass and not show a true\\nstate of affairs.\\nLOCOMOTIVE FIRING.\\nQ. What is your understanding of steam\\npressure as shown by the steam gauge?\\nA. The steam gauge shows the steam\\npressure on each square inch on the inside\\nof the boiler.\\nQ. What is the result on the exhaust\\nsteam going through the stack?\\nA. It carries the air up through the\\nstack with each exhaust and by drawing it\\nfrom the front end produces a partial vacuum\\nthere.\\nQ. In what way does the exhaust steam\\ncreate draft on the fire?\\nA. When the air is drawn out of the\\nfront end, the air and products of combus-\\ntion in firebox flow through the flues to fill\\nthe space, this in turn allows the pressure of\\nthe atmosphere to force fresh air up through\\nthe grates and fire and makes a steady flow\\n01 an* into the firebox.\\nQ. What is your idea of the proper siz(", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "36\\nof stack inside diameter, length, ar d tapex\\nor straight inside?\\nA. That is a pretty hard question to ask\\na young fireman, but I have noticed that\\nwhen a smaller stack is put on an engine it\\nincreases the draft on the fire. If the stack\\nis very short, it seems to work better if it is\\nmade smaller in proportion to the size of\\nthe cylinder than if it is a long one. I also\\nnotice that a good many of the taper stacks\\nhave a bushing inside of them that is\\nstraight, or the same size at both ends.\\nSome of our engines have stacks two inches\\nsmaller than the cylinder, others have stacks\\nthree inches smaller. A freight engine in\\nheavy service with a very small stack is very\\nhard on coal, when with light service she\\nmight be very economical. Where the\\nstack is small the exhaust nozzle can be\\nmade larger and exhaust have the same\\neffect on the fire, this helps to do away\\nwith the back pressure in the cylinders.\\nQ. Will air enough come through the\\ngrates and fire to form perfect combustion\\nof the coal?\\nA. Not under all conditions.\\nQ. Is it necessary to admit any air aoove\\nthe fire?", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "37\\nA, Generally it is. The gas formed\\nfrom the coal that does not combine with\\nthe air coming through the grates and fire\\nmust have another portion of air admitted\\nabove the fire to help it burn, or it will pass\\nthrough the flues and out the stack uncon-\\nsumed and wasted.\\nQ. What is the object of the holes in the\\nfirebox door?\\nA. To admit air over the fire; they are\\nalso convenient to light up the deck and\\ntender coal space if the holes are so drilled\\nthat the light will shine through lining and\\ndoors.\\nQ. Will the cold air mix with the gases\\nfrom the coal and burn at once, or must it be\\nheated first?\\nA. It must be heated first, very hot.\\nQ. What effect would a very small ex-\\nhaust nozzle have on the fire?\\nA. It makes a very fierce draft and lifts\\nthe coal up on the grates each exhaust un-\\nless the fire is closely watched it will pull\\nholes in it.\\nQ. When the fire burns most in the front\\nend of the firebox what does it indicate?\\nA. Too much draft through the bottom\\nrow\u00c2\u00bb of flues.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "38\\nQ. How is this remedied?\\nA. By changing the position of deflector\\nplate in the front end or the petticoat pipe,\\nQ. What is the object of the brick arch?\\nA. To hold the gases that are formed\\nfrom the coal in the firebox longer, so they\\nwill combine with the air and burn, to heat\\nthe air to a high temperature so it can do\\nthis; to prevent the emissions of dense black\\nsmoke; to protect the flues from the air\\ncoming in through the open door when firing\\nand it checks the effect of the exhaust on\\nthe fire so that small particles of coal that\\nwould otherwise go through the flues and\\nout the stack are held in the firebox and\\nburned.\\nQ. Does it save any coal? How?\\nA. On most engines it does, on some it\\ndoes not. With some varieties of coal it\\ndoes not seem to make much difference. It\\nsaves coal because it helps to burn the gases\\nthat otherwise would go out unconsumed\\nand wasted. If the side sheets are patched\\nor leak any the arch makes them worse, as\\nit keeps them hot after the other parts of\\nthe firebox are cool.\\nQ. Explain how you would fire an engine", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "39\\nto make her steam well, run light on coal\\nand avoid unnecessary smoke?\\nA. I would keep an even fire by firing a\\nlittle at a time and often break the coal to\\na proper size so it would burn evenly all\\nover the firebox, as large lumps and fine coal\\nnever burn alike or economically a large\\nchunk of coal takes considerable heat from\\nthe fire to get it burning and there is a large\\nportion of it that does not burn for some\\ntime after it is put in the box, this takes up\\nheat instead of giving it out look out for\\nplaces where the engineer usually shuts off\\nso that the fire will be burned bright, this will\\navoid a good deal of black smoke.\\nQ. How do you keep smoke from trailing\\novertrain when running shut-off?\\nA. If there is still fresh coal on the fire\\nthat is still giving off black smoke, crack\\nthe door a very little and it may be neces-\\nsary to put on the blower enough to draw\\nsome air through the fire and burn the smoke\\nand also raise the smoke above the coaches.\\nThis depends upon the good judgment of\\nthe fireman; if the blower is on too strong it\\ndoes more harm than good.\\nQ. What effect does it have on the fire", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "40\\nto open the firebox door when the engine is\\nworking?\\nA. It lets the air come in the easiest way,\\nthrough the door instead of through the fire.\\nWhen firing, if the door is closed each time\\nbetween putting in scoops of coal, it keeps\\nthe fire burning properly, giving it a chance\\nto ignite each scoop of coal as it is put in.\\nIf you keep the door open till the whole\\nfiring of coal is put in, there is not enough\\nheat in the fire to ignite the fresh coal and\\nkeep up steam. An open door is hard on\\nthe flue sheet.\\nQ. What effect does wetting the coal\\nhave?\\nA. With soft porous coal the water gets\\nin the cracks in the lumps of coal and it\\nsplits open as soon as it gets hot. With very\\nfine coal it helps it to coke into small chunks\\nthat stay in the box and burn instead oi\\ngoing out with first exhaust.\\nQ. What will you do with a fire that is\\nbanked?\\nA. If it is on account of a clinker, get the\\nclinker loose from the grates and out of the\\nfirebox if possible. If banked from too\\nheavy firing, fire on the thin places only, use", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "41\\ncoarse coal in holes in the fire; fire on the\\nwhite spots till it is level and proper thick-\\nness again.\\nQ. How does the blower operate?\\nA. Just the same as the exhaust, only not\\njo powerful.\\nQ. Will the blower prevent black smoke\\nA. Yes sir, but a free steaming engine\\nshould not make much black smoke when\\nshut off if handled properly, the blower\\nshould be used very light when necessary\\nfor this purpose.\\nQ. If blower is put on too strong when\\ncleaning the Are, what is liable to happen?\\nA. The flues begin to leak on account of\\na strong draft of cold air striking them. If\\nthe old man is around and catches you at\\nit, it means ten days suspension.\\nQ. Do you consider it wasteful to have\\nan engine blow off frequently?\\nA. Yes sir, but if both men on an engine\\ndo not work together it is a hard matter to\\nprevent it. With some crews they work into\\neach others way so you know just what to\\nlook out for and engine rarely blows off.\\nThen if you can carry up to within a few", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "42\\npounds of blowing off all the time between\\nstations, it uses less coal and water and is\\neasier on the engine.\\nSTEAM.\\nQ. What is steam?\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2A. We might say that steam is a vapor\\nformed from water, but that is not sufficiently\\ndefinite, and demands some explanation. The\\npassage of any liquid into the gaseous state\\nis called vaporization, and the term evapora-\\ntion especially refers to the slow production\\nof vapor at the free surface of a liquid and\\nboiling to its rapid production in the mass\\nof the liquid itself.\\nQ. Explain a vapor.\\nA. The term vapor is confined to evap-\\noration without boiling or ebullition the\\nterm steam indicates the gaseous form of\\nwater produced by ebullition, which is com-\\nmonly understood to take place at 212 deg.\\nFahr., or about it.\\nQ. Does the temperature of the boiling\\npoint of water rise when the pressure is in-\\ncreased?\\nA. Yes, though not in the same ratio, but", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "43\\nthe same amount of pressure always corre-\\nsponds to the same temperature of the boil-\\ning point in the same liquid.\\nQ. When does a liquid boil?\\nA. A liquid boils when the tension of\\nits vapor is equal to the pressure it sup-\\nports.\\nQ. If it takes a certain amount of heat\\nto raise the temperature of a cubic foot of\\nwater from sixty deg. Fahr. to the boiling\\npoint at 212 deg. Fahr., and to further raise\\nthat w r ater into steam of the same temperature\\nit still requires a further expenditure of coal,\\nwhat becomes of the extra amount of heat\\ndeveloped by the additional amount of coal?\\nA. It is not shown by the thermometer\\nit is absorbed in driving apart the particles\\nof water and keeping them apart in a gase-\\nous state as steam.\\nQ. State the degrees of heat at different\\npounds steam pressure, commencing at boil-\\ning point of water, then at ten pounds per\\nsquare inch, etc.\\n10 lbs.,\\n240 deg.\\n120 lbs.,\\n350\\n20\\n260 tk\\n140\\n360\\n50 l\\n298 k\\n150\\n365\\nSO\\n324\\n160\\n370\\n00\\n338\\n180\\n380\\nQ. What heat would you call steam?", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "44\\nA. Latent heat/ while thus employed.\\nQ. What heat would it require to convert\\none pound of water into steam at atmospheric\\npressure\\nA. Science shows that it will take the same\\namount of heat sufficient to melt three pounds\\nof steel or thirteen pounds of gold.\\nQ. Which is the better water for steam pur-\\nposes and use in boilers\\nA. Rain or atmospheric water which does\\nnot contain minerals, and is therefore best adap-\\nted for steam purposes.\\nQ. Is it pure\\nA. No for in its descent to the earth it\\nwashes out the solid particles of dust and the\\ngerms of animals and plants, and in addition\\nto these it dissolves the oxygen, the nitrogen\\nand carbonic acid, which respectively cause\\ncorrosion and slight organic deposit in the\\nsteam boiler but it is almost entirely free from\\nelemants necessary to cause incrustation.\\nQ. After the rain has fallen to the earth and\\nmixed, is it good then\\nA, Rain falling upon the earth s surface is\\nabsorbed by the porous soil, and the material of\\nwhich the soil is composed being in a great de-\\ngree soluble, it is absorbed, and the water be-\\ncomes contaminated with mineral matter, there-", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "45\\nfore the rain water before mixing with the earth\\nis the better of the two.\\nWATER,\\nQ. Of what is water compose\\nA. Water is composed of volume, one part\\noxygen and two parts hydrogen, or by weight,\\noxygen 88 9-10 parts, hydrogen 10 1-10 parts.\\nWater is one of the most wonderful substances\\nin nature.\\nQ. Is water compressible\\nA. Yes, slightly, at the rate of 1-100 of an\\ninch in 18 10-100 feet by each 15 pounds per\\nsquare inch pressure.\\nQ. Will water restore its elasticity?\\nA. When the pressure is removed its elastic-\\nity restores its original bulk.\\nQ. Has water a solvent power\\nA Yes, water has a greater solvent power\\nthan any other known liquid, and it is due to its\\nabsorbent nature that it is rarely found pure or\\nfree from foreign substances in solution.\\nQ. State the different weights of water in\\ndifferent proportions f\\nA\u00e2\u0080\u009e Water is 8 15- 100 times heavier than air.\\nOne standard U. S. gallon of fresh water weighs\\neight and 1-4 pounds and contains 231 cubic\\ninches. A cubic foot of water weighs 62f", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "46\\npounds, and contains 1728 cubic inches or about\\n7^ gallons. Water boils at 212 degrees above\\nzero and freezes at 32 above zero.\\nQ. Will water part with all substances held\\nin solution and become pure and when\\nA. When evaporated into steam or frozen\\nInto ice.\\nQ. Does water expand when freezing?\\nA. Yes, when water is pure and in small\\nquantities it is transparent, odorless, colorless,\\ntasteless, and is a bad conductor of either heat or\\nelectricity.\\nQ. Give an idea or explanation how water\\nbecomes so valuable, and where does it go\\nA. The ocean is the great and final recepta-\\ncle for all water which escapes evaporation.\\nFrom its surface the water evaporates, rising\\ninto the atmosphere to fall again in the form of\\nrain entering the soil it again issues in the\\nform of springs with a fresh quantity of dis-\\nsolved mineral matters which it bears on to the\\nocean. Thus again and again the rain drops\\nhave performed the voyage to the sea, each time\\nladen with a little cargo of dissolved salts that\\nhad not been intercepted and evaporated. In\\nthis way the ocean has become very saline, as it\\nis the receptacle for the saline matters which\\nare washed out of the earth s crust, until the", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "47\\naverage impurities of the Atlantic reaches 2139\\ngrains per gallon, while the Dead Sea contains\\n19,736 grains of saline matter per gallon.\\nQ. Which is the greatest mechanical power\\nin nature?\\nA. Simple water.\\nQ. Why so?\\nA. By its conversion into steam it drives\\nlocomotives, steam ships and industries of every\\ndescription. It is also the greatest leveler it\\nmoves mountains and fills valleys it floats the\\nships from shore to shore and makes commercial\\nintercourse possible with every inhabitable spot\\non the globe. All our stratified rocks, sand-\\nstones, slates and limestones were formed by the\\naction of water.\\nQ. What else do we owe to water\\nA. We owe to water its solvent properties\\nand its chemical action in metalic deposits, such\\nas our iron, copper, zinc, gold and silver ores,\\nand even coal.\\nQ. What else?\\nA. To its physical properties, its relation to\\nheat, we owe all the phenomena of clouds, dew,\\nrain, fog, snow and frost. It supports the\\nplants, brings them mineral food from the soils\\nand protects them from excessive heat. Animals\\ndepend upon, yet after all it is only the agent", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "4S\\nof the sun. It is the sun power that makes\\nplants grow it is sun power that moves every-\\nthing in the world, and water is merely the\\nsun s agent. The loss of water would produce\\nthe same condition of things on earth that we\\nnow notice in the moon.\\nQ. How much water is there in proportion\\nto the earth\\nA. 1-24000 part of the earth. The crytal-\\nline rocks at the earth s surface now contain a\\nlarger quantity of water than this, and the mo-\\nment our earth cools enough to absorb four\\nthousands of one per cent of moisture the ocean\\nwill disappear.\\nQ. If we lost our ooean what would happen\\nA. We would loose our atmosphere, also the\\nopening or pores in the rocks will receive the\\natmosphere by gravitation and we shall have\\nthe same conditions of things as now exist on\\nthe moon. Water is the great source of all our\\nhealth and well being, and again at other times\\nit brings disease and death. The subject par-\\nticularly in its relation to health as well as for\\nsteam purposes cannot be too carefully studied.\\nQ. Can you tell the pressure in pounds per\\nsquare inch of a column of w r ater\\n*A. Yes, multiply the height in feet by .434\\napproximately every foot of elevation is equal", "height": "3636", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "49\\nto one-half pound pressure per yquare inek\\nQ. For what does this allow?\\nA. This allows for ordinary friction. The\\nmean pressure of the atmosphere is usually esti-\\nmated at 14 7-10 pounds per square inch, so\\nthat with a perfect vacuum of mercury 29 9-10\\ninches, or a column of water 33 9-10 feet high.\\nINJECTORS AND PUMPS.\\nInjectors and pumps are known among the\\nengineers as devices for supplying boilers with\\nwater, or for delivering liquid to any height by\\nthe help of steam.\\nQ. Are there many kinds of pumps and in-\\njectors for feeding boilers?\\nA, Yes, the old style single action plunger\\npump, with two valves, double action with four\\nvalves, and the duplex, with 8 16 32, etc.,\\nvalves according to size (see illustrations.) The\\ninjectors are in two classes, namely, injectors\\nand inspirators for feeding boilers.\\nQ. State the reason for having more tha r\\neight water valves in duplex pumps.\\nA. To prevent loss of water when pump is\\nworking,", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "50\\nWORTHINGTON DUPLEX PUMP.\\nQ. Can you set the steam valve of a duplex\\npump?\\nA. Yes by lifting the valve chest cover, cen-\\ntering or plumb the long and short lever, then\\nadjust both valves equally over the parts and\\nthe pump will be O. K,\\nQ. How is it known when a pump is working\\nwater", "height": "3603", "width": "2327", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "51\\nA. By the stroke of the pump or by the pet\\ncock, steady stream and no air.\\nQ. In connecting an inspirator or injector to\\ndraw water how should the connection be made\\nA. On the boiler the connection should be\\nfrom the highest dry steam point and direct\\nfrom the boiler, and the water end should be as\\nstraight as possiple, one size larger than connec-\\ntion, and be sure suction pipe is air-tight. Do\\nnot try to work hot water, as the inspirator or\\ninjector will break connection.\\nQ. How is an injector or inspirator cleaned\\ninside of incrustation\\nA. By placing the injector or inspirator in a\\nbath composed of one part muriatic acid and\\neight parts soft water leave in bath over night.\\nQ. Explain how water is delivered in a\\nboiler through the injector or inspirator.\\nA. It is explained in this way: The water\\nbeing drawn to the injector or inspirator by a\\nvacuum it condenses the steam, and the steam\\ncondensed forms a light body moving at a high\\nvelocity and imparting its momemtum to the\\nheavier body and forcing it along the feed-pipe\\ninto the boiler. Never use more steam than\\nthere is water to condense it.\\nQ. How does one know when an injector or\\ninspirator is at work or not", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "52\\nA. By the singing sound it has upoK \u00c2\u00ab:he\\near.\\nQ. Will an injector or inspirator work hot\\nwater\\nSTEAM\\nINJECTOR, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL.\\nA. It will not.\\nQ. What is it that keeps the water mov-\\ning into the boiler?\\nA. The continual flow of steam and its\\ncondensation.\\nQ. State the velocity of 120 lbs. pressure\\nthrough an inch pipe?\\nA. Three thousand feet per second", "height": "3603", "width": "2327", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "53\\nQ. Suppose the injector will not work\\nwhen it has always been reliable before:\\nwhere would you look for the trouble?\\nA. Look for it at steam and water supply.\\nQ. If not there where would you look\\nfor it?\\nA. See if enough water is in tank to\\nsupply injector, see if tank valve is open,\\nsee that the water is not too warm, not over\\n150 deg. Fahr., notice if hot water returns\\nafter injector is shut off, if not, then next\\nnotice if the supply water condenses all the\\nsteam, next uncouple tank hose and look\\nfor dirt and rubbish in the strainer.\\nQ. What is the use of the steam nozzle?\\nA. Its use is for the actuating steam jets\\nto pass.\\nQ. What is a combining tube?\\nA. A combining tube is where the steam\\nand water mixing takes place.\\nQ. Explain the delivery tube?\\nA. It is where the maximum velocity of\\nthe mixture of steam and water is attained;\\nalso where the jet overcomes the counter\\npressure from the boiler.\\nQ. Into how many classes may injectors\\nbe divided?\\nA. Into two general classes, namely:", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "54\\nLifting injectors, and non-iifting. These\\ntwo classes may again be divided into single\\ntube, double tube, self-adjusting, re-starting,\\nopen or closed overflow injectors.\\nQ. How would you operate the Moni-\\ntor\\nA. See that water valve is full open, then\\nopen steam jet valve; steam will blow\\nthrough the overflow and lift the water.\\nWhen water appears at the overflow, then\\nopen large steam valve more or less, accord-\\ning to pressure, and until the overflow runs\\ndry, then close the jet valve.\\nQ. How is the injector stopped?\\nA. Close main steam valve.\\nQ. Is water regulated sometimes at water\\nvalve?\\nA. Yes, when pressure is below 140\\npounds; from 140 to 200 pounds the injector\\nwill not need any regulation at water valves.\\nQ. Can the feed-water in tank be heated?\\nA. Yes, by closing overflow valve and\\nopening steam valve, this prevents steam\\nfrom escaping through the overflow and\\nforces back into the tank through the suction.\\nQ. How is the lever-handled Monitor\\ninjector operated?\\nA. Pull out the lever a short distance to", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "55\\nlift the water when water runs from the\\noverflow, steadily draw back the lever until\\nthe overflow stops.\\nQ. Is it a good idea to give more steam\\nafter the overflow has stopped?\\nA. No. It would cause the injector to\\nbreak.\\nQ. Will an injector take water from the\\ntank, supposing there was no ventl\\nA. No, it would break.\\nQ. What generally causes an injector to\\nbreak\\nA. The main causes are, namely: not\\nenough water supply, straws, sticks, mud,\\ncinders, passing through bad strainers, also\\ncorrosion or scale in the casing of the injec-\\ntor, leaky joints and overheated water.\\nThe ordinary speed to run steam pumps is\\nat the rate of ioo feet of piston travel per\\nminute. The nearer pumps are placed to\\nthe water, the more easy will be the suction.\\nWhen a vacuum is formed in a suction pipe\\nthe pressure of the external air forces the\\nwater up the pipe, provided the lift is not\\ntoo great. Theoretically water can be lifted\\nby vacuum thirty-three feet, but in prac-\\ntice not more than twenty-three feet. 28^\\nfeet can be realized Water at a high", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "56\\nut?uu r ^rature cannot be raised any considerable\\nheight by suction, because vapor forms and pre\\n\\\\rents the formation of a vacuum. When pumps\\nare used for hot water they must be placed very\\nclose to the fluid or be supplied from a head.\\nPumps cannot lift water heated to a temperature\\nwhen steam forms in any quantity, and for this\\nreason feed-water is never injected into a boiler\\nat over 212 degrees and generally between 150\\nand 200. Double action pumps keep up a steady\\nstream and thus economize labor, as every stroke\\nis effective. In single action, common plunger\\npumps, every other stroke works, which makes\\nthe double action by far the most economical.\\nTo find the diameter of a pump cylinder to\\nmove a given quantity of water per minute (100\\nfeet of piston speed being the standard speed)\\ndivide the number of gallons by 4, extract the\\nsquare root and the product will be the diametor\\nof pump cylinder. To find the quantity of\\nwater elevated in one minute running, at 100\\nfeet of piston speed, square the diametor of the\\nwater cylinder in inches and multiply by four.\\nExample capacity of five inch cylinder is de-\\nsired. The square of five inches is 25x4=100\\ngallons per minute. From this should be de-\\nducted about 25 per cent, for actual service.\\nThe area of a 3team piston multiplied by the\\nsteam pressure in pounds will equal the total\\npressure exerted. The area of water piston\\nmultiplied by pressure of water per square\\ninches will equal the resistance.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "57\\nCOMBUSTION.\\nQ. \\\\\u00c2\u00bbaiat is combustion?\\nA. Combustion is an energetic chemical com-\\nbination of oxygen with some other substance\\naccompanied with light and heat. Tho sub-\\nstance with which it combines is called fuel.\\nQ. Name the products of perfect combustion\\nA. The products are water, .steam and car-\\nbonic acid, and to assure it a sufficient high\\ntemperature and a sufficient supply of oxygen\\nare necessary.\\nQ. Give the different air spaces between\\ngrate bars for different coals.\\nLehigh Anthracite Pea Coal One-quarter men space.\\nSchuylkill Three-eighth inch space.\\nLehigh Anthracite Chestnut Coal Three-eighth inch space.\\nStore Coal One-half inch space.\\nBroken Coal Five-eighth inch space.\\nCumberland bituminous Three-quarter inch space.\\nWood Three-quarter to one inch space.,\\nSaw dust Three-sixteenth to one- quarter inch space*\\nTEMPERATURES OF FIRES WITH COLOR.\\nAppearance Tern. Fah. Appearance Tern. Pah.,\\nRed, just visible 977 Deg. Orange, deep 2010 Deg,\\nRed, duU 1290 Orange, clear 2190\\nRed, Cherry dull 1470 White heat 2370\\nRed, Ohenj full 1650 White bright 2550 f\\nRed, ^earl830 White Dazzling 2730", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "58\\nThe foregoing table will enable the temperatures\\nto be determined by the appearane of the fires.\\nThe first step towards affecting the combina-\\ntion of any gas is to ascertain the quantity of\\nair required to supply that amount of oxygen.\\nQ. State the amount of air required to con-\\nsume one pound of coal.\\nA. It will require about 247| cubic feet, or\\n18 pounds.\\nQ. State the amount of air there is in one\\npound?\\nA. There is 13 J cubic feet.\\nQ. What is the comparative weight of nitro-\\ngen to oxygen\\nQ. It is five to one. Having ascertained the\\nquantity of oxygen required for the saturation\\nand combustion of the two constituents of car-\\nburetted hydrogen, the remaining point to be\\ndecided is the quantity of air that will be\\nrequired to supply this quantity of oxygen.\\nQ, How is this determined?\\nA. This is easily determined, as we know\\nprecisely the proportion which oxygen bears in\\nvolume to that of air, for as oxygen is 1-5 the\\nbulk of the air, five volumes of the air will be\\nnecessarily required to produce one of oxygen,\\nand as we want two volumes of oxygen for each\\nvolume of the gas, it follows, to obtain these", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "59\\ntwo volumes, we must provide ten volumes of\\nair.\\nQ. What does smoke indicate?\\nA. Smoke is a sure evidence of improper\\ncombustion, but it does not follow that where\\nthere is no smoke combustion is perfect. The\\nperfect combustion of coal in a furnace can only\\nbe affected by a sufficient supply of oxygen con-\\ntained in the air in a proper manner.\\nQ. What is necessary to kindle or burn any\\nsubstance\\nA. The substance must be heated to a cer-\\ntain degree, and kept up to that temperature in\\norder to burn.\\nQ. When gas is being expelled from the coal\\nin a furnace where is the greatest heat\\nA. The greatest heat is in the gas, as no\\nparticle of solid coal (or rather coke) can burn\\nwhile gas is being expelled a lump of coal may,\\nhowever, be giving out gas in one place while it\\nhas been expelled from another, and remaining\\ncoke already ignited.\\nQ. Does coke produce smoke while burning?\\nA. No; the duration of smoke, therefore,\\nmeans the time during which the gas is distill-\\ning from the coal. In combustion the heat\\nmust be referred to the chemical union of the\\nsubstances, and the luminosity to the high tem-\\nperature.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "no\\nQ. What is it ti?t ignites the phosphorous\\non a match\\nA. Simply friction ignites it at 150 degs.,\\nand, in burning, it gives out heat enough to\\nignite the sulphur of the match at 500 degs.,\\nwhich in turn ignites the wood of the match\\nat 800 degs., and by means of the last flame\\nwe ignite the kindlings, and in turn ignite the\\nlarger pieces of wood and the heat given out\\nraises the temperature of the coal sufficiently\\nfor it to ignite at 1,000 degs.; and thus we see\\nthat the ignition of the coal is the last of a\\nseries of progressive steps, each increasing\\nin temperature.\\nQ. Will flame enter a tube of boiler of or-\\ndinary size, if so, how far\\nA. A flame never enters a tube more than a\\nfew inches from its mouth, no matter how near\\nthe tubes are placed to the surface of the fire,\\nthe flame is extinguished on entering them.\\nQ. What is it that burns at the other end of\\nthe tube, if flame does not pass through?\\nA. It is an unignited compound, known as\\ncarbonic oxide, which passes through and having\\na low igniting temperature takes fire after reach-\\ning the air at the top of the chimney or end of\\nthe flue, making a blue flame attending the con-\\nversion of carbonic oxide into carbonic acid.\\nQ. Was this the flame that was extinguished\\non entering the tube or flue?", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "61\\nA. No, all the combustible matter contained\\nin the flame at the moment of extinction is lost,\\nas no benefit is gained by its burning at the\\ncreator of the chimney it can only impart that\\nfull heat by its complete combustion.\\nQ. How many units of heat will one pound\\nof coal yield\\nA. One pound of coal will yield 13,000 units\\nten per cent, of which is wasted in radiation\\nforty per cent, escapes up the chimney and fifty\\nper cent, utilized. The combustion of coal is to\\na great extent a mystery.\\nQ. How is the philosophy of combustion\\nknown\\nA. The philosophy is known through chem-\\nistry.\\nQ. What is coal?\\nA. Coal is a compound substance, and may\\nbe decomposed by heat in several distinct ele-\\nments. In combustion we deal principally with\\nbut two, viz: Carbon in the form of coke, and\\nhydrogen, known as gas. These two elements\\npractically contain the full heating properties of\\nthe coal.\\nQ. Does coal commence to burn immediately\\nwhen thrown upon the fire?\\nA. No, before any burning can commence the", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "62\\ncoal must sufrer the preparatory process of de-\\ncomposition.\\nQ. What does the process of decomposition\\ndo with the coal\\nA. It distills the gas, which ignites first and\\nby its chemical union with the invisible oxygen\\nof the air, forming water (or steam) after the gas\\nis burned, the coke takes its turn and burns in\\nexactly the same manner by combination with air\\nforming carbonic acid.\\nQ. What is about the total production of coal\\nin the world at this date\\nA. About 400,000,000 tons annually, one-half\\nof which is estimated used for making steam.\\nThe average value for boiler purposes is about\\n$2.25 per ton, which gives an annual expendi-\\nture for steam of about four and one- half million\\ndollars, from which it will be seen how largely\\neven a small per cent of savinp T vould add to\\nybe wealth of the world.\\nTHE STEAM ENGINE.\\nThe steam engine is a machine by means of\\nwhich heat is converted into mechanical effect.\\nThe greatest economy reached in a single cylinder\\nsteam engine is 2J pounds of coal per horse-\\npower, per hour, (this has been reduced gradually\\nfrom 10 pounds); the average engine uses 3 J", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "63\\npounds of coal and wastes 93 per cent, of the\\nenergy delivered to it. The greater part of this\\nloss is in the latent heat of the steam, which is\\nexhausted into the atmosphere or condenser, and\\nis unavoidable so far as now known. The fact\\nstill remains that many an ordinary engine uses\\nfour times as much steam for the same power as\\nis required in the best engines the mechanical\\neffect of steam in a cylinder is the product of\\nmean pressure in lbs. and the distance through\\nwhich it has passed. When steam travels a\\nfull stroke it exerts its greatest power; when\\ncut off the average pressure must be taken. A\\nlarge boiler is generally an advantage but it is\\nnot economy to use a large engine to develop\\nsmall power In the general care of an engine\\nparticular attention should be given to keeping\\nthe valves and piston in good condition and free\\nfrom leakage, and a point of equal importance\\nis the proper setting of the valves to admit and\\nexhaust the steam without excessive cushion,\\nwire drawing, etc. The use of the steam indica-\\ntor is becoming very general, and in steam plants\\nwhere they are applied at short intervals, any\\ndefects in the working of the engine are detected\\nand promptly remedied, while, without the indi-\\ncator, great waste of steam might continue for\\nmonths without the knowledge of the engineer.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "64\\nV,v/.:--,/,VI\u00e2\u0080\u009e:..", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "65\\nMuch has appeared in print on the subject\\nof the indicator, but as such articles are gen-\\nerally technical in their nature and unaccom-\\npanied by illustrative diagrams, we publish\\nsuch for convenient reference of our readers\\nelsewhere in this work.\\nQ. Give the proper sizes of steam and\\nexhaust pipes for engines and pumps?\\nA. The steam pipe from boiler to engine\\nshould be one-quarter the diameter of the\\ncylinder and the exhaust one-third the diam-\\neter.\\nQ. If your crank pin or boxes become\\nhot, name a good cooling liquid?\\nA. By dropping a few drops of ammonia\\nin with the oil will cool the journal with\\ngreat surprise.\\nQ. At how many points does the rod\\npush and pull on the crank pin?\\nA. Only one.\\nQ. Explain why so?\\nA. Because the pin turns with the disc\\n(or crank).\\nQ. How much farther does the crank pin\\ntravel than the piston each revolution?\\nA. It travels one-third farther.\\nQ. How long does the piston stand still\\nwhile the crank pin is making a revolution?\\nA. The piston stands still one-sixteenth\\nof a revolution or one-twelfth of a stroke.\\nQ. When the crank pin is at half stroke,\\nis the piston head in the center of the cylin-\\nder from either dead point?\\nA. No, when crank pin leaves a dead point\\nand travels toward a half stroke, the piston", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "66\\ntrnvels further than when the crank pin is trave\\nlingr from a half stroke to a dead point.\\nQ. Give an explanation\\nA. It depends upon the length of the con-\\nnecting rod, whether the piston is past the dead\\ncentre or not.\\nQ. How do you understand the term clear-\\nance in an engine cylinder\\nA. The term clearance means the unoccupied\\nspace between the valve face, cylinder head and\\npiston head each end of the stroke.\\nQ. Has any engine the same power each end\\nof the cylinder.\\nA. No, the end where the piston rod is con-\\nnected, has the least power.\\nQ. Explain some of the various causes of\\npounding about an engine\\nA, An engine being out of square, lost mo-\\ntion in crank, cross head pin, or main journal\\nboxes, crank pins not being square with the\\ncrank, caused by faulty workmanship, leaky\\npiston rings, also valve unbalanced, crank discs\\nand many others too numerous to mention\\nQ. How 7 can one tell if a crank pin or wrist\\npin is out of square\\nA. A good spirit level will detect the slightest\\ndeviation in this and may be applied as follows:\\ndisconnect rod from cross-head; and tighten to", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "67\\ncrank pin so it can turn without side vibration\\nplace the rod in a position to move freely as crank\\nis turned, attach a spirit level to the rod with a\\nclamp at right angles or in line with the shaft.\\nIt cuts no figure if main shaft is not properly\\nlevel. The bulb in the level should not change\\nwhen the crank is turned. If the wrist pin is not\\nset squarely, the level will be tipped from side to\\nside, as the crank turns, and the place the bulb\\nis at different points in the revolution will show\\nthe direction the wrist takes from that of the\\ncorrect position. The same answer for cross head.\\nQ. Give a good way of lining a shaft without\\nremoving same\\nA. The better way is to Uae specially pre-\\npared tools, if none are handy, draw a line along\\nthe shaft about twelve inches to one side and\\nparallel to its centre, then take an ordinary level\\nand level shaft to line. Poorly fitted couplings\\nand shaft often give great annoyance, it will re-\\nquire more power to run and no matter how much\\nlining is done the same trouble is there.\\nQ. Give a good point for lining an engine?\\nA. Draw a seagrass line centrally through the\\ncylinder and fasten to crank end of bed plate,\\nthen try crank pin at both dead points on line*\\nand bring equal, then plu ab at upper and lower\\nhalf strokes.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "68\\nQ. Explain the term cushion in a cylin-\\nder?\\nA. The cushion is the resistance between\\nthe cylinder and piston head by steam\\nthrough the lead the valve has at the piston\\nis reaching the dead centre or end of stroke.\\nQ. Give rule to measure connecting rods\\nA. Find striking point in the cylinder,\\nthen mark on guides each end, then find\\nfull stroke of crank, the difference between\\nstriking points and the stroke is the clear-\\nance, divide the clearance by 2 and that is\\nthe clearance for each end of cylinder, then\\ntake measure for rods from outside centre of\\ncross head pin and centre of crank pin.\\nQ. How are these measurements taken?\\nA. With a tram.\\nTHE LUBRICATOR.\\nQ. How is the oil delivered from the oil\\nreservoir to steam chest?\\nA. Through the reach oil pipe connect-\\ning lubricator with chest.\\nQ. Of what use are the small valves over\\nsight feed glasses?\\nA. They are to close in case of a broken\\nglass.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "69\\nQ. Are there any other valves between\\nthe lubricator and steam chest?\\nA. No.\\nQ. Why not?\\nA. Because there is no need of any, as\\nthe sight feed valve answers all the purpose.\\nQ. What do you look to when about to\\nfill the lubricator?\\nA. See that the two sight feeds are\\nclosed and the steam valve between boiler\\nand lubricator, then open lower drip first,\\nthen the filling plug to leave out water.\\nQ. After filling, what is done?\\nA. Open steam valve first.\\nQ. Why?\\nA. So as to get the boiler pressure in the\\ncondensed chamber and in oil tanks.\\nQ. Suppose you filled the tank with oil\\nwhen cold, would you open steam valve or\\nnot?\\nA. Open valve.\\nO. Why?\\nA. To have everything in working order\\nand when the condensed valve is opened the\\nlubricator will be ready to feed when feed\\nvalves are opened.\\nO. How often should the lubricator be\\ncleaned out?", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "70\\nA. It should be blown out every trip.\\nQ. Why\\nA. So to be sure that everything is in\\nworking order.\\nQ. Suppose one of the sight feed glasses\\nbecome broken or inoperative, can the sight\\nfeed on the other side be used\\nA. Yes.\\nQ. Are there more than one or two sight\\nfeeds on one lubricator, if so, for what pur-\\npose are they\\nA. There are lubricators with three sight\\nfeeds for locomotives, two are for the cylin-\\nders, and the third is for the steam cylinder\\nof the air pump.\\nQ. Explain the workings of the lubrica-\\ntor, also state the weight of water and oil\\nA. The lubricator is operated by the con-\\ndensed water from the condense chamber\\nabove the lubricator. The weight of water\\nis 8 pounds and the weight of oil is 7^\\npounds, therefore the oil being the lighter\\nit floats to the top.\\nQ. If oil floats to the top and water goes\\nto the bottom, why is it that no water passes\\nup through the sight feeds and the oil back\\nup through the condensed chamber into the\\nboiler", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "71\\nA. The construction of the lubricator\\nprevents it.\\n0. Explain the construction of the inside\\nof lubricator, oil tank, etc.?\\nA. The condense chamber is connected\\nto a steam tight drip pipe from neck of con-\\ndensing chamber reaching within inch of\\nthe bottom of the oil reservoir, and this pipe\\nprevents the oil from working up into the\\nboiler. The sight feeds are connected the\\nopposite way, the oil pipe reaches from the\\ntop of oil reservoir to the bottom of sight\\nfeed below regulating valve.\\nIjJv l^ i I, 1 V Ii 1 fi .i,; ii,;.i .i.M? i.i. iiifi.l3feii !ii!ii Juii,(A hiB\\nSTEEL SQUARE.\\nThe steel square is the most valuable tool\\nany mechanic can have. The standard\\nsquare ioo has a tongue from fourteen to\\neighteen inches long and \\\\y 2 inches wide,", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "also a blade two inches wide and twenty-four\\ninches long. The two are at right angles\\nwith each other. The square has inches,\\nhalf-inches, quarter-inches, eighths, six-\\nteenths and thirty-seconds. Another portion\\nof the square is divided in a scale of twelfths\\nmeaning twelve feet to the inch, used for\\nmeasuring drawings, blue prints, etc.\\nQ. What is a centesimal scale?\\nA. A centesimal scale is a scale for\\ndividing a unit into one hundred equal parts.\\nQ. What is a diagonal scale and where is\\nit?\\nA. The diagonal scale is on the tongue\\nnear blade, and is called diagonal on account\\nof its diagonal lines.\\nQ. Where is the plank, board and scant-\\nling measure found on the scale?\\nA. It will be found on one side of the\\nblade, running parallel with the length, and\\nby the nine lines divided at interval of one\\ninch into sections or spaces by cross lines.\\nQ. Give an example; say a board 12 feet\\nlong and 6 ftiches wide?\\nA. Look on the outer edge of the blade,\\nwe will find 12; between the 5th and 6th\\nlines under 12, will be found 12 again; this\\nis the length of the board. Now follow the", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "space along toward the tongue till we come\\nto cross line under 6 (on the edge of\\nblade), this being the width of the b oard; in\\nthe space will be found the figure 6 again,\\nwhich is the answer in board measure, viz.,\\n6 feet.\\nQ. Is there another style of board measure\\non the square?\\nA. Yes, on one side of the blade 9 lines, and\\ncross lines diagonally to the right will be found\\nand rows of figures as 7 ones, 7 twos, 7 threes?\\netc., this style gives the number of feet in a\\nboard according to its length and width.\\nQ. How does one know where to find the\\nbrace rule on the square?\\nA. The brace rule is two parallel iines in the\\ncentre of the tongue, one-half inch apart with\\nfigures between them. Near extreme end of\\ntongue will be found 24-24 and to the right of\\nthese 33-95.\\nQ. What is meant by 24-24 and 33-95\\nA. The 24-24 means the right angle triangle\\nwhile the 33-95 indicates the length of the brace,\\nThis rule explains the use of any of the brace\\nrule figures.\\nQ. Where is the octagon scale to be found?\\nA. On the opposite side of the tongue from\\nthe brace rule, between two central parallel lines*\\nQ. How is the space divided f", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "74\\nA. It is divided into intervals and numbered\\n10,20,30,40,50,60.\\nQ Suppose it becomes necessary to describe\\nan octagon 10 inches square: what would you do?\\nA. Draw a square 10 inches each way and\\nbisect the square with a horizontal and perpen-\\ndicular centre line.\\nQ. How is the length of the octagon line\\nfound?\\nA. Place one point of the compasses in cen-\\ntre of square, ond the other at corner of square?\\nthen scribe an arc from the corner of square to\\nperpendicular line, then bisect a line at meeting\\npoint of arc and perpendicular line to corner of\\nsquare, find centre of this line, the distance from\\nperpendicular line to where centre line inter-\\nsects square line, is one-half the length of each\\ndiagonal.\\nQ. How is the circumference of a barrel head\\nor cylinder head divided into seven parts?\\nA, To divide a circle into 7 equal parts, scribe\\na quarter circle, then place dividers on circum\\nference line, then scribe an arc from centre, and\\nintersect circumference. Now draw a chord line\\nor parallel line from the two points on circle,\\nand the distance from centre of chord, or straight\\nline to centre of circle is exactly one-seventh of\\nfull circumference.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "75\\nVALVE MOTION.\\nQ. Of what does the valve motion of a com-\\nmon slide valve consist?\\nA. The motion consists of an eccentric rock-\\ner-arm valve, valve rod, eccentric rod straps, etc.\\nQ. Explain the setting of a common single\\neccentric valve motion\\nA. Move the eccentric in direction engine i?\\nto be run, until valve has proper lead, say\\ninch, then tighten temporarily with set screws\\nmove crank-pin over to other dead centre and see\\nhow lead is there, if equal valve is set. If not\\ndivide the difference by moving the valve with,\\nwith nuts J it is out on the valve gear. Then\\ngo through the same performance as in first\\nsetting and valve will come right.\\nQ. Give the proper exhaust for v^ve?\\nA. Double the steam lead.\\nLOCOMOTIVE, LINK MOTION, VALVE SETTING.\\nValve setting with two eccentrics.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Many\\nquestions have been asked in reference to set-\\nting link motion valve, so we have here clearly\\nexplained it with language easy to comprehend\\nin questions and answers.\\nQ. How would you go about setting a link\\nmotion valve", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "76\\nA. Adjust everything about the valve mo-\\ntion necessary, tram the driver for dead center\\nof pin, and also tram the valve stem for open-\\ning point when valve chest cover is on.\\nQ. Suppose the engine to be set was a 1 8x24\\ninch and the upper and lower rocker- arm\\nstraight and of equal length, the eccentric blades\\nare connected to the link, so the block in full\\ngear is opposite, what will this equal\\nA. This will make the extreme travel of\\nthe valve equal to the eccentric throw.\\nQ. To what should particular notice be\\ngiven in commencing to set a valve with link\\nmotion and reverse lever\\nA. That the eccentric blades are in straight\\nline, and the go-ahead eccentric blade is con-\\nnected to top of link and the back-up to bot-\\ntom of link, also that link is about plumb and\\nvalve centrally over the ports. Place the re-\\nserve lever in forward last notch and crank-pin\\non forward dead center (toward cylinder);\\nsuppose lead is to be xV inch, move forward\\neccentric ahead until the tram inserts the\\nforward punch mark on valve stem and the\\nstationary mark on stuffing box, then tighten\\nthe eccentric temporarily, move the reverse\\nlever to back motion (full); move driver\\nenough to take up lost motion and bring\\nback to dead center, forward again, and move", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "the back-up eccentric until the tram touches\\nboth punch-marks, and stationary and stem\\nmark.\\nQ. Does the valve occupy the same position\\nfor forward and back gear when the pin is at\\neither dead centre\\nA. Yes move the pin to back dead-centre,\\nfirst placing the reverse lever in forward last\\nnotch, and tram the stem the same as where the\\npin was at forward dead centre. If the lead is\\nthe same for both full forward and full back\\nnotch the setting is O. K., if only one cylinder;\\nif double cylinders the opposite side must be\\ngone through the same way. Go over the points\\na second time to be sure that everything is O. K.\\nQ. What is meant by a blind in valve set-\\nting?\\nA. The lap of the valve.\\nQ. Suppose when the engine is turned on\\nopposite centre and a blind is found, what does\\nit indicate?\\nA. It indicates that the eccentric blade is\\ntoo long.\\nQ. Then what is to be done?\\nA. Shorten the blade until the tram inserts\\nthe opening point, then move the pin over to\\nother dead point and the valve here will be\\nfound to have lost its lead, but the valve move-", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "ment at each dead point has been altered there-\\nby, so that the opening at each steam port is just\\nbeginning. Advance the eccentric to get y 1 lead,\\nthen tighten, and it will be noticed that the\\nother end will be affected the same way, subject\\nthe opposite motion to same treatment and all\\nwill come right.\\nHORSE POWER.\\nQ. Explain the mechanical interpretation of\\nthe unit of measure (horse power.)\\nA. It is generally known to be a unit of-\\nmeasure as applied to the steam engine, elec\\ntricity or any other power that can be converted\\ninto useful effect. The term horse power\\ncame into effect with the building of the first\\nengine, and it has been traced back to a man by\\nthe name of Watt.\\nQ. Why is it called horse power\\nA. Because it was taken from the actual\\npower of the horse, and then applied to the\\nsteam engine.\\nQ. How was it taken from the power of a\\nhorse\\nA. The general traveling gait of a horse\\nhitched to a light sulky is about five miles an\\nhour or four hundred and forty feet per minute.\\nIf w T e were to attach to the single-tree a scale\\nwe would know the amount of actual power the\\nhorse was exerting. Suppose it to be seventy-", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "five pounds the product of the speed, 440 mul-\\ntiply 75X440 33,000 pounds, which would\\nrepresent one-horse power.\\nQ. What would you do to apply this to the\\nsteam engine?\\nA. To apply this to the steam engine, first\\ndetermine the area of the piston head face, next\\nthe number of feet traveled by the piston, then\\nthe average pressure used in the cylinder, and\\ndivided by 33,000 pounds, and the answer will\\nbe the horse power of engine.\\nQ. Would the steam gauge pressure be\\nright?\\nA. No, the steam guage pressure would not\\nbe correct, but by using an instrument known\\nas the indicator, after being attached to a cylin-\\nder, would give it exactly.\\nQ. Give an example.\\nA. Engine 30 inch stroke, making 100 revo-\\nlutions per minute, the piston travels 60 inches\\neach revolution or five feet 500 feet piston\\ntravel per minute, diameter of piston 17 inches\\n227 area, average pressure 40 pounds. The\\nexample then will be 40 X 227 X 500^-33,000\\n137^ horse power, (about).\\nQ. Give the rule for finding the horse power\\nof a belt s transmission?\\nA. To find horse power that can be trans-", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "80\\nmitted by a belt, multiply the width of the belt\\nin feet by the number of hundred feet the belt\\nhas traveled in one minute. Example, belt two\\nfeet wide running 2000 feet per minute, 2 X 20\\n40 horse power.\\nQ. How is the width found if a certain num-\\nber of horse power is needed?\\nA. Divide horse power by speed in hundreds\\nof feet per minute, answer equals width of belt\\nin feet.\\nThe proper and free working of a governor is\\nan important matter for an engineer to consider.\\nAll the working surface of the governor should\\nbe in proper running condition, and such a\\nquantity of oil used as will not gum up after it\\nhas been applied for a time. The oil pot, or\\ndash pot, should have a constant supply of oil\\nto retard its motion, and the oil should be heavy\\nenough to prevent violent fluctuations. In\\nspeeding up an engine the speed of the regula-\\ntor should also be changed so that the governor\\nmay work at a higher speed, and the governor\\nweighted to bring the balls in about the same\\nplane of station as of old. It is very frequently\\nthe fact engines are speeded up without any\\nchange in the speed of the governor.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "81\\nSTEAM ENGINE INDICATOR\\nAfter the motion of levers are correctly\\nSet up, apply the indicator and obtain a dia-\\ngram. It now remains to consider what this\\ndiagram is and what can be determined\\nfrom it.\\nWhen the mathematician or statiscian de-\\n6", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "82\\nTotoperature\\nc\\ne\\ni\\ni\\ns\\ns\\np\\n\u00e2\u0082\u00ac3\\nk\\nhi\\nCn\\nB,\\nfc3\\n^M\\nfc\\n*OI\\ns\\nft\\n*9_\\nIs*", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "83\\nh\\nk.\\nr\\nc\\nz\\n5\\nJ\\nrr\\ni\\ns\\n3\\nm\\nS*\\nf*\\nw\\nj\\nQ\\ny\\ny\\nJ\\nt\\n1\\nt\\nm,\\nf", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "84\\nsires to record the result of a series of ob-\\nservations or experiments in such a manner\\nthat they may be at once be apparent and\\neasily comprehended, he has recourse to\\nwhat is known as the graphic method. Sup-\\npose, for instance, it was desired to repre-\\nsent in this way the result of a series of\\nobservations of the temperature of feed\\nwater during the test; take a piece of paper\\nruled in squares as represented in figure i,\\npage 59, which is known as ordinate paper,\\nwe set off the time upon one of the horizontal\\nlines, as shown at the bottom of the figure,\\nand allowing two spaces for each fifteen\\nminutes to represent one degree of temper-\\nature, making the lines so figured to corres-\\npond to 175, 180 and 185 degrees. Now at\\nten o clock the observations showed 176\\ndegrees, so upon the line representing that\\ntime and at a height representing 176 we\\nmake a dot fifteen minutes later the temper-\\nature had gone up to 178 degrees and upon\\nthe line represented 10:15 an( i at a height\\nrepresenting 178 another dot is made. Con-\\ntinuing in this way to represent the result of\\neach observation and connecting the dots by\\nlines we obtain a diagram showing at a\\nglance how nearly regular the pressure was", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "85\\nmaintained through the test, to what extent\\nit varied, and at what time the variations\\noccurred.\\nLet us apply this method to the variation\\nof pressure in the cylinder of a steam en-\\ngine. Suppose we have an engine with a\\nstroke of 48 inches, cutting off at stroke,\\nwith steam at 60 pounds and a variation of\\n12 pounds. In figure 2, page 60, let the line\\no represent the pressure of the atmosphere;\\ni.e., the zero pressure of a steam gauge, and\\nset off upon it 48 spaces to correspond with\\nthe 48 inch stroke of the engine. Now, at\\nthe beginning of the stroke at A, steam is\\nadmitted, and calling each vertical division\\n3 pounds we set off 60 pounds upon the line\\nA, B; this pressure is supposed to be main-\\ntained for a quarter stroke, and thus for 12\\nof the horizontal divisions the pressure\\nwould be represented by the horizontal line\\nB. C. At the point C the supply of steam\\nto the cylinder is cut off and the pressure\\nbehind the receding piston falls by expan-\\nsion. The pressure for any position of the\\npiston can be easily calculated by a method\\nwhich will be explained at the proper time.\\nPlacing upon the vertical lines representing\\neach inch of the stroke a dot representing a", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "86\\ncorresponding pressure and connecting these\\ndots we have a curved line representing the\\nvariations of pressure during expansion, at\\nthe point D, two inches from the end of the\\nstroke, the exhaust valves supposed to have\\nopened for release, allowing the pressure to\\ngradually fall along the line D, E, F, to that\\nof the condenser, 12 pounds below the\\natmospheric line. This is the pressure which\\nshould be before the piston on its return\\nmovement up to the point G, four inches\\nfrom the end of stroke where the exhaust\\nvalve is supposed to have closed for com-\\npression, and the pressure of the enclosed\\nsteam is raised along the curve G, A.\\nNow, the steam engine indicator applied\\nto this engine would produce a diagram\\nmore or less approaching this theoret-\\nical form, the pressure being measured by\\nthe vertical movement oi the indicator pis-\\nton and the piston movement of the engine\\nby the movement of the paper drum which\\nis directly derived from it, as heretofore\\ndescribed. It furnishes us with a graphic\\nrepresentation of the distribution of pressure\\nin that end of the engine cylinder to which it\\nis attached for a complete revolution. By\\nits means we are able to see at once whether", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "87\\nthe various operations occur on time with\\nreference to the piston movement, how\\nnearly the boiler pressure is realized in the\\ncylinder; at what point it is cut off and how\\nmuch benefit the engine derives from the\\nvacuum in the condenser. We are also\\nfurnished with the necessary data for calcu-\\nlating the average pressure of the piston\\nduring the stroke, and from this determine\\nhow much work it is doing, and as the dis-\\ntribution of this pressure is apparent w r e are\\nable to calculate its rotative effect upon the\\ncrank-pin at any point in the stroke in con-\\nnection w r ith the momentum and inertia of\\nthe reciprocating parts.\\nIn fact a properly taken diagram with all\\ndata concerned is full of interest and instruc-\\ntion, and its study can be carried to great\\nrefinement. The most simple rule for figur-\\ning the diagram is to set down the length of\\nthe spaces formed by the vertical lines from\\nthe base in measurements of a scale accom-\\npanying the indicator, and on which a tenth\\nof an inch usually represents a pound press-\\nure; add up the total length of all the spaces,\\nwhich w r ill give the main length, or the main\\npressure upon the piston in pounds per\\nsquare inch. Example, lay the indicator", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "88\\ncard off in ten parts, and knowing the scale\\nto be sixty, and the ordinates (or parts) ten,\\nand the sum of their length, six inches=6-\\n10 .6X60=36.0 36 pounds pressure against\\npiston.\\nQ. How do we understand the horse\\npower of an engine.\\nA. The horse power of an engine is equal\\nto lifting 33,000 pounds one foot high in one\\nminute.\\nQ. How is the horse power calculated?\\nGive various simple rules.\\nA. Rule one, multiply the area of piston\\nhead face in square inches by the steam\\npressure in pounds, and the answer by the\\ntravel of piston in feet per minute, and divide\\nby 33,000. This will give the nominal horse\\npower. For actual horse power deduct }i in\\nautomatic and y 2 in slide valve engines. Ex-\\nample: engine 12X24, speed 100 revolu-\\ntions per minute, boiler pressure, 80 pounds\\npiston area, 113 square inchesX8o=9,o4oX\\n400, feet traveled=3,6i6,ooo 33,000=109\\nnominal horse power, or 73 actual horse\\npower, in automatic cut off engines, or 54^\\nhorse power in slide valve engines. This\\nreduction is made for friction, average pres-", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "8 9\\nsure, condensation, etc., and is found to be\\nquite correct in practice.\\nTo find horse power to elevate water a\\ngiven height.\\nTotal weight of water in pounds multiplied\\nby height in feet, divided by 33,000, equals\\nhorse power.\\nLOCOMOTIVE BREAK DOWNS.\\nQ. How and when do you block the\\ncrosshead when disconnecting?\\nA. Ports should be covered first, before\\nblocking crosshead. With some of the\\nmogul engines the crosshead should be\\nblocked in front end of guides on account\\nof piston rod key being so long and catching\\nthe pin on forward driver. Some of the\\nmogul engines, with all side rods down, key\\nin crosshead will strike pin on front wheel.\\nQ. How do you keep the packing rings\\nout of the counter bore?\\nA. When disconnecting, I would put a\\nsmall piece of wood between end of cross-\\nhead and end of guides.\\nQ. Would you take out the cylinder cock\\nat the end piston is in?\\nA. Not necessarily, if the crosshead is\\nwell blocked.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "9\u00c2\u00b0\\nQ. What would you do if main rod strap\\nor crosshead should break?\\nA. With a broken main rod strap, I\\nwould place valve over steam ports and\\nclamp valve stem, disconnect valve rod, take\\ndown main rod and broken strap, and block\\ncrosshead. If crosshead broke and did not\\ncome off piston rod, would block it in back\\nend of guides. If piston broke off cross-\\nhead, would push crosshead and piston to\\nforward end of guides and block it there, if\\nit did not knock out cylinder head.\\nQ. What is done if side rod or back pin\\nbreaks?\\nA. If side rod or back pin breaks, take\\ndown both side rods.\\nQ. Can all four-wheeled switch engines\\nbe run with the side rods down?\\nA. No; on some switch engines the\\neccentric is on the forward shaft, and the\\nmain rod connected to the back wheels. On\\nsome of them, with both side rods down, a\\ncrosshead key would strike the pin on the\\nfront w T heel and would have to be cut off\\nor else driven out, and a liner put in along-\\nside of the key, so as not to allow it to go\\nthrough too far.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "91\\nQ. Why do you take rods down on the\\nopposite side to that broken?\\nA. Because if left up, and the engine\\nshould slip, the back wheels while on the\\ncenter are liable to slip out of tram and\\nbreak the rod or pin.\\nO. What is the effect of sanding the rail\\nwhile engine is slipping, without first shutting\\noff steam.\\nA. It is liable to break a crank pin or\\nrod.\\nQ. Is it good policy to allow sand to run\\nfrom one pipe only?\\nA. No; it is liable to twist the driving\\naxle or break a pin. The adhesion of the\\nengine to the rails is nearly all on one side,\\nand has a tendency to twist.\\nQ. How do you block up an engine with\\na broken driving spring or hanger?\\nA. If main spring was broken, or hanger,\\nrun back wheels up on wedge, and block\\nbetween main box and frame, then move\\nback wheel off wedge and run main wheel\\nupon wedge and block end of equalizer up\\nlevel, and take out broken parts of spring\\nand hanger.\\nQ. With broken equalizer?\\nA. Would take out broken equalizer and", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "92\\nsprings, and block up the same as with broken\\ndriving spring.\\nQ. With broken engine truck, spring, or\\nhanger?\\nA. Would raise front end of engine up,\\nand block up on top of truck equalizers.\\nQ. With broken intermediate equalizer\\non mogul?\\nA. Would run main drivers up on wedges,\\nthen block between top of forward driving\\nboxes and frame, then take out broken parts\\nof equalizer.\\nQ. With broken engine truck center pin\\non mogul, what is to be done?\\nA. Would block up, the same as with\\nintermediate equalizer, but, in addition to\\nthis, would have to block up forward end of\\nintermediate equalizer to keep it off truck\\naxle.\\nQ. What do you do when a tire breaks\\nand comes off the wheel on a standard en-\\ngine?\\nA. If tire broke and came off main wheel\\nand did not injure the rods, would leave rods\\nup and take out oil-cellar, take down ped-\\nestal brace and put block of wood up under\\nshaft, putting brace up again, then run main\\nwheel up on wedge, then block up between", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "93\\ntop of back box and frame and block be-\\ntween main-spring saddle and frame, then\\nrun wheel off wedge, and you are ready to\\ngo. With back tire broken off, if the engine\\nhad to be backed up any distance on crooked\\ntrack, would take both side rods off and\\ncarry both back wheels off the rail by run-\\nning them up on two wedges and block up\\non top of both main boxes under frame, and\\nblock under both back-spring saddles and\\nput a block on top of bar between engine\\nand tender and under chaffing iron on en-\\ngine, and carry part of the weight of engine\\non tank, and would block under both oil-\\ncellars.\\nQ. With front tire on mogul or ten- wheel\\nengine?\\nA. If broke front tire of mogul, and it\\nwas not safe to run, and could not get tire\\noff, would take down all side rods then run\\nfront wheels up on wooden wedges and\\nblock up on top of both main boxes under\\nthe frame and under both spring saddles on\\ntop of frame and block under male casting\\nof engine truck and on top of female cast-\\ning; some large nuts would be the best to\\nuse to block up between these castings; take\\na piece of telegraph wire and run through", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "94\\nholes in the nuts and fasten them solid\\naround the male casting, and drive block\\nunder each oil-cellar of the wheels which\\nare carried off the rail and move engine off\\nthe wedges and you are ready to go.\\nQ. Main tire on mogul?\\nA. If main tire on mogul broke and came\\noff and injured side rods or main rod, would\\ntake down all side rods and place valve over\\nsteam ports, clamp valve stem, disconnect\\nvalve rod and take down main rod, and if\\npiston rod key would strike front pin, would\\nblock crosshead in forward end of guides,\\nwould take oil-cellar out of wheel with tire\\noff, take down pedestal brace, and put a\\nhardwood block under shaft, then put ped-\\nestal brace up again, run wheel up on\\nwooden wedge and block up on top of back\\nbox under frame, and on top of front box\\nunder frame, and block between saddle and\\nframe over wheel that is off the rail, then\\nrun engine off the wedge and you are ready\\nto go. If tire is broken and it is not safe to\\nrun and could not be gotten off on the road,\\nwould take down all side rods; if I could\\nrun the engine on the wedges, would run\\nboth wheels up and block up on top of both\\nback boxes under frame and on top of both", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "95\\nfront boxes under frame, drive a block un-\\nder each oil-cellar and block under both\\nmain spring saddles, then cover steam ports\\non both sides and clamp valve stems and\\ndisconnect valve rods, take down both main\\nrods, and if piston rod keys will strike front\\npins, block the crosshead in front end of\\nguides, or the center of guides, and you are\\nready to be tow r ed in. Engine will have to\\nbe moved off from wedges with another\\nengine or pinch bar.\\nQ. With the back tire on mogul?\\nA. If back tire on mogul broke and came\\noff and did not injure side rods, would take\\nout oil-cellar and put wooden block under\\nshaft, then run wheel up on wedge and\\nblock between top of main box and frame,\\nthen move engine off wedge and you are\\nready to go.\\nQ. With both back tires on mogul?\\nA. If tire broke and did not come off,\\nand you could not get it off on the road and\\nit was not safe to run, would take down both\\nback sections of side rods and run both back\\nwheels up on wedges, block up between\\nboth main boxes and frames, then block on\\ntop of bar between engine and tender under\\nchaffing iron on engine, drive a block under", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "96\\neach oil-cellar and block under both back\\nspring saddles and you are ready to go.\\nYou could not back up around curves on ac-\\ncount of both main tires being blind. If I\\nhave to back an engine up to get home, I\\nwould run her ahead to the nearest turntable\\nor Y M and turn around if it was not too far.\\nIf I could get to a turntable or Y by\\nbacking up two or three miles, I would drop\\nthe wheel with the broken tire on the rail\\nand cut a pole and put it between the\\nspokes of the wheels and against the frames\\nand skid back wheels: If I could not get a\\npole, I would use a chain; If both tires came\\noff the wheels, would chain from end of\\nframe to front beam of tender on each side\\nand the tender would help to guide the\\nwheels.\\nQ. What would you do if back tire or\\nback driver was broken off on standard\\nengine?\\nA. Would jack up back, take down side\\nrods on standard engine, or back rods on\\nmogul.\\nQ. At what points is weight of engine\\ncarried when springs and equalizers are in\\ngood order?", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "97\\nA. The weight is carried on both equal-\\nizing stands and center of engine truck.\\nQ. Where is the weight carried when\\nengine is blocked up over the forward driv-\\ning box?\\nA. When blocked over the main box theu\\nweight is the same as with the main spring\\nin, but when the engine is in motion and the\\nmain wheel drops in a low spot in the track\\nthe weight of the main box is carried on the\\nback spring and engine truck, and if main\\nwheel runs up on a high spot in track, the\\nmain box would take the weight off the back\\nspring and engine truck. The equalization\\nof the weight between the boxes is destroyed\\nwhen blocked over the boxes when the\\nengine is in motion.\\nQ. How is it when blocked over back\\ndriving box?\\nA. When blocked over the back driving\\nbox, the weight is the same as with the\\nsprings in, but when the engine is running\\nand the back wheel drops in a low spot in\\nthe track, the weight from off the back box\\ncomes on the main spring and engine truck.\\nAnd if main wheel runs up on a high spot\\nin the track the most of the weight would\\nbe on main spring alone. And if main\\n7", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "98\\nwheel drops in a low spot the weight would\\nbe on back box and engine truck.\\nQ. If truck axle was bent?\\nA. Slide the wheels by chaining same.\\nQ. How would you know if valve yoke\\nwas broken?\\nA. Place main pin on right side at half\\nstroke (giving valve full movement over\\nports), admit a little steam into the chest\\nand move the reverse lever forward and\\nback, if steam shifts from forward to back\\ncylinder cocks the right valve yoke is O. K.\\nThen try the left side the same way. If yoke\\nis broken, take off chest cover, center and\\nblock valve equally over both ports, discon-\\nnect the main and valve rods, block cross-\\nhead, cover chest and proceed to nearest\\nside track or telegraph station.\\nQ. If throttle was detached while running\\nhow would you act?\\nA. If valves were balanced, would control\\ntrain with reverse lever and air valve.\\nQ. Suppose right go-ahead eccentric slipped\\nwhat would you do?\\nA. Place right side of engine on forward\\ndead center, place reverse lever in last back\\nnotch, mark valve stem at gland, bring\\nreverse lever to forward last notch and move", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "99\\nslipped eccentric until mark on valve stem\\nreaches gland.\\nQ. If right back-motion eccentric should\\nslip? _\u00e2\u0080\u00a2\\nA. Place right side of engine on back\\ndead center, place reverse lever in forward\\nlast notch, mark valve stem at gland, throw\\nlever in last back notch, move eccentric until\\nmark on valve reaches gland.\\nQ. Suppose both forward and back\\neccentric on one side slipped what would\\nyou do?\\nA. Simply place engine on forward dead\\ncenter (as near as possible), set the forward\\nmotion eccentric above the shaft heavy side\\nup, for in right angles with the crank-pin, set\\nthe back-up eccentric opposite the go-ahead;\\nafter this is done place the reverse lever\\nin forward notch, then move the forward\\neccentric ahead until steam comes out of\\nforward cylinder cock. To set back-up\\neccentric, place reverse lever in last back\\nnotch, move eccentric until steam comes out\\nof forward cylinder cock, then all is O. K.\\nBe careful when doing this, that engine\\nwheels are blocked and throttle slightly\\nopen.\\nQ. In case of broken back section of side", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "100\\nrods on a 6 driver engine, what would you\\ndo?\\nA. Take off back sections, each side of\\nengine, then pull in as much of the train as\\npossible.\\nQ. Suppose through some unforseen cause\\na cylinder head was broken what would\\nyou do?\\nA. Disconnect the valve stem at rocker\\narm, tighten valve equally over ports, dis-\\nconnect mainrod and block the crosshead in\\nguides.\\nQ. Suppose rocker arm is broken?\\nA. Disconnect same as for broken cylin-\\nder head.\\nQ. If valve stem or piston were broken?\\nA. Do same as for broken cylinder head.\\nQ. Suppose valve in chest were broken\\nhow would you remedy it?\\nA. Iyift valve chest cover, cover ports\\nwith thin plank, place valve over same and\\nblock that way; if a balanced valve and\\nnothing could be placed under valve then\\nopen front end and disconnect dry pipe from\\nnigger head end, bolt on a blind joint made\\nof sheet rubber and heavy board or iron plate.\\nQ. Suppose you lost a rod key how would\\nyou proceed?", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "101\\nA. Insert a wooden key temporarily.\\nQ. If broken valve stem outside of chest?\\nA. Center valve and clamp with gland\\nby drawing up more on one side.\\nQ. What is the best material to use in\\nblocking between driving box and frame?\\nA. Iron plates; wood is too soft.\\nQ. If driving box or brass breaks so it is\\ncutting the axle, what can be done to relieve\\nit?\\nA. If main box brass is cutting badly,\\nrun main wheel upon a wedge, and block\\nunder saddle and on top of frame, also be-\\ntween frame and top of back box, that will\\ncarry some of the weight.\\nQ. Is it considered an engineer s duty to\\nhave suitable hardwood blocks on engine?\\nA. Yes.\\nQ. How would you block up for broken\\nengine truck wheel or axle?\\nA. Raise up front of engine and block\\nbetween top of main boxes and frames and\\nblock on top of back truck boxes under\\ntruck frames and block across on top of both\\nback truck boxes under main frames and\\ncarry the weight of the front wheels on the\\nback ones and forward drivers, then chain\\nfront wheel up to front frame; then pull into", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "102\\nside tracks, best way is to send for pair of\\nwheels and put in on road.\\nQ. What would you do with a mogul or a\\npony truck when broken?\\nA. Would run main wheels up on wedges,\\nbeing careful that main rods do not strike\\nguide yokes and frames, then chain engine\\ntruck up to main frame and all is ready.\\nQ. For broken tender truck wheel or axle\\nwhat should be done?\\nA. Take out wheels and replace with\\nbox-car wheels, or if wheels could not be\\nhad, why take two poles and lay them length-\\nwise on top of the truck boxes on each side\\nof tender and chain up the truck to the poles\\nwhere the wheels come out. With some\\ntenders, would have to put pole across top\\nof tender and chain to pole.\\nQ. Is it necessary to take down the main\\nrod if the frame is broken between the\\ncylinder and the forward driving box?\\nA. No, not always; it all depends on how\\nbadly it is broken.\\nQ. Would you* take down either rod if\\nframe is broken between forward and back\\ndriving boxes?\\nA. Not with a light engine, unless it was\\nworking badly; then I would take down both", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "103\\nside rods, because the strain would come on\\nthe pins.\\nQ. Where is the frame fastened solid to\\nthe other parts of the engine?\\nA. On standard engine frame is fastened\\nto cylinder saddle, and belly-brace under\\nboiler, and boiler braces in cab.\\nQ. Would you disconnect the engine for\\na broken guide?\\nA. Yes, if it was broken badly.\\nQ. How do you handle an engine if\\nthrottle sticks open or dry pipe joint leaks so\\nthat steam cannot be shut off from engine?\\nA. Reduce the pressure and handle the\\nengine with reverse lever and brake on en-\\ngine.\\nQ. What will you do if throttle is discon-\\nnected and remains shut?\\nA. I would report and get her ready for\\ntowing in.\\nQ. If a crank pin brass gets so hot the\\nbabbitt melts, would you cool it off with\\nwater before all the babbitt comes out?\\nA. No, I would allow it all to escape.\\nQ. Can you take out a tender truck brass\\nand replace it with a new one? How?\\nA. Yes; would take waste all out of box.\\ntake short jack and put under box and jack", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "104\\nthe weight up off brass, then take out step\\nand remove brass. If I had no short jack,\\nwould take large screw jack and place under\\nside of tank and jack the weight off box,\\nthen take a pry and pry up the box. If I\\nhad no jacks I would put block of wood\\nunder the box and against a tie and move\\nthe engine and pull the box up on the block,\\nand that would take the weight off brass.\\nQ. An engine truck brass?\\nA. Would raise up front of the engine,\\nand take weight off truck box, then raise up\\ntruck frame and box with short jack or a\\npry, and replace brass.\\nQ. When brass does not wear an even\\nthickness at both ends, is it apt to run hot?\\nWhy?\\nA. Yes; truck frame may be twisted, and\\nallow the weight to bear on one end of the\\nbrass, and cause it to heat, axles sprung\\nlightly would cause this effect, or only part\\nof a step being on top of brass in box, or\\nbrass a little too long and one end bears on\\ncollar.\\nQ. How often do you examine the ash-\\npan, grates and dampers?\\nA. At the end of every trip.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "105\\nQ. What are your duties after cutting off\\nfrom train at the end of the trip?\\nA. To look the engine over carefully,\\nand any work there is to be done, report it\\nin the book at the roundhouse for that pur-\\npose.\\nQ. What are your duties in case of wreck,\\nwhen your engine is off the track?\\nA. Examine the engine over carefully,\\nto see if anything is broken, especially\\naround firebox, and get her ready to be put\\non the track as soon as I possibly could.\\nQ. If front end is broken, but flues and\\nsteam pipes in good order, how could you\\nmake repairs on it to run in?\\nA. Would board up front end of smoke\\nbox if there was enough left to hold the\\nboards.\\nTHE AIR BRAKE.\\nQ. To the best of your knowledge what\\ndo you understand by the automatic air\\nbrake?\\nA. The automatic air brake is a brake\\napplied by compressed air.\\nQ. Why is it called automatic?\\nA. Because its application is due to\\nderangements, such as the bursting of a hose", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "106\\nor pipe, train broke in two, the trainmen\\nreducing the air pressure in train pipe, or\\nthe engineer making a reduction of air with\\nhis brake valve.\\nQ. Give an explanation of the automatic\\nbrake, its workings and essential parts?\\nA. The essential parts of the automatic\\nair brake is the engineer s equalizing dis-\\ncharge valve, auxiliary reservoir triple valve,\\nsmall reservoir at the side of the engineer s\\nequalizing discharge valve, the trainmen s\\napplication valve, the steam, air pump and\\ngovernor, air guage, air pipe, cock, etc.\\nQ. Of what use are the steam and air\\ncylinders?\\nA. They constitute the air pump, and are\\nused for compressing air into the main\\nreservoir.\\nQ. Of what use is the main reservoir?\\nA. It is used to retain and carry the air\\npressure pumped in with the air pump.\\nQ. Of what use are the auxiliary drums?\\nA. They are used to hold and furnish\\nair for the brake cylinders when brakes are\\nto be set.\\nQ. Explain the triple valve and its\\nlocation?\\nA. The location of the triple valve is", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "107\\nbetween the brake cylinder, train pipe and\\nauxiliary reservoir and is used to let in or\\nout or hold the air between the auxiliary\\nreservoir and brake cylinder.\\nQ. For what purpose is the small reser-\\nvoir that is connected to the equalizing dis-\\ncharge valveT^\\nA. It is to store air pressure to force the\\nequalizing piston down when sufficient air\\nhas been released from brake pipe, to\\nautomatically close exhaust.\\nQ. Where is the air first taken from when\\nmaking service stops.\\nA. From the main train pipe.\\nQ. Where next?\\nA. From the auxiliary reservoirs under\\neach car, which passes through the triple\\nvalve into the brake cylinder.\\nQ. When an engine is left standing alone\\nand the pump running, why must the brake\\nvalve not be left on lap?\\nA. Because the main reservoir pressure\\nmay run up to the same height as the steam\\nin the boiler, and when the handle of\\nengineer s valve is again placed in full\\nrelease it will cause the train pipe and\\ntender auxiliary reservoir to be charged\\nwith too high pressure, and may injure the", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "108\\nadjustment of pump governor as well as\\ncause the tender wheels to slide on first\\napplication.\\nQ. What position is proper?\\nA. Running position.\\nQ. Have brake cylinders what is called\\nleakage grooves?\\nA. Yes.\\nQ- As a rule how much air is necessary\\nto be discharged from train pipe to force\\nthe piston past the leakage grooves?\\nA. About 5 lbs.\\nQ. How long are the leakage grooves in\\nthe brake cylinder?\\nA. Four inches.\\nQ. Where are they located?\\nA. In forward part of cylinder.\\nQ. What are the leakage grooves pro-\\nvided for?\\nA. They are provided to release the\\nbrake cylinder of any air that might leak\\ninto it throngh the triple, also release the\\nair left in brake cylinder after an application\\nhas been made.\\nQ. Name the different positions of the\\nequalizing discharge valve?\\nA. There are five, namely: full release,", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "109\\nrunning position, on lap, service top, and\\nemergency.\\nQ. Why is equalizing discharge brake\\nvalve better than the old brake valve?\\nA. Because it enables the engineer to\\napply the brakes more uniformly through-\\nout the train, and with less shock, especially\\nwhen quick action triple valves are used.\\nIt also prevents the brakes on forward end\\nof train from being kicked off when engineer\\ncloses the valves after having made applica-\\ntion.\\nQ. Name the different kinds of engineers\\nbrake valves, to the best of your knowledge.\\nA. The D 8 and D 5.\\nQ. What divides the main reservoir pres-\\nsure from the train line pressure?\\nA. The equalizing discharge valve.\\nQ. On which side of the equalizing dis-\\ncharge valve is the main reservoir pressure?\\nA. On top.\\nQ. On which side of the rotary valve in\\nthe old-style engineer s valve is the main res-\\nervoir pressure?\\nA. Below.\\nQ. What air pressure operates the pump\\ngovernor in the D. 5 and D. 8 valve.\\nA. With D. 5 brake valve the main reser-", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "110\\nvoir, and with all others the train pipe pres-\\nsure.\\nQ. Suppose [the governor does not regu-\\nlate the train line pressure, how would you\\nadjust it with the D. 8 valve, also the D. 5\\nA. With D. 8 valve the train line pres-\\nsure is regulated by the pump governor,\\nthe spring in governor should be set so 70\\npounds of air pressure will raise the dia-\\nphragm and air valve, so air will go down\\non governor piston and force the steam\\nvalve shut. With the D. 5 valve the train\\nline pressure is regulated by the feed valve\\nor train line governor on the side of brake\\nvalve. Set spring in feed valve so it will let\\nthe train line pressure move feed valve pis-\\nton down with 70 pounds pressure, this will\\nlet feed valve close so no more air can pass\\nfrom^main reservoir through running posi-\\ntion port to train line, and pump governor\\nshould set at enough higher pressure to carry\\nthe desired excess pressure.\\nQ. Why is governor regulated to only\\nallow 70 lbs. of air pressure in train pipe\\nA. Because 70 lbs. train pipe pressure\\nproduces the strongest, safe to use and pre-\\nvents sliding of wheels.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "Ill\\nQ. Explain the difference between the\\nplain and quick action triple valves\\nA. The plain triple valve has the cut-out\\ncock in the body of the valve; the quick-\\naction has it in the cross- over pipe between\\nthe train pipe_and triple. The plain triple\\ndoes not have the additional parts to work\\nthe emergency action of the triple, conse-\\nquently the brake is not liable to leak either\\non or off through the emergency valves or\\nchecks. The plain triple used on engine\\ntender and coach equipment is so arranged\\nthat the piston works upright, and when\\nthe train is running the jar may work it\\ndown, and cover feed port so a very light\\nreduction will set it; the piston in quick\\naction triple moves horizontally, so its weight\\ndoes not influence the action of the triple\\nwhen running.\\nQ. What might prevent governor from\\nshutting off the steam and stopping pump\\nwhen maximum pressure is obtained\\nA. The engineers brake valve being on\\nlap.\\nQ. If the piston in equalizing discharge\\nbrake valve becomes corroded and gummed\\nwhat will be the result\\nA. It would be necessary to make a large", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "112\\nreduction through the preliminary exhaust\\nport before the brakes will apply at all and\\nthen the brakes will go on too hard and will\\nhave to be released by hand.\\nQ. At what travel should a driver brake\\npiston be adjusted?\\nA. Not less than y$ or more than 2 /i its\\nfull stroke.\\nQ. How is the brake-shoe slack of the\\ncam driver brake taken up and what pre-\\ncautions are necessary\\nA. By means of the cam screws, and it is\\nnecessary to lengthen both alike, so when\\nbrake is applied the point of contact of cams\\nwill be in straight line with piston rod.\\nQ. How is the brake-shoe slack of a six-\\nwheel connected driver brake taken up\\nA. By means of a turn buckle or screw\\nin the connecting rods.\\nQ. How would you take up slack of ten-\\nder brake shoes\\nA. By means of the dead truck lever.\\nQ. Suppose they would not take it up\\nenough; where then?\\nA. It must be taken up in the under-\\nneath connections and then adjusted by the\\ndead lever.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "113\\nQ. What distance should the brake cylin-\\nder piston travel under tender brake\\nA. Not less than 5 nor more 6 inches;\\nadjustments must be made whenever the\\npiston travel is found more than 7 inches.\\nQ. How often should triple valves and\\ncylinders of drivers and tender brakes be\\ncleaned and oiled\\nA. Every 6 months with mineral oil; oil\\ncylinders every 3 months, and driver brake\\ncylinders oftener if close to fire-box.\\nQ. How often must the air brake and sig-\\nnal apparatus on locomotives be examined\\nA. After each trip.\\nQ. What pressure of air must be carried\\non passenger engine and main train pipe\\nA. 70 lbs.\\nQ. On freight?\\nA. 70 lbs.\\nQ. What should the excess pressure be,\\nalso the signal pressure\\nA. Excess pressure is 20 lbs., and signal\\npressure is 25 lbs.\\nQ. Do you understand the necessity of\\nkeeping the feed valve and excess spring\\nclean\\nA. Yes, so it will maintain an excess\\npressure of about 20 lbs., in the main reser-", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "voir and to insure release and recharge train\\nquickly.\\nQ. Why is excess pressure necessary\\nA. It is to recharge auxiliary reservoirs\\nquickly.\\nQ. After the engine is backed up to train\\nwhat should be done\\nA. The air cock should be opened and\\nthe hose blown out, then connect to train\\nhose, after that the engineer s brake valve\\nshould be placed in the release position, so\\ntrain pipe, auxiliary reservoir and main reser-\\nvoir come in connection and equalize with\\nair.\\nQ. What is next to be done\\nA. Test the air and brakes to see that all\\nparts are in order before starting out on a\\nrun.\\nQ. Suppose the pipe between brake cyl-\\ninder and auxiliary reservoir was split or\\nbroken off, and prevented the operation of\\nthe triple valve, what should be done\\nA. Move triple valve midway and open\\nbleed cock under auxiliary reservoir.\\nQ. Will that interfere with the rest of the\\ntrain\\nA. No.\\nQ. About how much loss of air out of", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "115\\ntrain pipe is considered to firmly set all\\nbrakes\\nA. Generally about 1 8 or 20 pounds.\\nQ. Suppose after having recharged the\\ntrain pipe from main reservoir and released\\nall the brakes but the one under tank, where\\nwould you lookTfor trouble\\nA. Examine triple valve and see if it is\\nup, if not, then move up and equalize air.\\nQ. Give the different forces with differ-\\nent cylinder diameters and the brake piston\\ntraveling at eight inches in all\\nM\\n03\\nu\\npq\\nis\\na\\n\u00c2\u00b0o\\n2*d\\nSo c3 S\\n\u00c2\u00a3wph\\n\u00c2\u00a31h\\nTotal Force From Piston,\\nin Pounds.\\na\\nP-CJ\\n3.S\\nO\\nPi\\nO\\nu\\n70\\n63\\n7\\n4\\n600\\n300\\n200\\n100\\n61\\n9\\n19\\n1900\\n1500\\n950\\n500\\n59\\n11\\n26\\n4000\\n2050\\n1300\\n700\\n57\\n13\\n40\\n6150\\n3150\\n2000\\n1100\\n55\\n15\\n46\\n7100\\n3600\\n2300\\n1500\\n53\\n17\\n50\\n7700\\n4000\\n2500\\n1400\\n51\\n19\\n21\\n23\\n50\\n50\\n50\\n49\\n47\\nQ. Is there a limit to the braking power\\nof the automatic brake\\nA. Yes.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "116\\nQ. What governs it\\nA. The triple valves, graduating valve.\\nQ. Can you tell by the gauge when this\\nlimit is reached\\nA. Yes.\\nQ. What pressure is in cylinder when 70\\nlbs. pressure is in auxiliaries\\nA. 50 lbs.\\nQ. What are the functions of the triple\\nvalve?\\nA. It is to automatically open and close\\nthe auxiliary reservoir valve when pressure\\nis increased and decreased in main brake\\npipe.\\nQ. Why is it called a triple valve\\nA. Because it connects and operates three\\npoints, namely: main train pipe, auxiliary\\nreservoir and brake cylinder.\\nQ. Where is the compressed air kept\\nready for use\\nA. In the main reservoir about engine.\\nQ. Where does the compressed air come\\nfrom that enters the brake cylinder when\\nthe automatic brakes are applied\\nA. It comes from the auxiliary reservoir.\\nQ. How does it get into the auxiliary\\nreservoir", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "117\\nA. From the main train pipe through the\\ntriple valve.\\nQ. About how many seconds does it take\\nfor the auxiliaries to recharge with air\\nA. About two seconds.\\nQ. When two or more engines are coupled\\ntogether, which one should do the braking\\nA. The head engine.\\nQ. How would you proceed to give the\\nforward engineer complete control of the\\ntrain\\nA. Engineer on second engine must close\\nstop cock under his brake valve leading to\\ntrain pipe, place brake valve in running\\nposition so as to give leading engineer full\\ncontrol of the train. Second engineer must\\nkeep maximum pressure up in main reser-\\nvoir to use in case head engine gives out.\\nQ. What should the leading engineer do\\nA. Make a terminal test of train, etc.\\nQ. What is the pressure retaining valve,\\nand what is its use\\nA. The pressure retaining valve is at the\\nexhaust of triple valve. It is used to pre-\\nvent the brake release on heavy grades and\\nhold the brakes partially applied so as to\\nallow more time to recharge the auxiliary\\nreservoirs.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "118\\nQ. How much pressure does the pressure\\nretaining valve keep in brake cylinder\\nA. It retains 15 lbs. pressure in brake\\ncylinder when triple valve is in release.\\nQ. In descending a grade how can you\\nbest keep a train under control\\nA. Apply brakes and reduce speed before\\ntoo much speed is attained; keep a reduction\\nof 8 pounds of air on train pipe, then re-\\ncharge the auxiliary reservoir so to have air\\nwhen needed.\\nQ. Suppose the air pump should happen\\nto play out descending a long steep grade,\\nwith from 30 to 50 cars of air, how could you\\nkeep up the pressure in main reservoir, and\\nthe air pump stopped entirely\\nA. By what is known as Sweeney s\\nemergency brake.\\nQ. Explain what is meant by Sweeney s\\nemergency brake\\nA. On the steam chest of cylinders is a\\nsmall valve with a rod running from its\\nhandle back under the running board to cab.\\nThis merely connects the steam chest, by\\nmeans of a pipe, to the main air drum; in\\ndescending a hill and no steam being used,\\nsimply open the valves to the Sweeney\\nauxiliary pipe and reverse the engine both", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "119\\npistons of the engine pumps air into the\\nmain reservoir and very fast. In this way\\nan engineer can keep his full drum pressure\\nup easily by letting the cylinders help him\\nout occasionally.\\nQ. Would you reverse an engine with\\ndriver brakes set\\nA. No.\\nQ. Why not\\nA. Because it would block the drivers\\nand cause flat wheels.\\nQ. Why are three lines of hose coupled\\nbetween the engine and tender on some of\\nour engines\\nA. One for main train pipe, one for air\\nsignal and the third for steam to heat train,\\netc.\\nQ. Why only two on some engines\\nA. One for main train pipe and one for\\nair signal.\\nQ. Why only one on some engines that\\nhave both driver and tender brake\\nA. The one hose covers all on main train\\nair pipe.\\nQ. In case the lines of hose are coupled\\nup wrong between engine and tender, can\\nthe brakes be worked\\nA, No.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "120\\nQ. How will you detect the ones that are\\ncoupled up wrong\\nA.* First, try to release the brakes; if they\\nwill not release they are wrong couple\\nproperly, then test air signal; the last is\\nbound to be O. K.\\nQ. What must be done with the hose\\ncoupling back of last car and at pilot\\nA. They should be hung in the dummy\\ncoupling.\\nQ. State the importance of this.\\nA. It is done to keep out dirt, also to\\nprevent the hose from being torn or pulled\\noff, etc.\\nQ. When engineer s brake valve is on lap\\nposition and the main reservoir or train line\\npressure increases, where would you locate\\nthe trouble\\nA. Locate the trouble at the rotary valve,\\nbeing cut or leaky.\\nQ. How often should the engineer s brake\\nvalve be cleaned, oiled and looked after?\\nA. About every 60 days.\\nQ, If there was a continuous leak from\\nexhaust of triple valve, what would be the\\ntrouble\\nA. Dust or dirt getting in on the road.\\nQ. Could you remedy it on the road", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "121\\nA. Most generally, by suddenly opening\\nand closing triple valve the air will clean it.\\nQ. When does the triple valve move\\nA. When the engineer moves the engin-\\neer s valve to the full left the train pipe is\\nput in connection with the main reservoir\\nvalve and lets the air from the main reservoir\\ninto the brake pipe, the triple valve moves\\nup, equalizes the pressure between the aux-\\niliary reservoir brake pipe and main reser-\\nvoir this opens the brake cylinder valve\\nand releases the brake.\\nQ. What would happen if the engineer\\nmoved the engineer s valve handle between\\nthe two laps, closing the main reservoir\\nvalve and letting the air out of the brake\\npipe?\\nA. The triple valve would move down\\nand connect the auxiliary reservoir to the\\nbrake cylinder and apply the brakes.\\nQ. State the object of having two needles\\non air gauge, also the two colors, red and\\nblack\\nA. The red needle is to show the main\\nreservoir pressure and excess of 20 lbs. 90\\nlbs., the black one is to show the mount of\\nair in train pipe, 20 lbs.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "122\\nQ. What do you consider an ideal man-\\nner of breaking\\nA. Move engineer s brake handle to\\nservice stop position until the train pipe\\nneedle shows a loss of about 8 lbs.; then\\nmove handle in lap, and gradually bring the\\nreduction down to 20 lbs. and hold there\\nuntil about to stop, then release just before\\nstopping; on a heavy grade keep brakes\\non.\\nQ. In making service stop, why release\\nthe brakes before coming to full stop\\nA. To prevent sudden shock to passen-\\ngers and train.\\nQ. Is it dangerous to apply and release\\nbrakes more than once in making stops\\nA. Yes. Because every time brakes are\\nreleased the air in brake cylinders is wasted,\\nand if necessary to suddenly apply again for\\nsome unforseen cause, before sufficient time\\nhas elapsed to re-charge auxiliaries, the\\napplication will be w T eak.\\nQ. In making a service or regular stop\\nwhy must the brake valve handle not be\\nmoved past the position for service appli-\\ncation\\nA. Because in doing so the air would all\\nbe lost.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "123\\nQ. Why is it dangerous to apply and\\nrelease the brake repeatedly in making a\\nservice stop?\\nA. Because in so doing the air would be\\nlost.\\nQ. In releasing brake how long should\\nthe handle be left in the same position\\nA. Until theT train pipe needle shows the\\nsame pressure as main reservoir, then move\\nhandle in running position against stop.\\nQ. What is meant by a terminal test\\nA. It means to try the air and see that all\\nis O. K. before going on a run.\\nQ. Why is it absolutely necessary\\nA. Because all the auxiliary reservoirs\\nmust be equalized in pressure with main\\nreservoir, that all couplings are correct, and\\nthat the brakes work satisfactorily.\\nQ. At what other times should tests of\\nthe same nature be made\\nA. When a car is picked up on the road\\nor one in the middle of the train is thrown\\nout, or any switching, etc., is done.\\nQ. In picking up uncharged cars what\\nshould be done\\nA. After coupling to car move the handle\\nof brake valve in release, so to fill auxiliary", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "124\\nreservoir when cocks are opened between\\nthe cars.\\nQ. Why are brakes released before un-\\ncoupling cars\\nQ. If train was broken in two, how would\\nyou proceed to get under way again after\\ncoupling up, and what w 7 ould you do\\nA. Place brake handle on lap and leave\\nit there until train has stopped and the brake\\napparatus has been examined and a release\\nsignal is given, after coupling up again await\\nsignal to test brakes after having charged\\naux reservoirs.\\nQ. How would you get the train ready\\nA. Place handle of brake valve in full\\nrelease, then in running position, then await\\ntest signal, then test brakes, etc.\\nQ. Would it be necessary in this case to\\nmake what is called a terminal test?\\nA. Yes.\\nQ. Why?\\nA. To be sure everything about the\\nbraking power is O. K.\\nQ. Suppose trainmen cut out a car, what\\nshould be done\\nA. The handle of engineer s brake valve\\nshould be moved into full release to equalize\\nthe auxiliaries and train pipe.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "125\\nSPEEDING AND SIGNALS.\\nQ-\\nGive as near as practicable the dis-\\ntances of telegraph poles, also how many to\\nthe mile.\\nA.\\nThe telegraph poles are supposed to\\nbe K\\n55 feet apart, and 32 poles to the mile.\\nQ.\\nSuppose you were running 45 miles\\nper\\nhour how many minutes and seconds\\nwould you allow to each mile\\nA.\\nOne minute and 21 seconds.\\nQ.\\nTo 25 miles?\\nA.\\nTwo minutes and 24 seconds\\nQ.\\nTo 10 miles?\\nA.\\nSix minutes.\\nQ.\\nTo 58 miles\\nA.\\nOne minute and 2 seconds.\\nQ.\\nTo 30 miles\\nA.\\nTwo minutes.\\nQ*\\nTo 35 miles\\nA.\\nOne minute and 42 seconds.\\nQ.\\nTo 15 miles?\\nA.\\nFour minutes.\\nQ.\\nTo 55 miles?\\nA.\\nOne minute and 6 seconds.\\nQ-\\nTo 40 miles\\nA.\\nOne minute and 30 seconds.\\nQ-\\nTo 20 miles\\nA.\\nThree minutes.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "126\\nQ. To 50 miles\\nA. One minute and 12 seconds.\\nQ. To 60 miles\\nA. One minute.\\nQ. How would you find the time it would\\ntake to travel a certain distance, making a\\ncertain speed per hour\\nA. Multiphy the distance by 60 and di-\\nvide by rate of speed.\\nQ. Give an example: A train running\\nfrom station to station, say distance is S}4\\nmiles, and the rate of speed is 28 miles per\\nhour, how long will it take to make the\\nmiles\\nA. 8J^ miles x 60 510 h- 28 miles =18^3\\nminutes.\\nQ. Can you give the distance and the time\\nto find the rate of speed\\nA. Yes. Multiply the distance by 60 and\\ndivide by the time\\nQ. If it takes a train 18^3 minutes to run\\nS}4 miles at what rate of speed does the\\ntrain run\\nA. S}4 miles x 60 minutes 510 h- 18^3\\n28 miles per hour.\\nCan you give the time and the rate of\\nspeed to find the distance", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "127\\nA. Yes. Multiply the time by the rate\\nof speed and divide by 60.\\nQ. If the train is running at the rate of 28\\nmiles per hour of 18^3 minutes what is the\\ndistance passed over\\nA. iS}i x 28 510 60 8^ miles, the\\nnumber of miles passed over in 18^3 minutes\\nat a speed of 28 miles per hour.\\nTo those who prefer to use formula, I give\\nthe following:\\nLet T=Time in minutes.\\nR=Rate of speed, in miles, per hour.\\nD=Distance in miles.\\n6o=Constant.\\nI. Given, R and D, to find T.\\nSolution: f X D T.\\nII. Given, D and T, to find R.\\nSolution: 60 R.\\nIII. Given, T and R, to find D.\\nSolution: T--^-=D.\\nQ. How do you understand the\\nSIGNALS IN GENERAL.\\nBEU/-CORD OR ENGINEER S AIR WHISTLE.\\nOne tap when standing still Go ahead.\\nTwo taps when running Stop.\\nTwo taps when standing Call flagman.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "128\\nThree taps when standing Back up.\\nThree taps when running Stop next sta-\\ntion.\\nFour taps when running Reduce speed.\\nENGINE WHISTLES.\\nOne long whistle, stations, draw bridges,\\njunctions and R. R. crossings.\\nOne short whistle Stop, on brakes.\\nTwo medium whistles\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Start, off brakes.\\nTwo short whistles Answer to all signals\\nexcept when broke in two.\\nThree long whistles Train parted.\\nThree short whistles when standing Back\\nup.\\nThree short w r histles when running Call\\nattention to signals carried.\\nFour long whistles Calls in flagman.\\nFour short whistles Switch or signals.\\nTwo long and two short wrhistles Wagon-\\nroad crossing.\\nFive short whistles Send out flagman.\\nContinuation of short whistles Stock on\\ntrack.\\nLAMP AND HAND SIGNALS.\\nRaise hand or lamp up and down Go\\nahead.\\nSwing hand or lamp across track Stop.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "129\\nSwing hand or lamp in circle to left\\nBack up.\\nSwing hand or lamp at full arm s length\\nuntil engineer answers by three long whistles,\\nBroke in two.\\nSIGNALS CARRIED BY TRAINS.\\nTwo green flags or lamps in front of\\nengine Another section following with\\nsame rights.\\nTwo white flags or lights in front of engine\\nSpecial or wild train.\\nThe lights on freight caboose are one\\ncupola light, green front and red back, two\\nlamps, one each side of car, each having\\nfront and sides green and back red.\\nDay signals are green flags.\\nThe lights for passenger trains are the\\nsame except in place of a cupola light a\\nlarge red bull s-eye sits on rear platform of\\nlast car.\\nSTATION OR FIXED SIGNALS.\\nRed flag or light Danger, stop.\\nGreen flag or light Caution, slow.\\nWhite flag or light Safe, clear track.\\nWhite flag or light at station Stop for\\npassengers.\\n9", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "130\\nRed flag or light at station Stop for train\\norders.\\nTORPEDO SIGNALS.\\nOne torpedo Stop.\\nTwo torpedoes\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Slow speed, careful, look\\nout for signals.\\nPlace one torpedo about ten telegraph\\npoles from train or 1,600 feet, then go still\\nfurther 1,600 feet and place two about 20\\nfeet apart, leave the two torpedoes and go\\nback to the single one, stay in that neigh-\\nborhood until engineer blows four long;\\nwhistles, then remove torpedo and run\\ntoward train; if passenger train is due wait,\\nsignal and ride in. Never place torpedoes\\nnear depot or wagon-road crossing.\\nQ. Name the different makes of switches.\\nA. The point or split switch, double split\\nand old stub switches.\\nQ. What is a Y track and its use?\\nA. AY track is two tracks from two dif-\\nferent directions off main track, running to-\\ngether, forming a Y. It is used to turn\\nengines, trains, etc.\\nQ. Explain the Block system.\\nA. It is a system of working railway\\ntraffic, according to which the line is divided", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "131\\ninto sections of a mile or more, with a signal\\nand telegraphic connection at end of each\\nsection. The principle of system being that\\nno train is allowed to leave any one section\\nuntil the next succeeding section is entirely\\nclear, so that between two successive trains\\nthere is preserved definite intervals of time\\nand space.\\nQ. What is meant by a semaphore?\\nA. A semaphore is a post th^ 4- bears tar-\\nget signals.\\nQ. Explain semaphoric.\\nA. Semaphoric means targets operated\\nby electricity.\\nQ. What is a railroad gauntlet?\\nA. A railroad gauntlet is the running to-\\ngether of parallel tracks of a double road\\npassing in the space of one, going through\\na single tunnel or bridge without breaking\\nthe continuity of either rail.\\nQ. Suppose the target stood out at right\\nangles with post and not in your favor, what\\nwould prevent you from going right along?\\nA. If by accident such a thing would\\nhappen, the engine would run off the end of\\nrails, and that would qualify me for about\\n30 days uncalled for vacation.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "MIXED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.\\nQ. What does a ton of soft coal contain?\\nA. It contains 2,000 cubic feet of gas,\\n1,500 pounds of coke, 20 gallons of am-\\nmonia water and 14 pounds coal tar.\\nQ. How would you find the area of any\\ncylinder?\\nA. Multiply the diameter by diameter\\nand answer by .7854.\\nQ. How many area square inches has a\\ncylinder 16-inch diameter?\\nA. It has 201.06 square inches.\\nQ. State the different standard decimals\\nused daily, namely, to find the circumference\\nof any diameter s circle; also to find the\\ncubic inch contents of a ball?\\nA. Standard number for circumference is\\n3.1416, and the standard number for cubic\\ninches in a sphere use .5236.\\nQ. How do you understand a cubic?\\nExplain by example, say a ball is 3% inches\\ndiameter.\\nA. A ball 3^ inches diameter reads\\n375 X 3.75=14.0625 x 375 52.734375 X-5236\\n=27.61 17187500=27^0 cubic inches in ball\\n3^-inch diameter.\\nQ, Does it take more air to burn coke\\nthan coal?", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "133\\nA. Yes, it takes one-tnird more air for\\ncoke than coal.\\nQ. How many cubic feet of air does it\\ntake to consume one pound of coke?\\nA. It takes 330^3. Example: 248 for\\ncoal; Ys of 248= 82^, added to 248= 330^.\\nQ. How are fractional parts of whole\\nnumbers made to read as whole numbers?\\nA. The fractional part of a whole num-\\nber is made to read as a whole number by\\ndividing the fractional part into 100 until\\nnothing remains; answer will be fractional\\npart in decimals, Example: of 100,\\n4^-ioo=.25X3=75-\\nQ. How are they found, take T of $1,\\nfor instance?\\nA. One=$i.00. Divide 16 into 100 until\\nnothing remains. 16^ 100=6.25 X 3=18.75,\\nor i8^c= T 3 e of $1.00.\\nQ. How do you understand the horse\\npower of a boiler?\\nA. The evaporation of 1 cubic foot of\\nwater per hour.\\nQ. How do you understand the horse\\npower of a steam engine?\\nA. 33,000 lbs. raised 1 foot high in I\\nminute.\\nQ. Give an explanation of a horse power?", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "134\\nA. First compare the rule with the actual\\npower of a horse, and then apply it to the\\nsteam engine. The usual traveling gate of\\na horse, hitched to a light sulky is about\\n5 miles an hour, or 440 feet per minute. If\\na spring scale be attached to the singletree\\nwe may note the amount of power the horse\\nis exerting. Assuming this to be 75 lbs.\\nand the product of the speed per minute\\n440, multiply speed by lbs. or power exerted\\nand the answer is 33,000 foot lbs., and rep-\\nresents a horse power.\\nQ. How is this applied to an engine?\\nA. In applying this to an engine, we first\\nfind the area of the cylinder, mutiply area\\nby boiler pressure, and that answer by pis-\\nton speed in feet per minute, and divide by\\n33,000. Answer will be nominal H. P.\\nQ. What deduction for cut off?\\nA. Deduct }i.\\nQ. How much for short cut-off?\\nA. Deduct j\u00c2\u00a3.\\nQ. Why is this reduction made?\\nA. It is made for variation of pressures-\\nfriction, condensation, etc.\\nQ. Are you acquainted with any short\\nrule by which a cylinder H. P. can be rated?\\nA. For small cylinders, from 2 to 12 inch", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "135\\nbore multiply diameter by itself and divide\\nby 3. Answer is H. P. For larger cylinders\\nfrom 16 to 20 divide by 4. Answer is H. P.\\nQ. Explain why engines with large cylin-\\nders as a rule have 3, 4 and 5 drivers on one\\nside, also all of them connected?\\nA. The more drivers the more traction\\non the rail and the more load can be started.\\nThe reason for connecting all is more trac-\\ntion, and the heavy strain on the main pin\\ndivided up between other pins through the\\nparallel rods.\\nQ. Is the piston-head in the middle of\\nthe cylinder s length when the crank pin is\\nat either half stroke?\\nA. No.\\nQ. What is the cause of this?\\nA. It is caused by the main rod s length.\\nQ. Which travels the greater distance in\\none revolution, the cross head or the crank\\npin?\\nA. The crank pin,\\nQ. How much further does the crank pin\\ntravel than the crosshead in one-half revo-\\nlution, also in one revolution?\\nA. The crank pin travels one-sixth fur\\nther in a half revolution and one-third in\\none revolution.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "Q. Does the crosshead stop in the guides\\nat each dead point?\\nA. Yes.\\nQ. What is the crank pin doing while the\\ncrosshead is at dead point?\\nA. It is traveling one-sixth of the circum-\\nference.\\nQ. How many sixths are there in the\\ntravel of the crank pin?\\nA. There are six, one at each dead center\\ndivided into twelfths, and two for each full\\nstroke of crosshead=six.\\nQ. What is the object in beveling engine\\nand car wheels?\\nA. They are beveled to make up the dif-\\nference as much as possible between the\\nshort and long rail in turning a curve, also\\nto keep the train central between the rails.\\nQ. How does one know where to look\\nfor tensile strength, and what is tensile\\nstrength?\\nA. Generally the sheets are stamped,\\ngiving the exact T. S., and the meaning of\\nthe term is the amount of the hydraulic\\nstrain the sheet will test to per square inch\\nin pulling asunder.\\nQ. Is it rulable to use full T. S. in work-\\ning a boiler?\\nA. No; about one-sixth of it.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "137\\nRULES AND RECIPES.\\nTo compute the speed of shafts, size of pul-\\nleys, etc. Example To find the size of a\\ndriven pulley to give a shaft 160 revolutions\\ndriven by a 32-inch driver running 96 revolu-\\ntions; simply multiply the driver, 32, by the\\nspeed it runs and divide by speed wanted.\\n96x32 3072 -f- 160 19-inch pulley.\\nTO TEST QUALITY OF IRON.\\nA soft, tough iron is known by fracture giv-\\ning long silky fibres of a grayish hue, and the\\nfibres covering and twisting together before\\nbreaking. Badly refined iron is known by its\\nshort blackish fibre. Brittle iron is indicated\\nby coarse grain with brilliant crystalized\\nbreak. This iron works easy, and welds easily\\nwhen heated.\\nTO TEST STEEL.\\nGood tool steel will fall to pieces at a white\\nheat; at a bright red it will crumble under the\\nhammer; at middle heat it may be drawn to a\\nneedle point.\\nTo test hardening qualities Draw under a\\nlow heat to a gradually tapered square point\\nand plunge into cold water; if broken point\\nwill scratch glass the quality is good.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "138\\nRecipe to Polish Boiler-Heads, Fire-\\nBoxes, Smoke-Arches, Stacks, Etc. Take\\nan old sponge and common soap and make\\na suds; pour on some boiled oil and rub\\nover boiler-heads, etc. This will leave a\\nsatin gloss polish instantly; do while warm.\\nReceipt to Cool Hot Pins, Journals, Etc.\\nUse small quantity of ammonia; work it\\nthrough the oil cup; it will surprise you.\\nPulverized sulphur and plumbago mixed\\nwith machine oil is very good.\\nCalendar Calculations. Rule to find on\\nwhich day of the week any date will fall,\\nin the future or past. Example: Set down\\nthe last two figures of the year, say 95. The\\ny\u00c2\u00b1 of 95=23 (dropping the fractions), then\\nadd the date desired, say Feb. 3; then add\\nthe standard number following the month\\nof February, which is 6; add all together\\nand divide by 7, which are the seven days of\\nthe week; the answer remaining is 1; there-\\nfore Feb. 3, 1895, falls on the 1st day,\\nSunday.\\n95 year.\\n23 X year.\\n3 days.\\n6 Month No.\\n7)127(18\\n126\\n1 Sunday.\\nMonths with standard numbers: Jan. 3, Feb.\\n6, March 6, April 2, May 4, June o, July 2,\\nAug. 5, Sept. 1, Oct. 3, Nov. 6, Dec. 1.\\n1 remaining represents Sunday.\\n2\\nMonday.\\n3\\nTuesday.\\n4\\nu Wedn day.\\n5\\nThursday.\\n6\\n1 Friday.\\n7 or\\n1 Saturday.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "139\\nTo test tenacity Take a hardened piece\\nand drive it into cast iron with hardened ham-\\nmer; if poor it will crumble. Soft steel of\\ngood quality gives a curved line break and\\ngray texture. Tool steel should be a dull silver\\ncolor, equal and entirely free from sparkling\\nqualities. Aquafortis, applied to the surface\\nof steel, produces a black spot; and on iron\\nthe surface remains clean. The slightest vein\\nof iron or steel can be detected by this method.\\nTo remove dust from steel, brush the rusted\\nsteel with a paste composed of y 2 oz. cyanide\\nof potassium, y 2 oz. castile soap, one oz.\\nwhiting and enough water to make a paste;\\nthen wash the steel in a solution of y 2 oz.\\ncyudide of potassium in two ozs. of water.\\nTO CLEAN BRASS.\\nTake and mix one part common nitric acid,\\ny 2 part sulphuric acid, in a stove, having also\\na pail of fresh water and a box of sawdust.\\nDip articles into acid, and then soak in water,\\nand finally rub them in sawdust, and the brass\\nwill be bright.\\nIf the brass is greasy, first dip into a strong\\nsolution of potash and soda in water; then\\nrinse, so the grease may be removed, leaving\\nthe acid free to act upon the brass.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "140\\nTo keep machinery from rusting Take\\none oz. of camphor and dissolve it in one\\npound of melted lard; take off the scum, and\\nmix in as much fine black as will give it iron\\ncolor. Clean the machinery and smear it\\nwith the mixture. After 24 hours, rub clean\\nwith a soft linen cloth. It will keep clean for\\nmonths under ordinary circumstances.\\nBOILER COVERING.\\nTake 16 pounds of rye flour, 32 pounds flax\\nseed meal and 15 gallons of water, boil for one\\nhour; then add three pails of dry clay, three\\npails of sifted ashes and seven pounds of hair.\\nThe above proportions will make about one\\nbarrel. For outside finishing, use half the\\namount of hair.\\nCEMENT.\\nCement to fasten iron to stone; when made,\\nuse at once. Take ten parts of fine iron filings;\\nthirty parts of plaster of paris and j\u00c2\u00a3 part of\\nsalammoniac, mix with weak vinegar to a fluid\\npaste, and apply at once as it sets very quickly.\\nTo avoid tearing manhole gaskets, put a\\nlittle white lead on the surface of the gasket,\\nwhich rests on the manhole plate, and chalk\\nthe outer surface of the gasket heavily, as", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "141\\nalso the part of the manhole frame with which\\nit comes in contact.\\nSTEAM HEATING.\\nAllow one square foot of heating surface in\\na boiler for every 200 feet of space in a church]\\nin a dwelling allow one square foot to every 50\\ncubic feet. The radiators should have one\\nsquare foot of superficial area to every six\\nsquare feet of glass in windows, and one square\\nfoot for every 80 feet to be heated.\\nOne horse power in a boiler is generally\\nsufficient for 40,000 cubic feet of space for a\\ntemperature of 70 degrees Fahr.\\nCAPACITY OF TANKS.\\nTo ascertain the capacity of a tank, multiply\\nthe square of the diameter by 5.873 and the re-\\nsult will give gallons for one foot in depth.\\nExample Tank 10 feet in diameter\\n10x10 100x5. 873 587 gallons. To find ca-\\npacity of square tank in gallons multiply\\nlength by breadth, then by height in inches^\\ncubic contents and divide by 231 (number of\\ncubic inches in a standard gallon).\\nSafe working pressure of a boiler Multiply\\nttvice the thickness of the shell by the tensile\\nstrength (found stamped on boiler sheet) and\\ndivide by the diameter of the shell in inches.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "142\\nRule to determine weight on safety valve\\nlever Multiply area of valve by pressure of\\nsteam per square inch wanted to blow off at\\nfrom this answer subtract the weight of lever,\\nvalve, stem and pin; then multiply the remain-\\nder by the distance from the valve to the ful-\\ncrum; divide by the distance from fulcrum to\\nwhere weight is to be placed; the answer will\\nbe the required weight\\nTO CUT A GLASS GAUGE TUBE.\\nIf tube is too long, take a three-cornered file\\nand wet it; hold the tube in one hand with the\\nthumb and fore-finger at the place where you\\nwish to *cut it; saw it quickly and lightly two\\nor three times with the edge of the file. Now\\ntake the tube in both hands, both thumbs being\\nat the opposite side to the mark and about one\\ninch apart, then try to bend the glass, using\\nyour thumb as fulcrum. It will break at the\\nmark every time.\\nLIME WATER.\\nTo make a lime water for scalds and burns\\nSlack a small piece of lime; as soon as the\\nwater is clear, mix it with linseed oil, enough\\nto make a cream-like substance. This will ex-\\nclude the air from the burnt parts and allay in-\\nflammation almost instantly.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "143\\nCALCULATING INTEREST,\\nSHORT RULES.\\nIf at six per cent, multiply the dollars by the\\nnumber of days and divide by six, and cut off\\none figure on the right. Example what is the\\ninterest on $73.25 from April 12th to July 15th,\\nwhich is 94 days? 73:25 X 94=6885-^-6=$1.15.\\nIf at seven per cent, after following above rule,\\nadd 1-6 thus, 1.15 19 11.34. If at five per\\ncent, after following the rule, deduct 1-6 thus,\\n1.15-1-9 96 cents.\\nBRICK WORK\\nFOR BOILERS AND ENGINE BEDS.\\nThe size of a common brick is 2.66 X 3.85 X\\n7.70 the size of a fire brick is 2.66 X 4| X 8$.\\nWeight of brick work is ll2 pounds per\\ncubic foot weight of stone work is from 116 to\\n144 pounds per cubic foot, 21 bricks equal one\\ncubic foot, 4J bricks laid flat equal one superfi-\\ncial foot. In setting boilers use only the best\\nhard brick for walls, and the best fire brick for\\nlining furnace surfaces. If the boiler has side\\nlugs to bear its weight, the forward lugs should\\nrest directly on lug plates placed on the walls,\\nand the rear lugs on expansion rollers placed\\ncrosswise on the wall plates under the centre of\\niugs. Keep the brick work away from the lug3", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "over expansion rollers, you will not be bothered\\nwith cracked walls.\\nThe bridge walls should be faced and capped\\nyylih fire brick, and built up within six inches\\nof the shell, sloped toward the back, circular\\nwith the boiler. The flue at back of boiler\\nshould be formed by an arch spring from side-\\nwalls, or by wrought iron plates covered with\\ntwo thicknesses of brick, these plates to be sup-\\nported by T iron cross-beams set flush on under\\nside and below the manhole of boiler or below\\nthe water line.\\nTo know the number of bric s it will take to\\nset a boiler in 12 inch walls: multiply length of\\nwall by height in feet, and multiply by 21 (the\\nnumber of bricks in a cubic foot.) Example:\\nwall 15 feet long, 8 feet high, opposite wall the\\nsame, rear wall 5X8, bridge wall 5 feet long, 2\\nfeet wide, average 3 feet high; 15 X 8 120 two\\nwalls 240 5X8=40 5X2 10X3 30 240\\n40+ 30=310 cubic feet; which multiplied by\\n21 6510 bricks. This will take 6 J barrels of\\nlime and 6J barrels of sand as mortar. Allow-\\nance is to be made for the covering of top of\\nboiler paving ashpit and for fire brick in build-\\ning front connection, Use only fire clay in fur-\\nnace. Lime mortar mixed with very little ce-\\nment is good for pits. Lime mortar stands heat\\nbetter than cement.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "145\\nENGINE FOUNDATION.\\nThe foundation of an engine should be built\\none foot lower than the fly wheel and one width\\nof a brick wider all around the bed plate of en-\\ngine and 14 inches wider^t the base all around.\\nOut bearing pillow block should be built the\\nsame in proportion and run a stay or brace from\\nengine bed to pillow block brick work.\\nTo ascertain the number of bricks required,\\nfind the average width and length, then multi-\\nply length by width by full height, and then by\\n21, which gives number of bricks. Use hard\\nburnt brick or bats for filling, or fill with rubble\\nor concrete made of three barrels of stone rub-\\nbish, two barrels of sand, and one barrel of ce-\\nment, mix and wet down The foundation\\nshould be laid in cement and sand mixed, one\\npart sand and two parts cement. To every 1000\\nbricks use two barrels cement and one barrel of\\nsand.\\nTo ascertain the expansion of wrought iron\\npipes. Multiply the length of pipe in inches\\nby the number of degrees to which it is heated,\\nand divide by Ij-^q, which gives the expansion\\nin inches. Cast iron pipe expands li^ 2 of its\\nlength for each degree Fahr. it is subjected to\\nunder ordinary circumstances. Wrought iron\\nP*P e Ip^* A. two incb pipe when heated to\\n10", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "146\\n338 degrees Fahr. or 100 pounds pressure,\\nexerts an expansion force of twenty -five tons,\\nThe melting, boiling, and freezing points of\\nvarious substances, and metals in alphabetic\\nform.\\nMELTING.\\nAntimony melts at 951 D eg.\\nBismuth melts at 476\\nBrass melts at. 1900\\nCast Iron melts at 3479\\nCopper melts at.....,, 2548\\nGlass melts at 2377\\nGold melts at 2590\\nIce melts at 32\\nLead melts at 594\\nPlatinum melts at 3080\\nSilver melts at 1250\\nSteel melts at 2500\\nTin melts at 421\\nZinc melts at 740\\nBOILING.\\nEther boils at 100. Beg.\\nFresh water boils at 212.\\nLinseed Oil boils at 340.\\nMercury boils at 662.\\nNaptha boils at 186.\\nOil of turpentine boils at 304.\\nSea water boils at 213.\\nSweet Oil boils at 412.\\nFEEEZING.\\nEther freezes at 47. Belew Zero.\\nMercury freezes at 40.\\nSea Water freezes at 28.\\nSweet Water freezes at 32. Above\\nWine freezes at 20. u\\nAlcohol has no record of ever having been frozen.\\nThe claim is that alcohol has been exposed to one\\nhundred and twenty degrees below zero without\\nfreezing.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "147\\nHOW SOUND TRAVELS.\\nIn dry air at 82 degrees 1141 feet per second,\\ncr about 775 miles per hour in water, 4,900\\nfeet per second in iron, 17,500 feet; in copper,\\n10,378 feet; and in wood from 12,000 to 16,000\\nfeet per second. In water a bell heard at 45,-\\n000 feet could be heard in the air out of the\\nwater but 656 feet. In a balloon the barking of\\na dog on the earth can be heard at an elevation\\nof 22,000 feet or four miles.\\nDivers on the wreck of the Huzzar frigate, one\\nhundred feet under water at Hell gate, near\\nNew York, heard the paddle wheels of distant\\nsteamers hours before they^hove in sight. The\\nreport of a rifle on a still day may be heard at\\n5,300 yards a military band at 5,20ft yards.\\nThe fire of the English on landing in Egypt was\\ndistinctly heard 130 miles. Dr. Jamieson said\\nhe heard, during a calm day, every word of a\\nsermon at a distance of two miles,\\nThe first steamboat plied the Hudson in 1807.\\nThe first saw-maker s anvil was brought to America\\nin 1819.\\nThe first use of a locomotive in this country was in\\n1820.\\nThe first use of a stationary engine was in 1625.\\nThe first use of kerosene for lighting purposes was\\nin 1826.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "148\\nThe first horse railroad was built in 1826 and 27.\\nThe first lucifer match was made in 1829.\\nThe first iron steamship was built in 1830.\\nThe first air pump was used in 1650.\\nThe first newspaper advertisment appeared in 1652.\\nThe first copper cent was coined in New Haven in\\n1687.\\nHow to destroy the effects of acid on clothes\\ndampen as soon as possible with spirits of am-\\nmonia and the effect will be destroyed immedi-\\nately,\\nA good cement to stop holes in castings is\\neight parts of sifted cast iron turnings, two\\nparts of powdered salammoniac and one part\\nsulpher made into thick paste with water and\\nmixed fresh for use is very fine.\\nTo make a fine oil for watches or fine machin-\\nery. Put thin strips of lead in a large mouth\\nbottle and pour over pure olive oil, and leave it\\nstand in the sun about three weeks, then pour\\noff the clear oil, and you will have an oil which\\nwhich will neither corrode or gum.\\nA good varnish for boiler fronts, smoke stacks\\nand steam pipes is good asphaltum, dissolved in\\noil of turpentine.\\nCement for joints for steam exhaust or waste\\npipes that will set under water Paris white\\n,ground, four pounds; litharge ground, ten\\npounds, yellow ochre, fine, half pound; hemp,", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "149\\none -half oz., cut short and mix all together with\\nlinseed oil to a stiff putty.\\nTEMPERING.\\nTempering of fine springs, after bringing to\\nthe proper shape desired heat slowly to a cher-\\nry red and plunge in black oil after the spring\\nis cool hold it over the fire and burn the oil off;\\ndip the spring in the oil three times in this man-\\nneer and burn off each time; after the last burn-\\ning plunge into water and cool preparatory to\\npolishing.\\nTo temper engraver s diamond point tools,\\nheat to nearly white heat and stick the tool into\\nsealing wax until cool, then dip point into oil of\\nturpentine.\\nTo temper common flat, cape or side chisels\\nand flat drills. Shape them ready for the grind-\\nstone, then heat the points about two or three\\ninches back to cherry red and plunge point into\\nluke warm water, leaving the black part warm to\\ndrive out the temper to the point, polish point\\nwith sand and watch results. When proper\\ntemper is attained, plunge whole tool into cold\\nwater.\\nColors For chipping or drilling cast iron the\\ntools should be dark straw turning to blue. Color\\nfor steel and iron should be pretty near blue,\\nand softer than for cast iron.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "150\\nTo join a band saw when broken: Bevel each\\nend the length of two blades, fasten saw in braz-\\ning clamp, wet the joint with solder water made\\nof borax rubbed on slate with water, place piece\\nof silver solder in joint full size and squeeze\\ntogether with red hot tor\u00c2\u00bbgs. When solder fuses\\nthrow water on tongs and cool while holding the\\njoint. Hammer saw if necessary and draw file\\ndown to proper thickness.\\nTo renew worn files thorougly cleanse them\\nfrom grease or oil with alkali, then dip them in\\na solution made with one part nitric acid, three\\nparts sulphuric acid, seven parts water by\\nweight time, five seconds to five minutes, ac-\\ncording to fineness of cut. Wash in hot water,\\ndip in lime water, dry and oil them.\\nTo inscribe metal cover the part with melted\\nbeeswax; when cold, write what you desire\\nplainly in the wax clean to the metal with scri-\\nber, then apply a mixture of oz. nitric acid,\\n1 oz. muriatic acid, with a feather, carefully fill\\neach letter let it remain from one to ten min-\\nutes according to appearance desired, then\\nthrow on water to stop the process of cutting^\\nheat wax to remove it, and you have your name.\\nTo draw an ellipse, such as man-holes and\\nhand-holes. This can be done by means of a\\nstring, pencil and two pins. First lay two lines", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "151\\neauii crossing the other in the middle; these\\nlines to represent the length and breadth of the\\nfigure mark the ends of lines A, B, C, D, and\\nthen divide the major axis A, B into eight parts,\\nand fix two pins at the divisions, one and seven,\\nas per cut, now fasten one end of a string to 7,\\nand stick a temporary pin at D, pass the string\\naround it and make the string fast to the pin at\\n1 3 then remove the temporary pin, put the point\\nof a pencil, as x, inside the loop and describe\\nthe ellipse, then shift the position of the string\\nto the other side of the line A, B, and describe\\nthe other half.\\nTo make a square or. erect a perpendicular\\nline from any point in a straight line. Let the\\npoint C on the straight line A, B, be the one at\\nwhich it is required to erect a perpendicular.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "152\\nNow, to do this, set one leg of a pair of dividers\\nat C, and then open them to any convenient dis-\\nx\\n-B\\nX\\ntance, say four or twenty inches, C, a, b, put\\npoint of dividers at small a, and cross about\\nwhere the perpendicular should stand, then\\nstrike another from where b is, and where the\\ntwo arcs cross join with C, and the perpendicu-\\nlar line will be the square with parallel line\\n(45 degrees.)", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "153\\nRule to find CIRCUMFERENCES; Multiply the diameter by 3.1416.\\nTo find the diameter: Divide the circumference by 3.1416, also find\\nthe diameter by multiplying the circumference by .31831.\\nSize.\\nCm.\\nSize.\\nClR.\\nSize.\\nClR.\\ni\\n.3926\\n10\\n31.41\\n30\\n94.24\\n.7854\\ni\\n2\\n32.98\\n31\\n97.38\\nI\\n1.178\\n11\\n34.55\\n32\\n100.5\\ni\\n1.570\\nJ\\n36.12\\n33\\n103.6\\n5\\n8\\n1.963\\n12\\n37.69\\n34\\n106.8\\n3\\n4\\n2.356\\ni\\n39.27\\n35\\n109.9\\ni\\n2.748\\n13\\n40.84\\n36\\n113.0\\n1\\n3.141\\nJ\\n42.41\\n37\\n116.2\\ni\\n3.534\\n14\\n43.98\\n38\\n119.3\\n1\\n3.927\\nJ\\n45.55\\n39\\n122.5\\n3\\n8\\n4.319\\n15\\n47.12\\n40\\n125.6\\n4.712\\ni\\n48.69\\n41\\n128.8\\n1\\n5.105\\n16\\n50.26\\n42\\n131.9\\ni\\n5.497\\ni\\n51.83\\n43\\n135.0\\n7\\n5.890\\n17\\n53.40\\n44\\n138.2\\n2\\n6.283\\ni\\n54.97\\n45\\n141.3\\ni\\n7.068\\n18\\n56.54\\n46\\n144.5\\ni\\n7.854\\ni\\n58.11\\n47\\n147.6\\nf\\n8.639\\n19\\n59.69\\n48\\n150.7\\n3\\n9.424\\ni\\n2~\\n61.26\\n49\\n153.9\\ni\\nJ 0.21\\n20\\n62.83\\n50\\n157.0\\n1\\n2\\n10.99\\nJ\\n64.40\\n51\\n160.2\\n5.\\n4\\n11.78\\n21\\n65.97\\n52\\n165.3\\n4\\n12.56\\nJ\\n67.54\\n53\\n166.5\\ni\\n2\\n14.13\\n22\\n69.11\\n54\\n169.9\\n5\\n15.70\\nJ\\n70.68\\n55\\n172.7\\ni\\n17.27\\n23\\n72.25\\n56\\n175.9\\n6\\n18.84\\nJ\\n73.82\\n57\\n179.0\\ni\\n20.42\\n24\\n75.39\\n58\\n182.2\\n7\\n21.99\\ni\\nf\\n76.96\\n59\\n185.3\\ni\\n2\\n23.56\\n25\\n78.54\\n60\\n188.4\\n8\\n25.13\\n26\\n81.68\\n61\\n1W1.6\\ni\\n26.70\\n27\\n84.82\\n62\\n194.7\\n9\\n28.27\\n28\\n87.96\\n63\\n197.9\\n28.84\\n29\\n91.10\\n64\\n201.0", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "154\\nHEIGHTS AND MEASURES\\nTBOT WEIGHT.\\n24 grains Pennyweight (dw*.*\\n20 pennyweights 1 ounce (oi.) 480 grains.\\n12 ounces 1 P\u00c2\u00b0 und b 6760 gramSl\\n1 scruple.\\n20 grains\\n3 scruples ran 60 ram8\\n8 drams ounce 48 e\\n12 ounces 1 P\u00c2\u00b0 und 5760 raIB8\\nAV0IBDUP0IS WEIGHT.\\nldram.\\n27.34375 grains\\n16 drams 1 nc B\u00e2\u0084\u00a2\u00e2\u0084\u00a2\\nlOounces 1 P ound 700 r ng\\n28 pounds l a f er (q\\n4 quarters 1 hundredweight (cwt.) 112 pounds.\\n20 hundredweight 1 ton (T) 2240 pounds.\\nV. S. LIQUID MEASUBE.\\n4rill8 lpint(pt) 28.875 cubic inches.\\n2 p int s 1 quart (qt.) 57.750 cubic .nches\\n4 quarts. i *no\u00c2\u00bb io\\nP gallons 1 Ogshead (hhd.\\nhogsheads -^JW\\n2 pipes\\nU. S. DEY MEASITBE.\\nints 1 quart (qt.) 67.2006 cubic inches,\\n4 quarts i p*. 268.8o 25 inch-.\\n2 gallons 1 peck (pk.) 16 pts. 8 qts. 537.605 cubic inches\\n4 pecks 1 bushel (bush) 64 pts. 32 qts. 8 gals. 2150.42 cubic inches.\\nLONG MEASITBE.\\n1 foot (ft.)\\nf f :r. Z. ...l yard (yd.) 36 inches.\\nX 1 rod (rd.) 16 feet.\\nIZlZ :Z:::::. .l fur long(fur.) 220yards 660 feet.\\nf fu on s i^w awn.*, im^\\n3mUes. :.:.....neaguel.) 960 rods 5280 r ds 15840 feet.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "155\\nPROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM.\\ni3 2 JL d\\nPressure.\\nd\\nVolume.\\nO eS dM\\n5-i O\\nd\\n3 5\\n2\\n3^\\nS 3\\n,d\\no* cj u\\nfe j-\\nBy\\nh,\\nCom-\\nCubic feet of\\nr* rt W\\ntsts 3 \u00c2\u00a92\\nSteam\\nTotal\\nrt\\nis*\\npared\\nwith\\nSteam from\\ne? J3\\nu u, -T-\\nGuage\\nwater.\\n1 lb. of water.\\nota\\nSi\\ntea\\n2 d\\ntan\\neat\\nfc-i -moc co oD^a\\n15\\n212.0\\n1642\\n26.36\\n965.2\\n1146.1\\n5\\n20\\n228.0\\n1229\\n19.72\\n952.8\\n1150.9\\n10\\n25\\n240.1\\n996\\n15.99\\n945.3\\n1154.6\\n15\\n30\\n250.4\\n838\\n13.46\\n937.9\\n1157.8\\n20\\n35\\n259.3\\n726\\n11.65\\n9316\\n1160.5\\n25\\n40\\n267,3\\n640\\n10.27\\n926.0\\n1162.9\\n30\\n45\\n274.4\\n572\\n9.18\\n920.9\\n1165.1\\n35\\n50\\n281.0\\n518\\n8.31\\n916.3\\n1167.1\\n40\\n55\\n287.1\\n474\\n7.61\\n912.0\\n1169.0\\n45\\n60\\n292.7\\n437\\n7.01\\n908.0\\n1170.7\\n50\\n65\\n298.0\\n405\\n6.49\\n904.2\\n1172.3\\n55\\n70\\n302.9\\n378\\n6.07\\n900.8\\n1173.8\\n60\\n75\\n307.5\\n353\\n5.68\\n897.5\\n1175.2\\n65\\n80\\n312.0\\n333\\n5.35\\n894.3\\n1176.5\\n70\\n85\\n316.1\\n314\\n5.05\\n891.4\\n1177.9\\n75\\n90\\n320.2\\n298\\n4.79\\n888.5\\n1179.1\\n80\\n95\\n324.1\\n283\\ni.55\\n885.8\\n1180.3\\n85\\n100\\n327.9\\n270\\n4.33\\n883.1\\n1181.4\\n90\\n105\\n331.3\\n257\\n4.14\\n880.7\\n1182.4\\n95\\n110\\n334.6\\n247\\n3.97\\n878.3\\n1183.5\\n100\\n115\\n338.0\\n237\\n3.80\\n875.9\\n1184.5\\n110\\n125\\n344.2\\n219\\n3.51\\n871.5\\n1186.4\\n120\\n135\\n350.1\\n203\\n3.27\\n867.4\\n1188.2\\n130\\n145\\n355.6\\n190\\n3.06\\n863.5\\n1189.9\\n140\\n155\\n361.0\\n179\\n2.87\\n859.7\\n1191.5\\n150\\n165\\n366.0\\n169\\n2.71\\n856.2\\n1192.9\\n160\\n175\\n370.8\\n159\\n2.56\\n852.9\\n1194.4\\n170\\n185\\n375.3\\n151\\n2.43\\n849.6\\n1195.8\\n180\\n195\\n379.7\\n144\\n2.31\\n846.5\\n1197.2\\nThis table gives the value of all properties of\\nsaturated steam required in calculations connected\\nwith steam boilers.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "156\\nAREA OF CIRCLES.\\nTo find the area of a circle, square the diameter\\nand multiply by .7854.\\nSize.\\nArea.\\nSize.\\nArea.\\nSize.\\nArea.\\nSize.\\nArea.\\nVs\\n0.0123\\n10\\n78.54\\n30\\n706.86\\n65\\n3318.3\\n0.0491\\n86.59\\n31\\n754.75\\n66\\n3421.2\\n0.1104\\n11\\n95.03\\n32\\n804.24\\n67\\n3525.6\\ny\\n0.1963\\ny\\n103.86\\n33\\n855.30\\n68\\n3631.6\\n0.3067\\n12\\n113.09\\n34\\n907.92\\n69\\n3739.2\\n0.4417\\n122.71\\n35\\n962.11\\n70\\n3848.4\\n0.6013\\n13\\n132.73\\n36\\n1017.8\\n71\\n3959.2\\ni\\n0.7854\\ny 2\\n143.13\\n37\\n1075.2\\n72\\n4071.5\\nVs\\n0.9940\\n14\\n153.93\\n38\\n1134.1\\n73\\n4185.3\\ny*\\n1.227\\n165.13\\n39\\n1194.5\\n74\\n4300.8\\n1.484\\n15\\n186.71\\n40\\n1256.6\\n75\\n4417.8\\ny\\n1.767\\ny\\n188.69\\n41\\n1320.2\\n76\\n4536.4\\n2.073\\n16\\n201.06\\n42\\n1385.4\\n77\\n4656.0\\n2.405\\nX\\n213-82\\n43\\n1452.2\\n78\\n4778.3\\n2.761\\n17\\n226.98\\n44\\n1520.5\\n79\\n4901.6\\n2\\n3.141\\nH\\n240.52\\n45\\n1590.4\\n80\\n5026.5\\n3.976\\n18\\n254.46\\n46\\n1661.9\\n81\\n5153.0\\ny\\n4.908\\nx 2\\n268.80\\n47\\n1734-9\\n82\\n5281.0\\n5.939\\n19\\n283.52\\n48\\n1809.5\\n83\\n5410.6\\n3\\n7.068\\nK\\n298.64\\n49\\n1885.7\\n84\\n5541.7\\n8.295\\n20\\n314.16\\n50\\n1963.5\\n85\\n5674.5\\ny*\\n9.621\\nH\\n330.06\\n5l\\n2042.8\\n86\\n5808.8\\n11.044\\n21\\n346.36\\n52\\n2123.7\\n87\\n5944.6\\n4\\n12.566\\ny\\n363.05\\n53\\n2206.1\\n88\\n6082.1\\nX\\n15.904\\n22\\n380.13\\n54\\n2290.2\\n89\\n6221.1\\n5\\n19.635\\ny\\n397.60\\n55\\n2375.8\\n90\\n6361.7\\ny\\n23.758\\n23\\n415.47\\n56\\n2463.0\\n91\\n6503.8\\n6\\n28.274\\ny\\n24\\n433.73\\n57\\n2551.7\\n92\\n6647.6\\n33.183\\n452.39\\n58\\n2642.0\\n93\\n6792.9\\n7\\n38.484\\ny\\n471.43\\n59\\n2733.9\\n94\\n6939.7\\ny\\n44.178\\n25\\n490.87\\n60\\n2827.4\\n95\\n7088.2\\ns\\n50.265\\n26\\n530.93\\n61\\n2922.4\\n96\\n7238.2\\ny\\n56.745\\n27\\n572.55\\n62\\n3019.0\\n97\\n7389.8\\n9\\n63.617\\n28\\n615.75\\n63\\n3117.2\\n98\\n7542.9\\n70.882\\n29\\n660.52\\n64\\n3216.9\\n99\\n7697.7", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "157\\nMISCELLANEOUS.\\nPaints, Calcimining, Stains, Colors, etc.\\nSoak one pound of white calcimine glue in\\nenough water to cover it, over night; then dis-\\nsolve in boiling water, add twenty pounds of\\nwhiting diluted with water until the mixture is\\nof the consistency of cream. To this any tint\\ncan be given that is desired.\\nTINTS.\\nLilac Add to the calcimine two parts of\\nPrussian blue and one of vermillion, stirring\\nthoroughly and taking care to avoid too high a\\ncolor.\\nGray Raw umber with a small amount of\\nlampblack.\\nRose Three parts of vermillion and one of\\nred lead added in very small quantities until a\\ndelicate shade is produced.\\nLavender Mix a light blue and tint it\\nslightly with vermillion.\\nStraw Chrome yellow with a touch of\\nSpanish brown.\\nBuff Two parts spruce or Indian yellow and\\none part burnt sienna.\\nWOOD STAINS.\\nMahogony Boil one oz. extract of logwood\\nand two ozs. fustic in one quart of water;", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "158\\nbrush the wood with this, then go over with a\\nweak solution of potash.\\nBlack Dissolve one oz. extract of logwood\\nin one quart of water; wash the wood with the\\nsolution. When dry, wash in vinegar in which\\nrusty iron has been steeped for several days.\\nGolden Yellow Put oz. powdered turme-\\nric in five fluid ounces alcohol in a closely stop-\\npered bottle, let stand a week in a warm place,\\nshake it occasionally, then strain off clear.\\nBlack Walnut Scald pound burnt umber\\nin one pint of vinegar; strain, and apply with a\\nsponge, when dry rub hard; repeat the staining\\nuntil sufficiently dark.\\nWalnut No. 2 Asphaltum thinned with tur-\\npentine produces a splendid imitation of the\\nnatural wood. It must be varnished after\\nstaining.\\nWalnut No. 3 Very thin sized shellac, one\\ngallon; dry umber, burnt, one lb,; rose pink,\\ny 2 lb.; Vandyke brown, burnt, lb.; mix, let\\nstand a day, then stir up and apply with a\\nsponge.\\nOrange Put one ounce turmeric and a\\ndrachm of gum tragacanth in a pint of alcohol;\\nshake well, and after standing four days, strain.\\nRed Two ozs. potash and two ozs. Brazil\\nwood in one quart of water; let stand in a warm", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "159\\nplace a few days, stirring occasionally; heat to\\na boiling point, and apply. Double the quan-\\ntity of potash (four ozs. will give a brilliant\\nrose color to the wood.\\nCherry, on white wood or pine Alcohol,\\none quart; ground turmeric, three ozs.; raw\\ngamboge,- \\\\y 2 ozs. Mix well, strain through\\nfine muslin, apply two coats with a sponge,\\nrub down well, and varnish.\\nAntique Oak Walnut oil, obtained of the\\ndruggist, if mixed with the filling applied to\\nred oak or white oak, it will produce the an-\\ntique effect so much sought after and used on\\nfurniture and interior finished houses.\\nQuantity of paints, material required for\\npriming, if tinted white lead is used, it will\\ntake twenty pounds of lead and five quarts o*\\nraw linseed oil.\\nFor second coat, twenty pounds of lead and\\none gallon of oil. If three- coat work is in-\\ntended, the amount of material required for\\npriming and completing the work will average\\nfifty pounds of lead and 2^\u00c2\u00a3 gallons of oil.\\nTo measure painting in square or 100 feet,\\nallow five lbs. of lead one quart of oil. It\\ntakes already mixed paints one gallon per coat\\nfor each 25 square yards.\\nAll should learn how to mix and apply", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "160\\npaint. Often at your leisure you can apply\\nyour time profitably about your home or en-\\ngine room to beautify the looks and value of\\nthe property.\\nWhen to Paint. Paint in the fall, winter or\\nearly spring, as paint at that season dries\\nslowly and makes a hard, glossy surface.\\nBrushes. The character of work done wil]\\ndetermine the kind of brush to use. One or\\ntwo flat and three round brushes of various\\nsizes will be sufficient; wire bound ones are the\\nmost durable. After use, the brushes should\\nbe thoroughly cleaned with turpentine and\\ncovered with tallow.\\nHouse Painting. If the house be new, the\\nknots should be covered with shellac to prevent\\nthe rosin from running and discolor the paint,\\nThe first coat is white lead and raw linseed oil;\\nboiled oil and turpentine are used in after\\ncoats. For inside finish, equal parts of boiled\\noil and turpentine are used for the second\\ncoat, and nearly all turpentine for last coat.\\nThe color desired should be in the last coat,\\nthe first being pure white lead.\\nHarmony of Colors. Care should be taken\\nnot to use the colors that would give an un-\\npleasing effect to the work.\\nCommon White Paints. Mix white lead", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "161\\nwith linseed oil, bringing to the consistency of\\npaste; then add one part turpentine to three\\nparts oil to right consistency.\\nMilk Paints. Mix water lime with skimmed\\nmilk to a proper degree of consistency, to be\\napplied with a brush. It will adhere to any-\\nthing where oil paint has not been used or ap-\\nplied, and is as durable as oil paint. Colors\\ndissolved in whiskey may be added if desired.\\nCompounding Colors. Any number of\\nshades of colors may be made by mixing other\\ncolois. The following shows how to produce\\nsome of the most popular shades\\nFlesh color is made with white lead, lake\\nand vermillion.\\nCream color is chrome yellow, Venetian red,\\nwhite lead and red lead in oil.\\nBuff is French yellow, chrome yellow and\\nwhite lead with tinge of Venetian red mixed in\\noil.\\nViolet Vermillion, blue black and little\\nwhite.\\nDark Red Mix Venetian red in boiled oil,\\nlittle red lead and litharge.\\nOrange Red lead and French yellow linseed\\noil.\\nBlack and Green. Durable and cheap black\\npaint is made by grinding powdered charcoal\\n11", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "162\\nin linseed oil, with a little litharge as a drier.\\nAdd yellow ochre to this and an excellent\\ngreen is obtained which will not fade.\\nCheap Paint for Out Buildings. Lime, one\\nbushel, and water to make a whitewash; min-\\neral paint, fift^ lbs.; road dust, fifty lbs.; add\\noil till it makes a paste, and thin with sweet\\nmilk.\\nCheap Oak Varnish. Boiled oil, two quarts;\\nlitharge, y 2 lb.; shellac, lb.; gum, one oz.;\\nboil till dissolved, then cool, and add two\\nquarts of turpentine.\\nGood Liniment for Man or Beast. Take\\noz. turpentine, y oz. tincture of aqua lauda-\\nnum, y 2 oz. oil of sassafras, y 2 oz. hemlock\\noil, two ozs. tincture myrrh, one oz. oil of ori-\\nganum, y oz. oil of wintergreen, one oz. chlo-\\nroform, one oz. camphor gum. Mix and apply\\nexternally to parts affected. Highly recom-\\nmended for rheumatism, sprains, bruises,\\nswellings, etc., on man or beast. Apply twice\\na day with naked hand; rub thoroughly.\\nIndelible Ink. Aniline black, one drop;\\nconcentrated hydro chloric acid, six* v y drops;\\nalcohol, y oz. Mix and add 1^| oz. gun.\\narabic difgol^ed in six ozs. soft water.\\nLiqaid Gla2. Dissolve good hard g_ue in\\nnifcris 3$Hi@gr. The ether will only take up a", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "163\\ncertain amount of the glue, so it will not\\nthicken. If small bits of India rubber be\\nadded it will resist dampness.\\nThe Use of Exhaust Steam for Heating\\nPurposes. Steam users and engineers have\\nlong been interested in the advantages to be\\nderived from the utilization of the exhaust\\nsteam from engines or steam pumps, instead of\\nwasting it into the air. By using it as a source\\nof heat to warm manufactories, buildings, etc.,\\nand for certain manufacturing processes re-\\nquiring heat, a large percentage of the thermal\\nvalue of the fuel consumed in boiler furnaces,\\nwhich is ordinarily lost, is utilized, thus insur-\\ning economy in fuel. The exhaust steam as it\\ncomes from the engine at a little more than 212\\ndegrees Fahr. can be, and is used, to some ad-\\nvantage and economy under certain condi-\\ntions, but experience has shown that owing to\\nits low temperature, moist condition and com-\\nparative slow velocity, it is less efficient for\\n.he purpose of conveying and radiating heat\\nthan steam of a higher temperature; that is\\ndable to sudden and rapid condensation, and\\nSat it is difficult to obtain a free circulation\\nfor heating purposes which eventuates in back\\npressure on the engine, neutralizing its value\\nby reason of the extra fuel required to enable", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "164\\nthe engine to carry the extra load. The limit\\nof fair economy in use of exhaust steam is two\\nto three pounds back pressure; beyond this,\\nuse live steam to assist in circulation. A re-\\nheater through which the gases pass after\\nleaving the furnace is a valuable improvement\\nin exhaust steam heating; about one hundred\\ndegrees of heat is imparted to exhaust steam\\nwithout interruption of draught or extra ex-\\npenditure of fuel by means of the heat that\\nwould otherwise go to water. Chimney gases\\nhave a temperature of 400 to 600 degrees,\\nwhile that of exhaust steam is about 212 de-\\ngrees. The economy of this method is there-\\nfore evident\\nHeating Feed Water. Trujs is a very im-\\nportant department of the steam plant; the\\nfeed water supplied to steam boilers has to be\\nheated from the normal temperature to that of\\nsteam before evaporation can take place, and\\nthis is generally done at the expense of the\\nfuel which should be utilized in making steam.\\nThe pressure at 75 pounds is 320 degrees heat;\\ntaking 60 degrees as the average temperature\\nof feed we have 260 units of heat per pound,\\nwhich, as it takes 1151 units to evaporate a\\npound from 60 degrees, represents a loss of\\n22;^ per cent of fuel. AH of this heat, there-", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "165\\nfore, which can be imparted to the feed water\\nis just so much saved, not only in cost of fuel,,\\nbut in capacity of boiler. All heat imparted\\nto feed water by injection and live steam\\nheaters is taken from the fuel and does not\\nrepresent any saving.\\nThere are two sources of waste heat avail-\\nable for this purpose exhaust steam partially\\nused and chimney gases.\\nCORLISS ENGINE.\\nThe valve gear of Corliss engines are easily\\nset, when one knows and understands a com-\\nmon slide-valve, as the four valves of a Corliss\\nengine represent the two steam and the two\\nexhaust edges of a common slide-valve.\\nTo set the Corliss valve, take off the back\\nvalve and exhaust valve chest heads. There\\nwill be found marks to set by. See that the\\nwrist plate and four valves are connected and\\ncentrally covering their respective ports, that\\nthe crank-pin is at dead centre, and the eccen-", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "166\\ntrie (heavy side) perpendicular. Move the\\neccentric the direction the engine is to be run\\nand show by the valve chest marks and the\\nedge of valve 1-16 lead (or opening) tighten\\n/he eccentric, and move the crank-pin to the\\nother dead centre, and notice if the other\\nsteam valve has the same lead; if equal, the\\nsteam valves are O. K. if not, make the adjust\\nof Yz it is out, by the connections between the\\nwrist plate and valve. Give the exhaust valves\\ndouble the lead of steam valves.\\nTo adjust the governor rods or tripping\\ncams, move the wrist plate to one extreme of\\nits travel, adjust the rod connecting with cut-off\\ncam on opposite steam valve, so cam will clear\\nthe steel 1-32 of an inch; then do the opposite\\nvalve the same. To equalize and test their\\ncorrectness, hook in the engine with eccentric\\nreach-rod and block up the governor about\\ninches, or about the average position the gov-\\nernor will be in when running; then have some\\none move the fly-wheel in the running direc-\\ntion, and take notice how far the crosshead\\n(from dead centre) has traveled when the\\nvalve unhooks; if the two valves unhook at the\\nsame distance from either dead point the cut-off\\nis equal; if otherwise, make adjustments and\\nbring it so they will cut-off equal.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "167\\nAUTOMATIC GOVERNORS.\\nThe governors on automatic engines are\\nconnected to the eccentric and fly (or balance)\\nwheel, and so connected by means of levers,\\nweights and springs, as to shorten the stroke\\nof the eccentric and valve when engine has\\nattained the proper speed at which it is set.\\nThe springs are set before leaving the work-\\nAUTOMATIO ENGINE.\\nshops, and should not be tampered with unless\\nto change the engine to a slower or higher\\nspeed. When an engineer wishes to do this he\\nmust adjust each spring and weight equally to\\na hair, or the engine will pound and run un-\\neven. Each builder of automatic engines sup-\\nplies each engine with a book of instructions\\nhaving therein de c oriptive cuts of valves;\\nmovements, etc.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "168\\nELECTKICITY.\\nIn this part of the book we will place in\\nquestions and answers the explanation of the\\ndynamo, electricity, etc.\\nQ. What is the cause of a thunder storm or\\nlightning\\nA. The common conception of a thunder\\nand lightning storm is that when clouds\\ncharged with the sun s potential energy, called\\nelectricity, approach and set up an inductive\\ncircuit to the earth, the earth forms the oppo-\\nsite condensing plate, and if the earth has the\\nleast resistance when the tension rises to a\\ndegree greater than the resistance can sustain,\\nthen the discharge will be from the clouds to\\nthe earth in a flash of fire, called lightning (or\\nthunder bolt) the thunder is caused by the rush\\nof the air together after being burnt out by the\\nlightning.\\nQ. Give the different measurements used\\nin electricity?\\nA. The Volt, which is the unit of\\nmeasure, known in dynamic terms as Pres-\\nsure. The Ampere is the measure of\\nelectricity or amount of current passed, or the\\namount transmitted or used. The Ohm,\\ncalled the resistance. The Coulomb, called", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "169\\nfoot pounds or a measure of current. Thje^\\nWatt, called the 746th part of an electrical\\nhorse power.\\nQ. State as near as you know the force of\\na thunderbolt?\\nA. The pressure would be about\\n3,000,000 volts, and about 14,000,000 am-\\npers used and power, about 2,000,000,000\\nwatts, and the time for all about a twenty\\nthousandth part of a second.\\nQ. What is a magnet?\\nA. A magnet is anything that will attract\\nand draw to it steel. Magnetism will produce\\nelectricity, and vice versa. This is the reason\\nwe can do so many wonders through the use\\nof electricity.\\nQ. How would you make a magnet\\nA. Take a steel horse shoe and wind it with\\nfine copper wire, starting at one end of the shoe\\nand wind around until we come to the other\\nend of the shoe, and attach the two ends of\\nwire to a battery, and the amperes of electricity\\nwill travel through the wire and charge the\\nsteel horse shoe with electricity, making of it\\nwhat is called a magnet.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "Q. Can you make a magnet out of a soft iron\\nshoe?\\nA. No; not a permanent one, although the\\niron shoe makes a stronger magnet while the\\ncurrent of electricity passes through it, but as\\nsoon as the current ceases, the electricity leaves\\nthe shoe.\\nQ. How should a building be protected\\nagainst lightning?\\nA. As a rule the conductor or lightning rod,\\nas the electricians term it, is supposed to have a\\nsort of power to attract the alectric current or\\ntoolt to the ground, like U gutter pipe would\\ncarry water from the roof.\\nQ. Is a house safe with them on?\\nA. If enough of them are placed about the\\nhouse top they may help, say one to every ten\\nsquare feet.\\nQ. Is atmospheric electricity very dangerous\\nor powerful\\nA. It is about the same as the electricity we\\nuse for lighting purposes, and is detrimental to\\ntelephone, telegraph and other wires carrying\\nlow potential currents, also people of a nervous\\ntemperament.\\nQ. How should a lightning rod be at the\\nthe base to do any particular good* if any, and\\nwhat is a practical thickness?", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "171\\nA. The wire or rod should be at least inch,\\nand a solid rod having continuous metallic con-\\nnections. The connection to the ground should\\nbe water, moist ground or gas or water pipes, the\\nbolt rests and loses its force when it reaches\\nthe ground.\\nTHE DYNAMO.\\nQ. Explain how you understand a dyamo\\nand its use?\\nA. The dynamo is an electric machine which", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "172\\nis driven with a steam engine or water power,\\nand is used to produce the electricity for elec-\\ntric lighting, electroplating, power, etc. This is\\nwhere magnetism makes electricity.\\nQ. Explain the dynamo?\\nA. The dynamo is a combination of different\\nparts so connected that when in working order\\nit produces electricity, the combination consists\\nSKELETON DYNAMO.\\nof twelve different parts, five of them constitute\\nthe magnet, namely: two cores, K, L, two\\nbottom cores or plate pieces, P, P, and one yoke C,\\nThe cores are hollow and wound with wires F, F,\\nthe amount is according to the use to which the\\ndynamo is to be put. The poles are called the\\nNorth and South poles herewith will be found\\nskeleton cut of magnet.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "173\\nQ. State the amount of pressure or voltage\\nthere is in a dynamo for arc lighting?\\nA. There is about from 2,400 to 3,000 volts,\\nQ. State the amount of voltage on an incan-\\ndescent dynamo?\\nA. It is about 110 volts, which is not consi\\n6red dangerous and is sufficient for any number\\nof sixteen candle power lamps.\\nQ. Give a description of\\nan arc light?\\nA. An arc light consists\\nof a frame work, clock work,\\nfeeder on top, two carbon\\nholders, and two carbons, wir-\\ning, etc.\\nQ. Why are two carbon\\npencils used?\\nA. If no resistance was\\ngiven to the lamp or electri-\\ncal current, we never would\\nhave a light. The current\\npassing from one carbon to\\nanother breaks off a fine\\nshower of carbon dust from\\nthe upper pencil as fine as\\nflour and causes them to\\nreach a white heat, the ends\\nof carbons being hot, to-\\ngether with the shower of carbon dust at white\\nbeat makes the light.", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "174\\n^MATURE.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "175\\nQ. Give an illustration of this.\\nA. To illustrate this, take a rope tightly in\\nyour hand and let some one pull it quickly\\nthrough and it would heat, viz the resistance\\nyour hand gave the rope is what causes the\\nheat, therefore the resistance the carbon stick:\\ngive the electrical current, causes the immense\\nheat and does as steted in the answer before this\\none.\\nQ. For what purposes are arc lights used?\\nA. They are used for street lighting, also\\nstores, etc.\\nThe armature rests in two journal box stands,\\non the armature is a commutator made of pieces\\nof isinglass (or insolation) and copper the cop-\\nper is connected to the wires on the armature,\\nand on each side of the armature rest two or\\nmore brushes two make the circuit complete.\\nQ. Are dynamos permanent magnets?\\nA. No, they are made of cast iron, except the\\ncopper and insulation, and as soon as the dyna\\nmo has stopped, the magnetism is a mere noth-\\ning if the dynamo was made of steel it would\\nretain the magnetism and the magnetism could\\nnot easily be regulated, where on the other hand\\nthe magnetism in the cast-iron dynamo oan be\\neasily regulated.", "height": "3584", "width": "2295", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "176\\nQ. Are there other electric lights besides the\\narc light just mentioned?\\nA. Yes; the incandescent lamp, which is\\nshaped like a pear, it ie made of thin clear glass,\\nhas a U shaped carbon in the glass which is\\nmade air tight containing a vacuum.\\nQ. Does the elec-\\ntrical current have to\\njump from one carbon\\nto the other in an in-\\ncandescent light the\\nsame way as in the\\narc light\\nA. No; the incan-\\ndescent carbon is a\\ncontinual carbon and\\nis about as large as\\na horse s hair, the car-\\nbonis made of carbon-\\nized bamboo cane it i?\\nj joined inside by plat-\\nI inum and two thin cop-\\nper wires, one being\\nattached to a brass\\nring and the other to\\na brass button at the\\nbottom of the lamp.\\nThese 1gm me separated generally by plaster", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "m\\nof paris which is a nonconductor and no elec\\ntricity will pass through it. The struggle\\nbetween the electric current and the carbonized\\nbamboo is so great and the carbon being the\\nweaker of the two, has to submit to being heated\\nto a white heat, which produces the light.\\nQ. State why it is that the carbon is not\\nwasted as in the arc light?\\nA. Because the one, (arc light) is out in the\\natmosphere, while the other is heated in a vacuum.\\nQ. How long is the life of an arc light\\ncarbon, also an incandescent carbon.\\nA, The arc light (top) carbon will last about\\nfrom ten to twelve hours and the lower one\\nabout twenty or thirty, the lower burns the\\nslowest. In an incandescent globe it never wastes\\naway as the vacuum (which means the exclusion\\nof the oxygen air) prevents it. They (incandes-\\ncent carbons) have lasted from one minute to\\n1500 hours, just as they are handled and used.\\nQ. What is a switch and its use?\\nA, There are many makes and kinds of\\nswitches, some for lamps, some for circuits, such\\nas to cut out the lights in one room and leave\\nanother burn 3 or turn out ten lights or any num-\\nber by switching off each separate light. A\\nswitch is a connection between two wires, which\\ncircuit can be broken at any time without doing\\n12", "height": "3584", "width": "2262", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "178\\nany particular harm to anything or anyone.\\nQ. Is there any danger of being shocked\\nwith an electric wire?\\nA. If the wire is insulated there is no danger\\nof getting hurt, but there is if not covered, and\\nyou are. standing on damp ground, as damp\\nground and water are great conductors of elec-\\nARC DYNAMO.\\ntricity. If a man were to take hold of the bare\\nwires used on street car lines and get hold with\\nhis feet clear of anything connected to the\\nground, the current would pass through him and\\nnot harm him but if his feet were to touch any-\\nthing connected to the ground his life would\\npay the penalty,", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "179\\nTHE MOTOR.\\nQ. Of what use is the electric jpower\\nA. It is one of the finest, cleanest and most\\nconvenient powers we can pat to use for different\\npurposes, such as driving different machines,\\nsewing machines, printing presses, small fac-\\ntories, street cars, railway trains, etc.\\nELECTBIC MOTOR.\\nQ. How is this kind of work done by\\nelectricity?\\nA. It is done through an electro-motor. (Motor)", "height": "3552", "width": "2346", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "180\\nQ. What is an electro-motor. (Motor.)\\nA. A motor is practically a dynamo machine\\nQ. Is the motor wound the same as a\\ndynamo?\\nA. Yes the dynamo is run by an engine and\\nproduces the electricity, while the motor gets its\\npower from the Synamo.\\nQ. How does the dynamo deliver its elec-\\ntricity to the motor?\\nA. The dynamo delivers its electricity to the\\nmotor through two main wires, which are at-\\ntached, one to each brush of the motor, thus\\nmaking the driven dynamo a motor.\\nQ. Is the centre of the armature of the mo-\\ntor the same as the dynamo?\\nA. Not exactly, the principle is the same\\nonly the spool is made of iron plates fastened\\ntogether, making one solid piece.\\nQ. What is meant by positive and negative?\\nA. It means North and South poles. The pos-\\nitive will not attract a positive, nor the negative\\nattract a negative, a positive and a negative must\\nalways be together to do the work, on a motor\\narmature there are crossed pieces of iron, two\\nnegatives and two positives, the magnet is posi-\\ntive and negative, one on each side of the crossed\\npieces of the armature, therefore the positive\\nmagnet draws the negative pieces on the armature", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "181\\nand the negative magnet draws the positive and\\nso it keeps on. This is what turns the armature\\naround, the more electricity that is transferred\\nfrom the dynamo to the motor the faster the\\nmotor armature will revolve.\\nQ. What has that to do with moving the\\nwheels of a car, or the moving of machinery\\nA. For moving\u00c2\u00bbor running machinery, there\\nis a pulley wheel on the end of the armature of\\nthe motor for a belt. For the car motor there\\nis a strong toothed gear wheel which works com-\\npounded by more wheels moving or turning the\\naxle and wheels of the car.\\nQ. How is the current of electricity conveyed\\nfrom the overhead wire to the motor\\nA. The electricity is conveyed by what is\\nknown as a trolley; attached to the trolley wheel\\nis a wire leading down along side of a pole,\\nthrough the inside frame of the car and to the\\nmotor brushes.\\nQ. How is the car stopped or started?\\nA. On each car is a motorman who attends\\nto that part of the car, and the turning on and\\noff of the current is done by a switch under-\\nneath the car, the switch is attached to a link\\nchain, the chain is attached to an upright rod\\nand pinion wheel at the end of the platform.\\nThe motorman when he wishes to start or", "height": "3552", "width": "2346", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "182\\nstop the car, turns a small crank handle which\\nopens or closes a switch, whichever he wishes\\nto do; of course, in stopping he uses the brake\\nthe same as on any other car.\\nSPARKING OF COMMUTATOR.\\nQ. State the main causes of the commutator\\nto spark?\\nA. Brushes not being properly or evenly set\\nwith the centre line on the commutator, bad in-\\nsulation on the armature wiring, grease and dirt\\nin the brushes coming in contact with the arma-\\nture, also too much of the surface of brush cov-\\nering the commutator,,\\nQ. How would you find the trouble state\\nby the color of sparks\\nA. If the brushes are too short the color is\\ngenerally a greenish color, if the spark sputters\\nor has a reddish color the brushes are too long,\\nbadly worn or have had too much contact; this\\ncauses the eating away of the commutator,\\nQ. If this is not prevented what will be the\\nresult?\\nA. If not attended to, the edges of the cop-\\nper segments of the commutator will be eaten\\naway and the commutator will become as rough\\nas a piece of corduroy cloth.\\nQ. What will copper dust o^ oil do on a\\ncommutator", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "183\\nA. It will carry the fire all trie way around\\nthe commutator,\\nQ. Is this the only cause of such a spark?\\nA. No; sometimes it will be found near the\\nspot that the insulation is charred or one of the\\nconnections between the armature wires and the\\ncopper segment of the commutator is loose or bad.\\nQ. What is the result or cause of this?\\nA. A short circuit.\\nQ. In what condition does the face of the\\ncommutator look near or in line of this spark?\\nA. It leaves a flat or hollow spot, such as\\ncould be made with the pene of a hammer.\\nQ. What should be done when a spot is\\nfound like the one mentioned?\\nA. Dress the commutator down to a round\\nsmooth surface.\\nQ. State a good way to keep a brush from\\nwearing out too soon?\\nA. A good way is to turn the brush over.\\nQ. What causes a hot commutator\\nA. Generally badly worn and dirty brushes.\\nQ. With what can a dynamo be compared so\\nas to be easily understood?\\nA. If an engineer wishes to understand the\\ndynamo thoroughly he should compare it with\\nthe workings of a steam pump.\\nQ. Give an explanation of the pump theory?", "height": "3552", "width": "2346", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "184\\nA. The dynamo or pump gathers electricity\\nand forces it through the wires, the same as a\\npump does water through a line of pipe, except\\nthat the dynamo forms a complete circuit from\\nthe dynamo out and returns to the dynamo\\nwhereas the pump forces in one direction or line,\\nbut if the pump forced the same water contin-\\nually by having it flow back to the pump again\\nits comparison would be with that of the dynamo.\\nQ. What else can be compared?\\nA. We can compare the steam pressure which\\novercomes the resistance or friction of the water\\nin the pipe, with the voltage cf the dynamo to\\novercome the resistance of the wire and carbons.\\nQ. With what would you compare amperes?\\nA. The amount delivered.\\nQ. With what would you compare the line-\\nwire?\\nA. To the water pipe.\\nQ. With what would you compare the current?\\nA. Compare the current to the amount of\\nwater in motion,\\nQ. Suppose the dynamo was large and the\\nwire small what would be the consequence or\\ncomparison?\\nA. The smaller the wire the more relative\\nfriction or resistance to the number of amperes\\ndelivered and the larger the main wires leading", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "185\\nfrom the dynamo the less relative friction or re-\\nsistance in delivering the number of amperes,\\nand current of electricity.\\nQ. What is meant by a converter on an al-\\nternating system?\\nA. It means in engineering a reducing value,\\nor carrying a high voltage at the dynamo and\\npassing through the converter the voltage is re-\\nduced for the lamps,\\nQ. What is an alternating dynamo?\\nA. It is a high voltage or arc machine using\\na converter (just explained) to which incandes-\\ncent lights are attached.\\nQ. What is meant here by a continuous cur\\nrent of electricity\\nA. It is understood that it is a current that\\nflows in one direction, like steam in a pipe or\\nwater in a hose.\\nQ. What is meant here by an alternating\\ncurrent, also compare it to something?\\nA. Compare it to the crank and connecting\\nrod; no dynamo or electric generator yet invented\\ndesigned or made, ever did generate anything\\nbut alternating currents of electricity, or more\\ncorrectly speaking waves or impulses of potential.\\nQ. How is the alternating current cummuted\\ninto a continuous current\\nA, It is done by the commutator and jrushes;", "height": "3552", "width": "2346", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "186\\ntherefore the alternating is the original and only,\\nand the continuous currents are obtained from\\nany machine by manipulating the original or\\nalternating current.\\nQ. What is the horse power of a continuous\\ncurrent dynamo the voltage being 110 and am-\\nperes 330?\\nA. The voltage being 110 and the amperes\\n330; we multiply 330 X 110 36.300 watts, and\\nas 746 watts equal one horse-power, we divide\\n36.300 -T* 746 48 horse power. In continuous\\ncurrent engineering, the resistance of the wire is\\nabout all the obstruction that has to be calculated\\nbut in alternating circuits another factor comes\\nin that of inertia, or self induction Indepen-\\ndence depends directly upon the resistance of\\nthe conductors, and the inertia of the current in\\nthe circuit. If we construct a right angle tri-\\nangle, and let the base equal the number of\\nohms resistance, then let the upright equal in a\\nsimilar manner the inertia of self induction of\\nthe circuit then the level line will be the inde-\\npendence or total resistance in the circuit. The\\ninertia, or self induction of a circuit is just as\\ngreat in one used for continuous currents as it\\nis in one for alternating distribution, but as in-\\nertia only makes itself felt when a body is\\nstopped or started, it is only with the continu-", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "187\\nous current when that is first started and when\\nit is stopped, that is, the electric current tends\\nto hang back when being started, and to keep\\non moving when we wish to stop it, just as a fly-\\nwheel does. The inertia of a continuous current\\nshows itself when we open a switch through\\nwhich a heavy current is passing. The inertia\\nof the current prevents its stopping the instant\\nthe circuit is broken, and the fine arc often\\nformed across the switch is the coming along\\nof current left after the supply was cut off.\\nElectric inertia in any conductor depends\\nlargely upon the amount of magnets, motors,\\nconverters, etc., in the circuit, and it can be ex-\\nperimented with by pulling the fields of a motor\\nor dynamo into a bell circuit. Ring the bell\\nthrough the coils of wire thus added, and it will\\nbe noticed that the bell does not begin to ring\\nas quickly as when the coils are not in circuit.\\nAlso that the bell rings a little after the contact\\nhas been broken, showing that the current lags\\nbehind. Another example, but more of mag-\\nnetism than electricity, is in the position of the\\nbrushes on a dynamo; they have to be twisted\\naround to fit the lag of the magnetic current.\\nWe now come to the term phase. If we\\ntake two alternating dynamos and couple the\\nshafts together so that they are obliged to run", "height": "3552", "width": "2346", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "188\\nat the same speed, then we may say that the\\nalternations of current have the same phase.\\nThe highest point or maximum of positive volt-\\nage occur at the same instant in both dynamos,\\nhence the phases of the two machines are the\\nsame. Let the two machines be uncoupled and\\ndriver separated by belt and we may find that\\ntheir positive maximums do not come exactly\\nthe same time, hence we may say the phase of\\nthe two dynamos are different. In other words,\\nwe may say that the maximum of positive elec-\\ntro-motive force occurs at exactly the same time\\nin each machine; in any other case, the phases\\ndiffer. An engineer can get a pretty good idea of\\nthe meaning of phase by standing in line with\\nthe crank shafts of two engines, both of which\\nare running. If both cranks come to their high-\\nest points at exactly the same instant, their phase\\nis the same, but if one of the cranks gradually\\ndraws ahead of the other then the phases are\\ndifferent.\\nWe have now come to the terms often heard\\nin connection with alternating currents, viz.,\\none, two, three, four phase, etc. If we should\\ntake the two engines when they were running\\nwith their cranks at ninety degrees to each other,\\nand suddenly couple them together thus, they\\nwould be running in two-phase, or bi-phase, like", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "189\\nthe drivers of a locomotive. That may be called\\na bi-phase engine. If three engines were\\ncoupled together with cranks at 120, the com-\\nbination would be called a tri- phase engine.\\nAn example of this may be found in the naptha\\nlaunch engines, so well and favorably known.\\nWhen four engines are coupled together they are\\ncalled quadruple, and the coupling of four\\ndynamos follow the same nomenclature.\\nBy coupling the engines we get rid of dead\\npoints, and raise the line of mean efficiency. The\\nsame thing is done in coupling up alternating\\ndynamos, The mean efficiency line is raised,\\nand the dead points are got rid of.\\nTELEGRAPH AND BATTERIES.\\nQ. What is telegraphy\\nA. Telegraph means to make known by sound.\\nQ. What constitutes a telegraphers outfit?\\nA The battery, wire, sounder and key.\\nQ. How can one tell by sound the word meant\\nA. By dots, dashes and spaces.\\nQ. Of what use is a battery?\\nA. To produce the necessary electricity.\\nQ. Can any one telegraph without electricity\\nA. Yes, within hearing distance, but for long\\ndistances one hundred feet to any distance in", "height": "3552", "width": "2346", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "190\\nmiles electricity and iron wire must be used.\\nQ. State what is a telegraph key?\\nA. A telegraph key is usually made of brass,\\nexcept the knob upon the handle, which is hard\\nrubber or gutta percha. The second little knob\\nis the switch to close when key is not in service\\nand to let messages pass from one city or station\\nto another on either side of your own, in other\\nwords it makes a free passage way for electricity-\\nTELEGKAPH KEY.\\nQ. When should this switch be open?\\nA. When one wishes to send a message.\\nQ. What is meant by a dot, dash and space\\nA. To press the key down and let it spring\\nback quickly, that means a dot. To press down\\nthe key and hold it there a little bit longer, that\\nis a dash. To wait a little while before pressing\\ndown the key again, represents a space.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "191\\nQ. Can you go through the alphabet\\nA. Yes, A is a dot and dash B is a dash and\\nthree dots C is two dots, a space and one dot;\\nD is a dash and two dots E is a single dot F\\nis one dot, dash, one dot G is two dashes and\\none dot H is four dots I is two dots J is one\\ndash, one dot, one dash, one dot K, dash, dot,\\ndash L, long dash M, two dashes N, dash\\nand dot O, dot, space, dot P, five dots Q, two\\ndots, dash, dot R, one dot, space, two dots S,\\nA B O D E F G\\nHI 3\\nK IT\\naaaa aa bessbs\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0Bfl^ OBBB BBBB fl**\\nV Q\\nB 8 L T V\\ni a aaaaa ilea\\nm aa bbb aa iia\\nV W X\\nY Z\\nabbbi mmm aaaaa aa aa aaa a a aaf\\nTELEGRAPHIC CODE.\\nthree dots T, space U, two dots one dash V,\\nthree dots and dash W, one dot two dashes X,\\none dot, one dash, tw T o dots Y, two dots, space,\\ntwo dots Z, three dots, space, one dot ons\\ndot, space, three dots. To make the above more\\nplain we have placed the dots, dashes and spaces\\nunder each letter so they can b\u00c2\u00a9 more plainlj\\nunderstood.", "height": "3552", "width": "2346", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "192\\nQ. What is a sounder?\\nA. A sounder consists of two black pillars\\nwhich are iron cases wound with very fine cop-\\nper wire, and is called an electro-magnet, and\\nacross the top of the two pillars is a piece of iron\\nrepresenting the armature, held up by a spring.\\nQ. How are the wire key sounder and bat-\\ntery connected with the single wire\\nSOUNDER.\\nA. The battery is connected to the earth, the\\nsounder to the battery, the key to the sounder,\\nand the outside wire to the key.\\nQ. What is a battery?\\nA. There are various kinds of batteries, such\\nas the Leclanch s porous cup battery, Law bat-\\ntery, Grenet battery, the Tillotson battery, and\\nseveral other makes of batteries. Batteries are\\ndivided into two classes, open circuit and\\nclosed circuit. The open eircuit batteries are\\nused on telephones, electric bells, burglar alarms,\\ngas lighting, annunciators, etc. The closed cir-\\ncuits are for electric lights and motors.", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3552", "width": "2346", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3552", "width": "2346", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS\\n028 156 575 8", "height": "3603", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "practicalpoints00farn_0200.jp2"}}